IN NOIJ.rUliSNI_NVINOSHJ.IVMS SSIHVHBH LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlifUIXS
w z \ « . - 5 « = _ <0

Q X^OSV^X

l^LIBRAR I ES^SMITHSONlAN^INSTITUTION^NQIinillSNI ~WlNOSHilVMS ZS3 I BVB a n"u B RAR I

~ x r* ^ y- — . r—

^vasov^X O O — *;></ ~ „ ^

^ ^ ~ CO * «£. ' CO

N NOIlfUllSNI NVINOSHlitNS S3 I HVB8 11 LI BRAR I ES SMITHSONIAN ~ INSTITUTION NOUfUUS
2 < /^5^x s < xK i . 5 ,V, w

X
CO

o

> 'W 5 'sSivoc^' | ^ 2 ^ | xgimssx s ^ >

1_ LI B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN _ INSTITUTION^NOliDiliSNI^NVINOSHilVMs'^S 3 I HVB a IT* LI B RAR I
z ^ r* -z - — ^ 00 x to —

co

O 'si^vo^ _ <W~ O ~ O r o

N NOIlfUllSNI NVINOSHJLMS S3 I HVd 8 IT LI B RAR I ES^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITUTION^ NOIlfllllS
X . L • 5 ^ z r* z

' m _ ✓x\r^)TJrCoX s^*~)Q Vr^v O /^vSaJX O

rn ^ m ^ m ^

— to — c O tn

1 U B RAR l ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfllllSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3IHV8an LI BRAR I

2 * co p- — —

o few -5U £ ^ jSw jw*- £ 3<! ^

*5 ^ ^ 5 ' )x > ' S X^OSA^X >' 2

N NOIlfU!lSNi__NViNOSHlMS S3 I & V8 a nZLI B RAR I ES^SMITHSONIAN ^INSTITUTION ^ NOIinillS

00 - z \ ^ ^ co — CO

v&jitf ' k7 or.- /.

— 1

^ O ^^^OSVA^-

1 "’Ll B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN J|NSTITUTI0NZN0lirUIJLSNrNVIN0SHIIVMS^S3 I BVa SlUIB RAR I

r“ S C ^ ^ z r 7

o XavaSO v?x O ^-rrr?^ — fr —

7}

>

70

m | 'W m N%5£5' | ^ ' X 1 ^

N</) NO^n-d-CSNI^NVINOSHXIWS^Sa I BV5J an LIB RAR I ESWSMITHSONiAN~INSTITUTIONW MOliniliS
2 .'2 Z^!\ 5 ,.< ^ i X5«s«v § aX

x . >;y

s ^

__ 2
_ > S ^ ^ ^. >

1~ LI BRAR I ^®v)SMITHS0NIAN_ INSTITUTION ^NO'XfUliSN I XviNOSHil VNSW S3 I U VB a \lZ 1 1 B R A R 1

IN0SHi.mS^S3 I a'vu a n\l B RAR I EsYmITHSONIAN ^INSTITUTION %OliniUSNI YviNOSHlIWsYa

I “ ^Ifek I “ 4^ z

SVl

%

V/ c ^

o “■ 3 X£vom52

ITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIXnilJLSNI^NVINOSHilWS S3 I ava 3 IlYl B RAR I EsYmITHSONIAN^INS

n — §

m w v^jisgx m X S2 X!Vo]^x m r; m

co ± </> \ z — co ± CO

NOSHXIIA1S S3IHVH8I1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIJLnilJLSNI NVINOSH1IWS S3

CO 2 W 2!! €/> 2

^VASOA^X S < , 2 -><TcU7>v. < ,«&V .

®§K\V\ ' *■

1 4©* I flWSh § fix s

§ m.JU £ Wv g €« £ =

THSONIAN^INSTITUTION^NOimillSNrNVINOSHlIWS^SS I ava a LI B RAR I ES ^SMITHSON IAN Z INS

^ ^ . co 5 co ~

4 co /<&*± 2tyX w £ ,m\.v uj ^uavXt\ £ x?*so£7x lu

T-

H %

o — w»y o ^ O xgft OCX ~ o

N0SH1IWS S3iavaan'JLIBRARIESZSMITHSOmAN'J|NSTITUTIONZNOIiniliSNl'JNVINOSHilWSZS3
z r- 2 r; z r~ 2

X XV^IIIO?>X — XoO^rTX o O XlsTITlTX “ w O

DO „

I £ ®

m X^qshJX ^ m

— co f: co £ co _

THSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVIN0SH11WS S31HVHail LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INS

■* CO 2 CO 2

<

, /

s xx<v > ' ^ XOvos££X > ' S * ' > x'^'^ -g

N0SH1IWS^S3 I avaa 11 LI BRAR I EsYMITHSONIAN^INSTITUTION^NQIJLn.Ll.I.Sm YviNOSH-UlNsYa

w — co n 00 9 > CO

x LU

CO

O XfoosHj^X "■ Q " XJVASt^X o

ITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI^NVINOSHJLIWS^ S3 I H VH 3 I l B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN^INS
*" 2 r- r~ _ 2 r-

O

^ m X' ^ rn m

£ co Y z co £ co

NOSHilWS S3iavaan LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN "INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVIN0SHJL1INS S3

co 2 CO "wniwnun^ ^ co

< -xV . 2 £r ^ 2 ,< 2

i /,

thsonian_institution Nou.niu.sm NviNOSHiiws^sa 1 avaa n libraries Smithsonian

-y to = m r: in-

to

;fe 5ls = kfc. .-3?/

1

foLeci5

JOURNAL

of the

Bombay Natural History

Society

j

Vol. 79, No. 1

Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

APRIL 1982

Rs. 45

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observ-
ing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publication to other
journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be
submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only,
and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be underlined.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identifica-
tion has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collect-
ed.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast.
Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20 x 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on
glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably
on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alpha-
betically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or
periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type),
thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. /. Bombay nat.
Hist . Soc. 55 { 2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers
should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s
name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise,

clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge.
In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed
among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multi-
ples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed
of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage
and packing.

11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a mem-
ber’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society.

VOLUME 79 NO. 1 : APRIL 1982

Date of Publication : 26-7-1982

CONTENTS

The drought of 1979-1980 at the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary, Bharatpur,
Rajasthan. By Stanley & Belinda Breeden. (With six plates, a map and a
text- figure )

Bombay Natural History Society — The Builders and the Guardians. Part 3.
By Salim Ali. ( With two plates)

Phayre’s leaf monkey ( Presbytis phayrei Blyth, 1847) of Tripura, By R. P.
Mukherjee. (With a text-figure)

A botanical tour to Pangi & Triloknath in the upper Chenar. By U. C.
Bhattacharyya and B. P. Uniyal. (With two plates and a text-figure)

Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary and its endangered ecosystem. By K. Ullas Karanth.
(With a map)

The behaviour of the nest-guarding saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus,
Schneider) — A preliminary quantitative study. By H. R. Bustard & S.
Maharana. (With a text-figure)

Notes on the distribution of certain rare, endangered or endemic plants of
Meghalaya with a brief remark on the flora. By R. R. Rao and K. Haridasan

Pollution, fish mortality & environmental parameters in Lake Nainital.
By S. M. Das and Jyotsna Pande

Chelonians of Bangladesh and their conservation. By Mohammad Ali Reza
Khan. (With two plates)

New plants from urban environment of Baroda, Gujarat. By S. N. Patil and
S. D. Sabnis. (With a plate)

Observations on food habits of six species of Indian frogs. By P. Mohanty-
Hejmadi and B. K. Acharya

A catalogue of Aphidiid (Hymencptera: Apiiidiidae) parasites of Aphids
(Homoptera) of India. By A. K. Ghosh and Basant K. Agarwala

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society — 24. By Humayun Abdulali

On A new subspecies of Pellorneum ruficeps (Swainson) in Peninsular India.
By Humayun Abdulali

New Descriptions:

Studies on some Aphelinid (Hym. : Chalcidoidea) Parasites of Hemipterous insects
of India. By Tasawwer Husain and Man Mohan Agarwal. (With twenty-five
text-figures)

A new species of Schefflera J.R. & G. Forst. (Araliaceae) from Kerala State, India.
By K. Rammamurthy and R. Rajan. (With seven-text-figures)

A new species of Eriocaulon L. (Eriocaulaceae) from South India. By M. Chandra-
bose and V. Chandrasekaran. (With eighteen text- figures)

A revision of the genus Callitriche L. in the north western Himalayas. By A.
Majeed Kak and G. N. Javeid. (With two text-figures)

Two new aquatic plant species from Kashmir Himalayas. By A. Majeed Kak and
G. N. Javeid. (With two text-figures)

Reviews :

1. Saving the tiger. (A. N. D. Nanavati)

2. The Birds of Oman. (Salim Ali)

3. Perma-culture One & Two. (Shankar Ranganathan)

Page

38

47

57

79

87

93

100

110

117

120

125

135

152

155

163

165

167

172

176

177

178

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. On the occurrence of genus Crocidura (Mammalia: Insectivora) in Penin-
sular India. By H. Khajuria (p. 181); 2. Notes on the Indian Pigmy Pipistrelle ( Pipistrellus
mimus Wroughton) in the Thar Desert. By Indra Kumar Sharma (p. 181); 3. Observations
on a roost of Free-tailed Bat Tadarida plicata plicata (Buchanan) in East-Nimar. By S.
K. Kashyap (p. 182); 4. Notes on Barbe’s leaf monkey Presbytis barbi Blyth. By S. K.
Mukherjee (p. 184); 5. Incidental observations of the Spotted Linsang ( Prionodon par di-
color) . By M. E. Sunquist (p. 185); 6. Blackbuck census in Point Calimere: A rejoinder.
By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 186); 7. Seme observation on wild buffalo, Bubalus bubalis
Linn., in Kaziranga National Park, Assam. By H. K. Divekar, K. K. Mohapatra, and
P. B. Shekar (p. 188); 8. Causes of mortality in mammals of Bovidae family in captivity
and free living state in India. By. B. S. Rathore, and S. S. Khera (p. 190).

Birds: 9. The flamingos of Sambhar Lake. By Mohd. Alam (p. 194); 10. Breeding of
Bustards — An observation in Australia. By M. K. Appayya (p. 195); 11. Feeding habits
of Coppersmith Megalaima haemacephala (Muller). By T. S. Muthukrishnan and Rajeswari
Sundarababu (p. 197); 12. Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster) in Kutch and some general
comments. By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 198); 13. On the validity of Turdoides caudatus
eclipes (Hume). By Humayun Abdulali and Eric D’Cunha. (p. 199); 14. Destruction of
Pearl Millet Nursery by Sparrows Passer domesticus (Linnaeus) and its avoidance. By
H. A. K. Sarwar and K. N. Murty (p. 200); 15. Bird damage in maize. By Mir Hamid
Ali, B. H. Krishnamurthy Rao, M. Ananda Rao and P. Syamsunder Rao (p. 201); 16. Bird
fauna of the rice crop ecosystem in Pondicherry region. By S. P. Francis Nathan and
B. Rajendran (p. 204).

Reptiles: 17. Size at first breeding in the Gharial [Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)] (Reptilia,
Crocodilia) in captivity. By H. R. Bustard and S. Maharana (p. 206); 18. A record (?)
Gharial clutch. By H. R. Bustard and D. Basu (p. 207); 19. Lizards from North-Eastern
India. By R. Mathew (p. 208); 20. Rat snake seizing baby muntjac. By E. J. Van Ingen
(p. 209); 21. Successful artificial breeding of Lissemys punctata granosa (Smith). By J.
Vijaya (p. 210).

Fishes: 22. A few moments with an egg laying Istiblennius striatomaculatus. By N. A. V.
Prasad Reddy and C. Uma Devi (p. 212); 23. Eel fishing with brush hideout. By Tej
Kumar Shrestha (p. 212); 24. Common methods of catching air breathing fishes in Dar-
bhanga (Bihar). By R. R. Prasad (p. 214).

Insects: 25. More butterflies from Bombay — 2. By Salman Abdulali (p. 216); 26. Some
butterflies from Bhutan. By Naresh Chaturvedi (p. 217); 27. Strange practice of a

caterpillar — A correction. By Salman Abdulali (p. 218); 28. Effect of Metepa on some
larval tissues of Musca domestica nebulo. ( With thirteen text-figures). By Nikhat Arifa
and Majid Ali Khan (p. 219); 29. A new Pod Borer, Adisura marginalis (Walker) (Lepi-
doptera: Noctuidae) on Redgram, Cajanus cajan (L.). By T. S. Thontadarya, K. V. Seshu
Reddy and R. Govindan (p. 222).

Botany: 30. An amplified description of a hitherto uncommon species Craibiodendron
mannii W. W. Smith (Ericaceae). ( With nine text-figures). By T. Ananda Rao and Swapna
Chakraborti (p. 223); 31. Lycium chinense Mill. (Solanaceae) from India. (With a text-
figure). By Barin Ghosh and Gour Gopal Maity (p. 225); 32. Gentiana prostrata Haenke
var. mangolica Kusn. (Gentianaceae) — A new record for India. (With seven text-figures).
By Sunita Agrawal (p. 228); 33. Record of Plantago afra Linn. (Plantaginaceae) from
Maharashtra. By S. Karthikeyan and Anand Kumar (p. 228); 34. Stachytarpheta cayennensis
(L. C. Rich.) Schau. — A new record for India and with a key to the Indian species.
(With six ten-figures). By N. C. Nair, C. N. Mohanan and P. V. Sreekumar (p. 230);
35. Stachytarpheta dichotoma Vahl (Verbenaceae) — A new record for India. (With a
text-figure). By R. R. Rao, B. Neogi, and K. Haridasan (p. 233); 36. Notes on three
rare and interesting orchids collected from Trivandrum District, Kerala, By M. Mohanan,
A. N. Henry and N. C. Nair (p. 234); 37. Cultivation of endangered plants in South
India — 2. Bentinckia condapanna Berry ex Roxb. (With a plate). By A. V. N. Rao and
A. K. Banerjee (p. 237).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1982 APRIL Vol. 79 No. 1

THE DROUGHT OF 1979-1980 AT THE KEOLADEO GHANA
SANCTUARY, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN1

Stanley & Belinda Breeden2
{With six plates, a map and a text -figure)

Introduction

Between November 1st 1979 and November
13th 1980 we spent 181 days in the Keoladeo
Ghana Sanctuary3. The Sanctuary is near
Bharatpur in eastern Rajasthan and is also
referred to as Bharatpur Sanctuary, or simply
Bharatpur, in these pages.

During our year there we were in the Sanc-
tuary for part of every month. Our purpose
was to make a film depicting the wildlife
through the seasons. This activity did not
allow us to make as detailed observations as
we would have liked. However, given Bharat-
pur’s extraordinary interest and the paucity of
published material on it, we thought it worth-
while to put our observations on record. The
only papers we could find that dealt specifi-

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 57 Tahiti Avenue, Palm Beach, Queensland,
Australia 4221. Indian address : Mokshpuri Farm,
Rajokri Marg, New Delhi 110 038.

3 In 1981 the Sanctuary was declared a National
Park and renamed Keoladeo National Park.

cally with the Sanctuary are by Ali (1953)
and Saxena (1975). There is also a bird list
by Abdulali and Panday (1978).

Our stay in the Sanctuary coincided with a
season of unusual drought as the monsoon
rains of 1979 were well below average (see
table no. 1). We were also able to witness
the regeneration of the plants and animals
after the heavy monsoon rains that fell be-
tween June and September 1980.

Every day that we were in Bharatpur we
kept extensive notes and the following records
are drawn from these notes. Most of the
observations of nesting birds were made from
blinds. For observations on the birds nesting
in the two breeding colonies and a few others
we used a blind constructed on the top of an
aluminium tower that could be raised to a
height of up to 7 metres. This blind, because
of its light weight, could easily be moved
from one place to another and was readily
accepted by the birds.

There is one word that recurs throughout

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

this account that could cause confusion. This
is the word bund. It can mean both an im-
pounded marsh or body of water as well as the
actual dike or dam, that retains the water.
We have written the word as Bund when it
refers to a marsh or lake, e.g. Ram Bund or
Cirra Bund. When it refers to a dike or dam
we have written it as bund.

The Sanctuary

The Sanctuary is essentially an area of
semi-arid scrubland, in which, through the
aid of a series of canals, sluices and bunds,
water is impounded to form extensive marshes.
The marshes are sub-divided by a series of
tree-lined bunds. The Sanctuary is 29 km2 in
size.

In a normal season water is fed into these
marshes twice a year from Ajan Bund which
is located just outside the Sanctuary on its
southern side. The first time water is let in
is shortly after the onset of the monsoon
when enough water from the Gambhir and
Banganga Rivers has accumulated in the
Bund. This is usually in mid- July, depending
on the onset of the monsoon. In 1980 water
was let in on July 15th after heavy rain during
the second week of that month. Virtually the
entire Sanctuary was flooded. The second time
water from Ajan Bund enters the Sanctuary
is in late September or in October when the
Bund is drained ready for the winter cultiva-
tion. In 1980 the second allotment of water,
which in effect tops up the marshes, was let in
on September 29th. Again nearly the whole
Sanctuary was flooded.

This system of marshes was first construct-
ed by the then Maharaja of Bharatpur in the
1850’s. The refinements of canals, sluice-gates
and roads on tree-lined bunds were added in
the 1920’s or 1930’s by the present Maha-
raja of Bharatpur, now known as Col. Sawai

Brijendra Singh. The purpose of creating these
marshes was to improve the duck shooting
for the Maharaja and his guests. During this
time protection was rigidly enforced and big
shoots limited to two or three per season.
Royalty and other important persons from
around the world shot ducks in Bharatpur
in those days. Large numbers of storks, ibises,
herons, egrets, cormorants and darters were
also attracted to Bharatpur. These birds came
during the monsoon months when they nested.

In 1956 the Rajasthan Government took
control of the area and it became the Keo-
ladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary. The Maharaja
retained shooting rights until 1972. The last
big shoot was held in 1964.

Apart from the marshes, whose area varies
according to the time of year, there are ex-
tensive tracts of dry land. The vegetation of
these dry lands grades from true tall forest,
through open woodland, dry scrub and savan-
nah to bare areas of saline soil sparsely dot-
ted with shrubs.

The forest areas, which are small pockets
mostly in the NE section of the Sanctuary,
are dominated by kalams or kadams ( Mitra -
gyna parvifolia), jamuns ( Syzygium cuminii),
babul {Acacia nilotica) and an occasional neem
{Azadirachta indica ) which was probably in-
troduced. The open woodland is mostly babul
with a small proportion of kandi ( Prosopis
spicigera) and ber {Zizyphus mauritiana).
The scrublands are dominated by ber and
kair {Capparis decidua ). Piloo {Salvadora
oleoides and S. persica) also occur in the
scrubland and are virtually the only woody
plants that grow in the areas of saline soil.
Saxena (1975) gives a list of plants for Bha-
ratpur. The topography of the Sanctuary is
almost uniformly flat.

The Bharatpur Sanctuary has, for its size,
an amazing variety of species of birds. To date
just over 350 species have been recorded there

2

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

and nearly every year new ones are added to
the list. Not only are there many species, but
at most times of the year there are vast num-
bers of birds. The volume and diversity of
bird life may be ascribed to several factors.
Firstly it is a haven for migratory birds in
winter. Secondly, large numbers of birds are
attracted to Bharatpur to breed during the
monsoon. A third factor is the diversity of
habitat, from dense forest to savannah in the
dry land areas and from open water to mud-
flats in the wetlands, all of which support a
large population of resident as well as mig-
ratory birds. The fourth reason may well be
that Bharatpur is the last substantial area of
more or less natural, though not undisturbed,
habitat in a vast area of the Gangetic plain —
an area that once had uncountable numbers
of birds (Hume 1881). The birds have become
concentrated in this last remnant.

Table 1

Rainfall figures for Agra district
( Figures in millimetres)

1979

Average Rainfall
1980 for thirty years
1931—1960

January

12.2

0.0

13.2

February

46.7

4.6

13.5

March

4.8

23.0

8.4

April

2.2

0.3

6.6

May

34.4

9.5

9.1

June

17.5

72.4

51.8

July

133.6

249.3

195.6

August

31.1

290.8

218.2

September

7.2

11.0

133.9

October

4.6

22.0

19.6

November

7.1

1.0

3.3

December

3.0

19.3

5.8

Total

304.4

703.2

679.0

Drought in 1979

The average annual rainfall for Bharatpur
is 662 mm (Saxena 1975). No figures were
available for Bharatpur for the years 1979 and

1980. The nearest centre for which reliable
rainfall data was available was Agra which
is 50 km away by road. The annual average
for Agra is 679 mm. There are no topogra-
phical or other features that would make the
rainfall between the two places significantly
different. The figures show that in 1979 Agra
(and by inference Bharatpur) received con-
siderably less than half its normal rainfall
while in 1980 the rainfall was above average.
The rainfall figures for Agra are summarised
in Table 1.

The rain that fell during July and August
1979 was not sufficient to fill Ajan Bund and
only a small amount of water was let into
Bharatpur’s marshes during August (Abrar
Khan, pers. comm.). No further water was
released from Ajan Bund in 1979. The mar-
shes were by no means filled and by Novem-
ber there were only a few gutters of water
at Ram Bund, the NW corner of Rauji Bund
1, some water at Sapan Mori and a small area
of water on the northern end of Hans Sarovar
Bund. The canal between Keoladeo and
Sapan Mori was partially filled and Cirra
Bund’s western half had shallow water in it.
Over the months these dried further and fur-
ther until by March water remained only in
the areas where it was pumped from four
different bores. The rest was completely dry.

Water pumped from bores

The Rajasthan Forest Department pumped
water from four bores (marked bores A, B,
C and D on the map) into various parts of
the marshes in an effort to maintain water
in the Sanctuary. Pumping began in Novem-
ber and December. Pumps B & C were in
time discontinued but Pumps A & D worked
continuously, when electric power was avail-
able, until the beginning of the monsoon.
Pump A eventually almost filled Ram Bund
and Pump D maintained water in a small por-

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

tion in the extreme southern part of Cirra
Bund. Unfortunately the water from Pump
D was not used to maximum effect to safe-
guard the Siberian Crane during a difficult
winter (see under Siberian Crane below).

The primary importance of these flooded
areas was to effectively maintain a breeding
nucleus of turtles, aquatic snakes, frogs, fish
and aquatic invertebrates. All, except the turt-
les and snakes, are of paramount importance
as food species for the large numbers of birds
that congregate in the marshes. Migratory and
resident birds also benefited greatly from this
water (see bird list below).

Effects of the 1979 drought

(1) Monsoon Nesting Birds

As in normal years darters, cormorants,
egrets, herons and Openbill Storks congregated
in the Sanctuary during the latter half of June.
Egrets and Openbill Storks began nest-build-
ing and some eggs were laid. But when no
substantial rains arrived and the marshes were
not filled with water from Ajan Bund during
July, the birds, abandoned their nests. A few
spoonbills and Painted Storks arrived but
neither of these species attempted to nest
(Abrar Khan, pers. comm.). By September
9th when we visited the Sanctuary the heron-
ries were completely deserted and only a few
individuals of the species that normally nest
in thousands, were present.

(2) Migratory & Nomadic Birds in Winter

The normal complement of ducks that come

to Bharatpur in winter were absent. Small
numbers of most species were present in Nov-
ember and December, but by mid- January
most had left. Only the Ruddy Shelduck stay-
ed in the areas of pumped water, some stay-
ing right up to the breaking of the monsoon.
Greylag Geese, present in hundreds and at

times thousands during normal winters, came
in only very small numbers during the drought
winter. Largest numbers occurred during the
autumn and spring migrations. During the
first week of March 1980 about 80 of these
geese stayed in Ram Bund. Barheaded Geese,
by contrast, were present throughout the win-
ter, their numbers fluctuating between 500 and
1200. This species fed, from November till
the time they left in mid-March, on the new
growth of grass in Ram Bund and the eastern
part of Cirra Bund. The new growth was
stimulated by water pumped into these places.

During January and early February when
the last water was drying up in the canal, in
the southern area of Cirra Bund and the
northern portion of Hans Sarovar Bund, large
numbers of birds gathered there to eat fish,
some of them very large, that were concen-
trated in the shallow water. Only the larger
birds, cranes, storks. Grey Herons and peli-
cans, could catch these fish. The smaller fish,
which could have been caught by darters, cor-
morants and egrets seemed to have disap-
peared already. The most spectacular inva-
sion of birds that came to catch these large
fish were the White Pelicans. During the
second half of January about 450 of them were
fishing the shallows (for details see the bird
list below).

In a normal season the marshes are choked
with grasses, sedges and other aquatic vege-
tation. In the winter of 1979-1980 this vege-
tation had died back, even before the water
had completely dried up. The altered condi-
tions allowed for the invasion of pelicans,
which would not be able to fish in areas of
dense vegetation. Another change was that
there were extensive areas of mud, particular-
ly in Cirra Bund, which attracted large num-
bers of wading birds such as plovers, sand-
pipers, godwits, etc. Again this is a group of
birds normally scarce in the Sanctuary itself.

4

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

The Common Shelduck, and a small number
of avocets (never exceeding 12) — rare birds
for Bharatpur — were present on the Cirra Bund
mudflats till the end of February. The mud-
flats were favoured by unusually large num-
bers of roosting Sarus Cranes.

Large fish, left stranded by the receding
water and the White Pelicans, were eaten
mostly by Spotted Eagles, Ringtailed Fishing
Eagles, Marsh Harriers, Black Kites, House
Crows, Jungle Crows, Crow-Pheasants, and
Whitebreasted Waterhens. We never saw any
kind of vulture feeding on the dead and dying
fish.

The areas of pumped water were much
favoured by Wagtails, especially the Yellow
and Yellowheaded on their northward migra-
tion during March and April and even during
the first week of May.

(3) Vegetation

On the dry marshes all vestiges of vegeta-
tion disappeared once the water had dried
up. The marshes became expanses of bare,
cracked soil.

The woodlands were less severely affected.
Herbs, grasses and herbaceous climbers had
died back and in many places the soil was
bare. But in other places, such as the Deer
Park and the area south of the nursery, a
good cover of grass remained.

Several trees such as the jamuns and capers
actually flowered and put on new leaves. The
two species of piloo had heavy crops of fruit
during March and April which attracted nu-
merous Rosy Starlings on migration. The
babul and kadam, by contrast, dropped their
leaves during the hot months and did not put
on new growth until after the rains arrived.
But this is the normal pattern, though the
fruiting of the piloo seemed more profuse than
usual.

(4) Spring and Summer Nesting Birds

General information on breeding seasons
is from Ali & Ripley (1968-1974) unless other-
wise stated.

For a number of species spring and sum-
mer breeding proceeded normally. These in-
cluded Stone Curlew, Small Green Bee-eater,
Hoopoe, Crimsonbreasted Barbet, Mahratta
Woodpecker, Black Drongo, Jungle Babbler,
Tailor Bird, Purple Sunbird and Yellow-
throated Sparrows. Nests of these species were
found at times and in numbers as they would
in normal seasons.

Some species nested late, though not in
noticeably lesser numbers. The Mottled Wood
Owl’s eggs hatched on the 29th and 30th of
March in 1980. In 1981 they hatched in early
February as they did in previous years (Abrar
Khan, pers. comm.). Roseringed Parakeets
were still courting and establishing nesting
territories during the first week of March
while normally this activity does not go much
beyond January. Though the nesting of Green
Pigeons is variable, the normal season is
March-April. We found three nests of this
species and all were completed in May. The
nesting season for the Grey Partridge is given
as March-September and sporadically in other
months. In 1980 we found no nests and saw
no young before October 10th. On that day
we found two nests and subsequently we saw
five pairs with very small chicks. In other years
we have seen pairs of this species with small
chicks in March and April. The Redwattled
Lapwing’s nesting season is given as March
to September. We found nests, in both the dry
areas and in places where water was pumped
in, only in May and June. In normal years
Indian Rollers nest in Bharatpur in some
numbers during March and April (Abrar
Khan, pers. comm.). In 1980 we found only
one nest during those months, on April 15th.

5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

We found three other nests in June. All had
eggs which were subsequently inundated after
heavy rains and abandoned.

The Sarus Crane and Spotbill Duck which
we have seen nesting in March in seasons fol-
lowing good monsoon rains, were seen nesting
only in August and September in 1980, i.e.
after the monsoon rains. We found seven nests
of Sarus Cranes and two of the Spotbill Duck.
Some species normally nesting commonly in
the Sanctuary failed to nest at all as far as
we were able to establish. The Small Blue
Kingfisher was not seen in the Sanctuary be-
tween March and June, its normal breeding
season. The Goldenbacked Woodpecker,
which is a common bird, normally nests in
March and April. In 1980 we saw two pairs
drilling nest-holes during the second half of
June. Both nest-holes were taken over by
Brahminy Mynahs. No other nesting activity
by these woodpeckers was noted in the Sanc-
tuary. Another normally common nesting bird
is the Whitebreasted Kingfisher. Only one
pair was seen with fledgelings and this was
at flooded Ram Bund on the 22nd of June.
The same day two pairs of this species were
busy excavating nest-tunnels at Cirra Bund
next to the Keoladeo Temple. These nest-
tunnels were subsequently flooded.

A pair of White-eared Bulbuls was seen
building a nest on 9th of April 1980 and
another pair was feeding young in the nest
on May 6th. The normal nesting season for
this species is given as March to September
and “may be influenced by rainfall and con-
sequent food supply”. However no nesting
activity by this species was noticed during or
after the rains.

The Redvented Bulbul on the other hand
nested only after the rains came. The first
nest was found on 27th of June and the last
in early October.

(5) Turtles

(i) Lissemys punctatus

From the first days we were in Bharatpur
in November 1979 we noticed hundreds of
these turtles wandering in apparent random-
ness throughout the Sanctuary. Going by the
evidence of large numbers of empty shells,
this movement away from the drying marshes
must have been going on for some time. Every
day we saw turtles wandering out in the open
right till the end of May. The peak months
were November, February and March. During
December and January when it was cooler
there were fewer turtles walking about and
after March most of the pools had dried up
and the wandering turtles were mainly seen
around the areas of pumped water at Cirra
Bund and Ram Bund. A large proportion of
these turtles were killed and eaten by Scaven-
ger Vultures. These birds turned the turtles
on their backs and then, by inserting their
sharp and narrow beaks under one of the
flaps over the rear legs, would begin to eat
the reptiles. Once killed. King Vultures, crows
and Crow-Pheasants also ate the turtles — but
only the Scavenger Vultures could get into the
shell and so kill the reptiles. The dried mar-
shes and open woodlands were littered with
a thousand or more empty shells.

A great many of these turtles found refuge
in the areas of pumped water, and a much
smaller number found aestivating sites in the
woodlands.

After heavy rain during the latter half of
June formed puddles in the woodlands, the
turtles emerged from their hiding places and
their depleted ranks had to run the gauntlet
of Scavenger Vultures once more. Of all the
vertebrates, with the exception of the fish,
this species of turtle was most severely affect-
ed by the drought.

6

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

(ii) Trionyx gangeticus

This species is strictly aquatic and was
never seen wandering in the dry areas. We
did not see a single one that had been killed.
During a normal season this species is very
unobtrusive, usually all that is seen of it is an
occasional large head emerging from the water.
On three occasions we saw one of these turt-
les grab a bird from beneath the surface of
the water. The birds were a coot, a Little
Cormorant and a female Common Teal.

We saw this turtle stranded by the drought
for the first time on 30th March 1980. Two
individuals were in the last mud left in the
canal near Sapan Mori and another across
the road in Cirra Bund. We carried the Cirra
Bund individual to the water near the Keola-
deo Temple. It’s carapace measured 71 centi-
metres along the dorsal surface. This species
is able to bury itself in soft mud with remark-
able speed. In April these turtles frequently
came out of the water and basked in the sun.
About 30 individuals of varying sizes were
seen around the pool in front of the Keoladeo
Temple during this month.

In the same month we often saw them
chasing each other in the water; some quite
large specimens even jumped clear of the
water. On April 2nd a pair appeared to be
mating in the shallows. Because of the con-
stant action and dirty water it was difficult
to see exactly what was happening.

(iii) Kachuga tectum

We saw this species only in the pool in
front of the Keoladeo Temple. Every day they
could be seen basking on fallen logs. They
appeared to be unaffected by the drought.

During March, April and May the Keola-
deo pool was a crush of turtles with the above
three species jostling for space on logs and a
short, narrow bund.

(iv) HardeH a thurgi

On April 2nd we noticed a different species
of turtle wandering in the dry canal near the
Keoladeo Temple. It most closely resembled
K. tectum, but was larger and did not have
the “saw” pattern on its carapace. It’s cara-
pace, measured 48 centimetres lengthwise and
43 centimetres across (along its dorsal sur-
face). We photographed it from all angles and
it was later identified by Romulus Whitaker.
This was the only live specimen we saw of
this species, though we did find a number of
bleached carapaces in the dry lake bed just
to the southwest of the Keoladeo Temple.

End of the drought and the 1980 monsoon

Since the middle of May birds that nest in
Bharatpur’s marshes during the monsoon had
come in increasing numbers. First to arrive,
and in breeding plumage, were Cattle Egrets
and Pond Herons. They were first seen on 6th
of May. As the time of the monsoon drew
nearer more and more birds arrived, though
there was no noticeable change in the weather.
Even on June 15th there were dust storms
sweeping across the dry and desolated marshes
and woodlands. But by that time four species
of egrets, Pond Herons, two species of jacanas,
two species of cormorants, darters and Open-
bill Storks had flocked to the Sanctuary. Most-
ly they were in the areas of Ram Bund and
Cirra Bund that had been filled with water
by pumping. Spotbill Ducks, Cotton Teal and
Comb Ducks had also arrived after a long
absence. Spoonbills and Painted Storks were
present in very small numbers and were not
part of the early influx.

On June 21st the first rain fell. It was cool
and humid. Egrets and Pond Herons were
scattered across the dark, wet soil
picking up insects and other inverte-
brates forced to the surface by the rain.

7

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Pheasant-tailed Ja$anas were calling every-
where. The monsoon broke on June 27th with
a heavy downpour. The woodlands flooded
and small pools formed on the marshes. New
green growth appeared within days. Turtles
emerged from their aestivating places and were
sitting in puddles formed in the woodlands.
From the 27th of June onwards there was
some rain nearly every day for several weeks
(see table no. 1 for rainfall). Sunshine was
brief and infrequent. The marshes began fill-
ing slowly but remained shallow until the
second half of July when water was let in from
Ajan Bund.

About a week before that date egrets, dar-
ters, cormorants and Openbill Storks had be-
gun displaying and nest-building in the breed-
ing colonies in Rauji Bund 1 and at Sapan
Mori. The Openbill Storks were the first to
complete nests, closely followed by egrets, cor-
morants and darters. The egrets did not, at
first, include Cattle Egrets. They did not nest
inside the Sanctuary until early August and
then only in the Sapan Mori Colony. This
species, however, was nesting at the Bharat-
pur Railway Station as early as 13th July.
Spoonbills, Painted Storks and Large Cormo-
rants did not arrive in numbers and begin
nesting in the Sanctuary until the middle of
August, by which time the marshes had com-
pletely filled.

By far the greatest change took place in the
woodlands, particularly during June and July
when nearly every day was overcast and rains
were frequent and heavy. Trees and shrubs
put on new leaf and many flowered. The
ground was covered with fresh new grasses
and a multitude of herbs sprang up. Many
different kinds of vines grew quickly and
wrapped themselves around the scrubby trees.
Fungi of many different kinds appeared every-
where. Insects and other invertebrates, especi-
ally millipedes, proliferated. For a few months

the Bharatpur woodlands looked more like
sub-tropical forest than semi-arid scrubland.
But in September once the rains became less
frequent and there were long periods of hot
sunshine, the herbs and vines began to die
back and the fungi dried up.

The most dramatic development, however,
was the re-appearance of fish. We first noticed
small fishes, only a few centimetres long, on
July 29th in most of the marshes. By the first
week of September certain parts of the Sanc-
tuary, such as the canal, the areas between
Sapan Mori and Bakalaya and the northern
parts of Rauji Bund 1, at times seemed al-
most solid with fingerling fish swimming close
to the surface. Birds, mostly cormorants, dar-
ters and egrets, fed on these fishes in huge,
milling flocks. How the fish could breed up
on such a gigantic scale after the severe
drought remains a mystery. Some fish, though
comparatively few, remained in the areas
where water was pumped. We also noticed
that fingerling fish came in the water from
Ajan Bund. But the River Gambhir and
Banganga, which feed into Ajan Bund, were
also completely dry (Abrar Khan, pers.
comm.) though it is possible that a few, small
pools remained. But it seemed hardly enough
to account for the phenomenal resurgence of
numbers. When Ajan Bund was drained in
late September, fields between the Bund and
the Sanctuary that had been flooded, were
covered with small fish when the water re-
ceded. Fishermen took several tonnes of small
fishes out of the patches of water that remain-
ed after the dam had been drained. Unfortu-
nately we were unable to identify any of the
fish.

Mammals

The following are our more interesting ob-
servations on Bharatpur mammals.

8

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

Felis viverrina

FISHING CAT

In March, when the last water in the canal
at Sapan Mori was drying up, we saw one and
sometimes two Fishing Cats there nearly every
evening. Once the canal had dried we did not
see any more Fishing Cats, before or after
the monsoon.

Paradoxunis hermaphroditus

COMMON PALM CIVET

On 27th April 1980 we had a good view
of this civet at night by the light of a strong
torch, at Bakalaya.

Herpestes edwardsi

COMMON MONGOOSE

On 30th June we saw this mongoose with
a newly caught, quite large water snake at
Bakalaya. The snake had coiled itself around
the mongoose’s body in its struggle to escape.

Hyaena hyaena

STRIPED HYENA

At about 8.15 p.m. on July 14th we dearly
saw a hyena on the main road just north of
the Forest Lodge. This species had not been
seen in the Sanctuary for some years.

Lutra perspicillata

SMOOTH INDIAN OTTER

On April 1st 1980 we saw a pair of these
otters with three small young sunbathing on
a raised mound in Ram Bund. The animals
were lying on their backs in the burning mid-
day sun.

Birds

The notes below are not meant to be an
exhaustive list of the birds we observed in
the Sanctuary. Rather they record species and
incidents of interest with special reference to

the 1979-1980 drought. New records for the
Sanctuary are marked NR and new breeding
records as NBR. To date only Saxena (1975)
has recorded breeding species. Most of the
new breeding records we noted are of birds
that nest during the summer and monsoon
and are quite obvious. It is just that few ob-
servers visit the Sanctuary at that time of the
year. In the systematics and nomenclature we
have followed Ali & Ripley (1968 to 1974).

Pelecanus onocrotalus

WHITE PELICAN

White Pelicans are not regular visitors to
Bharatpur, and some years they do not arrive
at all. Abdulali and Panday (1978) list this
species as “occasional” and Saxena (1975) as
“sporadic”. The Spotbilled Pelican (P. philip-
pensis philippensis) is a more regular visitor,
but in small numbers. The jheels and marshes,
while having an abundance of fish, do not suit
the pelicans as the dense aquatic vegetation
impedes their method of fishing. Because of
the drought the aquatic vegetation had died
back and the shrinking areas of water had
concentrated the fish into a small number of
pools.

2Ath January 1980. We arrived in Bharatpur
after an absence of 7 days. White Pelicans
had arrived on the 22nd (Abrar Khan, pers.
comm.). We counted 114 of these pelicans
roosting in a dry part of Cirra Bund.

2 5th January. The pelicans were fishing in
a narrow ditch of water left along the bund
itself, about 300 metres from the Keoladeo
Temple. They fished in the typical fashion for
pelicans, i.e. a semi-circle of the birds would
drive the fish to one end of the pool, catch as
many as they could and then reverse and drive
the fish in the opposite direction. Some of the
fish the pelicans caught were very large — we
estimated the weight of the largest to be be-
tween 2 and 3 kilogrammes.

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

A pair of Blacknecked Storks tried to drive
the pelicans away from the ditch. The storks
had a large young with them which, although
already changing to the iridescent plumage of
the adult, still begged constantly for food; in-
cessantly peeping and crouching while loosely
flapping its wings. The storks, particularly the
male (dk brown iris), would circle low over
the flock of pelicans and stab down at them
with his beak. The female stork (bright yellow
iris) more often threatened by walking straight
at the swimming pelicans, her neck low and
beak snapping. The pelicans kept their dist-
ance and after an hour or so would fly off to
roost. But they came back again and again.
2 6th January. In the morning the pelicans
were fishing in the canal between Sapan Mori
and the Keoladeo Temple. The water was
very shallow and the pelicans half-swam, half-
waded in some places. Some of the fish the
birds caught were too large for them to swal-
low and they disgorged them. Many of these
fish died and were seen floating in the water
or cast up on the mud banks. The largest
of these disgorged fish we found was a catfish
measuring exactly 80 centimetres in length.
Its sides were deeply scored by the pelicans’
beaks. The dead and dying fish were eaten
by Spotted Eagles, Ringtailed Fishing Eagles,
Black Kites, House Crows, Jungle Crows,
Crow- Pheasants and Whitebreasted Water-
hens.

28 th January. The number of White Peli-
cans had increased considerably in the last
few days. They were very difficult to count
as they constantly moved from one end of the
canal to the other. We counted, as best we
could, a minimum of 450.

At 20.30 hours the pelicans were fishing in
the canal in bright moonlight. Their fishing
time was limited during the day as the remain-
ing water was near roads where the birds were

disturbed from about 8.00 hours onwards
every morning by passersby.

1 6th February. Returned to Bharatpur after
an absence of 15 days. Only one White Pelican
remained. Abrar Khan told us that the peli-
cans had left on 9th February, when the areas
of water in the canal and in Cirra Bund had
dried up. There were very few fish left.

Pelecanus philippensis crispus

DALMATION PELICAN

29 th January 1980. Identified two Dalmation
Pelicans in a flock of soaring White Pelicans.

Anhinga rufa

DARTER

18 th June 1980. A flock of 57 Darters arriv-
ed, though the only significant water remain-
ing was in Ram Bund.

11 th July. Noticed first nests being built at
Rauji Bund 1 breeding colony.

14 th August. A tree with nests of Little Cor-
morants and darters at the Sapan Mori colony
had fallen over and died. Most nests were
destroyed, but one darter with medium- sized
young managed to restructure its nest and
keep it going. The nest was only a few centi-
metres above water level.

4 th September. Two still downy white chicks
in a darter’s nest under observation begged
incessantly. The parents when on the nest
without further food for the young turned their
heads away, resting them on their backs, to
discourage food begging. When begging for
food the young do so with beaks closed, ready
to insert their beaks into those of their parents.
Later in the day when it was hot, as early as
8.30 hours, the chicks begged with beaks wide
open. When this occurred we saw the adult
take off, fly a half-circle around the nest tree,
land in some open water, dip its beak into
the water (without diving) and return to the
nest. It then gave copious supplies of water

10

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

to each chick by inserting its beak a short
way into that of the young.

21 st September. Young in nests in the Rauji
Bund 1 breeding colony were now very large.
Wings and tails were fully formed but backs
and chests were still partially covered in down.
Most young left the nest and clambered to the
tops of the nest trees, their necks snaking
above the foliage. When a parent landed near
its brood (the maximum number of young per
nest was four) it was immediately besieged,
almost smothered, by the young.

October. Observed many young darters (dis-
tinguishable by their brown colour and pale
necks) fishing in the canal. They are experts
at catching fish, surfacing time and again with
prey stabbed through with their beaks. But
more often than not they lost their catch when
juggling it to the tips of their beaks or tossing
it in the air to swallow. We never saw an
adult lose its prey in this manner.

Ardea cinerea

GREY HERON

11 th July 1980. Birds in breeding colours of
bright orange-red beaks and orange-yellow
legs and feet, gathered in pairs at the Sapan
Mori breeding colony. There were no nesting
birds at the Rauji Bund 1 colony a place
where they nested in 1978.

2 6th July. Courtship of herons was in full
progress. Nest building had already begun.
Observed mating frequently. It was accom-
panied by loud squawks. The males flew off
to get nesting material, the females remained
on the nest and placed the sticks in place,
occasionally with help from the male especial-
ly if the stick was a large one. When the male
arrived at the nest the pair greeted each other
with feathers raised, their crests standing
straight up, then bowed to each other by bend-
ing the joints at the tops of the tarsi.

29 th August. Not many pairs managed to

hatch their eggs. House Crows took a heavy
toll. The birds are shyer than the other species
in the colony and are easily disturbed, leaving
their nests for long periods. Many pairs re-
nested in a grove of babul trees across the
bund in Rauji Bund 2 (see map) where they
raised their young unmolested in the company
of nesting Purple Herons.

Ardea purpurea

PURPLE HERON

Of all the normally resident Ciconiiformids
the Purple Herons were the first to leave the
Sanctuary because of the drought. By the end
of November 1979 when the tall grasses and
reeds of their preferred habitat had died back,
they had left. In the last week of February
the Forest Department had begun pumping
water into Ram Bund. By the end of March
this had resulted in the re-growing of tall reeds
and on 2nd April 1980 two Purple Herons had
returned. Between that date and early June
there were always a few Purple Herons there.
By June 18th their numbers began to increase
until by 27th June, the date of the arrival of
the monsoon, there were about 30 birds. They
were in fresh new plumage.

18 th July 1980. Birds sitting in pairs in the
reeds.

29 th July. Birds displaying in the reeds.

1st August. Went out by boat for a closer
look at the nesting birds. We found a loose
colony of 13 nests varying from those being
built to ones with clutches of four eggs. The
nests were built of sticks and lined with reeds
and placed in clumps of reeds about 25 centi-
metres above the water.

13 th August. The water intake into Ram
Bund (since 15th July water had been let into
the Sanctuary from Ajan Bund) was not con-
trolled and all Purple Heron nests (as well as
those of other species) were submerged and
the reed beds abandoned as a heronry.

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

14th August. Birds were building nests in a
patch of babul trees in Rauji Bund 2 not far
from Sapan Mori, and some time later they
were joined by nesting Grey Herons.

Ardeola grayii

INDIAN POND HERON

A few birds were already in breeding plum-
age by 26th April and by 11th May all birds
had changed. Did not find one pair nesting
in the Sanctuary and birds were quite scarce
during the breeding season. Only during the
winter months were they numerous, presum-
ably when suitable habitat outside the Sanc-
tuary had dried up.

Bubulcus ibis

CATTLE EGRET

Since the beginning of May Cattle Egrets
in breeding plumage had been arriving at the
Sanctuary. Like all the other marsh birds they
congregated in the two places where water
was being pumped.

15th June 1980. There was a sudden influx
of hundreds of Cattle Egrets. They stood
about in the marshy areas. Very hot day, 43 °C
at Agra,4 and all day a dust storm blew.

18 th July. Saw the traditional nesting colony
in a large neem tree at Bharatpur Railway
Station. About 50 nests in the tree. Most nests
were in branches overhanging a platform and
the tracks. Passing trains actually brushed the
lower branches on which nests were built. The
platform was busy and noisy but the activity
was totally ignored by birds only two to five
metres above the crowd. Some pairs were
courting and mating. These pairs had bright
orange-red beaks and facial and orbital skins.
Their irises were blood-red. The birds sitting
on eggs, which were in the majority, had pale-

4 The nearest place for which temperature figures
were available.

yellow irises and yellowish beaks and facial
skins.

12//z August. Scores of pairs began nesting
in the Sapan Mori colony. None nested at the
Rauji Bund 1 colony, where small numbers
nested in 1978.

Ardea alba

LARGE EGRET

21th June 1980. There had been intermit-
tent rain the previous week and egrets had
been returning in increasing numbers. Today
a milling multitude of all species of egrets
except the Cattle Egret were fishing in the area
of pumped water in Ram Bund, close to the
western bund. Although all the species arrived
in breeding plumage today we noticed the
bright facial skin and leg colours of the Large
Egrets for the first time. Of all the egrets the
Large Egrets were the least in number.

1 1th July. A few pairs were displaying at the
Rauji Bund 1 breeding colony.

2 6th July. All Large Egrets have left the
Rauji Bund 1 colony. Courtship of a small
number of pairs has begun at the Sapan Mori
colony. Observed a tree of courting and nest-
ing egrets from a tower-blind on the eastern
side of the colony. One pair was building a
nest about 15 metres from the blind but in a
place where the actual nest was hidden from
view. It was noticeable that the colour on the
facial skin, orbital skin and on the tibia was
beginning to fade. Courting Large Egrets had
facial and orbital skin of bright turquoise and
the tibia and the upper parts of the tarsi were
carmine red. These colours were brightest
during the days of courtship and faded rapid-
ly once pair bonds had been established. Even
the day after a pair had completed its court-
ship and had begun nest-building the colours
started to fade. Before courtship the colours,
although present, were not as bright as during
courtship itself.

12

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

29th July. Entered the tower-blind, still
situated in the same place as on 26th July,
at 5.00 hours. At about 5.30 hours a Large
Egret landed in a prominent spot five metres
up in the babul tree. The bird began to dis-
play. In one continuous action it stretched
its neck fully forward to peck at or grab hold
of a branch, raised its plumes, spread its wings
and bowed by bending its tarsal joints. Ano-
ther ritual was a “wing shuffle” whereby the
bird, with feathers fluffed, would in a fairly
rapid motion flick its wings forward (but not
out) in alternate “strokes”. The effect of this
action, with plumes half raised, is to see the
bird shimmering. In a third display the bird
opened a wing slightly and ran its beak along
the edge of the primaries. This action was
performed with either wing. All three displays
were of approximately the same frequency
with the “neck stretch” performed perhaps
slightly more often. Pauses between displays
were very short and the impression was one
of continuous motion. At all times the back
plumes were half raised, only during the “neck
stretch” were they fully raised. The “neck
stretch” seemed incipient nest-building as the
action of the beak was similar to that of a
bird placing a stick when building. The other
actions are modified preening actions, though
they were performed too regularly and too
perfunctorily to be actual preening.

We noticed that seven Large Egrets were
perched in the tree close to the displaying
bird and were watching it closely. During our
observations (stopped at 9.15 hours because
of fierce lightning approaching the aluminium
tower-blind) four of these watching birds one
after another joined the displaying egret on
his display platform. The two would briefly
preen the plumes on each other’s backs and
then the displaying bird (the male therefore)
would mount the bird that had joined it. Mat-
ing was attempted with three of the females

without success. After the attempt the
male chased the female off by pecking
at her. The iris of the displaying male
was pale yellow with an orange cen-

tre. At least one of the females had her entire
iris bright orange. In the nest-building pair
observed on 26th July both birds had pale
yellow irises. The fourth female was chased
off before mating was attempted. All the
females were slightly smaller than the male.
No nest was built at the place the male dis-
played. But from those and other observations
it appears that the male selects the nest site,
displays his colours and plumes in various
rituals, attracts a female, the two mate and
build a nest at or very near the display area.
In nest-building (which was observed on 26th
July) all the sticks were brought by the male
and placed in position by the female, some-
times helped by the male. This was also ob-
served for median Egrets, Little Egrets, Grey
Herons, spoonbills and Painted Storks. In the
end very few pairs of Large Egrets nested
compared to the number of displaying birds,
perhaps because of nest depredations by
House Crows. Displays of this species and
also of Median and Little Egrets were filmed
in some detail and the actions and colours
of soft parts are described from notes taken
at the time and also from the film.

Egretta intermedia

MEDIAN EGRET

2 6th July 1980. This species was further
advanced with its nesting and many were sit-
ting on eggs. The sitting birds had very pale
yellow irises.

One pair right in front of the blind and
about l\ metres lower than the courting Large
Egrets of July 29th, was at its selected nest
site. Both birds would grab branches of the
babul tree and vibrate them as though put-

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

ting nesting material in place. Twice the pair
mated — in silence. In this mating pair the
male’s iris was dark orange-red, the female’s
orange. The facial and orbital skins of both
birds were lemon-yellow with a greenish tinge
on the area immediately in front of the eye.
There was more green in the female’s facial
skin than in that of the male. Their beaks were
black. By late morning the male left to col-
lect the first nesting material.

21th July. The pair observed mating on the
26th had progressed considerably with the
building of their nest. Their irises were much
paler, almost the same colour as those of the
birds sitting on eggs.

28 th August. Of a pair feeding four small
chicks at their nest in the Rauji Bund 1 colony,
one had its beak half black and half yellow
and the other had its beak two-thirds yellow.
5th September. Nearly all Median Egrets
were feeding young and beaks were coloured
as for the non-breeding season (see Ali &
Ripley, Vol. 1, 1968).

19 th September. A Median Egret flew re-
peatedly to its nest with building material
taken from another, abandoned nest. Its part-
ner took the sticks and placed them in position
even though the pair had small young.

Egretta garzetta

LITTLE EGRET

1 Ith May 1980. In the company of a dozen
Little Egrets was one of a slaty-grey colour.
It was uniformly grey except for its face
which was white. It had a black beak, black
legs and bright yellow feet.

On 26th September we saw a bird of the
same description but with breeding plumes
exactly like those of the Little Egret, in the
Rauji Bund I heronry. We flushed it with
Little and Median Egrets from a nesting
tree in the centre of the colony. We assumed

it to be nesting, mated with a Little Egret of
normal coloured plumage. The bird was parti-
cularly shy and as the presumed nesting site
was in the centre of the colony it would have
caused considerable disruption if we had tried
to find the nest. So we did not pursue the mat-
ter further. We think the bird in question to
be a melanistic Little Egret rather than a slaty-
grey phase of the Indian Reef Heron ( Egretta
gularis) as only the face was white and the
beak was all black. The grey phase of E. gu-
laris has a white throat and foreneck and a
largely yellow beak (Ali and Ripley, Vol. 1,
1968).

21th July. This morning two courting pairs
were in the babul tree in front of the blind.
They were not present on the morning of the
26th. Courting was a bowing with raised
plumes with the facial and orbital skins turn-
ing coral pink during the display. After the
display the colour of the skin would return
to a pale greyish colour. There was no
change in the colour of the iris. One of the
birds had bright orange feet. All the others
had yellow feet. There was no change of
colour in the facial skin and feet as the season
progressed.

29 th July. Both pairs that were courting on
the 27th were now nest-building. When the
male returned with sticks to the nest his face
often flushed a coral pink.

18th September. Most egrets already had
well-grown young. But we found a nest of a
Little Egret with five eggs at the western end
of the Rauji Bund 1 heronry. In this nest one
egg was nearly ready to hatch and a second
was pipping. In a neighbouring tree was a
nest of a Median Egret with two eggs. Another
nest of the Little species had young almost
ready to fledge.

19 th September. Entered the blind at about
6.50 hours. Little Egret young still had not

14

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

hatched though the cap of the egg was sever-
ed nearly all around. The young struggled out
of the egg at 10.40 hours. The parents chang-
ed over on the nest at 12.45 hours. The new
arrival mostly ignored the chick and stood
on it for long periods. Eventually the adult
discarded the empty egg shells by dropping
them over the side of the nest.

20 th September. Entered the blind at sunrise
shortly after 6.00 hours. The second egg hatch-
ed shortly afterwards. The chick that hatched
yesterday had dried and was sparsely covered
with straggly white down. Many times the
parent regurgitated small fishes for the young
— but the chicks seemed too weak to pick them
up. The parent, after a few moments, reswal-
lowed the fish. Most fish regurgitated were
larger than the young.

Mycteria leucocephala

PAINTED STORK

2nd August 1980. Only a few, fewer than
20, Painted Storks were on the marshes. These
were the resident birds that had remained in
the Sanctuary throughout the dry months. We
left Bharatpur for a few days.

12 th August. Returned to Bharatpur on the
11th. During our absence an estimated 600-800
Painted Storks had arrived and were now sit-
ting in their chosen nest trees. The breeding
colony was scattered and spread over a large
area (see map). The birds shunned the Rauji
Bund 1 and Sapan Mori breeding colonies
except to visit them to pull branches off the
babul trees for nesting material. Though Paint-
ed Storks have no special breeding plumage
(Ali & Ripley, Vol. 1, 1968) the new arrivals
were especially colourful, both in their plum-
age and in their bare parts. The plumage was
immaculate, suggesting that the birds had re-
cently moulted. The colour of the iris and
bare parts of the breeding birds may be dif-

ferent from that of other times of the year.
Ali & Ripley (ibid.) describe the irises of the
adults as straw-yellow. Of the birds we exa-
mined and photographed closely (well over
50) all except two had either dark brown or
medium brown irises. The other two had pale
grey-green eyes. Ali & Ripley (ibid.) describe
the beak as “orange-yellow, darker and plum-
beous at base”. The bills of the breeding birds
were uniformly orange-yellow without any
trace of plumbeous. According to Ali & Ripley
(ibid.) the bare skin of the head is orange-
yellow. In the breeding birds the heads were
bright orange and the throats pink. Some birds
had pronounced dewlaps which were pink. The
legs and feet were invariably bright pink, a
somewhat redder pink than that of the throat
and very close to the pink of the secondaries.
Ali & Ripley give the leg colour as “brown
or fleshy brown, sometimes nearly red”. In
birds observed and photographed in late
January 1980, the colours were as those of the
breeding birds, though not quite as bright.

Once the birds had chosen their nest sites
they stood there almost constantly. They fre-
quently defecated down their legs. This was
a deliberate action. It turned their legs white.
They continued this practice till November
when nesting ended and it was cooler.

During the rest of August and in early Sep-
tember more and more birds arrived until
several thousand pairs were nesting.

Ylth August. The first egg had been laid in
a nest which is part of a group of four nests
in a clump of four babul trees situated on a
small mound. The trees, no more than 2\
metres tall, were just to the east of the Rauji
Bund 1 heronry, though not part of it. These
Painted Storks nests were the first we found
and the egg, which must have been laid early
in the morning or during the night, was one
of the first of the season. On the evening of

15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

16

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

the 16th August there were no eggs in the
nests. We watched these four nests daily till
all eggs had been laid and then again almost
daily till they hatched to determine their in-
cubation periods. Of the four nests two had
clutches of two eggs each and two had clutches
of three eggs each. In one of the three-egg
nests all eggs failed to hatch and in one of the
two-egg nests only one egg hatched. Of the
remaining six eggs two hatched after 27 days,
two after 28 days and two after 29 days. Time
of hatching (observed for four eggs) varied
from 10.22 hours to 18.15 hours.

On August 17th our tower-blind was set up
facing a group of 22 nest-building pairs in a
single spreading babul tree approximately six
metres tall. The tree was in Rauji Bund 1
about 300 metres SW of the heronry. Many
pairs were busy in mutual preening. Mostly
they preened each other’s necks by very gent-
ly nibbling with their beaks. Sometimes the
pair would preen each other simultaneously
at other times one would stand with eyes clos-
ed while being preened by its partner. Often
the pair dozed, one resting its head on the
other’s back. After a preening session some
pairs mated. During mating both birds clap-
pered their beaks individually but also one
against the other producing a unique sound.
After mating the males set off to gather nest-
ing materials. Nearly always they brought
babul branches, some very large up to a metre
long, which they pulled off with powerful jerks
of their beaks. Mostly they brought green
branches but some birds specialised in dry twigs
broken off dead, standing trees. Birds arriving
on their nests would be greeted with a short
burst of beak-clappering and the two would
place the twig or branch in place with vibrat-
ing movements of their beaks. If the arriving
bird did not bring nesting material the pair
would greet each other with an “Up-Down”

display as described by Kahl (1970). The
loudest and most sustained clappering occurr-
ed during disputes, usually over nest sites or
over sticks used in nest-building.

20 th August. In the large tree observed on
17th August four nests now had one egg each.
Two pairs with eggs in their nests, mated.
When the day became hot one of a pair would
sit on the eggs. Its partner would then spend
up to half an hour preening the sitting bird’s
neck feathers with very gentle nibbling move-
ments of its beak tip.

Once the second egg had been laid the birds
spend very little time at the nest together. One
would incubate while the other was out feed-
ing. During nest site selection, courting and
nest-building both birds were at the nest site
or nest all day— sunrise to sunset. This is a
period from 4 to 7 days. During this time
the birds do not seem to feed unless they
feed at night. Nor did we see any Painted
Storks feeding in the Sanctuary at that time,
though we searched for them.

1 6th September. The blind was set up at the
four nests in the low babul trees near the
Rauji Bund 1 heronry. An adult was seated
on each nest and remained there till 8.50
hours when all four stood up in quick suc-
cession. They preened themselves and then
stood with wings spread shading the eggs and
young. Nest number one had a day-old young
and nest two a two-day old young. These were
the first Painted Stork chicks to hatch in the
Sanctuary to the best of our knowledge. At
10.18 hours the adult on nest number two fed
its chick on lumps of what looked like a
yellow-brown paste. The chick ate some and
the adult re-swallowed the remainder. At 10.22
hours a chick hatched at nest number one,
the adult immediately threw the egg shells
over the side of the nest. At 11.00 hours,
when we left the blind, the birds were still

17

2

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 79

standing, shading the eggs and not sitting and
incubating. At 6.33 p.m. a young hatched in
nest number four.

2 6th September. At the nests in the low
babul trees, nest number one was deserted,
we found dead chicks underneath it in the
water. At nest number two chicks were grow-
ing very rapidly. Both parents were at the
nest. One after another the parents went out
and collected water in their beaks and presum-
ably their gullets. When they returned they
poured copious amounts of water over the
chicks (which were still covered in white
fluff) and down their throats. Once the chicks
were fed on small fishes. The older chick
snapped up the regurgitated fish from the
parent’s beak while the smaller one (there was
three days difference in their age) picked up
fish from the floor of the nest. Nest number
four contained a single young which hatched
on August 16th. The parent attending the
young regurgitated two very large fish (both
without heads), too large for the young to
swallow. Time and again the young attempted
to swallow the smaller of the two fish, often
sprawling on the nest floor with exhaustion
with the fish in its beak. Four times the adult
regurgitated the two fish and reswallowed
them but the young could not swallow either.

A pair of Spotted Munias and a pair of
White-throated Munias were busy building
nests into the undersides of the Painted Stork
nests. Painted Storks were still not seen fish-
ing in the Sanctuary. Birds returning to the
nest to feed young came from outside. Those
nesting in Rauji Bund 1 nearly all came from
due north. They returned in flocks of six to
twelve birds and then spread out to individual
nests.

18//* October. All nests in the low babul
trees had fallen when the trees collapsed in a
storm. Only one young survived, by crawling

onto the small mound on which the trees
stood. By now the young was quite large, al-
most fully feathered. The parents had built
a nest on the mound around the chick, and
continued to feed it.

20 th October. A lot of Painted Storks had
taken up what at first appeared to be nesting
territories at both the Sapan Mori and Rauji
Bund 1 heronries. They vigorously defended
their “territories” and even carried nesting
material to them. But there was no courtship
and no mating, and no real nests were built.
Many of the “nest sites” were occupied by
single birds. Before this time Painted Storks
came to the heronries only to collect nest-
building material.

Anastomus oscitans

OPEN BILL STORK

15 th June 1980. Day of a dust storm. Bharat-
pur very dry. Maximum temperature at Agra
(nearest centre for which figures are avail-
able) was 43 °C. Yet several hundred Open-
bills had arrived and taken up residence in
Ram Bund which was green as a result of
water being pumped into it from bore A.

2 6th June. These storks had increased to
close to 1000. Numbers of them were stand-
ing in the tops of babul trees in Rauji Bund 1
behind Shanti Kutir, pulling at the vegetation
and going through the motions of nest-build-
ing. They were the first birds to gather in the
trees preparatory to breeding. The trees in
which they had congregated eventually became
the Rauji Bund 1 breeding colony. But in
June the marsh here was still completely dry.
11th July. A small amount of water had
collected in Rauji Bund 1. Many pairs of
Openbills already had finished nests. Until
now the birds were black and pure white in
plumage. We observed hundreds of Open-
bills feeding deep in the woodlands well away

18

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

from the marshes in areas flooded by recent
heavy rain. They were catching snails, frogs
and insects.

14 th July. Observed a corner of the breed-
ing colony from our tower-blind. The nests
had one egg each, the first eggs we had seen.
While birds were off their nest due to a dis-
turbance a crow came, broke one of the eggs
and ate the contents. When the owner of the
nest returned, it picked up the empty egg
shells and tossed them over the side of the
nest. The nest was not abandoned for at least
another two days.

13th. August. There had been a considerable
decline in the number of Openbill nests since
July 19th. But those of egrets, cormorants
and darters had increased. All the Openbills
had changed colour. The parts that were pure
white when the birds arrived were now a dull
grey. It would be interesting to determine the
mechanism by which the birds’ colour changes.
We did not notice them moulting. Also the
change is uniform and not in patches. The grey
colour is the same as that of the young when
they fledge. Like the Painted Storks, Open-
bills were seen showering their nestlings with
water during the hot time of the day.

Ciconia nigra

BLACK STORK NR

2nd March 1980. In the afternoon we saw
three Black Storks on the dry mud of Cirra
Bund. They were seen for only one day. This
seems a new record for Bharatpur as it is not
listed by either Abdulali and Pandav (1978)
or Saxena (1975).

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus

BLACK NECKED STORK

January 1980. See under White Pelican for
interaction with that species.

1st April. Observed one catching and killing
a Pond Heron. After killing it the stork flew
off with the bird and we could not see how
or if it ate the Pond Heron.

Anser indicus

BARHEADED GOOSE

11th December 1979. In company of about
50 normal coloured birds we noticed a partial
albino. The general impression was of a white
bird but closer examination revealed faint
traces of the pattern on the head, neck and
flanks. Beak, irises, feet and legs were all of
normal colour. This bird may have given
rise to the rumour that a Snow Goose had
been seen in the Sanctuary.

About 500 to 1200 Barheads remained in
the Sanctuary throughout the winter, feeding
on the growth of grass in areas at Ram Bund
and Cirra Bund that were flooded as a result
of water pumped from bores A and B. In
late March and early April the birds left the
Sanctuary. A major exodus occurred on the
night between April 1st and 2nd. The last
we noticed were a few individuals on 26th
April 1980.

Dendrocygna javanica

LESSER WHISTLING TEAL NBR

4 th September 1980. A pair with 8 ducklings
only a few days old swam close to the blind
set up in the western end of the Rauji Bund 1
heronry.

18 th September. The pair was still in the
same place and still with 8 ducklings.

2 6th September. Pair with eight ducklings
was still in the same area. Two other pairs
were close by, one had seven ducklings and
the other five all approximately the same age.
Today was the first day we could observe all
three pairs from the same vantage point.

19

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Tadorna ferruginea

RUDDY SHELDUCK

A few birds stayed right through spring and
early summer in the flooded areas. On 26th
April there were seven. We saw sixteen on
May 17th. The last one, on its own, was in
Ram Bund on 15th June 1980.

Tadorna tadorna

COMMON SHELDUCK

We first saw these birds (three) on 17th
November 1979. They stayed throughout the
winter in the small shallow pools left in Cirra
Bund. This species is a rare visitor to Bharat-
pur. It was first recorded by Sauey in 1977
(Sauey, pers. comm.).

Anas poecilorhyncha

SPOTBILL DUCK

In normal seasons, when the marshes do
not dry up, Spotbill Ducks begin nesting in
March in Bharatpur (Abrar Khan, pers.
comm.) and continue to nest till September-
October. No nesting was observed or duck-
lings seen during the spring of 1980. No Spot-
bill Ducks were observed, except for the oc-
casional visitor, during April and May.

22nd June 1980. There had been some rain
the previous day and several hundred Spot-
bills had arrived. They congregated in the
muddy puddles on Cirra Bund. From this date
on there were numbers of Spotbills in the
Sanctuary.

4th September. We were shown a nest on
a mound in a small marsh on the eastern side
of the road between Bakalaya and Sapan
Mori. It contained seven eggs. On the day
we first saw it the sitting bird was being haras-
sed by a Marsh Harrier in immature plum-
age. The harrier hovered over the nest, land-
ing periodically near it. Whenever the harrier

landed the duck would rush towards it and
drive it off. This meant that the duck rushed
from one end of the mound to the other. It
would leap up at the raptor as it hovered
closely overhead. Occasionally the harrier
would fly away, only to return a short while
later.

On 6th September we found the nest aband-
oned and containing broken eggs.

1 5th September. Another nest on a mound
near the watchtower was pointed out to us.
It contained 10 eggs.

This nest was also robbed of its eggs. Both
nests were discovered by Forest Department
labourers clearing the mounds of grass and
weeds so that the planted babuls could grow
more quickly. Despite the presence of the
nests the mounds were cleared, leaving the
nests exposed.

Anas querquedula

GARGANEY TEAL

14 th May 1980. Three birds in Ram Bund.
15 th July. Observed 13 birds in Cirra Bund
close to the Keoladeo Temple.

13 th August. In late afternoon a flock of
about 30 birds flew overhead and then settled
in the open water in Ram Bund.

Nettapus coromandelianus

COTTON TEAL

22nd June 1980. These birds had also left
during the winter. But on this date, after some
rains, many pairs and threesomes were flying
fast circuits over the marshes, while vocalising
in a rapid quacking call.

11 th July. These birds were still engaged in
courtship flights. Threesomes were invariably
made up of one female and two males. Occa-
sionally they would alight in large trees where
the females would inspect possible nestholes.
Pairs were often seen perched in trees. In one

20

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

threesome the two males fought in mid-air,
one male grabbing the other by the neck with
his beak. The two crashed into the branches
of a babul but soon recovered and flew on
after the female, quacking loudly.

22nd September. Checked three nests in hol-
lows in trees besides the Keoladeo Temple.
Two nests were in hollows only \\ metres
apart in a jamun tree. One nest contained
four ducklings and eight eggs, the other con-
tained five eggs. The third nest was in a
babul tree and contained three eggs.

21th September. Saw a female with 17 small,
downy ducklings at Sapan Mori, only about
20 metres from the road.

Sarkidiomis melanotos

COMB DUCK

This species also left the Sanctuary during
the dry months.

12 th August 1980. Found a nest in a hollow
limb of a babul along the bund about half a
kilometre east of the Keoladeo Temple. It
contained 17 eggs. Three of the eggs were
very small and about the size of those of a
Cotton Teal. Perhaps the Comb Duck had
taken over the nest hollow of a Cotton Teal.
21th September. In a flooded field imme-
diately below Ajan Bund we observed a Comb
Duck with 17 ducklings at least one week old.

Pernis ptilorhynchus

HONEY BUZZARD

We noticed this bird in the Sanctuary from
March 1980 onwards.

22nd June 1980. Abrar Khan showed us a
nest he had found. It contained two eggs. The
bulky stick nest was 8 \ metres high in a kadam
tree. The tree was about 15 metres east of the
road and about half a kilometre south of the
Shanti Kutir turnoff.

5th July. The nest contained one newly
hatched chick and one egg.

1th July. The second egg was pipping.

12 th July. The nest was empty except for
the fresh carcass of a Pied Mynah, presum-
ably brought by the parents to feed the young.
On the 11th we saw an Eagle Owl low in a
tree only about 10 metres from the nest.
Perhaps it took the young as owl of the
genus Bubo are known to take the young of
other raptors (Newton 1979).

Milvus (migrans) lineatus
BLACKEARED KITE NR

This distinctive subspecies of the Black Kite,
with its “conspicuous white buzzard-like under-
wing patch” (Ali & Ripley, Vol. 1, 1968), is
recorded from Delhi by Abdulali and Panday
(1978) but not from Bharatpur. It is not list-
ed by Saxena (1975). We saw and filmed two
of these kites at Ajan Bund on 17th October
1980.

Aquila clanga

GREATER SPOTTED EAGLE

23 rd December 1979. We saw three imma-
ture Spotted Eagles on some kind of prey out
in the NE corner of Hans Sarovar Bund. The
marsh was virtually dry, only a few patches
of soft mud remained. We walked over to
investigate. One of the eagles was larger than
the other two and was feeding. The others
stood a little to one side. The bird they were
eating was a large owl of the genus Bubo.
This could be determined from the head, legs
and feet which were still intact.

24 th December. A Greater Spotted Eagle
in immature plumage was feeding on some
indeterminate meat. While it was feeding a
Sarus Crane walked up to it, approaching to
within a few centimetres of the eagle. The
eagle raised its hackles, opened its beak wide.

21

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

spread its wings and struck out with its talons.
After a few minutes the Sarus walked away.
2 6th December. In Rauji Bund 1, due west
of Shanti Kutir we observed an eagle in adult
plumage feeding on a dead spoonbill in shal-
low water.

29 th January 1980. Early in the morning an
eagle was feeding on a large catfish left strand-
ed in the canal near the Keoladeo Temple by
the pelicans. It’s bill did not seem suited to
fish eating for it could tear off only small pieces
of flesh and skin. It fed for more than two
hours. This was in sharp contrast to a Ring-
tailed Fishing Eagle, which fed on a catfish
it had caught. The Fishing Eagle was able to
pull off large pieces of flesh and finished its
fish in less than 10 minutes.

Haliaeetus leucoryphus

RINGTAILED FISHING EAGLE

For a number of years two pairs have
nested in the Sanctuary. One pair in the north-
ern end of Ram Bund the other on the far
eastern side of Cirra Bund close to the eastern
bund itself. In the winter of 1979-80 the Ram
Bund pair did not breed. Frequently we saw
them sitting on an old nest, but they used it
only as a feeding platform. We did not see
the birds carry nesting material, nor were eggs
laid. For the previous seven years (Abrar
Khan, pers. comm.) the female laid eggs each
winter. But not once did the eggs hatch. All
the old nests, of which we counted five, are in
tall kadam trees on the northern edge of Ram
Bund.

5th December 1979. On the evening of De-
cember 4th, while driving to Bharatpur, we
picked up a hare freshly killed by a truck.
On the morning of the 5th we put this out in
a conspicuous place in a dry area of Ram
Bund, well within view of the female Fishing
Eagle. We hoped to film the bird on the hare.

We watched the Eagle from 8.00 hours to
17.00 hours, but she never once left her perch.
13 th December. The pair nesting in Cirra
Bund had two eggs in their nest. The huge
stick nest was in a dead kadam tree at a Height
of 16^ metres. The tree was about 150 metres
from the eastern bund and approximately half
way between Bison Mori and the southern
bund.

22nd December. At 11.40 hours a Forest
Guard climbed up to the nest to check its
content. The female eagle did not leave the
nest till the guard had climbed to a height
of four metres, then she circled low, making
clicking noises. The male also came and settled
in a nearby tree. The guard reported that
there were two young in the nest, white and
downy and very small. One young was larger
than the other and the smaller one appeared
damp. There were two fish, each about 30
centimetres long, on the nest rim. Only small
pieces had been eaten. By the time we had
walked less than a 100 metres from the nest
tree, both birds had returned to the nest.

24 th January 1980. Saw parents feed chicks.
2 6th January. We checked the contents of
the nest. It was empty. The adults were sitting
in a neighbouring tree. Perhaps the young
had been taken by Dusky Horned Owls which
are common in the area. According to New-
ton (1979) owls of the genus Bubo are known
to take the young of raptors. He reported that
most of this predation is on large young no
longer covered by the female at night.

\lth February. The base of the eagle’s nest
tree had been deliberately set on fire by herds-
men. The huge tree toppled.

This was one of many dead kadam trees
cut or burnt down during 1979-80. The wood
was taken out within days by herdsmen and
other villagers. The Fishing Eagles remained
in the area.

22

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sqc. 79 Plate I

Breeden: Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary

Above : Male Blacknecked Stork attacks a group of White Pelicans in Cirra Bund.
January 1980.

Below : Female Mottled Wood Owl on its nest in a neem tree. Photograph was
taken in the daytime. April 1980.

( Photos : Stanley & Belinda Breeden)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate II

Breeden: Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary

Above : Female Mottled Wood Owl feeding its chicks on a Roseringed Parakeet.
Photograph was taken at night. April 1 980.

Below : Collared Scops Owl feeding young almost ready to fledge. Photographed
at night. April 1980.

( Photos : Stanley and Belinda Breeden)

1 • -

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

Sometime in late March or early April
both pairs of eagles left the Sanctuary.

2 6th August. A male eagle had returned to
Ram Bund.

4th September. A pair of eagles had return-
ed to the eastern side of Cirra Bund.

6th September. The pair had begun building
a nest in a tall jamun at Bison Mori.

21th September. The pair built a new nest
in the top of a babul tree only about 30 metres
from the jamun. They appeared to be brood-
ing eggs. The nest was in too thin branches
to climb safely.

llih October. A large (female) Ringtailed
Fishing Eagle in immature plumage arrived at
Ram Bund. When we left Bharatpur on 13th
November she was still there. The adult
female, normal resident in this area, had not
returned by this date.

Neophron percnopterus ginginianus

INDIAN SCAVENGER VULTURE

From September 1979 onwards the Indian
Flapshelled Turtles, Lissemys punctatus, left
the drying marshes in large numbers. Tn what
seemed a random movement, they wandered
off in all directions, keeping walking until they
found shelter in the woodlands or areas of
pumped water. To reach the shelter of dense
vegetation or ground litter they had to walk
many kilometres over bare ground. Amongst
the birds there was only one predator on these
turtles and that was the Scavenger Vulture.
These birds would walk up to a turtle, turn it
over, and dig underneath one of the rear flaps
with its sharp and narrow beak. Only these
vultures could open the flaps. Once opened.
King Vultures and Whitebacked Vultures
would often commandeer the turtle. We saw
turtles wandering about and Scavenger Vul-
tures feeding on them till about two weeks

after the rains arrived, i.e. about July 10th
1980.

2 8th November 1979. A vulture in immature
plumage, carrying a stone in its bill, walked
up to a turtle lying upside down in a dry
marsh and then dropped the stone on the
turtle’s shell. It was an action very similar
to that observed of the Egyptian Vulture
( Neophron p. percnopterus) in Africa which
uses stones to break the eggs of ostriches (Van
Lawick-Goodall 1970).

Circus aeruginosus

MARSH HARRIER

We saw the first bird to arrive from migra-
tion on August 13th 1980. It was in imma-
ture plumage, as were all the birds we saw
this season. Apart from taking the eggs from
a Spotbill’s nest, we saw a harrier take the
eggs of a Purple Moorhen (26th September),
and a nestling of a Little Cormorant (20th
September) .

Falco peregrinus

PEREGRINE FALCON

Abdulali & Panday (1978) rate the Pere-
grine as occasional at Bharatpur and Saxena
(1975) considers it rare. Neither list specifies
the subspecies. On 26th January 1980 we saw
a Peregrine perched in a dead kadam tree in
full sunlight and we could approach it closely.
With the aid of a friend’s powerful telescope
we were able to identify it as F. p. japonensis.
The black cap and moustachial stripes and
very pale, almost white, underside were diag-
nostic.

Grus antigone

SARUS CRANE

In December 1979 there was a tremendous
influx of Saruses every evening into Cirra
Bund and the NE portion of Hans Sarovar

23

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Bund. The birds began to arrive about an
hour before sunset and continued to stream
in until dark. Some arrived even after dark.
All but a few left again at sunrise.

20 th December 1979. We counted the Saru-
ses at 18.05 hours. There were 194 in Cirra
Bund and 240 in adjoining Hans Sarovar
Bund. This appears to be the largest con-
centration of Saruses recorded in the Sanc-
tuary (Salim Ali, pers. comm.).

During March and April 1980 when pumped
water began to collect in Ram Bund, the
top end of Rauji Bund 1 and Cirra Bund,
Saruses remained feeding there all day. Most
days there were well over 100 Saruses in both
Cirra Bund and Rauji Bund 1. On April 4th,
in mid-afternoon we counted 238 Saruses at
Cirra Bund alone and on 19th April there
were 101 at Rauji Bund 1. On 17th May there
were 214 Saruses at Cirra Bund but none at
Rauji Bund 1 where pumping had stopped.
Water was shrinking at Cirra Bund in the
latter part of May as power cuts restricted
the pumping. On May 23rd there were only
63 Saruses at Cirra Bund and none at Rauji
Bund 1. Once the rains started, on June 21st,
the Saruses dispersed and were present in only
small numbers.

In good seasons Saruses begin nesting in
March, but in 1980 none nested before the
rains.

18 th July 1980. We watched two different
pairs of Saruses build nests in shallow parts
of Rauji Bund 1. The birds pulled up grasses
and other aquatic vegetation and tossed it
into a pile. The effect was to create a small
platform surrounded by a narrow moat of
water.

13 th August. From a distance we saw a
Sarus sitting on a treeless mound just NW of
the watchtower. The bird appeared to be sit-
ting on a nest. We poled towards it in a boat

and only when we were within a few metres
did the bird stand up and walk away. But it
was not incubating an egg, it had been sitting
on a stone, roughly the size of a Sarus egg.
The stone was pale yellow-brown in colour,
and pitted with small holes. We watched a
pair of Saruses in this same area till early
November, but though they built several nests
we never found any eggs or saw any chicks.
14 th August. Found a nest with two eggs at
Bison Mori. On 8th September we observed
the nest from a distance. Both parents were
there. There were two chicks on the nest — one
stood strongly upright. The other was smaller,
still wet and still at the tottering stage. One
parent carried off some eggshells; the smaller
chick must have just hatched. On 15th Octo-
ber we filmed a pair of Sarus with two well
grown young at this nest site. Young were
still being fed by their parents.

11th August. We found two nests, each with
two eggs, in the northernmost portion of Rauji
Bund 1. We found the chicks from one of the
nests when the chicks were approximately one
week old. This was on September 14th.

2 0th August. We found a nest with one egg
about 80 metres west of the main road at a
level with the watchtower. We checked this
nest daily and the second egg was laid oil
August 23rd. There is not much information
on the incubation period of the Sarus Crane.
Ali & Ripley (1968), quoting Lahiri, say it
is 28 days. The Moghul Emperor Jahangir
states in his memoirs that the eggs hatched
after 34 days incubation (Ali 1927). At the
International Crane Foundation it was found
that Sarus eggs hatch after 30-32 days in an
artificial incubator (Sauey, pers. comm.). On
September 21st we could hear a chick chip-
ping in each egg and from one we could hear
pipping sounds. On 23rd September one egg
was pipping at 6.12 hours. At 16.00 hours

24

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

the second egg was pipping and the first egg
was almost ready to hatch. We left the nest
at 18.30 hours and returned at 19.30 hours
by which time the first had hatched. It was
full moon. We returned to the blind at 6.00
hours on September 24th. At 6.05 hours both
adult Sarus arrived at the nest. The male ate
the membrane and eggshell of the egg which
hatched the day before. Shortly after 10.00
hours the chick, still unsteady, stumbled off
the nest. The male stayed with it and fed
it small items very, very gently. At sunrise
on September 25th the second egg was almost
ready to hatch. The female brooded it while
the male stayed close-by with the first chick.
When the second egg hatched at 9.40 hours
the male joined the female on the nest. Both
parents swallowed small portions of the egg-
shell but the male carried most of the shell
and membrane off and dumped them a few
metres from the nest. So the first egg hatched
in 34 days and the second in 33.

Grus leucogeranus

SIBERIAN CRANE

Of the 14 species of Crane, the Siberian
is considered the most endangered by the In-
ternational Crane Foundation (Sauey, pers.
comm.). Once this species occurred over a
fairly wide area of northern India (Hume and
Marshall 1880). But in recent years Bharatpur
Sanctuary has been the only known wintering
ground for this species in India. And even
during that time there has been a drastic
decline in the numbers coming to Bharatpur.
Below are the numbers of birds recorded for
the Sanctuary for the decade 1970-1980. The

figures have been compiled by
national Crane Foundation.

the Inter-

March 1970

— 76

cranes

Winter 1974-75

— 63

99

February 1976

— 61

99

February 1977 — 57 cranes

February 1978 — 55

Winter 1978-79 — 41 to 43 „

Winter 1979-80 — 33

In spite of the fact that the Siberians are
undoubtedly the Sanctuary’s most important
species, they suffered the worst from the

drought of 1979-80. The birds fed almost ex-
clusively at Cirra Bund and, when at Bharat-
pur, were seen in other locations within the
Sanctuary only a few times and usually as a
result of a disturbance at Cirra Bund.

Cirra Bund was the last to dry up and with
two exceptions the area of soft mud and shal-
low water within this Bund was the only place
the cranes were seen feeding. The other two
places were a small pond only a few metres
in diameter at Sapan Mori where two of these
cranes briefly fed on January 28th 1980, and
Ram Bund where a single Siberian stayed
from March 18th to 30th.

No matter what the time of day the Siberians
were always feeding when we observed them,
even during moonlit nights. They spent no
extended periods preening. Unison calls and
other interactions were extremely rare. The
only vocalisations, apart from the very occa-
sional unison calls, were soft calls during
flight. Feeding required the expenditure of a
great deal of energy, the birds having to move
substantial quantities of mud to uncover the
small tubers on which they fed. The tubers
were not as numerous as in normal years.

The drying up of Cirra Bund, the only place
in the Sanctuary the cranes could feed, meant
that the birds were disturbed quite often by
herdsmen and also by tourists. Neither the
herdsmen and their buffaloes nor the tourists
were effectively controlled by the Sanctuary
management. Whenever the cranes were dis-
turbed they would circle over the Bund for a
few minutes or sometimes for several hours

25

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

and then invariably fly off to a destination
outside the Sanctuary. Often the cranes left
the Sanctuary for many days on end. It was
never discovered where they went.

Water pumped into Cirra Bund from pump
C was for some reason directed towards the
eastern portion only, an area devoid of Sibe-
rian Crane food.

The conditions for the cranes and their
behaviour during the 1979 drought was very
different to that in a normal season. We ob-
served this species in January 1975 and again
in February 1977. In both these winters there
was enough area of marsh so that the cranes,
if disturbed (which happened rarely), could
move to another area. They never left the
Sanctuary. Food was plentiful in all the major
Bunds. The birds interacted frequently and
their unison calls were heard daily and often.
They spent long periods preening.

The first Siberian Cranes arrived on Decem-
ber 7th 1979. Four of the birds arrived that
day. By December 15th twelve cranes were
at Cirra Bund including one juvenile. On 18th
December all twelve cranes flew off at 14.00
hours. One returned at 16.00 hours. On 19th
December seven cranes arrived — two at 9.00
hours, two at 11.56 hours and three (includ-
ing a juvenile) at 12.00 hours.

On December 20th and 21st there were eight
cranes all day. On the 22nd the eight cranes
were joined by a further two at 16.50 hours.
On 23rd December the cranes were disturbed
at 9.20 hours by a tourist and flew up but all
returned by 10.00 hours. Two more Siberian
arrived between 15.30 hours and 16.30 hours.
On December 25th only eight cranes remained
and all of these took off in a NW direction
in the afternoon of December 26th.

We were absent from Bharatpur from De-
cember 27th 1979 to January 7th 1980. On
the morning of January 8th 33 Siberian

Cranes were recorded (Abrar Khan, pers.
comm.), but that afternoon, when we arrived
only 16 were left, including three juveniles.
The morning of January 8th was the only
occasion during the whole winter that all 33
cranes were seen in the Sanctuary. On January
14th we saw 28 Siberian Cranes, but this was
the only occasion we saw that many. There
were no cranes on January 17th. On January
24th and 25th there was one pair. On the
morning of January 26th the pair was joined
by another pair accompanied by a juvenile.
One of the new-comers squatted down and
slept with its head resting on its back. The
other fed and the young just gazed around.
This trio left again on January 27th. On Jan-
uary 28th the “resident” pair were joined by
another pair. At about midday both pairs
were disturbed by a herdsman and left the
Sanctuary. We were absent from Bharatpur
from February 1st to 16th. On the 16th only
one pair was in the Sanctuary. According to
Abrar Khan these two cranes were present
nearly all the time we were away. On Feb-
ruary 11th they were joined by six others
(Abrar Khan, pers. comm.) — two pairs, each
with a juvenile — but they only stayed a few
hours. The “resident” pair left on February
28th 1980. According to Abrar Khan six Sibe-
rian Cranes arrived on the evening of March
3rd and left again at 9.30 hours on March
4th. From March 18th to 30th a single Sibe-
rian Crane stayed in Ram Bund and then
left the Sanctuary.

Porzana pusilla

baillon’s crake

We first noticed this species on August 19th
1980 and saw it regularly after that. Although
we looked for nests when flushing the bird,
we never found one. We always saw it on the

26

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

aquatic vegetation such as grasses and water-
lilies while we were out in a boat.

Amaurornis akool

BROWN CRAKE NR

We first identified this bird in the Sanctuary
on 17th November 1979 and saw it regularly
until the breaking of the monsoon. We did
not see it after that. Neither Abdulali and
Panday (1978) nor Saxena (1975) list this
species for Bharatpur.

Amaurornis phoenicurus

WHITEBREASTED WATERHEN

At dusk on August 19th we observed a
Whitebreasted Waterhen leading its chicks
from a bund out on to the marsh. The adult
folded some grasses over to form a platform
after which it fluffed itself out and brooded
the four small, black and downy young.

Porphyrio porphyrio

PURPLE MOORHEN

There were no Purple Moorhens observed
during the winter, spring and early summer.
We first noticed this species in very small
numbers at Ram Bund on June 18th. On
July 18th pairs were busy courting and mak-
ing nest-platforms by bending the reeds. By
24th of July there had been a big increase in
numbers in all parts of the marshes. We found
five nests in Ram Bund on August 1st, the
number of eggs varied from two to five per
nest. All these nests were built in tall reeds.
By 13th August the nests were submerged as
a result of water let into Ram Bund from
Ajan Bund. Between 17th August and 15th
September we found nine more nests. Com-
pleted clutches varied from four to seven. All
these nests were in aquatic grass in the area
west of the watchtower in Rauji Bund 1.

Hydrophasianus chirurgus

PHEASANT-TAILED JAgANA

We spotted the first jacana in breeding plum-
age on May 9th 1980 in the green grassy area
around pump D in Cirra Bund. Large num-
bers arrived in early June when scores of
pairs were calling in Cirra Bund, Ram Bund
and Rauji Bund 1. We saw a loose congrega-
tion of 35 in Ram Bund on 22nd June. By
June 25th numbers were fewer throughout the
Sanctuary; perhaps 30 pairs where before
there had been several hundred individuals.
On July 19th we observed a nest from a blind.
The nest was out in the marsh 12 metres from
the northern bund of Ram Bund. Our obser-
vations began at 16.00 hours and lasted for
about two hours. The floating nest was in the
open water so the bird could not walk to it,
but had to fly. When it first arrived the bird
was wet from wading in some damp grass.
Before settling on the four eggs the bird re-
moved the water drops from its underside
with sweeps with its beak. Then the bird in-
cubated the eggs by scooping them under itself
with its wings. The wings were between the
eggs and the damp surface of the nest. The
spurs on the bird’s carpal joints were clearly
visible. Between 1st August and 15th Septem-
ber we found six more nests — all of them in
Ram Bund and the northern edge of Rauji
Bund 1.

Metopidius indicus

BRONZEWINGED JAgANA

Like the Pheasant-tailed Jacana, this species
was absent from the Sanctuary from December
onwards. We noticed the first arrival on June
18th, a single bird. This species was not nearly
as numerous as the Pheasant-tailed Jacana, nor
was it as vocal. We found the first nest of this
species on August 1st in the southern part of

27

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Ram Bund. It contained one egg. When we
next visited the nest on August 13th there were
four eggs. The nest was a densely packed,
floating mass of acquatic vegetation in a patch
of sparsely spaced reeds. It seemed to be loose-
ly anchored for the nest would float only a few
centimetres whenever a breeze sprang up. The
nests of both species of jacana, which were
subject to the same rising waters as those of
the Purple Moorhens, were not inundated.
The following are observations on the nest we
first found on August 1st —

25 th August, 1980. One egg had disappear-
ed from the nest.

28 th August. Checked the nest at 8.32 hours
and two eggs were pipping. Stayed in the blind
overlooking the nest till 12.25 hours. During
that time the bird rushed off the nest twice to
distract a House Crow that had perched in a
babul tree about 30 metres away. In each case
the jacana took off with such force that an
egg rolled off the nest. When it returned the
bird rolled the egg back onto the nest with its
beak. Like the Pheasant-tailed Jacana, this
species scoops the eggs underneath itself with
its wings when settling down to incubate.

29 th August. Arrived at the blind at 6.00
hours. The bird did not get off the nest as I
entered the blind. The bird gave a call we
had not heard before, a very soft “preeow,
preeow” with the beak barely opened. The
eggs had not yet hatched at 6.20 hours. We
went back to the nest at 8.15 hours and found
that one egg was nearly ready to hatch, we
could hear the chick peeping. Perhaps the
adult’s new call was in response to the peep-
ing of the chick. The chick hatched at 8.37
hours. The sitting bird, presumably the male,
raised himself slightly and the hatchling tot-
tered towards him and while still wet pushed
underneath one of the adult’s wings, lodging
between his body and the wing. At 8.53 hours

the male stood up, gently opened his wing
and dropped the young, he ate a few small
fragments of egg shell and took the larger
pieces of shell away. When he returned the
chick squirmed back under one of the male’s
wings. The male called softly all the while
and held his wings slightly open. The male left
the nest four more times before 10.14 hours
when we left the blind. Each time the voung
was gently dropped and each time the adult
returned it struggled back under one of his
wings.

30th August. Arrived at the blind 6.04
hours. At 6.07 hours the jacana stood up
briefly, the long pink legs and feet of a chick
dangled from under each wing. The third egg
had not yet hatched. At 6.15 hours the male
suddenly flew off the nest dropping the two
young. One landed in the water where it stay-
ed “frozen” until the parent returned at 6.22
hours, then both young rushed to him and
pushed one under each wing. At 6.31 hours the
male tucked the egg under himself. From 6.39
hours onwards the adult no longer sat on the
egg but rested on his tarsi when on the nest.
The young occasionally squirmed out from
under the male’s wings and foraged around
the nest. Three times in quick succession the
male rushed off the nest end, screeching loud-
ly chased another, larger Bronzewinged Jaca-
na, presumably a female. At 8.40 hours the
male ran off taking a young under each wing
with him. The male stood on floating aquatic
plants about six metres from the nest. At 8.46
hours the male dropped the young to chase
another BW Jacana. Two minutes later he
returned and the young pushed under his
wings, then he dropped them again and they
foraged around the adult’s feet. By 9.33 hours
the adult brought the chicks back to the nest,
but did not sit on the egg again. At 10.43
hours he walked off the nest, carrying the two

28

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79
Breeden: Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary

Plate III

Above : Stone Curlew at its nest. April 1980.
Below : Openbill Storks nestbuilding. July 1980.
( Photos : Stanley and Belinda Breeden)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79
Breeden: Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary

Plate IV

ilPlil

IlSilil

A pair of Painted Storks preening each other during courtship. August 1980.
(Photo : Stanley and Belinda Breeden)

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

young and did not return to the nest. On
inspection the third egg turned out to be in-
fertile.

When in the blind, using close focusing
binoculars, we were able to examine the colours
of the adult’s lappet and beak. The colours
are as in figure 1. The lappet is entirely pale

Fig. 1. Head of male Bronzewinged Jacana,
Metopidius indicus.

Beak: pale yellow, duller towards tip. Lappet: pale
blue-grey. Triangular area at the base of the upper
mandible: bright red.

blue-grey with a triangle of red on the upper
mandible. This we found to be the case with
all Bronzewinged Jacanas we saw right up to
the end of January 1981. Most bird books,
Ali & Ripley (1969), King et al. (1975) and
Woodcock (1980) show or describe the lappet
as being completely red.

Yanellus indicus

REDWATTLED LAPWING

We found the first nest of this species on
a mound in Ram Bund on 19th April 1980.
It contained four eggs. We found another nine
nests between that date and June 27th but

none after that. A nest we found on May
14th was situated on the baked, hot, bare earth
of Hans Sarovar Bund very close to Keola-
deo Temple. The shade temperature during
that day and the next three fluctuated between
42°C and 45 °C. The temperature out in the
full sun and on the bare earth must have been
considerably higher. On May 14th the nest
contained three eggs. The next day there were
four. On May 17th we observed the nest from
10.45 hours to 13.00 hours. The birds changed
over at the nest at 10.55 hours, at 11.42 and
then at 12.42 hours. That meant they sat
for periods of 47 and 60 minutes out in the
sun. While sitting the birds panted constantly
with feathers fluffed out, except when Black
Kites wheeled overhead when the birds would
sleek their feathers, stop panting and press
close to the ground. The relieving bird walked
cautiously and slowly all the way from the
bund, 150 metres away, over the cracked soil
to the nest. The bird on the nest would not
rise till its partner was only a few paces away,
then it stood up. The new arrival then slipped
on to the eggs while the other stood shading
them. The relieved partner walked a few paces
and then flew to the southern edge of Cirra
Bund close to the Keoladeo Temple where
there was a small amount of water. The birds
arriving at the nest had invariably wet the
feathers of their undersides.

The nest we found on June 27th was in
babul woodland just north of Ram Bund. It
was washed away in a torrential downpour
in the early hours of August 11th when virtual-
ly the whole Sanctuary was under 15 centi-
metres of water.

Tringa erythropus

SPOTTED REDSHANK

This species was present in small numbers
throughout the winter and spring. The last

29

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

one we obeserved was a bird in breeding plum-
age seen near Pump D on May 5th 1980.

Rostratula benghalensis

PAINTED SNIPE

The first bird noted was a female near Pump
D in Cirra Bund on April 14th 1980. On April
26th there were three pairs in Ram Bund.
By May 11th many birds were calling in the
green areas in Cirra Bund and Ram Bund.
Observed a pair from a blind on May 14th.
They were in short green grass growing in
about six centimetres of water. The female was
busy for about 15 minutes pulling blades of
grass together as though building a nest. But
no nest was built. Numbers continued to in-
crease until there were about 90 to 100. In
one small muddy puddle at the edge of Ram
Bund there were 14 of these birds, ten of them
females. This was on May 23rd. Once the rains
came and the marshes began to fill we saw
no more of them. We did not find any nests,
though we did search for them.

Recurvirostra avosetta

AVOCET

Saxena (1975) rates the Avocet as rare.
During November, December 1979 and Janu-
ary 1980 small numbers, never exceeding 12,
stayed for extended periods. The birds invari-
ably came to the muddy pool in the centre of
Cirra Bund. By the end of November this
area was totally devoid of vegetation and the
muddy edges attracted wading birds in large
numbers.

Burhinus oedicnemus

STONE CURLEW

On April 25th 1980 Abrar Khan showed
us the nest of a Stone Curlew in woodland
between the Tourist Bungalow and Ram Bund.
The nest was under a piloo bush. In late April

and early May the birds were very vocal
throughout the Sanctuary, calling mostly at
dusk. We were shown other nests near Cirra
Bund (1st May), at Python Point (10th May)
and at Bakalaya beside the main road (15th
May). All nests contained two eggs and were
under piloo or babul shrubs in woodland.

At 5.30 hours on May 13th we noticed the
eggs in the nest we were shown on April 25th
were pipping. We observed the nest from a
previously erected blind from 6.30 onwards.
At 8.32 hours the first chick hatched. It soon
dried. The parents changed over twice between
8.32 hours and 10.32 hours when we left. They
did not stay at the nest together. As soon as
one arrived the other left. At first the chick
was ignored. The sitting parent picked up and
ate small fragments of eggshell but the large
pieces of shell they tucked under themselves
and brooded them together with the young
and the second egg. Finally at 9.52 hours one
parent flung the empty shells away but only
about half a metre from the nest. It did not
pick the shells up and carry them away.

On the afternoon of May 15th Abrar Khan
showed us yet another nest (i.e. the fifth nest)
in woodland near Shanti Kutir that had two
pipping eggs. The young hatched that evening.

On May 23rd in the early morning we saw
a pair of Stone Curlews with a single downy
chick near the main road at the turnoff to
Python Point. While we were watching a mon-
goose trotted close by. Both parents success-
fully distracted the mammal by doing a drib-
bling, running broken-wing act.

Larus argentatus

HERRING GULL

On January 16th 1980 two of these gulls
were in Cirra Bund near the Keoladeo Temple
feeding on a dead fish. This species was not
noticed again.

30

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

Larus ichthyaetus

GREAT BLACKHEADED GULL

On April 18th 1980 a single individual of
this species landed in Ram Bund. On April
19th it was joined by another four which were
changing into breeding plumage. On the morn-
ning of the 20th they left.

Larus brunnicephalus

BROWN HEADED GULL

Twenty-four Brownheaded Gulls in full
breeding plumage landed in the north-west
corner of Rauji Bund 1 on the afternoon of
April 19th 1980. They left the next morning.

Pterocles exustus
INDIAN SANDGROUSE

Abdulali and Panday (1978) note this spe-
cies as occasional and Saxena (1975) con-
siders it rare. From January to early June
1980 this species came regularly and in some
numbers to drink at Ram Bund and the area
round Pump D at Cirra Bund. At first the
birds came in twos and threes but by late
April they were coming in flocks of 50 or
more. On May 15th we saw scores of these
sandgrouse feeding in the grassland just north
of Kola Dehar.

Treron phoenicoptera

GREEN PIGEON NBR

Green Pigeons were seen in the Sanctuary
in some numbers. We found three nests, one
on 2nd May, 1980, one on 11th May and
one on 25th May. Each was in a babul tree
at a height of about 12 metres. Saxena (1975)
does not record this species as breeding in the
Sanctuary.

Streptopelia sp.

DOVES

Three species, S. decaocto, S. tranquebarica
and S. senegalensis breed in Bharatpur. S.
decaocto and S. senegalensis began nesting in
late March 1980 and stopped at the end of
May. We saw several pairs of S. tranquebarica
collect and carry nesting material (only around
the eastern end of Ram Bund) in April, but
we found no nests with either eggs or young
in the pre-monsoon period. In late May and
June these doves moulted and then began
nesting again in the second half of August
and continued to October. In the monsoon
and post-monsoon breeding S. tranquebarica
began earlier. We found the first nest on 29th
July 1980. The other two species’ first mon-
soon nests were found on 13th August. Many
pairs of S. decaocto nested in the babul trees
in the heronries and we observed several nests
from positions where our blinds were set up
to photograph egrets or storks. On August
24th a House Crow took eggs from beneath
a sitting bird. The crow boldly approached the
nest, even though the dove beat at it with its
wing. The crow ignored the battering and
grabbed an egg. A short time later it returned
to take the second egg.

S. decaocto nested at heights between three
and six metres while all the nests of S. sene-
galensis we found were in thorny shrubs at
heights between one and two metres.

Clamator jacobinus

PIED CRESTED CUCKOO NBR

We first saw this species on June 15th 1980
(we were absent from June 1st to 14th). On
the morning of June 24th we observed a pair
mating in the trees around Keoladeo Temple.
On July 12th a party of five Jungle Babblers
was feeding a fledgeling Pied Crested Cuckoo.

31

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

The fledgeling was mostly brown, dark above,
pale below and already had a well-defined
crest. On July 16th along the bund just west
of Shanti Kutir we observed a party of five
Jungle Babblers feeding two Pied Crested
Cuckoos. At dusk the whole party huddled
closely together, babbler style, to settle down
for the night. Saxena (1975) does not list this
cuckoo as a breeding species for Bharatpur.

Cuculus canorus

cuckoo NR

Neither Abdulali and Panday (1978) nor
Saxena (1975) list this species for Bharatpur.
Between June 22nd and 26th 1980 there was
a great influx of Common Hawk-Cuckoos and
Cuckoos into Bharatpur. The majority of them,
about 25 of the two species combined, siayed
in the babul trees along the western bund of
Ram Bund. During these days the Cuckoo
was seen and heard frequently.

Cacomantis merulinus
PLAINTIVE CUCKOO NR

This is another cuckoo not previously re-
corded for Bharatpur. On June 26th 1980 we
saw an hepatic female or immature of this
species in the woodland immediately to the
west of Shanti Kutir.

Centropus sinensis

COMMON CROW-PHEASANT

During the winter and spring this species
was largely a scavenger. We saw it feeding
on stranded fish, a dead coot, a dead roller,
turtles killed by Scavenger Vultures and on
one occasion on a Crow- Pheasant which had
been killed on the main road.

Otus bakkamoena

COLLARED SCOPS OWL NBR

We first saw this species in a hollow in a
huge babul tree on 24th November 1979. The
tree was on the eastern side of the main road

about one kilometre south of Shanti Kutir. The
pair had occupied this hollow for some years
(Abrar Khan; pers. comm.). We saw the pair
regularly until 14th April 1980 when we notic-
ed the hollow had been taken over by bees
( Apis sp.). On March 3rd 1980 we found a
nest in a hollow in a babul tree right beside
the Keoladeo Forest Outpost. The hollow,
which in previous years had been occupied
by rollers (Abrar Khan, pers. comm.), was
5-J metres up in the tree. We first inspected
the hollow on March 24th when it contained
one egg. On April 1st we found a single young,
covered in pure white down and about three
centimetres in length. By April 27th the young
was sitting at the nest entrance. Between 28th
April and 1st May we observed the birds from
a blind for several hours each evening. The
young would be at the nest entrance by dusk.
Shortly after dark one of the parents would
come with food at which time the young would
clamber out of the nest-hole and sit on a near-
by branch. By morning the young was back in
the hole, but the parents roosted in the foliage
of a neem tree about ten metres from the nest.
Of the prey brought to the young by the
parents we could identify (from photographs)
centipedes, moths and mole-crickets. One of
the parents had orange eyes, those of the other
were dark brown.

The appearance of the birds during the day,
when they were roosting, was very different to
what they looked like at night. During the day
they sat fluffed out, their eyes were slits and
their “ear” tufts very pronounced. At night
their heads appeared more rounded with only
a vestige of “ear” tufts visible.

Bubo sp.

HORNED OWLS

Three species, B. bubo, B. coromandus and
B. zeylonensis occur in the Sanctuary, B. bubo

32

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79
Breeden: Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary

Plate V

Above: Darter feeding young. September 1980.

Below : Bronzewinged Jacana carrying young under its wings. August 1980.
( Photos : Stanley and Belinda Breeden)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79
Breeden: Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary

Plate VI

Above : Kadam tree with nest of Ringtailed Fishing Eagle after it had burnt down.
February 1980.

Below: Cirra Bund at the height of the drought — May 1980. Some water had
been pumped into the area and in the distance Sarus Cranes can be seen standing
in the shallow pools.

( Photos : Stanley and Belinda Breeden)

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

and B. coromandus in remarkably large num-
bers for such a small area. B. zeylonensis is a
rare visitor and we did not see it. The Dusky
Horned Owl, B. coromandus, seems to be the
more common and roosts almost invariably in
groves of tall kadam trees. These groves ex-
tend in an arc from just west of Ram Bund,
to the nursery then down along the eastern
boundary to Kadam Kunj. There is also a
grove at Lai Payare Ka Kund. At night these
owls range the forests and the tree-lined bunds
surrounding the marshes. During the monsoon
we frequently saw them in and around the
heronries on moonlit nights.

The Great Horned Owl, B. bubo, is con-
fined to the drier and less accessible parts such
as Python Point, areas to the south of it and
the Deer Park, where we saw them frequently.
Once, on 11th July 1980 we saw a Great Horn-
ed Owl in scrub beside the main road just
south of Shanti Kutir.

Strix ocellata

MOTTLED WOOD OWL NR, NBR

We first saw this species in the Sanctuary
on November 17th 1979. This was the first
time it had been positively identified in the
region. We saw it in the beam of a powerful
spotlight along the bund about half a kilo-
metre west of Sapan Mori. On November 23rd
we saw three of these owls at dusk in a euca-
lypt tree on the southern edge of Bharatpur
city, about two miles from the Sanctuary.

On March 5th 1980 Abrar Khan showed us
the nest of a Mottled Wood Owl in fairly
dense, dry scrub in the western portion of the
Deer Park. The nest was situated in the lowest
crotch of a large neem tree, at a height of
just over four metres. There were two eggs
laid directly in the tree crotch. There was no
nesting material whatever. The female, larger,
bird was sitting. The male sat higher up in

the neem tree in a dense patch of foliage.
Abrar Khan, who had been unable to identify
the bird, told us he had found a nest of this
species in this same place for the first time
in 1974. He observed them there every year
since then with the exception of 1979. (The
birds nested there again in February /March
1981. Abrar Khan, pers. comm.). On March
29th 1980 we checked the nest and found
one small young and one egg. By April 12th
the larger chick was lightly feathered. The
feathers on its chest and back were almost
white at the tips but suffused with rufous at
the base and finely barred in black. The
smaller chick was still covered in down. At
dusk the male and female called to each other
— the female’s call is a resonant “kroo”, the
male’s is the same but of higher pitch and
more scratchy.

On April 15th we watched the nest at night
from a towerblind. At 21.20 hours the female
came and fed the young on a juvenile Magpie
Robin (identified from photographs). The
female fed the chicks very small pieces of the
prey. The young were not fed again before
23.30 hours when we left the blind. On the
night of 16th April the female first came to
the nest at 19.45 hours. She brought a large,
still-squirming centipede which she tore into
small pieces and fed to the young. At 23.06
hours a wood owl called — a far-carrying, quav-
ering “kro-oo-wah” — the bird called three
times. The parents did not come to the nest
again before we left at a few minutes after mid-
night. On April 17th both birds arrived near the
nest at 19.57 hours and called to each other. The
young responded with mewing sounds. A few
minutes later the female landed on the nest and
fed the young on a small insectivorous bat.
On April 18th both parents arrived and land-
ed on a thick branch about four metres from
the nest at 21.35 hours. They called vigorously

33

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

to each other in “kri kri” and “kroo kroo” calls.
The male had brought a Roseringed Parakeet
and was devouring it. The female begged food
from the male and he gave her a small piece,
which she took to the nest and fed to one of
the young. Ten times she fed the young this
way — the larger chick receiving eight pieces,
the younger one two. Finally the female got
a leg of the parakeet, flew to the nest and
fed it whole, complete with feathers, to the
smaller chick. The female then thoroughly
cleaned the nest, swallowing several feathers
of prey species in the process. She flew off at
22.23 hours and did not return before 23.10
hours when we left. We examined the feathers
of the parakeet plucked by the male and scat-
tered at the base of the tree. The parakeet’s
primaries and retrices were still partly en-
closed in their sheaths which suggests that,
like the Magpie Robin, it was a fledgeling.
On May 5th we found one fledged owl and
both parents in the neem tree, though not on
the nest. We could find no sign of the second
young.

We saw a single Wood Owl in a kadam
grove at Syar Mori on May 23rd.

Caprimulgus indicus

JUNGLE NIGHTJAR

This species was calling everywhere in the
Python Point area during April and early May
1980. On April 27th, by using a spotlight, we
found a pair with two young just SW of
Python Point. The young, already well feather-
ed, were huddled together on the sand; there
was no sign of a nest. The next day we search-
ed the area by daylight but could not find the
young, though we did find one of the young
again that night with the aid of a spotlight.

Alcedo afthis

SMALL BLUE KINGFISHER

Normally this species is resident at Bharat-
pur all year round and nests there between
March and June. In 1980 this species dis-
appeared from the Sanctuary in early March
and was not noticed again until 15th June.

Halcyon smyrnensis

WHITEBREASTED KINGFISHER

This kingfisher, while present in small num-
bers throughout the drought, did not nest in
spring, as it usually does. But on June 22nd,
when the humidity increased and a few pre-
monsoon showers had fallen, we noticed two
pairs excavating nest-tunnels in the banks of
the pond opposite Keoladeo Temple. When
the Sanctuary was flooded in the second half
of July these nest-tunnels were inundated. On
June 22nd we also saw a pair of these birds
with three fledgelings at Ram Bund which had
remained filled with water. This was the only
record of this species nesting successfully in
1980.

Coracias benghalensis

INDIAN ROLLER

During January 1980 we found five dead
rollers in various parts of the Sanctuary. Other
visitors also reported finding many dead indi-
viduals. The ones we found were emaciated.

On March 5th we noticed the first aerobatic
courtship displays of the roller. We found one
occupied nest in a large hollow in a jamun tree
near Agar Gate on April 15th. Usually this
species nests in some numbers during March
and April (Abrar Khan, pers. comm.) but the
nest at Agar Gate was the only one we found
that spring. Courtship flights continued
throughout the summer.

We found that a pair of rollers had begun

34

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

nesting in a hollow in the babul tree near the
Forest Department Outpost at Keoladeo
where they had nested many seasons before.
There were two eggs on June 15th. This was
the same hollow in which a pair of Collared
Scops Owls raised a single young in March/
April. We found another roller’s nest on June
22nd. Both nests were later abandoned when
they filled up with water after heavy rain on
June 28th and 29th.

Megalaima haemacephala
CRIMSON BREASTED BARBET

The nesting season for this species appear-
ed normal and we saw a number of nests dur-
ing March-April. We closely observed a nest
near the Keoladeo Temple. It was in a babul
tree at a height of about 2\ metres. About 15
metres away stood a large pipal tree which
was fruiting. Over the two weeks we watched
the parents feed the young in the nest we saw
them bring food other than pipal fruit on only
two occasions. On both occasions they brought
a large dragonfly.

Pitta brachyura

INDIAN PITTA

Saxena (1975) does not list this species for
Bharatpur and Abdulali and Panday (1978)
note it as “occasional”. We saw an Indian
Pitta on June 28th 1980 in a jamun thicket
just SE of the watchtower.

Ammomanes phoenicurus

RUFOUSTAILED FINCH-LARK NBR

Saxena (1975) does not record this as a
breeding species. We observed one collecting
nesting material on April 2nd 1980 in the dry
area between Ram Bund Road and the Tour-
ist Bungalow.

Sturnus roseus

ROSY STARLING

Rosy Starlings are passage migrants at Bha-
ratpur. We observed the first parties on the
outward passage on March 24th 1980. They
were present in considerable numbers from
that day till April 26th. They fed on the piloo
berries which were present in profusion.

We saw the first birds on the inward journey
on July 30th. This was a small party of 11
birds including several young ones. On August
1st there was a flock of 400-500 birds roost-
ing in a big tree near Shanti Kutir.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus

INDIAN WOOD SHRIKE

On June 30th 1980 we found a nest with
two eggs in a small bush west of the Tourist
Bungalow. When we checked the nest on
July 12th we found it deserted and with a
stout shoot from the shrub growing through
the middle of it.

Pycnonotus cafer

REDVENTED BULBUL

On August 20th 1980 we found a nest of a
Redvented Bulbul about l\ metres up in a
babul in the Ram Bund marsh. The nest con-
tained five eggs. This seems an unusually large
clutch. According to Vijayan (1980) a clutch
size of more than three eggs has not been
recorded for P. cafer. Perhaps clutch size
varies between subspecies. According to Ali
and Ripley (1971) P. c. cafer , which is the
subspecies occurring in Vijayan’s study area at
Point Calimere in Tamil Nadu, has a clutch
size of two to three eggs. For P. c. humayuni,
which is the subspecies at Bharatpur, the same
authors record a clutch size of three to four
eggs.

35

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Terpsiphone paradisi

PARADISE FLYCATCHER

This species was not seen in Bharatpur by
us during the winter months. Our first sight-
ing was on March 25th 1980, an adult male.
We further sighted this species on March 30th,
April 10th, April 15th, May 14th and June
19th. We always saw single individuals.

Phoenkurus ochruros

BLACK REDSTART

This redstart is a common winter visitor.
Numbers in the Sanctuary began to decline in
early April and our last record for the season
was May 15th 1980. This was of a female
with an injured leg. From April 13th onwards
all our sightings were of females only. The first
redstart we saw in autumn was a male, it was
seen on September 27th.

Salpornis spilonotus

SPOTTED GREY CREEPER NBR

We first noticed this species on April 19th
1980, a single individual foraging on the
trunks of babul trees on the eastern edge of
Ram Bund. On June 28th we observed a pair
building a nest in woodland between Shanti
Kutir and the watchtower. The nest was built
at a height of about six metres and was at-
tached to a fork in a dead branch. We watch-
ed the pair build for the next two days. But
after several days of heavy rain the nest was
abandoned. This is the first breeding record
for Bharatpur for this species.

Petronia xanthocollis

YELLOWTHROATED SPARROW NBR

Saxena (1975) does not record this sparrow
as breeding in Bharatpur. But during March,

April and May we found scores of nests. The
nests were always in small tree hollows at a
maximum height of four metres.

Ploceus manyar

STREAKED WEAVER BIRD NBR

This species is not recorded as breeding in
the Sanctuary. During the monsoon several
vigorous colonies were active in the reeds of
Ram Bund.

Lonchura punctulata

SPOTTED MUNIA NBR

On July 21st 1980 Abrar Khan showed us
a nest of this species in a babul tree near the
watchtower. During the next month we saw
this species building nests in and around the
heronry at Rauji Bund 1. On September 26th
we observed a pair building their nest inside
that of a Painted Stork. This too is a new
breeding record for the Sanctaury.

Lonchura malacca

BLACKHEADED MUNIA

On June 25th 1980 we saw three of these
munias on a colony of Streaked Weaver Birds
in Ram Bund. Saxena (1975) does not record
this species for Bharatpur and Abdula ii and
Panday (1978) list it as a stray.

Eniberiza buchanani

GREYNECKED BUNTING NR

On April 18th 1980 we saw a single indi-
vidual of this species in dry open woodland
with a grassy understory in the Deer Park.
Neither Saxena (1975) nor Abdulali and Pan-
day (1978) list this species for Bharatpur.

Acknowledgements

We are greatly indebted to Abrar Khan for
sharing his many interesting observations and

36

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY

his great knowledge of the Sanctuary with us.

Ronald T. Sauey and The International
Crane Foundation kindly gave us data on
cranes and Romulus Whitaker identified the
various species of turtles.

We are grateful to The Regional Meteoro-

Refer

Abdulali, H. and Panday, J. D. (1978) : Check-
list of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur.

Ali, Salim (1927-28): The Moghul Emperors of
India as Naturalists and Sportsmen. Parts I to III.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vols. 31 and 32.

(1953): The Keoladeo Ghana of

Bharatpur (Rajasthan) . J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
51: 453-461.

Ali, Salim and Ripley, S. D. (1968-74) : Hand-
book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vols. 1-10.
Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Becking, J. H. (1981): Notes on the Breeding
of Indian Cuckoos. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78:
201-231.

Hume, A. O. and Marshall, C. H. T. (1878-
80) : The Game Birds of India, Burmah and Cey-
lon. 3 Vols. Published by the authors, Calcutta.

Kahl, M. P. (1970) : Observations on the Breed-

logical Centre, New Delhi, for supplying the
rainfall figures for Agra shown in Table One.

We wish to especially thank the US Fish
and Wildlife Service for supporting us in the
field and subsequently while preparing this
paper.

1NCES

ing of Storks in India and Ceylon. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 67: 453-461.

King, B., Woodcock, M. and Dickinson, E. C.
(1975): A Field Guide to the Birds of South-East
Asia. Collins, London.

Lawick-goodall, J. van (1970) : Tool-using in
Primates and other Vertebrates. Advances in the
Study of Behaviour 3: 195-249.

Newton, I. (1979) : Population Ecology of Rap-
tors. T. and A. D. Polyster Ltd., London.

Saxena, V. S. (1975) : A Study of Flora and
Fauna of Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary. Dept, of Tour-
ism, Rajasthan, Jaipur.

Vijayan, V. S. (1980) : Breeding Biology of Bul-
buls, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus luteolus,
with Special Reference to their Ecological Isolation.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 1090-1117.

Woodcock, M. (1980) : Handguide to the Birds
of the Indian Sub-Continent. Collins, London.

37

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

The Builders and the Guardians
Part 3
Salim Ali
{With two plates)
[Continued from Vol 78(2): 23 9]

John William Yerbury, lieut. col. 1847-
1926 (Vol. 32: 786) Anon.

Born March 30, 1847 at Serampore

(Bengal) knocked down and killed by a
motor car on November 10, 1927 at the
age of 80. He served in the Royal
Artillery between 1868 and 1892 in various
parts of the world and was stationed for
many years in Aden where he made consi-
derable collections of mammals, birds, rep-
tiles, butterflies and moths, flies (Diptera) and
sea shells, which he eventually presented to
the British Museum, and in all of which he
was keenly interested. He was well known to
ornithologists from his papers on the birds
of Aden published in The Ibis for 1886 and
in JBNHS for 1897. Col. Yerbury was one
of the earliest members of BNHS being on
the rolls in 1886 when the Society issued its
first Journal. His most important contribu-
tions to it are:

‘The Butterflies of Aden and Neighbour-
hood with some notes on their Habits, Food
plants, etc.’ (Vol. 7: 207).

‘A list of the Birds of Aden’ (Vol. 11: 75).

After retirement his chief interest appears
to have been confined to Diptera on which
he wrote several valuable papers.

His appeal for assistance in collecting gad
flies, bot flies and warble flies (Vol. 13: 683)

contains some very useful instructions for col-
lecting this group of insects.

Oldfield Thomas, f.r.s. 1858-1928 (Vol.
33: 966) by M.A.C.H. (inton).

Born February 21 at Millbrook, Bedford-
shire, U.K., died ‘in tragic circumstances’
(?) on June 16. From early boyhood he
developed a marked taste for Natural His-
tory and decided to become a Naturalist.
On leaving school he started life as a
clerk in the office of the British Museum
and voluntarily devoted his leisure to
zoological studies under the great Huxley
for a couple of years. He was transferred to
the Zoology Department of the Museum in
1878 and later placed — willy nilly at first be-
cause his real interest was Echinoderms — in
charge of the Mammal collection, a position
which he held for 45 years, till his official
retirement in 1923. By diligence, thoroughness
and industry he worked up and published in
1888, the Museum Catalogue of Marsupialia
and Monotremata which remains to this day
the solid foundation of all systematic work
on the groups. Thomas soon gathered around
him a band of enthusiastic voluntary workers
in the Museum. One of the great secrets of
his success in enlisting private help for the
execution and financing of his collecting pro-

38

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

jects, lay in the promptitude with which he
worked out and published accounts of the
material collected, from which benefactors saw
immediate results. He worked with amazing
rapidity and had the gift of seeing the essen-
tials of any problem that came to him for
solution, and of getting to the point in the
shortest way while never forgetting anything
of real importance. In 1897 Thomas became
fortuitously acquainted with R. C. Wroughton,
a Conservator of Forests in Bombay Presi-
dency, then on leave in England and working
in the Mammal Room of the BM on a col-
lection of bats he had made in the Surat and
Thana districts. These were worked out with
the help of Thomas who described them in
JBNHS (Vol. 11 : 274). Thus started the
close personal friendship between these two
men which proved the real genesis of the
Society’s epoch-making Mammal Survey of
India, Burma and Ceylon. Wroughton, sup-
ported and advised by Thomas, urged the
Society to undertake the Survey “of which any
Society or Government in the world might
well be proud.”

In working out the scientific results from
the Mammal Survey Miss Kathleen V. Ryley
of the B. M. gratefully acknowledges the help
and advice she received throughout from Mr
Oldfield Thomas. During his career as a mam-
malogist, Thomas described over 2000 species
and more than 200 genera, including several
from India. His papers are models of terse
description with nothing superfluous anywhere;
indeed, often he might have said a little more
with advantage. People who knew him only
by his writings were inclined to regard him
as a narrow systematist, but in fact Thomas
was essentially a field naturalist and on his
various journeys made important collections
of mammals in addition to invertebrates. His
dedicated labours have built the unrivalled

collection of mammals in the British Museum
and the vast literature relating to it.

George Michael Ryan, i.f.s. ... — 1932
(Vol. 35: 879) Anon.

Was in the Bombay Presidency cadre of
the Indian Forest Service from 1883 to
1914, and an old member of the Society.
He was widely known for his researches
and the practical application of his

scientific knowledge to the preservation and
improvement of old trees. The authorities at
Kew recognised his expertise, and after his
retirement in England, frequently referred to
him for advice inquirers from all parts of the
country. During his residence in India Mr
Ryan contributed a number of notes to the
Society’s Journal mostly of botanical interest.
Among these are the papers on Edible wild
Yams as Famine Foods (Vol. 14: 772 and
Vol. 15: 721) and the Water-yielding Plants
of the Thana forests (Vol. 16: 65).

Thomas Burgess Fry 1850-1931 (Vol. 36:
225 — photo) by R. I. P. (ocock).

Born at Crowsborough, Sussex, U.K. on
July 8, 1850, died on November 20, 1931
aged 81. Fry served in the Indian

Forest Service (Bombay Presidency) till his
retirement in July 1905. Soon there-
after, he joined his brother-in-law, R.C.
Wroughton, then working at the Natural His-
tory Museum, London, to help him in sorting,
cataloguing, identifying and subsequent dis-
persal to various museums, of the vast collec-
tions of mammal skins and skulls being re-
ceived by the Museum. He had had no for-
mal zoological training and all his knowledge
of mammals was what he had acquired as a
sportsman during his service in India. Yet by

39

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

diligent application during his apprenticeship
with Wroughton, he had developed the neces-
sary technical knowledge for identifying the
species, even to the extent of learning the
structural details of the skulls and teeth of
obscure groups like bats, shrews and mice,
by the time the vast collections of the So-
ciety’s Mammal Survey commenced reaching
the British Museum in 1913. To the great
majority of our older members C. B. Fry
will only be known as the joint author, with
M.A.C. Hinton and R.C. Wroughton, of seve-
ral reports published in JBNHS of the Mam-
mal Survey collections. He had acquired such
professional expertise, that when Wroughton
died he carried on the task often single-
handed, putting in 6 hours of work on 5 days
in the week with short breaks only for the
summer holidays. In his younger days he was
an accomplished athlete and sportsman, and
he kept up his interest in games and sports
to the last. In his later years, he indulged
actively only in golf and it was actually while
in the middle of a round that he suddenly
collapsed and died on the course. Only a
few days before his death he had handed over
to Mr Hinton, for revision, his report on the
Mammal Survey collection from the Eastern
Ghats which coincidentally also happened to
be the last of the regular series from the
Survey’s field work.

A. W. AlCOCK, LIEUT. COL., I.M.S., F.R.S.
1850-1933 (Vol. 36: 726— photo) by B. P.
(Baini Prashad).

Though trained as a zoologist in Aberdeen
University, Alcock first came out to India to
teach Classics in Darjeeling and then worked
as an assistant on one of the Bihar planta-
tions for several years before competing for
the Indian Medical Service which he entered

in 1885. After 1888 he was selected for the
post of Surgeon-Naturalist to the Marine Sur-
vey of India and in 1893 succeeded J. Wood-
Mason as Superintendent of the Indian
Museum, a post which he held up to his
retirement in 1907. On return to the U.K.
thereafter, he worked as a lecturer in Medical
Entomology in the London School of Tropi-
cal Medicine and ended up in 1924 as Pro-
fessor of Medical Zoology in the University of
London. Perhaps Alcock ’s most important
contribution to Indian zoology lies in the
original researches he carried out while Sur-
geon-Naturalist on the survey ship ‘Investi-
gator’, reported in the Journal of the Asiatic
Society in Bengal (JASB) from 1890 onward,
and in the Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London. Among the 50 or more papers on
marine zoology that Alcock published up to
the time of his retirement from the Indian
Museum in 1907, those on deep sea fishes
and Crustacea deserve special notice. Besides
systematic accounts of various marine animal
groups, he published a number of papers on
viviparous fishes, on “An Instance of Natural
Effect of Warning Colours on the toxic pro-
perties of Saliva in certain Colubrine Snakes”,
“On a new Flying Lizard from Assam”, “An
Account of the Reptiles collected by the
Afghan Boundary Commission”, and “On a
new apodous Amphibian from India” in the
Annals and Magazine of Natural History
and elsewhere. The last paper includes a learn-
ed discussion on the changes in the configu-
ration of the various continents as deduced
from the distribution of the limbless amphi-
bians. In 1905 Col. Alcock developed a special
interest in Entomology, particularly in the
different forms of insects incriminated as
disease-carriers. His Entomology for Medical
Officers published about 1911 is a very well
conceived and lucid text book of tropical

J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Salim Ali: BNHS

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate II

Salim Ali: BNHS

Ethelbert Blatter, SJ.
(1877-1934)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

zoology. Though working under frustrating
conditions as Superintendent of the Indian
Museum, he did very valuable work in carry-
ing out salutary reforms in the general
management of the institution and arrange-
ment of exhibits in the public galleries, the
latter, often largely prepared with his own
hands. At the same time he published a num-
ber of handy and interesting guide books in
order to popularise the Museum and make
the exhibits understandable by the lay public.
His book, a naturalist in Indian seas, pub-
lished in 1902, is a classic of continuing rele-
vance. While in Calcutta, he was intimately
associated with the Asiatic Society of Bengal
and most of his scientific publications were
either in the JASB or in Annals and Magazine
of Natural History. His only two articles in
JBNHS are “Deep sea life in the Bay of Ben-
gal” (8: 545) and “An instance of the natural
repellant effects of ‘Warning Colours” (11:
149). Col. Alcock died on March 24, 1933.
Though not connected directly with the affairs
of Bombay Natural History Society, his pre-
sence in India as Superintendent of the Indian
Museum and as Naturalist of the survey ship
‘Investigator’ was in many ways of considerable
benefit to the Society during its formative
years.

Ethelbert Blatter, s.j., 1877-1934 (Vol.
37: 466) by C. McC(ann).

Born in an aristocratic family in Switzerland
on December 15, 1877; Joined the Society of
Jesus in October, 1896. Died in Poona on May
26, 1934. In 1903, during the interval between
his philosophical and theological studies in
Austria and Holland, Blatter came to India
for the first time. Botany had been his hobby
from his early years; as a boy he could name
almost all the plants of his native hills “not

only by sight but also by taste”. Later, as a
mature scientist, although he had acquired
equal proficiency in Zoology and Geology, he
elected to concentrate on his first love. Botany
— a subject in which he was to win inter-
national renown. He joined St Xavier’s College
as Professor of Biology soon after his arrival
in India in January, 1904. About this time he
also joined the Bombay Natural History So-
ciety and remained one of its most active and
helpful members till the end of his days, not
only by his scientific contributions in the
Journal, but also in the Society’s administra-
tion as a member of the Executive Committee
and as a Vice President. Fr Blatter was a man
of weight and substance [c. 250+ lb!] not only
physically but also for the influence he carried
in the governmental, educational and scientific
circles of his day. By the time he returned to
Europe, in 1909, to complete his ecclesiastical
studies, he had acquired a deep knowledge of
the flora which marked him out as a leader
in the field of systematic botany of the Indian
Region. After being ordained as a priest in
1912 he spent a year in Holland and then
some time in special studies in London. He
was a frequent visitor to Kew Herbarium, and
the close liaison he established there with the
leading botanists of the time stood him in
good stead in his work in India. He was still
in London in 1914 when World War I broke
out, and it was with some difficulty that he
eventually managed to reach Bombay in
October, 1915 on a Japanese ship, through
the Suez Canal and Turkish rifle fire. On his
return. Blatter once more assumed the pro-
fessorship of Biology in St Xavier’s College
and launched the extensive collecting forays
in every part of the country which have re-
sulted in making the St X. C. Herbarium (later
named after him) one of the finest in India.
In 1919, he was appointed Principal of the

41

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

College, but though administrative duties and
responsibilities as a member of the Bombay
University Senate hampered his scientific acti-
vities considerably, he nevertheless continued
to function as Professor of Botany. In 1925,
he retired to Panchgani as parish priest, and
this left him freer to pursue his botanical
studies. In 1930, while on a collecting expedi-
tion in Waziristan he had a bad fall from
his horse and suffered a slight concussion of
the brain and a mild paralytic stroke. Though
he recovered sufficiently to carry on his in-
tramural botanical work for the next three
years, his health had begun to fail from that
time and he died in Poona on May 26, 1934.
In recognition of his ‘ Conspicuously important
contributions to the knowledge of Asiatic
Botany ’ Fr Blatter was awarded the Johannes
Bruehl Memorial Medal of the Asiatic So-
ciety of Bengal, a distinction which he greatly
valued.

Fr Blatter was a ceaseless and indefati-
gable worker and a prolific multilingual scien-
tific writer. His papers on systematic botany
are classical and have earned him international
fame. But above all he was a Biologist, and
though specializing in systematic botany, he
was equally interested and proficient in zoo-
logy. He was a great believer in field work
and the study of ecology, and always liked
to poke fun at “the deep thinkers who never
returned to the realities of creation”. From the
long list of publications appended to his obi-
tuary in JBNHS Vol. 37, I have picked out
a few titles at random to show that besides
learned, purely scientific papers — ‘dry as dust’
as the layman would call them — he was cap-
able of discoursing on many other interesting
natural history topics in a way that the layman
can readily comprehend.

The Fauna and Flora of our Metallic
Money. 16: 334-39 (1905).

Flowering Season and Climate. 17:334-50
(1906).

Caterpillars as Ants’ Pets. 18:591-95 (1908).

History of the Sea Coconut. 19: 925-37
(1910).

Scorpion Sting and Garden Rue. 24: 839-43
(1916).

Oleander Poisoning Camels. 26: 306-9

(1918).

Luminiscence in Plants and Animals. 31:
748-53 (1926).

What Age can a Tree reach? 34: 594-97
(1930).

Fr Blatter’s most important books with a
popular appeal are: The Palms of British
India and Ceylon. (Oxford University Press,
1926).

Beautiful Flowers of Kashmir. [John Bale,
Sons & Danielsson. London. Vol. 1. (1927),
Vol. 2 (1928)].

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, with W. S.
Millard. Bombay Natural History Society,
1937.

As a biology teacher, Fr Blatter was ex-
tremely thorough, painstaking and patient and
quick to discern who, among his students,
was genuinely earnest and who merely a
degree-seeker. For the former he would spare
no pains in channelling and developing their
special aptitudes, as his many former students
who are front line botanists today will readily
testify. Other admirable attributes about the
man were his infectiously cheerful presence,
his friendly humanity and his unfailing sense
of humour with the rare capacity to some-
times laugh at his own expense. His obituarist
narrates that, while in England, Blatter work-
ed for some time as Chaplain to the dowager
Duchess of Sussex. “He used to relate with
loud laughter how the noble lady was wont
to apportion him a single slice of meat which
she carved in truly ducal manner from the

42

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

daily shoulder of mutton. She considered this
ample fare, for an obviously overnurtured
Jesuit. Unable to agree with her judgement of
his capacity as a good trencherman. Blatter,
unknown to the Duchess, was compelled to
go to the local inn to supplement Her Grace’s
ration with more generous if more plebian
fare.” Fr Blatter was also wont to relate,
with much puckish amusement, an experience
he once had in Calcutta while riding in a
ramshackle hack ‘tikka gharry’ — a primitive
box-like contraption on wheels drawn by a
pair of bony rat-sized ponies — when the floor-
boards suddenly gave way underfoot and he
found himself on the road shuffling along be-
hind trying to keep up with the ponies. His
agonized shouts brought the ‘gharry’ to a
halt and the coachman down from his seat
to investigate. “With a surprised expression”
the portly Fr Blatter recounted “the man first
looked at me, then at the splintered foot-
boards, then more meaningfully again at me,
as if suspecting some connection between the
two”!

Francis James Mitchell 1855-1933 (Vol.
37: 475) Anon.

Better known among his friends as Frank
Mitchell. Born in Scotland, he came out
to India at the age of 18 to join his
brothers in a contracting and brokering
business at Cawnpore (Kanpur). With his bro-
thers he was concerned in many pioneering
enterprises in the country including the build-
ing of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway and the
Jhelum Valley road from Kohala to Srinagar.
Among his many other pioneering achieve-
ments was the establishing of an olive plan-
tation at Kahire Murat near Rawalpindi, and
a 400 acre fruit farm in the newly canal-
colonized Montgomery district (now in Pakis-

tan) known as Indian Mildura Fruit Farm
Ltd. — one of the largest fruit farms in the
Indian subcontinent. In Kashmir, where he
developed a lucrative export trade in carpets,
he employed his leisure largely in pheasant
rearing and fish culture. It was Frank Mitchell
who first conceived the idea of introducing
trout into Kashmir; he helped to found the
Kashmir Trout Fishing Club and managed
to obtain for them trout ova while on a visit
to England. After a poor start and a second
attempt, the ova eventually hatched out at
Harwan, and the Dachigam river was stocked.
He established hatcheries at Harwan and
Achibal and supplied the stock for most of
the Kashmir rivers and lakes. Mitchell train-
ed the local men in trout culture and taught
them the work from spawning to the distri-
bution of yearlings. His story of how trout
were introduced into Kashmir is published in
the Journal (36: 295). One of the many things
he did for Kashmir, which country he loved
dearly, was to induce his friend Fr Blatter to
write the Beautiful Flowers of Kashmir and
financed its publication. Two volumes were
published in 1927 and 1928 and a third was
being considered when the plans were unfor-
tunately cut short by the death of both author
and sponsor. Frank Mitchell was an old and
valued member of BNHS; he is described as
a genial lovable man who had endeared
himself to all with whom he came in contact,
for besides his many abilities ‘he possessed
just those qualities which endear the best type
of Englishman to the Indian villager’.

A. J. W. Milroy, i.f.s., 18.. -1936. (Vol.
39: 376) by N.L.B.(or).

A Conservator of Forests in Assam, he
is best remembered for his work in the
cause of game preservation and for intro-

43

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

ducing a new method of elephant hunting
which revolutionized the brutalities prac-
tised in Assam up till 1920 or so. He
also succeeded in putting an end to the far-
flung rhinoceros poaching, financed by unscru-
pulous wealthy traders, which had brought the
animal to the verge of extinction in the Kamrup
and Kaziranga Game Sanctuaries. Prior to
1920, the hunting of elephants in Assam was
in the hands of the Assamese and Kampti
mahaldars. The methods they employed in-
volved the most unheard of cruelty to the
animals. A herd was driven from a salt-lick
into a stockade built nearby or along one of
their own paths astride it. The animals were
left in the stockade for anything up to a fort-
night or even three weeks until they had been
weakened sufficiently by hunger and thirst to
be safe, as the native mahaldars believed, for
the koonkies to be entered into the stockade.
The condition of the animals after the lapse
of such a period was beyond belief and can-
not be imagined by anyone who has never
seen it. The interior of the stockade would
be littered with the carcases of the calves kill-
ed by hunger, thirst or being gored by mad-
dened tuskers; the tails of the rest would have
been bitten off. The picture of those

left, with sides fallen in, heads down and
mouths open with blackened tongue protrud-
ing and covered with filth and blood, would
be a sight never to be forgotten. In this con-
dition when the wild elephants would be too
exhausted to give any trouble in the stockade,
the sleek well-fed koonkies would be marched
in and the captives noosed and dragged out.
“Any attempt to regain their freedom was
promptly dealt with by the phandies who
slashed open the skin at the back of the neck
where the noose fitted, and rubbed some sand
into the wound”. No veterinary aid was given
with the result that all abrasions went septic

and the most appalling maggot-infested
wounds were a commonplace. Casualties dur-
ing training, also by the most inhuman
methods, were as high as 48 per cent, and for
the entire period, till the animals were fit for
service, as much as 80 per cent! Milroy’s
methods revolutionised elephant hunting in
Assam: in the two years of training, casual-
ties were reduced to 1 per cent, and the total
casualties, to not more than 3 per cent. No
elephant was to be left in a stockade more
than 72 hours and no spears were to be taken
into a stockade for prodding the animals. It
was characteristic of the man that he rode a
koonkie into the stockade that housed his first
catch to prove to the doubting phandies that
the unstarved wild elephants could be taken
out without a single scratch. At the depot a
trained veterinarian was always present to
attend to any wounds twice a day. “No spears
were allowed and anyone who used one got a
lambasting with the handle thereof.” Milroy’s
methods of catching and training humanely
and in shorter time proved a complete success
and are now accepted as the only methods
to be followed in Assam, “and woe betide
the Assamese mahaldar whose casualties ex-
ceed the prescribed minimum.” His knowledge
of elephants and of jungle life generally was
such that few Europeans acquire. His articles
in the Journal on Elephant catching in Assam
(29:80) and on the Preservation of Wildlife
in India (Assam) (37: 97-104, Supplement)
are highly interesting and informative and
amply substantiate this claim. When elephant
hunting Milroy was indefatigable; he drove
with the drivers or acted as doorkeeper at a
stockade, or as one of the stops, and often
bestrode an elephant like a phandie while
training it. In fact he knew the business from
A to Z.

Among other benefits, his methods proved

44

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

to the mahaldars that elephants could be train-
ed in a very short time: that casualties in
the training depot could be reduced to negli-
gible proportions: and that an elephant train-
ed by a mixture of firmness and kindness was
in every way superior to a broken-spirited
animal trained according to the former brutal
methods. Milroy was a man possessing a
wonderful personality and a singular charm of
manner, and with a great sense of humour.
He was hero-worshipped by the junior officers
and subordinates of the Assam Forest Service.
He died on September 26, 1936.

Frederick Victor Evans 1865-1940 (Vol.
42: 431) Anon. (Editors)

Came out to India in 1886 and with a
partner founded (in c. 1892) the pros-
perous department store of Evans, Fraser
& Co. in Bombay, himself retiring from
active business to England in 1908. Dur-
ing his later years in Bombay, Evans
found recreation in shikar about the Thana
Creek and nearby districts and he was fond
of camp life and sailing and fishing in the
Harbour. His practical support to the interest
of local fishing clubs, led to the development
of the Lonavala lakes belonging to the Tata
Hydroelectric schemes as possible fishing areas.
His active interest in BNHS seems to have
begun some years later; he was elected a Vice
Patron in 1928 in recognition of the very
generous financial assistance and support
which he gave to the Society. His several sub-
stantial contributions were chiefly utilised for
the exhibition galleries of the Natural History
Section (Prince of Wales Museum), then under
construction. And harking back to his fishing
days in India, when he had difficulty in get-
ting his catches identified, he maintained at
his own expense for over a period of ten years

the services of a modeller for the preparation
of a series of casts of local marine and fresh-
water fishes for the Fish Gallery. The beautiful
models of local fishes in wax and papier
mache now on exhibition in the P.W. Museum
are the outcome of his altruistic benefactions
since he himself was unlikely ever to see
them. Mr Evans also presented to the budd-
ing Museum the series of beautiful and ex-
pensive enlarged models illustrating insects in
relation to disease. The Society’s Journal pro-
fitted by his magnanimous offer to meet the
cost of many of the coloured and black-and-
white plates for the serial on ‘Wild Animals
of the Indian Empire’ and the illustrations for
Mr Mosely’s lengthy serial on Caddis Flies.
In addition, he gifted to the Society’s library
a collection of rare and valuable old books
of Bombay and Western India and a complete
set of the 7 elephant folio volumes of the
priceless Gould’s Birds of Asia, and a copy
of A Century of Birds of the Himalayan
Mountains by the same author. Mr. Evans
had no children; “he lived a very retired life
in England, and if there is any meaning in
the term ‘Spiritual Home’ his certainly was in
India, which he loved very much.”

Maharao Shri Khengarji of Kutch 1886-
1942 (Vol. 43: 242) by S. H. P. (rater).

Succeeded to the gadi of Kutch at the age of
10 and ruled the State with sagacity and states-
manship for close on 60 years. Maharao Khen-
garji enjoyed high esteem among his compeers
in princely India as well as from the British
Indian Government. “He loved no ostentation
or display. But his stately courtesy and charm
of manner invested him with a natural dignity
which impelled respect”. The Maharao was
an exceedingly observant and knowledgeable
field naturalist and sportsman — especially a

45

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

big game hunter. His association with BNHS
went back almost to the year of its founda-
tion, his name already appearing among the
list of members published in Vol. 2 of the
Journal in 1887. He maintained a keen per-
sonal interest in the affairs of the Society
throughout the years; was elected a Vice Pre-
sident in 1921 and became a Vice Patron in
1924. Maharao Khengarji has the distinction
of being the first to report the breeding of
the Flamingo in India in 1893, following this
up later with a note and supporting photo-
graphs in the Journal ‘Breeding of Flamingo
in the Rann of Cutch’ (Vol. 15: 706). The
data provided in this note enabled the So-

ciety 43 years later to send an expedition to
the Great Rann to collect the material for the
beautiful diorama of the flamingo nesting
colony exhibited in the Prince of Wales Mu-
seum. The entire cost of the expedition as
well as of the museum exhibit was donated
by the Maharao. The information collected by
the expedition forms the basis of the leader,
Mr McCann’s excellent seminal article on
“The Flamingo ( Phoenicopterus ruber anti-
quorum’ in JBNHS 41: 12-38, which marked
the beginning of many subsequent study ex-
peditions to the Rann by other naturalists.

{To be continued )

46

PHAYRE’S LEAF MONKEY (PRESBYTIS PHAYREl
BLYTH, 1847) OF TRIPURA1

R. P. Mukherjee2
(With a text-figure)

This paper deals with the abundance, distribution, social structure, food and
feeding behaviour of Phayre’s leaf monkey of Tripura. During the survey of north,
south and part of the west districts a total of 36 groups containing 409 Phayre’s
leaf monkey were seen. Out of the 36 groups, 35 groups were bisexual and one
was an all male group. The paper includes the ecology of the study areas and a
list of food plants and the feeding behaviour of the monkey.

Introduction

Phayre’s leaf monkey ( Presbytis phayrei
Blyth, 1847) which is restricted in its distri-
bution to the state of Tripura in India is
poorly known. Agrawal (1974) Agrawal and
Bhattacharya (1977) studied its taxonomy
and briefly described its distribution. Green
(1978) in his report on “Primates of Bangla-
desh” reported the occurrence of this money
in a few areas of Bangladesh adjacent to
Tripura. In his preliminary survey of popu-
lation and habitat of monkeys in Bangladesh
he has recorded the Phayre’s leaf monkey from
the regions of Sylhet and Chittagong. The
present study shows that this monkey is wide-
ly distributed in Tripura. The surveys carried
out by Green in Bangladesh and by me in
Tripura revealed that this species is more
widely distributed in Tripura than in Bangla-
desh.

I had the opportunity of visiting Tripura
twice and studying this little known colobid
monkey in its natural habitat. During the
months of November-December, 1976, a sur-

1 Accepted November 1980.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

vey of the south and part of the west dis-
tricts of this state was conducted. The second
survey was carried out in the months of May-
June, 1978, in the same two districts and
also in the north district with an idea to cover
the area as much as possible and to collect
information on the abundance, distribution
and ecology of the monkey. The last trip was
also utilised to collect information on the
abundance of rhesus monkey in the south
district of Tripura. This paper deals with the
abundance, distribution, social structure, food
and feeding behaviour and the relation of this
species with other species of monkeys that
are found in the study area.

The monkeys that were observed in the
various forests of Tripura during these two
surveys were rhesus macaques (Macaca
mulatto) , stumptailed macaques ( Macaca spe-
ciosa arctoides) , hoolock gibbons ( Hylobates
hoolock), capped langurs ( Presbytis pileatus),
Phayre’s leaf monkey ( Presbytis phayrei) and
slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang). Mukherjee
(1977) has published a brief note on the
rhesus and other monkeys of Tripura.

Agrawal (1974) studied the taxonomy and
discussed the status of P. phayrei and P. bar-
bei. His study was based on the specimens

47

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

mainly collected from Tripura. The colour of
the body of Phayre’s leaf monkey is dusky
grey with golden or pale buff on the back.
The head is of the same colour as that of the
body except back and erect brow hairs. A
well defined crest is found over the head only
in freshly killed specimens. The whiskers are
long and partially conceal the ears. Areas
around eyes are naked and milky white. The
lips are also milky white and studded with
sparse white hairs. Fur on the ventral side is
silver white and fore and hind limbs are of
same colour as that of body except black
dorsum of hand and foot. The tail is paler
than body and has a tuft of blackish brown
hairs at the tip. In males the area below pubic
callosities is light grey but it is yellowish in
females (Agrawal 1974). In the field it can
easily be recognised even from a distance by
its colour around eyes and lips.

Study method

Field studies were mainly conducted in the
winter and summer months. During the last
part of the second survey there was heavy
rain as monsoon had set in. The surveys were
conducted in forests, villages, towns, temples
and cities. The observations were mostly car-
ried on foot and on vehicle. In the second
survey a vehicle was used, and an elephant
was used in surveying parts of Garjee forest
in the south district during the first survey.
Most of the surveys were carried out from
dawn to dusk. The methods that were used
to locate the groups were road side, transect
and point census. In the forest the procedure
adopted was to move slowly with least noise
and stop every half-kilometer for ten minutes
and scan the area thoroughly. The transect
method was carried out usually with two
observers in each party.

Once a group was observed the notes on
me group size and composition, habitat, food
and feeding behaviour, its interaction with
other species of monkeys, etc. were taken.
Besides this, some groups were selected for
extensive study of their food and feeding
behaviour. The mechanical aids which were
used in the field studies were binoculars and
still camera with a telephoto lens of 200 mm
was used.

The monkeys that were not weaned were
usually carried by the mothers during group
movements and were classified as infants. The
monkeys which were independent of their
mothers were grouped as juveniles.

No attempt was made to follow all the
groups for long distances. In most of the
groups it was possible to study them at close
quarters and it was feasible to observe the
activities of the groups from a distance of 30 m.
In groups which were not shy, it was possible
to study by sitting under the trees on which
they were feeding or resting. However, the
only difficulty that was faced on such occa-
sions by the observer was that if the group
was scared due to the presence of the observer
the dominant male gave loud barks and most
of the monkeys started to urinate and defe-
cate. This not only interfered the normal
activity of the group but also disturbed the
observer.

Ecology of the study area : Tripura (23° 50'
N, 91° 15'E) is situated at an altitude of about
338 m. The configuration of the land is mostly
hilly, gently undulating or flat. There are two
main hill ranges in the southern division name-
ly Barmura — Deotamura and Tekkatulshi.
These two hill ranges are parallel to each
other and run north to south. In the flat lands
there are many low hillocks locally known as
tillas. Many rivers and their tributaries criss-
cross the flat lands. Almost all the flat lands

48

PHAYRE'S LEAF MONKEY

are put to agricultural use and the cultivations
have extended into the valleys between the
hillocks, and the continuity of the forest is
broken.

The hills, which are clayey, appear to be
of recent origin, mostly belong to tertiary age
and are related to Surma and Tipan series.
The soil is formed by the disintegration and
weathering of these rocks. The soil is general-
ly sandy loam to loamy sand or clayey loam
to pure clay. Its colour mostly varies from
grey to brown. The soil in the forested areas
is generally loamy sand. It is practically with-
out humus. The soils of the state have been
classified into three broad soil types. They
are alluvial, red and yellow soils. The ash
produced by the annual forest fire is washed
down into the cultivated fields in the valleys.

The climate is tropical and the tropic of
Cancer passes through this state. It is gene-
rally hot and moist and there are three distinct
seasons: summer, rains and winter. The high
temperature in summer, which lasts from
March to May, is tempered by occasional
rains. The monsoon starts from June and con-
tinues upto October. Pre-monsoon showers are
also common in the month of May. The win-
ter lasts from November to February.

The average maximum and minimum tem-
peratures recorded were 29.15°C and 15.50°C
respectively. The maximum and minimum tem-
peratures recorded were 35.75°C and 8.25°C
in the year 1954 and 1950, respectively. The
highest and lowest temperatures are usually
reached in May and January respectively.
Almost the entire rainfall is received during
the monsoon but summer and winter rains
are fairly common. During winter, at times,
mild frost occurs in low lying areas. The ave-
rage rainfall is about 1582 mm. The maxi-
mum humidity recorded so far was 100%,
and the minimum 42%. The average humidity

4

usually varies from 68% to 71%. The highest
humidity is reached in the month of July.
The winter is severe and is characterised by
the fall of dew. The various rivers and streams
form the main source of water supply. The
forests of this state belong to the moist tro-
pical type and they can broadly be divided
into tree and bamboo forests with open scrub
jungle and grasslands. The composition of
the forests varies from place to place and
these can be grouped into Sal forests, ( Shorea
robusta), garjan forests ( Artocarpus chap-
lasha ), dense mixed deciduous and evergreen
forests, mixed bamboo forests and open scrub
forests with thatch and tall grasses.

The principal trees which form the top
canopy are Albizzia procera, Albizzia stipu -
lata, Artocarpus chaplasha, Bursera serrata,
Careya arborea, Garuga pinnata, Gmelina
arborea, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lannea
grandis, Schima wallichii, Shorea robusta,
Sterculia villosa, Syzygium cuminii, Termina-
lia bellirica, Vitex peduncularis, Stereos per -
mum and Machilus species. The middle storey
is generally composed of Careya arborea,
Dillenia pentagyna, Lagerstroemia parviflora,
Mallotus philippensis, Premna bengalensis,
Shorea robusta, Bridelia, Machilus and Wrigh-
tia species.

The undergrowth consists of Coffea benga-
lensis, Clerodendron, Eupatorium, Flemingia
and Thatch. These undergrowths are usually
thin in the flat areas and on the gently slop-
ing hill tops but are thick in moist areas. The
climbers that are found in these forests are
Acacia pennata, Bauhinia vahlii, Butea par-
viflora, Dalbergia stipulacea, Mikania scan-
dens and Millettia pachycarpa. In the mixed
forest the canopy is very much open and
broken. The damage to the forests are caused
mainly by encroachment, jhuming, illicit fell-
ing and fire. Some of the main ecological fea-

49

/

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

tures of the study area are presented in A total of 409 monkeys were counted in
Table 1. the 36 groups, out of which 73 were males.

Table 1

Ecological features of the study area

Characters

State of Tripura

Altitude

338m

Longitude

91°15'E

Latitude

23°50'N

Rainfall

1582.38 mm

Temperature

16.6°-29.4°C

Summer months

March- May

Main monsoon

South-East

Monsoon months

June-October

Humidity

42% -100%

Forest type

Moist tropical (Tree and
bamboo forests)

Human population

Dense

Other primates

Rhesus and stumptailed
macaques, Capped langurs,
Hoolock gibbons and
Slow loris.

Possible predators of

Carnivores, Eagles and

Phayre’s leaf monkey.

Pythons.

Group size and composition : Out of the
36 groups of Phayre’s leaf monkey that were
encountered during the two surveys, 8, 17
and 1 1 groups were recorded from north,
south and west districts respectively (Fig. 1).
A total of about 1484 sq. km., 1797 sq. km.
and 664 sq. km. of these three respective dis-
tricts were surveyed. The average group size
of the bisexual groups in these three districts
were 14.25 (± 3.58), 12.18 (± 1.22) and 8.10
(± 1.12) respectively. The population distri-
bution and social structure of bisexual groups
of this monkey in different districts of Tri-
pura are shown in Table 2. Of the 36 groups,
35 were bisexual groups and one was an all
male group. The only male group of 7 mon-
keys was recorded from west district.

169 were females, 92 were juveniles and 75
were infants. The group size varied from 4
to 38. Though smaller number of groups were
encountered in the northern district, the big-
gest group with 38 members was observed
here. The group size and composition of diffe-
rent groups are presented in Table 3.

A group with one male, one female, one
juvenile and one infant that was observed in
the west district appears to have been of recent
formation. Out of the 35 bisexual groups, 14
groups contained only one male and an equal
number of groups contained two males, where-
as the 4 and 3 groups contained three and
four males respectively. Majority of the
groups that contained more than one male,
only one was an adult male, the rest were

50

PH AY RES LEAF MONKEY

51

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Table 2

Population survey and social structure of bisexual groups of Phayre’s monkey of Tripura

Districts

Sq. Km. area
surveyed
(approx.)

Total number
of bisexual
groups observed

Average

group

size

Adult

8 $

$ $

Sub-adult

8 8 $ $

North

1484

8

14.25

13

49

31

19

±3.58

1.88+h

6.1 2+:

3.88+:

2.71 ±

0.35

1.66

1.20

0.57

South

1797

17

12.18

36

88

43

40

±1.22

2.12±

5.18+:

2.69 ±

2.78 ±

0.24

0.56

0.30

0.50

West

664

10

8.10

15

32

18

16

±1.12

1.50+:

3.20±

2.25 ±

1.78±

0.22

0.51

0.41

0.36

sub-adult. In 35 bisexual groups, the percen-
tage of males, females, juveniles and infants
were 16.41, 42.04, 22.90 and 18.65 respec-
tively. The sex ratio of adult males to females
was 1:2.3 and the ratio of females to infants
was 1:0.44.

In the bisexual group no interaction bet-
ween the adult males and females was ob-
served. The members of the group when
alarmed moved inside the forest by leaping
from branch to branch thus covering the dis-
tance quickly. The daily activity of the all
male group was almost the same as that
observed in a bisexual group. The males alarm
bark was similar to that of the golden langur.

Food and feeding behaviour : Phayre’s leaf
monkey feeds almost entirely on leaves. On
only one occasion a group came close to
human habitation and a few members of the
group descended on the roof of a house. Most
of the groups were found in the mixed forest
and occasionally they moved into the sal
forest, usually for resting.

Phayre’s leaf monkey was observed to start
feeding activity shortly after waking up in the
morning and continues for a considerable

period. During feeding the monkeys remained
on the same tree for a long period or fre-
quently moved from tree to tree. The whole
group feeds and moves as a unit. The inten-
sity of the feeding decreased considerably at
noon, particularly during summer months, but
increased again in the evening. Feeding was
never a continuous activity and was frequent-
ly interrupted by short non-feeding spells
during which the individuals either rest or
move. Individuals generally caught hold of the
nearby hanging twigs and bent them to the
level of their mouths and either nibbled
directly at the buds, leaves and flowers or
plucked them with hands and ate. They usual-
ly plucked fruits with their hands. During
rains there was considerable decline in the
feeding and other activities and when there
was heavy rain the monkeys sat high up on
the thick branches of the trees for hours to-
gether without any activity. The feeding,
activity was resumed after cessation of rains.
In case the food was in plenty a group re-
mained at one place for a considerable period
and spent a major part of its activity in feed-
ing. A group was observed to cover a distance

52

PH AY RE’S LEAF MONKEY

Table 3

Group size and composition of Phayre’s monkey of Tripura.

SI.

No.

Districts

Male

Female

Juvenile

Infant

Group Remarks

size

1.

S

2

5

3

4

14

2.

1

6

3

—

10

3.

3

11

3

2

19

4

4

7

4

3

16

5.

O

3

6

3

1

16

6.

2

3

3

1

9

7.

2

2

2

—

6

8.

2

4

2

3

11

9.

u

2

4

2

2

10

10.

2

2

1

2

7

11.

1

3

1

1

6

12.

4

8

5

8

25

13.

T

1

4

2

1

8

14.

3

4

2

—

9

15.

1

6

3

2

12

16.

1

6

5

3

. 15

17.

H

2

7

2

3

14

18.

W

1

2

2

1

6

19.

1

3

2

1

7

20.

2

2

—

1

5

21.

E

1

5

2

2

10

22.

1

5

2

3

11

23.

2

3

2

—

7

24.

7

—

—

—

7 All male group

25.

S

3

3

2

1

9

26.

2

2

—

2

6

27.

1

6

5

4

16

28.

T

1

1

1

1

4

29.

N

4

17

12

5

38

30.

2

3

2

3

10

31.

O

1

4

3

3

11

32.

2

3

2

—

7

33.

R

2

5

2

2

11

34.

1

7

4

1

13

35.

T

1

3

2

1

7

36.

H

2

7

4

4

17

TOTAL

73

169

92

75

409

Means

2.03

4.69

2.55

2.08

11.36

Standard error

—0.21

±0.40

±0.36

±0.29

±0.94

Population

composition

17.85%

41.32%

22.49%

18.34%

53

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

of about 402 metres in 3^ hours during winter
month of December and during this period
the group fed and rested while moving from
tree to tree.

Phayre’s leaf monkey was never observed
to invade cultivated fields whereas the rhesus
monkey fed exclusively on paddy when it was
ripe, just before harvesting (Mukherjee 1977).
The feeding activity of Phayre’s leaf monkey
was restricted very much to the upper and
middle stories but rarely to lower storey. It
appears that their water requirements are met
from the water content of the food that they
eat. I did not notice them drinking water dur-
ing my study. However, it was observed that
they lick the water from the leaves or collect-
ed on their bodies after rains.

The food of Phayre’s leaf monkey consists
of leaves, flowers and fruits of various plants.
Table 4 includes the list of food plants and the

parts eaten, based on observation during dif-
ferent surveys. The larger and mature leaves
were eaten individually by pulling them off
the branches. They were not observed feed-
ing on animal food. The wide dispersal of
food plants in Tripura helps this monkey to
spread widely in this state.

On one evening in the month of June, 1978,
an eagle made repeated attempts to pick up
a Phayre’s leaf monkey in the forest of Cha-
mol Chora in the north district. This group,
consisting of 17 monkeys, was busy feeding
after sunset when the eagle appeared and first
dived at the dominant male. Later the bird
made repeated attempts to pick up a juvenile.
The group members were observed moving
down or to drop from the top canopy to the
lower branches and to hide themselves from
the bird among the thick foliage.

Relationship with other monkeys : A mark-

Table 4

Food plants of Phayre’s leaf monkey

Plants

Types of plants

Parts eaten

Ar to car pus chaplasha

Tree

Leaves & Petiole

Albizzia procera

Tree

Leaves

Bursera serrata

Tree

Leaves

Careya arborea

Tree

Leaves

Dalbergia stipulacea

Climber

Leaves & buds

Dendrocalamus longispathus

Bamboo

Shoots

Dillenia pentagyna

Tree

Leaves

Dipterocarpus turbinatus

Tree

Leaves

Eugenia jambolana

Tree

Leaves & Fruits

Ficus carica

Tree

Leaves & Fruits

Gmelina arborea

Tree

Leaves

Grewia microcos

Tree

Leaves

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae

Tree

Leaves

Lagerstroemia parviflora

Tree

Leaves

Mangifera indica

Tree

Fruits

Mikania scandens

Climber

Leaves, buds and Flowers

Schima wallichii

Tree

Leaves

Salmaiia walabarica

Tree

Flowers

Terminalia bellirica

Tree

Leaves

54

PH AY RES LEAF MONKEY

ed tolerance was noticed when Phayre’s leaf
monkey came in contact with other species of
monkeys. There was not much agonistic be-
haviour observed within a group. No inter-
action was observed between this monkey
feeding on top and macaques feeding on low
branches or on ground below the same tree.
On one occasion a group of 25 Phayre’s leaf
monkeys and a group of 18 rhesus monkeys
were observed feeding close to each other in
Abhoya forest in South district and finally
when both the groups moved in the same direc-
tion and emerged at one point on the same
tree, both the groups gave vocal threats and
then retreated in the opposite directions. Not
much interaction was noticed between this
species of monkey and the other two species
namely, hoolock gibbons and capped lan-
gurs, that shared the habitat and food with
the Phayre’s leaf monkey. The capped lan-
gurs were observed feeding on the same type
of food that was taken by the Phayre’s leaf
monkey. On many occasions it was observed
that the capped langurs feeding close to
Phayre’s leaf monkey without any agonistic
behaviour and their home ranges also over-
lapped extensively.

On Dec. 3, 1976 in Garjee forest of the
south district a male capped langur was ob-
served in association with a group of Phayre’s
leaf monkey. The Phayre’s group, consisting
of 2 males, 3 females, 3 juveniles and 1 in-
fant, was quite tolerant to this capped langur.
Out of the two males one was sub-adult and
the capped langur occasionally chased the
sub-adult male and the juveniles, but the
dominant male of the Phayre’s group defend-
ed the group members and chased out the
capped langur. This capped langur was ob-
served in association with the group for two
consecutive days. On the third day the group
moved into the thick forest of the valley and

was not traceable.

On May 30, 1978 in a forest of north
district, located 16 km from Ambasa on the
Ambasa-Manu road, a male Phayre’s leaf
monkey was observed in association with a
group of rhesus monkeys. The rhesus group
consisting of 48 members was quite tolerant
of the Phayre’s monkey. When first seen this
monkey was observed in the centre of the
group sitting on the top of a tree and feeding
on its leaf, whereas the members of the rhesus
group were busy feeding on the ground below
and on the low branches of the trees.

Discussion

Little is known about the ecology and be-
haviour of Phayre’s monkey. Blanford (1888-
91) stated that this species is found in the
dense, high and bamboo forests of Burma.
Fooden (1971) reported its occurrence in
evergreen forests about 15-50 m above ground
level in Thailand. Green (19-78) recorded this
species in the secondary and primary forests
of Sylhet and Chittagong in Bangladesh. The
survey conducted in Tripura revealed that this
species is widely distributed in this state. It
inhabits mixed forest and occasionally forays
into sal forests. On a few occasions it was
observed that they select sal trees for roosting
at night.

Blanford (loc. cit.) recorded group sizes
of 20-30 animals in Burma. Fooden (loc. cit.)
observed groups of 3 to 30 monkeys in Thai-
land. Green (loc. cit.) in six sightings observ-
ed 35 Phayre’s leaf monkey in Bangladesh.
The group size of 4 to 38 was observed in
the survey conducted at Tripura. The all male
group, which is a frequent occurrence in the
hanuman langur, appears to be less common
in the Phayre’s monkey. Though some of the
bisexual groups contained as many as 4 males

55

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

the occurrence of 1 to 2 males was more com-
mon. Most of the groups had juveniles and
infants. Phayre’s leaf monkey and capped
langur were observed feeding close to each
other thus they are sympatric in distribution.
This was also observed by Green (loc. cit.)
in Bangladesh. Leaves form the bulk of the

Refe:

Agrawal, V. C. (1974) : Taxonomic status of
Barbe’s leaf monkey, Presbytis barbei Blyth. Pri-
mates. 15 (2-3): 235-239.

Agrawal, V. C. and Bhattacharya, T. A. (1977) :
Report on a collection of mammals from Tripura.
Rec. Zool. Surv. India 73: 135-157.

Blanford, W. T. (1888-91): The fauna of British
India including Burma and Ceylon : Mammalia

London: Taylor and Francis.

Fooden, J. (1971) : Report on primates collected
in western Thailand, January- April, 1967. Ficldiana
(Zoology), 59: 1-62.

food of Phayre’s monkey in Tripura and this
supports the observation of Fooden (loc. cit.).
However, they were also found feeding on the
petioles, flowers, buds, fruits and bamboo
shoots at Tripura. Green (loc. cit.) has also
observed these monkeys feeding on bamboo
shoots and stems at Bangladesh.

EN CES

Green, K. M. (1978): Primates of Bangladesh:
A preliminary survey of population and habitat.
Biol. Conserv., 13: 141-160.

Mukherjee, R. P. (1977): Rhesus and other
monkeys of Tripura. Newsl. Zool. Surv. India,
5(3): 111.

(1979) : Phayre’s leaf mon-
key ( Presbytis phayrei Blyth, 1847) of Tripura.
Vllth Congress of the International Primatological
Society (Abstract). 128.

Roonwal, M. L. and Mohnot, S. M. (1977):
Primates of South Asia: Ecology, Sociobiology, and
Behaviour. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

56

A BOTANICAL TOUR TO PANGI & TRILOKNATH
IN THE UPPER CHENAB1

U. C. Bhattacharyya and B. P. Uniyal2
(With two plates and a text-figure)

The paper presents an account of exploration of a remote N. W. Himalayan valley
along a pilgrimage route in the intersection of Lahul and Pangi valleys. Apart from

highlighting its main features of vegetation,
paper also enumerates a list of 235 species
in the upper Chenab, with short ecological
reported from the Lahul valley.

I N TROD U CTIO N

Most of the approachable river valleys in
the Western Himalaya have more than one
religious centre visited by people from time
immemorial inspite of natural hazards and
physical discomforts. One such famous shrine
of Triloknath (also spelt Trilokinath) is situa-
ted in the upper Chenab valley. The easiest
route to reach the area is through the pic-
turesque Lahul valley after crossing the
Rohtang Pass (3980 m). During July and
August, 1971 we undertook an exploration
tour to the upper Chenab for collecting speci-
mens for information on the Botany of the
area hitherto little known through published
literature. With the inclusion of the Pangi
valley as an area for the conservation of wild
life, the exploration report of this botanically
interesting area was felt to be of considerable
importance.

Chenab valley in Lahul is known as ‘Man-
chat’ or low land or low valley (Aitchison
1868) and locally this is also called as Patan

1 Accepted September 1980.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle,
Dehra Dun.

botanical wealth and physiography, the
under 54 families, particularly collected
notes including 62 species hitherto un-
valley. It is the most thickly populated area
in Lahul with extensive cultivated lands and
preserves, dense forested areas and herbace-
ous greeneries (Randhawa 1959) unlike any
other part of the dry and desolate Lahul &
Spiti valleys. The journey along the valley to
Triloknath and further west to Udaipur, pre-
sents soothing landscapes of the winding
Chenab with green villages and multicoloured
network of cultivated terraced fields. The
beauty of the valley is further enhanced by
the dark green Pinus wallichiana and Picea
smithiana on the north facing slopes and with
contrasting yellowish green Juniperus polycar -
pos covering the opposite slopes of the mag-
nificent mountains standing on both sides of
the river valley. After a bleak and rugged
mountainous feature of the Chandra valleys
a journey along the Chenab brings joyous re-
lief to trekkers and botanical explorers.

Triloknath

Triloknath is situated at a distance of
about 42 kilometres downstream along the
Chandra-Bhaga or Chenab from Tandi. Only
very recently the Chenab valley up to Udaipur
has been connected by motorable road where

57

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

58

Fig. 1. Route map of the area explored.

BOTANICAL TOUR IN UPPER CHENAB

buses are regularly plying to the close vicinity
of Triloknath and people can reach the place
without facing much difficulty. The small
white temple of the shrine stands at the edge
of a precipitous rock and the surrounding
panorama from a distance reveals a pictorial
view of the snowclad mountains in the back-
ground and a vast extension of the Chenab
with large winding course disappearing into
the great wilderness of the snowy heights. The
mountain slopes facing north above Trilok-
nath subtend beautiful forests of Pinus walli-
c hi ana and Picea smithiana up to the visible
limit and end in complete barrenness predo-
minated by a reddish carpet of Polygonum
affine above 3500 m. On the farside of Trilok-
nath the valley appears quite rugged with pale
green Juniperus polycarpous, sparsely covering
the eroded slopes. Down at the bottom, the
colourful terraced fields of Kishori village are
visible. The latter is thickly populated and
serves as a base for people intending to pay
a visit to the shrine.

A steep climb from the Kishori village
through shades of salices, cultivated terraces,
flowering meadows and extremely rugged
slopes brings one to the relieving surround-
ings of Triloknath (2900 m). Towards the end
of August the valley including Triloknath be-
comes quite warm. Every year during this
period people from remote places gather for
a fair at Triloknath in colourful dresses and
caps feathered with winged seeds of Oroxylum
indicum. They dance for hours together in
simple rhythmic steps to the monotonous
music of a drum and a flute.

Approach and Physiography

Before Manali — Leh High-Way was con-
structed people could enter the Lahul valley
with great difficulty after crossing the formi-
dable Rohtang Pass (3980 m). The fearful-

ness of the journey can be traced in one of
the travel accounts to these areas (Borradaile
1928). At present people can cross Rohtang
by bus and reach most of parts of Lahul
including the Chenab valley up to Udaipur
within a day from Manali, provided natural
disasters do not occur.

The picturesque Lahul valley is surrounded
on all sides by soaring mountains to which
the easiest approach is through this pass. The
whole topography within Lahul changes when
the pass is crossed with a view of bleak, sunny
gigantic ranges, snow clad peaks and massive
glaciers. An endless descent begins from Roh-
tang towards the Chandra river basin to reach
Koksar along the furiously windy Rohtang
slope. The road crosses the Chandra at Kok-
sar and follows the course of the river along
its northern bank with a smooth course up
to Sissoo. Beyond Sissoo and up to Gondla
the journey continues through extremely dry
bleak mountains where dwarf form of
Scabiosa speciosa and Nepeta eriostachya
dominate as survivors after August. A splash
of green is seen wherever there is a source
of stream or the slopes are artificially irri-
gated. Beyond Gondla the motor road des-
cends again to the basin of the Chandra river
and runs almost parallel through extremely
loose and vertical slope where Heracleum
thomsoni is a successful straggler. The river
Chandra ultimately ends with a northerly
course and joins the river Bhaga near Tandi.

Chenab or Chandra-Bhaga is practically the
only outlet of the massive glaciated valleys of
Lahul. The whole water reserve of the vast
triangular glacial system of the central Hima-
layan ranges enclosed within the Lahul valley
is drained out by two rivers of Lahul namely
Chandra and Bhaga originating from the
mountains situated at the northern extremities
of the district at Baralacha La and encircles

59

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 79

the glaciated region on all sides till it comes
out to form a joint flow through an outlet
at Tandi. The combined flow with the name
Chandra-Bhaga or Chenab takes its course
towards northwest through Lahul up to Thirot
and then enters into Pangi subtehsil of Chamba
(at present within Lahul) and ultimately flows
through Kishtwar and Jammu till it emerges
in Pakistan. Entrance to the upper Chenab
valley through Kishtwar is not easy due to
difficult terrain and un-inhabited areas of the
valley in Pangi. People intending to pay a
visit to Triloknath after seeing the shrine of
Manimahesh in Chamba often venture to en-
ter the upper Chenab near Shansha. But it is
also a difficult route through high altitude
passes and desolate areas.

From its origin near Tandi the Chenab has
made its course through a narrow valley and
has widened considerably at certain places like
Shansha, Jahlman and Udaipur helping the
development of well populated localities with
flourishing cultivation. The steep mountains
of Gneissic rock along the southern bank of
Chenab extend as far as the border of
Chamba giving a dark brown or greyish look.

The western boundary of Lahul was previ-
ously delimited by Thirot Nala and from here
the southern vertical rock faces become more
gradual together with the lowering of height
and density of Pinus wallichiana in associa-
tion with Picea smithiana increases up to Tri-
loknath. The northern slopes of the valley on
the other hand show a complete barrenness
in the upper reaches and vast extension of
blunt crests and troughs make the typical topo-
graphy of Lahul without any tree vegetation
up to Kirting. However, the picture in the
basin is very different where planted Salices
and cultivated fields present a beautiful colour
scheme with Potato, Buckwheat, Barley and
vegetable cultivation.

The mountains on the northern part of the
valley are mainly composed of sedimentary
deposits of clay and silt and show the force-
ful action of glaciation and erosion with more
or less uniform dryness throughout the valley.
This sunny topography is particularly domi-
nated by Juniperus polycarpos (J. macropocla )
after 16 kms from Tandi and remains un-
contested by any other conifer. Apart from
the massive drainage of the turbulent flow of
the river several other congenial factors have
changed the face of the upper Chenab both
within Lahul and Pangi influencing its vege-
tational pattern and also by showing a re-
markable demarcating zone for Lahul and
Pangi along the valley.

In addition to its comparatively low alti-
tude ranging between 2600-2900 m the valley
has a good number of perennial and turbu-
lent tributaries of Chenab between Tandi and
Udaipur which are chiefly responsible for
rendering the valley more hospitable and
greener. The most important climatic condi-
tion which has kept the valley more moist is
the absence of typical desiccating dry and
chilly wind of the Chandra valley. This
characteristic furious wind of easterly origin
is obstructed by the high snowclad peaks at
the mouth of the Chenab and is diverted to-
wards the Bhaga valley along the upper
reaches of the north facing slopes above
Kardong rendering the farside of Keylang
almost barren leaving only bushy Juniperus
communis. A few stunted trees of Pinus walli-
chiana visible from Keylang are already a
victim of this wind.

Botanical History

The earliest information about the Botany
of Lahul valley is known through the com-
prehensive account of plants, vegetable pro-
ducts and authentic records published by

60

BOTANICAL TOUR IN UPPER CHENAB

Aitchison (l.c.) based mainly on Jaeschke’s
and his own collection gathered from within
the political boundary of Lahul including the
upper Chenab up to Thirot. But the account
does not reveal the more interesting nature
of vegetation beyond Thirot and further down
along the valley in Pangi. With the establish-
ment of better communication facilities many
new plants to the existing list have been sub-
sequently added. After Aitchison, the flora of
Lahul is described in a short account by
Watt (1881). He made a general collection
from the upper Chenab and added informa-
tion to the botanical knowledge of the valley.
Later plants have been gathered from Lahul
by well known collectors like Lace, Koelz,
Stewart and others with their collections scat-
tered in different herbaria of the world.

During the present century most extensive
collections have been gathered by late N. L.
Bor from Lahul during 1941-42 and are
preserved in the Forest Research Institute
Herbarium (DD.) His collections specially
along Billing Nala (Billing Lungpa) are highly
interesting. Koelz’s collections are also very
extensive from Lahul but excepting some stray
gatherings very little material is available from
the upper Chenab. Joshi (1952) presented a
short account of the aquatic flora of Lahul
and included few important plants of aquatic
and moist habitat. Sethi and Negi from FRI
also paid a visit in Lahul during 1958 and
gathered a good collection from upper Chenab.

From Northern Circle of the Botanical
Survey of India collections from Lahul and
Spiti valleys have been gathered during the
sixties by Rau (1960) and Nair (1964)
but the area under present report remained
uncovered during those visits. Recently some
account of exploration and new records from
the Lahul valley have been of additional in-
formation. (Kapahi & Sarin 1979 and Aswal

& Mehrotra 1970). The present account is
based only on the exploration conducted along
the upper Chenab from Tandi to Udaipur a
distance of about 50 km including the envi-
rons of Triloknath on the way.

General vegetation and botany of the
route

The vegetation of this inner valley is
characterised by a combination of a compara-
tively lush flora represented by the dry and
wet Himalayan elements of both Lahul and
Pangi. The explored area of the valley may
be broadly divided into three sections com-
prising the initial dry and bleak zone from
Tandi and westward about 10 km, the central
well vegetated part between Kirting and
Thirot and the typical flora of Pangi between
Thirot to Udaipur. Towards the ultimate
western part the infiltration of the characte-
ristic wet Himalayan flora becomes apparent
with the advent of exclusive stands of Cedrus
deodar a beyond Triloknath.

Tandi from where the Chenab begins is a
small village situated at an altitude of 2900m
at the confluence of Chandra and Bhaga. The
precipitous rocks on the farside at the begin-
ning show a restricted growth of Firms walli-
c hi ana and Betula sp. and largely planted
Salices are the only tree vegetation around
Tandi. However, on sheltered sandy slopes
some characteristic plants like Heracleum
thomsoni with stiff projecting flowering bran-
ches, yellow flowered Galium verum and
Heteropappus holoharmaphroditus are com-
mon. The most interesting plant of the
Chandra valley is the cream flowered Saussu-
rea jacea forming green patches on the west
facing slopes near Tandi. On eroded slopes
and cuttings Astragalus bicuspis, A. subumbel -
latus, Androsace rotundifolia, Leptorhabdos

61

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

parvi flora, Ribes alpestre, Hyoscyamus niger,
Cotoneaster falconeri, Scorzonera divaricata
occur. Scattered bushes of Rosa webbiana are
fairly common on dry open slopes. From
Tandi the motor road climbs up towards
Kirting along the higher reaches of the south
facing slopes. Artemisia maritima, Nepeta
eriostachya with occasional bushes of Astra-
galus bicuspis and Rosa webbiana are seen on
the slopes. Occasional bushes of Berberis
jaeschkeana also occur in Salix groves.

The southern part of the Chenab stands
as a sheer wall for more than 20 kms from
Tandi westward except at places where it has
been interrupted by gullies, rivers or slanting
morain deposits. A sparse growth of Pinus
wallichiana and Picea smithiana on the steep
rock is replaced by dense forest beyond Kirt-
ing of Juniperus communis and Salix denti-
culata. The latter flourishes specially on shady
troughs and moist gullies.

Kirting marks the first village from where
the valley towards its west is remarkably
green with plantations and natural vegetation.
A torrent flowing through the village greatly
influences its vegetation and along its course
there is a lush growth of Hippophae rham-
noides var. turkistanica and Salix oxycarpa.
The slopes hold growths of Polygonum poly-
stachyum, Impatiens gigantea, Cirsium walli-
chii, Datisca cannabina, Mentha longi folia,
Aster indamellus, Epilobium angustifolium,
Juncus himalensis, Plantago major, Parnassia
ovata, Ranunculus hirtellus, Erigeron alpi-
nus, Medicago lupulina and Plantago de-
pressa. The herbaceous and shrubby members
specially on irrigated slopes and around culti-
vated fields offer a typical assemblage of
Nepeta spicata, Medicago sativa, Silene vulga-
ris, Senecio chrysanthemoides, Heracleum
lanatum, Swertia cor data, Jaeschkea gentia-
noides, Pedicularis pectinata, Polygonum

alpinum, and few others. Some of the charac-
teristic herbaceous elements growing in the
village along the canal banks are Impatiens
brachycentra, Elsholtzia ciliata, Chenopodium
botrys and Cannabis indica. Extensive areas
of the valley are under Potato, Buckwheat
and occasionally Barley and Wheat cultivation.
Fruit trees like Pyrus malus, Prunus armeniaca
have been planted but are mostly attacked by
virus infection. Signs of similar infection are
found to be spreading on introduced Populus
also. A gentle slope extending from Shansha
right to the margin of the Chenab harbours
some typical plants like Halerpestes tricuspis,
Cyperus squarrosus, Calamagrostis pseudo-
phragmites, Lotus corniculatus, Plantago
major, Melilotus officinalis and Scirpus seta-
ceus. The area near the river bank is almost
a sandy waste where apart from planted Salix
oxycarpa the open areas hold Hippophae
rhamnoides, Myricaria germanica with the
twining Polygonum dumetorum. Compara-
tively drier marginal areas have Dianthus
angulatus, Polygonum paronychioides, P. tubu-
losum together with occasional growths of
Heracleum thomsoni, Galium verum, Lindelo-
fia anchusoides and Astragalus amherstianus.
Unlike the complete barren look of the sunny
slopes between Kirting and Tandi the south
facing slopes around Shansha show a profuse
growth of prickly bushes of Rosa webbiana,
and R. macrophylla. At some places R. foetida
is occasionally met with on hedges. Among
herbaceous perennials pioneering on the slopes
are Artemisia maritima, A. dracunculus, Ori-
ganum vulgar e and Verbascum thapsus and
with the availability of water a lush growth
of plants characteristic of Lahul makes its
appearance.

The vegetation above 3000 m on the sunny
aspect in the valley is very poor. This appa-
rently barren and dry slopes have extensive

62

BOTANICAL TOUR IN UPPER CHENAB

growth of Cousinia thomsoni between 3000-
3600 m. Among boulders Meconopsis aculeata
is not uncommon but it is mostly sterile due
to grazing. The semicushion forming Minuar-
tia lineata is the most successful survivor.
Gentle troughs have a thick covering of Iris
kumaonensis and Taraxacum officinale. Some
of the interesting plants along dry gullies at
lower elevation are Scutellaria prostrata,
Galium serpylloides, Sempervivella acuminata,
Androsace rotundifolia, Astragalus bicuspis,
Cotoneaster rotundifolius.

Comparatively richer and denser vegetation
on the north facing slopes of the Chenab is
seen after crossing the torrential river about
4 km west of Kirting. A bridle path from the
main road leads towards the basin of the valley
and after crossing the river approaches the
villages Rappe and Rasse on the other side.
A journey to the upper reaches alongside gla-
cial fed streams offers congenial habitats for a
number of uncommon plants not seen on the
sunny slopes of the valley. Some of these are
Hyssopus officinalis with pretty purplish blue
spikes and strong aroma, Anaphalis stoliczkai
forming graceful clumps, and Pimpinella diver si-
folia, Senecio pedunculatus f. alba (nov.).
Their vertical distribution hardly extends
more than 50 m from the level of the river
water. There is a rich herbaceous growth com-
posed of Medicago sativa, Polygonum alpi-
num, Thalictrum minus, Jaeschkea gentianoi-
des, Heracleum lanatum, Silene vulgaris,
Swertia cordata, Nepeta spicata, Pedicularis
pectinata, Senecio chrysanthemoides, Dactylis
glomerata and a few others near the village
of Rappe. Dense thickets of thorny Hippophae
rhamnoides var. turkistanica flourish on the
slopes at a lower elevation.

A steep foot track from the neighbouring
village Rasse climbs upwards to provide an
easy route to reach the thick forest of Pinus

wallichiana on the north facing slopes of the
valley and people intending to visit Triloknath
from Manimahesh go along this path. Through
a vast slope of moraine deposits the winding
path gradually attains height. The slope is
strewn with handsome clumps of Stipa sibirica
and some interesting species like Heracleum
thomsoni, Galium verum, Anemone rupicola,
and Oxytropis thomsoni. Herbaceous species
like Impatiens thomsoni, Oxyria digyna, Epi -
lobium alpinum, Crepis multicaulis, Gnapha -
Hum thomsoni, Taraxacum officinale are also
seen where the moraine is moist. A little higher
up on a slashy rock large number of white
flowering clumps of Silene persica and yellow
flowered Potentilla curviseta occur.

Up to this part of the Chenab valley the
ultimate tree limit consists of a pure growth
of Pinus wallichiana and is associated with
Juniperus communis, Lonicera obovata,
Syringa emodi, Viburnum cotinifolium and
Salix denticulata as dominating undergrowth.
The Salix gives a thick coverage specially
along moist shady gullies. On dry shady slopes
Ephedra gerardiana, Bergenia stracheyi,
Potentilla curviseta, and Polygonum affine are
the main herbs at higher reaches and on dry
cliffs a few bushes of Potentilla salessoviana
occur rarely. Above 3300 m the dry and shady
rocks and slopes hold mainly Ephedra gerar-
diana, Bergenia stracheyi, Potentilla curviseta
and Polygonum affine. A beautiful field of
Stipa sibirica is seen on a vast west facing
gentle slope. The grass is locally known as
“Rohari” and is largely exploited for the
panicles, which are used for making brooms.

The journey from Kirting, to Jahlman does
not offer any appreciable change in the com-
position of the vegetation on either side of the
Chenab and thick plantations of Salix oxycarpa
alongside the road provide greenery within
the village. Thickets of Rosa webbiana, Rosa

63

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

macrophylla associated with Artemisia mari-
tima extend over large areas on dry south
facing slopes on way to Jahlman. The valley
at Jahlman widens and the gentle slopes pro-
vide facilities for extensive terraced cultiva-
tion by artificial irrigation.

After the bleakness of the higher reaches
at Tandi, the common dry Himalayan Juni-
perus polycarpos appears again in a stunted
form from Junde. Elegant forests of this
Juniper flourish between Kamring and Thirot
but the trees are largely infected by Arceutho-
bium oxycedri in the vicinity of Thirot. The
mimicry of this obligate parasite to the foliage
of the host is almost perfect and it is not
detected till its action becomes detrimental to
the tree. It is likely to cause tremendous loss
to this species, threatening its very existence
in the whole of Lahul valley in the near future.
Undergrowth in this forest is rather poor and
Artemisia maritima is found to be the best
survivor. Other herbaceous elements met in
this forest are Origanum vulgar e, Artemisia
dracunculus, A. sacrorum, Thymus serpyllum,
Chenopodium botrys, Malva pusilla, Scutella-
ria prostrata and occasional bushes of Rosa
webbiana. Near Kamring Cymbopogon schoe-
nanthus is an interesting grass well represent-
ed in Juniper us undergrowth. In some of the
forest clearings and dry gullies flourishing
growths of Sorbaria tomentosa is a rarity for
the Lahul valley. These are frequently infest-
ed with Cuscuta reflexa.

The administrative boundary of Pangi sub-
division begins from Thirot. A turbulent tribu-
tary of Chenab known as Thirot Nala flows
through the small village and the course
preserves a similar plant community seen
earlier at Kirting. Along with thickets of
Salix oxycarpa, Hippophae rhamnoides, Loni-
cera quinquelocularis, Viburnum cotinifolium

near the basin, the herbaceous growth is en-
riched by Pedicularis punctata, Impatiens
thomsonii, Datisca cannabina, Ranunculus
hirtellus, Aster indamellus and a few others.

The most interesting features of vegetation
in the main valley is the isolation of the flori-
stic elements of Pangi by a demarcating
boundary towards the eastern vicinity of
Thirot. The shrubby members represent
a typical composition in the valley
and are dominated by Fraxinus xanthoxy -
loides, Berberis pseudoumbellata, Rosa web-
biana, R. macrophylla, Cotoneaster pangien-
sis, C. roseus and C. gilgitensis close to the
river basin. Upward distribution of the said
species on the sunny slope extend to a limited
height and cover the northern bank of the
river uninterruptedly between Kamring and
Udaipur. The journey on way to Triloknath
from Thirot offers soothing landscape with
a combination of Pinus wallichiana and Picea
s mi t hi ana on the north facing slope and the
motor road stretching westward passes almost
at a parallel height with a gentle ascent. The
slopes become more rocky and drier. Few
huge and wild trees of Juglans regia form an
impressive green patch within a kilometer from
Thirot. Some of the typical members of Rosa-
ceae like Crataegus oxyacantha, Pyrus jacque-
montii are commonly associated with the
scrubby elements noted earlier. Excepting in
rarely moist situation the herbaceous members
are poorly represented within the dry shrubby
vegetation however, the common ones are
Artemisia maritima, A. sacrorum. Origanum
vulgare, Rumex nepalensis, Pterotheca falco-
neri, Verbascum thapsus, Thymus serpyllum,
Chenopodium botrys, Scrophularia koelzii ,
Datisca cannabina, Herniaria hirsuta and few
others. On dry cliffs Seseli sibiricum is a rarely
collected strongly aromatic plant frequently
come across but mostly they are inaccessible.

64

Plate I

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79
Bhattacharyya & Uniyal; Pangi and Triloknath

Above: Triloknath temple and sunny slope strewn with stunted J. poly car pos Koch.
Below : Salix oxycarpa Anders, at Kishori village below Triloknath.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate II

Bhattacharyya & Uniyal: Pangi and Triloknath

Above: Natural forests of Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G. Don at Pangi near
Udaipur.

Below: Contrasting Juniper us and Cedrus on northern and southern slope
respectively.

BOTANICAL TOUR IN UPPER CHENAB

Spiraea canescens and Solidago virga-aurea
are also common on rocky slopes.

From the main bus route a mule track
branches downwards about two kilometres
before Triloknath and approaches a suspen-
sion bridge over the Chenab. In addition to
common shrubby vegetation Plectranthus
rugosus and Sorbaria tomentosa infested with
Cuscuta reflexa mark changing components on
this route. On a moist slope elegant growth
of lmpatiens roylei and Inula grandiflora are
interesting to come across. An impressive view
of the unrivalled scenery appears from the sus-
pension bridge while approaching the village at
the foot of Triloknath. A steep climb through
planted Salix oxycarpa begins from the bridge
to the neighbouring Kishori village. Due to
adequate irrigation facilities the small village
maintains a considerable area under cultiva-
tion of common Potato and Buckwheat and
in addition small plots containing wheat, bar-
ley and few vegetables are not uncommon.
The vegetation around the village does not
show any interesting feature except in pools
along the shady river bank, where characte-
ristic plants of aquatic habitats such as Poly-
gonum hydropiper ssp. megalocarpum, Eleo-
charis palustris, Limosella aquatica, Callitriche
verna, Triglochin palustre and Haler pestes
sarmentosa occur. The moist slopes and waste
lands around cultivated fields hold Carum
carvi, Corydalis ramosa, Dactylis glomerata,
Geranium aconitifolium, Lamium amplexi-
caule, Lepyrodiclis holosteoides, Medicago
sativa, Nepeta spicata, Senecio chrysanthe-
moides, Swertia cor data, Trifolium repens,
Urtica dioica, Veronica persica etc. A lush
and interesting vegetation is seen on the north
bank of the Chenab near the village. Due to
low height (2400 m) of the valley here, seve-
ral wet and semidry habitat Himalayan plants
like Salvia nubicola, Sium latijugum, Campa-

nula latifolia, Codonopsis rotundifolia, Lespe-
deza juncea, Medicago lupulina, Nepeta linea-
ris, Elscholtzia ciliata, Bothriochloa ischaemum,
Phragmites australis, Allium rubellum, A.
strachyi, Jurinea ceratocarpa, Leibnitzia nepa-
lensis etc. present a characteristic vegetation
on the shady river bank.

A journey to Triloknath proper from
Kishori village begins through an irrigated
pasture and then a rugged dry rocky slope
with a steep ascent till the plateau is reached.
Excepting a thin scrubby growth of Rosa
webbiana, Prunus jacquemontii, Fraxinus xan-
thoxyloides accompanied by few interesting
plants like Heteropappus altaicus, Dianthus
angulatus, Physochlaina paraealta, Rubia cor-
difolia etc. the route beyond the village does
not sustain notable plants. On the other hand
the vegetation becomes more interesting while
climbing the slopes above Triloknath to reach
the thick forest of Pinus wallichiana and
Picea smithiana. The moist irrigated north
facing slopes have Angelica glauca, Anaphalis
cuneifolia, Astragalus himalayanus, Bupleu-
rum jucundum, B. falcatum, Galium boreale,
Pedicularis pectinata, Polygonum alpinum, F.
polystachyum, P. nepalense, P. hydropiper,
Corydalis ramosa, Valeriana hardwickii, Orchis
latifolia, Herminium monorchis, Polygonatum
geminiflorum, Phlomis bracteosa and others.

An exploratory trip along the adjoining
valley of Hinsa Nala up to the limit of the
glacial moraine through the Pinus-Picea
forest was fascinating. The extension of the
narrow valley of the stream does not show a
rich herbaceous growth. A few shrubs of
Syringa emodi, Viburnum cotinifolium, Ribes
alpestre, Rubus irritans, Berberis pachya-
cantha, Sorbus aucuparia are come across.
Before the termination of the stream at the
moraine deposits the thickness of the Pinus-
Picea forest declines and ultimately the slopes

65

5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

support prostrate bushes of Juniper us com-
munis only. The sheltered slopes supported
Polygonum affine and Bergenia stracheyi on
rocks. At higher reaches Ephedra gerardiana
is also found to flourish on shady rock. The
slopes towards the bottom of the valley
appears to be quite bleak and Nepeta dis-
color, Taraxacum officinale, Leontopodium
alpinum, Galium serpylloides together with
few ferns like Asplenium trichomanes, A.
septentrionale and Pellaea gracilis are met
with.

The Chenab valley widens considerably to-
wards west of Triloknath near Udaipur and
a remarkable change in the tree vegetation
is noted by the appearance of Cedrus deodara
on both sides of the valley. A high rate of
natural regeneration becomes evident by their
extensive distribution on the slopes as well as
on the river bed and adjoining plains. In the
undergrowth and on barren slopes the domi-
nant plants are Artemisia maritima and Juni-
perus communis. The latter, however, is more
on open slopes facing north. The dry open
slopes when devoid of any tree growth is
covered mainly by Artemisia maritima. There
is a marked stuntedness of Juniper us poly-
carpos on way to Udaipur from Triloknath
and similarly the general shrubby vegetation
on the sunny part, represented by Fraxinus,
Cotoneaster, Berber is, Ribes and Rosa are
also much dwarfed in habit. On river banks
and slopes a few uncommon plants are come
across namely Echinops cornigerus, Scrophu -
laria scabiosaefolia, Hypericum perforatum,
Erianthus ravennae. Excepting the handsome
Cedars the area around Udaipur has poor
vegetation and a few planted trees give a
monotonous landscape to the village repre-
sented by Populus alba, Salix oxycarpa, Jug-
lans regia, Prunus armeniaca etc.

A list of plants gathered during the trip

are ennumerated with short field notes
and all the collection numbers are deposited at
BSD under the senior author’s name. As the
period of collection is restricted to 12th to
23rd August, 1971, the date of collection has
not been specifically mentioned. As far as
practicable the nomenclature of plants have
been brought up to date. Plants not recorded
earlier are marked with an asterisk.

DICOTYLEDONS

Ranunculaceae

Anemone rupicola Camb.

On north facing dry slope, flowers white.
Rasse 3000 m, 45343.

Halerpestes sarmenfosa (Adams) Komarov
On moist soil and shady pools, flowers
yellow.

Shansha 2800 m, 45253; Kishori 2400 m,
45992.

Ranunculus hirtellus Royle

On moist shady slope, flowers yellow.
Kirting 2900 m, 45289.

R. hyperboreus Rottb.

On slushy slope, flowers yellow.

Rasse 3200 m, 45327.

Thalictrum minus Linn. var. foetida (Linn.)
Hook. f. & Thoms.

On west facing moist slope. In fruit.
Roding 3000 m, 45309.

Berberidaceae

Berberis jaeschkeana Schneid.

Under shade of salices. Fruits green.

Lot 3200 m, 40704.

B. pachyacantha Koehne
On shady slope within Picea- Pinus forest.

Fruits reddish green.

Triloknath, Hinsa Nala 3200 m, 45911.

66

BOTANICAL TOUR IN UPPER CHENAB

B. pseudumbellata Parker

On south facing dry slope. Fruits pruinose
blue.

Thirot 2600 m, 45359.

Fumariaceae

Corydalis ramosa Wall, ex Hook. f. & Thoms.
Along north facing gully, flowers yellow.
Triloknath 2900 m, 45904.

Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)

Brassica napus Linn.

Occasionally cultivated.

Rappe 2600 m, 45334.

Descurainia sophia (Linn.) Webb, ex Prantl.
On roof of houses, flowers yellow.

Kishori 2400 m, 45382.

Thlaspi arvense Linn.

Weed in Potato field, flowers white, fruits
orbicular.

Triloknath 2900 m, 45396.

Caryop h yll aceae

Arenaria serpyllifolia Linn.

On dry south facing slope. Fruiting cymes.
Rappe 2600 m, 45331.

Cerastium glomeratum Thuill.

On moist shady slope, flowers white.

Thirot 2600 m, 45379.

Dianthus angulatus Royle
On dry river bed and stony slope, flowers
pink and white.

Shansha 2800 m, 45265; Triloknath 2800 m,
45924.

* Herniaria hirsuta Linn.

On shady soil, flowers and fruits minute.
Thirot 2600 m, 45369; Udaipur 2400 m,
45942.

* Lepyrodiclis holosteoides Fenzl. ex Fisch.

et Mey.

A weed in cultivated field, flowers white.
Shansha 2800 m, 45241; Triloknath 2700 m,
45927.

Sagina saginokles (Linn.) Karsten
On moist shady soil, flowers green,

Thirot 2600 m, 45371.

Sileue persica Boiss. ssp. moorcroftiana
(Rohrb.) Chaudhuri

On moist rock and shady slopes, flowers
white, purple beneath.

Rasse 3200 m, 45320; Triloknath 3000 m,
45998.

S. vulgaris (Moench.) Garcke
On moist irrigated slopes, flowers white.
Shansha 2800 m, 45280.

Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill.

On shady slopes, flowers white.

Kirting 2900 m, 45293.

Tamaricaceae

Myricaria germanica (Linn.) Desv.

On sandy river-bed. Fruiting spikes present.
Shansha 2800 m, 45236.

Guttiferae (Hypericaceae)

* Hypericum perforatum Linn.

On dry rocky slopes, flowers yellow.

Thirot 2600 m, 45350; Triloknath 2800 m,
45951.

Malvaceae

Malva pusilla Sm.

On waste land around villages.

Kirting 2900 m, 45241; Kishori 2400 m,
45999.

Geraniaceae

* Geranium aconitifolium L’Herit

On moist north facing slopes, flowers showy
purple.

Kishori 2400 m, 45974.

67

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

G. nepalense Sw.

On shady slopes, flowers pale pink.

Kirting 2900 m, 45244.

* Erodium stephanianum Willd.

On north facing stony slopes, flowers pink.
Triloknath 2600 m, 45994.

Balsaminaceae

* Impatiens brachycentra Kar. et Kir.

On shady, moist, slopes, flowers small pin-
kish white.

Thirot 2600 m, 45383.

Celastraceae

* Euonymus fimbriatus Wall, ex Roxb.

On open rocky areas. In fruit. Rare.
Thirot 2600 m, 45884.

Rhamnaceae

* Rhamnus prostrata Jacq. ex Parker
On dry cliffs. In fruit.

Kirting 3500 m, 45316.

Papilionaceae

Astragalus amherstianus Benth.

On dry sandy river beds. In fruit.

Shansha 2800 m, 45263.

A. himaiayanus Klotzsch
On moist irrigated slope, flowers purple.
Kishori 2400 m, 45903.

Lens culinaris Medic.

In waste land cultivated field. In fruit.
Kirting 2800 m, 45250.

* Lespedeza juncea (Linn, f.) Pers.

On dry gentle slopes, flowers white.
Udaipur 2400 m, 45941.

Lotus corniculatus Linn.

On moist irrigated plains, flowers yellow
and orange.

Shansha 2800 m, 45238.

Medicago lupulina Linn.

In shady wastelands, flowers yellow, fruits
black.

Kishori 2400 m, 41298.

M. sativa Linn.

On moist irrigated slopes, flowers yellow.
Kishori 2400 m, 45997.

* Mclilotus alba Medic.

On open irrigated slopes, flowers white.
Roding 3000 m, 45311.

* M. officinalis (Linn.) Pallas

In open irrigated plains, flowers yellow.
Shansha 2800 m, 45240; Kishori 2400 m.
Oxytropis thomsoni Benth. ex Baker
On dry slopes, flowers purple.

Roding 3000 m, 45314; Rasse 3000 m, 45322

Rosaceae

* Crataegus oxyacantha Linn.

On dry open stony slopes, fruits red.
Thirot 2600 m, 45364; Kishori 2400 m,
45948.

Fragaria vesca Linn.

On shady slopes, flowers white.

Kishori 2400 m, 45982.

Potentilla argyrophylla Wall. var. leucochroa
Hook. f.

On glacial scree, flowers yellow.

Rasse 2900 m, 45347.

P. ambigua Camb.

On glacial scree, flowers yellow.

Rasse 2800 m, 45342.

Potentilla curviseta Hook. f.

On shady cliffs, flowers yellow.

Rasse 3600 m, 45340.

Potentilla salessoviana Steph.

On shady dry rocks. In fruit.

Rasse 3400 m, 45338.

* Prunus jacquemontii Hook. f.

On rocky slopes. Fruits red.

Triloknath 2800 m, 45934.

68

BOTANICAL TOUR IN UPPER CHENAB

Pyrus baccata Linn.

On south facing dry slopes, fruits reddish
green.

Thirot 2600 m, 45362.

Rosa foetida Herrm.

Along hedges, flowers yellow.

Shansha 2500 m, 45313.

R. macrophylla Lindl.

On open stony slopes, flowers pale pink.
Kirting 2800 m, 45293.

R. webbiana Wall. ex. Royle

On dry stony slopes, flowers pink.

Shansha 2800 m, 45333.

Rubus irritans Focke

On shady slopes with Picea forming large
patches, fruits orange.

Hinsa Nala 3000 m, 45910.

* Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder
Along narrow gullies facing south, fruits in
brown panicle.

Thirot 2600 m, 45360.

Sorbus aucuparia Linn.

On shady slope in Picea forest, fruits white.
Triloknath 2900 m, 45908.

Spiraea canes cens D. Don

On open stony slopes, flowers white.

Thirot 2600 m, 45348; 45354.

Parnassiaceae

Parnassia ovata Ledeb.

On moist shady slopes, flowers white.
Kirting 3000 m, 45290.

Saxifragaceae

Saxifraga sibirica Linn.

Under shade of boulders, flowers white.
Kishori 2400 m, 45983.

Grossulariaceae

Ribes alpestre Wall, ex Dene.

On shady slopes in Picea forest, fruits

orange coloured.

Hinsa Nala 3200 m, 45908.

R. orientale Desf.

On slopes alongside turbulent stream, fruits
yellow.

Thirot 2600 m, 45372.

Callitrichaceae (Haloragidaceae)

* Callitriche veraa Linn.

In shallow pools, flowers minute green.
Kishori 2400 m, 45959.

Crassulaceae

Sedum acuminatum R. Hamet

Along dry stony gullies, flowers white.
Roding 3000 m, 45297.

Onagraceae

* Epilobium brevifoiium D. Don

On slushy stony areas, flowers pink.

Kirting 2900 m, 45284.

E. royleanum Haussk.

On moist stream beds, flowers pink.

Kirting 2900 m, 45287.

CUCURBITACEAE

* Bryonia dioica Jacq.

On hedges in waste lands, flowers & fruits
green.

Triloknath 2800 m, 45931.

Datiscaceae

* Datisca cannabina Linn.

On sandy slope along gullies and always on
sunny part of the valley. Flowers dioe-
cious pale green.

69

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

* Angelica glauca Edgew.

On north facing irrigated slope, fruits large
winged.

Triloknath 2900 m, 45905.

Bupleurum falcatum Linn. var. marginatum
(Wall, ex DC.) C. B. Clarke.

On moist north facing slope, flowers yellow.
Triloknath 2900 m, 45916.

B. jucundum Kurz

On moist irrigated slope, flowers yellow.
Triloknath 2900 m, 45913.

Carum carvi Linn.

On moist shady slope, flowers white.
Triloknath 2700 m, 45975.

Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke

On dry slopes, fruits large purple.

Roding 3000 m, 45310.

* Heracleum thomsoni C. B. Clarke
On sandy riverbed, flowers white.

Shansha 2800 m, 45267.

* Pimpinella diversifolia DC.

On moist slopes along river bank, flowers
white.

Rappe 2800 m, 45325.

* Seseli sibiricum (Linn.) Boiss.

On steep dry rock, flowers white. Pungently
aromatic, not collected earlier, during this
century.

Thirot 2600 m, 45387.

* Sium latijugum C. B. Clarke

Along irrigation canal in shade, flowers
white.

Hinsa 2400 m, 45939.

Caprifoliaceae

Lonicera heteropbylla Dene.

On banks of a turbulent streams, fruits red.
Thirot 2650 m, 45378.

L. obovata Royle ex Hook. f.

On shady north and west facing slopes,
fruits blue.

Rasse 3400 m, 45335.

L. quinquelocularis Hardw.

On banks of turbulent streams, fruits green.
Kirting 2900 m, 45275.

Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don

On shady stream bank, fruits purple.
Thirot 2650 m, 45374.

Rubiaceae

Galium boreale Linn.

On moist irrigated slopes, flowers white.
Triloknath 2900 m, 45925.

G. serpylloides Royle ex Hook. f.

On open stony slopes, fruits white, bristly.
Roding 3000 m, 45295; Elinsa Nala 3100 m,
45392.

G. verum Linn.

On dry sandy river bed, flowers yellow.
Shansha 2800 m, 45266.

Rubia cordifolia Linn.

On shady slopes, fruits black.

Kirting 2900 m, 45281; Triloknath 2700 m,
45923.

Valerianaceae

Valeriana hardwickii Wall.

On shady slopes, flowers white.

Kishori 2400 m, 45914.

Asteraceae (Compositae)

Aichillea millefolium Linn.

On moist irrigated slopes, heads with yellow
disk and white rays.

Shansha 2800 m, 45300.

Anaphalis cuneifolia Hook f.

On shady slopes, heads scarious white.
Triloknath 2900 m, 45922;

70

BOTANICAL TOUR IN UPPER CITENAB

A. royleana DC.

In Pine forest undergrowth, heads scarious
white.

Triloknath 2600 m, 45971.

A. stoliczkai C. B. Clarke
On river bank slopes along Chenab, heads
white.

Rappe 2800 m, U.C.B. 45829.

Anfhemis cotula Linn.

In shady waste lands around village, heads
with white rays and yellow disc.

Shansha 2800 m, 45243.

Arctium lappa Linn.

In shady waste land, heads purple thin
hooked spines.

Kishori 2600 m, 45967.

Artemisia maritima Linn.

On dry slopes, head cinereous.

Kirting 2900 m, 45251; Udaipur 2400 m.
45969.

A. nilagirica Pampanini.

On moist slope, heads brown.

Thirot 2650 m, 45361.

A. sacrorum Ledeb.

On dry shady rock, heads yellow.

Kishori 2600 m, 45970.

A. scoparia Waldst. et Kit.

On sandy river bed and fallow fields, heads
greenish white.

Shansha 2800 m, 45229; Kishori 2600 m,
45980.

* A. tournefortiana Reichb.

On slopes alongside road, heads green in
strict panicles.

Kamri 2900 m, 45302.

Aster indamellus Grierson
On shady slope along irrigation canal, heads
white.

Kirting 2900 m, 45272.

Brachyactis umbrosa Benth.

In shady waste lands, heads yellow.
Shansha 2800 m, 45286.

Carduus nutans Linn.

On dry exposed soil slope, heads purple.
Kirting 2900 m, 45268.

* Cirsium wallichii DC. var. platylepis

Hook. f.

On open slope, heads white.

Kirting 3600 m, 45319.

Cousinia thomsoni C. B. Clarke
On south facing dry slope, heads purple.

Abundant above 3400 m.

Roding 3000 m, 45306.

Crepis multicaulis Ledeb. ssp. genuina (Regel)
Babe.

On moist glacial morain, heads yellow.
Rasse 3400 m, U.C.B. 45341.

Echinops comigerus DC.

On terraced open slope, heads spherical
white.

Opposite Kishori 2400 m, 45949.

Erigeron alpinus Linn.

On shady slope, heads lilac.

Kirting 2900 m, 45279; Triloknath 2800 m,
45995.

* E. canadensis Linn.

In waste land alongside road, heads
yellowish white.

Udaipur 2400 m, 45943.

* Filago arvensis Linn.

On moist open slope, heads white.
Triloknath 2700 m, 45928.

* F. spathulata Presl.

On shady slope, heads brownish white.
Shansha 2800 m, 45288.

* Galinsoga parviflora Cav.

Along shady gullies, disc yellow, rays white.
Thirot 2600 m, 45358.

* Gnaphalium thomsoni Hook f.

On moist morain slope, heads white.

Rasse 3500 m, 45324.

Heteropappus altaicus (Willd.) Novopokr. var.

altaicus

On north facing stony slope, rays white disc
yellow.

71

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Thirot 2650 m, 45367; Triloknath 2700 m,
45393.

Inula grandiflora Willd.

On slushy south facing slope, heads yellow.
Triloknath 2400 m, 45383.

I. racemosa Hook. f.

Stout, planted, medicinal herb, heads large
yellow.

Kamring 26500 m, 45370.

Jurinea cerotocarpa (Dene.) Benth.

On boulders containing soil, heads purplish
white.

Kishori 2400 m, 45947.

Lactuca sativa Linn.

Cultivated, heads yellow.

Kishori 2650 m, 45938.

* Leibnitzia nepalensis (Kunze) Kitamura.

On shady moist slope in Picea forest, with
young heads.

Kishori east 2600 m, 45977.

Saussurea albescens (DC.) Hook. f. & Thoms.
On open irrigated slope, heads white.
Roding 3000 m, 45301.

S. jacea (Klotzsch) C. B. Clarke

On loose eroded slope, heads cream white.
Tandi 2900 m, 45132.

Senecio chrysanthemoides DC.

On open irrigated slope, heads yellow.
Shansha 2800 m, 45282; Kishori 2600 m,
45968.

Senecio pedunculatus Edgew.

On shady soil slope, heads yellow.

Kishori 2500 m, 45984.

S. pedunculatus Edgew. var. albus nov.

On moist slope in shade on river bank, heads
white.

Rappe 2600 m, 45329.

Solidago virga-aurea Linn.

On steep rock fissure, heads yellow.

Thirot 2600 m, 45349.

Taraxacum officinale Wigg.

On dry, stony, west facing, slope, heads
yellow.

Campanulaceae

Campanula latifolia Linn.

On shady slope. In fruit.

Kishori 2600 m, 45938.

Codonopsis rotundifolia Benth.

On shady slope. In fruit.

Kishori 2600 m, 45945.

Primulaceae

Androsace rotundifolia Hardw.

On stony slope along gullies. In fruit.
Roding 3000 m, 45304.

Oleaceae

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides Wall, ex DC.

Most common shrub on dry south facing
slope, near river basin, fruits winged in
attractive fascicles.

Thirot 2000 m, 45353; Triloknath 2500 m,
45952.

* Jasminum bundle Linn.

On south facing submoist slope. In fruit,
flowers yellow.

Thirot 2600 m, 45365.

Syringa emodi Wall, ex D. Don
On shady slope. In fruit.

Hinsa Nala 300 m, 45907.

Gentianaceae

Jaeschkea gentianoides Kurz

On moist irrigated slope, corolla purplish
white, inflated.

Rappe 2800 m, 45323.

Swertia cordata (G. Don) C. B. Clarke
On moist irrigated slope, flowers white.
Shansha 2800 m, 45247; Kishori 2600 m,
45926.

72

BOTANICAL TOUR IN UPPER CHENAB

Boraginaceae

Eritrichium fruticulosum Klotzsch
On shady stony slope, flowers blue.

Kishori 2600 m, 45964.

Pseudomertensia echioides (Benth.) Riedl.

On open rocky slope, flowers purplish blue.
Triloknath 3000 m, 45391.

Solan aceae

Hyoscyamus niger Linn.

In shady waste land flower dull yellow with
purple network.

Shansha 2800 m, 45234.

* Nicotiana rustica Linn.

In shady waste land, flowers palegreen.
Shansha 2800 m, 45339.

Physochlaina praealta Miers

On rocky slope, flowers pale green.
Triloknath 2700 m, 45394.

Solanum nigrum Linn.

On rocky slope facing north, flowers white,
fruits orange.

Triloknath 2800 m, 45932.

S. tuberosum Linn.

Cultivated, excessively flowering & fruiting.
Shansha 2800 m, 45345.

SCROP H U LARI ACE AE

* Euphrasia flabellata Pennell

On moist irrigated slope, flowers white.
Kirting 3000 m, 45307.

Euphrasia jaeschkei Wettst.

On west facing semidry slope, flowers violet.
Rasse 3400 m, 45332.

Limosella aquatica Linn.

In fresh water pool, flowers minute, pale
blue.

Kishori 2600 m, 45991.

Pedicularis pectinata Wall, ex Benth.

On irrigated shady slope. In fruit.
Triloknath 2900 m, 45915.

P. punctata Dene.

On moist open slope, flowers purple.
Thirot 2650 m, 45380.

Scrophularia koelzii Pennell

On dry south-facing slope, flowers pinkish
white.

Opposite Kishori 2700 m, 45946.

Veronica beecabunga Linn.

Along shaded stream, flower pale blue.
Kirting 3000 m, 45315.

V. persica Poir.

On borders of cultivated field, flowers blue.
Kishori 2600 m, 45987.

Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

Clinopodium umbrosum (M.B.) C. Koch.

On moist irrigated slope, flowers pink.
Shansha 2800 m, 45283.

Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hyland.

On shady slope, flowers white.

Kirting 2900 m, 45291, Kishori 2600 m,
45940.

E. densa Benth.

In cultivated field, flowers pink.

Shansha 2800 m, 45262; Triloknath 2800 m,
45920.

* Hyssopus officinalis Linn.

On slopes along river, flowers purplish blue.
Rappe 2600 m, 45330; Kishori 2500 m,
45955.

* Mentha longifolia (Linn.) Huds. var. roy-

leana (Benth.) Raiz. et Saxena
Along water course, flowers pale pink.
Kirting 3000 m, 45277; Kishori 2600 m,
45953.

Nepeta discolor Royle ex Benth.

On west facing dry slopes, flowers blue.
Hinsa Nala 3200 m, 45400.

N. linearis Royle

On south facing stony slope, flowers pale
pink.

Kishori 2600 m, 45950.

73

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

N. spicata Benth.

On borders of cultivated field, flowers blue.
Kishori 2600 m, 45972.

Origanum vulgare Linn.

On dry slopes, flowers white.

Shansha 2900 m, 45252.

Plectranthus rugosus Wall.

On open slopes along river, flowers white.
Kishori 2500 m, 45957.

Salvia nubicola Sweet

On shady moist slope, flowers yellow.
Kishori 2600 m, 45944.

Scutellaria prostrata Jacq. ex Benth.

On dry slopes, flowers yellowish white.
Kirting 2900 m, 45285; Thirot 2600 m; 45389

* Stachys sericea Wall.

On moist irrigated slope, flowers pale pink.
Shansha 2800 m, 45245.

Thymus serpyllum Linn.

On cutting slopes, flowers white.

Kishori 2600 m, 45998.

* Ajuga bracteosa Wall, ex Benth.

In Pinus forest undergrowth, flowers white|
Kishori east 2600 m, 45996.

Plantaginaceae

* Plantago asiatica Linn.

On moist irrigated field, spikes green.
Shansha 2800 m, 45232.

Plantago depressa Willd.

On shady soil slope, spikes green.

Kirting 3000 m, 45296; Kishori 2600 m,
45973.

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus hybridus Linn. ssp. cruentus
(Linn.) Thell.

Cultivated, panicle red or yellow.

Kishori east 2600 m, 46000.

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium album Linn.

In cultivated field, spikes green capitate.
Triloknath 2800 m, 45976.

C. botrys Linn.

Common, not collected.

Shansha 2800 m.

C. foliosum (Moench.) Aschrs.

In dry waste places, fruits red juicy.

Thirot 2600 m, 45378.

* C. hybridum Linn.

In shady waste places, spikes green.
Shansha 2800 m, 45259.

POLYGONACEAE

* Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.

In shady waste places, flowers white.
Shansha 2800 m, 45239.

Oxyria digyna Hill.

On morain slope, flowers yellow, fruits red.
Hinsa Nala 3200 m, 45909.

Polygonum affine D. Don
On stony slope, spikes pink.

Triloknath, Hinsa Nala 3300 m, 45399.

P. al pi mini All.

On north facing irrigated slope, flowers
white.

Triloknath, 2900 m, 45912.

P. aviculare Linn.

Under shade of Solix, flowers white.
Shansha 2800 m, 45230.

* P. dumetorum Linn.

Twining on Hippophae, flowers green, fruits
winged.

Shansha 2800 m, 45259.

* P. glabrum Willd.

On moist cultivated field, flowers pink.
Triloknath 2900 m, 45921.

P. glaciale Hook. f.

On submoist stony slope, flowers pale green.
Hinsa Nala 3200 m, 45390.

74

BOTANICAL TOUR IN UPPER CHENAB

* P. hydropiper Linn. ssp. niegalocarpum

Danser

In shallow water pools, flowers white.

Kishori 2600 m, 45963.

P. paronychioides C. A. Mey.

On dry sandy river bed, flowers pink.

Shansha 2800 m, 45261.

P. polystachyum Wall, ex Meissn.

On moist slope alongside stream, flowers
white.

Kirting 2900 m, 45292.

* P. tubulosum Boiss.

On dry river bed and stony slopes, flowers
pink.

Shansha 2800 m, 45260; Triloknath 3100 m,
45395.

P. vivipanim Linn.

On moist irrigated slope, flowers white.

Triloknath 2900 m, 45929.

Rumex nepalensis Spreng.

Along irrigation canal, flowers green, fruits
with hooked bristly wings.

Triloknath 2900 m, 45918.

Elaeagnaceae

Happophae rhamnoides Linn, subsp. turkista-
nica A. Rausi

Extremely common along gullies and moist
slope, fruits yellow.

Kirting-Shansha 2800 m, 45257; 45270.

Loranthaceae

Arceuthobium oxycedri M. Bieb.

A common parasite on Juniperus poly car pos
forming moss like fascicles. A heavily
infected tree dies after a few years.
There are indications of much damage to
several standing trees. Infections are loca-
lised and not widespread in the valley.

Thirot 2600 m, 45351.

Urticaceae

Parietaria debilis Forst.

Under shade of boulders, flowers minute
pale green.

Kirting 2900 m, 45256.

Urtica dioica Linn.

On shady slope and along hedge, flowers
pale green.

Kishori 2650 m, 45985.

Cannabidaceae

Cannabis sativa Linn.

In waste land around village, flowers white
green.

Shansha 2800 m, 45248, 45249.

JUGLANDACEAE

Juglans regia Linn.

Gregarious on south facing submoist slope
with fruits.

Thirot 2650 m, 45368.

Salicaceae

Salix denticulata Anderss.

Along moist north facing gullies. In fruit,
catkins.

Rasse 3400 m, 45337.

S. oxycarpa Anderss.

Along turbulent stream course. In fruit,
catkins. Largely planted alongside road
in villages.

Kirting 2900 m, 45271.

MONOCOTYLEDONS

Orchidaceae

Herminium monorchis (Linn.) R. Br.

On moist irrigated slope, flowers green.
Triloknath 2900 m, 45930.

75

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Orchis latifolia Linn.

On north facing moist irrigated slope. In
fruit.

Triloknath 2900 m, 45917.

Iridaceae

Iris kumaonensis Wall, ex D. Don
Along shady moist gullies under planted
salices, with fruits.

Kirting 3000 m, 45308.

Liliaceae

Allium ruhellum M. Bieb.

On stone slab along river bank, flowers
purple.

Kishori 2600 m, 45936.

A. sativum Linn.

Occasionally cultivated, flowers white.
Roding 3000 m, 45294.

A. stracheyi Baker

On shady stone slab along river bank, flowers
white.

Kishori 2600 m, 45935.

JUNCACEAE

Juncus hufonius Linn.

On moist shady slope, flowers green.
Kishori 2650 m, 45956.

J. himalensis Klotzsch

Along canals on shady slope, spikes brown.
Kirting 2900 m, 45275; Thirot 2600 m,
45373.

J. lampocarpus Ehrh.

Along canals on shady slope, flowers green.
Thirot 2650 m, 45375.

JUNCAGINACEAE

Triglochin palustre Linn.

On moist shady north-facing slope, with
green fruits.

Triloknath, 2900 m, 45919.

Cyperaceae

* Cyperus squarrosus Linn.

On moist irrigated plain, spikes green.
Shansha 2800 m, 45254.

Eleodiaris palustris R. Br.

In shallow water, spikes white.

Kishori 2600 m, 45990.

Scirpus setaceus Linn.

On moist open field with brownish green
spikes.

Shansha 2800 m, 45255; Kishori, 2600 m,
45954.

POACEAE (GRAMINEAE)

Agropyron canaliculatum Navslci

On sandy river bank, spikes purplish green.
Shansha 2800 m, 45237.

Agrostis canina Linn.

On semidry open plain, spikes pale-brown.
Shansha 2800 m, 45233.

A. stolonifera Linn.

On moist sandy stream bed with purplish
brown panicle.

Kirting 2900 m, 45276.

* Arthraxon prionodes (Steud.) Dandy
On dry stony slope, panicle purple.
Triloknath 2600 m, 45386.

Bothriochloa ischaemum (Linn.) Keng

Gregarious on north-facing slope, panicle
purple.

Kishori 2600 m, 45979.

Bromus japonicus Thunb.

On sandy river bank, spikes purplish green.
Shansha 2800 m, 45231.

Calamagrostis pseudophragmites (Hall, f.)

Koeler

On moist sandy stream bed, panicle purplish
green.

Kirting 2900 m, 45235; Thirot 2650 m, 453 55.

76

BOTANICAL TOUR IN UPPER CHENAB

* Chrysopogon echinulatus (Nees) W. Wats
On open south facing slope, panicle dark

purple.

Roding 3000 m, 45299.

* Cymbopogon schoenanfhus (Linn.) Spreng.
On dry slopes under Juniperus.

Kamri 2700 m, 45377.

Dactylis glomerata Linn.

On moist slope around cultivated field,
spikes white.

Kishori 2600 m, 45989.

* Eragrostis poaeoides P. Beauv.

On fallow fields, panicle blackish green.
Kishori 2600 m, 45981.

* Erianthus ravennae (Linn.) P. Beauv.

On south facing sandy eroded slope, panicle
purple, large,

Kishori 2600 m, 45958.

* Oryzopsis gracilis (Mez) Pilger

On open sandy plain, spikes green, slender.
Shansha 2800 m, 45267.

* O. muitroi Stapf ex Hook f.

On dry south facing barren slope, panicle
green.

Kirting 3600 m, 45318.

* Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.
On moist irrigated north facing slope, pani-
cle dark purple effuse.

Kishori 2600 m, 45937.

Poa annua Linn.

Under shade of Salices, panicle pale green.
Kirting ‘3000 m, 45317.

* Setaria viridis (Linn.) P. Beauv.

On dry sandy plain, spike purple.

Shansha 2800 m, 45264.

* Stipa jacquemontii Jaub. et Spach
On cliffs, spikelets purple.

Rasse 3400 m, 45336.

* S. sibirica (Linn.) Lamk.

Gregarious, forming uniform large lumps,
panicle pale-green.

Rasse 3000-3600 m, 45326.

GYMNOSPERMS

Ephedraceae

Ephedra gerardiana Wall, ex Stapf

On rock fissure, male flowers mostly
shedding.

Roding 3000 m, 45312.

PlNACEAE

Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G. Don

Forming natural forest on north facing slope
also along Maier Nala, with male and
female cones.

Udaipur 2400 m, 45960.

Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss.

Forming natural forest on north facing slope,
associated with Pinus wallichiana, with
male and female cones.

Triloknath 26-3500 m, 45933, 45965.

Pinus wallichiana Jackson

Forming elegant forest on north facing slope
mostly associated with Picea smithiana,
with female cones.

Triloknath 26-3500 m, 45966.

CUPRESSACEAE

Juniperus communis Linn.

In Pinus-Picea forest undergrowth, always
on north-facing slopes. Female cones pre-
sent.

Rasse 34-3600 m, 45328.

J. polycarpos Koch.

Forming natural forest only on dry south
facing slope. Male and female cones pre-
sent.

Thirot 2600 m, 45352.

PTERIDOPHYTES

SELAGI NELL ACE AE

* Selaginella sanguinolenta (Linn.) Spring f.
indica (Medic.) Alston

77

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

On north facing rock fissure. Cones present.
Kishori 2600 m, 41297.

Aspleniaceae

Asplenium septentrionale Hoffm.

Among boulders on west facing slope, sori
brown.

Hinsa Nala 3300 m, 45902.

* A. trichomanes Linn.

Under shade of boulders, sori brown.
Hinsa Nala 3100 m, 45901.

Refer

Aitchison, J. E. T. (1968) : Lahul its flora and
vegetation products. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 10: 69-
101.

Aswal, B. S. & Mehrotra, B. N. (1979): New
Record of Plants from Himachal Pradesh. Ind.
Journ. of Forestry 2 (4) : 322.

Borradaile, J. W. (1928): A journey across the
Himalayas. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 163-168.

Josh i, A. C. (1952) : Aquatic vegetation of

Lahul. Palaebot. India, 1 : 277-280.

Kapahi, B. K. & Sarin, Y. K. (1979) : Contri-
bution to the Botany of Lahul. /. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 74 (Suppl.) : 627-639.

Pteridaceae

* Pellaea gracilis Hook.

Under shade of boulders, sori with broad
indusia.

Triloknath 3000 m, 45398.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to the Director, Dr. S. K.
Jain, for his keen interest. Our sincere thanks
are also due to Dr. M. A. Rau the former
Deputy Director, for his constant encourage-
ment. The facilities for consultation of the
Forest Research Institute Herbarium are
thankfully acknowledged.

E n ce s

Nair, N. C. (1964) : On a botanical tour to Lahul
and Spiti (Punjab Himalaya). Bull. Bot. Surv. India
6(2-4): 219-235.

Randhawa, M. A. (1959): Farmers of India,
Volume 1, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
Kashmir, New Delhi.

Rau, M. A. (1960) : On a collection of plants
from Lahul. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2 (1-2) : 45-56.

(1975): High altitude flowering plants

of West Himalaya. Howrah.

Watt, G. (1881): Notes on the vegetation of
Chamba State and British Lahul. Journ. Linn. Soc.
Bot. 18: 368-382.

78

BHADRA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY AND ITS
ENDANGERED ECOSYSTEM1

K. Ullas Karanth2
{With a map)

Remnants of Karnataka’s once grand wildlife are now concentrated in a few forest
pockets in and around Western Ghats. The little known Bhadra wildlife sanctuary,
is one such area, potentially superior to many of our better known wildlife habitats.
It has many features which make it a priority area for conservation and environmental
management.

It is ironical that this area, which owes its uniqueness to an irrigation project, is now

being threatened by ecologically ill-conceived
economic value.

I N TROD U CTIO N

Karnataka has two major wildlife sanc-
tuaries, at Bandipur and Nagarahole, which
are well known for their fauna. Little-known
Bhadra Wildlife sanctuary, not only far sur-
passes them in scenic beauty but is also
potentially perhaps a better wildlife habitat.
In this paper I make an attempt to fill the gap
in our knowledge of the natural history of
this fascinating area.

In 1951, a part of this area covering 252
sq. km. was constituted as “Jagara Valley
Game Sanctuary”. In 1972, ‘‘Bhadra Wildlife
Sanctuary” was constituted by amalgamating
Jagara Valley with the adjoining Lakkavalli
forests. Bhadra sanctuary, split between Chick-
magalur and Bhadravathi forest divisions, now
has an area of 492 sq. kms. Its two com-
ponent areas, Muthodi and Lakkavalli, are
ecologically somewhat distinct and are almost
conterminous with the two forest ranges of
the same name.

1 Accepted August 1981.

2 268, 16th Main, Mysore-570 009.

developmental activities of rather dubious

It must be noted that considerable forest
area, which forms a part of the sanctuary to
the north of Bhadra reservoir, is in degrad-
ed condition and so do not hold wildlife in
any appreciable numbers.

Materials and Methods

I have visited the sanctuary in 1972, 73, 74,
78 and twice in 1980. Most of the informa-
tion presented here was obtained during a
status survey of the area carried out on behalf
of World Wildlife Fund (Karanth 1978). I
have covered almost the entire area on foot
and by jeep, concentrating particularly on the
favoured wildlife habitats.

Data on the population status of various
wild animals were obtained by means of sight-
ings and other supplementary evidence like
tracks, calls, droppings, wallows etc. Addi-
tional information was obtained from forest
department staff and other reliable local
sources.

These data on the current status of wild
mammals and some reptiles are shown in
Table 1, on a comparative scale used by

79

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Prasad et al. (1979). The bird identifications
were based on Ali and Ripley (1968).

Location and Physical Features
Topography :

Bhadra sanctuary is located in Malnad re-
gion of Karnataka, about 50 km to the east
of Western Ghats. (130° 30' N., 75° 30' E.).

An imposing outspur of the Western Ghats
called Bababudan mountain range rises abrupt-
ly from the Deccan plateau forming a rough
crescent shape here. Inside the ‘crater’ form-
ed by them, the terrain is gently undulating
(670-760 m elevation) but the mountains reach
an elevation of 1200-1500 m. One of these
peaks called “Mullaiahna Giri” is, at 1900 m,
the highest in Karnataka. Inside the ‘crater’
another chain of hills called “Kagemane Giri”
(Crow’s house mountain-in Kannada) further
divides the valley. The wildlife sanctuary
essentially comprises of Muthodi area lying
inside the crescent and Lakkavalli area spread
on the northern outer slopes of Bababudans.

Boundaries and approaches'.

The sanctuary is bounded on the north by
Bhadra reservoir and cultivated plains, on the
east and south by the coffee estates in the
mountains and on the west by Bhadra river.

Muthodi is 32 kms away from Chickmaga-
lur, and Lakkavalli about the same distance
from Shimoga, both being connected by all
weather roads. In addition the entire sanctuary
is traversed by various forest roads, game
roads and unmapped lorry tracks.

Climate :

The temperature in the valley ranges from
10°C to 32°C. Bulk of the rainfall occurs
during the Southwest monsoon, between June
and September. The annual precipitation is

2000-2540 mm and considerably higher than
the 750-1000 mm generally received by the
surrounding plains. This is primarily due to
the great altitude, topography, vegetation and
the consequent characteristic orography of
Bababudans.

Water resources :

Bhadra river, originating in the Western
Ghats, flows in a northeasterly direction along
the foot of the western outer slopes of Baba-
budans. Somavahini river, draining the area
inside the crater passes through a narrow gap
in the mountain walls and joins Bhadra river
at Hebbe.

Further downstream, Bhadra is dammed up
at BR Project area forming a vast (about
200 sq. kms.) reservoir whose backwaters ex-
tend nearly 13 kms backwards and lap at the
foot of the mountain range.

In addition to these major water sources,
there are numerous streams and tanks scat-
tered all over the area, quite a few of them
being perennial sources.

Vegetation

The forests, of the valley floor and north-
ern outer slopes, are of wet deciduous type.
The inner slopes are covered by grassy
downs with wet deciduous semi-evergreen
sholas. On the outer edges of Lakkavalli area,
the forests tend to intergrade into dry deci-
duous type. On the whole, Muthodi area is
wetter and more verdant than Lakkavalli,
particularly in the dry seasons.

The upper forest canopy contains valuable
timber species like Tectona grandis, Dalbergia
latifolia, Terminalia tomentosa, Terminalia
paniculata, Pterocarpus marsupium and Lager-
stroemia lanceolata. Somewhat uniquely, many
fig trees ( Ficus sp.) occur both independently

80

BHADRA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

as well as parasitical strangling figs. The most
noteworthy feature of these forests is the vast
continuous under canopy of bamboos, both
Dendrocalamus strictus and Bamboosa arun-
dinacea occurring extensively. On the forest
floor, dense stands of reeds of Oxytenathera
sp. and Ochlandra sp. can be seen at many
places.

Where the canopy is closed, the forest floor
is carpeted with wild ginger (Globba sp.) and
where it is more open, the weed Eupatorium
has been spreading rapidly.

Low lying areas of the valley floor are
often marshy glades (called ‘Hadlus’) cloth-
ed in luxuriant growth of grasses. There are
also some grassy banks on mountain slopes
and along the edge of the backwaters.

Overall, from the point of view of fodder
availability, the dry season ‘pinch period’
seems less severe in this area than in many
other South Indian sanctuaries.

The natural vegetation has been consider-
ably modified by human activity. Forest de-
partment plantations, mainly of teak, cover
about 6% of the sanctuary area. The inner
slopes of Bababudans is under private coffee
plantations, sometimes encroaching into the
forests. Quite a few of the ‘hadlus’ and river
banks are occupied by paddy farmers.

However, inspite of these drawbacks, it
apparently is still an excellent wildlife habi-
tat, as shown by its faunal wealth.

Wildlife

The present status of wildlife, determined
as accurately as possible, is presented in this
paper. I have not taken into account the
Amphibians, smaller reptiles, common rodents
and Bats. (Table 1).

Reptiles :

Marsh crocodiles used to be found in

Bhadra river in the past, though I could not
get any information on their present status.
Perhaps they have been decimated by dyna-
mite using fish poachers who seem to be
active. Monitor lizards are however fairly
common. Rock Python and Hamadryad (King
Cobra) both occur — the latter being confin-
ed to the Muthodi area.

Birds :

Apart from the great variety of species
encountered, what impressed me was the sheer
numbers of birds found all over the sanctuary,
particularly in Muthodi area. While in many
similar forests, one can walk considerable
distances without coming across birds, in
Muthodi every acre of the forest seems to
be alive with birds! During the brief survey
99 species of birds were identified and half a
dozen escaped identification. The total bird
count for the sanctuary is likely to be over
two hundred species.

Some of the birds noted during the survey
were; Peafowl (Pavo cristatus), Grey Jungle-
fowl (G alius sonneratii ), Red spurfowl {Gal-
loper edix spadicea ), Painted Bush Quail
{Perdicula erythrorhyncha) , Peninsular Turtle
Dove {Streptopelia orientalist , Emerald Dove
( Chalcophaps indica ), Southern Green Impe-
rial Pigeon {Ducula aenea ), Jerdon’s Imperial
Pigeon {Ducula badia ), Malabar Trogon
{Harpactes fasciatus ), Bluebearded Bee-eater
{Nyctyornis athertoni ), Malabar Grey Horn-
bill {Tockus griseus ), Great Black Wood-
pecker {Dryocopus javensis). Pigmy Wood-
pecker {Picoides nanus), Blacknaped Oriole
{Oriolus chinensis). Southern or Whitebellied
Tree Pie {Dendrocitta leucogastra) , South In-
dian Black Bulbul {Hypsi petes madagascari-
ensis ) and Rubythroated Yellow Bulbul
{Pycnonotus melanicterus) . Water birds like
Darter ( Anhinga rufa). Cormorants ( Phalacro -

81

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Table 1

Present status of the major animals of bhadra wildlife sanctuary

Common Name

Scientific Name

Status

Favoured Localities

Muthodi Lakkavalli

Bonnet macaque

Macaca radiata

2

2

Occurs around villages

Common langur

Presbytis entellus

4

4

All over

Slender loris

Loris tardigradus

2

2

Tiger

Panther a tigris

3

2

Kagemanegiri, Tegara gudda

Leopard

Panther a pardus

2

2

Leopard cat

Felis bengalensis

2

2

Jungle cat

Felis chaus

2

2

Rusty spotted cat

Felis rubiginosa

-

-

Part of its nominal range

Small Indian civet

Viverricula indica

-

-

” ”

Common Palm civet

Paradoxurus hermophroditus

2

2

Brown Palm civet

Paradoxurus jerdoni

-

-

Its normal range

Common mongoose

Herpestes edwardsi

2

2

Stripenecked mongoose

Herpestes vitticollis

2

2

Ruddy mongoose

Herpestes smithi

-

-

Part of its range

Brown mongoose

Herpestes fuscus

-

-

Part of its range

Striped hyena

Hyaena hyaena

1

1

very rare

Jackal

Canis aures

3

3

All over

Indian fox

Vulpes bengalensis

-

-

Doubtful

Indian wild dog

Cuon alpinus

3

2

All over

Sloth bear

Melursus ursinus

1

2

Kavalapura

Common otter

Lutra lutra

-

2

Bhadra reservoir

Smooth Indian otter

Lutra perspicillata

-

-

?

Rate!

Mellivora capensis

-

-

Doubtful

Large brown flying squirrel

Petaurista petaurista

2

2

Indian giant squirrel

Rutufa indica

4

4

All over

Indian porcupine

Hystrix indica

3

3

Blacknaped hare

Lepus nigricollis nigricollis

3

3

All over

Elephant

Elephas maximus

3

3

Gaur

Bos gaur us

4

4

Fourhorned antelope

Tetracerus quadricornis

0

-

Sambar

Cervus unicolor

3

3

All over the Muthodi
Region

Spotted deer

Axis axis

2

3

Chandrana hadlu

Barking deer

Muntiacus muntjak

3

3

All over

Mouse deer

Tragulus meminna

2

2

Wild pig

Sus scrofa

4

4

All over

Pangolin

Manis crassicaudata

2

_

Python

Python molurus

2

2

Hamadrayad

Ophiophagus hannah

2

0

Muthodi

Marsh crocodile

Crocodylus palustris

-

-

Monitor lizard

Varanus bengalensis

2

-

0 = Absent; — = No Information; 1 = Rare; 2 = Present; 3 = Frequent; 4 = Very Common.

82

BHADRA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

corax sp.) and Large Egret ( Egretta alba )
were observed on the shallow backwaters.
These with many half submerged trees and
small islands, may attract more water birds
at other times of the year. Potentially, this
part of the sanctuary seems to be an excellant
waterfowl habitat.

Mammals :

Common langur is abundant in the forests
but Bonnet macaque is rather uncommon.
Liontailed macaque is absent.

Tigers are not unusual, as frequent cattle
kills are reported, particularly around Tegara
Gudda and Kagemane Giri, where the Tigers
retreat to avoid the disturbance caused by
bamboo extraction. There may be about half
a dozen tigers, though a census conducted in
1972 reported 12 tigers. Whatever their actual
present population is, by properly managing
the sanctuary, many more tigers will move in
from the adjoining disturbed forest areas. This
is one of the few areas where a breeding popu-
lation of tigers can establish itself, and survive
on natural prey.

Leopards are fairly common particularly in
Lakkavalli area. In 1980 April, I saw a leo
pard stalking langurs near Sukalahatti. Among
other smaller carnivores, like cats, civets and
mongooses, I could positively determine the
existence of a few. However, some other
species about which no information could be
obtained are also likely to be present (Prater
1965).

Striped hyenas are rare in the sanctuary.
They seem to be more common in the drier
plains and also used to be common in the
heavy rainfall regions of Karnataka’s coastal
districts. But for some ecological reason they
seem to avoid the wet deciduous forest tracts
between the Western Ghats and the plains of
Deccan. Wild dog tracks are found all over
the area.

Sloth bears are rare and mostly confined to
higher regions of Lakkavalli. There is a record
of a bear being run over by a truck near
Muthodi in the early seventies. This relative
scarcity of bears here, when compared to the
wet deciduous forests of Mysore plateau and
evergreen forests of Western Ghats, is rather
intriguing.

Giant squirrels are abundant and otters
(Lutra sp.) are reported to occur in Bhadra
reservoir.

Elephants occur in all parts of the sanctuary
and seem to migrate locally between Muthodi
and Lakkavalli depending to some extent on
the ripening of paddy crops in the villages in
and around the forests. During November
1980, for instance, most of the elephants seem-
ed to be in Muthodi area.

Gaur certainly are the pride of Bhadra.
Ecological suitability of the habitat coupled
with the isolation of this area from the out-
breaks of Rinderpest in 1968, seem to be the
cause of their relative abundance. At a very
rough guess, there may be around 1000 gaur
here. They are certainly more numerous here
than in many of the better known sanctuaries
of our country. The large proportion of calves
seen with the herds indicates a growing popu-
lation. Also apparently, the carrying capacity
of the habitat seems to be adequate for the
gaur population since they do not raid crops
here as in other parts of their range in Western
Ghats. However, with the flowering/ death of
bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus in 1980, there
will be a severe reduction of fodder availabi-
lity to gaur and elephants. The death of
bamboo and consequent opening up of the
canopy will further increase fire hazards and
accelerate the spread of Eupatorium weed,
which in turn will further reduce fodder sup-
ply to the wild herbivores. Consequently,

83

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

\JUNCTU

[lakkavau

BHADRA

RESERVOIR

KAVALAPUR'
FL. v.

5UKALHA1TI

• FLc/-'“V

HiPLA

/ J AGAR A

CULTIVATION

BHADRA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

-to .

jfihimoga

i To Bhadravath*

UMBLt

&VLE

4 KMS.

— sanctuary Boundary

Roads

water source
— A— * Crestline Of Hills

° Village

@ Good Wildlife

Localities

M Mining (proposed)

corpse

ESTATE

malige

M . />•"

KOOI W/J

p!r /S'

jZ< rrs

Vatti

GUN&I

to chiick»ma«»lur

/Wkemmawa-

vj \\ GUNDI

AA ^

Mi f

}~Z> (

to s<an9*meshwarpet

BHADRA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

incidence of crop raiding and conflict with the
farmers will also increase.

Sambar, spotted deer, barking deer, wild
pig and mouse deer occur. The four-horned
antelope does not occur in the sanctuary
though its presence in the drier fringes of
Lakkavalli cannot be entirely ruled out.

With a minimum of management, primarily
in terms of antipoaching work and rational
forestry, this splendid area will be an ideal
habitat for a wide range of wild animals.
Even now, Chandrana Hadlu, Dodda Hadlu,
Nagara bhavi, Tegara Gudda, Kavalapura,
Koramar gudda and Sukhalatti are excellent
loclities for wildlife (see map).

Conservation and associated problems:

Dams and irrigation projects have generally
spelled disaster for forests and wildlife in our
country. Bhadra wildlife sanctuary so far
seems to be a happy exception to this rule!
Bhadra reservoir created in the sixties, com-
pletely cut off the two main roads running
through this area, connecting Chickmagalur to
towns in Shimoga district. As a result, the
wildlife rich Muthodi valley became isolated
and remained mercifully backward in terms
of “development”, as measured in our coun-
try. In the seventies, some dynamic officers
of the State Forest Department armed with
the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) did, to
some extent, curtail the rampant poaching
spree of earlier days. All these factors helped
the wildlife populations to recover and the
sanctuary improved gradually upto 1978.

Since then, however, human pressures are
building up again and are likely to undo all
the good work of the past.

1. The State Irrigation Department, is plan-
ning a dam across Somavahini river within the
Muthodi valley, to divert its waters from the

Bhadra reservoir to irrigate some other areas
beyond the Bababudan mountains! If this pro-
ject with its rather nebulous ‘economic value’
is executed, the forestry, agriculture and wild-
life in the entire valley will be totally des-
troyed.

2. National Mineral Development Corpora-
tion’s (NMDC) investigations indicate the
feasibility of establishing magnetite ore mines
on the inner slopes of Bababudans. These are
visualised to be three times the size of the
gigantic (Rs. 6000 million) Kudremukh Pro-
ject. The environmental impact of these, on
the local rainfall pattern (vital to the coffee
crop), soil, siltation rate in Bhadra reservoir,
forestry resources and wildlife have been ignor-
ed. However, due to problems connected with
the international iron ore market, this parti-
cular threat seems to be off, temporarily.

3. State Government owned Mysore Paper
Mills at Bhadravathi has started intensive ex-
traction of bamboo in the sanctuary since
1978. So far, this extraction has been done in
a most haphazard manner, with scarcely a
thought for wildlife and its requirements. I
feel, the wildlife sanctuary, or at least a suffi-
ciently large part of it vital to wildlife, must
be left unexploited. Of late, there seems to
be some interest being shown by the paper
mills in these things. Incidentally, this paper
mill has gaur (bison) as its trade mark!

4. This wildlife sanctuary badly needs effec-
tive management in terms of anti-poaching
work, fire protection, relocation of villages, con-
trol over grazing by domestic cattle and ill-
conceived plans for ‘wildlife tourism’. I was
particularly unhappy to note that since 1979,
antipoaching work seems to have declined and
poaching seemed to be on the increase.
Prompt payment of compensation for cattle
killed by carnivores has also declined during
this period, endangering tigers. All these

85

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

lacunae are likely to prove disastrous for the
wildlife, in an area like this, surrounded as
it is, by wealthy, trigger-happy planters and
farmers.

Conclusions

It is hoped that various organisa-
tions concerned with conservation will take
note of this and pressurise the State and Cen-
tral Governments to take immediate steps to
properly manage this area, ecologically vital
not only for its wildlife but also to the rich
agricultural systems and industries that depend
on it.

Refe

Alt, S. A. and Ripley, S. D. (1968): Handbook
of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volumes 1 to
10, Bombay.

Karanth, K. U. (1978) : Status Survey Report:
Jagara Valley (Mimeographed). Bangalore.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Dr. Mewa Singh, who made
many useful suggestions. Also, I have bene-
fited greatly from discussions with Rev. C. J.
Saldanha of St. Joseph’s College, Bangalore.

I am grateful to the World Wildlife fund
which sponsored the 1978 visit, and Karna-
taka Forest Department which provided gene-
rous co-operation. I particularly thank Mrs. D.
Variava, M. A. Parthasarathy, K. R. Sethna
(all concerned with WWF) and U. T. Alva,
P. D. Gaonkar (Conservators of forests) and
Devraju, R. G. Kenchappa, M. M. Nissar,
Krishna Urs (RFO’s) and their subordinates.

ENCES

Prater, S. H. (1965): Book of Indian Animals.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Prasad, S. N., Nair, P. V., Sharatchandra, H.
C. and Gadgil, Madhav (1979) : On factors govern-
ing the distribution of Wild mammals in Karna-
taka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (3) : 718-743.

86

THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE NEST-GUARDING
SALTWATER CROCODILE ( CROCODYLUS POROSUS ,
SCHNEIDER) — A PRELIMINARY QUANTITATIVE

STUDY1

H. R. Bustard2 & S. Maharana3
(With a text-figure)

C. porosus usually guards the nest from one or more wallows. Nest-guarding is not
a continuous process and in the present study on a captive female, occupied 75%
of the total observation period. The crocodile retreated to the pool in the early
hours of the morning and also during the day, presumably on thermoregulatory
considerations. Absences were usually of short duration, mean 1.46 hours. Nest-
guarding occurred from different sites. The imolications for management are discussed.

Introduction

Nest-guarding in crocodiles is well known
Cott (1971); Bustard (in press) for reviews
and C. porosus is no exception Deraniyagala
(1939); Bustard and Choudhury (in press)
Choudhury and Bustard (1979). The Nile
Crocodile (C. niloticus ) is said to remain in
attendance at or near the nest site during the
whole three months incubation period (Cott
1971). Cott, however, also mentions females,
whose nesting sites were exposed to the full
heat of the sun, visiting the water to cool
off (Cott 1961) as does Modha, (1967). Cott
(1971) pointed out, “Little is known of the
night life of females during the incubation
period. A crocodile is nocturnally aquatic:
yet females are certainly found occupying the
grounds at night. However, no all-night obser-
vations on particular individuals have been

1 Accepted September 1980.

2 Central Crocodile Breeding and Management
Training Institute, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road,
Hyderabad-500 264.

3 Department of Zoology, Ravenshaw College,
Cuttack.

made, and we do not know to what extent an
all-night vigil is maintained.”

Cott also produced evidence suggesting that
the female Nile crocodile fasts throughout the
incubation period. When the nest site was at
a distance from the water, Cott referred to
females being found in a comotose state as
the incubation proceeds and concluded,

“It seems almost certain that such crocodiles
remain on the rookery until hatching time,
without once visiting the water.”

It has been assumed, perhaps on the basis
of the nest-guarding behaviour of the Nile
crocodile, that the saltwater crocodile behaves
similarly. Loveridge (1946) encouraged this
view stating that the female porosus digs two
wallows and remains in one or the other during
the incubation period. Deraniyagala (1939)
believed this to be the case in C. porosus and
gave as corroborating evidence the fact that
two nest-guarding crocodiles shot by him had
empty stomachs. As pointed out by Chou-
dhury and Bustard (1979) the stomachs of
many crocodiles are empty in nature, (Cott
1961) so that this is not conclusive evidence

87

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

that the nest-guarding females were not
feeding.

During visits to many C. porosus nests, prin-
cipally in Northern Australia and India, the
senior author has noted presence or absence
of the nest-guarding females. When absent,
fresh tracks are often visible leading to the
water, strongly suggesting that the adult croco-
dile has been in the vicinity (Webb et al.
1977; Choudhury and Bustard, in press).

In a study of nest predation Choudhury
and Bustard (1979) pointed out the import-
ance of knowing more about these absences
from the nest — particularly their frequency
and duration. This information has important
implications in the field of management and
conservation — it being necessary to be able
to quantitatively assess the survival value of
nesting-guarding behaviour to the progeny.
No quantitative data on this aspect have been
published.

Materials and Methods

Information was obtained from a female
saltwater crocodile reared from infancy in
Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa which
laid eggs in each of the past three years
(Acharjyo and Misra, in press). At the time
the observations were made (August 1978)
the female was stated to be 14 years old, and
measured approximately 3 m. The enclosure
measures 10.5 x 9.3 m, with a cement boun-
dary wall 1.3 m high. A pool approximately
5x5 m, with maximum depth of 1.1 m, occu-
pies between one-quarter to one-third of the
total area. The substrate is red laterite with
rubble and stones with sand in parts. Only
one of the four trees in the enclosure is large,
this is an 8.5 m Indian almond ( Terminalia
catappa), the other are rain trees ( Samanea
samari).

The female constructs her nest each year
near the Terminalia tree, digs the wallow at
a distance of 1.2 m from the nest and savage-
ly defends the nest against intruders. Since
there is no male, the eggs are infertile. It
should be noted that unmated crocodiles like
this may lay eggs in captivity and presumably
also in the wild. This is probably one expla-
nation for clutches occurring in nature which
are completely infertile. The captive female
guards the nest viciously driving off even
human intruders throughout the entire incuba-
tion period.

Continuous, round the clock observations
were maintained on the crocodile enclosure
using a team of research assistants assisted by
the junior author over a period of 77 hours
commencing at 1900 hours on 3 August 1978.

Nest guarding was only scored from the pool
when the crocodile remained near the pool-
side immediately adjacent to the nest.

Results

Behaviour of the nest-guarding female

During the incubation season the behaviour
of the female undergoes a pronounced change.
Instead of its normal, lethargic disinterested
posture, typical of zoo crocodilians used to
the public, it is alert, closely observing any
activity around its enclosure and at the same
time keeping a watch over the nest, any ani-
mal entering the pool at such time is attack-
ed. The keeper cannot enter the pool through-
out the incubation period. Even when not
specifically guarding the nest the female re-
mains alert — the whole behaviour is mark-
edly different from other times of the year.

Nest-guarding is used here to indicate that
the female is in close proximity to the nest,
lying either in the wallow adjacent to the nest,
on the land beside and facing the nest, or in

88

NEST-GUARDING BY C. POROSUS

the pool with the head protruding from the
water near the edge of the pool closest to the
nest. In contradistinction, were it to lie along
the edge of the land area adjacent to the com-
pound wall or rest in the pool where this
adjoins the outer compound wall where it is
close to visitors (which is a common resting
position at other times of the year) it would
not be considered to be nest-guarding.

N est- guar ding

It was observed that nest-guarding was not
a continuous process. However, during this
period, nest-guarding occurred for 60 of the
77 hours (75.3% of the observed period). This
behaviour is shown diagramatically in
Figure 1.

A diurnal pattern can be seen in the acti-
vities (Figure 1). There was a retreat to the
water in the early morning on all days (pro-
bably because of the cool night temperature,
the pool being warmer). This again occurred
in the early afternoon — the hottest part of
the day — probably to cool off.

As indicated in the Figure these were diffe-
rences between days. The crocodile was absent
from the nest for 10i of the first 29 hours and
subsequently, for 3} and 5\ hours in each
succeeding 24 hour day, a percentage ab-
sence of 36.2, 14.6 and 20.8 per cent respec-
tively. With the exception of the first night,
when perhaps nocturnal observation tempora-
rily upset the normal behaviour pattern (the
zoo closes to the visitors half an hour before

//22y22222^

l i i i i

O I I I I i Sami I I I I 12 I I I I I 6pml I I I I O
midnight noon midnight

Fig. 1. The record commences at 1900 hours on 3 August 1978 (top right) and runs continuously from
left to right (here split up into days for convenience) until midnight on 6 August. Symbols : open
areas — crocodiles inside water not nest-guarding diagonal lines — nest-guarding from wallow; horizontal
lines — nest-guarding from the pool; solid black — nest-guarding from land.

89

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

sunset), there was a prolonged period of nest-
guarding of 8, 5 and 8 hours respectively in
each of the succeeding days. On the first day
the two longest continuous gaps in nest-
guarding of the three day observation period
were observed. These were 4 hours between
2100 and 0100 hours and 3 hours between
1000 and 1300 hours. However, absences were
usually of short duration, about 1 hour. The
mean for the 13 observed absences being 1.46
hours.

The longest period of continuous nest-
guarding activity was 12 hours (1300-0100
hours) on the first day.

Nest-guarding stations

In the present study the crocodile guarded
the nest from the wallow, from a position in
the water immediately adjacent to the nest,
and from the land other than in the wallow.
The division of time spent between the vari-
ous nest-guarding stations is also shown in
Figure 1. A total of 29 hours of nest-guarding
was carried out from the wallow close to the
nest. This represented 49.2% of the total nest-
guarding time. Twentynve hours were spent
guarding the nest from the water of the pool
(42.4% of nest-guarding time) and only 5
hours (8.5% of the time) from the land other
than the wallow.

Discussion

This study shows that the nest-guarding
female does not guard the nest continuously
as is confirmed in nature by sometimes find-
ing females absent from the nests, Webb et
al. (1977); Bustard (in press); Bustard &
Choudhury (in press); and Choudhury &
Bustard (1979). However, since the present
study is quantitative it provides insight into
the amount of time the female may spend
away from the nest.

The study also indicates the importance of
the wallows in nest-guarding. Neill, as recent-
ly as 1971, has doubted that the saltwater
crocodile digs wallows tor nest-guarding pur-
poses. However, presence of wallows is cer-
tainly the normal situation in both the Austra-
lian and Indian regions — at opposite ends
of the geographic range, Deraniyagala (1939);
Webb et al. (1979); Bustard (in press) Bus-
tard & Choudhury (in press); Choudhury &
Bustard (1979). These data strongly suggest
that wallows occur throughout the range of
the species, so that it is surprising that Neill
had not encountered them.

In the present enclosure, it is probable that
the pool (approximately 5 x 5 m) functions
like a large wallow in nature. Both Webb et
al. (1977); and Bustard & Choudhury (in
press) have pointed out that there are two
kinds of wallows, the latter sometimes re-
sembling a pool, see Webb et al. (1977,
Figure 2). If this hypothesis is accepted, then
guarding from the wallow is seen to occur
91.1% of the total nest-guarding time — split
almost evenly between the two types of
wallows. As pointed out by Choudhury &
Bustard (1979) the latter type of wallow has
psychological advantages for the nest-guarding
crocodile in that it can lie completely hidden.
However, surveillance of the nest is probably
better from the smaller wallows.

Both Webb et al. and Choudhury & Bus-
tard have also pointed out the temperature
(thermoregulatory) advantage of the wallow
especially when the nest is exposed to direct
sun for part of the day.

As assessment of the survival value of the
progeny of nest-guarding depends on the
efficiency of nest-guarding, of which length of
absence from the nest — both the actual time
at which absences occurred and also their
duration — is an important factor. Observa-

90

NEST-GUARDING BY C. POROSUS

tions in the wild have to be made extremely
carefully since as pointed out by Cott (1971);
Bustard (1978, in press); Bustard and Chou-
dhury (in press) and Choudhury and Bus-
tard (1979); crocodiles have learnt to fear
man and generally nowadays do not protect
their nests against man. However, there are am-
ple data to show that this was not the case for-
mally. Cott (1971); S. Kar (pars, comm.)
and Bustard and Choudhury (in press) have
data showing defence of the nest by the nest-
guarding crocodiles in India today. It is per-
haps important to stress that active nest-
guarding does take place, since due to chang-
ed behaviour towards man, perhaps as a result
of large-scale hunting, this may be easily over-
looked. For instance, Webb et al. (1977) state,
“It is not known whether C. porosus protect
the nest against predators or not.”

Crocodiles exhibit rapid learning (Bustard
1968) and it is most important to bear this
in mind in the field during ecological studies,
in order to keep interference with their normal
behaviour to an absolute minimum.

The retreat to the pool in the early morn-
ing (night) hours and again in the heat of the
day serves to underline the value of the larger
type of wallow (with which it is suggested
that the pool is synonymous) in thermoregu-
lation. Undoubtedly, these cyclical movements
are temperature-related.

In India, for instance, the water monitor
Varanus salvator, perhaps the most serious
non-human predator, is entirely diurnal.
Varanus are important nest predators through-
out the range of porosus as are wild pigs (true
wild pigs or feral pigs as in Australia/New
Guinea) .

The prolonged period of nest-guarding,
commencing around nightfall, is most signifi-
cant as this is likely to be the time of greatest
predation. Most animals are active in the

evening hours (postcrepuscular) and it is at
such times that potential egg eaters such as
wild pigs, are most likely to be active. Con-
versely, retreat to the water during the heat
of the day is not very serious if found to
occur in nature as at such times most poten-
tial predators will also be lying up. Even
diurnal predators such as V. salvator are like-
ly to have a bimodal activity pattern with acti-
vity reduced or absent during the hottest
hours.

During the nest-guarding period the female
crocodile did not accept food daily as normal.
There is indication of reduced appetite during
the nest-guarding season.

There may have been differences in this
captive situation compared to the wild state.
However, disturbance effects, to the extent
that these may have been present in an animal
raised from infancy in the zoo, were most
likely to interrupt the nest-guarding activity
than strengthen it. The study shows a very
well developed nest-guarding activity and ab-
sences from nest-guarding usually of short
duration.

Management implications of maternal care
in C. porosus — the nest-guarding phase
should not be looked at in isolation — are
discussed by Bustard & Choudhury (in press).

This preliminary study should be followed
by an investigation over a longer period. It
is hoped to conduct this during the 1980 nest-
ing season. It would also be extremely valua-
ble to parallel this work with a similar study
conducted in the wild, as would be possible,
for instance, in the Bhitar Kanika Saltwater
Crocodile Sanctuary in Orissa.

Acknowledgements

We thank Orissa Forest Department for re-
search facilities for one of us (S.M.) to carry
out work at Nandankanan Biological Park,

91

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Orissa. We thank Mr. B. C. Choudhury and cript and Mr. B. C. Choudhury for preparing
Dr. J. B. Sale for critical reading of the manus- the figure.

References

Acharjyo, L. N. & Misra, C. G. (In press) :
Egg-laying and Nest-guarding behaviour of Estua-
rine Crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus ) in captivity. In
Indian Crocodiles — Conservation and Research.
Occ. Pubis. 1, Cen. Croc. Br. Mgmt. Trg. Inst.,
Hyderabad, India.

Bustard, H. R. (1968) : Rapid learning in wild
crocodiles ( Crocodylus porosus). Herpetologica 24
(2): 173-175.

(In press) : Crocodile Population

Ecology and Management. Zool. Surv. Ind. Symp.
on Animal Ecology, Calcutta.

(In press) : Parental Care in

Crocodiles, with special Reference to Indian Croco-
diles — a Review. In Indian Crocodiles — Conserva-
tion and Research. Occ. Pubis. 1 Cen. Croc. Br.
Mgmt. Trg. Inst., Hyderabad, India.

& Choudhury, B. C. (In press) :

Parental care in the Saltwater Crocodile ( Croco-
dylus porosus, Schneider). In Indian Crocodiles —
Conservation and Research. Occ. Pubis. 1 Cen. Croc.
Br. Mgmt. Trg. Inst., Hyderabad, India.

Choudhury, B. C. & Bustard, H. R. (1979):
Predation on natural nests of the Saltwater Croco-
dile ( Crocodylus porosus Schneider) on North

Andaman Island with notes on the crocodile popu-
lation. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76 (2): 311-323.

Cott, H. B. (1961) : Scientific results of an in-
quiry into the ecology and economic status of the
Nile Crocodile ( Crocodylus niloticus ) in Uganda
and Northern Rhodesia. Trans, zool. Soc. Lond. 29:
211-356.

(1971) : Parental care in Crocodilia,

with special reference to Crocodylus niloticus. In
Crocodiles IUCN Pubis. N. S. Suppl. Pap. No. 32:
166-180.

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1939): The Tetrapod
Reptiles of Ceylon 1. Testudinates and Crocodilians.
Colombo Museum, Ceylon.

Loveridge, A. (1946) : Reptiles of the Pacific
World. Macmillan, New York.

Modha, M. L. (1967) : The Ecology of the Nile
Crocodile ( Crocodylus niloticus) on Central Island,
Lake Rudolf. E. Afr. Wildlife J. 5: 74-95.

Neill, W. T. (1971) : The Last of the Ruling
Reptiles. Alligators, Crocodiles and their Kin. Colum-
bia University Press, New York.

Webb, G. J. W., Messel, H. & Magnusson, W.
(1977) : The Nesting of Crocodylus porosus in
Arnhen Land, Northern Australia. Copeia, 1977 (2) :
238-249.

92

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CERTAIN RARE,
ENDANGERED OR ENDEMIC PLANTS OF MEGHALAYA
WITH A BRIEF REMARK ON THE FLORA1

R. R. Rao and K. Haridasan2

Introduction

In India, as elsewhere, the main causes for
disappearence or threat to species are defore-
station, afforestation with single species, and
introduction and spread of foreign weeds (Rao
1979). With the disturbance of the natural
habitat, a large number of species are threat-
ened with extinction in India. A preliminary
list of such endangered or threatened plants
of the country has been recently compiled by
Jain and Sastry (1980). Disturbance or clear-
ence of natural vegetation in Meghalaya has
especially rendered a large number of species
rare or endangered, which were otherwise
quite common at a time, when Flora of British
India (Hooker 1872-97) was compiled. Recent
studies by us on the flora of Meghalaya re-
veals a large number of such rare species with
limited distribution in the state. Most of these
species have not been reported by Jain and
Sastry (op. cit.), and are therefore enumerated
in this paper.

Location and general features of

VEGETATION OF MEGHALAYA

The state of Meghalaya lies between 25°
47' and 20° 10' N and 89° 45' to 92° 47' E
in north-east India. The topography of the
region is remarkable with undulating hills and

1 Accepted June 1981.

2 Department of Botany, North-Eastern Hill Uni-
versity, Shillong.

steep slopes dissected by a network of rivers
and their tributaries. These hills constituting
the Sub-Himalayan ranges have access to the
Himalayas, south China, Malay Peninsula
through Burma and to Peninsular India. This
has resulted in an astonishingly high floristic
diversity.

The vegetation of Meghalaya has been cate-
gorised under the tropical and temperate types
(Rao and Panigrahi 1961, Rao 1974). The
tropical vegetation is confined to elevations
up to 1800 m and comprises of (a) tropical
evergreen and semievergreen forests along the
high rainfall area of the southern belt (b)
tropical deciduous forests occupying a major
portion of the state and include such econo-
mically important species as Tectona grandis,
Shorea robusta, Pterocarpus marsupium and
others (c) subtropical pine forests (with Pinus
kesiya) as the chief element over the high
altitudes of Khasi and Jaintia hills.

The temperate forests in Meghalaya are
chiefly confined to elevations between 1800 m
to 1950 m. The dense patch of ‘Sacred forests’
at Shillong Peak and Mawphlang represent the
true temperate forests, which show a high
percentage of Himalayan elements. These
sacred forests which are almost untouched due
to religious beliefs represent the relict flora of
the region and now act as sanctuaries for
most of the rare, endangered or endemic plant
species, which could have been probably fair-
ly well distributed at one time.

The forests, in Meghalaya, have suffered

93

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

heavy deforestation, mainly due to the evil
practice of the so called ‘jhumming’ or shifting
agriculture, which involves cutting down and
burning of forests for agriculture for a period
of 2 or 3 years and then following the area.
In fact it can be said that there is hardly
any area in Meghalaya which has not been
jhummed at one time or other (except the
sacred forests), with the result that the once
luxuriant forest covered hills in the state, are
now turned to grasslands and barren areas
(Rao 1979). Comparative studies on the vege-
tation of sacred forests with that of adjacent
areas can give us an indication of the extent
to which the original forests might have been
disturbed. Thus, deforestation in Meghalaya
has resulted in the disappearence or has made
rare a number of taxa. Such rare or threaten-
ed plants are now confined only to some
sacred forests or to small, comparatively less
disturbed pockets of vegetation in the state.

Enumeration of rare, endangered or

ENDEMIC PLANTS OF MEGHALAYA

The paper reports 70 species which are
either rare, endangered or endemic in Megha-
laya along with their habit, previous distri-
bution and present occurrence in Meghalaya.

In the following enumeration of rare, en-
dangered or endemic plants of Meghalaya, the
species are alphabetically arranged. Cate-
gories3 or status of taxa like Rare (R), ende-
mic (E), endangered (EN) and vulnerable
(V) are indicated and this is abbreviated as
shown. Then follow the name of the family
to which the species belong. This is followed
by brief notes on distribution in India and in

3 The definitions for these various categories have
been provided by Jain and Sastry (op. cit.).

4 The abbreviation ‘NEHU’ is yet to find a place
in ‘Index HerbariorunT.

Meghalaya; and citation of voucher specimens,
which are deposited in the Herbarium, North-
Eastern Hill University, Shillong (NEHU4)

Acer laevigatum Wall. (R) (Aceraceae).

Trees; Temperate Himalayas from Shillong
Simla to Khasi hills; now confined only to
sacred forests of Shillong peak and Mawph-
lang in Meghalaya. Haridasan 2393.

Agapetes obovata Hk. f. (V) (Vacciniaceae)
Epiphytic shrubs; Khasi hills. Presently this
species is confined only to sacred groves of
Shillong peak, Mawphlang and Mawsmai.
Haridasan 10005.

A pi os carnea Benth. (R) (Fabaceae)
Twiners; Nepal and Khasi hills. We have
recorded this only from Laitkor and Shillong
peak forests. Haridasan 2395.

Apodites benthamiana Wt. (V) (Olacinaceae)
Trees; Hooker reports this from western
peninsula, Nilgiris and Meghalaya. We have
noted this only from Mawlai in Khasi hills.
Haridasan 5271.

Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. (E) (Moraceae)
Deciduous trees, throughout the north-east
India, tropical Himalaya and Burma; we have
recorded this only from Baghmara and Damra
of Garo hills. Haridasan 4620.

Baliospermum micranthus Muell.-Arg. (V)
(Euphorbiaceae)

Small trees; Hooker reports this from Khasi
and Jaintia hills; presently confined to sacred
forests of Mawsmai only. Haridasan 2898.

Berchemia floribunda Wall, ex Brandis (R)
(Rhamnaceae)

Shrubs; Tropical himalayas. East Bengal
and Khasi hills (Hooker 1872-97). Very rare
in Meghalaya, collected only once from
Mawlai. Haridasan 5272.

94

DISTRIBUTION OF ENDANGERED PLANTS

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (V)
(Fabaceae)

Trees; Common throughout India and
Burma extending to Malaya. Confined to Garo
hills in Meghalaya; the population of this
species has been considerably reduced. Hari-
dasan 2799.

Campanumoea javanica Bl. (V) (Campanu-
laceae)

Twiners; Sikkim and eastwards to Burma
and Java; now only recorded from Shillong,
Nongstoin and Jowai. The population of this
species is considerably reduced. Haridasan
3391.

Cardamine impatiens L. (R) (Brassicaceae)
Herbs; Temperate Himalayas, Sikkim to
Bhutan; Asia and Europe. Collected only
once in Shillong, very rare. Haridasan 4600.

Chirita hamosa R. Br. (E and EN) (Gesne-
riaceae)

Herbs; Hooker records this from Khasi
hills, Burma and Malaya. Very rare in Megha-
laya and the present report forms the second
report from this region; confined to limestone
forests of Balphakram in Meghalaya. Hari-
dasan 10067.

Clerodendrum hastatum Lindl. (EN) (Verbe-
naceae)

Shrubs; Khasi hills and Sylhet (Hooker
1872-97); we have recorded this only once
from Umsemlem. Haridasan 4568.

Coldenia procumbens L. (R) (Boraginaceae)
Herbs; Throughout Tropical India, Africa,
Asia and Australia; but we have recorded only
once as a weed in paddy fields at Baghmara
of Garo hills. Haridasan 2796.

Connarus paniculatus Roxb. (V) (Connara-
ceae)

Trees; Sylhet and Khasi hills; now confined

to Sacred forests of Mawsmai only; the popu-
lation of this species has considerably reduced.
Haridasan 4796.

Corylopsis himalayana Griff. (V) (Hama-
melidaceae)

Shrubs; Khasi hills, Bhutan and S. China;
now the population of this species has consi-
derably reduced and is found along a narrow
belt in the eastern part of the state. Haridasan
10253.

Dalhousiea bracteata Grah. (R) (Fabaceae)
Scandent shrubs; Eastern Himalaya, Assam
and Sylhet. In Meghalaya very rare and col-
lected only from Umtesar, Khasi hills. Hari-
dasan 4684.

Daphniphyllum himalayense Muell.-Arg.
(EN) (Daphniphyllaceae)

Trees; Temperate Himalaya, Mishmi hills
and Sikkim and Khasi hills. We have recorded
this only from the sacred groves at Shillong
Peak, Mawsynram and Mawphlang; another
species with a decreased population. Haridasan
4791.

Dipsacus asper Wall, ex DC. (V) (Dipsaca-
ceae)

Herbs; Khasi hills; now the population of
this species in Meghalaya is highly reduced.
Haridasan 3392.

Elaeocarpus acuminatus Wall, ex Mast. (R)
(Elaeocarpaceae)

Trees; East Bengal and Assam and Khasi
hills; we have collected this only from sacred
forests of Shillong Peak. The population of
this species has also been reduced considera-
bly. Haridasan 4297.

Elaeocarpus prunifolius Wall, ex Mast. (R)
(Elaeocarpaceae )

This has been recorded from Sylhet and
Khasi hills; but now it is seen only in sacred

95

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

forests near Jarain in Jaintia hills. Haridasan
2055.

Endospermum chinense Benth. (V) (Euphor-
biaceae)

Trees; Kanjilal et cd. (1934-40) report that
this is very common throughout the province;
but now it is very rarely met with along the
banks of rivers near Lailad, Khasi Hills.
Haridasan 5296.

Engelhardtia wallichiana Lindl. (R) (Juglan-
daceae)

Trees; Khasi and Jaintia hills; Now only
few trees are noticed in Lailad of Khasi hills.
Haridasan 3396.

Epipogeum roseum Lindl. (R) (Orchidaceae)
Saprophytic orchids; Tropical Himalayas,
Nepal, Sikkim and Khasi hills. In Meghalaya,
extremely rare and we have collected this only
once near Nongpoh. Haridasan 5281.

Erycibe peguensis Roxb. (R) (Convolvula-
ceae)

Large climbers; Throughout India, Hima-
layas, Malaya and Australia; But we have col-
lected this only from Mahadeo in Garo hills.
Haridasan 4175.

Euonymus bullatus Wall, ex Lindl. (EN)
(Celastraceae)

Small trees; Khasi and Jaintia hills; Now
found only at sacred forests in Mawsmai.
Haridasan 4664.

Fraxinus floribunda Wall. (V) (Oleaceae)
Trees, Temperate and subalpine Himalayas
(Hooker 1872-97); in the entire Meghalaya
we have noticed only a couple of trees near
Malki in Shillong. Haridasan 4548.

Galeola falconeri Hk. f. (R) (Orchidaceae)
Parasitic orchids; subtropical Himalaya and
Sikkim; in Meghalaya, extremely rare and

collected only once in Tura peak. My rt hong
1841.

Gastrodia exilis Hk. f. (R) (Orchidaceae)
Saprophytic orchids; Hooker (1872-97) re-
ports this from Khasi hills; there are no col-
lections of this in the Assam herbarium;
our collections from Raliang sacred forest
forms a second report from this region.
Haridasan 3387.

Goniothalamus simonsii Hk. f. & Th. (R)
(Annonaceae)

Small trees; Hooker reports this from Khasi
hills. Presently it is restricted only to the
Lailad area of Nongkyllem reserve forest in
Meghalaya. Haridasan 10288.

Hedera helix L. (V) (Araliaceae)

Climbers; Khasi hills, Bhutan Himalayas;
in the present Khasi hills the population of
this species is getting reduced due to forest
clearings. Haridasan 2400.

Hymenodictyon excelsum Wall. (R) (Rubia-
ceae)

Trees; W. Himalaya, Nepal and Bangla
Desh; we have recorded this only once in
Tura peak. Haridasan 4621.

Ilex khasiana Purkaystha (V) (Aquifolia-
ceae)

Trees reported from Khasi hills; now there
are only a couple of trees in the Shillong
peak and Elephant falls area. Haridasan 4799.

Ilex venulosa Hk. f. (R) (Aquifoliaceae)
Another species reported from Khasi hills;
now very rare in Khasi hills as its habitat
near Laitlyngkot has been destroyed. Hari-
dasan 3393.

Lasiobaema scandens (L.) de Wit (R)

( Caes alpi niaceae )

Lianas; Eastern Bengal, Sikkim, Burma and

96

DISTRIBUTION OF ENDANGERED PLANTS

Malaya. An extremely rare plant in Megha-
laya; collected from Daveband, Maheshkola
in Garo hills (only one plant was noticed).
Haridasan 10099.

Leptodermis griffithii Hk. f. (V) (Rubiaceae)
Shrubs reported from Khasi hills; presently
it is seen only in Upper Shillong where it is
facing extinction. Haridasan 2397.

Leucosceptrum canum Sm. (R) (Lamia-
ceae)

Small trees; Temperate Himalaya, Bhutan
and Khasi hills; presently confined only to
some pockets in Shillong. Haridasan 4598.

Litsea elongata Wall. (R) (Lauraceae)

Trees; Assam, Khasi and Jaintia hills; now
mostly confined to sacred forests at Shillong
peak and Mawphlang. Haridasan 2394.

Manglietia insignis Bl. (R) (Magnoliaceae)
Trees; Nepal and Khasi hills; presently the
species is confined only to sacred forests in
Meghalaya. Haridasan 2396.

Medinilla rubicunda Bl. (V) (Melastoma-
ceae)

Epiphytic shrubs; sub-Himalayan ranges,
Sikkim eastwards to Khasi hills. Now restrict-
ed only to sacred forests in Meghalaya.
Haridasan 4300.

Meliosma pinnata Roxb. (R) (Sabiaceae)
Trees; Sikkim, Himalayas and Khasi hills;
the only collection we have is from Shillong
Peak, where a solitary tree exists. Haridasan
4218.

Melodorum rubiginosum Hk. f. & Th. (E)
(Annonaceae)

Climbers; Assam, Sylhet and Burma; only
present in Rongrengiri Reserve forest of Garo
Hills, where the population of the species is
highly reduced. Haridasan 9948.

Michelia punduana Hk. f. & Th. (R) (Magno-
liaceae)

Hooker and Thomson (1872) report this
species from Khasi hills; we have not been
able to collect anywhere in Khasi hills, but
our collection is from Jaintia hills. Haridasan
2834.

Monotropa uniflora L. (R) (Monotropa-
ceae)

Saprophytic herbs; Temperate Himalayas,
Khasi hills and Japan. Extremely rare in
Meghalaya and found only in sacred grooves
of Shillong peak and Mawphlang; this species
is also at risk now. Haridasan 2399.

Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms. (R)
(Meliaceae)

Herbs, Eastern Himalaya, Sikkim, Khasi
hills and Nilgiris. The population of this
species is extremely low due to forest clear-
ings. Haridasan 2791.

Nepenthes khasiana Hk. f. (E) (Nepentha-
ceae)

This is the pitcher plant of Meghalaya; one
of the endemic plants struggling for survival
in small pockets in Jarain, Maheshkola, and
Baghmara and other places in the southern
belt of the state. Haridasan 3398.

Ochna squarrosa Planet. (V) (Ochnaceae)
Trees, Burma, Andamans and Khasi hills;
very rare in Meghalaya and collected only
from Balphakram sanctuary. Haridasan 947.

Parkia roxburghii A. DC. (R) (Mimosaceae)
Trees; Assam, Sylhet, Burma and Malay
Peninsula. In Meghalaya very rare due to
j humming and indiscriminate felling; only few
plants are noticed along the southern part of
Garo Hills, Garampani and Nongpoh. Hari-
dasan 4280.

97

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Paurthiaea arguta Decne (R) (Rosaceae)
Trees reported from Khasi hills; presently
confined to Shillong peak only, where only a
few trees are present. Haridasan 4529.

Pentapterygium rugosum Hk. f. (R) (Vacci-
niaceae)

Epiphytic shrubs; Bhutan and Khasi hills;
now confined to sacred forests in Khasi hills.
Haridasan 3397.

Photinia integrifolia Lindl. (R) (Rosaceae)
Trees; Himalayas, Nepal, Sikkim and Khasi
hills; presently found only in Cherrapunji in
Khasi hills. Haridasan 3394.

Phyllanthus longiflorus Heyne (R) (Euphor-
biaceae)

Shrubs to herbs; southern India. Recently
collected from Balphakram sanctuary, rare.
(Rao et al. 1981). Haridasan 4156.

Pittosporum humile Hk. f. & Th. (EN)
(PlTTOSPORACEAE )

Shrubs; Khasi hills. We have recorded this
from Barapani and Mawlai near Shillong.
Haridasan 10193.

Polygala tricholopha Chodat (V) (Polygala-
ceae)

Scandent shrubs; Assam, Cachar Hills; ex-
tremely rare in Meghalaya and getting drasti-
cally reduced; collected only once from the
sacred forests of Mawsmai, which forms the
first report after 1931 (Haridasan et al. 1981)
Haridasan 5959.

P or ana racemosa Roxb. (R) (Convolvula-
ceae)

Climbers; Assam, Andamans and Eastern
Peninsula. In Meghalaya very rare and found
only in Shillong peak and Raliang. Haridasan
3390.

Rhododendron jormosum Wall. (R) (Erica-
ceae)

Ornamental shrubs; Bhutan and Khasi hills;
very rare in truly wild condition in Megha-
laya; only once collected near Jakrem. Hari-
dasan 4184.

Salix tet rasper ma Roxb. (V) (Salicaceae)
Trees; Himalayas, Assam and eastwards to
Java; now very rare and only a few isolated
trees were seen in Khasi hills. Haridasan 3395.

Schima khasiana Dyer (R) (Theaceae)
Trees; Khasi hills; now found only in Shil-
long peak, Mawphlang and Sohrarim. Hari-
dasan Mil.

Schizandra neglecta Sm. (R) (Schizandra-
ceae)

Climbers; Temperate Himalayas, Sikkim and
Khasi hills; now extremely rare in Khasi hills
and we have located only a few plants in
Upper Shillong. Haridasan 4274.

Sophora acuminata Benth. ex Baker (R)
(Fabaceae)

Shrubs; Bangladesh, Eastern Himalayas,
Khasi hills and Assam. We have recorded this
plant only from the sacred forests at Maws-
mai, where only a few plants were noticed.
Haridasan 4663.

Strobilanthes acrocephalus T. Anders. (R)
(Acanthaceae)

Herbs reported from Khasi hills; we have
recorded this only from Shillong Haridasan
2793.

Strophanthus wallichii A. DC. (R) (Apocy-
naceae)

Climbing shrubs; Khasi hills, Chittagong,
Burma. In Meghalaya, now extremely rare
and collected only once from Lailad, Khasi
hills, where a solitary plant was noticed. Hari-
dasan 5289.

98

DISTRIBUTION OF ENDANGERED PLANTS

Stylidium kunthii Wall, ex Cl. (R) (Styli-
diaceae)

Herbs; Bangladesh, Burma, Sikkim and
Khasi hills; a recent report (Haridasan et al.
op. cit.) from Garo hills is the only collec-
tion after about 100 years from this region.
Haridasan 4108.

Thunbergia coccinea Wall. (R) (Acantha-
ceae)

Climbers; Himalayas, Bhutan, Assam and
Khasi hills. We have collected this only from
the sacred forests at Mawsmai. Haridasan
2398.

Tupidanthus calyptratus Hk. f. & Th. (R)
(Araliaceae)

Shrubs; Khasi hills; we have not been able
to record this from Khasi hills. Our only col-
lection is from Balphakram in Garo hills.
Haridasan 2738.

Ulmus lanceifolia Roxb. (V) (Ulmaceae)
Trees; sub-tropical Himalayas, Sikkim, Khasi
hills and eastwards to Burma; during our
studies we have recorded this only from Lailad
in Khasi hills. Haridasan 10224.

Unona longiflora Roxb. (V) (Annonaceae)
Scandent shrubs; Assam, Khasi hills and
Chittagong; now confined to Tura peak (Garo

Refei

Haridasan, K., Kumar, Y. and Rao, R. R.
(1981): Two interesting plant records from Megha-
laya. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. (in press).

Hooker, J. D. (1854) : Himalayan Journals, 2
vols. London.

(1872-97): The Flora of British

India, 7 vols. London.

(1904): A sketch of the flora of

British India, London.

Jain, S. K. and Sastry, A.R.K. (1980): Threat-
ened plants of India, A state-of the-Art report.
Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

Kanjilal, et al. (1934-40) : Flora of Assam.
5 vols. Shillong.

hills) and Nongkyllem reserve forest in Khasi
hills. Haridasan 10257.

Uvaria hamiltonii Hk. f. & Th. (V) (Anno-
naceae)

Climbers; Sikkim, Bihar, Orissa and Assam.
The population of this species is decreasing
rapidly; collected only once from Rongrengiri
forest in Garo hills. Haridasan 5266.

Uvaria lurida Hk. f. & Th. (V) (Annona-
ceae)

Another rare climber in the state; only re-
corded once from Balphakram in Garo hills.
Haridasan 10098.

Xylia dolabriformis Benth. (R) (Mimosa-
ceae)

Trees; Western Peninsula, Burma and Sin-
gapore; extremely rare in Meghalaya and con-
fined to Nongkyllem reserve forest in Khasi
hills. Haridasan 10209.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Head of the Depart-
ment of Botany, North-Eastern Hill Univer-
sity, Shillong for facilities and encouragement.
One of us (Haridasan) is also thankful to the
North-Eastern Hill University for the award
of a Junior Research Fellowship, during the
tenure of which, part of this work was carried
out.

ENCES

Rao, A. S. (1974): The vegetation and phyto-
geography of Assam-Burma. In : Ecology and Bio-
geography in India, ed. M. S. Mani. 204-246, The
Hague.

Rao, R. R. (1979): Changing pattern in the
Indian flora. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 19 (1-4) : 156-
166.

Rao, R. R., Haridasan, K. and Kumar, Y. (1981) :
New distributional records of plants for north-east
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. (in press).

Rao, R. S. and Panigrahi, G. (1961): Distribu-
tion of vegetational types and their dominant species
in Eastern India. /. Indian Bot. Soc. 40 (2) : 274-285.

99

POLLUTION, FISH MORTALITY & ENVIRONMENTAL
PARAMETERS IN LAKE NAINITAL1

S. M. Das2 and Jyotsna Pande3

Indepth studies on pollution, fish mortality and waterborne human disease have
revealed severe pollution in the entrophied Himalayan lake Nainital, India, as
evidenced by physico-chemical and biological indicators. The hazardous effect on
fish life has been evidenced by mass fish mortality every winter and decimation of
fish population of the lake (mainly Mahseer, Tor tor, T. putitora; the common carp,
Cyprinus carpio; the Himalayan trout Schizothorax richardsoni and the forage fish,
Puntius species — conchonius, sophore and ticto).

Metallic pollution of the lake is high, as estimated by atomic absorption spectro-
photometry. Bacteriological studies have also revealed contamination by Escherichia
coli and other coliforms; causing human diseases in Nainital, as confirmed by records
of Govt, and other hospitals in Nainital and Weibel et al. (1964).

Introduction

Lake Nainital is a huge cul-de-sac, situated
at an altitude of 1938 m, asl, (29° 24' N, 79°
23'E). It is a beanshaped lake divisible into
a large Mallital and small Tallital basins. The
lake is 1433 metres long and 463 metres
broad, the depth ranging from 6 to 24 metres.
Its area is about 48.78 hectares, and the lake
capacity (volume when full) 10,772,236/000
Cu M. It is an eutrophic lake moving towards
dystrophic condition.

In India, recent studies on aquatic pollution
are by David (1959), Ray (1968), Jhingran
(1970), Lohani (1970), Saxena et al (1972),
Rana & Kumar (1974), Verma and Dalela
(1975), Hussaini (1976) and Agrawal & Raj
(1978). However, no scientific investigation

1 Accepted September 1980.

2 Chief Investigator, DST Lakes Project, Kumaun
University, Nainital, U.P.

3 Junior Research Fellow, DST Lakes Project,
Nainital, U.P.

into the nature, extent and effects of pollu-
tion on fishes, lake life and man, have been
carried out in the past for Himalayan lakes
except for Dal lake (Das 1967a, 1969, 1970,
1971, 1973; Zutshi & Vass 1978), and lake
Nainital (Das 1978, Das & Pande 1978, Das
& Khanka 1979, Das & Upadyaya 1979).

In the present investigation some of the
physical, chemical and biological factors affect-
ing fish and man have been studied in lake
Nainital.

Material and Methods

Detection of pollution was done by five
methods :

(a) Physical — colour, odour, temperature
and turbidity;

(a) Chemical — pH, 02, C02, alkalinity, P04-
P, N03- N, NH3- N, BOD and DOM;

(c) Biological — High population of pollu-
tion indicators and fish mortality;

(d) Quantitative analysis of metal pollution
by atomic absorption spectrophotometer;

100

POLLUTION IN LAKE NAIN1TAL

(e) Estimation of bacterial pollution by asses-
sing Coliforms and E. coll.

The physico-chemical parameters were esti-
mated according to the standard methods
given by ISI (1963), WHO (1975), FAO
(1967), APHA (AWWA) (1975), Goiter-
man (1969) and Schwoerbel (1970).

The biological indicators of pollution were
estimated according to the methods of Kolk-
witz (1950), Bick (1963), Sladecek (1963),
Hynes (1966), Kolkwitz & Marson (1967),
Hart & Fuller (1974) and McCaull & Cross-
land (1974).

One thousand dead fishes were collected in
December & January by random sampling after
fish-kill, which were identified as adult Puntius
(3 species), Cyprinus carpio juveniles and
Schizothorax richardsoni adult and juveniles.

Some Nainital data have been compared
with those of oligotrophic lake Bhimtal
(Tables I and II), in order to show the con-

Observations and Results

Polluting matter is brought into Nainital
lake through 24 inlet channels observed around
the lake. Fifteen of them are seasonal and
carry mainly erosion silt and minerals into
the lake in the rainy season (July to Sept-
ember) ; while the other 9 are permanent
municipal nallahs or channels which bring
highly polluted water from the Nainital town
and the lake environs. The effluents falling
into the lake contain domestic wastes, general
garbage, organic matter, detergents, chemicals
from the laboratories around the lake, and also
some sewage from the densely populated parts
of the town.

Physico-chemical Parameters:

The ranges of physical parameters of
Nainital (for the year 1978-79) are as follows:

Temperature varied from 10.5°C (January)

Table I

Percentage occurrence of main groups of Zooplankton (1978-79)

Nainital

Bhimtal

Months

Rotifers

Copepods

Cladocerans

Rotifers

Copepods

Clado-

cerans

1978

October

4.98

92.00

2.00

1.32

60.00

26.00

November

7.90

91.00

0.80

12.00

58.00

19.00

December

1.10

98.00

0.50

0.80

60.00

15.00

1979

January

Rare

100.00

Rare

Rare

56.00

25.00

February

Rare

100.00

Rare

Rare

74.00

24.00

March

61.00

38.00

Rare

9.00

73.00

14.00

April

40.00

59.00

Rare

3.00

24.00

8.00

trast between the eutrophic and the oligotro-
phic lakes. Similarly, the results have been
compared with eutrophic polluted lakes in
Western countries.

to 25.0°C (June); colour changed from
brownish green (January-February) to dark
green (May- June), yellowish green (July,
August, September), and finally bluish green

101

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

(November), while December- January it is
brownish green to rust colour. The odour
varied from strong methane (May) to fishy
and H2S (November, December, January);
Turbidity (Secchi) recorded as 100 cm (Aug-
ust) to 178 cm (December); pH ranged from
6.8 (January) to 8.9 (July- August).

In the chemical parameters, DO ranged
from 0.8 mg/1 (December) to 12.3 mg/1
(May); C02 from zero (during six warm
months) to 18.6 mg/1 (December- January);
alkalinity from 270 mg/1 (June) to 330 mg/1
(February); P04-P from 0.02 mg/1 (March)
to 0.05 mg/1 (June); No3-N from 0.12 mg/1
(July) to 0.64 mg/1 (April); NH4-N 0.017
mg/1 (July) to 0.52 mg/1 (December); Cl
from 26.5 ppm (July) to 35.5 ppm (January);
DOM from 26.5 ppm (March) to 55.5 ppm
(January); BOM (bottom organic matter) 60
mg/g (August) to 190 mg/g (January), which
forms a thick organic mat throughout the year.
It is evident from the parameters that most
of the values, hazardous to lake life including
fishes, lie in December- January, the two

months when severe fish mortality was found
to occur.

If we compare these physico-chemical para-
meters of lake Nainital with those of lake
Bhimtal, the contrast in lake status becomes
evident. Bhimtal turbidity (Secchi) ranges
from 385-500 cms. when compared with 100
to 178 cms. of lake Nainital. DO values are
also high throughout the year, being 8.1 mg/1
to 13.6 mg/1; C02 nil to 4.0 mg/1 only; pH
7.7 to 8.6; alkalinity low (26.6 to 56.7 ppm);
whereas NHt-N even in the winter is nil. Of
special significance is the near absence of
BOM in lake Bhimtal, while in Nainital, there
is a thick organic bottom mat. All these data
show that Bhimtal is oligotrophic but Nainital
is eutrophic and polluted.

Metallic environmental pollution is a signi-
ficant factor in lake Nainital (Table IV). The
high values of manganese, lead, zinc, potas-
sium and calcium, specially in the sediments,
are environmental factors detrimental to fish.
A. Zooplankton and Pedon :

These have been recorded by Das (op. cit.).

Table II

Percentage occurrence pedon

Nainital %

Bhimtal %

Months

Tubifi-

cids

Lee-

ches

Chiro-

nomids

Mol-

luscs

Larvae
May fly

Aq.

Insects

Clado-

cera

Crab

Moll-

uscs

1978

May

22

5.0

50

15

25

15

10

2

2

June

25

3.5

55

15

30

25

20

3

2

July

13

5.0

13

4

40

15

30

5

3

August

40

6.0

30

5

20

15

10

2

3

September

20

5.0

50

2

30

10

20

2

1

October

15

5.0

30

6

10

10

30

2

12

November

20

1.5

30

5

Rare

15

50

3

5

December

15

0.5

25

17

Rare

30

40

5

5

1979

January

10

1.5

70

10

7

10

40

2

5

February

12

2.0

70

15

6

10

54

3

6

102

POLLUTION IN LAKE NAINITAL

Das & Pande (op. cit.) and Das & Upadhyaya
(op. cit.), which exhibit many biological in-
dicators of pollution thriving in the lake, some
of which are present during November-Dee -
ember along with Anacystis bloom. Much of
the plankton dies off during December-
January, when only Chironomids and molluscs
remain in numbers (Table II). The quanti-
tative percentage composition of zooplankton
also suffers, since, except for Cyclops swarms,
only a few species of copepods remain in
moderate numbers during winter. The rotifers
and cladocerans are also decimated (Table I).

For example, the chief zooplanktons record-
ed by the authors on January 9, 1979 (along
with fish-kill) were Euglena, Bursgria (Pro-
tozoa); Philodina, Rotifer, Colurus (Rotifera);
Cyclops, Simocephalus, Diaptomus (Crusta-
cea); Chironomus, Forcipomyia (Insecta);
Rhabdolaimus, Dorilaimus (Nematoda).

The percentage occurrence of Pedon (Table
II) also shows radical differences between
Nainital and Bhimtal, the former having
higher percentage of Chironomids (pollu-
tion) and the latter higher cladocera (oligotro-
phic) .

B. Phytoplankton and Algae :

Das & Upadhyaya (op. cit.) recorded domi-
nance of blue greens (Cyanophyceae) during
autumn, when Anacystis was in bloom. But
during winter fish-kill most Anacystis died and
only Chroococcus was abundant. These also
died at December end and early January,
forming a soupy mass along with other dead
plankton. The scant algae left were the rope-
like Rhizoclonium, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and
remnants of Anacystis and Chroococcus.

The diatoms were represented by moderate
population of Scenedesmus, Cymbella and
Synedra (pollution indicators) along with
sparse population of Nitzchia and Meridion.

The spring and summer diatoms were, how-
ever, dominated by Cymbella, Rhoicosphenea,
Pinnularia, Synedra, Fragilloria and Navicula,
The phytoplankton population in Nainital lake
was at its peak in August, with the green algae
Chlamydomonas, Clorterium and Endorina as
dominant phytoplanktons (60%). But an-
other peak was observed in October, when
82% of the phytoplanktons consisted of
Microcystis, ( Anacystis ) and Anabaena. The
Microcystis bloomed in autumn (November)
and died in winter (December, January),
causing organic water pollution and secretion
of toxins that are hazardous to fish. This was
succeeded by the micro -plankton bloom of
Chroococcus, imparting a soupy rust colour
to the lake accompanied by high winter fish
kill. The summer filamentous algae ( Spiro-
gyra, Oscillatoria, Rhizoclonium etc.) also
underwent death and decay during winter
season causing further organic pollution.

C. Bacterial pollution :

The coliform bacteria and E. coli have
been worked out qualitatively and quantita-
tively for the first time in lake Nainital. These
bacteria are not only indicators of sewage
pollution but are hazardous to man and ani-
mals if they drink the lake water. The constant
high counts of coliform and E. coli (Table
III) signify that there is constant entry of
faecal matter into the lake through the many
nullahs (since E. coli would die within 10-15
days when exposed to air and sun in the
open lake). Thus, the high values of E. coli
signify continuous faecal contamination of the
water in the zone of sepsis (Station I). For
instance, even outside the zone of sepsis (100
metres away. Station II), the E. coli values
ranged from 0.05 x 104 to 9.70 x 104, which
is higher than the permissible limits (Prescott
1970; Geldrich 1970).

103

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Table III

Total coliforms and E. coli of Nainital lake water

Months

STATION-I

STATION-II

Coliforms
MPN/100 ml

E. coli MPN /
100ml

Coliforms
MPN/100 ml

E. coli MPN/
100 ml

March

6.70 x 10*

6.70x 10*

0.22x10*

0.09x10*

April

17.00x10*

13.80x10*

1.25x10*

1.22x10*

May

50.50x10*

50.50x 10*

0.68x10*

0.25x10*

June

12.00x10*

4.30x10*

4.60x10*

4.60x10*

July

17.25x10*

13.00x10*

1.60x10*

1.00x10*

August

18.60x10*

4.69x10*

15.00x10*

4.00x10*

September

21 . 30 x 10*

13.60x10*

12.70x10*

9.70x10*

October

25.50x10*

22.50x10*

4.85x10*

2.17x10*

November

18.60x10*

18.60x10*

0.80x10*

0.20x10*

December

14.25x10*

11.25x10*

2.50x10*

0.67x10*

January

9.20x10*

4.30x10*

0.11x10*

0.05x10*

February

7.80x10*

4. lOx 10*

0.15x10*

0.07x10*

rubble and silt project into the lake today.
With high siltation the suspensoids (suspend-
ed organic matter) get coated round the silt
particles and settles down to the bottom,
preventing natural oxidation, since DO in
bottom water never rises above 5-6 mg/1 and
becomes 0.08 mg/1 during winter. The bottom
water and mud, even in mid-lake, is highly
odorous with strong H2S and Methane odours.
This has already been observed in zones of
immediate pollution in the lake (Das 1978),
and during the present investigations.

Fish mortality :

High Winter fish mortality occurs every
winter in lake Nainital, the majority of about
60,000 fishes killed during December 1978 to
January 1979, being Puntius species. But
some Cyprinus carpio, Schizothorax richard -
soni and their juveniles also died. The once
famous Mahaseer ( Tor tor, T. putitora) are
now extinct in lake Nainital, probably due to
pollution.

The causes of high winter fish-kill has been

It has been calculated in western countries
(McCaull & Crossland (op. cit.) that decom-
posing organic matter from cities and towns
can be calculated at 1 Kg /man /day. Even
with a population of 50 thousand around the
lake Nainital, this amounts to an input of 50
thousand kilos of DOM and SOM into the
lake per day. This means an addition of about
18 million Kgs. of DOM and SOM into the
lake per year. Even if a small part of this
accumulates without being oxidised at the
bottom (forming a BOM mat), the pollution
status of the lake becomes self evident and
explanatory.

Siltation :

Rapid silting of lake Nainital is another
cause of lake pollution and shallowing. Fifty
years back, the lake was 29 metres deep at
the centre (Neville 1922). Today it is only
24 metres (Das & Khanka 1979). Silt enters
the lake through almost all the 24 nullahs
but specially from Mallital and North Mall
road side, where small peninsulas of debris.

104

POLLUTION IN LAKE NAINITAL

found to be depletion of Oxygen in bottom
waters, when anaerobic bacteria take over the
process of decomposition of BOM, releasing
foul smelling H2S, Methane and Ammonia
(Aerobic bacteria evolve only C02 when orga-
nic matter is decomposed in the presence of
oxygen). These gases not only deplete oxygen
in water but are toxic, killing most of the
plankton, algae and zooplankton in the lake.
The dead plankton and SOM clog the gills
of the fishes causing asphyxiation. The DO
content is reduced to almost zero / mg /I in
which no fish or plankton can live.

Fish diseases are common in lake Nainital
due to attack of fungi -Saprolegnia & Achlya;
the protozoans Chilodenella, Costia, Tricho-
dina, Ichthyophthirius, and Myxosporidium.
The trematode — Dacrylogyrus ; the leeches —
Hemiclepsis and Glossiphonia ; and the crusta-
cean Argulus.

Discussion

The most important factors responsible for
eutrophication of fresh water lakes are Phos-
phorus (P04-P) and Nitrogen (N03-N)
(McCaull & Crossland 1974). Lake Nainital
receives about 63% P04-P from municipal
and urban run-off; consisting of sewage,
domestic wastes and detergents; 30% from
horse dung. Kitchen garden and minor crop
fertilizers; 2% from precipitation; and 4%
from surface ground waters in the form of
springs. The NOs-N comes to about 50%
from the ground sub-surface water; 20% by
precipitation; 10% by municipal and urban
run-off; 10% from chemical laboratories and
10% from minor crop and garden fertilizers.
It has been calculated (Edmondson 1970)
that about 93% P in polluted lakes and over
30% N are due to human activities. The high
P and N values in lake Nainital have caused

rapid eutrophication and algal blooms of
myxophyceae. Excess N may cause Methae-
moglobinemia — a health hazard to man, and
even injurious to fishes.

Overdose of Nitrogen and Phosphorus, the
very nutrients essential for the growth of
plankton and aquatic plants, results in high
eutrophication, algal blooms and explosion of
macrophytes (Landner 1975). Excess POt-P
comes from detergents and sewage both of
which enter lake Nainital in large amounts
today. Excess NOs-N also comes from chemi-
cal effluents and aerobic decomposition of
organic lake sediments. Excess POd-P is also
released by breaking up of the iron salts layer
at bottom mat (since the hypolimnion is
anaerobic) eleven times faster than when 02
is present (McCaull & Crossland 1974). This
appears to be the case also in Nainital where
the bottom water (6-24/m) smells strongly
of H2S, indicating anaerobic decomposition of
BOM.

It will not be out of place to compare lake
Nainital with other polluted lakes in Western
countries. Lake Zurich (McCaull & Crossland
1974) has the deep lower basin (50 m) highly
polluted, while the shallow upper basin (14 m)
remains unpolluted. This pollution of the
lower basin started only 50 years back on
account of increase of human habitations
around the basin, exactly as has happened in
lake Nainital during the same period. Fish
population in the polluted Zurich basin has
become depleted and only coarse fishes are
present; while the upper basin still has fine
fish.

Lake Lago-da-Orta (Das 1973) is a dead
lake today due to copper mining in lake
environs and copper poisoning of all lake life.
The Nainital lake sediments have accumulated
more than 2159 mg /kg. of Lead and 60 mg,/
kg. of Copper, as in our values (Table IV).

105

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Table IV

Concentration of heavy and alkali earth metals in lake Nainital

Metal

Water mg/1

Sediments

mg /kg

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Copper

0.0008

0.0155

19.3639

60.6225

Cobalt

0.0079

0.0202

5.5954

12.9892

Lead

0.0202

0.0886

71.3645

268.9156

Manganese

0.1893

1.1951

769.2307

2158.8362

Zinc

Nil

0,0057

49.4151

152.1322

Thalium

0.2105

0.4429

78.5340

149.8814

Lithium

0.0055

0.0087

9.0909

18.2183

Sodium

0.7893

1 . 1093

21.3333

68.0851

Potassium

95.4545

167.0454

27840.9090

101547.3800

Calcium

37.0857

44.0000

9114.2857

49299.9170

These may cause severe metal poisoning in
years to come when the metallic content in
water will also become very high and kill off
all life.

The Baltic lake (Sea), although deep, is
undergoing eutrophication and stagnation, due
to excessive nutrient inputs. Similarly lake Erie,
Washington and Mandots (USA) are also
slowly going dead due to high pollution in-
puts (McCaull & Crossland 1974). A similar
condition has been found in lake Kariba in
Africa (Begg 1970).

High eutrophication and pollution can be
reversed by reducing /removing /controlling
P04-P inflow (chiefly detergents as in lake
Nainital). But as in lake Erie (McCaull &
Corssland 1974), in lake Nainital also (Das
1978), Phosphate has been built up in the
lake sediment over decades; and thus from
this store of phosphate sufficient nutrient can
be released even if future pollution inputs are
stopped.

The mass fish mortality sequence in lake
Nainital can be summed up as follows : —

Autumn Anacystis bloom > Winter death

of most plankton > high DOM and

SOM > Depletion of Oxygen in Decem-
ber-January (Winter) > evolution of

Ammonia, H2S & Methane > FISH

KILL.

Silt particles form nuclei for accumulation
of organic matter (DOM, and SOM) around
them. These have been observed to clog the
gills of fishes as revealed by microscopical
examination and cause asphyxiation. Besides,
the decaying Anacystis blooms may also pro-
duce toxins which are harmful to fish life
(Saxena et al 1972, Doudoroff & Katz 1953,
Hart and Fuller 1974).

The maximum mortality was of Puntius
ticto, P. sophore, P. conchonius, as well of
juveniles of Cyprinus carpio and Schizothorax
richardsoni. Surprisingly, no juveniles of Tor
tor, and T. putitora were collected during
winter fish kill, although about 1000 dead fishes
were collected and identified, nor were the
adults seen. It, therefore, appears that mahseer
(Tor spp.) is now extinct from lake Nainital,
whereas 25-30 pounders were available even
20 years ago.

It appears that the toxicity of Ammonia and
its compounds, as also of HsS, is strictly cor-

106

POLLUTION IN LAKE NAINITAL

related with the permeability of the gills (Jones
1962). According to Lagler (1964) a BOD
above 3 mg/1, NH4-N above 0.5 mg/1 and
DO less than 5 mg/1 are fatal to fish. Our
average values of BOD 15.6 mg/1, DO 1.40
mg/1 and NH*-N 0.84 mg/1 during winter,
offers a combination of pollutants in which
no fish can live. Our results for lake Nainital
conform to the conclusions of Hart (1948),
Wallen (1951), Lagler (1964), Arnold (1969),
Cairns (1972) and Frost & Collinson (1977)

Refer

Agrawal, V. K. & Raj, K.P.S. (1978): Heavy
metal contents in the water and sediments of Sur-
sagar Lake of Baroda (Gujarat), India. Internat. J.
Environmental Studies. 11: 250-251.

APHA (AWWA) (1975): Standard methods for
examination of water and waste water. Amer. Publ.
Heth. Assoc. New York, pp. 1015 (Reprint of 1971
edition) .

Arnold, D. C. (1969) : The ecological decline
of lake Erie. Fish Game J. 16: 27-45.

Begg, G. W. (1970): Limnological observations
on lake. Kariba-Limnol. Oceanogr. 15: 776-788.

Bennett, G. W. (1970) : ‘Management of lakes
& Ponds’. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. New York
375 pp.

Bick, H. (1963): A review of central European
methods for the biological estimation of water
pollution levels. Bull. Wld. Hlth. Org. 29: 401-413.

Brooks, R. R. & Rumsby, M. S. (1965): The
biogeochemistry of trace elements uptake by some
New Zealand bivalves. Limnol. Oceanogr. 10: 521-
527.

Cairns, J. (1968) : The need for regional water
resources Management. Trans. Can. Acad. Sci. 41 :
480-490.

Cairns, J. (1972): The response of aquatic com-
munities to spills of hazardous materials. Proc. Nat.
Conf. Haz. Wat. Spills: 179-197.

Cochran, W. G. (1950) : Estimation of Bacte-
rial densities by means of the most probable number
(NPN) Biometrics. 6: 105-116.

Cook, J. (1977): Environmental pollution by

heavy metals. Internat. J. Environmental Studies. 9:
253-256.

Das, S. M. (1967): Recent advances in Fish

for polluted lakes of Western countries.

Acknowledgements

This research work has been financed by
the grant made available by the Department
of Science and Technology, Government of
India. Thanks are due to the Vice-Chancellor.
Kumaun University for affording general faci-
lities; and to the Head, Department of Zoo-
logy, for laboratory facilities.

iNCES

Ecology, Presidential address. Biological Sciences.
Nat. Acad. Sci. India. Annual number: pp 1-10.

(1967) : Ecology and fish productivity

in fresh waters. Ichthyologica, 3 (1-2): 103-114.

(1969): Some aspects of fish ecology

in Western Himalayas. UNESCO Report on Semi-
nar on Ecology of Tropical Himalayas, Kathmandu,
Nepal: 15-27.

(1969) : Studies on organic produc-
tion in high altitude lakes of India, Part I. The
general ecology and zooplankton of Kashmir lakes.
Kashmir Sci. 7 (1-2) : 1-22.

(1970): Studies on organic produc-
tion in high altitude lakes of India. Part II: zoop-
lankton, phytoplankton and pedon of Kaunsernag
(4500 m) Alapathar (4000 m) correlated with pH
and temperature. Kashmir Sci. 8 (1-2): 119-132.

(1971) : Ecology of high altitude lakes

of Kashmir. Ichthyologica. 10 (1-2) : 6-12.

(1973) : High altitude fish ecology

and fish production. 1UCN Report: 18-23.

— (1978) : High pollution in lake Naini-
tal, U.P. India, Science & Culture 44 : 236-237.

& Pande, Jyotsna (1978): Some

physico-chemical and biological indicators of pollu-
tion in lake Nainital, U.P., India. Indian J. Ecol.
5 (1): 7-16.

Das, S. M. & Khanka, L. S. (1979) : Physio-
graphy and Hydrography of Nainital lake. Geogr.
Review of India. 41 (2) : 139-143.

Das, S. M. & Upadhyaya, J. C. (1979) : Studies
on qualitative and quantitative fluctuations of plank-
ton in two lakes: Nainital and Bhimtal (India).
Acta. Hydrobiol. 21 (1) : 9-17.

107

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

David, A. (1959): Effect of Calcutta sewage upon
the fisheries of the Kulti estuary and connected
fisheries. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (N.S.) 1 (4) : 339-
363.

Dean, J. C., Bosqui, F. L. & Lanoville, K. H.
(1972) : Removing heavy metals from waste water.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 6: 518-522.

Doudoroff, P. & Katz, M. (1953) : Critical re-
view of literature on toxicity of Industrial wastes
to fish II, The metals and Salts. J. Sew. Industr.
Wastes. 25: 809-839.

Edmondson, W. T. (1970): Phosphorus, Nitro-
gen and algae in lake Washington after diversion
of sewage. Science 169: 690-691.

Eyres, J. R. & Thomas, M. P. (1978) : Heavy
metal pollution of River Irwell (Lancashire U.K.)
demonstrated by analysis of substrate and macro-
invertebrate tissue. Environ. Pollution 16 (2) : 129-
136.

FAO (1967) : Report to the Government of India
on water pollution researches with respect to inland
fisheries. Rep. FAO/INIP ( TA ): 2449, 76 pp.

Frost, S. & Collinson, M.P.T. (1977): Manga-
nese in drinking water, lnternat. J. Env. Studies, 14:
645-649.

Geldrich, E. E. (1970): Applying bacteriological
parameters to recreational water quality. J. Amer.
Water Works Association. 26: 113.

Golterman, H. L. (1969) : Methods for chemi-
cal analysis of fresh water: IBP Handbook, No. 8.
Blackwell Scient. Publ. London.

Hart, W. B. (1948) : Use of fish as test animals
for evaluating toxicity. Trans. Amer. Fish, Soc. 75:
228-236.

Hart, C. W. & Fuller, S.L.H. (1974): Pollution
ecology of fresh water invertebrates. Acad. Press.
New York. pp. 230.

Hussain i, M. A. (1976) : Pollution of lake Hus-
saini Saugar caused by industrial effluents. Indian
J. Environ. Hith. 18 (3): 227-232.

Hutchinson, G. E. (1967) : ‘A treatise on limno-
logy’, Vol. II John. Wiley & Sons, pp. 600.

Hynes, H.B.N. (1966): The biology of polluted
waters. Liverpool University Press: pp. 286.

(1970) : ‘The ecology of running

waters’. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto: pp. 180.

ISI (1963) : Tolerance limits for inland surface
waters for raw water used for public water supplies
and bathing ghats. ISI 2296. Indian Standards In-
stitution. New Delhi.

Jhingran, V. G. (1970): The problem of aquatic
pollution in India. Proc. Seminar on pollution and
Human environment. Bhabha Atomic Res. Centre
Trombay: 304-312.

Jones, J. R. E. (1962) : Fish and river pollution,
In: Ed. Book “River Pollution” Butterfield Publ.
London : pp. 245.

Kolkwitz, R. (1950) : ‘Oekologie der Saprobien’
Schr. Reine Vers. Wasserhyg No. 4 Piscator-Nc rlag,
Stuttgart.

Kolkwitz, R. & Marson, M. (1967): Biology
of water pollution, U.S. Dept. Interior, Fed. Water
Poll. Centre Admin. Cincinnati: 47-51.

Lagler, K. F. (1964) : Freshwater fishery Bio-
logy, II Edn. William C. Brown Company, Dubos-
que, Iowa 325 pp.

Landner, L. (1975): ‘Eutrophication of lakes’.
WHO Regional Office for Europe.

Lind, O. T. (1974) : ‘Handbook of common

methods in Limnology’, C. V. Mosby & Co. St.
Luois U.S. A. 154 pp.

Lohani, J. C. (1970): Mortality of fishes in Sita-
pur ponds. Fish Papers, Dept, of Fisheries, U.P.

pp. 1-8.

Macan, T. T. (1974): ‘Freshwater Ecology’. II
Edn. John Wiley & Sons, New York; 224 pp.

Miakhan, M. (1971) : Water pollution problem
in Tamil Nadu. Indian J. Env. Hlth. 13 (1) : 91-94.

McCaull, J. & Crossland, J. (1974): Water
Pollution, pp. 206 Publ. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
Inc. New York.

Neville, H. R. (1922) : District Gazetteer of
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Vol. 34.

Prescott, G. W. (1970) : Bacteriological methods
(Book).

Rana, B. C. & Kumar, H. D. (1974): Ecophy-
siological studies on the uptake of pollutants Cu,
Zn, P04, by certain algae. Indian J. Ecol. 1 (1) :
1-11.

Ray, P. (1962) : A case of fish mortality caused
by precipitation of Ferric Ion. Indian J. Fisheries
9(1): 117-122.

Royce, W. F. (1972) : ‘An introduction to the
fishery science’. Academic Press New York 351 pp.

Saxena, P. N., Tiwari, A., Lausana, B. K. &
Khan, M.M.A. (1972) : Ecological studies on algae
of sewage and their harvesting from oxidation ponds.
Final report of P. L. 480 project A-7-46. U.S. Dept,
of Agriculture, Washington, U.S.A.

Schwoerbel, J. (1970): Methods of freshwater

108

POLLUTION IN LAKE NAIN1TAL

hydrobiology, Pergamon Press: 200 pp.

Skei, J. M., Price, N. B. & Calvart, S. E. (1972) :
The distribution of heavy metals in sediments of
Safjord, West Horway, Water air and Soil pollu-
tion I: 452-461.

Sladecek, J. (1963) : A guide to limnosaprobial
organisms, Sci. Pap. Inst. Techn. Progr. Technol.
Water 7: 543-562.

Verma, S. R. & Dalela, R. C. (1975) : Biolo-
gical index of pollution of a river in India. Acta.
Hydrochem. et Hydrobiol. 3 ( 3) : 259-274.

Wallen, I. R. (1951): The direct effect of tur-

bidity on fish. Bull. Okla. Agrc. Tech. Coll. 48(2).

WHO (1975) : ‘International standards for drink-
ing water’. 3rd Ed. Geneva: pp. 70.

Welch, P. S. (1952) : ‘Limnological methods’.
McGraw Hill book Co. New York.

Weibel, S. R., Dixon, F. R„ Weider, R. B. &
McCabe, L. J. (1964) : Waterborne disease outbreaks
(1946-1960). J. Am. Waterworks Assoc. 56(2):
947-958.

Zutshi, D. P. & Vass, K. K. (1978) : Limno-
logical studies on Dal lake Kashmir. Indian J. Ecol.
5: 90-97.

109

CHELONIANS OF BANGLADESH AND THEIR
CONSERVATION1

Mohammad Ali Reza Khan2
{With two plates )

Bangladesh supports 18 species of freshwater, two land tortoises and five marine
turtles. Two of these are endemic when three other species are included in the Red
Data Book of IUCN. Most species are threatened in the country mainly because of
uncontrolled and round the year exploitation for commercial purposes.

Introduction

Bangladesh is potentially a rich chelonian
country of the Indian sub-continent. Altoge-
ther 3 1 species or so of freshwater and
marine turtles, and land tortoises are likely to
be present in the sub-continent (Pritchard
1979 and Whitaker, pers. comm.). Of these,
about 25 species are expected to be present
in the present jurisdiction of Bangladesh, 20°
34' to 26° 37' N and 88° 45' to 92° 40' E.,
including 10 endangered species listed in Sche-
dule I of Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora, Washington 1973 (CITES). Along with
others all 10 endangered species are exported
in large quantities and also consumed locally.
There is no ban on the chelonian trade in
Bangladesh. The statistics of the export pro-
motion bureau (Anonymous 1981) revealed
that there is a steady increase in the volume
of export from Taka 1,000.00 (Tk. 15.00 is
equivalent to 1 US Dollar) to Taka
12,948,000.00, between 1974-75 and 1979-80
fiscal years. The average export price is bet-
ween 0.75 and 1.00 US dollar per kilo of

1 Accepted September 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Dacca,
Dacca-2, Bangladesh.

live turtle. Marine turtle has no export value.
This means about 1,000,000 kg. of freshwater
turtles have been exported out of Bangladesh
in 1979-80. The figure is expected to be much
higher in 1981. According to local dealers and
exporters about an equal amount or more is
consumed by the local residents. Potential live
turtle buyers are Hong Kong, Singapore,
Thailand and Japan. Olivier (1979) men-
tions, “...it is openly admitted by officials
(of Bangladesh) that the legal, documented
trade in turtles represents the “tip of an ice-
berg”, with large quantities being smuggled
out illegally, principally to India, where they
are re-exported”. Thus the export figure re-
present less than one third of the total turtle
trade.

Kachuga tecta, Kachuga tentoria, Lissemys
punctata, Trionyx hurum and Trionyx gange-
ticus are the main species that dominate the
export trade although all freshwater turtles
may actually be in the export list. These species
and the land tortoises are consumed through
local markets while the eggs of all the species
of marine turtles are eaten by the tribals.

So far three scientific reports have appeared
on the turtles and tortoises of Bangladesh and
erstwhile East Pakistan after the publication
of Fauna of British India by Smith (1931).
These are Ahamed (1955), Shaft & Quddus

110

CHELON1ANS OF BANGLADESH

(1977) and Husain (1979). The last two
papers are in Bengali. Ahamed (1955) listed
nine species of freshwater turtles whereas
Shah & Quddus (1977) reported 11 species
including the nine of the preceding author
and another five species of marine turtles.
Husain (1979) added one unidentified species
of Geochelone ( Testudo ) to Shaft & Quddus
and provided some information on the status.
Although Shall & Quddus (1977) claimed that
their report is based on the collection of speci-
mens, this is difficult to substantiate as there
appears to be a few specimens in the collec-
tion of the Dacca University Zoology Museum
(DUZM). Inclusion of Chrysemys picta
seems to be an erroneous one as it
is purely a New World species, according
to Pritchard (1979). Emyda granosa is possi-
bly not a valid species and it is considered to
be a subspecies of Lissemys punctata. Also
addition of Chelonia emys and ^Chelonia
amboinensis under marine turtles can not be
justified as no current literature includes such
names in this group (vide Pope 1964, Prit-
chard 1979 etc.) Hence the total number of
turtles and tortoises listed from here by all
previous workers of the country stands to
only 13 that is, 10 freshwater, one land and
two marine. But according to my own field
and literature survey there are about 25 species
of chelonians in Bangladesh including two
endemic species — Trionyx nigricans and
Morenia petersi as stated below.

Family Emydidae

1 . Hardella thurji Gray. Brahminy River
Turtle/Kali Kaitta3 4

3 Once the authors have used ‘Chelonia’ and again
‘Chelone’, possibly synonymously.

4 Bengali name. All hard-shell freshwater species
are called kaitta; soft-shell ones kasim and land
tortoises as kossop.

Hardella thurji occurs in all major rivers
of Bangladesh, from Padma in the west to
Kushiyara in the east, and in their tribu-
taries. Along with all the other species
of freshwater turtles this species is sold in
the markets of Dacca, Savar, Narayanganj,
Narsinghdi, Daudkandi, Chandpur, Chittagong,
Mymensingh, Phulchari ghat, Bagerhat, Chalna
port, Barisal Sri Mongal and Sunamganj.
Actually these are the main turtle markets
of the country. Kali kaitta is common no-
where in Bangladesh and there is only one
specimen in DUZM. The maximum catch is
between October and March and it is occa-
sionally exported.

2. Batagur baska Gray. Common Batagur

Batagur baska is largely an estuarine species.

It has never been reported from Bangladesh
although IUCN Red Data Book on turtles
(Groombridge, in press) included Bangladesh
within its range while Olivier (1979) and
Gittins (1980) doubted its presence in Bangla-
desh. Recently a large specimen has been
brought to Dacca Zoological Garden from the
estuarine river, bordering the Sunderbans
Mangrove Forest. It was caught by
the fishermen from the river Mongla — a
tributary of the largest estuarine river Passur
that cuts across the Sunderbans before dis-
charging into the Bay of Bengal. This is the
first authentic report of the occurrence of B
baska in Bangladesh based on actual specimen.

It breeds along the mouths of the rivers
Katka and Konga within Sarankhola Range of
the Sunderbans (Whitaker 1982, pers. comm.).

3. Kachuga tecta tecta Gray. Roofed Turtle/
Kori Kaitta

K. t. tecta is the commonest and the smallest
of the chelonians of Bangladesh. It is found
all over the country, barring the hilly areas
of the east, and the distribution is rather
uniform over the entire range. I have seen

111

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

them both in running and stagnant waters in-
cluding pools and puddles in the villages. They
often cross the crop fields, when the pools
get dried up during winter, with a view to
reaching a new pool. It is caught in large
numbers and is relished by the local hindus
and Christians. They buy them in hundreds
and keep them in empty kerosine oil tins
and use them whenever needed. DUZM speci-
mens (other than that of Shafi & Quddus
1977) do not exceed 12 cm, carapace length.
It is included in Schedule I of CITES.

4. Kachuga tentoria Gray. Roofed Turtle/
Majhari Kaitta

Kachuga tentoria has received its specific
status in the recent past. Formerly it used to
be considered as a subspecies of Kachuga
tecta (Pritchard 1979). May be for the same
reason it has never been included in the list
of Bangladesh turtles. Both these species were
found in the same pond at Faridpur (Fig. 1).
It is as common as the preceding one and
has a similar distribution in the country, that
is, it occurs sympatrically with the former.
DUZM has a dozen of them.

5. Kachuga smithi Gray. Roofed Turtle/
Vaittal Kaitta

Kachuga smithi is a poorly known species
of Roof Turtle from Bangladesh. According
to Smith (1931), Annandale collected seve-
ral specimens of this species from Rajshahi.
Shafi & Quddus (1977) has given no account
of its distribution within the country or abun-
dance. It is occasionally found along the river
Padma and its tributaries, and marshy areas
(Chalan beel) attached to these within Raj-
shahi, Pabna and Kushtia districts. I did not
see any basking aggregations of it in the
Padma. Pritchard’s (1979) statement that ‘this
is a common species in Bangladesh south of
Jhelum’ appears to be erroneous as Jhelum

is a river of the Indus system in Pakistan.
Moreover the species is not common in
Bangladesh.

6. Kachuga dhongoka Gray

Smith (1931) has given its distribution as
‘N. E. India; the Ganges as far west as Alla-
habad and north to Nepal. Anderson states
that it has been found in the Brahmaputra
in Assam’. Recently (1981) a shell has been
collected from the suburbs of Dacca.

7. Kachuga kachuga Gray

It is occasionally found in the Padma, near
Rajshahi and is also sold in the market, which
needs confirmation as I failed to procure one
when I visited the markets.

8. Kachuga sylhetensis Jerdon

Kachuga sylhetensis is likely to be present
in Khasia and Jaintia of Sylhet and Garo hill
areas of Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts
bordering the Khasia and Garo Hill Ranges
of India.

9 . Melanochelys tricarinata Blyth. Threekeel-
ed Terrapin

M. tricarinata is possibly present in the ex-
treme north-west corner of Bangladesh that is
in Tentulia and Panchagarh areas of Dinajpur
district as has been suggested by Pritchard
(1979). One specimen has been collected from
Mymensingh district. About the occurrence
of Melanochelys trijuga indopeninsularis An-
nandale, Pritchard (1979) said, it is found in
Chota Nagpur and Jalpaiguri District of north-
ern Bangladesh. Although the ‘Jalpaiguri
District’ is within the Indian state of West
Bengal parts of Sylhet, Mymensingh, Jamalpur,
Rangpur and Dinajpur may be prospective
areas in Bangladesh for its occurrence.

M. tricarinata is in Schedule I of CITES

10. Curora amboinensis Daudin. Malayan
Box Turtle/Diba Kasim

C. amboinensis has not yet been reported
from any part of Indian sub-continent. Its

112

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79
Reza Khan: Chelonians

Plate I

Above : Trionyx nigricans from Bostani tank at Chittagong.
Below : Trionyx hunum from foot of Garo hills.

J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc. 79
Reza Khan: Chelonians

Plate II

Above: Head of a Trionyx gangeticus.

Middle : (Left) — Lyssemys p. punctata from Cox’s Bazar:

(Right) — Side view of Cur ora amboinesis.

Below: (Left)— The 3rd central (Vertebral) is a divided one C. amboinensis.
(Right) — Ventral side of a C. amboinensis .

CHELONIANS OF BANGLADESH

distribution has been given as “Tenasserim,
Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, In-
donesia.. .Philippines” by Pritchard (1979),
who has actually adopted this distribution
from Smith (1931). Recently I have collected
a live specimen from Cox’s Bazar area of
south-eastern Bangladesh from the neighbour-
hood of a semi-evergreen forest. The
turtle was crossing a highway that cuts across
the denuded forest which is now planted
with Malayan Oil Palm. Groombridge’s (pers.
comm.) conjecture that it might have been
transported from Malayasia along the oil
palm seems unlikely.

11. Morenia petersi Anderson. Yellow Turtle/
Haldey Kaitta

Although Smith (1931) and Pritchard
(1979) restricted the distribution of M. petersi
to Jessore, Dacca and Fategarh (?) within
Bangladesh, to me it is a common turtle seen
basking in Padma and Jamuna river systems
of Bangladesh. It basks in rows on the newly
accreted sandbars or on sand slabs along the
eroded bank of these rivers. They drop down
to water at the slightest disturbance or
approach of a boat, fisherman or bather but
stick their heads out of water again in no
time, a few paces away from the intruder.
It is caught in good number and is eaten too.

12. Geoclemys hamiltoni Gray. Black Pond
Turtle /Mogom or Kalo Kaitta

G. hamiltoni is usually found in old fairly
large tanks, perennial marshes, etc. and
although distributed over the entire country,
minus the hilly areas, cannot be considered
a common species. It is eaten by the local
people. The species has been included in
Schedule I of CITES.

Family Testudinidae

13. Geochdone emys Schlegel & Muller,

Brown Burmese Tortoise /Pahari Kossop

Husain (1979) was the first to report of its
occurrence in Bangladesh although he did
not mention the species name. I had the occa-
sion to check the empty shell of this species
with him which turned out to be G. emys .
This species is found only in the forested belt
of the Chittagong Hill Tracts district of
Bangladesh. During my several visits to these
forests I did not come across one. But the
tribal chakmas told me that occasionally they
collect it. It has a very high market value
and specially so during the biju festival of
the chakmas. Sometimes they use the empty
shell of G. emys for washing clothes or for
making door-step for their thatched houses.

14. Geochdone elongata Blyth. Hill-Tortoise/
Pahari Haldey Kossop

Unlike the preceding species G. elongata is
not rare in the forested areas of Chitta-
gong Hill Tracts. On three occasions I have
recorded them from the chakmas, who were
taking them home from the reserved forest
area. Olivier’s (1979) report of its export
from Bangladesh is questionable as it is never
gathered and sold in bulk in any market both
inside and outside the hilly areas, and local
exporters failed to confirm his report. There-
fore this is the first confirmed report of its
occurrence in Bangladesh.

Family Trionychidae

15. Lissemys punctata punctata Bonnaterre.
Spotted Flap-Shell /Sundhi or Tila Kasim

One of the commonest of the soft-shells
L. p. punctata is found all over Bangladesh,
mostly in stagnant water specially in village
ponds and marshy areas. It is sold in all turtle
markets and is exported out too. The species
has been listed under Schedule I of CITES.

16. Trionyx gangeticus Cuvier. Ganges Soft-

113

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Shell ,/Khalua or Gonga Kasim

T. gangeticus is common in all major rivers
of Bangladesh. Found in good number in
ox-bow lakes and larger bodies of water. It
is one of the species that is sold in the market
round the year, has the highest market value
and is exported.

17. Trionyx hurum Gray. Peacock Soft-Shell|
Dhum Kasim

Like the preceding species it is very com-
mon round the year, and found in all rivers
excepting the hill ones and has good market
value during monsoon when catches of other
species is low. It has good export market too.
Both T. gangeticus and T. hurum are sold
at a flat rate of one US dollar, during mon-
soon, per kilo of freshly cut turtle. The
butchers cut them live through the hinder part
of the frontal pair of callosities, when the
poor turtle bleed profusely right in front of
the buyers.

18. Trionyx nigricans Anderson. Bostami
Turtle /Bostami Kasim

T. nigricans is an endemic species found only
in small pond, attached to the shrine of Hazrat
Byazid Bostami, at the outskirt of Chittagong
town (Khan 1980). All three reports from
Bangladesh (vide Ahamed 1955, Shaft &
Quddus 1977, and Husain 1979) did not in-
clude this species in their list inspite of the
fact that Smith (1931) quoting Annandale
gave a quite comprehensive account of the
species. I have already mentioned that all large
specimens in the pond has some sort of fungal
infection on their skins of neck and limbs.
These turtles, numbering about 200, are al-
most entirely dependent on the food supplied
to them by the shrine visitors. It mostly com-
prised of beef offal, prawns, plantain and
puffed rice.

All the abovementioned three species of
Trionyx are included under Schedule I of

CITES, Although the Bostami Turtle enjoys
highest protection the remaining two are mer-
cilessly exploited for commercial purposes.

19. Chitra indica Gray. Asiatic Soft-Shell
Turtle/Sim or Chitra Kasim

C. indica is the largest of all turtles of
Bangladesh and found over entire Padma and
Jamuna river systems and in their tributaries.
A great number of them are sold in the
market and exported during winter, between
October-February, and sometimes up to May-
June, before the break-out of heavy monsoon.
Although Pritchard (1979) suggested that ‘it
prefers clear water’ all rivers of Bangladesh
become quite turbid during monsoon and all
will have crystal clear water before winter
which will last up to next monsoon.

20. Pelochelys bibroni Owen. Bibron’s Soft-
Shell/ Jata Kasim

Although Smith (1931) altogether doubted
its presence in Bengal, Pope (1964) and
Pritchard (1979) did not even include Indian
sub-continent within its range, whereas Shaft
& Quddus (1977) and Husain (1979) have
categorically included Pelochelys bibroni in
their lists. It is said to have wide distribution
and is marketed too.

Family Cheloniidae

21 . Chelonia mydas Linnaeus. Green Turtle

22. Caretta caretta Linnaeus. Loggerhead
Turtle

23. Lepidochelys olivacea Eschscholtz. Olive
Ridley Turtle

24. Eretmochelys imhricata Linnaeus. Hawks-
bill Turtle

Family Dermochelyidae

25. Dermochelys coriacea Linnaeus. Leather-
back Turtle

114

CHELONIANS OF BANGLADESH

All the five species of marine turtles, from
no. 21 to 25, are locally called Samudrik
Kasim. They are usually found along the
coast of Bay of Bengal, from the Sunderbans
in the West to the St. Martin Island in the
extreme south-east. The eggs of Green,
Ridley, Hawksbill, and Leatherback turtles
are usually collected and eaten by fishermen,
specially the tribal moghs and low-caste
hindus. The Green Turtle is the commonest
of the Marine Turtle found in Bangladesh.

Conservation Measures

The Government has promulgated Bangla-
desh Wildlife (Preservation) Order 1973
which under Schedule III bans hunting, kill-
ing capturing and exporting of all wild ani-
mals excepting those mentioned in Schedule
I and II. Although these two schedules do
not include turtles and tortoises the turtle
trade seems to be absolutely uncontrolled
and literally there is no implementation of
the Ordinance so far as turtles are concerned.
This is mainly because turtles are handled by
the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock who
are mostly concerned with commercial exploi-
tation rather than protection of animals,
which is done by Ministry of Forests.

Uncontrolled and ill-planned exploitation of
all the species of freshwater and land cheJo-
nians, and egg-collection, for the sake of trade
alone might lead to the extinction of several
species from Bangladesh. Therefore immediate
steps are necessary to bring the turtle under
the management of the Forest Department as

they have some personnel for protection. The
entire turtle trade must be handled carefully
and judiciously.

A general survey of the status and distri-
bution of the chelonians must be done imme-
diately with a view to assessing the export
and home consumption potential. Export of
all species of freshwater turtles mentioned in
the Schedule I of CITES be banned and
quota to be fixed for the annual export for
the species not covered by CITES.

ACK NOWLEDGE M E N TS

I am thankful to Mr. Romulus Whitaker,
Director, Madras Snake Park, India and Mr.
Tsutomu Hikida, Kyoto University, Japan,
who allowed me and provided facilities to
accompany them in their survey of the
Varanus species of Bangladesh during June-
July, 1981, when I picked up Curora amboi-
nensis from Cox’s Bazar. I thank Prof. Kazi
Zaker Husain, Dept, of Zoology and Dr.
Mahmud-ul Ameen, Professor and Chairman,
Dept, of Zoology, University of Dacca, for
permitting me to check the specimens of turtles
lying with and DUZM, and those of Shaft
and Quddus kept in the reference cabinet.
Thanks are also due to Prof. Edward O. Moll,
Chairman, Freshwater Chelonian Specialist
Group; Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay
Natural History Society, and Dr. Brian
Groombridge, Compiler, RDB-Amphibia/
Reptilia, for making enquiries regarding
Bangladesh chelonians which has literally
forced me to take a fresh look at the subject.

115

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

References

Ahamed, N. (1955) : On edible turtles and tor-
toises of East Pakistan. Directorate of Fisheries,
East Pakistan, pp. 18.

Anonymous (1981) : Export from Bangladesh
during the fiscal years 1972-73 to 1980-81. Export
Promotion Bureau, Dacca, pp. 3.

Gittins, S. P. (1980): Project report: A survey
of the primates of Bangladesh. Fauna & Flora
Pres. Soc., London, pp. 64.

Husain, K. Z. (1979) : Bangladesher bonyajontu-
swampad o tar songrakhshan (bengali). Bangla
Academy Bijnan Potrika 5 (3) : 29-31.

Khan, M. A. R. (1980): A ‘holy’ turtle of
Bangladesh. Hornbill 1980 (4): 7-11.

Oliver, R. C. D. (1979) : Wildlife conservation
and management in Bangladesh. Report. F.A.O.,
Rome vii + 148 pp.

Pope, C. H. (1964) : The reptile world. Alfred
A. Knopf, N. Y. pp. 325.

Pritchard, P. C. H. (1979) : Encyclopedia of
turtles. T.F.H. Publications, Inc., Hong Kong,
pp. 895.

Shafi, M. & Quddus, M. M. A. (1977): Bangla-
desher mothshya swampada (bengali). Bangla
Academy Bijnan Potrika 3 (2) : 14-36.

Smith, M. A. (1931): The fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphi-
bia. Vol. I. Loricata. Testudines. Taylor & Francis,
London, xxxiii + 185 pp.

116

NEW PLANTS FROM URBAN ENVIRONMENT
OF BARODA, GUJARAT1

S. N. Patil and S. D. Sabnis2
( With a plate)

I N TROD U CTIO N

The urban centre of Baroda has of late
been experiencing phenomenal growth of
population and human settlements due to rapid
industrialization. These sudden developments
have created problems affecting the physical
environment and the biotic components as
well. The effects of these intense biotic stresses
on the quality and quantity of the vegetal
cover at Baroda are presently being assessed.
While working with this ecological problem,
a number of plants hitherto not reported either
from Baroda or from the wider region of
Gujarat (Shah 1980) have been noted. The
present note, therefore includes our observa-
tions on the morphology, phenology and
availability of these plants in the urban areas
of Baroda.

Amaranthus dubius Mart. Hort. Erl. 197, 1814;

FI. Males. 4 (1): 79, 1954.

An erect, much-branched annual herb with
striate stem. Leaves ovate, cuneate at the base.
Flowers in axillary and terminal spikes; bracts
ovate with a long mucro, thinly membranous;
tepals 5, with a thin midrib in lower half,
much thickened in the upper half; stamens 5;
styles 3.

Rare, the plant was noted along the banks
of a nallah near the sewage disposal area.

1 Accepted May 1980.

2 Taxonomy Laboratory, Department of Botany,
M. S. University of Baroda, Baroda, Gujarat,

Flowers & Fruits : July-October.

SNR 536.

Andrachne telephioides Linn. Sp. PI. 1014,
1753; Hooker 5:284; Tackholm 245. (Plate).
A prostrate, glabrous herb. Stems many,
6 to 20 cms. long, arising from the root
stock, slender, leafy. Leaves sessile, obovate,
fleshy with tapering base. Male flowers smaller,
clustered in axils, and females solitary and
double in size; disc glands slightly lobed, mem-
branous; style 3 fid. Capsule depressed globose,
hairy.

The plant was collected from the moist
banks of Timbi tank.

Flowers & Fruits : December-March.

SNP. 721, 1036, 1037.

Conyza leucantha (D. Don) Ludlow and
Raven, Kew Bull. 17 71, 1963.

C. viscidula Wall, ex DC., Prodr. 5: 383,
1836; Hooker, 3: 258; Duthie 1: 410.

A tall, glandular-pubescent corymbosely
branched herb. Leaves lanceolate, narrowed
at both ends, viscid-puberulous on both sur-
faces. Heads yellow, in large, loose corymbs.
Achenes obovoid, margined, first minutely
hairy then glabrous.

The plant was collected in wheat fields from
Makarpura and Maneja area.

Flowers & Fruits : December-February.
SNP. 742, 1086.

Cyperus pulcherrimus Willd. in Kunth, Enum.
v. 2 (1837) p. 35; Hooker 6: 600; Cooke
3: 376.

A tufted stout herb. Stem trigonous. Leaves

117

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

narrowly linear, 1 -nerved. Umbel com-
pound, contracted with many rays; bracts
3-6. Spikelets densely crowded; Rachilla not
winged; glumes ovate-oblong, obtuse, with
crisped incurved tips, sides hyaline with 2 red-
dish brown bands; stamens 2. Nut half as
long as glume, stipitate, trigonous, acute at
both ends, granulate.

The plant was collected from shady loca-
lities on moist banks of Vishwamitri river.
Flowers & Fruits : January- April.

SNP. 768, 1074, 1075.

Eriocaulon cinemim R. Br. Prodr. 254, 1810.
E. sieboldianum Sieb. & Zucc. ex Steud.
Syn. PI. Cyp. 2: 272, 1855; Hooker 6:
577; Cooke 3: 357.

A stemless, glabrous herb. Leaves linear-
oblong. Peduncles glabrous, many-ribbed;
heads white-puberulous; receptacles, involu-
cral and floral bracts glabrous.

Not common; observed on the muddy
banks of Harni and Timbi ponds.

Flowers & Fruits : September-December.
SNP. 687, 996.

Euphorbia zornioldes Boiss. in DC. Prodr.
15(2) 19, 1862; Hooker 5: 246; Cooke 3: 60.

A glabrous erect herb with reddish stem.
Leaves linear-oblong with pink margins. In-
volucres solitary, glabrous; petaloid limbs rosy
with ovate lobes. Capsule globose.

Noted in cultivated fields mixed with grasses
at Pratapnagar area.

Flowers & Fruits : July- September.

SNP. 92, 330.

Hemigraphis crenata (Bth. ex Hohenack.)
Bremek. in Mat. Mon. Strob. 137, 1944.
FT. elegans Nees var. crenata (Bth. ex
Hohenack.) Clarke, in Hk. f. FBI. 4: 425,
1844; Cooke 2: 435.

A partly diffuse, viscid herb, softly white
hairy. Younger stem subquadrangular, hairy.
Leaves ovate, crenate-serrate, not sharply

toothed, base cuneate, hairy. Flowers in heads;
sepals subequal, one much larger than other
four, linear hairy, and ciliate. Corolla tube
pale blue, limbs blue, ovate; stamens 4, two
longer densely bearded in their upper half by
long, flat papilose hairs. Capsule linear-oblong,
pubescent; seeds 8-10, orbicular.

The plant was collected from moist banks
of Vishwamitri river.

Flowers & Fruits'. January- April.

SNP. 540, 745, 1079.

Shah (op. cit.) reports this species on the
authority of Saxton and Sedgwick (1918, p.
289) who collected it from North Gujarat.
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. Dissert. Hydroc.
p. 3, No. 17, p. 6, t. 2, 1798; Hooker 2:
667; Cooke 1 : 597. (Plate).

A long, succulent prostrate and decumbent
herb. Leaves sub-orbicular, sub-entire, coarse-
ly crenate, hairy on nerves. Flowers pale
green, crowded in dense, globular umbels. Fruit
orbicular, mericarps with acute primary ridges.

The plant was collected from the moist
banks of Harni tank under the shade.
Flowers & Fruits : October- January.

SNP. 694, 1030.

Cooke in Flora of Bombay Presidency has
included this plant on Woodrow’s authority.
He has seen no Bombay specimen and none
from that of the Presidency in Herb. Kew.

According to Santapau [FI. Saurashtra
(1963), p. 254] Hydrocotyle is occasionally,
though rarely found in Western India.
Tribulos rajasthanensis Bhandari et Sharma
in Bot. Notiser, 129: 367, 1976; Bhandari,
FI. Ind. Desert 88, 1978. (Plate).

A diffusely prostrate herb. Stem densely
pubescent and sparingly hirsute. Leaves oppo-
site, alternate in lower region, unequal at
nodes; leaflets upto 7 pairs. Flowers bright
yellow; stamens 8; ovary with bulbous-based,
bristly hairs directed upwards; stigma pyra-

118

J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc. 79
Patil & Sabnis: Plants from Baroda

PLANTS FROM BARODA

midal. Fruit with 5 cocci, with 2 main spines
and many smaller, unequal spines, densely
hirsute.

It is easily separated from T. terrestris Linn,
by much more densely hirsute cocci and
absence of a pair of secondary spines; instead

Refer

Bhandari, M. M. (1978): Flora of the Indian
Desert. Jodhpur.

Cooke, T. (1901-1908) : The Flora of the Presi-
dency of Bombay. Calcutta. (Reprinted ed., 3 Vols.).

Duthie, J. F. (1903-1929): Flora of Upper

Gangetic Plain. . . . Sub-Himalayan tracts. Calcutta.

3 Vols,

Hooker, J. D. et al. (1872-1897): The Flora of
British India. London. 7 Vols.

Santapau, H. (1962): The Flora of Saurashtra.
Part I. Rajkot.

much more pronounced and stouter spines are
present.

It was collected from Cotton fields at
Atladara.

Flowers & Fruits'. September-November.
SNP. 623, 624.

E N CES

Saxton, W. T. and Sedgwick, L. J. (1918) : Plants
of Northern Gujarat. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 6 (7) :
209-323.

Shah, G. L. (1980) : Flora of Gujarat State.
Vallabh Vidyanagar. 2 Vols.

Steenis, C. G. G. J. van (1948-1962) : Flora
Malesiana (Ser. I); Vol. 4, 1948-54; Vol. 5, 1955-
58 and Vol. 6, 1960-62. Djakarta and Groningen.

Tackholm, V. (1956) : Students Flora of Egypt.
Cairo.

OBSERVATIONS ON FOOD HABITS OF SIX SPECIES
OF INDIAN FROGS1

P. Mohanty-Hejmadi and B. K. Acharya2

The analysis of the stomach contents of six species of frogs Rana breviceps, Rana
cyanophlyctis, Rana limnocharis, Microhyla ornata, Uperodon sy stoma and Rhaco-
phorus maculatus were done during July and August 1978. This investigation showed
partial selectivity in feeding which probably is based on the ecological niche each
occupies and thus provided an insight into the interactions amongst members of the
six species.

Introduction

A good deal of literature is available on the
food habits of anurans to demonstrate that
they are some of the major predators of pests
in nature. Several comprehensive papers such
as that of Clarke (1974) on the genus Bufo,
and Blackith and Speight (1974) on the genus
Rana are available. However, most of the in-
formation is based on work on temperate
species. Relatively little information is avail-
able on the species from tropical regions, espe-
cially that from India. Out of the 111 species
of anurans in India (Daniel 1963), only the
food habits of Rana tigerina (See literature
review by Issac and Rege 1975) and Bufo
melanostictus (Behura et al. 1971, and Ranga-
swamy and Channabasavanna, 1973) are
known. In the course of the study of Biology
of anurans from Orissa (Mohanty-Hejmadi
1977), the food habits of six species, Rana
breviceps, Rana cyanophlyctis, Rana limno-
charis, Microhyla ornata, Uperodon sy stoma
and Rhacophorus maculatus, were studied.

1 Accepted August 1980.

2 Post-Graduate Department of Zoology, Utkal
University, Bhubaneswar-751 004, Orissa.

Materials and Methods

Study site : All the frogs were collected
from an area of one square kilometer radius
around the Vani Vihar campus of Utkal Uni-
versity, Bhubaneswar. Vani Vihar is located
25 metres above sea level at 20° 17' 55"N lati-
tude and 85° 50' 12" E longitude. The climate
of Bhubaneswar and the surrounding area is
of tropical monsoon type with dry evergreen
forest, vegetation of wide variety. Shrub
forests, cultivable land, ponds and ditches
which are filled with floating or submerged
vegetation. Collection data for the 6 species of
frogs from different localities, taken during
or immediately after rainfall are as follows.
The data obtained is for one season in the
year.

Rana breviceps : These frogs were collect-
ed from three different localities only during
the breeding season. The first batch was col-
lected from a rocky area near Orissa State
Housing Board near Utkal University campus
at night on 22nd July, 1978. The second and
third batches were collected from the bank
of two semipermanent pools inside Utkal
University campus at night on 23rd July,
1978.

120

FOOD HABITS OF INDIAN FROGS

Rana cyanophlyctis : They were captured
from three different localities. Two batches
were collected at night from two semiperma-
nent pools inside Utkal University campus
on 21. VII. 1978. The third batch was collected
in the morning from a temporary pool near
Orissa State Housing Board on 3rd August.

Rana limnocharis : Two batches were cap-
tured at night from the bank of two semi-
permanent pools located about 100 metres
apart inside Utkal University campus on 11.
VII. 78 and on 12. VII. 78.

Microhyla omata : The frogs were collected
from two different localities during July, 1978.
The first batch was collected at night from
a scrub area near P. G. Department of
Botany, Utkal University on 12.VII.78. The
second batch was also collected the same
night from a scrub area near Orissa State
Housing Board.

Uperodon systoma : Three batches of these
burrowing frogs were captured at night from
three different localities. The first batch was
collected from a temporary pool located in-
side Regional Research Laboratory, adjacent
to Utkal University Campus. The second and
third batches were collected from two tem-
porary pools located inside Utkal University
Campus on 23. VII. 78.

Rhacophorus maculates : Two batches were
collected at night from the bank of a semi-
permanent pool on 12. VII. 78 and again on
13. VII. 78. The last batch was collected at
night from a rocky area on 15. VII. 78. All
these areas are located inside Utkal University
Campus.

All six species of frogs were captured by
hand or net depending on their habits. The
frogs were dissected within 4 hr. after collec-
tion. The volume of the stomach contents
were measured by water displacement. The
stomach contents were analysed, identified

and classified, as far as possible and preserved
in 4% formalin. The number and percentage
of each kind of prey item was summarized
for each species of frog.

Results

Rana breviceps (Schneider): A number of
items were found but two food items made
up a major portion of the diet (Table 1).
These were adult winged termites (Isoptera)
and beetles (Coleoptera). Other items were
members of Hymenoptera, Dictyoptera, Ortho-
ptera and spiders (Arachnid). In some of the
stomachs pebbles and vegetation were also
recovered. Thirty-two per cent of stomachs
were found empty. The size range of food
items varied from 2 (Coleoptera) to 12 mm
(winged termite).

Rana cyanophlyctis (Schneider) : Stomach
content analysis revealed that their major
food item was earthworm (Annelida). The
second most important item was Coleoptera
followed by Isoptera. Other food items con-
sisted of members of Hymenoptera, Orthop-
tera, insect eggs and even tadpoles. In some
of the stomachs vegetation was also recover-
ed. Earthworms occurred as a major food
item in all the three batches of these frogs
(Table 1). The size range in length of food
items was from 3 mm (ant) to 90 mm
(earthworm).

Rana limnocharis (Weigmann) : Insects

belonging to Coleoptera followed by
Hymenoptera were the most common food
item for them. Other prey items included sam-
ples from unidentified Hymenoptera, insect
appendages, arthropod larva, spider and an
unidentified invertebrate. Besides these, in some
of the stomachs pebbles and vegetation were
also recovered.

Microhyla ornata (Dum-bib) : Insects be-
longing to Hymenoptera, especially to family

121

Food of six species of Frogs, Rana breviceps, Rana cyanophlyctis, Rana limnocharis, Microhyla ornata, Uperodon
systoma and Rhacophorus maculatus from Bhubaneswar, Orissa.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Co

3 »J

~ a

•S3 d

oo ©

tN

3

fts

in

t" d

ON

in

1 &
1 S

IN

cn t"
d d

o

5?

Sh

ft

K

^ 5

P I

^ a

l!

*3 «

« £
§

o

if

in

n

ON JN

£ S

in oo
cn O

£ ri

5

in

in NO

3

5

d-

oo 00
in N M

^ oo

8 -H d ^

3 ON

in

o>

I I d I d I

I I

d d
<-h \£>

I | ^ I ^ I I ||l I I

6 §

in O

a £

ft

NO

I 1 I I I 1 I I 1 I I

I 1 1 I 1 1 I I I I I

! I I I I I 1 I 1 1 - I

On cn
ON d

O O
d

in ON vo -h
O

I I I I I I I I I I M I

ni -h no
On m d

o S

O r-H O in I -H

I I

»n co
oo On

00 T-H

cn

2 I - I

OO d
NO OO

in *-h *-h I ^ I tJ- N O

DO °C Tf J

cj N tn ON
^ rn ^ d O

1 Iril 1 I

ra

d

oo

O

NO

O

ON

o 3

O fl\ OO rl H

^ ' fH

O Z

Jh
PH

1 I N 1 I I I

1 s

<N d

» ri

I'eS"

o oo cj vc

ci n hh

00 00 NO .

| o I o I I I I I

d NO
d m

8

d Q

O NO
ON H

d ON

| - I - I I M I I I

d in oo

d

'aT <3

£ a,

3 o

ft d

C/5 fl)

£ I

in

■8-9

PQ

-DO

Is «

O

2

«H

3

ft

ft

O

d

ft ^
d d

a

o

3

0

n

§

d •§

.a

in d

W P

O o
£ d

3 ^

X) ^

’5 £*
< a

aJ d
u u

a> t 5

4-> 4-»

ft ft
o o
3 3
tn tn

o o

c«

d>

00

d

’d

d

d

s a

&&

° ts

3 §

Q >5

co d

M

Ji

II

3 03

O 3

11

£ 2

C <

333 «j T
^ g 3 3 £

g 3 ft 3 J

h 'H n 0

S 3 d 1> «

< P H ft >

FOOD HABITS OF INDIAN FROGS

Formicidae were the most important food of
these frogs. Other food items included sam-
ples from Termitidae (non winged forms),
Coleoptera and Vespidae (Hymenoptera) . In
some of the stomachs pebbles were also ob-
served (Table 1).

Uperodon systoma (Schneider) : A number
of items were found, but there were as many
as 360 termites (winged forms) in 7 stomachs,
indicating that termites (Isoptera) were the
favourite food of Uperodon systoma (Table 1)
Other food items included examples from
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera (Formicidae)
Some of the stomachs contained pebbles and
vegetation.

Rhacophorus maculatus (Gray) : The food
items of this frog include samples from termi-
tidae (Isoptera), Coleoptera, Hymenoptera,
Orthoptera and Dictyoptera. Most of the
stomachs (64%) were empty indicating that
it is an opportunistic feeder. The number of
food items were also less. But the most com-
mon food of this species were the insects be-
longing to Isoptera, which ranked first. In
some of the stomachs vegetation was also
recovered. The length range of food item was
from 3 mm (ant) to 17 mm (Orthoptera).

Discussion

According to the size of frogs, M. ornata
is the smallest and consumed food items with-
in the narrow range of 3.0 to 3.4mm. Rana
limnocharis which is next in size, had a larger
range in size of food items (3.4 to 11mm),
but, concentrated mostly on smaller sized
Coleoptera (3-4 mm). Rana breviceps, a
burrowing frog came next in size which con-
sumed food items in the range of 2 to 12 mm
however, concentrating mostly on larger sized
termites. Rana cyanophlyctis is the only aqua-
tic of the six species. Therefore, it consumed

aquatic insects and annelids. The range of
food item was from 3 mm to 9 cm (earth-
worm). Being given to considerable movement
at night it also had consumed other terrestrial
insects. Earlier Mohanty-Hejmadi et al. (1979)
have reported that this frog being both diurnal
and nocturnal feeds both during day and
night but the intake is higher at night.

Rhacophorus maculatus, the most mobile of
the six which can sometimes be found on the
3rd floor of the buildings, did not seem to
concentrate on any particular food item. A
high percentage of the stomach were empty
indicating that it is a highly opportunistic
feeder perhaps feeding on insects that happen
to be available. Although the range of food
items was from 3 to 17 mm, the frog concen-
trated mostly on larger items. Mohanty-
Hejmadi et al. (1979) have reported that this
frog, being totally nocturnal, feeds at night.

Uperodon systoma, the spade foot frog of
India, was the largest of the two burrowing
frogs. The percentage of termites in their food
items would indicate that it is selective for
termites. One frog had eaten as many as 150
termites. The range of food item was from
3 to 11 mm concentrating mostly on 10-11 mm
winged termites. It is interesting to note that
these frogs are found in numbers near termi-
taries and the emergence of this frog coincides
with the emergence of termites following
heavy rains (Mohanty-Hejmadi, unpublish-
ed). Whitaker et al. (1977), have shown that
termites were one of the most important food
items for Scaphiopus couchii, in all three
samples. They also reported that much of the
bulk of food of Scaphiopus were large items.
That burrowing frog populations usually in-
habit concentrated food areas have been dis-
cussed by Emerson (1976). Our findings
agree with her view. The concentration on
winged termites and lack of mud supports the

123

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

view that Uperodon mainly feeds at the sur-
face rather than underground. Mohanty-
Hejmadi et al. (1979) have reported that the
feeding schedule is perhaps restricted to the
breeding season in this animal.

If one takes by habitat niche each frog
occupies, the two burrowing ones, R. breviceps
and U. systoma compete with each other as
they concentrate on larger termites.

The small frogs which live under debris and
stones near ponds like M. ornata and R. lim-
nocharis consume smaller food items. How-
ever, M. ornata seems to concentrate on ants
while R. limnocharis concentrates more on
smaller beetles. This would indicate a partial
niche separation in their feeding habits. The
aquatic R. cyanophlyctis seemed to consume
items not readily available to other frogs. How-
ever, it is a competitor of the other carnivo-
rous aquatic fauna such as fishes. Since R.
cyanophlyctis can move with equal facility on
land, it also consumes other insects and thus
its food niche overlaps to some extent that
of other anurans. R. maculatus being a terres-
trial frog, ventures into niches not accessible

Refer

Blackith, M. Ruth and Speight, M.C.D. (1974) :
Food and feeding habits of the frog Rana tempo-
raria in Bogland Habits in the west of Ireland,

/. Zool. Lond. 172: 67-79.

Behura, B. K., Das, P. K., Mohanty, P. and
Ghosh, G. S. (1971) : On the diet and feeding
habits of the common toad, Bufo melanostictus
Schneider. Prakruti-Utkal Univ. J. Science, 8: 79-
86.

Clarke, D. Raymond (1974) : Food habits of
toads Genus Bufo (Amphibia; Bufonidae). The
American Midland Naturalist 91: 140-147.

Daniel, J. C. (1963) : Field guide to the amphi-
bians of Western India. Part 1. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 60: 415-438.

Emerson, B. Sharon (1976) : Burrowing in

Frogs. J. Morph. 149: 437-458.

Isaac, S. and Rege, M. S. (1975) : Food of

to other frogs. This is reflected in its lack of
food preference. The high number of empty
stomach reflects that it eats less frequently
than the other frogs examined. When it eats
it prefers larger prey, the number being less.
In contrast, U. systoma concentrates both on
number as well as larger size. A close exami-
nation of the food habits indicate that Smith’s
(1950) comment on the food of Scaphiopus
bombifrons that “large enough to be seen and
small enough to be swallowed” seems to be
an appropriate description of the prey the frogs
choose. Availability probably is the next para-
meter for the food items as the habitat each
of the frog was reflected in each of the frogs
food habits.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Mr. Sushil K.
Dutta for his help in the collection of frogs.
Miss K. Bohidar for her help in the identifi-
cation of insects, and Dr. B. K. Behura for
kind encouragement throughout this study.
This work has been supported by UGC grant
No. 050 / Biol /78 to Dr. P. Mohanty-Hejmadi.

iNCES

Rana tigerina (Daud.) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
72: 143-157.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. (1977): The amphibian
fauna of Orissa. Prakruti-Utkal Univ. J. Science. 11:
89-97.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P., Dutta, S. K., Acharya,
B. K. and Khan, I. (1979) : Observations on food
habits of three species of frogs, Rana cyanophlyctis
(Schneider), Rhacophorus maculatus (Gray) and
Uperodon systoma (Schneider). Proc. 6th Orissa
Adv. Sc., (Ravenshaw College, Cuttack) : p. 6.

Rangaswamy, H. R. and Channabasavanna, G.
P. (1973): Food and feeding habits of the toad,
Bufo melanostictus Schneider (Amphibia: Bufo-

nidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 558-563.

Whitaker, John, Rubin, O. D. jr. and Munsee,
Jack R. (1977) : Observations on food habits of
four species of spadefoot toad, Genus Scaphiopus
Herpetologica 33 : 468-475.

124

A CATALOGUE OF APHIDIID (HYMENOPTERA:
APHIDIIDAE) PARASITES OF APHIDS (HOMOPTERA)

OF INDIA1

A. K. Ghosh2 3
and

B AS ANT K. AGARWALA2

I N TROD U CTIO N

Aphids are known to be preyed upon or
parasitized by a number of insect groups in-
cluding Coleoptera, Diptera, Neuroptera,
Heteroptera and Hymenoptera. Amongst the
parasitoid Hymenoptera the members of the
family Aphidiidae form the major group of
primary parasites of aphids. Mackauer (1968)
has listed 331 species in his world catalogue
of Aphidiidae of which only 7 species were
recorded from India. Stary (1970) has given
an extensive account of the biology of aphi-
diid parasites with respect to aphid control
including a list of known genera of Aphidiidae
of the world.

The first published information on aphidiid
parasites in India could be traced back to
1912 when Viereck described a new species
of the group from south India. Subsequently
a number of stray records have been publish-
ed mostly from north, north-eastern as also
from south India. But no comprehensive
account of the group from India has been
published till date.

In the present catalogue 46 species and
12 other undetermined species or species com-

1 Accepted May 1979.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta 700 016.

3 Department of Zoology, Calcutta University,
Calcutta 700 019.

plex, belonging to 14 genera out of 30 genera
known from the world and three subfamilies,
have been listed along with their aphid hosts,
aphid host-plants, period of incidence, distri-
bution and references. A separate host parasite
index added. The generic classification as given
by Stary (1970) has been followed in the
present work.

Subfamily: ephedrinae
Genus Ephedrus Haliday 1833

E. campestris Stary

Host : Macrosiphoniella sanborni (Gill.) ex.
Chrysanthemum (Oct.).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit. : Shuja Uddin 1978.

E. lacertosus (Haliday)

Hosts : Myzus persicae (Sulzer) ex. indet.
host, Neomyzus circumflexus (Buckt.) ex.
Convolvulus major (Jan.); indet. aphid.

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pra-
desh, Meghalaya.

Lit.: Rao 1969, Subba Rao & Sharma 1960
b, Sharma & Subba Rao 1964.

E. niger Gautier, Bannamour & Gaumont

Hosts : Macrosiphoniella sanborni (Gill.)

ex. Chrysanthemum (Nov.); Uroleucon
tanaceti indicus A. K. Ghosh & Raychau-
dhuri ex. Chrysanthemum (Nov.).

Dist.: Jammu & Kashmir, Meghalaya.

Lit.: Rishi 1976, Stary & Ghosh 1975.

125

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

E. persicae Froggatt

Host : Not mentioned.

Dist.: Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit. : Rishi 1976.

E. plagiator (Nees)

Hosts : Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) ex.
Pisum sativum (Mar.); Aphis citricola
v.d. Goot ex. Bidens pilosa (Dec.-Jan.),
Cyphomendra betaceae (Dec.-Jan.), Eupa-
torium riparium (Feb.-Mar.), Spiraea
(Mar.); A. craccivora Koch ex. uniden-
tified; Lantana camara, Psidium guajava
(Jan.-Apr.), Spiraea (May); A. fabae
solanella Theobald ex. Solarium nigrum;
Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.) ex.
Gynura crepidiodes (Dec.); Capitophorus
sp. ex. Polygonum; Macrosiphoniella san-
borni (Gill.) ex. Chrysanthemum (Apr.-
May); Macrosiphum pachysiphon H. R. L.
ex. Rubus rosaefolius; M. rosae (L.) ex.
Rosa canina (May); Macrosiphum sp. ex.
Rosa; Myzus ornatus Laing ex. Durant a;
M. persicae (Sulzer) ex. Antirrhinum
majus (Feb.), Artemisia vulgaris (Aug.,
Oct.), Brassica spp. (Jan.-Apr.), Capsi-
cum annuum (Jan.-Apr.), Chenopodium
album (May-Jul.), Cyphomandra betacea
(Jan.-Apr.), Eupatorium riparium (Feb.),
lmpatiens balsamina, Solanum tuberosum
(May-Jul.), Lantana camara (Oct.),
Pisum sativum (Nov.), Polygonum (May-
Jul.), Prunus communis , Psidium guajava
(Nov.), Rubus rosaefolius (Aug.), Sola-
num tuberosum, Sonchus arvensis, Son-
chus corymbosa, Triticum spp.

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh,
Northeast India, Karnataka.

Lit. : Rao 1969, Rishi 1976, Stary & Ghosh
1978, Raychaudhuri et al. 1978.

Ephedrus sp.

Hosts: Aphis citricola v.d. Goot. ex. Spiraea
(Jul.); A. ruborum longisetosus Basu ex.

Rubus ellipticus (Dec.); Myzus dycei
Carver ex. a plant of Urticaceae (Dec.).

Dist. : Meghalaya.

Lit.: Stary & Ghosh 1975.

Genus Toxares Haliday 1840
T. deltiger (Haliday)

Hosts: Aphis citricola v.d. Goot ex. Hibiscus
(Apr.); Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.)
ex. Prunus domestica (Apr.), Capitopho-
rus hippophaes Walker ex. Polygonum
chinensis (Jan.); Metopolophium euryae
(Takashshi) ex. Eurya acuminata (Feb.);
Myzus ornatus Laing ex. Unidentified
plant (Apr.); Myzus persicae (Sulzer)
ex. Diant hus (Feb.), Gynura crepidoides
(Jan.), Solanum khasianum (Apr.);
Sc hi zap his ortundiventris (Signoret) ex.
Pyrus communis (Apr.).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir, Meghalaya.

Lit.: Rishi 1976, Stary & Ghosh 1978.

T. macrosiphophagum Shuja Uddin

Host: Macrosiphoniella sanborni (Gill.) ex
Chrysanthemum (Sep.).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit. : Shuja Uddin 1974.

T. shigai Takada

Hosts: Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.) ex.
Pyrus (Apr.); unidentified host ex. Tri-
ticum vulgare.

Dist.: Jammu & Kashmir, Meghalaya, West
Bengal.

Lit.: Dharmadhikari & Ramaseshiah 1970,
Stary & Ghosh 1975, Rishi 1976.

T. zakai Shuja Uddin

Host: Myzus persicae (Sulzer) ex. Solanum
nigrum (Sep.).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit.: Shuja Uddin 1974.

Subfamily prainae
Genus Areoproan Mackauer 1959
Areoproan sp.

Host.: Not mentioned.

126

CATALOGUE OF APH1DUD PARASITES

Dist .: Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit. : Rishi 1976.

Genus Proem Haliday 1833

P. abjectum (Haliday)

Host : Aphis craccivora Koch ex. Dolichos
lablab (Nov.).

Dist. : Karnataka.

Lit. : Dharmadhikari & Ramaseshiah 1970.

P. aff. absinthii Bignell

Hosts : Aphis gossypii Glover and Dactyno-
tus sp. ex. Artemisia vulgaris (Jan.).

Dist. : Meghalaya.

Lz7. : Dharmadhikari & Ramaseshiah 1970.

P. longicorne Marshall

Host: Indet. aphid (Jun.); elsewhere seve-
ral species of Acyrthosiphon, Dactynotus,
Macrosiphoniella, Microlophium, Paczos-
kia (Mackauer 1968).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit.: Subba Rao & Sharma 1969 b.

P. myzophagimi Mackauer

Hosts: Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) ex.
Pisum sativum; Aphis citricola v. d. Goot
ex. Bidens pilosa; Macrosiphum sp. ex.
Rosa; Myzus ornatus Laing ex. Durant a;
M. persicae (Sulzer) ex. Argemone
mexicana, Brassica oleracea var. capitata
(Oct.), B. oleracea (Jan.-May), Nico-
tiana tabacum (Jan.-May), Polygonum
perfoliatum, Polygonum (Dec.), Rapha-
nus sativus (Jan.-May), Solanum tubero-
sum; Indet. aphid ex. Argemone mexi-
cana, Artemisia vulgaris (Jan.-May),
Durant a and Rosa sp.

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pra-
desh, Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal.

Lit.: Dharmadhikari & Ramaseshiah 1970,
Rao 1969.

P. aff. myzophagum Mackauer

Host: Aphis gossypii Glover ex. Lantana
camara.

Dist.: Meghalaya.

Lit.: Rao 1969.

P. necans Mackauer

Host: Rhopalosiphum nymphae (L.) ex.
Trapa bispinosa (Mar.).

Dist. : Delhi.

Lit.: Subba Rao, Sarup & Sharma 1963,
Mackauer 1968.

P. volucre (Haliday)

Host : Not mentioned; elsewhere a number
of hosts all belonging to Aphidinae
(Mackauer 1968).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir, Delhi.

Lit.: Subba Rao & Sharma 1960 b.

Proan sp.

Hosts: Aphis craccivora Koch ex. Dolichos
lablab (Nov.); Amphorophorail) sp. ex.
Rubus moluccanus, A. gossypii Glover
ex. Eupatorium odoratum & Rubus molu-
ccanus; Aphis sp. ex. Rubus moluccanus;
Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.) ex. Pru-
nus domestica (Apr.); Dactynotus (?) sp.
ex. Rubus moluccanus; Macrosiphoniella
spinepes Basu ex. Artemisia (Sep.);
Macrosiphum pachysiphon H.R.L. ex. un-
identified garden plant (Jun.); M. ( Sito -
bion) rosaeformis Das ex. Rosa (Apr.);
Myzus ornatus Laing ex. Eupatorium
odoratum; M. persicae (Sulzer) ex. Anti-
rrhinum majus (Feb.); Myzus sp. a plant
of Rubiaceae (Jan.); Rhopalosiphum
nymphae (L.) ex. Rosa (Apr.).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir, Meghalaya.

Lit.: Dharmadhikari & Ramaseshiah 1970,
Stary & Ghosh 1975 and 1978, Rishi 1976.

Subfamily: aphidiinae
Tribe: APHIDINI
Subtribe: lysiphlebina
Genus: Lysiphlebus Foerster 1862.

L. ambiguus (Haliday)

Host: Not mentioned; elsewhere species of
genera Aphis, Brachycaudus, Hydaphis,
Melanphis and Toxoptera (Mackauer
1968).

127

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Dist .: Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit. : Rishi 1976.

L. delhiensis (Subba Rao & Sharma)

Host : Longiunguis sacchari (Zehntner) ex.
Sugarcane (Oct.-Nov.).

Dist. : New Delhi.

LzY.: Subba Rao & Sharma 1960 a.

L. testaceipes (Cresson)

Hosts: Aphis craccivora Koch ex. Dolichos
lablab and Glyricidia maculata (Dec.-
Mar.); Longiunguis sacchari (Zehntner)
ex. Sugarcane (Nov.).

Dist. : New Delhi, Andhra Pradesh.

Lit. : Narayanan, Subba Rao & Sharma
1958, Ramaseshiah, Bhat & Dharmadhi-
kari 1968.

Lysiphlebus sp.

Hosts : Aphis craccivora Koch ex. Cajanus
cajan; A. gossypii Glover ex. Hibiscus
rosasinensis ; Macrosiphum avenae? and
Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch) ex. Triti-
cum vulgare.

Dist.: Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Assam.

Lit. : Rao 1969, Dharmadhikari & Rama-
seshiah 1970.

L. mirazi Shuja Uddin

Host: Longiunguis sacchari (Zehntner) ex.
Saccharum officinarum (Nov.).

Dist. : Uttar Pradesh.

Lit.: Shuja Uddin 1975.

Genus Diaeretus Foerster 1862

D. leucopterus (Haliday)

Host: Eulachnus thunbergii Wilson ex.

Pinus (Feb.).

Dist. : Meghalaya.

Lit.: Stary & Ghosh 1975.

Subtribe protaphidiina
Genus Pauesia Quilis 1931

P. indica Stary

Host: Lachnus tropicalis (v. d. Goot) ex.
unidentified plant (Jun.).

Dist.: Manipur.

Lit. : Stary & Raychaudhuri 1978.

P. laricis (Haliday)

Host: Cinara ( Cinarella ) atrotibialis David
& Rajasingh ex. Pinus (Oct.-Nov.).

Dist. : Meghalaya.

Lit.: Stary & Ghosh 1975.

Subtribe aphidiina
Genus Aphidius Nees 1818

A. nr. avenae (Haliday)

Host: Not mentioned.

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit.: Rishi 1976.

A. colemani Viereck

Host: Aphis sp. ex. on tobacco; A. gossypii
Glover ex. Vitis (Jan.).

Dist. : Meghalaya, Karnataka, Southern

India.

Lit.: Krishnamurti & Usman 1955, Stary &
Ghosh 1978.

A. commodus Gahan

Host. : Macrosiphoniella pseudoartemisae

(Shinji) ex. Artemisia (Apr.); M. san-
borni (Gill.) ex. Chrysanthemum (Oct.).

Dist. : Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.

Lit.: Dharmadhikari & Ramaseshiah 1970.

A. matricariae Haliday

Hosts: Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.) ex.
Prunus (Apr.); Brevicoryne brassicae (L.)
ex. Brassica (Apr.); Capitophorus hippo-
phaes indicus A. K. Ghosh ex. Polygo-
num chinensis (Jan.); Lip aphis erysimi
(Kalt.) ex. Brassica napus (Jun.); Myzus
dycei Carver and M. persicae (Sulzer) ex.
unidentified plant (Dec.); Myzus sp. ex.
a plant of Rubiaceae (Jan.).

Dist. : Meghalaya.

Lit.: Stary & Ghosh 1975 and 1978.

A. rosae Haliday

Host: Macrosiphum rosae (L.) ex. Rosa
canina and Rosa sp.

128

CATALOGUE OF APH1DUD PARASITES

Dist.: Jammu & Kashmir, Sikkim, West
Bengal.

Lit.: Rishi 1976, Raychaudhuri et al. (in
press).

A. smith! Sharma & Subba Rao

Host : Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) ex.
Visum sativum (Feb. -Mar.).

Dist : Punjab, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, West
Bengal.

Lit.: Subba Rao & Sharma 1958, Rao 1969.

A. franscaspicus Telenga

Host.’.Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch).

Dist.: Karnataka.

Lit.: Kashiviswanathan 1972.

A. uzbeckistanicus Luzhetzki

Host'.Macrosiphum ( Sitobion ) sp. ex.
Triticum aestivum and Avena sativa (Jan.-
Apr.).

Lit.: Shuja Uddin 1975.

Aphidius sp.

Hosts: Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) ex.
Pisum sativum (Feb-Mar.); Aphis citri-
cola v. d. Goot ex. Bidens bipinnata and
B. biternatus (Feb.), Eupatorium odora-
tum and E. riparium (Feb.), an unidenti-
fied plant (Jul.); A. gossypii Glover ex.
Abelmoschus esculentus (Nov.-Apr.);
Artemisia vulgaris (Apr.), Cestrum noc-
turnum, Cyphomandra betacea (Dec.-
Mar.), Duranta, Gossypium (Nov.-Apr.),
Hibiscus rosasinensis (Nov.-Apr.), Lan-
tana camara, Leucoceptrum annum, Mal-
vaviscus conzonthie, Solanum melongena
(Nov.-Apr.); A. fabae solanella Theobald
ex. unidentified plant; Capitophorus sp.
ex. Artemisia vulgaris (Apr.); Dactynotus
sonchi (L.) ex. Lactuca (Mar.); Dacty-
notus sp. ex. Artemisia vulgaris ; Macro-
siphum ( Sitobion ) rosaeiformis Das ex.
Rosa sp. (Jun.-Nov.); Myzus ornatus
Laing ex. Duranta, Malvaviscus conzon-
thie; M. persicae (Sulzer) ex. Cypho-

mandra betacea (Feb.), Malvaviscus
conzonthie; Schizaphis rotundiventris
(Signoret) ex. Pyrus communis (Apr.).

Dist. : Widely distributed all over India.

Lit.: Raju Rao 1954, Rao 1969, Stary &
Ghosh 1975, Rishi 1976, Stary & Ghosh
1978.

Genus Diaeretiella Stary
D. rapae (M’ Intosh)

Hosts: Aphis gossypii Glover ex. Leucas
aspera (Jan.); A. fabae solanella Theobald
ex. Cestrum fasciculatum; Brevicoryne bra-
ssicae (L.) ex. Brassica (Dec.-Apr.); Hya-
lopterus atriplices (L.) ex. Chenopodium;
Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) ex. Brassica spp.
(Dec.-Mar.); Myzus persicae (Sulzer) ex.
Cyphomandra betacea ; Indet. host. ex.
Euphorbia sp.

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pra-
desh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Assam,
Meghalaya, West Bengal, Karnataka.

Lit.: Batra & Wadhi 1962, Kundu et al.
1965, Rao 1969, Stary & Ghosh 1975 and
1978.

Genus Lysaphidus Smith 1944
L. erysimi Stary

Host: Not mentioned; elsewhere Brevicoryne
erysimi Holman and Lipaphis erysimi
(Kalt.) (Mackauer 1968).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit.: Rishi 1976.

L. qadrii Shuja Uddin

Host.: Indet. host ex. Artocarpus hetero-
phyllus (Mar.).

Dist. : Uttar Pradesh.

Lit. : Shuja Uddin 1977.

Lysaphidus sp.

Hosts: Aphis craccivora Koch; Macrosipho-
niella sanborni (Gill.) ex. Chrysanthe-
mum; Myzus persicae (Sulzer) ex.
Cyphomandra betacea, Rhopalosiphum
maidis (Fitch) ex. Sorghum.

129

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Dist. : Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.

Lit. : Rao 1969, Dharmadhikari & Rama-
seshiah 1970.

Tribe trioxini

Subtribe MONOCTININA

Genus Monoctonus Haliday 1833

Monoctonus sp.

Host.: Not mentioned.

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit. : Rishi 1976.

Subtribe trioxina

Genus Lipolexis Foerster 1862

L. gracilis Foerster

Host : Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) ex. Brassica
campestris (Jan.); Indet. aphid ex.
Cajanus cajan (Mar.).

Dist.: Jammu & Kashmir, Delhi.

Lit.: Sharma & Subba Rao 1964, Rishi 1976.

L. scutellarus Mackauer

Hosts: Aphis citricola v. d. Goot ex. Bidens
pilosa, B. pinnata (through out the year),
Dracocephalum sp. (? latifolium ), Erech-
thites valarianaefolia, Eupatorium odora-
tum, Jacaranda mimosifolia, Melanthesa
patens, Mikania cordata, Prunus amygda-
lus, Spiraea corymbosa; A. gossypii Glover
ex. Cosmos (Sep.), Eupatorium (Jul.),
Hibiscus rosasinensis (Jun.-Sep.), Lan-
tana camara (Dec.), Psidium guajava
(Jul.); A. nerii B. d. Fonscolombe ex.
Calotropis gigantea (Dec. -Jan.); A. rubo -
rum longisetosus Basu ex. Rubus ellipti-
cus (Jun.); A. fabae soianella Theobald
ex. Solanum; Aphis sp., ex. Cestrum
nocturnum; Greenidea ( Trichosiphum )
formosana ? ex. Psidium guajava ; Toxop-
tera aurantii (B. d. Fonscolombe) ex.
Schima wallichii; T, citricidus (Kirkaldy)
ex. Citrus (Sep.), Zanthoxylum (Sep.);
Tuberolachnus salignus (Gmelin) ex.
Salix (Sep.).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, West Ben-
gal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karna-
taka, Kerala.

Lit. : Rao 1969, Dharmadhikari & Rama-
seshiah 1970, Stary & Ghosh 1975, Rishi
1976.

Genus Trioxys Haliday 1833
Subgenus Betuloxys Mackauer 1960
T. (B.) assamensis Stary

Host: Betacallis querciphaga Basu, Ghosh
& Raychaudhuri ex. unidentified plant
(Oct.).

Dist. : Meghalaya.

Lit.: Stary & Ghosh 1975.

T. (B.) hortorum Stary
Host: Not mentioned.

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit. : Rishi 1976.

T. (B.) intermedius Shuja Uddin

Host: Indet. aphid ex. Centaurea iberica
(Sep.).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit.: Shuja Uddin 1975.

T. (B.) takecallis Stary

Host.’.Takecallis arundinariae ex. unidenti-
fied Gramineae (Dec.).

Dist. : West Bengal.

Lit.: Stary & Raychaudhuri 1978.

Subgenus Binodoxys Mackauer
T. (B.) acalephae Marshall

Host.: Aphis gossypii Glover ex. Cyanotis
axillaris (Jul.).

Dist. : Karnataka.

Lit.: Dharmadhikari & Ramaseshiah 1970.
T. (B.) basicuryus Shuja Uddin
Host : Aphis gossypii Glover ex. Rubus

(May).

Dist.: Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit. : Sharma & Subba Rao 1964.

T. (B.) eutrichosiphini Stary

Host: Eutrichosiphum sp. ex. Castanopsis

130

CATALOGUE OF APHID1ID PARASITES

(Sep.), Litsea (Oct.).

Dist. : Meghalaya.

Lite. Stary & Ghosh 1975.

T. (B.) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma

Hosts'. Aphis citricola v. d. Goot ex. Spi-
raea (Jul.); A. craccivora Koch ex. a
plant of Leguminosae (Sep.); A. fabae
solanella Theobald ex. Maesa (Dec.); A.
gossypii Glover ex. Abelmoschus esculen-
tus (May-Jul.), Bidens pilosa, Capsicum,
Cestrum nocturnum, Chrysanthemum,
Coccinea cordifolia, C. esculenta, C. in -
dica, Colocasia (May), Cuscuta reflexa
(Sep.,), Cymopsis tetagonaloba, Cypho-
mandra betacea, Dolichos lablab, Dur-
anta, Eupatorium, Gossypium hirsutum
(Feb.), Gossypium sp., Gynura crepidio-
ides, Hibiscus rosasinensis (Sep. -Oct.,
Dec.), Lagenaria siceraria, L. vulgaris,
Lantana camara, Portulaca, Psidium gua-
java (May, Sep.), Rumex dentatus, Sola-
num melongena (Nov. -Mar.), S. tubero-
sum, Tinospora, Trichosanthes anguina;
A. nerii B. d. Fonscolombe ex. Calotropis
procera (Mar.), A. ruborum longisetosus
Basu ex. Rubus (Dec.); Brachycaudus
helichrysi (Kalt.) ex. Gynura crepidioi-
des (Dec.); Myzus persicae (Sulzer) ex.
Cyphomandra betacea and an unidenti-
fied plant (Nov.); Sinomegoura citricola
(v. d. Goot) ex. Ardisia (Sep.); Toxop -
tera aurantii (B. d. Fonscolombe) ex.
Ilex (Sep.); T. citricidus (Kirkaldy) ex.
Citrus (Sep.), Zanthoxylum (July-Sep.).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Delhi,
Uttar Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, West
Bengal, Karnataka.

Lit.: Narayanan, Subba Rao & Sharma
1958, Subba Rao & Sharma 1958, Rao
1969, Shuja Uddin 1973, Stary & Ghosh
1975, Rishi 1976, Raychaudhuri et al.
1978, Stary & Ghosh 1978.

T. (B.) rubicola Shuja Uddin

Host: Aphis gossypii Glover ex. Rubus
(May).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit.: Shuja Uddin 1973.

T. (B.) shillongensis Stary

Host: Sinomegoura pyri Ghosh & Ray-
chaudhuri ex. unidentified plant (Sep.).

Dist. : Meghalaya.

Lit. : Stary & Ghosh 1978.

T. (B.) sinensis Mackauer

Host: Aphis craccivora Koch and A. gos-
sypii Glover ex. Cestrum nocturnum
(Nov.-Dee.).

Dist. : Uttar Pradesh.

Lit. : Rao 1969.

Subgenus Trioxys Haliday 1833
T. (T.) auctus (Haliday)

Host : Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch) ex.
Sagittaria sagittifolia.

Dist.: Assam.

Lit.: Dharmadhikari & Ramaseshiah 1970.
T. (T.) pallidus (Haliday)

Host: Not mentioned; elsewhere several
species of Drepanosiphinae (Mackauer
1968).

Dist : Jammu & Kashmir.

Lit.: Rishi 1976.

Trioxys spp.

Hosts: Macrosiphoniella spinipes Basu ex.
Chrysanthemum (Nov.); MollitrichosU
phum tenuicorpus (Okajima) ex. a plant
of Fagaceae (Apr.); Tuberculatus indicus
L. K. Ghosh ex. Quercus griff it hi (Apr.).

Dist. : Jammu & Kashmir, Meghalaya.

Lit.: Stary & Ghosh 1975 and 1978, Rishi
1976.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Director, Zoologi-
cal Survey of India, Calcutta and to the Head,
Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta
for providing working facilities.

131

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

HOST PARASITE INDEX

Acyrthosiphon pisum

: Aphidius smithi
Aphidius sp.
Ephedrus plagiator

Aphis nerii

: Lipolexis scutellaris
Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
indicus

Proan myzophagum

Aphis rubor um

Ephedrus sp.

Amphorophora sp.

• Proan sp.

longisetosus

: Lipolexis scutellaris

Aphis spp.

• Aphidius colemani
Lipolexis scut ell ar is

Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
indicus

Proan sp.

Betacallis querciphaga

: Trioxys ( Betuloxys )

Aphis citric ola

• Aphidius spp.

assamensis

Ephedrus plagiator
Ephedrus sp.
Lipolexis scutellaris
Proan myzophagum
Toxares deltiger
Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
indicus

Brachycaudus helichrysi

: Aphidius matricariae
Ephedrus plagiator
Proan sp.

Toxares deltiger
Toxares shigai
Trioxys ( Binidoxys )
indicus

Aphis craccivora

: Ephedrus plagiator
Lipolexis scutellaris

Brevicoryne brassicae

: Aphidius matricariae
Diaeretiella rapae

Lysaphidus sp.
Lysiphlebus sp.

Capitophorus spp.

: Aphidius sp.
Ephedrus plagiator

Proan abjectum
Proan sp.

Capitophorus hippophaes
Capitophorus hippophaes

: Toxares deltiger

Trioxys ( Binodoxys )

indicus

: Aphidius matricariae

indicus

Cinara atrotibialis

: Pauesia laricis

Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
sinensis

Dactynotus spp.

'.Aphidius sp.

Proan sp. aff. absinthii

Aphis fctbae solanella

• Aphidius sp.

Proan sp.

Diaeretiella rapae

Dactynotus sonchi

: A phidius sp.

Ephedrus plagiator

Eulachnus thunbergii

: Diaeretiella leucopterus

Lipolexis scutellaris
Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
indicus

Eutrichosiphum sp.
Greenidea ( Trichosiphum )

Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
eutrichosiphini

Aphis gossypii

'• Aphidius colemani

formosana

: Lipolexis scutellaris

A phidius spp.

Hyalopterus atriplices

: Diaeretiella rapae

Diaeretiella rapae
Ephedrus plagiator

Lachnus tropicalis

: Pauesia ( Paraphidius )
indica

Lipolexis scutellaris
Lysiphlebus sp.

Proan sp. aff. absinthii

Lipaphis erysimi

: Aphidius matricariae
Diaeretiella rapae
Lipolexis gracilis

Proan sp. aff. myzophag
Proan sp.

Trioxys ( Binodoxys )

Longiunguis sacchari
Macrosiphoniella

: Lysiphlebia mirazi
Lysiphlebus dehiensis

acalephae

pseudoartemisiae

: Aphidius commodus

Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
basicuryus

Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
indicus

Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
ru bicola

Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
sinensis

Macrosiphoniella sanborni

: Aphidius commodus
Ephedrus campestris
Ephedrus niger
Ephedrus plagiator
Lysaphidus sp.

T oxares

macrosiphophagum

132

CATALOGUE OF APHIDI1D PARASITES

Macrosiphoniella spinipes :

Macrosiphum sp. :

Macrosiphum ( Sitobion ) sp.

Macrosiphum avenae :

Macrosiphum pachysiphon :

Macrosiphum ( Sitobion )
rosaeiformis :

Macrosiphum rosae :

Metopolophium eurae :

Mollitrichosiphum

tenuicorpus :

Myzus sp. :

Myzus dycei :

Myzus ornatus :

Myzus persicae

Proan sp.

Trioxys sp.

Ephedrus plagiator
Proan myzophagum
Aphidius uzbekistanicus
Lysiphlebus sp.
Ephedrus plagiator
Proan sp.

Aphidius sp.

Proan sp.

Aphidius rosae
Ephedrus plagiator
Toxares del tiger

Trioxys sp.

Aphidius matricariae
Aphidius matricariae
Ephedrus sp.

Aphidius sp.

Ephedrus plagiator
Proan myzophagum
Proan sp.

T oxares del tiger
Aphidius matricariae
Aphidius sp.

Diaeretiella rapae
Ephedrus lacertosus
Ephedrus plagiator
Lysaphidus sp.

Proan myzophagum
Proan sp.

Neomyzus circumflexus
Rhopalosiphum maidis

Rhopalosiphum nymphae
Schizaphis rotundiventris
Sinomegoura citricola
Sinomegoura pyri
Takecallis arundinariac
Toxoptera aurantii

Toxoptera citricidus

Tuberculatus indicus
Tuber olachnus salignus
Uroleucon tanaceti
indicus

Toxares deltiger
Toxares zakai
Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
brevicornis
Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
indicus

: Ephedrus lacertosus
: Aphidius transcaspicus
Ephedrus plagiator
Lysiphlebus sp.

Trioxys ( Trioxys )?
auctus

'■ Proan necans
Proan sp.

: Aphidius sp.

Toxares deltiger

• Trioxys ( Binodoxys )

indicus

• Trioxys ( Binodoxys )

shillongensis
' Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
takecallis

■ Lipolexis scutellaris
Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
indicus

'• Lipolexis scutellaris
Trioxys ( Binodoxys )
indicus

'■ Lipolexis scutellaris

• Trioxys sp.

• Ephedrus niger

References

Batra, H. N. and Wadhi, S. R. (1962) : Addi-
tional notes on insects of economic importance in
Kulu Valley, Punjab. Indian J. Ent., 24: 135-136.

Dharmadhikari, P. R. and Ramaseshiah, G.
(1970): Recent records of aphidiids (Hym. : Aphi-
diidae) in India. Tech. Bull., Common. Inst. biol.
Control, 13 : 83-89.

Kashiviswanthan, P. R. (1972) : New records
of Aphidius transcaspicus (Telenga) (Braconidae:
Hymenoptera) as a parasite of Rhopalosiphum
maidia (Fitch). Indian J. Ent., 34 (1): 74.

Krishnamurty, B. and Usman, S. (1955): Some
insect parasites of economic importance noted in
Mysore State, Indian J. Ent., 16 (4) : 327-344.

Kundu, G. G., Sharma, V. K., Anand, R. K.

and Rai, Samarjit (1965): New record of Diaere-
tiella rapae (Curtis) as a parasite of mustard aphid,
Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) (Hemiptera: Aphididae).
Indian J. Ent., 27: 497-498.

Mackauer, M. (1968) : Hymenopterorum cata-
logus (nova editio) Pars. 3. Aphidiidae. Dr. W. Junk
N. V. ’S - Gravenhage, 1-103.

Narayanan, E. S., Subba Rao, B. R. and Sharma,
A. K. (1958) : Notes on three interesting parasitic
hymenoptera from India. Indian J. Ent., 20 (2) : 160.

(1960) :

A catalogue of the known species of the world
belonging to the subfamily Aphidiinae (Hymenop-
tera: Braconidae). Beitr. Ent., 10 (5-6): 545-581;
622-720.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Raju Rau, S. A. (1954) : Bionomics and life-
history of Aphidius sp., — a parasite on Aphis
gossypii Glover on brinjal ( Solatium melongena).
Indian J. Ent., 16 (4) : 362-371.

Ramaseshiah, G., Bhat, K. V. and Dharma-
dhikari, P. R. (1968) : Influence of host aphid, host
plant and temperature of the laboratory breeding of
Lysiphlebus testaceipe. Indian J. Ent. 30 (4) : 281-
285.

Rao, V. P. (1969): Survey for natural enemies of
aphids in India, Commonwealth Institute of Biolo-
gical Control, Indian Station, U. S. PL 480 Pro-
ject, Final Technical Report, 1-93.

Raychaudhuri, D. N., Dutta, S., Agarwala,
Basant K., Raychaudhuri, D. and Raha, S. K.
(1978) : Some parasites and predators of aphids from
northeast India and Bhutan. Entomon, 3 (1) : 91-94.

Raychaudhuri, D. N., Dutta, S., Agarwala,
Basant K., Rana, S. K., and Raychaudhuri, D.
(In Press) : Some parasites and predators of aphids
of Northeast India and Bhutan II. Entomon.

Rishi, N. D. (1976) : Survey and studies of aphi-
diid parasites of aphids. Abstracts; — Symposium
on modern trends in Zoological researches in
India: 47-48.

Sharma, A. K. and Subba Rao, B. R. (1958):
Description of two new parasites of an aphid from
North India (Aphididae : Ichneumonosdea and Ptero-
malidae: Chalcidoidea) . Indian J. Ent., 20 (3): 181-
188.

Sharma, A. K. and Subba Rao, B. R. (1964): A
further contribution to the knowledge of the taxo-
nomy and biology of aphidiidae (Ichneuomoides :
Hymenoptera) with particular reference to Indian
Forms. Indian J. Ent., 26 (3): 458-460.

Shuja Uddin (1973) : Three species of Trioxys
Haliday (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) recorded from
India. Indian J. Ent., 35 (1) : 9-14.

(1974) : Two new species of the

genus Toxares Westwood (Aphidiidae: Hymenop-
tera) from India with a note on the genus. Indian
J. Ent., 36 (4) : 268-274.

(1975): Two new species of Aphi-
diidae (Hymenoptera) from India. Ree. zool. Surv.
India, 68: 415-420.

(1975) : Field observations on

Aphidius uzbekistanicus Luzhetzki (Hymenoptera:
Aphidiidae) and its host Macrosiphum ( Si to bi on )
sp. (Hemiptera: Aphidiidae) infesting Triticum

aestivum L. Indian J. Ent., 37 (2) : 191-193.

— (1977) : A new species of Lysa-

phidus from India (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae). J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73 (2) : 314-316.

(1978) : New records of Ephedrus

campestris Stary (Aphidiidae: Hymenoptera) from
India. Ind. J. zool., 6 (1): 60-61.

Stary, P. (1970) : Biology of Aphid parasites.
Series entomologia, Vol. 6, Dr. W. Junk N. V. —
The Hauge. 1-643.

Stary, P. and Ghosh, A. K. (1975): Aphid
parasite (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) from Megha-
laya, India. Orient. Insects. 9 (3) : 343-349.

0 978): Further

records of aphid parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Aphi-
diidae) from Meghalaya, India. Orient. Insects, 12
(1): 77-78.

Stary, P. and Raychaudhuri, D. N. (1977): A
new species of Pauesia (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae)
parasitic on Lachnus tropicalis (Homoptera: Aphi-
didae) in India. Orient. Insects. 11 (2) : 233-235.

(1978. Trio_

xys ( Betuloxys ) takecallis sp. nov. from India
(Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae). Orient. Insects, 12 (3):
235-242.

Subba Rao, B. R. and Sharma, A. K. (1958):
Description of two new parasites of an aphid from
north India (Aphidiidae) : Ichneumonoidea and

of Aphis gossypii Glover. Indian J. Ent., 20 (3) :
181-188.

(1958):

Trioxys ( Trioxys ) indicus, new species, a parasite
of Aphis gossypii Glover. Indian J. Ent., 20 (3) :
199-202.

(1960 a):

Three new species of Braconidae from India. Proc.
Indian Acad. Sci., Bangalore, 51 (2)B: 82-88.

(1960 b):

First records of two aphidiinae genera from India.
Indian J. Ent., 22: 233-235.

(1962):

Studies on the biology of Trioxys indicus Subba
Rao and Sharma (1958), a parasite of Aphis gos-
sypii Glover. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India., 28 (13) :
164-182.

Subba Rao, B. R., Sarup, Prakash and Sharma,
A. K. (1963) : A new species of the genus Proan
Haliday (1833) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae Aphi-
diidae). Beitr. Ent., 13: 189-191,

134

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION
OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY— 24

Pycnonotidae
Humayun Abdulali
[Continued from Vol. 78 (2) : 286]

This part covers 640 specimens of 58 species
and subspecies up to No. 1151 in Indian
Handbook.

1111 Spizixos canifrons canifrons Blyth
(Khasia Hills) Finchbilled Bulbul 1:400

6: 1 $ 2 9 $ 3 o? (1 *fledgling)

1 Dumpep, 1 * Shillong, Assam; 1 Pan Thabet water-
shed 6500'; 1 Katuring, Mogok Road, 1 Mt. Victo-
ria, 7000' Pakokku Hill Tracts; 1 Pimpri Ban, N.
Shan States, Burma.

The single adult female from Shillong has
the underparts slightly paler than in the others.
The fledgling from the same area is like the
adult but paler all over, with the black on the
head replaced by an olive-green which is darker
than on the back. The throat and upper breast
are light brownish white, and the lower parts
yellowish. If Bangs and Phillips’s ingrami is to
be accepted the bird from N. Shan State may
be of this race.

Measurements on p 146.

1112 Pycnonotus atriceps atriceps (Tem-
minck) (Java) Blackheaded Bulbul 1:423

4:2 $ $ 2 $ $

2 Rewa Tea Estate, S. Sylhet, Assam; 1 Changtha,
W. of Arakan Yomas; 1 Htugy, Henzada dist;
Burma.

The tails are shorter than indicated in lnd.
Handbook (6:70) ex. Stuart Baker’s Fauna.

Measurements on p. 146.

1113 Pycnonotus atriceps f uscoflavescens
(Hume) (Port Mouat and Mt. Harriet, Anda-

mans) Andaman Blackheaded Bulbul 1:425

9: 6 $ $ 3 $ $

2 Bakultala, Middle Andamans; 1 Port Blair, 3
Wrightmyo, 1 Mannarghat, 1 Bambooflats, 1 Chirria
Tapoo, South Andamans.

Of the six males, four have dark, almost
black caps, and are marked as with enlarged
gonads. The other two males and the females
have a varying amount of duskiness on the
crown, but none as dark as in the breeding
males. This dark cap appears to be a sexual
difference which has yet been overlooked.
Indian Handbook (6:70) quotes the Fauna
to the effect that the measurements are as in
nominate atriceps , but the wings appear to be
distinctly smaller and the bills larger.

Measurements on p. 146.

1114 Pycnonotus prioeephalus (Jerdon)
(Peria Pass, Malabar) Greyheaded Bulbul

1:425

11: 8 $ $ 2 $ $ 1 o?

1 Molem, 2 Canacona, Goa; 1 Karwar, 1 N. Kanara;
1 Antarsante, 1 Kallar (?) 1 Sakleshpur, Hassan,
Mysore; 2 Palni Hills; 1 Balamore Estate, Ashambu
Hills, Travancore.

c? No. 2092 from Sakleshpur, Hassan dist.,
Mysore, lacks the grey on the head. The olive-
green on the upperparts in different specimens
shows some variation.

Measurements on p. 146.

1115 Pycnonotus melanicterus flaviventris

(Tickell) (Dampara in Dholbhum) Blackcrest-
ed Yellow Bulbul 1:397

[418]

135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

44: 24 $ $ 16 $ 2 4 o?

1 Bori, Hoshangabad; 2 Kameli, Bailadila, 1 Anta-
garh, 2 Darba, M.P.; 2 Kutri, Daspalla, 3 Koira
(Bonai), 2 Badrama (Bamra), Orissa; 2 Anantgiri,
1 Upper Silera, Vizagapatnam; 3 Dehra Dun; 1
Ranibagh, Kumaon, 2 Pilibhit Terai, U.P.; 1 Rang-
po, Sikkim; 1 Ganglipokte, Bhutan; 1 Longview,
Darjeeling, Bengal; 2 Goalpara, 2 Margherita, 1
Yagte; 1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, 1 Namchik, A.P.; 1
Gorakhpur, S. Slyhet; 2 N. Cachar; 1 Kohima, Naga
Hills, Assam; 1 Sailong, Chindwin; 1 s.e. of Maymyo;
1 Thayetmyo, 1 Kganklabajiu, Mogok Road; 1
Sagaw, Chaung, Sandoway; 1 Htugyi, 1 Kywizin,
Henzada; 1 Bassein, N. Yomas, Burma.

Measurements on p. 146.

1116 Pycnonotus melanlcterus guiaris

(Gould) (Travancore) Rubythroated Yellow
Bulbul 1:415

13: 4 8 $ 7 $ 9 2 o?

2 Molem, Goa; 1 Santgal, 1 Karwar, 1 N. Kanara;
1 Agumbe, Shimoga dist; 1 Sagar, Mysore; 1 Kat-
tamalai, Charambadi, 2 Gudallur, Nilgiris; 1 Bam-
boo forest; Wynaad; 1 Merchiston Ponmudi, 1
Rajaipara, Panthalam Hills, Travancore.

Measurements on p. 146.

1117 Pycnonotus inelanicterus melanicterus
(Gmelin) (Ceylon) Blackcapped Yellow Bulbul

1 : 414

1 2 Kudava, Sinharaja, Ratnapura, Ceylon.

Measurements on p. 146.

1118 Pycnonotus jocosus pyrrhotis (Bona-
parte) (Nepal) Kumaon Redwhiskered Bulbul

1 2 Pilibhit — Terai.

Measurements on p. 146.

1119 Pycnonotus jocosus abuensis (Whistler)
(Mount Abu) Rajasthan Redwhiskered Bulbul

nil.

1120 Pycnonotus jocosus fuscicaudatus
(Gould) (Nilgiri Hills) Southern Redwhiskered
Bulbul

33: 23 $ $ 8 $ $ 2 o?

1 Kanheri, 1 Goregaon, 2 Trombay, 1 Andheri,
Bombay; 1 Matheran; 1 Khandala; 1 Savantwadi;
1 Molem, Goa; 1 Castle Rock, N. Kanara; 1 Anan-
dapuram, 1 Ulavi, 2 Murgimatta, Sagar, Mysore;
4 Bangalore; 1 Runnymede, 2 Longwood Shola,
Kotagiri, Nilgiris, 1 Kodaikanal; 2 Billaj, Billigiri-
rangan, Coimbatore; 1 Shembaganur; 2 Begur,
Manantaddy, 1 Balamore, Ashambu Hills, Kerala; 3
Shevaroy Hills; 2* Kurumbapatti, Salem. * (missing).

There is some variation in the depth of
colour of the upperparts. The birds from
from around Bombay have been accepted as
fuscicaudatus one of the characters of which
is an unbroken band across the breast. Speci-
mens from Kanheri and Matheran, have broken
bands and field observations subsequent to
commencement of this study, and confirmed
by others indicate that they do have a broken
band around Bombay. No specimens of
abuensis are available but this form in addi-
tion to having a broken band, is presumably
much paler, and all birds from as far north
as the neighbourhood of Bombay are only
tentatively left under fuscicaudatus.

Measurements on p. 147.

1121 Pycnonotus jocosus emeria (Linnaeus)
(Benghala) Bengal Redwhiskered Bulbul

1 : 394 (part)

12: 6 $ $ 6 $ 2

4 Anantgiri, Vizagapatnam; 3 Bailadila, 1 Kotam-
sar, Bastar, M.P.; 1 Keonjgarh, 1 Gonia, Daspalla,
1 Koira, Orissa; 1 Sanchi, 1000', West Bhutan.

cf 1973 from Anantgiri, has no white tip
to the tail, though this is present in the others
and is probably a juvenile (Hume, S. F. xi p.
181). The bird from West Bhutan was obtain-
ed at an elevation of only 1000' and not being
as dark as the others under monticola is left
with this form.

Measurements on p. 147.

136

[419]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 24

1121a. Pycnonotus jocosus monticola (Mc-
Clelland) (Kassia Mountains, Assam) Assam
Redwhiskered Bulbul 1:394 (part)

16: 9 $ $ (1* juv.) 2 $ 9 5 o?

1 Sevoke, Teesta Valley, Sikkim; 1* Dibrugarh, 2
Sadiya, 2 Dibang Valley, Mishmi Hills, Assam; 3
Rupachena, Cachar; 2 Sailong, Chindwin, 2 Kabaing,
Mogok Road, 2 Tawman, 1 Mankim, Upper Burma.

Of the 3 birds from Rupachena, Cachar,
two have complete collars with one of them
having no white tips to the tail, while the
third agrees with others in the present group.

Measurements on p. 147.

1122 Pycnonotus jocosus whlstleri Deignan
(Cinque I., Andaman Is.) Andaman Red-
whiskered Bulbul

13: 7 $ $ 6 $ $

2 Wrightmyo, 2 Mannarghat, Andamans; 4
Camorta, 2 Trinkut, 3 Nancowry, Central Nicobars.

In some specimens from the Nicobars,
(where it is said to have been introduced
from the Andamans) the bills are noticeably
heavier than in emeria.

Measurements on p. 147.

1123 Pycnonotus leucogenys leucotis (Gould)
(Karachi, Sind) White-eared Bulbul 1 : 390

31: 12 $ 8 17 $ 9 2 o?

These birds can be separated into two
groups, one pale and the other dark on the
upperparts. The material however is insuffi-
cient to warrant the description of a new race,
and I am only drawing attention to this fact,
listing and measuring them separately.

(a) pale birds 15 : 4 $ $ 10 9 9 1 o?

1 Charbar, Persian Gulf; 1 4000' Bhani (Greshog),
132 m. s.s.w. of Kalat, Baluchistan; 1 Garo .Sind;
3 Hamavas Lake, Pali, Jodhpur; 1 Rudra Mata, 2*
Kuar Bet, Kutch; 1 Kharaghoda, 2 Dabka, Baroda;
3 Cawnpore (cage birds).

* This is an exceptionally pale juvenile with
bars on the tail and an example of hetero-

chrosis. Some remarks on the specimens have
been published (Salim Ali, JBNHS 57(3) p.
658). Excluding the 3 cage birds from Cawn-
pore (which are very old and faded), all have
been obtained in a contiguous area separate
from that of the dark birds. If the two groups
are separable, these will remain leucotis.

(b) dark birds 16: 8 $ $ 7 2 9 1 o?

3 Lahore, 2 Multan, Punjab; 1 Bhung, Bahawalpur;
5 Bharatpur; 2 Delhi; 2 Goregaon, Bombay; 1
Dharamtar Creek, Kolaba.

The birds from the Bombay area are pre-
sumably relatively recent arrivals (first noted
1932 et seq ) and may represent escapes which
have managed to settle and are extending their
range. When recording the first bird ( JBNHS
37 p. 221) 1 drew attention to a small patch
of orange-coloured feathers at the base of the
bill (which character was noted in subsequent
specimens too). This is published with another
letter (loc. cit.) thanking the Society for draw-
ing attention to the fact that birds from Persia
and Mesopotamia showed the same trait which
is not now visible in any specimen.

In addition to the darker upperparts, most
of them have their underparts greyish, a
character lacking in all the pale birds. The
female from Multan (No. 16254) has the
undertail coverts tinged orange.

Measurements on p. 147.

1124 Pycnonotus leucogenys humii (Oates)
(Jalalpur near Jhelum, Punjab) Hume’s White-
eared Bulbul 1 : 391

9: 4^2$?3o?

1 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Rawalpindi, 1 Choa, Sardai
State, Salt Range, 1 Jhelum, 5 Campbellpur, Punjab.

Three Campbellpur specimens from the A.E.
Jones Collection are marked “Series shows
much variation” and include two which I have
listed under nominate leucogenys.

Most observers in the north-west have re-
ferred to both leucotis and leucogenys as

[420]

137

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

migratory and there really appears to be no
reason why humii and leucogenys should not
occupy the same area, one or the other (pro-
bably the latter) as a non-breeding migrant.
Excluding the two specimens referred to above,
there appears to be a fair amount of unifor-
mity among those listed as humii, which is
undoubtedly an intermediate, though distinct
form. As there are at least two Jalalpurs in
the Punjab, it would be better to describe the
type locality in greater detail as was done by
Oates.

The vent is sulphur yellow as in nominate
leucogenys and not a paler yellow as in
leucods.

Measurements on p. 147.

1125 Pycnonotus leucogenys leucogenys
(Gray) (Kashmir) White-cheeked Bulbul 1:389

32: 15 $ $ (1 juv.) 15 $ $ (1 juv.) 2 o?

2 Campbellpur, Punjab; 1 Kashmir Valley; 1 Keon-
thal, 1 Dharamsala, 11 Simla; 1 Mussoorie, 1 Tha-
rati, Gharwal; 1 Sameti, 1 Almora, 1 Kongain
Jamsar, 1 Kumaon; 1 Nagarkhot, 1 Kollapi 7000'
Nepal; 2 Sikkim; 1 Chazam, below Tashigong, Rong-
tong, E. Bhutan; 3 Longview, Darjeeling, 1 Maja-
khot, Ranikhet; 1 Martam, Rong Valley, Assam.

All have the head and crest brown and not
black as the chin, throat, and upper breast.
The shade of brown varies in individuals from
the same place, some of the feathers of the
crest having pale, almost white fringes. All
have the head darker than the back except
c? 22423 from Chazam, Rongtong, E. Bhutan,
in which it is the same colour as the back,
and the chin and throat are also not jet black.
It does appear different but there is no evi-
dence of additional specimens having been
procured in this area and Salim Ali in birds
OF THE EASTERN HIMALAYAS (1977) p. 120
refers to Bhutan birds as of this race.

Measurements on p. 147.

Hybrid pycnonotus cafer x leucogenys

2: 1 $ 1 $

Rawalpindi 14 Jan. 1927 and 6 January 1930.

The white on the cheeks is replaced by
grey, the breast is as in cafer and the rump
slightly paler than the back. The under tail
coverts are yellow in the female and mixed
red and yellow in the male. This hybrid, pre-
sumably with varying colours, is sufficiently
common to have acquired a local name
Neemchi (half-breed) (IH 6 p. 86). It is curi-
ous that this should be in the same area where
leucotis and leucogenys have met and establi-
shed a recognisable subspecies humii. The
hybrid form from Bannu, N. W. F. P. was
named magrathi by Whitehead (1908, Bull.
B.O.C. 21 p. 48). This matter is discussed at
length by Sibbs & Short (1959) Ibis 101 pp.
177-182.

Measurements on p. 147.

EL Pycnonotus leucogenys lapersonnei mss.

4: 2 $ $ 2 $ $

Nasratavad, Seistan Delta (31° N, 61° 10'E)

All four obtained by Lapersonne in Octo-
ber 1926 have their labels marked Molpastes
leucogenys lapersonnei in the hand- writing* of
the late Col. Meinertzhagen but I cannot
trace any published description, and this would
appear to be only a manuscript name. They
are closer to the pale form of leucotis (1123a
above) both in size and colour than to meso-
potamiae, and may be the form described as
farahensis by Koelz from Kandahar. Or the
difference from leucotis may be just due to
Lapersonne’s exceptionally good skinning!

Measurements on p. 147.

* identified by Dr. Salim Ali.

EL Pycnonotus leucogenys mesopotamiae

Ticehurst (Basra, Lower Mesopotamia).

12: 6 $ $ 6 9 9

4 Nahr Umar, Right Bank, Tigris, 1 Hilla, 1 Euph-

[421]

138

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 24

rates, 1 Qarradh, 1 Baghdad, 1 Basra, Mesopotamia;

2 Shiraz, 1 Shustar, South Persia,

This bird is distinctly larger than the other
races, though no trace of the yellow rim round
the eye is now visible. The three from Persia
have their bills shorter than the average.

Measurements on p. 147.

Pycnonotus cafer

This species has been divided into several
races in India and further eastwards but though
a fair number of specimens is available, there
is much variation and it is not possible to be
very sure about the identity of several speci-
mens leaving no option but to separate many
on geographical grounds.

There is no definite evidence of the species
undertaking any appreciable migration.

1126 Pycnonotus cafer intermedins Blyth
(Upper Provinces = Murree) Redvented Bulbul

1 : 389

13: 5 $ $ 5 9 9 3 o?

1 Kohat, N.W.F.P.; 1 Campbellpur, 1 Taxila, 1
Rawalpindi; 1 Kolka, 1 Mubarakpur, nr. Ambala,
Punjab; 1 Bula, 1 Keonthal, 4 Simla, 1 Naini Tal,
U.P.

In addition to the brown ear coverts and the
black of the head grading into the brown
back, they can be distinguished from huma-
yuni by their longer and more distinct crest
feathers.

Measurements on p. 148.

1127 Pycnonotus cafer Iiumayunl Deignan
(Deesa) Gujerat Redvented Bulbul 1 : 385

16: 8 $ $ 8 $ $

1 Multan, 2 Lahore, W. Punjab; 2 Ambala; 2 Delhi;
2 Bulundshar, U.P.; 1 Hamavas Lake, Pali, Jodh-
pur; 1 Tapheshwar, Kutch; 1 Vaghjipur, Mehsana,
1 Dohad, Panch Mahals, 1 Dabka, Baroda, 1 Gir,
Amreli, 1 Laochali, Surat Dangs.

$ 1873 from Hamavas Lake, Pali district,
Jodhpur is very pale followed by cf 2744 from

Vaghjipur, Mehsana. The others show differ-
ences and some can barely be separated from
individuals of the adjoining races. The two
from Bulandshar have been included here but
they were collected in 1903 and the paleness
is possibly due to fading.

Both birds from Lahore have a sooty wash
on the underparts, a character shared with a
brown-eared female ( intermedius ) from Rawal-
pindi.

Measurements on p. 148.

1128 Pycnonotus cafer cafer (Linnaeus)

(Pondicherry) Redvented Bulbul 1 : 385

28: 17 $ $ 11 $ $

2 Bharatpur, Rajputana; 1 Sarawaya, Gwalior; 1
Jalgaon, E. Khandesh; 1 Malegaon, Surat Dangs;
2 Jabalpur, M.P.; 1 Dahisar, 1 Thana, 2* Andheri,
Bombay, 1 Khandala, 1 Poona; 1 Alibag, Kolaba;

1 Satara; 1 S. Konkan; 1 Gotagali, 1 Santgal, N.
Kanara; 1 Thattakad, N. Travancore, 1 Travancore;

2 Malavalli, Sidhpur, Mysore; 1 4500' Shevaroy
Hills, 1 Kurumbapatti, Salem, 1 Palkonda Hills, 2
Sheshachalam Hills, S, Cudappah; 1 coll. J.P.
Cook = S. India(?)

(*1 missing)

The two from Bharatpur are distinctly
darker than others under humayuni. 9 16216
from Jabalpore has the central pair of tail
feathers completely white. One bird from
Laochali, Surat Dangs has been placed in the
last group, while another ( $ 16260) is as dark
as any other cafer . cf 1877 from Satara is pale
but dates back to 1897.

Measurements on p. 148.

1129 Pycnonotus cafer haemorrhousus (Gme-
lin) (Ceylon) Ceylon Redvented Bulbul 1 : 383

nil.

1130 Pycnonotus cafer wetmorei Deignan
(Anantagiri, Vizagapatnam) Orissa Redvented
Bulbul.

[422]

139

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 79

12: 4 $ $ 8 9 9 (3* paratypes of saturatus )

1 Sonawani, Balaghat; 1 Lohatta R, F., 2 Bhanu-
prattapur, Ranker C.P.; 1* Jeypore Agency, 2

Sankrametta, Vizagapatnam, 1 Mahendragiri, 1 Das-
palla, 1 Kutri Das, 1 Karkot (Bamra), 1 Koira
(Bonai), Orissa.

This subspecies was separated from nomi-
nate cafer as darker and with less white on
the abdomen. The two ( c? and 9 ) from Sankra-
metta have almost no markings or white on
the underparts but that from Jeypore Agency
which was included in the series described as
saturatus by Whistler and Kinnear is no diffe-
rent from nominate cafer from south and west.
9 1883 from Sonawani, Balaghat is very dark
below but marked pallidas ( humayuni ) by
Salim Ali.

Measurements on p. 148.

1131 Pycnonotus cafer bengalensis Blyth
(Bengal) Bengal Redvented Bulbul 1 : 387

25: 17 $ $ 8 9 9

1 Ranibagh, 1 Guptakashi, Garhwal, 1 Majkhali,
Ranibagh, 2 Pithorgarh, Almora, Kumaon; 1 Bon-
zini, 1 Nawacot, Nepal; 1 Baghowni, 1 Tirhut, Bihar;

1 Rinchingpong, 1 Rangpo, W. Sikkim, 1 Sevoke, 1
Singtam, Teesta Valley, Sikkim; 1 Darjeeling; 1
Samchi (West), 1 Shangong (Central), 1 Deothang,

2 Gomchu (East), 1 Khosela, Bhutan; 1 Maniktola,
Calcutta, 1 Rupchena, Cachar; 2 Dibrugarh, 1
Sadiya, Assam.

The ear-coverts in birds from scattered places
are light/dark brown.

Measurements on p. 148.

1132 Pycnonotus cafer Stanford! Deignan
[Taro or Dalu (lat. 26° 20'N., long. 96° 10'E),
Upper Chindwin District, Sagaing Div., Burma]
Burmese Redvented Bulbul

6:2 $ $ 1 9 3 o?

1 Kabaing — Mogok Road, Ruby Mines Dist., 3
Upper Burma; 1 N. Shan States; 1 Maymyo.

These are paler than bengalensis both above
and below, and have a shorter crest.

Measurements on p. 148.

EL Pycnonotus cafer inelanchimus Deignan
(Rangoon Town, Pegu, Burma)

1 $ Prome, Burma.

Differs from stanfordi in having the feathers
of the upperparts more narrowly edged with
ashy. It is not unlike nominate cafer from
peninsular India, but differs in having a larger
patch of black on the underbreast, and hair-
brown and not black ear-coverts.

Measurements on p. 148.

EL Pycnonotus aurigaster klossi (Gylden-
stolpe) (Doi Khun Tan, northern Siam lat.
18° 30'N., long, 90° 20'E.)

1 $ Ataran, Amherst, Burma.

The cheeks are whitish, there is a small
patch of brownish on the chin and the rest
of the underparts are whitish with patches of
light brown. The original label is marked M.
nigripilius. Wing 95, bill 17.5, tail 85.

1133 Pycnonotus striatus striatus (Blyth)
(Darjeeling) Striated Green Bulbul 1 : 379

10: 4 $ $ 6 9 9 (1 topotype)

1 Darjeeling, Bengal; 1 Rinchingpong, Sikkim; 2
Shamgong, 6500' (Central), 4 Narphong 5000'
(East), 1 Batawe, Bhutan; 1 Tiddim, Burma.

See remarks under 1134.

Measurements on p. 148.

1134 Pycnonotus striatus arctus Ripley

(Dreyi, Mishmi Hills) Mishmi Striated Green
Bulbul 1 : 379

3 $ $ (2 topotypes)

2 Dreyi, Lohit Valley, Mishmi Hills, N. E. Assam;

1 Langham, Naga Hills.

The topotypes do not appear different from
the nominate from further west and the two
races have been arranged in accordance with
the distribution in Ind. Handbook (6:94).

The two males from Tiddim, Burma, just
south of Manipur, (No. 1864) and Langhana,
Naga Hills (1866) should be of the nominate
race and arctus respectively. They differ from

140

[423]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—24

all the others by their smaller size, wings
103(2), bills 16.6, 15.2, tails 94, 92 (, contra
combined averages of males and females of
both forms 110, 17.2 and 98) and yellower
underparts.

Measurements on p. 148.

1135 Pycnonotus xantholaemus (Jerdon)

(Eastern Ghats west of Nellore) Yellowthroat-
ed Bulbul 1 : 415

4: 1 $ 3 o?

1 Jogimaradi, Chitaldroog, 2 Horseleykonda 13°
40'N, 78° 26'E (Mysore); 1 Sankaridrug, Salem,
Madras.

The most recent (1940) specimen shows a
slight grey tinge on the upper parts and more
yellow on the head contra brownish in the
others which go back to 1902 and 1908 (2).
Measurements on p. 149.

1136 Pycnonotus penicillatus Blyth (Ceylon)

Yellow-eared Bulbul 1 : 426

2 o? Ceylon.

Measurements on p. 149.

1137 Pycnonotus flavescens ffavescens Blyth

(Arakan) Blyth’s Bulbul 1 : 392

3: 1 $ 1 $ 1 o?

2 Laisang, N. Cachar; 1 Minderi Yoma, Thayetmyo,
Burma; 1 no locality.

The male has the head distinctly darker
than the back and appears to show streaks
on the breast not visible in any others either
of this or the next race.

Measurements on p. 149.

EL Pycnonotus flavescens vividus (Stuart
Baker) Salween District and Mulayit Taung,
Amherst, Tenasserim) Mulayit Bulbul 1 : 393

3 o? (1 juv.)

2 N' Kraung, Upper Burma, 1 Loi Hansep, N.
States, Burma.

One specimen from N' Kraung shows yellow
upto the throat, which is dirty grey. Both

adults have distinct dark caps and differ from
the nominate specimens only in having yellow
and not white lores.

Measurements on p. 149.

1138 Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus (Lesson)
(Bombay) Whitebrowed Bulbul 1 : 417

29: 15 8 $ (3 juv.) 12 $ $ 2 o?

1 Dabka, Baroda; 1 Goregaon, 1 Malad, 2 Bandra,
1 Raita, Kalyan, 1 Bombay; 1 Malwan, Ratnagiri;
1 Canacona, Goa; 1 Bolgutt, 1 N. Kanara; 1 Ban-
galore; 1 Aramboli, 1 Travancore; 1 Kurumbapatti,
1 Chitteri Range, Salem; 2 Mettapalayam, Madras;

1 Palkonda Hills, 1 Seshachalam Hills, 1 Nallamalai
Hills; 2 Konta, Bastar, M.P.; 3 Barkul, Chilka Lake,
1 Tikarpura, Angul disk, 1 Champeshwar, Orissa;
1 $ * no data.

There is some variation in the colour of
the upperparts; some (juveniles?) showing
more rufous than the others. The amount of
duskiness on the upper breast also varies and
appears more prominent in the birds from
around Bombay, which also have heavier
bills. In some specimens the head is slightly
darker than the back.

* Sp. No. 2087 with no data found listed
with the species, has an almost chestnut brown
head much more prominent than in the others.

Indian Handbook (6, p. 99) refers to 3 or
4 filoplumes on the nape. This occurs in
both sexes but is not visible in all the speci-
mens.

Measurements on p. 149.

1139 Pycnonotus luteolus insulae Whistler
& Kinnear (Ceylon) Ceylon Whitebrowed
Bulbul
nil.

EL Pycnonotus xanthorrhous xanthorrhous
Anderson [Kakhyen (Kachin) Hills, Burma]
Anderson’s Yellowvented Bulbul 1:411

1 o? North Shan States.

Wings 89 (85-93), bill 16.3 (about 15), tail 84
(about 95).

[424]

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

EL Pycnonotus finlaysoni finlaysoni Strick-
land (Malacca) Stripethroated Bulbul 1 : 412

1 $ Ataran, Amherst, Burma.

The specimen from east of the Sittang River
is old, faded and in poor condition and can-
not be separated from davisoni below by the
colour of the forehead. It is however appre-
ciably smaller.

Measurements on p. 149.

EL Pycnonotus finlaysoni davisoni (Hume)
(12 m. north of Rangoon) Stripethroated
Bulbul 1 : 413

6: 3 $ $ 3 $ $

1 Upper Burma; 1 Sandoway; 2 Bassein; 2 Ran-
goon, Burma.

See remarks under P. /. finlaysoni.

Measurements on p. 149.

EL Pycnonotus barbatus xanthopygos (Hem-
prich & Ehrenberg) (Arabia) Yellow-vented
Bulbul

2 $ $ Muscat, Arabia.

Wing 97, 98, bill 17.8, 18.6, tail 85.

EL Pycnonotus blanfordi blanfordi Jerdon
(Pegu) Blanford’s Olive Bulbul 1 : 420

5 : 1 $ 3 $ $ 1 o?

1 Shwebo, Upper Burma, 1 Shurdaung, 1 Prome;
1 Luzon, 1 Ingabin, Henzada, Burma.

Measurements on p. 149.

EL Hypsipetes thompsoni (Bingham) (Loi
San Pa = Taung Palaung) (lat. 21° 46'N, long.
96° 55' E, Southern Shan States) Bingham’s
Whiteheaded Bulbul 1 : 373

3 o?

1 Taungyi, S. Shan States; 1 3500' Dawna Range,
Amherst District; 1 no data.

Measurements on p. 149.

1140 Criniger flaveolus flaveolus (Gould)
(Nepal) Whitethroated Bulbul 1 : 363

37: 18 $ $ 13 $$ 6 $ $

In the absence of sufficient material and
literature it is not possible to untangle

a very confused position. Seven of the
specimens from the Chindwin area are part
of a series of 21 obtained by the Vernay-
Hopwood Chindwin Expedition in 1935 and
reported upon by Mayr ( Ibis 1938 p. 291).
He said that “in series they agreed with a
series of typical flaveolus from N. Cachar, ex-
cept that the crown, back and wings are more
washed with olivaceous, and the underwing
is more yellowish less buff”. The single speci-
men from N. Cachar resembles the others from
Indian limits and the olivaceous wash on the
upperparts and a different yellow on the
underparts does isolate the Chindwin birds —
no difference is visible on the underwing. The
labels are marked ochraceus, burmanicus and
gularis by different workers indicating at least
that they did not think they were the same
as flaveolus from India.

Two birds from Gamon Chaung, Sandoway
( $ 1782) and Nyaunggyo, Prome ( $ 1783)
have their underparts a paler yellow than in
the others and the white of the throat des-
cends a little lower down the breast. There is
a little grey on the forehead more prominent
than in the others, but burmanicus (Oates,
Toungoo, n. of Pegu) should have the whole
crown and crest grey, and this is not so. These
are the only specimens which show a white
supercilium which according to Stuart Baker
(1:363) is always present!? I am for the mo-
ment listing them all in separate groups under
nominate flaveolus.

(a) flaveolus 28: 14 $ $ 9 9 $ 5 o?

2 Berrick, Sikkim; 3 Darjeeling, Bengal; 2 Tama
4000', 3 Deothang, 1 Mangdechum, E. Bhutan; 2
Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills, 1 S. Sylhet, 2 Roopachena,
1 N. Cachar Hills; 2 Margherita, 2 Sadiya, 1 Tezu,
Lohit Valley; 1 Bipani, 1 Asipani, Dibang Valley,
1 Rotang, 1 Maya, 1 Abor country, Mishmi Hills,
Assam; 1 n. of Maymyo, Burma.

There is appreciable variation in the extent
of yellow in the bill, and $ No. 180 from

142

[425]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 24

Maya has it all yellow. In addition to an almost
complete brown band across the upper breast,
this specimen also shows a yellow collar round
the hind neck.

(b) 7: 3 £8 3 $ $ lo?

1 Punsin, 1 Yora, 2 Hai Bun, 2 Tawman, 1 Dalu,
Chindwin River, Burma.

See remarks above.

(c) 2: 1 $ 1 $

1 Nyaunggyo, Prome District ; 1 Gamon Chaung,
Sandoway, Burma.

See remarks above.

Measurements on p. 150.

1141 Hypsipetes viridescens cacharensis
(Deignan) (Chutla Bhil, Cachar District, Surma
Valley & Hill Division, Assam) Olive Bulbul.

1 : 406

1 $ Rupachena, Cachar, Assam.

The single specimen is separated from the
two nominate ones on the basis of the distri-
bution in Deignan, 1948; Races of the Bulbul
Microscelis charlottae (Finsch) and its Rela-
tives ( Proc . Biol. Soc. Washington, 1948, pp.
M2).

Wing 84, bill 17.4, tail 70.

EL Hypsipetes viridescens viridescens (Blyth)
(Arakan Division, Burma).

2 $ $

1 Mai Village, Sandoway Dist., 1 Kyi bin, Henzada
Dist., Burma.

Wing 79, 84; bill 17, 17.5; tail 70, 73.

The eye colour has not been recorded.

The subspecific identification is based on
Deignan loc. cit. (1948).

EL Hypsipetes charlottae propinquus (Ousta-
lot) (Laichau Province North-western Tong-
king)

2 o?

1 Yangte, 1 Pimpri Ban, N. Shan States.

These were listed with H. viridescens above.
The skins appear larger than indicated by the
measurements, while the undertail coverts are
cinnamon and not yellow. The subspecific

identification is based on Deignan loc. cit.

Wing 85, 87; bill 16,2, 17; tail 78, 81.

1142 Hypsipetes nicobariensis Moore (Nico-

bars) Nicobar Bulbul 1 : 408

10: 7 $ $ 2 $ $ 1 o?

6 Camorta, 2 Trinkut, 1 Katchal, 1 Nancowry, Cen-
tral Nicobars.

c? No. 22669 from Nancowry has a greyish
tinge on the upperparts rendering it paler than
any of the others. The wing and bill are the
smallest, and this is presumably a juvenile
plumage.

Measurements on p. 150.

1143 Hypsipetes indicus ictericus (Strick-

land) (East Indies = Mahableshwar) N.
Sahyadri Yellowbrowed Bulbul 1 : 405

9: 5 $ $ 3 $ $ lo?

2 Mahableshwar; 2 Ratnagiri; 2 Molem, Goa; 2
Castle Rock, Goa Frontier (on east).

In Birds of Goa (1976 JBNHS 73: 50)
Grubh and Salim Ali refer to 5 collected at
Valpoi in Goa and identify them as of the
nominate form. The four from Molem col-
lected on the same trip are not referred to
(being presumably the same birds) but if
ictericus is recognised, they agree more closely
with it. The fifth bird marked as from Valpoi
is slightly deeper in colour and may be so
accepted as indicus. The three accepted races
are not very distinct.

Measurements on p. 150.

1144 Hypsipetes indicus indicus (Jerdon)

(West Coast, restricted to Wynaad) Yellow-
browed Bulbul 1 : 405 (part)

24: 13 $ $ 8 $$ 3o?

1 Valpoi, Goa; 1 Bhowra? (1878 Dr. Anderson),
1 Santgal, 1 Kadra, 2 Karwar, 1 Kumta, 3 N. Kanara;
1 Mercara, Coorg; 1 Gudalur 3000', 3 Cherambadi,
Nilgiri; 1 Ballaji, 1 Honnametti, Billigirirangans, 1
Foothills, 1 4000' Manalur, 1 Bombay Shola, 1
Cooly Ghat, 1 Palni Ghats; 1 Thettakad, 1 The-
kady, Periyar Lake, Travancore.

Measurements on p. 150.

[426]

143

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

1145 Hypsipetes indicus guglielmi (Ripley)
(Rakwana, Sabargamuwa Province) Ceylon
Yellowbrowed Bulbul

2:1# Hunu Wella Estate, Opanake, 1 $ Colombo
Museum, no data.

The first bird is marked guglielmi by Ripley,
and is perhaps a slightly deeper olive above
and yellow below. This subspecies is restrict-
ed to south-western Ceylon, but the other
specimen agrees with those more deeply colour-
ed among indicus and may perhaps be accept-
ed within the range of variation within the
present form.

Measurements on p. 150.

1146 Hypsipetes mcclellandi mcclellandi

Horsfield (Assam) Rufousbellied Bulbul.

1 : 377

17: 8 $ $ 5 $ $ 4o? (1 juv.*)

1 Mornaula, 7600', 2 Kumaon, U.P.; 1 Chalun
Khel, Nepal; 1 Rinchingpong, W. Sikkim, 1 Tung
5650' Sikkim; 2 Gedu, W. Bhutan; 1 Betase, 2
Narphong, 1 Tama, E. Bhutan; 1 Kalaktang, Aruna-
chal Pradesh, 1 Kohima, Naga Hills, 1 Abor coun-
try, Assam; 1 N’Kraung, 1 Upper Burma.

The birds from the western portion of its
range upto and including Sikkim and Naga
Hills are more golden green above than the
others from Bhutan and northern Assam. They
include the older skins from 1900 to 1953 while
the others are from 1966-68, and the differ-
ences may be due to fading. The measurements
are separately shown and it will be noticed
that the eastern birds are larger. *This was
identified at the Smithsonian by Mr. Bond, hav-
ing been listed as P. simplex, along with a
juvenile of Pycnonotus flavescens.

Measurements on p. 151.

EL Hypsipetes mcclellandi tickelli

3 o?

1 Sima, Upper Burma; 1 Loi Sang, 1 Pimpri Bum,
N. Shan States, Burma.

All three have their backs greyish brown

rather than green, and less rufous on the under-
parts making them according to Stuart Baker’s
Fauna, binghami Hartert (Taung, Palaung lat.
21° 46' N, long. 96° 55' E, Southern Shan
States) but which is synonymised with tickelli
in Peters (IX p. 290) and whose distribution
is said to be Eastern Burma from N. Shan
States southwards, through the Southern Shan
and Karenni States to Amherst Dist. of Tena-
sserim.

Measurements on p. 151.

1147 Hypsipetes flavalus flavalus (Blyth)
(Sub-Himalayan Ranges) Brown-eared Bulbul

1 : 374

36: 16 $ $ 16 $ $ 4 o?

4 Ranibagh, 1 Kumaon, U.P.; 1 Martam Rongin
Valley, 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, Sikkim; 2 Tama,
1 Deothang, 1 Mangdechu, E. Bhutan; 1 Margherita;

1 Tezu, 3 Dening, Lohit Valley, N.E. Assam, 1 Maya.
Dibang, Mishmi; 2 Tirap Div., Arunachal Pradesh;

2 Cherrapunji, Khasi & Jaintia Dist., 2 Kohima,
Naga Hills, 1 Rupachena, 1 Laiti Eynsew (?); 2
N. Cachar; 1 Hai Bum, 1 Pun Sin, 1 Gora, Chind-
win; 1 Tawman, Jade Mines, Upper Burma, 1 Yante,

1 Tangle, N. Shan States; 2 Nyamggyo, Prome; 1
Aka Hills, Burma.

The intensity of the grey on the upperparts
varies to some extent, but in series the males
are darker and also show darker heads, the
paler males being presumably birds of the year
as is confirmed by their shorter bills.
Measurements on p. 151.

1148 Hypsipetes madagascariensis psaroides

Vigors (Himalayan Mts. - Simla) Himalayan
Black Bulbul 1 : 369

40: 27 $ $ (1 juv.) 11 $ $ 2 o?

3 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Srinagar, 1 Moghulmaidan,
Kishtwar, Kashmir; 7 Simla, 1 Solon 5000' Bhagat
State, 1 Koti State, 1 Patiala; 4 Garhwal, 2 Mar-
nauli, 1 Konain Jaunsar, 1 Lambathatch, 1 Kumaun,
U.P.; 1 Godaveri, 1 Nagarcot, 1 Chalnakhel, Nepal;

2 Temi, West Sikkim; 3 Darjeeling; 1 Honka, West
Bhutan, 4 Gomchu, 1 Rontang, E. Bhutan, 1 Shan-
gon, Bhutan, 1 Hasnia Tea Estate, Bhutan Duars.

144

[427]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 24

Juvenile <$ No. 16202 from Simla has the
head sparsely feathered and the throat whitish.
The colour of the bill and legs, where noted is
said to be coral-red but is now yellow in all.
All have white margins to the undertail
coverts. There is variation in the shade of the
grey both above and below.

Measurements on p. 151.

1149 Hypsipetes madagascariensis ganeesa

Sykes (Ghauts, Dukhun) South Indian Black
Bulbul 1 : 372

19: 14 $ $ (1 juv.) 5 $ $

2 Bhimashankar, Poona; 2 Castle Rock, N. Kanara;
1 Belimane, Sagar, Shimoga, Mysore; 2 Avalanche,
1 Wynaad, Nilgiris; 5 Shembaganur, 1 Palnis, Madura
Dist., 2 Honametti, Billigirirangans; 1 Muthu-
kuzi, Ashambo Hills; 2 Shevaroy Hills, Salem Dist.

This subspecies has no black stripe below
the eye and the tail is less conspicuously fork-
ed than in the Himalayan race. In life the bill
is bright orange which dries to yellow as in
the last. The bill of the juvenile is now dark.
Measurements on p. 151.

1150 Hypsipetes madagascariensis humii

(Whistler & Kinnear) (Ceylon) Ceylon Black

Bulbul

2: 1 $ 1 $ near Kundava, Sinharaja, Ratnapura,
Sri Lanka.

The two fresh skins are now much greyer
than the others ( ganeesa ) and have the bills
reddish cf. yellow.

Measurements on p. 151.

1151 Hypsipetes madagascariensis nigrescens
Stuart Baker (Upper Chindwin) Assam Black
Bulbul 1 : 371

8:6 $ $ 1 $ lo?

1 Laising, N. Cachar, 1 Naga Hills, 1 Cherrapunji,
Khasi & Jaintia Hills, 1 Assam; 1 Nyaunggyo, Prome
dist., 1 Mindon Yoma, 1 Thayetmyo; 1 Tongme
( Pomed ) , Burma.

These are brown rather than grey above.
Some are marked nigriscens by an earlier wor-
ker. The black of the head is distinct from
the upper back. Some have the feathers of the
upper back centrally streaked with black.

Measurements on p. 151.

EL Hypsipetes madagascariensis concolor
Blyth (Tenasserim) Burmese Black Bulbul

1 : 372

1 o? Sp. No. 1831 Thangaung, Burma.

[428]

145

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

tj- in so Os
H oo oo oo oo

©

•a

s

5/5

O

*

N

*3<

O

so

in in jrj
•n" ^ 3

^ in 4 r4

^ m in in
ffl -H

3

s.

5

03

5/5

a

8

5

3

o

>

o O'' ^ ^ °2

^ ^ oo ^

^ 00 ^ „

©Os . m

i" so O SO vo

m

in oo
in

m

^ ^ r-H r)

cn rn in m

3

u

Os

oo

C4

©

cf

_

©

so

so

t>

.«

oo

t-"

00

>

e

3

>

>

>

>

03

03

/ \

03

/—■ s

cd

a

/ N

1

in

C\ tv m

©

©

cn

^t

so

os

Os

in

r~

rp r-

s

OO

Os

rp

rP

00

00

so

SO

so

©

© os 6

4

4

4

OO

m

Os

xr

4 «n

4

f-

r->- so r-

•

t"-

00

SO

so

r-

r-'

so

so so

so

S

1/5

^3

'a

JS

eu

8

©

•s

i/i

s

1

a

©

^ t-

so

I

Tf-

T3

3

cc

•c

pS

3

DC

m

4

"42:

%

m

SO 28

I

*0

. 4

> ^ ^

t"- SO
in

so

I

*0

"5f

3^-3

s

in

3

>

c3

3

CO

3

S

3

3

4

^ ^
<Z) ’-H c/3

Pn

in

i/i

<S

m

(«

in

CO

M

tn

oo

s^s

4

s

in

2

4

£

£

<N g

4

o * ; o

U Vh

tfl'

•E

cn

o

i-i

4

o

!h

CO

2

i

CO

2

4 2

>

i

s=«>

©

C

t-H

r-H

©

©

3

SO

*g

r-H

9

oo

so

o

*3

00

©

3

<6

OS

CJ

.2

Os

fv.

r-

Os

©

00

C-"

00

00

t —

00

g

os

in

Os

Os

Of

3*

Of

>

r~

>

i'-

rp

g

>

Os

>

rp

>

oo

£

Os

in

r-

CO

©

m

c3

Cfl

cd

d3

in

00

in

r~

5/5

C3

in

00

C5J

4

fv.

cS

cA

oo

Os

Os

oo

00

T— 1

OS

r-

(N

cn

ffi

t-H

ffi

00

s

rp-

s

3

■3

OS

1

3

OO

3

Os

3

l

1

ra

in

of

i

(— (

t-H

SO

CO

Gs

T'-

SO

4

©

'If

nJ

4

OS

os

Os

oo

00

O'

s~~'

t"

s-^

3

00

^ ^

' — '

00

OS

CN

nl

C3 w nT

W Of w
<fO Of *o

&a 55

Ci, ^

o

C h

3 «

<N n

cn ^

«0 Of

.SO

<3

>■-»

3

oo

«o

<?o

.52

j§

So

Of

Of

SO

146

[429]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 24

m

in

i-

00

•n

CO

*n

d

cn

en

O

80

oo

o

in

oo

r»

o

oo
s r-

vd

i>

Tf

F"

TT

»

4

r~-

4

OO

vd

oo

CO*

r-

vd

F-

oo

vo

oo

-H

>

>

>

r-~

cp >

>

>*

>

>

>

>

>

>

kP

>

cd

cd

cd

cd

1 cd

rA Cd

cd

^ cd

cd

cd

cd

cd

cd

cd

cd

cd

£— i

/— s

|

04

oo

i

/—s

/— N

©

/ — \

in

c-

m

Tf

c-

w f"

y—(

Cs

oo

1 ^ ft

d

m

Tf O

o

in

o

CS

— -1

©

00

VO

vo

vo

cs

oo

00

oo

oo

cs

oo

oo

w 00

00

rp

1 o oo

rp

oo

oo 00

cs

©

os

00

C"

OO

00

oo

oo

oo

oo

•A

00

•A

in

4

4

00

O »n

4

d

cn

4 4

©

«n

vd ©

4

4

4

95

VO

4

Os

00

m

Os

©

in

© ^

00

Tj-

i>

r-

r-

00

r-

r-

c- r-

o

r--

00

C" C"

c-

F-

VO £

OO

oo

00

VO

vo

r-

00

00 00

00

Oli

£

Oh

Tf

OS

o

m

£

3

00

vo

>n

00

X)

r-

©

os

<n

©

ri

>r»H

3

m

OS

16

Os

os

CO

03

S*

©

Tf

Tf*

00

cl

vd

n

00

Tf

00

VO

©

©

Os

00

zs

co

03

av.

rA

in

m

■

— H

vo"

$

>4

CO

£

£

oo

av.

d

av.

CO

>

cd

&

■

»n

■

Os

>

cd

dj

vd

tH

4

oo

>n

CO

1—1

vd

1

•n

d

3

>

cd

00

G

o

G

in

5

m

3

n

Os

3

WD

©

m

>n

3

3

Cl

3

00

>

cd

>

cd

>*

cd

*3

ft!

a

3

VO

>

cd

s

3

oo

co

£

&

1 ^

M

<n

<+H

vd

%

r-

M

CO

r->

1 ^

©

in

in*

to

M

to

oo*

to

t"

vo

00

ad

CO

VD

M

to

r-'

PQ

vH

s

Tf

t-H

m

#©

1

r-

a

vo

£

r-

d'

£

OO

r'l

£

<N

a

cn

ri

a

in

1

a

vo

r—H

a ^

a

r-

1

t-H

in

a

a

vd

a

vo"

4

«e

<n

2

in

o

S«i

3

vo*

2

Tf

»n

o

m

o

♦-H

vd

vd

2

Tf

CO

o

S-H

1

to

2

v~i

2 ^

r

in

to

■

Tf

2

o

?H

i

Tf

2 Id

4

i

in

s

-H

<+-i

— i

— <

H-H

— H

—a

tt— i

— H

’“i

4H

5

G-t

V-i

v-H

M-t ^

i

i—i

r-H

i— t

t-H

i—1

«4— i ^

vH

i— *

O

S3

©

a

©

m

vd £

00 00

«n

OS

vo

c4

00

in . oo . »n in

> CS >00 > CS < ON

cd 4 ^4 cd 4

^oo^oo^oo^oo

00w00w°°w00w

, O
d go
©

K ~ ffi .
K r- K ©
w oo w t"-

%

co

<N

Os

£S£

« !S

« = ,•
^ T-H 00

Os

d

oo oo

vo oo
00 oo

Tf

t"

vo

_ Id VO
00 00

d *n 4
00

oo oo oo

£«-£^
w 00 w 00

Os

§

vo

oo ti-
cs

OS

«°*s

*Q §

o

*1
* 6-
00

13

ft

*o

&’§

§ §
§0 g

CO ^

$$ ft

O

ft

-n o

* s S

ca 1-1
<3 4

o tS

o s

Of 13 T3
ft

CO m
d d

m
v— /

?s

§

o

CJ

SS

vo

"Ha

tn

d

[430]

147

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

CO

VO

Ol

f"

96.8

VO

to

<N

VO

to

On

CO

’—i

4

oi

ri

ON

o’

ri

On

oo

00

oo

On

o

00

oo

O

>

>

a

>

>

>

cd

>

>

>

>

>

>

r-s

cd

cd

cd

/ S

cd

cd

cd

03

«“ »

03

a

r-s

t"-'

C4

co

/ s

/ \

8

CO

VO

/• s

no

/ — V

00

VO

On

O

O

VO

to

r— 1

On

o

Tf

On

O

00

f>

VO

o

tO

CO

r-

»0

m

00

i

t-

to

ON

O

r-H

oo

On

On

00

oo

OO

OO

O

o

o

oo

oo

00

00

*

00

On

On

*

4

co

CO

C?N

00

4

d-

d~

On

i

6

co On

4

ON

00

CO

4

oo

00

*0 On

tT

00

C4

ON

On

r-

r-

r-

r-

r-

C-

ON

On

00 O OO

00

t-

l>

r"

00

00 00

On

On

On

&

X>

a )
©

©

i

£

(N

co

VO

<N

CO

to

00

C4

C4

(N

CO

u

a

oo

rl

vo

vo’

_4

On

On

CO

ON

o

vo’

o

vo’

vd

00

n

Ol

S'

r-

T— 1

CM

T— (

n

r-4

<N

oi

r—t

T— 1

ol

C4

T— 1

,

(N

n

>

On

>

1

ON

>

i

ON

6

(N

>

i

00

>

1

oi

c3

r-

r— H

■

OO

>■

>

O

8

>

oo

On

B

5S

!>’

cd

cd

a

cd

cd

cd

a

Cj

>

>

C--

CO

3

3

3

3

»o

3

r4

3

cd

cd

3

O

3

VO

3

3

to

3

>

P

3

oo’

4

a

oo

CO

on

a

00

■

r-

a

C/3

a

00*

to

a

oi

Vi

a

C4

i

CO

On

1

V

2

vo

i

a

r-

i

to

M

V

a

CO

a

r-

4

'v

a

cd

o

rl

M

V

a

05

B

r

■

*

VO

a

i

*

C4

CO

2

to

o

Vh

to

o

U

o

Vh

vo’

o

—H

00

o

u

oo’

o’

r-

o

U

to

2

4

o

s-

2

»o

<£

i

2 ON

a

•fi

vd

2

to

*4-4

1

t+— l

<4-1

T—l

<4-4

r"H

*4-4

1

C4

i

1

<«

1—1

t4— i

r_ 1

1

»4-i <— <

<“ 1

M-l

1—1

&

«3

1

§

s

£

vo

Ojq

CO

ON

to

to

r-

CO

O

3

00

vo

VO

i

Tf

CO

'd*

ov

>

O

On

>

cd

ON

On

>

O

o

o

£

-3

3

Os

>

cd

04

O

ON

>

to

On

o’

Os

>

00

Os

ON

/^S

ON

>

4

oo

b— s

i

rl

o

a

fH

rT

Tl-

dl

o'

cd

dl

6

CO

cd

O

00

vo

<z>

cO

o

cd

cd

to

ri

cd

CO

On

t-h

o

T—t

ON

On

OS

00

ON

r-

cd

o

oo

00

' — '

<o

00

On

O

C"

o

o

o

to

vo

vo

o

Os

ffi

£

ffi

Os

ffi

1

W

■

M

1

OS

X

Os

1

£

£

On

£

1

ffi

rn

X

CO

HH

4

HH

6

l-H

00

r-

HH

00

to

HH

OS

t"-

OO

On

to

o

o

Os

ON

' — '

Os

o

ON

On

o

00

00

Vw'

00

l— J

On

ON

' — '

S3

3

3

5

3

-3

VO

s

o w

3

On O
C4 CO

£ o 3

C*N

^3 .s

5^ W) ^

-ill-

3 .3 -2 Of

*■» . . <u

S

05

/ — ^

00

s

^

/ — V

2 00

o w

.*3

s— y

^ *r*

o o

S3

3

3 a

OO

1

^N ■*-<
<< ^

<ii

-Cl

S3

C

4-,

05

00

On O

Ol

C4

04 co

co

CO

148

[431]

1133 striatus (6) 108-114 av. 109.8 16.5M8.5 av. 17.3 96-110 av. 98

(TH 98-107 from skull 19-22 97-103)

* Specimen Nos. 1864 and 1866 referred to in text.

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY COLLECTION— 24

a ^
H r- vo
oo oo

3

E

4>

C8

©

I s«

a " =

I

Si

in

co

£ -

oo

r- —
oo

Tj- nl

C5 £

•1 —

•a

4>

&

50

!

B

©

B

o

£ x

</>

rn g

Of

<N

00

ffi

O HH
OO W

i"- x in

ON 00 03 ON

T3

B

c3

O

s

§

£

CO

NO

-M 'sl-

o „

i-

1— 1 Cd T- 1

oo oo

■ I

<-i o

OO 00

o

Of ON Of
on r» *o on *°

00 OO w 00 w

<50 Of

> >

oS c3

m no oi n
OO CO 00 00
m in in tJ-
t c~- t — C~~

2 in rj-

"o x q no ©

t2 ^oo-oo

S > T-H >.

*-* «S 03

c«

B

"3

0)

^ 3

£ g
•A 2

o

s?

oo

CO

rr-t

On

oo

m
> ON
r)

ra 00

2 E

HH

00 W

NO

00

o

>' ^
<3 NO

O °°

^ ffi

tJ- P

00 w

<— n in in
«o oo oo
oo

., cn o
3 00 oo
_ o „ „
£; x o ©
^ cs oo oo

a

8

V

3

T3

•a

8

£

©

03

03

<B

wa

S

©

B

O

s

J

w

I 2

<N

. O ^

N O £ in in
»— I ctf

. ON ©N

>n oo 92
t"-

00 X
<50 OO CO

«0

'tf- Ti-

ND oo

^ .S
^ c

P

r-H

60
c

p

o

c«

3

E

p

03

X

T3

G

X

G

O

00

60

W

!

£ 3

©

B

©

s

Si

J

W n-
00

ON

00 oo
00

i *n
ri oo

00 W

r?

J3

3

m
«o w

X

w

*0 Of

>>>

Of

©

*5 °f

X

op

Of

Of

.p

§

cn

«o

in

oo

cn

oS <*

In" 00
oo fr;

00

«o

>'

s

r-l

cd

fc

©

00

NO

in

i

in

r-

0)

cu

03

00

iA

P

€

in

g

O

G

NO*

X

03

0

03

p

a

i

E

Of

a 03

03 <D

X X

60 O

a .g

S „

[432]

149

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

r~

oo

"t

ON

rn cl -rf in
oo Os oo 00

00

> 00

a

r—v r~
— ' m o°
O'. on

in 1+,'

;£*«
>A m rf o
oo oo oo 00

t — OO I

oo oo oo

VO r1- ®®

r- i-~ C"- 30

OO £

„ <3

Q\ c~\ o-'s

rC rC — re

00 OO 00 ^

in rf t~-~ O On

r- c- r~~ c- oo c~

©fl

5

o

^t

w

'St

B2

60 •

•|S7-

> O'. o o
O T-1 r-H

o o
o o

ON

V J

cl

r^i

o)

av. 1

6

04

o

av.

&

o

3

ci

Cl

*

3

Cl

r— i

„

i—J

03

/—N

cl

CO

On'

c<*

i

CJ

d

1

in

g

in

cn

c

o

Si

M-H

oo c~

oo

o

5h

4-t

17,

00

NO

o

oo
60 on
©

Vi

*s

S

0

1

■§
u

*3

© _
o ON
' l-H ON

Cl

3 ^ S

ra «n r l

ci .

• 3 ”3

^ M M

«* * • 1/5

O

^ g ^ g

8 © 8
h r) ^

©

a

§2

rJ

■"t

»n c- C? cl
O ON ^ On

5 x s a

O -H O >—

Oh

Oh

C/3

3

C/3

Vi

3

• P4

'■O

s

#0h

&

co

Tt"

00

Cl

ON

Cl

oo

T— 1

ON

>

T— (

T— 1

a

>

— ,

r— 1

3

cO

3

ON

M

c/3

?1

u

V)

in

c-

P <-‘

P t- oo

> O' > ^

cci O ^ 00
ON _ 00

m o©

ON

£S£-5

O NO _
^ • r4

OO ON

r-H

35 > ^

oo 3 3

- ^ » %

00 B

^ 2

or, OO

oo g 00

2 od On

ON > On
, oo OS on
T-, OO oo
ON £

-£5£

00 W oo w

'St

c*

m

Os'

>3

.g 5

CO

<o o
<00

3 2 o+
a 5 _,

3

CO

«o >■

Q

3 I'01-

«s

U 3

/— S /«N

/-N

oj

X) o

cd

'w' ^ ^

X! 3

o ^

sS

nnd

<?o

<o c

SSj

<o P:

•Si

so

oo

V)

JC

3

"Sd

So

»n

150

[433]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 24

Os

d

o

©

in

87

On

'w-

r-2

O

>

nv O

o

/^S

ci3

NO

oo

m y—l

o

in

g\

r— v

O

o

*— H

ON

o

CO

m

T— 1

y— 1

T— 1 —T

i-H

ON

ON

NO

NO

oo ©

CO

in

m

d

1

in

ON

On

On -h

ON

On

On

oo

oo

a *
cu

£

S

t/3

a

1

as

vo

Cl rj-
<N Cl

03

W) © 2 ^ c?
^ d m © ©

£ 3

^ £

SlQ

cf ^

/—V 3

*

in NO

O ci
cl ci

ci in

o o

O m

o o

&

6 Jh

3

>

a

53

&

53

ffl

r-

■\t*

^ 6
_ • Cl

VO

^ £ S3

£ 8

o

3 5 2 £

ON w' ON w

a

a>

>>

.§

a,

S~i Oj

O £7

- *2

<o 3
03 1/3

S .2
.1 i

<y

O 1

2! 1
o3 S.

TS

C5

2

W5

|

5ft

£

S3

I— 1 o

cS

<3

*— i o

c-

a

s

1

On

■K»

in

</>

<30

6

©

>

a

in

O

Tf

On

>

ciS

in

ns

89-98

-<->

d

0)

S

OO

Tf

r*H

>

— J rt

’«J „ vo

H 22 3

s °°

oo i— < m in ^

■ ° °

7 n 7 'T o

t O V3 CO O

ON i-H On On *— i

, cl On oo

*n 7 7 7 ^

^ © »n no o'

^ N - -h m

cn

■sj-

ON

24.9

ON

Cl

Cl

m

i

c>

in

ri

NO

NO

Cl

Cl

n

>

Cl

>

oS

3

oS

3

3

av.

.

co

CO

NO

CO

NO

NO

ri

a

n

i

in

a

c-

a

o

Cl

in

rl

o

ccj

o

U-\

NO

£

cc

rl

<Jh

<N

«+H

n

Cl

>

to c3

.3
£

o . ■'3-
cc > ci

oo

ci 22 <-c
m _ d

d

£

I— I r—l I— I d

ec ^
d oo

oo

Cl

in

m - N m n >n
On On On ON On On

d

ci io

in. O in NO OO t^- 'sf

s a *

> oi

c3 0
M

S3
<o m

en NO

>2 > ^ ^
c3 i cj i

ON - £ £

N H H H f”1.

ffi ^ ffi 6 ffi in

in tj- m
d

nv n-N

cc

nv n—v

cd -O

' — '

03 4D

3 3

Of

» O

oj 3

c3 3

in

N?

CS c!

C C

* — 1

— -

a a

s

o

a a

o o

0+

o o

NO

0+

Cl c

.Nj

c c

Of

NO

-u*

NO

Ct-

uJ

T~

pq

— H

I

5

in

ft,

00

TT

Q

in

U

U

C

V3

|

e

CO

%

.Op

$ $

saroides

<3

5

'W'

1

Oo

►S3

3

a

Oo

*5

ON

O

t-H

00

ON

o

S 0
M $

C a

Oo <L>

e §

_ <J

22 22 J

- -H PJ

[434]

151

ON A NEW SUBSPECIES OF PELLORNEUM RUFICEPS
(SWAINSON) IN PENINSULAR INDIA1

Humayun Abdulali

It has been customary to accept specimens
of Pellomeum ruficeps (Swainson) from all
over Peninsular India, excluding the south-
west whence grand has been described, as of
the nominate form with the type locality in
the Nilgiris.

Some years ago while going through the
Bombay collection for determination of the
subspecies to be included in the Checklist of
the Birds of Maharashtra, I had noticed that
the series collected in the Eastern Ghats by the
Vernay Scientific Survey (1929-30) appeared
very different from specimens from other parts
of India, but in the absence of topotypes no
action was possible. The same problem pre-
sented itself again when cataloguing the birds
in the Bombay collection but I have now been
able to give the matter some more attention.

The bird was originally described from
India by Swainson, 1832, Fauna Boreali Ame-
ricana p. 487, but Stuart Baker (1921, p. 238)
said the type locality was the Nilgiris. Deignan
(1947) explained that “many, if not all, the
specimens listed by Swainson. in Fauna
Boreali Americana came into Gould’s posses-
sion” and “the type specimen is probably the
one from the Nilgiri Hills, ex Gould’s collec-
tion recorded by Bowdler Sharpe, Catalogue
of Birds in British Museum, Vol. 7, 1883,
p. 251.” He then restricted the type locality
to Coonoor, Nilgiri Hills Disk, Madras Presi-
dency.

Kinnear & Whistler (1930, p. 393) when

1 Accepted November 1981.

reporting on the first lot of birds collected
by the Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern
Ghats referred to five specimens of Pellomeum
ruficeps obtained at Kurumbapatti, Salem dist.,
Madras, in the low country about half a mile
from the Shevaroy Hills. Here they indicated
the type locality as the Nilgiris and said:

“The above series appears to be indistin-
guishable from Nilgiri birds. Harington origi-
nally confined his dark race grand to Travan-
core and we are not certain that the Fauna
is right in attributing to it also the birds from
Coorg, the Wynaad and South-West Mysore.
A fine series of the species is coming in from
some of the later collecting camps and it should
be possible later on to speak more positively
of the distribution of the races of this common
bird”.

Later when reporting on the whole col-
lection, 1932, JBNHS 35, pp. 746-747 they
quoted the same source for Swainson’s origi-
nal description but reverted to “India” as the
type locality. The series of 36 skins then
available from Kurumbapatti, Shevaroy Hills,
and northwards along the ghats to Anantgiri,
Sankrametta, and Jaipur, in the Vizagapatnam
Hills, was said to be remarkably constant in
size and coloration though there was a ten-
dency for the coloration to grow slightly
richer in tint in the north-east about Orissa,
but not sufficient to warrant a subspecies”.

This reversion from the Nilgiris to India,
the failure to refer to any specific specimens
from the Nilgiris (which are scarce in collec-
tions) or to compare the Orissa birds with
those from other parts of India suggest some

152

A NEW SUBSPECIES OF PELLORNEUM RUFICEPS

confusion and the possibility of only the first
specimens from Kurumbapatti (actually inter-
mediate between the Nilgiri birds and the
new race and once said to be indistinguishable
from the Nilgiri birds) being compared with
the new arrivals and all being named as nomi-
nate ruficeps, while the north-eastern birds
which are darker and closer to those from the
Nilgiri’s and other parts of India are said to
be different from ruficeps , but not separable.

This confusion has led to all the birds from
Peninsular India, excluding the dark birds
from the south-west ( granti ) being lumped
together as ruficeps.

A glance at the fair series available from
the Shevaroy Hills, Chitteri Range and Pal-
konda Hills, immediately shows that they are
very distinct from all the others available, in
having pale upperparts with a faint olive green
wash and also a much paler rufous cap. The
British Museum have been kind enough to
lend me some specimens including one col-
lected by H. R. Baker at Segoor 4000', Nil-
giris, and others from the different collecting
camps of the Eastern Ghats Survey.

With the examination of even one speci-
men from the Nilgiris, I have no hesitation in
deciding that though those from Kurumbapatti
in the low country are intermediate, the others
further north along the Eastern Ghats are
quite different from ruficeps from the Nilgiris
and I name them:

Pellorneum ruficeps pallidum subsp. nov.

Type: B.N.H.S. Sp. No. 1259 (Collec-
tor’s No. 650) collected by V. S. La Personne
at 1000' in Palkonda Hills, South Cuddapah,
Madras, on 4th August 1929.

9 cotypes: 7 c? c? 2 $ $ (all April to
August 1929) 1 3500', 1 4000' Shevaroy Hills;

1 2000', 1 3000', Chitteri Range, Salem dist.;
5 1000' Palkonda Hills, South Cuddapah,
Madras.

4 specimens from Palkonda and Shevaroy
Hills and Chitteri Range from the British
Museum all agree with the above. All the
specimens, both in Bombay and from Tring,
were collected by V. S. La Personne during
the Eastern Ghats Survey.

Diagnosis'. Olive green of upperparts and
chestnut of head strikingly paler than in
ruficeps from the Nilgiris and further west and
north along Western Ghats. A similar charac-
ter separates punctatum from mandelli in the
north and is referred to as “a greyish cast”
by Deignan (1947).

Specimens listed above cover the known
range of the subspecies though Bowdler
Sharpe (loc. cit.) refers to a specimen from
Madras (Dr. Jerdon) in which the general
cast of the plumage is ashy and the crown
only slightly more rufescent than the back. He
also mentions that the superciliary streak is
whitish. We do not know how close to Madras
this species is now found, but the description
is suggestive of this race.

The Spotted Babbler is common in well-
wooded localities over most of India, Burma,
China, Thailand, and other parts of south-
east Asia, and 26 subspecies are listed in
Peters’ Checklist Vol. X (1964). Deignan (loc.
cit., p. 4) “after seeing the variations in the
populations in the countries to the east, finds
it “difficult to believe that a careful study of
good series will not show that in India also
considerable subspeciation occurs ”

One good series has been found distinctly
different, and I have no doubt that further
study will endorse his remarks.

153

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

References

Ali, Salim, & Ripley, S. Dillon (1971): Hand-
book of Birds of India, Pakistan & Ceylon, Vol. 6.
Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1921) : Fauna of British
India, Birds. Vol. I.

Deignan, H. G. (1947): A Review of the races
of the Spotted Babbling Thrush Pellorneum ruficeps
Swainson. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. Vol. 107, No. 14,

pp. 1-20.

Deignan, H. G., Paynter, R. A., & Ripley, S.
Dillon (1964) : Checklist of Birds of World.

Vol. X.

Harington, H. H. (1913) : Pellorneum ruficeps
granti, Pterythius xanthochloris occidentalis and P.
pallidus hybrida described. Bull. British Orn. Club,
33, p. 81.

Kinnear N. B. & Whistler H. (1930) : The
Vemay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats.
Ornithological Section. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34:
386-403.

(1932): loc.

cit., Part. 2. ibid. 35: 737-760.

Sharpe, R. Bowdler (1883) : Catalogue of the
Passeriformes or Perching Birds in the Collection
of the British Museum. Vol. 7.

154

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

STUDIES ON SOME APHELINID
(HYM.: CHALCIDOIDEA ) PARASITES OF
HEMIPTEROUS INSECTS OF INDIA1

Tasawwer Husain and Man Mohan Agarwal2

{With twenty-five text-figures )

Three new Aphelinid species viz., Eretmocerus hydrabadensis; Azof us aleuroides and
Physcus oriensis have been described. Prospalteila clypealis Silvestri has been redes-
cribed in greater detail. Keys to Indian species of Eretmocerus and Physcus have
also been proposed.

Eretmocerus Haldeman

Haldeman, 1850. Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts.
9 (2): 111.

Type species: Eretmocerus corni Haldeman.

The genus can be easily separated from
allied genera of the family by the:

Five segmented antennae with two annular
funicle segments and a long unsegmental club;
four segmented tarsi. Characters suggested by
Hayat (1972) apply well to the species, namely,
“pronotum consisting of two triangular lobes
joined in the middle by a membrane; sub-
genital plate broad, posterior margin with a
notch in the middle; outer plates of ovipositor
with submarginal ridge along dorsal margin”.

Fletcher (1914) reported for the first time
an undescribed species bred from castor white-
fly. Mani (1941) described a new species based
on male. Samuel (1950) reported E. masii

1 Accepted June 1981.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.

3 E. masii Silvestri and E. delhiensis Mani are
not included in the key as they are recorded from
males.

Silv. Hayat (1972) added three new species,
namely, E. indicus Hayat, E. mashhoodi Hayat
and E. gunturiensis Hayat.

Key to Indian species of the genus Eretmocerus
Haldeman based on females3

1 . Pedicel three or more than three times longer

than wide 2

— Pedicel less than three times longer than

wide 5

2. Marginal vein longer than stigmal 3

— Marginal vein as long as stigmal

E. haldemani. Howard

3. Speculum bounded by two or more than two

rows of setae 4

— Speculum bordered by a single row of setae;

submarginal with two setae; marginal fringe 1/6
of wing disc E. indicus Hayat

4. Speculum bordered by two rows of setae; first

funicle segment triangular; scutellum with 4
setae; thorax and gaster yellow

E. mashhoodi Hayat

— Speculum bordered by two complete and third

incomplete row of setae; first funicle ring like;
scutellum with 6 setae; thorax light brown,
gaster dark E. hydrabadensis sp. nov.

5. Club spatulate; first funicle triangular or

quadrate 6

— Club cylindrical; first funicle ring like, much
shorter than second; club nine times as long

155

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

as wide; speculum bordered by 11 setae

E. gunturiensis Hayat

6. First funicle triangular, second wider than

long E. corni Haldeman

— First funicle quadrate; second longer than wide
• E. mundus Mercet

Eretmocerus hydrabadensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-6)

FEMALE

Head (Fig. 1) — Light brown, wider than
long in facial view (0.31: 0.23); vertex

sparsely setose, frons with few setae; eyes
dark; malar space more than the longitudinal
diameter of eyes (0.14: 0.12); ocelli in obtuse
angled triangle, basal ocellus removed from
occipital margin by about its own diameter
(0.02) and from eye rim by slightly more than
its own diameter; maxillary palpi two seg-
mented, labial palpi unsegmented; mandibles
tridentate.

Antennae (Fig. 2) — Whitish; scape about
four times as long as wide (0.1 : 0.025); pedi-

Figs. 1-6. Eretmocerus hydrabadensis sp. nov.

L Head (facial view); 2. Antenna $; 3. Thorax; 4. Pronotum; 5. Part of forewing

venation; 6. Antenna $,

156

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

cel three and a half times as long as wide
(0.07 : 0.02); first funicle segment ring like,
second one and a half times wider than long;
club about six times (0.17 :0.03) as long as
wide with three pairs of sensoria on margins.

Thorax (Fig. 3) — Light brown, pronotum
orange yellow with two (Fig. 4) lobes joined
in the middle by a membrane; axillae some-
what triangular with a single seta; parapsides
hammer shaped, broad at apex, narrow at
base; scutum and scutellum with 6 setae
each; metanotum a transverse strip; meso-
postphragma long, reaching upto middle
length of abdomen, rounded at apex.

Forewings — Hyaline, less than three times
as long as wide, (0.65:0.25), marginal vein
shorter than submarginal, about one and a
half times as long as stigmal (0.08:0. 05)
(Fig. 5), postmarginal absent; speculum mesal-
ly bounded by twenty setae arranged in two
complete and a third incomplete row; margi-
nal fringe short.

Hind wings — Hyaline, long, narrow, about
ten times longer than wide; marginal fringe
long, longer than wing disc.

Legs — Coxae and femora orange yellow
except at apex and base, apex and base of
femora, tibiae and tarsi whitish.

Gaster — Dark brown, longer than thorax;
ovipositor slightly exserted arising from base
of gaster; subgenital plate broad anteriorly
with anterior margin straight, posterior mar-
gin narrow with a notch in the middle; first
valvifers somewhat triangular; second valvifers
with outer margin thickened; third valvulae
movably articulated with second valvifers;
outer plates of ovipositor narrow at base,
broad at apex with a ridge along dorsal
margin.

Female length : 0 . 87 mm

male — resembles the female, except for
the following differences:

Antennae (Fig. 6) three segmented; scape
about four times longer than wide (0. 15:0.04);
pedicel slightly longer than wide (0.4:0.03);
club unsegmented about twelve times as long
as wide (0.51:0.043) with many sensoria.
Male length: 0.81mm.

Material studied : Holotype $ and c? India,
Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad ex white-fly on
Nerium odorum , 3. X. 1977 (T. Husain).

Paratypes 2 S d1 • Data same as for holotype.
Material deposited with Zoology Museum,
Department of Zoology, AMU Aligarh.

Genus Azof us Howard
Azotus Howard, 1898: Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash.
4:138.

Type species; Azotus marchali Howard
Dimacrocerus Brethes, 1914: Nunguam

Otiosus, Buenos Aires: 4
Type species: Dimacrocerus platensis Brethes
This genus can be easily distinguished from
others by the: seven segmented antennae with
varied colours, four segmented funicle and an
unsegmented club. Zinna (1962), Agarwal
(1964) and Jasnosh (1966) suggested some
new characters of the pronotum, subgenital
plate and components of the female genitalia
which are quite helpful in the generic diagnosis
and have proved stable.

A. delhiensis Lai, 1938 was the first record
from India. Agarwal (1964) described two
new species and Khan & Shafee (1976) added
three new species (all based on females). A
new species A. aleuroides is being described,
based on Male.

Azotus aleuroides sp. nov.

(Figs. 7 & 8)

MALE

Head — Light brown, vertex orange yellow,
eyes red, wider than long in facial view; ocelli
in acute triangle, basal ocellus removed from
eye rim by about its own diameter (0.02)
and from occipital margin by three times its

157

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

diameter; antennae inserted very close to oral
margin; maxillary palpi two segmented;
labial palpi unsegmented; mandibles triden-
tate.

Antennae (Fig. 7) — Light brown; scape
about three times as long as wide (0.09:0.03);
pedical about one and a half times as long
as wide (0.035:0.025), first, second and
fourth funicle segments subequal, slightly
more than three times as long as wide (0.09 :
0.029), third funicle ring like; club unseg-
mented, about six times as long as wide (0.16 :
0.027), as long as preceding two and half of
second funicle segment combined; first funi-

cle to club except third, with 5, 3, 4 and 6
sensoria respectively.

Thorax — Scutellum and scutum dark
brown, light brown on remaining part; pro-
notum with anterior and posterior margins
deeply concave, anterior margin with a wide
notch in the middle; parapsides and axillae
with one seta each; scutum and scutellum
with a pair of setae each; mesopostphragma
rounded at apex.

Fore wings (Fig. 8) — About three times as
long as wide (0.6: 0.2); without infuscated
bands, disc with sparsely arranged dark setae,
area below stigmal vein without setae; costal

Figs. 7-8. Azotus aleuroides sp. nov.

7. Antenna $; 8. Forewing.

Figs. 9-16. Physcus oriensis sp. nov.

9. Antenna $ ; 10. Thorax; 11. Pronotum; 12. Part of forewing venation; 13. Sub-
genital plate; 14. Outer plate of ovipositor; 15. First valvifer; 16. Second and

third valvulae.

158

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

cell broad; submarginal as long as marginal
(0.15), submarginal vein with a single seta
and 14 bullae on its posterior margin; margi-
nal comparatively thick with five setae, post-
marginal reduced, stigmal expanded at apex;
marginal fringe about one-fourth wing width.

Hind wings — Hyaline, more than six times
longer than wide; marginal fringe long, longer
than wing width.

Legs — Light brown except at apex and
base of tibiae and tarsi whitish.

Gaster — Dark brown.

Male length: 0.89 mm.

Material studied — Holotype d\ India,
Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh, ex. white-fly on Citrus
medica, 10. IX. 1977 (T. Husain). Zool. Mus-
AMU.

Comments — A. aleuroides sp. nov. is very
close to A. delhiensis Lai, but differs from it,
in the absence of infuscated bands on the fore
wings and in the presence of a reduced post-
marginal vein.

Genus Physcus Howard

Physcus Howard, 1895: U. S. Depth Agric.
Bur. Ent. Tech. Ser. Bull. 1:43

Type species: Coccophagus varicornis
Howard

This genus can be distinguished from allied
genera by the: 7-segmented antennae of varied
colour with all the three funicle segments
subequal and a two segmented club. Addi-
tional characters suggested by Hayat (1971),
“Outer plates of ovipositor narrow at base,
gradually widening posteriorly with a submar-
ginal ridge and obliquely truncated at apex;
posterior margin of sebgenital plate with a
notch in the middle, knobs on either side of
the notch followed by laterally directed ridges”,
are stable and useful in generic diagnosis. We
are in agreement that the shape of the pro-
notum-having expanded lateral lobes joined
by a narrow bridge in the middle, can also

be tested at the generic level.

Five species have so far been described
from India namely P. albipodus Agarwal, P.
flaviceps Girault et al.; P. reticulatus Compere
et al.; P. compere Hyat, P. gunturiensis Shafee.
A new species P. oriensis is added and a key
to Indian species of the genus based on females
proposed.

Key to Indian species of the genus Physcus
How. BASED ON FEMALES

1. Body predominantly black or brown 2

— Body yellow, funicle I and II dark brown....
P. flaviceps Girault & Dodd

2. Club distinctly shorter than funicle 3

— Club as long as funicle; scape four times as

long as wide; pedicel as long as first funicle;
funicle II and III pale yellow; abdomen
brown P. reticulatus Compere & Annecke

3. Club brown 4

— Club yellow 6

4. Second funicle orange yellow 5

— Second funicle light brown, scape four times as
long as wide; submarginal vein with 16 setae

and 12 bullae; postmarginal vein absent

....................... P. albipodus Agarwal

5. Postmarginal vein absent; abdomen pale yellow,
sides of dorsum and ventre with brown spots
reaching upto cereal plates. . . .P. compere Hayat

— Postmarginal vein slightly developed; abdomen
brown without spots . . P. gunturiensis Shafee et al.

6. Scape brown except apex, one and two funicle
pale yellow; gaster white with a longitudinal
brown band on either side . . P. aligarhensis Hayat

— Scape light yellow, first funicle dark, second

white; gaster rusty and without bands

P. oriensis sp. nov.

Physcus oriensis sp. nov.

FEMALE

Head — Rust coloured, wider than long in
facial view (0.35 : 0.22); sparse setae on vertex
and frons; occipital margin rounded; fronto-
vertex longer than wide (0.30 : 0.25); eyes
dark; ocelli in obtuse triangle, basal ocellus
removed from eye rim and from occipital
margin by about its own diameter (0.15);

159

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

antennal sockets just above the ventral mar-
gins of eyes; malar space less than eye length
(0.12:0.15); maxillary palpi two segmented,
labial palpi unsegmented; mandibles tridentate.

Antennae (Fig. 9) — Scape and pedicel light
yellow, first funicle dark, second white, remain-
ing orange yellow; scape about five and a
half times as long as wide (0.10:0.019);
pedicel less than twice as long as wide (0.035 :
0.02); club two segmented, less than four
time as long as wide (0.1 : 0.028), as long as
preceding two and half of first funicle segment
combined.

Thorax (Fig. 10) — Rust coloured; prono-
tum (Fig. 11) having expanded lateral lobes
joined by a narrow bridge in the middle, ante-
rior margin deeply notched in the middle,
posterior margin with a row of sixteen sub-
marginal setae; scutum as long as but wider
than scutellum, with sparse setae; scutellum
with three pairs of setae; parapside narrow at
base, broad at apex; axillae somewhat trian-
gular; mesopostphragma long and notched at
apex.

Forewings — Hyaline, about three times as
long as wide (0.68:0.22), disc profusely
ciliated; costal cell broad; submarginal and
marginal veins subequal (0.22), stigmal five
times longer than short postmarginal (Fig. 12);
marginal fringe short.

Hind wings — Hyaline, about five times lon-
ger than wide; marginal fringes long, more
than half width of wing disc.

Legs — Uniform whitish yellow; midtibial
spur shorter than basitarsus.

Gaster — Rust coloured, dorsum flat, ven-
tre boat shaped; ovipositor slightly exserted;
subgenital plate (Fig. 1'3) of almost uniform
width, posterior margin with a notch flanked
by knobs followed by laterally directed ridges
with straight anterior margin; outer plates of

ovipositor (Fig. 14) narrow and truncated at
apex, submarginal ridge prominent; first valvi-
fers (Fig. 15) somewhat triangular, apical and
basal angles at the same level; second valvi-
fers long with thickened dorsal margin; third
valvulae lanceolate and in a 1:3 ratio with
second valvifers (Fig. 16) movably articulated.
Female length : 0.95 mm.

Material studied : Holotype $ , India, Uttar
Pradesh, Bijnor, ex. Coccus hesperidum
on Citrus sp., 3.5.1876 (T. Husain).

Paratypes 15 $ $ data same as for holo-
types. with Zool. Mus. A.M.U.

Genus Prospaltella Ashmead

Prospalta Howard, 1894: Insect life, 7:6
(Preoccupied by Prospalta Walker, 1875)

Type species: ( Prospalta murtfeldtii

Howard) = Prospaltella murtfeldtii

(Howard)

Prospaltella Ashmead, 1904: Proc. ent. Soc.
Wash. 6:126

Minatomus Cockerell, 1911: Ent. News, 22:
464

Type Minatomus peltalus Coq.

This genus can be distinguished by the
characters given by Ferriere (1965). From
Encarsia Forster, to which it is closely relat-
ed, it can be separated on the characters sug-
gested by Agarwal (1964) namely, subgenital
plate with anterior margin straight, posterior
margin convex, gradually narrowing posteriorly
without a median notch; outer plates of ovi-
positor narrow at base, broad and truncated
at apex with a very narrow inflexion along
dorsal margin extending upto three-fourth
length of the plate.

Prospaltella clypealis Silvestri was recorded
for the first time from India by Smith in
1950. Later Flanders (1969) and Shafee (1973)
also recorded it. This species is redescribed
to incorporate greater details .

160

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 17-25. Prospaltella clypealis Silvestri.

17. Head (facial view); 18. Head (dorsal view); 19. Antenna $; 20. Thorax;
21. Pronotum; 22. Part of forewing venation; 23. Outer plate of ovipositor; 24. First
valvifer; 25. Second and third valvulae.

Prospaltella clypealis Silvestri
(Figs. 17-25)

FEMALE

Head (Figs. 17 & 18) — Chestnut coloured
with sparsely arranged setae on vertex, wider
than long in facial view (0.3:0.23); height
of malar space equal to the major axis of
eyes (0.14); eyes dark, sparsely setose; vertex
with two oblique dark bands just behind basal
ocelli; ocelli in acute triangle, basal ocellus
removed from eye rim and occipital margin
by about one and a half times its diameter;
mixillary palpi two segmented, labial palpi
unsegmented; mandibles tridentate.

Antennae (Fig. 19) — Orange yellow; space

four and a half times longer than wide (0.22 :
0.05), as long as pedicel to second funicle seg-
ment combined; pedicel slightly longer than
wide (0.07:0.05), first funicle almost qua-
drate (0.05), second funicle to last club seg-
ments subequal, less than twice as long as
wide (0.09 : 0.06); second funicle to club with
3, 3, 3, 4 and 3 sensoria respectively.

Thorax (Fig. 20) — Orange yellow, parap-
sides and metanotum slightly dark; pronotum
(Fig. 21) with straight posterior margin with
18 setae, anterior margin notched in middle,
notch flanked by ridges; scutum with 1 +4+4+1
setae, scutellum with 2+2 setae; parapsides
with a single seta each and axillae somewhat

161

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

rectangular with only one seta; mesopost-
phragma with a notch at apex.

Fore wings — Hyaline less than three times
as long as wide (0.65 :0.25); costal cell nar-
row; speculum bounded by two rows of setae;
submarginal, marginal and stigmal in a ratio:
3 : 2.3 : 1 respectively; postmarginal absent;
submarginal with two and marginal with nine
setae; marginal fringe very short.

Hind wings — Hyaline, about seven times
as long as wide, marginal fringe long, longer
than wing width.

Legs — Coxae and femora except apex light
brown; apex of femora, tibiae and tarsi light
yellow; mid tibial spur shorter than basitarsus.

Caster — Chestnut coloured; subgenital plate
with anterior margin straight, posterior mar-
gin convex, gradually narrowing posteriorly,
without a median notch; outer plates of ovi-
positor (fig. 23) narrow at base, broad and
truncated at apex with a very narrow inflexion
along dorsal margin extending upto three-
fourth length of the plate; first valvifers (Fig.

Refe

Agarwal, M. M. (1964) : Studies on forms of
Aphelinidae (Hym. Chalcidoidea) collected at
Aligarh (India) II. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. ( B ) 60:
315-335.

Hayat, M. (1971): Three new species of Apheli-
nidae (Hym., Chalcidoidea) from India. Bull. Ent.
12 (2): 118-121.

(1971) : Three new species of Apheli-
nidae (Hym., Chalcidoidea) parasitic on Aonidiella
orientalis (Newst) from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 71 (1): 64-71.

(1972): The species of Eretmocerus

Haldeman, 1850 (Hymenoptera; Aphelinidae) from
India. Entomophaga 17 (1) : 99-106.

Howard, L. O. (1895) : Revision of the Aphali-
nidae of North America. U. S. Bur. ent. Tech. ser.
1 : 1-44.

(1898) : On some parasites of

Coccidae with descriptions of two new genera of
Aphelinidae. Proc. ent. Soc. Wash. 4(2): 133-139.

24) triangular with basal and apical angles at
the same level; second valvifers long with
thickened dorsal margin, third valvulae very
long, and about half the length of second
valvifers, movably articulated. (Fig. 25).
Female Length: 0.91 mm.

Material studied — 3 $ $ India, Uttar

Pradesh, Aligarh, ex. Aleyrodes sp. on
Caesalpinia pulcherrima L. 15.3.1977 (T.
Husain) with Zool. Mus. A.M.U.

Comments — In all 10 species have so far
been recorded from India — P. brevicla-
vata Shafee; P. flava Shafee; P. indica
Shafee; P. opulent a Silvestri; P. clypealis
Silvestri; P. citri Agarwal; P. smithi Sil-
vestri; P. diver gens Silvestri; P. pseudo-
cocci Agarwal and P. udaipuriensis Shafee.
Shafee (1973) has presented a very good
key to the identification of Indian species.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Head, Department of
Zoology for providing necessary facilities.

ENCES

Jasnosh, V. A. (1966): Classification of para-
sitic Hymenoptera of the family Aphelinidae (Chal-
cidoidea). Ent. Obzor. 55: 1-168.

Khan, M. Y. and Shafee, S. A. (1976): Indian
species of the genus Azotus Howard (Hymenoptera:
Aphelinidae). Geobios 3: 172-174.

Lal, K. B. (1938) : On some parasites of Coc-
cidae with description of two new genera of
Aphelinidae. Proc. ent. Soc. Wash. 4 (2): 133-139.

Mani, M. S. (1941): Studies on Indian parasitic
hymenoptera I. Ind. J. ent. 3: 25-36.

Samuel, C. K. (1950) : Parasites & Parasitism of
the white fly Bemisia tabaci (Gen.) vector of tobacco
leaf-curl in Northern India. Ind. J. ent. 12: 248-250.

Shafee, S. A. (1973) : Indian species of the genus
Prospaltella Ashm. (Hym., Aphelinidae). Entomo-
phaga 18 (3): 251-258.

Zinna, G. (1961) : III Specilizzazione entomopa-
rasitica negli Aphelinidae. Boll. Lab. ent. Agric.
Portici 20: 73-184.

162

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF SCHEFFLERA J. R. & G. FORST.
( ARALI ACEAE ) FROM KERALA STATE, INDIA1

K. Ramamurthy and R. Rajan2
( With seven text -figures)

Schefflera chandrasekharanii sp. nov.

Schefflera bourdilloni Gamble affinis, sed
differt imprimis : foliolis 1 - 2, magnioribus,
obovatis, undulato-crenatis, apiculatis, basibus
contractis pariter vel impariter; cicatricibus
foliorum delapsorum prominentibus; floribus a
paniculis amplis terminalibus umbellatis;
pedunculis et pedicellis tomentosis stellate;
staminibus petalis longioribus; filamentis incur-
vatis; staminodiis absentibus.

Holotypus Ramamurthy 66388 (CAL) et
isotypi Ramamurthy 66388 (MH - num. acc.
109030 to 109032) lecti a sylva densa semper-
virens secus via Munnar-Kumili, Idukki Dis-
trict in Ditione Kerala ad altit. 2000 m ca.,
die 26-3-1980.

Schefflera chandrasekharanii sp. nov.

Allied to S. bourdillonii Gamble, but differs
chiefly in: leaflets 1-2, larger, obovate, wavy-
crenate, apiculate at apex, tapering into an equal
or unequal base; scars of the fallen leaves pro-
minent. Flowers in large terminal umbellate
panicles; peduncles and pedicels stellately to-
mentose; stamens longer than petals, filaments
incurved; staminodes absent.

Small trees; branchlets terete, lenticellate,
pale shiny, bark papery when dry, scars of
the fallen leaves prominent. Leaves alternate,
at the ends of branchlets, digitately 1 -2-folio-
late; petioles 0.5- 1 . 5 cm long, terete with
swollen sheathing base, glabrous. Leaflets
5-10 x 3-4 cm, obovate, coriaceous, wavy-

1 Accepted September 1981.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, 641 003.

crenatus, apiculate at apex, tapering equally
or unequally at base; nerves reticulate, conspi-
cuously distinct, curved and united at margins
on both sides, lower more distinct; petiolules
0.5- 1.5 cm long, terete. Flowers bisexual, in
terminal umbellate-panicles; each umbel 10-15-
flowered; peduncles up to 2 cm long; pedicels
1 - 2 mm long, stellately white-tomentose. Calyx
c. 1 mm long, cup shaped, not lobed, adnate
to ovary. Petals 5, each c 1 mm long, ovate,
acuminate, inflexed, glabrous, deciduously caly-
pterate. Stamens 5, alternating with the petals,
inserted round the epigynous disc; filaments
c. 2 mm long, incurved; anthers oblong, dorsi-
fixed, dehiscing longitudinally; staminodes ab-
sent. Ovary inferior, 5-loculed, one ovule in
each locule; style short, connate. Fruits not
seen.

Holotype Ramamurthy 66388, (CAL) and
isotypes Ramamurthy 66388, (MH-Acc. no.
109030 to 109032) were collected in dense
evergreen forest along Munnar-Kumili Road,
Idukki District, Kerala State, India at an alti-
tude of about 2000 m on 26-3-1980.

The specific name is given in honour of Dr.
N. Chandrasekaran Nair, D.Sc., Joint Director,
Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,
Coimbatore (MH) for his valuable contribu-
tion to Indian Botany.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our thanks to the
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Eng-
land for the kind help rendered in connection

163

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

Figs. 1-7. Schefflera chandrasekharanii sp. nov.

1. Portion of a branch; 2. Inflorescence; 3. Flower; 4. Flower L.S.; 5. Calyx;

6. Petal; 7. Stamens.

with the comparison of the materials at Kew ful suggestions and to the Director, Joint
Herbarium and for his valuable comments. Directors of CAL and MH of the Botanical
Our thanks are also due to Dr. V. J. Nair for Survey of India for their constant encourage-
latin diagnosis, Dr. A. N. Henry for his help- ment during this investigation.

164

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF ERIOCAULON L.

( ERIOCAULACEAE ) FROM SOUTH INDIA1

M. Chandrabose and V. Chandrasekaran2
{With eighteen text-figures)

Eriocaulon nairii sp. nov.

Affinis ad Eriocaulon longicuspis Hook, f.,
tamen differt caulis ad 30 cm longis; pedunculis
1-3, 5-costatis; vaginis foliis brevioribus; dua-
bus segmentis calycis flores masculis connatis,
altero vero libero; sepalis flores foemineis late
obovatis; seminibus cum striis horizontalibus.

Holotypus Chandrabose 65821 (CAL) et
isotypi Chandrabose 65821 (MH. Acc. No.
108772, 108773, 108774, 108775, 108776,

108777, 108778) lecti apud Konalar, Anama-
lai, Dist. Coimbatore in statu Tamil Nadu die
16-2-1980.

Eriocaulon nairii sp. nov.

Allied to Eriocaulon longicuspis Hook. f.
but differs in having stems elongate up to
30 cm long; peduncles 1-3, 5-ribbed, sheaths
shorter than the leaves; two calyx segments
of male flowers connate and the other one
free; sepals of female flowers broadly obovate;
and seeds with horizontal striations.

Herbs up to 30 cm tall; stems 10-30 cm
long, densely covered with leafy sheaths,
branched at apex. Leaves 2-5 x 0.4-1 cm,
many, dense, in spirals, along the upper part
of the stems, lanceolate or ensiform, glabrous
except at sheathing base, acute or acuminate
at apex, 18-25-nerved. Peduncles 1-3, 10-18 cm
long, 5-ribbed, glabrous; sheaths up to 5 cm
long, oblique at the mouth, glabrous. Heads
1-1.3 x 0.6-0. 8 cm, depressed globose, and-
rogynous; involucral bracts ±4x2 mm, black,
obovate, concave, rounded at apex, erose when

1 Accepted August 1981.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

old, glabrous; receptacle ovoid, plano-convex,
villous with long hairs. Male flowers: Calyx
segments 3, one free ± 2 x 1.2 mm, the other
two connate into a lobed sheath ± 2x1.7 mm,
obovate, subobtuse or subacute, serrulate at
apex, papillose hairy near the tip. Corolla tube
± 1 mm long, obconical, glabrous; petals 3,
white, unequal, one larger than the other two,
larger petal ± 5.5 x 0.5 mm, smaller ones
± 1 x 0 . 3 mm, linear-oblanceolate, acute, with
a black gland near the tip, densely pilose with
long white hairs. Stamens 6, filaments subu-
late ±1.2 mm long; anthers ±0.5 mm, black.
Abortive ovary black, 3 -lobed. Floral bract
± 3.5 x 1.2mm, oblanceolate, concave, acu-
minate with a pointed tip, papillose without,
pilose hairy from the base, 1 -nerved. Pedicels
± 1.2 mm long. Female flowers: Sepals 3,
each 1.8-2. 2 x 1-1. 2 mm, black, free, sub-
equal, obovate, subobtuse, pilose along the
margins and at base. Petals 3, white, each 2.5-
3.5 x 0.3-0.5 mm, one little longer than the other
two, linear-oblanceolate, acute with a black
gland near the tip, densely pilose with long white
hairs. Ovary ± 0.6 x 0.5 mm, yellow, sub-
orbicular, 3 -lobed, glabrous, 3-loculed, 1 ovule
in each locule; style 0.5-0. 7 mm long, filiform,
3-fid, stylar branches 1.5- 1.8 mm long. Floral
bract ± 4.5 x 2.5mm, orbicular-obovate,
concave, acuminate with a pointed tip, serru-
late at apex, sparsely hairy without. Pedicels
± 0.7 mm long. Capsules ± 0.7 x 1.1 mm,
depressed globose, 3 -lobed, glabrous, 3 -seeded;
seeds ± 0.6 x 0.5 mm, yellow, ovoid, obscure-
ly striate. (Figs. 1-18).

The holotype Chandrabose 65821 (CAL)

165

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

J3'mm

Figs. 1-18. Eriocaulon nairii sp. nov.

1 Plant; 2. Involucral Bract; 3. Male flower; 4. Floral bract of male flower;
5 & 6. Calyx segments of male flower; 7. Sepals & stamens of male flower removed
showing the corolla; 8. Female flower; 9. Floral bract of female flower; 10-12. Sepals
of female flower; 13-15. Petals of female flower; 16. Pistil; 17. Capsule; 18. Seed.

166

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

and isotypes Chandrabose 65821 (MH. Acc.
No. 108772, 108773, 108774, 108775, 108776,
108777, 108778) were collected in Konalar,
Anamalai, Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu
on 16-2-1980.

This species grows in tufts on grassy slopes
especially in wet places at an altitude of about
1900 m. This species is named in honour of
Dr. N. Chandrasekharan Nair, Joint Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for
his contributions to the taxonomy of Indian
Plants.

Acknowledgement

Our grateful thanks are due to Rev. Fr. K.
M. Mathew, S.J., Rapinat Herbarium., St.
Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli-2 for the latin
translation.

A REVISION OF THE GENUS CALL1T RICHE L. IN THE
NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYAS1

A. Majeed Kak2 and G. N. Javeid3
{With two text -figures)

The genus Callitriche L., (Callitrichaceae)
with 25 species (Airy Shaw 1966), is distri-
buted throughout the temperate and warmer
countries of the world. Hooker (1878) report-
ed only two species from the Indian subcon-
tinent and subsequent authors did not add
to this number. Later one species was recorded
from Ladakh (Kak & Javeid 1976). In the
present communication, besides a detailed
account of three species (C. stagnalis Scop,
C. palustris L. and C. obtnsangula Le Gall),
another species (C. truncata Guss.) is reported
for the first time and a new species (C. feh-
medianii sp. nov.) is added.

The species of Callitriche L. are biennial or
perennial aquatic plants. Certain polymorphic
species exhibit different phenotypes in water
and drier sandy soils. In the terrestrial forms
which are normally submerged, the modifica-
tions are primarily quantitative like shorten-

1 Accepted February 1980.

2 Department of Botany, Islamia Degree College
of Science and Commerce, Srinagar 190 002.

5 Director, Research Wing, Sericulture Depart-
ment, Mirgund, Kashmir, India.

ing of the internodes, a reduction in the size
of the leaves and a decrease in the frequency
of chloroplast in the epidermal cells. Fasset
(1951) described the bewildering polymor-
phism of many species with as many as few
distinct individuals in C. heterophylla and drew
attention to the occasionally very close mor-
phological similarities of ecological forms
which really belong to different species.

Extensive populations of Callitriche L. are
gradually spreading like a weed within the
Kashmir valley though they have not yet pre-
sented any serious problem. They block small
streams and irrigating channels, reducing the
flow of water, eventually causing flooding.
They also infest ponds and lakes thus reduc-
ing the recreational amenities. The rapid spread
of the species can be controlled by Sodium
arsenite in the dosage of 2.5 ppm, which is
not expensive and simple to apply (Hooker
and Cook 1957).

Callitriche L. Sp. PI. 969 (1753).

A group of highly polymorphic species
owing to the leaf shape, whether they are sub-
merged or floating and also dependant upon

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

the depth and the rate of movement of the
water, thus the key based on the leaf shape is
not dependable; a key based on the fruit
characters is more reliable which again can
not be used because of the sterility of those
species which particularly grow in deep water.

Key to species of Callitriche

1. Plants free floating, rarely submerged

2. Plants 12-45 cm long; leaves dimorphic, upper
ones spatulate, 1.2-1. 5 cmx4 mm, 3 nerved,
lower ones linear, 1.5-2 x 1-1.5 mm; style

erect. Fruits 1x1.2 mm C. palustris

2. Plants 6-10 cm long, all leaves of one kind,
linear or lanceolate, auricled, obtuse, slightly
notched; single veined; style divergent. Fruit

1-1.5 x 0.6 — 1 mm C. truncata

1. Plants totally submerged; sometimes slightly
touching the surface

3. Leaves homophyllous; flowers unisexual
separately borne in opposite axils on the
same node

4. Plants 10-20 cm long, leaves linear or

linear lanceolate C. fehmedicmii

4. Plants 40-49 cm high; leaves spatulate

C. stagnalis

3. Leaves heterophyllous. Flowers bisexual;
2 perfect flowers in opposite axils on the
same node C. obtusangula

Callitriche palustris L. Sp. PI. 969 (1753);

Stewart, FI. W. Pak. 459 (1972). C. verna
L. FI. Suec. ed. 2, 4. (1755); Clarke, FI.
Brit. Ind. 2.434 (1879). C. palustris var.
verna Fenley ex Jepson, FI. Calif. 2.435
(1936).

Free floating rarely submerged herbs grow-
ing in slow moving waters; roots arising from
the base or from lower few nodes, 6-8 cm
long; stems cylindrical, weak, 12-45 cm long,
green, translucent; nodes thick; internodes
1. 5-2.3 cm long, smooth; leaves opposite, ses-
sile, smooth; submerged ones linear 1. 5-2.5 cm
long, 1-1.5 mm broad; 3 veined. Flowers axil-
lary, sessile, unisexual, translucent, 1 mm long;

stamens 1-1.2 mm long; filaments cylindrical,
white; anthers bilobed, 0.5-0.7 mm broad, ex-
erted, brown; ovary sessile, 0.3 -0.5 mm long,
green, 4 angled, 4 lobed; style 2, persistent,
equal, 1.5-2 mm long, exerted, white; stigma
linear, brownish. Fruits globular, 1 mm long,
1.2 mm broad deeply grooved at base, mar-
gins white, transparent, notched at apex.
Flowers and fruits: June- July.

Gulmarg : AMK 3255; Nishat: AMK 2049;
Harwan : AMK 1138; Shalimar: AMK 3383;
Javeid, 783 (HUK). Gulmarg; Naqshi, 1025
(HUK).

Type locality: Europe.

Distribution : Eurasia; California: N. America.

Callitriche stagnalis Scop. FI. Carn. ed. 2, 2;

251 (1772); Clarke, FI. Brit. Ind. 2; 434

(1878); Subramanyam, Aq. Ang. 18 (1962);

Prain, Bengal PI. 2, 965 (1963); Gamble,

FI. Madras 1.322 (1967); Stewart, 1. c. 457.

Submerged herbs, 20-49 cm long with roots
arising at the base or along upper few nodes;
stems cylindrical, green; nodes thick; inter-
nodes 1-2 cm long, branched or unbranched;
submerged leaves opposite, sessile, spatulate,
greenish yellow, entire, 1 nerved from base;
upper leaves floating, spatulate, arranged in
rosettes 1 cm x 4 mm, entire, 1 nerved at base,
smooth, green. Flowers unisexual, axillary,
sessile, surrounded by 2 spongy navicular
bracts 1 mm long; stamen 0.7-5 mm long;
filaments cylindrical, 0.4 mm long, flat, yel-
lowish-green; anthers 0.5-0.7 mm broad; ovary
tetralocular, deeply furrowed, subglobose 1-
1 . 2 mm long, 1 mm broad, quadriangular;
style 2, erect, linear, persistent, 1-3 mm long;
stigma brown. Fruits 4, 2-4.4 mm long, coria-
ceous. Seeds 4, bean shaped, 1-1.2 mm long,
0.5-0.7 mm broad.

168

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Flowers and fruits: June- August.

Gulmarg: AMK 602, 603, 3254; Gurcharan
Singh 13 (HUK).

Distribution : Europe, N. Asia; Tropical Afri-
ca; Malaya; Australia, New Zealand.

Callitriche obtusangula Le Gall, FI. Morbihan.
202 (1852) & Hegelm. Bot. Ver Braden.
10:114 (1868); Clapham etal. FI. Brit. Isles,
488 (1862); Walters in Tutin et al FI.
Europe, 3:125 (1972).

Submerged aquatic herbs, 9-15 cm long;
roots 2-9 cm long, roots arising frm base and
upper nodes; stems cylindrical rarely com-
pressed, smooth, nodes thick; internodes 3-5
cm long, yellowish green; leaves 10-13x4-5
mm, spatulate or circular, narrowing down-
wards abruptly, entire, 3-7 nerved, green; up-
per ones arranged on well marked rosettes;
lower ones linear. Flowers small, axillary;
bracts 2, hyaline, navicular, 0.9-1. 1 x 1 mm,
persistent; stamen one, exerted, 3 mm long;
filament hyaline, slightly flat at base, tapering
upwards; anthers brown, reniform, basifixed,
0,7-0.8 mm broad; ovary 4 mm long, tetran-
gular deeply furrowed; styles 2, erect, hyaline,
persistent, 3 mm long; stigma linear, brownish.
Fruits sessile 1.2x1 mm, with 2 central fur-
rows, apically notched, dark green to dirty
brown, pitted, edges convex.

Flowers and fruits: July- August.

Menamarg (Zanskar), AMK 901, 337; Gul-
marg, AMK 819, 448a.

Distribution : France, Belgium, Germany, Italy,
N. Africa, Kashmir.

Callitriche trancata Guss. PI. Rar. 4, tab 3,
(1826); Boiss FI. Or. 2,756 (1852); Butcher
Illus. Brit. FI. 1:811 (1961).

Short herbaceous annuals, submerged or
floating; roots many arising from the basal

nodes ; stems cylindrical, glabrous, translucent
with longitudinal ridges 6-10 cm long; nodes
thick; internodes 5-8 mm long; leaves homo-
phyllous, linear or lanceolate, sessile, auricled
at base, obtuse or slightly notched, entire, 1
nerved, glabrous, 3-4 mm long, 1-1.3 mm
broad. Flowers axillary, minute; male and

A. Habit; B. Arrangement of flowers in the axil;
C. Staminate flower; D. Pistillate flower; E. Imma-
ture fruit; F-H. Variation in the leaves; I-J. Fruit.
Front and lateral views.

female flowers in opposite axils; bracts smooth,
translucent, navicular, 0.5-0.7x0.2 mm; male
flowers represented by a single stamen, 0.3-
0.5 mm long; filaments cylindrical; anthers
bilobed, globular, inserted, green or dark green;
female flowers enclosed by 2 transparent

169

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Fig. 2. Callitriche fehmedianii sp. nov.

A. Habit; B. Portion of stem and leaves; C. Pistillate flowers with spongy bracts;
D. Staminate flowers with a single stamen and bracts; E. Arrangement of flowers in
axial of leaf; F. Fruit, front view; G. Lateral view.

170

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

bracts, 0.7-0.9 mm long, spongy, navicular,
transparent with reticulate markings; ovary
tetragonal 1 x 0.7 mm, furrowed; styles 2,
divergent, caducous; stigma linear, brown.
Fruits 1. 5-1. 7 x 0.6-1 mm broad, apically not-
ched, broad at base, narrowing forward apex.
Flowers and fruits: June- July. New record
Tungboo (Zanskar) AMK 979.

Distribution : S. and W. Europe, Belgium,
Kashmir.

Callitriche fehmedianii sp. nov.

Herba annus, infirme submersus aquaticus.
Radices prostrata et numerosus radii secon-
darii e nodis. Caulis infirme. 10-20 cm longus,
cylindricus, translucidus; ramosi vel simplices.
Folia ominis similaris, rosulata linearis vel
linearlis-lanceolatus, oppositus-decusatus, 0.9-
1.5 mm longus, 2 mm latus, sessilis, basis auri-
culatus, margins integro, apices transcatus vel
retusus. Floris axillaris, sessilis; floris mascula
bracteae 1 mm longa; filamentae complanatus;
antherae biloba. Floris feminei bracteae alba
spongiosus translucidus 0.2-0.3 mm longa et

0. 5. mm lata reniformis brunneus.

Holotypus : Shalimar (Srinagarensis, Kash-

merienis), 1500 m super mare planus, in
stagnanus vel terdus motus rivula, June 15.
1976. AMK 3823.

Paratypus : Malgam Rakh 1490 m supra mare
planus, July 3.1796 AMK 3915. In herbario
Universtatus Kashmeriensis (Srinagariensis)
Conservatur.

Species haec affinis C. truncatus a qua im-
primis differet.

1 . Planta viridis vel flavidus, vix ultra 30 cm
longa.

2. Folia obtusa, auriculatus, apices truncata
vel retusa, nervus medius singularis.

3 . Floris mascula et feminie obtectus a trans-
lucidus albus spongiosus bractea.

Callitriche fehmedianii sp. nov.

Annual weak submerged herbs in stagnant
or slow running waters; roots prostrate,
brownish with a large number of secondary
roots at nodes; stems weak, 10-20 cm long,
cylindrical, translucent; nodes thick internodes
1-2 cm long, smooth, branched or unbranch-
ed. Leaves of one kind, all submerged; upper
ones reaching the surface, not floating neither
in rosettes, linear or linear lanceolate, decus-
sately opposite, 0.9- 1.5 cm long, 2 mm broad,
sessile; base auricled; single veined, margins
entire, thin, apex truncate or retuse. Flowers
axillary, sessile; in staminate flowers bracts
1 mm long; filaments flat; anthers bilobed,
brown; pistillate flowers covered by spongy,
translucent bracts, 0.2-0.3 mm long 1-1.4 mm
broad with deep apical notch, lobes easily
separable. Seed 0.1 x 0.5 mm broad, reniform,
brown.

Flowers and fruits: June- July.

Holotype : Shalimar (Srinagar, Kashmir) 1500
m in the marshes June 15, 1976. AMK 3823.
Paratype : AMK 3915, Malgam Rakh (Sri-
nagar, Kashmir) 1490 m above sea level
along the margins of marshy and paludal
area, July 3, 1976. The specimens have been
deposited in the Herbarium, University of
Kashmir.

The species is close to C. truncata but dif-
fers from it in the following characters:

1. Plants green or yellowish green, hardly
25-30 cm long.

2. Leaves obtuse, auricled, apex truncate or
retuse, single veined to start with divid-
ing in the centre of the blade giving rise
two conspicuous lateral veins.

3 . Both male and female flowers enclosed by
white spongy bracts.

Acknowledgements

Financial assistance from the UGC to the

171

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

senior author is gratefully acknowledged. We
are also thankful to the Director, Royal Bota-

Refe

Airy Shaw (1966): Willis — A Dictionary of

Flowering plants and Ferns. Cambridge.

Arber, A. (1919): Heterophylly in water plants.
Amer. Nat. Vol. 53.

(1920) : Water plants. Cambridge.

Correll, D. S. & Correll, H. B. (1972): Aqua-
tic and Wetland plants of S. W. United States
Washington.

nical Garden, Kew for critical examination of
the material.

EN CES

Kak, A. M. & Javeid, G. N. (1976): An addi-
tion to the Indian Callitrichaceae. Geobios 3 (6).

Stewart, R. R. (1972): An annotated Catalogue
of the Vascular plants 6f W. Pak. and Kashmir,
Karachi.

Subram an i am, K. (1962): Aquatic Angiosperms.
C.S.I.R. New Delhi.

TWO NEW AQUATIC PLANT SPECIES FROM
KASHMIR HIMALAYAS1

A. Majeed Kak2 and G. N. Javeid3
{With two text-figures)

During the study of the aquatic and wetland
plants of the north western Himalayas (Kash-
mir) for the last five years, we collected the
following two species, which are markedly
different from all other allied species so far
reported from India and the world.

Scirpus dialgamensis sp. nov.

The species is allied to Scirpus fluitans L.
but differs from it in having stems 3-5 cm
long, erect, ribbed, branched and leafy
at the base; bracts usually longer than the
spikelets; glumes longer than nuts; nut reti-
culation prominent.

Scirpus dialgamensis sp. nov.

Annum herba, erecta, 3-5 cm alta, inferio-
bus radicantes. Culmi paucus, costatus; ter-

1 Accepted September 1980.

2 Department of Botany, Islamia College of
Science and Commerce, Srinagar 190 002, Kashmir.

3 Director, Research Wing, Sericulture Depart-
ment, Mirgund, Kashmir, India.

minus inflorescentia acicularis, obtusa, 1-costa,
basis vaginans, 2-3 mm diam. Spiculae isolita-
rii, ovatus, ovoideus, 5-7 x 3-7 mm, rubro-
brunneus; bractea 1-2, acicularis, 10-15 mm
longa. Glumae distichus, inferiora sterilis, supe-
rus navicularis, 3x2 mm, acuminata, 1 -costa;
stamina 2, filamenta postea elongata; styli
aequans vel breviores quam ovaribus; stigmata
bifidus, exertus. Nux ovoideus, plano-convexus,
cum manifeste reticulum.

Holotypus: Dialgamensis (Anantnagensis),

1700 m super mare planus, 15.7.1976. In her-
bario Universtatus, Kashmirensis Conservatur,
AMK 3736.

Paratypus : Anantnagensis (Kashmirensis);

1700 m, AMK 4018.

Scirpus dialgamensis sp. nov.

Diffused, erect annual 3-5 cm long, rooting
at the base. Culms few, ribbed, terminating in
a spike. Leaves equal or slightly shorter than
spike, acicular, obtuse, 1 -nerved, base sheath-
ing, 2-3 mm dia., parallel veined. Spikelets

172

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

single, ovate, ovoid, 5-7 x 3-4 mm, reddish
brown; bracts 1-2, acicular, 10-15 mm long;
glumes distichous lower few sterile, upper na-
vicular, 3x2 mm, acuminate, 1 -nerved; sta-
mens 2, filaments elongate later; style equalling
or slightly shorter than ovary; stigma bifid.

exerted. Bristles and buttons totally lacking.
Nuts ovoid, plano-convex, 2x1 mm, reticu-
lations prominent.

Near wet and swampy areas on the margins
of slow moving streams.

Holotype ■ Dialgam, opposite to the Agricul-

Fig. 1. Scirpus dialgamensis sp. nov.

A. Habit; B. Spike; C. Leaf sheath with cilia; D. Glume; E. Carpel enclosed in the
glume; F. Pistil; G. Stamen; H. Mature Nut.

173

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Fig. 2. Bidens tetraspinosa sp. nov.

A. Habit; B-C. Leaves (variations); D-F. Outer and inner phylleries; G. Flower,
H. Corolla tube; I. Stamen; J, K. Young achene; L. Mature achene.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ture farm (Anantnag) 1700 m, AMK 3746.
Paratype : Anantnag (Kashmir), AMK 4018,

The holotype was collected wet and marshy
places under complete shade of Salix and Popu-
lus and has been deposited in the Herbarium
of the University of Kashmir, Srinagar.

Bidens tetraspinosa sp. nov.

The species is close to Bidens cernua L. but
differs from it in having linear leaves, more
than .10 cm long; ovary smooth, never hispi-
dulous. Achenes with 4 unequal spines, two
shorter ones smooth, 2 longer ones with or
without retrose barbs.

Bidens tetraspinosa sp. nov.

Annum paxe vel ascendene herba; radicellae
basis nodus. Caulis sulcata, glabra, ramosus;
folia cauline basilis integer vel ramoluis-
culus dentatus, basis cuneatus. Phyllaria
exterior 2-6, linearia lanceolata c. 0.6-2
cm x 0.5 -1.8 mm, lutens ad bruneus stria,
obtusus membraneus; bractea receptaculas ob-
longa similis bractea exterior. Receptaculus
planus vel tholus, foveatus, 4 mm diam. Florea
3-4 x 1.2- 1.5 mm, homogamous; exterior bre-
vior, pappi 4, in 4 angulo e quadriangule ova-
rium, leavis, sine serra, 2 brevis 0.5-1 mm,
2 longior, 1.5- 1.8 mm longa.

Holotypus : Nagin lake (Srinagariensis) 1600
m super mare planus, 15-8-1976: AMK 624,
in herbario Universtatus Kashmiriensis Con-
servatur.

Paratypus : Leper Hospital (Srinagariensis)

1600 m super mare planus AMK 625, 627.

Bidens tetraspinosa sp. nov.

Diffused or ascending annual herbs. Roots
also arising from the lower nodes. Stems sul-

cate, much branched; upper leaves linear, 7-10
cm long, acute, irregularly serrate; lower leaves
entire or remotely toothed, base cuneate or
subsessile; outer phylleries 2-6, linear lanceo-
late 6x3 mm, yellow with brown streaks, ob-
tuse, membraneous; receptacular bracts oblong,
receptacle flat or dome shaped, pitted, 4 mm
dia. Flowers homogamous, 3-4 x 1.5 mm, outer
ones slightly shorter; pappus 4, on the four
corners of of the quadriangular ovary, smooth
without serra, 2 shorter (0.5-1 mm) and 2
longer (1.5- 1.8 mm); corolla companulate, 5
fid; stamens with apical acute appendages; stig-
ma rays shorter, linear. Achenes cunate, 3-4.2 x
1.5-2 mm. 4 angled, striate flat top, with 4 un-
equal smooth spines; shorter ones 1-1.2 mm;
longer ones 2 mm long; margins retroserrate
(sometimes serrate, rarely absent in one or
two margins).

Mostly near swamps, lowland areas, and on
floating islands.

Holotype : was collected in a gregarious patch
on the margin of floating islands near Leper
Hospital (Nagin lake) 1600 m on 15-8-1976,
AMK 624; deposited in the Herbarium, Uni-
versity of Kashmir, Srinagar.

Paratype was also collected at various places;
Suderbal — Leper Hospital side (Srinagar)
1600 m, AMK 625, 627.

The same species was subsequently collect-
ed in two other localities in Srinagar District —
Shalimar 1700 m, in marshy places; and An-
char lake 1600 m on floating islands.

Acknowledgements

We are deeply grateful to the Director, Ro-
yal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and to Dr. Subra-
manyam, for valuable suggestions on the plants
and to the University Grants Commission for
providing financial aid to the senior author.

175

REVIEWS

1. SAVING THE TIGER. By Guy Mountfort. pp. 124 (27.5 x 23 cm),
with 124 Black-and-White and coloured photographs. London, 1981.
Michael Joseph. Price £ 7.95 net.

Guy Mountfort is one of the founders of
the World Wildlife Fund. His lifelong fascina-
tion for the tiger was given a practical outlet
when he became the prime mover in the cam-
paign to save the tiger. He enlisted the support
of the Prime Minister of India for this cam-
paign, and was largely instrumental in
initiating Project Tiger in India, with a gene-
rous allocation of funds by the Government
of India and very substantial assistance from
the world wide fund raising campaign mount-
ed by the World Wildlife Fund.

The book is a labour of love. Gay Mount-
fort traces the history, behaviour and habits
of the tiger, bringing together a great deal of
information which has been collected in recent
years. The territory marking, the mating and
breeding behaviour, the care of the young etc.
are all described in the light of the latest
scientific information. The conditions which
may lead a tiger to attack man, whom he
usually avoids, are also discussed, and it can
be seen that, in India particularly, man eating
by tigers is frequently a result of encroach-
ment on its habitat, and destruction of its
natural food sources, by man and his domestic
animals.

The advent of firearms, and the rapid de-
cimation of the tiger in India which followed
this development, together with the fascination

for shikar and collection of trophies, are briefly
outlined.

A survey is given in part three, of the ope-
rations to save the tiger, the setting up of
tiger sanctuaries, and the types of studies
which are being undertaken in some of these,
using the latest telemetry techniques.

The importance of the habitat, and the fact
that saving a tiger means we are saving 25
or more square miles of a natural environ-
ment with all its potential for resource regene-
ration, has been touched upon. This fact needs
more emphasis if the campaign is to carry
conviction to the layman.

Within a small compass the book packs a
great deal of information, fascinatingly written
and well presented. The book would be worth
the price for the photographs alone. Yet, at
the present price, the book is likely to appeal
only to the enthusiast, who is already ‘sold’
on wildlife, but is unlikely to attract the gene-
ral reader. For ultimate success of the project,
it is essential to involve the general reader,
and it is hoped that a cheaper edition, even
if it means cutting out a large number of the
excellent plates, will soon be made available
at a price which will make it attractive to the
non-enthusiast.

A. N. D. NANAVATI

176

REVIEWS

2. THE BIRDS OF OMAN. By Michael Gallagher and Martin W. Wood-
cock. Foreword by H. M. the Sultan, pp. 310, (21.5 x 30 cm). Plates
I-XII (photos) and 1-120 of paintings by Martin W. Woodcock. 4 end-
plate maps, 5 appendixes. Bibliography and Index. Quartet Books Ltd.,
London, 1980. Price £ 37.50.

The sultanate of Oman lies along the
eastern tip and seaboard of the Arabian
Peninsula at approximately the same latitude
as the tip of the Kathiawar peninsula c. 600
miles eastward across the northern Arabian
Sea. Though flanked by the great belt of arid
deserts which stretches from W. Africa to
China, the country itself is favourably situated :
it escapes the harshness of desert conditions
and, contrary to popular conception, it enjoys
a comparatively cool climate with a moderate
but unevenly distributed rainfall and mainly
two distinct seasons — a hot summer and a
cool winter, more or less as in the Indian sub-
continent.

The physiography of the country is well
described in an introductory chapter. Surpris-
ingly for the outside world it is land of un-
expectedly diverse ecology. In addition to roll-
ing sand dunes and oasis cultivation, it has
reed-lined creeks, grassy plains, wooded hills,
high mountains, deep gorges and perennial
streams. The varied physiography supports a
correspondingly diverse avifauna, thus this
comprehensive chapter is of great interest in
providing an adequate background for the
unexpecting reader. “Most of the 372 species
of birds known in Oman” says the author “are
of Palaearctic origin though there are no
relict species as in SW Arabia. There are also
endemic Arabian species and birds from India

and Africa ” In a useful historical account

of Oman ornithology one notes that some of
the pioneering work on Arabian birds in the
last century has been done by names inti-
mately connected with Indian ornithology such

as W. T. Blanford, A. O. Hume and Surgeon
Lieut. Col. A. S. G. Jayakar (discoverer of
the Arabian Tahr in the mountains of Yemen),
Col. R. Meinertzhagen, Sir Percy Cox and
Dr. S. Dillon Ripley. Short sections follow
on Habitats (in general). Habitats of breed-
ing birds with the species found in each of
the following: Mountains, Coastal plain. De-
sert, Semidesert, Wetlands. One chapter
“Observing Birds” is addressed primarily to
beginners which, in view of the awakening
awareness among local residents of the great
variety of bird life to be found in the sulta-
nate, and the wide range of available habi-
tats, should prove helpful to beginners and
prospective beginners in bird watching. It
gives useful practical tips on how and what
to observe and record, the binoculars to
choose, and so on; also on cameras and bird
photography.

The 120 full page colour plates depict seve-
ral species each, sometimes both sexes and
sometimes also seasonal dimorphism. The
paintings are beautifully executed and excel-
lently reproduced. The concise descriptive
captions on the facing pages aptly supplement
the illustrations. The families are arranged in
the modern taxonomical sequence which makes
for easy comparison of related species. In
addition to distinguishing characters the text
gives the distribution and status of the birds
within and outside the sultanate whether
migrant or resident, the habitat in which it
may be found, and such other relevant details.
All this in fact makes the book an ideal pic-
torial guide to the birds of Oman. But while

177

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

the large format makes for aesthetic attrac-
tiveness on the “coffee table” and allows better
justice being done to the colour plates it also
cripples the usefulness of the book as a field
guide for the beginner and the bird watching
tourist who would appreciate a handier
volume that can easily be carried in the field.
For the benefit of budding birdwatchers in
Oman and neighbouring Arab countries it is

to be hoped that the publication of a standard
fieldguide-sized version of the book will be
considered by the authors and publisher. The
text is clear and concise and refreshingly free
from obvious typographical errors except that
on p. 82 Marmoretta should of course read
Mannar onettal

SALIM All

3. PERMA-CULTURE ONE: a perennial agriculture for human
settlements. By Bill Mollison & David Holmgren, pp. vii + 128 (27.5 x
21 cm) with many illustrations. Australia, 1978. Corgi Books. Price $4.95
(Australia), $5.50 (New Zealand).

PERMA-CULTURE TWO: practical design for town and country
in permanent agriculture. By Bill Mollison. pp. ix + 150 (27.5 x 21 cm)
with many illustrations. Australia, 1979. Tagari Books. Price $8.00
(Australia), $ 8.50 (New Zealand).

Several decades ago Karl Gayer and Franz
Heske, two eminent German foresters, advo-
cated the ‘Back to Nature’ movement empha-
sising the importance of biological laws to
sustain the productivity of soil. Today Masa-
nobu Fukuoka of Japan (The One-Straw
Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farm-
ing; Rodale Press 1978) and Bill Mollison of
Australia are among the foremost gurus who
successfully demonstrate through their prac-
tice the perennial philosophy of Permaculture
— a system of conservation, the wise use of
natural plant and animal resources, capable of
optimum, sustainable production.

Bill Mollison’s Permaculture One and Per-
maculture Two are of fundamental importance
to agriculture and forestry. They explain how
permacultural systems can confer benefits to
urban areas as well. After a single twenty-
minute radio talk from Melbourne on Perma-
culture on May 24, 1977 Bill Mollison receiv-
ed 3500 letters from council engineers, horti-

culturists, doctors, churchmen and house-
wives. Postmen volunteered to carry seed and
some people announced that they were com-
mencing a permaculture from that date. Ex-
tracts from the two books are reproduced
below to convey the gist of Mollison’s ideas.

Yields

The productivity of agriculture is usually
assessed by the yield per unit area. Yields/
unit area from any particular species are likely
to be lower in a permaculture ecosystem than
in monoculture. However, the sum of yields
from a permaculture will be greater, simply
because a single-species system can never use
all available energy and nutrients. For exam-
ple, a multistorey plant system uses all
available light for photosynthesis. Species of
trees, as Kern points out, have different-
shaped root systems tapping different water
and nutrient sources. Therefore, in mixed
forest stands there is more complete use

Si'-*1

178

REVIEWS

of resources than in single-species stands.
A plankton-eating fish in no way competes
directly with an algal browser in a pond, since
it cannot use the algal food. Poultry and
guinea fowl can range on the same area since
the former are primarily seed-eaters and the
latter grazers. Thus a complex permaculture
can maximise use of all available resources and
so increase total yield.

The Edge Effect

The “edge effect” is an important factor in
permaculture. It is recognised by ecologists
that the interface between two ecosystems re-
presents a third, more complex system which
combines both. At interfaces, species from
both systems can exist and the edge also sup-
ports its own species in many cases. Gross
photosynthetic production is higher at inter-
faces. For example, the complex systems of
land /ocean interfaces — such as estuaries and
coral reefs — show the highest production per
unit area of any of the major systems. Forest/
pasture interfaces show greater complexity
than either system in both “producers” (plants)
and “consumers” (animals). It seems that the
Tasmanian aborigines burnt forest to main-
tain a large interface of forest/plain, since
these transitional areas provided a great
variety and amount of food. Animals are
found in greater number on edges, for exam-
ple.

Pest Control in Permaculture

Prevention can play a major role in pest
control. Complex ecosystems tend to be more
stable than simple ones and less prone to un-
checked rises in particular populations. It is
generally accepted that monoculture leads to
dramatic increases in pest populations, these
benefiting from the presence of the crop while
the new environment may be unfavourable to

their predators — plague is the result. If we
have a system with diverse plant and animal
species, habitats and micro-climate, the chance
of a bad pest situation arising is reduced. This
is especially true of arthropod pests.

Ducks, hens and other domestic birds are
generalised feeders, keeping the areas in which
they range fairly free of many pests, particu-
larly slugs and snails.

Permaculture in Cities and Towns

All cities have unused open land; roadsides,
corners, lawns, areas front and back of houses,
tubs, verandahs, concrete roofs, balconies,
north-facing glass walls and windows. Many
suburbs are well planted but if one deliberately
selected a group of plants useless for man, these
are what we see in the city. It is as though a
useful tree, shrub, vine or herb is shameful; as
though it is a sign of status to grow only
unusable plants; a form of conspicuous wealth.
The city could, at little expense, provide a
great deal of its food and in so doing, use
much of its own wastes as mulch and com-
post. But perhaps the most valuable product
of a city devoted to permaculture would be
peace of mind; a paranoia pervades cities and
it is a product of helplessness in the face of
approaching energy shortages and uncertain
futures.

By developing private and public permacul-
tures, people could see a food resource allied
to the shelter the city over-provides and in-
volve themselves in meaningful tasks, aiding
their own (and others) survival.

The sane ethic is to use all land close to
settlement as permaculture; any botanic garden
demonstrates the possible rich variety availa-
ble to city agriculture and could also provide
seed, advice and expertise. Similarly, councils
and public authorities have small armies of
men tending non-productive systems. It is only

179

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

a matter of public persuasion and responsible
decision to direct these activities to useful
species, in a multi-dimensional and many
faceted permaculture. Nothing of beauty or
variety need be sacrificed and a year or two
of such effort would ensure a long-term re-
source within the city and at its boundaries,
where transport and processing costs are least.

On Permaculture and Community

Permaculture both conserves and generates
the fuel energies of transport systems, and
would enable any community to exist com-
fortably on very restricted land areas. Supple-
mented with the appropriate and available
technologies of methane and alcohol fuels, dry
distillation processes, and wind, wave, water
or solar energies, it would provide the basis
of a sustainable and regionalised society.
Combined with community cooperation, per-

maculture promises freedom from many of
the ills that plague us, and accepts all the
organic wastes of the community it serves.

Permaculture must be practised widely in
India. It is labour-intensive and will create
employment for many to increase production
of essential materials both in rural and urban
areas. Every discipline, trade and skill would
be used in the planning, control and produc-
tion of the system. Involvement in perma-
culture will provoke a philosophical and natural
approach to the environment and its products,
demonstrate the intrinsic values of complex
systems and generate the basis of a fully in-
tegrated environmental science. It is a philo-
sophy which would create not merely material
wealth but spiritual wellbeing as well.

SHANKAR RANGANATHAN

180

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GENUS CROCIDURA (MAMMALIA :
INSECTIVORA) IN PENINSULAR INDIA

I read with interest a note by Dr. Rao and
Aswathanarayana (/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
75(2): 473, 1978) in which they have record-
ed the occurrence of the genus Crocidura in
peninsular India (Mysore). I would like to
point out that this is not the first record of
the genus from the area as it has already been

Natural History Research Centre,
Baghdad University,

Baghdad, Iraq,

May 14, 1981.

recorded by me on the basis of a skull found
in the pellets of an owl in Jabalpur District
of Madhya Pradesh ( Cheetal , 51(1): 46-47,
1972). I appreciate authentic identification of
the species and further distributional informa-
tion.

H. KHAJURIA

2. NOTES ON THE INDIAN PIGMY PIPISTRELLE ( PIPISTRELLUS
MIMUS WROUGHTON) IN THE THAR DESERT

The Indian Pigmy Pipistrelle ( Pipistrellus
mimus) is the most common and widely distri-
buted bat in the Indian desert, in wilderness
areas as well as villages and towns. It lives
singly or in a small group in buildings, cre-
vices of rocks and hollows of trees. The pipi-
strelle lives in crevices of walls and is common
in the Rajasthan desert (Prakash 1960) it
may also live under the bark of Banyan tree.
The breeding season is March to May (Bros-
set 1962). I observed this bat from April
1977 to September 1979.

It roosted in hollows of Prosopis cineraria,
Salvadora spp. and Tecomeila undulata trees
as well as fissures and crevices of rocks. In
villages and towns it roosts in crevices and
in walls, holes around windows, or similar
cracks in constructions were found to be the
most favoured roost sites for this bat in urban

areas. Single to groups upto five bats were
observed roosting in suitable roost spaces.
They left the roost site very early at dusk,
about 10 minutes after sunset where as other
bats leave after about 30 minutes. Flies in the
vicinity of the roost for a few minutes before
proceeding to the usual hunting ground which
may be 750 metres or even 5 kms away from
the roost site.

The returning timing was found to be 25 to
15 minutes before sunrise and it makes several
rounds for a few minutes near its roost
crevice before entering it for the day.

The bat is widely distributed in the Indian
desert except in treeless areas. It is common
in villages and towns because food (insects)
availability and roosting facilities. Similarly
populations were higher in Salvadora, Prosopis
juli flora, P. cineraria dominant jungles.

181

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

By the analysis of its droppings (wings and
cuticles of eaten insects) it appears that it
largely takes Diptera, Lepidoptera, termites,
Hymnoptera and small Coleoptera insects. It
hunts insects over Prosopis juliflora and Salva-
dor a spp., over water surfaces (tanks and rain
pools), grasslands (lawns in towns) and agri-
cultural fields etc. In towns, lamp posts of
streets are its most favourite hunting grounds,
it was noted that as bright lamps (mercury
vapour lamps) attracts more insects, so these
indirectly attract the bat more for food.

The bat flies between 4 to 10 metres above
the ground for hunting insects but may dive
low upto 25 cms above the ground while
chasing a prey.

Hibernation: From December to February
when temperature at nights is below 15° it was
not observed coming out of its roost for hunt-

Bhagwati Bhavan,

Ratanada Road,

Jodhpur-342 020,

October 27, 1979.

ing and moved deeply in to crevices to have
less effect of cold, yet it was observed
to be active therein, moving and scratching etc.
The bat flights in light drizzles but in heavy
rains ceases to fly.

Breeding : The young were observed from
March to April, litter size largely, one young.
A young measured head =' 1.2 cms, ear = 0.6
cm, wing (patagium) = 3.0 cms, whole length
3,5 cms. The mother licks, suckles her young
and occasionally wraps it with her patagium.
Young wean in three months.

A very useful bat which consumes harmful
insects and has finely adapted itself to be a
commensal of man in urban areas enjoying
roosting and feeding facilities there. As its
droppings dirty house people often plug its
roost crevices in houses.

INDRA KUMAR SHARMA

References

Brosset, A. (1962): Survey of bats in Western Mus. 59: 149-170.

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 17-19. Walker, E. (1975): Mammals of the World.

Prakash, I. (1960): Taxonomical and biological John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,
observations on bats of Rajasthan Desert. Rec. Ind.

3 . OBSERVATIONS ON A ROOST OF FREE-TAILED BAT
TAD ARID A PLICATA PLICATA (BUCHANAN) IN EAST-NIMAR

During the study of bats of East Nimar in
1976 and 1977 some data were gathered on a
migratory colony of Tadarida plicata plicata
(Buchanan). These bats which constitute a
major population of molossid fauna in East
Nimar from 26th May to September 16, were
absent from their roosts during the rest of the
year. During May to September the number

of individuals in the colony varied at different
times: 300, on 28th May 1976; 200, on 26th
May 1977; 500, on 20th July 1977; 500, on
18th August; 200, on 1st September; Empty
10th September. The population of these bats
decreased substantially daily from September,
1; and the habitat was left vacant by Septem-
ber 10. Although there is no migratory record

182

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

nor any evidence of shift in their population
in East Nimar during Autumn to the follow-
ing summer, it is very likely that they migrate
to other roosts during this period.

Collection localities :

Only one colony was observed in this survey.
These bats have been found roosting a big
room in Anand Talkies at Khandwa. The
room is 40x20x35 feet in size is dimly lighted
and frequently disturbed and waste materials
are dumped in this room.

Tadarida plicata plicata has well defined
field characters by which it can be distinguish-
ed from Tadarida aegyptiaca. The former has
broad head, and the snout tip to tragus length
is always greater than that of Tadarida aegyp-
tiaca. Tadarida plicata plicata has six incisors
in lower jaw. The patterns of fur, covering
neck regions, appears to be forming a collar-
like shape which gets separated from the rest
of body when the head moves down-wards.
There is a marked variation in the colour of
its fur. This has been noticed in the two indi-
viduals of this colony. Two main types given
below were mainly observed:

(1) Buff brown above and grey below.

(2) Blackish grey above and grey below.

It was noticed that this bat selects the

warmer parts of the room whether on the ceil-
ing or in a crack. The highest temperature of
this room was about 40°C. The daily fluctua-
tions may be 10°C in a day.

In the rainy season these bats were found

Department of Zoology,

University of Saugar,

Sagar (m.p.).

May 23, 1981.

to be present in clusters on rough surface
of the walls in the highest parts of the room.
The clustering and colony composition it was
observed, showed no definite sequence. A
pungent, musky, odour was noticed in this
room on June 15th 1977, when a large number
of bats arrived and both horizontal and verti-
cal cracks of the room v/ere packed with
these bats.

The testes (7.5 x 5 mm) of males were
exabdominal and scrotum was present. The
average body weight of male was 17 to 19 gm,
and of the female was 17 to 20 gm. The
weight of testis was 100 mg.

A large number of females had a single
embryo, of 7 to 10 mm length, in the right
horn of uterus. This was noticed in the majo-
rity in July 1977, and were so developed that
the delivery was expected in October, 1977.

In this roost bats emerged for foraging soon
after sun-set and within half an hour the room
becomes completely empty. They returned
after one hour.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

I express my indebtedness to Prof. D. R.
Sharma for valuable suggestions. Thanks are
also due to Department of Zoology, S. N.
College, Khandwa for providing the necessary
facilities, during this investigation. The finan-
cial assistance offered by the University Grants
Commission, New Delhi for this research work
is gratefully acknowledged.

S. K. KASHYAP

183

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

4 . NOTES ON BARBE’S LEAF MONKEY PRESBYTIS BARBl BLYTH

Barbe’s Leaf Monkey locally known as
Dudhi Mukho Bandor or Chasma Chok, is
found in all three districts of Tripura, but
the species has not been included among the
18 non-human primate species recorded in diffe-
rent parts of the country (Mohnot 1980).
Other primate species besides Barbe’s leaf
monkey occurring in Tripura are common tree
shrew ( Tupaia glis). Slow loris ( Nycticebus
coucang), Assamese Macaque ( Macaca assa-
mensis). Rhesus Macaque ( Macaca mulatto).
Pigtailed macaque ( Macaca nemestrina).
Capped langur ( Presbytis pileatus ) and Hoo-
lock Gibbon ( Hylobates hoolock). Practically
no work has been done on the ecology of any
of the species known from Tripura. Barbe’s
leaf monkey is probably found only in Tripura
in India.

The head and body are dusky grey with pale
buff sheen on the back and black erect brow.
A well defined crest present. The whiskers are
fairly long and partially cover the ears. The
area around eyes and upper and lower lips,
chalk white. Ventral fur silvery white. Fore
and hind limbs are of the same colour as the
body except the black hand and feet. The
tail slightly paler than the body with a tuft
of black-brown hairs at the tip. The area below
pubic callosities light grey in male but yello-
wish in female. The young ones are pale in
colour.

Barbe’s Leaf Monkey is found in Tripura
where rainfall is high and forests are tropical
evergreen /tropical semi-evergreen and moist
deciduous forests with Bamboo brakes. They

are completely arboreal and seldom found
near human habitations.

The troops consists of a dominent male
with 5/6 females, subadults and young ones,
which are usually born during September-
October. The average troop size is 10-12, and
the largest troop seen was of 22, at Paratia
under Udaipur Division.

They feed mostly on leaves, flowers and
fruits and were never seen on the ground.
The leaf monkey was seen feeding on the
following trees. Young shoots being favoured.

Mangifera sylvatica, Phyllanthus emblica,
Terminalia bellerica, Hymenodictyon excelsum,
Artocarpus chaplasha, Alstonia scholaris,
Gmelina arborea, Dipterocarpus turbinatus,
Dillenia pentagyna, Albizzia stipulata, Termi-
nalia chebula, Bur sera serrata, Amoora rohi-
tuka, Cedrela toona, Schleicher a trijuga,
Amoora wallichii, Bombax ceiba, Legerstroe-
mia flos-reginea, Anthocephalus cadamba,
Bauhinia spp., Schima wallichii, Swietenia
mahagoni, Erythrina suberosa.

Though an exact census has not been con-
ducted, it is estimated that the total popula-
tion in Tripura will be around 400 and 60%
of these are found in the south and west
districts of Tripura.

ACK NOWLEDGEM EN TS

I am thankful to Dr. V. C. Agarwal and
Dr. R. P. Mukherjee of Zoological Survey of

184

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

India, Calcutta for their valued information I am also thankful to my friend Shri Suradas
based on which this article has been written. Ghosh who helped me in many respects.

Deputy Conservator of Forests S. K. MUKHERJEE

(Wild Life),

Office of The C. C. Forests,

P. O. Kunjaban,

Agartala, Tripura (West),

May 30, 1981.

Reference

Mohnot, S. M. (1980): On the Primate resources
of India. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (Supplement) :

961-970.

5. INCIDENTAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE SPOTTED LINSANG
(PRIONODON PARD1COLOR)

The spotted linsang is recorded from pri-
mary and secondary forests in Nepal, Assam,
northern Burma, and Indo-China at elevations
of 150 m (above sea level) to 1850 m (Prater
1971). Little is known of the ecology or
natural history of the linsang. Breeding is
thought to occur in February and possibly
again in August. An individual kept in capti-
vity in Darjeeling refused to eat fish, eggs and
fruit but lived on raw meat (Prater 1971).
However, two banded linsang (P. linsang ) in
captivity in Malaysia readily ate white mice,
birds, fresh fish and fresh eggs but rejected
fruits such as banana and papaya (Liat 1973).
Stomach contents of three wild-caught banded
linsang included remains of spiny-furred rats,
birds and a tree lizard, indicating that the lin-
sang hunts on and above the forest floor (Liat
1973). Indeed, of 12 banded linsang collected
in Malaysia, eight were shot while moving
between three and eight metres above the forest
floor; the remainder were trapped on the
ground (Liat 1973).

Four observations of spotted linsang in the
lowland forests and grasslands (150 m a.s.l.)

of Royal Chitawan National Park in southern
Nepal (latitude 27°30'N; longitude 84°20'E)
support this information. In one instance in
late February (1975) an adult male and an
adult female fell into a well and drowned.
Such a close association suggests that mating
activity was involved. The remaining observa-
tions indicate the animal is an opportunistic
carnivore. On 17 January 1975 a linsang was
driven out of dense vegetation surrounding a
tiger ( Panthera tigris ) kill when domestic ele-
phants moved through the area. The habitat
was a mosaic of riverine forest and tall, dense
grasses. This individual was probably an adult
based on measurements given in Walker (1975:
1231). Another linsang, also judged to be an
adult, was seen feeding on the carcass of a
tiger kill at 1830 hr on 4 February 1975. The
kill was located in an area of dense riverine
forest. While the observation of 4 February
was only 2 km east of that for 17 January
it was unlikely that the same animal was in-
volved because it would have had to cross a
river about 150-200 m wide. The third obser-
vation occurred in mid-March (1979) in an

185

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

area of sal (Shorea robust a) forest interspersed
with dense grasses. A linsang, presumably an
adult, came to the remains of a tiger kill at
about 1700 hr and began feeding. This loca-

CONSERVATION AND RESEARCH CENTER, NZP,
Front Royal, Virginia 22630,

USA,

August 10, 1981.

Refer

Liat, L. B. (1973): The banded linsang and the
banded musang of West Malaysia. Malay. Nat. J.
26: 105-111.

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

tion was 2.8 km west of the 17 January obser-
vation. No other linsangs were observed at the
three tiger kills, suggesting that these indivi-
duals were traveling alone.

M. E. SUNQUIST

E N CE S

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,
India.

Walker, E. P. (1975): Mammals of the World
(Third Edition). Johns Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore.

6. BLACKBUCK CENSUS IN POINT CALIMERE : A REJOINDER

Dr. S. S. Nair ( JBNHS 73: 304-310, 1978),
after doing a one man survey of Black-buck
in the Point Calimere sanctuary in October
1974, concluded that a) only 340 animals
exist in the Sanctuary in opposition to the
Forest Department estimate of 1000+; b) this
indicates a steep population decline, or in-
correct censussing. This is used to argue that
there is both a lack of proper conservation
measures and that Forest Department estimates
anywhere in India cannot be trusted (He
appears to miss the contradiction between these
two statements). He further warns that unless
corrective measures are taken soon, black-
buck will become a memory of the past, with-
out unfortunately spelling out what these cor-
rective measures should be.

I will not stress here the obvious point that
more animals need not necessarily mean better
management, as the carrying capacity of the
habitat could easily be exceeded. I would like,
however, to point out some of the methodo-
logical flaws in Dr. Nair’s census.

The technique used by the Forest Depart-
ment is that of a total visual count, a tested

and simple method recognised and used as a
standard technique today and is known as
Spatial census 2 in which a count is made of
all the animals in a specified area at a specified
point in time. The count is instantaneous in
its properties. This technique, which is ideally
suited for open habitat animals, like the black-
buck at Point Calimere calls for no special
qualification, training, skill or scientific know-
ledge except that the enumerators should be
able to age and sex the animals they see. As
we are not omniscient and omnipresent, we
usually employ sufficient numbers of census
parties and more than one individual in each
census party.

On the other hand, some of the disadvan-
tages of the one man survey may be consi-
dered. The black-buck is not a static animal,
and duplications are likely, especially since
individual recognition is extremely difficult.
Visibility is reduced due to the undulating
terrain at Point Calimere and the evergreen
thickets. Waterlogged conditions in October
would also prevent any observer from moving
in a straight line. At one time normally, any

186

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

observer cannot command a view greater than
140° and an area of 44 Ha. is very flat coun-
try if the view is not obstructed upto 600M.
In such situations any count arrived at can-
not be called “Total” but in effect is a rather
inefficient sampling method.

To illustrate my point Dr. Nair states that
there were “no animals in plots 9, 11, 13 and
14” (his table 1). The only valid inference
however is that no animals were sighted by
him at the time of the survey! The counting
in each plot may have taken, say, one hour
projecting randomly selected one hour results
to 24 hours is hardly likely to lead to accu-
racy in this case.

Again the total length of the census lines
works out to be approximately 18 Km. where
compared with from Survey of India maps
(unfortunately, Nair has not indicated the
scale of the map). These census lines and
triangles appear efficient on paper. They are
useless for census work since they are not
marked on the ground. Also, because of pos-
sible duplicates in counting due to the animals
moving, caution should be exercised in inter-
preting density, herd composition and age
structure. Using Dr. Nair’s own data, if the
minimum herd size is multiplied by the num-
ber of herds, the total number of animals
arrived at is 722+ Minimum 722 Maximum

Wildlife Warden,

Kalakad Sanctuary,

Tirunelveli- 627011,

Tamil Nadu,

April 1, 1981.

Refei

Johnson, J. Mangalaraj (1974): The Black-buck
in Point Calimere Sanctuary, Tamilnadu Population
Dynamics and observation on behaviour. Indian
Forester 101 (8).

Nair, S. S. (1978): A population survey and ob-

1140 and mean 931. It is a pity that the enu-
merator did not take along local staff to assist
him, as was done in Mr. J. C. Daniel’s census
in 1967. It is obvious that even a total census
will result in some errors. However, Nair’s
sampling is vitiated by the fact that he does
not give estimates of variance, or the confi-
dence limits to be placed on his observations.
In view of this, one would fail to understand
why Forest Department census estimates in
India as a whole should be condemned. I
would like to state that a number of non-
Forest Department, non-official people have
always been involved with our censussing and
this data is not “Cooked up” as the implica-
tion seems to be. We would happy to correct
our techniques if some specific fault was point-
ed out. We would be happy to have Dr. Nair
as an observer on our next census.

I would like to make a final point. Absolute
numbers of an animal species are less impor-
tant than the population structure, age class
distributions. And the trends over time that
matter. Judgements should therefore not be
made on “absolute numbers” alone, but the
other factors, which are more relevant in con-
serving and managing a particular eco-system.

To quote Aldo Leopold, “When people run
out of ideas, they start counting in the hope
that somehow it will give them some ”

J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON

E N CE S

servations on the behaviour of the black-buck in
the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 (2) : 304-310.

Overton, W. Scott (1971): Wildlife Manage-
ment Techniques.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

7. SOME OBSERVATION ON WILD BUFFALO, BUB ALUS
BUBALIS LINN., IN KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK, ASSAM

Introduction

There is now a need to determine how far
the pure wild strain of the Buffalo in the
Kaziranga Sanctuary has been affected by
domestic strains. The confusion that has pre-
vailed is evident from the fact that several
forms were recognised in earlier literature,
such as Blanford (1891) who listed four vari-
eties on the basis of horn shape, colour and
size, namely:

A. Colour Blackish :

(a) Horns sub-circular B. b. bubalis

(b) Horns directed mainly outward

B. b. macroceros

B. Colour brown dun :

B. b. julvus

C. Size medium : B . b. hosei

In March 1980, we made an attempt to
find answers for the queries that have been
often raised in the context of the wild buffalo
population at Kaziranga National Park, such
as:

(a) How many forms of wild buffalo occur
in Kaziranga National Park?

(b) Do feral buffaloes occur in Kaziranga and
if so, their identity from the wild stock?

(c) How many of the estimated population of
six hundred + wild buffaloes in Kaziranga
are really wild?

(d) Do wild buffalo stock mix freely with the
feral ones?

We concentrated our efforts in the Baguri
Block of the Sanctuary which is a favoured
habitat of the buffalo. Of the estimated 660
buffaloes in Kaziranga in 1978 (census by
forest department) about 50% was accounted
for from Baguri Block. This situation is pro-
bably of the extensive grasslands.

We were in Kaziranga National Park from
19 to 24th March, 1980. During this period,
we followed buffalo herds on elephant back
from dawn to dusk. The observation period
was from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. with afternoon
break of 3 hours. Two trained elephants, a
male, and a female were hired by us from the
Forest Department for six days, and we had a
total of 56 hours of observation.

We transected the forest on elephant back
in single file. The buffalo herds when sighted
were approached carefully. The herd on see-
ing us would turn towards us stand in alert
attentive posture, staring with raised head often
for an hour or more. During our observation
when we approached certain buffalo herds to
within about 500 metres, the whole herd would
bold to cover in tall reeds. With other herds
we could steadily approach them and station
our two elephants right in the midst of the
herd. In the remote northern end of the Park,
we followed a large herd of 50 buffalo as close
as 10 metres.

The herd strength, composition, build, colour
and behaviour were noted. We observed seve-
ral such herds and noted the behaviour when
the herd had not located us, when the herd
located our position, reaction to our approach-
ed, behaviour when we stationed our elephants
right in their midst. Behaviour when the herd
was moving from one bheel towards another,
resting behaviour reaction to disturbance, cow
and calf relation, and the behaviour of solitary
bulls.

Spots where a particular herd was sighted
earlier was revisited to note if that herd kept
to the same territory. Villages surrounding the
Kaziranga Park were visited to collect infor-

188

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

mation on possible occurrence of feral
buffaloes.

Results

In the 6 days of actual field work we spot-
ted 300 + wild buffaloes in the study area.

The herd ranged from 8 to 20 individuals.
However, at Borbeel a larger herd of over 40
individuals were sighted. The herd composi-
tion was adult females, sub-adult males and
females and in two instances adult bulls.

At Baithamari bheel a herd of 19 individuals
were sighted (9 females + 6 sub-adults + 4 cows).
The animals were blackish grey with sub-
circular horns and were of large size. In fore-
noon, when we were one kilometre away from
the herd located our position.

On sighting us the herd turned towards us,
with head raised, and alertly stared at us.
Twenty minutes later we moved towards the
herd and reached the edge of the Baithamari
Bheel, the buffaloes which were at this stage
300 metres away across the bheel bolted and
took cover in the tall reeds growing at the
edge of the grass patch.

After a lapse of 20 minutes the herd return-
ed to the bheel and continued to be there
when we left the site an hour later. In the
afternoon we observed the herd still at the
same bheel when we watched them from a
concealed observation site. The entire herd
was resting excepting two sub-adults and 2
calves which were grazing leisurely. Our obser-
vations showed that some buffalo herds like
the above one at Baithamari Bheel stare at
an intruder for a long time and on closer
approach flee to the cover of tall reeds. Smaller
buffalo groups, in twos and threes (cows and
calves), were inclined to panic and not permit
close approach. Solitary bulls invariably fled
to cover on sighting us even from a distance
of our 800-1000 metres.

At Danga bheel a herd of 17 individuals
were sighted (9 adult females, 6 sub -adults and
2 calves). The animals were medium sized,
dun coloured and had horns mainly directed
outwards but a few had sub-circular horns.
The herd sighted us when we were 200 metres
from them and on the same side of Danga
bheel. On sighting us all the individuals ex-
cepting a few cows turned towards us, with
their head raised and stood staring at us. The
cows continued grazing. After 15 minutes we
approached the herds steadily and our two
elephants were soon stationed in the midst of
the herd. Excepting sub-adult females all indi-
viduals resumed grazing. One male sub-adult
(horn c. 30 cm) suckled from an adult cow
for over an hour hardly a few metres away
from us. We had similar experience with a
large herd of 50 + animals at Borbheel.

Our observations on some buffalo herds
like the one sighted at Danga bheel indicated
that the individuals were less shy and less in-
clined to panic, so much so that we could
steadily move amidst a herd of over 20 animals.
After sometime the older cows and some juve-
niles, continued their grazing and lost all in-
terest in us. The herds mentioned above in-
variably were of dun colour.

Our enquiries with villagers in villages on
the margins of the Kaziranga Park revealed
that there are over 200 animals in the park
which have come from Shivsagar area on the
northern periphery of the park. These animals
identified as “Nepals” by locals, had taken
shelter in the Park during high floods in
1976 (?) and since then, had run wild. These
feral herds are known to mix with domestic
ones and often follow them into the villages.
Four such feral ones captured and tamed in
1979 were seen by us.

Some of these dun coloured animals have
settled along the southern margin of the park

189

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

near Baguri Rest House. Similar herds were
encountered by us in the western part of the
National Park near Kanchanjuri area. We
noted two conspicuous whitish hair band one
inch wide and 4 inch apart, on throat of all the
individuals in the herd sighted by us at Danga
Bheel. Similar whitish throat bands were noted
on all four individuals, caught and tamed by
the villagers.

Summary of Findings

Buffalo herds with blackish colour and also
herds with dun colour were seen in Kaziranga.
They also showed different behaviour, that is,
buffaloes with blackish colour fled on approach
whereas the dun coloured ones were not in-
clined to panic. The dun coloured buffaloes
were encountered within the entire study area.

Two whitish, one inch wide, four inch apart
throat bands were seen on the dun colour

buffalo herds. These bands are not recorded
by earlier observers.

The situation in Kaziranga National Park
warrants a systematic study of wild buffalo,
particularly their genetic status. We opine that
large number of domestic buffaloes have been
let loose in the park area. Many may be now
feral and this is not a desirable state as ulti-
mately their presence will lead to deterioration
of the wild stock.

ACK NOWLEDGE M E NTS

Our thanks are due to the Chief Conservator
of Forest, Assam, the D.F.O. and the forest
Range Officer incharge of the Kaziranga
National Park who helped us in conducting the
survey. We are grateful to Dr. Behura of
Utkal University for his co-operation in plan-
ning the trip and to the Bombay Natural
History Society for deputing one of us (Mr.
P. B. Shekar) to undertake the study.

B/22, Balsunder Society,
M. G. Road, Naupada,
Thane-400 602,

March 27, 1981.

H. K. DIVEICAR
K. K. MOHAPATRA
P. B. SHEKAR

8. CAUSES OF MORTALITY IN MAMMALS OF BOV1DAE FAMILY
IN CAPTIVITY AND FREE LIVING STATE IN INDIA

Diseases of wild ungulates have considerable
epidemiological and ecological significance.
Apart from having a direct impact on the
wildlife populations themselves, the occurrence
of communicable diseases in some of the
species, constitute a great hazard to domestic
livestock populations, particularly in areas
where such diseases have been controlled or
eradicated. In order to have effective disease
control programmes, both in wild and domes-
tic stock, it is essential to know the natural
nidi and host range of various infectious
agents.

The infectious diseases of Bovidae report-
ed in India are Rinderpest in gaur, wild
buffalo, nilgai, chousingha. Black buck (Hallen
et al 1871, Burton 1953, Schaller 1967, Gupta
and Verma 1949), Anthrax (Peacock 1933),
Foot and Mouth Disease (Ali 1935), tuber-
culosis in captive antelopes and sheep (Liston
and Soparkar 1924) etc. Reports of parasitic
infestations in Bovidae are scanty (Pande et
al. 1970, Patnaik and Acharjyo 1970, Sen
Gupta 1974).

This paper describes the causes of mortality
among various species of Bovidae family en-

190

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

countered at Zoological Parks, National Parks,
Sanctuaries and reserve forests in different
parts of the country.

Materials and Methods

The information in respect of mortality re-
corded during three years (1975-1977) in
various species of Bovidae family was obtain-
ed from thirteen zoological parks (Bhilai,
Bombay, Darjeeling, Delhi, Hyderabad, Juna-
garh, Kanpur, Mysore, Pune, Renuka (HP),
Shillong, Tutikandi (HP), and Visakhapat-
nam, one National Park and reserve forests
in two States (West Bengal and Jammu &
Kashmir).

A total of 220 deaths were recorded in
various species of animals which included Gaur
( Bos gaurus — 17 cases); Yak (Bos grunniens
— 1); Gnu (Connochaetini sp. — 1); Black-buck
(Antilope cervicapra — 86); Chousingha (Tetra-
cerus quadricornis — 27); Nilgai (Boselaphus
tragocamelus — 25); Eland ( Taurotragus oryx
— 10); Chinkara ( Gazella gazella — 21); Goite-
red gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa — 2), and
Goral Nemorhaedus goral — 18).

Out of these 220 deaths, 8 were recorded
in free living state and remaining 212 in
captivity.

In addition, 39 cases of deaths were record-
ed in wild goats and 2 in wild sheep. How-
ever, the exact taxonomic nomenclature of
these members of sub-family Caprinae could
not be determined.

Results and Discussion

The recorded causes of deaths have been
classified into specific diseases, non specific
disease conditions and diseases due to un-
determined etiology. As shown in Table 1,
Rinderpest was recorded as a major cause of

death in gaur (B. gaurus) accounting for 9
out of 17 deaths in this species. Eight cases
were recorded at the Hyderabad Zoo and one
at the Mysore Zoo. During the rinderpest out-
break at Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad
in the months of January-February, 1979, all
the six animals kept in one enclosure died.
No other zoo animal was affected. Cases of
Rinderpest had been recorded among pigs in
a village close to the zoo, about ten days
before the onset of disease in gaurs. The exact
source and method of transmission of disease
could not be detected.

Among 220 deaths pertaining to 11 species
of animals, tuberculosis was recorded only in
Blackbuck ( Antilope cervicapra). Three cases
were recorded at Bombay Zoological Garden
and two at Delhi Zoological Park. At both
the places, tuberculosis was diagnosed also in
spotted deer and monkeys. It would appear
that among the members of Bovidae family.
Black bucks are most susceptible to tuber-
culosis.

An isolated case of Anthrax was recorded
in Chinkara (G. gazella) at Kanpur Zoo. No
other animal was reported to be affected.
Similarly a case of Black Quarter was record-
ed at Shillong Zoo in Blackbuck.

Deaths due to parasitic diseases were re-
corded in 14 cases. The cases of babesiosis
were recorded in one gaur and one Black
buck at Bhilai Zoo and a Chinkara at Kanpur
Zoo. Trypanosomiasis in one Nilgai was re-
corded at Kanpur Zoo. At the Nehru Zoolo-
gical Park, Hyderabad, one Chinkara died due
to Coccidiosis. Helminthic infestations were
responsible for six deaths in four species
(Yak — 1, Blackbuck— 2, Chousingha — 2, and
Goral — 1) whereas ectoparasites (unspecified)
accounted for 3 deaths in goitered gazelle.

A male wild gaur of about 8 years age died
of horn cancer in the reserve forest of Jal-

191

Recorded causes of deaths in members of bovidae family

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

13 ©

© T>
X n
O cd

o 00

•S 2

XI cd

Q

a oj

o ^

6 .s

rr\

'o M
a o

« M

. o
oo 55

<N O -H 00
(N

Tf r- IT, O ^

Tf CO

I I

I I I

- S I

O cd I

H

- I I I! I I I

f*1 o

w

I I I I I I “ I I III"

I I lN I

ls#s«oi |M is

I II 5 I

I I I

VO vr>

h N N

£

I ^ &

I ^ I N I I I

£•

I SRI I

^ N C C4 *-h 1
o o I

x 53 O'

I S'0*0 5

H N h N N

n

I I

- a ,

o £ I

I I

I I I I I I I I I I I I

ON I S-°

I O a
PQ

I N l I I I I l I '*■ I

s 1 N

V

&

Si

H

cd cd

1 .8

Pi X

© ©
cd ,©

33

cd S

X
©

a .ss _

H cd ©
Cu

Is

« «. ~
fl2»3
cd 0

C cd

|| &!

BfcOiiO IqSzRiS'll

3 ©

e cd .®r s x >» .3

H N «

IO h> 00 ff\

O H N to rj- V) \D

192

Abbreviations used: — Bab = Babesiosis; Cocci = Coccidiosis; Tryp - Tyrpanosomiasis; Taen = Taeniasis; Fasc = Fascioliasis;
Ect = Ectoparasite; RW = Roundworm; B.Q. = Black Quarter.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

paiguri. A second case of Horn cancer was
recorded in a 22 year old male Gnu at Bom-
bay Zoological Gardens.

The deaths due to pneumonia, gastroenteri-
tis, anemia and general debility were record-
ed in 13.6 per cent, 9.1 per cent and 15.4 per
cent of the total deaths respectively. These
disease conditions are, to a great extent, due
to faulty management or malnutrition and
hence can be minimised or prevented by im-
proving the management practices.

Deaths due to injuries were recorded in 20
per cent of the total cases. In the majority of
cases, injuries were inflicted during intra or
inter species fighting, accidents, or at times,
during capture operations for treatment and
other managemental purposes. As such, the
losses due to trauma can be prevented by using
chemical transquillizers and by improving
management practices etc.

Scientist, S — 2,

Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
Hebbal, Bangalore- 560 024.

Ali, S. (1953): Hyderabad State pp. 82-89, Re-
produced by Burton, R.W. (1953) : in ‘‘The Pre-
servation of Wildlife in India.’’

Burton, R. W. (1953): The Preservation of
Wildlife in India — a compilation. Bangalore Press.

pp. 11, 88, 110.

Gupta, K. C. S. and Verma, N. S. (1949):
Rinderpest in wild ruminants. Indian J. Vet. Sci. 19:
219-24.

Hallen, J. H. B., Mcleod, K., Charles, J. G.,
Kerr, H. C. and Jan, M. M. A. (1871): Report of
Indian Cattle Plague Commissioner. Govt. Print.
Calcutta.

Liston, W. G., and Soparkar, M. B. (1924) :
Bovine tuberculosis in India, an outbreak of tuber-
culosis among animals in the Bombay Zoological
Gardens. Indian J. Med. Res. 2: 671-80.

The disease conditions responsible for mor-
tality in wild goats were Pneumonia (6 cases),
gastroenteritis (10), general debility and anae-
mia (6), injury (5), hepatitis (1), and un-
determined causes (11). The recorded causes
of mortality in two wild sheep were undeter-
mined etiology (1), enteritis (1).

Acknowledgemen ts

We are thankful to Dr. C. M. Singh, Direc-
tor, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izat-
nagar for providing facilities and encourage-
ment for undertaking the survey. The Chief
Conservators of Forests, Chief Wildlife
Wardens, of various States, Directors /Super-
intendents/Veterinarians of various Zoological
Parks, National Parks and Sanctuaries arrang-
ed to supply the information concerning the
Survey for which we express our thanks to
all of them.

B. S. RATHORE

S. S. KHERA

Pande, B. P., Biiatia, B. B., Chauhan, P. P. S.,
and Garg, R. K. (1970): Species composition of
Coccidia of some of the mammals and birds at the
Zoological Gardens, Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh).
Indian J. Anim. Sci. 40: 154-166.

Patnaik, M. M. and Acharjyo, L. N. (1970):
Notes on the helminth parasites of vertebrates in
Baranga Zoo (Orissa). Indian Vet. J. 47: 723-730.

Peacock, E. (1933) : A game book for Burma
and adjoining territories. London. Cited by Schaller
1967. p. 181.

Schaller, G. B. (1967) : The deer and tiger —
A study of wildlife in India. Univ. of Chicago Press,
Chicago, pp. 54-56, 108-110, 181-182.

Sen Gupta, M. R. (1974) : A preliminary report
on diseases and parasites of zoo animals, birds and
reptiles. Indian J. Anim. Helth. 13: 15-24.

193

Scientist, S — 3, Div. of Epidemiology,

Indian Veterinary Research Institute,

IZATNAGAR, U.P.,

April 16, 1981.

References

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

9. THE FLAMINGOS OF SAMBHAR LAKE

Sambhar lake is the largest inland alkaline,
saline lake in India. It lies in a shallow de-
pression to the east of the Aravalli hills in
Central Rajasthan) (27°58'N, 75°55'E) and is
approximately 190 sq. km in area. On the
eastern side of the lake a big reservoir (41.72
sq. km), salt pans and crystalisers are present
which were used for the manufacturing of salt.
These water bodies have experienced severe
floods during the last decade (1971, 1974,
1975, 1976 and 1977). As a consequence of
these floods the salinity has reduced eleven
times to what has been previously reported
by Baid (1968, Max. 164%o). This drastic
change in salinity consequently affected the
faunal and floral composition of the lake
(Alam 1980).

Two species of flamingos Phoenicopterus
antiquorum and Phoeniconaias minor have
been reported from Sambhar lake. Previously
the flamingos were casual visitors (Aggarwal
1951, Baid 1968) to the lake. They came to
the lake soon after the annual rainfall and
lived upon the insect life and algae which
flourished in the lake while the density of the
brine remained low. They emigrated as soon
as the specific gravity of the lake brine in-
creased and all insects and vegetables orga-
nisms were destroyed by the rising density
of the brine (Aggarwal 1951). However, during
the present study (July 1977 — June 1978) it
was found that flamingos (including the larger
Phoenicopterus roseus) have become perma-
nently resident but confined only to the re-
servoir where one could see thousands appear-
ing like pink and white clouds as they rise in
flight. This change in habits of the Sambhar
flamingos might be due to the availability in
the reservoir throughout the year of blue-green
algae ( Spirulina spp.) which is the principal
food of the lesser flamingo (Jenkin 1957).

194

CD

O

o

04

a

cj

sn

q

Os

CO

00

3

04

00

cd

Os

o

a

04

r-

04

OS

&

§

o

OS

Os

Os

04

2

2

©

oi

VO

o

cd

00

C-H

04

Ih

O

o

oo

vo

a. <

co

O'

CO

CO

•z

<

OO

vd

of

oo

04

»— !

04

00

T“l

Vh

o

o

vo

O'

|

cd

o

*0

oo

CO

00

s

of

cd

od

o-'

Ov

ol

o4

00

04

8

O

CO

of

cO

CO

CO

r-

CO

Ph

vd

©

Os

00

Os

04

04

qj

O

o

04

Os

l

cd

00

oo

sq

q

vo

VO

vd

Of

•O

vo

vo

Os

vo

u

4)

Q

>

o

£

o

O

I

I

o

o

Of

CO

Os

vo

o-

r-

Of

oo

rd

Of

Os

04

o

CO

oo

o4

©

o

O'

O

vo

VO

vo

00

oo

Os

of

8

t—4

d

rd

00

CO

vo

00

of

o

04

CO

O'

VO

CO

CO

04

04

ON

cd

o

cd

Of

04

o

CO

O'

Os

-—i

T*H

00

o

vo

as

04

o

04

00

q

VO

rd

d

04

o

of

O'

vo

04

CO

Of

00

C"»

vo

vo

Of

O'

CO

VO

vd

d

O'"

vo*

O'"

Os

CO

00

00

VO

o4

Of

r-

CO

oo

Os

00

Of

O

o

CO

00

vd

04

d

Os

vd

i

of

OS

CO

Pi

Hi

Pi

g

o

0

cd

i

0>

o

Po

cd

43

<3

^ &
3

S'

a*

d

•S

a

o o ^ C
H 0-i x D

s

’5,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The difference in the nature of the phyto-
planktonic composition between the lake and
its reservoir might be responsible for the diffe-
rence in the presence of these birds. The
reservoir harboured the blue green-algae
(Cyanophyceae) comparatively higher in per-
centage and dominating over other algae in
the most of the observations (Table 1). The
percentage of Spirulina spp. in the total phyto-
plankton was always found higher than 50%
except in the month of September and the
reservoir, whereas in the lake it was found
mostly lower in percentage and sometimes
totally absent (Table 1). The trophic relation-
ship between Spirulina spp. and flamingos has
also been reported by Hecky and Kilham
(1973) and Melack and Kilham (1974) in the
alkaline, saline lakes of East Africa (Nakura

Department of Zoology,

University of Jodhpur,

Jodhpur-342 001, India,

May 14, 1981.

and Elmenteita of Kenya; Reshitani and Big
Momela of Tanzania).

Besides the Spirulina (phytoplankton), zoo-
plankton like copepods ( Cyclops spp.), Clado-
cera ( Moina sp.). Rotifers ( Brachionus sp.)
and Chironomus spp. larvae were also found
in abundance both in the lake and the reser-
voir. However, the Chironomus spp. on which
these birds also feed (Jenkin 1957) were
found many times more in the lake than in
the reservoir (Alam 1980). But the absence
of the flamingos in the lake might be due to
the availability of Chironomus spp. (bottom
dwellers) only in the deep water bottom.

The author is thankful to Dr. S. C. Bhar-
gava for guidance and to Prof. S. D. Misra for
providing the laboratory facilities.

MOHD. ALAM

References

Agarwal, S. C. (1951): The Sambhar lake salt
resource. Government of India Publication, New
Delhi.

Alam, M. (1980) : Limnological studies of Sam-
bhar Salt lake and its reservoir. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur.

Baid, I. C. (1968): The arthropod fauna of Sam-
bhar salt lake, Rajasthan, India. Oikos 19: 292-303.

Hecky, R. E. and Kilham, P. (1973) : Diatoms

in alkaline, Saline Lakes. Ecology and Geochemical
Implication. Limnol. Oceanogr., 18: 53-71.

Jenkin, P. M. (1957): The filter-feeding and
food of Flamingos (Phoenicopteri) . Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. Ser. B. 240: 401-493.

Melack, J. M. and Kilham, P. (1974) : Photo-
synthetic rates of Phytoplankton in East African
alkaline, saline lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr., 19: 743-
755.

10. BREEDING OF BUSTARDS — AN OBSERVATION
IN AUSTRALIA

In our country, the bustards in general and
the Great Indian bustard in particular have
been very much in the news of late, especially
with falconry crossing international borders
threatening the very existance of these species.

At one time the Great Indian bustard Chorio-
tis nigriceps was well distributed over the
country spread over the states of Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and
Karnataka but is now restricted in numbers.

195

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

having been shot indiscriminately by trigger
happy sportsmen.

The Indian Board for Wildlife, concerned
with the species being threatened with extin-
ction, have time & again recommended crea-
tion of sanctuaries to conserve these species
and also to take up captive breeding. While
the Government of Karnataka have created a
sanctuary for the blackbuck and the Great
Indian bustard at Ranibennur, Maharashtra
& Madhya Pradesh are in the process of noti-
fying areas for conserving & breeding the
Great Indian bustard and training officials for
the purpose.

While these attempts are afoot, given below
are some observations made and information
collected by the author on breeding the Austra-
lian bustard at the Serendip Wildlife Research
Station, Victoria, Australia, while attending
the National Parks & Reserves Planning &
Management Course from February to May
1978, which could be considered for adoption
for the breeding of the Great Indian bustard
in our country.

The Australian bustard — Ardeotis australis
is no better off than its Indian counterpart.
Known as the ‘Plains turkey’, once a favourite
game bird, this bustard has been made rare or
even wiped out in places during the last two
centuries. Concerned at the diminishing num-
bers, the Victoria Fisheries & Wildlife depart-
ment finally captured & established in 1966,
24 birds in a cleverly designed complex of
eight one-acre pens at Serendip. These pens
are octagonal in shape (sketch enclosed) and
radiate like segments of an orange with an
observation tower & feeding & catching enclo-
sure at the centre. In each pen a large male
bustard is isolated, but the much smaller
females can move through the whole area by
means of small gates in the fence which only
permits the smaller sized females to pass

through. The enclosures should have sufficient
cover, e.g. high grass or low shrubs where birds
can shelter from wind or human disturbance
and can acclamatise themselves to the new
surroundings. This would mean planting of
the habitat before the desired effect was
achieved. Birds are pinioned if open enclosures
are used.

Breeding behaviour :

Males reach sexual maturity between 5-7
years & the first female to lay eggs was at
the age of 6. Males stand & strut during dis-
play with the gular pouch being inflated and
the tail reversed over the back. The display
occurs between June & November in Victoria
where seasonal conditions are stable. Females
are quite compatible between themselves and
with the males. Several females can nest in
one enclosure successfully and usually lay close
to the same location each year. Eggs are taken
away as soon as the clutch of one or two is
completed, for artificial incubation. Attempts
at allowing females to hatch their own eggs
have been unsuccessful.

Rearing :

1-5 days'. For the first five days after hatch-
ing the young chicks are kept in a box with
a number of partitioned sections of dimen-
sions 30 cm W x 58 cm L x 27 cm H. Heating
is done by clear carbon heat lamp of 240 W x
115W, to give floor level heat of 37.5°C. The
chicks are fed powdered turkey started crum-
bles 24% protein, fresh liver (cut in very
small pieces) & meal worms (to develop peck-
ing). Chicks are fed with tweezers 4-6 times
a day. A clean feather duster is hung in the
box at the warm end and the chick soon learns
to shelter under it. Bustard chicks are reared
in open pens, until twenty-eight days old.

On the 6th day the chicks are placed in a

196

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

circular pen 30 cm H x 1 .5 m in diameter.
A thick layer of sand is used on the floor.
Young chicks are sometimes agressive & better
separated by glass between pens.

After the 11th day the chicks are moved
to a large indoor enclosure 1.5mWx3mL
x 60 cm high with sand floor. They are more
compatible as they grow older, but should be
watched closely when put together in a small
area.

30 day old chicks are shifted to enclosures
10'W x 30'L with the first 10' covered in.
Clover & lucerne are grown in the enclosures.
When the chicks are four months old they are

Divisional Forest Officer,

Working Plans Division,

584 De wan’s Road,

Mysore- 570 004,

June 22, 1979.

transferred to open enclosures with plently of
trees & shrubs.

Diseases’. There have been no problem with
diseases as the species are very hardy. The
main losses are due to fractures of the wings
& legs especially when rearing wild caught
chicks, due to a combination of insufficient
calcium in the diet causing bone deterioration
and poor management regarding handling
them.

At the time of my visit, Serendip had eight
adult males, six adult females twelve years &
over. In addition there are seven hand reared
juveniles, two males & five females.

M. K. APPAYYA

11. FEEDING HABITS OF COPPERSMITH MEG AL AIM A
HAEMACEPHALA (MULLER)

The Coppersmith, Megalaima haemacephala
is a frugivorous bird. Recently a Coppersmith
( Megalaima haemacephala ) was caught in one
of the mulberry fields in the campus of the
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimba-
tore. The bird was kept in a cage and fed
with fruits of mulberry, grapes, and Ficus
bengalensis, thrice daily in the morning, after-
noon and evening and the quantity of the
fruits consumed each time was recorded. The
bird was fed with mulberry for six weeks
whereas Ficus bengalensis and grapes were
restricted to one week only. The data gathered
are furnished in the Table 1. The feeding
studies reveal that the bird consumed 48.64

Table 1

Types of
Food

No. of
weeks

Mean quantity
of berries con-
sumed in gms /
day

Energy*

(kilo

joules)

Mulberry

I

48.64

100

II

52.54

108

III

66.30

136

IV

75.36

155

V

74.25

152

VI

75.77

155

Ficus

I

54.06

163

Grapes

I

35.35

124

* Adopted from Gopalan et at. (1971).
1 calorie = 4.184 joule.

197

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

to 75.77, 54.06, 35.35 g of mulberry, ficus and
grapes respectively. Lack (1954) pointed out
that the food requirement of birds may be
stated in calories rather than grammes since
the quantity of food varies with the nutritive
value. Hartley (1964) reported that berry
eating thrushes commonly take three full meals
a day. According to Kear (1972) small species
consume more in proportion to their size than
large ones. The present observations indicate

Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University,

Coimbatore- 641 003,

December 20, 1980.

that the Coppersmith weighing 30.0 g can con-
sume berris equivalent to 1.6 to 2.6, 1.8 and
1 . 1 times of its own body weight and feed
steadily during the day. It would be necessary
to try this experiment with more than one
individual before making further conclusions.

The energy requirements of the bird in
terms of kilojoules ranged from 100 to 163 per
day.

T. S. MUTHUKRISHNAN
RAJESWARI SUNDARABABU

References

Gopalan, C., Ramasastri, B. V., and Bala-
subramanian, S. C. (1971) : Nutritive value of
Indian food. National Institute of Nutrition Publi-
cation, Hyderabad. 204 pp.

Hartley, P. H. T. (1964): ‘Feeding habits' by
Thompson, A. L. (ed.). A new Dictionary of birds.

London.

Kear, Janet (1972) : Feeding habits of birds.
International Encyclopaedia of Food and Nutrition,
18: 471-503.

Lack, D. (1954): The Natural Regulation of Ani-
mal numbers. Oxford.

12. PERICROCOTUS FLAMMEUS (FORSTER) IN KUTCH AND
SOME GENERAL COMMENTS

December 25, 1980 I saw a female scarlet
mini vet in my garden here (in Bhuj, and it is
still there till today). This is the first time this
species has been seen in this area.

Taken by itself, this may be considered as a
rare, or accidental occurrence. However if one
were to take the appearance of Pericrocotus
flammeus in Kutch together with that of other
birds like the green pigeon (seen on 30th and
collected on 31st Jan., 1980 by M. K. Han-
vantsinghji at Mata-no-Mad, about 90 km.

Jubilee Ground,

Bhuj, Kutch,

February 3, 1981.

west of Bhuj), the goldenbacked woodpecker
(already reported by me) and several other
species which have been recorded for the first
time only in the last decade or so, the ques-
tion would arise as to whether some birds have
extended their known ranges. It could very
possibly be so owing to favourable changes
having taken place in the ecology of some
areas through irrigation etc. This can only be
confirmed through careful and meticulous
monitoring by resident birdwatchers in Kutch.

M. K. HIMMATSINHJI

198

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

13. ON THE VALIDITY OF TURDOIDES CAUDATUS ECLIPES

(HUME)

In 1877, Hume ( Stray Feathers 5, p. 337)
described a new species of Babbler from north-
western India as Chatorhea (now Turdoides )
eclipes “Like C. caudata, but much larger,
the upper surface darker and more strongly
striated, tail more strongly banded, feathers of
breast and sides dark shafted”. He also refer-
red to its being as large as huttoni (Blyth, type
Kandahar, Afghanistan) from Khelat and
Persia, but much darker and warmer colour-
ed than huttoni which is paler and greyer, and
said the ear-coverts were darker than in
caudatus in India.

Oates 1889, Fauna 1, p. 106, included both
huttoni and eclipes as synonyms of caudata.
Baker 1922, Fauna 1, pp. 198/9, accepted
huttoni from Afghanistan, Baluchistan and S.E.
Persia, as also a specimen from “the Jay River
Hills” in Sind as very typical, but said he could
not separate eclipes. Later, 1926, Ticehurst
JBNHS 31, p. 491, corrected his earlier
(Ibis 1922, p. 540) statement that eclipes was
the same as nominate caudata. On p. 694 of
the same Journal he re-confirms its distinct-
ness as an interesting form from Rawalpindi,
Peshawar (type locality), Campbellpur (south
to Kohat?). In Indian Handbook (1971) 6,
p. 215, it is again synonymised with caudatus,
while huttoni is accepted in West Pakistan.

While cataloguing the Bombay collection it
was evident that the birds from the north-
west were strikingly different from caudata and
the characters referred to in the original des-
cription were very constant and perhaps justi-
fied Hume’s statement that it “was far more
entitled to specific (now subspecific) distinc-
tion than C. huttoni Blyth.

The bars on the tail are visible in some
caudatus, but not in any of the larger races,

T'J" v->

> O > oo

a a 2 23

s n i a d

m

i

> >

cS «J © 2
m o

IN — 1

£ ss

CN

O

• >n

VO <n

CN

to

3 £

CA

g *0 £

£ 2} > S

c3

in vo _ oo

^ OO " 8 ^
CN <?

<N *0
id

CN ^

in

id

<N

3 8

*0 in

id X: ^

<N 0\

CN

CN

GQ

. >

OO O N

5 > 2 S a

3 vo 2

^ ^ ^ 2 2

™ ~ ^ ^

o

^2^co
. 6 — ;

> CN CN

> 03 - ~
^ in 3 ^
^ Ch ^
O V .

r,’ S rJ

OO 00 O CN

<31 .J

1 00

> m . N-
oo > Oi

Z vb * *

Sf'-oo

r-» n-

00 Of

S S

_ OO

a rl

S4

/ — \
t'-'

/— N

O

CN

in

v — '

m

§

a

S a

°* ^ as

« g 3

"C

rvL O CS

199

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

huttoni and salvadori (De Filippi, Shiraz,
Fars) from the north and west.

The 11 (5 c? c? 5 9 ? lo?) available from
Peshawar (2), Rawalpindi (5), Campbellpur
(1), Jholar, Kala Chitta Hills, Salt Range (1),
South Waziristan (1) and Damdil, Waziristan
(1) may be said to be of this form, the eastern
distributional limit being the Jhelum and not
the Indus.

75, Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay-400 003.

Research Assistant,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

November 13, 1981.

One of us (H.A.) has a note to the effect
that Gaston (1975) said that the birds in the
Salt Range were larger than those in Delhi,
but the source cannot be traced. Eclipes is
accepted in Peters Checklist vol. X, p. 333
(1964).

The evidence appears to be sufficient to esta-
blish the validity of the race eclipes.

HUMAYUN ABDUL ALI
ERIC D’CUNHA

14. DESTRUCTION OF PEARL MILLET NURSERY BY
SPARROWS PASSER DOMESTICUS (LINNAEUS) AND
ITS AVOIDANCE

Damage due to bird pests is always taken
for granted and is not paid due attention.
Birds cause losses to almost all the millet
crops throughout the cultivation range and the
damage is severe in some places (Jotwani et
al. 1967). They deserve attention in arid areas
where the damage commences from sowing
stage and needs protection with suitable pes-
ticide treatment (Bhatnagar 1976).

Sparrows, hitherto considered as the major
pest problem in this region for ripening fields
of pearl millet, sorghum, sunflower and paddy
etc., are now causing concern by widespread
destruction of pearl millet crop at the nursery
stage. It was observed this year in Kharif 1980,
that the pearl millet experimental downy
mildew sick plot nursery of about one acre
at the College Farm of Andhra Pradesh Agri-

cultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad,
was damaged to an extent of 100 per cent. The
birds damage the crop before there is evidence
for the need to control. The present investi-
gation deals with the attack and nature of
damage caused by sparrows, and the effective
method employed for its avoidance.

Sparrows visit the field in small or large
congregations or even singly and feed on the
seed grains. Their colour being similar to that
of soil, they are not noticed.

Sparrows expose with their beaks pre-germi-
nated and germinated seeds and pull out the
just sprouted seedlings before they establish
and also feed on the individual ripening grains.
The seedlings which escape and reach vegeta-
tive phase have their tiny stems stripped off
by the sparrows, and in course of time wither

200

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and die. Damage to the whole nursery is enor-
mous and rapid.

Application of 10 per cent BHC-dust @ 12.5
kg. /ha applied in a line along the pearl millet
rows in combination with careful watch and
scaring with sounds made by the beating of
empty drums immediately after sowing have
provided significant protection against sparrows

All India Coordinated Millet
Improvement Project,

A. P. Agricultural University,
Agricultural Research Institute,

RAJ ENDRAN AGAR,

Hyderabad- 500 030,

June 2, 1981.

and the seeds germinated well and grew with-
out any loss.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

We are thankful to Mr. T. G. Manmohan
Singh, Junior Zoologist of A.P.A.U., Hydera-
bad for the cooperation and encouragement.

H. A. K. SARWAR
K. N. MURTY

References

Bhatnagar, R. K. (1976): Significance of bird
management and control. Pesticide Annual : pp. 74-83.

Jotwani, M. G., Beri, Y. P. and Verma, K. K.
(1969) : A note on bird damage in millets. The
Allahabad Farmer 43 (1) : 43-44.

15. BIRD DAMAGE IN MAIZE

Introduction

The Roseringed Parakeet ( Psittacula kra-
meri) as a bird pest of Maize ( Zea mays) has
been reported by Salim Ali (1974), but the
nature and extent of damage is not known.
Studies to determine this were undertaken at
the Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University
at Hyderabad since 1974 and the results ob-
tained are presented here.

Material and Methods

Studies on the bird visitants in Maize were
conducted at Maize Research Station, Amber-
pet, (Hyderabad) during Kharif and Rabi
1974-75 in an area of 900.00 sq. metres and

2190.00 sq. metres respectively. A unit area
of 25 x 25 sq. metres was demarcated in a
maize field in Kharif and Rabi season for
counting birds. The percentage of damage was
assessed and compared for the two seasons
(Kharif and Rabi) by taking counts of healthy
and damaged cobs in this unit area. The bird
counts were made in the morning and even-
ing only, since preliminary studies made from
dawn to dusk showed these to be the feeding
hours. The observations were made with 7 x
50 magnification field binocular to watch the
bird pests from a distance. The studies were
carried out during the peak hours bird visits
from 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. in the morning and

3.00 p.m. to 6.00 p.m. in the afternoon. The

201

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

r-. r- oc m Tf ^
tN 't N N N ^

VS Tf ^ | |

cn OO 00 vo 00 C-

o o O 00 vo Os
Os t*“> j ] ^ 00

[x M M M 'O

oo vs *-* *-4 ^ »os

1^ o M N OI Tt

co vo ^ oo vo o

co © vo ^

CO o co Tt ON t-

vo Nt n oovo

6" I - I N "

VS VS (n)

in w -H N as

&

inOf^NNN

ON r- 00 oo o

m vo Tj- On ro
t-h m

vs CO O co CO oo
t-h no vo vs vs vs

CO O ON 00 OO O
CO cs Tf T^-

movooo^

r) N h m Nf N

in oo m h - ^
co c~ r- vo oo oo

in oo O vo On
CO On t — f' 0O OO

H ro fO Oi o

CO ON vo oo vo t"

Tf oo irs OO On O

co co cs -*j- vs

Tj- tJ- ^ rj- ^ ^

c- r- c- t" c~

On On On ON On ON

£ * & £ * X

I in lO oo

vo O VO oo O 'O 'O

^ cs vs co cs co CO

I I I I I I
I - I i I I
I I I

^ tf) H H H H

^ m m Tt N to
C- vs ^ Tj- m CO

co

- I “ I I” I

I I I I I I I

,_i i— i CO

CO ’-l ^ CO «-•

VS VS VS VS VS VN vs

r- r- c- c- £>• £-•

On On ON ON ON ON ON

^ 'T JT . i .i .ju

m 4 VS vo h oo Ol

co co co co cl ro co

202

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

method adopted for assessing the population
in the field was by visual counting. For each
bird species the population of birds per hour
indicates the total number of a particular bird
pest species which visited the fields in diffe-
rent groups at different junctures during the
particular hour.

Results and Discussion

The data recorded showed that the pigeons
( Columba livia) and House Crows ( Corvus
splendens ) were the first to invade the crop
after sowing and cause damage at the germi-
nation and seedling stages. These pests picked
the seed from the field after the post-sowing
irrigation and fed on the soaked seeds which
were in the process of germination. They
also pluck out the developing young seedlings.
Damage by these birds was not noticed in the
subsequent phases of crop growth.

At the flowering stage, the Roseringed
Parakeets ( Psittacula krameri ) infest the male
inflorescence (Tassel) and feed on the anthers
and pollen grains. At the tender cob stage,
the parakeets damage the cobs with the silky
style and green husk. This type of damage
was negligible compared to the damage at
the subsequent milky stage of the cob when
they split and strip away the covering (bracts)
thereby exposing the grain for easy feeding
and further damage. This type of feeding is
continued upto maturity of the cob but maxi-
mum damage was recorded at the dough stage
of the cobs.

Data recorded on the population density of
the birds infesting maize crop at the dough
stage during the various periods of the day
are summarised in Table 1. Damage by crows

started after the grains in the cob attained
the dough stage. Crows prefer the cobs in
which damage was already initiated by para-
keets and in such cobs they completely re-
moved the spathes, exposed the cob and ate
the grains. However, crows damaging a fresh
healthy cob from the apical portion by pull-
ing down the green spathes, is not uncommon.
During this process, each green spathe is torn
into small pieces to expose the grains fully.
Mynas ( Acridotheres tristis ) also visited the
crop but only in small numbers and they were
mostly seen picking the insects from the fields
and occasionally eating a few maize grains.

The damage to maize crop due to bird pests
at the cob stage was assessed by taking counts
of healthy and damaged cobs in the unit area.
The extent of damage in terms of cobs was
82.46% in Kharif and 11.47% in Rabi under
unprotected conditions in the field. The higher
percentage damage in Kharif can be attri-
buted to a convincingly high population of
birds infesting the crops during the Kharif
season (Table 1). Further, the standing paddy
crop adjacent to the Maize plots in dough
stage also served as a source of food for
parakeets.

It is inferred from the foregoing that House
Crows and Roseringed Parakeets are the
major bird pests of maize as observed at the
Maize Research Station, Amberpet. However
a survey carried out in the cultivators’ field
in major maize growing areas in Telangana
(Karimnagar and Medchal districts) and also
as reported by the farmers have shown that
crows are not a pest in maize when the crop
is grown in large acreage. In experimental
plots or in maize crops raised near human
habitations, damage by crows may also be
evident.

203

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi for financ-

Andhra Pradesh Agricultural
University,

RAJ ENDRAN AGAR,

Hyderabad,

May 23, 1981.

ing a scheme for “Studies on the Biology and
Control of Bird Pests” under which the studies
are carried out.

MIR HAMID ALI
B. H. KRISHNAMURTHY RAO
M. ANANDA RAO
P. SYAMSUNDER RAO

Ali, Salim, and Ripley, S. D. (1969) : Handbook
of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 3. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

16. BIRD FAUNA OF THE RICE CROP ECOSYSTEM IN
PONDICHERRY REGION

In the rural economy of an agriculturist
birds play a vital role since some birds are
beneficial or useful to him and others claim
a heavy toll of his produce. In this paper an
attempt is made to list out the common species
of birds both resident and migratory in this
region. A detailed observation was made for
the insectivorous avian fauna visiting the rice
ecosystem throughout the years of 1978-80.
The principal agro-ecosystem in Pondicherry
region is rice-based and the irrigation needs
are met mostly by Ousted and Bahour tanks
and by a network of tube wells. Light rains
are received in the South-West monsoon
months of July to September and heavy rains
during the North-East monsoon months of
October to December. The total annual pre-
cipitation is around 1200 mm. During the
rainy months, the tanks get filled up. From
May to February the double cropped wet-
lands receive canal water and the third crop
receives water from tube wells. In some areas
of this region paddy remains in fields through-
out the year which supports a rich aquatic
biome. The aquatic biome of the rice ecosystem

includes the invertebrate fauna comprising in-
sect pests like stem borers, leaf rollers, plant
hoppers, earhead bugs, blackbugs, grasshoppers
etc. The non-pest fauna include waterbugs,
beetles, odonates and a variety of other in-
sects. The paddy fields and water storing
tanks also harbour fishes, crabs, frogs, snakes
and aquatic insects which provide the condi-
tions to attract a host of insectivorous birds to
this region. The observations were made in
the farm attached to the Krishi Vigyan Kendra
and its vicinity, Ousteri and Bahour tanks, and
in the different communes like Villianoor,
Ariankuppam, Nettapakkam etc. The birds are
classified in the following groups.

1. Very common — Seen in large numbers

2. Common — Seen in less numbers

3. Less common — Seen in less numbers

and only in certain
* places

4. Rare — Seen in singles or in

few in numbers occa-
sionally.

The birds were compared for identity and

204

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table

Common Name

Scientific Name

Status

Season

Paddybird

Ardeola grayii

Very common

Throughout

Cattle egret

Bubulcus ibis

Common

Oct-Feb

Redwattled lapwing

Vanellus indicus

Common

Throughout

Little ringed plover

Charadrius dubius

Common

Throughout

Pintail snipe

Capella stenura

Common

Oct-Feb

Blackwinged stilt

Himantopus himantopus

Common

Oct-Feb

Avocet

Recurvirostra avosetta

Rare

Oct-Feb

Indian whiskered tern

Chlidonias hybrida

Common

Oct-Feb

Spotted dove

Streptopelia chinensis

Very common

Throughout

Blue rock pigeon

Columba livia

Less common

Throughout

Red turtle dove

Streptopelia

Less common

Throughout

Roseringed parakeet

tranquebarica
Psittacula krameri

Common

Throughout

Koel

Eudynamys scolopacea

Less common

Nov-Jan

Spotted owlet

Athene brama

Common

Throughout

Indian nightjar

Caprimulgus asiaticus

Less common

Throughout

House swift

Apus affinis

Very common

Throughout

Small blue Kingfisher

Alcedo at this

Common

Throughout

Whitebreasted King-

Halcyon smyrnensis

Common

Throughout

fisher

Pied Kingfisher

Ceryle rudis

Common

Throughout

Small green bee-eater

Merops orient alis

Less common

Throughout

Indian roller

Coracias benghalensis

Common

Throughout

Blackbellied finchlark

Eremopterix grisea

Very common

Throughout

Crested lark

Galerida cristata

Very common

Throughout

Redrumped swallow

Hirundo daurica

Common

Throughout

Black drongo

Dicrurus adsimilis

Very common

Throughout

Common myna

Acridotheres tristis

Very common

Throughout

House crow

Corvus splendens

Very common

Throughout

Redvented bulbul

Pycnonotus cafer

Less common

Throughout

lungle babbler

T urdoides striatus

Very common

Throughout

Ashy wren-warbler

Prinia socialis

Very common

Throughout

Indian robin

Saxicoloides fulicata

Common

Throughout

Large pied wagtail

Motacilla

Common

Throughout

House sparrow

maderaspatensis
Passer domesticus

Very common

Throughout

Baya weaver bird

Ploceus philip pin us

Common

Throughout

Spotted munia

Lonchura punctulata

Common

Throughout

nomenclature with the authenticated guides by
Fletcher and Inglis (1926), Salim Ali (1977)
and Ganguli (1975) and the observations are
presented in the table. Among the birds the
black drongo, Dicrurus adsimilis seems to be

a purely insectivorous bird destroying injuri-
ous insects like stemborer moths, skippers, leaf
rollers etc. in enormous numbers. In company
with crows and mynahs this bird is sure to
be present in large numbers wherever pest in-

205

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

sects are predominant. Drongos were report-
ed to feed mostly on injurious insects (Thiru-
murthi and Abraham 1975). The house crow,
Corvus splendens and myna, Acridotheres tris-
tis are highly beneficial to the agriculturists as
they help to eradicate the soil insects and pupae
at the time of ploughing and during and after
the harvest. The paddy bird Ardeola grayii,
always found in paddy fields and in water-
sheds, is very active and beneficial in fields
where young seedlings are cut up by immature
crabs. The stilt and pintail snipe found in
marshes and paddy stubbles often probe into

Krishi Vigyan Kendra,

Pondicherry-650 010,

April 3, 1981.

the mud for worms, larvae and other aquatic
insects. The kingfishers, especially Halcyon
smyrnensis, commonly noticed in rice fields,
appear to be important in their predatory
habit on insects.

Thus it is evident that certain birds like
crow, myna, drongo, paddy bird are useful
in the control of injurious insects and hence
deserve to be protected and encouraged.

We wish to thank Master Christian
Nathan son of the first author for his constant
help in field trips and locating the habitats
of birds.

S. P. FRANCIS NATHAN
B. RAJENDRAN

References

Ali, Salim (1977): The Book of Indian Birds. Delhi area. ICAR, New Delhi.

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Thirumurthi, S. and Abraham, E.V. (1975):

Fletcher, T. B. and Inglis, C. M. (1926): Birds A note on the bird predators of the Death’s head
of an Indian gardeh. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta. hawkmoth Acherontia styx W. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Ganguli, U. (1975): A guide to the birds of Soc. 72: 204.

17. SIZE AT FIRST BREEDING IN THE GHARIAL [GAVIALIS
GANGETICUS (GMELIN)] (REPTILIA, CROCODILIA) IN

CAPTIVITY

Size and age at first breeding in the gharial
in the wild are not known for either sex. In
Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary in Bahraich
District, Northern Uttar Pradesh, the smallest
breeding female was estimated as 3.12 m dur-
ing 1977 nesting season (Srivastava 1981).

■ McCann (1940) in a well-reasoned discus-
sion on the Indian mugger ( Crocodylus
palustris) in the wild, correctly, in our view,
stated,

“However, with reptiles, I think, it is perhaps
better to arrive at the size at which they breed
rather than place any reliance on age.”

For captive crocodilians in India prior to
initiation of the Government of India Project
Crocodile Breeding and Management in 1975,
and in many overseas institutions (Bustard
1980) due to poor growth, age is not a valid
criterion on which to judge attainment of
sexual maturity (Choudhury and Bustard, in
press).

Three gharial were reared in captivity at
Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa. This
group comprised 1 male and two females. One
of these females bred for the first time in
1980 (Bustard and Maharana 1980) at a

206

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

length of 3.17 m. The other female bred for
the first time in 1980 at a length of 3.0 m. We
consider these figures to represent the size at
first breeding. It should be noted that the figure
of 3.12 m given by Srivastava (loc. cit.) falls
within this size range.

The gharial is one of the largest species of
crocodiles and as such can be expected to
attain breeding size at a greater length and age

Central Crocodile Breeding &

Management Training Institute,

Raj ENDRAN AGAR ROAD,

Hyderabad.

Nandankanan Biological Park,

Barang, Orissa,

May 4, 1981.

Refer

Bustard, H. R. (1980) : Captive Breeding of Cro-
codiles pp. 1-20. In The care and breeding of captive
reptiles. S. Townson, N. J. Millichamp, D.G.D. Lucas
and A. J. Mellwood (Eds.). A collection of papers
published by the British Herpetological Society.

Bustard, H. R. & Maharana, S. (1980): First
captive Breeding of the Gharial, ( Gavialis gangeti-
cus). Brit. J. Herpetol. 6 (3): 106.

Choudhury, B. C. & Bustard, H. R. (In press) :
Stunted growth in captivity-reared gharial. /. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc.

Cott, H. B. (1961): Scientific results of an in-

than smaller freshwater species such as the
Indian mugger. The Nile crocodile ( Crocody -
lus niloticus) provides comparative data for a
similar-sized crocodile. Cott (1961) stated that
C. niloticus attains sexual maturity at a length
of 2.7-3.45 m in the female. Guggisberg 1972
stated that more than half of the female C.
niloticus begin breeding after attaining a length
of 3.0 m.

H. R. BUSTARD

S. MAHARANA

E N CE S

quiry into the ecology and economic status of the
Nile crocodile ( Crocodilus niloticus ) in Uganda and
Northern Rhodesia. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. 29 (4) :
211-356.

Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1972) : Crocodiles. David
& Charles, London.

McCann, C. (1940) : A reptile and amphibian mis-
cellany. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41 (4) : 742-747.

Srivastava, A. K. (1981): Some Ecological studies
on the gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus ) with particular
reference to the natural population. Ph.D. Thesis,
submitted to the University of Lucknow, Lucknow.

18. A RECORD (?) GHARIAL CLUTCH

Malcolm Smith (1931) gave the clutch size
for the gharial as “40 or more number”.
Prashad (1914) shot a gravid female gharial
at Ferozpore in 1913 which had 32 eggs in
the right and 24 in the left oviduct giving a
clutch size of 56 eggs. Bustard (1980) provided
data on 35 clutches of gharial eggs collected
over three nesting seasons (1976, 77 and 78)

in Nepal. The mean clutch size was 31.7 and
the maximum 61 eggs.

The clutch, which we think constitutes a
record, consisted of 97 eggs and was laid in
Katerniaghat Wild Life Sanctuary, Bahraich,
Northern Uttar Pradesh in Girwa river 3 kms
below the border with Nepal at Kotiya Ghat.
The clutch was normal in every way. It was
collected for hatchery incubation producing 69

207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

hatchlings (71.1% hatch). Can any of your clutches or large clutches of mugger or salt-
readers provide information on larger gharial water crocodile eggs?

Central Crocodile Breeding & H. R. BUSTARD

Management Institute,

Rajendranagar Road,

Hyderabad-500 264.

Kukrail Manoranjan Van, D. BASU

Gazipur,

Lucknow-226 010,

May 26, 1981.

References

Bustard, H. R. (1980) : Clutch size, incubation
and success of gharial [( Gavialis gangeticus ) (GME-
LIN)] eggs from Narayani river, Nepal 1976-1978.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77 (1) : 100-105.

Parshad, B. (1914): The gharial ( Gavialis gan-

geticus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 369-370.

Smith, M. (1931) : The Fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphi-
bia. Vol. I. Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and Francis,
London.

19. LIZARDS FROM NORTH-EASTERN INDIA

The reptile collection of the Eastern Re-
gional station. Zoological Survey of India,
Shillong, has 22 species of lizards belonging
to 14 genera under 6 families. Of these two
species were hitherto unknown from this re-
gion.

Family Gekkonidae
Cnemaspis jerdoni (Theobald)

Specimens examined: 1 ex, INDIA: Megha-
laya, Garo Hills, extreme south of Dainadubi
forest, 14.4.1971, Coll. R. S. Pillai.

Remark: This species was earlier reported
only from south India and Sri Lanka. The
specimen though it agrees well with Smith’s
description of the species, has 1 1 pairs of
femoral pores on each side and 6 preanal
pores.

Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel
Specimens examined: 1 ex, India: Megha-

laya, Sonapur IB compound, 27.8.1974, Coll.
A. R. Lahiri; 1 exs, Assam, Sibsagar, Kohora
Soil Conservation IB, 17.2.1974, Coll. M. M.
Datta; 1 ex, Goalpara, Lakhipur IB, 19.1.1972,
Coll. S. Biswas; 1 ex, Goalpara, Blodhurari,
4 kms. south-east of forest rest house,
16.1.1972, Coll. S. Biswas; 1 ex, Goalpara,
Dudhnai IB, 8.4.1971, Coll. R. S. Pillai; 3
exs, Goalpara, Rongali IB, 12.1.1972, Coll. S.
Biswas, 1 ex, Goalpara, Deagdhoa Paharsing-
para, about 14 kms. went of Goalparasadar,
17.1.1972 Coll. S. Biswas; 1 ex, Kamrup,
Mothongiri IB, 14.12.1974, Coll. K. R. Rao;
1 ex, Tripura, Santir Bari P.W.D. IB, 7.8.1979,
Coll. K. P. Singh.

Remarks: The variation in the number and
position of the tubercles in this species is al-
ready reported by Smith (1935). In one of
the present collection, the third and fourth
toes originate from a single stalk and the third
gets united with the fifth. Some mites were

208

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

observed on the ventral surface of the body
of another specimen.

This is the first record of this species from
North-Eastern states.

Family Sciencidae

Lygosoma courcyanum Annandale.

Specimens examined: 1 ex, INDIA: Megha-
laya, Khasi Hills, Mawphlang, 21.9.1973, Coll.
A. K. Ghosh.

Remarks: Distance between the end of the
snout and forelimb contained 2 times in the
distance between axilla and groin. Prefontal
not in contact with one another. 70 scales
down the middle of the back. Limbs short,
far apart when adpressed. Total length from
snout to vent 54 mm, tail 36 mm. This speci-
men has an abnormal foot with only a single
free digit. The other digits are not differen-
tiated and the sole ends in a conical mass.

Zoological Survey of India,

Eastern Regional Station,

Shillong-793 003,

September 4, 1981.

Family Agamidae

Ptyctolaeinus gularis Peters.

This species is abundant in Shillong. Males
of this species are capable of remarkable colour
display. During breeding season,, sexual dimor-
phism is clearly shown by males by the fully
extended throat with its conspicuous blue
colour. A pale yellow (with a greenish tinge)
longitudinal stripe, along the lateral sides on
either side, commencing from a little behind
the tympanum and extending to one third of
the body is very distinct during this time.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta and to Dr. Asket
Singh and Mr. C. Radhakrishnan, successive
Officers-in-Charge, Eastern Regional Station,
Zoological Survey of India, Shillong for faci-
lities and guidance.

R. MATHEW

Reference

Smith, M. A. (1935) : The Fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia & Amphibia,
Vol. II. Sauria. Taylor & Francis, London.

20. RAT SNAKE SEIZING BABY MUNTJAC

Some women workers on my Coffee Plan-
tation near Manantody, Kerala hearing a
young animal crying in distress, found on in-
vestigation that a Rat Snake had seized a baby
Muntjac. The snake was coiled around the
victim, seeing the workers it released its hold

Bissal Munti,

Mysore- 570 001,

June 24, 1981.

and moved off, but the little Muntjac was dead
when picked up.

Rat Snakes are quite common on the Plan-
tation and probably live on birds and rats
this is the first occasion I have known of a
Rat Snake seizing a small deer for its prey.

E. J. VAN INGEN

209

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

21. SUCCESSFUL ARTIFICIAL BREEDING OF LISSEMYS
PUNCTATA GRANOSA (SMITH)*

Introduction

The Southern Flap-shell turtle — Lissemys
punctata granosa (Smith) occurs throughout
peninsular India and Sri Lanka. Around
Madras this turtle occurs in fairly large num-
bers and is usually hunted for food by the
locals.

Deraniyagala (1953) reports that in Lissemys
punctata ceylonensis, which he believes as bare-
ly seperable from Lissemys punctata granosa ,
breeding maxima are towards the commence-
ment and end of the year. On November 1st,
1980, just after the rains, Chockulingam, an
Irula tribal employee at the Madras Snake
Park, took me and two of my colleagues on
a field survey off the city limits, south of
Taramani. Just west of Taramani Radio Sta-
tion, while walking on the beaten track along
the fence of a farm house, Chockulingam
pointed to a raised mound of fine, loose, wet
sand nearly one foot high. The mound was
surrounded by a thick growth of bushes and
grasses, receiving filtered sunlight. It was the
nest of the Southern flap-shell turtle, Lissemys
punctata granosa.

Materials and Methods

Nest measurements : The nest was opened
by us to take back the eggs. It was dug at
an angle to the ground surface.

* Dr. Robert Webb in his paper ‘The identity of
Testudo punctata Lacepede, 1788 (Testudines, Trio-
nychidae) Webb, 1980 has redescribed the nomen-
clatural and taxonomic history of that holotype. He
has renamed the yellow spotted Lissemys punctata
punctata of North India as Lissemys punctata an-
dersoni and the Southern Lissemys punctata granosa
as the actual Lissemys punctata punctata.

The nest depth to the first exposed eggs
was 8 cm. The nest chamber measured 8 cm.
in diameter. The total depth of the nest was
12 cm. There were 8 eggs in the nest. The
eggs were still moist with mucus and were
estimated to be 3 days old at the most.

Deraniyagala (1953) reports that Lissemys
punctata ceylonensis lays 2-6 eggs within a few
weeks of one another. Malcolm Smith (1931)
reports that 10-12 eggs are laid at a time.
Gunther (1864) records a report by Dr.
Kelaart about a female L. p. ceylonensis which
laid three eggs of about 1" diameter, with a
hard, calcareous shell.

Egg measurements : The eggs were perfect-
ly spherical, hard shelled. They measured as
follows :

Diameter: 1) 25.9mm, 2) 26.6 mm, 3) 26.1mm,
4) 26.6mm, 5) 26.5mm

Weight: 1) ll.Ogm, 2) 12.5 gm, 3) ll.Ogm,

4) 11.0 gm, 5) 12.0 gm

Diameter: 6) 26.4mm, 7) 26.8mm, 8) 27.5mm.
Weight: 6) ll.Ogm, 7) 12.0 fim, 8) 11.5 gm.

According to Deraniyagala (1953) Lissemys
p. ceylonensis eggs measured 30 mm-33 mm
and weighed 17 gm-19.5 gm.

Incubation : The eggs were brought to the
Snake Park laboratory to be incubated. A
plastic shoe box filled with about 8 cm earth
and 3 cm air space was used as an incubator.
The eggs were placed completely covered with
the earth, the box was also kept covered. Mois-
ture on the lid and sides of the box was wiped
dry daily.

On May 8th, 1981, 6 months after egg col-
lection, one of the eggs was opened. The

210

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

embryo within was fully formed with a large
amount of yolk. It was alive and pulsating
and had a carapace length of 20 mm and it
weighed 4 gm, the egg before opening weighed
9 gm.

On July 6th, two eggs were opened and
found to be infertile. On 20th July two more
eggs were opened. The turtles were full term
and ready to hatch. On removing the cover-
ing thin transparent membrane they wriggled
vigorously. The yolk sac was almost com-
pletely withdrawn in both turtles. On 22nd
July another egg was opened and on 24th July
the last two eggs were opened after an incuba-
tion period of nearly 9 months. The incubation
temperatures were 32.2°C nest; 32. 6°C air.

As related to this incubation period, in
Testudo elegans the incubation period is
thought to be 4-5 months — Minton in Prakash
(1971). In Testudo horsfieldi (Gray) the incu-

Research Associate,

Madras Snake Park,

Guindy Deer Park,

Madras-600 022,

August 10, 1981.

bation time is 76 days. Roberts (1975).

In Trionyx ferox (Schneider) the incubation
period is 56 days — Lardie (1973).

Hatching measurements :

1 . R. Lardie: CL 39 mm CB — PL 32 mm —
Trionyx ferox

2. Deraniyagala : CL 44 mm CB 35 mm

PL 41 mm Wt. 10 gm

L. p. ceylonensis

3. M.S.P. 1981: CL 42 mm CB 40 mm
PL 39 mm SH 15 mm Wt. 8.2 gm.

L. p. granosa

CL — Carapace length, CB — Carapace breadth, PL —
Plastron length, SH — Shell height

At present the five hatchlings are being fed
on earthworms, Rhacophorus maculatus tad-
poles and wasp and beetle grubs.

J. VIJAYA

References

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1953) : A Colored Atlas
of Some Vertebrates from Ceylon. Tetrapod Repti-
lia. Vol. 2, pp. 26.

Gunther, A. C. L. G. (1864): The Reptiles of
British India, pp. 45.

Larde, R. L. (1973) : Notes on eggs and young
of Trionyx forex (Schneider). /. Herpetology 7 (4):
377-78.

Prakash, I. (1971) : Testudo elegans in Western
Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (1): 273-
274.

Roberts, T. J. (1975) : A note on Testudo hors-
fieldi (Gray), the Afghan tortoise or Horsfield’s four-
toed tortoise, ibid. 72 (1) : 206-208.

Smith, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British
India, Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. 1, pp. 185.

Webb, Robert G. (1980) : The identity of Tes-
tudo punctata Lacepede, 1788 (Testudines, Trio-
nychidae). Bulletin of the Museum of Natural
History of Paris 4e ser., 2, Section A, no. 2: pp.
547-557.

211

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

22. A FEW MOMENTS WITH AN EGG LAYING
ISTIBLENNIUS STR1ATOMACULATUS

On January 3, 1980, we were on a field trip
as a part of our study programme on the rock-
pool ecosystems off Visakhapatnam. While
making observations, we were glad to see a
ripe female of Istiblennius striatomaculatus
(Kner 1866) in the process of laying eggs in
an empty barnacle, shell at the top of a rock
outcropping of a tidepool. It was 3.40 P.M.,
and the sea had receded exposing the upper
one metre of the triangular outcropping rock
which was almost dry. The lone fish leaped on
to the surface of the steep rock from the water
level. Aided by the pelvic fins in holding the
rock surface, it started then to climb up by
wriggling movements and wagging its tail.
After reaching the apex of the rock, it entered
an empty barnacle shell containing a little
sea water; there it settled with its head pro-
truding. All this it did with much ease and
agility, as if it had previous experience of visi-
ting the same spot. Then it began laying eggs.
While it was laying eggs no major body con-

Andhra University,

Waltair 530 003,

Andhra Pradesh,

April 16, 1981.

volutions were observed, but for slight move-
ments, probably to spread the eggs, evenly.
It remained laying eggs for 4\ minutes and
all the time the fish relied on aerial breathing
aided by a few gulps of sea water from the
barnacle shell. The fish then came out of the
barnacle shell and jumped back into the water.
After an interval of 12 minutes, it returned
to its breeding nest, in the same way as it did
before and remained there for 3 minutes. By
4.20 P.M. the tide was rising and we had to
leave the place collecting a sample of the eggs.
The eggs were dome shaped, attached to floor
by sticky disc and measured 0.5-0.6 mm in
horizontal axis and 0 . 4-0 . 5 mm in vertical
axis. The egg was more or less transparent
containing an yellow oil globule.

The University Grants Commission and the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
are acknowledged for financial assistance res-
pectively to senior and junior author.

N.A.V. PRASAD REDDY
C. UMA DEVI

23. EEL FISHING WITH BRUSH HIDEOUT

From ancient times fishermen of Nepal have
developed many and varied fishing tactics to
suit local exigencies. One fishing method that
deserves special mention could be called the
“Brush hideout for eels”. This method of fish-
ing is based on the fact that eels frequent

weedy lakes and boggy banks of rivers and
hide among weeds, and in holes, crevices in
the shallows of the lake or river bank during
day time. This habit is utilized by experienced
fishermen to catch the spiny eels ( Macrogna -
thus aculeatum, M. pancalus). This method is

212

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

also effective for catching gar fish ( Xenentodon
cancila) and freshwater eel ( Anguilla bengal-
ensis) are also caught by this method.

The weedy, shallow section of rivers or lakes
with a depth about 2-3 m is selected for fish-
ing. Generally a sheltered back-water is pre-
ferred. In such stagnant water, eel carrying
capacity is high. A test fishing is carried out
in order to gain a rough idea about the species
composition of the lake or river section.

Eels are attracted by green twigs of broad
leaved plants. Plant species chosen for the
purpose vary with the locality. Generally,
twigs of pipal ( Ficus religiosa), Kaniu ( Ficus
glomerata) , Fadelo ( Erythrina indica ), Gideri
( Premna integrijolia) . Satibayer ( Rhus parvi-
flora ) (= Litsea monopetala) are chosen for
the purpose. These plants do not have sharp
thorns and are suitable for making brush hide-
out. Twigs of about 3 metres length are taken
for the making the hideout. About 200 twigs
are tied together into bundle leaving interstices
for keeping stones.

Fresh twigs having a length of three metres
are laid parallel and one over the other. A
brush bundle is made by juxtaposing about
200 twigs. To create a sheltering den inside
the bundle, stones are put inside. The stones
also act as sinkers and keep the bundle sub-
merged. The whole bundle is tied securely
with green bamboo bark ( chuina ). The bundle
should be fastened loosely so that there is
enough sheltering space for eels. On some
occasions wheat or maize flour soaked with
goat blood or mixed with cowdung is put in-
side the twig bundle.

The brush bundle ready for setting is taken
to a suitable section of the river or lake. The
bundle is draped externally with leaf of aqua-
tic plants (preferably dead) or rotten. The
bundle is trodden under foot and some heavy
stones are kept over the bundle to keep it

submerged. The hideout bundle is kept un-
disturbed overnight.

The brush bundle fisher visits the spot early
in the morning. He dislodges the stones put
over the bundle very carefully so that the shel-
tering eels are not disturbed. He holds the
rear end of the bundle firmly and throws the
bundle towards the shore. If he finds many
eels wriggling out he encircles the bundle with
a cast net and catches them one by one. In
this way he explores other bundles set nearby.
Usually a fisherman sets three twig bundles at
a time in a spot as there is every possibility
of theft of the bundle.

In Narayani, Rapti, and Kaligandaki water-
sheds, fishermen start this fishing activity dur-
ing September and October. At this time river
and lake margin is accessible and become
fishable due to the rotting algae. In Rupa and
Begnas lake fishing activity is at its peak dur-
ing November. In the marshlands of terai this
fishing is productive throughout the year.

Generally armoured eel ( Mastacembelus
armatus, M. pancolus ) dominate the catch in
Rapti and Narayani watershed. Besides these.
Gar fish ( Xenentodon cancila ), Mud eel
( Amphipnous cuchia ) are also fairly well re-
presented in every catch. In the watershed of
rivers and lakes of Kaligandaki and Bokhara
lakes the Spiny eel ( Macrognathus aculeatum )
predominates in every catch. On some occa-
sions a few freshwater eels ( Anguilla bengal-
ensis ) are also caught. In a twig bundle about
3-5 kg. of fish is harvested. Enquiries show that
this method has been in use for over two cen-
turies.

Ack nowledgem en ts

I am indebted to the National Council for
Science and Technology HMG, Nepal, for

213

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

financing “Fishing method and Gear Study” thankful to Dr. K. L. Shrestha, secretary of
scheme, as principal Investigator. I am also the Council for encouragement and help.

Department of Zoology, TEJ KUMAR SHRESTHA

Tribhuvan University,

Kirtipur Campus,

Kathmandu, Nepal,

May 6, 1981.

24. COMMON METHODS OF CATCHING AIR BREATHING
FISHES IN DARBHANGA (BIHAR)

From fisheries point of view, Darbhanga is
an important district of north Bihar. It lies
between 85°31' and 86°44' east latitude and
25°28' and 26°40' north longitude having a
waterspread area of 5,986 ha. The annual
freshwater marketable surplus fish of the dis-
trict has been estimated to over 10,000 tons
of which live fish constitute about 28 per cent.
In Bihar, seasonal supply of air-breathing fishes
comes mostly from the chaurs, low lying fields
which get inundated by the rising rivulets of
the Koshi, which is not considered to be a
carp bearing river (Jhingran 1974). Thus, the
chaur fishery of Darbhanga is dominated most-
ly by the catfishes, and some miscellaneous
varieties.

The chaurs surveyed during the present
study are seasonal, retaining water with vary-
ing depths for 6 to 9 months. The fishes cap-
tured are brought to Supaul fish market for
disposal which is an important fish assembly
centre of this district, situated about 90 km
south-east of Darbhanga township. The fish
population in the chaurs are self-recruited
every year through the flood waters. When
the rivers recede, the chaurs are left with vari-
ous types of fish and fish seed. The average
catch composition of chaur fishery has been
worked out as carp — 20%, catfish — 15%,
air-breathing fish — 45% and miscellaneous

— 20%. Fishing in chaurs commences from
January-February every year when the water
level comes down considerably and is conti-
nued till June. In the beginning, carps dominate
the catch but after March they are replaced
by air-breathing and miscellaneous fishes.
Fishing starts from early morning and ends by
midday. The catch is brought to the assembly
centre in split bamboo basket on sling. On
an average 300-400 kg fish/day are assembled
during December-February and 1,000-2,000 kg
during March-June at Supaul market. The
fishes are first graded sizewise and specieswise
and then sold. The prices of sing hi and magur
vary between Rs. 5-7 per kg and Rs. 4-5 per
kg respectively.

Although none of the following fishing
methods is used exclusively for air-breathing
fishes, the catch comprises a majority of these
fishes.

Tobacco Poisoning

This method is used during late summer
when cracks appear in the earth. The depth
of individual cracks varies upto 1.5 m. In this
method, fishermen put a few dry leaves (c 200
g in weight) of tobacco ( Nicotina spp.) at
the crack mouth and sprinkle water to make
them wet. After 30 minutes or so, the wet
leaf releases decoction of nicotine which pene-

214

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

trates into the cracks and whatever fish are
in the crack come up to the surface within an
hour in distress. The catch is mostly magur
and singhi.

Cover Pot or Plunge Basket

A bell-shaped bamboo strip pot, known as
‘Tapi is cast over the fish in muddy and
shallow water areas and whatever fish is pre-
sent is hand picked. Tapi has two openings
— top and bottom. The circumferences of
these openings are 70 and 20 cm respectively.
Its height also varies between 40-60 cm. The
gear is very much effective for small murrels
but sometimes minnows are also caught.

Apiyar

It is a typical method for capturing air-
breathing fishes from the chaurs and low-lying
paddy fields, particularly at places where there
is definite difference in the gradient of the
terrain. An artificial barrier, made of earth
and aquatic plants, is erected across the lower
portion of the terrain with a small opening at
a corner. A small circular ditch (sometimes
rectangular, 60 x 60 cm), locally known as
‘ Apiyar (also referred as ‘Chhoh' or ‘Deba
according to place of operation), is dug near
this opening. A bamboo screen (50 x 70 cm)
is fixed vertically at the opening and water
is allowed to pass from upper level to lower
level. Instinctively, the fishes inhabiting the
lower level side start ascending towards upper
level zone. In doing so, when fishes come in
contact with the split bamboo screen, they jump
into the apiyar and get trapped. The catch
mostly comprises singhi , magur, koi, and mur-
rels.

Fisheries Research Station,

(Govt, of Bihar),

Darbhanga-846 001,

August 4, 1981.

Cast Net

Locally it is known as ‘phenka jal\ The
net is made of either cotton (20/5/1) or syn-
thetic twine (210/2/3). The nets are provid-
ed with peripheral pockets ( ghars ), made by
folding 4-6 meshes and stiched at the intervals
of 6-9 meshes. The pickets are provided with
oval shaped iron sinkers, each weighing 50 g.
The peripheral circumference of the net varies
between 120 and 200 cm and the height bet-
ween 1 . 5 and 2.5m. The mesh size also varies
between 5 and 12 mm. The net is either ope-
rated from the shore or from a boat to any
depth of water. The catch is koi, singhi, besides
other fishes.

In Darbhanga, air-breathing fishes are also
caught through drag net, line fishing and vari-
ous types of traps in addition to the methods
given above but they are not so very common
in practice.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

I am grateful to Dr. P. S. Prasad, Director
of Fisheries, Bihar, Patna for taking interest
in the work. I also express my gratitude to
Sri S. R. Banerji, Joint Director of Fisheries
(Research), Bihar, Patna for suggesting the
topic and going critically through the manus-
cript. Assistance given by Sri D. K. Singh,
Fisheries Research Station, Darbhanga is
thankfully acknowledged. Thanks are also due
to Dr. N. K. Thakur, Officer-in-charge, Cen-
tral Inland Fisheries Research Centre, Patna
for giving valuable suggestions in the prepa-
ration of the revised manuscript.

R. R. PRASAD1

1 Present address: Fish Farmers’ Development

Agency, Mission Road, Siwan-841 226, Bihar.

215

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Reference

Jhingran, V. G. (1974) : Fish and Fisheries of
India. Hindustan Pub. Corpn., New Delhi: 954 p.

25. MORE BUTTERFLIES FROM BOMBAY — 2

Four additions are made here to the list of
Butterflies of Bombay and Salsette published
in this Journal by Best and others (Vols. 50:
331-339, 53: 282-284, 54: 215-216, 56: 358-
359, 57: 233-234, 74: 190-191, 76: 369,

77: 531-532).

Precis atlites (Johanssen) — Grey Pansy.
In Volume 16 (p. 576) of this Journal L.C.H.
Young wrote of this species, “ . . . . though it
does not occur in the Konkan or nearer Bom-
bay than Goa it is yet found in all the other
forest regions of the Peninsula.” I saw this
butterfly for the first time in the Konkan on
25/xii/ 1978 at Kihim, Alibag, Kolaba and
then in the Borivli National Park on 29/xii /
1980, and finally caught one on 6/vii/ 1980.
Also seen near Tulgi at about the same time
this year and at Devnar, Bombay on 14/viii/
1980.

Bombay may now be considered to be at the
north-western limit of the distribution of this
butterfly.

Chilades laius laius (Cramer) — Lime Blue.
Not recorded earlier from Konkan or North
Kanara, I found this on 15/i / 1975 in a garden
at Devnar which has lime trees growing in it.
The specimens are in the dry season form and
have the dark clouded discal patch which is
supposed to characterise them. They agree with

3, Reshma Apartments,

13 Pali Hill, Bandra,

Bombay- 400 050,

August 6, 1981.

colour plate 175/31 in Lewis (butterflies
of the world). According to Wynter-Blyth
(BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION, p. 284)
the Lime Blue “is common throughout the
plains of India wherever its foodstuffs, lime
and Pomelo grow.”

Anaphaeis aurota aurota (Fabricius) —
Pioneer. Not included in the list mentioned
above but Aitken and Comber described it as
“More or less common everywhere.” in “A
list of the Butterflies of the Konkan” (7. Bom-
bay nat. Hist . Soc. 15: 51). I found it very
abundant in the Borivli National Park on
29 /vi/ 1980 and again at about the same time
this year.-Also, one male at Devnar on 13/vii /
1981.

Sarangesa purendra pandra Evans — Spot-
ted Small Flat. According to Evans (a cata-
logue OF THE HESPERIIDAE OF EUROPE, ASIA

and Australia, p. 119) there are 3 $ $ 2$ 9 of
this subspecies in the British Museum (Natural
History) from Bombay. Comber (/. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 15: 357) wrote “Mr. E. H.
Aitken found this species by no means uncom-
mon at Vehar in March, and I took several
at Matheran in April.” Though not found by
Best. I took one in the Borivli National Park
on 6/viii/ 1980.

SALMAN ABDULALI

216

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

26. SOME BUTTERFLIES FROM BHUTAN

The butterfly Fauna of India and neigh-
bouring countries has been studied extensively.
But there is no specific literature available
on the butterflies of Bhutan (Varshney 1977).
Hence a small collection of butterflies made
by the Society’s staff member, Mr. Rex Pimento
during the Ornithological Survey of Bhutan
in 1973 will be of some interest to the lepi-
dopterist.

Collections were made at Phuntsholing
c 2000 ft on 30th September and 1st October,
Tongsa c 7000 ft from 5th to 11th October
and Bumthang c 9000 ft from 6th to 20th
October. Butterflies collected were identified
as belonging to the following species.

Family: Danaidae

1 . Da nan s aglea (Kluk) Glassy Tiger
Common at Tongsa and Phuntsholing.

2. D. melaneus (Cramer) Chocolate Tiger
Rare, Single specimen was collected from
Tongsa.

3. D. sita sita (Kollar) Chestnut Tiger
Rare, Single specimen was collected at
Lodrai (Boorder Road Camp) Near
Hatisar.

4. D. genutia (Cramer) Common Tiger
Common at Phuntsholing, Tongsa.

Family: Satyridae

5. Ypthima hubneri Kirby Common Fourring
Common, specimens collected from
Phuntsholing.

Family: Nymphalidae

6. Neptis yerburyi But. Yerbury’s Sailer
Common, specimens collected from Phunt-
sholing.

7. Precis hierta (Fabricius) Yellow Pansy
Single $ and $ was collected from Tongsa
on 5th October.

8. P. iphita (Cramer) Chocolate Pansy
Single specimen collected from Tongsa.

9. Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus) Painted Lady
Common, specimens collected from
Tongsa & Bumthang.

10. Argynnis lathonia (Linnaeus) Queen of
Spain Fritillary

Very common at Tongsa and Bumthang.
Family: Erycinidae

1 1 . Zemeros flegyas (Cramer) Punchinello
Very common, collected from Tongsa,
Bumthang and Phuntsholing.

12. Abisara neophron (Hewitson) Tailed Judy
Rare — single specimen collected at
Phuntsholing.

Family: Lycaenidae

13. Hypolycaena erylus (Godart) Common Tit
Common, two specimens collected from
Phuntsholing.

Family: Papilionidae

14. Papilio clytia forma dissimilis (Linnaeus)
Common Mime

Common, specimen collected from Phunt-
sholing.

15. Papilio polytes (Linnaeus) Common
Mormon

Common, single butterfly was collected
30 km away from Tongsa.

Family: Pieridae

16. Cepora nerissa phryne (Fabricius) Com-
mon Gull

217

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Wet Season Form, common, collected
from Phuntsholing.

17. Cepora nandisia nandina (Lucas) Lesser
Gull

Common, collected from Phuntsholing.

18. Appias Syncida M. Chocolate Albatross
Common.

19. Pieris napi montana (Linnaeus) Green
Veined White

Common.

20. Ixias pyrene (Linnaeus) Yellow Orange
Tip

Common $ & $ collected from Tongsa.

21 . Hebomoia glaucippe (Linnaeus) Great
Orange Tip

Common, $ & $ collected from Phunt-
sholing, common at Tongsa.

22. Catopsilia crocale (Cramer) Common
Emigrant

Common at Tongsa, Phuntsholing.

Bombay Natural History Society, NARESH CHATURVEDI

Hornbill House,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

August 29, 1981.

Reference

Varshney, R. K. (1977): Index Rhopalocera

Indica. An Index of the local-lists of Butterflies from
India and neighbouring countries. Rec. Zool. Surv.

India 73: 159-177.

27. STRANGE PRACTICE OF A CATERPILLAR — A CORRECTION

In a note titled “Strange practice of a
Caterpillar”, (1980, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
Vol. 76 (2) : 368-369) A.S. Bhaduri wrote,
“. . .1 found a medium big butterfly with white
spotted black wings resting on the wall near
that Curcuma plant. It was resting with its
forewings upright and slightly apart and the
hindwings resting flat, the white spots in the
wings thus showing to advantage .... I take
it to be a Hesperiid.”

Sevastopulo in a note with the same title
(1981, ibid., 77 (3): 532) wrote, “The butter-
fly with ‘white-spotted black wings’ observed
on the near-by wall was almost certainly the
imago that had emerged from the Curcuma-
feeding caterpillar, probably Celaenorrhinus
sp.”

Sevastopulo’s identification is wrong since

3, Reshma Apartments,

13 Pali Hill, Bandra, Bombay 400 050,
August 6, 1981.

218

(a) Curcuma is not a foodplant of Celaenor-
rhinus. In fact Celaenorrhinus belongs to sub-
family Pyrginae whose foodplants are restrict-
ed to the Dicot}4edons, whereas Curcuma is a
Monocotyledon. All Indian Hesperiidae feed-
ing on Monocotyledons belong to subfamily
Hesperiinae. (b) Celaenorrhinus sp. always
settle with both wings flat; not in the manner
described by Bhaduri.

On the basis of Bhaduri’s description I
would identify the butterfly as Udaspes folus,
or, possibly Notocrypta sp.

Incidentally, a caterpillar I found on Cur-
cuma in the Borivli National Park, Bombay
on 12th July 1981 pupated on the 13th or
14th of that month and the butterfly which
emerged on 20th July 1981 turned out to be
Udaspes folus.

SALMAN ABDULALI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

28. EFFECT OF METEPA ON SOME LARVAL TISSUES OF
MUSCA DOMESTIC A NEBULO

( With thirteen text-figures )

Introduction

Recently experiments have been conducted
by various workers which show cytological
effects of many chemosterilants. For example
the germ cell chromosomes fragmented and
chromatin clumped and stained atypically when
male house flies were treated with apholate or
tepa. When female of the house flies were fed
on the hempa or apholate, chromatin clump-
ing and vacuolation of the oocytes and nurse
cells were caused. In some instances it was
followed by degeneration of the cytoplasm and
atrophy of the follicular epithelium. All re-
sults indicate that both the severity and type
of injury produced were frequently more de-
pendent on dosage than on the type of chemo-
sterilant used. Such an experimental evidence
goes to suggest that chemosterilants induce
sexual sterility by clumping of chromatin,
vacuolation of oocytes and degeneration of fol-
licular cells, nurse cells and the germ cell
chromosomes in adult house flies. But in what
manner the immature stages are affected in
the house fly Musca domestica nebulo , yet
remains to be seen.

In the line of information given above it
was considered feasible to see the effect of
metepa by treating the eggs and observing
any histopathological effects on the larval tis-
sues of the house fly.

Materials and Methods

The flies used during the present studies
were obtained from a normal laboratory stock
that is being maintained since 1961 at a tem-

perature of 28±1°C and 60 to 70 per cent rela-
tive humidity. The flies lay eggs on cotton
pads soaked in diluted buffalo milk in the
dishes which were replaced by fresh petri dishes
at twenty four hours interval. The freshly laid
eggs were carefully transferred along with the
cotton pads into glass jars for further deve-
lopment. These jars were covered with cloth
in order to prevent the larvae from escaping.
On the sixth day a layer of dry cotton was
added for the pupation of larvae. The pupae
were sorted out and kept in petri dishes in
cages for the adults to emerge. In order to
determine the effect of metepa two hundred
eggs from the normal flies were obtained, half
of them were allowed to develop without any
treatment (served as control) and the remain-
ing hundred were dipped in ethanol solution
of metepa of 0.0156 per cent for fifteen
minutes. This strength of the ethanol solution
by experience was found to be the maximum
effective concentration without too much mor-
tality. Living larvae of the first, second and
third instar were collected at desired time in-
tervals, fixed and sectioned to see the progress
of damage done to the tissues. The idea be-
hind this set of experiments was to determine
within possible limitations the cause of morta-
lity of larval stages.

Result and Discussion

The chief interest of workers employing
chemosterilizing technique has been to effeU
a reduction in the population of harmful in-
sects. Their data regarding the efficiency of
this system are based on the rate of mortality

219

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

0)

&d^* g so

7T d < hn— J"! O

0)

I <4-1

o' S 13 ooi3 -a o

J-H

03

..SCO
0) 4) 0)

-J3 > > c

,,a§&88.l

g S rS't'e0-0- «

-s/o « g.S 0bo<.2

S O-g

-bc x*~«ogr°

e ^ § d oo g-£ . c a a

5 Z*Z*

o d

<U

>

0,1 mm

0*1 mm.

0.1 mm.

° ao pS, § «

du-4 ° > 0X5

o o

_ Uh

ob<~ ^ • -2
a tn a t3 • E o ^ g d
5 ^ o _, o> oo^< *.o cl>

E g >'l g'^ «Je1 §

t> 5?a £*o£

E-StS S ^g.S

.^•512 S3 ooo*S o c 2 o

II #!!' ”11-1-1 s-s

&*)*_, <3+3 5 to 3

o c 3-dp Mfl >

^o-H.id«">o o C:d^ £
^ -iSnSSo OH
d g £ 00 ’+2 60 _

o a 03 d OO’O

§ & « oo2 2 ’I <S

g-o C <U
F 03 d o

F o3 t> ^ o3 -
^ > 03

03

.S-0 o ■ > ..._,

'P J2 GO M d C/5

d ^ d cs > d

d.d '".d^

d

o d M ^ U L

n ° £ o 14

uO " ts -

ri .rS— ica.SwiM^^'H'o
,fn O 2 to ^ S '+S ^^3 a -a -F

oo . cj.S d «5,S,2 d^j go-0

oo t3 •’-' .b o’-1 q h-

* g fl 8 *

g ^ 8 .8 «j n o

O' o jn (fl c3

U<.2?2S

a>

•S 22

a. 2

dg»K_

- o.2 o cs -

5 ’X3 Tn d o T3 o

-.2 o ??o di3 ^

d^D^'-^n^Od10
•- o GO d 00.2 ^ o o

gq^g<»8^“8t>.2&H'c3
d oS^ 13 -j a » ® d

^ d os--: a 03 <*> a<4_< p:

5 d 2d .b!3F_H'F'3^'0

o d

_ rj-O c d d3 +3 o3 _ ,

2 o*3) ?*•-! -i c.h f?

g.2 £?ob|
03 o <j_! 3
§£- o*
o _ d

pdgo

r\ ■+"* O »-■*

S f *C.S.S S CJ 00

00 073^ 0 g c

o d ~ f -2 o
£ ° 'T3"’'H'o'4h W O

_|»o»=S«

.So^oa^H^^
<u *rj ^ o d -d .h
x3 _, tn ^ .2 d 2

- § S.-sJtS^I g

.1.3

rsal: &<i.s-,«

Q o

25 oo d.S O
«m dgg .^2*5 '

• > 7i ll, > a

h- oo.;

c d »

OO ^

i3.2?< o Z

= «. d.S F C

- ' d^ "

hH ^ . S , m t/5

.^O^'jFdoFF
■2d . •- . oo O bi 3 F d
d > &n «-> op d 5o f .2.2

ftf) ;* ; , gjj ^ wxj «— i nn ♦— i . ^

eS^e &e as ?.aj3

220

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of various stages of development and the inhi-
bition of the reproductive process in the adults.
Few papers, nevertheless, deal with the histo-
logical changes that are either the result of
toxicity of these chemicals, severly injuring the
chromosomes of the sperm and the ovum, or
merely interfere with the physiological pro-
cesses culminating in the failure of the female
to oviposit. The later is considered as good
criterion in the evaluation of a compound as
a chemosterilant. Metepa that has been used
in the present experiment in maximum effective
concentration without too much mortality
(0.0156%) on the eggs of house fly can be
considered as a chemical which does not show
any marked effect on the germ ceils in the
first instar larva. A varying degree of vacuoli-
zation is however, seen in the tissues of the
first instar but without any sign of histolysis
in the affected tissue. Besides this there is no
other evidence available in the tissues of the
first instar larva which could be regarded as
relevant from the histopathological point of
view. In the later instars a marked degree of

Section of Entomology,

Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh, U.P.

Department of Entomology,

College of Agriculture,

G.B.P.U.A. & T.,

Pan TN AGAR,

Nainital, U.P.,

September 25, 1980.

fragmentation along with vacuolization is seen
in the region of the proventriculus, brain and
ventral ganglion. This fragmentation progres-
sively becomes more pronounced in the third
instar larva as compared with the section of
the normal larva of corresponding stage. The
fragmented region shows a dissolution of the
cells causing cleft between the healthy tissues.
This may be taken as an evidence of the toxic
effect of the chemical.

Further, the sterilizing quality assigned to
metepa does not seem to express itself during
the immature stages. Its sterilizing quality may
be evident in the adult flies which would hatch
from the treated eggs.

ACK NOWLEDGE M E N TS

We are greatly indebted to Dr. M. Moin
Farooqui for his guidance during the progress
of this work. We are also grateful to Prof. S.
Mashhood Alam, Head, Department of Zoo-
logy, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for
providing necessary laboratory facilities.

NIKHAT ARIFA

MAJID ALI KHAN

221

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

29. A NEW POD BORER, AD1SURA MARGIN AL1S (WALKER)
(LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) ON REDGRAM,
CAJANUS CAJAN (L.)

Under the genus Adisura, five species name-
ly A. atkinsoni Moore, A. aerugo (Feld.), A.
dulcis Moore, A. marginalis (Walker) and A.
straminea Hampson have been recorded from
various parts of the world including India.
According to Hampson (1903), Adisura mar-
ginalis (Walker) is distributed in Sulthanpur
(Punjab), Campbellpur, Manpuri, Sikkim,
Calcutta and Cuddapah of India. Lefroy
(1909) reported Adisura ( Chariclea ) margi-
nalis (Walker) a pretty pink and yellow moth
to be common in the plains of India, but no
mention of its host is found in literature.

We observed the infestation of the pod bor-
ing caterpillar, Adisura marginalis (Walker)
on redgram, Cajanus cajan at the Main Re-
search Station, University of Agricultural Scien-
ces, Bangalore during September- January
1972-73. The percentage of incidence on tur
pods in the field was 6. The insect has been
observed on redgram for the first time in
Mysore State, and this constituted a new re-
cord of host in India.

Adults were Medium-sized moths with light
brown forewings; cilia of the fore wing were
pink at the base and white at tip; hind wings

Department of Entomology,

Agricultural College,

Bangalore-560 024,

April 25, 1980.

were pale brown in colour. These moths differ
from A. atkinsoni (the major pod borer moth
of Dolichos lablab) in having a white costal
margin on the forewing. The moths were very
active.

The eggs were oval, whitish and laid on
flower buds and tender pods. The young cater-
pillars fed by boring into flower buds and
pods. As the caterpillars grew old, they fed on
seeds by boring into mature pods. The last
instar caterpillars was green in colour, and
rarely light brown, with lateral white stripes.
The larva of this species differed from that
of Adisura atkinsoni in the absence of brown
markings on the sides of the body. The last
instar caterpillars of A. atkinsoni and A. mar-
ginalis, on an average measured 30.0 and
27.4 mm in length, respectively. The full
grown caterpillar of A. marginalis was also
found to curl up when disturbed. Pupation
took place in the soil inside an earthen cell.

Detailed studies on its biology and morpho-
logy are in progress.

We are thankful to Dr. G. P. Channa Basa-
vanna. Professor of Entomology for providing
facilities and encouragement.

T. S. THONTADARYA
K. V. SESHU REDDY
R. GOVINDAN

References

Hampson, G. F. (1903) : Catalogue of the Lepi-
doptera Phalaenae in the British Museum, 4, 119.

Lefroy, H. M. (1909) : Indian insect life. (Rep.
ed., 1971, Today and Tomorrow’s print and pub.,
New Delhi). Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta.

222

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

30. AN AMPLIFIED DESCRIPTION OF A HITHERTO
UNCOMMON SPECIES CRA IBIODENDRON MANNII W. W. SMITH

(ERICACEAE)

( With nine text-figures)

Many areas in India still hold several taxa
to be discovered and described. Of even more
importance is the scanty descriptions of old
taxa collected in India by early workers which
have not been fully described. The striking-
example to illustrate this is the uncommon
species Craibiodendron mannii W. W. Sm. of
the Ericaceae which a complete needs redes-
cription. The genus Craibiodendron was first
founded and described by W. W. Smith (1911),
as an honour to Mr. W. G. Craib, on the
basis of Burma and Siam specimens of C.
shanicum deposited, in Kew and Edinburgh
herbaria. Subsequently, Smith (1912) describ-
ed insufficiently C. mannii taking the specific
epithet from the MS name Leucothoe mannii
King et Prain (MS deposited in CAL). The
specimen was collected by Gustav Mann from
Juudmaka Pahar of Jowai, near Jaintia
Hills, Meghalaya of India. Some plants
were also collected by King et Prain
from the same locality whereas N. L.
Bor collected this plant from Naga Hills
of Nagaland. Kanjilal (1939) recorded
a scanty and quite erroneous description of
this plant and also did not illustrate; further
he kept it under Pier is formosa D. Don. A
check of the herbarium sheets of the Eastern
Circle of BSI (ASSAM), Shillong, and Forest
Research Institute Herbarium (DD), Dehra
Dun, has revealed that there is no recent col-
lections of this plant. Further this species differs
from the species of the related genera
in the presence of terminal spheroidal cells
which is evidently a generic feature of the
mesophyll of all the other species of Craibio-

dendron (details of which will be published
elsewhere).

Craibiodendron

W. W. Sm., Rec. Bot. Surv. India 4: 276.
1911 et Notes R. bot. Gdn. Edinb. 24: 157.
1912; Stevens, Notes R. bot. Gdn. 30(2): 342.
1970 (including Nuihonia Dop in Lecomte, FI.
Gen. Indo-China 3: 719. 1930).

Type sp. C. shanicum W. W. Sm.

The seven species of this genus is confined
to South East Asia. Among them C. mannii
is endemic in India and restricted to Megha-
laya and Nagaland. C. shanicum is recorded
in Manipur (INDIA) and other regions of
South East Asia. The other 5 species have
scattered distribution in China, Burma, Cam-
bodia, Laos and Thailand.

Craibiodendron mannii W.W. Sm. Notes R.
bot. Gdn. 24: 159. 1912; Kanjilal et al. FI.
Assam 3: 151. 1939.

Robust shrubs or small trees. Branches
and branchlets glabrous. Leaves 8-8.5 x ±
3 cm, alternate, ovate-lanceolate, apex acute or
subobtuse, base cuneate, margins entire, coria-
ceous, glabrous on both surfaces, nerves c. 20-
paired, conspicuous on both surfaces, secon-
dary veins brochidodromous, abaxially conspi-
cuous; petioles ± 1 cm, glabrous. Inflores-
cences raceme, clustered panicle to thyrse, =t
8 cm long, compressed; pedicels ± 0.2cm;
bracteoles 2, deciduous. Flowers c. 0.3 x 0.25
cm, pendulous, alternate or opposite but always
terminally paired. Sepals 5, ± 0.15 cm long,
base slightly imbricate apex free, persistent.

223

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Figs. 1-9. Craibiodendron mannii W.W. Smith
1. Flowering and fruiting twigs; 2. Flower; 3. Androecium; 4. & 5. Stamens; 6. Ovary;
7. Transection of ovary — axile placentation; 8. Capsule; 9. Triangular seeds uni-
laterally winged.

224

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tomentose in buds. Corolla tubes 0.25 cm,
narrowly campanulate, lobes 5, 0.15 cm long,
erect, slightly imbricate, completely joint in
buds. Stamens ± 0 . 2 cm long, filaments adnate
at the base of the corolla-tube, lower half
pouched, slightly puberulous, base serrulate,
falsely adhered on the thalamous, encircling
the style base, upper half curled, geniculate,
free; anthers 2-lobed, muticous, pseudo-
syngenesious; back of the anthers in bud are
covered with narrow patches of white deposits
of dissolution tissue, composed of unicellular
hairs. Ovary ± 0 . 2 cm x 0.1 cm, apparently
oblageniform, superior, covered with triangular
worts, 5-chambered; ovules solitary, triangu-
lar placentation axile, styles ± 0.1 cm long,
warted; stigmas 5-angular, sparsely strigose,
projecting. Capsules 1 cm across, puberulous,
locules 5, splitting up to the centre at matu-
rity; seeds pendulous, ± 0.5 cm, triangular,
unilaterally winged. (Figs. 1-9).

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah-711 103,

July 22, 1980.

Type: Meghalaya, Juudmaka Pahar (6000
ft), August 1891. G. Mann s.n. (CAL).

Specimens examined:

India-Nagaland, Naga Hills, N. L. Bor 2828
(assam); Jowai, Dr. King’s collector s. n.;
Jaintia hills. Dr. King’s collector s. n.; Juud-
maka Pahar, G. Mann s. n. (CAL); Naga
hills, N. L. Bor 6271, 2828 (DD). C. shanicum
W. W. Sm., India-Manipur, Shugnu, D. B. Deb
2633 (CAL).

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Dr. J. Joseph, Deputy
Director, Eastern Circle, B.S.I., Shillong, and
Sri K. M. Vaid, Systematic Botany Branch,
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, for
sending the herbarium specimens for our study.

T. ANANDA RAO
SWAPNA CHAKRABORTI

31. LYCIUM CH1NENSE MILL. (SOLANACEAE) FROM INDIA

{With a text -figure)

Lycium chinense Mill. — a native of China
and Japan, also growing in Tibet and culti-
vated in Eastern Asia for showy rambling
habit, evergreen leaves and colourful berries
— is now recorded here for the first time in
India from West Bengal.

The occurrence of this taxon in West Ben-
gal suggests its introduction by human agency
at an earlier date and subsequent migration
either directly through North Bengal or
through Assam via Tibet into Eastern India

or as garden escape.

A concise description alongwith an illustra-
tion of this taxon is provided here.

Lycium chinense Mill. Gard. Diet. ed. VIII
n. 5. 1768; Bailey Stand. Cyclop. Hort. 4
(L-O): 1930. 1916 and Manual Cult. PI.
872. 1924; Baker and Bakhuizen f. FI. Java
2: 467. 1965.

Erect to rambling shrub, much branched,
older twigs often with few spines. Leaves alter-
nate and fascicled, very variable in size and

225

15

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Fig. 1. Lycium chinense Mill.

A. Habit (in part) ; B. Calyx; C. Split Corolla; D. Stamen; E. Pistil; F. Fruit; G. Seeds.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

shape, 1-4.5 cm x 0.5-1 cm, obovate-rhomboid
spathulate, acute, entire, base cuneate to at-
tenuate gradually ends in short 5-8 mm long
narrow petiole. Flowers axillary, solitary or
fascicled, 1-2 flowered; pedicels slender, 10 mm
long, glabrous. Calyx irregularly 5-lobed, 1-1.5
mm union, two lobes united of two and one
alone, ovate, 2 mm x 1-1.2 mm, acute, ciliate
at apex margin as well as subciliate to the
outer surface. Corolla 5-lobed slightly hetero-
morphic, 2 broader and 3 smaller, salver-
shaped, tube 3 mm long, shorter than lobes,
constricted at 1 . 5 mm above base, lobes ovate
elliptic, 4-4.2 mm x 2.8-3 mm, reflexed dur-
ing anthesis, margin minutely ciliate, base with
a ring of minute hairs alongwith the filaments
base. Stamens 5, slightly unequal in length,
2 longer and 3 smaller, filaments 5.5-6 mm
long, exserted, base swollen with a tuft of hairs;
anthers 1.5 mm long, oblong, 1 -celled, longi-
tudinally dehiscent. Ovary oblong, 2 mm long,
2-celled, few to many ovuled; style 8 mm long,
slender, glabrous; stigma bilobed, widened.
Berry ovoid-ellipsoid, 6-8 mm diam.; seeds
many, descending imbricate, reniform-circular,
2 mm x 1.5 -1.8 mm, compressed, orange
brown, finely reticulate (Fig. A-G).

Flowers and fruits — January to April.

Rare, in waste land.

Field notes : This species was found growing
in open association with Alternant her a sessilis
(Linn.) R. Br. ex DC. Cleome gynandra Linn.,
Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voight, Cynodon
dactylon Pers., Imperata cylindrica (Linn.)

Botanical Survey of India,

Indian Botanic Garden,

Howrah-711 103,

November 15, 1980.

Beauv., Malachra capitata Linn.

Specimens examined :

India; West Bengal; 24-Parganas, Titagarh,
Das s. n. (CAL).

China: Flupeh 3346 (CAL) Yokohama s. n.
(CAL) (Fokein China, Dunn s. n. (CAL).

Japan: Maximowicz s. n. (CAL)

Tibet: Shanghi; A-C Maingay 297 & 680
(CAL) Pinfa kweichow; Y. Tsiang 5396
(CAL); Djeddu s. n. (CAL); Lhassa;
Dungboo s. n. (CAL).

In India three other species as L. europaeum
L., L. barbatum L. and L. ruthenieum Murr.
are growing in Rajasthan, Punjab and Kash-
mir. The present taxon is closely related to
the last one. A key to all Indian species pre-
sented here to facilitate the identification of
Indian Lycium L.

A. Leaves linear-oblong; filaments
glabrous throughout;

B Corolla lobes not half so long

as the tube europaeum

BB Corolla lobes more than half

as the tube barbatum

AA Leaves linear or ovate-rhomboid
spathulate, filaments at base swol-
len and hairy;

B’ Leaves linear, 2-5 cm long
with rounded to obtuse apex;
flowers 4-5 in each cluster;
berry globose, few seeded ruthenieum

B’B’ Leaves obovate — rhomboid
spathulate, 1-4.5 cm long apex
acute, flowers 1-2 in each clus-
ter, berry ovoid to ellipsoid,
many seeded chinense

BARIN GHOSH
GOUR GOPAL MAITY

227

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

32. GENTIAN A PROSTRATA HAENKE VAR. MANGOLICA KUSN.
(GENTIANACEAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

(With seven text-figures )

While engaged in revising the fam. Gentia-
naceae, at Botanical Survey of India, Northern
Circle, Dehra Dun (BSD), a few specimens
collected by Dr. U. C. Bhattacharyya, were
found to be Gentiana prostrata Haenke var.
mangolica Kusn. (1904). Comparison with a
duplicate of the syntype of var. mangolica
Kusn., at CAL confirmed the identity.

Further the list of Indian Gentianaceae, re-
vealed that the taxon, is new to India.

The var. mangolica Kusn. is quite distinct
from other varieties of Gentiana prostrata
Haenke. The rotundate apices of corolla lobes,
oblong capsule with rounded base and larger
size of seeds are good differentiating characters
of the taxon from allied ones. The full cita-
tion and distribution etc. is as follows —

Wealth of India, Botany Section,
Publications & Information
Directorate (CSIR),

New Delhi- 12,

September 8, 1981.

Gentiana prostrata Haenke var. mangolica
Kusn. in Acta Horti Petrop. 15 (3): 369.
1904.

Syntypes : Mongolia: Kossogol, Czekanow-

sky s. n. (LE); Ubsa, Potanin (LE); Korea
11000-12000 ft (± 3594-3920 m), 1885,
Przewalsky s. n. (LE, Dupl. CAL!)
Etymology : Named on type locality, Mongolia.
Distribution : India: Jammu & Kashmir,

Mongolia.

Specimens Examined : Jammu & Kashmir —
Ladakh, Debring, Rupshu, 4600 m, 4 Sept.
1970, Bhattacharyya 4 1003 A (BSD).

Since in literature there is no illustration of
the taxon, a figure of the habit-sketch, enlarged
and opened floral parts, is being given here.

SUNITA AGRAWAL

33. RECORD OF PLANT AGO AFRA LINN. (PL ANT AGIN ACE AE)

FROM MAHARASHTRA

While studying the specimens of Plantago
Linn, in the herbarium of the Western Circle
of Botanical Survey of India ( BS1 ) at Pune,
some unidentified specimens kept under a
species folder labelled as Plantago species
dubia were critically examined and subsequent-
ly identified as Plantago afra L., which is a
native of Mediterranean region. J. D. Hooker
(1885) reported it from ‘North-Western Pun-

jab’. This plant has not been reported by Cooke
(1906). Subsequently it was reported by
Chohan and Shah (1965) from Gujarat State,
as a weed in Cuminum cyminum Linn, fields.
This is the first record of this taxon from
Maharashtra. The plant is medicinally and eco-
nomically useful (Anonymous 1969). Its cita-
tion and brief description are as follows:
Plantago afra Linn. Sp. PI. ed. 2. 168. 1762;

228

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-7. Gentiana prostrata Haenke var. mangolica Kusn.

1. Habit sketch; 2. Calyx (opened); 3. Corolla (opened); 4. Stamen; 5. Gynoecium;

6. Capsule; 7. Seeds.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Verde, in Kew Bull. 23: 509. 1969. P. psyllium
Linn. Sp. PI. ed. 2. 167. 1762. non Linn. Sp.
PI. 115. 1753; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 707.
1885; Bamber, PI. Punj. 426. 1916.

Erect, branched herbs up to 14 cm tall.
Young branches glandular-pubescent. Leaves
cauline, linear, upto 4 cm long, opposite or
sub-opposite. Flowers in spikes on axillary
peduncles. Spikes up to 1.2 cm long, ovoid,
bracts upto 0.7 cm long, with grandular and
simple hairs. Calyx lobes with scarious, glan-
dular and simple hairy margins. Corolla tube
rugulose, lobes ovate, acute. Stamens 4. Style
hairy, stigmas 2. Fruit circumscissile a little
below the middle. Seeds boat shaped.

Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle,

Pune-411 001,

June 18, 1980.

lllus : P. psyllium Linn, l.c.: Chohan and
Shah, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 327. fig.
1-4. 1965; P. ctjra Linn, l.c.: Verde, in Milne
Redhead and Polhill, FI. Trop. E. Africa,
Plantaginaceae 6. fig. 1/10. 1971; Kazmi in
Nasir and Ali, FI. W. Pak. no. 62: 19, fig. 3A-
B. 1974.

FI. & Frt .: July. Loc.: Poonagiri, 9-7-1925
(without collector’s name and number).

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah and the Deputy
Director, Western Circle, Botanical Survey of
India, Pune for facilities.

S. KARTHIKEYAN
ANAND KUMAR

References

Anonymous (1969): The Wealth of India 8:
153. fig. 53. CSIR, New Delhi.

Chohan, J. G. & Shah, G. L. (1965) : On the
occurrence of Plantaga psyllium Linn, in Gujarat.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 327.

Cooke* T. (1906) : Flora of the Presidency of
Bombay. Vol. II. London.

Hooker, J. D. (1885) : The Flora of British India.
Vol. 4. Kent.

34. ST ACHYT ARPHET A CAYENNENSIS (L. C. RICH.) SCHAU. —
A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA AND WITH A KEY TO THE

INDIAN SPECIES

{With six text-figures)

According to literature available at hand the
American genus Stachytarpheta Vahl (Verbe-
naceae) is commonly represented in India, by
the naturalised species Stachytarpheta indica
(Linn.) Vahl and S. jamaicensis Vahl as weeds
of waste places in almost all parts of the coun-
try. Another species, Stachytarpheta mutabilis
(Jacq.) Vahl, has recently been introduced into

some of the Indian Gardens in the hills and
is sometimes found as an escape. A fourth
species is now rapidly spreading as a weed in
the southern part of the Peninsular India, parti-
cularly as undergrowth among plantations and
along the banks of canals, streams and rivers
creating some concern among people about
future consequences. When and how this plant

230

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-6. Stachytarpheta cayennensis (L. C. Rich.) Schau.

1. A branch; 2. Bract; 3. Calyx tube showing the four prominent teeth; 4. Part of
calyx tube showing the fifth tooth; 5. Corolla split opened; 6. Gynoecium.

231

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

entered into this country is not known. It
closely resembles Stachytarpheta indica (Linn.)
Vahl and is usually mistaken to be the same
species. On closer scrutiny this new entrant
turned out to be S. cayennensis (L. C. Rich. )
Schau., a native of Tropical America, now
running wild in Africa (Brenan 1950). Stachy-
tarpheta cayennensis (L. C. Rich.) Schau. can
be distinguished from other Indian species
using the following key: —

1. Calyx 10-14 mm long; spike 40-100 cm long;
c. 5 mm across; bracts 10-12 mm long; limb
of corolla 15 mm across S. mutabilis

1. Calyx 4-6 mm long; spike 15-40 cm long, c.

2.5 mm across; bracts 4-5 mm long; limb of
corolla 7-12 mm across 2

2. Calyx teeth 5, 4 teeth more or less equal in
length, fifth one very short; bracts 0.5-1 mm

wide, prominently ciliate on margins

S. cayennensis

2. Calyx teeth 4, all equal in length or nearly so;

bracts 1.25-2.5 mm wide, obscurely ciliate on
margins 3

3. Leaves ovate or ovate-elliptic, coarsely crenate-

serrate, pale green; secondary lateral nerves
prominent beneath S. jamaicensis

3. Leaves oblong or subovate, finely serrate, bright
green; secondary lateral nerves not prominent
beneath 5. indica

A description of the species, and figures are
provided for easy determination of the taxon.
The specimens cited are deposited in the Her-

Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,

September 8, 1980.

barium of Botanical Survey of India, Coim-
batore (MH).

Stachytarpheta cayennensis (L. C. Rich.)
Schau. in DC. Prodr. 11: 562. 1847; Danser in
Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenz. 40: 2. 1929, Brenan
in Kew Bull. 5: 223. 1950.

Undershrub, c. 1 m high; branches slender,
pubescent. Leaves 1-5 x 0.5-3 cm, opposite,
ovate to oval-elliptic, more or less densely
hairy on nerves; crenate-serrate with 10-18
serratures on either side, obtuse at apex, obli-
que at base. Flowers in axillary and terminal,
pubescent spikes 15-23 cm long and c. 3 mm
across; bracts, c 4 mm long, linear-lanceolate,
ciliate on margins. Calyx tube 4-5 mm long,
1 . 5-2 mm across, narrowly cylindric, pubes-
cent; teeth 5, 4 posterior on the anticous
(outer) side, unequal; fifth tooth very small.
Corolla white; tube 4-5 mm long, hirsute on
throat; lobes 5, each c. 1.5 mm long. Perfect
stamens 2, epipetalous, included; filaments very
short, pubescent; staminodes 2, hairy. Ovary

2- loculed, ovules solitary; style filiform; stigma
capitate or slightly bilobed. Fruit 3-3.5 mm
long, c. 1 mm across, glabrous.

Distribution : Tropical America, Africa.

Specimens examined : kerala. Quilon

Dt.: Placherry, Ranni R.F., 16-12-1979, C. N.
Mohanan 63767; Alleppey Dt.: Nedumudy,

3- 3-1980, P. V. Sreekumar 67040.

N. C. NAIR
C. N. MOHANAN
P. V. SREEKUMAR

Reference

Brenan, J. P. M. (1950) : Plants of the Cam-
bridge expedition 1947-1948 — I. Kew Bull. 5: 223.

232

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

35. STACHYTARPHETA DICHOTOMA VAHL (VERBENACEAE) —
A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

( With a text-figure )

The genus Stachytarpheta Vahl is represent-
ed by 2 species in India — S. indica Vahl
( S . jamaicensis Vahl) and S. mutabilis Vahl.
During the course of a botanical exploration in
Garo Hills in Meghalaya, another interesting
species was collected as a dominant weed along
roadsides and in forest clearings. The species
was identified as S. dichotoma Vahl. Reference

to literature reveals that this species, like most
other species of the genus is mostly confined
to tropical American countries and thus the
present report from Meghalaya forms a new
record for India

Stachytarpheta dichotoma closely resembles
S. indica and some of the sheets have been
wrongly identified as S. indica in the Assam

Fig. 1. Stachytarpheta dichotoma Vahl.

A — a twig; B — flower; C — flower cut-open showing stamen & pistil; D — bract;

E — calyx.

233

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

herbarium. Probably this species may also occur
in other parts of the country, and is being
confused with the other species. However, the
present species can be separated from S. indica
as follows:

Branches green, spikes erect; corolla deep blue;

limb 6-8 mm across, tube 6-8 mm long

indica

Branches purple or green; spikes decurved or droop-
ing; corolla light blue turning white; limb
3-4 mm across; tube 4-5 mm long. . . .dichotoma

Detailed description along with illustrations
of the plant are given to facilitate its easy
identification.

Stachytarpheta dichotoma Vahl, Enum. PI.
1: 207. 1805.

Much branched undershrubs; branches dicho-
tomous, purplish or sometimes green, faintly
quadrangular, sparsely hairy; leaves 5-10 x
2-4 . 5 cm, ovate-elliptic, dentate, base decur-
rent along the petiole; flowers sessile, immers-
ed in long, slender decurved spikes, bracteate;

Department of Botany,

North-Eastern Hill University,
Shillong-793 014,

July 22, 1980.

bracts lanceolate-subulate, 4-4.5 mm long (D);
spikes 10-30 cm long; calyx tubular, 5-ribbed,
5 mm long (E); corolla salver-shaped, light
blue turning to white (C) ; limb 3-4 mm across,
oblique, 5-lobed; tube curved, 5 mm long, hairy
within (C); stamens 2, filaments slender, in-
cluded; ovary 2 locular, ovule 1 in each locule;
style long, filiform, persistent; stigma capitate;
drupe firmly enclosed in the calyx tube, break-
ing up into two 1 -seeded pyrenes.

FIs & Frts.: Major part of the year.

Notes : Native to Tropical America, fairly
naturalized in Meghalaya, specially in Garo
Hills.

Specimens studied : Meghalaya: Garo Hills-
Tasek B. Neogi 3569; K. Haridasan 4110,
Darugiri 4125 (*NEHU).

We are thankful to the Director, Royal
Botanic Garden, Kew for determining our
specimens.

R. R. RAO
B. NEOGI
K. HARIDASAN

* The abbreviation ‘NEHU’ is yet to find a place
in ‘ Index Herbarium’.

j.

36. NOTES ON THREE RARE AND INTERESTING ORCHIDS
COLLECTED FROM TRIVANDRUM DISTRICT, KERALA

The systematic and intensive exploration of
the botany of Trivandrum Dt., Kerala have
so far resulted in the rediscovery of a number
of rare and little known plants. Notes on three
rare terrestrial orchids namely Aphyllorchis
montana (Thw.) Reichb. f., F,ulophia cellenii
(Wight) Blume and Malaxis latifolia Sm. are
presented in this paper.

Aphyllorchis montana (Thw.) Reichb. f? }in
Linnaea 41: 57. 1876; Hook f. FI. Brit.
India 6: 116. 1890; Fischer in Gamble,
FI. Pres. Madras 3: 1014. 1957 (repr. ed.);
King & Pantl. in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard.
Calcutta 8: t. 349. 1898. Apaturia mon-
tana Thw. Enum. 301. 1861.

Terrestrial, saprophytic herbs devoid of

234

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

chlorophyll, 50-60 cm high; stems sheathed.
Basal sheaths 1 cm long, close; upper 1.5 cm
long, 4-5 cm apart. Flowers straw-coloured in
racemes upto 20 cm long; bracts up to 1 cm
long, lanceolate. Sepals up to 1 cm long, ovate,
obtuse. Petals up to 1 cm long with a promi-
nent mid rib; lip 1 x 0.5cm, 3-lobed, broader
than the sepals, clawed, mid lobe tapering
towards the apex into an obtuse tip, side lobes
rounded; column 9 mm long; stigma short,
ovate; anthers 2-celled; pollinia 2, each 2-lobed.

Hooker (1. c.) recorded this species from
“Khasia Mts., and Sikkim Himalaya (Griffith)
and Ambagamowa Dt. in Ceylon (Thwaites)”.
Although Gamble (l.c.) stated that this plant
occur in “Mysore at Cadamany (Barber) Ana-
malai Hills; Karianshola in dense evergreen
forests at 2500 ft. (Fischer)”, no representa-
tive collection of this species is available in
MH and no collection from South India is
available in CAL. The present collection from
Boneccord in Trivandrum Dt. is its first report
from Kerala.

Aphyllorchis montana (Thw.) Reichb. f. is
closely allied to A. prainii Hook, f., and both
of them are often treated as conspecific. Seiden-
faden writes (on the Herbarium Sheet No. 171
of A. prainii Hook. f. collected by G. Craib
and deposited at CAL): “L believe A. prainii
to be conspecific with A. montana”. A. mon-
tana is, however, distinct from A. prainii by
the absence of the Ovate, acute wing like auri-
cles at the claw of the lip.

This plant is very rarely found in the shady
undergrowth of the dense evergreen forest in
moist humus enriched soil.

Specimens examined : Assam. Dasrung:

Jaintia Hills, June 1899, Dr. Train 304 (CAL).
SIKKIM HIMALAYA. Suru Bathan, August 1894,
R. Pantling 344 (CAL), kerala. Trivandrum
Dt.: Boneccord, 26-5-1979, M. Mohanan

63292 (MH).

Eulophia cullenii (Wight) Blume, Orch.
Archip. Ind. 182. 1858, in Obs.; Radha-
krishnan in Bull. bot. Surv. India 13: 3.
1971. Cyrtopera cullenii Wight, Icon. t.
1754. 1851. Eulophia flava (Lindl.) Hook,
f. FI. Brit. India 6: 7. 1890. p. p. E.
cullenii (Wight) Fischer in Gamble FI.
Pres. Madras 1435. 1928.

Terrestrial herbs, up to 0.5 high; rhizome
tuberous. Leaves up to 27 x 6 cm, oblong-
lanceolate, acute appearing with the inflores-
cence. Flowers 5 . 5 cm long, bright yellow, in
racemes up to 0.4m long; bracts 1.5 x 0.3 —
0.5 cm, ovate- lanceolate, acuminate, yellow;
pedicels 2 . 5 cm long. Dorsal sepals 3 cm long,
narrowly lanceolate, acute; laterals up to 3.5 cm
long, falcate, oblanceolate. Petals 2.5 x 1.5 cm,
broadly ovate, clavate. Lip 3-lobed; lateral
lobes up to 2 cm long, obtuse, falcate; midlobes
1 cm long tongue-shaped with 3 crests. Men-
tum conical; column 1 . 5 cm long, flat; stigma
conical, oblique; pollinia two, jointed with a
strap, granular.

This species is closely allied to E. flava
(Lindl.) Hook. f. but differs by the mature
leaves being larger in size and the absence
of pyriform basal cali at the disc. Distinguish-
ing the two species, Robert Wight l.c. writes,
“I am indebted to General Cullen, Resident
of Travancore, for my specimens of this gor-
geous plant. It is nearly allied to C. flava, with
which I at first confounded it. Like it the
flowers are yellow and scape appears before
the leaves, but the appearance of the plant so
far as I can learn from the comparison with
Dr. Royles figure is altogether different. On
these grounds I have dedicated it to the dis-
coverer, a zealous investigator of the plants of
that tract of country but more especially of
the economical application of the useful ones.
This plant seems to be a large one some of
the leaves being nearly 2 ft. in length.”

235

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

This species is not so far represented in
MH. The present collection is made during
March from Pattampara, on the way to Agas-
tyarkudam where a small population of it was
seen in flower in the rocky regions of the grassy
slopes. It was introduced in the experimental
garden at Coimbatore but it failed to flower
so far.

The valid publication of E. cullenii dates
from Blume (1858) and the combination made
afresh by Fischer (1928) is superfluous.

Specimens examined : kerala. Trivandrum
Dt.: Pattampara, 17.3.1978, M. Mohanan
54686 (MH).

Malaxis latifolia Sm. Rees. Cycl. 22: no. 3.
1819; Holttum in Revis. FI. Malaya 1:
195. 1972 (repr. ed.); Seidenfaden &
Smitinand in Orch. Thailand 2(1): 146.
1959. Microstylis latifolia J. J. Sm. FI. Buit.
6: 248, f. 185. 1905. M. congesta Reichb.
f. Walp. Ann. 6: 206. 1861; Hooker in
FI. Brit. India 5: 680. 1890; King & Pantl.
in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: PI.
23. 1898.

Terrestrial herbs; stems stout, 4-5 leaved.
Leaves 14-27 x 7-8 cm, ovate-elliptic; petioles
broad with a sheath of 3-4 cm long. Scape
with raceme 20-25 cm long, stout. Flowers
yellowish green, closely arranged; bracts up
to 5 mm long; pedicels 3 mm long. Sepals
curved inwards; dorsal 3-4 x 1 mm; laterals
3-4 x 1.5 mm, 3-nerved. Petals 4 x 0.5 mm;
lip 2 x 2 mm, 3-lobed, side lobes broad and

Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore- 641 003,

September 26, 1980.

blunt. Column 0.9mm long; anthers on the
back of the column, pollinia 4.

Although Hooker recorded this plant from
Deccan Peninsula no earlier collections from
South India and elsewhere is represented in
MH so far. The species was found rare in the
undergrowth of dense evergreen forests of
Boneccord.

This species is an addition to the Gamble’s
FI. Pres. Madras and can be distinguished from
the other South Indian species as follows:

1. Lip with auricles M. acuminata

1. Lip without auricles:

2. Lip distinctly 3-lobed; lobes entire at

apex M. latifolia

2. Lip without distinct lobes, apex lacirate:

3. Plants with pseudobulbs; leaves sessile.

M. densiflora

3. Plants without pseudobulbs; leaves
petioled :

4. Flowers less than 5 mm long; lip re-

tuse in outline M. versicolor

4. Flowers 7-10 mm long; lip semi-
orbicular in outline M. stocksii

Specimens examined : Assam. N. Cachar

Hills, 28.8.1908, William G. Craib 514 (CAL);
Mizo hills, R. M. Datta 33268 (CAL); Ienkeri,
July, 1859, s.l. 652 (CAL), bihar. Paraniatte,
s.L Acc. No. 449378 (CAL), kerala. Trivan-
drum Dt.: Boneccord, 22-5-1979, M. Mohanan
63216 (MH). sikkim. Tropical valleys, July,
1892, R. Pantling 89 (CAL); “Namaga Ind.”;
Oct. 1886, Dr. King's Collector Acc. No.
449369 (CAL).

M. MOHANAN
A. N. HENRY
N. C. NAIR

236

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

37. CULTIVATION OF ENDANGERED PLANTS IN SOUTH
INDIA — 2. BENTINCKIA CONDAPANNA BERRY EX ROXB.

(With a plate)

This note relates to a palm namely B. con-
dapanna Berry ex Roxb. which is highly rest-
ricted and endemic to a few hills of Tamilnadu
and Kerala in Western ghats.

B. condapanna Berry ex Roxb. commonly
known as hill areca nut (Tam: Varekamugu,
Tel: Cadapanna, Mai: Kanthal) (Gamble
1957, Sundararaj and Balasubramanyam 1959)
belongs to the family Arecaceae (Palmae).
The genus Bentinckia is named after Sir
William Henry Cavendish Bentinck, ex Gover-
nor General of the East-Indies by Berry in
Roxb. FI. Ind. Ill, 621 (Hooker 1894). This
genus is represented by 2 species in India
namely B. condapanna Berry ex Roxb. and
B. nicobarica (Kurz) Becc. (Hooker 1894). B.
condapanna Berry ex Roxb. is a tall, slender,
unbranched tree of about 30 feet appearing
gregariously in certain cliffs of Western ghats
in Tirunelveli, Kanyakumari and Madurai dis-
tricts of Tamilnadu and Trivandrum district
of Kerala (plate 1). These palms seem to like
the western slopes particularly with some pro-
tection from sweep of direct wind. These have
been located in Kakachi and Nalumukku cliffs
on the way to Kodayar, in Perumal malai,
Naterikal in Kalakkadu hills, Manjanamparai
and western slopes of Agasthyamalai in an
altitude range of 90-1350 Mts. F. Blasco
(1971) states “Dans ces forets des vallees la
flore S’enrichit, par rapport au type precedent
en palmiers ( Bentinckia — con-
dapanna versant N. E. des Palni, )

. .etc.” The detailed herbarium data in M. H.,
Coimbatore is furnished in table 1.

There has not been much information from
the published records on cultivation of this

species as an ornamental in any of the known
Botanical gardens of India and abroad except
at Peradeniya Gardens, Sri Lanka (Blatter,
1926). The terminal buds of these trees are
reported to be edible (Gamble 1957).

Due to its highly restricted distribution and
non-occurrence of this palm in any other part
of the country or abroad this has been de-
clared highly endangered (Jain and Sashtri
1980).

The experimental garden of the Botanical
Survey of India, Southern Circle, Yercaud
brought saplings of this species from natural
habitat from time to time since 1974 and in-
troduced in rock crevices particularly facing
west almost simulating natural habitat, but
they failed to establish. In the year 1977 again
6 plants were obtained from collections of Dr.
A. N. Henry and further trials were made at
Yercaud. They were introduced in different
places after acclamatizing in pots in nursery
for nearly one year. The first planting made
in September, 1978 in a shady rocky area on
the slope facing west did not establish inspite
of all care. In October, 1978 two other plants
in stock with almost similar size were put into
deep pits of 4' x 4' in rich humus soil with
plenty of shade above. Regular watering, dig-
ging, weeding etc were attended. Though one
plant showed inhibition in growth, another
grew better with healthy leaves and good spread
(plate). 2 other in pots have also been
healthy though stunted in growth. These have
since been planted in suitable locality during
the current rainy season. The measurements of
the first two plants in beds in given in table-2
to indicate the growth behaviour in this clima-

237

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Table 1

Field No.

Date

Place of
collection.

Collected by

Remarks.

52652

4.3.1917.

Near Neterikal,
Tirunelveli Dt.,
T.N.

16383

30.5.1963.

Manjanamparai,
Tirunelveli Dt.,
T.N.

A. N. Henry.

Pinkish red flowers.

1039

28.8.1967.

Perumalmalai,
Madurai Dt.,
T.N.

Thanikaimani.

Fruits red, smooth
and speroidol when
fresh, Immature fruits
contains a central
cavity filled with a
waxy sap.

44639

6.10.1973.

Western slope of
Agastyamalai,
Trivandrum Dt.,
Kerala.

J. Joseph.

Spadix arising from
the axils of fallen
leaves below the
crown; flowers pin-
kish red; fruits ovate
globose, bright choco-
late coloured.

49651

7.8.1977.

Way to valve house,
upper Kodayar,
Kanyakumari Dt.
T.N.

A. N. Henry.

Tall tree, ± 20 mt.
high on rocky slopes,
fruits red, pinkish red,
very common.

73126

Kalakkadu hills,
Tirunelveli Dt.,
T.N.

Table 2

Measurements recorded as

on 15-7-1980

Plant No.

Height of the
Shoot.

Girth of the
plant at
ground level.

No. of leaves

Length &
Breadth of the
largest leaf.
(L x B)

1.

26 Cms.

22 Cms.

8

1.3 x 0.75 M

2.

10 Cms.

10 Cms.

6

0.65 x 0.26 M

238

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79

Rao & Banerjee: Bentinckia condapanna.

i

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tic condition. Further observation on the
growth cycle of these plants are being re-
corded.

Ack nowledge m en ts

We are thankful to Dr. N. C. Nair, Deputy

Botanical Survey of India.

Southern Circle,

P. O. Yercaud, Salem Dt.,

Tamilnadu- 636 601,

August 14, 1980.

Refer

Blasco, F. (1971) : Montagnes Du Sud De L’inde,
Forests, Savanes, Ecologie, B. N. K. Press Pvt. Ltd.,
Madras-26.

Gamble, J. S. (1957) : Flora of the Presidency
of Madras, Vol. 3., Bot. Surv. of India, Calcutta.
(Reprinted Edition).

Hooker, J. D. (1894) : The Flora of British India,

Director and Dr. A. N. Henry, Regional Bota-
nist, Botanical Survey of India, Sauthern Cir-
cle, Coimbatore-3 for their kind encouragement
during the course of this work.

A. V. N. RAO
A. K. BANERJEE1

E N CE S

Vol. 6., L. Reeve & Co. Ltd., Kent.

Jain, S. K. and Sashtri, A.R.K. (1980): Threa-
tened Plants of India A State-of-the Art — Report,
Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

SUNDARARAJ, D. DANIEL AND BALASUBRAMANYAM,
Girija (1959) : Guide to the Economic Plants of
South-India, Amudha Nilayam Pvt. Ltd., Madras-18.

1 Present Address : Botanical Survey of India, 10-
Chatham Lines, Allahabad-2. U.P.

239

ERRATA

Corrections to the “Seasonality and Occurrence of Birds in the
Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh” Vol. 76 (3) 1979 pp. 379-422.

p. 402 The figure caption refers to the figures on pp. 400-401. The figure
on p. 402 should be accompanied by the caption: Fig. 14 The percentage
of recaptures in the total summed catch over each three week period.

p. 418 The description given for the Orangeheaded ground thrush refers
to the Whitethroated ground thrush, Zoothera citrina cyanotus. The
orangeheaded ground thrush’s description was omitted and is given here:

Orangeheaded ground thrush, Zoothera citrina citrina. Records for
the 30th September, the 11th, 25th and 28th October and the 4th May.
Passage migrant.

I thank Humayun Abdulali for pointing out this last omission.

Trevor Price

Division of Biological Sciences
Natural Science Building
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
U.S.A.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in
colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 60.00

{Price to members Rs. 55)

The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett.

Rs. 10

Birds

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and
many monochrome plates. Rs. 60.00

{Price to members Rs. 55)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-
date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. Rs. 100.00

{Price to members Rs. 80)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 4
Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali &
J. D. Panday. Rs, 3.00

Reptiles

The Book of Indian Reptiles By J. C. Daniel ( in press)

Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 5

Plants

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and
monochrome plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). Rs. 40.00

{Price to members Rs. 35)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many
coloured and monochrome plates. 2nd edition. Rs. 100.00

{Price to members Rs. 75)

Grasses of Western India, by Toby & Patricia Hodd. With 64 monochrome plates.

Rs. 50.00

{Price to members Rs. 37.50)

Miscellaneous

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History Edited by R. E. Hawkins {in press)

A Century of Natural History Edited by J. C. Daniel ( in press)

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Kannada

2. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi

and Marathi.

3 . Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati,

and Hindi.

Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) in English

{Price to members Rs. 5)

Back numbers of the Society’s Journay. Rates on application.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, from members
who may not wish to preserve them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Entrance Fees :

Ordinary and Life Members
Student Members

Subscription :

{a) Ordinary individual Members

(b) Ordinary Corporate Members

(c) Ordinary Members resident outside India
Life Members

(Rs. 250

Compound Corporate Members . . . . . . . . Rs. 1500

Student Members (without Journal) . . . . . . Rs. 15

Annual subscription to Journal .. .. .. .. Rs. 135

Members residing outsidp India should pay their subscription by means of orders on
their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the 1st
January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £ 6.50 should be paid annually
to the Society’s London Bankers — The Grindlays Bank Ltd., 13, St. James’s Sq., London
SW1Y 4LF. Account No. 1101091.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the
period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

Rs. 0.62

Rs. 0.80

Rs.

Rs.

1.25

7.50

Rs.

25

Rs.

10

Rs.

60

Rs.

125

Rs.

95

Rs.

800

after 20 years)

CONTENTS

The drought of 1979-1980 at the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary, Bharatpur,
Rajasthan. By Stanley & Belinda Breeden
Bombay Natural History Society — The Builders and the Guardians. Part 3.
By Salim Ali

Phayre’s leaf monkey ( Presbytis phayrei Blyth, 1847) of Tripura. By R. P.
Mukherjee

A BOTANICAL TOUR TO PANGI & TRILOKNATH IN THE UPPER CHENAB. By U. C.
Bhattacharyya and B. P. Uniyal

Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary and its endangered ecosystem. By K. Ullas Karanth

The behaviour of the nest-guarding saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus,
Schneider) — A preliminary quantitative study. By H. R. Bustard & S.
Maharana

Notes on the distribution of certain rare, endangered or endemic plants of
Meghalaya with a brief remark on the flora. By R. R. Rao and K. Haridasan

Pollution, fish mortality & environmental parameters in Lake Nainital.

By S. M. Das and Jyotsna Pande

Chelonians of Bangladesh and their conservation. By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan

New plants from urban environment of Baroda, Gujarat. By S. N. Patil and
S. D. Sabnis

Observations on food habits of six species of Indian frogs. By P. • Mohanty-
Hejmadi and B. K. Acharya

A Catalogue of Aphidiid (Hymenoptera : Aphidiidae) parasites of Aphids
(Homoptera) of India. By A. K. Ghosh and Basant K. Agarwala

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society — 24. By Humayun Abdulali

On a new subspecies of Pellorneum ruficeps (Swainson) in Peninsular India.
By Humayun Abdulali

• New Descriptions
Reviews

Miscellaneous Notes

Page

1

38

, 47

57

79

87

93

100

110

117

120

125

135

152
155
176
. 181

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 092
and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay
Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

.

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by
observing the following instructions :

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publication to
other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should
not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only,
and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be underlined.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identifica-
tion has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast.
Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20 X 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on
glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and map v should be in Indian ink, prefera-
bly on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alpha-
betically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or
periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type),
thus :

Banerji, M. L. (1958) : Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay
naU Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of
papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s
name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise,
clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge.
In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies wHl be given gratis to be distributed
among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in
multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed
of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage
and packing.

1L The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a
member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Ho nlbill House, Editors,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay-400 023. Natural History Society.

■ ' — w ' ' - V

VOLUME 79 NO. 2 : AUGUST 1982

Date of Publication : 15-2-1983

CONTENTS

Page

Territorial behaviour of the Indian Blackbuck' {Antilope cervicapra , Linnaeus, 1758) in
tee Velavadar National Park, Gujarat. By M. K. Ranjitsinh. ( With three plates
and a text-figure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Some post-monsoon birds observed in central Nepal. By Paul Hendricks . . . . 247

Biology and morphology of immature stages of Bracon brevicornis (Hymenoptera : Bra-
conidae) an important biological control agent of the black-headed caterpillar
pest of coconut. By V. V. Sudheendrakumar, U. V. K. Mohamed, T. C. Narendran and
U. C. Abdurahiman. ( With fifteen text-figures) . . . . . . . . 254

The aquatic and marshland flora of Kheri District, Uttar Pradesh. By K. K. Singh

and R. P. S. Tomar. {With a text-figure) .. .. .. .. . . 261

Restocking mugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris (Lesson) in Andhra Pradesh : evalua-
tion of a pilot release. By B. C. Choudhury and H. R. Bustard. ( With two plates and
three text-figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Studies on the estuarine Odonata from 24 Parganas District of West Bengal, with a
note on the reproductive behaviour in Urothemis signata signata (Rambur) (Odonata :

Insecta). By M. Prasad and S. K. Ghosh. {With six text-figures) . . .. .. 290

Distribution, feeding habits and burrowing patterns of Tatera indica cuvieri (Water-

house). By C. M. George, P. J. Joy and C. C. Abraham. ( With two text-figures) . . 296

Recent changes to the Burmese mammal list. By G. W. H. Davison . . . . 302

Material to the Flora of Mahabaleshwar-3. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida . . 307

Some aspects of the reproductive biology of the Liontail Macaque — Macaca silenus

(Linn.) — A zoo study. By L. S. Ramaswami, G. U. Kurup and B. A. Gadgil . . 324

Taxonomic significance of Spermatheca in some Indian Grasshoppers (Orthoptera :
Ucrididae). By Kharibam Meinodas, Shaikh Adam Shafee and Mohammad Kamil Usmani.

{With Twenty-three text-figures) .. .. .. .. .. .. 331

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society— 25

By Humayun Abdulali . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

New Descriptions :

A New species of the Genus Asopus (Heteroptera : Pentatomidae). By M. Nayyar AJm

and S. Adam Shafee. {With a text-figure) . . . . . . . . . . 361

First record of Genera Niphadonyx Dalla Torre and Ischnopus Fst. and Description of Two
New Species from India (Coleoptera : Curculionidae : Hylobiinae). By H. R. Pajni
and Sukesha Sood. {With eleven text-figures) . . . . . . . , 363

II

CONTENTS

Species of the Genus Pediobius Walker (Eulophidae : Entedontinae) from India. By M.

Younus Khan and S. Adam Shafee. {With a plate ) . . . . . . . . 370

A New Species of Tetrastichus Haliday 1843 (Hymenoptera : Eulophidae) from high alti-
tude of India. By M. A. Khan. ( With thirteen text-figures ) . . . . . . 375

A New Species of Ophiorrhiza L. (Rubiaceae) from Nagaland, India. By D. B. Deb and

D. C. Mondal. {With a text-figure) .. .. .. .. .. 379

Two more New Species of Impatiens L. from South India. By V. Bhaskar and B.A. Razi.

{With a plate ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

A New Pteris from Silent Valley, Kerala. By S. R. Ghosh and R. K. Ghosh. {With three

text-figures) . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 385

Reviews :

1 . A Synopsis of the birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edition. (T. J. Roberts) . . 387

2. The Plovers, Sandpipers, and Snipes of the world. (Sdlim Ali) . . . . 391

3. Euphrates and Tigris, Mesopotamian Ecology and Destiny. (B. F. Chhapgar) . . 392

4. Material for a Flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic. (M. R. Almeida) . . . . 394

5. Thonner’s analytical key to the Families of flowering plants. (K. M. Matthew) . . 395

6. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. (M. R. Almeida) . . . . 396

7. An Introduction to plant Nomenclature. (P. V. Bole) . . . . . . 397

8. Applied botany abstracts. (P. V. Bole) . . . . , . . . . . 397

Miscellaneous Notes :

Mammals : 1. The Western limit of pigtail macaque distribution in Assam. By Ronald L. Tilson
(P. 399) ; 2. Dominant behaviour of a sub-adult male lion-tailed macaque in semi-natural conditions.
By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 400) ; 3. Andersen’s rufous horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus rouxi sinicus Andersen
(Chiroptera : Rhinolophidae) from Arunachal Pradesh, India. By J. P. Lai (p. 402) ; 4. Stomach contents

of a common palm civet, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus (Pallas). By L. A. K. Singh (p. 403) ; 5. Birth of
White tiger {Panther a tigris) Cubs to Normal coloured tigers in captivity. ( With a text-figure). By Ch. G.
Mishra, L. N. Acharjyo and L. N. Choudhury (p. 404) ; 6. An instance of fostering in captivity in the
Western Ghats Squirrel, Funambulus tristriatus Waterhouse. By S. Keshava Bhat (p. 407) ; 7. On the
occurrence of Vandeleuria oleracea in a rural Residential habitat in the desert biome of Rajasthan.
By Ranjan Advani and R. P. Mathur (p. 408) ; 8. On factors governing the distribution of wild mammals
in Karnataka — A comments. By K. Ullas Karanth (p. 409).

Birds : 9. Black-eared kite [Milvus migrans lineatus (Gray)] near Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali
and Nosherwan Sethna (p. 411) : 10. Nesting of redheaded merlin {Falco chicquera Daudin) in Bangalore,
Karnataka. {With a text figure). By S. Subramanya (p. 412) ; 11. Unusual nesting of redwattled lap-
wing {Vanellus indicus). By Raza H. Tehsin and Juzer Lokhandwala (p. 414) ; 12. Collective defensive
strategy in blue rock pigeon {Columba livia). By Raza H. Tehsin (p. 414) ; 13. Occurrence of the Northern
Green Barbet Megalaima zeylanica caniceps (Franklin) at Ludhiana (Punjab). By Manjit S. Dhindsa and
P. S. Sandhu (p. 415) ; 14. On the occurrence of the Yellowbellied wren-warbler {Prinia flaviventris flavi-

ventris), Striated marsh warbler {Megalurus palustris) and Whitetailed Bush Chat {Saxicola leucura) at
Hastinapur near Meerut (Uttar Pradesh). By Yado Mohan Rai (p. 416) ; 15. Birds and standing crops.
By Prakash Gole (p. 417).

CONTENTS

iii

Reptiles : 16. Female territoriality in immature saltwater crocodiles Crocodylus porosus Schneider
in captivity and its effect on growth and survival. (With two text-figures). By H. R. Bustard and S.
Maharana (p. 419) ; 17. The extinction of the Gharial [Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)] from the Brahman!
and Baitarani Rivers of Orissa. By L. A. K. Singh and H. R. Bustard (p. 424) ; 18. A taxonomic note on
mugger subspecies (Crocodylus palustris). By Romulus Whitaker and Zahida Whitaker (p. 426) ; 19.

The distribution of the Gharial. By H. R. Bustard and B. C. Choudhury (p. 427) ; 20. A Range extension
of Geochelone elongata. By Charles A. Ross and Charles R. Crumly (p. 429).

Amphibia : 21. Some field notes on the newly-described toad, Bufo camortensis Mansukhani & Sarkar,
By Humayun Abdulali (p. 430).

Fishes : 22. Extension of Range of the putitor mahseer, Tor putitora (Ham.) (Cypriniformes ; Cypri-
nidae ; Barbinae) to Poonch Valley (Jammu and Kashmir). By Surendra Nath (p. 430).

Insects : 23. Does formalin permit the larval development in Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens fatigans ?
By I. Vijayakumar (p. 431) ; 24. Record of Ephestia cautella Walker (Pyralidae : Leptidoptera) from
chilly powder at Ludhiana, Punjab (India). By M. Ramzan and Darshan Singh (p. 434) ; 25. New
record of Scambus (Scambus) striatus Gupta and Tiker (Ichneumonidae : Hymenoptera) from Pectino -
phora gossypiella (Saunders) and its Biology. By Maninder and G. C. Varma (p. 434) ; 26. A new record
of a Parasitic flesh fly, Parasarcophaga knabi (Parker) (Sarcophagidae : Diptera) on the Oak Tasar Silk-
worm. By K. C. Singh and B. Prasad (p. 435) ; 27. Predation of the Plum Scale, Eulecanium coryli (L.)
(Homoptera : Coccidae), by Ballia bayaderae Mulsant (Coleoptera : Coccinellidae), in Kashmir. By M.
Zaka-Ur-Rab (p. 436).

Other Invertebrates : 28. Food and feeding behaviour of the Mole Crab Emerita holthuisi
(Crustacea : Anomura : Hippidea). By K. M. Kulkarni (p. 436) ; 29. On the occurrence of a fairy shrimp
Streptocephalus simplex echinus in the freshwater ponds of Chingleput District, Tamil Nadu. ( With a
text-figure ). By N. Munuswamy (p. 439) ; 30. Instar duration, Instar number, Egg production and longevity
in Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars at two temperature ranges. By D. R. Kanaujia (p. 441) ; 31. Occurrence
of the leech, Haemadipsa montana Moore, in Darjeeling district, West Bengal. By Rathin Mukherjee
and G. C. Ghose (p. 445). ; 32. New polychaete records from Indian Waters. ( With twelve text- figures).
By D. Srinivasa Rao and D. V. Rama Sarma (p. 446).

Botany : 33. Exacum walkeri Griseb. (Gentianaceae)— A new record for India. By M. Mohanan,
A. N. Henry and N. C. Nair (p. 450) ; 34. Some new combinations under Primula L. By S. S. R.
Bennet (p. 451) ; 35. Monotropa uniflora Linn. — A new Record for Mussoorie Hills. By M. Sharma
(p. 452) ; 36. A note on the Nomenclature of Two Peninsular Indian Plants. By K. K. N. Nair (p. 453) ;
37. New Distributional records of plants for North-East India. (With two text-figures). By R. R. Rao,
K. Haridasan and Y. Kumar (p. 455) ; 38. Floral Spirals in Amorphophallus spp. not conforming with
Fibonacci numbers. (With a plate). By Elizabeth A. Widjaja (p. 458); 39. On the Occurrence of
Salacia khasiana in Arunachal Pradesh. By K. M. Vaid and H. B. Naithani (p. 461) ; 40. Rediscovery
of Meteoromyrtus wynaadensis (Bedd.) Gamble (Myrtaceae) more than a century after its earlier collec-
tion. By V. S. Ramachandran, N. C. Nair and V. J. Nair (p. 461) ; 41. Swertia kingii Hook. f. — A New
Record for North-West Himalayas. By Sunita Agarwal (p. 463) ; 42. Selaginella ornata (Hook, et
Grev.). Spring — New to India. (With a text-figure). By R. D. Dixit (p. 464)

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the Year 1980-81 . . . . 466

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society . . . . 475

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting . . . . . . , . . . 490

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

AUGUST 1982

VoL 79

No. 2

TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN BLACKBUCK
{ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA , LINNAEUS, 1758) IN THE
VELAVADAR NATIONAL PARK, GUJARAT1

M. K. Ranjitsinh2
( With three plates and a text-figure)

The word ‘ lek ’ is of Scandinavian origin
meaning play. In ethology the word has
come to denote restricted territories occupied
and intensively used by breeding males for
display and mating. Blackbuck territories are
of various sizes. In Mudmal, Andhra Pradesh,
Rao & Prasad (1982) found the average terri-
tory to be of 9.19 hectares. In Kanha, National
Park in Madhya Pradesh, Schaller (1967)
found the territory to be of 8.09 hectares.

Blackbuck also maintain small, round or oval
territorial breeding grounds which bear close
affinity in character and purpose to similar
grounds of the Uganda Kob (Adenota kob
thomasi Sclater, 1896), and which in turn are
conceptually similar to the 4 leks ’ of the
prairie chicken ( Tympanuchus cupido), sage
grouse {Centrocercus urophasianus), sharp-tailed
grouse (Pedioecetus phasianellus ), Gould’s mana-
kin ( Mcinacus vitellinus) and others (Buechner

1 Accepted March 1982.

2 Secretary, Forest Department, Govt, of Madhya
Pradesh, Bhopal.

1974). For purposes of convenience these
territorial breeding grounds of blackbuck would
be also referred to as leks. These leks, how-
ever, were only observed in the Velavadar
National Park, for only here were the terri*
tories small, precisely defined, in close proxi-
mity of each other and occupied for a length of
time. As in the case of the leks of the Uganda
Kob seen by the author at Karuma Falls in
Uganda (1964), the blackbuck leks bore the
marks of overusage through grazing and pacing
in a very restricted area and were identifiable
from the surrounding grassland by the less
vegetation they bore. These small territories
are called 4 akhlis 5 in the Gujarati language.

Blackbuck achieve territorial marking and
delineation in several ways. Firstly, with his
strikingly black and white colour scheme and
spectacular horns, the most conspicuous terri-
torial marker is the presence of the male himself
on his territory (Schaller 1967). As sexual
activity, of which territoriality is a manifesta-
tion, enhances the testosterone production

241

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , VoL 19

which in turn causes, in all probabihty, the
darkening of the coat (Mungall 1978) the
darker coat of a territorial buck would in all
probabihty enhance his ability to pronounce
his territory and to retain it. It was no coinci-
dence that all territorial males observed in this
lek ground (January 1981) December 1981 were
all black or dark chocolate brown.

Another important territorial marking are the
pellet piles in certain selected spots. In the
larger territories which blackbuck usually main-
tain, including those that have a recognizable
core, the pellets were deposited in a number of
strategic points along the periphery. In the
leks of Yelavadar which are very small, the
pellet heaps were in approximately the middle
of the leks. The pellet deposition is almost
invariably immediately preceded by urination
and since the blackbuck usually sits upon these
sites, the purpose of selecting such sites for
bedding is therefore, in all probabihty, to
acquire scent on the coat. The Great Indian
one-horned rhinoceros urinates in its wallows
whose purpose, in all probabihty, is to acquire
scent on its body (Laurie 1978). It is likely that
blackbuck too has a similar objective, and it
is possible that scent excreted with either the
dung or the urine is from an anal or urinary
scent gland and has olfactory sexual signi-
ficance.

These excreta cum bedding sites normally
command a good vantage point for observa-
tion. 4 Lindy * my tame blackbuck also rested
on these excreta sites.

Close to the excreta-cum-resting sites, scrapes
Were seen and these also perhaps are visual
territorial markings, especially in areas of short
grass and on the Ranns and tals of arid western
India. These scrapes were also observed in
the leks of Velavadar. Lindy scraped persis-
tently, but this exaggeration of this particular
behaviour may have been caused by the fact
that he was frequently tied with a long rope and
could not go beyond a certain point where he

scraped, especially when someone was approach-
ing him. Scraping was also observed when a
territorial buck was in the vicinity of another.
Scrapes by the dragging of feet was never
noticed.

Scraping is also done prior to urination and
deposition of pellets, frequently preceded by a
sniffing of the dung pile (Schaffer 1967). Terri-
torial males were also observed to scrape their
dung piles, on four occasions, before depositing
pellets on those dung piles. Scraping prior to
pellet deposition, however, was not observed
outside the leks. One communal pellet pile
measuring almost 2 metres by 1.60 metres,
however, did have scrape markings on it.

Another olfactory marking consisting of
wiping of the secretion of the preorbital glands
on prominent reeds, twigs and grasses, and
occasionally by rubbing the glands against tree
trunks and leaves.

Lindy, my tame blackbuck, practised this
regularly. The strong-smelling secretion left a
distinct smell that was discernible for upto 3
days in dry weather. The deposition of the
scent of the pre-orbital glands was noticed
to be more frequent amongst solitary males
and male-pairs than with either the mixed
herd males or with members of male groups.

In Velavadar where the only vegetation where
such markings could have been made was the
thorny Prosopis juliflora and these too do not
occur in the close vicinity of the leks, such
markings with everted eyeglands on Prosopis
saplings was observed only 7 times.

To the east of Velavadar village and at the
edge of the National Park of the same name,
is the tourist lodge. South of that is a water
trough and beyond it is a kidney shaped area
where a conglomeration of adjacent leks or terri-
torial grounds occupied by 48 to 52 males,
with 5 more semi-transient males on the
southern periphery of this area ( Fig. 1 ),
observed in January 1981.

242

TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN BLACKBtJck

the explanation for all the leks being on the
south side of the water trough only, appears to
be that with the Velavadar village being to the
west and a cart track being to the north of the
water-trough, the main approach of the black-

National Park, blackbuck male territories are
most evident in close juxtaposition around a
focal point of attraction, such as a source of
water or food, rather than scattered all over
the terrain, and constitutes a lek ground.

buck herds to the water is from the east and
the south. The cart track would also consti-
tute a source of disturbance to any leks if
they had happened to be established there.
The southern side is more preferred because
the antelope returning from the fields and
going to it from the park pass through
that flank. It was also observed that in areas
of high antelope concentration and where the
open even terrain precludes precise marking
of boundaries as in the case of the Velavadar

The Velavadar lek area measured 680 metres
by 430 metres, but the main ground of concentra-
tion, which was approximately at the core of
the kidney shaped area, was 380 metres by
290 metres and comprised of 30 leks. The
smallest lek was just 28 metres by 24 metres.
These leks in the prime core area were smaller
than the others, and the occupants remained
seated in them for longer periods than in the
others. They occupied them earlier in the
morning and left them later in the evening, and

243

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

consequently these territorial males in the
prime area of the lek ground grazed less.
They also moved about the least in their
circumscribed territories.

The males in the core area usually occupied
their territories within 20 minutes of sunrise,
most of them before sunrise, and started
leaving them a few minutes after sunset. Upon
arrival on their respective territories at dawn,
the males sit upon their territories in an act of
reoccupation and reconfirmation of their terri-
tories. About 20 minutes after sunrise they
start to get up and graze, and their is a slight
relaxation of territoriality in so far as the males
often stray close to each other and trespass on
each other’s territories. Later on they sit once
more upon their territories and become insular.

A log of their day’s movements (15/1/81)

7.10 A.M.
7.40 A.M.
8.05 A.M.
8.45 A.M.

44 males on the lek ground.

8 sitting down, 7 all in the
prime area.

46 males on the lek ground.

26 sitting down, 17 of them in
the prime area.

48 males on the lek ground.

31 sitting down, 24 in the
prime area.

52 males on the lek ground.

39 sitting down, 29 in the
prime area.

11.05 A.M.
3.15 P.M.
6.30 P.M.
7.00 P.M.

54 males in the lek ground.
48 sitting down, 29 in the
prime area.

52 males on the lek ground.

46 sitting down, 28 in the
prime area.

47 males on the lek ground.
34 silting down, 23 in the

prime area.

2 males standing and eating
on the lek ground.

In the moonlight after 9 P.M. there were no
blackbuck to be seen on the lek ground.

600 metres away from the lek ground was
the preferred resting ground of the largest
all-male group, which in fact was a loose
association of smaller groups of males the total
strength of which varied from about 77 to
160 males. All barring 8 to 10 per cent were
mature males. They sat in close proximity of
each other and the only agnostic interactions
noticed were two sparring matches, each not
lasting over 40 seconds. These large all male
groups often have cores, usually of males of the
same age group.

On the lek ground the males usually sat with
their backs to the wind, facing the winter sun.
Frequently, they stretched out and lay their
heads on the ground in the front, and often
tilted their heads to rest a horn on the ground.

The lengthy periods of sitting down in the
smaller territories in the prime area of the lek
ground not only serves the purpose of giving a
greater territorial possessivity to the male
occupant, but also helps to avert frequent
agnostic interactions between territorial males
in such close proximity of each other. In fact,
such interactions and displays occurred almost
invariably only when other blackbuck of either
sex happened to pass by, or when the territorial
males happened to leave their grounds to drink
or to feed. When a group of 11 males filed
past the lek ground, the nearest territorial
males on the lek ground approached the group
with the head-up-ears-down display, head and
horns bobbing in rythmic jerks, and the animals
emitting the grunt-call. Some of the members
of the all-male group broke into a slow trot
while the others walked hurriedly past.

The territorial males that had to vacate their
territories due to the proximity of my vehicle
and had to enter their neighbour’s, often ended
up by jousting with the others. The combat-
ants would then disengage, often struck parallel
to each other, and then the interloper would

244

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19
Ranjitsinh : Antilope cervicapra

Plate 1

Male with both horns broken occupying a lek, with another territorial male in an
adjacent lek. Note the dark patches showing the pellet piles.

All-male group on its
proximity of each other.

preferred resting ground, the individuals sitting in clo5

{Photos: Author)

L Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79
Ranjitsinh : Antilope cervicapra

Plate II

Territorial males on the lek ground.

Males of adjacent leks sparring. Other territorial
the background.

( Photos : Author)

males occupying their leks in

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79
Ranjitsinh : Antilope cervicapra

Plate III

A fine specimen on its pellet pile, reluctant to leave its lek. Another territorial
male in the background.

( Photos : Author)

Non-territorial

males of the all-male group resting in close proximity of each other.

TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN BLACKBUCK

veer away and attempt to return to his own
territory. The owner of the territory would
stand for a while displaying with head up and
pre-orbital glands everted, and then return to
the middle of his territory to sit down again. In
some instances one or both combatants stamped
their forefeet.

Two males, each with both broken horns of
about equal length, and one with stumps only
1 8 cm long, were occupying territories in the
prime area of the lek ground, jousted with
others with undamaged horns, and were obvi-
ously able to hold adjacent prime territories.
The former male, easily recognizable was found
in a mixed group 11 months later (December
1981). On the other hand, a male with one large
horn measuring about 57 cm but the other
broken olf at root, was only holding a tenuous
territory on the extreme western periphery.
In December, 1981 a single-horned male was
again occupying a peripheral lek.

The mixed and larger female groups with
adult males seemed to prefer not to go through
the lek area, and when they did so, they ten-
ded to skirt past the periphery, with the adult
males keeping to the side of the herd nearer
to the lek area, the males in which were strut-
ting and pacing about as the herd passed.
When a transient male traversed the lek ground
the agnostic behaviour displayed by the terri-
torial males was less pronounced.

In the absence of any vegetation on the lek
ground, the principal form of redirected aggres-
sion noticed was thrashing of the ground with
legs spreadeagled but stationary, horns parallel
and lowered to the ground, the head moving in a
vigorous half-circular motion. On some occa-
sions Prosopis sapling were also thrashed in the
adjacent areas.

When a pack of three pidogs — which are a

veritable scourge of the blackbuck-caused some
female blackbuck to run into the lek ground,
the territorial males chased them and attempted
to court them through display, even though the
rampaging dogs were within 70 metres, and
the males were most reluctant to leave their
territories even when the dogs were running
past them.

On some occasions territorial males, when
approached, showed extreme reluctance to leave
their territories. They stood up from where
they were sitting on their pellet piles, but stood
their grounds, straddling over their pellet piles
in a characteristic stand-stance, with front legs
close together and the hind legs spread-eagled,
and head slightly upraised.

In mid July (1981) there were no territorial
males on the lek ground, which in fact was the
least frequented area by the blackbuck as the
forage on this ground, predictably, was the
poorest due to overusage during the rutting
period. By way of contrast, the usual resting
place of the largest all-male group during the
peak rutting period — to the north-east of the
Velavadar rest house — continued to be occu-
pied by the all-male group in July. An all-
male group of 82 to 86 animals, again the largest
all-male group in the park, albeit fawn-coloured
now, continued to rest on this same patch.
The old pellet piles on the lek ground, how-
ever, contained only old pellets with no fresh
depositions.

In December 1981 the lek ground as well as
the preferred resting area of the largest all-male
group were found to be the same as in January,
1981. On the basis of observations made
during six winters the peak winter rutting
period in Velavadar was found to be January-
February.

245

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

References

Buechner, H. K. (1974) : Behaviour of ungulates Ramana Rao, J. V. and Prasad, N.L.N.S. (1982) :
and its relation to management. Vol. 2, IUCN publi- Management and Husbandry of blackbuck, food and
cation 24. Agriculture organization of the United Nations-

Laurie, W. A. (1978) : Ecology and Behaviour of the Bangkok, No. RAPA 53.

Greater one horned rhinoceros. University of

Cambridge. Schaller, G. B. (1967) : The Deer and the Tiger :

A study of Wildlife in India. University of Chicago
Mungall, E. C. (1978) : The Indian Blackbuck press> Chicago,
antelope : a Texas view. Kleberg Studies in Natural
Resources, No. 3, 184 pp.

246

SOME POST-MONSOON BIRDS OBSERVED IN CENTRAL NEPAL1

Paul Hendricks2

Though Pokhara, and the surrounding terrain
in Gandaki Anchal, is one of the more readily
accessible regions in Nepal, surprisingly little
information has been published on the avifauna
of that area. Woodcock and Woodcock (1976)
provided information on monsoon season
(July and August) birds. They expressed hope
that their account would stimulate others to
keep records on the birds encountered in the
same area, particularly during other seasons.
It is for this reason that I present the following
observations. They were made during the
post-monsoon season between 17 October and
30 December, 1974 while I was stationed at
Batulechar 3 km. N of Pokhara with the U.S.
Peace Corps program. I have also included
species observed on a short trek from Bandipur
to Bharatpur, SB of Pokhara and in the same
watershed, in December. All observations were
made below 2000 m. For a general descrip-
tion of the vegetation and physiography of the
region see Biswas (1966). Identification of
species encountered was originally based on
accounts in Ali (1949, 1972). Subsequently
these have been correlated to accounts in Flem-
ing et al. (1976), whose common and scientific
nomenclature I use in this paper.

Woodcock and Woodcock (op.cit.) listed 107
species from the Pokhara region to which I
have added 36 species not reported in their
paper. Lists of species in themselves are of
limited value, but when the data are combined,
particularly if it has been collected during
different times of the year ufthe same area,
then some conclusions on'the seasonal presence,

abundance, and movements of species can be
made. With this in mind I have compared
my notes with species reported from Kath-
mandu Valley (KV) by Proud (1949, 1952, 1955,
1958, 1961a, 1961b), and with the fist of Pokhara
area birds by Woodcock and Woodcock (op.
cit.), hereafter abbreviated WW when referred to.
Though my list of post-monsoon birds is not
comprehensive it never-the-less provides a
nucleus of data with which future, more detailed,
work can be compared. Considering the rapid
deforestation of Nepal (Eckholm 1975 ; Cronin
1979), and the associated ecological problems
created, this kind of information is urgently
needed if any future management plan is to
be intelligently implemented. Additionally, I
have included brief notes on behaviour and
ecology where appropriate.

I thank Jon Swenson for useful suggestions
and encouragement on the manuscript.

Ardeola grayii Pond Heron

Seen around Bharatpur 18 December ; a
group of 10 perched and preening atop a
bamboo grove in Batulechar 23 December.
Not seen around Pokhara by WW ; considered
abundant year round in KV (Proud 1949).

Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret

Common in fields with cattle around Bharat-
pur on 17 December.

Ciconia episcopus White-necked Stork

Batulechar ; on 4 December a flock of 24
flying slowly from N to S. On 1 1 December a
single bird flying in wide circles over the village.
Not seen by WW ; occasional year round in
KV (Proud 1949).

1 Accepted June 1981.

2 305 East Maplewood Avenue,
Uttleton, Colorado 80121, U.S. A-

247

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Ko/. 79

Mergus merganser Merganser
On Seti river S of Bandipur ; a flight of 7
followed by a flight of 5 headed upriver on
16 December. All were females.

Milvus migrans Dark Kite

Common at Bokhara ; less so at Batulechar,
single birds being seen there on 4, 21, 24, 29
Nov., and 23 Dec. Concentrates at centers of
human habitation.

Buteo buteo Eurasian Buteo

Regularly seen at Pokhara and Batulechar
between 9 Nov. and 24 Dec. Single birds
usually riding updrafts over the river gorges
or cliffs, sometimes in the company of vultures.
Not seen by WW ; apparently a winter visitor.

Torgos calvus Black Vulture

Batulechar ; on 19 Nov. 3 birds soaring over
the river gorge in company with 2 Egyptian
Vultures. Fairly common year round in KV
(Proud 1949) less so around Pokhara.

Gyps bengalensis Whitebacked Vulture
Batulechar ; on 6 Nov. one flushed from a
dead cow when approached within 20 m. On
25 Dec. several soaring over the river gorge
near the village. Considered the common
vulture in KV (Proud 1949).

Neophron percnopterus Egyptian Vulture
Common at Pokhara, less common at
Batulechar. Usually single birds soaring within
100 m. off the ground. One observed preening
its breast plumage while gliding over the river
gorge near Batulechar. Surprisingly, Proud
(1949, 1952, 1955) did not see this species in KV,
suggesting this species has expanded its range
into this region within the last 25 years.

Falco tinmmculus Eurasian Kestrel

Seen infrequently near Pokhara. Single birds
notecTon 17, 25 Oct., 14, 16, and 25 Dec. A

winter visitor in KV (Proud 1949, 1955) ; seen
by WW around Pokhara in summer.

Vanellus spinosus Spurwinged Lapwing

On 16 Dec. 2 individuals were seen on the
sandy beaches along the Seti river S of Bandipur.
A 3 sec flight chase ensued when the first bird
flew by the second. Not mentioned by WW
nor by Proud (1949, 1952, 1955).

Calidris temminckii Temminck’s Stint
Two seen on the river bank on 17 Dec. near
Bharatpur. A winter visitor (Proud 1955).

Sterna aurantia Indian River Tern

Many over flooded paddies outside of Bharat-
pur on 17 Dec.

Columba livia Blue Rock Pigeon
Common around Pokhara.

Psittacula cyanocephala Blossom-headed Para-
keet

On 17 Dec. a flock of 20 flew in a tight
group out of a wooded area and over millet
fields S of Bharatpur. Both sexes present.

Psittacula himalayana Slaty-headed Parakeet
Batulechar ; on 3 Nov. a flock of 15 flying
into a dense grove of trees silently. Appeared
to be all males. Not seen by WW ; a winter
visitor in KV (Proud 1955).

Bubo bubo Great Horned Owl

Seen at dusk 22, 24 Oct., and 9 Nov. near
Pokhara on the cliffs above the Seti river.
Heard hooting several times. Net mentioned
by Proud (1949, 1952, 1955) nor WW.

Glaucidium cuculoides Barred Owlet
Batulechar ; one seen perched 4 m above a
trail mid-morning on 25 Dec. A common and
diurnal species around KV (Proud 1955), not
seen by WW,

248

POST-MONSOON BIRDS IN CENTRAL NEPAL

Caprimulges macrurus Longtailed Nightjar
Batulechar ; on 12 Dec. one heard calling
irregularly from 1945-2015, one call every 7
sec/series of calls. Heard by Proud (1949) in
KV but not earlier than mid-March.

Coracias benghalensis Indian Roller

Seen daily at Batulechar ; usually single
birds and some pairs observed on same perches
each day, making sallies to the ground to catch
insects. Daily occurrence at same perches
suggests the possibility of winter territorial
behaviour, though no agonistic encounters
were observed. Fairly common in forested
areas around KV but not in the valley itself
(Proud 1955, 1961a).

Ceryle lugubris Large Pied Kingfisher
Batulechar ; one seen along a clear water
river on 25 Dec. Since kingfishers hunt their
prey by sight their occurrence along rivers
carrying large quantities of suspended glacial
sediments would not be expected. Not seen
by WW.

Alcedo atthis Euras:an Kingfisher
Ba-ulechar ; on 16 Nov. one seen on a clear
water river. It flew from a bank-side perch
and hovered 5 m over the water for 2-3 sec.
before diving and catching a fish which it
carried off. Year round resident in small
numbers in KV (Proud 1949) ; not seen by WW.

Megalaima asiatica Bluethroated Barbel

Batulechar ; seen on 2, 4, and 12 Dec. Sun-
ning in the early morning atop a bamboo grove
with drongos, mynas, and Himalayan Tree
Pies ; 4-5 foraging with a group of Yellow-
cheeked Tits. Year round resident in the hill
regions (Proud 1949 ; WW).

Megalaima haemacephala Crimsonbreasted
Barbet

Batulechar ; one seen on 1 1 Dec. sunning and
preening in the early morning atop a bamboo

grove. Pleard by WW ; considered a monsoon
visitor to KV (Proud 1949).

Chrysocolaptes lucidus Large Golden-backed
Woodpecker

One male seen in open oak forest several km
N of Bharatpur on 16 Dec.

Dendrocopos macei Fulvous-breasted Pied
Woodpecker

Batulechar; a female seen in the same area on
6, 12, and 13 Dec. On 15 Dec. a pair was seen
along the Seti river S of Bandipur. Not seen
by WW ; common in KV (Proud 1949).

Apus affinis House Swift
Roosts under the roofs of houses in Pokhara
and seen frequently hunting over the city and
nearby river gorge until Nov.

Hirimdo rustica Barn Swallow
Seen regularly around Pokhara until Dec.

Hirimdo daurica Striated Swallow
Seen regularly around Pokhara until Nov.

Lanins schach Blackheaded Shrike
Batulechar ; seen 23 Oct., 9^ 11, and 23 Dec.
Usually perched atop a bush hunting ground-
dwelling insects. One seen in company with 2
mynas. Year round resident (Proud 1949 ;
WW).

Oriolus xanthornus Blackheaded Oriole

One seen feeding with a group of Scarlet
Minivets atop 20 m tall trees along the Seti
river S of Bandipur on 15 Dec.

Dicrunis leucophaeus Ashy Drongo
Batulechar ; several usually in association
with Black Drongos during Dec. The behaviour
of the two species is similar. Not seen around
Pokhara in summer but found at higher ele-
vations (WW). Seems to move to lower and
more open habitats in winter (Proud 1949).

249

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

Dicrurus adsimilis Black Drongo

Batulechar ; seen regularly each morning
sunning and preening atop a bamboo grove.
Group varied in size from 4-20. Other morning
tree-top associates included Ashy Drongo,
Jungle Myna, Common Myna, Blue-throated
Bar bet, Red-vented Bulbul, Himalayan Tree
Pie, and Jungle Crow. One crow was mobbed
by several drongos when it departed the bam-
boos. Intraspecific flight chases were common ;
some individuals made sallies from the bamboo
to the ground and back once warmed up (about
0700). Individuals dispersed during the day
in smaller groups. Common year round (Proud
1949 ; WW).

Sturnus contra Pied Myna

One seen on 17 Dec. in Bharatpur.

Acridotheres tristis Common Myna

Seen daily in Batulechar, usually in the com-
pany of Jungle Mynas. Both species roosted
together in a nearby bamboo grove, becoming
active and vocal with first light (0600-0630).
Evening roosts began to form at 1800 accom-
panied by noisy chatter. In early morning,
after sunning, flocks dispersed in groups of
20-30 individuals/flock. Flocks usually were
composed of conspecifics only, though both
species foraged together.

Acridotheres fuscus Jungle Myna

Seen daily in Batulechar. Exhibits more
variation in seasonal abundance than the former
species (Proud 1949). For additional notes see
the previous account.

Cissa erythrorhyncha Red-billed Blue Magpie

Batulechar ; seen infrequently. A group of 3
appeared in the same area 15 and 17 Nov., and
27 Dec., making a series of short flights from
tree to tree. Not seen by WW ; considered
very common in KV (Proud 1949).

Dendrocitta formosae Himalayan Tree Pie

Seen regularly at Batulechar during Dec.
Usually single birds or pairs sunning in the
early morning atop a bamboo grove favoured by
mynas and drongos. Inhabits higher eleva-
tions in the summer (WW), wintering at lower
elevations in the hills (Proud 1949).

Corvus splendens House Crow

Common at Pokhara, less frequently seen at
Batulechar where sightings included a flock
of 30 flying by on 1 Dec., one bird perched atop
a bamboo grove on 9 Dec., and one bird passing
through the village on 28 Dec.

Corvus macrorhynchos Jungle Crow

Seen daily in Batulechar, sometimes in groups
of 10-15 individuals. Several seen mobbing a
hawk 5 Dec. More rural in distribution and
abundance than the former species (Proud
1949 ; WW).

Pericrocotus flammeus Scarlet Minivet

Batulechar ; a female was seen on 9 Dec.
hunting insects from a low tree limb ; on 15
Dec. a group of 8 (equal sexes) foraging through
tree crowns along the Seti river S of Bandipur,
accompanied by one Black-headed Oriole.
Not seen by WW.

Pycnonotus melanicterus Blackheaded Yellow
Bulbul

One low in a tree near Bandipur on 14 Dec.
Not seen by WW.

Pycnonotus cafer Redvented Bulbul

Batulechar ; seen daily in Dec. beginning with
one bird on 2 Dec. and increasing to a group
of 20 by 13 Dec. Usually sunning atop trees
in the early morning with several other species.
Flocks usually foraged low in trees or shrubs.
Common in the summer (WW).

250

POST-MONSOON BIRDS IN CENTRAL NEPAL

Leiothrix argentauris Silvereared Mesia

A group of 7-8 foraging in shrubs and trees
above the Seti river S of Bandipur, hanging
from thin branches in the early morning (0700)
on 16 Dec. Accompanied by a White-throated
Fantail Flycatcher. Not seen by WW.

Rhipidura hypoxantha Yellowbellied Fantail
Flycatcher

Batulechar ; one low in a tree at forest-field
edge on 25 Dec. A common winter resident
in KV (Proud 1949, 1955, 1958), moving to
higher elevations to breed.

Rhipidura albicollis Whitethroated Fantail Fly-
catcher

On 16 Dec. one in the company of a group
of Silver-eared Mesias above the Seti river S of
Bandipur. An uncommon winter visitor in
KY (Proud 1952).

Culicicapa ceylonensis Grayheaded Flycatcher
Batulechar ; one seen on 6, 7, and 26 Dec.
chattering constantly and flicking its tail, making
short sallies from a twig perch at the forest -
field edge, catching aerial insects. Common at
higher elevations during summer (WW) ; usually
leaves KV by Nov. (Proud 1955).

Erithacus pectoral is Himalayan Rubythroat
Batulechar ; one male seen in dense under-
growth in woods on 25 Dec. A winter migrant
in KV (Proud 1955).

Erithacus brunneus Blue Chat
Batulechar ; a female on a forest lined trail
on 7 Dec., a female seen in similar habitat on
10 Dec. Appears to be a winter visitor* breed-
ing at higher elevations (Proud 1955).

Copsychus saularis Magpie Robin
Batulechar ; both sexes seen frequently,
usually in low shrubs and undergrowth along
hedges. Males singing early in the morning
(0700) in Dec. ; some birds appeared to be

paired and may have had winter territories,
since they were seen in the same places daily.
Never more than 2 birds (one male and one
female) were seen together. Surprisingly, WW
did not report this species for the Pokhara area
though they did see it in KV. Proud (1949)
found it common year round in KV. She did
not report mid-winter song, but reported pairs
remained territorial.

Chaimarrornis leucocephalus Whitecapped River
Chat

Batulechar ; common along the rivers hunting
insects low over the water surface, moving from
boulder to boulder while rapidly pumping the
tail. Seen within 2 m of conspecifics, Plum-
beous Redstarts, and Brown Dippers without
agonistic behavior shown. A winter visitor
(Proud 1949), not seen by WW.

Rhyacornis fuliginosus Plumbeous Redstart
Batulechar ; seen more frequently than the
previous species in the same riverine habitat.
Hunting behaviour of the two species also similar.
Most individuals seen were males, who wagged
and fanned their tails as they sang from river
boulders. Only single birds were encountered.
Common in summer (WW) ; Proud (1949)
considered it common year round in KV.

Saxicola caprata Pied Bush Chat
Batulechar ; one male perched on an electric
line near woods on 8 Dec. After remaining
stationary for 5-6 min. it began hawking insects.

Zoothera dauma Speckled Mountain Thrush
One seen in Batulechar on 3 Dec. in low
dense brush. Several individuals in similar
habitat around Bharatpur. Seen by WW in the
summer near Pokhara ; usually a winter visitor
in KV (Proud 1955).

Myiophoneus caeruleus Whistling Thrush
One seen in Batulechar along a river on 2
Dec. As it moved amongst rocks it paused

251

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , PW. 79

several times to slowly stretch and bow its
body as it raised its tail, spreading the retrices,
then slowly lowering the tail again. The bird
appeared to be alone. A year round resident
(WW).

Cinclus pallasii Brown Dipper
Seen infrequently only along clear water
rivers around Batulechar. Most observations
were of lone birds, but a pair was seen on 10
Nov. Both birds moved together. Dippers
are territorial, and intolerant of conspecifics
except during the breeding season, which begins
in Dec. (Sunquist 1976) or Jan. (Fleming
et al. 1976). Fledglings have been seen in
Feb. (Proud 1955). Two birds together in
Nov. suggests that pairing may occur earlier
than previously reported. Distribution of this
species is probably restricted to clear water
since it hunts aquatic prey by sight and its prey
base is sensitive to sediment load. Not seen by
WW.

Parus major Gray Tit

On 16 Dec. a group foraging in trees and
shrubs along the Seti river S of Bandipur.
Several foraging with Yellowcheeked Tits in
Batulechar on 26 Dec.

Parus xanthogenys Yellowcheeked Tit
Batulechar ; common in Dec., usually in
company of other species, foraging in open
stands of trees and shrubs.

Sitta castanea Chestnutbellied Nuthatch
Noisy group of 8-10 moving through a patch
of woods S of Bandipur on 1 5 Dec. Considered
common by Proud (1949) in KV ; not seen in
the Pokhara area by WW.

Anthus novaeseelandiae Paddyfield Pipit
Batulechar ; common in Dec., usually in
fields in flocks of 6-15 birds. A winter visitor
in KV (Proud 1961b).

Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail
One seen in Pokhara on 25 Oct. in a grassy
meadow. A winter visitor (Proud 1955).

Motacilla caspica Gray Wagtail
Batulechar ; seen infrequently along rivers
in Nov. and Dec. Only single birds noted.
A winter visitor (Proud 1955).

Motacilla citreola Yellowheaded Wagtail
Batulechar ; one seen along a river on 7
Nov. A winter visitor (Proud 1955).

Motacilla alba Pied Wagtail
Seen regularly around Batulechar, usually
in grassy meadows but also along river bottoms.
Mostly single birds, but pairs and one group
of 3 noted. The most abundant wintering
wagtail in the Pokhara area and KV (Proud
1949).

Aethopyga siparaja Scarletbreasted Sunbird
Batulechar ; an adult male visiting poinsetta
flowers on 28 Nov. Single males visiting
poinsettas on 4 and 22 Dec. Both of these
birds were molting head plumage, with the
brilliant red feathers of the head and breast
present in small patches. Proud (1949) con-
sidered it scarce in KV in spring and fall, and
did not see it in summer or winter. Not seen
by WW.

Passer domesticus House Sparrow
Seen daily in Batulechar, but usually only a
pair or small group within a large flock of Tree
Sparrows. Proud (1949) considered it a scarce
summer visitor in KV. It appears to have
become established in small numbers in many
places since then.

Passer montanus Tree Sparrow
Batulechar ; common in flocks, which roost
under roofs of houses. Much more abundant
than House Sparrows. Abundant m KV
(Proud 1949),

252

POST-MONSOON BIRDS IN CENTRAL NEPAL

References

Ali, S. (1949) : Indian Hill Birds. Oxford Univ.
Press, London.

(1972) : The Book of Indian Birds, Ninth

Edition, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Biswas, B. (1966) : The birds of Nepal, part 12.
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63 : 365-377.

Cronin, E. W. Jr. (1979) : The Arun ; A Natural
History of the World’s Deepest Valley. Houghton
Mifflin Com. Boston.

EcKHOLm, E. P. (1975) : The deterioration of moun-
tain environments. Science 189 : 764-770.

Fleming, R. L. Sr., Fleming, R. L. Jr., andBangdel,
L. S. (1976) : Birds of Nepal. Arun K. Mehta,
Vakil and Sons, Bombay,

Proud, D. (1949) : Some notes on the birds of the
Nepal Valley. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48 : 695-719.

(1952) : Further notes on the birds of

the Nepal Valley, ibid., 50 : 667-670.

(1955) : More notes on the birds of the

Nepal Valley, ibid., 53 : 57-78.

(1958) : Bird notes from Nepal, ibid.,

55 : 345-350.

— (1961a) : Notes on the birds of Nepal.

ibid., 58 : 798-805.

(1961b) : Corrections to ‘Some notes on

the birds of the Nepal Valley \ ibid., 58 : 806-807.

Sunquist, M. E. (1976) : Territory size and nesting
habits of Brown Dippers Cinclus pallasii. Ibis 118 :
577-578.

Woodcock, M. W. and Woodcock, B. J. (1976) :
Some birds observed in the monsoon in Central Nepal.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 : 296-303.

253

BIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF IMMATURE STAGES
OF BRACON BREVICORNIS (HYMENOPTERA : BRACONIDAE)
AN IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENT OF THE
BLACK-HEADED CATERPILLAR PEST OF COCONUT1

V. V. SUDHEENDRAKUMAR, U. V. K. MOHAMED,

T. C. Narendran and U. C. Abdurahiman2

{With fifteen text-figures)

Brdcon brevicornis (Bfaconidae : Hymenoptera) is one of the important biological control agents of
Nephantis serinopa , the black headed caterpillar pest of coconut. An account of the biology and
morphology of the immature stages of this parasitic wasp is given. There are five larval instars and
the duration of development from egg to adult takes about 7-8.5 days.

Introduction

Bracon brevicornis (Hymenoptera : Braconidae)
is one of the important biological control
agents of Nephantis serinopa , the black-headed
caterpillar pest of coconut in S. India. Though
information on the biology of this parasitic
wasp is available (Cheriyan 1928 ; Rama-
chandra Rao et al. 1948 ; Nirula 1955) no
detailed studies have been made on the biology
and morphology of its immature stages, hence
the present study has been undertaken.

Materials and Methods

In the laboratory Corcyra cephalonica S. was
used as the host for rearing the parasite. Ob-
servations on the immature stages were done
under Leitz Wetzlar Ortholux and Bausch &
Lomb Stereozoom microscopes. Measurements
of immature stages were taken using ocular
micrometer. For the study of mouth parts,
larvae were mounted in gum chloral. The dia-
grams were drawn by using camera lucida.
The larval instars are determined by measuring

1 Accepted February 1979.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,
Calicut University P. O. 673 635. India.

the size of the mandibles as well as the dia-
meter of the first thoracic spiracle which varies
from instar to instar.

Observations and Results

Description of Life stages :

Egg (Fig. 1)

Freshly laid egg is typically hymenopteriform
and measures 0.40 to 0.55 mm in length and
0.13 to 0.15 mm in width. It is translucent
and milky whitish in colour. Chorion is
smooth, sh-ny and devoid of any sculpturing.
It contains little yolk when laid and it occupies
the entire area within the chorion leaving only a
little space.

Hatching

The incubation period varies from 24-28
hours. When the egg is approximately twenty
hours old, developing larva is visible through
the transparent chorion. A wriggling move-
ment of the larva is noted 4-5 hours prior to
eclosion. Segmentation of the larva is quite
distinct at this stage. Later 4-5 hours after
the start of the wriggling movement a rupture
forms on the chorion at the cephalic end of the

254

BIOLOGY OF BRACON BREVICORNlS

Fig. 1. Egg.

Figs, 2-6. Larval instars (first to fifth).

egg due to the action of the mandibles and movement of the larva finally enables itself to

possibly from the increased pressure from escape completely from the chorion. It takes
within the egg. Through this rupture, the about 15-20 minutes for the larva to become
larval head first protrudes out. The wriggling completely free from the chorion.

255

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Larva

Soon after hatching the first instar larva
makes a puncture on the body of the host with
the mandibles and starts feeding by conti-
nuously ingesting the host haemolymph by
pharyngeal pumping. Once the parasite begins
its regular feeding movements, development is
rapid.

Larval instars

There are five larval instars. The measure-
ments of mandibles and prothoracic spiracle of
various instars are tabulated (Table 1). Be-
cause of the circular nature of the spiracles an
accurate measurement can be taken from any
angle, as long as the maximum diameter of the
apparent elliptical out -line is considered.

Table 1

Measurement in mm. of the size of the

PROTHORACIC SPIRACLE AND MANDIBLE
OF DIFFERENT LARVAL INSTARS

(Mean±SE)

Instar

Diameter of
Prothoracic Spiracle

Length of
Mandible

1

0.002+ .0001

0.030± .002

2

0.009 ± .0003

0.035± .002

3

0.01 5 ±.002

0.047 ±.004

4

0.024 ±.003

0.057 ±.003

5

0.033 ±.002

0.068 ±.001

First instar larva (Fig. 2)

First instar larva is typically hymenopteri-
form with well defined head and thirteen body
segments. It is glassy whitish in colour. The
skin is smooth without any cuticular structures.

The larva measures about 0.45-0.85 mm in
length and 0.16 to 0.36 mm in width.

The head is thimble shaped and possesses
a pair of stumpy antennae. Head capsule
measures an average of 0.15 mm in width.
Mouth opening is situated at the front end of
the head at the apex. In describing the mouth
parts (Fig. 7) the terminology of Vance and
Smith (1933) has been employed. Epistoma,
pleurostoma and hypostoma are clearly demar-
cated. Mandibles are triangular in outline and
little chitinised. Each mandible is articulated
anteriorly with the superior pleurostomal ramus
and posteriorly with the inferior pleurostomal
ramus. Mandibles consist of a main tooth
followed by small bristle-like teeth in a comb-
like arrangement along the inner edge (Fig. 8).
Tracheal system is composed of two well
developed lateral trunks united transversely
in the first thoracic segment and posteriorly in
the ninth abdominal segment. There are nine
pairs of spiracles, a pair in the first thoracic
segment and one each in the first eight
abdominal segments.

EP

I

Fig. 7. Head of first instar larva — front view. EP—
Epistoma, PL— Pleurostoma, SPLR — Superior pleuros-
tomal ramus, IPLR — Inferior pleurostomal ramus,
Hy-Hypostoma.

256

BIOLOGY OF BRACON BREVICORNIS

Second instar larva (Fig. 3)

Second instar larva measures 0.85-1.4 mm.
in length and 0.36-0.50 mm. in width. The
duration of second instar varies from 7 to
7.5 hours. It is translucent and pale yellowish
white in colour. It can be readily distinguished
from the previous stage by the sizes of the head
capsule, mandibles (Fig. 9) and the spiracle.
The head capsule measures an average of
1.9-2 mm. in width.

Third instar larva (Fig. 4)

The duration of third instar larva varies
from 5 to 6.5 hours. It measures 1.2 to 1.9 mm
in length and 0.52 to 0.72 mm. in width. Head
capsule measures an average of 0.28 mm. in

8 9

Figs. 8-12. Mandibles of first to fifth instar larval
stages.

width. Mouth parts resemble that of second
instar with increase m the size of the mandibles
(Fig. 10).

Fourth instar larva (Fig. 5)

Fourth instar larva shows only minor diffe-
rences from the third instar. Duration of the
fourth instar varies from 6 to 6.5 hours. The
larva measures 1.9 to 2.5 mm. in length and
0.72 to 0.85 mm. in width. Head capsule
measures 0.35 mm. in width on the average.
Mandibles show remarkable change in the
shape (Fig. 1 1).

Fifth instar larva (Fig. 6)

Fifth instar stage is reached 26-29 hours after
eclosion and its duration varies between 12
and 13 hours. The body is yellowish white
in colour and it tapers towards both ends. It
can be easily distinguished from the previous
stage by the presence of cuticular spines in all
segments, except in the ninth and tenth abdomi-
nal ones. The cuticular spines are arranged as
transverse bands on each segment and is absent
on the ventral side. Fifth instar larva measures
about 2.27-3.18 mm in length and 0.85-1,2 mm
in width.

The head (Fig, 13) shows distinct features.
The various parts are : the vertex, the temporal
region, the antennal region, frontal region and
the genal region. The mouth parts are quite
distinct. The mandibles (Fig, 12) are well
sclerotised and brownish at the tip. Main
tooth is followed by eight bristle-like teeth
arranged in a comb-like fashion. Labrum is
enclosed above by epistoma. Maxilla is boun-
ded above by hypostoma and below by maxi-
llary sclerome. Cardo and stipes are demar-
cated by a stout vertical thickening of chitin,
the stipital sclerome. Middle region of the
labium is thickened into an oral area bounded

2

257

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Fig. 13. Head of Final instar larva — front^view.

AN — Antennal bud, MXL — Maxilla, EP — Epistoma,
CRD — Cardo, FRN — Frontal region, STP — Stipes,
SENS— Sensilla, LBR— Labrum, LBSTSC— Labio-

stipital sclerome, MXSC — Maxillary sclerome, STPSC —
Stipital sclerome, HY — Hypostoma, PL — Pleurostoma.

by labiostipital sclerome. Labium preserves its
division into postmentum and prementum.
Tracheal system is well developed. The num-
ber of spiracles is same as in the first instar
larva.

Prepupa and cocoon

The end of larval duration is when the larva
stops feeding. Total duration of the larval stages
of B. hrevicornis varies from 39 to 43.5 hours.
The full fed larva first detaches from the hosts’
body and starts spinning a cocoon with white
silken fibres. Usually, the larvae which detach
from the same host body construct their cocoon
very close to each other. The Cocoon is oval
in outline with a convex dorsal surface and a
flat base. Outer surface of cocoon is translu-
cent whereas the base is transparent and the
larva lying inside is visible. Cocoon measures
about 3.63 mm. in length and 1.7 mm. in width
on an average. Each larva usually takes about

8-10 hours to construct its cocoon. After cons-
truction of the cocoon, within 14-20 hours the
larva voids its meconium which is stored at
the posterior end of the cocoon as a black
semi -solid mass. The larva at this stage is
called as prepupa. Prepupa (Fig. 14) is yello-
wish white in colour. Cuticular spines present
on the body as in the case of fifth instar larva.

14

Fig. 14. Prepupa— Lateral view.

258

•05 mm

BIOLOGY OF BRACON BREVICORNIS

It is sluggish and is capable of feeble wriggling
action.

Pupa (Fig. 15)

Prepupal stage lasts about 13 to 15 hours.

15

Fig. 15. Pupa— dorsal view.

Prior to pupation thoracic and abdominal
regions become differentiated by a construc-
tion at the junction of fourth and fifth segments.
The prepupa finally casts off its skin and the
pupa emerges. Pupa is exarate and yellowish
white in colour. About 24 to 32 hours after
pupation the body colour changes into pale
reddish brown. The eyes and the three ocelli
which are red in colour later change to black.
The head of the pupa is flexed downwards.
Antennae are directed backwards on the ventral
surface. Developing wing pads are distinct.
Segmentation of the abdomen is distinct.
The duration of pupal stage varies between
72 to 84 hours.

Emergence

Approximately ten hours before emergence,
pupal moult takes place. At first, the pupa lies
with its ventral side facing the base of the cocoon.
After its primary emergence from the
pupal exuvium, the adult turns round and
lies upside down within the cocoon with its
dorsal side facing the base of the cocoon. Prior
to secondary emergence from the cocoon, the
adult gnaws an irregular hole at the antero-
dorsal side of the cocoon. Later it comes
out through this hole.

Discussion

According to Clausen (1940) the eggs of
Microbracon lendicivorus have a slender tapering
stalk, slightly longer than the egg body. In
Bracon brevicornis the egg is cylindrical, elon-
gate and represents the general form of braconid
egg, Munro (1917) observed that in B .
hylobii Ratz. the early larval stages possessed
no spiracles and they first appeared only in
the fourth instar stage. B . brevicornis shows
the presence of 9 pairs of spiracles throughout
the larval stages. According to Clausen (1940)
the mandibles of B. tachardiae are 4 dentate
and it reveals an increasing number of small
teeth on the inner margin of the mandibles,

259

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

in the intermediate instars ; the four teeth of
the first instar are succeeded by five in the
second and third. In the case of B. brevi-
cornis the main tooth is followed by eight
small teeth in comb-like arrangement, from
the first instar stage onwards.

Refer

Cheriyan, M. C. (1928) : Microbmcon serinopa, a
parasite of Nephcintis. Year Book Dept. Agric, Madras.
12-22.

Clausen, C. P. (1940) : Entomophagous insects.
Hafner Publishing Company, New York, 688 pp.

Munro, J. W. (1917) : The structure and life history
of Bracon sp. : a study in parasitism. Roy. Soc. Edinb.
Proc. 36 : 313-333.

Nirula, K. K. (1955) : Investigation on the pest of

Acknowledgement

The research has been financed in part by a
grant made by the United States Department of
Agriculture under co-operative Agricultural
Research Grant Programme (P. L. 480).

; n ces

coconut palms. Part III. Nephantis serinopa M.
lnd. Coe. Jour. 9 (1) : 175-201.

Ramachandra Rao, Y., Cheriyan, M. C, Anantha-
narayan, K. P. (1948) : Infestation of Nephantis.
serinopa in S. India and their control by biological
method. Ind. Jour. Ent. 10 (1) : 205-47.

Vance, A. M. & Smith, H. D. (1933) : The larval
head of the parasitic hymenoptera and nomenclature
of its parts. Ann. ent. Soc. Amer. 26 : 86-94.

260

THE AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND FLORA OF KHERI
DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH1

K. K. Singh2 and R. P. S. Tomar3
(With a text-figure)

The paper presents an account of the aquatic and marshy angiosperms of Kheri district, Uttar Pradesh.
Topographical and climatic conditions of the area have been described. The whole area of present investi-
gation comprises six main forest ranges and distribution of species along with field numbers is recorded.
The present study shows that 179 species of angiosperms belonging to 54 families inhabit the lakes, ponds,
swamps, marshes and river banks of the district.

Introduction

In India the study on hydrophytes and marsh-
land plants has been carried out by a number
of workers : Biswas and Calder (1937), Misra
(1946), Mirashi (1954, 1957, 1958), Sen and
Chatterjee (1959), Subramanyam (1962),
Maheshwari (I960) and Vyas (1964) etc. The
systematic and ecological studies on aquatic
and marshy plants of Kheri district has been
undertaken while conducting floristic studies of
the forest of the district. The area has been
partly botanically explored by Duthie (1923),
P. C. Kanjilal (1966) and G. Saran (1954 &
1956) of National Botanical Research Institute
Lucknow. However, no separate work on
aquatic plan s of Kheri district has been publi-
shed. A thorough study of the present day
aquatic and marshland plants is, therefore,
necessary. The area was surveyed in different
seasons during the years 1972 to 1978. Speci-
mens are preserved in the Medicinal Plant
herbarium of Central Drug Research Institute,
Lucknow. The order of families followed in
this paper is according to Bentham and Hooker’s
Genera Plantarum 1862-63. However, in
splitting of certain families, Hutchinson’s (ed.

1 Accepted December 1980.

2 Botany Division, Central Drug Research Institute,
Lucknow.

3 Department of Botany, Y. D. Postgraduate College,
Lakhimpur-Kheri.

1959, 1973) classification has been adopted.
An attempt has been made to bring the nomen-
clature up-to-date as far as possible.

Location and Habitats

Kheri district occupies north-west position in
Uttar Pradesh between 27° 41' and 28° 42' N.
latitude and 30° 2' and 81° 19' E. longitude.
The district is bounded on east by the district
of Baharaich, from which it is separated by
river Kauriala, on the south by Sitapur and
Hardoi, on the west by Shahjahanpur and
Pilibhit districts and on the north by the terri-
tory of Nepal, separated by Mohan river. The
thick forest belts are situated in the terai regions
of the foothills of Himalayas in close vicinity
of the territory of Nepal. It occupies a
total area of 4,740 sq. km. Major parts of
the district are provided with permanent ponds,
Jheels, riverbeds and marshes which get filled
up by water during the rainy season and
maintain a rich aquatic and marshland flora.
The present study conducted over a greater part
of the district with special reference to the
following ranges from where the species have
been collected.

1. Mailani, 2. Golagokarannath, (3) Dudwa,
(4) Bankati, (5) Bellrain, (6) Sonaripur. These
ranges have a large number of ponds, ditches,
jheels, river banks and marshes which support

261

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 79

rich aquatic and marshy vegetation throughout
the year. (Fig. 1).

Topography and Soils

In its general aspect, Kheri district occupies
large stretches of alluvial plain, covered in the
northern half with forests and intersected in
between by many rivers and water courses.
In general, the slope of the district is from north-

west to south-west. A major portion of the
district is low-lying and gets filled with water
during the rainy season. Marshlands occur
commonly in the district. The district is mainly
composed of gangetic alluvium showing a suc-
cession of beds of sands and loam, varying in
depth according to the configuration of the
ground. In areas where clay has been deposi-
ted on the surface as in depressions, the ground
becomes swampy during the rainy season.

Fig. 1. Map of Kheri District, Uttar Pradesh.

AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND FLORA OF KHERI DISTRICT

Climate

The climate of Kheri district is of monsoon
type. The year may be broadly divided into
rainy, winter and summer seasons. The average
total annual rainfall is about 1159.76 mm. The
mean maximum temperature in May reaches
as much as 46° C and mean minimum tempe-
rature is 8.32°C in the month of December.

Observations

The common habitats of hydrophytes and
marshland vegetation are the lakes, ponds,
bank of rivers, low-lying areas and marshy
places of the district, which remain submerged
throughout the year. The following six cate-
gories are recognised, depending upon the
nature of habitats and their contact with soil,
water and air :

1 . Free-floating hydrophytes.

2. Suspended hydrophytes.

3. Submerged attached hydrophytes.

4. Floating attached hydrophytes.

5. Emergent, amphibious hydrophytes.

6. Wetland and marshy plants.

The aquatic and marshy vegetation shows
some pure patches of plants like Eichhornia
crassipes (Mart.) Solms, Nelumbo nucifera
Gaertn., Monochoria vaginalis Presl, Typha
angustata Bory & Chaub, Potentilla supina
Linn., Ranunculus sceleratus Linn, in different
localities of the district. Besides, there are
number of common associations of aquatic and
marshy species which are noticeable in these
areas :

Associates of Aquatic plants :

(a) Nymphaea, Eleocharis, Aeschynomene

(b) Potamogeton , Ottelia, Hygroryza.

(c) Nymphaea, Nymphoides, Hydrilla.

Associates of Marshy and Wetland plants :

(a) Ludwigia, Scirpus, Hy dr ole a.

( b ) Caesulia, Tenagocharis , Sphenoclea.

(c) Phragmites, Oxystelma, Car ex.

(d) Ipomoea, Hydrolea, Ammannia.

Plants like Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn.,
Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) D.C. Ipomoea
aquatica Forsk., Ammannia baccifera Linn,
show wide range of distribution. The present
study shows that one hundred and seventy-nine
species of angio sperms belonging to fifty-four
families inhabit the lakes, ponds, marshes and
river beds of the district.

enumeration of the taxa

1. Ranunculaceae

1. Ranunculus sceleratus Linn.

Common in marshes of the district. FI.
March to June. Local name Jaldhania. KKS
2810, 7266.

2. R. cantoniensis DC.

Rare, Bankati range of the district in
marshes. FI. April to May. KKS 7164.

2. Nymphabaceae

3. Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f.

Common in ponds and jheels during the
rainy season. FI. August to October. Local
name: Kumodini, Kokaveli. KKS 7440.

4. Nymphaea stellata Willd.

Occasional in ponds and lakes, often mixed
with N. nouchali Burm. f. FI. August to Octo-
ber. Local name : Chota Kamal. KKS 7508,
7696.

3. Nelumbonaceae

5. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.

Frequent in jheels and ponds. FI. April to
October. Local name : Kamal KKS 3007,

263

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

4. Brassicaceae (Crucifer ae)

6. Rorippa Mica (Linn,) Hiern
Occasional in moist shady places. FI. Feb-
ruary to August. KKS 2933, 4306.

7. Coronopus didymus (Linn.) Sm.

Frequent in moist places. FL January to
April. KKS 7792.

5. Elatinaceae

8. Bergia amraaimioides Heyne ex Roth

Rare, in wet and marshy places along with
Ammannia spp. FL November to May. KKS
7791.

6. Sterculiaceae

9. Melodiia corchorifoSia Linn.

Common in muddy and marshy places. FI.
July to September. KKS 7443, 7732.

7. Tiliaceae

10. Corchorus aestuans Linn.

Common in moist shady places. FI. August
to October. KKS 3069, 7561.

11. C. capsularis Linn.

Frequent on moist ground. FL July to
September. KKS 3064.

8. Fabaceae (Papilionaceae)

12. Aeschynomene Mica Linn.

Common in wastelands, ponds and rice
fields. FL July to October. Local name :
Thing ini. KKS 2968, 7711.

9. Rosaceae

13. Potentiila Mica (Andr.) Wolf.

Occasional in moist shady places and in

marshy area. FL September to October. KKS
7342, 8365.

14. P. supina Linn.

Common throughout the area in marshy
and muddy areas. FL January to April. KKS
2887, 7103, 8402.

10. Myrtaceae

15. Syzygium heyneanum (Duthie) Wall ex-
Gamble

Occasional on river banks and in swamps.
FL April to September- Local name : Kathja-
muni. KKS 7352.

11. Lecythidaceae

16. Bamngtoma acutangula (Linn.) Gaertn.

Found frequently in marshy places and along
river banks. FL May to September- Local
name : Panyala. KKS 4342.

12. Lythraceae

17. Ammannia baccifera Linn.

Common in moist and marshy places through -
out the area. FL major part of the year.
KKS 4149, 7219.

18. A. multiflora Roxb.

Common in moist and marshy places. Fl.
October to January. KKS 4148.

19. Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne

Common in moist and muddy places along
forest roads. FL October to January. KKS
4180, 7859.

20. R. mexicana Cham. & Schlect.

Common on moist and muddy ground along
forest roads. FL October to December. KKS
4203, 7857.

264

AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND FLORA OF KHERI DISTRICT

13, Onagraceae

21. Ludwigia adscendens (Linn.) Hara

Common in ponds during rainy season, FI.
September to November. KKS 3083, 4368,
7409.

22. L. prostrata Roxb.

Frequent in moist and muddy places along
forest roads. Fl. August to November. KKS
7538.7713,8482.

23. L. octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven subsp. sessiii-

flora (Mich.) Raven

Frequent in marshy and water-logged areas.
Fl. October to December. KKS 4261, 7887.

24. L. perennis Linn.

Co mmon in muddy and shaded areas along
forest roads. Fl. September to November.
KKS 7413,7538,8532.

14, Trap ace ae

25. Trapa natans Linn. var. bispinosa (Roxb.)

Makino

Commonly cultivated in ponds and jheels in
the area. Fl. August to November, Local
name : Sing hara. KKS 7694.

15. Molluginaceae

26. Glinus lotoides Linn,

Common in drying ponds, puddles and moist
sandy places. Fl April to August. KKS 2927.

16. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

27. Hydrocotyle sibthorpoides Lamk.

Rare in moist and muddy places. Fl. Septem-
ber to November. KKS 7651.

28. Centella asiatica (Linn .) Urban

Common in moist, shady places and along
river banks. Fl. April to August Local name :
Brafuni . KKS 2931 , 4223, 7137,

29. Cnidium mourner i (Linn.) Cusson

Frequent in open, muddy and marshy places .
Fl. April to May. KKS 2938, 7162.

17. Rubiaceae

30. Cephalanthus occidental is Linn.

Occasional in marshy area along river bank.

Fl. March to July. Inayat 22381.

31. Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn

Frequent in moist and muddy places. FL
September to October. KKS 4168, 4209.

32. O. paniculata Linn.

Occasional in moist and marshy places. Fl.
August to October. KKS 3039, 7955.

33. Hyptianthera stricta W. & A.

Rare in marshy places. Fl. March to May.
KKS 7140, 7195.

34. Borreria articularis (Linn, f.) F.N. Wils.
Common in marshy places. Fl. August to

October, KKS 3012, 7434.

18. Asteraceae (Compositae)

35. Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O. Ktze. var,
lavenia.

Common in moist, shady and marshy places.
Fl. September to February. KKS 4171, 7938.

35. Caesulia axillaris Roxb.

Frequent in marshy places and in rice fields.
FL September to April. KKS 4255,4325, 7803.

265

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

37. Dichrocephala integrifolia (Linn, f.) 0. Ktze.

Occasional in moist, shady, and marshy places.
FI. August to October. KKS 4133, 7327.

38. Centipeda minima (Linn.) A. Br. & Aschers.
Frequent in moist and muddy places. FI.

October to December. Local name: Nakchikcini.
KKS 2895,7156.

39. Cotula anthemoides Linn.

Occasional in moist and marshy places. FI.
February to March. KKS 4340, 7178.

40. C. hemisphaerica (Roxb.) Wall, ex Clarke
Occasional in marshy places. FI. January to

March. KKS 7683.

41. Cyathocline purpurea (D. Don) O. Ktze.
Common in marshy places and along river

banks. FI. November to March. KKS 7186,
7227.

42. Emilia sonchifolia (Linn.) DC.

Frequent in muddy places and other moist

places. FL September to November. KKS
7633, 7715.

43. Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn.

Common in marshy places. FI. most part

of the year. Local name : Bhangara. KKS
7168.

44. Grangea maderaspatana (Linn.) Poir.
Common in marshy places and along river

banks, puddles etc. FI. October to March.
KKS 2884, 7182, 7589, 8328.

19. Campanulacbae

45. Lobelia alsinoides Lamk.

Common in moist and muddy grounds
along forest roads. FI. September to December.
KKS 4184, 8511.

46. Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) DC.
Frequent in damp places and along river

streams. FI. November to March. KKS
7110,7128,7638.

47. Campanula bentbamii Wall, ex Kitamura
Frequent in moist, shady places and along

river banks. FI. December to March. KKS
2854,7102,7105.

20. Sphenocleaceae

48. Sphenoclea zeylanica Linn.

Frequent in marshy areas and in rice fields.
FI. August to November. KKS 7482, 8488.

21. Primulaceae

49. Primula umbellata (Lour.) Bentv.
Occasional in moist, shady places. FI. Decem-
ber to March. KKS 7104, 7636.

50. Lysimachia Candida Lindl. subsp. abovata
R. Kunth

Rare in marshy places. FI. March to October.
KKS 7952.

22. Asclepiadaceae

51. Oxystelma secamone (Linn.) K. Schum.

In marshy places and along river banks.

FI. July to November. Local name : Dudhibel.
KKS 4356, 7492.

23. Gentianaceae

52. Nymphoides indicum (Linn.) O. Ktze.
Commonly in ponds, Jheels etc. FI. April to

October. KKS 7697, 8340.

53. Canscora decussata (Roxb.) Roem & Schult.
Frequent in moist and marshy places. FI.

August to November. KKS 4207, 7850.

266

AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND FLORA OF KHERI DISTRICT

24. Hydrophyllaceae

54. Hydrolea zeylanica (Linn.) Vahl.

Common in marshy places and in rice fields.

FI. September to December. KKS 4270, 7846.

25. CONVOLVULACEAE

55. Volvulopsis nummular ia (Linn.) Roberty
Frequent in muddy places. FI. August to

February. KKS 3052.

56. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.

Common in muddy places near pond. FI*
September to February. KKS 2890, 3082, 4109.

26. SCROPHU LARI ACE AE

57. Verbascum chinense (Linn.) Sant.
Occasional along river banks. FI. February

to April. KKS 8409.

58. Striga angustifolia (D. Don) Saldanha.
Occurs near the banks of ponds amongst

grasses. FI. September to November. KKS
7476, 7700.

59. Lindenbergia macrostachya (Be nth.) Benth.
Rare. Along river banks. FI. February

to May. KKS 7101, 7118, 8393.

60. Mazus pumilus (Burm. f.) van Steenis
Frequent along river banks. FI. September

to February. KKS 4251.

61. M. delavayi Bonati.

Occasionally in moist places and along river
banks. FI. September to December. KKS
7116,7637.

62. Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce.

Common in permanent pools, ponds and in

marshy places. FI. September to December.
KKS 4275, 4328, 7856, 7870.

63. Lindemia Crustacea (Linn.) F. Muell.
Occasionally in marshy places. FI. Septem-
ber to December. KKS 7463, 8464.

64. L. ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell.

Frequent in moist and marshy places. FI.
September to December. KKS 7428.

65. L. anagallis (Burm f.) Pennell.

Frequent in moist shady and marshy places.
FI. September to December. KKS 3038, 4146.

66. Bacopa mourned (Linn.) Pennell.

Occasionally in wet and marshy places. FI.
August to November. KKS 3071, 7941.

67. Mella hamiltoniana (Benth.) Pennell.

Rare in marshy places. FI. September to

October. KKS 8502.

68. Veronica anagallis-acquatica Linn.

Common in marshy places and along river
banks. FI. February to April. KKS 7107,
7232, 8324.

27. Lentibu lari ace ae

69. Utricularia aurea Lour.

Frequent in stagnant water of ponds and
ditches etc. FI. September to December. KKS
7568.

28. Acanthaceab

70. Hygrophila auriculata (K. Schum.) Heine.

Common in marshy places and near ponds
and ditches. FI. October to December. KKS
2892.

t

71. H. salicifolia (Vahl) Nees.

Occasional in moist and marshy places.
KKS 7580.

267

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol 79

72, Hemiadelphus polyspermus (Roxb). Nees.
Common in marshy places and along river

beds. FI. September to March. KKS 2845,
2895, 7681, 7812, 8329.

29. Verbenaceae

73, Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene
Common in marshy places and along river

banks. FI. April to August. KKS 3075, 4115,
7224.

30. Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

14, Aerocephalus indicus (Barm, f.) O. Ktze.

Common in moist and marshy places. FI.
September to December. KKS 4165, 7851.

75. Salvia pleheia R. Br.

Common in moist places, along river banks
and in marshes. FI. September to April.
KKS 2804, 2842, 4138, 7158, 8383.

76. Eesteralis stellata (Lour.) Panigrahi.
Frequent in marshy and muddy areas along

forest roads. FI. September to November.
KKS 4280, 7809, DP Raturi 2557.

31. Amaranthaceae

77. Centrostacliys aquatica (R. Br.) Wall, ex-
Moq.

Rare in ponds. FI. September to December.
KKS 7515.

78. A! tern anther a sessilis (Linn.) DC.

Common in moist, marshy places and along

river banks. FL Major part of the year.
KKS 3066, 7155.

79. A. paronychioides St. Hil.

Common in marshy places and near ponds.
FI. All season. KKS 7259, 7466, 7604.

32. Chenopodiaceae

80, Cheuopodium ambrosioides Linn.

Frequent along river banks. FI. March to
September. KKS 3048, 7329.

33. Polygon ace ae

81. Polygonum plebeium R. Br.

Common in marshy places and near ponds
etc. FI. August to April. KKS 2809', 2814,
7169, 7319.

82. P. glabrum Willd.

Frequent in marshy places and along river
banks. FL September to March. KKS 7828.

83. P. lanigerum R. Br.

Common in marshy places. Fl. September
to December. KKS 7505, 7884.

84. P. limbatum Meissn.

Occasional in marshy places and near ponds.
FL September to December. KKS 7661, 7976.

85. P. barbatum Linn, subsp. giacile Dansen.

Common in marshy places and in ditches.
FL September to March. KKS 2978, 4226,
4303, 7223.

86. P. hydropiper Linn, subsp, microcarpum

Danser var. lenticularis Danser-

Occasional in marshy places and in ditches.
Fl. September to March. KKS 7559, 8920,
8404, 8471.

87. Rumex dentatus Linn.

Common in marshy places and along river
beds. Fi. January to June. KKS 2828, 7138,
7593, 8325.

268

AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND FLORA OF KHERl DISTRICT

34. PlPERACEAE

88. Piper longum Linn.

Common in moist and marshy places in sal
forest. Fl. August to October. Local name :
Piper . KKS 3042, 7963, 8478.

35. Euphorbiaceae

89. Bischofia Javamea Blume.

Rare in moist and marshy places. Fl.
March to April. KKS 7911.

90. Trewia midiflora Linn.

Frequent in marshy places. Fl. February
to April. Local name : Gutel. KKS 2905,
7188, 7655.

91. Gloehidion lanceolarium Voigt
Frequent in marshy places. FL March to

April. KKS 3059, 7964.

92. G. multiloculare Voigt,

Occasional in marshy places. FL March
to May. KKS 4304, 8497.

93. Kirganeiia reticulata (Poir.) BailL
Frequent in marshy places and along streams.

FL April to July. KKS 2848, 7130, 7625.

36. Urticaceae

94. Pouzolzia zeylasiica (Linn.) Benn.

Frequent along river banks and in moist

shady places. FL September to January. KKS
2989, 3043, 4170.

95. P. pentandra (Roxb.) Benn.

Occasional in moist places along streams.

FL September to January. KKS 7885.

96. P. hirta (BL) Hassk.

Rare. Along streams and in moist places.
FL September to December. KKS 7965.

37. Mqraceae

97. Ficus heterophylla Linn. f.

Frequent in marshy places. FL October
to May. KKS 7258, 7328, 7667, 7954.

38. Salic ace ae

98. Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

Frequent along river beds. FL October
to March. Local name : Sukulbent. KKS
2880, 4217, 7986.

39. Ceratqphyllaceae

99. Ceratoptiyllum demersum Linn.

Common in lakes, ponds and ditches. FL

September to November. KKS 2559.

40. Hydrocharitaceae

100. Hy dr ilia verticillata (Linn, f.) Royle.
Frequent in tanks and ponds and slowly

running water of ditches. FL September to
November. KKS 8354, 8419.

101. Ottelia alismoldes (Linn.) Pers.

Common in tanks, ponds and slow running
water. FL September to December. KKS
7556, 7708.

102. Vallisneria spiralis Linn.

Frequent at the bottom of ponds and ditches.
FL October to March. KKS 8564.

41. PONTEDERIACEAE

103. Eichhornia erassipes (Mart.) Solms,

Common in ponds and ditches forming pure
patches. FL September to November. Local
name : Jalkumbhi. KKS 7370.

269

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

104. Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl.
Common in marshy places and along the

edge of ponds. FI. August to November.
KKS 7483, 7748, 3489.

42. COMMBLINACEAE

105. Amischophacelus axillaris (Linn.) R. Rao &
Kammathy.

Common in marshy places. FI. August to
December. KKS 4272, 7541 .

106. Cyanotis oristata (Linn ) D. Don
Frequent in damp and muddy places. FI.

July to November. KKS 4216, 7539, 7819.

107. Murdannia scapiflora Roxb.

Occasional in marshy places. FI. August

to November. KKS 4139.

43. JUNCACEAB

108. Juncus prismatocarpus R. Br.

Occasional in marshy places. Fl. October
to April. Inayat 22831.

109. J. bufonius Linn.

Frequent in moist and marshy places. Fl.
October to March. G. Saran 26298, 26374.

44. Arecaceab (Palmab)

110. Calamus tenuis Roxb.

Frequent in marshy areas and along river
banks. Fl. September to December. Local
name : Bent. KKS 7713.

45. Typhaceae

111. Typha augustata Bory & Chaub,

Common in marshy places. Fl. May to

November. Local name : Pater. KKS 7652,
7940.

46. Araceae

112. Pistia strati© tes Linn.

Rare. In still water of tanks and ditches.
Fl. August to November.* KKS 7830.

113. Plesmonium margaritiferum Schott
Rare. In marshy places. Fl. August to

October. KKS 7745.

47. LBMNACEAE

114. Lemna paucicostata Hegelm.

Frequent in ponds and ditches. KKS 8410.

115. Wolfia arrliiza (Linn.) Horkel ex-Wimmer
Occasional in ponds and ditches. KKS 8412.

116. Spirodela polyrhiza (Linn.) Schleid
Common in still water of ponds and ditches.

KKS 8411.

48. Alismataceae

117. Sagittaria sagittifolia Linn.

Frequent in marshy places. Fl. September
to February. KKS 7353.

118. S. guayanensis H. B. & K.

Occasional in marshy places and in ponds.
Fl. September to December. KKS 7484,
7695.

119. Caldesia pamassifolia (Linn.) Pari.

Rare. In stagnant water of ponds. Fl.
July to October. KKS 7555.

49. Butomaceae

120. Tenagodiaris latifolia (D. Don) Buchen.
Occasional in open marshy places and in

rice fields. Fl. September to December. KKS
4334, 7847.

270

AQUATIC AND MARSHLAND FLORA OF KHERI DISTRICT

50. Aponogetonaceae

121. Aponogeton crispum Thunb.

Frequent in ponds and jheels. Fl. August
to November. KKS 7553.

51. POTAMOGETONACEAE

122. Potamogefon nodosus Poir.

Occasional in ponds and in marshy places.

Fl. November to December. KKS 7268.

123. P. crispus Linn.

Frequent in ponds. Fl. December to April.
KKS 7245.

124. P. pectinatus Linn.

Common in ponds and tanks. Fl. October
to April. KKS 7246, 8460.

52. EriocaUlaceae

125. Eriocaulon cinereum R. Br.

Common in marshy places and in rice fields.
Fl. September to January. KKS 7489, 7854.

53. Cyperaceae

126. Carex cernua Boott.

Occasional in marshy places. Fl. February
to April. Inayat 22886.

127. C. fedia Nees.

Common in marshy places and near ponds
etc. Fl. September to April. KKS 2819,
7172, 7660.

128. Cyperus micheliamis (Linn.) Link subsp.
pygmaeus (Rottb.) Asch. & Graebn.

Frequent near ponds and marshy places. Fl.
October to July. Inayat 23898.

129. C. triceps (Rottb.) Endl.

Occasional in moist and marshy places. FL
September to October. KKS 8568.

130. C. kyllingia Endl.

Common in marshy places. Fl. August to
March. KKS 2955, 4181, 7418.

131. C. cyperoides (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Common in marshy places. Fl. September

to November. KKS 3017, 7916, 8470, 8522.

132. C. compactus Retz.

Frequent in moist and marshy places. FL
August to November. KKS 2953, 4271, 7451.

133. C. platystylis R. Br.

Occasional in marshy places and along river
banks. Fl. July to February. Sis Ram 46453.

134. C. difformis Linn.

Occasional in marshy places. FL August to
December. KKS 8425.

135. C. silltensis Nees.

Frequent in marshy places. FL August to
November. KKS 4362, 7893, 8510.

136. C. tenuispica Steud.

Occasional in rice fields and other marshy
places. FL October to November. KKS 7491.

137. C. haspan Linn.

Occasional in marshy places. Fl. September
to November. KKS 7889.

138. C. compressus Linn.

Frequent in moist and marshv places. FL
August to November. KKS 8432.

139. C. iria Linn.

Common in rice fields and other marshy
places. Fl. August to November. KKS 2976,
7472, 8446.

271

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

140. C. aMatus Kern.

Common in rice fields and in other marshy
places. FI. September to November. KKS
2977.

141. C. niveus Retz.

Frequent in moist and marshy places. Fi.
July to October. KKS 7387.

142. C. corymbosus Rottb.

Frequent in marshy places. FI. August to
November. KKS 8505.

143. C. digitate Roxb.

Frequent in moist shady and marshy places.
FI. August to December. KKS 8472.

144. C. pilosus Vahl.

Occasional in marshy places and in rice
fields. FI. August to December. KKS 7557#
7763.

145. C. distans Linn. f.

Frequent in moist and muddy places. Fl.
August to October. KKS 8459, 8526.

146. C. pangorei Rottb.

Frequent in moist and muddy places. Fl.
August to January. KKS 8437.

147. C. exaltatus Retz.

Common in marshy places. Fl. August to
December. KKS 2951, 7452, 7755.

148. Eleodiaris dulci$ (Burnt, f.) Henschel.
Frequent in marshy places and in shallow

water of ponds and ditches. Fl. September
to December. KKS 8426.

149. E. atropurpurea (Retz.) Kunth.

Common in marshy places and in rice fields.

Fl, September to December. KKS 7488.

150. E. palustris R. Br.

Common in marshy places. Fi. October to
April. KKS 7664, 8428.

151. Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forsk.) Bub.
Common along river banks and other marshy

places. Fl, February to April. KKS 7174,
7241, 7709, 8469.

152. F. diehotoma (Linn.) Vahl.

Frequent in muddy places and in rice fields.
Fl. July to November. KKS 3045, 4159,
7552.

153. F. littoralis Gand.

Common in rice fields and other marshy
places. Fl. September to December. KKS
8455.

154. Scirpus affinis Roth.

Frequent in marshy places. Fl. February
to May. KKS 7323, 8329.

155. S. micheiianus Linn.

Occasional in marshy places. Fl. September
to November. Inayat 22864.

156. S. articulate Linn.

Frequent in marshy and muddy places. Fi.
September to November. KKS 4295, 7351.

157. S. mucronatus Linn.

Occasional in muddy places. Fl. September
to November. KKS 8338.

158. S. tuberosus Desf.

Occasional in marshy places. Fl. September
to December. Inayat 22872, 22866 (DD).

54. POACEAE (GrAMINEAE)

159. Saccharum spouianeum Linn.

Frequent in marshy places and along river
banks. FL September to January. KKS 3028,
7500.

272

Aquatic and marshland flora of kheri district

160. Ischaemum rugosum Salisb.

Common near ponds and marshy places. FI.
September to December. KKS 7945, 8423.

161. Hemarthira compressa (Linn, f.) R. Br.

Common in marshy places and in rice fields.
FI. July to September. KKS 8440, 8467.

162. Rottboellia cxaltata Linn. f.

Frequent near ponds and along streams. FI.
August to November. KKS 7951.

163. Mnesithea laevis (Retz.) Kunth.

Frequent in marshy places and in rice fields.
FI. July to December. KKS 7707.

164. Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash.

Common in marshy places. FI. July to
November. Local name : Seenk. KKS 2983,
7505, 7550, 7764.

165. Bothriochloa pertusa (Linn.) A, Camus

Frequent in marshy places. FI. September
to January. KKS 8540, 8551.

166. Panicum austroasiaticum Ohwi.

Frequent near ponds and other moist places.
FI. September to December. KKS 8524.

167. P. trypheron Schult.

Frequent in moist and muddy places. FI.
August to December. KKS 7722.

168. P. paludosum Roxb.

Common in marsh lands, still water, and
banks of ponds. FI. September to December.
KKS 7730, 8473, 8563.

169. Hymenachne pseudointertupta C. Muell.

Occasional in marshy places and in water-
logged areas. FI. September to December.
KKS 7874.

170. Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P. Beauv.

Common in stagnant ditches and banks of
ponds. FI. August to December. KKS 7824,
8501.

171. E. colonum (Linn.) Link.

Common in rice fields and other marshy
places. FI. July to November. KKS 7523,
8417.

172. E. crusgalli (Linn.) Beauv.

Common in moist places, ponds and in rice
fields. FI. August to November. KKS 7761.

173. Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A, Camus

Common in marshy places and in rice fields,
FI. July to November. KKS 7886, 8424,
8442, 8505.

174. Paspalum distichum Linn.

Common in marshy places and in still waters
of ponds, ditches etc. FI. July to September.
KKS 7417, 8427.

175. P. commersomi Lamk.

A weed in rice fields. FI. September to
January. KKS 2988.

176. Brachiaria reptans (Linn.) Gard. & Hubb.

Frequent in marshy places and in rice fields.
FI. September to January. KKS 8459.

177. Phragmites maxima (Forsk.) Blatt. &
McC.

Common in marshy places and along streams
beds. FI. December to January. KKS 2818,
2997, 4229, 7240, 7498.

178. Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees ex-W. & A.

Common in ponds, ditches etc. FI. October
to February. KKS 7454.

3

273

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ft?/. 79

179. Oryza rufipogon Griff.

Common in rice fields and other marshy
places. FI. October to November. KKS
7746, 8487.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. Nitya Nand, Director
and Dr. M. M. Dhar, Scientist-in-Charge,

Botany, Central Drug Research Institute,
Lucknow for the facilities provided during
this investigation and to Dr. J. K. Maheshwari,
Sr. Assistant Director, N. B.R. I. for going
through the manuscript. One of us (R.P.S.T.)
is also thankful to the Principal, Y. D. Post-
Graduate College, Lakhimpur-Kheri for facili-
ties.

Refer

Biswas, K. and Calder, C. (1937) : Handbook of
Common Water and Marsh Plants of India and Burma.
Delhi.

Duthie, J. F., (1923) : Flora of the upper Gangetic
Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan
tracts I & II. (repr. ed. 1960)

Maheshwari, J. K. (1960): The vegetation of Marshes,
Swamps and Riverside in Khandwa district, M. P.
/. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc . 57 : 371-387.

Mirashi, M. V. (1954) : Studies on the Hydro-
phytes of Nagpur. /. Indian bot . Soc. 33 : 298-308.

Misra, R. D. (1946) : The Ecology of low lying
lands. Indian Ecol. 1 : 1-20.

iNCES

Paul, S. R. (1973) : On the aquatic and marsh
plants of Monghyr, Bihar. Botanique 4 no. 2, 140-151.

Sen, D. N. and Chatterjee, U. N. (1959): Ecological
studies on aquatic and swampy vegetations of Gorakh-
pur. A Survey. Agra Univ. J. Research (Sci.) 8 : 17-29.

Subramanyam, K. (1962) Aquatic Angiosperms.
C.S.I.R. New Delhi.

Trivedi, B. S. and Sharma, P. C. (1965) : Studies
on the hydrophytes of Lucknow and environs. 1 . Distri-
bution and habit, with reference to ecological classifi-
cation. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc. India. 35 : 1-14.

Vyas, L. N. (1964) : A study of the hydrophytes
and marsh plants of Alwar and environs. J. Indian
bot. Soc. 43 : 17-30.

274

RESTOCKING MUGGER CROCODILE CROCODYLUS
PALUSTRIS (LESSON) IN ANDHRA PRADESH : EVALUATION

OF A PILOT RELEASE1

B. C. Choudhury2 and H. R. Bustard3

(With two plates and three text-figures )

Four years’ monitoring results of a pilot mugger crocodile release carried out at Ethipothalla falls in Andhra
Pradesh indicated excellent survival and growth and very little movement in the wild. The methodology
of planning and carrying out a crocodile restocking programme together with the monitoring methods
evolved during a four years’ observation period are reported. The success of this pilot release programme
provided the background for further large-scale releases in the State of Andhra Pradesh. First ever bree-
ding of these released mugger took place in 1981.

Introduction

The Indian mugger (Crocodylus palustris) was
considered to be a depleted species by Gee
(1964), Misra (1970), Daniel (1970), Biswas
(1970), Mukherjee (1974), Bustard (1974) and
Shahi (1977). Naturally, the degree of deple-
tion shows considerable regional variation in a
country of the size of India. The Government
of India Crocodile Project, following the advice
of Bustard (FAO 1974), aimed to quickly
rehabilitate India’s three species of crocodilians
by active management— collection of wild
laid eggs for safe hatchery incubation and sub-
sequent rearing of the young to a size of 1 .20 m
before restocking them in selected, well-pro-
tected areas of the natural habitat.

In 1976, the Andhra Pradesh Forest Depart-
ment initiated a State Crocodile Project in
association with the Government of India
Project Crocodile Breeding and Management,
receiving technical assistance from FAO/UNDP.

Detailed surveys carried out in the two major
river systems of Andhra Pradesh (the Krishna

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 Andhra Pradesh Crocodile Conservation Project,
Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad-500 264.

3 Central Crocodile Breeding and Management
Training Institute, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road,
Hyderabad-500 264.

and Godavari) and in the State’s numerous
reservoirs, during the winter of 1976/1977 indi-
cated that the total population of mugger
crocodiles in Andhra Pradesh was extremely
small. Only six breeding females were re-
corded in the entire State and the total popula-
tion estimate was 30 individuals of above
1.0-1. 5m (Choudhury, in prepn.).

Clearly, the mugger was critically endangered
in Andhra Pradesh. It was, therefore, con-
sidered essential to restock mugger in suitable
habitat areas in the State which could be given
adequate protection by gazetting them as
sanctuaries, in order to build up natural breeding
groups. This restocking would be carried
out using project hatched and reared juveniles.

Bustard (FAO 1974), after examining several
mugger habitats in Andhra Pradesh, had
recommended the large pool and associated
portion of the Chandravanka River, a tributary
of the Krishna river immediately below the
Ethipothalla waterfalls (Fig. 1), as an ideal
area for pilot restocking purposes. Ethipo-
thalla falls now lies in the easternmost limits of
the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam (Krishna) Sanc-
tuary declared and gazetted through the Croco-
dile Project in June 1978. The sanctuary
covers an area of 3600 sq. km. including much
excellent mugger and tiger habitat. Bustard

275

JOURNAL , BOMBAY N At URAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

pointed out that Ethipothalla was a natural
mugger habitat and recommended restocking
using captive-reared juveniles from Nehru
Zoological Park, Hyderabad, where a number
of individuals of Andhra Pradesh stock were
currently being reared. He also recommended
a number of management objectives for the
area. These included posting of guards to
prevent people from going down to the falls,
[both the falls and the crocodiles could be
viewed from the top of the falls (FAO 1974)],
and to prevent cattle grazing and cutting of
grass and other disturbances in the river-bed
below the falls. These proposals were accepted
by the Government of Andhra Pradesh and
the first release in Andhra Pradesh, which was
also the first release of captive-reared mugger
in Asia, took place at Ethipothalla falls on 8th
February, 1977 at which time the guards were
posted.

Subsequent releases, each of two individuals,
took place on 23-12-78 and 16-9-1980 res-
pectively.

In order to evaluate the success of this pilot
release, on which further releases in the State
would be based, detailed monitoring of the
released mugger was devised in order to collect
data on their survival, growth and movement
in the wild. This paper sets out this methodo-
logy and presents results obtained over the
last four years.4

Restocking

The pilot restocking of mugger crocodiles
in Andhra Pradesh required the following
action to be taken :

1. Selection of :

(a) a release site

(b) the best time for release

(c) crocodiles to be released.

4 Following this, a further 176 mugger have been
released into three wild life sanctuaries in Andhra
Pradesh.

2. Pre-release check on the habitat to decide
immediate action required.

3. Marking crocodiles for release.

4. Transporting crocodiles to the release
site.

5. Actual release.

1 (a). Selection of the release site

Ethipothalla was chosen as the first release
site on the basis of the recommendation made
by Bustard (FAO 1974) specifically :

(a) The area was formerly a mugger habitat
holding a good mugger population until
the early 1960’s.

(b) By 1977, the site was still ideal as a
mugger habitat — in addition to the main
pool immediately below the falls, there
are ten other pools up to 5 m deep in a
3 km stretch of the Chandravanka river
before joining the Krishna river 5 km
below Ethipothalla falls. (Plate 1).
These deep pools provide abundant
perennial water. There is a good fish
population in the pools. This fish popu-
lation in the pools and small mammals
from the surrounding jungle, provide
food for the crocodiles.

The cessation of fishing activity under the
management regime would ensure that the
food resources would be available only for the
crocodiles.

Additional advantages of this site for a
pilot release of its kind were :

(a) a manageable small area for protection,
from below the falls to the Krishna river
confluence— a distance of 5 km. The
ideal mugger habitat extended over
approximately 3 km and, therefore, was
easier to monitor closely.

(b) Since there were no existing mugger at
the time of release all observed mugger

276

RESTOCKING MUGGER CROCODILE

could be positively identified as released
individuals without the need to check for
marking.

(c) The waterfall and crocodiles can be viewed
easily from the top of the falls by research/
wildlife staff* and by visitors alike, with
minimum disturbance.

1 (b). Release time

The chosen release site experiences the south-
west monsoon from June to September. During
this time the waterfall is usually in flood inun-
dating the banks. The monsoon flow, com-
bined with release of surplus water from the
right bank canal of the Nagarjunasagar reser-
voir into the Chandravanka river (Fig, 1)
keeps the waterfall discharge high up to De-

cember-January (Plate 1). Therefore, from
July to December, the waterfall is usually
under heavy discharge depending on rainfall
and surplus water release. For the rest of the
year (January to end of June) there is a modest
water flow over the waterfall (Plate 2). This
low water period also coincides with the nesting
season of mugger which is March to April in
this region.

Early February was considered the best time
for release in order to give the captive-reared
crocodiles a four month period to settle down
and get acquainted with the habitat before the
onset of monsoon and resultant floods. Mean-
while, during this dry period, the released
crocodiles could be monitored easily and on the
basis of these data, a broad, clear-cut monitoring
programme could be formulated.

Fig. 1. Andhra Pradesh, showing the location of Nagarjunasagar Wild Life Sanctuary and inset
showing the portion of the Sanctuary including Ethipothalla water falls on the Chandravanka River. The
pools referred to in the text are numbered. Pool 1 is located immediately below the falls. Scale of inset
in metres.

277

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

1 (c). Selection of crocodiles for release

At this time, Nehru Zoological Park, Hydera-
bad was rearing twelve wild caught juvenile
mugger crocodiles— all caught in the nets of
fishermen in the Krishna and Godavari rivers
within the State. Four mugger, all above 1 m
in size (Table 1) were chosen for release since
it was considered that at this size crocodiles
are capable of defending themselves. The
group consisted of one male and three females.
Subsequently, two more female mugger of
1975 year class, taken over from Nagarjuna-
sagar P.W.D. were released and a further
selection of two more males for release was
made from the Nehru Zoological Park’s collec-
tion (Table 1).

Table 1

Details of mugger released.

Length |m) Weight (Kg), sex (M-male) (F-female),

APPROXIMATE AGE (MONTHS)

S.No.

Date of
Release

Length

Wt.

Sex Approx.
Age

1

8-2-1977

1.08

5.0

F

32

2

8-2-1977

1.09

6.0

F

32

3

8-2-1977

1.11

6.0

M

32

4

8-2-1977

1.17

7.5

F

32

5

23-12-1978

1.52

F

42

6

23-12-1978

1.63

. .

F

42

7

16-9-1980

1.90

22.5

M

not

known

8

16-9-1980

1.63

18.0

M

69

2. Pre-release actions

Pre-release action at the site included pre-

vention of all kinds of disturbances. These
were :

(a) a ban on cattle and goat grazing below
and near the fall and along the river
banks.

(b) a ban on fishing of any kind in the habitat
combined with a general ban on the use
of the main pool below the fall for re-
creational purposes, like swimming and
bathing etc. This was considered essen-
tial in order to avoid conflict between the
crocodiles and people.

3. Marking crocodiles for release

Prior to release, the crocodiles were measured,
sexed and marked for future identification.
The marking method adopted was clipping of
the enlarged scutes on the dorsal caudal region
(Fig. 2). Males were clipped by removal
(Plate 2) of the last left double caudal scute,
looking at the animal from tail to head. No
scute was clipped to indicate female sex. For
the first year of release (1977), the first scute of
the single scuted portion of the tail was clipped
in all four released crocodiles. The two females
released in 1978 had the second single scutes
clipped and the two males released in 1980
had the third single scutes clipped (third year of
release) in addition to the clipping of the last
left double scute (sex code).2 * * 5

4. Transporting the crocodiles

Crocodiles for release were transported by
jeep on the night of 7-2-1977 to avoid the heat
of the day. For this journey, of 180 km, the
crocodiles were packed in specially made
wooden crates with elongated partitions so as
to allow each crocodile to remain in one chamber
— each chamber was well ventilated by 2.5 cm
diameter air holes made on the sides of the box,
and had a door on one end to allow the croco-
diles to come out when the door was opened.
The inner walls of the chambers were padded
with straw and gunny bags to prevent injury
to crocodiles during transportation. On reach-

5 For details concerning the marking of crocodilians
for release, see Bustard, H. R. and Choudhury, B. C.
(1981).

278

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate 1

Choudhury & Bustard : Crocodylus palustris

Mugger habitat on the Chandravanka river below the Ethipothalla waterfall with a
succession of rapids interspersed with deep pools.

Ethipothalla falls— monsoon level of water discharge,
( Photos : H, R. Bustard)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate 2

Choudhury & Bustard : Crocodylus palustris

Ethipothalla falls during the lean season showing modest water discharge.

Clipping the second of the single scutes to identify year of release.
( Photos ; fi. R. Bustard)

RESTOCKING MUGGER CROCODILE

I

I

Fig. 2. Crocodile tail showing arrangement of double and single scutes. The dotted lines show
the division between these. The last of the double scutes on the left hand side has been clipped
denoting that the individual is a male. The second of the single scutes has also been clipped
denoting year two release. In both cases the dotted portion of the scutes has been removed.

mg the destination, the crocodiles were kept
in the shade well moistened until the release
time.

5. Actual release

The initial release took place at 1700 hours
on 8-2-1977. The crates containing the croco-
diles were taken down to the main pool below
the falls and kept with their door end facing

the water. On opening the door of the crates,
the crocodiles faced the water, and could come
out of the box on to the bank of the pool. The
time taken for the crocodiles to emerge varied
from five to fifteen minutes.

Further releases of two female mugger on
23-12-1978 and two males on 16-9-1980 were
carried out at the same spot.

279

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fn/. 79

Monitoring

Since at the time of release, there were no
resident crocodiles in the habitat, any crocodiles
observed were released ones. The ability to
view four pools including the main pool im-
mediately below the falls, from above the falls
greatly facilitated monitoring. The usual moni-
toring practice adopted was to walk on top of
the escarpment looking for any signs of the
crocodiles including spoor and faecal pellets
and recording observations. Monitoring was
done during day time due to the ease with
which crocodiles could be spotted in the un-
disturbed habitat often basking on the rocks.
This habitat is not suited for night spotting
due to many boulders and vegetation which
obscured the crocodiles from the light source.

The guards appointed at the site for protection
kept daily records of the movements of croco-
diles. This record was checked by the local
supervising staff and a fortnightly report was
prepared on a supplied proforma (Appendix I).
One of us personally monitored the site once
a month to check the records and to advise the
protection staff on future monitoring and record
keeping as well as protection problems.

After the third release on 16-9-1980, it was
decided to use the protection staff to record
daily sightings on a simplified proforma (Appen-
dix II). This only indicated the names of the
deep pools against which they have to record
only the number and time of sighting crocodiles
in the respective pools.

Appendix I

Fortnightly/ Monthly monitoring report of released crocodiles at Ethipothalla Falls

Species released — Mugger ( Cvocodylus palustris )

. . 8th February 1977, 23rd December 1978 and
16th September 1980
. . Eight (four + two + two)

. . Three males and five females
. . Males last left double caudal scute and first
or third single caudal scutes clipped. Females
first or second single caudal scutes clipped.

To be filled in by the Observer

1 . Date of Observation

2. Water level in the fall

3. Weather condition

4. Air temperature

5. Water temperature

6. Crocodiles observed (number, location etc.)

7. Average basking time of crocodiles for the day

8. Information on observations by local watchmen during

last fortnight/month

9. Remarks /Suggestions of the observer

Low /Moderate/High
Sunny/Cloudy/Rainy

1 . Dates of release

2. Total number released

3. Details of sex

4. Marking codes

Date :

Signature of the observer
Name in full :

Appendix II

Daily Observation Proforma (to be Recorded by Local Watchers)

RESTOCKING MUGGER CROCODILE

s

8 2

^ ^4

I S

< Ah

£

T3

a

a

co

>»

•s

§

>>

ctf

T3

£

T3

co

<U

a

TJ

I

>»

03

-a

i

H

>>

03

X)

£

03

T3

•

•

•

m

*

•

oo

OO

OO

oo

OO

ON

ON

»-H

■

ON

1— H

ON

i-H

ON

rt

4

•A

l

•o

OO

<N

On

o

CO

*— i

1

CM

28 J

Name and signature of recorder

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

Results

The results set out below are grouped under
three headings ; survival, movement and growth.

Survival

The total number of crocodiles observed
on each monitoring trip by one of us (BCC) is
given in Table 2. Table 3 gives the crocodiles
sighted by the supervisory staff in each monitor-
ing trip, and in Table 4 the daily records of
the local protection staff are set out for the
month of January 1981. Combining the data
from the three Tables, a clear picture of the
survival of released mugger can be obtained.
The supervisory monitoring and the research
monitoring visits were mostly of one day’s
duration and allowed a maximum 5-6 hours
observation at the release site. On the last
6 visits by us, the actual monitoring time has
been reduced to 2-3 hours per visit. Despite
the brief duration of these visits, it can be
clearly seen from Table 2 that the 1977 released
crocodiles were resighted regularly following
the release. That all survived after rehabilita-
tion to the wild from zoo life is apparent from
the monitoring result of 8 February 1978 (a
full year after release), when all four were again
resighted. One year later (on 13 March 1979)
five of the (then) six released crocodiles were
resighted. Following release of a further two
individuals on 16-9-1980 the maximum number
sighted has been seven.

The monitoring data of the local staff is
more complete (Table 4), with 5 individuals
seen on a single day (January 3, 1981) and on
several observations six individuals have been
observed (Fig. 3). On 17th May 1981 the
local staff sighted 7 (of the 8) crocodiles. Since
the local protection staff were present most of
the time and operate from both ends of the
habitat, their monitoring was more complete
and they have sighted seven out of eight croco-
diles so far.

Though all the eight mugger released have
never been observed on any one day, it is
believed that the survival has been 100% and
that all mugger have not been observed because
attempts to cover the whole area on a single day
for a longer observation period have not been
made. Pending this, it can be definitely stated
that seven out of the eight mugger have survived.

Movement

Taking the 1977 release first, it can be seen
that extremely little movement occurred in the
year following release. Two mugger showed
movement of within 100 m, one moved 500 m
downstream and returned to pool 1 and one
female moved a distance of 800 m and took
up residence in pool 5. One individual of
the second release (December 1978) has been
sighted in pool 1 1 at a distance of 3 km below
the release site from September 1980, and the
sighting of most, if not all, crocodiles on each
monitoring trip provided clear evidence that
movement out of the area had not taken place.
With improvement of the monitoring work
and further releases over the years, all areas
below the falls have been mapped and their
distance from the main release pool measured.
Since the mugger cannot move upstream due
to the high falls, movement only took place in
one direction — downstream. The data indi-
cate how far mugger crocodiles move down-
stream, either voluntarily or due to effect of
monsoon floods. As has been described above,
the release site consists of a series of deep
pools and for our monitoring purpose, 1 1 pools
have been mapped. The last pool is located
at a distance of 3 km below the fall. The
nearest pool to the main pool is only 50 m
distant. All movements were restricted to
this 3 km stretch even allowing for four mon-
soon floods (the 1977 monsoon following the
first release was the worst in living memory
extensively flooding the area.)

28 2

RESTOCKING MUGGER CROCODILE

Table 2

Monitoring results of research staff. The distance moved by crocodiles which had

MOVED DOWNSTREAM FROM THE MAIN POOL IS GIVEN IN METRES IN BRACKETS

Date

Total Number of
crocodiles seen

Main Pool

Distance below
main pool

1

2

3

4

1977

25th March1

..

4

2

2(100)

22nd April

3

2

1 (100)

17 th May

4

2

1 O00), 1(50)

8th June

4

3

1 (300)

3rd July

3

2

1 (100)

8th August

3

2

1 (100)

9th October

4

2

2(50)

23rd November

14th December

2

1 (100), 1(500)

1978

28th January

2

2

8th February

4

3

1(800)

30th March

2

2

28th April

3

3

28th May

3

3

14th June

3

3

6th September

3

3

23rd December2

4

2

1 (500), 1 (200)

1979

13 th March

5

4

1 (50)

3rd April

3

3

11th August

# ,

2

2

17th November

2

2

. .

1980

13th January

# %

3

2

1 (500)

21st February

3

3

3rd May

• .

4

2

1 (400), 1 (100)

15th June

, ,

3

2

1 (400)

17th September3

2

1

1 (200)

9th November

3

1

1 (100), 1(800)

1981

27th January

3

2

1 (500)

27th February

3

3

••

1 Four crocodiles released.

2 Two additional crocodiles released on 23-12-1978 increasing the total population to six individuals. On this
date monitoring was carried out prior to this release and all four individuals sighted.

3 Two additional crocodiles released on 16-11-80 increasing the total to 8.

283

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

Table 3

monitoring results of local supervisory wild life staff, conducted at approximately

FORTNIGHTLY INTERVALS, COVERING THE PERIOD 28 DECEMBER 1977 TO 1 SEPTEMBER 1980.
The distance moved by CROCODILES which had moved downstream from the main pool is

GIVEN IN METRES IN BRACKETS

Date

Total number
of crocodiles
seen

Main Pool

Distance
below
main pool

Waterflow

1977

28th December

••

••

••

Moderate

1978

5th February . .

Moderate

9th March

2

2

Moderate

21st May

1

1

Low

24th May

2

2

Low

14th June

3

2

1 (500)

Moderate

11th August

3

3

Full

25th August

2

2

1 (500), 1 (100)

Full

22nd December . .

4

2

1979

6th January . .

4

3

1(500)

Moderate

18th January

3

3

Moderate

28th January

3

3

Low

3rd February . .

2

2

Low

11th February ..

4

4

Low

18th February ..

2

2

Low

9 th April

2

2

Low

16th April

4

4

Low

23rd April

5

3

2 (600)

Low

6th May

3

3

Low

13th May

3

1

2 (600)

Low

20th May

5

3

2 (600)

Low

27th May

2

2

Low

3rd June

4

2

2(600)

Low

12th June

5

3

2 (600)

Low

24th June

2

2

Low

10th July

3

3

Low

22nd July

4

4

Low

5th August

4

4

Low

12th August

3

3

Low

28th August

2

2

Low

1 1 th September

1

1

Full

23rd September

2

2

Full

7th October . .

3

3

Moderate

14th October . .

3

3

Moderate

21st October

1

1

Moderate

28th October

2

2

Moderate

4th November

2

2

Moderate

19 th November

2

2

Moderate

2nd December

3

3

Moderate

384

Restocking mugger crocodile

Date

Total Number
of crocodiles
seen

Main Pool

Distance
below
main pool

Waterflow

1980

1st January

2

2

Moderate

16th January . .

3

3

Moderate

1st February . .

3

3

Moderate

16th February . .

2

2

Moderate

2nd March

2

2

Moderate

16th March

2

2

Low

1st April

2

2

Low

16th April

2

2

Low

1st May

2

2

Low

16th May

2

2

Low

1st June

2

2

Low

16th June

3

2

1 (100)

Low

1st July

2

2

Low

16th July

2

2

1st August

2

2

16th August

2

2

1st September . .

2

2

* •

Growth

At the time of the first release of four mugger
of estimated age 2 years 8 months, on 8 th
February, 1977, the average size was 1.11 m
(Table 1). At the time of the second release
of two mugger estimated to be three and a
half years old, on 23rd December, 1978 (22
months after the first release), a footprint of
the first released mugger was measured and
from this it was estimated that the size of the
mugger was 1.6 m (the possible error of esti-
mation at this size is ± 5 cm). This indicated
a growth rate of about 50 cm in 22 months by
which time the mugger were approximately
four and a half years old.

Thereafter, no further footprints have been
measured, and size estimation has been carried
out visually. On the day of the third release
on 16th September 1980, (22 months after
second release) the resident mugger were almost
identical with the 1.9 m male released on that
day. The growth rate, therefore* during the
next 22 months, by which time the mugger
were about six and a half years old, was about

30 cm. An overall growth of 80 cm, was
recorded in 44 months, in the wild, for mugger
between the approximate ages of two and a
half years and six and a half years.

Breeding

The first wild breeding of these released
mugger took place in 1981. The female, from
the second release, which bred, was in her
seventh year. A full account of this will be
published in due course.

Discussion

The importance of selecting an ideal release
site cannot be overstressed. If this is wrongly
chosen the release is doomed to failure. In
order to give the released crocodilians every
opportunity to adjust to and become acquainted
with their new surroundings, prior to the onset
of the monsoon, the release season is also of
key importance. Crocodiles should be re-
leased in the early spring, at least three months
prior to the commencement of the monsoon.

285

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

Table 4

Monitoring results by the local protection staff on a daily basis. These results are
given for January 1981 for comparison with the data in Table 2. An asterisk (s)
indicate(s) the sighting of a crocodile(s), the time of sighting is also given.

The location references are given in the text and in
Figure 1

Date

(Jan. 1981)

Location

Total

seen

Pool 1

2 3

4

5 6 7 8

9 10 11

1

.. **1545

• • • 0

*0900

• • e e * # #

*1200

4

2

. . *0930

. .

. . *1200

.. *1600

3

3

. . *0900

. .

*0945

.. *1200

*1400 . . *1600

5

4

. . *0900

*1000

.. *1330

.. *1600

4

5

. . *0930

*1100

. .

2

6

. . *1000

*1030

.. *1545

3

7

. . *0900

.. *1100

*1500

3

8

. . *0930

. .

.. *1200 *1230

3

9

. .

. . *1400

. . *1600

2

10

.. **0945

*1030

. . *1600

4 .

11

. . *0900

*1000

. .

2

12

.. **1100

*0930

*1500

. .

4

13

.. **1545

*1000

. . *1600

3

14

. . *1000

. . *1500

. .

*1530

4

15

.. **1230

. . *1600

3

16

.. **1600

*1530

*1000

4

17

.. **1045

. . *1200

*1400

4

18

.. **1100

. .

*1230

. . *1400 . . *1500

*1630

6

19

. . *0900

. .

*1100 .. *1300

.. *1600

4

20

.. **1200

*1430

. .

*1500

4

21

.. **0800

*1000

.. *1200

4

22

. . *0930

. .

*1100

*1400

3

23

. . *1000

. . *1400

. . *1600

3

24

.. **1130

. .

*1230

*1630

4

25

. . *0900

. .

*1030

... , ^ , t .

2

26

. . *0930

*1000

*1500

3

27

.. **1200

. .

*1500

. .

3

28

.. *1500

. .

...

. . . . . .

1

29

.. *1000

. .

*1130

. . . .

. .

2

30

.. **1500

. .

*1000

. . . . . . . .

.. *1530

4

31

. . *1000

..

••

1

286

RESTOCKING MUGGER CROCODILE

The best size for release also requires dis-
cussion. It is possible with mugger crocodiles,
for instance, to release individuals much
smaller than the 1.1 m size used here. Singh
(1976) reported on two mugger of 56 and

under all conditions throughout the country.
There are a number of good reasons for select-
ing this size. There are also doubts that small
mugger will show good survival at least in
certain habitats as they will be unable to defend

t*m ‘ T — r* t* -t— - — - f I - "T"1 " t ■ t r- r" — » T" —

1 a S’ to 15 20 25

W e e s

Fig. 3. Daily maxima for crocodile sightings plotted on a weekly basis for the period 29 September
1980 to 7th March 1981. The form of this plot does not indicate a falling trend in numbers observed.
The apparent fall in February /March is due to the heat of the summer when the crocodiles remain
mostly in the water making observation difficult. Furthermore, 7 individuals were seen on 17th May,
1981, a higher figure than that recorded since the study has commenced.

41 cm respectively, which escaped from their
hatchling pool into the adjacent Mahanadi
river (Orissa) during October 1975. Both
survived and are still there today. The release
sizes recommended here, of 1.0-1. 2m, is that
for which we feel the survival rate will be high

themselves from all predators. Burrow con-
struction is also important in the mugger as a
means of avoiding extremes of both heat and
cold. Animals of below 1.2 m have not been
observed digging burrows (B.C. Choudhury,
unpubl. observ.). Further below 80 cm, it is

287

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Po/. 79

not possible to reliably sex mugger using the
cloacal probing technique.

It is essential that the protection staff are
appointed prior to the release in order not to
lose valuable data (see below).

Crocodiles for release should be fed only
natural food (live fish) for at least three months
prior to release. If they are fed on unnatural
diet such as chopped beef in the rearing station,
they may face some difficulty in adjusting to
conditions in the wild.

Crocodiles used to a fish diet have no diffi-
culty in catching their own food even immedi-
ately following release. We have both ob-
served mugger feeding in the wild within 24
hours of release and S. Choudhury (pers.
comm.) has seen gharial feeding on the day of
release.

From the excellent growth data reported
below, it is apparent that these mugger were
readily able to secure sufficient food in the
wild. This food included small mammals
as well as fish, from the faecal samples collected
but yet to be analysed. Provided sufficient
food is available in the natural habitat, that is,
that the food resources have not become unduly
depleted, captive reared mugger will face no
difficulty in obtaining their requirement.

The results indicate that definitely seven
out of eight released mugger survived and we
suspect that all eight have survived. This result,
in itself, demonstrates the validity of the 4 rear
and release’ technique.

We believe that given the ideal conditions,
in undisturbed natural habitats, mugger move
very little, if at all. This belief is also borne
out by the results of this pilot release. The
release point is 5 km upstream from the junc-
tion of the Chandravanka river with Krishna
river. Even despite the massive floods of 1977,
none of the mugger ever went down to the
Krishna during the four years covered by this
study. The maximum distance moved by

individuals of the first release was by one female
which moved 800 m downstream in 1978 (the
year following release). The female has sub-
sequently remained at this site. A female of
the December 1978 release, moved to pool 11,
a distance of 3 km from the release point,
where it was first sighted in September 1980.
Three individuals have remained throughout
in the release spot immediately below the
waterfall. The others have moved distances
ranging between 500 m to 1.5 km.

The growth reported, of approximately 50
cm over 22 months, between approximate
ages of two and a half to four and a half is
considered good wild growth for the Indian
mugger as is a further 30 cm over the next
22 months between the approximate ages of
four and a half to six and a half. Acharjyo
and Mohapatra (1978) recorded on recapture,
a growth of 50 cm in four years and nine
months in a mugger that lived in the wild
escaping from captivity. When it escaped
it measured 170 cm and on recapture measured
220 cm. No other wild growth data have
been published on the Indian mugger. How-
ever, extensive (unpubl.) captive growth data
are available. Bustard, Singh and Choudhury
(in prepn.) provided data on rapid growth
in selected mugger strains from Tamilnadu.
It is known that such individuals can grow
much faster than in the wild (Bustard 1980).
These rapid growing captives increased by
about 65 cm, during the same period that the
wild mugger here described increased by 50
cm. In the 5th year the captive mugger grew
by 30 cm, whereas the wild individuals took
two years to show this length increase from
four and a half to six and a half years of
age.

Data collected from the pilot release and
monitoring of mugger crocodiles at Ethipo-
thalla falls provided the Andhra Pradesh
Crocodile Project the required informational

288

RESTOCKING MUGGER CROCODILE
basis for further releases. Other than con- Acknowledgements

firming most of the hypothesis on mugger
behaviour, survival, movement and growth,
the pilot release also provided opportunity
to evolve a good monitoring system and to
train personnel on management methodology.
Furthermore, such small pilot releases pre-
vented the risk of large-scale, unsuitable release
of mugger that are produced in rearing stations
with maximum effort and expenditure. Most
important of all, resources like rare species
of crocodilians should not be allowed to be
wasted by unplanned releases.

REFER

AcharjVo, L* N. And MohapatrA, S. (1978) :
Return of the Captive Marsh Crocodile ( Crocodylus
palustris ) into the wild, Indian Forester 104 (5) : 385.

Biswas, S. (1970) : Proposal for the protection of
Marsh Crocodile. Indian Forester 96 (9) : 704.

Bustard, H. R. (1980) : Captive breeding of croco-
diles. In The Care and Breeding of Captive Reptiles.
S4 Townson, N. J. Millichamp, Di G. D. Lucas and
Ai J. Millwood (Eds.). British Herpetological Society,
1980. 1-20.

— AND ChoudhurV, B. C. (1981) : Marking

Crocodiles for release back into the wild for subsequent
identification. Indian Forester , 107 (8) : 477-485.

— , SiNGft, L. A. K. And CiIoudhury, B. C.

(In prepn.) : Growth in three population of Indian
mugger crocodile* Crocodylus palustris. Lesson, from
Tamil Nadu, South India.

Choudhury, B. C, (In prepn.): Status of Mugger
crocodile ( Crocodylus palustris , Lesson) in Andhra
Pradesh.

DanIel, J. C (1970) : A Review of the present status

We wish to acknowledge our appreciation
to the field personnel of the Andhra Pradesh
Forest Department who helped in monitoring
and recording the data on proformas during
the whole period of the study. We would
like to single out Shri Pushp Kumar, I.F.S.,
Conservator of Forests (Wild Life Manage-
ment), Andhra Pradesh and Director, Central
Crocodile Breeding and Management Training
Institute, Hyderabad, for his suggestions and
assistance throughout the period.

ENCES

and position of endangered species of Indian Reptiles.
In. Proc. 11th Tech. Meeting IUCN Pub. New Series
18 : 75-76.

F.A.O. (1974) : India. A preliminary survey of the
prospects of Crocodile Farming. (Based on the work
of H. R. Bustard.) FAO Rome (FO : IND/71/033)
Oct. 1977.

Gee, E. P. (1964) : The Wildlife of India. Collins,
London.

Misra, R. N. (1970): The endangered crocodiles of
India. In Proc. 11 th Tech . Meeting IUCN Pub. New
Series 18 : 77-81.

Mukherjee, A. K. (1974) : Some examples of recent
Faunal Impoverishment and Regression. In Ecology
and Biogeography in India (Ed) M. S. Mani. Dr. W.
Junki b. v. Pub. The Hague, 330-367.

SINGH* L. A. K. (1976) : When back to the wild
and Back to the wild. Cheetal, Journal of the Wildlife
Preservation Society of India. 18 (1 and 2) : 20-23.

Shahi, S. P. (1977) : Backs to the Wall-Saga of
wildlife in Bihar, India. East-West Press, New Delhi.

4

289

STUDIES ON THE ESTUARINE ODONATA FROM
24 PARGANAS DISTRICT OF WEST BENGAL, WITH A NOTE
ON THE RE-PRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR IN UROTHEMIS
SIGNATA SIGNATA (RAMBUR) (ODONATA : INSECTA)1

M. Prasad and S. K. Ghosh2
(With six text-figures)

Introduction

Dragonfly fauna of West Bengal, specially
from the estuarine area is inadequately known
which is evident from the works of Fraser
(1933, 1934 and 1936), Bhasin (1953) and Mitra
et al. (1976). However, Fraser and Dover
(1922) and Laidlaw (1921) have recorded 30
species of Odonata from the saline and semi-
saline areas of Barkuda Islands in Chilka lake.
To fill this lacunae, we made an extensive
collection of Odonata from Diamond Harbour
(Diamond Harbour and Sonadanga), Fraserganj
(Amrawti, Bakkhaii and Fraserganj) and Kakd-
wip (Gangadharpur, Kakdwip and Trilokchand-
pur) in 24 Parganas district of West Bengal
(Fig. 1).

The material includes specimens of 23 species
(8 belonging to suborder Zygoptera and 15
to suborder Anisoptera) from the estuarine
areas of 24 Parganas. Most of the species
agree fairly well with the descriptions of Fraser
(l.c.). Differences wherever noted from the
published descriptions have been recorded
under various species. Specimens of Pantala
flavescens (Fabricius) were observed on wing
at Diamond Harbour, but we were unable
to collect them. In addition, some interesting
observations on the reproductive behaviour
in Urothemis signata signata (Rambur), made

1 Accepted April 1979.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

from a permanent monsoon pond at Paikpara,
Calcutta, are reported in the present paper.

Systematic Account

Order . . Odonata

Suborder . . Zygoptera

Family . . Coenagrionidae

1. Pseudagrion microcephalum (Rambur)

Material : lcT, Diamond Harbour, 5-6-1978.

Remarks : Agree fairly well with the published
description, except 9 postnodal nervures in
fore wings and 8 in hindwings.

2. Pseudagrion decorum (Rambur)

Material : lcT, 1$, Fraserganj, 31-5-1978.

3. Ceriagrion coromandelianum (Fabricius)

Material : 1?, Amrawti, 3.6.1978 ; lj\

Fraserganj, 31.5.1978 ; 1J\ Kakdwip, 27.5.1978
and lcT> Sonadanga, 6.6.1978.

Remarks : Commonly available on both per-
manent and temporary waterbodies, and can
be collected in large numbers without much
effort.

4. Ceriagrion cerinorubellum (Brauer)

Material : 2cTcT, Amrawti* 3.6.1978 and lcT,
Trilokchandpur, 28.5.1978.

290

Fig. 1. Map of Diamond Harbour, Fraserganj and Kakdwip of 24 Parganas district
(West Bengal) showing collection sites.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

5. Xschnura senegalensis (Rambur)

Material : lj1, Amrawti, 3.6.1978 ; 3cfd\
Bakkhali, 2.6.1978 and 3 cfcf, 1?, Fraserganj,
31.5.1978.

Remarks : It is also commonly distributed
in this area.

6. Agriocnemis lacteola Selys

Material : 2 cfd\ Sonadanga, 6.6.1978.

7. Agriocnemis pygmaea (Rambur)

Material : ld\ 1?, Fraserganj, 31.5.1978.

8. Onychargia atrocyana Selys

Material : IcT, Diamond Harbour, 5.6.1978.

Suborder . * Anisoptera

Family . . Gomphidae

9. Ictinogomphus rapax (Rambur)

Material : 2(7,c7,} 2$$, Bakkhali, 1.6.1978.

Remarks : Nodal index varies from

11— 21 | 20—11 14—22 | 24—14

— -1 to 1

12— 15 | 15—13 15—17 | 20—14

in both male and female. Specimens of this
species were most commonly observed on the
semisaline ponds near Bakkhali during 08.00
hrs. to 14.00 hrs.

Family . . Macrodiplactidae

10. Macrodiplax cor a (Brauer)

Material : 1 Amrawti, 3.6.1978.

11. Aethriamanta forevipennis brevipennis

(Rambur)

Material : 1 $, Sonadanga, 6.6.1978.

12. Urothemis signata signata (Rambur)

(Fig>. 2-6)

Material : 1 ?, Bakkhali, 1.6.1978; 1 ?,
Sonadanga, 6.6.1978 and 1 cA 1 ¥, Trilokchand-
pur, 28.5.1978.

Remarks : It is also a very common species
in this area. Male has nodal index number-
ing

8—7 | 7—7

8—5 I 5—8

Reproductive behaviour :

Reproductive behaviour in Urothemis s.
signata (Rambur) was observed several times
in the month of August and September, 1978,
at a permanent monsoon pond near Paikpara,
Calcutta, during the sunny days. A large
number of males and females can be easily
seen there on wing during these periods. A
male, which used aquatic plants or other
twigs as its base perch was seen regularly
flying within an area of 70 cm to 1.80 m of the
pond, which marked its territory. It sometimes
made flights outside its territory as well but
not far from it. Abdomen raising display
[=threat posture (Moore 1960) and obelisk
posture (Corbet 1962)] was performed by
male, to defend intrusion of any other male
in the territory. It was peculiar to note, that,
if a male of other species already perched earlier,
then the territory was not defended, unless it
interfered. Male makes regular flights within
the territory and sometimes outside it.

As soon as a female entered the territory,
the male immediately started chivying, even
when on the wing, and tried to form tandem
(Figs. 2-4). Subsequently copulation wheel was
formed by the pair within 5 to 10 seconds, and
continued for 35 seconds (Fig. 5). Duration
between each break of copulation wheel, in
this species, varies from 28 to 46 seconds
(observed in 6 different pairs). Female moved
towards oviposition site, and after a few seconds,
started egg laying in the water near aquatic
plants and weeds (Fig. 6). Oviposition was
continued for 5-12 seconds. Male tried several
times to form the copulation wheel during the
oviposition period and ultimately the wheel was

292

ESTUARINE ODONATA FROM 24 PARGANAS, W. BENGAL

6

Figs. 2-6. Reproductive behaviour of Urothemis signata signata (Rambur) (2-3 Male-female precopulatory
position, 4. Male-female tandem, 5, Male-female copulation wheel, 6. Female starting oviposition).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

formed twice. Soon after the break of every
copulation wheel, female started oviposition.

Family . . Libellulidae

13. Orthetrum sabina sabina (Drury)

Material : 1 <j>, Bakkhali, 30.5.1978 and 1 cf,
1 9> Gangadharpur, 27.5.1979.

Remarks : Nodal index varies from

11—13 | 12—9 11—12 | 12—11

■ 1 to 1 .

11—10 I 10—10 10—10 I 10—12

14. Brachydiplax sabrina (Rambur)

Material : 1 cT, Sonadanga, 6.6.1978.

Remarks : 2 cubital nervures present in

1 left side and in right side of hindwing. Only
one cubital nervure present in forewing.

15. Brachydiplax chalybea Brauer
Material : 1 cf, Trilokchandpur, 28.5.1978.
Remarks . Burnt-brown marking at the base

of both the wings extends only upto the first
antenodal nervures.

1 6. Acisoma panorpoides panorpoides Rambur

Material * 1 Sonadanga, 6.6.1978.

17. Diplacodes trivialis (Rambur)

Material : 1 d*, Bakkhali, 1.6.1978 ; 1 (?,
Diamond Harbour, 7.6.1978 and 1 <?, Fraser-
ganj, 31.5.1978.

Remarks : Brownish-yellow marking pre-
sent in labrum and labium. It is attracted
towards light during night, and commonly
seen on the semisaline waterbodies.

18. Diplacodes nebulosa (Fabricius)

Material : 1 <j>, Sonadanga, 6.6.1978.

19. Crocothemis servilia servilia (Drury)
Material : 2 9¥> Amrawti, 3.6.1978 ; 1(J,

2 99, Bakkhali, 30.5.1978 ; 1 tf, 1 ?, Fraserganj,
31.5,1978 and 1 cf Sonadanga, 6.6.1978,

Remarks : Light pale-yellow markings pre-
sent on the labrum and labium of teneral
females. Dark brownish-yellow marking pre-
sent at the base of wings in both mature males
and females. In one specimen, 2 rows of cells
present between IRIII and RSPL.

20. Neurothemis tullia tullia (Drury)

Material ; 1 9, Amrawti, 3.6.1978.

Remarks : 4 cubital nervures in forewing
and 2 in hindwing. One row of cells present
in between IRIII and RSPL.

21. Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius)

Material : 2 <?<}, Amrawti, 3.6.1978 ; 2 S3,

2 $$, Fraserganj* 31.5.1978 ; 1 <J, Kakdwip,
27.5.1978 ; 1 (J, 1 $, Sonadanga and 6.6.1978 ;
and 1 <J, Trilokchandpur, 28.5.1978.

Remarks : Specimens of this species were
common at saline as well as semisaline water-
bodies, and a large number of specimens can
be collected without much efforts. Detailed
intraspecific variations are being studied, and
will be submitted for publication separately.

22. Trithemis pallidinerves Kirby

Material : 1 <jt, Amrawti, 3.6.1978; 2

2 99 Bakkhali, 30.5.1978 and 1 cT, Fraserganj,
31.5.1978.

23. Rhyothemis variegata variegata (Linn.)

Material : 1 9> Fraserganj, 31.5.1978 and
1 9, Sonadanga, 6.6.1978.

Summary

Odonata fauna of estuarine area of 24 Par-
ganas district (West Bengal) has been studied
and a total of 23 species (8, Zygoptera and 15,
Anisoptera) were recorded. Some interesting
reproductive behaviour in Urothemis s. signata
(Rambur) has also been observed and reported
from a permanent freshwater pond at Paikpara
in Calcutta,

294

ESTUARINE ODONATA FROM 24 PARGANAS , W. BENGAL

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India for permission and various
facilities to carry out this work. Thanks are

Refer

Bhasin, G. D. (1953) : Odonata, In Roonwal et al .,
A systematic catalogue of the main identified collection
of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, part 9-21.
Indian Forest Leaflet, 121 (3) : 63-69.

Corbet, P. S. (1962) : A biology of dragonflies.
Witherby, London.

Fraser, F. C. (1933) : The Fauna of British India,
Odonata, (London), 1 : 1-423.

— , (1934) : The Fauna of British India,

Odonata, (London) 2 : 1-398.

, (1936): The Fauna of British India,

Odonata, (London), 3 : 1-461.

Fraser, F. C. and Dover, C. (1922) : The fauna

also due to Sri P. K. Karmakar, Artist of this
Department, for the preparation of diagrams.

iNCES

of an Island in the Chilka lake, Dragonflies. Rec.
Indian Mas., 24 (3) : 303-312.

Laidlaw, F. F. (1921) : A list of the Dragonflies
recorded from the Indian Empire with special reference
to the collection of the Indian Museum. Part V.
The subfamily Gomphinae. (with an appendix by
F. C. Fraser). Rec. Indian Mus ., 22 : 367-426.

Mitra, T. R., Lahiri, A. R., and Ray Chaudhuri,
D. N. (1976) : Remarks on dragonflies (Odonata :
Anisoptera) of Calcutta. Third All India Congr.
Zoology : 64.

Moore, N. W. (1960): The behaviour of the adult

dragonfly. In Dragonflies (P. S. Corbet, C. L. Long-
field and N. W. Moore), Collins, London. Chapter 9.

DISTRIBUTION, FEEDING HABITS AND BURROWING
PATTERNS OF TATERA INDICA CUVIERI (WATERHOUSE)1 & 2

C. M. George, P. J. Joy and C. C. Abraham1 2 3
{With two text-figures )

A survey of the distribution of Tatera indica revealed that T. i. cuvieri is present throughout Kerala. The
burrow system followed no definite patterns being either short, simple or elongated and winding. Each
burrow system showed a minimum of three openings and there was no evidence of grain hoarding. The
nesting materials inside the burrows consisted of dry teak leaves, dry grasses, dry leaves of Terminalia
paniculate dry rubber leaves, dry cowpea shoots, coconut root-bits, and dry stems of Eupatorium odoratum
depending on the vegetation around the burrow location. In Kerala, these rats cause damage to tapioca.

pulses, paddy, jowar and ginger crops.

Introduction

Information on the distribution and burrow
patterns of rat spscies is an important pre-
requisite for successful implementation of
control programmes. Extensive surveys of
the distribution of rats in Kerala have not
been conducted so far. In order to obtain
detailed information on the structural features
of the burrow pattern of T. indica occurring
in diverse conditions and to study their relative
abundance, a survey was conducted in the
State during September, 1978 to February,
1979.

Materials and methods

For the survey work, the State was divided
into eight agro-climatic zones and in each zone,
four representative areas were selected (Table 1).

The burrow patterns were studied by first
locating the emergency escapes by random
probing with a crow-bar in a specific direction

1 Accepted January 1980.

2 Part of the M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis submitted to the
Kerala Agricultural University by the senior author for
the award of the M.Sc. (Ag.) Degree.

3 Department of Entomology, College of Horti-
culture, Vellanikkara, Trichur-680 654, Kerala.

along the burrow, following the location of
the soil-crest. Around the emergency escape,
the soil easily crumbled down and such areas
were immediately sealed off by compaction.
Additional emergency escapes if any were then
marked out by observing whether the rats
escape from the burrow system consequent
on smoking. For smoking, all the burrow
entrances other than the principal one, was
closed initially by putting rubble and by com-
pacting the areas around the openings. Smoke
was then let into the burrow system through
the main entrance by burning tightly tied
sheaves of dry coconut leaflet-strips of about
40 cm length, which were inserted into the
burrow entrance. The burning end was fanned
continuously to ensure steady inflow of smoke
stream through the other end and thus to induce
asphyxiation of rats inhabiting the burrows.

The entire burrow net-work was then exposed
by gently working with crow-bar and spade,
and the internal structuring of burrow system
and details of the brood chamber/chambers
and the food chamber/chambers were studied.
The depth of the different regions of the burrow
systems were also recorded.

The nature of damage caused by T. indica
was studied by examining the stand of the

296

DISTRIBUTION ETC. OF TATERA INDICA CUVIERI

Table 1

Details of agro-climatic zones selected

for Survey

WORK

S.No.

Zones

Localities

of zone

selected for
survey work

1.

Trivandrum and Quilon

Vellayani, Attingal,

districts

Varkala, Adoor.

2.

Kottayam and Alleppey

Ettumannur,

districts

Kurianadu,'Mon-
compu, Kidangara.

3.

Idukki and Ernakulam

Muthalakodam, Moola-

districts

mattom, Perumba-
voor, N. Parur.

4.

Trichur and Malappuram Vellanikkara, Pattik-

districts

kadu, Tavanur,
Ponnani

5.

Palghat district

Melarkode, Nemmara,

Thiruvazhiyodu,

Vadakumcheri.

6.

Attappady in Palghat

Thavalam, Chundu-

district

kulam, Koolikadavu,
Aanakatty.

7.

Wynaad in Calicut

Kuppamudi, S. Battery,

district

Meenangadi, Kalpatta.

8.

Cannanore district

Thirumeni, Cheru-
puzha, Aravanchal,
Vellirikundu.

crop around the burrow location. The rem-
nants of partially fed food materials recovered
from the burrow were recorded as an index
of the normally preferred food articles.

Results and discussion

T. i. cuvier i was found to be the only sub-
species occurring in Kerala. The populations
were relatively heavier throughout the State,
excepting parts of Wynaad region in the Kozhi-
kode District and parts of the Cannanore

District. This is in conformity with Ellerman’s
(1961) report that in South India, T. indica
populations consists mostly of T. i. cuvieri.

These rats were found in a wide range of
habitats such as in crop fields, backyards of
houses, thick grass growth, teak plantations
and in waste lands. Krishnakumari (1968)
recorded somewhat similar habitats for the
species. However, the present observation is
not in accordance with the report of Srinivasa-
char (1972) who stated that these rats were
found only in crop fields along the bunds.
The habitat variations may be attributed to
the differences in the geographic features of
the localities.

A total of twelve burrow systems of T. i.
cuvieri were studied and these were of two basic
types, namely, short simple and those with
extensive ramifications. The structural details
and other pertinent information of these two
basic types of burrow systems are furnished
in Table 2 and depicted in figures 1 and 2.

Pingale et al. (1967) reported that the burrows
of T. indica were elongated consisting of wind-
ing passages, numerous emergency escapes
and a breeding or living chamber located
in the centre. In the present studies, it was
found that certain burrows were quite simple
in construction, while in certain other cases,
the construction was quite complicated and
extensive with winding passages. Another
marked deviation from the previous reports
is that the brood chamber/living chamber is
not always centrally located.

Yashoda (1968) indicated that the live burrow
systems of T. indica can be traced out by the
presence of beaten pathways from one opening
to the other and by the left over bits of leaves
and slender branches across their runs. The
present study clearly revealed, for the first time,
that the presence of a soil plugging within the
burrow close to the opening is the definite
and reliable indication to the presence of live
rats within the burrow.

297

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Table 2

Structural Features of Burrow Systems of T. i. cuvier i

Burrow System- 1
(Simple type)

Burrow System-2
(Elongate, extensively ramifying
type)

Location :

Melarkode

Aravanchal

Period of excavation

November 1978

January 1979

Nature of vegetation in

the immediate vicinity

Coconut, banana and mango

denuded, rocky grassland.

Nature of soil

Laterite

Gravelly

No. of openings including

emergency escapes

Three

Six

No. of emergency

escapes

One

Two

Total horizontal profile

dimensions

2.9 X 2 m.

4. 95 m2.

Total length of the

burrow system

4.94 m.

20.3 m.

Burrow width

Range 5-20 cm.

7-20 cm.

No. of brood chambers

One

One

Depth of brood chamber

34 cm.

31 cm.

Nature of nesting

Dry leaves of

material

Terminalici paniculata

Dry grasses

No. of blind alleys

One

Four

No. of soil pluggings

Two

Three

Nature of opening for

removal of excavated

Open

Closed and filled with soil

soil.

No. of adults and young

ones captured from the

Mother and four young ones

One male, mother rat and four

burrow system

young ones

Basic shape of the burrow

‘ Y * shaped

No definite shape

In all the burrows, a minimum of three
openings including the emergency escape were
observed and this is in agreement with the
earlier report of Barnett and Ishwar Prakash
(1975). However, Yashoda (1968) had re-
ported two to four openings while Bindra &
Prem Sagar (1975) observed that there were
one to ten surface openings. The soil dug
out during burrow construction was found
to be thrown out only through a particular
opening and this phenomenon is reported for

the first time. Bindra & Prem Sagar (op. cit.)
found that certain surface openings of T. indica
burrow systems were blocked with a small
quantity of soil and these were used only in
emergency for escape. In the present study
such blocked surface openings were not ob-
served in any of the systems. The burrow
leading to emergency escape terminates abruptly,
1-3 cm below the soil surface, leaving a thin
crust of soil cover which is pushed off in emer-
gencies.

DISTRIBUTION ETC . OF TATERA INDICA CUVIER1

The nesting materials used inside the burrows
consisted of the following : depending on the
nature of vegetation in the vicinity of the
burrow :

(1) dry teak leaves (2) dry grasses (3) dry
leaves of Terminalia paniculatci (4) dry rubber
leaves (5) dry cowpea shoots (6) bits of coco-
nut roots and (7) dry stems of Eupatorium.

In a few cases mixtures of these articles were
found in some nests.

The nesting materials previously reported
include hay and leaves (Yashoda 1968) and
grasses (Srinivasachar 1972).

Only one to three adults could be collected
from a single burrow system as against one to
five adults reported by Sundara Bai (1972).
The occurrence of relatively more number of
T. indica (upto twelve) in the burrows is
reported by Yashoda (1968) and Barnett &
Ishwar Prakash (1975).

The studies on the nature of damage by T. i.
cuvieri revealed that in Kerala, tapioca, pulses,
rubber seeds, paddy, jowar and cotton were
the food crops preferred by this sub-species.
It was also noted that the ginger crop is subject

299

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

Id

5C

Fig. 2. Burrow system (elongate and complex type) of Tatera indica cimeri.

irwsbre

i a — mam entrance
1 b — exit for soil dug out while
constructing the burrow
!c to Id — subsidiary entrance
2a & 2b — emergency escapes
3 — brood chamber
4a to 4d — blind alleys
5a to 5c — soil plugging^

depth from the scil surface

5a

300

DISTRIBUTION ETC . OF TATERA INDICA CUVIER!

to indirect damage due to the burrowing acti-
vity of the rats.

The earlier reports of the food crops damaged
by these rats include cereal grains in general
(Yashoda 1968 ; Sundara Bai 1972) and jowar
and bajra in particular (Srinivasachar 1972).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta for identifying the

Refer

Barnett, S. A. and IshwAr Prakash (1975): Rodents
of Economic Importance in India. Arnold-Heimann,
Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 103.

Bindra, O. S. and Sagar, P. (1975) : A review of
studies on the ecology, biology, damage and control of
field-rats and field-mice in Punjab. Proceedings of
the All India Rodent Seminar, Ahmedabad, September
23-26, pp. 82-88.

Ellerman, J. R. (1961) : The Fauna of India inclu-
ding Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia (2nd
edition), p. 412.

Krishnakumari, M. K. (1968) : Rodents, Manual of
rodent control, C* F. T. R. I., Mysore, pp. 13-23.

various rat species collected during the survey
work. Dr. V. C. Agrawal, Superintending
Zoologist, Dr. Sujit Chakraborty, Zoologist
and Dr. P. K. Das, Officer-in-charge, Mammal
and Osteology sections have rendered valuable
help in the identification work. For the
facilities made available for the work,
we are thankful to the Associate Dean,
College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural
University.

!N CES

PlNGALE, S. V., KrISHNAMURTHY, K. AND RAMA-
krishnan, T. (1967) : Rats. Foodgrain Technologists’
Research Association of India, Hapur, p. 14.

Srinivasachar, H. R. (1972) i. General characters and
classification of rodents. Proceedings of the All India
Summer Institute in Rodent Biology. Department of
Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore, pp. 1-9.

Sundara Bai, A. (1972) : Burrow pattern of field
rodents. Ibid., pp. 56-59.

Yashoda, L. U. (1968) : Habits and habitats of
rodents. Manual of rodent control, C. F. T. R. L,
Mysore, pp. 25-35.

301

RECENT CHANGES TO THE BURMESE MAMMAL LIST1

G.W.H. Davison2

The paper gives taxonomic revisions and additions to the list of Burmese mammals since the publication
of the checklist by Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951).

Introduction

No complete list restricted solely to the mammal
fauna of Burma has been published since that
of Blyth (1875). The most recent list, by
Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) includes
the mammals of the Palaearctic and the Indian
subcontinent. Since 1951 there has been ex-
tremely little work on mammal collection or
surveying within Burma, but numerous taxono-
mic changes based on material from neigh-
bouring countries and on the older Burmese
museum material are relevant to the local
fauna. These changes and the few recent
additions of species are compiled here for easy
reference.

Insectivora : Soricidae

The confusing history of the Pegu type
specimens of the Southeast Asian White-
toothed Shrew Crocidura fuliginosa has been
described by Medway (1977). The currently
accepted nomenclature of the Burmese or near-
Burmese representatives of the genus is as
follows :

Crocidura horsfieldi indochinensis Robinson &
Kloss 1922

North Burma and the Shan States.

C. attenuata subsp. indet.

North and central Burma. Geographically
it is closest to C. a. rubricosa Anderson 1877

1 Accepted December 1980.

2 Zoology Unit, University Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.

from Assam and the Himalayas (Jenkins 1976),
which may in fact extend into northernmost
parts of Burma.

C. vorax Allen 1923

Not yet found in Burma, but the eastern
Shan States are interposed between its known
localities in Yunnan and at Doi Inthanon in
north Thailand. This taxon is most likely
to prove a subspecies of C. russula or C. at-
tenuata, but its affinities cannot properly be
decided on present evidence (P. D. Jenkins,
pers. comm.).

C. fuliginosa fuliginosa (Blyth 1855)

North and central Burma south at least to
Schwe Gyin in Pegu, and doubtless through
Tenasserim.

C. fuliginosa dracula Thomas 1912
Northeast Burma.

Primates : Cercopithecidae

Presbytis femoralis robinsoni Thomas 1910

Extreme south of Tenasserim around Mali-
wun. Should the Burmese specimens prove
distinct from those of Peninsular Thailand,
the name keatii Robinson & Kloss 1911 is
available. I follow Wilson & Wilson (1975)
in equating continental Asian banded leaf-
monkeys with east Sumatran femoralis rather
than west Sumatran melalophos ; previously
the two were not distinguished.

302

RECENT CHANGES TO BURMESE MAMMAL LIST

Rodentia: Sciuridae

TJie representatives of Petinomys are now
known as :

Petinomys vordermanni phipsoni (Thomas 1916)

Tenasserim ; listed as a subspecies of P. setosus
by Ellerman (1961), and apparently confused
with that species by Lekagul & McNeely (1977).

P. setosus morrisi (Carter 1942)

Taro, in northern Burma ; this geographical
isolate may possibly be a full species.

Hystricidae

Porcupines from Tenasserim have been listed
under the name H. hodgsoni , the eastern Palae-
arctic species. On geographical grounds they
are more likely to prove representative of the
Sundaland H. brachyura . Their name would
then become H. brachyura subcristata Swinhoe
1870. However, it is also possible that H .
hodgsoni yunnanensis Anderson 1878 just crosses
the Burma-Yunnan border.

Muridae

Taxonomy of the genera Rattus and Mus
has been the subject of so much recent revision
that the changes must be interpreted in the
context of all sympatric forms. Their re-
presentatives are therefore listed in full below.

Rattus sikkimensis macmillani Hinton 1919

Hkamti, in western Upper Chindwin.

R. sikkimensis khyensis Hinton 1919

Chin Hills, Mount Popa, Maymyo and
Hsipaw; Marshall (in Lekagul & McNeely
1977) uses the name R koratensis Kloss 1919
for this species, on the grounds that the type
specimen is inadequately labelled, but Hinton’s
description was published seven months before
that by Kloss.

R. rattus (Linnaeus 1758)

A subspecies of R rattus , possibly R. r. diardii
(Jentinck 1880), is found in Burmese cities.
Rural Tenasserim rats from the mainland and
islands may be referable to another species,
R. tiomanicus (=R. jalorensis ). Karyological
distinctions between these two are clear in
the south of the Malay Peninsula (Medway &
Lim 1966, Yong 1969), but individual variants
seem to bridge these differences in Thailand.
Even so, the island subspecies are more closely
related to one another than to urban R. rattus ,
and even in Thailand the urban and rural
populations remain distinct with little hybridi-
zation.

R. tiomanicus robustulus (Blyth 1859)

Schwe Gy in, north Tenasserim.

R. tiomanicus tikos Hinton 1919

Tenasserim, and Malcolm, King and Sullivan
Islands.

R. tiomanicus dentatus (Miller 1913)

Hastings Island.

R tiomanicus insulanus (Miller 1913)

Heifer Island.

R. tiomanicus exsul (Miller 1913)

James Island.

R. tiomanicus for tuna tus (Miller 1913)

Chance Island.

R. nitidus obsoletus Hinton 1919
Chin Hills.

R. exulans concolor (Blyth 1859)

From Bhamo in central Burma to Tenas-
serim.

R. norvegicus (Berkenhout 1769)

In towns, commensal with man.

R. muelleri validus (Miller 1900)

Tenasserim.

303

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , H?/. 79

R* mackenziei mackeoziei (Thomas 1916)

Chin Hills, and probably central Burma, the
Shan States and north Tenasserim. Apparent
sympatry with R . bowersi in Thailand supports
its recognition at species level (Lekagul &
McNeely 1977).

R. bowersi bowersi (Anderson 1879)

North Burma.

R. bowersi feae (Thomas 1916)

Muleyit.

R. mampulus mampulus (Thomas 1916)

Kindat and Kabaw valley in the Chin Hills*

R. berdmorei berdmorei (Blyth 1851)

Mergui in Tenasserim.

R. berdmorei mullulus (Thomas 1916)

Muleyit.

R. coxingi andersoni (Thomas 1911)

North Burma.

R. confucianus (Milne-Ed wards 1871)

R. bukit (Bonhote 1903)

R. rapit (Bonhote 1903)

Various interbreeding fulvous and greyish
rat populations in Burma and north Thailand
have formerly been split between the taxa
R. niviventer and R. fulvescens , names referable
to damaged Nepalese material. Chasen (1940)
and Marshall (in Lekagul & McNeely 1977)
were forced to avoid the use of these names for
lack of evidence on the affinities of the types.
These authors divide the relevant populations
between the three species confucianus , bukit and
rapit , of which at least two and possibly three
are represented in Burma. For their local
populations Ellerman (1961) used the names
R. niviventer niviventer (Hodgson 1836) (north
Burma), R. n. mentosus Thomas 1916 (Upper
Chindwin), and R. fulvescens fulvescens (Gray
1847) (Shan States to Tenasserim). At present
it is impossible to assign the Burmese popu-
lations with certainty even between the three

more recently recognized species, but it is
thought that R. confucianus may be found in
north Burma and the Shan States, R. bukit
throughout eastern Burma and Tenasserim.

R. brahma (Thomas 1914)

Adung Valley in northernmost Burma. This
species also lives in Assam and has been distin-
guished by Musser (1970) as a full species.

R. eha nirnis Thomas 1922
Adung Valley and Imaw Bum, northernmost
Burma.

R. cremoriventer (Miller 1900)

The following two (or three) subspecies ar£
continental Asian members of the cremori-
venter group with large auditory bullae. Musser
(1973) treats these as distinct from Sundaland
cremoriventer under the name R. langbianis
with subspecies ranging from Assam to Vietnam,
A compromise treatment would unite these
northern Asian members within the wider
ranging subspecies, R. c. langbianis :

R. cremoriventer indosinicus Osgood 1932
Kindat, Chin Hills.

R. cremoriventer tenaster (Thomas 1916)
Muleyit,

R. (?) cremoriventer blythi Kloss 1917
Schwe Gyin in north Tenasserim. The
affinities of this taxon are uncertain, but this
may prove to be a member of the southern
cremoriventer group and the other members
of the northern langbianis group,

R. surifer stirifer (Miller 1900)

Mainland Tenasserim. Medway (1978) ill*
eludes south Burma in the range of the sibling
species R. rajah (Thomas 1894), but specimens
are only known north to Trang in Peninsular
Thailand (Lekagul & McNeely 1977).

R. surifer luteolus (Miller 1903)

St. Matthew Island.

304

RECENT CHANGES TO BURMESE MAMMAl LIST

ft. surifer bentincanus (Miller 1903)

Bentinck Island.

R. surifer umbridorsum (Miller 1903)
Loughborough Island*

R. surifer casensis (Miller 1903)

Chance Island.

R* surifer domelicus (Miller 1903)

Domel Island. All the above five island
populations are short -tailed.

R. edwardsi edwards; (Thomas 1882)

North Burma.

R. sabanus vociferans (Miller 1900)

Tenasserim north to Mergui town.

R. sabanus matthaeus (Miller 1903)

St. Matthew Island.

R. sabanus stridulus (Miller 1903)

Bentinck Island.

R. sabanus lucas (Miller 1903)

St. Luke Island.

R. sabanus gilbiventer (Miller 1903)

Sullivan Island.

R. sabanus stentor (Miller 1913)

James Island.

R* sabanus insularum (Miller 1913)

Domel Island.

R* sabanus charae (Miller 1913)

Clara Island. The above seven island popu-
lations are referred to sabanus purely on grounds
of external morphology.

R. kathleenae (Thomas 1914)

Pagan and Mount Popa.

Mus musculus tytleri Blyth 1859
Commensal with man in Maymyo, Pagan,
Rangoon and other towns.

M. booduga lepidoides (Fry 1931)

Mount Popa.

M. cookii cookii Ryley 1914
Central and west Burma to the Indian border:

M. cervicolor popaeus (Thomas 1919)

Maymyo, Pegu and Chindwin, Mount Popa
and Bhamo. By implication Marshall (in
Lekagul & McNeely 1977) regards all Burmese
cervicolor as a single taxon, and suppresses
the earlier name nitidulus Blyth 1859 of which
the identity is dubious. Ellerman (1961)
grouped cookii and popaeus in the Indian
M. famulus Bonhote 1898.

M. shortridgei (Thomas 1914)

Central Burma from Mandalay to Mount
Popa and Pagan.

M. pahari pahari Thomas 1916
North Burma.

jVL pahari jacksoniae (Thomas 1921)

Upper Irrawaddy drainage.

Perissodactyla : Rhinocerotidae

The record of Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus
1766 at Bumpha Bum in Myitkyina District
in 1962 (Yin 1967) gives Burma the distinction
of more rhinoceros species than any other
country.

Artiodactyla : Bovidae

The most recent mammal species to be
described from Burma, Naemorhedus cranbrooki
Hayman 1961* is found in the mountains of
northernmost Burma at higher altitudes than
the common goral.

Acknowledgements

I thank P. D. Jenkins, the editor and an
anonymous referee for their comments.

5

305

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

References

Blyth, E. (1875) : Catalogue of mammals and birds Medway, Lord (1978) : The wild mammals of
of Burma. J. Roy. Asiast. Soc. Bengal 44 (2) : 1-53. Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia) and Singapore. 2nd ed.

Kuala Lumpur.

Chasen, F. N. (1940) : A handlist of Malaysian

mammals. Bull. Raffles Mus. 15: 1-209. and Lim, B. L. (1966): Fauna of Pulau

Tioman : the specific relations of Rattus tiomanicus
Ellerman, J. R. (1961) : The Fauna of India inclu- (Miller). Bull, national Mus. ( Singapore ), 34 : 33-38.
ding Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia, 2nd.

ed. Vol. III. Rodentia, Calcutta. Mussser, G. G. (1970) : Species-limits of Rattus

brahma , a murid rodent of northeastern India and

and Morrison-Scott, T. C. R. (1951): northern Burma. Am. Mus. Novit. 2406: 1-27.

Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals. London.

(1973) : Species-limits of Rattus cremo -

Hayman, R. W. (1961) : The red goral of the North riventer and Rattus langbianis. Am. Mus. Novit. 2525 :
East Frontier Region. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 136 : 1-65.

317-324.

Wilson, W. L. & Wilson, C. C. (1975) : Species-
Jenkins, P. D. (1979) : Variation in Eurasian shrews specific vocalizations and the phylogenetic affimities in
of the genus Crocidura (Insectivora : Soricidae). Bull, the Presbytis aygula-melalophus group in Sumatra. In :
Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. 30 : 269-309. Contemporary Primatology (Eds. S. Kondo, N. Kawai

and A. Ehara) : 459-463. Basel.

Lekagul, B. & McNeely, J. A. (1977) : Mammals of

Thailand. Bangkok. Yin, Tun (1967) : The wild animals of Burma.

Rangoon.

Medway, Lord (1977) ; Mammals of Borneo.

Monograph No. 7, Malaysian Br. roy Asiat. Soc., Yong, H. S. (1969) : Karyotypes of Malayan rats.

Kuala Lumpur. - Chromosoma, Berl. 27 : 245-267.

306

MATERIAL TO THE FtORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-3

P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida
[Continued from voi. 78(3); 567]

Droseraceae
Drosera Linn.

1. Drosera indica Linn. Sp. PL 282, 1753 ;
Birdwood, 13 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 469 (499) ; Nairne,
107.

Quite common carnivorous plant among the
grasses. The whole plant is glandular hairy
and contains digestive enzyme, plantagin [see
Phytochemistry , 8 (11) : 2199, 1969].
Common around parking ground near Lod-
wick point.

Flowers & Fruits : August-November.
Common name : Indian Sundew (Birdwood).

Haloragaceae
Myriophyllum Linn.

1. Myriophyllum intermedium DC., Prodr.
3:69, 1828; Birdwood, 13 ; Cooke, T. 1:470
(500).

M. tetrandrum Graham, Cat. Bombay PL
76, 1839 (nonRoxb., 1820); Dalz. & Gibs.,
99.

Haloragis oligantha Wight & Arn., Prodr.
338, 1834 ; Wight, Icon. t. 1061 (non Arn.,
1836).

Common and abundant hydrophytic herb
near Yenna Lake. It grows gregariously in
moist grounds. It is also found in waters
upto one meter depth but in that case the termi-
nal portions always float on the surface of
water.

Flowers & Fruits : December-February.

COMBRETACEAE

1. Petals absent 2

2. Calyx segments persistent Calycopteris

2. Calyx segments deciduous Terminalia

L Petals 4-5 Combretum

Calycopteris Lamk.

1. Calycopteris floribunda Lamk. Encycl.
Menth. Suppl. 2:41, 1811 ; FBI 2:499 ; Lisboa,
213 ; Cooke, T. 1:481 (512) ; Talbot, 2:21, t.
300 ; Birdwood, 14 ; Nairne, 113.

Getonia floribunda Roxb., Cor. PL t. 87,
1819 ; Graham, 70 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 91.

Common climber in open forest areas and
along road-sides, especially along Fitzgerald
ghat and Mahad ghat. It is an attractive
plant both in young flowers and in mature
fruits. Young flowers are light-green in colour
and mature fruits have brick-red wings.

Flowers : December-March ;

Fruits : March-May.

Local names : Baguli, Ukshi.

Combretum Linn.

1. Combretum ovalifolium Roxb. FI. Ind. 256,
1832 ; Birdwood, 14 ; Cooke, T. 484 (515) ;
Nairne, 113.

This species is included here on authority of
Birdwood. Not seen or collected from this
locality so far.

Local names : Madhyel, Shendri (Birdwood).

307

Journal , Bombay natural hist, society , IW. 79

Terminalia Linn.

i. Fruits not winged 2

2. Leaves alternate, clustered at the end of the
branches T. belli rica

2. Leaves opposite, not clustered T. chebula

1. Fruits 5-winged 3

3. Veins of the wings ascending T. arjuna

3. Veins of the wings horizontal T. crenulata

1. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn.
Prodr. 314, 1834 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 91 ; Lisboa,
213; Cooke, T. 1:479 (509); Birdwood, 14;
Nairne, 112.

Pentaptera arjuna Roxb., FI. Ind. 2:438,
1824 ; Graham, 69.

T. glabra Wight & Arn. Prodr. 314, 1834.

A rare plant at Mahabaleshwar on banks of
Yenna river. The tree is very conspicuous
because of its white and smooth bark.

Flowers : April-May ;

Fruits : May-June.

Local names : Arjun, Sadhda, Kahu, Pinjal.

2. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Cor.
PI. 2 : 54, t. 198, 1819 ; Wight, 111. t. 91 ; Bird-,
wood, 13 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 478 (508) ; Talbot,
2 : 13, t. 294 ; Nairne, 112.

Myrobalanus bellirica Gaertn. Fruct. 2 : 90,
t. 97, 1791.

We have not seen this species on the plateau.
It is included here on authority of Birdwood
only.

Flowers : February-May ;

Fruits : May-June.

Local names : Behda, Hela.

3. Terminalia chebula Retz., Obs. 5 : 31,
1798 ; Graham, 69 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 91 ; Lisboa
213 ; Cooke, T. 647 & 1 : 478 (509) ; Talbot
2 : 14, t. 295 ; Nairne, 112 ; Puri & Mahajan,
123 ; Santapau, 399, 1962.

Following two varieties of this species are
found at Mahabaleshwar :

1. Leaves glabrous beneath

T. chebula var. chebula

1. Leaves densely coppery pubescent beneath

T. chebula var. foment ella

var. chebula

A common and abundant medium sized
tree all over Mahabaleshwar. It is more
common on table lands of Lingmala. Fruit is
used in leather industry for tanning purposes,
and it is one of the major item of revenue
of the forest in this area.

Flowers : April-May ;

Fruits : May-June.

Local name : Hirda.

var. tomentella (Kurz.) C. B. Clarke, in Brit.
India, 2 : 446, 1879.

Terminalia tomentella Kurz., For. FI. Brit.
Burma, 1 : 455.

This is less common variety at Lingmala
found intermixed with type variety.

Flowers : April-May ;

Fruits : May-June.

4. Terminalia crenulata Roth., Nov. Sp. 380,
1821 ; Wight & Arn., Prodr, 314, 1834.

T. tomentosa (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. Prodr.
314, 1834 (non Mart., 1841) ; Birdwood, 14 ;
Nairne, 112.

Pentaptera tomentosa Roxb., FI. Ind. 2 :
440, 1832.

T. coriacea Wight & Arn. Prodr. 315, 1834.
T. alata Roth., Nov. Sp. 379, 1821.

This species is also included here on authority
of Birdwood only.

Flowers : April-May ;

Fruits : May-June.

Vern. name : Ain.

308

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

Myrtaceae

1. Leaves opposite 2

2. Berry 1-few seeded ; calyx

4-lobed Syzigium

2. Berry many seeded ; calyx 5-

lobed 3

3. Fruits fleshy : trees with peeling

bark Psidium

3. Fruits not fleshy ; shrubs,

without peeling bark Myrtus

1. Leaves alternate 4

4. Leaves petiolate Eucalyptus

4. Leaves sessile Callistemon

Callistemon R. Br.

1. Callistemon citrinus (Curt.) Stapf, in Bot.
Mag. 150, t. 9050 ; 1925 : K. M. Mathew, in
Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 20 (1) : 104, 1969.

Metrocideros citrina Curtis, in Bot. Mag. 8 :
t. 260, 1794.

C. lanceolatum DC., Prodr. 3 : 223, 1828 ;
Bailey, L.H., Man. Cult. PI. 725, 1958.
Cultivated in gardens for its drooping foliage
and continuous blossoms.

Eucalyptus L’Herit.

1. Eucalyptus obliquum L’Herit., Sert. Angl.
18, t. 20, 1788 ; Birdwood, 14 ; Mathew, 113.

Australian species introduced in forest areas
by forest department, on way to Panchgani.

Several other species and hybrids are also
cultivated on an experimental scale at the
forest nurseries near Mahabaleshwar.

Flowers : March-May ;

Fruits : May-June.

Myrtus Linn.

1. Myrtus communis Linn. Sp. PI. 471, 1753 ;
FBI 2 ; 462 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 498 (529),

Sweet scented shrub of South Europe, culti-
vated in gardens. Very often found along
forest margins as an escape.

Flowers & Fruits : Throughout the year.
Local name : Vilayati Mendi.

Psidium Linn.

1. Psidium guajava Linn., Sp. PL 470, 1753 ;
FBI 2 : 268 ; Lisboa, 214 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 498
(529) ; Nairne, 115 ; Talbot, 2 : 30 ; Santapau,
93.

P. pyriferum Linn. Sp. PL ed 2, 672, 1762 ;
Graham, 72 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Suppl. 34.

P. pomiferum Graham, Cat. Bombay PL
72, 1839 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 34.

A common tree cultivated for its fruits.
Quite commonly it runs wild and found
naturalised along edges of forests.

Flowers & Fruits : Throughout the year.
Local name : Peru.

Syzygium Gaertner

1. Only cultivated plants, grafted or

layered S. jambosa

1. Plants found growing wild from

seed germination 2

2. Cymes terminal or in axils of

present leaves 3

3. Branches 4-gonous S. rubicunda

3. Branches cylindric or com-
pressed S. caryophy llatum

2. Cymes in axils of fallen leaves 4

4. Large forest trees, leaves

more than 5 cm. wide S. cumini

4. Riverside shrubs ; leaves less

than 3 cm. wide S. salicifolium

1. Syzygium caryophyllatum (Linn.) Alston, in
Trim. Handb. FI. Ceylone, 6: 116, 1931;
Santapau, 92.

309

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Myrtus caryophyllata Linn. Sp. PL 472, 1753.

Eugenia corymbosa Lamk., Encycl. 3 : 199,
1789 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 491 (522) ; Talbot,

2 : 37, t. 309.

S. caryophyllaceum Wight, 111. 2 : 15, 1850 ;
FBI 2 : 490 ; Birdwood, 14 ; Nairne, 114.

S. aromaticum (Linn.) Merrill. & Perry, in
Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts & Sci. 18 : 196,
1939 ; Puri & Mahajan, 123.

Common small size tree on sides of Yenna
River.

Flowers & Fruits : March-July.

Local names : Nimbuli, Ran-lavang.

2. Syzygitim cumini (Linn.) Skeels, in U.S.
Dept. Agric. Burm. PI. 248 : 2, 1912 ; Santapau,
398, 1962 & 302, 1963 ; Puri & Mahajan, 123.

Myrtus cumini Linn. Sp. PI. 471, 1753.
Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Encycl. 3 : 198,
1789; FBI 2: 499; Wight, Icon. t. 535; Cooke,

T. 648 & 1 : 492 (523) ; Lisboa, 213, Bird-
wood, 14; Nairne, 114.

S. jambolana DC., Prodr. 3 : 259, 1828 ;
Graham, 73 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 93.

Commonest and abundant tree all over
Mahabaleshwar. Fruits are edible and used
for sharbats and jams.

Flowers : March- May ;

Fruits : May-June.
local name : Jambhul.

3. Syzygium j a mhos (Linn.) Alston, in Trimen
Handb. FI. Ceylone, 6 : 15, 1931 ; Santapau,
93.

Eugenia jambos Linn. Sp. PI. 470, 1753 ; FBI
2 : 474 ; Lisboa, 213; Cooke, T. 1 : 495 (526);
Talbot 2 : 32, t. 305 ;

Jambosa vulgaris DC., Prodr. 3:286, 1828 ;
Graham, 74 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Suppl. 35.

Small cultivated tree.

Flowers & Fruits : February-March.

Local name : Gulab Jamb.

4. Syzygium rubicunda Wight & Arn., Prodr.
330, 1834 ; Graham, 74 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 94.

Eugenia rubicunda Wight, 111. 2 : 15, 1850 ;
Wight, Icon. t. 538; FBI 2: 495; Nairne, 115.

Rare tree with small and inferior quality of
fruits. Fruits are mostly eaten by animals.

Flowers & Fruits : March- June.

Local name : Lendi Jambhal.

5. Syzygium salicifolium Graham, Cat. Bombay
PI. 73, 1 839 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 94. (non Wall, cat.)

Eugenia salicifolia Wight, 111. 2 : 16, 1850 ;
Wight, Icon. t. 539 (non DC., 1828).

E. heyneana Duthie, in Hook, f., FI. Brit.
Ind. 2: 500, 1878; Birdwood, 14; Nairne, 115.

This species is reported by Birdwood from
Koyna Valley.

Flowers & Fruits : May-June.

Lecythidaceae
Careya Roxb.

1. Careya arborea Roxb. Cor. PI. 3 : 14, t. 218,
1819 ; Graham, 74 ; Wight 111. tt. 99-100 ;
Dalz. & Gibs. 95 ; FBI 2 : 511 ; Cooke, T. 1 :
497 (528) ; Birdwood, 14 ; Nairne, 116.

A common tree in open forests. Abundant
at Lingmala.

Flowers : March- April ;

Fruits : April-June.

Local name : Kumbha.

Melastomataceae

1. Seeds solitary ; trees • • Memecylon

1 . Seeds many ; annual herbs Sonerila

Memecylon Linn.

1. Berries black when ripe M. umbellata

1 . Berries bright yellow when ripe . . M, talbQtianum

310

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

1. Memecylon talbotiamim Brandis, in Talbot,
Trees of Bombay, (ed. 2) in Appendix, after p.
iii, 1902 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 504 (536) ; Talbot 2 :
54, t. 320 ; Puri & Mahajan, 123 ; Santapau, 96.

Mahabaleshwar is cited as one of the type
locality of this species by the author. Latter
authors have reported it from Mahabaleshwar
on the basis of yellow coloured fruits. Rev.
Fr. Santapau, in the Flora of Khandala, feels
that it does not deserve even a varietal rank.
After careful examination of materials available
in Blatter Herbarium from Mahabaleshwar as
well as from Khandala, labelled as M. talbotia -
num Brandis, we feel that true M. talbotianum
Brandis does not occur at Mahabaleshwar and
Khandala. Therefore all specimens from
Mahabaleshwar identified as this species belong
to M. umbellatum Burm. only. We have also
seen and collected ripe fruiting materials of this
species from North Kanara regions. We have
observed that the ripe fruits of North Kanara
plants have shining golden yellow colour where-
as yellow colour of Mahabaleshwar fruits is
found in sun- tanned unripe fruits only which
turn bluish black when ripe. In herbarium
specimens we have found that the dried leaves
of M. talbotianum Brandis from N. Kanara
remain yellow while leaves from materials
from Mahabaleshwar turn black on drying.

2. Memecylon umbellatum Burm., FI. Ind. 87,
1768 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 503 (535) ; Puri & Mahajan,
123 ; Santapau, 398, 1962 & 300, 1963.

M. edule Roxb., PI. Cor. 1 : 59, t. 82, 1795 ;

FBI 2 : 563 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 93 ; Birdwood, 14;

Cooke, T. 646 ; Lisboa, 214 ; Talbot 2 : 53,

t. 318 ; Nairne, 118.

M. tingtorium Koenig ex Wight & Arn.

Prodr. 319, 1834; Wight, 111. t. 93; Graham,

71.

This is one of the commonest tree all over
Mahabaleshwar.

Flowering : January-June.

Local name : Anjan.

Sonerila Roxb.

1. Sonerila scapigera Hook., in Lond. J. Bot.
7 : 672, t. 23, 1848 ; FBI 2 : 538 ; Dalz. & Gibs.
93 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 501 (533) ; Santapau, 400,
1962 & 301, 1963; Nairne, 118.

Small stemless annual monsoon herb generally
found near water-falls on wet rocks-face.
Dorsal surface of leaf is green while ventral
surface is pinkish-red or purple.

Flowers : July- August.

Lythraceae

1. Herbs 2

2. Flowers in axillary clusters or
cymes ; capsule circumcissile or
dehiscing irregularly Ammania

2. Flowers solitary in the axil or
in the terminal spikes ; capsule

4-5 valved Rotala

1. shrubs or trees 3

3. Stamens numerous Lager stroemia

3. Stamens definite 4

4. Stamens 8 Lawsonia

4. Stamens 12 Woodfordia

Ammania Linn.

1. Ammania baccifera Linn. Sp. PI. (ed. 2)
175, 1762 ; FBI 2 : 569 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 97 ;
Cooke, T. 1 : 509 (541) ; Nairne, 120 ; Blatter
& Hall. 26 : 215 ; Birdwood, 14 ; Puri & Maha-
jan, 123 ; Santapau, 300, 1963.

A. vesicatoria Roxb. ex Graham, Cat. Bom-
bay PI. 67, 1839.

A. salicifolia Hiern. in Oliv. FI. Trop. Africa,
2 : 278, 1871 (excl. synonyms, non Monti,
1767) : FBI : 269 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 97 ; Cooke,
T. 1 : 509 (541) ; Puri & Mahajan, 123.

Card Index, in Blatter Herbarium records
one specimen of this species from Mahabalesh-
war. But at present there is no specimen
available in Blatter Herbarium.

Local names : Agiya, Agin buti.

311

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

Lagerstroemia Linn.

1. Petal purple, more than 2.5 cm.

long ; calyx-tube ribbed L. speciosa

1 . Petal white, less than 1 cm. long ;

calyx-tube not ribbed 2

2. Leaves petiolate ; calyx-tube

without a ring L. lanceolata

2. Leaves sessile or sub-sessile ;
calyx-tube with a ring on inner
side L. parviflora

1. Lagerstroemia lanceolata Wall, ex Wight
& Arn., Prodr. 309, 1834 (p. p.) ; FBI 2 : 576 ;
Birdwood, 14 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 513 (545).

L. microcar pa Wight, Icon. t. 109, 1840 ;
Bedd., FI. Sylvat. t. 30, 1869.

L. parviflora Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 98,
1861. (non Roxb., 1795) ; Nairne, 120.

A medium size tree with peeling bark. Stem
and bark white. A rare tree at Mahabaleshwar.

Flowers : March-May ; Fruits : May-

December.

Local name : Nana.

2. Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. PI. Cor. 1 :
47, t. 66. 1795 ; Graham, 67 ; Wight, Icon. t.
69, 1840 ; Bed d., FI. Sylv. t. 31, 1869 ; Lisboa*
214 ; Birdwood, 14.

L. lanceolata Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 98,
1861; (non Wall, ex Wight & Arn., 1834);
Bedd., FI. sylv. t. 32 ; 1869 ; Nairne, 121.
Common along the ghats on way to Koyna
Nagar. This tree sometimes attains 10-12 m.
height but scarcely reaches 30 cm in diameter at
the base.

Flowers : May-August ; Fruits : June-

December.

Local name : Bonderah.

3. Lagerstroemia speciosa (Linn.) Pers., Syn.
2 : 72, 1807 ;

Munchausia speciosa Linn. Mant. 2 : 243,
1771.

L. flos-reginae Retz., Obs. Fasc. 5 : 25, 1789 ;
FBI 2: 577; Cooke, T. 1: 513 (546);
Birdwood, 14; Nairne, 121.

L. reginae Roxb., PL Cor. 1 : 46, t. 65, 1795 ;

K. N. Gandhi, FI. Hassan Dist. 273, 1976.
Small size tree commonly cultivated in

gardens.

Flowers : March-June ; Fruits : April-

November.

Local name : Taman.

Lawsonia Linn.

1. Lawsonia inermis Linn. Sp. PI. 349, 1753 ;
Cooke, T. 1 : 511 (544).

L. alba Lamk. Encycl. Meth. Bot. 3 : 106,
1789; Graham, 67, Dalz. & Gibs. 97; FBI 2:
573 ; Nairne, 120.

Lawsonia spinosa Linn. Sp. PL 349, 1753

(p. p.>.

Cultivated shrub commonly used as a hedge
plant. Leaves are used by local ladies for
decorating their hands with its red dye especially
during marriage ceremony.

Flowers & Fruits : March-July.

Local name : Mendi.

Rotala Linn.

1. Rotala floribunda (Wight) Koehne, in Bot.
Jahrb. 1 : 156, 1881 ; Gamble, FI. Madras,
508, 1919 ; Santapau, 400, 1962.

Ameletia floribunda Wight, 111. 206, 1840 ;
Hook., Ic. PI. t. 826, 1845; Dalz. & Gibs. 96.
Nimmonia floribunda Wight, in Madras J.
Sci. 6 : 34, t. 20, 1837 ; Graham, 83.
Ammania floribunda (Wight) Clarke, in FI.
Brit. India, 2 : 567, 1897 ; Cooke, T. 650;
Birdwood, 14; Cooke, T. 1: 506 (539); Nairne,
119 ; Puri & Mahajan, 123.

Very common herb on open rocky ground in
wet places and along streams. ‘ Mahabalesh-
war heather \

Flowers & Fruits ; December-January.

312

FLORA OF MAH ABALESHWAR

Woodfordia Salisb.

1. Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kurz., in J.
Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 40 : 56, 1871 ; Santapau, 99,
Lythrum fruticosum Linn. Sp. PI. (ed 2)641,
1762. W. floribunda Salisb. Prad. London
t. 42, 1806 ; FBI 2 : 572 (Excl. synonyms) ;
Nairne, 120; T. Cooke, 1: 510 (543); Talbot
For. FI. 2: 58, t. 322 ; Lisboa, 214 ; Bird-
wood, 14 ; Puri & Mahajan, 123.

Grislea tomentosa Roxb. PL Cor. 1 : 29, t.
31, 1795; Graham, 67; Dalz. & Gibs. 97;
Bot. Mag. t. 1906.

W. tomentosa (Roxb.) Bedd., FI. Sylv. 117,
t. 14, 1869.

Common shrub along roadsides in ghats.
Flowers & Fruits : January-June.

Local names : Dhaiti, Dhauri.

Punicaceae
Punica Linn.

1. Punica granatum Linn., Sp. PI. 472, 1753 ;
FBI 2 : 581 ; Cooke, T. 516 (548) ; Nairne, 121.

Cultivated in gardens for flowers as an orna-
mental plant. Fruits are of poor quality and
not eaten locally.

Flowering : July-December.

Local names : Dalimb, Anar.

Onagraceae
Oenothera Linn.

1. Oenothera rosea Soland., in Ait., Hort.
Kew, 2 : 3, 1789 ; Birdwood, 14 ; Cooke, T.
1 : 518 (552).

Small cultivated herb grown in gardens.
Plant is believed to be the native of Mexico.

Caricaceae
Carica Linn.

1. Carica papaya Linn., Sp. PI. 1036, 1753 ;
FBI 2 : 599 ; Graham, 80 ; Dalz. & Gibs.
Suppl. 37 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 524 (557) ; Nairne, 125.

A dioecious or monoecious tree grown in
gardens for its edible fruits.

Flowering : Throughout the year.

Local name : Papaya.

CUCURBITACEAE

1 . Petals fimbriate Trtchoscinthes

1. Petals not fimbriate 2

2. Ovules erect in the fruits Dicaelospermum

2. Ovules horizontal in fruits 3

3. Petal free (rarely connate at

the base only) Momordica

3. Petals united in companulate

corolla 4

4. Tendrils 2-5 branched . . 5

5. Flowers fascicled .... Diplocyclos

5. Flowers solitary Citrullus

4. Tendrils unbranched 6

6. Connectives prolonged

beyond anther cells Cucumis

6. Connectives not pro-
longed beyond anther

cells 7

7. Flowers dioecious . . So ten a

7. Flowers monoecious . . 8

8. Fruits globose . . Zenheria

8. Fruits ellipsoid . . Melothria

Citrullus Schrad. (Nom. Cons.)

1. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad., in
Linnaea 12 : 414, 1838 ; FBI 2 : 620 ; Cooke,
T. 1 : 537 (571) ; Nairne, 128.

Cucumis colocynthis Linn., Sp. PI. 1011, 1753.
Colocynthis vulgaris Schradr. Ind. Sem. Goett.
2, 1833; Chakravarty, in Rec. Bot. Surv. India,
17 (1) : 113-4, 1959.

Rare prostrate weed trailing on grounds.
Flowers & Fruits : November-January.
Local names : lndrayan, Kadu Kakri,

313

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Cucumis Linn.
1 . Male flowers solitary ; fruits ellip-

soid-oblong or orbicular C. callosus

1 . Male flowers fascicled ; fruits

oblong C. sativa

1. Cucumis callosus (Rott.) Cogn., in Engler,
Das Pflanzenr. 88 : 129, 1924 ; Santapau, 103.

Bryonia callosa Rottl., Neue Schrift. Ges. nat.
Fr. Berl. 4 : 210, 1803.

C. trigonus Roxb., FI. Ind. 2 : 219, 1824 ;
FBI 2: 619; Birdwood, 14; Cooke, T. 1: 535
(569); Wight, Icon. t. 497; Wight, 111. t. 105;
Nairne, 127-8.

Common weed prostrate on ground or some-
times climbing on small bushy shrubs. Fruits
bitter in taste.

Flowers : August-October ; Fruits : Octo-
ber-June.

Vern. name : Karit.

2. Cucumis sativus Linn., Sp. PI. 1012, 1753 ;
FBI 2 : 620 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 536 (570) ; Nairne,
128.

Cultivated climbing annual grown for its
edible fruits.

Flowering : July-September ; Fruits : Sept.-
October.

Vern. name : Kakdi, Khira.

Dicoelospermum Clarke

1. Dicoelospermum ritchiei Clarke, in Hook, f.,
FI. Brit. Ind. 2 : 630, 1879 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 545
(580) ; Santapau, 400, 1962.

A rare species found only on plateau.
Flowers : June-October ; Fruits : August-
November.

Diplocyclos (Endl.) von Post et Kuntze.

1. Diplocyclos palmatus (Linn.) C. Jeffery, in
Kew Bull. 15 : 352, 1962 ; Santapau & Janar-
danan, Check-list, PI. Saurashtra, 25, 1965.

Bryonia palmata Linn. Sp. PI. 1012 ; 1753
(excl. synonyms).

B. laciniosa Linn. Sp. PI. 1013, 1753 (p.p.) ;
FBI 2 : 622 ; Nairne, 129.

Bryonopsis laciniosa (Linn.) Naud. Ann. Sc.
Nat. Ser. 12 : 141, 1859 (p.p., excl. type) ;
Cooke, T. 1 : 534 (568).

Quite common climber among the bushes
in monsoon.

Flowers : August-December ; Fruits : Sept.-
December.

Vern. names : Shivlingi, Popti, Kandori.
Momordica Linn.

1 . Flowers monoecious M. charantia

1 . Flowers dioecious M. dioica

1. Momordica charantia Linn., Sp. PI. 1009,
1753 ; FBI 2 : 616 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 530 (562) ;
Nairne, 127 ; Chakravarty, Rec. Bot. Surv.
Ind. 17 (1) : 88-9, 1959.

Cultivated climber grown for its fruits during
monsoon.

Flowers & Fruits : July-October.

Vern. names : Karela, Kareli.

2. Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd., Sp. PL,
4 : 605, 1805 ; FBI 2 : 617 ; Wight, Icon. tt.
505-6 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 529 (563) ; Nairne, 127 ;
Santapau, 294, 1963.

Rare climber among the bushes.

Flowers & Fruits : July-November.

Vern. name : Kartoli.

Solena Lour.

1. Solena heterophylla Lour., FI. Cochinchin.
1 : 514, 1790 ; Santapau, 104-5, 1967.

Melothria heterophylla (Lour.) Cogn., in
DC., Monog. Phan. 3: 618, 1881; Cooke, T.
1: 540 (574); Puri & Mahajan, 124; Santapau,
293, 1963,

314

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

Bryonia umbellata Klein., Willd. Sp. PI. 4 :
618, 1805; Graham, 78; Dalz. & Gibs. 101.
Zehneria umbellata Thwaites, Enum. PI.
Zeyl. 125, 1858; FBI 2: 625; Lisboa, 214 ;
Birdwood, 14 ; Cooke, T. 650 ; Nairne, 129.
Rare climber among the bushes.

Flowers & Fruits : June-January.

Vern. name : Gomati.

Trichosanthes Linn.

1. Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour., FI. Cochin*
chin. 589, 1790 ; Jeffery, in Kew Bull. 15 : 366,
1962.

T. brachteata - (Lamk.) Voight, Cat. Hort.
Sub. Calcat. 58, 1845 ; Santapau, 294, 1963.
Modecca brae teat a Lamk., Encycl. 4 : 210,
1797.

T. palmata Roxb., FI. Ind. 3 : 704, 1832 ; FBI
2: 606; Graham, 79; Wight, 111. tt. 104-5 ;
Dalz. & Gibs. 103; Cooke, T. 650 & 1: 527
(560) ; Lisboa, 214 ; Birdwood, 14 ; Nairne,
126 ; Puri & Mahajan, 123.

Quite common climber in evergreen forests.
Bright-red ripe fruits are used for decorations
at the time of Ganesh-chaturthi festival.
Flowers & Fruits : May-August.

Local name : Kaundal, Mukal.

Zehneria Endl.

1. Zehneria perpusilla (Blume) comb. nov.
Cucurbita perpusilla Blume, Cat Hort. Buitenz.
105, 1823.

Bryonia perpusilla Blume, Bijdr. 926, 1825.
B. mysorensis Wight & Arn., Prodr. 345, 1834 ;
Wight, Icon. t. 758 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 101 (non
Walp. 1842).

Z. mysorensis (W. & A.) Arn., in Hooker’s
J. Bot. 3 : 275, 1841 ; Jeffery, in Kew Bull. 15 :
366, 1962.

Melothria perpusilla (Bl.) Cogn., in DC.
Prodr. 3 : 607? 1881 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 540 (574) ;

Chakravarty, in Rec. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind.
17 (1) : 146-8, 1959 ; Puri & Mahajan, 123 ;
Santapau, 293, 1963.

Z. bauriana Clarke, in FI. Brit. Ind. 2 : 624s
1879 (non Endl. 1833) ; Birdwood, 14 ;
Cooke, T. 650 ; 1885 ; Nairne, 129.

A common climber among the bushes.
Flowers : June-Nov. ; Fruits : July-Nov.

Begoniaceae
Begonia Linn.

1. Plants with subterranian tuber B. prixophylla

1 . Plants without tuber 2

2. Fruits winged B. crenata

2. Fruits not winged B. malabarica

1. Begonia crenata Dry and, in Trans. Linn.
Soc. London, 1 : 164, t. 14, 1791 ; FBI 2 : 651 ;
Graham, 172 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 104 ; Birdwood,
14 ; Nairne, 131 ; Cooke, T. 650 & 1 : 549
(584) ; Puri & Mahajan, 124 ; Santapau, 400,
1963 & 290, 1963.

Common and abundant succulent herb all
over in partially shaded places, in various
situations, in monsoon.

Flowers : July-September ; Fruits : Sept.-
October.

Vern. names : Berki, Motiyen.

2. Begonia malabarica Lamk., Encycl. 1 : 393,
1785 ; Birdwood, 14.

This species included here on authority of
Birdwood. No specimens available.

3. Begonia prixophylla Blatter & McCann, in
J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 10 (1) : 27-8, 1931.

Rare species endemic to Mahabaleshwar only.
Found on the precipitous edges of Fitzgerald
Ghat, on loose laterite soil. Collection can be
very dangerous.

Flowers : August.

315

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

Molluginaceae
Glinus Linn.

1. Glinus lotoides Linn., Sp. PL 463, 1753 ;
Graham, 83 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 16 & 311.

Mollugo lotoides O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI.
264, 1891.

M. hirta Thunb., Prodr. FI. Cap. 24, 1794 ;
FBI 2 : 662 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 557 (593) ; Nairne,
133 ; Birdwood, 15 ; Puri & Mahajan, 124.
Prostrate weed in rice-fields and in waste-
lands.

Flowers & Fruits : February-April.

Local name : Kothak.

Apiaceae

1 . Umbels simple 2

2. Flowers reddish-pink Centella

2. Flowers white Hydrocotyle

1. Umbels compound 3

3. Fruits winged on margins 4

4. Fruits compressed ; Leaves pinnate or

bipinnate 5

5. Petal not radiant ; wings of

fruits with thin margins . . Peucedanum

5. Petals radiant ; wings of fruits

rhickened at margins Heracleum

4. Fruits not compressed ; leaves

tripinnate Anethum

3. Fruits not winged on margins 6

6. Calyx teeth distinct Coriandrum

6. Calyx teeth not distinct Pimpinella

Anethum Linn.

1. Anethum graveolens Linn., Sp. PL 263, 1753 ;
Santapau & Janard. Check-list FI. Saurashtra,
25.

Peucedanum graveolens (Linn.) Hiern., in
Oliver, FI. Trop. Africa, 3 : 19, 1871 ; FBI 2 ;
709 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 570 (606) ; Nairne, 134.
A. sowa DC., Prodr. 4: 186, 1830.
Cultivated some places for vegetables.
Flowers : December-February ; Fruits :

January-March.

Local names : Shepu, Sowa.

Centella Linn.

1. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban, in ManL
FI. Brasil. 11 : 287, 1879 ; Santapau, 309, 1963 ;
Puri & Mahajan, 124.

Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn., Sp. PL 234, 1753 ;
FBI 2 : 669 ; Wight, Icon. t. 565 ; Cooke, T.
650 & 1 : 562 (598) ; Lisboa, 214 ; Birdwood,
15 ; Nairne, 135.

Common creeping herb on moist grounds
and on sides of rice -fields.

Flowers : Throughout the year.

Local names : Kariuna, Bhamni, Brahmi,

Coriandrum Linn.

1. Coriandrum sativum Linn., Sp. PL 258, 1753 ;
FBI 2 : 717 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 573 (609) ; Nairne,
134.

Cultivated. Whole plant as well as seeds
are used as condiment.

Flowers & Fruits : Throughout the year.
Local names ; Kothmir, Dhana.

Heracleum Linn.

1. Bracteoles 5 ; commissure

6-vittate H. concanense

l . Bracteoles 3 ; commissure

2-vittate H. pinda

1. Heracleum concanense Dalz., in Hook. J.
Bot. 2 : 26, 1850 ; FBI 2 : 716 ; Dalz. & Gibs.
107 ; Birdwood, 15 ; Cooke, T. 650 & 1 : 571
(608) ; Nairne, 136 ; Puri & Mahajan, 124 ;
Santapau, 400, 1962 & 310, 1963.

H. grandiflorum Dalz., Bombay FI. 108, 1861.

Quite common herb among the grasses at
Wilson Point and Lingmala.

Flowers : August-Sept. ; Fruits : Sept.-Oct.

2. Heracleum pinda Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FJ,
107, 1861 ; Nairne, 136,

316

FLORA of mahabaleshwar

This species reported from Mahabaleshwar
by Nairne. Nairne mentions Dr. T. Cooke’s
authority for this record, but Cooke, in FI.
Presidency of Bombay, includes it on authority
of Dalzell & Gibson.

Flowers : July-August.

Local name : Pinda.

Hydrocotyle Linn.

1. Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lamk., Encycl.
3 : 153, 1789 ; K. N. Gandhi, in FI. Hassan
Dist. 417, 1976.

H. rotundifolia Roxb. ex DC., Prodr. 4 : 64,
1830 ; Wight, Icon. t. 564 ; Birdwood, 15.

This species included here on authority of
Birdwood.

Flowers : March.

Peucedanum Linn.

1. Peucedanum grande (Dalz. & Gibs.) Clarke,
in FI. Brit. Ind. 2 : 710, 1879 ; Birdwood, 15 ;
Cooke, T. 1 : 569 (605) ; Nairne, 135 ; Santapau,
310, 1963.

Pastinaca grandis Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI.
107, 1861.

Common succulent herb during monsoon on
faces of rocks. Occasionally found among the
grasses also. Often used as condiment.

Flowers & Fruits : July-September.

Local name : Baphali.

Pimpinella Linn.

1. Flowers hermophrodite 2

2. Bracts absent P. to merit osa

2. Bracts 3-7 P. adscendens

1. Flowers monoecious P. wallichiana

1. Pimpinella adscendens Dalz., in Hook. J.
Bot. 2 : 261, 1850 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 106 ; FBI 2 :
689 : Nairne, 135 : Cooke, T. 1 : 567 (603) ;
Santapau, 110, 1967.

Ascending annual herb with radical leaves.
Quite common in open grasslands.

Flowers : November-May.

2. Pimpinella tomentosa Dalz. ex Clarke, in
Hook. f. FI. Brit. India, 2 : 689, 1789 ; Woodrow,
in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 11 : 643, 1898 ;
Cooke, T. 1 : 566 (602) ; Birdwood, 15 : Puri &
Mahajan, 124.

A rare herb along road-sides in ghat areas.
Flowers & Fruits : October-November.

3. Pimpinella wallichiana (Miq.) K. N. Gandhi,
in FI. Hassan Dist. 417, 1976.

Helosciadium wallichianum Miq., Bot. Zeit
7 : 775, 1849.

P. monoica Dalz., in Kew J. Bot. 3 : 212,
1851 ; FBI 2 : 687 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 106 ;
Nairne, 135 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 566 (603) ;
Birdwood, 15 ; Puri & Mahajan, 124 ;
Santapau, 401 ; 1962 & 310, 1963.

A rare herb along road-sides and along
borders of forests. Common on Bombay point.
Flowers : August-January.

Local name : Bhalga.

Rubiaceae

1. Trees or shrubs 2

2. Ovules more than 2, usually

many in each cell 3

3. Flowers in globose heads . . 4

4. Corolla lobes imbricate ;

flowers ebracteolate Anthocephalus

4. Corolla lobes valvate ;

flowers bracteolate 3

5. Peduncles axillary, 1-3
together ; calyx lobed ;

stigma clavate ; capsule cuneate,

not ribbed Adina

5. Peduncles terminal,

solitary ; calyx truncate,
not lobed ; stigma mitri-
form ; capsule oblong,
faintly 10-ribbed Mitragyna

317

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST. SOCIETY , 79

3. Flowers not in globose

heads 6

6. Fruit a capsule 7

7. Corolla imbricate or
contorted ; seeds not
winged IVendlandia

7. Corolla valvate ; seeds

winged 8

8. Panicles with foliaceous
bracts ; corolla lobes

glabrous Hymenodictyon

8. Panicles without
foliaceous bracts ;
corolla lobes pilose

on the margins .... Cinchona

6. Fruit a berry or drupe . . 9

9. Flowers axillary,

solitary Xeromphis

9. Flowers axillary or
terminal

corymbose cymes .... Ratldia

2. Ovules one in each cell 10

10. Corolla lobes contorted 11

11. Calyculus present .. Coffea

1 1 . Calyculus absent .. 12

12. Stipules inter-

petiolar Ixora

12. Stipules intra-

petiolar Pavetta

10. Corolla lobes valvate .. 13

13. Ovary 2-celled .... 14

14. Inflorescence

axillary Canthium

14. Inflorescence

terminal Psychotria

13. Ovary more than 2-

celled 15

15. Fruit a capsule. . Spetmadyctyon

15. Fruit a drupe . . 16

16. Plants armed Meyna

16. Plants un-
armed .... Lesianthus

1 . Herbs or undershrubs 17

17. Climbing herbs ; stipules

leafy Rubia

17. Non-climbing plants ;

stipules not leafy 18

18. Seeds angular, Globose

or ellipsoid Oldenlandia

18. Seeds boat-shaped or

plano-convex Neanotis

Adina Salisb.

1. Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Renth. & Hooke, f.
ex Brandis, Forest FI. 263, t. 33, 1874 ; Birdwood
15 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 581 (2 : 7) ; Nairne, 142.
Nauclea cordifolia Roxb., PI. Cor. 1 : 40, t.
53, 1796.

This species given here on authority of
Birdwood only.

Local names : Haldu, Hed.

Anthocephalus A. Rich.

1. Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq., FI.
Ind. Bat. 2 : 135, 1856 ; FBI 3 : 23, 1880 ;

Lisboa, 215 ; Birdwood, 15 ; Nairne, 141 ;
Blatter & McCann, 36 (4) : 781, 1933.

Nauclea cadamba Roxb. FI. Ind. 1 : 512,
1820 ; Bedd., FI. Sylv. 35 ; Graham, 87 ;
Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 43.

A. indicus A Rich., in Mem. Soc. Hist. Nat.
Paris 5 : 238, 1834 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 579 (2 : 6).
This tree is only found near Wada, below
Mahabaleshwar. It is not reported from Maha-
baleshwar Plateau.

Flowers : September-FebrUary.

Local names : Nhiv, Kadamb, Kalam.

Canthium Lamk.

1 * Unarmed trees C. dicoccum var.

umbellatum

1. Spinous shrubs C. angustifolium

1. Canthium angustifolium Roxb., FI. Ind. 2
169, 1824 ; Birdwood, 15, FBI 3 : 135, 1880 ;
Nairne, 145.

Dondisia leshenaulti DC., Prodr. 4 : 469, 1830.

318

FLORA OF MAtiABALESHWAk

C. ieshenaulti (DC.) Wight & Arn., Prodr.
426, 1834 ; Wight, Icon. t. 826 ; Blatter &
McCann, 36 : 790.

Plectronia rheedei Bedd., For. Man. in FI.
Sylvat. 134, 1874 ; Cooke, t. 1 : 606 (2 : 35-6).

C. rheedei DC., Prodr. 4 : 474, 1830 ; FBI 3 :
134 ; Graham, 91 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 113.

This species is included here on authority of
Birdwood.

Local name : Chap Yel.

2. Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Teys. & Binn.
var. umhellatum (Gamble) Sant. & Merchant,
Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3 : 107, 1962 ; Santapau,
117.

C. umbellatum Wight, Icon. t. 1034, 1845
(non Korth, 1851) Nairne, 145 ; FBI 3 : 132.

C. didymum auct. (non Gaertn., 1807) ;
Beddome, FI. Sylvat. t. 221, 1872 ; Graham,
91 ; Birdwood, 16 ; Blatter & McCann, 36 :
790.

Plectronia didyma (Gaertn.) Kurz., var.
umbellata (Wight) Gamble, FI. Madras, 624,
1921.

C. dicoccum auct. (non Gaertn.) Teys &
Binn. ; Puri & Mahajan, Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind.
2 : 124, 1960 ; Santapau, 399, 1962 & 306,
1963.

P. wightii T. Cooke, FI. Presd. Bombay,
1 : 606, 1903.

Handsome unarmed evergreen tree. Very
common in forest areas.

Flowers & Fruits : February-May.

Local names : Tupa, Arsul.

Cinchona Linn.

1. Cinchona succirubra Pav., ex Klotzsch,
in Abh. Acad. Berl. 1957 : 60, 1958.

This species was cultivated at Mahabaleshwar
for its bark, but the project did not succeed.

Besides this species Cinchona cordifolia Mutis
and Cinchona condaminia Humbolt. & Bonapl.
have been reported by Dr. J. C. Lisboa (p. 215),
to have been planted at Lingmala and Carvalho’s
Garden, which were having stunted growth.
Now these species are not found at Mahabalesh-
war.

Coffea Linn.

1. Coffea arabica Linn., Sp. PI. 172, 1753 ;
Birdwood, 15 ; Nairne, 148 ; Cooke, T. 1 :
626 (2 : 55).

Few plants are cultivated between Maha-
baleshwar and Panchgani, in gardens.

Flowers & Fruits : January-April.

Local name : Coffee.

Hymenodictyon Wall. (nom. cons.)

1. Hymenodictyon excelsum (Roxb.) Wall.,
in Roxb. FI. Ind. 2 : 149, 1824 ; Birdwood, 15.

Cinchona excelsa Roxb., PL Cor. 2 : t. 106,
1798.

This species included here on authority of
Birdwood only.

Ixora Linn.

1. Trees I. arborea

1. Shrubs I. nigricans

1. Ixora arborea Roxb. ex J. E. Smith, in
Rees, Cyclop. 19 : 5, 1811 ; Santapau, 119.

/. parviflora Vahl, Symb. 3 : 11, t. 52, 1794
(non Lamk. 1791); Wight, Icon. t. 711, 1843 ;
Cooke, T. 1 : 611 (2 : 39) ; FBI 3 : 142 ; Mar-
kham, 386, 1880.

This species included here on authority of
Markham.

2. Ixora nigricans R. Br. ex Wight & Arn.,
Prodr. 428, 1824 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 113 ; Wight,

319

journal, bombay natural hist, society, Vol 79

Icon. t. 318, 1840 ; Nairne, 146 ; Cooke, T.
1 : 609 (2 : 38) ; Puri & Mahajan, 124.

I. affinis Wall, ex Blatter & McCann, in

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36 : 791.

A rare shrub in forest area.

Flowers & Fruits : May-December.

Lasianthus Jack. (nom. cons.)

1. Lasianthus venulosus (Wight & Arn.) Wight*
in Calcutta J. nat. Hist. 6 : 508, 1845 ; Wight,
Icon. t. 1032, 1845 ; Beddome, FI. Sylvat.
134, t. 17, f. 5, 1869.

Santia venulosa Wight & Arn., Prodr. 422,
1834; Markham, 386; Dalz. & Gibs. 114.

This species reported here on authority of
Markham (1880).

Mitrgyna Korthals (Nom-Cons.)

1. Mitrgyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Kort., Obs.
Naucl. Ind. 19, 1839 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 581 (2:8);
Blatter & McCann, 36 : 782, 1933.

Nauclea parvifolia Roxb., PI. Cor. 1 : 40,
t. 52, 1795 ; Graham, 87.

N. parviflora Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI.
118, 1861.

Stephegyne parvifolia Korth., Verh. nat. Ges.
Bot. 161, 1840 ; FBI 3 : 25 ; Talbot 2 : 86-7,
t. 335 ; Birdwood, 15 ; Nairne, 142.

This species is reported here on authority of
Birdwood.

Vern. names : Kalam, Niv.

Meyna Roxb.

1. Meyna laxiflora Robyns, Bull. Jard. Bot.
Etat. Bruxells 11 : 228, 1928 ; Santapau, 118.

Vangueria spinosa Roxb., FI. Ind. 2 : 172,
1824 ; Graham, 90 ; FBI 3 : 136 ; Nairne, 145 ;
Cooke, T. 1 : 607 (2 : 36) ; Birdwood, 16 ;
(omnes p.p.) ; Puri & Mahajan, 124.

Rare small size tree along forest margins.
Fruits which turn brownish-black after ripening
are eaten by local people.

Flowers : December-May ; Fruits : Decern*
ber-July.

Local names : Alu, Halu.

Neanotis Lewis

1. Cymes corymbose 2

2. Capsule globose N. rheedii

2. Capsule broader than long, not

globose 3

3. Calyx teeth large, deflexed

in fruits ; fruits 6-seeded N. lancifolia

3. Calyx teeth small ; fruits 20-40

seeded N. calycina

1. Cymes clustered N. foetida

1. Neanotis calycina (Wall, ex Hook, f.) W.H.
Lewis, Annales Missouri Bot. Gard. 53 : 37,
1966.

Anotis calycina Wall, ex Hook, f., in FI.
Brit. India, 3 : 73, 1880.

Common and abundant herb among the
grasses and on embankments. Very common
at Wilson point, Kate’s point, Tiger path*
Fitzgerald ghat, near Yenna lake and bus stand.

Flowers & Fruits : August-November.

2. Neanotis foetida (Dalz.) W.H. Lewis, Ann.
Miss. Bot. Gard. 53 : 38, 1966.

Hedy otis foetida Dalzell, Hook. J. Bot. Kew,
Gard. Misc. 2 : 134, 1850 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 116.

Anotis foetida (Dalz.) Hook, f., in FI. Brit.
Ind. 3 : 74, 1880 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 595 (2 : 22) ;
Blatter & McCann, 36 : 786.

Common herb on grassy exposed grounds
and on laterite flats at Wilson point and Kate’s
point.

Flowers & Fruits : August-November.

320

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

3. Neanotis lancifolia (Hook, f.) W. H. Lewis,
in Ann. Miss. Bot. Gard. 53 : 39, 1966.

Hedy otis lancifolia Dalz., in Hook. J. Bot.
Kew. Gard. Misc. 2 : 135, 1850 (non Schum.,
1827).

Anotis lancifolia Bentham & Hooker, in Gen.
PI. 2 : 59, 1873 ; FBI 3 : 73 ; Cooke, T. 1 :
593 (2 : 20) ; Blatter & McCann, 36 : 786.
Very common and abundant herb on walls
and embankments. Less common in forest
areas. Found at Chinaman’s falls, Wilson
point, Lingmala, Petit Road, Fitzgerald ghat,
Arther’s seat, sides of Yenna lake etc.

Flowers & Fruits : August-December.

4. Neanotis rheedei (Wt. & Arn.) W. H. Lewis,
Ann. Miss. Bot. Gard. 53 : 40, 1966.

Hedy otis rheedei Wight & Arn., Prodr. 409,
1834.

H. latifolia Dalz., in Hook. J. Bot. Kew
Misc. 2 : 133, 1850 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 116.

Anotis rheedei Benth. & Hook, f., in Gen.
PI. 2 : 59, 1873 ; FBI 3 : 73 ; Cooke, T. 1 :
593 (2 : 21) ; Blatter & McCann, 36 : 786.
This species is collected from Wada, below
Mahabaleshwar plateau. There is no reliable
specimen from the hill proper.

Oldenlandia Linn.

1. Calyx lobes pubescent, with inter-
mediate teeth between calyx lobes . . O. maheshwarii
1. Calyx lobes glabrous, without

intermediate teeth 2

2. Top of capsule flat, not pro-
truding. O. corymbosa

2. Top of capsule rounded, pro-
truding O.herbacea

1. Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn., Sp. PL 119,
1753 ; FBI 3 : 64 ; Nairne, 143 ; Cooke, T.
650 & 1 : 588 (2 : 15) ; Blatter & McCann,
36 : 784 ; Birdwood, 15 ; Puri & Mahajan,
124.

Hedy otis burmanniana Br., in Graham, Cat.
Bombay PI. 90, 1839 ; Dalz. & Gibs., 116.
A common weed in rice-fields and in wet
places.

Flowers & Fruits : July-November.

Local name : Pitpapda.

2. Oldenlandia herbacea (Linn.) Roxb., FI.
Ind. 1 : 424, 1820 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 589 (2 : 16) ;
Blatter & McCann, 36 : 784.

Hedyotis herbacea Linn., Sp. PI. 102, 1753.

H. heynii R. Br., in Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay
FI. 116, 1861.

O. heynii G. Don, Gen. Syst. 3 : 531, 1834 ;
Graham, 90 ; FBI 3 : 65 ; Nairne, 143.

Common erect herb among the grasses.
It is found abundantly in drying rice-fields
after the harvests.

Flowers & Fruits : August-No vember.
Local name : Paripath.

3. Oldenlandia maheshwarii Santapau & Mer-
chant, in J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 42 A : 213-5, ff. 1-6,
1964; Santapau, 115-6.

Quite common herb among the grasses.
Flowers & Fruits : September-November.

Pavetta Linn.

1. Leaves tornentose beneath. ....... P. tomentosa

1. Leaves glabrous P. crassicciulis

1. Pavetta crassicaulis Bremek., Fedde, Repert
37 : 112, 1934 & 47 : 25, 1939 ; Ker & Pani-
grahi, Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 5 : 234, 1963 ;
Santapau, 120.

P. indica auct. plur. (non Linn., 1753) ;
Graham, Ct. Bombay PI. 92, 1839 ; Dalz. &
Gibs. 112 ; Cooke, T. 649 & 1 : 612 (2 : 41) ;
FBI 3 : 150 ; Lisboa, 215 ; Nairne, 146 ;
Santapau, 399, 1962 & 306, 1963 ; Puri &
Mahajan, 124.

6

321

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 19

P. indica Linn. var. glabra Blatter & Hallberg,
in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36 : 792, 1933.

Common and abundant plant on sloping
grounds. Very common at Lingmala, China-
man’s Falls, Wilson point, Fitzgerald ghat,
Petit Road, Yenna lake banks and on way to
Wada.

Flowers & Fruits : Throughout the year*
Local names : Papat, Papti.

2. Pavetta tomentosa Roxb., ex Rees, Cyclop.
26 : 2, 1819 ; Wight & Arn., Prodr. 431, 1832 ;
Santapau, 120.

P. brunonis Wight, Icon. t. 1065, 1845 ;
Dalz. & Gibs. 112.

Ixora tomentosa Roxb., FI. Ind. 1 : 386,
1832 ; Wight, Icon. t. 186.

P. indica Linn. var. tomentosa Hook, f., in
FI. Brit. Ind. 3 : 150, 1880 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 613
(2 : 41) ; Blatter & McCann, 36 : 792.

P. hispidula sensu Birdwood, 16, 1897 (non
Wight & Arn., 1834).

Common all over Mahabaleshwar, especially
along the edges of the forests at Lingmala
and Chinaman’s falls.

Flowers : March-June ; Fruits : June-

December.

Psychotria Linn. (nom. cons.)

1. Psychotria tnmcata Wall., in Roxb. FI.
Ind. (Carey ed.) 2 : 162, 1824 ; Nairne, 148 ;
Cooke, T. 649 & 1 : 616 (2 : 44) ; Birdwood,
16 ; Santapau, 399, 1962 & 306, 1963 ; Puri &
Mahajan, 124.

Grumilea congesta Graham, Cat. Bombay PI.
92, 1839 (non Wight & Arn., 1834).

G. vaginans Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. Ill,
1861.

P. vaginan Wight & Arn., Prodr. 434, 1834 ;
Lisboa, 215.

A common undershrub in shady places
among the undergrowths near Chinaman’s falls.
Flowers & Fruits : February-June.

Randia Linn.

1. Randia rtigulosa (Thwaites) Hook, f., in
FI. Brit. Ind. 3 : 113, 1880 ; Talbot, 189 ; Bird-
wood, 16 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 600 (2 : 28).

Griffithia rugulosa Thwaites, Enum. PI. Ceyl.
159, 1859.

G. speciosa Bedd., Icon. PI. Ind. Or. t. 37,
1874.

Rare climbing shrub in densely shaded
forests along Lingmala and Tiger path.

Flowers & Fruits : December-July.

Rubia Linn.

1. Rubia cordifolia Linn., Mant. PI. 197,
1767 ; FBI 3 : 202 ; Graham, 93 ; Dalz. & Gibs.
121 ; Wight, 111. t. 128, f. 1 (bis) ; Cooke, T.
650 & 1 : 625 (2 : 54-5) ; Nairne, 148 ; Birdwood,
16 ; Lisboa, 215 ; Santapau, 307, 1963 ; Puri &
Mahajan, 124.

R. mangista Roxb., FI. Ind. 1 : 384, 1820 ;
Wight, Icon. t. 187, 1839.

Quite common climber all over among the
bushes.

Flowers & Fruits : August-January.

Local names : Manjit, Itari, Itta, Manjishtha.

Spermadictyon Roxb.

1. Spermadictyon suaveolens Roxb., PI. Cor.
3 : 32, t. 236, 1815 ; Santapau, 120 ; Santapau &
Merchant, Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3 : 110, 1961.

Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb., FI. Ind. 2 :
223, 1824 ; FBI 3 : 197 ; Cooke, T. 1 : 621
(2 : 51) ; Birdwood, 16 ; Nairne, 147 ; Talbot
2: 134, t. 364, 1918 ; Blatter & McCann,
36 : 794.

322

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

H. mysorensis Wight Sc Arn., Prodr. 423,
1834 ; Graham, 91 ; Dalz. & Gibs., 115.

Rare species usually found on steep hill-
slopes growing in dangerous rock-crevices.

Flowers Sc Fruits : December-April.

Local name : Gersao.

Wendlandia Bart.

1. Wendlandia thyrsoides (Roem. Sc Schultz)
Steud., Nom. ed. 2, 2 : 786, 1841 ; Blatter &
McCann, 36 : 782 ; Santapau, 307, 1963.

Canthium thyrsoideum Roem. & Schultez,
Syst. 6 : 207, 1820.

W. notoniana Wall, ex Graham, Cat. Bombay
PI. 89, 1839 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 117 ; Wight, Icon,
t. 1033, 1845 ; Talbot 2 : 92, t. 338 ; Nairne,
142 ; Cooke, T. 649 & 1 : 584 (2:11);
Beddome, FI. Sylv. t. 224, 1872 ; Birdwood,
15 ; Puri & Mahajan, 124.

A common and abundant small size tree
along sides of Yenna River and near Lingmala
falls.

Flowers & Fruits : December- May,

Xeromphis Rafin.

1. Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay, Bull.
Jard. Bot. Etat. Bruxsells, 28 : 37, 1858 ;
Maheshwari, in Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3 (1) : 91,

1961.

Gardenia spinosa Thunb., Diss. Gard. no.
7, 1780.

Randia brandisii Gamble, FI. Madras, 616,
1921 ; Blatter & McCann, 36 : 787 ; Puri Sc
Mahajan, 124 ; Santapau, 398, 1962 & 306,
1963.

G. tomentosa Retz., Obs. 2 : 14, 1781.

R. dumetorum Larnk., Encycl. suppl. 2 : 829,
1811 ; Graham, 89 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 119 ;
Wight, Icon. t. 580 ; FBI 3 : 110 ; Nairne,
144; Cooke, T. 649 & 1 : 599 (2 : 27) ; Lisboa,
215 ; Talbot 2 : 98, t. 341.

One of the commonest trees of Mahabalesh-
war. Fruits are used by local people for fish-
killing.

Flowers Sc Fruits : March-June.

Local names : Gela, MindhaL

(to be continued )

SOME ASPECTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF
THE LION-TAIL MACAQUE — MA CA CA SILENUS (LINN.)—

A ZOO STUDY1

L. S. Ramaswami2, G. U. Kurup3, and B. A. Gadgil4

The reproductive biology of the lion-tail monkey at the Children’s Park Zoo, Madras and at the Zoos
at Bombay and at Kolhapur was studied. Two successive pregnancies of the same female were checked
in our Madras study. The pregnant female did not show an enlarged belly ; palpation was not possible ;
the female occasionally squeezed out milk from the nipples. A male baby was born (20th March 1976) which
died after 4 months and 10 days, probably due to insufficiency of mother’s milk. A second male baby
was born of the same female on 6th March 1977, sired by the same male. This baby grew up well ; the
mother died on 8th March. The coat colour of the babies was black but they had no mane at birth. When
the second baby was examined 7 months later, a mane had grown. The probable period of pregnancy is
180-187 days. The sex skin cycle in this female was not followed. At the Bombay Zoo garden, two female
lion-tails showed menstrual cycle with a mode at 39 days ; the menses (both overt and occult) lasted for
2-2.5 days. A summer amenorrhea was noticed. The sex skin tumescence started from day 6/7 of the
cycle and reached a maximum on day 10. The subcaudal, perianal and paravulval (enclosing the callosities)
tumescences were prominent. Detumescence was noticed from days 22-27 of the cycle. Probably ovulation
takes place around 21/22 days of the cycle when the sex skin starts wrinkling. Vaginal cytology showed the
presence of cornified or superficial cells at this time. Copulations generally took place at this time. On
24th July 1979, a male baby was born and when Ramaswami examined this lively baby on 30th March
1981, he was 1 year, 8 months and 10 days old. At the Kolhapur Zoo garden, a female lion-tail gave
birth to a male baby years ago (which is continuing to live) and there were no further conceptions and one
of the reasons for this may be that the female lived in constant dread of the vicious male in the same cage.

Introduction

The lion-tail macaque is restricted to the
southern part of the Western ghats of India
from Jog Falls to Agasthya Ranges (Kurup
1977). From south of Bramhagiri ranges in
Coorg, the Nilgiri langur Presbytis johnii
also with a similar coat colour, is a congener
with the lion-tail monkey. The latter is readily
distinguished by its grey facial mane and short
tufted tail. Both were considered to be en-
dangered species but while the Nilgiri langur

1 Accepted October 1980.

2 387, Upper Palace Orchard, Bangalore-80, India.

3Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghat Regional

Station, 2/355 Eranhipalam, Calicut-673006.

4 Animal House Warden, Research Division, The
Boots Co. India Ltd., Sion, Bombay-400 022.

shows an upward trend, the lion-tail is still
very much endangered. Two recent estimates
of the lion-tail put the total population as
405 by Green and Minkowasky (1977) and 800
by Kurup (1977).

Observations and Discussion

At the Children’s Park Zoo, Guindy, Madras
(India), they have a pair of lion-tail monkeys ;
the male was procured from the wild on 28th
April 1970. An adult female, which was a
pet with a family, was donated to the Zoo
on 25th March 1975 and she was housed with
the male. She was probably cycling regularly.
The Forest Officer in charge of the Park Zoo
told us of the characteristic sex skin in the

324

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE LION-TAIL MACAQUE

posterior region of the female waxing and
waging.

Kurup and Ramaswami examined the above
female at the Park Zoo on 23rd January 1976.
The sexual swelling had completely detumesced
but the vulval area was red in colour. The
vaginal temperature was 101.6°F. A vaginal
smear was taken with great difficulty but it
did not disclose any cornified cells. No external
manifestation of pregnancy was apparent and
rectal palpation was not possible as she was
too sensitive to handling. However, a male
baby was born on 20th March 1976. When
we examined the female very clearly on 23rd
January 1976, she was pregnant, 56 days prior
to parturition. Assuming that the period of
gestation was 187+? days in this, as it was
in the second pregnancy which we also studied,
she must have conceived by about the middle
of September 1975. From the time of ad-
mission (25th March 1975) to the middle of
September 1975, we are not sure of the cycles
she may have passed through keeping in mind
the summer amenorrhea in these macaques
and that each cycle lasts around 39 days in
the lion-tail monkey.

From the date of admission to the Park Zoo
to the end of September 1975, no record of
the reproductive life of this female was main-
tained. When the female delivered a baby,
the adult male was moved into another
cage.

The baby had a blackish coat with no mane.
It was 4 months and 10 days when it died
(1st August 1976). The Park Zoo authorities
felt that the death was due to insufficiency
of mother’s milk but hand-rearing was not
resorted to as it was found difficult to separate
the suckling baby from the mother. Birth
of lion-tail macaques from an Indian Zoo
(Delhi) has been reported by Sankhala and
Desai (1969).

The Park Zoo authorities let the male and
female lion-tails together again during the
second week of September, 1976. Monkeys
which go generally into summer amenorrhea,
return to cycle by about the middle of August.
The male was noticed to mount the female
a number of times and he was then separated.
Kurup and Ramaswami examined this female
on 15th November 1976. The sex skin including
the subcaudal one had completely detumesced
and the vulval area was red in colour as on the
previous examination. If the female had been
impregnated during her stay with the male,
she must be pregnant again, 3 months and
15 days after the death of the first baby. As
before, palpation of the abdomen did not
help. It is difficult to say when the female
lion-tail started cycling but according to infor-
mation from the Park Zoo authorities, she
became receptive only after the death of the
first baby (1st August, 1976). No record of
the tumescence of the sex skin, after the death
of the baby and after she renewed her cycles,
had been maintained.

On 4th February 1977, Kurup and Rama-
swami again examined the same lion-tail female
at the Park Zoo, Guindy, Madras. The
detumesced condition of the sex skin continued
but the ischial callosities were hard. The whole
vulval region was red in colour and sensitive to
handling. The vaginal temperature was 101. 0°F.,
and the smear did not disclose any superficial
cells. Abdominal palpation was not helpful
and she did not permit a rectal one. The
breasts were enlarged and she occasionally
squeezed out milk from the pink teats. This
is not unusual in pregnant monkeys. Speert
(1948) proved that in the pregnant rhesus
monkey, by the end of the 4th month, secretory
activity in the mammary glands was well
established ; this continued to increase up to
term (165 days). In the human female, accord-
ing to Jeffcoate (1967), 4 milk is never produced

325

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

until the placenta is delivered or ceases to
function \ Monkeys seem to differ from the
human species in this.

A male baby (christened Reuben) was born
of this female on the afternoon of 6th March
1977 which both Kurup and Ra mas warm
examined on 29th March 1977. His coat was
completely black with no mane confirming our
observation on the previous occasion. His face,
hands and feet were pinkish. Unfortunately the
mother died on 8th March 1977. The baby
was being bottle-fed and he sucked his right
thumb incessantly. This is also noticed in
human babies which are weaned prematurely.
We examined Reuben almost 7 months later,
on 5th October. He had grown up and had
developed a grey mane. He ran about freely
and had become a loved pet. He had started
eating solid food including tender shoots and
had abandoned his thumb-sucking habit. Ac-
cording to Green and Minkowaski (op. cit.),
the lion-tail female may not give birth to more
than 2-3 babies in her life-time since the adults
are not long-lived.

According to Sugiyama (1968), the new-
born lion-tail baby has brown hair and pale
pink skin. One month later, the skin colour
changes to a pale brown or grey.

Assuming that impregnation took place
in the first week of September 1976 in the lion-
tail examined by us (after which the female
was separated from her mate) the gestation
period works out to 180-187 days. This is
not very much out of the mark as Macdonald
(1971) reported a maximum of 190 days in
M. arctoides and in its nearest relative M.
nemestrina, it ranged from 162-179 days (Kuehn,
Jensen and Morrill 1965 ; Tokuda, Simons
and Jensen 1968). Regarding birth of babies,
Webb-Peploe (1947) stated that in southern
India, lion-tail babies were born in September ;
Prater (1971) also stated that young lion-tails

were seen regularly in September. Sugiyama
(op. cit.) noted that lion-tailvyoung were born
in January and that there was no restricted
mating season. Sankhala and Desai (op. cit.)
reported seven lion-tail births from January
to October, indicative of breeding throughout
the year.

At the Ranibaug Zoo Garden, Bombay,
there were three lion-tail monkeys added in
April 1973. Gadgil and Ramaswami examined
them regularly starting from January 1976.
Another consignment of lion-tails, 2 males and
3 females, was added to the Zoo on 23rd
November 1976 after rescuing them from a local
dealer and housing them for a few months in
the Karnala National Park, Maharashtra. Of
the first lot of three females, two were regularly
cycling even in the absence of a male and the
third one had not reached menarche. Female
No. 1 of this lot was in menses on 9th January
1976. Usually there is both overt/occult
menses of 2-2.5 days in these animals and the
vaginal swabs disclosed the latter type. The
next menstruation in this female was on 16th
February 1976 ; the cycle was of 38 days. Again
she menstruated on 17th March ; this cycle
was of 30 days. The third cycle which we
studied on 4th April 1976 was of 20 days
duration. This animal was again studied
during the end of 1976 and the following year.
She menstruated on 9th December 1976 ;
16th January 1977 ; 23rd February and 3rd
April ; these consecutive cycles were of 39
days duration. The second female also showed
similar consecutive cycles of 39-40 days dura-
tion. Asakura (1960) reported a cycle length
of 39.6 days in the lion-tail (under its older
specific name albibarbata ) and menses of 2.5
days in the zoo lion-tails studied by him in
Japan. In our animals, we studied the cyclical
nature of the sex skin in relation to the menstrual
cycle. The growth of the sex skin started
from day 6/7 and on day 10 of the menstrual

326

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE LION-TAIL MACAQUE

cycle, the sex skin was highly tumescent and
it continued in this condition for another 11-12
days. The subcaudal sex skin was reniform,
either side of it projecting above the tail ;
these side projections eclipsed the perianal
swellings and by pushing the subcaudal above,
the perianals could be made out. The peri-
vulval were the largest swellings and each one
enclosed the ischial callosity of its side and
at the height of tumescence, the vulval region,
pink in colour, was not visible externally.
We have never noticed the right and left peri-
vulval sex skin uniting to form a single one
as described by Hill (1937). The ischial callo-
sities were soft at this time and were completely
embraced by the sex skin. From days 22-27
of the cycle, detumescence was noticed and
this was completed well before the beginning
of the next cycle. The perianal and perivulval
swellings completely detumesced quickly, the
skin showing more and more shrinkage and
the ischial callosities becoming hard again ;
the subcaudal swelling was no more reniform
but persisted for a few more days as a pro-
minent swelling at the base of the tail into the
next cycle. From the day detumescence
started, it took 17-18 days for the next cata-
menia to occur. According to Asakura (op. cit.),
the sexual skin cycle was of 14.5 days duration.
Fooden (1975) draws a figure (Fig. 11, p. 29)
of the posterior of the lion-tail, based on the
work of Pocock (1925) and of Hill (op. cit.),
and compared it with that in the pigtail M. n.
nemestrina. The figure of the lion-tail was a
poor representation of what we have seen on
more than one occasion in the same lion-tail
in the zoo and also in other lion-tail females.
His figure was of a lion-tail from the Lincoln
Park Zoo showing the beginning of tumescence
and the maximum development of the sex
skin had yet to take place.

If, as in the pigtail, baboon (Hendrickx and
Kraemer 1970) and the chimpanzee (Keeling

and Roberts 1972), ovulation took place at
the peak of tumescence and prior to the onset
of detumescence in the lion-tail monkeys,
it would be around days 21-22 of the cycle
when the female was at the height of the heat
period ; it was during this period that frequent
copulations took place. No discharge of
mucus was noticed during this period. The
luteal period was probably 18 days. Accord-
ing to Sugiyama (op. cit.), the sexual skin
surrounding the anus and vulva of an oestrous
female may or may not be swollen. We have
always seen swollen sex skin in cycling female
lion-tails at the height of the follicular phase.

Two sets of workers (Kuehn, Jensen and
Morrill op. cit. ; Tokuda, Simons and Jensen
op. cit.) reported that the cycle length in the
pigtail was 32-40 days. According to the latter
authors, the tumescent and quiescent periods
of the sex skin were 21 and 17 days respectively.
In the same species, Bullock, Paris, Resko and
Goy (1968) noted that ovulation took place
on the first day of detumescence ; this obser-
vation was confirmed by a study of plasma
oestradiol and progesterone assay by Eaton
(1973). White, Blaine and Blakley (1973)
described that vaginal cytology and body
temperature did not help in pinpointing the
day of ovulation in the pigtail. Perineal
tumescence helped in separating the luteal
phase from the follicular ; maximal tumescence
was seen within 12 hrs of ovulation. In a
cycle length of 28 or 29 days, the maximum
swelling lasted 1-3 days in three different
cycles. In a further study of the pigtail monkey,
Blakley, Blaine and Morton (1977) pointed
out that ovulation and the first signs of detume-
scence occurred within a 24 hrs period.

Gillman (1935) reported that in the baboon
there was a sudden decrease in all measurements
of the sex skin at midcycle and then reached a
maximum within the next two or three days ;

327

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , K<?/. 79

he associated the decrease with ovulation in
this animal.

At the Bombay Zoo Garden, just before the
sex skin started detumescing in a female lion-
tail (22-23 December 1976), a male, which
had been received from the Karnala National
Park, was introduced into the cage ; the female
was a regularly cycling one which we had
studied. He mounted her several times and
each time there were five pelvic thrusts. The
mode of copulation resembled that in other
macaques (Tokuda 1961-62). The female did
not conceive. However, at a later date, a
male baby was born on 24th July 1979. This
baby has grown up nicely and goes about
moving out of the cage, receiving eatables etc.,
and then gets back into the cage. When Rama-
swami examined the baby on 30th March 1981
(with the assistance of veterinarian Dr. M. S.
Karawale) he was looking healthy and was aged
1 year, 8 months and 10 days ; weaning had
not yet taken place. The Zoo has seven lion-
tails, 5 females and 2 males, one of the latter
being the juvenile referred to above.

Our examination of the vaginal cytology
of the female lion-tails disclosed an interesting
evidence of the possible time of ovulation.
At the height of tumescence and before the
start of detumescence (22-23 days of the cycle),
large number of cornified cells (superficial
cells) were noticed in the smear, stained pinkish
by the Papinacoloau technique ; no other cells
were present. This probably was also the
time of ovulation. Such scales also appeared
in lesser numbers in the smears in the days
following the start of detumescence (noticed
as shrinkage of the sexual skin) and they do
not show any rolled edges as in the luteal phase
smear of the human female (Jeffcoate op. cit.).
As the female approached the day of menses,
the smear swab showed a pink colour as in

the human female and thereafter both overt
and occult menses took place. Leucocytes
and cyanophilic intermediate cells preponderated
in the menstrual smear while in the days follow-
ing menses, there were scales, a few inter-
mediate cells and a few leucocytes. This
appeared to be the general pattern of cell types
during menstruation studied over a large
number of cycles in two females. The occur-
rence of a large number of only superficial
cells coinciding with the height of tumescence
(21-22 days of the cycle) would restrict the
time of ovulation to those days~and the secretory
phase started from day 22-23 when the sex
skin also started shrinking. The vaginal tem-
perature was of no use in deciding the day of
ovulation.

At the Kolhapur Zoo Garden (Maharashtra),
there are two pairs of lion-tails ; no records of
these have been maintained. One female
gave birth to a male baby. No further concep-
tions took place. This may be due to the very
aggressive nature of both the males which kept
the females in a state of tension.

Acknowledgements

Our sincere thanks are due to the authorities
of the Ranibaug Zoo Garden, Bombay and
particularly to Drs. M. V. Wani and R. D. Patil
for making all necessary arrangements for
examination of the female lion-tails and for
conducting mating experiments etc., and later
(30th March 1981) to Dr. M. S. Karawale
who provided details from registers and allowed
me to photograph the juvenile lion-tail along
with its mother, and to the officials of the
Children’s Park Zoo, Guindy, Madras and
particularly to Sri C. Narayanaswamy for
helping in the examination of the female lion-
tail there.

328

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE LION-TAIL MACAQUE

Referen ces

Asakura, S. (1960) : Studies on the reproduction
of monkeys, especially on the menstrual cycle of
Primates. Jap Assn. Zool. Garden & Aquaria. 2 : 85-94.

Blakley, G. A., Blaine, C. R. & Morton, W. R.
(1977) : Correlation of perineal detumescence and
ovulation in the pig-tail macaque ( Macaca nemestrina).
Lab. Anim. Sci. 27 : 352-355.

Bullock, D., Paris, C.,Resko., J. &Goy, R. (1968) :
Proc. 6th Int. Cong. Anim. Reprod. Artif. Insem.
Paris 2: 1657.

Eaton, G. G. (1973) : Social and endocrine deter-
minants of sexual behaviour in simian and prosimian
females. In proc. Int. Cong. Pnmatology. Yol. 2 :
Primate Reproductive behaviour, pp. 20-35. ed. W.
Montagna. Karger Basel.

Fooden, J. (1975) : Taxonomy and evolution of lion-
tail and pigtail macaques (Primates : Cercopithecidae).
Fieldiana Zool. Chicago. 67 : 1-169.

Gillman, J. (1935) : The cyclical changes in the
external genital organs of the baboon (P. porcarius).
S. Afr. J. Sci. 32 : 342-355.

Green, S. & Minkowaski, K. (1977) : The lion-tailed
monkey and its south Indian rain-forest habitat. In
Primate Conservation, pp. 289-337. eds. Rainer III &
G. C. Bourne. Academic Press, New York.

Hendrickx, A. G., & Kraemer, D. C. (1970) : Pri-
mates. In Reproduction and breeding techniques for
laboratory animals, ed. E. S. E. Hafez. Lea & Febiger.
Philadelphia.

Hill, W. G., Osman (1937) : The Primates of Tra-
vancore. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 107 : 205-216.

Jeffcoate, T. N. A. (1967) : Principles of Gynae-
cology. 3rd edn. Butterworths. London.

Karr, J. R. (1973) : Ecological and behavioural
notes on the Liontailed Macaque ( Macaca silenus) in
South India. J. Bpmbay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 : 191-193.

Keeling, H. E. & Roberts, J. R. (1972) : Breeding
and Reproduction of chimpanzee. In The Chimpanzee,
ed. G. C. Bourne 5 : 127-152.

Kuehn, R. E., Jensen, G. D. & Morrill, R. K.
(1965) : Breeding in Macaca nemestrina : a program
in birth engineering. Fol. Primatol. {Basel). 3 : 251-262.

Kurup, G. U. (1977) : Distribution, habitat and
conservation of the rain-forest primates in the Western
Ghats, India. In Use of Non-human Primates in
Biomedical Research, pp. 62-77. eds. M. R. N. Prasad
& T. C. Anand Kumar. Indian National Science
Academy, New Delhi.

McDonald, G. J. (1971) : Reproductive patterns of
three species of macaques- Fertil. Steril. 22 : 373-377.

Pocock, R. I. (1925) : The external characters of
catarrhine monkeys and apes. Proc. Zool. Soc. London.
1479-1579.

Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Book of Indian Animals.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ramaswami, L. S., Kurup, G. V. & Gadgil, B. A.
(1980) : Some aspects of the reproductive biology of
the lion-tailed monkey, Macaca silenus (Linn.), — A
Zoo study. Antropol. Contemp. 3 : 260 (Abstract).

Sankhala, K. S. & Desai, J. H. (1969) : Reproduc-

tive pattern of some Indian mammals. Cheetal ( Dehra
Dun). 12: 114-129.

Speert, H. (1948) : The normal and experimental
development of the mammary gland of the rhesus
monkey, with some pathological correlations. Contr.
Embryol. Carnegie Instt. Washington. 32 : 9-65.

Sugiyama, Y, (1968) : The ecology of the lion-tailed
macaque ( Macaca silenus) (L.). J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 65 : 283-292.

Tokuda, K. (1961-62) : A study on the sexual beha-
viour in the Japanese monkey troop. Primates : 3 :
1-40.

Tokuda, K., Simons, R. C. & Jensejm, G. D. (1968) :
Sexual behaviour in a captive group of pig-tailed monkeys
( Macaca nemestrina). Primates. 9 : 283-294.

Webb-Peploe, C. G. (1947) : Field notes on the
mammals of Tinnevelly, S. India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 46 : 629-644.

White, R. J., Blaine, C. R. & Blackley, G. A.
(1973) : Detecting ovulation in Macaca nemestrina by
correlation of vaginal cytology, body temperature and
perineal tumescence with laparoscopy. Am. J. Phys.
Anthrop. 38 : 189-194.

329

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. 79

Since sending the Ms. to the press and receiving the
galley proof, there has been a Conference on the lion-
tailed monkey at Baltimore, U.S.A. Comprehensive
accounts of studies made on the monkey at various
zoos were reported at the Conference by Lasley, Czekala,
Lindburg, Shideler, Fitch (San Diego Zoo) and Kernpske
(Baltimore zoo) and an account of the reproductive
behaviour of the animal in wild has been given by Kumar
and Kurup. Both Drs. Kurup and Gadgil attended
the Conference and from the Mss. brought by the
former, the following highlights are culled :

1. The male is a multiple mount ejaculator (Kumar &
Kurup ; Lindburg).

2. The menstrual cycle is of 30 days duration (Lasley,
Czekala & Lindburg) or 30-36 days (Kernpske) and
ovulation (using the oestrogen peak as a parameter)
takes place around 14th day of the cycle and the luteal
phase is of 16 days. The reported difference in cycle
length is due to differences in the follicular phase of
duration. It has also been shown in their Table that
estrone of the oestrogens is the major urinary metabolite
(Lasley, Czekala & Lindburg) like many other monkeys.

3. The sex-skin behaviour is highly variable and there-
fore not dependable for pinpointing the day of ovulation
in the lion-tail macaque.

4. The period of pregnancy may range from 154-186
days (mean 172 days) (Kernpske).

5. The animals are not short-lived as opined by
Green & Minkowski from their study in wild and have
been living for more than 33 years in the Baltimore zoo.

6. In wild population, the sex-skin swelling lasts
for 34.33 days ; copulation thrusts are 3-16. Conception
takes place during June-July (S.W. monsoon) and
December (N.E. monsoon) (Kumar & Kurup).

References

Kempske, S. (Baltimore Zoo) : Macaca silenus —
survey of U.S. and European zoo practices.

Kumar, A. & Kurup, G. V. (Regional Station,
Zoological Survey of India, Calicut, India). Sexual
behaviour of the lion-tailed macaque, Macaca silenus.

Lasley, B. L., Czekala, N. M. & Lindburg, D. G.
(San Diego Zoo) : Urinary estrogen profiles in the lion-
tailed macaque.

Lindburg, D. G. & Lasley, B. L. (San Diego Zoo) :
Strategies for optimising the reproductive potential of
lion-tailed macaque colonies in captivity.

Lindburg, D. G., Shideler, S. & Fitch, H. (San
Diego Zoo) : Sexual behaviour in relation to time of
ovulation in the lion-tailed macaque.

330

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF SPERMATHECA IN SOME
INDIAN GRASSHOPPERS (ORTHOPTERA : UCRIBIDAE)1

Kharibam Meinodas, Shaikh Adam Shafee and Mohammad Kamil Usmani2

{With twenty-three text-figures )

Comparative study of spermatheca was made on twenty-three species representing twenty genera of the
family Acrididae and its taxonomic significance is shown. Presence or absence of apical diverticulum,
length and shape of apical and pre-apical diverticula of spermatheca are considered as characters of generic
significance. The species studied are arranged under their respective subfamilies.

Introduction

The spermatheca is also known as recepta -
culum seminis, is an essential part of female
reproductive system in which the spermatozoa
are stored, and ejected upon eggs as the latter
passed from the oviduct. Slifer & King (1936),
Slifer (1939, 1940 a, b, c, 1943), Katiyar (1956)
and Dirsh (1957) have shown the taxonomic
significance of spermatheca in various sub-
families of Acrididae. We made an attempt
to make a comparative study of spermatheca
in twenty-three species representing nine sub-
families of Acrididae with a view to discover
its significance for the identification of grass-
hopper genera. The species studied are assigned
under their respective subfamilies.

Material and Techniques

Adult specimens were collected from the
central district of Manipur and Aligarh district
of Uttar Pradesh. The apical half of the abdo-
minal region was cut off and boiled in a test
tube containing 5% KOH solution till the
structure becomes transparent. Later, this

1 Accepted, June 1979.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

was transferred to water and washed thoroughly
for complete removal of KOH. It was then
dissected under a dissecting binocular micros-
cope with the help of fine needles in order to
take out the spermatheca. After this, the
normal process of dehydration was adopted
and clearing was done in clove oil. The sper-
matheca was mounted in Canada-balsam under
a 22 mm2 cover glass. The slides were kept
in a thermostat at a temperature of approxi-
mately 40°C for about four days to make
it complete dry. Drawings were made with
the help of camera lucida.

Spermatheca in Acrididae
Subfamily : Pyrgomorphinae

1 . Chrotogonus trachypterus (Blanchard) (fig.
1) — Apical diverticulum absent, pre-apical
diverticulum long, tubular and curved. The
same condition has been shown in Chrotogonus
sp. by Slifer (1940a, fig. 20) and in Chrotogonus
concavus Kirby by Katiyar (1956, fig. 3f).

2. Poekilocenis pictus (Fabricius) (fig. 2) —
Apical diverticulum absent, pre-apical diverti-
culum long, tubular and curved. The same
condition has been shown in Poekilocerus
vittatus (Klug) by Uvarov (1966, fig. 88j).

331

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , F<?/. 79

3. Atractomorpha crenulata (Fabricius) (Fig.
3) — Apical and pre-apical diverticula well
developed, tubular and elongated. The former
slightly longer and narrower than the latter.
The same condition has been shown in Atracto-
morpha ambigua (Bolivar) by Slifer (1943,
%. 3).

Subfamily : Hemiacridinae

4. Hieroglyphus banian (Fabricius) (fig. 4) —
Apical diverticulum uniformly long and tubular,
pre-apical diverticulum well developed. The
same condition has been shown in Hieroglyphus
annulicornis (Shiraki) by Slifer (1940b, fig. 59)
and in H. banian (Fabricius), H. concolor
(Walker) and H. nigrorepletus Bolivar by Katiyar
(1956, figs. 2d-g).

5. Spathosternum prasiniferum (Walker) (fig.
5) — Apical diverticulum with basal half broader,
shorter than the pre-apical diverticulum. Pre-
apical diverticulum uniformly broad and curved.
The same condition has been shown in the
same species by Katiyar (1956, fig. li).

Subfamily : Oxyinae

6. Oxya intricata (Stal) (fig. 6) — Apical
diverticulum long, bearing a small protuberance
at its apical one-fifth ; pre-apical diverticulum
broad and curved, thrice the width of apical
diverticulum. The same condition has been
shown in Oxya adentata Will, by Slifer (1940b,
fig. 90).

7. Oxya velox (Fabricius) (fig. 7) — Almost
similar with Oxya intricata except absence of
protuberance on apical one-fifth of the apical
diverticulum. The same condition has been
shown in the same species by Slifer (1940b,
fig. 91). The presence or absence of protuber-
ance on apical diverticulum has a specific
taxonomic significance.

Subfamily : Eyprepocnemidinae

8. Clioroedocus robustus (Serville) (fig. 8) —
Apical diverticulum uniformly broad, shorter
than the pre-apical diverticulum, which is
broader. The same condition has been shown
in Heteracris calliptamoides Uvarov by Slifer
(1940b, fig. 56).

9. Eyprepocnemis alacris (Serville) (fig. 9) —
Apical diverticulum long and tubular, truncated
at apex ; pre-apical diverticulum narrow at
basal half and broadened at apical half. The
same condition has been shown in Eyprepocne-
mis shirakii Bolivar by Slifer (1940b, fig. 51)
and in Eyprepocnemis roseus Uvarov by Katiyar
(1956, fig. If).

Subfamily : Catantopinae

10. Catantops pulchellus (Walker) (fig. 10) —
Apical diverticulum long and slender, narrower
than pre-apical diverticulum, uniformly broad
and bow-shaped. The same condition has
been shown in Catantops brunneri Karny by
Slifer (1940b, fig. 124) and in Catantops humilis
humilis (Serville) and Catantops splendens
(Thunberg) by Katiyar (1956, fig. lc & d).

Subfamily : Cyrtacanthacridinae

11. Cyrtacanthacris tatarica (Linnaeus) (fig.
11) — Apical diverticulum long and slender,
longer and narrower than pre-apical diverti-
culum ; pre-apical diverticulum broad and
horseshoe shaped.

Subfamily : Acridinae

12. Acrida exaltata (Walker) (fig. 12) — Apical
diverticulum short, apex truncated, shorter
than pre-apical diverticulum ; pre-apical diverti-
culum is sac-like. The same condition has
been shown in Acrida gigantea (Herbst) (fig. 13)

332

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF SPERMATHECA

k 0-75 mm 1,3,5,8,14 | 1-5 mm 11,12,13,15

y < .2,6,7,9,10 , 0>5 mm , 4

Fig. 1. Chrotogonus trachypterus (Blanchard); Fig. 2. Poekilocerus pictus (Fabricius) •
Fig. 3. Atractomorpha crenulcita (Fabricius) ; Fig. 4. Hieroglyphs banian (Fabr-'cius) •
Fig. 5. Spathosternumprasiniferum (Walker) ; Fig. 6. Oxya intricata (Stal) ; Fig. 7. Oxya
velox (Fabricius) ; Fig. 8. Choroedocus robustus (Serville) ; Fig. 9. Eyprepocnemis alacris
(Serville); Fig. 10. Catantops pulchellus (Walker); Fig. 11. Cyrtacanthacris tatarica
(Linnaeus) , Fig. 12. Acrida exaltata (Walker) ; Fig. 13. Acrida gigantea (Herbst) *
Fig. 14. Ceracris nigricornis (Walker) ; Fig. 15. Phlaeoba infumata (Brunner).

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , K<?/. 79

and in Acrida turrita (Linnaeus) by Slifer (1939,
fig. 2).

14. Ceracris nigricornis Walker (fig. 14) —
Apical diverticulum short, apex truncated. Pre-
apical diverticulum long and broad, longer
than apical diverticulum.

Subfamily : Oedipodinae
16. Oedafeus abruptus (Thunberg) (fig. 16) —
Apical diverticulum absent, pre-apical diverti-
culum broad and much developed. The same
condition has been shown in the same species
by Katiyar (1956, fig. 3d).

In the following species the apical diverti-

Fig. 16. Oedaleus abruptus (Thunberg); Fig. 17. Aiolopus affinis (Bolivar) ; Fig. 18. Trilophidia cmnulata
(Thunberg); Fig. 19. Acrotylus humbertianus { Saussure); Fig. 20. Gastrimcirgus trcmsversus (Thunberg) ;
Fig. 21. Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus) ; Fig. 22. Dociostaurus decisus (Walker) ; Fig. 23. Dociostcturus

cipicalis (Walker).

15. Phlaeoba infumata Brunner (fig. 15) —
Apical diverticulum short and tubercle-like,
pre-apical diverticulum well developed and
sac-like. The same condition has been shown
in Phlaeoba infumata Brunner by Slifer (1939,
fig. 49) and in Phlaeoba panteli Bolivar by
Katiyar (1956, fig. lb).

culum short, not much developed ; pre-apical
diverticulum broad and sac-like.

Aiolopus affinis (Bolivar) (fig. 17) ;

Trilophidia annulata (Thunberg) (fig. 18) ;
Acrotylus humbertianus (Saussure) (fig. 19) ;
Gastrimargus transversus (Thunberg) (fig. 20) ;
Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus) (fig. 21) ;

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF SPERMATHECA

The same condition has been shown in
Aiolopus tamulus (Fabricius), A. thalassinus
(Fabricius) ; Acrotylus insubricus (Scop) ; Gastri-
margus africanus (Saussure) and Oedaleus
senegalensis (Krauss) by Slifer (1939), (figs.
7, 8, 63, 76 and 84).

/

Subfamily : Gomphocerinae

Apical diverticulum short, pre-apical diverti-
culum broad and sac-like in Dociostaurus

Refer

Dirsh, V. M. (1957): The spermatheca as a taxono-
mic character in Acridoidea (Orthoptera). Proc. R.
ent. Soc. Lond ., A ., 32 : 107-114.

Katiyar K. N. (1956) : On variation in the sperma-
thecae of some Indian grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acri-
didae). J. Zool. Soc. India., 8 : 35-42.

Slifer, E. H. (1939): The internal genitalia of female
Acridinae, Oedipodinae and Pauliniinae (Orthoptera :
Acrididae). /. Morph., 65 : 437-70.

— (1940a) : The internal genitalia of female

Thrinchinae, Batrachotetriginae, Pamphaginae and
Pyrgomorphinae (Orthoptera : Acrididae). ibid., 66 :
175-195.

— (1940b) : The internal genitalia of female

decisus (Walker), D. apicalis (Walker) (figs.
22, 23). In Dociostaurus anatolicus Krauss
apical diverticulum well developed (Slifer 1939,
fig. 23).

Acknowledgement

We are indebted to Prof. S. Mashhood Alam,
Head, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh for providing necessary
facilities.

BNCES

Ommexechinae and Cyrtacanthacridinae (Orthoptera :
Acrididae). ibid., 67 : 199-239.

(1940c) : Variations in the spermatheca of

two species of grasshoppers (Orthoptera : Acrididae).
Ent. News., 51 : 1-3

(1943) : The internal genitalia of some

previous unstudied species of female Acrididae(Orthop-
tera). /. Morph., 72 : 225-237.

Slifer, E. H. & King, R. L. (1936) : An internal
structure in the Cyrtacanthacridinae (Orthoptera :
Acrididae) of possible taxonomic value. /. N. Y.
ent. Soc. 44 : 345-348.

Uvarov, B. P. (1966) : Grasshoppers and Locusts.
University Press, Cambridge, 1 : 481 pp.

335

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY— 25

Muscigapidae

Humayun Abdulali

[Continued from Vol 79 (1) : 151]

This part deals with 636 specimens of 96
species and subspecies. The babblers do not
fly long distances and being restricted to re-
latively small and sometimes isolated habitats
have often broken up into distinct races which
may or may not indicate any reaction to the
environment.

The present study has resulted in the re-
validation of one subspecies and the descrip-
tion of another, and it is quite possible that
suitable series from different places may warrant
the recognition of more races.

The earlier part of the work was assisted
by Shri Selvaraj, Research Assistant at B.N.H.S.

1 1 52. Pellorneum r uficeps punctatum (Gould)

(Kalka, Bhagat, Simla) Western Spotted
Babbler 1:241

3 : 2 1 o ?

1 Kalka, 1 Bhagat State, 1 Simla.

This is a distinct but very restricted form.

Measurements on p. 352.

1153. Pellorneum ruficeps mandellii Blanford
(Sikkim) Mandelli’s or Sikkim Spotted Babbler

1:240

13 : 5 M 8

1 Kesarwala, 1 Dehra Dun, U.P.; 1 Dingla, 1 Bijaypur,
Nepal; 1 Kurseong 4700', 1 Pershoke 2600', Sikkim ;

1 Darjeeling, 1 Jalpaiguri, Bengal ; 2 Samehi, West,

2 Lodrai, Central, Bhutan ; 1* Phulguri, N. Kamrup,
Assam.

^'Specimen missing and subspecies undeter
mined.

Of the two from Dehra Dun f No. 25900 d/
17.7.74 is more olive-brown above and closer
to punctatum while the other £ 16043 agrees
with those listed as mandelli , several of which
show a varying amount of black tipping to
the feathers of the forehead.

Measurements on p. 352.

1154. Pellorneum ruficeps ruficeps Swainson
(Nilgiris) Spotted Babbler 1:238

37 : 18 4# 12 $$ 7o ?

1 Rajpipla Town, 1 Songarh, Navsari, 1 Malegaon,
1 Pipri, 1 Laochali, Surat Dangs, Gujarat; 1 Pili, Mel-
ghat, Berar ; 1 Borivili, 1 Andheri, Bombay ; 1 Khan-
dala, Pune: 1 Karwar, 1 Potoli, N. Kanara; 3 Molem,
Goa; 1 Mercara, Coorg; 1 Ulavi, Sorab, Mysore ;
1 Begur, Manantoddy, 1 Devon Nellacotta, Wynaad ;
1 Kurumbapatti, Salem; 4 Anantgiri, 2 Sankrametta,
1 Velaspara, near Sileru, 2 R. V. Nagar, Vizagapatam
Ghats; 1 Barsur, 1 Antagarh, 1 Darba, Bastar, 1
Bhanuprattapur, Kanker, C.P., 2 Badrama (Bamra) ,
1 Kudildka (Nilgiris), 2 Berbera, Puri, Orissa.

In the birds from Sankrametta and Anant-
giri the spots on the underparts are restricted
to a band across the upperbreast, while they
extend further down in the Nilgiri specimen
[H.R. Baker, Segoor 4000' Nilgiris, from British
Museum (N.H.)]

As indicated when describing pallidum
(JBNHS 79, p.153) suitable series from different

[435]

336

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 25

parts of the country may permit the description
of additional races. A series of topotypes is
also necessary to permit determination of its
range, particularly on the west and south*

Measurements on p. 352.

1154a Pellorneum ruficeps pallidum Abdulali
(Palkonda Hills) Eastern Ghats Spotted
Babbler

10 : 8 2 $$ ( No. 1259 from Palkonda

Hills is type)

2 Shevaroy Hills 3,500 and 4*000 2. Chitted Range

2000-3000' Salem dist., 6 Palkonda Hills, S. Cuddappah.

This subspecies occupies the area indicated
by the specimens listed and is bordered both
on the south and north by birds now accepted
as of the nominate race.1

Measurements on p. 352*

1155. Pellorneum ruficeps grand Harington
(Mynall, Travancore) Kerala Spotted Babbler

1:240

3 <$<$ (1* immature)

1 Parambicolam, Cochin ; 1 Thattakad, N. Travan-
core, 1* Maraiyur 3500' Travancore.

The bird from Maraiyur shows a redness
on the upperparts which may be the erythrism
referred to by Deignan.

In 1839 Jerdon described olivaceum from
Trichur, Wadakancheri and Manantoddy, and
as suggested by the name this was a ‘ dark
brownish olive above ’, but he was admittedly
not conversant with any other Pellorneum with
a rufous head and suspected that what he had
described might be the same as the original P.
ruficeps. In Birds of India (1863, 2, pt.l. p.27)
he placed it in the synonymy of ruficeps , and
here it remained and was not referred to by
Harington who described grand ‘ an altogether
much darker and richly coloured form ’ on the

1 British Museum (N.H.), Tring, sp. No. 1845, 1.10.21
marked ‘ Madras ’ is quite indistinguishable.

basis of a specimen from Mynall in the British
Museum and another from Travancore received
on loan from the Travancore Museum. In
1947, Deignan reviewing the races of this species
revived Jerdon’s olivaceum and restricted the
type locality to Trichur for ‘ though within a
stone’s throw of the Nilgiris ’ (the type locality
of ruficeps), it was furthest therefrom among
the three places mentioned by Jerdon. Stuart
Baker’s extension of grand to the Wynaad
and Malabar was discredited by Kinnear &
Whistler. Though there is little doubt that
there is a dark race in the extreme south-west
and Deignan was well aware of Jerdon’s decision
regarding olivaceum, it does appear curious
that he should have revived the name without
examination of any specimen of either this form
or grand.

When working on pallidum, the British
Museum (N.H.) sent me a specimen obtained
by H.R. Baker at Segoor 4000', Nilgiris. This
differed from those from the extreme south*
west in having a paler back with an olive wash.

Allowing for the effects of fading and the
variation in plumage over the rest of India in
specimens attributed to ruficeps * this agrees
with one from Begur, Manantoddy, Wynaad
(one of Jerdon’s type localities for olivaceum)
and others from Wynaad, Malabar, Mysore*
Coorg, Mercara, Goa, and further north along
the Western Ghats, though the colour of the
upperparts does become paler north of Bombay.
The freshest (1972) specimens from Goa have
their upperparts almost as dark as in grand
but with an olive tinge above and the spotting
restricted to the breast. In addition to the
general darkness of plumage, grand is more
heavily streaked in front and has no touch
of olive above.

It would, in my opinion, be better to leave
olivaceum as a synonym of ruficeps and accept
the name grand for the darker bird in the south-

7

337

[436]

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Veil. 79

West. The identity and distribution of this
species in the different hill ranges in the south-
west still requires a lot of clarification.*

Measurements on p. 353.

1156. Pellorneum ruficeps chamelum**
Deignan (Gunjong, Cachar) Assam Spotted
Babbler

6 : 3 3

1 North C., 1 Garumara (?), 1 Cachar ; 1 Cherra-
punji, 1 Lait Kaisen, Khasi Hills; 1 Rewa Tea Estate,
South Sylhet.

The rufous on the head is paler than in man -
delli and the upperparts more rufous in series,
being most pronounced in the bird from
Cherrapunji (1906)

Measurements on p. 353.

1157. Pellorneum ruficeps pectorale Godwin-
Austen (Sadiya, Assam)

2 Tezu, Lohit Valley, N.E. Assam.

In one of the two the black on the mantle
is more prominent than in any under mandelli .

Measurements on p. 353.

1158. Pellorneum ruficeps ripleyi** Deignan
(Margherita, Assam) Lakhimpur Spotted
Babbler

nil.

* After completion of this work, I had the opportu-
nity of examining the large number of specimens of
this species at the British Museum (Natural History)
at Tring which confirmed the general conclusions
referred to above. In the large series from Matheran
and Mahabaleshwar are 2 juveniles which resemble the
adults in the colour of the upper parts, but the spots on
the breast are replaced by sooty brown downy feathers
which form a band across the breast.

** In the second edition of the Synopsis, (1982) Ripley
has combined both chamelum and ripleyi with mandellii.

1159. Pellorneum ruficeps vocale Deignan
(Kanglatongbi, Manipur) Manipur Spotted
Babbler

nil.

EL. Pellorneum ruficeps stageri Deignan

[N’Pon Village (on left bank of Irrawaddy, 15
miles north of Myitkyina, Myitkyina Dist.,
Sagaing Division, Burma)]

2 o ? Kamaing, Myitkyina, Burma.

The underparts are heavily streaked on the
breast and at the sides.

Measurements on p. 353.

EL. Pellorneum ruficeps shanense Deignan
(Ma-li-pa, lat. 23° 41'N., long. 98° 46'E. Kokang
State, Burmese WA State)

5: 1 4 o ?

1 Laikaw, 1 N. Shan States ; 1 South Shan States
1 Loikaw , Kantarawadi, Karenni ; 1 Thaudaway Karen
Hills , 20 m north of Toungoo , Burma.

The dark centres to the feathers of uppermost
back obsolescent and almost absent in the last
specimen (No. 1286) which also differs in having
very fine streaks on the upper breast.

Measurements on p. 353.

EL. Pellorneum ruficeps hilarum Deignan
[Kyundaw (lat. 21° 01 'N., long. 94d 35'E.)
Pakokku Dist., Magwe Division, Burma]

1 Maymyo , Mandalay Dist .

Rufous of head, crown and nape paler ;
feathers of uppermost back have the dark
brown centres less distinct than in shanense .

This single specimen is named largely on the
basis of the distribution in Deignan’s paper.

Measurements on p. 353.

1437]

338

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 25

EL. Pellorneum ruficeps minus Hume (Tha-
yetmyo, Thayetmyo Dist., Magwe Division,
Burma) 1 : 242

4:1^3$$

1 Kyuzin , Arakan Yomas; 1 Panktaing, 1 Kanaza ,
Henzada Dist., 1 Ngapali, Sandoway Dist., Burma.

There is some variation in the colour of the
upperparts but they were all placed with minor
(minus) by Ticehurst, JBNHS 37 p. 863.
The uppermost back is marked and the breast
very sparsely and finely streaked.

Measurements on p. 353.

EL. Pellorneum ruficeps subochraceum Swin-
hoe (Tenasserim provinces, restricted to
Moulmein, Amherst Dist. by Deignan) Malay
Spotted Babbler 1 :239

2: 1* 1$

1 Rangoon, 1 Ataran.

The uppermost backs are unmarked as in
Indian ruficeps and granti.

Measurements on p. 353.

EL. Pellorneum ruficeps insularum Deignan
(Domel Island, lat. 11° 37'N., long. 98° 16'E.,
Mergui Archipelago, Mergui Dist., Tenasserim
Div., Burma)

1 o?

Mergui, Tenasserim.

A poor skin but very rufous all over.

Measurements on p. 353.

The Burmese specimens have all been marked
mandelli/minor by earlier workers prior to
Deignan’s revision.

1160. Pellorneum palustre Gould (Cachar,
Assam) Marsh Spotted Babbler 1 :242

2:1cm?

1 Hassemara, 1 Gagaldhubir, North Lakhimpur,
Assam, £ Wing 64, 62 (62-68) ; bill 14.5, 14 (c. 15) ;
tail 66, 63 (64-69)

The two specimens look very different from
the picture in ind. handbook (PI. 70 facing
p. 176 in vol. 6).

1161. Pellorneum fuscocapillum fuscocapillum

(Blyth) (Colombo, Ceylon) Browncapped
Babbler 1 :245

See under 1163.

1162. Pellorneum fuscocapillum babaulti

(Wells) (Trincomalee, Ceylon) Pale Brown-
capped Babbler 1 :245

See under 1163*

1163. Pellorneum fuscocapillum scortillum
(Ripley) (Rakwana, Ceylon) Dusky Brown-
capped Babbler

2 : 1 2 1 o?

1 Walgama > 1 Passava, Ceylon.

In the absence of additional material it is
not possible to say if these are darker or paler,
but if the first place is read 4 Weligama ’ which
is at the southern tip of the island, it would
distributionally appear to be scortillum as is
confirmed by some of the colour factors. The
other has a darker bill and a deeper chestnut
on the upper breast. v

? o? Wing 65, 70 ; bill 16.5, 15.5 ; tail 54,58.

1164. Pellorneum albiventre albiventre (God-

win-Austen) (Manipur Valley) Assam Brown
Babbler 1 :243(part)

4: 2 .Ml? lo?

2 Margherita, Assam ; 1 Gunjong, N. Cachar ; i
Chin Hills, Burma.

Measurements on p. 353;

1165. Pellorneum albiventre sgnotum Hum£
(Sadiya, N.E. Assam) Mishmi Brown Babbler

1:243

2 Tezu, Lohit Valley, Upper Assam.

339

[438]

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , K?/. 79

The one unbroken bill is much heavier than
in those in 1164 above and the colour much
deeper though this may partly be due to fading
in the nominate birds which were collected in
the early part of the century. See note on
variations in species (Ripley & Hall, Ibis 1954
pp. 486/7).

Measurements on p. 353.

1166. Trichastoma tickelli assamensis
(Sharpe) (Dhollah, Assam) TickelFs Babbler

1:248

ll: 5^6 «

1 Dibrugarh, 8 Margherita, 1 Rewa Tea Estate,
S. Sylhet ; 1 Gunjong, N. Cachar, Assam.

Measurements on p. 353.

1167. Trichastoma abbotti abbotti (Blyth)
(Ramree I., Arakan) Abbotts’ Babbler

1:260

13 : 10^2$? 1 o?

1 Sukna, Darjeeling; 1 Lodrai, Central Bhutan ; 3
Goma Reserve, Goalpara, 1 Doyang, 1 Dibrugarh,
1 Rewa Tea Estate, S. Sylhet ; 1 Gawkhand, 2 Cachar,
Assam ; 2 Lankapakala, nr. R. V. Nagar, Vizag. Dist.,
A.P.

The recent specimens from Lodrai (1967)
and Doyang (1952) and two males from
Lankapakola show more olive-green and less
rufous on the upperparts. Checklist vol. X (1964)
p. 255 accepts Koelz’s amabilis from Nichuguard,
Naga Hills, Assam.

Two males from Lankapakala, Vizagapatam
Ghats, obtained by Salim Ali on 2nd and 3rd
March 1981 show more olive-green and
are slightly larger than the northern
birds (wings 79, 80, tail 51, 53). The bills are
also darker. Comparison with fresh specimens
from the north and east may warrant separation.
They add appreciably to the recorded distribu-
tion of the species.

Measurements on p. 353.

1168. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii* leucogaster

Gould (Himalayas = Simla) West Himalayan
Slatyheaded Scimitar Babbler 1 : 208

7:6^1?

4 Kalka 2500-3000', 1 Bhagat State, Ambala Dist.,
1 Simla Hills, 1 Bhimtal, Kumaon.

See remarks under 1169.

Measurements on p. 354.

1169. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii schisticeps

Hodgson (Nepal) East Himalayan Scimitar
Babbler 1:207

9:8^1o?

2 Bhutan Duars ; 1 Pashoke, 1 Singhtam, Teesta
Valley, Sikkim ; 1 Mangdechu, C. Bhutan, 1 Balasun,
Darjeeling, 1 Laisung 1 Hungrum, North Cachar, 1
Cachar.

In Indian handbook (6:129) the key to sub
species requires that this race should have a
wing over 100 mm, and leucogaster under 100.
Only two of the specimens available have a
wing slightly over 100 mm and though schisticeps
average a shade larger within the limit, I cannot
separate them by their measurements. Leuco-
gaster have a rufous wash on the upperparts
while schisticeps are olive-green and have a
more distinct cap. In schisticeps the bill is
higher and creates a more curved effect.

The specimen from Bhimtal, Kumaon, agrees
more closely with leucogaster though the distri-
bution accepted in ind. handbook would make
it schisticeps. The three from Cachar have
been named by Dr. Ripley to whom they were
send for opinion as they appeared to agree
more closely with mearsi Ogilvi-Grant
(Taungdwin, Chaung lat. 22°52'N., long.
94°20'E, (Lower Chindwin) as in Stuart
Baker’s Fauna .

Measurements on p. 354.

* The specific name has been changed from
schisticeps in synopsis (1982)

[439]

340

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 25

1170. Pomatorhimis horsfieldii salimalii

Ripley (Tezu, Mishmi Hills, N.E. Assam)

1 g Sadiya, Upper Assam.

The single specimen has a broad band of
rufous round the neck, but the ear-coverts do
not appear noticeably darker than in those
under schisticeps.

Measurements on p. 354.

1171. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii cryptanthus

Hartert (Margherita) Lakhimpur Slatyheaded
Scimitar Babbler 1 :207

2 : 1 $ 1 £ Dibrugarh, Assam.

The pair from Dibrugarh is a rich rufous all
over the upperparts.

Measurements on p. 354.

1172. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii ohscurus

Hume (Mount Aboo) Mt. Abu Scimitar
Babbler 1:211

3 o ? Mount Aboo.

The upperparts are greyer than in horsfieldii
though the variation in the latter makes some
of them not very different.

Measurements on p. 354.

1173. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii horsfieldii

Sykes (Mahabaleshwar, Western Ghats) Indian
Scimitar Babbler 1:210

31 : 15 ££ (2 juv. 1 imm.) 16 (1 juv. 2 imm.)

1 Songadh, Navsari, 1 Lavcholi, 2 Mahal, 1 Waghai,
Surat Dangs, Gujarat; 1 Chikalda, 1 Pili, Melghat,
Berar ; 1 Bhimashankar, 1 Khandala, Pune; 1 Thane
Hills, 1 Malad, 1 Borivli, Salsette, Bombay ; 1 Castle
Rock, 1 N. Kanara ; 1 Talewadi, Belgaum ;

1 Mercara, Coorg ; 1 Sakleshpur, Hassan, 2 Billaiji,
Billigirirangan Hills, Mysore ; 2 Sankrametta,

1 Anantgiri, Vizagapatam Hills, 5 Bailadilla, Baster,
M. C. ; 1 Berberi, Puri, 2 Mahendragiri, 1 Rasul,
H&ndol, Orissa,

In most specimens the head is darker than
the back forming a varyingly distinct cap, which
is never black as in travancoreensis . The two
from the Billigirirangan Hills can be included
with the latter but are left here in deference to
Whistler’s opinion.

The 3 juveniles from Mahal, Surat Dangs (2)
and Kamela, Bailadilla, Bastar, have rufous
ear-coverts, rufous on the sides of the white
plastron and a wash on the upperparts. The
black tips to the white feathers of the lower
throat referred to in Indian handbook are
not visible. Three more from Bailadilla listed
as ‘ immature ’ indicate a later plumage in
which the underparts are as in adults, but there
is a rufous wash above. These plumages
resemble those of the adult slaty-headed races
from the north and east and a comparative
study of the juveniles of the several races des-
cribed would be of great interest.

Measurements on p. 354.

1174. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii travancoreensis

Harington (Peermade, Travancore) Kerala
Scimitar Babbler 1 :21 1

17: 9^6$$ 2 o ?

1 Bandipur, Mysore; 1 Coonoor, Nilgiris; 1 Thek-
kaddy, Periyar Lake ; 1 Munnar, 1 Maraiyur, 3 Devi-
colum, High Range, N. Travancore: 4 Shembaganur,
2 Kodaikanal, 1 Palni Ghat ; 1 Balamore, Ashambu
Hills, S. Travancore; 1 High Wavy Mountains, Madura.

The darkness of the head created by the black
tips to the feathers varies to some extent but
is the best character for separating them from
horsfieldii.

Measurements on p. 354.

1 175. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii maderaspaten-

sis Whistler (Kurumbapatti, Salem dist.,
Madras) Tamil Nadu Scimitar Babbler

5:3^1?lo?

341

[440]

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

2 Kurumbapatti (topotypes), 1 Chitteri Range,
Salem dist. ; 1 Shevaroy Hills, S. Cuddappah,

1 Palkonda Hills, Chitoor, Tamil Nadu.

This race is said to lack the black edging to
the white plastron, but in the specimens available
this does not appear to be a very distinct charac-
ter for separation from the widely-ranged
horsfieldii.

Measurements on p. 354.

1176. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii holdsworthi

Whistler (Chiya, Ceylon)

See below.

1177. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii melanurus

Blyth [Uragaha (restricted by Whistler)
Ceylon] 1:212

5:3^2$$

2 Hakgalla, 1 Ratnapura, 1 Kandy, 1 Kudava, Sinha-
raja, Ceylon.

From the literature available Nos. 2977
and 2976 £ both from Hakgalla can be listed
as of the two races said to occur in Ceylon, the
male being holdsworthi with an olive brown back,
and the female like all the others with rufous
backs. Only one 25754) from Kudava has a
black tail (melanurus ?) . In Peters’ checklist
(1964, X5 p. 270) the race holdsworthi is not
accepted, a fact with which Ripley has now
agreed (in epist).

Measurements on p. 354.

EL. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii nuchalis Tweed-
dale (Thayetmyo, Burma) Tweeddale’s Scimitar
Babbler 1 :208

lc? May my o (?), Burma.

Wing 85, bill 25, tail 82.

The ear-coverts are olive-grey like the top
of the head.

EL. Pomatorhinus olivaceus olivaceus Blyth
(Ye, Amherst dist., Tenasserim) Tenasserim
Scimitar Babbler 1:209

1 £ Zamni River , Ataran, Tenasserim , Burma.

Nominate olivaceus is said to be more rufous-
brown above than ripponi , but one from the
type locality of ripponi, i.e. N. Shan States is
more rufous above ! The single specimen of
olivaceus has its bill longer than in those of the
next race. Both olivaceus and ripponi are listed
as races of schisticeps in Peters’ checklist.

Measurements on p. 354.

EL. Pomatorhinus olivaceus ripponi Haring-
ton (N. Shan States) Harington’s Scimitar
Babbler 1:210

5 : 1 J 1 $ 3 o?

1 Loi Kan , N, Shan States ; 1 Sintaung, 12 miles from
Taunggyi, S. Shan States , 1 Maymyo; 2 col. by J.P
Cook but no data.

One of the two without data is albinoid, the
coloured parts being replaced by pale grey.
The single specimen from the N. Shan States is
more rufous than the specimen from the type
locality of nominate olivaceus q.v., but the
others are greyish olive rather than rufous-
brown above.

Measurements on p. 354.

1178. Pomatorhinus ruficollis ruficollis Hodg-
son (Nepal, restricted to Khatmandu Valley)
Rufousnecked Scimitar Babbler 1:216

3 <$<$

1 Mandal, Chamoli, Garhwal ; 1 Godaveri, Nepal;
1 Tongloo, Darjeeling dist.

The bird from Garhwal may be said to be
olive-brown above, but all three differ from
balceri in having more prominent rufous collars
on the hind neck. The underparts are also
more brown and more distinctly streaked on the

[441]

342

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 25

upper breast than baked , and the hind claw
and tarsus appreciably shorter than in all the
others except the single specimen from Mt.
Victoria, Burma.

Measurements on p. 355.

1179. Pomatorhinus ruficollis godwini
Kinnear (Chungkar, Trashigong, Duwengiri
Road, S.E. Bhutan).

The specimens available from Sikkim and
Bhutan fall into 2 groups (a) from Sikkim and
Western Bhutan with a bright rufous collar,
the rufous spreading on to the back which is
also washed with rufous and (b) from eastern
Bhutan (presumably from nearer the type
locality) which are a deeper olive, less rufous
above, and have the white of the upper breast
more broadly marked with brownish streaks.
The western birds also have their hind claw
and tarsus slightly smaller though not so small
as in nominate ruficollis. Curiously, only the
brighter birds are marked godwini by Salim Ali
and Indian handbook refers to the race as
the Sikkim Rufousnecked Scimitar Babbler.
In view of my inability to map the various
places mentioned in Bhutan I am leaving the
two apparent forms found in this area together
under godwini and leaving it to some future
worker to disentangle the problem :

(a) 6: 4 <?<? 2 $

1 Temi, 1 Kewzing-Temi, West, 1 Rinchingpong,
Sikkim ; 1 China Kothi, 1 Chapcha, West Bhutan ; 1
Bomdila, A.P.

C b ) 10 : 5 dS 5 $$

2 Gedu, Western Bhutan ; 2 Shamgong, Central
Bhutan ; 4 Wamrong, 1 Narphong, 1 Rongtong, Eastern
Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 355.

1180. Pomatorhinus ruficollis bakeri Haring-
ton (Shillong) Harington’s Rufousnecked
Scimitar Babbler 1:217

3 Shillong, Assam.

The underparts are a paler brown with in-
distinct streaking, and altogether less rufous
than others from the west.

The hind claw is also the smallest.

Measurements on p. 355.

EL. Pomatorhinus ruficollis subsp.

1 o ? Mt. Victoria , Burma.

This (May 1906) is rufous above and below,
much smaller than the others and has the rufous
collar indistinct. Though Indian handbook
(6:140) refers to bakeri' s occurrence mostly
between 2000 and 3000 metres on Mt. Victoria,
this appears quite different in colour and size
from those under 1180.

Measurements on p. 355.

1181. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys erythro-
genys Vigors (Simla- Almora area) West

Himalayan Rustycheeked Scimitar Babbler

1:220

20: 8^7?? (1 juv.) 5 o ?

1 Koroar, Kishtwar, Kashmir; 2 Taradevi, 1 Patiala ;

1 Kalka, 7 Simla; 3 Mornaula, 1 Kumaon ; 1 Kemol,
7 m. north of, 1 Mussoori, 2 Kanan Jaunsar, U.P.

The juvenile is washed with rufous above,
more so on the head, and is paler rufous below
with a small white chin patch. One from
Kumaon (No. 1 140) has the chin faintly spotted.

Measurements on p. 355.

1183. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys haringtoni

Baker (Darjeeling) Sikkim Rustycheeked
Scimitar Babbler 1 :220

20: 14<&J 5?? lo?

1 Godaveri, 1 Bouzami, 1 Khatmandu, Nepal; 2
Rinchinpong, West, 1 Ranjeet Valley, 2 Pashok Tea
Estate, Sikkim; 1 Somchi, West, 5 Tama, Central, 1
Deothang, 2 Rongtong, East, 1 Khosela, Bhutan,

1 Kurseong, 1 Longview Tea Estate, Darjeeling.

343

[442]

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fu/. 79

All three birds from Nepal have pale spots
on the throat (tending towards haringtoni in
which the spots are much darker) and making
the whole throat grey. If Hodgson’s descrip-
tion of ferrugilatus from Nepal applied to these
birds, would it be reasonable to discard the
name as it applied to an intermediate form and
then synonymise it with the form with a pure
white throat (nominate erythrogenys ), as is
now done?

Measurements on p. 3 55.

1184. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys mcclellandi

Godwin-Austen (Khasia Hills) Assam Rusty-
cheeked Scimitar Babbler 1:221

6: lc?3$?2o?

3 Shillong, Khasi Hills, 2 Sadiya, n.e. Assam ; 1
Chin Hills , Burma.

Measurements on p. 355.

EL. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys odicus Bangs
& Phillips (Mengtsz, Yunnan)

2 o ? North Shan State , Burma .

The black markings on the throat separate
it from other Indian & Burmese races. They
were identified by Drs. Salim Ali & Dillon
Ripley.

Measurements on p. 355.

1185. Pomatorhinus hypoleucos hypoleucos
(Blyth) (Arakan) Large Scimitar Babbler

1:222

2 : l^lo? Rupachena, Cachar, Bangladesh.

Measurements on p. 355.

1186. Pomatorhinus ferruginosus ferruginosus

Blyth (Darjeeling) Sikkim Coralbilled Scimitar
Babbler 1:213

3:1^2?$

1 Tama, Central Bhutan ; 2 hills around Benichuga,
3500', Upper Assam.

Measurements on p. 356.

[443]

1187. Pomatorhinus ferruginosus formosus

Koelz (Tura Mountain, Garo Hills) Assam
Coralbilled Scimitar Babbler

2:1<J1?

1 Guilong, 1 Hungrum, N Cachar.

They have a thin black line over the super-
cilium, the bills are longer than in phayrei, and
the underparts a richer rufous, though the cT
is darker than the female. There must how-
ever be considerable variation in colour for
Stuart Baker {JBNHS 8:178) refers to nests
of ferruginosus and phayrei both being found
at the same place in North Cachar on the same
day (as also nests of Pomatorhinus erythrogenys
and mcclellandi !).

Measurements on p. 356.

1188. Pomatorhinus ferruginosus phayrei

Blyth (Arracan) Mizo Coralbilled Scimitar
Babbler 1:214

2 : 1 $ 1 o?

1 Mokichang, Naga Hills ; 1 Chin Hills , Burma.

Both have the underparts slightly paler than
in the two marked formosus. None of the
four {formosus and phayrei) have a distinct
cap on the head. The bird from the Chin
Hills is within the accepted range of this race,
while the bird from the Naga Hills should
according to Indian handbook (6, p. 146) and
Ripley ( JBNHS 77 p. 3) be formosus. The
present material however is more in keeping
with Koelz’s statement when describing for-
mosus that those from the Naga and Lushai
(Mizo) Hills are similar to phayrei.

Measurements on p. 356.

1188a. Pomotorhinus ferruginosus namdapha
Ripley (Bhimraj Camp. 40 m east of Miao,
Noa Dihing Road, 27° 4Q'N., 97°E. approx.,

Arunachal Pradesh)

Sf

3 : 2 3$ 1 ? paratypes

344

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 25

The underparts of this newly-described race
are much paler than in any of the other races
dealt with, and there is a black line over the
white supercilium meeting on the forehead.

Measurements on p. 356.

1189. Pomatorhinus ochraceiceps stenor-
hynchus Godwin-Austen (near Sadiya, Assam)
Mishmi Longbilled Scimitar Babbler

1:219

2 cJ(J Dening Valley, N. E. Assam.

Measurements on p. 356.

1190. Pomatorhinus ochraceiceps austeni
Hume (E. Manipur) Hume’s Scimitar Babbler

1:218

1 ? Mokichang, Naga Hills.

Slightly washed with rufous on underparts.

Measurements on p. 356.

EL. Pomatorhinus ochraceiceps ochraceiceps
Walden (Shan States) 2:217

1 $ Yangte , North Shan States , Burma.

The rufous on the head merges into that of
the back.

Measurements on p. 356.

1191. Xiphirhynchus superciliaris superciliaris

Blyth (Darjeeling) Slenderbilled Scimitar
Babbler 1 :224

6 : 3 <?<j 3 o ?

1 Gedu, 3 Honka, West, 1 Narphong, East, Bhutan ;
1 no data.

Sp. No. 20787 with no data has the head
and chin different from the others, but it does not
agree with the description of X. s. intextus
Ripley.

Measurements on p. 356.

1192. Xiphyrhynchus superciliaris intextus
Ripley (Dreyi, Mishmi Hills, N.E. Assam)
Assam Slenderbilled Scimitar Babbler

nil.

1193. Rimator malacoptilus malacoptilus
Blyth (Darjeeling) Longbilled Wren-Babbler

1:251

3 gg Honka, W. Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 356.

1194. Napothera brevicauda striata (Blyth)
(Khasia Hills) Streaked Wren-Babbler.

1 : 251

2 : 1<? 1 ?

2 Margherita, Upper Assam.

In spite of the specific name, the tail is longer
than in the next species.

Measurements on p. 356.

1195. Napothera epilepidota roberti (Godwin-

Austen & Walden) (Chakha, Manipur) Austen’s
Small Wren-Babbler 1:253

nil.

1196. Napothera epilepidota guttaticollis

(Ogilvie-Grant) (Miri Hills, Assam) Grant’s
Wren-Babbler 1:254

2 $$ (1 fledgling), Margherita, Assam

The fledgling, downy and rufous all over
(with a deeper cap) was obtained by Coltart
and marked Corythocichla squamata as also
the adult, both within a week in April 1902.
Squamata was described by Stuart Baker in
JBNHS 13 p. 403 from Cachar and in the next
volume p. 626, hesynonymised it with Napothera
(< epilepidota ) roberti which name is marked on
the fledgling by a subsequent worker too.
However squamata was described from Cachar,
and if the specific identification is correct the
name should be N. e. guttaticollis for Margherita
is in the accepted range of this form and not
roberti. The adult also has a reddish cap.
The identifications have been confirmed by
Dr. Ripley.

Measurements on p. 356.

345

[444]

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Eb/. 79

1197. Pnoepyga albiventer pallidior Kinnear
(Dharmsala, Punjab) Western Scaly breasted
Wren-Babbler

7 : 5 $$ (3 white) 1 ? 1 o ?

1 Bhagat State 3500', 1 Koti State 8300', 1 Keonthal
State 8500', 1 Patiala State 5000', 3 Simla.

The three white birds, Simla (2) and Bhagat
State are all males. Oates and Stuart Baker
both held that the males were white and the
females fulvous below, but Indian handbook
refers to these differences as dimorphic. I
have been unable to find any information as
to whether both forms are found in the same
flock or not. The upperparts of these birds
are a duller brown than in the nominate race,
but these are all older and this may be due to
fading.

Measurements on p. 356.

1198. Pnoepyga albi venter albiventer

(Hodgson) (Nepal, restricted to Chandragiri,
above Thankot in Nepal Valley) Eastern
Scalybellied Wren-Babbler 1 :458

16 : 9 $$ (2 white) 3 $$ (2 white, 1 juvenile, brown)
4 o ? (2 white)

1 Moyan Village, Nepal; 2 Chungthang, N. Sikkim;

1 Darjeeling ; 1 Tongloo ; 2 Monha, 2 Gedu, 2 Chima-
kothi, 1 Phuntshaling, West B# 1 Shangong,
Central B. ; - 1 Wamrong, 2 Gornchu, Eastern
Bhutan.

INDIAN HANDBOOK 6 p. 157 refers to each
feather on the underparts being white (or
fulvous) with a dark centre and 6 a narrow
dark margin producing a very scaly effect \
The scaly effect is certainly there but the margin
is white and not dark. Here also only one
white bird (1959) skinned by Gobind Bahadur
(?) is a female. $ Specimen No. 2146 a juvenile
in brown plumage from Darjeeling was sent
to Dr. Ripley and he writes that as it does not
agree with the published descriptions it should

[445]

be recorded that the specimen is quite clearly
marked with narrow pale lines on the centre of
the feathers of the breast giving a striated
appearance and pale spots in the centre of the
feathers of the abdomen and belly with dark
margins giving a scalloped appearance which
is distinct from the uniform brown in the earlier
published descriptions.

Measurements on p. 357.

1199. Pnoepyga pusilla pusilla Hodgson

(Nepal) Brown Wren-Babbler 1 :459

20: 12&?4?$4o?

5 Dikchu, Gangtok, Sikkim; 1 Buxa, 2 Hasimara,
Bhutan Duars; 2 Gedu, 1 Samchi, West B. ; 5 Shaj-
gong, Central Bhutan; 3 Margherita, 1 Laisong, N.
Cachar Hills, Assam.

This, like the last, is another extraordinary
species with a white and a rufous phase. Of
the 7 white birds, 6 are males. The most
consistent difference between this species and
albiventer is that of the size of the wing and
tarsus which are exclusive. Both species have
been obtained at Gedu, West Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 357.

1200. Spelaeornis caudatus (Blyth) (Darjee-
ling) Tailed Wren-Babbler 1 :456

2 $$ 1 Honka, West, 1 Shamgong. Central Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 357.

1201. Spelaeornis badeigularis Ripley (Drey i,
Mishmi Hills, N.E. Assam) Mishmi Wren-
Babbler

nil.

1202. Spelaeornis longicaudatus (Moore)
(Khasi Hills, Assam) Longtailed Wren-Babbler

1:452

nil.

1203. Spelaeornis chocolatinus chocolatinus

(Godwin- Austen & Walden) (Hangrum,
N. Cachar) 1 :45Q & 453

nil.

346

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 25

1 204. Spelaeornis chocolatinus oatesi (Rippon)

(Mt. Victoria) Chin Hills Longtailed Wren-
Babbler 1 :455

nil.

1205. Spelaeornis troglodytoides sherriffi Kin-
near (Dongna La between Lingtse and Trashi
Yangtsi, East Bhutan 10,500') Spotted Long-
tailed Wren-Babbler

nil.

1206. Spelaeornis formosus (Walden) (Darjee-
ling) Spotted Short-tailed Wren-Babbler 1 :449

1 S Honka, W. Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 357.

1207. Sphenocichla humei humei (Mandelli)
(Sikkim) Sikkim Wedgebilled Wren 1:461

nil.

1208. Sphenocichla humei roberti Godwin-

Austen & Walden (Hemes Peak, North Cachar
hills) 1:461

nil.

1209/10. Stachyris ruficeps & S. rufifrons

The identification of 22 specimens of the
two species accepted as Stachyris ruficeps Blyth
and S. rufifrons ambigua Harington has re-
vealed more ambiguities than in any others
which I can recall.

Blyth’s original description of ruficeps (1847)
from Darjeeling as well as Hume’s rufifrons
from Pegu (1873) referred to birds with white
chin and throat and made no reference to yellow
anywhere in the plumage. Hume when des-
cribing rufifrons said it was slightly smaller,
had the rufous of the head duller and not ex-
tending to the occiput, the upper surface want-
ing the greenish olive tinge and the lower
surface wanting the oil yellow tinge of ruficeps.

Blanford’s Fauna (1898) referred to a yellow
chin, fulvous yellow lores and whitish or dull
oil yellow underparts in ruficeps. For rufifrons
it required a white chin and throat, a more
restricted rufous cap on the head and 4 otherwise
mostly as in ruficeps ’.

In 1914, Harington dealing with the Indian
Timalidae, upset some of the earlier descriptions
and named S. rufifrons ambigua from Cachar
as with a whitish chin and throat, not contrast-
ing with the lower plumage and with yellow
lores. Of the new race, the underparts were
said to be pale fulvous and not a rich tawny
buff.

Stuart Baker in the second edition of the
Fauna (1922) left ruficeps with a pale yellow
chin and bright yellow lores and said that
in ambigua the chin was whitish and the lores
yellow. In recent years there has been
more confusion and a footnote in Indian
handbook (6, p. 170) states the birds from the
Mishmi Hills named rufifrons by Ripley were
actually ruficeps , and in Synopsis (1982 footnote
to p. 334) he (Ripley) describes a new subspecies
named by Koelz by comparison with two
different species !

It is evident that there is considerable con-
fusion, and the best I have been able to do is
to divide them into 2 provisional groups.

1209. Stachyris rufifrons ambigua Harington
(Gunjong, N. Cachar) Red-fronted Babbler

1:270

13: 8<a?4$$lo?

1 Peshoke, 2,600', Sikkim : 1 Deothang, E. Bhutan ;
1 Dibrugarh, 1 Sadiya, 3 Margherita, Assam ; 1 N.

Cachar; 1 Chakola, Simlipal Hills, Mayur-

bhang, 1 Mahendragiri, Orissa ; 1 R. V. Nagar,
2 Sankrametta, Vizagapatam Hills, Andhra Pradesh.

The birds from Assam and peninsular India
in Orissa and the Eastern Ghats can immediately

347

[446]

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

be distinguished by the white chin, pale brown
upper and tawny underparts and the absence
of any yellow on the chin and lores. Mr. Colin
Harrison of the British Museum to whom a
draft copy of this note was sent has drawn
attention to the fairly distinct transverse zone
of warm ochraceous buff across the upper
breast present in the material at the British
Museum. This certainly separates all of them
from ruficeps. They also agree with Hume’s
description of rufifrons from Pegu, but in the
absence of any topotype this is admittedly
insufficient and needs comparison with birds
from Burma.

Measurements on p. 357.

1210. Stachyris ruficeps ruficeps Blyth
(Darjeeling) Redheaded Babbler 1 ;268

9:3^2?$4o?

1 Gedu, West, 1 Shamgong, 2 Batase, Central, 2
Gomchu, IRongtong, EastBhutan; 1 Darjeeling, Bengal;
1 Bomdila, Arunachal Pradesh.

The bird from Darjeeling is badly foxed
and is placed here on the basis of the name
placed thereon many years ago. The others
have whitish chins & throats streaked with
black, oily yellow underparts, an olive wash
above and distinctly yellow below. The bird
from Gedu is marked S. rufifrons ambigua by
B. Biswas and the others have also been accepted
as of this form. The rufous on the head is
in series more extensive than in the 1209 above.
They agree more closely with the original
description of ruficeps , and lack the brownish
band across the breast. If this radical correc-
tion is not made, we would have no specimens
of this species in our collection.

There is some variation in the colour of the
underparts but without more representative
series from different places it is not possible
to gauge their significance.

Measurements on p. 357,

1211. Stachyris pyrrhops Blyth (Nepal)

Black-chinned Babbler 1:271

11 : 2(?c?5??4o?

2 Koti, 1 Bhagat, 1 Kalka, 1 Simla, 1 Simla Hills;
1 Dhanaulti, Mussoorie, 1 Bageshwar, 1 Almora,
1 Kumaon, U.P.; 1 Bans Bahari, Nepal.

Measurements on p. 358.

1212. Stachyris chrysaea chrysaea Blyth

(Nepal) Golden -headed Babbler 1 :265

(a) 3 : 2<ftJ 1 o?

1 Gedu, 1 Honka, West, 1 Tama, Central Bhutan.

(b) 5: lc?4$?

4 Miao, 1 Deban, Tirap div., Arunachal Pradesh.

The birds from Miao (1979) are much brighter
yellow below than those under (a) the brighter
gold marking on the head forming an eye-stripe,
while the yellow wash above is more distinct.
A $ obtained in January 1982 at Deban is
the brightest and it is evident that the intensity
of colour diminishes rapidly in a few years.

Measurements on p. 358.

1213. Stachyris chrysaea binghami Rippon

(Mount Victoria, lat. 21° 15 'N., long. 93° 55'E.,
Upper Burma) 1 :266

3: 2^1?

1 Ratane, Dibong Valley, Mishmi Hills, 2 Margherita,
Assam.

The upperparts are greyish olive and the
underparts with a very pale yellowish wash.
Ear coverts slaty green.

Measurements on p. 358.

1214. Stachyris nigriceps nigriceps Blyth

(Nepal) Black-throated Babbler 1 :264

13 : 6<J<? 3??4o?

1 Pashok T. E. ; 1 Dikchu-Gangtok, Sikkim ; 1
Samchi, 1 Phuntshpling West, 2 Mangdechu, 1 Sham-

[447]

348

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— IS

gong, 1 Lodrai, Central, Bhutan ; 1 Hornbill Camp,

2 Miao, Tirap ; 1 Kolaktong, Arunachal Pradesh ; 1 ?
(E. C. S. Baker)

Ripley has withdrawn his race coei (Dreyi,
Mishmi Hills) and this facilitates grouping.

Measurements on p. 358.

1217. Stachyris nigriceps coltarti Harington

(Margherita, Assam) Nagaland Black-throated
Babbler 1 :265

8: 3<J<?4 $?lo?

1 Ratane, Dibong Valley, Mishmi Hills, 1 Sadiya,

3 Margherita, 1 Laikensew, Khasi Hills ; 1 Dalu,
1 Kamaing , Upper Burma.

These have a uniformly black chin and darker
underparts than the nominate form. Ripley
has synonymised his race spadix (Laisung,
N. Cachar) with this form.

Measurements on p. 358.

1218. Stachyris oglei (Godwin-Austen)
(Sadiya, Assam) Austen’s Spotted Babbler

1:262

4 : 1 <£ 3

2 Miao, 1 Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh; 1 Margherita,
Assam.

Measurements on p. 358.

1219. Dumetia hyperythra abuensis Haring-

ton (Mount Abu) Mt. Abu White-throated
Babbler 1 :230

5 : 4(J<J 1 $

2 Vaghjipur, Mehsana Dist., 1 Cambay City Environs,

1 Dabka, Baroda, 1 Pandwa, Surat Dangs, Gujerat.

See remarks under 1220.

Measurements on p. 358.

1220. Dumetia hyperythra navarroi Abdul ali
(Khandala) Whitethroated Babbler

17 : 13<J<J 2?$2o?

2 Padgha, Bhiwandi, Thana ; 1 Goregaon, 1 Ratory,
Malad, 1 Chembur, 1 Trombay, Salsette, Bombay ;
1 Murud, Kalyan ; 2 Kihim, Alibag, Kolaba ; 5
Khandala, 1 Lonavla, Poona ; 2 Ratnagiri.

Navarroi was described on the basis of speci-
mens from Khandala, Salsette (Bombay), Pad-
gha (Thane) and Kihim (Kulabe District).
Though accepted in Ripley’s Synopsis (1951)
it was synonymised with abuensis in Indian
handbook (1971, 6 p. 178) with no word of
explanation. A re-examination of the material
available reveals that among the whitethroated
forms, abuensis can be separated from navarroi
by the bright chestnut on the forehead extend-
ing beyond the crown and in which every
feather has a pale centre bordered with rufous
creating a shiny and bristly appearance. They
all have pale yellow bills.

South of this is navarroi (type Khandala)
with the heads a deeper brown and the bills
darker. The feathers on the head do not
show the shiny centres. In addition to the
colour differences, this race is slightly smaller
than both abuensis to the north and atbogularis
to the south.

Further south the brown on the head again
becomes chestnut but this is restricted to the
forehead and does not extend as far as the crown.
Their bills are paler, though not as yellow as
in abuensis .

Under the circumstances, it seems advisable
to retain three races along the western side of
the country.

The two from Padgha (Nos. 20107 and 21877),
Thane are intermediate with abuensis while
those from Ratnagiri approach atbogularis.

Measurements on p. 358.

1221. Dumetia hyperythra atbogularis (Bly th)
(Southern India restricted to Mysore by
Baker) Whitethroated Babbler 1:229

25: 15 (J(J 5 o?

349

[448]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HlST. SOCIETY, VoL 79
i Karwar, i N. kanara ; 1 Peermade, High Range, The key to subspecies in INDIAN HANDBOOK 6,

1 Balamore, Ashambu Hills, Kerala; 2 Billigirirangan,

1 Shenemanelle, Coimbatore; 1 Kalhatri, (J.P. Cook=
1894=S. I.?), 5 Kurumbapatti, 1 Chitteri Range,

1 Gingee, S. Arcot; 1 Seshachalam, 5 Palkonda Hills ;

1 Kodura, S. Cuddapah, 1 Shevaroy Hills, 1 Nallamalai
Range ; 1 Upper Burma ??

In the northernmost bird from Nallamalai
Hills the white patch on the throat is smaller
than in the others. In the last the label reads
‘ Upper Burma ? ? ’ and collected by a Major
Radcliffe and is no doubt erroneous.

Measurements on p. 359.

1222. Dumetia hyperythra hyperythra (Frank-

lin) (Ganges near Benares) Rufous-bellied
Babbler 1:228

22 : 11 <?<J 8 $$ 3 o ?

2 Narwar Fort, 1 Gwalior ; 1 Saronj, Tonk State,
Vidisha ; 2 Chikalda, Berar ; 2 Paryat, 1 Jubbulpore ;

1 Gondia; 1 Nelipaka, 1 Borgampod, 1 Kaulas, 1 Palon-
cha, Hyderabad ; 1 Chota Dongar, 1 Amraoti,Bastar ;

2 Lohatter, Ranker ; 1 Korlea, Bilaspur ; 2 Sankra-
metta, Vizagapatnam Ghats, 1 Tikerpara, Augul dist.,
Orissa.

Measurements on p. 359.

1223. Dumetia hyperythra phillipsi Whistler
(Kumbalgamuwa, Ceylon, 3000') Ceylon White-
throated Babbler

1 o ? Hambantuta, Ceylon.

Bill heavy and pale brownish yellow. Upper-
parts dullish and with slight rufous on forehead.

Measurements on p. 359.

1224. Rhopocichla atriceps atriceps (Jerdon)
(Trichoor-Wynaad) Blackheaded Babbler

1:281

14 : 8 5 $$ 1 o ?

1 Molem, 1 Conacona, Goa ; 1 Karwar, 3 N. Kanara;
1 Mercara, Coorg ; 2 Cherambodi, 2 Gudalur, Nilgiris ;
1 Wynaad ; 2 Honametti, Billigirirangans.

p. 182 is a little confusing. The heads are
black rather than dark brown.

Measurements on p. 359.

1225. Rhopocichla atriceps bourdilloni (Hume)

(Mynall, Travancore) Kerala Black-headed
Babbler 1:282

7 : 1 B 4 $$ 2 o ?

1 Thattakad, North T., 1 Tenmalai ; 1 Peermade,
Central T., 1 Ponmudi, 1 Muthukuzi, Ashambu Hills,

1 Kutyani, South Travancore ; 1 Madura.

There are some differences in the amount
of rufous on the upperparts, but as Whistler
has stated they are very liable to 6 museum
browning \ The colour of the head of the
two races is very distinct.

Measurements on p. 359.

1226. Rhopocichla atriceps siccatus Whistler
(Kalawewa N.C.P. Ceylon) Ceylon Dry Zone
Blackheaded Babbler

2: 1<*1?

1 Panadura, 1 Bible (Uva) Ceylon.

The from Panadura has a little black on
the forehead and ear-coverts and may be of
the next race.

Measurements on p. 359.

1227. Rhopocichla atriceps nigrifrons (Blyth)

(Uragaha, S.P., Ceylon) Ceylon Wet Zone
Blackheaded Babbler 1 :282

3 <J<?

1 Uragaha, 2 Kudava, Sinharaja, Ratnapur dist.,
Ceylon.

Masurements on p. 359.

1228. Macronous gularis rtibricapilla (Tickell)
(Borabhum, Bihar) Yellowbreasted Babbler

1:273

37: 19 eft? 14$$ 4 o?

(449]

350

BIRDS IN BOMBA Y NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 25

The birds show some variations in colour
but it is not possible to isolate them. Birds
from the Himalayas and eastwards are smaller
than those from peninsular India and they are
listed separately. Fresh specimens have more
yellow on the breast.

(а) Peninsular India 22 : 12 $$ 6 $$ 4 o ?

1 Antasante, Mysore; 1 Lamasinghi, 3 Sankrametta,
E. Ghats, 1 Minumulur, 2 R. V. Nagar, Vizagapatam
dist. ; 1 Antagarh, 1 Dantawara, Bastar, M.P.; 1
Bailadila, 3 Badrama (Bamra), 2 Berbera, 1 Kutri,
Daspalla, 1 Barsur, 2 Upper Barakamra, 1 Orissa ;
1 Manbhoom, Bihar.

(б) 15: 7c?c?8$?

2 Berrick, Sikkim ; 1 Lodrai, 2 Gaylegphug, 1 Deo-
thang, Central Bhutan; 1 Kuchigan, 1 Goma Reserve,
Goalpara; 2 Sadiya, 1 Dayong, 1 Sonarupa, Assam ;
1 Miao, Arunachal Pradesh; 1 Cherapunji, 1 Mar-
gherita, Assam.

Measurements on p. 359,

EL. Macronous gularis ticefaursti (Strese-
mann) [Dudaw Taung (lat. 21°05'N., long.
94° 19'E.).

7 : 5 l 9 l o ?

I May my o, 1 Thayank, 1 Lindon , Thayetmyo; 1
Kandian , Prome ; 1 Nagapali, Sandoway, Arakan ;
1 Kyibin , Henzada\ 1 Nathan Village , Bassein , Burma.

The finer streaks on the throat and upper
breast are noticeable.

Measurements on p. 359.

1229. Timalia pileata bengalensis Godwin-
Austen (Khasi Hills) Redcapped Babbler

1:226

II : 5<?c?4$?2o?

1 Kumaon Terai, U. P. ; 1 Sukhera, Darjeeling ; 3
Goalpara, 2 Dibrugarh, 1 Lakhimpur, Assam ; 1 Miao,
Arunachal Pradesh ; 2 Upper Burma .

Measurements on p. 360.

EL. Timalia pileata intermedia Kinnear (PegU
Div., Lower Burma)

2??

1 Sindhi, 1 Tarokman, Prome , Burma.

Measurements on p. 360.

1230. Chrysommasinense hypoleucum (Frank-
lin) (U.P., between Banares & Calcutta) Yellow-
eyed Babbler

26 : 15 S3 (6 juv. with horny bills) 9 ?<j> (4 juv.) 2 o?

1 Lahore; 3 Bahawalnagar, 1 Jallunder, 2 Ambala,
Punjab; 1 Bhagat State, N. W. Himalayas; 3 Bharatpur
4 Jaswantpura (Sunda Hills) Rajasthan ; 2 Bhuj, Kutch;
1 Deesa, Palanpur, 1 Hingolgadh, Jasdan, 2 Baroda,
1 Rajpipla, Gujarat ; 2 Gwalior, C.I. ; 1 Jab balpur,
M.P., 1 Chikalda, Maharashtra.

The single specimen from Lahore has very
noticeably grey underparts. Some specimens
have their caps rufous, distinct from the rest
of the upperparts. This appears to be a juvenile
character, associated with a horny and not black
bill.

Measurements on p. 360.

1231. Chrysomma sinense sinense (Gmelin)

(China) Y ellow-eyed Babbler 1:233

29: 16c?d9$?4o?

The birds from peninsular India were accepted
as of this form by Whistler ( JBNHS 35, p. 745)
with the proviso that this was due to the sparsity
of specimen from China in the British Museum.
One of the two available had a 105 mm tail
which is appreciably longer than the longest
(97 mm) in Bombay. Separating hypoleucum
from the north and northwest by their greyer
upperparts, the southern birds are noticeably
darker, but paler than those listed as sinense
from Anantgiri and Sankrametta in the Vizaga-
patam Ghats and further eastwards. I am for
the moment placing them in 2 groups :

351

[450 ]

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , K>/. 79

(a) 13 : 7.^499(1 juv.) 2 o?

Intermediate in colour of upperparts.

1 Bhiwandi, 1 Padgha, Thana; 1 Goregaon, 1
Trombay, 1 Santa Cruz, Bombay; 1 South Konkan ;
1 Terrania T4 E;, Nilgiris, 3 Kurumbapatti, Salem dist.,
1 Palkonda Hills, 1 Koduru, 1 Seshachalam Hills.
S. Cuddapah.

( b ) 16 : 933 5 9? (1 juv. with horny bill) 2 o ?

1 Anantapur, 1 Lamasinghi, 2 Sankrametta (Vizaga-
patam), Andhra Pradesh; 1 Bailadila, Bastar, Madhya
Pradesh, 2 Koira (Bonai), 1 Chahala, Simlipal Hills
Mayurbhanj, Orissa; 1 Kesarwala, Dehra Dun, U.P. ;
1 Darjeeling, Bengal; 1 Goalpara, 1 Monai, Assam ;
1 May my o 1* Thayetmyo , 1 Sindi, 1 Takmaw , Prome
dist., Burma. *albino.

In Indian handbook Ticehurst*s saturatior
from the Bhutan Duars is synonymised with
the nominate form, but the single Specimen
from Darjeeling is noticeably darker than the
others.

Measurements on p. 360.

1232. Chrysomma sinense nasalis (Legge)
(Ceylon) Ceylon Yellow-eyed Babbler 1:235

1 $ Palamalla, S.P, Ceylon.

The keys to subspecies in both Stuart Baker’s
Fauna and Indian handbook refer to a black
nostril which is separated from yellow nostrils
in Indian birds. This character is hafdly
visible in dry skins, but the single specimen has
much less rufous in the wings and on the upper-
parts and a very heavy bill.

Measurements on p. 360.

1233. Chrysomma altirostre scindicum
(Harington) (Sukkur, Sind) Sind Babbler

1:237

nil.

1234. Chrysomma altirostre griseigularis

(Hume) (Assam) Hume’s Babbler 1 :236

2 : \3 1 9

1 Gagaldhubi, 1 Hassemara, N. Lakhimpur, Upper
Assam.

Measurements on p. 360.

1152. et al. Pelldrneum rufkeps subspp*

1152. punctatum

2 lo?*

1153. mandellii 33 (5)
mandellii $9 (6)

1154. ruficeps <$$ (\9)

1154a pallidum 33 (9)
1154. ruficeps 99(9)

1154a.

[451]

Wing

69, 76, 76*

(I,H as in mandelli )

67-78 av. 71.8
(IH 63-75

67- 72 av. 69.7
(IH 66-72

70-79 av. 73 : 9
(IH 68-78

68- 78 av. 73.3

69- 78 av. 71
(IH 66-73

Bill

16.9, 17, 16*

15-17.5 av. 16.2
from skull 18-21

15.7-17.5 av. 16.4
from skull 18-20

15-18.6 av. 16.7
from skull 17-20

17-18.8 av. 17.3

14.5-19 av. 16.3
from skull 16-20

17.5, 18.5

352

TarsUs
25, 25, 24*

21.5- 25 av. 23.1
27-28

23.2-25.5 av. 24.5
27-28

23.6- 28.5 av. 26
25-30

24-27.5 av. 25.5

24.5-27.5 av. 25.5
25-21

24.5, 24.7

pallidam 99 (2) 70,70

Tail
62, 73, 74*

63-71 av. 67.2
70-77)

63-68 av. 65.3
62-70)

61-73 av. 67.7
61-73)

58-70 av. 65

56-68 av. 62.4
57-69)

64, 64

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 25

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1155.

granting (3)

74, 75, 75*

16, 17.2

25*, 26.3, 27

66, 66, 67*

(l*imm.)

OH 73-76

from skull 19-20

28-29

66-73)

1156.

chamelum (3) 72, 75,77

17,18.1,19

23.5, 23.5, 25.5

65, 67, 71

chamelum ?? (3) 69, 72, 75

16, 16.2, 16.8

25.5, 25.5, 25.7

63, 67, 71

(ih as in mandelli)

1157.

pectorale (2) 77, 77

18.1, 19

23.3, 25.5

70, 71

(ih 70-76

from skull 18-20

••

67-74)

EL

stageri o ? (2)

70, 73

16.5, 17

25, 25.9

60 mltg, 72

EL

shanense \ <$

74

16.5

24.4

62

4 o ?

65, 66, 76, 77

16.8, 17.5, 16.3, 16.5

23.3, 23.5, 24, 24.2

61, 63, 70, 75

EL

hilarum 1 $

67

16.9

26.1

64

EL

mi/iMJ 1 3

68 (4)

18.6, 16.6, 17.3, 17.5

23, 24.2 (2), 24.8

63, 60, 66, 67

(C. B. Ticehurst JB 36 p. 922 measures the wings of 2 $$ as 70 mm ; 2 $$ 65.5, 66)

EL

subochraceum

66, 63

16, 15

22.5, 21.6

61,52

1<? 1$

(Fauna 62-68 av. about 64)

EL

insularum 1 o ?

64

15.6

23.5

60

S'"

1164-1165 Pellorneum albiventre albiventre/ignotum

1164.

albiventre (2)

56, 57

13, 15.1

20,22.1

53, 56

(ih 58-60

from skull 14-15

22

47-59)

1165.

ignotum (2)

58, 61

18.7

22.5, 23

47, 48

(ih 58-60

from skull 15

22

43-49)

1164.

albiventre $ (1)

57

13

21

50

(ih 53-58

from skull 14-15

. .

40-56)

1166.

Trichastoma tickelii assamensis

<tt(5)
$? (6)

64-68 av. 66.6
62-69 av. 63.3
(<J? 64-67

13.5-15.2 av. 14.4
14.3-14.7 av. 14.5

25-26.7 av. 26.4
21-27 av. 25.3

* •

49-56 av. 53.4
45-55 av. 50
50-55)

1167. Trichastoma ahbotti

abbotti

<?c? (8)

99 (2)

74-77 av. 75
75,78
(iHcJ? 74-80

17.5-20 av. 18.4
~ 17.5-20

from skull 20-21

22.5-25 av. 24
25,26
25-26

38, 44-52 av. 48
46,51
47-52)

8

353

[452 ]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

1168 . et al. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii subspp.

Wing

Bill

Tail

1168. leucogaster (6)

94-100 av. 97.6

25.7-29 av. 28

99-107 av. 102.1

leucog aster $ (1)

97

28.5

103

(cJ9 85-95 generally c. 90-91 mm.)

1169. schisticeps

M (8)

94-101 av. 98.3

28-30 av. 28.8

95-103 av. 99.2

(ih 98-107

from skull 31-32

104-115)

$$

(ih 93-100

from skull 31-32

106-110)

1170. salimalii <J (1)

95

29.5

93

(ih 94, 97

from skull 31, 33

95, 99)

1 171 . cryptanthus

95, 94

29+, 26.5

91,97

(ih as in schisticeps )

1 172. obscurus o ? (3)

95, 95, 97

26.5, 28.7, 30.5

96, 96, 97

(ih 7 Bill from skull 32-35, other measurements as in horsfieldii <

Whistler)

1173. horsfieldii $$ (12)

97-101 av. 98.8

27-32 av. 30.3

92-101 av. 97

(ih 91-100

from skull 29-35

95-102)

horsfieldii (13)

89-98 av. 94.4

27.2-32.5 av. 30.2

89-100 av. 94

(ih 89-98

from skull 29-35

92-108)

1 1 74. travancoreensis $$ (9)

90-101 av. 95.2

23.7 av. 27.3

92-102 av. 96

(ih 90-104

from skull 27-38*

94-107)

1174. travancoreensis ?? (6)

90-96 av. 93

24-28.3 av. 26.2

91-98 av. 94

(ih 85-98

from skull 28-33

93-100)

1175. maderaspatensis <$<$ (3)

94, 99, 100

29, 29.3, 30.4

95, 99, 101

(ih 89-100

from skull 29-33)

94-103)

maderaspatensis $ (1)

94

29.5

92

(ih 90-98

from skull 30-38

91-98)

1 1 77. melamrus <$$ (3)

90, 90, 91

25, 25.2, 27.5

84, 87, 88

(ih 88-90

from skull 28

84-89)

melanurus $$ (2)

87, 89

22.7, 24

84, 85

(ih 86

from skull 28

84)

EL Pomatorhinus olivaceus subspp.

Wing

Bill

Tail

nominate olivaceus 1

93

27.4

90

(90-96

27-28

100-106)

ripponi 1 $ 1 $

89, 84

23.5, 23.6

93,85

3 o?

89,90, 91,

24.2,-,-

90, 92, 94

(<? $ 85-88

27-28

95-98)

[453]

354

BIRDS IN BOMBA Y NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 25

1178. et al. Pomatorhinus ruficollis subspp.
Wing Bill Tail

Tarsus

Hind claw

1178. nominate ruficollis $$ (3) 77, 80,85 19.5, 22.2,23.6, 85, 86,90

(ih <$$ ex. Kinnear 76-83 from skull 22-23 80-87

1179. godwini(a) (4)

$9(2)

godwini (b) <&? (5)

99(5)

1180. bakeri (3) <$<$ (3)

EL Burmese subspp ? ?
(sp. No. 1130

79 (2), 80 (2) 20.5 (3), 22

80,81 21,22.5

82-86 av. 84.4 21-22.3

(ih 78-86

80-82 av. 81
(ih 76-80

84, 86, 87
(ih ex. 77-84

71

from skull
22-26
21-22.5
from skull
22-24

20.7, 21.5, —
18.5

25.6,26,28.4 10.4, 11, 13

31-34 11-12)

23,27.5(2), 12.8, 13.8,14,

29.5 14.5

27, 27.2 12.6, 14

83r95av. 87.6 28-32 av. 30.4 13.5-15. 3 av.

14.4

30-34 12-14)

82(2), 85

80, 85
83r95

81-95

84-89 av. 86
80-92

88 (2). 90

• •

78

30-32.5 av. 31.4 12-13 av. 12.6
30-37 12-15)

28.5, 29.5, 30.5 9.5, 10.2, 10.4

..)

28.5

8.7

1181. et. al. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys subspp.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1181.

erythrogenys (8)

97-102 av. 99.6

33-35.5 av. 33.9

32. 0-36 av. 34.2

90-107 av., 99.4

(IH 95-101

from skull 36-39

36-38

96-108)

1183.

haringtoni (14)

92-100 av. 96.4

31.3-38 av. 33.6

32.5-35.5 av.33.5

98-102 av. 94.2

(ih 92-99

from skull 34-39

36-40

91-103)

1184.

mcclellandi (1)

86

29.1

29.5

90

(ih 86-96

34-37

36-40

91-101)

99

1181.

erythrogenys (6)

94-101 av. 97.3

30.5-33.3 av. 31.9

31.4-35 av. 33.9

93-100 av. 97

(ih 90-96

from skull 35-39

36-38

95-99)

1183.

haringtoni (5)

90-101 av. 95.4

30.3-34 av. 32.5

31.5-34.5 av. 32.7

87-101 av. 95.2

(ih 88-93

34-35

35, 36

96 (1))

1184.

mcclellandi (3)

90, 86, 82

27.2-27.5, 28.7

29, 31.5, 33.5

82, 85, 88

EL

odicus 2 o ?

86, 93

31.8 (2)

33, 32

84, 97

l<?lo?

1185. Pomatorhinus hypoleucos hypoleucos

109,107 38,—

(ih 1 <M$ 103, 102 from skull 45, 41

95, 92

91, 90 both worn)

355

38.4, 36.5
41,41

[454]

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , PW. 79

11 86-1 188a. Pomatorhinus ferruginosas subspp.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1186. ferruginosus S (1)

89

28.5

29.1

92

?? (2)

87 (2)

27, 27.8

29, 30.1

95 (2)

(jh <?$ 87-95

27-28

29-30

99-110)

1187. formosus 1<? 1?

100, 89

29.5, 29

32.2, 30.6

97, 85

1188. phayrei 1? lo ?

95, 90

27.5 (2)

30.5, 30.6

105, 92

1188a. namdapha 1?

93, 97, 92

30,30.2, 28

32, 34, 29

99, 96, 98

1189-1190. et. al. Pomatorhinus ochraceiceps subspp.

1189. stenorhynchus

90, 93

35.2, 37

29, 29.5

101,102

<#(2)

(IH 90, 94

from skull 34, 38

EL nominate

89

32

29.5

101

ochraceiceps S (1) (86-92

30-32

about 32

c. 105-110)

1190. austeni 1 $

91

34

30

105

(ih ex Mayr 92

from skull 36-37

••

104-107)

1191. Xiphirhynchus superciliaris supreciliaris

(3)

77, 82, 86

50.5, 52.5

29 (2). 30

81, 88, 92

o ? (2)

78, 87

. ,

27.5, 28.5

80, 88

(ih 74-83

from skull 43-57

28-35

82-92)

1193.

Rimator malacoptilus

Af(3)

56, 57, 58

20.2, 20.7, 21.2

20, 22.6, 23

28 (2), 29

1194.

Napothera brevicauda striata

Ul$

62, 58

14, 15

21.6, 21

37, 33

(ihc?? 56-61

c. 16

c. 24

c, 44-46)

1196.

Napothera epilepidota guttaticollis

2 $? (1 fledgling)

i 57, 45

18.5, —

19.2, 17

« •

(c?? 50-55

12-13

c. 18

Cm 18)

1197/98. Pnoepyga albiventer subspp.

1197. pallidior ( 5)

60-62 av. 61.2

12.5-13 av. 12.6

21-22 av. 21.8

14-20 av. 17.2

white only (3)

60, 61,61

12.5, 12.6, 13

21,21.5, 21.8

14, 19, 20

[455]

356

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 25

- • • V • - '

1198.

albiventer (9)

Wing

58-63 av. 61

Bill

11.5-13 av. 12.3

Tarsus

21-23. 6 av. 22.3

Tail

White only (2)

61,62

11.7, 13

21, 23.6

. .

1197.

$?

pallidior (1)

59

12

21

1198.

albiventer

59, 62

11.5, 11.5

23, 22.5

# #

white only (2)

(ih 1197/8 cJ? 57-65

from skull 13-15

23-25

17-23)

1199. Pneoepyga pusilla pusilla

Af (12)

47-50.5 av. 49

11-15 av. 12.4

16-19.5 av. 17.8

13-17 av. 15

?? (4)

48-51 av. 49.5

11.7-12.6 av. 12.2

16-20 av. 18.1

13,14, 14

(iHtf? 48-53

from skull 12-14

18-20

12-15)

1200. Spelaeornis caudatus

2 <J<J

45, 45

11.2,12.2

16.4, 19.4

24, 28

(ih 45-49

from skull 11-12

18

27-35)

1206. Spelaeornis formosus

1<J

46

c. 12

17.2

27

(ih 46

from skull 14

18

30)

1209. Stachyris rufifrons ambigua

(4) Assam & 51-54 av. 52.5 12-14.3

15.6-19

43-47

north

SS (4) Orissa

54-56 13.3-13.7

14.7-19.5

49-51

$$ (4)

49,50, 51, 53 13.2, 11.9,12.5, 13

17.5, 15.3, 15.5, 16

49, 43 (3)

o?(l)

51 13

19

43

(ih <?$ 50-56 from skull 13-15

17-22

43-51)

1210.

Stachyris ruficeps ruficeps

(4)

58, 57, 56 (2)

15, 12, 13, 14

20.5 (2), 22 (2)

49, 48, 46 (2)

(m 53-58

from skull 15-16

17-20

50-52)

?? (2)

56, 52

13, 12.7

17 (2)

44(2)

(ih 54

. .

. .

..)

P?(3)

57, 56, 55

16, 13.7,13.3

18, 20.5, 21.6

46, 50, mltg

357

[456]

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , kb/. 79

1211. Stachyrls pyrrhops

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

o ? (3)

57, 56, 55

16, 13.7, 13.3

18,20.5, 21.6

Tail mltg., 46, 50

<J(2)

54, 56

13.5, 13.9

18.1, 19.7

49, 51

(ih 52-56

from skull 15-16

c. 18

48-52)

?? (5)

51-55 av. 52.7

11.7-12.5 av. 12

15.2-18.6. av. 17

45-50 av. 50.8

(ih 50-54

from skull 15-16

••

45-51)

1212.

nominate

1212/13. Stachyrls chrysaea subspp.

(a) 2<M 1 o?

50, 54, 47

11.5, 11.6, 11.2

16.3, 16.6, 15.7

43, 44, 41

(b) 1 3

53, 50, 51 (2)

11.5, 10.8,11.5,11.6

18.5, 15, 16.7, 17.9

47, 43 (2), 48

47-56

from skull 13-14

17-19

40-50)

1213.

binghami 2 ? 54, 54, 53

13.3, 12.2, 11.8

17.9, 15, 16.2

48, 48, 49

(ih as in 1212)

c?<?

1214/7. Stachyrls nigriceps subspp.

1214.

nominate (6)

57-62 av. 59.6

15.3-17.5 av. 16.6

19-21 av. 20.4

47-53 av. 49.5

(ih 52-62

from skul 17-19

21-22

50-56)

1217.

coltarti (3)

56, 58, 61

16, 16.5, 17.5

21,21.5, 22

46, 47, 51

(ih as in 1214)

1214.

nominate (3)

56, 60, 60

17, 15.7, 15.5

20.5, 21, 21.5

48, 48, 50

(ih 56-63

from skull 17-18

21-22

47-51)

1217.

coltarti (4)

58, 60 (3)

16.8, 17, 17.1, 18.7

19.5, 19.6, 20.6, 21

48, 51, 52 (2)

1218. Stacbyris oglei

c?(l)

72

20.6

25.5

58

(Fauna <$$ 6 8-76

c. 17

c. 27

c. 53)

?? (3)

70, 71 (2)

18.7, 19.3, 20.6

22.7, 24.5, 25.5

53, 58, 60

(ih $ 63

from skull 20

26

53)

1219/1223, Dumetia hyperythra subspp.

1219.

abuensis dd (4)

56-58

13.5, 14.2,14.3

19.3-20.5

60-65

abuensis $ (1)

56

13.7

17

63

(ih as in 1221)

1220.

navarroiSS (12)

53-56 av. 54.9

12.5-14.5 av. 13.5

16.2-19.5 av. 18.3

54-61 av. 58.4

navarroi (2)

54, 55

13.6, 13.8

18.2, 18.5

57, 59

[457]

358

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTIONS— 25

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

1221.

albogularis $$ (15)

54-60 av. 57.5

13.5-15.2 av. 14

15.5-20.2 av. 18.9

58-66 av. 63

(ih 53-65

from skull 14-15

18-20

59-69)

albogularis $? (5)

54-59 av. 55.8

12-15.5 av. 13.5

16.1-20.5 av. 18.5

57-67 av. 60

(ih 52-58

from skull 14-15

18-21

55-69)

o ? (5)

54-59 av. 57.2

13-15 av. 13.8

16.6-19.6 av. 18.6

49-65 av. 57

1222.

f

3

s.

as

/-s

50-57 av. 55

11.3-14.4 av. 13.5

15.3-20.5 av. 18

52-64 av. 59. 7

(ih 53-58

from skull 13-14

19-21

57-64)

$$ (8)

51-55 - 53.2

12-13.4 av. 12.8

12-20 av. 16.6

48-60 av. 55.6

(ih 52-55

from skull 13-14

19-20

58-63)

1223.

phillipsi 1 o ?

54

13.5

18.6

51

(ih<?$ 54-59

from skull 14-15

19-20

54-63)

1224/7. Rhopocihla atriceps subspp.

1224.

atriceps (8)

58-62 av. 60

15.3-16,7 av. 16.1

18.2-21.5 av. 20

46-54 av. 49

1225.

bourdilloni (1)

56

15.4

21.5

49

1224/5

(ih 55-61

from skull 14-16

. .

46-52)

9$

1224.

at iceps (5)

55-60 av. 58

15.2-16.4 av. 15.6

19.8-21.5 av. 20.6

45-51 av. 48

1225.

bourdilloni (4)

56, 57 (2), 60

143, 14.6, 15.1

16.4, 19.5, 21.5, 21.8

45 (3), 46

1224/5

(ih 54-58

from skull 14-16

21-22

43-48)

1226.

siccatus $

55 (ih 55-60)

15, (from skull 14-16)

20.7, (21-23)

46 (43-50)

1226.

siccatus 9

53 (ih 54-60)

15 (from skull 14-15)

20.5 (21-23)

45 (42-48)

1227.

nigrifrons (3) 57 (2), 58

15.3 (2), 16

20.5, 21,32

45, 46, 47

(ih<? 59-60

from skull 15

22-23

(44-48)

($ 56, 58)

from skull 15

22-23

44)

<?<?

1228.

et al. Mammons gularis subspp.

1228.

rubricapilla (a) (10) 59-62 av. 60.5

13-16.7 av. 14.5

16-20 av. 17.5

51-57 av. 52.3

1228.

rubricapilla (6) (6) 57-58 av. 57.5

14-15.5 av. 14.7

15-18.4 av. 16.8

45-50 av. 48

(ih 55-63

from skull 14-16

17-19

47-57)

EL.

ticehursti (5)

56-61 av. 58.6

14.2-15.6 av. 15

16.5-18.2 av. 17.5

47-53 av. 50.6

$9

1228. etal.

Macronous gularis subspp.

1228.

rubricapilla (a) (6) 57-59 av. 58.5

13.5-15.4 av. 14.1

16-20 av. 18.5

49-54 av. 50.8

1228.

rubricapilla ( [b ) (7) 54-58 av. 56

13.2-15.7 av. 14.4

15-21. av. 17

45-48 av. 46.5

(ih 52-61

from skull 14-16

18-19

46-55)

EL.

ticehursti 9 (1)

55

14.9

14.5

49

359

[458]

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

1229. et al. Timalia pileata

wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

bengalensis (5)

61-62 av. 60.6
(ih 58-62

15.3-17. av. 16.3
from skull 18-19

21.5-22.5 av. 22
23-24

63-66 av. 64
65-71)

bengalensis $$ (4)

57-61 av. 59
(ih 56-60

15-18 av. 16
15-17

21.6-23.5
c. 22

av. 22.7
c. 66)

intermedia $$ (2)

61,65

15.4, 16.5

21-

71,72

smithi o ?

58, 62

16.7, 17.6

22.7, 23

» —

1230/32.

Chrysomma sinense subspp.

1230.

hypoleucum (9)

62-70 av. 66.1

12.1-13.7 av. 12.7

22.8,26 av. 24.1

76-95 av. 86.5

hypoleucum juv. (6) 62-69 av. 65.6
(ih 61-71

11.5-13.3 av. 12.1
from skull 14-15

22.8-26.4 av. 24.9
22-27

67-97 av. 80.2
80-104)

1231.

sinense (a) (7)

63-67 av. 65

11.7-14 av. 13

23-27.1 av. 25.7

60-90 av. 81.2

sinense (b) (9)

64-72 av. 67.5
(ih 62-70

12.6-14.5 av. 13.5
from skull 14-15

23.1-26.2 av. 25.1
22-27

74-90 av. 80.3
73-102)

1230.

hypolecum (9)

64-68 av. 65.5
(ih 61-67

11.5-13.5 av. 12.2
from skull 13-16

21.8-26.7 av. 24.2
25-27

83-97 av. 88
84-94)

1231.

sinense (a) (4)

62-70 av. 65.2

12.8-13.7 av. 13.3

25-26.5 av. 25.8

62-83 av. 73.2

„ (b)(4)

(ih 62-70
62-70 av. 66

from skull 13-16
10.7-14.1 av. 12.5

25-27

23-26 av. 24.8

78-100)

74-87 av. 79.;

1232.

nasalis (1)

65

(ih 63-69

14

from skull 14

24

24-25

74

72-79)

(To be continued)

[459]

360

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS ASOPUS (HETEROPTERA :

PENTATOMIDAE)1

M. Nayyar Azim and S. Adam Shafee2
(With a text-figure)

Asopus rufus sp. nov.

(Fig. 1 A-D)

Head (fig. A) : Reddish and finely punctate*
vertex with a dark spot on inner margin of each
ocellus ; juga as long as tylus, lateral margins
sinuate before eyes ; eyes dark brown ; space
between ocellus and inner orbital margin more
than one-half the inter-ocellar space. Rostrum
reddish yellow, extending near hind coxae ;
segments I, II, III and IV, 1.3, 1.9, 0.79 and
0.46 mm in length respectively. Antennae
(fig. 1 B) dark except first segment red ; seg-
ments I, II, III, IV and V, 0.42, 1.9, 0.98, 1.5
and 1.6 mm in length respectively.

Thorax (fig. 1 A) : Reddish and finely
punctate with two small triangular spots on
anterior area of pronotum and two rounded
spots on each basal angle of scutellum dark ;
pronotum with anterior margin slightly concave>
maximum width of pronotum more than
twice its median length, humeral angles sub-
acute ; scutellum gradually narrowing and

1 Accepted March 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University ,
Aligarh-202 001, (U.P.)

acuminate apically, slightly longer than wide ;
metastemal scent gland ostiole with peritreme
moderately long and raised apically. Hemelytra
(fig. 1 C) with corium red and finely punctate,
membrane infuscated. Legs : coxae, trochan-
ters and femora red ; tibiae except outer and
inner margins and tarsi dark.

Abdomen : Dorsum and connexiva red, venter
whitish except apex dark ; venter basally with a
small tubercle.

Body length : 11.9 mm.

HolotypeQ. India: Uttar Pradesh, Agra, on
grass, 15. xi. 1979 (M. Nayyar Azim)

The new species is closely related to Asopus
malabaricus (Fabricius) but can be separated
by the following characters :

Head (fig. 1 A) reddish with two small dark
spots between ocelli : space between ocellus
and inner orbital margin more than one-half
the inter-ocellar space ; antennal segment first
red, second less than twice the length of third
(fig. 1 B) ; scutellum (fig. A) gradually narro-
wing apically ; hemelytra (fig. 1 C) with corium
completely red; legs with coxae, trochanters and
femora, abdominal dorsum and connexiva
completely red.

361

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 79

ftiffirasatei

362

Fig. 1 A-D. Asopus rufus sp. nov., $; (A) Head and thorax in dorsal view ; (B) Antenna ; (C) Hemelytra ; (D) Fore leg.

{See Overleaf)

FIRST RECORD OF GENERA NIPHADONYX DALLA TORRE
AND ISCHNOPUS FST. AND DESCRIPTION OF TWO
NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA (COLEOPTERA :
CURCULIONIDAE : HYLOBIINAE)1

H. R. Pajni and Sukesha Sood2
( With eleven text-figures)

Introduction

We have collected 35 species of the subfamily
Hylobiinae under a 5 year PL-480 Project on
Indian Curculionidae. Fourteen of the species
collected were new to science. Two of these
species, one each under genus Niphadonyx
Dalla Torre and Ischnopus Fst. are being repor-
ted in this communication.

Previous work on Indian Hylobiinae consists
of accounts of individual species by different
workers but the characters of Indian genera
have been elaborated and keys for them have
been proposed by Marshall (1932) and
Aslam (1963).

The monobasic genus Niphadonyx Dalla
Torre was first erected by Faust (1886) as
Heteronyx , which being preoccupied was
replaced by the present name by Dalla Torre
et al. (1932). The genus was typed on N. ferns
Fst. from Pamir. The type-species and a new
species have been collected and studied by the
authors, marking the first report of this genus
from India. The elaborated characterization
of genus and description of the new species
are recorded below. The information on male
and female genitalia of the type species of genus
Niphadonyx Dalla Torre is recorded and key
to the species of the genus is also given.

x Accepted January 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, Punjab University, Chandi-
garh-160014 (India).

Genus Niphadonyx Dalla Torre

Head with frons as broad as or broader than
base of rostrum ; eyes lateral, small. Prono-
tum with basal margin rounded ; prosternum
deeply excavated. Elytra truncate at base,
without marked shoulders. Mid and hind
tibiae broadened subapically, with their fringes
sinuate ; tarsal claws appendiculate. Metas-
ternum shorter than diameter of middle coxae.
Abdominal stemite 2 shorter than 3 and 4
taken together. Male genitalia with endophallus
well developed ; parameres long and leaf-like.
Spiculum ventrale laterally produced and
medially curved at its free end.

Type Species : Niphadonyx ferus (Fst.)

Key to species of genus Niphadonyx Dalla Torre
Small species. Frons without a median fovea.
Pronotum closely and deeply punctate. Striae granulate.
Aedeagus with apex pointed ferus { Fst.)

Large species. Frons with a median Fovea.
Pronotum closely and rugosely |[punctate. Striae
without granules. Aedagus with apex broad
foveatus sp. nov.

Niphadonyx ferus (Fst.)

(Figs. 1, 2, 3)

Faust, Horae Soc. Ent. Ross., XX, 1886, p, 172.

Male genitalia : Aedeagus long, about two
times as long as broad, broadest at base and

363

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

gradually narrowed towards apex, subacumi- coarsely and rugosely punctate, punctures
nate apically, strongly sclerotized laterally and fine and sparse beyond antennal insertions.

apically ; phallotreme almost circular, with a
pair of lightly sclerotized triangular plates
one on either side ; aedeagal apodemes very
long, longer than aedeagus, each slightly curved
outwards near base but swollen and weakly
sclerotized at free end ; endophallus beset with
irregularly distributed short tubercles ; phallo-
base uniformly sclerotized, parameres long,
leaf like, free at base, with apical membranous
part of each furnished with many short setae ;
phallobasic apodeme as broad as aedeagal
apodemes and about one-third as long as the
former, with their apical ends rounded.

Female genitalia : Coxites long, subtrian-
gular, weakly sclerotized ; styli longer than
broad, almost parallel-sided, more sclerotized
than coxites, each furnished with a few short
and long setae at apex. Spiculum ventrale
V-shaped, laterally produced at free end, not
uniformly sclerotized. Spermathecal capsule
short, sligntly curved at middle, uniformly and
weakly sclerotized ; cornu short with its apex
blunt ; ramus and collum not distinctly marked.

Specimen loaned from Forest Research Insti-
tute, Dehradun ; reported to be collected under
stones in Lidar Valley, State of Jammu and
Kashmir.

Niphadonyx foveatus sp. nov.

(Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7)

Head piceous, coarsely and closely punc-
tate ; frons broader than base of rostrum, with a
median shallow fovea ; eyes brownish-black,
later o-ventral, acuminate below, separated
beneath. Rostrum fuliginous, shorter than
pronotum, gradually widened towards apex,
with a small shallow median indistinct sulcus
near antennal insertion ; surface of rostrum

furnished with very minute pale setae, setae
long near apex; scrobes oblique, their apical
ends visible dorsally, widely separated beneath.
Antennae ferrugineous, long, inserted near
apex of rostrum ; scape long, slightly longer
than funicle, clavate at apex, beset with pale
white sparse setae ; funicle 7-segmented, beset
with long yellow setae, segments 1 and 2 longer
than other segments, 3 to 7 transverse, 7 dis-
tinct from club ; club 2-segmented, pubescent,
terminal segment acuminate, with a few sparse
thin white setae.

Pronotum piceous, almost as long as broad,
narrow at base and broadest at middle, its
apical margin bisinuate and basal margin
straight ; surface of pronotum coarsely and rugo-
sely punctate, marked with a median carina
stopping short a little in front of basal margin-
Scutellum piceous, small, slightly convex, indis-
tinctly punctate. Elytra piceous, broader
at base than base of pronotum, with humeral
angles indistinct, their conjoint apices roun-
ded, posterior of each callosity not distinct,
surface of each elytron marked with indistinct
striae formed of shallow puncture ; intervals
broader than striae, with a few small scattered
pale yellow setae. Legs piceous, sparsely
covered with pale white setae ; femora edentate
ventrally, front femora thicker than middle
and hind ; tibiae marked with longitudinal
ridges, mid and hind tibiae broader subapically
and their fringes sinuated ; claws append icu-
late. Thoracic sternites piceous, punctate, beset
with small pale yellow setae ; prosternum with
its anterior margin deeply sinuate, with a shallow
canal present in front of procoxae ; metaster-
num shorter than diameter of middle coxae.
Abdominal sternites punctate, beset with small
pale yellow setae, intercoxal process between
hind coxae broad ; sternites 1 and 2 equally
long, 2 shorter than 3 and 4 taken together,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1. Male genitalia of Niphadonyx ferus(Fst.)

2 & 3. Female genitalia & spermatheca of Niphadonyx ferns Fst.

4. Adult Niphadonyx foveatus sp. nov. <$

5. Male genitalia of Niphadonyx foveatus sp. nov.

Abbreviations t

AED— Aedeagus ; AEDA — Aedeagal apodeme ; CX— Coxite ; END — Endophallus ; PHBA— Phallobasic
apodeme; PHTR— Phallotreme ; PMR — Paramere ; ST — Sternite ; STY — Styli ; SV— Spiculum Ventrale.

06mm

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 79

9 10

Figs. 6 & 7. Female genitalia and spermatheca of Niphadonyx foveatus sp. nov.

8. Adult Ischnopus madrasensis sp. nov.

9. Male genitalia of Ischnopus madrasensis sp. nov.

10 & 11. Female genitalia & spermatheca of Ischnopus madrasensis sp. nov.

Abbreviations :

AED — Aedeagus ; AEDA — Aedeagal apodeme ; CX— Coxite ; END — Endophallus ; PHB — Phallobase
PHBA — Phallobasic apodeme; PHTR — Phallotreme; ST — Sternite; STY — Styli; SV — Spiculum Ventrale.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Male genitalia : Aedeagus long and tubular,
almost two times as long as broad, with apex
truncate, strongly sclerotized laterally and api-
cally ; phallotreme circular, studded with a
pair of triangular weakly sclerotized plates ;
aedeagal apod ernes slightly longer than aedea-
gus, each slightly curved outwardly at base,
broad at base and narrowed to apex ; endo-
phallus beset with dense short setae and tuber-
cles. Phallobase uniformly sclerotized ; para-
meres long, leaf-like, separated at base, with
apical membranous part of each furnished with
many short setae ; phallobasic apodeme two-
third the length of aedegal apodemes, broad
at base and narrowed towards apex.

Female genitalia : Coxites long, oval, weakly
sclerotized ; styli longer than broad, almost
parallel-sided, more sclerotized than coxites,
each with a few setae at apex, spiculum ventrale
uniformly sclerotized, V-shaped, laterally produ-
ced at free end. Spermathecal capsule uni-
formly sclerotized ; cornu short and rounded
at apex ; collum and ramus not well marked.

Measurements :

Body length

. . 12.8-13.2 mm.

breadth

. . 4.6-5.2 mm.

Head length

. . 0.8 mm.,

breadth

. . 2.0 mm.

Rostrum length

. . 2.2 mm.,

breadth

.. 0.9-1. 0 mm.

Prothorax length

. . 3.0 mm..

breadth

. . 3. 1-3.2 mm.

Elytra length

. . 6.8-7.2 mm.,

breadth

. . 4.6-5.2 mm.

Holotypec?, paratypes 2 ??; India, Jammu and
Kashmir, Lidar Valley, Grass (H. R. Pajni)
Material in Department of Zoology, Panjab
University, Chandigarh.

The monobasic genus Ischnopus Fst. is so far
represented by a single species from Sri Lanka
namely /. taprobanus Fst. We have collected
another species definitely congeneric with I.
taprobanus Fst. but differing from it. The
new species is thus a new record of genus
Ischnopus Fst. from India. The revised
features of the genus Ischnopus Fst., the
description of the new species and a key to the
two species so far known are recorded below.

Genus Ischnopus Fst.

Rostrum with a glabrous epistome. Eyes
lateral. Prementum longer and broader than
postmentum. Funicle with segment 1 slightly
longer than 2, 7 contiguous with club. Pros-
ternum in front of coxae longer than their
diameter. Elytra without shoulders. Femora
gradually clubbed and unarmed, procoxae sub-
globular ; tibial premucro small ; tarsi sublinear,
third tarsal segment slightly bilobed. Inter-
coxal process between hind coxae truncate and
as broad as hind coxa. Male genitalia without
parameres ; endophallus well developed. Female
genitalia with coxites very narrow.

Type species Ischnopus taprobanus Fst.

Key to the species of genus Ischnopus Fst.

Pronotum with a rhomboidal impression ; Proste-
rnum with a pair of tubercles, one near each coxa.

Elytron produced in front at the base of interval 4

taprobanus Fst.

Pronotum without any impression ; Prosternum
without such tubercles. Elytron not produced at the
base of interval 4 madrasensis sp. nov.

367

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 79

chnopns madrasensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11)

Head rusty black, its surface smooth, without
punctures, finely granular, with a deep furrow
along posterior margin of each eye ; frons
almost as broad as or slightly narrower than
base of rostrum, marked with a median depres-
sion. Eyes piceous, lateral. Rostrum piceous,
shorter than pronotum, slightly broadened near
apex ; surface of rostrum uneven and coarse,
without well defined furrow or carina, covered
with rust-coloured pubescence ; scrobes almost
reaching apex, their anterior ends visible dor-
sally, separated beneath, their upper margins
touching the lower margins of eyes. Antennae
rust coloured, long, stout, inserted near apex
of rostrum ; scape longer than funicle, covered
with brown pubescence, clavate at apex ;
funcile 7 -segmented, pubescent and beset with
sparse light brown setae, basal two segments
longer than broad, segment 2 slightly longer
than 1, 3 to 6 transverse, 7 longer than broad
and contiguous with club ; club small, pubes-
cent, beset with light brown setae, 3 -segmented,
segment 1 smaller than 2 and 3 taken together,
3 very small and acuminate at apex.

Pronotum piceous, longer than broad, broa-
dest at middle, almost parallel-sided, with a
constriction near apex, its apical margin trun-
cate and basal margin almost straight ; surface
of pronotum uneven and coarse, without a
puncture or seta, marked with a distinct median
carina and many oblique and transverse ridges.
Scutellum concealed. Elytra piceous, longer than
broad, their humeral angles indistinctly
rounded, with a deep constriction near their
jointly rounded apex ; surface of each elytron
marked with striae formed of broad square
punctures ; intervals narrower than striae, each
furnished with irregular tubercles, with a promi-
nent tubercle on interval 3 near base. Legs
piceous, stout, covered with brown pubes-

cence ; forecoxae subglobular ; femora
gradually clavate, without a ventral tooth ;
tibiae slightly curved at base, inner margin of
each with a premucro, each beset with small
black projections and with a few brown setae
along inner margin ; tarsal segments not much
spongy, with segment 3 bilobed, claws free.
Thoracic sternites piceous, beset with brown
pubescence ; prosternum with its anterior
margin sinuate, much longer in front than
diameter of procoxae ; metepisterna finely
punctate, bare. Abdominal sternites piceous,
sternites 1 and 2 irregularly punctured, intercoxal
process between hind coxae truncate ; sternite
1 and 2 almost equal, 2 longer than 3 and 4
taken together.

Male genitalia : Aedeagus long, tubular,
broad at middle and gradually narrowed
towards apex, strongly sclerotized laterally ;
phallotreme long, narrowly triangular ; endo-
phallus armed with many chitinized plates for-
ming an irregular structure near apex. Phallo-
base uniformly sclerotized ; parameres absent ;
phallobasic apodeme very short.

Female genitalia : Coxites very long, much
longer than broad, each with free end notched
and beset with sparse setae ; styli slightly longer
than broad, strongly sclerotized, each with a
few long setae. Spiculum vent rale Y-shaped,
its median arm short, lateral arms narrow.
Spermathecal capsule uniformly and weakly
sclerotized ; cornu short with rounded apex ;
collum long ; ramus present at middle of
capsule ; with broad rounded end.

Measurements :

Body length
breadth

Head length
breadth

Rostrum length
breadth

.. 15.4-18.4 mm.,

. . 4.2-4. 8 mm.

.. 0.8-1. 4 mm.,

.. 1. 8-2.2 mm.

. . 2.8-3.0 mm.

. . 1 .02 mm.

368

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Prothorax length
breadth
Elytra length
breadth

4.2- 5.2 mm,

3. 6- 4. 2 mm.

7. 6- 8. 8 mm,

4.2- 4. 8 mm.

Holotype (J, paratype 1 $ ; India, Tamil
Nadu, Madras ; on Cedrela toona (Sukesha
Sood). Material in Department of Zoology,
Panjab University, Chandigarh.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Indian Council of Agri-
cultural Research and United States, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, for financing a 5 year
project on family Curculionidae and for sanc-
tioning funds for the visit of senior author to
different European Museums for the study of
holotypes/paratypes of Ihdian Curculionidae.

References

Aslam, N. A. (1963) : On the genera of IndoPakistan Faust, J. (1886): Neue exotische Russelkafer, Horae .
Cleoninae and Hylobiinae (Col. Cur.). Bull. Brit. Mus. Soc. Ent. Ros. 20 : 170-264.

(Nat. Hist.), London Ent., 13 : 47-66.

DallaTorre,K.W.,Schenkling,S. and Marshall, Marshall, G. A. K. (1932) : Notes on Hylobiinae
G. A. K. (1932) : Coleopterorum Catalogus, Berlin, (Col. Cur.). Ann. Mag . Nat. Hist., London 9 (10) :
28(122): 112 pp. 341-355.

9

369

SPECIES OF THE GENUS PEDIOBIUS WALKER (EULOPHIDAE :
ENTEDONTINAE) FROM INDIA1

M. Younus Khan and S. Adam Shafee2

( With a plate)

Additional generic characters of pronotum, sub-genital plate and external female genitalia are
suggested for the genus Pediobius Walker. Key to Indian species of Pediobius is given. P. imbreus
Walker and P. longicorpus sp. nov. are described and illustrated. Material deposited in Zoological
Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Genus Pediobius Walker

Pediobius Walker, 1846, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. 17 : 184.

Typs-species : Eritedon imbreus Walker de-
signated by Ashmead (19G4).

Tile genus Pediobius was proposed by Walker
(1846). Ashmead (1904) designated Entedon
imbreus Walker as type species of the genus
Pediobius Walker. Gahan (1921) synonymized
the genera, Pseudacriasoides Girault and
Epipleurotropis Girault with Pleurotropis Foers-
ter. Nikol’skaya (1952) recognized Pediobius
Walker and Pleurotropis Foerster as valid genera
and separated them on the basis of presence of
incomplete and complete parapsidal furrows.
Gahan (1932), Ferriere (1953), Askew (1962),
Peck (1963) and Boucek (1965) synonymized
the genera Pseudacrias Girault, Pleurotropis
Foerster, Rhopalotus Foerster, Eupleurotropis
Girault and Cluthaira Cameron respectively
with Pediobius Walker. Boucek (1965) declared
the genus Microterus Spinola to be a synonym
of Pediobius Walker and wrote 4 As Pediobius
is today already a well-established and well-
known name, it is taken here as the valid name
for the genus and, consequently, Microterus ,
although older than the former name, is dropped

1 Accepted August 1980.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

into synonymy’. He revised the European
species of the genus Pediobius. Recently,
Kerrich (1973) made a comprehensive study
on the South Asiatic and Australian species of
the genus Pediobius. The generic characters
proposed by Peck et al. (1964) and Boucek
(1965) apply well on the species under study.
We suggested some new generic characters
which are as follows : Pronotum with

antero-lateral arms long and narrow, anterior
margin deeply concave, posterior margin
convex (PI. 1, fig. E) ; first valvifers semicircu-
lar with basal and apical angles at different
levels (PI. 1, fig. I) ; third valvulae short,
movably articulated with second valvifers
(PI. 1, fig. J) ; subgenital plate with anterior
margin straight, posterior margin with a tri-
angular notch in middle (PI. 1, fig. L). 9
species of the genus Pediobius are known to
occur in India. We raised the total to 10 by
describing one new species. A key to Indian
species of Pediobius is provided mainly based
on Kerrich (1973).

Key to Indian Species of Pediobius Walker, based

ON FEMALES.

1. Frontovertex with reticulation strong or mode-
rately strong almost throughout and more or less
regular 2

—Frontovertex with reticulation not strong or
moderately strong, but either fine and regular or in
greater part weak to indistinct 7

370

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

2. Basalis bearing hairs, normally two, and cubital

hair-row starting immediately beyond it. 3

— Basalis bare, and cubital hair-row starting beyond
the large speculum postbasale : sculpture of scutum and
scutellum uniformly reticulate : scape 6 times as long as
wide, first funicle segment twice as long as wide, longer
than pedicel : ocelli arranged in obtuse triangle ; first
abdominal tergite short, one-fourth the length of
abdomen P. longicorpus sp. nov.

3. Sculpture of scutellum nearly uniform, either

reticulate or striate almost throughout 4

— Sculpture of scutellum not nearly uniform, partly
striate or striate-reticulate and partly reticulate, often
partly smooth. 5

4. Sculpture of scutellum in greatest part and cf
mesoscutum - similar, reticulate almost throughout :

petiolar segment a little longer than broad

P. acantha (Walker)

— Sculpture of scutellum regularly striate almost
throughout, very dissimilar from that of mesoscutum :

petiolar segment much broader than long

P. bethylicidus Kerrich

5. Head, seen from above, not so broad, less than 2£

times breadth of its median length and frontoveriex less
than 1| times : first funicle segment, in side view, about
1£ times as long as broad : scutellum strongly

longitudinally striate at sides almost to apex, with
reticulation at apex that is rather wide-meshed but much
weaker, and may extend forward broadly in mid line or
may be evanescent, leaving a shining median band in
about basal two thirds : space between notaular pits
about as broad as a pit 6

—Head, seen from above, relatively broad, 2£ to 3
times breadth of its median length and frontovertex
usually about 1£ times : first funicle segment, in side
view, in well-developed specimens, about 2| times as
long as broad: scutellum longitudinally striate-reticulate,
merging to regular reticulation in about apical third,
the sculpture of almost uniform strength except that,
narrowly in mid line in basal part, it is finer yet very
distinct: space between notaular pits very much narrower
than a pit P. foveolatus (Crawford)

6. Antennal funicle 3-segmented and pronotal collar
sharply margined as is normal for the genus: mesoscutum

having longitudinal striation on sides of mid lobe and on
parapsides, its hind margin between the notaular pits
raised and strongly emarginate : petiolar segment much
broader than long : lower face, as normally in the
genus, almost smooth: stibiae not or hardly pale at base
and apex p. elasmi (Ashmead)

— Antennal funicle 4-segmented : the smooth

pronotal collar clearly indicated by a change of sculpture
but with no elevated margin : mesoscutum without

longitudinal striation, its hind margin between the
notaular pits very weakly emarginate : petiolar segment
a little longer than broad : lower face very distinctly
reticulate except narrowly in mid line : tibiae very

distinctly pale at base and apex

P. agzristaz (Cameron)

7. Frontovertex at least in greater part, with reticula-

tion fine and regular : pronotal collar having sides
strongly, or rather strongly narrowed: eutellum having
sculpture more or less uniform, very distinct through-
out : basalis bare and cubital hair-row starting beyond
the speculum postbasale 8

— Frontovertex in greater part with reticulation
weak and irregular to indistinct : pronotal collar having
sides no more than moderately narrowed: scutellum
having a median band, percurrent or almost so, with
sculpture more or less indistinct, sometimes this median
band broad and shining : basalis bearing hairs and
cubital hair-row starting immediately beyond it .9

8. Smaller species, of length about 1.3 mm : head,

seen from above subglobose, not sharply narrowed
behind eyes, with ocelli in a strongly acute triangle, and
no fine keel running back from the lateral ocelli, the
frontovertex not as broad as its median length: antennae
having first funicle segment in side view about quadrate,
the second and third very distinctly transverse : pronotal
collar having fore and hind margins parallel :
mesoscutum having hind margin weakly emarginate,
the notaular pits shallow and ill-defined : scutellum finely
longitudinally reticulate throughout : parapsite in

Mantid Oothecae P. fraternus (Motschulsky)

— Larger species : head, seen from above, more
transverse, sharply narrowed behind eyes, with ocelli in
about a right-angled or slightly acute triangle, and a fine
keel running back from the lateral ocelli, the
frontovertex at least slightly broader than its median

371

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 79

length : antennae having first funicle segment in side
view about twice as long as broad, the second and third
distinctly longer than broad : pronotal collar wider at
sides than in middle, the fore and hind margins not
parallel : scutellum strongly longitudinally striate,

merging to reticulate behind

P. stenochoreus Kerrich

9. Occipital carina discontinuous, 'represented only
by a short ridge developed behind each laterel ocellus :
antennal scape very slender, almost parallel-sided for the
greater part of its length, about eight times length of its
greatest breadth : third funicle segment about

quadrate P. water stonii (Masi)

— Occipital carina continuous, as is normal in the
genus : antennal scape slightly rounded below, four
times length of its greatest breadth : third funicle

segment distinctly broader than long .......

P. imbreus Walker

Pediobius imbreus Walker
(Plate 1, figs. A-M)

Entedon (Pediobius) imbreus Walker, 1846,
Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 17 : 184. Pleurotropis
detrimentosus Gahan, 1930, Proc. U. S. natn.
Mas. 11 : 9. Pediobius imbreus Walker; Kerrich,
1970, Orient. Insects , 4 : 89.

Female (Redescribed in detail).

Head : Dark with metallic bluish reflections,
wider than long in facial view ; fronto vertex dis-
tinctly wider than long, weakly and finely reti-
culate ; ocelli brown, arranged in obtuse tri-
angle, lateral ocelli by their own diameters from
orbital and occipital margins separately ; occi-
pital carina continuous ; frontal fork with arms
obtusely diverging ; eyes silvery ; malar space
as long as eye width ; malar sutures absent ;
antennae inserted at lower level of eyes ; promi-
nence between antennal sockets one-fifth
the width of frons between eyes ; mandibles
with two acute teeth (fig. A) ; maxillary and
labial palpi each 1 -segmented (fig. B).

Antennae (fig. C) : Dark with metallic reflec-
tions, 7-segmented excluding 1 ring segment ;
scape four times as long as wide (0.16 : 0.04
mm), slightly longer than club ; pedicel one
and a half times as long as wide, as long as
first funicle segment ; funicle 3 -segmented,
segments 1-3 gradually decreasing in length and
increasing in width distad ; first funicle
segment distinctly longer than wide, second
and third distinctly wider than long ; club 2-
segmented, slightly more than twice as long as
wide (0.13 : 0.06 mm), longer than preceding
two funicle segments together.

Thorax (fig. D) : Dark with metallic bluish

green reflections ; parapsidal furrows distinct
anteriorly ; pronotum with antero-lateral arms
long and narrow, anterior margin deeply
concave, posterior margin convex, posterior
sub-marginal ridge distinct bearing 3 pairs of
long setae (fig. E) ; scutum reticulate and
scutellum with longitudinal reticulate sculpture
having a median smooth band ; scutum and
scutellum with 4 and 2 setae respectively; propo-
deum with a submedian carina diverging back-
wards, intercarinal space raised.

Fore wings (fig. F) : Hyaline, twice as long
as wide (1.15:0.52 mm), sparsely setose,
basalis bearing hairs and cubital hair-row star-
ting immediately beyond it ; costal cell much
shorter than marginal vein ; submarginal and
marginal veins with 2 and 12 setae respectively ;
postmarginal vein slightly shorter than stigmal
vein (fig. G) ; a row of 14 setae beneath the mar-
ginal vein ; marginal fringe short, spaced by a
distance equal to one-third their length.

Hind wings : Hyaline, four and a half times
as long as wide (0.86 : 0.19 mm) ; marginal
fringe short, spaced by a distance equal to one-
third their length.

Legs : Coxae, trochanters, femora and tibiae
of all legs dark with metallic bluish reflections ;
tarsi of fore legs completely and pretarsus of

372

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79

Khan & Shafee : Genus Pediobius

Plate 1

Figs. A-M : Pediobius imbreus Walker $,<J : (A) Mandible, $ ; (B) Maxillary and Labial palpi, $ ; (C) Antenna,
? ; (D) Part of thorax in dorsal view, ? ; (E) Pronotum, $ ; (F) Fore wing, $ ; (G) Part of fore wing venation, $ ;
(H) Part of hind leg, $ ; (I) First valvifer, $ ; (J) Second valvifer and third valvula, $ ; (K) Outer plate of ovipositor
$ ; (L) Subgenital plate, $ ; (M) Antenna, <?.

Figs. N & O. Pediobius longicorpus sp. nov., $ ; (N) Antenna, (O) Fore wing venation.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

mid and hind legs brownish ; tarsal joints 1-3
of mid and hind legs white ; fore legs with two
small tibial spurs ; middle tibial spur longer
than basitarsus ; hind tibial spur long, slightly
longer than basitarsus (fig. H).

Abdomen : Petiolate, dark with metallic
bluish reflections, shorter than head and thorax
together ; first abdominal tergite well deve-
loped, reaching beyond the mid of abdomen ;
ovipositor slightly exserted, arising from basal
one-half of abdominal venter ; first valvifers
semicircular with basal and apical angles at
different levels (fig. I) ; second valvifers long
and narrow, more or less of uniform width,
anterior margin of basal part much curved,
U-shaped ; third valvulae twice as long as
wide, one-tenth the second valvifers (fig. J) }
outer plates of ovipositor slightly shorter than
second valvifers (fig. K) ; subgenital plate of
uniform width with anterior margin straight,
posterior margin with triangular notch in middle
(fig. L).

Female length : 1.58 mm.

Male :

Resembles female except in the following
characters :

Pedicel slightly shorter than first funicle seg-
ment ; second funicle segment slightly longer
than wide ; club as long as preceding two
funicle segments together (fig. M) ; fore wings
slightly less than twice as long as wide (0.83 :
0.46 mm) ; abdomen much shorter than thorax.

Male length : 0.98 mm.

Material examined : 8 $, 1 India : Rajas-
than, Udaipur, ex eggs of Spider, on Citrus
sp., 2. x. 1975 (M. Younus Khan).

Pediobius longicorpus sp. nov.

(Plate 1, figs. N & O)

Female :

Head : Dark with metallic bluish reflec-
tions, wider than long in facial view ; fronto-

vertex with reticulation strong throughout and
regular, twice as wide as long, width more
than one-half the total head width ; ocelli red,
arranged in obtuse triangle, lateral ocelli by
their own diameters from orbital and close
to occipital margins ; eyes silvery and smooth ;
malar space slightly shorter than eye width ;
malar sutures absent ; antennae inserted at
lower level of eyes.

Antennae (fig. N) : Dark brown, 7-segmen-
ted excluding 2 ring segments ; scape cylindri-
cal, six times as long as wide (0.3 : 0.05 mm),
longer than club ; pedicel one and a half times
as long as wide, shorter than first funicle
segment ; funicle 3-segmented ; first funicle seg-
ment twice as long as wide, longer than follo-
wing segments separately ; segments second and
third subequal in length, each one and a half
times as long as wide ; club 2-segmented, two
and a half times as long as wide (0.19 : 0.07
mm), shorter than preceding two funicle seg-
ments together.

Thorax : Dark with metallic bluish reflec-
tions and reticulately sculptured ; parapsidal
furrows distinct anteriorly by depressions ;
sculpture of scutum and scutellum uniformly
reticulate, similar and with 6 and 2 setae
respectively ; propodeum with median carina
diverging posteriorly.

Fore wings : Hyaline, twice as long as wide
(1.85:0.92 mm); costal cell broad, shorter
than marginal vein ; basalis bare, cubital hair-
row starting beyond the large speculum post-
basale ; submarginal and marginal veins with
3 and 21 setae respectively (fig. O) ; marginal
fringe short, spaced by a distance equal to
one-third their length.

Hind wings : Hyaline, four times as long as
wide ; marginal fringe short, spaced by a dis-
tance equal to one-third their length.

Fore legs : Dark except mid -longitudinal area
of tibiae and basal three tarsal segments white.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

Middle legs : Dark except apex of femora,
base and apical half of tibiae and basal three
tarsal segments white.

Hind legs: Coloration same as middle legs.

Abdomen : Brownish, with purplish reflec-

tions, longer than head and thorax together ;
first abdominal tergite short, one-fourth the
abdominal length ; ovipositor slightly exserted,
arising from base of abdominal venter.

Female length : 2.5 mm.

Holotype : $. India : Uttar Pradesh, Ali-
garh University Campus, ex Dipterous pupae,
10. ix. 1977 (M. Younus Khan).

Acknowledgements

We are deeply indebted to Prof. S. Mashhood
Alam, Head, Department of Zoology, for
providing research facilities. Thanks are also
due to Prof. Nawab H. Khan for encourage-
ment.

References

Ashmead, W.H. (1904) : Classification of the chalcid-
flies of the superfamily Clnlcidoidea, with descriptions
of new species in the Carnegie Museum, collected in
South America by Herbert H. Smith. Mem. Carneg.
Mus. 1 : 225-555.

Askew, R. R. (1962) : Some species of Pediobius
Walker (Hymenoptera, Eulophidae) inhabiting cynipid
oak galls. Entomophaga 7 : 337-342.

Boucek, Z. (1965) : Studies on European Eulophidae,
IV : Pediobius Walk, and two allied genera (Hymenop-
tera). Acta ent. Mus. nat. Prague 36 : 5-90.

Ferriere, C. (1953) : Les parasites de * Lithocolletis
Platani ’ en Italie. Boll. 1st Ent. Univ. Bologna 19 :
395-404.

Gahan, A. B. (1921) : Remarks on the genus Pleuro.
tropis with description of a parasite of Trachelus tabidus
Fabricius (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea). Proc. ent.
Soc. Wash. 23 : 113-120.

(1930) : Synonymical and descriptive notes

on Parasitic Hymenoptera. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus.
11 : 1-12.

(1932): Miscellaneous descriptions and notes

on Parasitic Hymenoptera. Ann. ent. Soc. Am. 25 :
736-757.

Kerrich, G. J. (1970) : On the type material and
synonymy of Elasmus anticles Walker and Pediobius
imbreus Walker (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Orient.
Insects 4 : 89-92.

(1973) : A revision of the Tropical and

Subtropical species of the Eulophid genus Pediobius
Walker (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea). Bull. Brit.
Mus. {Nat. Hist.) Ent. 29 : 115,-199.

Nikolskaya, M. N. (1952) : The chalcid fauna of
the USSR (Chalcidoidea). Opred. Faun. Zool. Inst.
Akad. Nauk SSSR 44 : 575 pp.

Peck, C. (1963) : A Catalogue of the Nearctic Chalci-
doidea (Insecta : Hymenoptera). Canad. Ent. ( Suppl .)
30 : 1092 pp.

Peck, C., Boucek, Z. & Hoffer, A. (1964) : Keys
to the Chalcidoidea of Czechoslovakia (Insecta: Hymen-
optera) Mem . ent. Soc. Canad. 34 : 120 pp.

Walker, F. (1846) : Characters of some undescribed
species of Chalcidites. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 17 : 177-1 85 .

374

A NEW SPECIES OF TETRASTICHUS HALIDAY 1843
(HYMENOPTERA : EULOPHIDAE) FROM HIGH ALTITUDE

OF INDIA1

M. A. Khan2

( With thirteen text-figures)

Genus Tetrastichus Haliday 1843 Tetrastichus atomelSi sp. nov. (Figs. 1-13)

Genotype : Cirrospilus attatus Walker, by original
designation [miser (Nees) ] .

Tetrastichus Haliday, 1843, Trans. Ent. Soc. London,
Vol. 3, p. 297-298 (Type, Cirrospilus attatus Walker).

Tetrastichus Kurdjumov, 1913, Russ. Ent. Obozr
(Rev. Russe Ent.). Yol. 13, p. 253, (Type, Cirrospilus
attatus Walker).

Tetrastichus Gahan, 1914, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol.
48, p. 166, (Type, Cirrospilus attatus Walker).

Tetrastichus Haliday is one of the most easily
recognizable genus of the family Eulophidae.
The genus has been revised by Burks (1943)
proposing stable generic characters. In addi-
tion, some new generic characters have also
been proposed, which will further facilitate the
identification of this genus, viz. (i) sub-genital
plate with anterior margin concave in the
middle, the central notch of its posterior margin
with laterally directed ridges (ii) first valvifers
semicircular, (iii) third valvulae moderate size,
movably articulated with second valvifers, and
(iv) outerplates of ovipositor with a ridge
along basal half of dorsal margin and another
ridge starting at base of dorsal margin and
running obliquely upto middle of plate.

1 Accepted August 1981.

2 Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture,
G. B. Pant University of Agri. & Tech., Pant iagar,
Nainital, U. P., India. Research paper No. 2280 through
the Experiment Station, G.B.P.U. A. & T.

Female :

Head yellowish with some infuscation on
face, antennae light brown with scape yellow-
ish ; thorax golden yellow with dark brown
patches on greater part of pronotum and on
anterior part of scutum, margins of scutum and
scutellum blackish brown ; propodeum dark
brown with golden reflections ; legs yellowish
with some parts infuscated ; abdomen light
brown with golden reflections on dorsum.

Head : (Fig. 1) : Yellowish with some infus-
cation on face, wider than long in frontal aspect
(0.4 : 0.31), width of frons (0.24) between
eyes slightly more than one half of head width,
fronto vertex wider than long (0.3 : 0.18), ocelli
red, arranged in obtuse angle triangle, basal
ocelli removed from eye rim by three diameter
of an ocellus and from occipital margin by
one ocellar diameter, eyes red, short, bare ;
malar space longer than the transverse diameter
of eye ; antennae inserted nearly in centre of
frons, antennal sockets two times as high as
wide, separated by three times the diameter
of a socket, distance between antennal sockets
and eye slightly more than the distance between
two antennal sockets, subocular suture distinct,
mandibles tridentate with red apices (Fig. 2),
maxillary (Fig. 3) and labial palpi (Fig. 4)
each one segmented.

Antennae (Fig. 5) : Light brownish with scape
yellowish, setose ; scape slightly flattened, more
than three times longer than wide (0.22 ; 0.07) ;

375

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Pb/. 79

Figs. 1-13. Tetrastichus atomelli sp. nov. $ 1. Head facial view ; 2. Mandible ; 3. Maxillary palp;

4. Labial palp ; 5. Antenna ; 6. Thorax, dorsal aspect ; 7. Pronotum ; 8. Part of fore wing ; 9. Hind wing ;
10. Part of middle leg ; 11. Eight tergum ; U, Subgenital plate ; 13, Ovipositor,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

pedicel long more than twice as long as
wide (0.11:0.05), distinctly longer than
first funicle segment, funicle with three ring
segments, funicle segments longer than wide,
first and second funicle segments subequal in
size (0.08 : 0.05), 3rd funicle segment slightly
larger in size (0.09 : 0.055) ; club two segmented,
more than three times longer than wide (0.17 :
0.055) longer than preceeding two funicle seg-
ments combined.

Thorax : (Fig. 6) : Golden yellow with
dark brown patches on greater part of prono-
tum and on anterior part of scutum, margins
of scutum and scutellum blackish brown ;
propodeum dark brown with golden reflec-
tions ; posterior margin of the pronotum
(Fig. 7) with ten strong setae ; scutum wider
than long (0.27 : 0.15) with six pairs of adno-
taular bristles ; scutellum (0.21 : 0.13) shorter
than scutum, with two longitudinal dorsal
grooves, two pair of scutellar bristles present ;
metanotum narrow, band like, propodeum
with reticulate sculpture, mesal length of propo-
deum distinctly less than one third as long as
scutum, propodael spiracles contiguous with
anterior margin ; mesopostphragma notched
in the middle and extended beyond the expan-
ded portion of the propodeum.

Fore wings (Fig. 8) : Hyaline, mr re than
twice as long as wide ; costal cell narrow with
six setae ; submarginal vein with five strong
setae ; postmarginal vein absent ; stigmal vein
less than i/3 as long as marginal vein ; marginal
fringe long, spaced by a distance equal to almost
one-fourth length of a fringe.

Hind wings (Fig. 9) : Hyaline, more than
five times longer than wide, submarginal vein
with one strong setae ; marginal vein with
three curved hooklets, marginal fringes long,
spaced by a distance almost one-sixth length
of a fringe.

Fore legs : Yellowish except basal half of
coxae, second and third tarsal segments infus-

ated ; coxae with a cluster of setae on outer
face of basal half and four long, strong setae
on outer rim on distal half, femora compressed.

Middle legs : Uniformly yellowish with
coxae, trochanter, dorsal margin of femora and
last tarsal segment infuscated ; outer rim on
distal half of the coxae with two strong setae ;
tibial spur longer than basitarsus (Fig. 10),
apical rim of tibiae, basitarsus and second tarsal
segment with 2, 1 and 1 leg respectively.

Hind legs : Yellowish except coxae, trochan-
ter, basal half of femora and last tarsal seg-
ment brownish ; tibial spur shorter than basi-
tarsus.

Abdomen : Light brownish with golden reflec-
tions on the dorsum, surface smooth, longer
than thorax, eighth tergite as shown in Fig. 1 1 ;
subgenital plate (Fig. 12) with anterior margin
concave in the middle, central notch of its
posterior margin with laterally directed ridges ;
first valvifers (Fig. 13) semicircular with arti-
cular knobs prominent ; second valvifers long
(Fig. 13) dorsal margin sightly thickened ;
third valvulae (Fig. 13) moderate size, movably
articulated with second valvifers ; outer plates
of ovipositor (Fig. 13) with a ridge along basal
half of dorsal margin and another oblique
ridge starting at the base of dorsal margin
and running obliquely upto middle of plate ;
ovipositor slightly exserted.

Length of female : 1.15 mm.

Male :

Not known.

Holotype : $ India, U.P., Garhwal Hills—
Joshimath (2895 m), ex. Tropicomyza atomella
(Malloch) Diptera : Agromyzidae on Capsicum
annuum L. (M. A. Khan), Hym. Eulo. Typ. Nr.
1001.

Paratype : 1 $, same data as holotype, Hym.

ulo. Typ. Nr. 1002.

377

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

This spscies is more closely related to Tetra-
stichus Oklahoma (Girault) Burks, but differs
from it in the following key characters :

(1) Body black to dark brown with some

parts white or light yellow ; scape slightly excee-
ding level of vertex ; post ocellar and ocello-
cular lines equal in length, first funicle segment
one and one-fifth times as long as second ;
club one and one-fifth times as long as second
segment ; length of malar space five eighths
height of compound eye ; scutum bearing one
and a partial second two of bristle at each lateral
margin ; stigmal vein one fourth as long as
marginal vein. T . Oklahoma (Girault) Burks.

(2) Body yellowish with some brown pat-
ches or infuscation, compound eyes and ocelli
bright red ; apex of scape much below the
level of vertex; ocello-ocular line slightly shorter
than postocellar line ; first and second funicle

segment subequal in length ; club longer than
preceding two funicle segments combined;
malar space almost one half of the height of
compeund eyes ; scutum with a row of bristle
at each lateral margin ; stigmal vein less than

one third as long as marginal vein

T. atomelli sp. nov.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Prof. K. C. Sharma, Dean,
College of Agriculture, Prof. B. P. Pandya,
Director Research, Experiment Station and
Dr. B. P. Khare, Head, Department of Ento-
mology for providing necessary facilities.
Thanks are also due to Dr. V. K. Sehgal,
Associate Professor, Department of Entomo-
logy for the encouragement and identification
of Dipterous host.

Reference

Burks, B. D. (1943) : The north American parasitic
wasps of the Genus Tetrastichus—A contribution to
Biological control of insect pests. P. oc. U.S. Nat. Mus.

A NEW SPECIES OF OPHIORRHIZA L. (RUBIACEAE) FROM

NAGALAND, INDIA1

D. B. Deb and D. C. Mondal2

{ With a text-figure)

Introduction

In course of taxonomic study of the genus
Ophiorrhiza L. (Rubiaceae) in Indian subconti-
nent several gatherings appeared to be new.
The present paper is based on such a
collection from Naga Hill by the late Dr.
N. L. Bor made on two occasions from nearby
localities and distributed to the Forest Research
Institute, Dehra Dun (DD) and the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew (K). C.E.C. Fischer
examined the material and considered it as an
undescribed species, and wished to have more
material. Probably the absence of fruit which
is very characteristic of this genus for distinc-
tion from allied genera made him hesitate in
describing it. No further material has been
collected since then. But several immature
fruits could be located in the specimens which
are sufficiently characteristic to confirm the
generic status. Hence this species is described
and dedicated to the collector, the late Dr.
N. L. Bor.

Ophiorrhiza borii sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

ex affinitate O. t ingens C. B. Clarke ex Fischer
et O. treutleri Hook, f., ab utroque stipulis
subulatis paniculis cymarum helicoidearum
terminalibus, corollaque extus pubescenti.

The species is allied to Ophiorrhiza tingens
C. B. Clarke ex Fischer and O. treutleri Hook. f.

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah, India.

differing from both in subulate stipules, termi-
nal panicle of helicoid cymes and corolla
pubescent outside.

Herbs small; stem erect, unbranched, ridged,
puberulous, intemodes 1-3.5 cm long. Leaves
opposite, decussate, simple, unequally paired,
petiolate ; lamina 3-8 x2-4 cm, ovate or ovate-
elliptic, acute, subacuminate or obtuse at the
apex, entire, acute or attenuated at the base,
puberulous above and on the nerves beneath ;
nerves 8-10 on either side, subopposite ; petioles
0.5-1 cm long, puberulous ; stipules subulate
with a very broad base, sometimes bifid divi-
ding almost to the base, 3-8 mm long, puber-
ulous. Inflorescence terminal panicle of heli-
coid cymes, 2-3.5 cm across, puberulous ;
peduncles 1-2.2 cm long, puberulous. Flowers
bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, 6-8 mm
long, tubular, pink or white tinged with
pink ; pedicels 0.5-1.25 mm long, puberulous ;
bracts 1. 5-5.5 mm long, linear, puberulous ;
bracteoles 1-1.5 mm long, linear puberulous.
Hypanthium 1-1.25 mm x 1.2-1. 5 mm, obovoid,
puberulous. Calyx lobes 5, ovate-lanceolate,
0.5-0. 8 mm X 0.25-0. 5 mm, obtuse, puberulous.
Corolla 5-6.75 mm long, tube 3.75-5.5 mm
long, slightly swollen at the base, ribbed,
pubescent outside, villous below the throat
within; lobes 5, lanceolate, 1-1.5 minx 0.6-
0.75 mm, acute at the apex, inwardly curved,
strongly keeled at the back. Stamens 5, epi-
petalous, adnate to the corolla-tube below the
middle, inserted ; filaments 0.3-0. 5 mm
long ; anthers 1.2-1. 5 mm long, linear

37?

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

3mm

3mm

Fig. 1. Ophiorrhiza borii sp. nov. A. habit ; B. flower ; C. flower split open ; D, stamen ; E. fruit
(immature).

380

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

2-lobed, 4-celled, dorsifixed, introrse, dehiscing
longitudinally. Pollen grains oblate-spheroidal,
semilobate in polar outline, polar axis (P)x
equatorial axis (E)=30 p — (31/x)-33 px32 p—
(34ft)-37/x, 3-colporate ; colpi 29p-32p x 6p —
6.5ft, tapering to obtuse ends ; ora circu-
lar, 6p-lp in diameter, distributed at the equa-
torial zone ; exine 1.75ft in thickness, sexine
1.5ft, nexine 0.2 5ft, rugulo- reticulate ; lumina
0.75ft— Ip, muri 0.5ft — 0.75ft. Ovary 1-1.2 X 1.2-
1.4 mm, 2-loculed, with many ovules on axile
placenta ; disk 0. 5-0.7 mm high, 0.6-1 mm
wide, fleshy, 2-lobed ; style as long as corolla,
pubescent ; stigma capitate, bifid, 0. 3-0.4
mm X 0.2-0. 3 mm, papillate exserted. Capsules
(immatured) obcordate, compressed, puberu-
lous, internally 2-loculed.

Flowering time : June.

Occurrence : Nagaland : Naga Hill, Zul-

hami and Thekubama at an altitude of about
1800 m.

Type : India : Nagaland, Naga Hill, Zulhami,
about 1800 m, 24-6-1935, N.L. Bor 4471 (holo-
type DD ; isotype K) ; Naga Hill, Thekubama,
about 1800 m, 19th June 1935, N. L. Bor 4465
(paratypes DD, K).

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Director, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, U. K. and Officer-in-
Charge, Systematic Botany Branch, Forest
Research Institute, Dehra Dun, for loan of
specimens. Thanks are also due to Dr. S. K.
Jain, Director, Botanical Survey of India for
granting a Research Scholarship to one of the
authors (D.C.M.) and for facilities.

381

TWO MORE NEW SPECIES OF IMPATIENS L. FROM

SOUTH INDIA1

V. Bhaskar2 and B. A. Razi3 * *

( With a plate)

Impatiens L. (Balsaminaceae) has its greatest
development in the Indian region and is remar-
kably local and has maximum amplitude in
two well defined regions, namely the Himalaya
in the North and the Western Ghats in the
South. There is no doubt in respect of
Impatiens , the Western Ghats are the second
richest area in the subcontinent and perhaps
in the world. The genus contains over
200 species in India, of which 86 species
occur in South India as reported earlier by
Hooker (1904), Gamble (1915), Blatter (1933),
Fischer (1936), and Barnes (1939). Among
them, at least 90 per cent of the species are
restricted to hills of South India. The most
important centre of speciation of this genus
being in South India (Bhaskar 1981), the
species of Impatiens have an individuality
separate from those recorded from the north
or elsewhere. Two of the sections viz .,
6 Scapigerae ’ and ‘ Epiphyticae ’ are exclu-
sively confined to peninsular India. A new
6 Epiphyticae ’ species /. urceolata Bhaskar has

1 Accepted October 1981.

2 Postgraduate Department of Botany, Manasagan-

gotri, Mysore University, Mysore-560 065, India.
Present address : Department of Farm Forestry,

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore-
560 065.

3 Survey of medicinal plants unit, Govt. Central

Pharmacy, Jayanagar, Bangalore-560 011. Present

address : Convenor-Secretary, Karnataka Association

for advancement of Science, C/o. Dept, of Mathe-
matics, Central College, Bangalore.

been already recorded as a new species from
South India (Bhaskar and Grey- Wilson, in
press). Endemisim in Impatiens has also been
reflected in their pollen characters and a ‘pollen
variety ’ of /. acaulis has been reported
(Bhaskar et al. 1975). During the study on
the South Indian Impatiens two more balsams
have been found to be new to science and are
described in this paper.

Section : 6 Scapigerae *

Impatiens agumbeana sp. nov.

Differt a I. stocksii et /. lawsonii calcari cylin-
draceo distincto ad 4 mm longo includenti
distinctaque ‘ auricula dorsali’ 3-4 mm longa ;
lobo distali alae leviter lobato ; alis libere-
dichotome venosis.

Differs from its near relatives I. stocksii
and I. lawsonii in having a distinct cylindrical
spur, about 4 mm long, enclosing a distinct
‘ dorsal auricle ’ 3-4 mm long, and a slightly
lobed distal lobe of wing, wings with open dicho-
tomous venation.

Epiphytic scapigerous perennial herb, c. 10 cm
tall, tuberous ; leaves 2-5, radical ; petiole 3-4
cm long, filiform ; lamina 1.5-1 cm, ovate,
obtuse, base acute, margins faintly cre-
nate, crenatures minutely apiculate, pubes-
cent above ; flowers in erect scapes, pinkish ;
scape c. 10 cm long, slender ; bracts linear or
ovate ; pedicels filiform, c. 1 cm long, glab-

382

Je Bombay nat* Hist. Soc. 79 Plate

Bhaskar & Razi : New sp. of Impatiens L.

Left : I. agumbeana sp. nov. : 1. Sepal ; 2. Lip with spur ; 3. Wing petal with dorsal auricle ; 4. Seed with hairs.

Right : /. raziana sp.nov.: 1. The plant; 2. a flower ; 3. Standard ; 4. Pubescent pedicel : 5. Linear sepals ; 6. Sex organs ; 7. Fruit ;
8. Wing petal ; 9. Lip with a rudimentary spur.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

rous ; sepals ovate, acute, base slightly cordate,
3-nerved, lateral nerves with a short upcurved
vein not reaching the apex, margins entire; lip
flat, spathulate, 4 mm long ; spur straight,
5 mm long, slightly curved, obtuse, cylindrical ;
standard orbicular; wings 11 mm long, 3
lobed, distal lobes more or less confluent,
proximal lobe distinct and smaller ; dorsal
auricle prominent, c. 4 mm long, venation
open dichotomous ; capsules ovoid, many
seeded ; seeds oblong, brownish, hairy, hairs
dense and elongated at either ends of seeds,
spirally banded.

The species is named after the place of its
collection. It is a rare epiphytic species occur-
ring on huge tree trunks with; moss and hygros-
copic ferns in sholas. In I. stocksii and Llawsonii
which are the near relatives of /. agumbeana
wings have reticulate venation while in the pre-
sently described taxon wings have open-dichoto-
mous venation. There is also difference in the
chromosome number in all the three species.
In /. agumbeana n=8, whereas in /. stocksii
and I. lawsonii n=7 and n=10 respectively.

Type : Bhaskar 386, Agumbe, Shimoga Dist.
(Karnataka), 29-9-1973 : Isotypes have been
deposited in the Herbarium, Manasagangotri,
Mysore University (MGM), FIs. and frts :
July-September.

Section : 6 Annuae 9
Impatiens raziana sp. nov.

Proxime aflinis ad speciem collectivam /
oppositifoliam-I. chinensem-I. rivulicolam, tamen
differt habitu prostrato, caule quadrangulato,
floribus scarlatinis, labello cum calcaro minuto
vel rudimentario parum labelli basi exoriente.

Closely related to species complex of I. opposU
tifolia — I. chinensis — I. rivulicola , but differs in
having scarlet flowers, prostrate habit with

quadrangular stem ; lip with very minute or
rudimentary spur arising slightly above the
base of lip.

Annual herbs, prostrate or procumbent, 6 cm
long, rooting at nodes, roots fibrous ; branch-
lets arising from basal nodes, opposite, 7-8 cm
long ; stems quadrangular, glabrous, herba-
ceous ; leaves opposite, ovate or spathulate,
4x7 mm, base attenuate, exstipulate, petio-
late, apex obtuse, glabrous ; flowers solitary,
axillary, scarlet, erect ; pedicels 7 mm long,
very finely pubescent ; sepals linear, elliptic,
faintly serrulate, veins 3, median distinct, furun-
culate, furuncles parallel ; lip with a very
minute spur, arising slightly above the base
of lip, lip yellow-tinged, acute ; standard ovate,
more or less mucronate, glabrous ; wings ovate,
2-lobed, smaller lobe fin-shaped, transparent,
honey guides prominent ; filaments subulate,
unequal ; carpels ovoid, 2 mm long ; capsules
glabrous, 3-5 mm long, 2-4 seeded ; seeds shiny,
black, smooth, globose.

A rare scarlet balsam, which occurs on grassy
plains near Kotegehar, associated with Justi-
cias, Borrerias and grasses. The species very
closely resembles Lindernias from a distance
and escapes notice. Its pollen mass is scarlet
in colour. The species is named after Prof.
B. A. Razi, former professor of Botany, Mysore
University.

Type : Bhaskar 311, Kotegehar, Charmad
Ghat (Chickmaglore Dist.), Karnataka,
26-8-1972. Isotypes have been deposited in the
Herbarium, Manasagangotri, Mysore University
(MGM). FIs. and frts. : August-September.

Acknowledgements

We are greatly indebted to Dr. K. M.
Matthew, St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli

383

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. 79

for the latin version and for critically going
through the manuscript. We are also grateful
to Dr. S. N. Yoganarasimhan, Survey Officer,
SMPU, Bangalore and Dr. M. A. Rau, Rtd.
Deputy Director of Botanical Survey of India

for their invaluable suggestions and encourage-
ment rendered throughout this study. This
study was supported through the award of a
Senior Research Fellowship to V. B. by the
C.S.I.R., New Delhi.

References

Barnes, E. (1939): The species of Geraniaceae occur-
ring on the Travancore High Range, including the
description of a new balsam. Journ. Indian bot. Soc.
18 (3) : 95-105.

Bhaskar, V. (1981) : The genus Impatiens L. in South
India : Endemism and affinities. Indian For. 107 (6) :
368-376.

Bhaskar, V., Razi, B. A. and Yoganarasimhan,
S. N. (1975) : A ‘ pollen variety ’ of Impatiens acaulis
Arn. (Balsaminaceae). Curr. Sci. 44 (7) : 622-623.

Blatter, E. (1933) : Revision of the flora of Bombay
Presidency : Balsaminaceae. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 36 (2) : 307-320.

Fischer, C. E. C. (1936) : In Gamble’s Flora of
Madras Presidency. Calcutta 3 : 1293-1295.

Gamble, J. S. (1915) : Flora of the Presidency of
Madras. Calcutta. 1 : 440-483.

Hooker, J. D. (1904) : An epitome of the British
Indian species of Impatiens. Rec. bot. Surv. India 4.
(1) : 1-10.

384

A NEW PTERIS FROM SILENT VALLEY, KERALA1

S. R. Ghosh and R. K. Ghosh2

( With three text-figures)

During an expedition to Siient Valley, Palghat
District, Kerala organised by the Botanical Sur-
vey of India in the month of April-May, 1980,
the junior author collected some interesting
specimens of Pteris new to science. The species
was found in association with Bolbitis and
Egenolfia growing on rocky slopes in the ever-
green, dense forest of Silent Valley where sun-
light does not penetrate. The species was con-
fined to such areas only.

The new species is closely related to P. cretica
Linn, whose occurrence in South India was
doubted (Nair & Ghosh 1970) but differs from it
in having the margin of sterile frond entire and

Pteris multiaurita Ag. in having simple forked
veins and creeping rhizome.

Pteris sllent-valliensls sp. nev.

P. cretica L. aifinis, a qua differt fronde
sterili ad marginem, Integra, pinnisque
paucioribus. A Pteris multiaurita Ag., veins
simplicibus furcatis, rhizomate repenti differt

Rhizome e rectum, squamatum ; fronde s
caespitosae, dimorphae, simplicitor pinnatae,
25-60 cm. longae, frons fertilis fronde sterili
majore, stipes parpureus, ad basin niger,
triangularis, sulcatus, laevis, glaber, nitens,
filo metallico similis, rhachidi multo longior,
plerumque maximus in fronde fertile. Stipes
frondium sterilium 12-20 cm, longus, hie fron-
dium fertilium 15-45 cm longus. Pinnae

1 Accepted January 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden,
Howrah-711 103 (W.B.).

Fig. 1. Photograph of Pteris silent-valliensis sp. nov.

laterrales in paribus 2-8 oppositis, pinnae
terminales illis lateralibus similes, non decur-
rentes, imum par inferius vel duo paria infe-
rionce bipartita, Pinnae 10-20 cm longae,
5-12 mm latae, glabrae, nitidae, virides, coria-
ceae, petiolatae, pinnae steriles majores latio-
r:sq 13, ad marginem integrae, ad opicum

10

385

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

denticulatae, vanae semel furcatae, pat elites,
prominentes, Rachis nuda, laevis, veridula.
Sorus continuus secus marginem, indusium
membranaceus, sporae bnmneae, tetrahedrales.

Fig. 2. Apex of the pinnae showing denticulation.
Fig. 3. Rhizome scale.

Holotypus lectus ad locum Silent Valley,
Palghat, Kerala, die 21-4-80 a Vohra et Ghosh
56301 et positus in CAL, sub numero collec-
tione.

Isotypi Vohra et Ghosh 56301 positi in CAL,
et MH.

Pteris silent-valliensis sp. nov.

Rhizome erect, scaly, fronds tufted, dimor-
phous, simply pinnate, 25-60 cm long, fertile
frond larger than sterile one ; stipe purple, base
black, triangular, grooved, smooth, glabrous,
shining, wiry, much larger than the rachis,
usually largest in fertile frond. Stipe of the
sterile fronds 12-20 cm long, of fertile frond
15-45 cm long. Lateral pinnae 2-8 opposite
pairs, terminal pinnae similar to lateral ones,
not decurrent, lower one or two pairs bipartite,
Pinnae 10-20 cm long, 5-12 mm broad, glab-
rous, glossy, green, coriaceous, petiolate,
margin of the pinnae entire, apex of the sterile
pinnae denticulate ; Rachis naked smooth,
greenish, veins once forked, patent, prominent.
Sorus continuous along the margin, Indusium
membranaceous, spores brown, tetrahedral.

Holotype : way to Kuntipuzha river, Silent
Valley, Palghat, Kerala, Vohra et Ghosh 56301,
21-4-1980 (CAL).

Isotype : way to Kuntipuzha river, Silent

Valley, Palghat, Kerala, Vohra et Ghosh
56301 (CAL, MH).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. J. N. Vohra, Regional
Botanist, Cryptogamic Section, Botanical Sur-
vey of India, Howrah and Dr. N. C. Nair,
Joint Director, Southern Circle, Botanical Sur-
vey of India. We also express gratitude to
Dr. N. C. Mazumdar, Systematic Botanist,
Central National Herbarium for his latin des-
cription of the species.

Reference

Nair, N. C. and Ghosh, S. R. (1970) : Pteris qiiad -
riaurita Retz. and a few related taxa in Kerala State.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 : 440.

386

REVIEWS

1. A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN— together

WITH THOSE OF NEPAL, BHUTAN, BANGLADESH AND SRI LANKA. By SIDNEY

Dillon Ripley II. 2nd Edition, pp. xxvi+652 (25 x 17 cm). Bombay, 1982
Bombay Natural History Society Price Rs. 100

In 1961, the distinguished author published
the first edition of A synopsis of the birds
of India and Pakistan, at a time when he
already had about 35 years of association with
the region, and an unrivalled first-hand know-
ledge of the avifauna of Sri Lanka as well as
the north-eastern Himalayas. The first synop-
sis was undoubtedly a major landmark in
advancing knowledge about the sub-continent’s
bird life, comparable in importance with the
publication between the two world wars, of
the eight volume fauna of British India
series, authored by Stuart Baker. Perhaps
more important it was within the financial reach
of a much wider readership and here, briefly
the reviewer would like to acknowledge the
tremendous personal debt which he derived
from this first synopsis, enabling him after
years of frustration to develop a serious interest
in the region’s bird life.

As stated in the introduction of the 2nd revised
synopsis, the 1961 version formed the basis
upon which the ten volume Handbook series
(jointly authored by Dr. Salim Ali and Dr.
Dillon Ripley) was published between the years
1969 and 1974. Now, after an interval of over
twenty years, there was an obvious need for a
revision of the synopsis especially in view of
recent advances in knowledge of less accessible
regions, as well as the development of studies
in such fields in ethology, ecto-parasites, egg-
white protein and genetics, which have thrown
new light on phylogenetic relationships. Because
of his heavy public responsibilities as Secretary

of the famous Smithsonian Institute, not to
speak of other multifarious duties as President
of the International Council for Bird Preserva-
tion and other conservation bodies, the work of
revising this 2nd edition appears to have been
prolonged over a period of nearly ten years,
and indeed it is a wonder that such a painstaking
and time consuming task of revision was
accomplished at all.

The 2nd edition of the synopsis attempts
to review and bring up to date the latest taxono-
mic thinking on the avian systematics and the
fauna of the region, whilst at the same time
highlighting briefly the available information
on the status and distribution of each species
and sub-species listed. When it is realised
that more than 1200 species are covered with a
total of 2060 separate sub-species, the comple-
xity and enormous range of such an under-
taking can be appreciated. The great strength
of this 2nd edition, lies in its coverage of the
north-eastern Himalayan region and parti-
cularly Sikkim, Bhutan and northern Assam
resulting from the author’s own personal inte-
rest in and many expeditions to these relatively
inaccessible regions. Also the comprehensive
coverage and new information of the Nicobar
and Andaman group of islands (largely as a
result of the work done by that doyen of Indian
ornithologists, Humayun Abdulali), and also
of the avifauna of Nepal, largely as a result
of the meticulous recording of the Bob Fle-
mings senior and junior, (see various Fieldiana
publication cited in the synopsis).

387

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

If the synopsis has any weaknesses, these
stem from the difficulty of trying to convey
meaningful information with the necessity of
condensation and simplification, and this parti-
cularly with respect to the comments about
each sub-species, habitat preferences and dis-
tributional status. One could draw the reader’s
attention to the short descriptive passage on
habitat preferences for Emberiza striolata (No.
2057 in both editions), whereby a comparison
with the 1961 version will show the care and
detail which has gone into trying to make the
2nd edition more precise and meaningful.
Nevertheless because of the wide range of cli-
matic, edaphic and elevational factors, affec-
ting the environment selected as living space
by birds, there is a d inger of over-simplification
in the categorisation of geographic or forest
types used for these descriptions, as well as the
distributional information, to the point where
the complexity of factors determining a species
habitat requirements may be masked. To
cite but two examples, the phrase ‘ resident,
subject to vertical movements’, fails to convey
the great variation in movements which actually
occurs in many montane breeding species. For
example the more palearctic Sittid.e show
remarkably little altitudinal movement even in
severe winter conditions according to this
reviewer’s observations in Pakistan, whereas
the Certhidae certainly do, yet both families
are described in the synopsis in the same
phrase, ‘resident, subject to vertical movements’.
To take another example describing habitat
or breeding range biotope, one could quote
the reference to Myiophonus caeruleus which
the synopsis describes as ‘ frequenting rivers
and torrents, preferably in heavy forest and not
in bare country Cliffs and running water
this thrush certainly seems to need, but in
Baluchistan and to a lesser extent even in Cnitral,
many breeding pairs can be found in country
totally devoid even 'of stunted bushes.

In the field of taxonomy there will always be
a divergence of opinion and controversy, and
many specialists will disagree with the treatment
given to some of the species in this synopsis,
but all such taxonomic reviews are becoming
increasingly indispensable even to the so-called
‘field worker’, and human understanding
often advances more surely where there has
been some controversy. Hence this reviewer
is confident of the lasting value of this 2nd
edition and in the critical comments that follow,
it is intended only to convey the stimulus that
such a publication is bound to elicit.

With his encyclopaedic knowledge, it might
seem invidious to single out any particular
sections of the synopsis for special merit,
but it can fairly be stated, that the author is
one of the world’s leading authorities on the
Timaliinae (Babblers, Laughing Thrushes etc.)
and the Rallidae and his treatment of these
two families/sub-families makes an especially
significant contribution. There is quite a major
re-arrangement in the sequence of species listed
under Ralldae, and this would surely have
been more valuable if accompanied by a more
adequate explanation of the author’s prefe-
rences. Every major new review of taxonomic
status should aim at trying to reach a consensus
and for this reason, a liberal use of footnotes
and commentary is not only unavoidable but
extremely helpful. Reverting to the Timaliinae,
its continued relegation in the synopsis to
sub-famdy status and more primitive phylo-
genetic origins than say the Sylvidae seems to
ignore recent discussions about the characters
of this distinct group (Sibley 1970 : Compara-
tive Study of Egg-white Proteins of Passerine
Birds. Bull. Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. 32)
as well as such behaviourists as Simmons (1963.
Avicult. Mag.: 69) and such systematists

as May and Greenway (1956 : Sequence of
Passerine Families : Brevidra. Mus. Comp.
Zool. : 58).

REVIEWS

The elevation of seven sub-species to full speci-
fic rank, in this 2nd edition is of special interest,
as indeed are the total of 35 new species added
to the 1961 list. Examples; of the former,
include Rhyticeros plicatus the Narcondam
Hornbill and Turdoides rufescens the Ceylon
Rufous Babbler representing regions where the
synopsis has unrivalled coverage. Sterna
saunders ii the Black-shafted Little Tern with
which the reviewer is familiar on its breeding
territories around Karachi, seems to exhibit
less extreme variation in bill and leg colour and
wing-tip pattern than many accepted races of
the Common Tern Sterna hirundo from, for
example, the Southeast Pacific region. The
Kashmir Red-breasted Flycatcher ( MuscU
capa suhrubra ), with its markedly different
vocalisations and sub-adult male /female plu-
mage patterns when compared with the East
European breeding population, would certainly
seem to warrant full specific separation.

Considering some of the new species listed,
perhaps the most interesting is Brachypteryx
cryptica, the Enigmatic Shortwing, putting the
author alongside that handful of men who
have experienced the excitement and renown
of discovering new species of birds within the
past half century. Four new species are listed
for which there are no sight records but which
are known to occur in adjacent territories,
such as the oceanic Gadfly Petrels, Bulweria
fallax and B. bulwerii , and also the north-eas-
tern Tibetan Black Woodpecker ( Dryocopus
miritus) and the Streak-throated Tit Babbler
(Alcippe striaticollis). The probability of these
species being discovered within the territories
covered by the synopsis is certainly high,
but their inclusion seems to be quite inconsis-
tent with the basis for inclusion of the rest
of the species in the synopsis, and especially
with the deliberate exclusion of Pious viridis
bampurensis , collected from an area very close
to the border of Baluchistan (in Fars Province

of Iran), Even if Bumpur was wrongly des-
cribed as falling within Pakistan territory in
the 1st edition, the region is ecologically
identical to the adjacent Chaghai District of
Baluchistan, where Picus squamatus has been
recorded. It would have been more valuable
to know whether Zarudny’s identification of
Picus viridis was supported by specimens.

There are some instances of the continued
maintenance of sub-specific status for birds
which in a consensus view seem to merit full
specific status. Two examples are Otus scops
sunia , with its exclusively non-palearctic distri-
bution, and stereotyped very distinct breeding
season calls, which is generally recognised
nowadays, as a separate species, Otus sunia ,
the Eastern Scops Owl (see Gallagher and
Woodcock, Birds of Oman, and 4 Vocalisations
of Indo-Pakistan Scops Owls Roberts and
King in press). The second is Lanins ccllurio
isabellinus , admittedly a representative of a
taxonomically very difficult group. Several
recent authorities have argued the merits for
elevation to full specific rank, viz. L. isabellinus
(see Stresemann, Portenko and Mauersberger,
1971, VogJ 3, Berlin Akad.VerL, and de Voous,
Brit. Birds, Vol. 72, No. 12), and because of its
remarkably different plumage pattern (espe-
cially tail) and breeding distribution at least
within Pakistan territory, this distinction seems
warranted.

It should be stressed that all such examples
are minor questions of personal opinion but
their resolution will undoubtedly help every
serious field biologist to understand better the
ecological requirements or the factors leading
to genetic and breeding separation of the
different species found in this faunistically rich
and diverse region.

In conclusion, the reviewer would like to
comment upon one important and perplexing
area of information in this revised synopsis.

389

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , F<?/. 79

This relates to the described status and distri-
bution of species in the north-western part
of the sub-continent, where the paucity of recent
reliable observers has certainly resulted in too
great a reliance upon out-dated distributional
information and even in some cases a too uncriti-
cal acceptance of earlier records. After thirty-
five years residence in this northwestern region
the reviewer admits to a heavy bias in such an
over view.

To give some examples one may cite some
of the records for Baluchistan, based upon
C B Ticehurst’s papers (J.B.N.H.S. Vol.
XXXI, 1926 Parts I& II, and Vol. XXXII,
1927 Part III pp. 687-771, pp. 862-881 &
pp. 66-97). Though the author admits to
very little personal acquaintance with the
region and compiles his paper from earlier
workers publications as well as unpublished
manuscripts and various skin collections, it
must be well accepted that he was a meticulous
and highly discerning ornithologist, whose
opinions would always merit careful consi-
deration. However personal familiarity with
the region covering over a score of field trips
of which eight or nine were during the spring
nesting season, would indicate that the Red-
headed Tit Aegithalos concinnus certainly does
not occur in Ziarat or any high elevation
dry Juniperus biotope, whilst Ember iza bruniceps
the Red-headed Bunting only migrates as far
south as northern Baluch istan in certain years
and there is no evidence of its ever having bred
there (despite W. D. Cummings manuscript
notes and the nest of this species he purported
to have sent to Dr. Ticehurst). Another exam-
ple is the uncritical acceptance of Colonel Ratt-
rays records for the Murree Hills (Birds Nesting
in the Murree Hills and Gallies, J.B.N.H.S.,
Vol. 16, 1904 & Vol. 16 No. 3, 1905) Colonel
Rattray according to his own record relied
heavily upon ‘native collectors’ and none of
his skins are preserved in any museum collec-

tion though he often averred that ‘he shot
the female off the nest, to make certain of
identification ’. Thus, such species as the
Drongo Cuckoo ( Surniculus lugubris ), which
parasitises exclusively on Garrulax species not
Dicruridae, whose egg Rattray claimed to have
collected, as well as Ictinaetus malayensis,
Phylloscopus reguloides , and Phylloscopus tfo-
chiloides (see Handbook Volume 9, pp. 167)
seem to be listed as occurring in the Murree
Hills on the basis of Colonel Rattray’s papers.
A familiarisation with the breeding songs of
all the Phylloscopi in Pakistan, and many years
of staying in these hills during the spring and
summer months indicates to the reviewer
that at least during recent decades these parti-
cular species have not bred in the Murree
Hi!ls, if indeed they even occurred as stragglers.
Other puzzling distributional records, worthy
of mention, are the inclusion of the Murree
Hills for the Rufouschinned Laughing Thrush
( Garrulax rufogularis) on the basis of Stoliczka’s
record of Changla Gali, July 1873. NoB.N.H.S.
or British Museum skins exist west of the Punjab
Hill States in India, and because of the profound
ecological changes which have occurred due
to human population pressure in these Murree
Hills, it is about as relevant to cite an 1873
observation, as to quote the sighting in the
1920’s of Carolina Parakeets in the Florida
Everglades.

Similarly a study of Hugh Wnistler’s compre-
hensive manuscript notes, as well as extant skin
collections in Bombay and Tring, has failed to
clarify why Marshall’s Iora (Aegithina nigro -
luted) is included as occurring in N.W.F.P.
and Pakistan Punjab, or whv the Allied
Grosbeak (Mycerobus) Coccothraustes affinis in
the revised synopsis is recorded as occurring
in the Murree Hills. Indeed the record for
the Allied Grosbeak seems to stem from an
examination of skins of unknown origin (‘ The
Hills beyond Murree ’) to quote by Surgeon

390

REVIEWS

General L. C. Stewart in 1886. These two
examples are mentioned because they are so
much at variance with the present-day known
distribution of these two species, both so
conspicuous in coloration and loud vocalisa-
tions as to be difficult to escape notice.

As our knowledge of the distribution of India’s
avifauna is increasing with new distributional
records coming to notice almost month by
month, it is clear that no attempt to record
the range of species can be final or without
shortcomings and a reference to the revised
Handbooks citation about the present distri-
bution of the Orange-headed Ground Thrush
(Zoothera citrina), No. 1733 in the revised

synopsis, together with a recent note recording
the occurrence of this species close to Islamabad
(see Roberts, J.B.N.H.S., Yol. 78 No. 1, 1981,
Misc. notes pp. 73-76) should testify to the
fallibility of the reviewer himself in such
matters.

To conclude, tne revised synopsis is a worthy
successor to the first edition, indispensible to
any serious student of Indian ornithology and
the oriental zoogeographic region, and this
reviewer is grateful for the opportunity which it
offers for improving our knowledge and under-
standing of the region.

T. J. ROBERTS

2. THE PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, AND SNIPES OF THE WORLD.
By Paul A. Johnsgard. pp. 491 (28 x 21.5 cm) with 60 coloured and 60 mono-
chrome plates and numerous line drawings and distribution maps in the text.
Lincoln & London, 1981. University of Nebraska Press. Price $ 45.00.

The Shorebirds or ‘ Waders ’ as a class are
very richly represented in the northern hemis-
phere, the Nearctic and Palearctic Regions
possessing by far the largest number of breeding
species. They are very poorly represented
in the southern hemisphere where the two
major subfamilies Calidrinae and Trynginae
are totally absent as breeding birds. Plovers,
Snipes and Sandpipers are not found on the
mainland of Antarctica at all. No worldwide
approach to the shorebirds had been attempted
since Henry Seebohm’s (1888) classical mono-
graph. Their taxonomy remains somewhat
unsettled and controversial partly in view o^
the great diversity in their breeding biology and
the crucial importance ethology has acquired
in avian taxonomy since Seebohm’s day. The
breeding biology of shorebirds is enormously
variable. There is greater diversity in their
mating systems than perhaps in any other
Order of birds : there is, among them, Mono-

gamy, Bigamy, Polygamy (both polygyny and
polyandry) as well as promiscuity — the last
perhaps commoner than hitherto realized.
By the special stress it lays on the behaviour
patterns of breeding shorebirds the book under
review is notable, as it also is for the compre-
hensive and workmanlike diagnostic keys it
provides to Classes, Families, Subfamilies,
Tribes and Genera — a feature not available in
any other modern work on this universally
popular group of birds. Furthermore, the
natal plumage pattern of shorebirds is also
of great significance in classification ; thus the
illustrations of the downy young of as many
species as possible make a particularly useful
feature.

The main text covers all the shorebirds of
the world as named in the title of the book,
with general descriptions and identification
keys split up into genera, species (and subspecies

391

JOURNAL , B DM JAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. 79

if any) with their ranges and breeding distri-
butions clearly shown on line imps. Most of
the species are beautifully illustrated with
line drawings of the complete bird or its head
profile, and many also with their diagnostically
patterned downy young. In addition to these
are 60 beautiful and well chosen colour plates
and an equal number of black-and-white ones
to round off the general excellence of the
publication.

The descriptions of individual species cover
information collated from widely scattered
sources, but is largely based also on the author’s
personal observations and on as yet unpubli-
shed research. The section on Natural History
(which includes habitats and foods, social
behaviour, reproductive bicdogy, status and

relationships), is the most fascinating and infor-
mative for the serious bird watcher as well as
the professional biclogist.

The appearance of this beautiful and autho-
ritative work on the shorebirds of the world
is timely and welcome, not only because nothing
so comprehensive was available before but also
because it comes from the author of that modern
classic, ‘Ducks, Geese and Swans of the
World ’ — which sets the zeal of excellence
upon it. No good ornithological library can
afford to do without this book, and — since
shorebirds are among the most fascinating,
abundant and easy -to -watch birds anywhere-
no serious bird watcher should be without it.

sAlim ali

3. EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS, MESOPOTAMIAN ECOLOGY AND
DESTINY. By Julian Rzoska. pp. x -f- 122 (24.5x16 cm) with 36 text-
figures. The Hague — Boston — London, 1980. Dr. W. Junk bv Publishers.
Price Dutch Guilders 60.00 ; US $ 31.50.

This small book, comprising Volume 38 of
the Monographiae Biologicae series, is the
third one dealing with rivers, having been
preceded by those dealing with the Nile and
the Volga.

It is divided into two parts, viz, (I) the land
and its life, and (II) Mesopotamian waters,
regime and hydrobiology. Part I — the smaller

of the two (27 pages), has three chapters,
dealing with the land, its geology, climate,
soils, vegetation (including crops) and archaeo-
logy. The author opines that this general
setting is necessary so as to give a background
against which the second, main, part can be
properly assessed.

Tiie second part, with eight chapters, has a
more proper bearing on the hydrobiology of

the region, comprising present-day Iraq. Even
here, the author has thought fit to devote an
entire chapter on Near East waters, viz. Lake
Kinneret (more popularly remembered as the
Sea of Galilee), the Dead Sea, and waters of
Iran and of the Azraq Oasis.

At last, in Chapter 5, we come to what pro-
perly constitutes the studies bearing on the title
cf the book, covering the origin of these rivers,
their length and slopes, hydrology and currents,
their use as channels for communication and as
life arteries for man. The development of
marshes and deltas leading to the Shaft al-
Arab through the ages has been vividly des-
cribed with the help of six maps.

The next chapter, written by J. F. Tailing,
brings us to the classical aspects of hydrobiology,

3 92

REVIEWS

such as temperature, salinity, turbidity, and
chemical composition. Chapter 6A, also by
the same person, deals with phytoplankton.

Water vegetation, animal life and benthos
are covered in Chapter 7, together with excerpts
on malaria and mosquitoes extracted from a
book published by the London School of
Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 1950.

The last chapter, written by K. E. Banister,
is a fairly detailed account oi the fishes ot the
two rivers.

This book is certainly a new approach to the
study ol Ireshwater resources and the author
has treated the contained material in a cohe-
rent manner. Its scientific terminology and
concept seem definitely oriented toward the
lay reader, but the format and depth of cove-
rage are probably more suited to a collegiate
level. -

The book’s real failing lies in its brevity.
By attempting to condense into a little over a
hundred pages what ought to have filled a
tome, the author has failed to do justice to its
contents. Of course, the magnitude of refe-
rences is very impressive, and the author,
with his interdisciplinary approach , has obviously
done a lot of patient researching in libraries.

It may surprise many readers that the
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society
was instrumental in publicising the fauna of
Iraq with a series of excellent papers between
1929 and 1922, the most oustanding being on
(1) butterflies, (2j Hymenoptera, (3) Orthoptera,

(4) freshwater Crustacea, (5) Birds and (6)
mammals by (1) Peile, (2) Morice, (3) Chopard,
Uvarov, (4) Gurney, (5) Ticehurst, Buxton and
Cheesman and (6) Cheesman respectively. A
note on the Arabian ostrich by S. H. Prater also
stands out conspicuously. The author has
drawn freely from the ‘ Handbook of Iraq
and the Persian Gulf’ issued by Naval Intelli-
gence, Great Britain during 1944 — even now a
most comprehensive source of information
though quite outdated.

Printed on glossy art paper, which does justice
to the many photographs therein, the book is
well edited. Even then, a few errors have
crept in, mainly with place-names. Thus the
word 4 Sumerian ’ has been variously misspelt
as ‘Sumercan’ (page 22, line 11) and 4 Sumeri-
can ’ (page 47, line 26), 4 Amman ’ as ‘ Ammam’
(page 35, third paragraph), and 'Mesopotamia’
as 4 Mesopotania ’ (map facing page 108).
Other minor errors are 4 scinks ’ instead of
4 skinks ’ on page 13 (last paragraph), and

4 erosion products have began. . . . ’ on

line 5 of page 52. The author has used the
words 4 Persian ’ and 4 Arabian ’ Gulf inter-
changeably at several places, possibly to avoid
offending political diehards.

If the reader finds the book too superficial,
its real failing lies not with the author, but
with users who do not heed his admission, in
his Introduction to the book, that the book
offers only a 4 birds eye view ’. Priced at a
hefty US $ 31.50, it is an excellent source-book
of references for the Iraqophile, but definitely
not for the common Indian or ecologist.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

4. MATERIAL FOR A FLORA OF THE TAMILNADU CARNATIC.
Volume I — Documentation Volume. By K. M. Matthew, pp. x -i-469
(25 x 17 cm) with 20 plates and 2 maps. Tiruchirapalli, 1981. Published by
Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph’s College, Price Rs. 100, £ 15.00, $ 40.00

This is the first — Documentary Volume— of
the proposed three-volume flora of a part of
the Tamilnadu State, which covers almost 25%
of the total area of the state. This volume
consists of three parts. The first part deals with
the reasons for selecting this particular area,
topography of the region and various tradi-
tional methods used in this investigation.
The second part consists of the actual docu-
mentation or the check-list of citations of
32,000 specimens belonging to 2376 species of
vascular plants available for study in the five
main South Indian herbaria. The third part
is devoted to the Rapinat Herbarium and the
Anglande Institute of Natural History, Palni
Hills.

The author, Dr. K. M. Matthew, is an acknow-
ledged Systematic Botanist and his works,
4 The Exotic Flora of Kodaikanal 4 The Flo-
wering Plants of Kurseong’ and his mono-
graph on 4 Genus Mastixia ’ are well known.
In introduction to this volume he has proposed
that there should be some selective centres of
collaboration between the Botanical Survey
of India and The Universities and reports of
such joint schemes should be published in the
appendix to the Bulletin of Botanical Survey of

India. This is a very welcome suggestion
But his claim that, ‘ The days of general
plant collecting are over and the future of
Systematic Botany in India lies in monography %
does not sound appealing. Hooker’s Flora
of British India is outdated with respect to
nomenclature and number of new additions
to the flora subsequently and the monographic
revisions of various families are necessary,
the task in which Botanical Survey of India is
already engaged. However the pace of the
work is rather very slow. But the general
collections in regions unexplored is also
important.

The presentation of the volume, in general
is good and certainly will be of good help to
the research students of Systematic Botany,
but it is felt that the documentation of specimens
would have been better placed in the text,
following the Taxonomic Treatment of each
species.

Due to Government subsidy, the volume
is considerably underpriced and should be
accessible to all pockets.

M. R. ALMEIDA

REVIEWS

5. THONNER’S ANALYTICAL KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF FLOW-
ERING PLANTS. By R. Geesink, A. J. M. Leeuwenberg, C. E. Ridsdale &
J.F. Vcldkamp. pp. xxvi + 231 (22.5 x 15 cm). The Hague/Boston/London,
1981. PUDOC, Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wage-
ningen ; Leiden University Press. Price Dfl. 38.50/US $21.00 (Paper back).

The book is based on the comprehensive
analytical key for the Flowering Plants by the
Austrian Franz Thonner (pp. xii-xxi) in German,
whose final (1917) edition was reached after
30 years of original work. Unfortunately the
language being German and the author being
a private botanist largely led to overlooking
this important work. The present authors
are a team of young botanists of the Rijks-
herbarium, Leiden, Netherlands, well equipped
with adequate knowledge of the tropical plants
through their work for the Flora Malesiana.

The work is no mere translation (even the
number of couplets has gone up from 812 of
Thonner to 2117 in the present book); it
gives an adequate contemporary coverage of
Flowering Plants within Thonners framework.
A concise introduction (pp. viii-ix) justifies the
enterprise referring to existing works. The
authors make no exaggerated claim but insist
that this is a book in the making (which is not ?),
and should be improved by international colla-
boration (after all, any future work of this
kind should be team work). Deletion of lead
225 reminds one that the book is in the making.
The authors explicitly invite criticisms, sugges-
tions and improvements. An imposing list
of competent workers who have already been
consulted (pp. x-xi) indicates the considerable
amount of improvement already achieved.

Pages xxii-xxv give instructions on how to
use the key (this is no ‘ without tears ’ series !),
which incidentally explain how to prepare parts

of herbarium materials for analysis and study.
Certain leads separated by a dash ( — ) the first
part strictly contradicting the corresponding
lead of the couplet, the second part giving
additional information is a wise device of
adhering to the exigencies of the dichotomous
key without sacrificing vital information that
cannot always be contradicted by the corres-
ponding lead of the couplet. Cross references
to widely separated leads are helpful. Multiple
entries are, of course, unavoidable, but can be
easily managed from the detailed index (pp.
214-231). A comprehensive Glossary (pp. 198-
213) explains all the technical terms used.

The modesty of the authors is denied by the
amount of information and expertise the book
contains. Firsthand knowledge is written across
the text. It is a massive and painstaking
effort, a labour of love where the margin between
work and pleasure is blurred ! One of the
authors orally claimed 90% efficiency for this
key as against 65% for Hutchinson.

This book can be particularly useful in India
as a pape-setter if systematic botanists turn to
the long-overdue monography which is the
core of systematic botany rather than the
niceties of ‘ nomenclature ’ or the publishing
of 4 new ’ species or even records. An immediate
task for the next mere five years could be the
writing of a similar key for the national and
the provincial floras by the available workers
in the field. In such a context, the present work
(despite its Rngler and Prantl sequence, not

395

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

well known in India) cannot only be useful
but stimulating ; else the danger is that this
also will adorn library shelves as many impor-
ted and expensive tomes do now.

This rigorously worked, neatly printed,

excellently produced and moderately priced
book is warmly recommended for creative
workers in systematic botany. An Indian reprint
may be possible if the demand is adequate.

K. M. MATTHEW

6. A REVISED HANDBOOK TO THE FLORA OF CEYLON. Edited by
M. D. Dassanayake & F. R. Forsberg, Vol. I, pp. vii + 508 (24x15 cm).
Vol. II, pp. vii -f 512 (24x15 cm) with many illustrations. New Delhi,
1980 & 1981. Published for the Smithsonian Institution and The National
Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., by Amendri Publishing -Co. Pvt. Ltd.
Price Rs. 125 per volume.

This series of the revised handbook is inten-
ded to revise the handbook to the flora of
Ceylon, by Henry Trimen, published in five
volumes between 1893 and 1900, and an addi-
tional volume added by A. H. G. Alston, in
1931.

There is no index given at the end of each-:
volume. The editors have promised to give a
comprehensive index to these volumes, in a
separate volume, but until the series is complete ’
the reader has to locate the published families
on their own.

According to the information available from
the publishers, the proposed plan is to publish
entire revised work in seven volumes, out of
which three are already out of press.

The general quality of the work is quite good
and financial hfip from Smithsonian and Natio-
nal Foundation has made the price suitable
to all pockets.

According to the two volumes at hand for
the review of this work, it appears that each
volume will contain 10 families, at random, as
and when the revision is complete and manus-
cripts are placed in the hands of the editors.

The two volumes available for review contain
following families :

Vol. I :

Some of the families are revised by their
respective world authorities, but although the
editors claim to have suggested one, there is
no definite format and different authors have
followed their own style. Application of the
International Botanical Nomenclature is left
in the final authority of the authors and this
has resulted in acceptance of many outdated
names in the case of at least one family (Family-
Orchidaceae) which is otherwise a well presen-
ted account.

1 . Amaranthaccae

2. Bombacaceae

3. Clusiaceae

4. Mimosaceae

5. Compositae

6. Connaraceae

7. Convolvuiaceae

8. Dipterocarpaceae

9. Elatinaceae

10. Fabaceae

by C. C. Townsend
by Andre G. Robyns,
by A. J.G. Kostermans.
by A. J.G. Kostermans
by A. J; C. Grierson
By Deva Duttun
Tirvengadum
by Daniel F. Austin
by P. S. Ashton
by S. H. Sohmer
by Velva E. Rudd.

396

REVIEWS

Vol.II:

1. Apostasiaceae

2. Orchidaceae

3. Bignoniaceae

4. Lemnaceae

5. Myrtaceae

by D. M. A. Jayaweera
by D. M. A. Jayaweera
by William L. Theo-
bald

by F. N. Hepper
by P. S, Ashton

6. Pittosporaeeae

7. Primulaceae

8. Proteaceae

9. Rhizophoraceae

10. Thymelaeaceae

by Deva Duttun
Tirvengadum
by S. H. Sohmer
by C. Townsend
by W. Macnae & F. R.
Fosberg

by C. Townsend.

M. R. ALMEIDA

7. AN INTRODUCTION TO PLANT NOMENCLATURE By S.S.R. Bennet.
pp. ix-}-77 (18.5 x 13 cm) Dehra Dun, 1979. International Book Distributors.

Price Rs. 12.

This booklet is prepared by the author to
explain the special features of International
Code of Botanical Nomenclature to the students
of Botany especially to those who are required
to study the various aspects of naming of plants.
The booklet explains in the first chapter the ranks
of various groups of plants (Taxa), the forms of
scientific names, citation of authors and lite-
rature, abbreviations and six principles of the
Code. In the next chapter the nomenclatural ter-
minology is explained, and dates of publications

(effective and valid) are discussed. The last
chapter gives several interesting exercises in nom-
enclature of Indian plants which are discussed.

The booklet ; as stated by Prof. M. B.
Raizada, a doyen of Indian plant taxonomy, will
indeed be welcome for the student and layman
to understand the principles of plant nomen-
clature and wall dispel the misunderstanding in
the mind of those who consider the name
changes as meaningless exercise.

P. V. BOLE

8. APPLIED BOTANY ABSTRACTS. Vol. 1, Nos. 1 & 2. Editor B. R. Juneja.
pp. 1-112 & 113-244 (24.50x18.50 cm), Lucknow, 1981. Economic
Botany Information Service, National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI).
Annual Subscription Rs. 50 ; £ 10 ; $ 20.

This new Quarterly containing abstracts on
Applied Botany is a Quarterly abstracting
periodical brought out by NBRI, Lucknow.
It covers world literature on Research and
development work, aiming at utilisation of the
wild and non-agricultural/n on-traditi onal/under-

utilized economic plants and plant products and
development of production technologies for
new plant sources of useful products. The first
two issues cover 530 entries under 8 sections
besides book and periodical reviews. Each
issue contains Key word Index and authors’

397

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Po/. 79

index with an appendix listing journals
consulted.

The sections under which the entries are tabu-
lated are (1) non-agricultural/non-traditional/
under-utilized plants for — (a) non-edible oils
and waxes ( b ) proteins and amino-acids (c)
starches and sugars ( d ) gums, mucilages and
resins (e) fibres and other cellulose products ;

(2) Biomass/energy plants for — ( a ) fuel crops,
petro-alcohol— crops (c) latex lubricant crops ;

(3) Ornamental plants ; (4) Plants and envi-
ronmental pollution ; (5) Traditional herbal

drugs— {a) Pharmacognosy (b) botanical
standardisation ; (6) Ethnobotany ; (7) Endan-
gered/Threatened plants ; (8) Other economic
plants.

The National Botanical Research Institute
deserves compliments for rendering this very
valuable service to the cause of research and
development of application of botanical sciences
to the utilisation of plant resources in India and
elsewhere.

P. V. BOLE

398

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. THE WESTERN LIMIT OF PIGTAIL MACAQUE DISTRIBUTION IN ASSAM

The pigtail macaque, Macaca nemestrina, is
found in continental Asia from Assam through
southern Burma and western Thailand to the
Malay Peninsula, extending to Sumatra, Borneo
and the Mentawai Islands (Medway 1970). In
Assam it apparently is confined to the Naga
Hills (four specimens collected by McCann,
1933), but to what extent does it occur there and
elsewhere in Assam is unknown (Prater 1971).
Because pigtail macaques are hunted for food
throughout most of their range, they are wary
and adept at evasion (Bernstein 1967). This
predation pressure may partially account for
the paucity of observations on wild populations.
Their present status in Assam is evaluated
here.

In July- August 1971 and December-February
1972-73, I spent 62 days censusing hill forests
bordering the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam.
Hill tracts of the Garo, United Khasi-Jaintia,
Mikir and North Cachar Hills lying south of the
Brahmaputra River and the Dafla Hills north
of the river were the principal areas visited.
Rhesus macaques, Macaca mulatta, are common
in all of these hill tracts. Their range of habitat
varied from the fringes of tropical evergreen
and mixed deciduous forest to cultivated tea
gardens and temple areas. The pigtail macaque,
however, does not occur north of the Brahma-
putra and is rare or absent in the south. None
were found in the Garo and United Khasi-
Jaintia Hills, and interviews with local forest

Research Curator,

Oklahoma City Zoo,

2101 NE 50th,

Oklahoma City, OK 73111,

U.S.A.,

February 16, 1982.

officers concurred. These results also apply
to the Mikir Hills in Nowgong District. The
North Cachar Hills in the Barak Plains and the
Naga and Patkai Hills in upper Assam, which
border Burma, are restricted areas and were
not surveyed. Forest officers I interviewed
from North Cachar were unsure if pigtail
macaques were in their areas, but they appa-
rently do occur in the northern districts of
Sibsagar, Lakimpur and Tirap (P. Baruah,
personal communication).

I observed one troop of 26 pigtail macaques
in Hollongapar, an 1800 ha evergreen Forest
Reserve 12 km south of Jorhat, Sibsagar District
(26°70'N, 94°30'E) in upper Assam. These
macaques, encountered on nine different days,
were easy to observe and exhibited no signs of
flight upon my approach. No solitary indivi-
duals or smaller groups were observed. The
troop kept mainly to the lower canopy (5-10 m
high), but some individuals occasionally
travelled and fed on the forest floor. Feeding
was concentrated on fruits and leaves. Pigtail
macaques apparently have extensive home
ranges, and whether they are confined entirely
to Hollongapar Forest Reserve is unknown.
Hollongapar is one of the few stands of ever-
green forest outside of the extensive tracts
found in the hilly northeast. Thus, this forest,
which is about 80 km west of the Naga Hill
forests, probably is the western edge of extant
pigtail macaque distribution in Assam.

RONALD L. TILSON

399

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

References

Bernstein, I. S. (1967) : A field study of the pigtail
monkey ( Macaca nemestrina). Primates 8 : 217-228.

Medway, L. (1970) : The monkeys of Sundaland.
In Old World Monkeys Evolution, Systematica and

Behaviour. J. Napier and P. Napier, eds., New York:

Academic Press.

Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Book of Indian Animals.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

2. DOMINANT BEHAVIOUR OF A SUB-ADULT MALE LION-TAILED
MACAQUE IN SEMI-NATURAL CONDITIONS

In Mundanthurai Sanctuary (8°33'N,
77°27'33"E ; 214M) near the Forest Rest ITouse
an orphanage for young wild animals, found
abandoned in the forests is maintained. The
Rest House is situated at the confluence of two
perennial rivers Servalar and Thambaraparani
and enjoys a cool microclimate. Two juvenile
a ? (Rani) and a $ (Raja) Lion-tailed Macaques
and an infant Bonnet Macaque (Raufali)
brought by Rauf Ali were kept in a cage during
night, but were permitted to move freely
during day. They were fed with milk, eggs,
cooked rice, peanuts, plantains and other fruits
as prescribed by the Forest Veterinary Officer.
Raja and Rani extended affection and exhibited
protective behaviour toward Raufali, the Bonnet
infant. Without having any familiar relation-
ship of their own they formed a well knit troop,
were attached to each other and were tolerant
of others ; when visitors touched or gathered
Raufali, Raja and Rani objected or resisted.
They slept huddled together, Raja and Rani
held close the Bonnet infant against their
abdomen and breast as mothers would care.
Raja carried along Raufali in ventro-ventral
position for short distances. Raja was the
natural leader and would lead them out of the
cage on to the surrounding trees (Tamarind,
Neem, Eugenia Hopea , Teak, Albizzia , Dslonix)
to the roof tops and into the kitchen, Rest
house, office room and residential quarters.

During feeding time, morning, noon and
evening two Bonnet Macaque troops visited
areas around the cage in search of left overs.
One was Periappa’s troop named after the
dominant male Periappa, the other was Rauf
Ali’s study group. The visiting bonnet maca-
ques often pestered by stealing food given
to the Lion-tailed Macaque. An all male
Nilgiri Langur troop also visited the Rest
House area, though not specifically the cage
area. Social interactions between the Lion-
tailed Macaque and visiting Bonnet Macaques
that occurred in the semi-natural conditions
were observed during the period between August
1978 and May 1979 and recorded, whenever
observed.

Allogrooming :

Allogrooming between Lion-tailed Macaque
and Bonnet Macaques were observed on 54
occasions. This inter-specific allogrooming was
noticed between Rani and or Raja Macaca
silenus with or without Raufali and with visiting
Macaca radiata troop of which only on 4
occasions Rani was involved. In all the four
occasions, Raja also was around. The groom-
ing bouts were of short duration upto 9"-3'3*
and within a radius of 50 metres of the cage
though Raja and Rani roam about intra-specific
grooming is a common interaction within
troop among Macaca radiata , which showed

400

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the greatest degree of contact behaviour. The
primary recipient of the grooming activity
here was Raja. On several occasions Raja
solicited grooming by lying on its side directly
before sitting or slowly moving Bonnet Macaque
A? and SA$ which readily responded by
grooming. Raja also reciprocated by groom-
ing, holding, hug-holding and hurdling. The
grooming participants at one time were never
more than three in number. The Bonnet
Macaque SA$ often wrestled rolled over one
another before and after grooming. The con-
sistency with which grooming was directed
towards Raja, probably indicates Raja was
dominant.

Raja mounted A$, SA$, and SA^ ; it could
not be known whether the $S were in oestrus,
the mounting did not last for more 4-9 seconds.
The mounting appeared casual, imprecise and
without direction.

Pouch examination :

Raja examined on 18 occasions the pouch
contents of Bonnet Macaque (7A$, 2SA$,
9SA<J) on 3 occasions it removed the contents
and put into its own mouth. (Contents could
not be identified.) On all other occasions Raja
threw away at least what all he had removed
from the pouch. On all occasions the Bonnet
Macaques were passive and did not protest.
On one occasion the Bonnet collected what was

thrown away by Raja and put it back in its
mouth. The 4 pouch examination ’ was not
performed during feeding hours. I have not
noticed Raja 4 pouch examining ’ either Rani
or Raufali.

When a Nilgiri Langur Presbytis johnii all
male troop of 4-7 members approached the
Rest house, Raja ran towards them and chased
them. When it ran towards a Nilgiri Langur,
the Nilgiri Langur generally moved away.
Nilgiri Langur and Bonnet Macaque avoided
Lion-tailed Macaque in Forests and disappear
when latter is in the vicinity. When dogs came
near the Rest house, Rani and Raufali climbed
the nearest tree while Raja stood or chased
(2 observations).

The behaviour of Raja can be considered in
the light of the following factors :

1. The formative age of Raja and its
companions Rani and Raufali and lack
of troop tutelage.

2. Assured food supply at the orphanage.

3. Play and/or curiosity (characteristic
of its age) motivation.

4. Being an orphan, a craving for social
contact. But the generally domineer-
ing behaviour of Raja is interesting
though intriguing and difficult to
explain.

Wildlife Warden, J° MANGALRAJ JOHNSON

Office of the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

Udhagamandalam-643 001, TamilNadu,

September 8, 1981.

11

401

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , To/. 79

3. ANDERSEN’S RUFOUS HORSESHOE BAT, RHINOLOPHUS ROUXI SINICUS
ANDERSEN (CHIROPTERA : RHINOLOPHIDAE) FROM ARUNACHAL

PRADESH, INDIA

A specimen of bat collected by the Zoological
Survey of India during an expedition to Suban-
siri District, Arunachal Pradesh in 1974 was
identified as Andersen’s Rufous Horseshoe
Bat, Rhinolophus rouxi sinicus Andersen, which
has not been recorded from this area.

Rhinolophus rouxi sinicus Andersen, 1905
Proc. zool. Soc . Lond. 2 : 98 Chinteh, Anhwei,
Southern China.

Material: 1<J (ZSIJReg. No. 19780):
Siki, c 15 km from Taliha (c 500 m alt.),
Subansiri District, Arunachal Pradesh ; 24
Nov. 1974 ; J. M. Julka Coll.

Measurements : (Taken from alcohol

preserved specimen). All measurements are in
millimetre.

External : Length of ear 15.5 ; Length of

Zoological Survey of India,
8, Lindsay Street,

Calcutta 700 087.

February 8, 1982.

noseleaf 10.0 ; Width of horseshoe 7.4 ; Length
of forearm 46 ; Length of 3rd metacarpal 34.2 ;
Length of 4th metacarpal 35.0 ; Length of 5th
metacarpal 36.0 ; Length of tail 22.2 ; Length
of tibia 20.0 ; Length of foot and claw 8.9.

Cranial : Total length 19.4 ; Palatal Length
5.9 ; cranial width 8.7 ; inter orbital width 3.0 ;
Length of upper tooth-row 7.6 ; Length of
Lower tooth-row 8 ; width across molars 7.6 ;
mandibular length 13.2.

Distribution : According to Ellerman and
Morrison-Scott (1951), the distribution of this
bat is Szechuan, Yunnan, Fukien and Chekiang
in China. The present material, therefore,
constitutes the first authentic record of the
species from India in Arunachal Pradesh,
extending its range further westward to within
Indian limits.

J. P. LAL

Reference

Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1951) :
Checklist of palaearctic and Indian Mammals 1758-1946.
British Museum (Nat. Hist.) London.

402

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. STOMACH CONTENTS OF A COMMON PALM CIVET,
PARADOXURUS HERMAPHRODITUS (PALLAS)

The following account retrieved from my
diary, on 31st March 1979, when I was residing
at Tikerpada beside the River Mahanadi,
within the Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary, Orissa
provides first hand information on the feeding
habit of the common palm civet, Paradoxurus
hermaphroditus in the wild.

At 6.00 in the morning two civets, thought to
be a courting pair, were noticed near our Gharial
Yearling enclosure. Dwitikrishna, Iswara and
Ajai ^staff of the project) were able to corner
one of these and catch it with a towel. When
I was called to see the catch, it was struggling
hard to escape from captivity in a cage (40 X
40 x 40 cm over a stand of 30 cm high). I
decided to offer it an escape, if it could manage
from the partially open-roofed enclosure of the
muggers (Crocodylus palustris ), or serve as
food to them as they have been forced to be
predominantly fish-eaters.

In the afternoon when I saw Ml (the large
male mugger) was still unsuccessfully trying to
open the civet and eat it, I decided to skin his
kill and offer him the meat. Although the
civet was dead because of me, I do not regret
since it provided good information to guide in
the future.

The civet was a male with a total body length
120 cm (snout-vent length 74 cm, tail 46 cm),
maximum girth 20 cm and weight (after five
hours of kill but without visible sign of de-
composition) 2.950 kg, producing meat and
bone of 2.150 kg.

The stomach contained the following : (1)
Seeds of 6 Kendu ’ fruits ( Diospyros melan-
oxylon) : 7 nos. (from at least two fruits) ; (2)
some fleshy white root : 3 pieces, each app.
1 cm cube ; (3) Eublepharis hardwickii

(gecko) : 1 no., 5 cm long ; (4) portions of 2
scorpions, 15 cm and 8 cm long ; (5) centipedes:

2 nos. (portions of a small and a large
specimen) ; (6) Viper snake : 1 no., 40 cm TBL,
36 cm SV ; (7) Typhlops : 3 nos., 14.5, 7.5 and
7.0 cm length ; and (8) cockroach : 1 no.,
complete wings and only portions of abdomen
exoskeleton found.

The intestine was without digested food. In
the distal parts it was partially filled with excreta
with portions of a tape worm. The pancreas
indicated some nematode infection.

Discussion : Civet attacks on domestic hens
are commonly reported in villages and city
suburbs. Their liking for palm toddy, is
reflected in the common name 4 Toddy cat

Food offered to civets in zoos constitute a
mixed vegetarian and non-vegetarian diet.
Dobroruka (1978) states that one cub in Dvur
Kralove Zoo refused meat upto 2 months, and
oranges were usually refused while preferred
food were bananas, and tomatoes.

If, as it is presumed, the male was courting
the female before capture, the season closely
corresponds to that reported for captive
specimens at Dvur Kralove Zoo by Dobroruka
(1978) (mid-February) and at Nandankanan
Biological Park, Orissa by Acharjyo and Mishra
(1980) (late February). However commencement
of the breeding season for a species in captivity
may be earlier than in the wild.

The flesh of the civet is used in indigenous
medicine. ‘ Netra (a Munda tribal-head work-
ing under the project) told me that small
pieces of the meat are kept in linseed oil in a
closed earthen pot and regularly sunned to
finally extract an oil which is used as a cure for

403

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 79

scabies. 4 A dried piece of the testis heated
with ghee from cow’s milk, when cooled can
be used as a medicine for a type of lips and
tongue disease (in Orissa called : Aliti gha)
seen in children less than a year old. The
same product also cures skin sores due to
contact with the poisonous urine (?) of spiders’.

Central Crocodile Breeding and
Management Training Institute,

19-4-319, Lake Dale,

Hyderabad-500 264,

October 24, 1981.

Refer

Acharjyo, L. N. and Mishra, C. G. (1980) : Some
notes on age of sexual maturity of seven species of Indian
wild mammals in captivity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc .,
77 (3) : 504-507.

The Common Indian Palm Civet is called
4 Salia Patani.’ in Oriya language

I wish to thank the Orissa Forest Department
and the staff of the Gharial Research and
Conservation Unit, Tikerpada for assistance.

L. A. K. SINGH

ENCES

Dobroruka, L. J. (1978) : Hand-rearing a common
palm civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus at Dvurkralove
Zoo. Int. Zoo yearbook, 18 : 210-211.

5. BIRTH OF WHITE TIGER (PANTHERA TIGRIS ) CUBS TO NORMAL
COLOURED TIGERS IN CAPTIVITY

(With a text-figure)

The White Tiger (Panthera tigris) is a magni-
ficent snow white animal with ash or light black
stripes, pink paw pads and ice-blue eyes. All
the white tigers so far available in captivity had
their origin from a male White Tiger named
4 Mohan ’ captured from the forests of Rewa
(Madhya Pradesh) in May, 1951 at an estimated
age of about nine months. The present com-
munication deals with the birth of three White
Tiger cubs in one litter at the Nandankanan
Biological Park, Orissa to a pair of normal
coloured tigers with apparently no known
history of having any relation with the White
Tiger 4 Mohan ’.

A normal coloured tigress 4 Ganga ’ whose
mating with a normal coloured tiger 4 Deepak ’

was observed from 24-9-79 to 3-10-79 in the
Park, gave birth to three White Tiger Cubs (two
females and one male) on 8-1-1980. This is
the result of a father-daughter mating.

The body colour of the cubs were snow white
with light black stripes, pink paw pads and
ice -blue eyes. The eyes of the cubs opened on
12th day (one male and one female cubs) and
on 11th day (right eye) and 12th day (left eye)
in case of the other female cub.

The weight and size of these cubs recorded
after about 48 hours on 10-1-1980 were as
follows : weight— 1.210 Kg (female), 1.240 Kg
(female) and 1.385 Kg (male) and measured
50 cm tip to tip including 15 cm long tail

404

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

405

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 79

(females) and 52 cm tip to tip including 16 cm
long tail (male).

The growth rate of these cubs to the age of
3 months were recorded as follows : —

Cub No. Cub No. Cub No.

Date

Age I

(female)

II

(female)

III

(male)

Kgs.

Kgs.

Kgs.

10.1. 1S80

48

hours

1.210

1.240

1.380

5.2.1980

4

weeks

3.400

3.800

3.705

12.2.1980

5

weeks

3 800

4.200

4.000

19.2.1980

6

weeks

4.200

4.800

4.200

26.2.1980

7

weeks

4.800

5.200

4.800

4.3.1980

8

weeks

5.200

5.600

5.400

11.3.1980

9

weeks

6.000

6.400

5.800

18.3.1980

10

weeks

6.803

7.200

6.430

25.3.1980

11

weeks

7.600

8.200

7.200

1.4.1980

12

weeks

8.800

9.200

8.200

8.4.1980

13

weeks

9.800

10.400

9.400

The incisors of the cubs appeared in the fifth
week and the canines appeared in the seventh
week.

Earlier the female of this pair of normal
coloured tigers gave birth to two normal
coloured tiger cubs on 22-7-1979 but both cubs
died within six days as the mother failed to
nurse them.

The genealogy of these white tiger cubs is
given in the chart (Fig. 1). A study of the
genealogical chart reveals that 31 tiger cubs
were bom in 13 litters out of which only one
litter was of white colour, i.e. 7.69 % of the litters

Wild Life Conservation Officer,

Orissa,

95-Sahid Nagar,

Bhubaneswar-751 007.

Veterinary Assistant Surgeon,
Nandankanan Biological Park,

P. O. Barang, Dist : Cuttack.

Assistant Conservator of Forests,
Nandankanan I Biological Park ,

P.O. Barang,1 Dist : Cuttack.

June 17, 1980.

and 9.67 % of the cubs were white. The study
of this genealogical chart of white tigers
maintained by the Delhi Zoological Park and
reported by Saharia(1979) apparently does not
give an indication of these white tiger cubs
having any relation with the white tiger
‘Mohan \ The origin of tigers received from
Alipore Zoological Gardens, Calcutta beyond
the Animal Dealers could not be ascertained.
There were reports of white tigers being
shot in Orissa (Gee 1964 a). Perusal of
the available literature (Gee 1964, a and b,
Sankhala 1969, Oswald 1960, Saharia 1979,
Robinson 1928, Pant and Dhariyal 1979)
did not reveal any information about the birth
of all white coloured cubs in one litter to normal
coloured parents. The genealogical chart
further suggests that the tigers ‘ Deepak ’ and
6 Ganga ’ were heterozygous having the
recessive gene for white colour.

The pairing of the white tigers bom in the
Park with the white coloured descendants of
the white tiger ‘ Mohan ’ can prevent inbreeding
and thus may give better chances for the
breeding and survival of the white tigers.

Acknowledgement s

We are thankful to Shri A. P. Mohanty, i.f.s.,
Chief Wild Life Warden, Orissa, Shri P. Moha-
patra, i.f.s., Addl. Chief Conservator of Forests
and Shri S. N. Das, i.f.s., Chief Conservator
of Forests for the facilities provided and for
their encouragement.

CH. G. MISHRA

L. N. ACHARJYO

L. N. CHOUDHURY

406

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Ref erences

Gee, E. P. (1964 a) : The White Tigers. Animals ,,

Vol. 3 (11), pp. 282-286.

(1964 b) : The Wild Life of India. Collins,

London, pp. 69-75.

Oswald, A. (1960) : The White Tigers of Rewa.

Cheetal, 2 (2) : 63-67.

Pant, M. M. and Dhariyal, I. D. (1979) : White

Tiger Breeding— Its economic potentialities. Cheetal
21 (1) : 3-10.

Robinson, F. B. (1928) : White Tigers. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 32 (3) : 584-585.

Saharia, V. B. (1979) : Population Dynamics in
Captive Tigers. Wild Life News Letter, Vol. 7 (2) : 36-40.

Sankhala, K. S. (1969) : The White Tigers. Cheetah
12(1) : 78-81.

6. AN INSTANCE OF FOSTERING IN CAPTIVITY IN THE WESTERN
GHATS SQUIRREL, FUNAMBULUS TRISTRIATUS WATERHOUSE

The behaviour of fostering was already
observed and studied in several rodents (Denen-
berg et al. 1963, Muul 1970, Grota 1973, Ajayi
1975). In all these studies the mother was not
exposed simultaneously to her own litter and
that of others. In this short communication
an instance where a mother Western Ghats
Squirrel {Funambulus tristriatus Waterhouse)
suckled and reared the young ones of another
squirrel along with her own is reported.

On 6 April 1978 I collected two young F.
tristriatus weighing 14.25 g (3) and 17.5 g (?)
from a nest. Their eyes were yet to be opened.
The female had developed only the lower, while
the male had both upper and lower incisors.
Pelage development was incomplete. From
these characters the age of this litter was assessed
as approximately 20 days. These young ones
were placed in the cage (75 x 30 x 30 cm) of a
female F. tristriatus which was rearing her own
40-day-old litter. At first the mother squirrel

was little ‘ aggressive ’ towards the new comers,
but later on she suckled and reared them along
with her own litter. Within a week the fostered
young ones opened their eyes and increased in
body weight to 18.50 and 21.50 g respectively.
They were raised by the foster mother until
weaning.

Denenberg et al. (1963) opined that the longer
the mothers had been lactating before being
given foster young, the higher was the mortality
percentage. In abino rats Denenberg et al.
(op. cit.) observed that fostering to 5 or 10 day
lactating mothers resulted in significant increase
in the rate of mortality. In the present study
the Western Ghats Squirrel adopted the litter
of another female even at 40 days post partum.
This phenomenon could be taken advantage
of in rearing squirrels in captivity.

The financial assistance received from the
CSIR, New Delhi for the conduct of the studies
on squirrels is gratefully acknowledged.

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, S. KESHAVA BHAT

Regional Station,

Vittal-574 243,

Karnataka, India,

February 2, 1982.

407

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

References

Ajayi, S. S. (1975) : Observations on the biology,
domestication and reproductive performance of the
African giant rat, Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse
in Nigeria. Mammalia , 39 : 343-364.

Denenberg, V. H., Grota, L. J. & Zarrow, M. X.
(1963) : Maternal behaviour in the rat : analysis of
cross-fostering. J. Reprod. &Fert. 5: 133-141.

Grota, L. J. (1973) : Effects of litter size, age of
young, and parity on foster mother behaviour in Rattus
norvegicus. Anim. Behav. 21 : 78-82.

Muul, I. (1970) : Intra-and inter - familial,

behaviour of Glaucomys volans (Rodentia) following
parturition. Anim. Behav. 18 : 20-25.

7. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF VANDELEURIA OLERACEA IN A RURAL
RESIDENTIAL HABITAT IN THE DESERT BIOME OF RAJASTHAN

During pest control estimation of rodent
population in a village complex near Jodhpur
(26°18'N — 73°01'E; mean annual rainfall
366.0 mm), a living specimen of the long-tailed
tree mouse, Vandeleuria oleracea was captured
inside a Kuchha hut, feeding upon jaggery in a
container in the kitchen. The hut was located
in a 3 hectare agricultural land and was sur-
rounded by plantations of Neem, Azadirachta
indica , Ber, Zizyphus mauritiana and citrus.
Hitherto, this species has been recorded from
several localities in Gujarat (Ellerman 1961) and

Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Jodhpur-342 003,

Rajasthan,

December 30, 1981.

Refer

Ellerman, J. R. (1961) : The fauna of India including
Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon (Ed. M. L. Roonwal),
Issued by Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Publi-
shed by Manager of Publications, Delhi, Part II ;
483-884.

1 Present address : S-2, Central Plantation
S. Kanara Dist.? Karnataka,

Bisalpur (25°7'N, 73°10'E ; mean annual rain-
fall 499.7 mm.) in South-western Rajasthan
(Rana 1980).

The present report extends the range of V.
oleracea further north in the desert biome of
Rajasthan, and from a residential/premise which
has not been hitherto reported.

We are grateful to Dr. H. S. Mann, Director,
CAZRI, Jodhpur and Dr. Ishwar Prakash,
Professor of Eminence for providing necessary
facilities and encouragement.

RANJAN ADVANI1
R. P. MATHUR

E N C E S

Rana, B. D. (1980) : Occurrence of Bandicota
bengalensis and Vandeleuria oleracea in Western Rajas-
than. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77 : 501-502.

Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal-574 243,

408

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

8. ON FACTORS GOVERNING THE DISTRIBUTION OF WILD MAMMALS
IN KARNATAKA— A COMMENTS

S. Narendra Prasad et al. (JBNHS 75, No. 3)
have made a commendable effort in their paper
to present a consolidated picture of distribu-
tion of wild mammals in Karnataka. I am sure,
this paper, though admittedly based on subjec-
tive methodology, will be quite useful for those
interested in scientific wild life management in
Karnataka. As an amateur naturalist who has
investigated the status of wild life in some of
these forests in the past fifteen years, I have
some comments on this pioneering effort.

1. As pointed out by the authors food
availability is perhaps the main reason for the
comparatively higher abundance of larger
mammals in dry/moist deciduous forests as
against evergreen western ghat forests in
Karnataka. However, another important
factor is that historically the region with ever-
green forests has had a greater abundance of
fire-arms and tradition of hunting when com-
pared to the deciduous forest regions. This
also has, in my opinion, decisively affected the
current population status of larger wild
mammals.

2. Though the paper covers 86 forest ranges,
some other forest ranges/areas which do harbour
wild mammals have been omitted for some
reason. Some of these are : Bhadravathi,
Tarikere and Channagiri (all in Malnad region).
Hunsur, and Periyapatna (Mysore plateau
region). Arasikere, Melkote, Chitradurga,
Chittapur, Chincholi, and Sandur (all in
Maidaan region).

3. The various maps and tables giving the
occurrence ratings and frequency are based on
Table 7, which forms the foundation for the
whole exercise. In my opinion, the data on

population status may not be entirely accurate,

in some cases particularly for the ‘ Crest line ’
and 3 4 Malnad * regions. This has led to some
errors in the occurrence ratings. For example
the herbivores except the elephants are certainly
more abundant in the 4 Crest line ’ region
between Kollur and Charmadi rather than
between Charmadi and Mercara as shown in
the paper.

4. I am comparing below the information
I have obtained during my field investigations
with those of the paper. In the Mysore plateau,
Crest line, and Malnad regions I have indicated
the current population status of various
mammals, which I feel is more accurate. Also
I have added some information on some
additional mammals and areas excluded
from the paper. The notations used are the
same as in the paper ; 0 = absent, 4 = very
common, 3 — frequent, 2 — present, 1 = rare,
and - = no information. The figures indicated
in brackets are from the paper.

4.1 Elephant: In the 4 Crest line’
region their status is ; Byndoor range — 0 (1),
Coondapur range — 0 (1), Periyapatna range
1 ( — ). There seems to be a curious 4 gap ’ in
their distribution between 4 Charmadi ’ and
Kollur in the western ghats. Superficially there
does not seem to be any ecological reason for
this 4 Elephant gap \

4.2 Gaur : Their population status in
some of the ranges is Byndoor 2 ( — ), Shankara-
narayana 2 (1), Hebri 2 (1), Karkala 2 (1),
Agumbe 2 (1) and Periyapatna 1 ( — ). It is a
curious fact that they seem to be raiding crops
only in some parts of their range like South
Kanara District but not in Muthodi and Lakka-
valli.

409

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , PW. 79

4.3 Spotted Deer : Their status is Periya-
patna 1 ( — ), Hunsur 1 ( — ). It is remarkable
that these Deer which are normally inhabitants
of dry/moist deciduous forests have adapted
to the evergreen forest/shola type of mountain
biome to the east of Kudremukh mines where a
few survive. This is perhaps the only region
in south-India where they have adapted to
such a habitat.

4.4 Sambar : They are present in many of
the 4 Crest line ’ ranges and I feel their status
may be as below : Byndoor 2 (1), Shankara-
narayana 2 (0), Hebri 1 (0), Karkala 2 (1),
Periyapatna 1 ( — ) and Tarikere 1 ( — ).

4.5 Barking Deer : These appear to be
ecologically, the most adaptive species of
Deer and thrive in all habitats except the dry
scrub of the plains. Where given protection
they seem to increase rapidly like the spotted
deer and lose some of their shyness.

4.6 Four horned Antelope : I have

heard of them reported from Sunkadakatte,
A. M. Gudi and Begur areas (Mysore plateau),
Kanakapura (Kollegal Hills). They formerly
existed in Bhadravathi and Kadur of Malnad
region where their current status is unknown.

4.7 Blackbuck : They are reported from
Ranibennur and parts of Raichur and Gul-
barga districts. They also probably occur as
scattered remnant populations in the arid parts
of Bellary, Mandya, Hassan and Mysore
districts.

4.8 Chinkara : These are sporadically
found along with Blackbuck populations.
They are reported from Dharwar and Gulbarga
districts. I have seen a captive specimen
recently obtained in Dharwar district.

4.9 Nilgai : I have not heard of this
antelope reported from anywhere in Karna-
taka recently.

4.10 Nilgiri Tahr : I have never seen or
heard of these animals from Karnataka. Even
the old British District Gazetteers from this area
or old Shikar accounts do not mention them
as far as I know. However Davidar ( JBNHS
75, No. 3) mentions a source who claims to
have seen them in Agumbe in 1954. This seems
rather curious.

4.11 Wild Pig : Since the wild pig is so

ubiquitous it probably occurs in Manchikere
and Anekal ranges also.

4.12 Tiger : These sporadically occur in
Byndoor 1 (0) and Periyapatna 1 ( — ) ranges.
Recently a case of tiger poaching was detected
in Periyapatna.

4.13 Panther : I have personally seen pan-
thers in Byndoor and Lakkavalli ranges. Their
status is Byndoor 1 (0), Lakkavalli 1 (0), Hos-
nagara 1 (0), Agumbe 1 (0), Hebri 1 (0), Periya-
patna 1 ( — ). They perhaps occur in many
other ranges.

4. 14 Sloth Bear : They occur in all the
sh regions. I have seen them in Nagarhole.
They have been reported from Lakkavalli,
Mudigere, Muthodi, Kudremukh, Sirsi, B.R.
Hills and parts of Chitradurga and Tumkur
districts.

4.15 Striped Hyena: Once common all
over the state, they are apparently becoming
scarce everywhere. I have seen tneir tracks
in Nagarhole, Muthodi and Periyapatna
ranges and have heard them reported from
H. D. Kote, Bandipur and Kadur areas. A few
years ago they were very common in the
coastal districts.

4.16 Wolf: Though becoming rare, wolves
are still occasionally reported from the plains.
They occur in Ranebennur, Chittapur
(Gulbarga district), Nagamangala and other
dry tracts of Mandya district and K. R. Nagar

410

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

taluk of Mysore district. I have seen the
fresh carcase of a wolf run over by a truck near
‘ Arabithittu ’ in Hunsur forest range.

4.17 Wild Dog : These do occur at the
foot of the western ghats in South Kanara
district where I have seen their tracks in most
of the jungles. Their population status pro-

268, 16 Main,

Saraswatipuram,

Mysore-560 009,

Karnataka,

January 3, 1981.

bably is ; Periyapatna 1 ( — ), Karkala 2 (0),
Shankaranarayana 2 (0).

5. On the whole, in spite of some minor
errors, this paper is a welcome attempt at
systematically examining the distribution of wild
mammals over a large region and will serve
as a good basis for future localised studies in
Karnataka.

K. ULLAS KARANTH

9. BLACK-EARED KITE [MILVUS MIGRANS LINEATUS (GRAY)] NEAR BOMBAY

The Black-eared or Large Indian Kite
[Milvus migrans lineatus (Gray)] is well known
as a winter migrant to the Indian continent as
far south as the Shimoga District, Mysore but
most of the records are of single birds. On 22nd
March 1981, one of us (H.A.) visited the Deonar
Garbage Dumping Ground (with Mrs. Phillippa
Mukherjee) and saw several of these kites on
the rubbish dumps. When seated, the black
patch behind the ear, and the tuft of long loose
feathers projecting below the tibio-tarsal joint
were distinctive while in flight the rectangular
patch of white on the underwing showed
prominently.

Yesterday (about 8.30 a.m.) we were driving
eastwards off Trombay Bridge when we saw a
number of birds of prey circling high overhead.
We stopped to glass them and counted 35 of
these kites, whose size and colour could be
compared with local pariah kites flying lower
and nearer.

There doss not appear to be any record of
such congregation of this species and which is
possibly prior to migration. Similar behaviour
has been noticed in gulls in Bombay, but in
the evenings.

75, Abdul Rehman Street, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

Bombay-400 003.

626, Adenwala Building, NOSHERWAN SETHNA

Homavazir Road,

Dadar Parsi Colony,

Bombay-400 014.

April 13, 1981.

411

JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

10. NESTING OF REDHEADED MERLIN (FALCO CHICQUERA DAUDIN)
IN BANGALORE, KARNATAKA

(With a text-figure)

Fig. 1. The nesting site of Redheaded Merlin in Bangalore. Arrow indicates position of the nest.

The distribution of the Redheaded Merlin
is not clear in South India (Ali and Ripley 1968,
Brown and Amadon 1968). Though there is a
sight-record of this bird in Bangalore (Govinda-
krishnan et al. 1977), its exact status is not
known. In this context, the present nesting
records of this bird for two successive seasons
in Bangalore is of interest and confirms its
status as ‘resident ’ here.

A pair of this bird was sighted nesting in
Rajajinagar (Bangalore City) which, by the

first week of March 1979 raised a brood of
three. Further, the adult birds were observed
through the breeding season of 1979-80 and
by the third week of March 1980, four fledglings
were out of the nest.

The nest occupied by the merlins in 1978-79
was a sunken platform of twigs built in a fork
of a Casuarina equisetifolia tree (c.80 ft. high)
while in 1979-80 they took over a similar freshly
built nest of a Jungle Crow ( Corvus macrorhyn-
chos), situated two feet away and one foot

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

above the previous nest, again in a fork. Both
the nests were surrounded completely by small
branches arising from the branches that formed
the forks in which the nests were built.
Records of falcons occupying the nests of other
birds that have similar nesting site requirements
do exist in literature (see Bent 1938 ; pp.
21-22, 96, 102). Hence, the present observa-
tion further confirms the lack of nest-building
instinct in falcons (Brown and Amadon 1968).

The lone tree is situated in a small open land
amidst an urbanised residential area (see
fig. 1). This seems to be interesting in view of
the earlier records (Ali and Ripley 1968, Brown
and Amadon 1968, Ganguly 1975), where the
redheaded merlin is recorded to be a bird
of open country and rural areas. However,^
falcons being attracted to an urban set up isj

not unusual. An instance is seen in the case
of a Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus which
selected a busy city as its nesting habitat
instead of eyeries, in the wild (Welty 1975).
The observations of Dharap (1977) and Gole
(1979) seem to support the present observation
where a pair of redheaded merlin was seen
nesting on a 100 ft. building in Poona,
Maharashtra.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Mr. Abraham Verghese,
Mr. A. K. Chakravarthy and Mr. P. Subra-
maniam of the Amateur Birdwatching Asso-
ciation and Mr. Kumar D. Ghorpade of
the Department of Entomology, U.A.S.,
Bangalore, for their useful suggestions while
ithe manuscript was in preparation.

Department of Entomology,
University of Agriculture Sciences,
Hebbal,

Bangalore-560 024,

October 31, 1981.

Ref e

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. I, Oxford University
Press, Bombay, 380 pp.

Bent, A. C. (1938) : Life Histories of North American
Birds of Prey. Part 2, United States National Museum,
Washington, D.C., 482 pp.

Brown, L. & Amadon, D. (1968) : Eagles, Hawks
and Falcons of the World, Vol. I & II, Hamlyn Publica-
tions Group Ltd., 945 pp.

Dharap, R.N. (1977) : Redheaded Merlin Nesting
in densely Populated Area, Newsletter for Birdwatchers
17(10): 11-12.

S. SUBRAMANYA

RE N CES

Ganguli, U. (1975) : A Guide to the Birds of the
Delhi Area. Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi, 301 pp.

Gole, P. (1979) : A March Bird Count in Poona.
J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 77 : 49-55.

Govindakrishnan, P. M., Verghese, A. & Chakra-
varthy, A. K. (1977) : Occurrence of Redheaded
Merlin ( Falco chicquera Daudin) in Bangalore, Kar-
nataka, J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (2) : 487.

Welty, J. C. (1975) : The Life of Birds. W. B. Saun-
ders Co., Philadelphia, London, Toronto, 623 pp.

413

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol.

11. UNUSUAL NESTING OF RED WATTLED LAPWING ( VANELLUS

INDICUS)

Behind our house in Panchwati at Udaipur
there is a three storeyed building belonging to a
school. The roof of this building is of asbes-
tos cement sheets. Two Red wattled lapwing
{Vanellus indicus) were usually seen perched
atop this roof at the beginning of May protes-
ting and attacking birds of prey.

In the morning of 14th May, 1981 we saw
one of the lapwings with four chicks at the
edge of the roof. For five days we saw these
chicks frequently with the lapwing at the edge
of the roof. On the 6th day two chicks fell

41, Panchwati, Udaipur,

Rajasthan,

June 19, 1981.

down from the roof and died ; on the 10th
day the other two landed safely on the ground.

Near our house there are barren grounds as
well as a deep and dry nullah over 100 feet
wide and 10 ft. deep. The walls of the nullah
are quite high and men seldom venture inside it.
Inspite of all these safe grounds and flat roofed
buildings being available why this pair of
lapwings chose the sloping and uneven roof
of the school building for nesting is a puzzle.
Though there, are some stray dogs and domestic
cats in the vicinity the nearby nullah is not
visited by any of these predators and is certainly
safer than the roof.

RAZA H. TEHSIN
JUZER LOKHANDWALA

12. COLLECTIVE DEFENSIVE STRATEGY IN BLUE ROCK PIGEON

( COLUMBA LIVIA)

About 40 km from Udaipur there is a township
called Gogunda. On the outskirts of this
township and near the bus stand, there is a
slight slope on the road which is followed by
200 metres of straight road, on both sides of
which there are big trees. From this vantage
point near the bus stand I was watching a crested
hawk-eagle {Spizaetus cirrhatus) circling clock-
wise in the sky. As it neared the treetops
about 35 blue rock pigeon ( Columba livid)
took fright and flew away. Then the flock
turned and started circling anti-clockwise on
the same plane as that of crested hawk-eagle.

The eagle widened its circles and started
gaining height. The pigeons followed suit.
When they crossed each other some pigeons
brushed past the eagle and sometimes they
flew so threateningly that the eagle had to
change its course to avoid head-on collision.
This went on for about 10 minutes during which
the birds reached very high altitudes and their
circles widened further. At this point when
the eagle and pigeons were farthest apart
in the circle the pigeons dropped vertically
towards the ground and within no time settled
on the trees having eluded the predator.

41, Panchwati,
Udaipur-313 001.
June 19, 1981.

414

RAZA H. TEHSIN

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

13. OCCURRENCE OF THE NORTHERN GREEN BARBET MEGALA1MA
ZEYLANICA CANICEPS (FRANKLIN) AT LUDHIANA (PUNJAB)

A female Northern Green Barbet Megalaima
zeylanica caniceps (Franklin) was collected
from a neem tree in the Punjab Agricultural
University Campus, Ludhiana (30° 56r N,
75° 52r E) on 10 May 1981. The weight and
measurements of the specimen were as follows :

Weight Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

( from skull )

1$ 132 g 131mm 35.5 mm 32 mm 84 mm

These measurements are in general agreement
with those already reported for this species by
Ali and Ripley (1970) and Abdulali (1974).

According to Ali and Ripley (1970) this
species is distributed in : ‘ The lower western

Department of Zoology,

Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana-141 004,

Punjab,

May 16, 1981.

Abdulali, H. (1974) : A catalogue of the birds
in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society
— 16. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (2) : 244-265.

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1970): Handbook of the
birds of India and Pakistan vol. 4, Oxford University

Himalayas (up to c. 800 m) from Kangra in
Himachal Pradesh to Kumaon (U.P.) and
western Nepal terai (to c. 300 m). Continental
India west to Mt. Abu and Gujarat, east through
Madhya Pradesh and northern Maharashtra to
Bihar, W. Bengal (straggling as far as Calcutta),
and Orissa south to Godavari R cons-

picuously common and abundant in New
Delhi’. In the Punjab, this species has been
reported to occur only in the district of Hoshi-
arpur (Sharma and Lamba 1954) most of which
is submontane area and there has been no
record of this bird from any other region of the
state. The present record, therefore, adds
Ludhiana to the range of the Northern Green
Barbet.

MANJIT S. DHINDSA
P. S. SANDHU

ENCES

Press, Bombay, London, New York.

Sharma, G. P. and Lamba, B. S. (1954) : A prelimi-
nary note on some birds of the Hoshiarpur district,
Punjab (I). Res. Bulletin Punjab University , Zoology,
No. 63, pp. 177-186.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

14. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE YELLOWBELL1ED WREN-WARBLER
C PRINIA FLAVIVENTRIS FLAVIVENTRIS), STRIATED MARSH WARBLER {MEGALURUS
PALUSTRIS) AND WHITETAILED BUSH CHAT (, SAXICOLA LEUCURA)

AT HASTINAPUR NEAR MEERUT (UTTAR PRADESH)

Over the last two years of bird study at and
around Hastinapur, 30 km. north-west of
Meerut, U.P., I have come across some birds
which do not appear to have been recorded in
this area : —

(a) 1525 1 — Yellowbellied Wren-Warbler

( Prinia flaviventris)

This can be heard everywhere throughout
the year and more easily seen from March to
September.

(b) 1548 — Striated Marsh Warbler
( Megalurus palustris)

Its distinctive flight and song, high up in
the air and when dropping earthwards, are most
noticeable in February and March.

(c) 1699 — Whitetailed Bush Chat Saxi-
cola leucura (Blyth)

This was first seen in June 1979 and mistaken
for a Collared Bush Chat {Saxicola torquata)
overstaying into summer. I wrote to
Mr. Humayun Abdulali and upon his expressing

1 Handbook Vol. 8. ^

414, Western Kutchery Road,

Meerut-250 001, (U.P.),

May 25, 1981.

Refer

Abdulali, Humayun & Pandey, J. D. (1978) :
Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur.
Popular Press, Bombay, pp. 14-15.

a doubt regarding the identity of the species,
a specimen was collected and found to be of
this species. The bird is resident and parties
of juveniles in various plumages, always three
together, were often seen and were probably
all of the same brood.

Hastinapur is an extensive area of marshland
and in the riverain tract of Boorhi Ganga run-
ning north to south for about 35 km. The area
is flooded during the monsoon but retains water
throughout the year, being overgrown with
Typha elephantina , Coix lachrymajobi, Phrag-
mites karka, and other grasses and herbs.

I am grateful to Mr. Humayun Abdulali whose
advice and incentive prompted me to obtain
specimens of all three species and have them
identified at the Bombay Natural History
Society.

All three species which are missing from the
Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharat-
pur, have been recorded from Delhi by
j Mr. Sudhir Vyas (Newsletter for Birdwatchers,

• vol. XIX, No. 11, pp. 2-5).

YADO MOHAN RAI

2NCES

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1969-73) : Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vols. 8-9, Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

416

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
15. BIRDS AND STANDING CROPS

Birds are friends of the farmer and not
foes, says Dr. Salim Ali1 mainly because they
destroy insects that plague his crops. Farmers,
who spend hours in driving the flocks of birds
away from their crop, may not agree. Yet it
is doubtful how many of them precisely know
which birds are destructive and which are not
and how much damage the destructive species
inflict on the crop. To observe which birds
come to the standing crop and what exactly they
do once they alight in the fields, 20 consecutive
mornings were spent in October 1979 in a group
of cultivated plots which were mostly left
unguarded.

The cultivated fields measured roughly 120' x
50' each. Two were adjacent divided only by a
track, while the third was about a furlong away.
The standing crop in all of them was jowar in
various stages of ripening. Some cobs had
very tender grain while in others grains were
ripe and hardened. Out of the two adjacent
fields, crop in one was cut after it had been
observed for 4 days. The third field, though
unguarded, had the farmer’s cottage situated
close by, and there was always some move-
ment of men and animals around. While this
discouraged certain species who otherwise
would have come into the field* the farming
operations and fallen grain around the hut, had
attracted a flock of about 100 house sparrows
who seemed to have taken a permanent residen-
ce there. As this tended to give a certain bias to
observations, after the first 4 days, observa-
tions were concentrated in the remaining field
which was totally unguarded and absolutely
without any human interference during the
observation period.

1 Ali, Salim (1972) : The Book of Indian Birds,
iXth Edition, Bombay Natural History Society, Bom-
bay, pp. 152-153.

Observations were recorded during a one-
and-half hour period between 7 and 9 a.m.
Fields were also visited in the evening between
4 and 5 p.m. to record the evening activity of
birds. A field, roughly of the same size but
about 10 km away in the opposite direction,
was also visited thrice in the morning to see if
the number and variety of species differed
markedly here from those in the fields under
closer security. No such difference was noticed.

Except for three mornings, the sky remained
cloudy during the period of observation. But
there was some westerly breeze and the sun
used to come out a little after 8 a.m. Evenings
were sunny with a stronger breeze. During the
observation period temperature varied between
18°. 8' and 32°. 7 C, Most of the observations
were recorded by going round the periphery of
the fields. But sometimes it became necessary
to enter the standing crops to observe bird
activity at there base or about a foot above
ground.

A total of 732 individuals belonging to 34
different species came to the fields during the
period of observation. The total of course
includes the flock of about 100 house sparrows
and birds such as a black-winged kite, a pair of
red-headed merlins, a white-eyed buzzard-eagle
sand martins and common, red-rumped and
wire-tailed swallows that either hovered or flew
over the fields. Every day the number of species
visiting the fields varied between 18 and 26
with the total number of individuals varying
between 75 to 165. But when observations
were concentrated on the single field, the number
of species per day (during observation period)
varied between 7 and 15 and the number of
individuals between 24 and 58.

Out of the total of 34 species observed, 13
are known to eat grain, and out of these, eight

12

417

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 79

species were actually seen plucking out and
eating grains from the cobs. These 8 species
were : house sparrow, common rosefinch, baya
weaver, redvented bulbul, common myna, and
whitethroated, spotted and blackthroated
munias. The munias attacked mainly cobs
with very tender grain, otherwise they tended
to eat grass and weed seeds by alighting at the
foot of the standing crop. To a smaller extent
rosefinches and bayas also were attracted to
tender grain or searched for insects on the
ground. House sparrows, redvented bulbuls
and common mynas ate even hardened grain.
At one time a house sparrow or a baya would
eat a maximum of 14 grains each ; a bulbul
and a rosefinch would eat 20 grains each, while
a myna would take a maximum of 40 grains at
one sitting. Normally however, munias, bayas
and house sparrows would take 3-4, bulbuls,
rosefinches 7-8 and mynas 13-14 grains each at
one time.

Blackheaded bunting, house and jungle crows,
blue rock pigeon and yellowthroated sparrow
are also known to eat grain but were not
observed doing so. The remaining 21 species
are known to be insect or flesh -eaters and came
to the fields in search of these. If the 3 birds
of prey and 3 species of swallow who never
alighted in the fields, are excluded, 15 species
of insectivorous birds were seen to alight in the
fields. Out of these 15, six were actually seen
to catch and eat insects and other animal food.
These 6 species were : rufousbacked shrike,
common green bee-eater, piedcrested cuckoo,
collared bush chat, ashy wren-warbler and
Blyth’s reed warbler. Other insectivorous birds
included : Indian wren-warbler, black and white-
bellied drongos, Indian roller, Indian pipit,
Indian robin and yellow wagtail etc.

While each flock of grain-eaters did not
remain in the field for more than ten minutes,
the insectivorous birds tended to spend all the
time in the field in question. Indeed there is

reason to believe that more than half of these
species even roosted in the field and for all
practical purposes never left the field during
the day. While everyone of the insectivorous
birds was on the lookout for insects while in the
field, not every individual from the gramini-
vorous flocks would eat grain while in the
field.

The number of graminivorous species visiting
the field every day was only 3 or 4. These birds
normally came into the fields in flocks of 3-4 to
10-12 individuals. But the number of indi-
viduals actually eating grain would be only
1-2 to 5-6 from each flock. Some of the indi-
viduals would dive down at the base of the crop
among grasses and weeds for seeds and insects.
The insectivorous birds came as individuals but
spent almost all the time in the field. Even
from the large flock of about 100 house sparrows
only 30-45 were observed eating grains,
the others simply indulged in chirping or
preening.

What do these short observations indicate ?
It appears that the majority of birds that come
to the fields and spend most of their time there,
are insect-eaters. The grain-eaters are fewer in
numbers, spend less time in the field and even
lesser time actually consuming the crop.
Some of them even search for insects and remove
weed seeds, activities beneficial to the farmer.
While it may not be true to say that the quantity
of insects removed by insectivorous birds is
greater than the quantity of grain eaten by
grain-eaters, in terms of value, the former may
be doing a greater service to the cultivator than
the amount of damage inflicted by the latter.
Of course, the real damage can only be assessed
by comparing the value of harvest from fields
that are closely guarded and that are not guarded
at all. On the basis of the present observations
one may say that the actual conditions approxi-
mate more to Dr. Salim Ah’s statement than
to the prevalent view of the farmers.

418

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

BIRDS THAT CAME TO THE FIELDS
WITH STANDING CROPS

Birds that ate grain :

1. Common Myna {Acridotheres tristis )

2. Redvented Bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer )

3. House Sparrow ( Passer domesticus)

4. Baya Weaver ( Ploceus philippinus )

5. Whitethroated Munia (. Lonchura malabarica )

6. Spotted Munia {Lonchura punctulata )

7. Blackheaded Munia {Lonchura malacca )

8. Common Rosefinch {Carpodacus ery throws)

Other grain-eaters :

9. Blue Rock Pigeon {Columba livia )

10. House Crow {Corvus splendens)

11. Jungle Crow {Corvus macro rhync ho s)

12. Yeliowthroated Sparrow {Petronia xanthocollis )

13. Blackheaded Bunting ( Ember iza melanocephala )

Birds that ate insects or other animal matter :

14. Pied Crested Cuckoo {Clamator jacobinus)

15. Green Bee-eater {Merops orientalis )

16. Rufousbacked Shrike {Lanius schach )

277, Sindh Housing Society,

Poona-411 007.

April 2, 1981.

17. Ashy Wren-Warbler {Prinia socialis )

18. Blyth’s Reed Warbler {Acrocephalus dumetofUm)

19. Collared Bushchat or Stonechat {Saxicola tor quota)

Other insect-eaters :

20. Redwattled Lapwing ( Vanellus indicus)

21. Indian Roller {Coracias benghalensis)

22. Black Drongo {Dicrurus adsimilis )

23. Whitebellied Drongo {Dicrurus caerulescens )

24. Indian Wren- Warbler {Prinia subflava )

25. Booted Warbler {Hippolais caligata)

26. Indian Robin {Saxicoloides fulicata )

27. Brown Rock Pipit {Anthus similis )

28. Yellow Wagtail {Motacilla flava)

Birds of Prey :

29. Blackwinged Kite {Elanus caeruleus )

30. White-eyed Buzzard-eagle {Butastur teesa )

31. Redheaded Merlin {Falco chicquera )

Birds that hawked insects over the fields :

32. Plain Sand Martin {Riparia paludicola )

33. Eastern Swallow {Hirundo rustica )

34. Redrumped Swallow {Hirundo daurica )

PRAKASH GOLE

16. FEMALE TERRITORIALITY IN IMMATURE SALTWATER CROCO-
DILES CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER IN CAPTIVITY AND
ITS EFFECT ON GROWTH & SURVIVAL

{With two text- figures)

Introduction and Methods

Bustard and Kar (1980) demonstrated the
development of territoriality in immature salt-
water crocodiles in their third year kept in
4 x 4 x 1 m pools.

A group of seven juveniles, comprising three
females hatched in August 1975 and two males
and two females hatched in August 1976 all at

the Saltwater Crocodile Centre, Dangmal,
Orissa, were brought to a specially-constructed
saltwater crocodile breeding pool in Nandan-
kanan Biological Park, Orissa on 22nd February
1978 when the two age groups were 30 and 18
months old respectively. It was proposed to
rear these individuals as a breeding group, if
necessary removing the second male at a later
stage.

419

JOURNAL, BOM AY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Vol 79

The breeding pool (Figure 1) has a maximum
length of 53.4 m with a maximum breadth of
41.6 m. The pool slopes gradually from the
edge to a maximum depth of 2 m. The water
space is 6202m and the pool can hold approxi-
mately 6,20,000 litres. Two islands occur with-
in the pool but these are rocky and merely serve
to break up the configuration of the pool. They
cannot be used for nesting or basking purposes.
The pool is surrounded by a brick and mortar,
cement-plastered, wall 2 m in height.

Food consisted both of fish, fed live, and beef.
Fish were released into the pool and beef was

chopped and placed on seven stone feeding
slabs placed around the perimeter of the pool.

Daily observations were made on the be-
haviour of the crocodiles and periodically the
group was caught and size and weights recorded.

Results

At the start, on 22nd February 1978 females
C, D and E, all of the 1975 year class, were of a
similar size although E was slightly heavier
than the other two females. The other four

Fig. 1. Saltwater crocodile breeding pool, scale in metres. The arrowed portion of the compound wall is the
total viewing area for the public the inner continuous line the perimeter of the pool and the cross-hatched areas
are rocky islands within the pool.

Abbreviations : I — Inlet ; OF— Overflow used to regularly inundate an area of land to the rear of the pool
and make it marshy.

420

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

individuals, of the 1976 year class, comprising
two of each sex, were also similar to each other.

Conflict resulting from a dominant female,
commenced 3-4 days after the crocodiles were
put into the breeding pool.

Female F and male G were badly victimised
by the dominant female and died on 20-7-78
and 24-7-78 respectively as a result of failure to
realise how badly persecuted they were. The
persecution took the form of chasing and biting
these individuals which became too frightened
to enter the pool and remained under bushes
well back from the perimeter of the pool.

On 26-8-78 the remaining male (A) was
removed to an enclosure measuring 6 x 4.5 m
with a pool of 1.64 x 0.4 x 0.3 m deep.

By 6-1-79 female E had become so dominant
that attempts to continue to rear the group in
the large breeding pool were terminated.
Female E was moved to an enclosure measuring
7.0 x 4.7 m with a pool of 2.8 x 0.4 m deep.
B, C and D were released in a crocodile enclosure
measuring 24 x 14.4 m with a pool of 13.7 x
6 x 0.9 m deep.

Records on the seven individuals are
summarised in Table 1.

On 23-2-79, B was separated from C and D
as it was very much smaller in length and much
lighter in weight (Table 1) (the period 6-1-79
to 23-2-79 is cool winter weather when feeding
is minimal).

The effects of territoriality between B, C and
D on their growth, both of length and of weight,
are shown graphically for the period 23-2-79 to
29-9-79 in Figure 2. The very rapid increase
in the weight and length of the dominant (D)
is apparent during both summer and monsoon
seasons 1979. By 12-10-79 D had more than

doubled its weight to 21.6 kg from 10.2 kg as
compared to 23-2-79. During the same period
— covering summer and monsoon seasons —

B had also shown excellent growth more than
doubling its weight from 4.0 to 8.6 kg and
increasing its length by approximately 40%
from 103 to 142 cm. But female C, which was
now dominated by female D had shown scarcely
any increase in length or weight. Female C
was removed on 12-10-79 and left with B.

Female C on its removal to the enclosure of B
did not show any significant growth and be-
came dominated to some extent by B which had
formerly been considerably smaller (Figure 2).
Female C subsequently entered the pool of D
on 15-7-80 through a gap in the partition and
as a result of attacks by D, died on 29-9-80.
B again showed good growth during the 1980
growing season.

Discussion

The level of territoriality shown by females
E and D, and to a lesser extent by B towards C
and other members of the group, are likely in
the wild to be translated into spacing out of
individuals throughout the available habitat.
The prognosis for smaller, socially inferior,
individuals is extremely bleak, not only as a
result of actual damage sustained as a result
of attacks by the dominant territory holder, but
as a result of constant suooression of growth.
In the wild animal una le to secure a territory
will be lost from the population through death,
a result postulated for the geckos studied by
Bustard (1969) in the wild which were unable
to secure a territory.

While victimisation of small crocodiles by a
dominant is well known (Bustard 1975) the
delity effects of this on vigorous larger
individuals — leading to their death — should be
noted. Had C been left alone and suitably

421

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 79

Table 1

Effect of social Hierarchy on Growth and Survival

Sex

Male A

Female B

Female C

Female D

Female E

Female F

Male G

Year of hatching

1976

1976

1975

1975

1975

1976

1976

22.7.78

{a) Total length in cm.

96.2

88.9

116.8

116.8

121.9

91.4

91.4

0 b ) Weight in kgs

2.7

2.9

4.5

4.5

6.3

2.5

2.5

20.7.78****

( a ) Total length

• • o •

o »

» ©

• •

88.0

94.0

(b) Weight

..

..

2.0

1.6

6.1.79*

(a) Total length

. . 121.0

102.0

131.0

136.0

165.0

• •

C b ) Weight

6.6

4.4

9.0

10.1

17.0

• •

23.2.79**

(a) Total length

123.0

103.0

131.0

138.0

168.0

, #

• •

(b) Weight

6.6

4.0

8.6

10.2

19.0

••

12.10.79

(a) Total length

128.0

142.0

133.0

177.0

198.0

. .

lb) Weight

8.0

8.6

9.2

21.6

28.6

••

••

12.12.79*** ****

(a) Total length

129.0

142.0

134.0.

178.0

200.0

• 6

# #

(b) Weight

7.4

10.4

9.6

22.0

29.4

••

5.1.80

(a) Total length

. . 129.0

142.0

134.0

181.0

201.0

# ,

, ,

(. b ) Weight

7.6

11.0

9.8

24.0

32.8

••

26.2.80

{a) Total length

125.0

• •

• •

# ,

, #

(b) Weight

6.0

. .

• •

••

28.2.80

(a) Total length

„ # , ,

142.0

139.0

185.0

202.0

# ,

(6) Weight

..

11.6

9.4

26.6

34.0

••

••

28.9.80

(a) Total length

140.0

# ,

• •

. ,

(b) Weight

. .

10.4

••

•*

29.9.80

(a) Total length

« •

176.0

. ,

215.0

228.0

(b) Weight

. .

19.3

36.9

44.8

Approx. Age

..

5 years

••

5 years

5 years

••

* Female E was transferred to a separate pool, B, C, and D were also transferred from the breeding pool

to a smaller pool.

** Male A was transferred to a separate pool on 26.8.78 and died in this pool on 26.2.80.

*** Female C was removed from D and accommodated with B on 12.10.79.

**** Female F and male G died on 20.7.78 and 24.7.78 respectively.

422

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

figure shows very rapid growth of a dominant (D), virtually zero growth of a suppressed individual (C) housed
with the dominant, and rapid growth of B removed from the presence of the dominant. B is one year younger than C
but as a result of suppression of growth in C, B overtook it, both in length and weight, by 12-12-79, at an age of 3|
years as compared to C’s 4| years. These differences are entirely a result of dominance effects.

423

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , To/. 79

housed it would have resumed good growth enclosure of B had the same effect as one would
exactly as had occurred in the case of B. expect in nature as a result of an individual not
The failure to remove this individual from the being able to locate a vacant territory.

Central Crocodile Breeding & H. R. BUSTARD

Management Training Institute,

Rajendranagar Road,

Hyderabad-500 264.

Nandankanan Biological Park, S. MAHARANA

Barang P.O. 754 005,

Orissa,

June 23, 1981.

Reference

Bustard, H. R.( 1969) : The population ecology of the Project, India, UNDP/FAO, Rome. December 1975.
gekkonid lizard [ Gehyra variegcita (Dumeril & Bibron)] FO : IND/71/033.

in exploited forests in northern New South Wales. Bustard, H. R. & Kar S. K. (1980) : Territoriality
J. Anim. Ecol. 38 : 35-51. in immature captive saltwater crocodiles ( Crocodylus

, (1975) : Gharial and crocodile conserva- porosus , Schneider). /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77 :

lion management. Interim Report, Crocodile Farming 148-149.

17. THE EXTINCTION OF THE GHARIAL [GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)]
FROM THE BRAHMANI AND BAITARANI RIVERS OF ORISSA

The gharial formerly inhabited all three major
river systems of Orissa (Singh and Bustard, in
press). Critically-endangered population
remnants still inhabit the Mahanadi river
(Bustard and Singh, in prepn.) where a special
sanctuary has been created and an extensive
gharial conservation programme is in opera-
tion (FAO 1974, Bustard 1975, FAO 1975,
Bustard 1976). However, the species is now
considered to be extinct in both the Brahmani
and Baitarani river systems.

Details of these extinctions are set out below :
Brahmani River

Until about 10-15 years ago gharial occurred
in the Brahmani river at Bonaigarh, Talcher,

Kamakshyanagar and also in the lower Brah-
mani. The Raja of Sundargarh killed a male
gharial about 22 ft. (6.6 m) in length in the
Brahmani near Bonai in 1967. The informant
further indicated that since 1970 there are no
further reports concerning the occurrence of
gharial in the Brahmani river. There is a
village near Talcher called Katarapada where
the river is called Kumbhirakhai ( —crocodile
eating place in Oriya) because a large number
of gharial occurred in this area until twenty
years ago. A dam is being constructed about
20 miles upstream from Talcher. It is reported
that when the site for the construction of the
dam was selected and extensive dynamiting
took place in the area, many gharial were
killed.

424

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A person from outside of Orissa killed a
gharial in the Brahmani in 1975. This was
probably the last surviving Brahmani gharial.

Two tributaries of the Brahmani formerly
holding gharial were the rivers Kharasuan and
Ramiyala. Many gharial formerly inhabited
the Sundarmundi Gorge of the Ramiyala
river. The practice of dynamiting for fish is
reported to have killed many gharial. The
last definite report from Ramiyala was during
1958 when two gharial were killed by this
fishing practice.

Baitarani River

Gharial were formerly present in the lower
Baitarani and near Anandpur and Jajpur areas
(Singh and Bustard, in press). However, there
are no reports for the last 10-20 years and
we consider that the gharial is now definitely
extinct in the Baitarani river.

i

Sileru River

The Sileru river joins the Godavari which
flows into Andhra Pradesh. There are reports
of the occurrence of gharial in the Sileru up to
1971. We feel that the gharial is now extinct
in the Sileru.

Discussion

The above account documents how rapidly
the gharial has been lost from most of its former
habitat in Orissa, a process which has been
repeated throughout most of the gharial’s
former range. We cannot pinpoint the precise
time when the gharial became extinct in the

Baitarani but consider that this occurred during
the 1960’s. For the Sileru it was in the early
1970’s (last report 1971) and for the Brahmani
it was as recent as 1975.

The significant point is that the rapid dis-
appearance of these entire populations occurred
without the knowledge of responsible people
at the time. This is exactly how an entire
species can be lost, and the extinction of the
Indian Cheetah provides a graphic example. A
species becomes rare, it is seldom sighted, and
amid apathy, or lack of clear understanding of
what requires to be done, may entirely disappear.

The Indian Gharial is a species which has
been saved from the brink. We feel certain
that the Mahanadi gharial population would
already have gone the way of those of the
Baitarani, Sileru and Brahmani, and hence the
gharial would have become extinct in Orissa,
and in due course throughout India, had it
not been for the concern of the Government
of India for the species leading to an investi-
gation into its status and conservation require-
ments (FAO 1974). Following submission of
this report to Government of India, extremely
rapid conservation action to save the gharial
was initiated by the Government of India, in
association with the States, under technical
assistance from FAO/UNDP (FAO, 1975).
This work is continuing.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our thanks to Orissa
Forest Department, Government of India,
F.A.O. and U.N.D.P. for various help during
the study.

L. A. K. SINGH

H. R. BUSTARD

Gharial Research & Conservation Unit,
Tikerpada-759 122,

Dhenkanal District, Orissa.

Crocodile Breeding & Management Project,
Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road,
Hyderabad-500 264,

June 22, 1981,

425

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. 79
References

Bustard, H. R. (1975) : A future for the gharial. (1975) : India. Gharial and crocodile con-

Cheetal 17 (2) : 3-5. servation management in Orissa (based on the work of

(1976) : Operation gharial. Cheetal 17 H. R. Bustard). FAO : IND : 71 : 033 December, 1975.

(3-4) : 3-6. FAO, Rome.

Fao (1974) : India. A preliminary survey of the Singh, L. A/K. & Bustard, H. R. (in press) : Geogra-
prospects for crocodile farming (based on the work phical distribution of the gharial [Gavialis gangeticus
of H. R. Bustard). FAO : IND : 71 : 033 October, 1974. (Gmelin)] in Orissa, India. British Journal of
FAO, Rome. Herpetology.

18. A TAXONOMIC NOTE ON MUGGER SUBSPECIES ( CROCODYLUS

PALUSTRIS )

In Deraniyagala’ s (1936) description of the
Sri Lankan subspecies of Crocodylus palustris
(C. p . kimbuld) he listed several features which,
in his opinion, distinguished it from Indian C.
palustris.

While examining data collected by C. A. Ross
in 1974 on scalation of C. palustris specimens
from several parts of India and our own captive
stock of 1000 at Madras Crocodile Bank we
found that the characters given as points of
sub-specific differentiation between the Indian
and Sri Lankan races of C. palustris are invalid.
The small size of the sample of Indian specimens
Deraniyagala looked at is probably to blame.
Of the four characters given by Deraniyagala
the only one which is presently a point of
distinction is the tendency of some populations
of Sri Lankan mugger to frequent saltwater
(Whitaker 1979). However mugger were once
common in the salt pans of Sind (McCann 1935)
so even this feature is not unique to the Sri
Lankan mugger. The assertion that the Sri
Lankan mugger is more frequently known as a
maneater than its northern counterpart could
be due to confusion with the often sympatric
Crocodylus porosus.

Taken one by one, the following are the
characters given for C.p. kimbula by Deraniya-
gala, each one followed by our findings with
mugger from Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Uttar
Pradesh.

(a) Sri Lankan mugger has more transverse
dorsal rows with six contiguous scutes
than with four while seven is not un-
common and occasionally a row with
eight.

(aa) In our sample of sixteen (Table 1),
twelve specimens had more transverse
rows with six than four, three had rows
with seven and two with eight.

Table 1

Dorsal Scale Rows of Indian Crocodylus
palustris

4 5 6 7 8

scuted scuted scuted scuted scuted
rows rows rows rows rows

Mettur Dam

.. 9

4

6

5)

.. 9

2

7

a*

.. 7

1

8

2

»

.. 7

1

10

Malabar

.. 10

5

3

Ranganthittoo

.. 8

1

10

.. 7

3

8

99

.. 9

3

4

99

.. 7

2

9

99

.. 7

1

10

99

.. 7

2

8

1

99

.. 7

1

8

2

99

.. 7

1

8

2

99

.. 6

1

10

1

99

.. 7

2

8

Uttar Pradesh

.. 3

4

6

426

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(b) Dorsal scutes subequal in Sri Lankan
mugger ; only a few isolated ones
enlarged ; while in the Indian mugger
there are 2 median longitudinal rows of
conspicuously widened dorsal scutes.

( bb ) We found the median longitudinal
rows of dorsal scales highly variable
in the Indian sample, sometimes sub-
equal, sometimes uniformly larger,
smaller or equal in size to the other
dorsals.

(c) Ventral collar of 4 twice as deep ’ scales
in Sri Lankan mugger and none in
Indian mugger.

(cc) In all of the Indian specimens a collar
of enlarged scales is present though
often not conspicuous in juveniles.

( d ) Sri Lankan mugger not uncommon in
saltwater.

Madras Crocodile Bank Trust,

C/o. Madras Snake Park Trust,

Madras-600 022,

February 23, 1982.

Refer

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. 1936 : A new crocodile
from Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Sci., XIX, part 3.
Whitaker, R. and Whitaker, Z. (1979) : Prelimi-

( dd ) The mugger in India has been hunted
out of most of its original habitat which
certainly may have included salt pans
and estuarine areas, as reported in
Sind.

Conclusion :

The great variation in scalation of local popu-
lations of the wide ranging C. palustris does not
support Deraniyagala’s contention that the Sri
Lankan race is a separate subspecies. Evidence
is presented in Table 1.

Acknowledgements

We thank our organizations, the Madras
Snake Park Trust and Madras Crocodile Bank
Trust for their support of our work. We also
thank Shekar Dattatri for reviewing this note.

ROMULUS WHITAKER
ZAHIDA WHITAKER

E N CE S

nary Crocodile Survey — Sri Lanka. /. Bombay not.
Hist. Soc. 76 : (1) : 66-85.

McCann, C. (1935) : A reptile and Amphibian Mis
cellany. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41 : 742.

19. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE GHAR1AL

Malcolm Smith (1931) gives the distribution
of gharial as :

4 The Indus, Ganges, Mahanadi and Brah-
maputra Rivers and their tributaries and the
Kaladan River, Arakan. Barton (1929) records
a specimen shot at the mouth of the Maingtha,
a tributary of the Sweli River, Upper Burma ;
it is the sole record from the Irrawaddy River
system.’

Leaving aside the questionable occurrence in
Burma, the gharial would appear to have a
north Indian distribution in the Indo-Gangetic
river systems and their tributaries. The occur-
rence in Mahanadi, and other rivers in Orissa
(Singh and Bustard, in prepn.), appears some-
what anomalous.

During the course of a survey in Godavari
River of Andhra Pradesh, information was

427

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , 79

obtained concerning the previous occurrence of
crocodiles, which from their description could
only be gharial, in the Godavari. Since they
apparently no longer occur there, having been
wiped out in the post-Second World War cro-
codile hunting phase, which all but extermi-
nated the gharial in its north Indian stronghold,
it is not possible to further substantiate these
reports two of which are presented below :

1. In June 1976, when visiting the trans-
Godavari in the region of Papikonda
Gorge with Mr. T. V. Subba Rao, Addi-
tional Chief Conservator of Forests
(1) of the Andhra Pradesh State Forest
Department, Mr. Subba Rao gave one
of us (H.R.B.) definite information that
gharial had been present a decade or
more ago in the River Godavari. He
stated that he had been told of long-
snouted crocodiles by fishermen, the
description of which could only apply
to gharial. Since the only other croco-
dilian in this area of Godavari is the
Indian mugger — the most short-
snouted species of the genus Croco-
dylus — it is not possible that this
animal was confused with the gharial.

2. In the winter of 1976 (Nov./Dec.)
one of us (B.C.C.) was carrying out
a survey of wild mugger ( Crocodylus
palustris) populations on the river
Godavari and was likewise informed
by fishermen that a crocodilian other
than the mugger was formerly present
in this River. Once again the descrip-
tions provided by fishermen were of a
long snouted crocodile which they
drew and from the drawings could

Central Crocodile Breeding & Management
Training Institute, Lake Dale,
Rajendranagar Road, Hyderabad.

Crocodile Project, Nehru Zoological Park,
Hyderabad,

June 23, 1981.

be positively identified as the gharial.
Report said that it occurred at Gundam
but also from Pochampad to Lanja-
madugu, a stretch of 250 km. One
such informant was Kussappa, son of
Bhawani, aged approximately 35 years.
He had been operating at Pochampad
project for 15 years having originally
come from Maharashtra. Kussappa
said that the gharial in Godavari grew
toll length of 1 2 to 1 8 ft. and confirmed
seeing them during the early 1960’s,
evidence which was confirmed by other
people. Gharial are reported to have
been present in this area of the Goda-
vari up to and including the early
1960’s. Thereafter, however, these fisher-
men reported not having seen gharial.

Wainganga/Pranahita, a tributary of the
Godavari originates from almost the same lati-
tude as the Mahanadi River, the southernmost
range for the gharial described so far. The
records here presented indicate that the recent
range of the gharial extended to South India.

In view of the former occurrence of the gharial
in the Godavari, their occurrence in Mahanadi
and the other river systems of Orissa no longer
appears so anomalous.

We would be very interested to hear from
readers who have definite records of gharial in
Andhra Pradesh or in other areas where they
are not generally known to have occurred. This
information, such as old shikar records, would
be very useful, since following the massive
hunting of crocodiles, gharial must be expected
to be extinct in most peripheral parts of their
range. Hence such data cannot be collected
today.

H. R. BUSTARD

B. C. CHOUDHURY

428

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Referen ces

Smith, Malcolm (1931): Fauna of British India. Barton, C. G. (1929) : The occurrence of the Gharial
Reptilia and Amphibia Vol. 1, Loricata Testudines. (Gavialis gangeticus) in Burma. /. Bombay nat. Hist .
Taylor and Francis, London. Soc. 33 : 450-451.

20. A RANGE EXTENSION OF GEOCHELONE ELONGATA

Three land tortoises are known from India,
Geochelone elongata, G. elegans and G. travanco-
rica. Geochelone elongata and G. elegans are wide-
spread, whereas G. travancorica is restricted to
the Travancore Hills and the western and
eastern slopes of the Ghats (Annandale 1915).

Geochelone elongata has been found in Sal
forests from the Jalpaiguri district, W. Bengal,
Singbhum district, Bihar (Chaibassa and
Chotanagpur), Orissa, Puri district, Simlipal
in the Mayurbhanj district of Orissa, India,
Bangladesh (Akyab and Chittagong Hill Tracts),
Nepal, Burma, Cambodia and Vietnam (Biswas
et al. 1978). The reference of Biswas et al.
(1978) to Nepal G. elongata came from Smith
(1931). An exact locality for Smith’s record
is unavailable. Apparently, this species is
restricted to Sal forests.

In April 1974, one of us (C. A. R., witnessed
by R. Whitaker) found an individual of G. elon-
gata about 300 km further west than previously
recorded. This specimen was found at dusk in
Sal forest while returning from gavial survey
work on the Ramganga River in northwestern
Uttar Pradesh, Garhwal district, about 75 km
west of the Nepal border. The specimen was
active when found in the vicinity of the Gairal
Forest Rest House, Corbett National Park,
about 25-30 km northwest of Ramnagar. The

Division of Reptiles and Amphibians,
Department of Vertebrate Zoology,
National Museum of Natural History,
Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D.C. 20560,

February 26, 1982.

specimen was photographed and released
because it was found in a national park and
collection permits were not available. Color
slides are deposited in the Department of
Herpetology, Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Harvard University (MCZ slide collection
catalogue number 778-79) and are available for
verification of our identification.

Smith (1931) had speculated that the current
distribution of G. elongata and G. travancorica
is relictual and noted a similar distribution in
Malanochelys trijuga. Smith also contended
that it was unlikely that G. elongata ever
extended across the Gangetic Plain. The Uttar
Pradesh specimen and the report of Biswas et al.
(1978) falsify this contention and suggests that
G. elongata may yet be found in isolated patches
of Sal forest throughout northern India.

Acknowledgements

We thank C. Ernst, K. Miyata and G. Zug
for reading the manuscript and making valuable
comments. Funding was provided C.A.R. by
the New York Zoological Society. J. C. Daniel
and R. Whitaker assisted in the field. Funding
for C.R.C. came from the Theodore Roosevelt
Memorial Fund (American Museum of Nat.
Hist.), Sigma xi and a Smithsonian Predoctoral
Fellowship.

CHARLES A. ROSS
CHARLES R. CRUMLY

429

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79
References

Annandale, N. (1915) : Notes on some Indian nat. Hist. Soc. 75 : 928-930.

Chelonia. Records of the Indian Museum, 9 : 189-195. Smith, M. A. (1931) : The fauna of British East
Biswas, S., Acharjyo, L. N. Mohapatra, S. (1978) : India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and
Notes on the distribution, sexual dimorphism and growth Amphibia. Vol. I Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and
m captivity of Geoch'elone elongata (Blyth). J. Bombay Francis, publishers, 185 pp.

21. SOME FIELD NOTES ON THE NEWLY-DESCRIBED TOAD, BUFO
CAMORTENSIS MANSUKHANI & SARKAR

In Bulletin Zoological Survey of India
3 (1 & 2) : 97-101 1980, (Mrs.) M. R. Mansu-
khani and A. K. Sarkar of the Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, have described a new
species of toad Bufo camortensis based partly
on specimens obtained by me at Camorta,
Central Nicobars on 30th March 1976.

When first seen after dusk they were very
common along paths through grass-covered
clearings. They were strikingly paler than the
Common Toad (B. melanostictus ) and drew
further attention by attempting to climb on to

75, Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay-400 003.

August 29, 1981.

the tussocks of grass in their efforts to escape.
When caught, they felt very cold to the touch,
another character which appeared to separate
them from melanostictus. Similar specimens
were obtained on Katchal Island, Central
Nicobars on 24th March 1977 when there with
Dr. K. K. Tiwari, Director, Z.S.I., and again
noted as cold to the touch.

Toads obtained on the Andaman Islands
and on Car Nicobar have been identified as
B. melanostictus.

HUMAYUN ABDUL ALI

22. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE PUTITOR MAHSEER, TOR
PUTITORA (HAM.) (CYPR1NIFORMES ; CYPRIN1DAE ;
BARBINAE) TO POONCH VALLEY (JAMMU AND KASHMIR)

In southern Asia the barbs are represented
by the closely related genus Tor Gray in which
the scales are much larger than in the genus
Barbus Cuvier. These large-scaled barbs,
locally known as the Mahseers, are distributed
all along the Himalayas, being found in various
hill-streams and upper reaches of rivers of the
northern latitudes. They are typical rheo-
philes as their body is adapted to life in moun-
tain torrents and fast-flowing streams. Like

the Salmon they are capable of leaping against
currents and ascending waters.

In the ichthyofauna of Jammu and Kashmir
State the Mahseer is represented by Tor putitora
(Ham.) which was reported from Kashmir
Valley by Hora (1939), Silas (1960) and Das
(1965). The present report of the occurrence
of this teleost from Poonch Valley is, therefore,
an extension of the range of distribution of this

430

Miscellaneous notes

species. In Poonch Valley Tor putitora (Ham.)
is abundantly found in Sooran torrent, Betarh
nallah, Poonch River, Mandi stream and
Baffliaz, all of which are torrential streams
with gravelly bottoms and partially submerged
boulders.

Khan (1934) observed that the allied species
Tor tor (Ham.) occurs in all the hill-tracts of
the Punjab except the snow-fed streams whose
temperature falls below 60°F in summer. As
almost all the streams which contain Tor putitora
(Ham.) in Poonch Valley are snow-fed streams,
it is evident that the putitor mahseer has a
greater ecological tolerance and is better adapted
to subsist in colder temperatures than Tor tor
(Ham.).

Das (1960) described the mahseers of the
Doon Valley and observed that in Tor putitora
(Ham.) of the Doons the lips are extensible and
sometimes produced with the snout into greatly
expanded and swollen lobes for suction, feeding
or attachment to rocks in fast-flowing mountain
streams. The extraordinary thickening of the
lips is not so well-marked in the specimens
obtained from Poonch Valley.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Dy.
Director, Zoological Survey of India, Southern
Regional Station, Madras, for confirming the
identification of the specimens under report.

Department of Zoology,

Islamia College of Science & Commerce,
Srinagar-190 002,

Kashmir (India),

May 30, 1981.

Refer

Das, S. M. (1960) : The fisheries of the Doon Valley.
Uttar Pradesh , 18 (9) : 11-17.

(1965) : A revision of fish species inhabiting

Kashmir Province. Kashmir. Sci., 2 (1-2) : 13-19.

Hora, S. L. (1939) : The game-fishes of India, VIII.
The Mahseers or the large-scaled barbels of India —

SURENDRA NATH

iNCES

I : The putitor mahseer, Barbus (Tor) putitora (Ham.).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc ., 41 : 271-285.

Khan, H. M. (1934) : Habits and habitats of the
food fishes of Punjab, ibid., 37 (3) : 655-668.

Silas; E. G, (1960) : Fishes from the Kashmir Valley,
ibid., 57 (1): 66-79.

23. DOES FORMALIN PERMIT THE LARVAL DEVELOPMENT IN
AEDES AEGYPTI AND CULEX PIPIENS FATIGANS ?

Introduction

When a six month study was made on the
ecology of mosquito larvae distributed in
various localities of Tiruchirapalli, the presence
of Aedes aegypti larvae was accidentally noted
in the specimen bottles containing formalin in
the post graduate laboratory. So far no

report has been published on occurrence of the
organisms including mosquito larvae in
formalin. In this paper results of the survival
capacity of A. aegypti larvae in various concen-
trations of formalin are compared with that of
Culex pipiens fatigans. To find out whether
the mosquito larvae of any species undergo
normal development in the formalin and to

431

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 79

prove the selective preference of A. aegypti for
container habitats an experiment was designed
using different concentrations of formalin.

Material and Methods

C. pipiens fatigans and A. aegypti larvae were
collected from a ditch and a broken pot respec-
tively. Formalin concentrations ranging from
0.025% to 0.125% were prepared. Fifteen
fourth instar larvae were added to the bottles
containing 200 ml of formalin solution of these
concentrations. The number of larvae that
pupated and emerged as adults was noted.
Each experiment was repeated for four times.

Results

The formalin concentrations ranging from
0.025 % to 0.075 % permitted the survival, pupa-
tion and adult emergence of A. aegypti and C.
pipiens fatigans larvae. But the number of
larvae that survived, pupated and emerged as
adults were high in A. aegypti. The larvae
belonging to both species did not survive in
0.125% formalin concentration. But the time
taken by A. aegypti larvae to die was longer
than that of C. pipiens fatigans. (Tables 1
and 2).

Table 1

The Efficiency of A. aegypti and C. pipiens fatigans larvae to Pupate in various
Concentrations of formalin

Number of larvae used

Number of larvae pupated

Concentration

A. aegypti

C. pipiens fatigans

A. aegypti

C. pipiens fatigans

0.025%

15

15

11.50± 1.29

6.25 ±0.96

0.050%

15

15

9.00±0.82

3.00± 0.82

0.075%

15

15

7.50± 1.29

1.50±0.29

0.100%

15

15

4.25 ±0.96

*

0.125%

15

15

.

. .@

* In 0.100% all C. pipiens fatigans larvae died within 12 to 15 hours.

@ In 0.125 % all C. pipiens fatigans larvae died within 2 to 4 hours and all A. aegypti larvae died in 2 days

Values are mean± SD.

Table 2

The Efficiency of

A. aegypti and

C. pipiens fatigans Larvae to Emerge as Adult

In various concentrations of formalin

Number of larvae used

Number of adults emerged

Concentration

A. aegypti

C. p ip iens fatigans

A. aegypti

C. pipiens fatigans

0.025%

15

15

9.25 ±0.96

3.25 ±0.50

0.050%

15

15

5.50±0.58

3.25 ±0.96

0.075%

15

15

5.25 ±0.96

2.75 ±0.50

0.100%

15

15

3.50±0.70

. ,

0.125%

15

15

••

Values are mean± SD.

432

Miscellaneous notes

Discussion

Bates (1949) classified larval habitats into
three categories namely, permanent, transient
and container. Larvae belonging to various
species inhabit different habitats. Some species
prefer a wide range of habitats, while others limit
their choice to a few habitats. Thus C.pipiens
fatigans breeds in all sorts of natural habitats.
Similarly Anopheles subpictus is found breeding
in temporary small sunlit pools, drains and
ditches, rice fields and rock pools. Many of
the principal and potentially dangerous vectors
of mosquito borne viruses breed in specific
container habitats. So the larvae of A. aegypti
are found mainly in the container habitats
(Goma 1966). A. africanus and Haemogogus
are found in tree holes, while larvae of A. simp -
soni are observed in axils of banana and pine-
apple leaves.

Vijayakumar (1977) reported the occurrence
of A. aegypti larvae in container habitats such

Postgraduate Department of Zoology,
Jamal Mohamad College,
Tiruchirapalli-620 020.

August 10, 1981.

as bottles, tree holes, discarded tins and broken
pots. He also reported the absence of C. pipiens
fatigans larvae in container habitats. In this
present report it is found out that the low
concentrations of formalin permitted the survival
of these two species of mosquito larvae. But
the data clearly shows that the larvae of A.
aegypti thrived well in formalin solution than
C. pipiens fatigans larvae. The reason for the
poor survival capability of C. pipiens fatigans
when compared to A. aegypti larvae in formalin
solution may be attributed to its habitat
preference. The bottles are included under
container habitat. On rearing these two
species, one characteristic of container habitat
and other not, naturally the former did well.
Thus the present study establishes that the low
concentrations of formalin permit the normal
development of mosquito larvae and that the
habitat has an influence over the development.

I am grateful to Dr. V. Hari Rao for his
interest and encouragement.

I. VIJAYAKUMAR1

Referen ces

Bates, M. (1949) : The Natural History of Mosqui- Vijayakumar, I. (1977) : An ecological study of
toes, Macmillan, New York. mosquito larvae in and around Tiruchirapalli, M.Sc.

Goma, L. K. H. (1966) : The Mosquito, Hutchinson Thesis, University of Madras, Madras.

Tropical Monographs.

1 Present address : Dept, of Zoology, University of Madras, Madras-600005.

13

433

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 19

24. RECORD OF EPHESTIA CAUTELLA WALKER (PYRALIDAE :
LEPIDOPTERA) FROM CHILLY POWDER AT LUDHIANA, PUNJAB (INDIA)

During July 1976 chilly powder kept for home
consumption were found webbed and a number
of pinkish white larvae were present in the silken
tubes. The glass jar (15 cm x 5 cm) containing
the powdered chilly along with the larvae top
covered with muslin were kept in an incubator
at 30°C. The emerging adults were identified
as Ephestia cautella Walker.

Earlier records of this species are on dried
fruits such as currant, raisins, apples, dates,
berries, figs, almonds, carobs, walnuts, pistachu,
Primus, oil palm kernels and also on fallen and
damaged citrus fruits. It has also been recorded
on chocolate, cocoa beans, soyabean, biscuits.

Department of Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana,

January 31, 1981.

tamarind seeds, lac, malted milk, dried mango
juice, garlic bulbs, stored onion, apricot seeds,
ground nut kernels, sesamum, cotton seed,
cereals and cereal products. The larvae of
E. cautella have also been found feeding on
Ceretovauna lanigera Zhnt. E. cautella appea-
rance in powdered chillies is a new record.

We are thankful to Dr. A. S. Sidhu the then
Professor and Head, Department of Ento-
mology for providing the necessary facilities
and to the Director, British Museum, Common-
wealth Institute of Entomology, London for
identification of the specimen.

M. RAMZAN
DARSHAN SINGH

25. NEW RECORD OF SCAMBUS {SCAM BUS) STRIATUS GUPTA AND
TIKER (ICHNEUMONIDAE : HYMENOPTERA) FROM PECTIN O-
PHORA G OSS YPIELLA (SAUNDERS) AND ITS BIOLOGY

Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) is a
serious pest of cotton and the natural enemies
of this pest are being studied in the Punjab to
use them as biological control agents as well as
in the integrated control programme. While
making collection an ectoparasitoid was
observed on a paralysed larva of P. gossypiella
in a flower at Bhogpur, Punjab. The parasitoid
was reared in the laboratory and an adult
female emerged. It was identified by Dr. I. D.
Gauld of the Commonwealth Institute of Ento-
mology, London as Scambus {Sc ambus) striatus
Gupta and Tiker. This species is known only
from Kodaikanal, Palni hills, Tamil Nadu

(India) and was described by Gupta and Tiker
(1967) on the basis of net collected female
specimens.

The female was kept in a large size glass
chimney. The open sides of the chimney were
covered with pieces of voile cloth. Thirty per
cent honey solution was given as food in a
cotton swab which was hung from the top of
the chimney. Progeny of the virgin female
were obtained. The larvae of P. gossypiella
and Corcyra cephalonica Stainton were tried
as laboratory hosts. The fourth instar larvae
at the rate of ten per day were exposed to the
female. The larvae were kept on the upper

434

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

side of the glass chimney in facial tissue paper
folds. The tissue paper with host larvae was
covered with a glass slab (10 cm x 10 cm) to
restrict the host movements. The host larvae
paralysed on each date were reared in petridishes
(3 cm dia.) and the pupae formed were trans-
ferred to battery jar (15 cm long and 10 cm
dia.) The P, gossypiella larvae were exposed
for ten days and that of C. cephalonica for two
days.

It was observed that only the larvae of P.
gossypiella were accepted for oviposition. The
larvae were paralysed before oviposition. Two
to three eggs were deposited daily at the rate of

Department of Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana, Punjab, India,

November 20, 1980,

one per host. The egg + larval period was
completed in 5.8 ± 0.7 (n = 11) days while the
corresponding figure for pupal period was 9.6 ±

1.6 (n = 11) days at 24.6 ± 2.1°C and 62.0 ±

6.6 per cent relative humidity. The adults lived
up to 20.3 ± 6.8 days.

We are thankful to Dr. B. S. Chahal, Profes-
sor-cum-Head, Department of Entomology,
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana,
Punjab for providing facilities and Dr. N. C.
Pant, Director, Commonwealth Institute of
Entomology, London for arranging the identi-
fication of the parasitoid.

MANINDER
G. C. VARMA

Reference

Gupta, V. K. & Tiker, D. T. (1967): Indian species
of Scambus Hartig (Hymenoptera : Ichneumonidae).
Orient . Insects, 1 : 225.

26 A NEW RECORD OF Ar PARASITIC FLESHIFLY, PARASARCOPHAGA
KNABI (PARKER) (SARCOPHAG1DAE : DIPTERA) ON THE OAK

TASAR SILKWORM

Antheraea proylei Jolly, commonly known as
Oak Tasar silkworm, is a sericigenous insect
which has helped in a big way to the socio-
economic uplift of the tribal population of the
remote hill forest belts of Manipur State by the
production of better quality tasar silk. Since
this insect is economically very important, the
slightest loss from parasites and predators are
a great concern to the rearers. Several kinds
of such enemies have been observed.

Parasarcophaga knabi (Parker) attacks the
different larval instars of this silkworm. The

species has so far been recorded from different
parts of the country and has been noticed to be
attracted to human feces, dead animals etc.
and can be reared on meat in the laboratory.
It has not been recorded from this region and
its parasitism on A. proylei Jolly seems to be new.

P. knabi (Parker) has been reported for the
first time as parasitic on the larvae of A . proylei
Jolly from almost all the tasar silkworm rearing
farms of the state. The female oviposits her
eggs on the body of the host which are glued
to the surface of the larva. The number of eggs

435

Journal, bombay natural hist : society, Voi. 79

laid on a single larva varies from 1 to 68. The
maggots, on hatching, bore their way through
the skin of the host thus causing injury and even
death of the infested larva. Infestation appears
since the late first instar onwards, but the
maximum incidence has been observed in the
3rd, 4th and 5th instars during the months of

April to May and July to September resulting
in nearly 10% loss in the production.

We express our deep sense of gratitude to
the Director, British Museum, London, for
the identification of the parasite.

Laboratory of Entomology, K. C. SINGH

Division of Life Sciences, B. PRASAD

Jawaharlal Nehru University,

Centre of Postgraduate Studies,

Imphal-795 003 (Manipur),

December 16, 1980.

27. PREDATION OF THE PLUM SCALE, EULECANIUM CORYLI (L.)
(HOMOPTERA : COCCIDAE), BY BALLIA BAYADERAE MULSANT
(COLEOPTERA : COCCINELLID AE) , IN KASHMIR

The plum scale, Eulecanium coryli (L.), is a
serious pest of plum, quince, apricot, almond
and cherry in Kashmir. The brown coloured,
mature female scales have a typical, swollen
appearance, bearing an outward resemblance
to spherical galls. The infested twigs look as if

studded with countless, closely packed galls.
Under field conditions, these scales are preyed
upon by the larvae of the coccinellid, Ballia
bayaderae Muls., chiefly during late March to
early May which checks further multiplication
of the pest to a considerable extent.

G/O. Dept, of Zoology, M. ZAKA-UR-RAB

Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh-202 001,

November 27, 1980.

28. FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE MOLE CRAB EMERITA

HOLTHUISI (CRUSTACEA :
Introduction

Mole crabs of the genus Emerita have evolved
combinations of morphological and behavi-
oural modifications which fit them in a hostile
intertidal habitat. One of these, is a passive
method of filtering food with their antennae.

ANOMURA: HIPPIDEA)

In the present study some observations on
feeding and antennular movements of Emerita
holthuisi from the west coast of India were made
under laboratory conditions. Observations on
gut content were also made.

436

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Material and Methods

Extensive mole crab beds are found in Mirya
bay, situated 1.5 km west of Ratnagiri. The
animals were collected from the beach at Ratna-
giri from September 1973 to August 1974 and
fixed in 10 % formalin for observing gut contents.
The stomachs were removed from fresh as well
as previously collected animals and preserved
in formalin. The contents were first examined
with a low-power binocular microscope and
the larger fragments were noted, the remainder
being usually subsampled by pipetting a drop
of the material on a slide and examining under
higher magnification. The method followed
by Hynes (1950) was used to determine the

composition of different food items Charcoal
particles were used instead of food particles to
determine the feeding behaviour of the animal.

Results

The percentage of full stomach was more in
rainy season than in other months (Table 1).
The following components were observed in the
gut.

Debris :

This category includes all unidentifiable finely
divided material. The name is used in place of
the more usual term ‘debritus ’, since it was not
known whether the material was organic or
inorganic.

Table 1

Food of Emerita holthuisi as Percentage of Gut Content for the period September 1973

to August 1974

Month

No. of
stomachs
examined

Diatoms

Spicules

Sand

Foramini-

fera

and

Dinofla-

gellates

Inverte-

brate

egg

Debris

°/

/o

°/

/o

%

%

%

%

%

1973

September

19

25

16

2

5

3

49

October

20

23

14

3

7

5

48

November

20

16

15

3

6

7

53

December

20

16

14

4

6

5

55

1974

January

20

20

12

4

5

4

55

February

20

28

9

2

7

5

49

March

20

21

12

2

5

3

57

April

20

30

8

1

6

3

50

May

20

30

10

2

4

3

49

June

20

39

13

2

6

2

38

July

18

35

14

1

6

1

43

August

20

30

16

2

5

2

45

437

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

Diatom :

Phytoplankton dominated from June
onwards upto September and then gave way to
Zooplankton. Diatoms form a considerable
part of the stomach content. From December
upto July they form the main constituent of the
gut contents. Diatoms belonging to the follow-
ing genera were seen at different periods of the
year. During January-February Concinodiscus
excentricus and Rhizosolenia semispina were
seen in abundance. From March onwards
Chaetoceras, Ditylium, Thalaniothrix , Stepano-
phyxix , Biddulphia and Fragilaria were present
in large numbers.

Small invertebrate eggs as well as traces of
sand particles were seen in the stomach during
September 1973 upto February 1974. Foramini-
fera and Dinoflagellates form an important
constituent of the gut contents during the year.

It was noticed that in the antennular move-
ment the food particles were entangled in all
parts of the antenna, but the greatest concentra-
tion was at the ends of the shorter inner row
of setae and particularly towards the distal end.
Every few seconds one antenna was quickly
bent into the cavity between the meropodites
of the third maxillipeds and the mouth parts
and was then withdrawn slowly as the mouth
parts removed the food and sand grains. When
clean it was extended again and filtering conti-
nued for a few seconds before the other antenna
was cleaned in the same way. Rarely the same
antenna was cleaned twice in succession, while
the other one remained in the filtering position.
Such repeated cleaning of the same antenna was
most frequently seen when an animal was very
close to the wall of the glass trough or to
another feeding animal ; under these conditions
the antenna nearest to the obstacle may either
remain withdrawn or be filtering but is rarely
cleaned.

The large door-like meropodites of the third
maxillipeds are held close to the mouth parts

when the animals were not feeding and, with
their overlapping setal fringes form a barrier
against the encroachment of sand that surrounds
the mouth. During feeding their meropodites
open outwards to form parallel sides to the
mouth region. Even in this position, their setae
partially close off the distal end against the sand.
Thus the mouth parts can scrape the food off
the antenna without taking in too much sand.
It was noticed that as soon as an antenna was
brought down for cleaning, movements of the
propodite and dactylopodite of the maxilliped
became quicker from side to side remaining
almost parallel to one another all the time.
This activity continued whilst the antenna was
in the mouth region but as soon as it began
filtering again the propodite and dactylopodite
activity gradually decreased, to recommence
when the other antenna was cleaned.

Discussion

E. holthuisi lives in one of the most rigorous
habitats in the littoral zone . Zobell and Felthan
(1938) showed that Emerita analoga could feed
on bacteria but it seems probable that these
animals were feeding on bacteria that had
clumped and only to a very small extent on the
individual cells. They showed that the larger
bacteria {Bacillus merinus 1 .3-8.1 ft, Flavobacte-
rium boreale 0.6-2. Ip) were used more efficiently
than smaller ones.

In the present investigation it was found that
feeding is not fully dependent upon the tempe-
rature and salinity but on the availability of
food. Accordingly the gut contents showed
variability in the percentage of their consti-
tuents. During the monsoon period the phyto-
plankton Was seen in larger quantity while in
other period it Was less. The percentage of
diatoms during the period November and
December was less but increased from January
onwards. After the monsoon the zooplankton

438

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

became the dominant constituent of the plank-
tonic fauna.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. R. Nagabhushanam,

Professor and Head, Department of Zoology,
Marathwada University for his constant
encouragement and thanks are due to the autho-
rities of the University for financial assistance
in the form of a research fellowship.

Dept, of Zoology, K. M. KULKARNI

Institute of Science,

Bombay-400 032,

May 23, 1981.

References

Hynes, H. B. N. (1950) : The food of freshwater Ecol 19 (1) : 35-38.
stickle backs ( Gastrosleus pungilius) with a review of Zobell and Felthan (1938) : Bacteria as food for
method used in studies of the food of fishes. /. Anim. certain marine invertebrates. J. Mar. Res. 1 : 312-327.

29. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A FAIRY SHRIMP STREPTOCEPHALUS
SIMPLEX ECHINUS IN THE FRESHWATER PONDS OF CHINGLE-
PUT DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU

( With a text-figure)

Systematic studies on Branchiopods, especially
the phyllopods of India are fragmentary. The
first record of phyllopods in India was Strep to -
cephalus dichotomus by Baird in 1860. Another
species, S. simplex echinus , was reported from
Godavari town in Andhra Pradesh by Bond
(1934). They occur along with S. dichotomus.
S. dichotomus is the only species of this genus
reported in Tamil Nadu, although Sanjeeva Raj
(1951) reported the occurrence of yet another
anostracan Branchinella kugenumaensis. During
a survey of S. dichotomus in the temporary
ponds of Chingleput district near Vedanthangal,
Tamil Nadu, the occurrence of S. simplex
echinus was noticed.

Males in the collection measured 18 to 20 mm
in length and females 17 to 19 mm. The
animals are semi-transparent, light brown in
colour and smaller than S. dichotomus. Body

and cercopods of both sexes of S. simplex
echinus are relatively slender. The cercopods
are bright red in colour in all the living
specimens, whereas in preserved animals they
become white and opaque.

The first antennae of both sexes are irregu-
larly segmented. The second antennae of the
male are Well developed whereas in the female
they are very small and narrow.

The length of the 2nd antennae in the male is
about one half of the entire body length. The
function of this antenna is said to be that of
holding the female during copulation (Kaestner
1970). The dorsal row of spines on the main
branch of the finger is more or less regular and
does not run over on to the inner side of the
branch (fig. 1). There is also a row of short,
conical spines along the outer side of the main

439

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

Fig. 1. Second antenna of Mai Q—Streptocephalus
simplex echinus

Abbreviations'. DRS — Dorsal row of spines ; MB — Main
branch of finger ; BS — Basal spine ;

VP — Ventral process of thumb ; TN —
Thumb notch ; F — Finger ; SB — Sickle
shaped branch of finger.

Unit of Invertebrate Reproduction,
Department of Zoology,

University of Madras,

Madras-600 005,

May 27, 1981.

branch of the finger. The sickle-shaped branch
of the finger is armed with short, closely-set
spines. The thumb is long with thumb-notch ;
its length from thumb-notch is about 4/5 of the
length of the main branch of the finger as
measured from the dorsal spine. The finger-
notch is not well marked.

Specimens of females collected during the
month of September were sexually mature.
The slender ovisac with about 95-100 eggs
extends up to the 5th abdominal segment.
Unlike S. dichotomus a red pigment is absent in
the ventral side of the ovisac. The eggs are
brown in colour with hard shells, measuring
about 0.2 mm in diameter. An interesting
feature is that the distribution of this species is
mainly in ponds near Vedanthangal bird
sanctuary. This may suggest that the birds
visiting these ponds may be instrumental for
their distribution (Baker 1926).

A suggestion that the eggs of phyllopods are
resistant to the action of the digestive enzymes
of birds may be relevant in this instance also
(Proctor 1964, Moore & Faust 1972).

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Dr. Denton Belk,
San Antonio, Texas, U.S.A. for the identifica-
tion of Streptocephalus simplex echinus . I am
also thankful to Dr. T. Subramoniam for helpful
suggestions and to the C.S.I.R. for the award of
a fellowship.

N. MUNUSWAMY

440

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Baird, W. (1860) : Description of two new species
of Entomostracous Crustaceans from India. Proc. Zool.
Soc. London., 28 : 415-446.

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1926) : Fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma. Vol. 6. Taylor and Francis,
London.

Bond, R. (1934) : Report on phyllopod Crustacea
(Anostraca, Notostraca and Conchostraca) including a
revision of the Anostraca of the Indian Empire. Mem.
Conn. Acad. 10 : Art V, 29-62.

Kaestner, A. (1970) : Invertebrate Zoology. John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 3 : 1-523.

Moore, W. G. & Faust, B. F. (1972) : Crayfish as a
possible agents of dissemination of fairy shrimp in the
temporary ponds. Ecology. 53 : 314-316.

Proctor, V. W. (1964) : Viability of Crustacean eggs
recovered from ducks. Ecology, 45 : 656-658.

Sanjeeva Raj, P. J. (1951) : The first Record of the
genus Branchinella Sayce in India and a New variety
of Branchinella kugenumaensis. Curr. Sci. 20 : 334.

30. INSTAR DURATION, INSTAR NUMBER, EGG PRODUCTION AND
LONGEVITY IN CERIODAPHNIA CORNUTA SARS AT TWO

TEMPERATURE RANGES

Introduction

Ciadocera rich in protein, constitute an
important natural fish food entering into the
diets of carps, particularly in their earlier stages.
The importance of Ciadocera as fish food has
been emphasised by Forbes (1883) and other
investigators. In India, Michael (1962) and
Murugan (1975) have studied the life-cycle and
biology of several species of cladocerans
including Ceriodaphnia cornuta , a commonly
available species in fresh Water ponds. Kanau-
jia (1979) studied the culture possibilities of
Ceriodaphnia cornuta. The present study was
made to find out the probable effect of tempera-
ture on longevity, instar duration, instar
number and egg production in Ceriodaphnia
cornuta under laboratory conditions. The
results obtained are presented here.

Material and Methods

Experiments were conducted in two different
seasons namely (1) September-October when
water temperature ranged between 28°-31°C
and (2) November-January when water tempera-

ture fluctuated between 16°-25°C. Newly
released young ones collected from a 100 ml
beaker (where the egg bearing mothers were
reared) were inoculated in 15 cavity blocks (50
ml capacity each) filled with pond water filtered
through Filter which had 420M filtering capa-
city. Water in the cavity blocks was changed
every 24 hrs. 3-4 drops of fresh cowdung solu-
tion were added in each cavity block as addi-
tional food for the animalcules.

During the period November-January, to
study the effect of food on their life-cycle, one
set of specimens was reared only in filtered
pond water, while the other set was reared
along with 3-4 drops of cowdung solution.
The duration of each instar, number of eggs per
brood and water temperature were recorded.
The data in Tables 1 and 2 present the average
values for 15 specimens.

Results

Instar duration, average number of eggs per
brood, total number of eggs produced and life
span at low temperatures (16°-25°C) were

441

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. 79

found to be more than at high temperatures
(28°-31°C). However, number of instars at
low temperature was lower than that at higher
temperature (vide Tables 1 and 2).

Each female was found to release eggs inside
brood sac just after the 2nd preadult instar and
continued to shed eggs after each adult instar.
At 28°-31°C the penultimate instar shed no
eggs : however, at 16°-25°C last 2-3 instars
were with no eggs, although some of the middle
instars produced eggs (Table 2).

The relationship between the two variables
could be expressed by the formulae ; log no. of
eggs — 0.2786 log instar number + 0.7223 (for

Table 1

of total instars and total life span were found
to be lower than that in pond water (Table 1).

Discussion

The present study indicates that the instar
duration, number of instars, egg production
and longevity of Ceriodaphnia cornuta exhibit
direct relationship with temperature.

A 27.55 hours instar duration at 28°-31°C,
increased to 58.64 hours at 16°-25°C, indicated
the influence of Water temperature on instar
duration. This was found almost similar to the
observations of Hall (1962) on Daphnia galeata
mendotae. Earlier observations by Murugan
(1975) at 28°-30°C found to be relevant to

Egg Production, Instar duration. Number of Instar and Life Span at two different
Range of Water Temperature and also in two different media

Pond water with
3-4 drops cow-
dung solution
16-25° C

Filtered pond
water only
16-25° C

Pond water with
3-4 drops of
cowdung solution
28-31° C

Number of preadult instar

2

2

2

Adult instar with eggs

17

17

24

Sterile instar

3-4

2-3

1

Average instar duration

53.75 hrs.

58.64 hrs.

27.55 hrs.

Range of instar duration

31-71 hrs.

30-82 hrs.

20-34 hrs.

Duration for sterile period

195.60 hrs.

180.00 hrs.

30.00 hrs.

Cumulative duration of total instars (hrs.)

1109.40

1162.90

746.00

Average no. of egg per brood

10.1

8.18

6.2

Total eggs produced

172.5

139.2

150.9

Maximum eggs /brood

18

15

13

Total life span (days)

46

48

31

present observations. However, it is contra-
dictory with the work of Michael (1962), where
the average instar duration has been reported
as 32 hours at 28°-31°C. Variations in instar
duration may be due to differences in climatic
conditions, as the experiments were conducted
at three latitudes (West Bengal : 23°N ; Cuttack;

442

lower temperature range) and log no. of egg
0.2606 log instar number + 0.4863 (for higher
temperature range).

The rate of egg production duration of
sterile instar and number of sterile instars were
higher in cowdung solution than those in filtered
pond water. However, cumulative duration

(

Showing Instar Duration and Eggs Brood in 5 Animals (A-E) of C. cornuta

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

m

O

X

I

1

1

1

VO

X

1

1

tN

1

1

I

1

1

VO

o

oo

X

1

1

56

o

I

j

<N

m

Tt-

i

1

i— <

n

64

o

72

©

I

1

69

o

48

X

20

80

o

m

t"~

o

I

1

m

iO

00

67

o

on

T- l

72

Tj-

in

VO

o
1— (

48

X

79

o

85

00
T— i

54

00

52

1— 1

76

o

m

in

m

r*H

56

r-

i-H

58

VO

58

r-~

48

<N

T— (

72

i-H

64

00

VO

T— H

54

in

m

00

72

fN

1— I

48

o

64

in

in

48

o

ito

43

Tf"

52

m

48

o

56

o
1— 1

Tl-

lH

48

m

43

m

48

o

50

ON

48

ON

u

tt>

rO

58

o

49

«n

00

VO

o

62

o

49

•n

1

3

<N

r-H

68

VO

1—1

62

00

64

m

56

<N

rH

63

o

z

$

iH

«n

<N

r— (

62

14

09

Tf

62

oo

63

1—1

49

48

m

oo

Tf

Tf

o

m

m

a

O

i— 1

Tt-

y-4

VO

r-H

VO

i— i

ON

44

ON

48

O

t— i

48

ON

09

10

48

o

00

36

o

34

36

i— 1

1-H

38

©

48

r-

r-

43

ON

43

©

f—H

12

37

ON

40

vo

vo

34

VO

37

00

37

r-H

r-H

37

Tf

39

i>

m

30

r-

30

00

30

ON

48

00

53

r-

Ti-

44

00

45

m

44

00

48

VO

46

vo

ro

48

m

48

m

48

m

48

n

48

«n

<N

42

1

42

1

42

l

42

1

42

1

.. 30

1

o

m

1

.. 30

l

.. 30

1

.. 30

I

H

e

«

.2

g

T3

O

O

to

£>

G

O

-*-»

-d

o

o

t-l

pq

G

O

d

5-1

-d

o

o

s

G

0

1

-d

o

o

5-*

pq

G

.2

d

to

-d

o

o

s

to

3

-d

u

<D

CU

£

-d

to

<L>

a

3

-d

5-i

a

3

-d

5-1

<3

a

3

-d

to

to

a

5-1

d

4->

CO

CO

00

00

w

d

to

G

i— i

co

00

oo

W

d

CO

G

co

00

00

w

d

1o

s

co

00

00

H

d

co

G

i— i

(/>

00

00

W

<

m

u

Q

w

443

Sterile instar ; x= Death of the specimen ; — = No eggs.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 79

20°N and Madurai: 9°N) or due to genetic
differences (Banta & Wood 1939).

27 instars were recorded at high temperature
which Was found to decrease to 22 at low
temperature, which indicated that the number
of broods could be reduced at lower tempera-
ture. However, the observations made here
are found to be different from those of Michael
(1962) and Murugan (1975) who have reported
9 and 20 instars respectively in the same species
at same Water temperature . An average number
of 10.1 eggs per clutch and a total of 172.5 eggs
produced during a life span at 16°-25°C was
comparatively more than that at 28°-31°C with
6.2 eggs per brood and a total of 150.0 eggs.
The average number of eggs per brood at 28°-
30°G was found almost similar with the study
of Murugan (1975) at higher temperature range
and slightly different from Michael (1962). The
variations in egg production are due to
fluctuation in amount of food, latitude or genetic
differences as reported by Dunham (1938),
Anderson and Jenkins (1942) and Banta and
Wood (1939). Temperature and food availa-
bility are the main factors for increasing egg
production as also reported by MacArthur and
Baillie (1929) in Daphnia magna , Hall (1962) in
Daphnia galeata mendotae and Murugan (1975)
in C. cornuta. Increase of instar duration at
low water temperature could be one of the
factors for producing more eggs per brood
where the females get more time to produce
and accumulate yolk and reproductive cells
in the ovary with the required quantity of food.

At 16°-25°C, Ceriodaphnia cornuta survived
for 46 days whereas at 28°-31°C it survived only
for 31 days, which indicated that the animal
survived for a longer period at low temperature.
Such a phenomena was stated by MacArthur
and Baillie (1929) in his study of Daphnia magna ,
where the animal lived for an average of 26,
42 and 108 days at temperatures of 28, 18 and

8°C respectively. It may be noted that the
life spans at higher temperature range at different
places in the same species are found to be quite
different as in Michael’s (1967) observation of
12 days and Murugan’s (1975) of 21.21 days.
Factors responsible for these variations have
been discussed earlier.

Ceriodaphnia cornuta passes through 2 pre-
adult instars, 24 adult instars with eggs and a
penultimate instar in 31 days of its life span at
28°-31°C. Whereas at 16°-25°C it had similar
number of preadult instars, 17 adult instars with
eggs and 3-4 sterile instars in 46 days of its life
span. These sterile instars were also noticed
to occur more than once in the middle of the life-
cycle (Table 2). This indicated that Cerioda-
phnia cornuta may survive for longer period at
low temperature, though they may not be fertile
for their whole life. The trends of life-cycles are
observed here at higher temperature range
showing close similarity with the work of
Murugan (1975) in C. cornuta , and Murugan
and Sivaramakrishnan (1976) in Scapholeberis
kingi , who have also reported penultimate instar
with no egg. However, it is different from the
observations of Michael (1962) where neither
the first and second preadult instars nor the last
sterile instars are reported. MacArthur and
Baillie (1929) studied Daphnia magna and
reported for the first time a sterile period during
the last few instars.

Cumulative number of eggs produced in two
different media is plotted against each instar.
The number of eggs per brood and total number
of eggs produced were found to be more in
specimens reared in cowdung solution and less
in filtered pond water, which indicates that
Ceriodaphnia cornuta can produce more eggs
when given suitable food (Table 1). It is well
known that the variations in egg production are
related to the fluctuation in amount of food as
shown by Dunham (1938), Anderson and

444

Miscellaneous notes

Jenkins (1942), and Hall (1962). The present
study also indicates that animals reared in a few
drops of cowdung solution produced more eggs
but lost their fertility and died earlier than those
reared only in filtered pond water, showing
similar trends of life-cycles as studied by Mac-
Arthur and Baillie (1929) who stated that the
poor food supply increases longevity and in-
fertility of the animals.

Acknowledgements

I am deeply indebted to Dr. A. V. Natarajan,
Director, Central Inland Fisheries Research
Institute, for his kind encouragement ; to Shri
R. D. Chakrabarty and Shri M. A. V. Laksh-
manan for their interest and critically going
through the manuscript and making valuable
suggestions, and also to Shri P. L. N. Rao for
the help in statistical analysis.

Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-Station, D. R. KANAUJIA1

Cuttack, Orissa,

August 6, 1980.

References

Anderson, B. G. & Jenkins J. C. (1942) : A time
study of events in the life span of Daphnia magna. Biol.
Bull. 83 : 260-272.

Baisjta, A.M. & Wood, T. R. (1939) : General studies
in sexual reproduction. In Banta 1939 : 131-181.

Dunham, H. H. (1938) : Abundant feeding followed
by restricted feeding and longevity in Daphnia. Physiol.
Zool. II : 399-407.

Hall, D. J. (1962) : An experimental approach to the
dynamics of a natural population of Daphnia galeata
mendotae. Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. Michigan.

Kanaujia, D. R. (1979) : Preliminary observations
on culture and life history of Ceriodaphnia cornuta
Sars (Cladocera : Daphnidae). Symposium on Inland
Aquaculture , p. 109.

MacArthur, J. W. & Baillie W. H. T. (1929) :
Metabolic activity and duration of life. I. influence of
temperature on longevity in Daphnia magna. Jour. Exp.
Zool , 53 : 221-242.

Michael, R. G. (1962) : Seasonal events in a natural
population of the Cladoceran Ceriodaphnia cornuta
Sars and observations on its life-cycle. J. Zool. Soc.
India , 14 : 211-218.

Murugan, N. (1975) : Biology of Ceriodaphnia cor-
nuta (Cladocera : Daphnidae). J. Inland Fish. Soc.
India, 7 : 80-87.

Murugan, N. & Sivaramakrishnan, K. G. (1976) :
Laboratory studies on the longevity instar duration,
growth, reproduction and embryonic development in
Scapholeberies kingi (Sars, 1903) (Cladocera : Daphni-
dae). Hydrobiologia , 50 : (1) : 75-80.

1 Present address : Riverine Fisheries Research Unit, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute,
Buxar-802 101, Bihar.

31. OCCURRENCE OF THE LEECH, HAEMAD1PSA MONTANA MOORE,
IN DARJEELING DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL

The annelids collected during a general field
survey by a party of the Zoological Survey of
India in the high altitudinal areas of Darjeeling
District, West Bengal, contain some specimens
of the leech, Haemadipsa montana Moore, which

according to extant literature is yet unreported
from this State. While detailed report of these
material will be dealt with elsewhere, oppor-
tunity is taken here to record the occurrence of
this leech in West Bengal.

445

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 19

Haemadipsa montana Moore, 1927

Material : 6 ex ; Palmajua (alt. c. 2250 m),
Darjeeling Dist., West Bengal ; 3 July 1974,
P. K. Ghose coll.

Measurement : 15-18 mm long.

The original description of the species by
Moore was based on the specimens from
Kukkal, Palni Hills, Tamil Nadu. Hingston
(cited by Harding and Moore 1927) reported it
from Phadma Chen (c 2100 m) and Gangtok
(c 1524 m and 2745 m), Sikkim, collected during
his Mt. Everest expedition in 1924. Later,
Chandra (1970) recorded it from Arunachal
Pradesh as well as from Sikkim. Sykes (1955)

High Altitude Zoology Field Station,
Zoological Survey of India,

Solan, H. P.,

May 30, 1981.

R E F E R E

Chandra, M. (1970) : Notes on a small collection of
leeches in Zoological Survey of India. Rec. Zool.
Surv . of India, 64 107-110.

32. NEW POLYCHAETE RECORDS

reported the species from central Nepal between
450 m and 4060 m. The present finding, how-
ever, constitutes the first record of this species
from Darjeeling District, West Bengal.

Though the bold longitudinal stripes, median
dorsal black stripes and pale marginal stripes,
characteristic of the species, are present, the
marking on the body of the specimens are
variable. Variation in the body marking have
been reported by earlier workers also.

The senior author is deeply indebted to
Dr. Biswamoy Biswas, Emiretus Scientist, not
only for his inclusion in this expedition but also
for kindly going through this manuscript.

RATHIN MUKHERJEE
G. C. GHOSE

N C ES

Harding, W. A. & Moore, J. (1927) : Fauna of
British India. Hirudinea. Taylor & Francis, London,
Sykes, W. R. (1955) : Leeches. /. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., 53: 148-150.

FROM INDIAN WATERS

(1 With twelve text-figures)

Introduction

During our study, about 40 polychaete species
Were collected from the intertidal area of the
Vasishta Godavari estuary (16° 18'N, 81° 42' E)
on the east coast of India (Sriniwasa Rao 1978).
A perusal of the literature has shown that seven
species are new to Indian waters. Two
species, Poecilochaetus johnsoni and Magelona
cincta are reported earlier (Srinivasa Rao and
Rama Sarma 1978, 1979).

Family : Phyllodocidae Williams, 1851
Sub-family : Phyllodocinae Williams, 1851
Genus : Mystides Theel, 1879

Mystides southerni Banse, 1954
(Figs. 1-2)

Specimens brown in colour and upto 20 mm
in length. Prostomium broad, long and some-
what inverted, heart shaped. Antennae short.

446

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Two large eyes near the hind end of the prosto-
mium. First segment with one pair of tenta-
cular cirri ; second with a pair of parapodia
and a pair of dorsal cirri and third with para-
podia and leaf like ventral cirri. Dorsal and
ventral cirri oval in shape. Setae serrated.
A pair of oral cirri present.

Family : Nereidae Johnston, 1865

Genus : Dendronefeides Southern, 1921

Dendronereides zululandica Day, 1951
(Figs. 3-5)

Length about 10 mm for about 30 segments.
Peristomium slightly grooved between two
antennae. Tentacular cirri short and appears
as if the dorsal and ventral cirri partially fused
segments. Proboscis with soft papillae. Ante-
rior feet with three notopodial lobes and a
dorsal cirrus of the same length. Neuro-
podium with a single broad setigerous lobe ; no
inferior lobes ; a very short ventral cirrus.
Branchiae from 8th foot formed by four pinnate
divisions of the superior lobe of notopodium.
Posterior segments in the specimens are broken.
Neurosetae are all homogomph spinigers and
falcigers with straight blunt blades.

Genus : Nectoneanthes Imajima, 1972

Nectoneanthes ijimai (Ijuki, 1912)

(Figs. 6-7)

Body 40 mm long. Prostomium sub trian-
gular with a truncated tip and two short anten-
nae. Palpi are large conical and arise from the
antero-lateral sides of the prostomium. Two
pairs of eyes. The paragnaths of the proboscis
with 1=0 ; II=two short rows ; 111=0 ; IV=
three cones in a group ; V = 0 ; VI = six in an
oblique group ; VII and VIII = two continu-
ous rows. Parapodia with cordate dorsal ligule
with a pointed end directed laterally. All noto-

podial and neuropodial setae are homogomph
spinigers only.

Family : Spionidae Grube, 1850
Genus : Prionospio Malmgren, 1867

Prionospio saldhana Day, 1961
(Figs. 8-10)

Body thread-like, upto 25 mm long for nearly
70 segments. Prostomium rounded and pro-
duced back as a keel reaching setiger 2. Four
eyes. Setiger one small and fused to the peri-
stome. Four pairs of gills on setiger 2-5. The
first three pairs are smooth and the fourth pair
larger and pinnate. Anterior notopodial lamel-
lae pointed and face outwards. They reach
maximum size on setiger 6 to 9 and then decrease
and become rounded . From setiger 20 onwards
the lamella are united by dorsal ridges. A
maximum of six hooded hooks in the neuro-
podia from setiger 15 onwards and in the noto-
podia from setiger 25-35. Each hook with a
single tooth above the main fang. An anterior
sabre setae in the neuropodium from setiger 12.

Family : Ampharetidae Malmgren, 1867
Sub-family : Melinninae Chamberlin, 1919
Genus : Isolda Muller, 1858

Isolda pulchella Muller, 1858
(Fig. 11)

Body upto 20 mm in length. Prostomium
snout-like. Eye spots minute. Buccal tenta-
cles smooth with a groove along one side.
Branchiae in two groups of four, inner two pairs
of gills with two rows of long, lateral lamellae.
Fine acicular neurosetae on segments III-V but
not IV. Stout notopodial hooks on segment
IV. Small notopodial capillaries on segment
V and VI. A total of 13 uncigerous thoracic
segments starting from segment VII.

447

0-1 MM

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , M 79

My stides souther ni \ Fig. 1. Foot; Fig. 2. Seta.

Dendronereides zululandica : Fig. 3. Branchiferous foot ; Fig. 4. Heterogomph spiniger ; Fig. 5. Falciger.
Nectoneanthes ijimai: Fig. 6. Posterior foot ; Fig. 7. Spiniger from neuropodium.

Prionospio saldhana : Fig. 8. Anterior foot ; Fig. 9. Sabre seta ; Fig. 10. Hooded hook.

Isolda pulchella : Fig. 11. Anterior view.

0.2 m

Miscellaneous notes

Distribution :

Abundance and distribution of these poly-
chaete species in the Vasishta Godavari estuary
was studied in detail. Except Nectoneanthes
ijimai and Prionospio saldhana the other three
are considered 6 rare ’ to this estuary as they
occurred in less than 10 samples out of 270
samples collected during the fifteen month study
period (Srinivasa Rao 1978).

Mystides southerni, the small phyllodocid
extended upto 16 km in the estuary, in small
numbers, generally confining to the mid-tidal
mark. Isolda pulchella being a filter feeder
restricted itself to the confluence area where the

substratum is dominated by sand and facili-
tated its mode of feeding. Very few specimens
of Dendronereides zululandica Were collected in
the estuary.

The distribution of Nectoneanthes ijimai and
Prionospio saldhana along the course of the
estuary and tidal level is shown in figure 12
based on the number of appearances they made
in the 15 samples collected at each tidal level.
P. saldhana is absent in the first 2 km of the
estuary and failed to penetrate beyond 14 km.
It always avoided the high tidal levels where
temperature changes of high magnitude prevail,
and restricted mainly to the low tidal mark and

DISTANCE FROM CONFLUENCE (IN Km).

1 4-5 73 10.1 13.2.5 1535

NP NP NP NP NP NP

i i r— 1 i — i ( 1 i 1 i 1

MHWM

MMWM

MLWM

P

t ■ ■ ■ i I i— i i i

m O t/T OtO CD o tO O lO
CSI CM CM CM CM CM

:R C E N TAG I

> i I i . I i i i » •
ld o to o to moiftom
CM CM CM CM CM CM

: s

N - NECTONEANTHES IJIMAI
P : PRIONOSPIO SALOHANA

Fig. 12. Abundance and distribution of N. ijimai and P. saldhana in the Vasishta Godavari estuary.

14

449

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

occasionally appeared at the mid-tidal mark
where it is continuously bathed by the incoming
tide. On the other hand, N. ijimai successfully
adapted to the high tidal mark conditions.
Perhaps the active burrowing nature of this
nereid may help to go deeper during exposure.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Andhra University for
providing facilities. DSR thanks the C.S.I.R.,
New Delhi for a fellowship.

Department of Zoology,
Andhra University,
Waltair 530 003
September 6, 1980.

D. SRINIVASA RAO
D.V. RAMA SARMA

References

Srinivasa Rao, D. (1978) : Systematics and 1939 (Polychaeta : Trochochaetidae) in the Indian

ecology of intertidal polychaetous annelids from the waters. Indian J. mar. sci., 7 : 127-128.

Vasishta Godavari estuary. Ph. D. thesis submitted Srinivasa Rao, D. and Rama Sarma D. V. (1979) :
to the Andhra University. Ecology of Magelona cincta Ehlers, 1908 (Polychaeta :

Srinivasa Rao, D. and Rama Sarma, D. V. (1978) : Magelonidae) in the Vasishta Godavari estuary. East
On the occurrence of Poecilochaetus johnsoni Hartman, Coast of India. Indian J. mar. Sci., 8 : 182-183.

33. EXACUM WALKERI GRISEB. (GENTIANACEAE)— A NEW RECORD

FOR INDIA

Exacum walkeri Griseb. hitherto treated as en-
demic to Sri Lanka was collected from Ponmudi,
Trivandrum district, Kerala in the year 1979-
Another collection made from the same locality
as early as 1933 was unearthed in University
College Herbarium, Trivandrum (UCT) *. These
collections of E. walkeri extend its distribution
to Peninsular India. This rare species occurs
in moist regions particularly in the crevices of
rocks and road-cuttings of the grassy slopes.
It resembles E. zeylanicum Roxb. but can be
distinguished from it by the flowers being mostly
solitary and pale blue in colour, as against
numerous in corymbose cymes and brilliant
blue in colour.

* Abbreviation ours since not included in Index
Herbariorum (1964).

Exacum walkeri Griseb. Gen. et Sp. Gent.
110. 1838 and in DC. Prodr. 9 : 45. 1845 ;
Wight 111. t. 157 b, f. 1. 1850 ; Clarke in Hook,
f. FI. Brit. India 4 : 96. 1883. E. ovale Griseb.
Gen. et Sp. Gent. 111. 1838 & in DC. Prodr. 9 :
46. 1845. E. zeylanicum var. pallidum Trimen,
Handb. FI. Ceylon 3 : 181. 1895.

Erect branched herbs, 25-35 cm tall ; stems
quadrangular. Leaves 2. 5-4 X 1.5-2 cm, 3-
nerved, sessile or subsessile, ovate-lanceolate,
acute at apex, acute or rounded at base.
Flowers pale blue, axillary and mostly solitary
or rarely in terminal few flowered subcorymbose
cymes, 5-merous ; pedicels up to J .5 cm long ;
calyx lobes 9 mm long, winged at base, wings
rounded ; corolla lobes 1.5 x 6 mm, pale blue,

450

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ovate, acute at apex ; stamens up to 6 mm long,
capsules ovoid.

Specimens examined : Ceylon. C.P. 1 878 (MH);
si, Acc. No. 61396 (MH) ; s. /. Acc. No. 61397

Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore,

November 13, 1980.

(MH) ; Adam’s peak, 1-3-1883, s.l.
Acc. No. 61398 (MH). India. Kerala. Trivan-
drum Dt. : Ponmudi, 25-5-1979, M. Mohanan
63278 (MH) Ponmudi, Feb. 1933 s.l. 3500
(UCT).

M. MOHANAN
A. N. HENRY
N. C. NAIR

34. SOME NEW COMBINATIONS UNDER PRIMULA L.

While some botanists including Pax and
Knuth (Pflanzenreich IV (237) : 172. 1905)
and Handel-Mazzetti (Notes R. Bot. Gard.
Edinb. 15 : 259. 1927) treated Androsace L. as
distinct genus many others treated Androsace
as a synonj m of Primula L. Recently Bentvelzen
(FI. Males. ‘ Ser. 1’, 6(2): 186. 1962) also
treated them as congeneric as it is not possible to
demarcate them satisfactorily. This taxonomic
treatment necessitates the following new combi-
nations.

Primula croftii (Watt) Derganc var. scaposa
(Sant. & Banerji) Bennet comb. nov.

Androsace croftii var. scaposa Sant. & Banerji,
Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 24(3) : 137. 1958.

Nepal.

Primula globifera (Duby) Bennet comb. nov.

Androsace globifera Duby in DC. Prodr.
8 : 48. 1844 ; Hook.f., FI. Brit. Ind. 3 : 500.
1882 ; Pax & Knuth in Pflanzenr. IV (237) :
203. 1905. (non Primula globifera Griff., It in.

Notes 148. 1837-8, nom. nud.)

Western Himalaya.

Primula hemisphaerica (Ludlow) Bennet comb,
nov.

Androsace hemisphaerica Ludlow in Bull.
Brit. Mus. (nat. Hist.) 2 : 76. 1956.

Bhutan.

Primula hookeriana (Klatt) Bennet comb. nov.

Androsace hookeriana Klatt in Linnaea 32 :
293, t. 3. 1863 ; Hooker f. /. c. 499 ; Pax &
Knuth l.c. 187.

Eastern Himalaya.

Primula lanuginosa (Wall.) Bennet comb. nov.

Androsace lanuginosa Wall, in Roxb. FI. Ind.
6 ed. Carey ’ 2 : 15. 1824 ; Hooker f. l.c. 498 ;
Pax & Knuth l.c. 182.

Western Himalaya.

Primula lehmamiii (Duby) O.Ktze. var. tongs-
pedicel lata (Knuth) Bennet comb. nov.

Androsace lehmannii Duby var. longipedi-
cellata Knuth in pflanzenr. IV (237) : 202. 1905.

Nepal.

Primula ludlowiana (Hand.-Maz.) Bennet
comb. nov.

Androsace ludlowiana Hand.-Maz. in J,
Bot. 76 : 283. 1938.

Bhutan.

Primula mucronifolia (Watt) Derganc var.
uniflora (Knuth) Bennet comb. nov.

Androsace mucronifolia Watt var. uniflora
Knuth in Pflanzenr IV (237) : 188. 1905.

Western Himalaya.

451

JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 79

Primula rhizomatosa (Hand.-Maz.) Bennet
comb. nov.

Androsace rhizomatosa Hand.-Maz. in J. Bot.
76 : 281. 1938.

Bhutan.

Primula rhizomatosa var. major (Hand.-

Maz.) Bennet comb. nov.

Androsace rhizomatosa var. major Hand.-
Maz. in J. Bot. 76 : 281. 1938.

Bhutan.

Primula sarmentosa (Wall.) Bennet comb. nov.
Androsace sarmentosa Wall, in Roxb. FI. Ind.
2 : 14. 1824 ; Hooker f., l.c. 498 ex parte ; Pax
& Knuth l.c. 183 ; Handel-Mazzetti in Notes
R. Bot. Gard. Edinb. 15 : 278. 1927.

A. sarmentosa var. watkinsii Hooker f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 3 : 498. 1882 ; Pax & Knuth l.c. 183
P.P. (excl. Chinese Plant).

Himalaya.

Forest Research Institute,

Dehra Dun,

September 30, 1980.

Primula sessUiflora (Turrill) Bennet comb. nov.

Androsace sessUiflora Turrill in Kew Bull.
1922 : 150. 1922.

Mount Everest.

Primula dubyii (Derganc) Bennet comb. nov.

Androsace sarmentosa var. dubyii Derganc in
Kneucker, Allg. bot. Zeitsch. 10 : 110. 1904.

A. sarmentosa var. primuloides (Duby) Hook,
f. in Curtis, Bot. Mag. t. 6210, 1876 & in FI. Brit.
Ind. 3 : 498. 1882.

A. primuloides Duby in DC. Prodr. 8: 51.
1844 (non Moench. 1802 ; nec D. Don 1825) ;
Pax & Knuth l.c. 183.

A. dubyii (Derganc) Balakrishnan in J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67 : 62. 1970.

North-west Himalaya.

S. S. R. BENNET

35. MONOTROPA UNIFLORA LINN.— A NEW RECORD FOR MUSSOORIE

HILLS

Recently, two comprehensive books (Gupta
1967, Raizada & Saxena 1978) have appeared on
the flora of Mussoorie which also give details
of the earlier plant exploration work in the area.
A critical and careful comparison of the plants
gathered by me from Mussoorie hills with these
publications shows that an interesting flowering
plant, Monotropa uniflora Linn, (family Mono-
tropaceae) has not been recorded hitherto from
this very well explored locality. I collected it
on two different occasions, in September 1969
and 1977 from Jabarkhet and Jabarkhud respec-
tively. These localities are approximately 5 km

from the heart of the town. The species was
found to be fairly common in a forest below
Jabarkhet Toll.

The forest is dominated by broad-leaved, scle-
rophyllous, species and is free from biotic inter-
ference. Common woody species which have
been observed in it are Cornus macrophylld Wall. ,
Dendroberithamia capitata Hutch., Ilex dipyrena
Wall., Lyonia ovalifolia Drude, Quercus incana
Roxb., Rhododendron arboreum Sm. and Vibur-
num mullaha D. Don. Shrubby growth is of
Arundinaria falcata Nees, Daphne papyracea

452

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Steud., Desmodium elegans DC., Lonicera quin-
quelocularis Hardw. and Myrsine africana Linn.
Besides, there is a very dense growth of herba-
ceous plants including ferns. The vegetation
is so luxuriant and thick that it makes the forest
at certain places almost impenetrable during
the rainy season.

There is a distinct layer of humus in the soil
overlayed by undecomposed leaf litter. Mono-
tropa Was fairly common in the decaying vegeta-
ble matter on the forest floor. The moisture
absorbing humus soil is very slippery and
coupled with very thick growth of plants and
the absence of any regular path make botanizing
hazardous. It appears that probably because
of these difficulties, this forest has not been
explored botanically at least during monsoon
months and hence the plant has escaped the
attention of earlier botanists.

A brief description of the plant follows :
A succulent, glabrous, waxy white, non-

chlorophyllous, unbranched herb, 10-25 cm
tall . Stem erect , covered with alternate , broadly
lanceolate, appressed scales 2 xO.7 cm or under.
Normal leaves absent. Flowers 2-3 x 1.5-2. 5 cm,
Waxy white, solitary, terminal, nodding. Sepals
4, scale-like. Petals 5, obovate-oblong. Stamens
10, filaments pilose below. Ovary globose, 5-
celled ; ovules numerous on axile placentas.
Capsule erect, globose, loculicidal, 5-valved.

The plant is often hidden among leaf litter
and its location requires patience and concen-
tration. It turns black on drying.

Specimens examined : M. Sharma 545, 5384
(PUN).

Flowers and Fruits : August-October.

I am grateful to Prof. S. S. Bir for guidance
and help and to K. M. Vaid for providing
herbarium and library facilities at FRI, Dehra
Dun.

Department of Botany, M. SHARMA

Punjabi University,

Patiala-147 002,

September 26, 1980.

References

Gupta, R. K. (1967) : Seasonal flowers of the Indian Raizada, M. B. & Saxena, H, O. (1978) : Flora of
Su nmer resorts-Mussoorie Hills. New Delhi. Mussoorie. Dehra Dun.

36. A NOTE ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF TWO PENINSULAR INDIAN

PLANTS

Oldenlandia wightii Hook. f. (Rubiaceae)
and Reidia ovalifolia Wt. (Euphorbiaceae) are
two endemic species of southern Peninsular
India. The correct nomenclature of these two
taxa is given below.

1. Hedyotis wightii (Hook.f.) K. K. N, Nair
comb, nov ,

Oldenlandia wightii Hook f. FI. Brit. Ind.

3 : 66. 1880 ; Gamble, FI. Presid.
Madras 2 : 601 (424). 1921.

Type : Western Peninsula, Robert Wight Kew
Dist.no. 1511 ; (CAL).

Distribution : South-West India.

453

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

Hooker (loc. cit.) erected the species Olden -
landia wightii based on Robert Wight’s speci-
mens from Peninsular India, characterised by
scabrid stems with woody base and triangular-
lanceate calyx-lobes which equals the capsules
in their length. Gamble (loc.cit.) followed
Hooker in considering this plant as a distinct
species, but noted ‘a stiff herb much resembling
the last, perhaps not really distinct [Here
6 the last ’ is meant for Hedyotis umbellata
(Linn.) Lamk.]. Gamble’s doubt on the taxono-
mic status of this plant Was verified during the
present study and it was found to be quite
distinct from Hedyotis umbellata in its scabrid
stem and branches woody towards base, linear,
lanceate, revolute leaves up to 2.5 x 0.3 cm,
and hemispherical, scabrid, loculicidal capsules
almost covered by the calyx-lobes.

Recent morphological studies of Fosberg
(Va. J. Sci. 2: 106-111. 1941; Castania 19:
25-37. 1954), Shinners (Field & Lab. 17.
166-169. 1949) and Lewis (South West. Nat.
3 : 204-207. 1959 ; Rhodora 63 : 216-223.
1961) had led to the merging of Hedyotis Linn.,
Oldenlandia Linn., Houstania Linn., Kohantia
Cham, and Excellange Bremek. under Hedyotis.
Subsequently, Henry and Subramanyam (Proc.
Ind. Acad. Sci. 76 (1) Sect. B. : 28. 1972) and
Rao and Hemadri (Ind. Forest. 99 : 372-379.
1973) had transferred most of the Indian species
of Oldenlandia under Hedyotis. Oldenlandia
wightii , so far treated under the genus Olden-
landia is transferred here under Hedyotis.

2. Eriococcus ovalifolia (Wt.) K.K.N. Nair

comb. nov.

Reidia ovalifolia Wt. Ic. PI. Ind. Orient.!.

1904. fig. 3. 1852.

Phyllanthus longiflorus Heyne (Wall. Cat. no.

7905. 1847 nom. nud.)

ex Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5 : 302.
1887.

Reidia longiflora (Heyne ex Hook.f.) Gamble,
FI. Presid. Madras 2: 1293

(905). 1925.

Type : Wight leone 1904. fig. 31 : (Iconotype)
(CAL).

Distribution : Southern Peninsular India.

Hooker (loc. cit.) doubted the concept of
Mueller (Linnaea 32 : 49. 1865) who considered
Reidia ovalifolia Wt. and R. longiflorus Heyne
ex Hook. f. as conspecific, on the ground that
the leaves in R. ovalifolia is comparatively
narrow and smaller than that of R. longiflorus.
A critical study of a number of specimens at
Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey
of India (CAL) led the author to the conclusion
that the two taxa are one and the same as was
accepted by Mueller (loc. cit.) and Gamble
(loc. cit.).

The concept of considering Eriococcus Hassk.
(. Reidia Wt.) as a distinct genus from Phyllan-
thus Linn, is accepted here. Eventhough Henry
and Subramanyam (Taxon 16 : 250-251. 1967)
had proposed to conserve the commonly used
generic name Reidia Wt. (1852) against
Eriococcus Hassk. (1843) which has priority
over Reidia , the proposal was not accepted by
the nomenclature committee. Hence this new
combination is proposed to make the nomen-
clature of the species up-to-date.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Dr. M. P. Nayar, Deputy
Director, Central National Herbarium, Bota-
nical Survey of India, Howrah for all
facilities.

Botanical Survey of India, K. K. N. NAIR1

Calcutta-700 016,

September 25, 1980.

1 Present address : Department of Botany, University of Kerala, Kariavattorp Campus,
Trivandrum-695 581, Kerala.

454

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

37. NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS OF PLANTS FOR NORTH-EAST INDIA

( With two text-figures)

During the course of studies on the flora of
Meghalaya, we could collect 2 interesting plant
species, which were identified as Cardamine
impatiens Linn., and Phyllanthus longiflorus
Heyne ex Hk. f., of Brassicaceae and Eupbor-
biaceae respectively. Reference to literature
(Hooker 1872-97, Kanjilal et al. 1934-40)
revealed that these species are new records for
North-East India, and are therefore described
here.

Cardamine impatiens Linn, is a highly variable
species hitherto recorded from Sikkim to
Kashmir mostly in the Temperate Himalayan
region (1650 to 4000 m). There are no speci-
mens of this species in the Assam herbarium
and the present collection from Meghalaya
therefore, forms the first report of this plant
from North-East India. This species very
closely resembles Cardamine hirsuta Linn.,
but can be easily separated as follows :

Petiole auricled at base ; petals less than

twice the length of the sepals impatiens

Petiole not auricled at base ; petals
twice the length of sepals hirsuta

Detailed description and illustrations of this
plant are given to facilitate its easy identifi-
cation.

Cardamine impatiens Linn. Sp. PI. 655. 1753 ;
Hk. f. FI. Brit. India 1 ; 138. 1872 ; Collet, FI.

Simlensis 33. 1902 ; Babu, Herb. FI. Dehra
Dun 56. 1977.

FIs. and Frts : February — April.

Distribution : Temperate Himalayas from
Sikkim to Kashmir ; temperate Europe and Asia.
In Meghalaya noted only in Shillong on moist
and shaded localities, rather very rare.

Herbarium specimens examined : Meghalaya:
Khasi Hills — Shillong K. Haridasan 4600
(NEHU).

Phyllanthus longiflorus Heyne ex Hk. f. has
been so far recorded from Deccan peninsular
region (FI. Brit. India 5 : 302), and closely
resembles P. debilis Herb., particularly in
vegetative phase. But the present species can be
easily distinguished from debilis as follows :

Pedicels much longer than leaves ; sepals

in male 4 and in female 6 longiflorus

Pedicels much shorter than the leaves ;
sepals 5-6 in both sexes debilis

Further, the habitat of these two species are
quite distinct; the former occupying (the dry,
gravelly, open areas. The specimens from
Meghalaya are clearly P. longiflorus.

Phyllanthus longiflorus Heyne ex Wall.
Cat. No. 7905) Hk. f. FI. Brit. India 5 : 302.
1887. — Reidia longiflora (Heyne) Gamb.
FI. Madras 905. 1925.

455

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

Fig. 1. Cardamine impatiens Linn.

A. & B. Portions of plant, C. Auricled petiole base, D. Flower, E, Emit,

456

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

457

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

FIs. and Frts. : Jime-December.

Distribution : South India ; in Meghalaya
recorded only from Balphakram Sanctuary.

Herbarium specimens examined : Meghalaya :
Garo Hills — Balphakram Sanctuary Y. Kumar
5402 ; K. Haridasan 4156 (NEHU).

Department of Botany,
North-Eastern Hill University.
Shillong-793 014,

September 2, 1980.

R. R. RAO
K. HARIDASAN
Y. KUMAR

References

Hooker, J. D. (1872-97) : Flora of British India,
7 vols. London.

Kanjilal, U. N., Kanjilal, P. C., De, R. N., Das,
A. and Bor, N. L. (1934-40) : Flora of Assam, 5 vols.
Shillong.

38. FLORAL SPIRALS IN AMORFHOPHALLUS SPP. NOT CONFORMING
WITH FIBONACCI NUMBERS

( With a plate)

The Fibonacci numerical sequence beginning
with 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34 etc. has recently
assumed great importance. Each term in the
sequence is the sum of the previous two terms.
There are infinite mathematical properties for
these simple-looking sequence which are being
investigated by hundreds of Mathematicians
round the world who have formed themselves
into a society called Fibonacci Association
with its headquarters in California, and who
publish most of their findings in their own
journal called Fibonacci Quarterly.

Fibonacci sequence has application in many
fields apart from mathematics, such as, archi-
tecture, astronomy, art, poetry, botany, zoology,
music, engineering and anthropology. Davis
and Bose (1971) published data from several
species of aroids. The spiral numbers in the
spadix of some of these species matched exactly
with some of the Fibonacci numbers, while
in other species, the spirals numbers differ from
Fibonacci numbers as per summary of data
given in Table 1,

From data in Table 1 it is clear, that out of
the 73 spadices examined from 6 species of
Anthurium , 72 bore spirals whose numbers
matched with Fibonacci numbers. Dijfenbachia
dagneus also comes under this category. But
in the rest of the species, some or all of the
spadices do not conform to displaying Fibo-
nacci spirals. It may be mentioned, that the
clockwise and counter-clockwise moving spirals
within a spadix in any Anthurium sp. synchro-
nise with two consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
But in five other species, many cf the spadices
bear equal numbers of spirals (5 : 5, 8 : 8, or 13 :
13) running clockwise as well as counter-clock-
wise.

The observation reported below relate to
four species of Amorphophallus grown at the
Indonesia Botanic Garden, Bogor, Indonesia.
The spadix of none of the species examined
displayed spirals in accordance with Fibonacci
numbers. The most striking and spectacular
of the three species is A. titanum whose gigantic
inflorescence appears only once in three

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate

Widjaja : Amorphophallus spp.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Spadices of aroids displaying floral spirals that match with or differ from Fibonacci

Numbers

Species

No. spadices show-
ing Fibonacci spirals

Spirals combi-
nation

Spadices not match-
ing Fibonacci Nos.

Anthurium macrolobium

20

5 & 8

Nil

A. clarionervum

8

8 & 13

Nil

A. ornatum

12

8 & 13

Nil

A. polyrrhizum

9

8 & 13

Nil

A. andraeanum rubrum .

10

8 & 13

Nil

A. crassinervum

14

13 & 21

1

Schizocasia poteia

18

8 & 13

1

Spathyphyllum sp.

13

5 & 8

3

Diffenbachia dagneus

9

3 & 5

D. picta

. .

17

D. picta viridis

15

8 & 8

3

Aglaonema sp.

1

5 & 8

. •

9

5 & 5

3

Syngonium sp.

5

5 & 5

15

Alocasia indica mettalica

10

Alocasia sp.

1

5 & 5

17

Philodendron sp.

7

13 & 13

8

Caladium sp.

. .

• •

13

Total

114+37

91

years. The most recent flowering was in
October 1979 when the height of the spadix
was recorded as 1.37 metre (Plate). The
width of the bloomed flower was 0.825 m. The
inflorescence took about one month to bloom
from the time of its appearance from the ground
(18 September to 18 October 1979). Five days
after blooming, the inflorescence started decay-
ing when the spathe could be peeled off and the
number of spirals the 469 female flowers dis-

played recorded. The weight of the tuber was
recorded on November 6, 1979 as 22 kg. Its
height was 25 cm and maximum diameter 47 cm.
The second species examined was A. blumei
(Plate) which is much smaller compared to A.
titanum. The third species was A. campanulatus ,
the common edible elephant-foot yam. The
fourth species examined was A. variabilis, which
is very common and cosmopolitan. Data
relating to these are shown in Table 2,

459

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , F<?/. 79

Table 2

Amorphophallus spp. Numbers of floral spirals in each

Species

Number of spirals

Number of female
flowers per spadix

spadices

Left

Right

A. titanum

1

18

28

469

A. blumei

1

18

13

142

2

10

14

119

3

11

8

89

4

16

11

293

5

10

13

140

A. campanulatus

1

18

11

413

2

16

24

. .

3

18

17

. .

4

23

25

352

A. variabilis

1

7

8

79

2

8

11

109

3

10

9

86

4

8

7

63

5

8

6

44

Thus, the four species of Amorphophallus
behave differently from the Anthurium species
so far as the affinity of their floral spirals with
Fibonacci numbers is concerned. The full
significance of this problem is not known.
Since the situations where Fibonacci system
gets involved are regarded as more efficient or
more evolved compared to similar situations
where Fibonacci system is inoperable, those
aroid species whose spadices do not display
Fibonacci spirals in the arrangement of flowers
have to be regarded as less efficient. Professor
R. F. Williams of Division of Plant Industry,
CSIRO, Canberra City, Australia who made

National Biological Institute,

Bogor, Indonesia,

September 25, 1980.

valuable contributions in this field in 1975 is
currently working on geometrical models to
explain how departures from the Fibonacci
systems occur in situations which are predo-
minately influenced by Fibonacci basis or
growth.

I thank Dr. S. Sastrapradja, Director,
National Biological Institute, Bogor, for the
encouragement and facilities received. Profes-
sor T. A Davis, UNDP/FAO Expert, Indo-
nesia drew my attention to an association
between the floral spirals in aroids and Fibo-
nacci Numbers and assisted in preparing this
paper.

ELIZABETH A. WIDJAJA

R eferenceS

Davis, T. A. & Bose, T. K. (1971) : Fibonacci system Williams, R. F. (1975) : The short apex and leaf
in aroids. The Fibonacci Quart., 9 : 253-263. growth : A study in quantitative biology. Cambridge

University Press.

460

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

39. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SALACIA KH ASIAN A IN ARUNACHAL

PRADESH

During a botanical exploration in the Tirap
Forest Division of Arunachal Pradesh, we
collected a specimen of a rare scandent shrub
which was conspicuous on account of its orange,
warty fruits about the size of a small guava.
After a critical study at the Forest Research
Institute Herbarium, Dehra Dun, the specimen
was identified as Salacia khasiana (Hippo-
crateaceae). It was earlier collected by Shri
Ram Sharma from Umteswar Forest in Khasi
Hills, Meghalaya and described by C. S. Purka-

Systematic Botany Branch,

Forest Research Institute,

Dbhra Dun-248 006.

September 25, 1980.

yastha (Ind. For. 64 : 277. 1938). The present
report of its occurrence in Arunachal Pradesh
is therefore, of phytogeographical interest.

Specimen examined :

3rd November 1976, Nakfun range, Tirap
Forest Division (Arunachal Pradesh) K. M. Vaid
& H. B. Naithani ser II No. 175.

Habitat : On the bank of a shaded nullah.

K. M. VAID
H. B. NAITHANI

40. REDISCOVERY OF METEOROMYRTUS WYNAADENSIS (BEDD.)
GAMBLE (MYRTACEAE) MORE THAN A CENTURY AFTER
ITS EARLIER COLLECTION

The genus Meteoromyrtus Gamble (Myrta-
ceae) is endemic to India (Willis 1973) and is
known only from Wynad District, Kerala. It
is represented by a single species M. wynaa-
densis (Bedd.) Gamble. After the type collec-
tion from Devalicottah, S. E. Wynad by
Beddome no information about the species was
forthcoming.

The status of this taxon was uncertain. Bed-
dome (see below) treated it as Eugenia wynaa-
densis Bedd. Duthie (in Hook. f. FI. Br. India
2 : 506. 1879) remarked that, ‘It seems inter-
mediate between Pimenta and Eugenia having
the pendulous ovules of the former and the
habit and inflorescence of the latter ’. He also
stated that ‘ This is probably as Col. Beddome
suggests the type of new genus intermediate

between Pimenta and Eugenia. The material
at my disposal are too incomplete for the
preparation of a proper generic description.
The above is compiled from Col. Beddome ’s
description of the plant’. Therefore, Duthie
(loc. cit.) included the taxon under doubtful and
excluded species under Eugenia. Gamble (Kew
Bull. 1918 : 241. 1918) erected a new genus
Meteoromyrtus based on the material of
Beddome and pointed out that since ‘ Both
Beddome in his leones and Duthie in the flora
of British India have signalized this species as
being probably the type of the genus, and so I
have no hesitation in describing it as such
in spite of the poor material, in order to bring
the plant into its proper place in the Madras
Flora

461

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 79

An intensive search for this little known
species was made since 1977 in the Districts of
Wynad and the adjoining Cannannore and a
population of it was located at a place near
Chandanathode in 1979. As the fruit of this
species was not seen either by Beddome or
Gamble, the plants were kept under observa-
tion for more than two years and no fruiting
material could be obtained although the plants
flower profusely. Biology of the species, there-
fore, needs closer investigation. Further, since
this taxon shares intermediate characters
between Pimenta and Eugenia a biosystematic
study may be rewarding from the evolutionary
point of view.

Henry et al. (1979) included it under rare and
threatened flowering plants of South India and
indicated that there is no specimen of the taxon
in MH. But, on a close study of the unidentified
species of Eugenia , a sheet of the taxon collected
from Wynad with the remark Eugenia new sp.
could be located. No other data was available
on the sheet. In the old accession register of
MH it is indicated that the specimen was collec-
ted by Beddome in 1868.

Meteoromyrtus wynaadensis (Bedd.) Gamble
in Kew Bull. 1918 : 241. 1918 et FI. Pres.
Madras 1 : 343. 1957 (rep. ed.). Eugenia

Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore-3.

November 27, 1980.

wynaadensis Bedd. in Madras J. Sci. Ser. 3 (1) :
47. 1864 et FI. Sylv. Part 16 : 115. 1872 et Ic.
PI. Ind. Or. t. 161, 1874 ; Duthie in Hook. f.
FI. Brit. India 2: 506. 1879.

A small tree up to ± 5 m. Flowers white.

Specimens examined. Theerthundamalai,
Chandanathode, ± 975 m, 24-2-1979 V. S.
Ramachandran 61362, 20-12-1979 V. S. Rama -
chandran 65333, 20-3-1980 V. S. Ramachandran
66834. Wynad Beddome s.n. (Acc. No. 20969).
All sheets are in MH.

Beddome (loc. cit.) gives the flowering time
as April. But, in the present locality it flowers
from December to April.

As the plants are restricted to a very amall
area in North Kerala they are likely to be lost
because of increasing pressure on land for
cultivation, etc. Therefore immediate steps
for its conservation are necessary.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to Dr. R. Sundara Raghavan,
Regional Botanist, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, for confirming the identity of the species.

V. S. RAMACHANDRAN
N. C. NAIR
V. J. NAIR

References

Henry, A. N., Vivekananthan, K. & Nair, N. C. Willis, J. C. (1973) : A Dictionary of the Flowering
(1979) : Rare and threatened flowering plants of South Plants and Ferns. (Revised by H. K. Airy Shaw),
India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (3) : 688. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

462

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

41. SWERTIA KINGII HOOK. F.— A NEW RECORD FOR NORTH-WEST

HIMALAYAS

J. D. Hooker (1883) described Swertia kingii
from Sikkim, named in honour of its collector
George King. Type specimen is in CAL & K.
The species is allied to S> petiolata D. Don and
S. speciosa D. Don, but differs from the former
by its winged seeds and from both by its robust
habit, broadly ovate-elliptic leaves and larger
size of flowers.

During the course of the revision of the fam.
Gentianaceae, at Botanical Survey of India,
Northern Circle, Dehra Dun, I came across
a few specimens, deposited in BSD & DD under
the names of Swertia petiolata Sc speciosa D. Don.
But careful study of the specimens and proto-
logue, illustration and type of Swertia kingii
Hook.f. at CAL confirmed the identity of the
specimens as S. kingii Hook.f.

In literature, Swertia kingii Hook.f. is re-
corded only from Sikkim & Nepal. Therefore
the present finding of the taxon from North-
West Himalayas, records its extended distri-
butional range from Eastern to Western Hima-
layas and suggests thereby phytogeographic
affinity.

A short description of the species is provided
here :

Swertia kingii Hook.f. Ic. PI. t. 1442,
1883 ; Hook.f. FI. Brit. India. 4:734; 1885
(in add. et. corr.) ; FI. Langtong, 162. 1976.

Type : India : Sikkim NaTung, 24 Aug. 1878,
Dungboo s. n. (Holo., CAL !, K)

Perennial, erect, robust, branched, bitter,
about 100 cm tall herb. Leaves broadly ovate-
elliptic or oblong-elliptic, subacute, petiolate,
5-7 nerved. Flowers in dense panicles, bluish
or greenish-blue, 1. 5-2.6. cm long. Calyx
5-partite ; lobes broadly ovate-lanceolate,
acuminate with scarious, crenulate margins.
Corolla rotate, lobes ovate-oblong, tips
crenulate ; glands 2, ovoid-oblong with
fimbriate margins. Capsule sessile, ellipsoid,
Seeds numerous, brownish, winged.

Icon : l.c. (!).

FIs. 8cFrts : September to November.

Distribution : India — Himachal Pradesh,

Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, Nepal.

Ecology : Grows in moist places in shade ;
stream beds and alpine grass lands ; 2940-
4247 m height.

Uses : Used as substitute for true 8 chirata ’.

Specimens Examined : Himachal Pradesh —
Kangra ; Kangra valley, Chhota Bangbal,
3920 m, 9 Sept. 1955, Vaid 24230 (DD). Uttar
Pradesh — Tehri : Garhwal forest above

Gangi, 2940 — 3267 m, 5 Sept. 1885, Duthie
4214 (DD). Chamoli : Ghangaria, 3200 m,
2 Oct. 1962, Bhattacharyya 24304 (BSD).

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. U. C. Bhattacharyya, Deputy
Director, Botanical Survey of India, Northern
Circle, Dehra Dun, for guidance and for
providing facilities, needed during the study.

SUNITA AGARWAL

Wealth of India,

Botany Section,

Publications & Information Directorate (CSIR),
New Delhi-110 012,

December 3, 1980.

463

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Voi 19

42. SELAGINELLA ORNATA (HOOK. ET GREV.) SPRING— NEW TO INDIA

( With a text-figure)

In the course of revisionary studies of the
family Selaginellaceae in India, I came across
a few peculiar specimens which on scrutiny of
literature and comparison of the specimens
from Malay Peninsula and Islands housed in
CAL were identified as Selaginella ornata (Hook,
et Grev.) Spring. Later the specimens were
also confirmed as S. ornata (Hook, et Grev.)
Spring at Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew. Selagi-
nella ornata (Hook, et Grev.) Spring is described
in detail with illustrations as new to India.

Selaginella ornata (Hook, et Grev.) Spring.
Bull. Acad. Brux. 10 : 232. 1843 ; Mem. Acad.
Sci. Belg. 24(2) : 259. 1850 ; Alston, Philipp.
Joum. Sci. 58 : 371. 1935 ; Reed. M6m. oc.
Broter. 18 : 169. 1966. Lycopodium ornatum
Hook, et Grev. in Hook. Bot. Misc. 3 : 108.
1933.

Stems 15-25 cm, suberect, thick, stramiene-
ous, branched from the base, branches com-
pound. Rhizophores long, thick, throughout
the stem except apical Jrd part. Leaves hetero-
morphic, contiguous ; lateral leaves spreading,
ovate, oblique at base, obtuse at apex, inner
half-leaf ovate, dilated, and ciliate at base, rest
dentate ; outer half-leaf semi-oblong, dentate ;
axillary leaves ovate, cordate, ciliate at base,
dentate above, subacute at apex ; median

leaves ascending, subfalcate, ovate, cordate at
base, acummate at apex, dentate. Strobili
5.7 x 1-2 mm, single at the apex of branchlets.
Sporophylls dimorphic, dentate ; larger sporo-
phylls ovate, falcate ; smaller sporophylls ovate,
acute. Megaspores 300-350 pm, papillate
Microspores 32-35, pm, deep orange, verrucose
(Fig. 1 A-H).

Specimens examined : Arunachal Pradesh
— Bomdila to Rahung, 5-6-1957. Rao 8081
(Assam, dupl. CAL). Meghalaya Cherra-
punji to Mawmlah, 27-9-1956, Panigrahi 3558
(Assam). Malay Peninsula — Perak —
Larut, 4-4500 ft., Sept. 1881, King’s Collector
2361,2411. Malay Archipelago — Java .—
Banjoemas i 900 m. 16-4-1911, Backer 355
(CAL).

Distribution : India (Arunachal Pradesh) ;
Malesian Islands, Malay Peninsula.

Acknowledgements

Grateful thanks are due to Dr. S. K. Jain,
Director, Botanical Survey of India, Howran
for encouragement. I am also thankful to
(Miss) F. M. Jarett of Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew for confirming the identity of the specimens.

Botanical Survey of India, R. D. DIXIT

Allahabad,

May 22, 1980.

464

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

V . — ? ^ f

F El D

Fig. 1. Selaginella ornata (Hook, et Grev.) Spring

A. Part of a leafy branch ; B. Lateral leaf ; C. Median leaf ; D. Part of strobilus ; E. Smaller
sporophyll ; El. Larger sporophyll ; F. Distal part of megaspore ; G. Proximal part of microspore ;
H. Axillary leaf.

465

15

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1980-81

Executive Committee
President

Dr. Salim Ali, d.sc., f.n.a.

Vice-Presidents

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, i.c.s. (Retd.)

Mr. D. J. Panday

Ex Officio

Member

Secretary, Dept, of Science &
Technology, Government of India.

Elected Members Advisory Committee

Mr. Humayun Abdulali
Dr. S. R. Amladi, m.d.

Mr. H. G. Acharya

. . Ahmedabad

Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, o.b.e.

... New Delhi

Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chawda

Dr. B. Biswas

. . Calcutta

Dr. B. Dasgupta

Mr. S. Chaudhuri

.. New Delhi

Mr. H. K. Divekar

Dr. Madhav Gadgil

. . Bangalore

Mr. David Fernandes

Mr. N. D. Jayal

. . New Delhi

Dr. C. V. Kulkami, M.sc., ph.d.
( Honorary Treasurer)

Mr. Shivarajkumar
Khachar

Jasdan

Mr. Bansi Mehta

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, m.d.

Mr. Lavkumar Khacher

Rajkot

( Honoray Secretary)

Mr. M. Krishnan

. . Madras

Mr. M. S. Srinivasan

Mr. Duleep Matthai

. . New Delhi

Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

466

A.G.M. 1980-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1980
97th Annual Report

Membership

There was a steady growth in membership
of all categories during the year. However, we
can always improve the enrolment rate. This is
where members co-operation is essential. We
take this opportunity to thank those members
who on their own and in response to appeals
in the Hombill introduced new members to
the Society.

We now appeal to members for assistance
in the enrolment of compound corporate mem-
bers. The Executive Committee has fixed a
minimum target of 1,000 compound corporate
members so that the corpus will fetch an annual
return to meet at least part of the expenditure
on administration. Assistance from members
who are in a position to influence progressive
companies to enrol themselves as compound
corporate members would be greatly apprecia-
ted. The subscription for compound corpo-
rate members is Rs. 1,500 at the present
time.

We are glad to report that the number of
dropouts has shown a gratifying decline from
217 in 1979 to 97 in 1980. This is an encourag-
ing indication that we are able to hold our
members by catering to their interest.

Details of membership for the past quin-
quennium, showing members fully paid up on
31st December of each year are given in the
statement below :

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

Ordinary members

512

541

640

660

764

Corporate

members

190

180

184

180

168

Life members

246

257

274

305

327

Compound corpo-
rate members

1

2

9

9

20

Student members

20

39

96

83

94

Honorary members

4

4

4

4

3

Forest Department
Nominees

973

1023

1207 1241

1376

Members elected in 1980, but not paid 20
Members paid in 1979, but not paid for 1980 97

Publications

Journal :

Five issues of the Journal were published
during the year under review though the effort
at catching up with publication dates was not
successful and at the end of the year the publi-
cation of the issues for August & December
1980 had to be carried over to the next year.

The Journals published in 1980 included all
the issues of volume 76 for 1979, the April issue
volume 77 (1) for 1980 and a supplement
to volume 75 the Journal for 1978. This supple-
ment carried the papers presented as tribute
to Dr. Salim Ali at a symposium on ‘ Ecology
and conservation of birds and mammals
in India’ held at Bangalore on 1 lth-13th Novem-

467

JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

ber 1977. The authors of these papers repre-
sent amongst themselves a majority of scientific
workers active in this area on the Indian Sub-
continent. Other journals published during
the year continued to present authoritative
information on the natural history of
the oriental region.

Hombill s

The Hombill has now established itself
among the members of the Society as a well-
liked popular journal presenting matters of
natural history in non-technical language
for the benefit of most members of the Society.
However, a journal of this nature cannot
survive unless members provide 4 sustenance 5
in the form of notes and photographs. We
appeal to members particularly to those who
are active field naturalists to keep the Hombill
in mind for notes & photographs.

Books :

During the year we published the 11th edition
of the Book of Indian Birds by Salim Ali which
includes descriptions and colour illustrations of
16 additional species (making 296 in all) and the
4th edition of the Book of Indian Animals by
S. H. Prater. Both publications had brisk
sales as is evident from the sales statement
given below :

Sales in
1979 1980

Balance

stock

31-12-’80

Some beautiful Indian
Trees

147

264

2220

Glimpses of Nature in
India Booklet

142

353

1804

Checklist of the Birds of
Maharashtra

148

102

106

Checklist of the Birds of
Delhi, Agra & Bharat-
pur

69

54

148

The Book of Indian Birds

. .

2197

8009

The Book of Indian
Animals

. .

1007

3905

Books under Publication :

Grasses of Western India By T. Hodd
(1st edition)

A handy field guide for the identification of
Grasses of Western India, with illustrations for
all the species described, should be available
in 1981.

A Synopsis of the Birds of India & Pakistan
by Dillon Riplay (2nd edition)

This definitive work on bird taxonomy of
the Indian region is a standard reference book
for any study on Indian birds. The revised
2nd edition now in press is expected to be ready
by end 1981.

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs
by Bor & Raizada (2nd edition)

This popular treatise on the wild and culti-
vated shrubs and climbers occurring in India
is an excellent ready reference for members
and others interested in the country’s flora and
the indigenous and exotic cultivars. The second
edition, now in the press, is expected to be ready
by the end of 1981.

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History,
Centenary Publication, 1883-1983 :

It has been decided to entrust the publica-
tion of the Encylcopedia to the Oxford Univer-
sity Press, which should ensure a high standard
of accuracy, a handsome book, and wide dis-
tribution. The Encylopedia is meant for the
general reader and paticularly for students
in schools and colleges. It should rouse their
interest in the natural environment, making
them aware and appreciative of rivers, rocks,
plants and animals, and all other forms of life
around them. Work is proceeding satisfac-
torily and we hope to bring out the Encyclope-
dia in time.

468

A.G.M. 1980-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

A Century of Natural History :

This book Will consist of a selection of articles
from the Society’s Journal published during
the hundred years of its existence. The selec-
tion will cover general natural history, expedi-
tions and explorations, hunting, fishing, conser-
vation, wildlife photography, mammals, birds,
reptiles^ fishes, insects, other invertebrates and
botany.

Conservation

The Society is recognised by the Central and
State Governments in India and by International
Organisations abroad as an authoritative source
for information on conservation of wild life
and natural resources.

This recognition is expressed in the form of
association of its officials with State and Central
Wildlife advisory boards and representation
on the specialist groups of the Species Survival
Commission of the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
More positive recognition is the sanction of
funds for the study of endangered species of
wildlife (see under projects).

Silent valley :

The Society continued to support the cam-
paign for the preservation of the Silent Valley
in collaboration with Save Silent Valley Com-
mittee and other organisations.

Asian Elephant Specialist Group :

The Species Survival Commission’s Asian
Elephant Group, which has the Society’s Curator
as chairman, continued to be active in organising
conservation action and protection measures
for the elephant in India and in assessing the
data obtained from the surveys. The studies
are being funded by the World Wildlife Fund.

Seminars and Conferences

The Curator attended meetings of the Species
Survival Commission of the IUCN at Sri Lanka,
Kenya and U.S.A,

Members’ Activities
Field Research :

Assistance was given to two members of the
Society Dr. A. J. Gaston and Mr. Vivek Matthai
for a survey of Pheasant Status in the Western
Himalayas.

Solar Eclipse and wildlife :

M/s. H. K. Divekar and S. R. Amladi with
Society’s staff investigated the effects of the
total solar eclipse on wildlife. Their report is
that the effect is negligible.

Bonnet Macaque/Rhesus Macaque Range
Boundary :

Dr. Jack Fooden of the Chicago Natural
History Museum, a member of the Society
assisted by the Society’s Staff investigated the
range boundaries of the two species of
macaques. His report will be published in a
future issue of the Society’s Journal, for 1981.

Bird counts :

The monthly roadside count of birds at the
Borivli National Park on the last Sunday of
each month was continued. Apart from the
collection of data to record the fluctuations in
the bird fauna the main aim is to introduce
members to bird watching.

Nature walks :

This programme also assists in recruiting
more members for the Society and in fostering
interest in natural history among members and
others.

Nature Walks Were organised in Borivli
National Park and elsewhere for bird-watching,
vegetation studies and general natural history.
A large number of members participated.

469

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

Nature Camp :

A camp was organised from 15 September- 1st
October, in Manali, 87 members participated.
The camp was organised by Shri Lavkumar
Khacher, a member of the Advisory Committee.

Research & Other Activities

Funded From Field Work Funds

The field work funds available at the Society
supported the following activities :

Salim Ali/Loke Wan Tho Ornithological Research

Fnisd :

During the year the fund supported the
field studies of two research students. Mr . S . A.
Yahya studied ‘ The Ecology of Barbets ’ and
Mrs. K. R. Lalitlia studied ‘ Comparative
Ecology of Drongos with special reference to
Ecological isolation among them ’ . Mr. Yahya
completed his studies during the year. The
fund also supported the search for the frog-
mouth in Kerala a species of bird hitherto
considered rare and whose ecology needs
to be studied.

Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund :

In addition to subsidising the publication of
the Hombill and purchasing books for the
library, the following field projects were funded.

(a) Survey of Agastyamalai Hills in Tamil
Nadu — a potential biosphere reserve: A propo-
sal by Dr. Rauf Ali to survey the Agastyamalai
as a potential site for a second biosphere reserve
in the Sahyadris Biogeographic Province was
funded. A report is awaited.

( b ) Andaman Survey — Jan. -Mar. 1980:

At the instance of Dr. Salim Ali, the Society
organised an ecological survey team consisting

of young biologists to spend about two months
in the islands to collect data and assess the
status of various life forms on certain selected
islands. The trip was financed from a grant
from the Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund.
The emphasis of the study was to be (i) gathe-
ring of ecological data (ii) Status of endangered
species and (iii) collection of biological speci-
mens of scientific interest.

Special attention was to be paid to rare
and endangered species like the Andaman Teal,
Narcondam Hombill and Megapod e and also
to the synecology of the outlying islands such
as Narcondam, Landfall, East, Interview,
North Reef, South Sentinel, Battye Malve
and certain others of the Nicobar group. An
assessment of the various development activi-
ties in progress and their possible impact on
the fauna and flora were to be studied as also,
problems connected with the organisation,
control and conservation of habitats and wildlife.

{c) Sarus Crane Study : Mr. Prakash Gole
was funded for a study of the breeding beha-
viour of the Sarus at Bharatpur.

(d) Siberian Crane Study : Assistance was
given to Mr. Yado Mohan Rai, a member
from Meerut to investigate possible alternate
winter habitats of the Siberian Crane in India.
None of the areas visited in U.P. showed any
indication of being used by this Crane.

Pirojsha Godrej Fund :

Conservation Education : Assistance was
given to Mr. Ulhas Rane to spread the message
of Conservation in the Dhule area with the
help of a local social organisation, the Jan-
Vidyan Kendra.

Solar Eclipse Study : The sudy of effects
of total solar eclipse of 16th February, 1980,
on wildlife was supported by a grant from the
fund.

470

A.G.M. 1980-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Col. Burton Fund :

Solar Eclipse study : A second group led by
Mr. Ulhas Rane was funded to study the effects
of the solar eclipse on 16th February 1980, on
wildlife in the Ratnagiri area.

Research Funded by Government &
Governmental Agencies

Computer Analysis of Bird Banding Data :

The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
which is collaborating in this programme repor-
ted that the entire bird banding data (approx-
imately one lakh thirty thousand records)
keyed into the data files have been validated.
Retrieval programmes specified by the Bombay
Natural History Society has been tried out and
the first level reports are ready. The successful
run of these programmes suggest the overall
validity of the data as far as the data formats
and range checks are concerned. It is now
possible to extract further reports from these
data easily ; but effective utilisation of this
facility calls for the availability of the service
of a programmer for the Bombay Natural
History Society.

We are now seeking a suitable programmer for
proper utilisation of the data.

An Ecological Reconnaissance of Vedaranyam

Swamp, Thanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu :

The Vedaranyam — Muthupet — Adhirampatti-
nam swamp — belt is one of the major and
important refuges of migratory as well as
resident water birds in the peninsula. Every
winter (October-March) over 90 species of
birds (both Passerine and wading) arrive and
spread along the swamps and forested tracts
along the seaboard. The State Government
has proposed to develop the entire 24,000
hectare swamp as an integrated marine chemi-

cal complex, and as an expression of its anxiety
about the possible ill effects of such a project
on the ecology of the area had asked the Society
to undertake a study.

The study had Prof. Neelakantan, a life
member of the Society and a well known orni-
thologist, as field investigator.

The major recommendation made on the
basis of a year’s data was that in developing
the Salt Complex the greatest possible care
should be taken to see that in the area set apart
for the birds the natural flux (the existing cycles)
of the water and fluctuations in salinity, pH
value etc. are not altered in any manner.

Studies on the movement and population structure
of Indian Avifauna :

This project financed by PL-480 funds recei-
ved through the Ministry of Agriculure, Govt, of
India, plans to investigate the ecology of the
bird fauna of selected biotopes, particularly
their migratory movements. The main study
areas are Keoladeo Ghana, Bharatpur (Rajas-
than) and Point Calimere Sanctuary in Tamil
Nadu. The study has commenced with Dr.
Salim Ali as Principal Investigator and Mr.
S. A. Hussain as Project Scientist.

The programme of work will extend initially
over a period of five years.

Hydrobiological (Ecological) Research Station,
Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary, Bharatpur, Rajas-
than :

This project plans to study the ecology of the
large numbers and variety of water bird species
breeding at the Ghana and assembling during
winter. The proposed research station would
be the first of its kind in India and the research
conducted there would provide a basis for
research and management of other important
waterfowl reserves in the country.

471

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Vol. 79

The project has Dr. Salim Ali as Principal
Investigator and Dr. Robert Grubh as Co-
investigator.

The programme is originally for five years,
but we hope to establish the research station
on a long-term basis.

An Ecological Study of Bird Hazards at Indian

Aerodromes :

Birds are known to cause slight to severe
damage occasionally to aircraft and occupants
through accidental encounters. With the advent
of faster planes with lesser preceding noise bird
strikes have increased, resulting in increased
hazards to safe operation of aircraft besides
heavy financial losses.

The specific aims of the project were :

1 . To identify all bird species that are poten-
tially hazardous to aircaft in and around
an aerodrome.

2. To study the habits and basic ecological
requirements of these bird species and
find out the reasons for their occurrence
in and around the aerodrome.

3. To evolve ways to discourage the ‘ prob-
lem birds ’ from frequenting the airfield
and the entire air space used by aircraft
in and around aerodromes, on a long-
term basis.

The project which is funded by the Aero-
nautics Research and Development Board of
the Ministry of Defence has Dr. Salim Ali as
Principal Investigator and Dr. Robert Grubh
as Executive Investigator.

Approved Projects

Ecology of Endangered Species and their habi-
tats :

Approval of the Government of India for
funding from PL-480 funds for the study has

been received. We plan to investigate the
Great Indian Bustard and the Asian Elephant.

Donations

Rs. P.

Col.A.C.Moore for Salim Ali Nature
Conservation Fund . . 5,269.00

Pirojsha Godrej Foundation for Salim
Ali Nature Conservation Fund 5,000.00
Dr. Salim Ali for Salim Ali Nature
Conservation Fund . . 18,000.00

Darbar Shri Alakhachar Public
Trust, Jasdan for Salim Ali Nature
Conservation Fund
Sir Dorabji Tata Trust for Silent
Valley Conservation
Pirojsha Godrej Foundation for
Silent Valley Conservation

Messrs Glaxo Laboratories for
Silent Valley Conservation
Chetak Trust, Udaipur for Silent
Valley Conservation
Miss Diana Ratnagar, Beauty with-
out Cruelty for Silent Valley
Conservation 4

Mrs. Perm M. R. B. Jeejeebhoy for
Silent Valley Conservation
Mr. G. V. Bedekar for General Fund
Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati for Staff
Welfare Fund

Mr. M. J. Dastur for General Fund
Mr. M. G. Diwan for General Fund
Amount collected at the exhibition
of Rotary Club for General Fund
Amount collected at the Snake exhi-
bition . . 70,000.00

Donations to the Society of more than
Rs. 250 qualify for reduction of incometax
under section 80 G of the Incometax Act 1961.

3.000. 00

5.000. 00

5.000. 00

4.000. 00

5.000. 00

2.000. 00

1,000.00

1,000.00

400.00
25.00
25.00

195.00

472

A.G.M. 1980-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Reference Collection

During the year under reference 1073 speci-
mens were registered into the collections.

Mammals

46

Birds

990

Reptiles

36

Amphibians

1

Total

1073

Among these the following species of birds,
were additions to the collections :

1 . Spelaeornis formosus

2. Myzornis pyrrhoura

3. Pteruthius rufiventer

4. Yuhina bakeri

5. Orthotomus cucullatus

6. Abroscopus schisticeps

7. Abroscopus hodgsoni

8. Certhia nipalensis

9. Carduelis thibetana

10. Loxia curvirostra

1 1 . Propyrrhula subhimachala

12. Pyrrhoplectes epauletta

Nature Education Scheme

The Nature Education Scheme started by the
Society as a pioneering effort in 1948 continues
to be active among the schools of the city.
Considering the large student population in
the city and number of schools (over 387),
the effect that the Nature Education Organiser,
can produce working single handed is limited
However, the main thrust of our efforts has
been to arrange for the exposure of the urban
children to nature in the wild. Apart from
introductory slide shows, the children were
taken on day field trips to Borivli National
Park which is indeed a very convenient wilder-
ness school for Bombay students. In 1980
the snake exhibition organised by the Society

proved a very useful aid and 20,000 students
of 300 schools were taught the natural history
of reptiles.

Snake Exhibition

The Snake Exhibition organised at Cross
Maidan, Bombay by Mr. H. K. Divekar of
the Executive Committee and Mr. P. B. Shekar
of the Society’s staff was extremely popular
with the citizens of Bombay. The half hourly
lecture by the Society’s librarian Mr. I. D.
Kehimkar on snakes and their natural history
illustrated with live examples enhanced the
value of the programme and was very well
received. Approximately 2,36,000 people visi-
ted the exhibition, yielding a revenue of Rs.
1,80,000.

Repairs to Hornbill House

During repairs to the roof in 1979, it was
noticed that seepage had severely damaged
the concrete roof slabs and these required
strengthening involving considerable expendi-
ture. Before arrangements could be made the
rains broke and with great difficulty the library
was saved from extensive damage by the quick
action of the staff.

There Was prompt response to our appeal
for assistance from the Chief Minister, Maha-
rashtra and the Department of Science &
Technology, Govt, of India and the repairs are
in progress.

Meetings

January, 17 : Slide show :

Point Calimere Nature Camp.

January, 26 & 27 : Nature Camp :

Kanchad Forests.

February, 10 : Nature Camp :

Yewoor Road.

473

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 79

March, 29 & 30 : iVatare Cam/? :

Lonavla.

April, 18 : Talk :

4 A look at the Andamans ’ by Mr. S. A.
Hussain.

April, 27 : Nature Walk :

Cheena Creek.

June, 28 &29 : Nature Camp :

Kamala Bird Sanctuary.

July, 13 : Nature Walk :

Chinchota Falls.

August, 10 : Nature Camp :

Ransai Dam.

August, 17 : Field Trip :

Walwan Dam (Lonavla).

September, 28 : Nature Walk :

Kanheri Caves.

October, 12 : Field Trip :

Elephanta.

November, 6 : Talk :

‘ Birds of East Africa ’ by Mr. John Karmali.

December, 14 : Nature Walk :

Powai Lake.

Revenue and Accounts

The financial situation of the Society has
improved. After many years of deficit, the
year’s working showed a small surplus, after
wiping out the accumulated deficit.

Staff

The Committee wishes to record its apprecia-
tion of the willing cooperation of the staff in
the activities of the Society, and of the extra
efforts willingly made by them to save the
Library during early monsoon.

474

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

A.G.M. 1980-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

s

o

PQ

cq

o

£

toD

o

P4

8

On 'w'

CO «

S w

a

HH

>

g

1

ra

B

g 0

O to
PQ

O

oo

ON

§

2

co

1

§

e

a

B

*

0

fas

a

to

1

cq

o a o
c£ U

42 2
o d
cti os

T3

3

•2

’C

.. a

&a O

'■§ S.

^3 &
a, ^_»

1
o

u ^ . a ;d

60

_ 'O'

^ a ’s

•o t3 "G a

d «J Ph >,

o x> 03

42 c3 _ s

o’Sjjto
§ jjS'S

a *5 u 42

^ ’O
g «4H -O <U

o
o

§• 00

° $
*o K

d g

*J5

60^

■S*

23

o

o

o'

o

©

<n

,cn

° J
■SI
2 §
“ S

T3

n ^
2 03

-O x>

3$

X o

g a

d 42

8 <3

15 'o

?-i o

^NO

oo Z5

cn” ■
o 3

«N K

fl 3
c o

Pl, a

O ~

£2

0 ^

a

o .O
d at

«s t3
60 §
s s

vh -a

5 <

•• o

O NO

o 2°

W S

5} ON
< ^
'rr «

S'3 O
O

£2 o

p

o

o

o

o

o

CM

d _
a ©
o o
h4 °~
«s ^

‘03 «3

I— I 4-!
«M °

O O
d

£13
_ o >
150 8

at

m

O

00

r-

T> m
C4 00

vo

CO

Tt-

NO

OO

NO

ON ON
d- ;£■
U-

l>

cn'

$ s

$ -d
S w

^ o

o ^

A «

O «

O

« H
Q o
'O o

E 2

5 d

I m

cj

>>

<D

42

60

d

o

CO

o

t";

1

00

CN

ri

•o

°°«

ON

TE

ocT

CO

oo

CO

00

f-

<N

VO

00

q

K

00*

oi

ON

t^>

ON

NO

«n

vn

VO

ON

Os

(N

d-”

o

©

lo

CN

ITD

CN

VN

o

o

(N

q

CN

i

o

o

•o

o

ON

OO

s

o

iri

NO

M2

CO

ON

CO

n

o'

o”

CN

T— (

tt”

ON

T-,

§1

e*t§

_ <u
o tS

■y ^ M

s w.S

« « a

.ft, d •o

^ d 73

5^ 13 g

CQ .S

v: s

to &

jS 2
8 c

a d

CO 2

« s

s<

d

K M

4- 2

<u rS
M op
on .d

d> fa
o d
d T3
d t3

at P

«•!

I§

S3 a
& 5
00 2
a S

8 <

R •• 5 $S a •• rt

■ ■*** ^ S. C3 ^3 >»

t1 B ^

«SJ

<6

1

15

PQ ^

43 S
oa o

<D O

o d
d hh

^ S

d O

l/D T3
aj U

s|

aw
m d
ctf d

d ••

aJ vj

13 S

PQ Kq

d •
d •

o

o

o

d m
_, ctf
d (o

o >,
<o

§<2

d (2

«-g

d d

B-q
•3 2
p a
« S
a >r3

x tZ

W o

cS

43*

K co

^ -
CU <0

^ a

5P 8

sj d

5 js

SJ d

S m

d

Sf? d d

r“5 a,

cs <0

I

^ 3

.§ 8

B d

S B

s

111

ca

>■__, ,o T3
odd

M a §
T3 to [t.

8? d
2 244
Q, O '— |

PQ P
o ^ >

i— 1 <11

“31

•* d ^

475

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 79

o

oo

On

1

§

§

I

Si

e

a

s

«<

0
fc.

S

Co

1
1

OS o

Q o

Os

Os

00

00

VS

O

CT)

so

o

o

t-H vs

SO 5

so

VO

VO

<N

q

CS

vs

(N

o

o

os rn

6

ri

f<S

<N

Os

rn

so

so «o

o’

o

OO

S o

o

T— <

os

Os

00

oo

vs

O

OS f*S

h-H

o

°°^o

oo

cn

(N

vs

vs

cn

CN r<s

o

co

04

00 Tt

OS

Ss

ci

Os

▼— <

VS

<o

rT

r—4

<N

oo

cn

o'

Os" T-i
cn Os

os"

<p

o"

CN

r— 1

(N

y— t

CN

O O

O O

©

OS OS

"ct ’-h

*-H _j

00

1

43

bO

s

2

w

P b
a> P
43 p
CO ^
o 2
p >5
d

P bO

13 .2

PQ g

P co

— 1 <L>

J-< oo
o P
0,43

2 2
d 3

8^

G ••

- S

p ^
ffl ^

u

2

o

■*-»

4=1

3

2

PQ

^2 •

| <

$ p

■§ 1

5 43
R P
| 73
<3 ti

*2 &

^ 00

*5 <

Q

p

>»

P

4g

b/)

#g

*S

P

T3

>>

P

£

<50

#P

'5

p

"a

G

O

Oi

Q

Q

8

T3

O

O

bJ5

T3

O

O

bJ)

T3

O

a

0

p
X)

1

si

2 S3

g °D

5 £ 00
w 2 8
co w g

§ hI

K) ^

P

e

p

43

o

73

d

.2

13

p

p

oo T3

8 w

0 2 I

S5 1

<U o %

o o o
H H H

-a •

d •

“s

p

<1) >o

s p

O 43

O '*■*

c b

t— I .O

p
<L>
43
CO
.. P

s? d

P

co

CO

31

<3

O O

,5h O
^ P
aS

T3 8
p p i.

fc3.P ^

s §

!&

H W

p

o, u

43 (D

o &

oo

>> i

O g
a o
£ S3

d (D

£
j-i 7*

sx

s'?

P <D

55

b-2

s

.2 d

go cti
CO

I

Q>

» r 2,

d 8 5 p

O o P Ph

g * 8 *g

5 § >* 2 2 w

* ^ p .

Oh <

sdw:

X) P >» oo
p^ >3 O

(U s u V

Oh

§ 3
>> p

S'

11

8 8

o a
§ 2
g p
S d

.g M

P

.H'B

Vh .

CD -H
CO >

73

. °°
&o
P oo
02)
M

.ScS

d ^
bo

«H ’o

o a

43

. o

o ^

<D

d d
p p

|

VS

oo

O

CN

q

r-

q

o

CN

vs

o

os

vs

o

OS*

so

OS

o

cn

o

O'!

vs

rj-'

cn"

VS

CN

r>

P T3

p

e p

•2 S

Co

S p

p PQ

» •*>» CO

5 « P
^ ^ p

s: § p

| t5 g
.g r5
£ | P
g *P5 PQ

CO

18

a- -s

8 .t3

t» V M

43 43 O

3 g &

- DP
3*1

eo „
P o

a S

p d

r3 W

<3 p x> p

co Pi > d b

.jj x 'P p r£

42 P P w —i i

s o o o o

PL,

t3

d p

2 S
° o

Oh

« P

.5 J5

Is

,*-1 p

^ o
o
Vh P
P P
> «■.

«> ^’P
oo bi) a
p^p
9 O Oh

X i_i b*

W x P

eg

p

0

■p

.. p

co 43

476

FUNDS AND LIABILITIES Rs. P. Rs. P. ASSETS

A.G.M. 1980-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

©

VO

^t-

VO

t"

vo

oo

K

©

tri

ro

CO

<N

t-H

(N

«o

XT

©^

i-H

©"

oo

ri

,_T

CN

on

^i-

ON

cs

u

I

43

bO

pq

1

I

*

eS

I

8

T3

3

44

a

PP

>> «3

S >*

-9 Gj
S T3
o .S

pq c

a

• >»
c3
X)

^ S

8 ,8
co „
52 44

<44

S3
c3

PP
S3 ^3
O <D

4 *

o

f-i

s

<N

■S t-l

* -a

c3

pq

S3 oi
44

^ c

T3 «
S3 °

•c «
o

| a
i'S

„ c
S 2
-gpq
£ 3>

o.S

§ w

pq

> -

■a &

5i
4 m

2 43
oj o

pq Q

03

o pq

a

c3

pq

.a

c **
o co
o

*9 §
5 °-
£ ^
o ^

44 oo

pq

■S

2 d o

Sgu

M

o*&

H 00 o
_ <P

5

£§

ca ^ .oo
> _ ®3 '

^ c3 (2
(DO

231

S3

§•§
t5 g

33 u

pq «

Wg

-g

So o
o o o
pq ©

grt.’S

pa w) o
^ c b

11^

8-g

*3 p.fcl
^•oco

U

«!
«S ^

00

TJ

a

So

Is

os ^
T3 *-h
fl X
33 .
O oo

ft

st

H cS

a>

CO

<9

a p4

J»V* r— H

s s

5b

o

,8 3

o -s
j • a ts

S a a

3 3 3

eo

3

O

u

pq

477

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , 79

o

oo

Os

&

I

S

§

1

e

£

<<

2

I

s

§

&

Q

%

<

CO

Q

2

D

n<

5-1

>

o

9

2

pq

<50

3

2

pq

§

v— ✓

i

Jj

§

1

§

»r

js

<M O

O O £>

sl^l

•45312

4*314

Sgl*

^ <N -

a

<*h (U

O M
O

“ W)hJ
■js g rs-

3e

o "3

60

pq P4 S o

St

I

t

R

I

1z> <

'3 _

8J

“53
^ co

.52 <*a
T3 °
G O
h-i o
O

4

A M A .

,3ic o :

co 9

1^0

£0 «® a>

O ^ s

ok3

rG 'd 03

,h G 7

G G ^

i< —

O T3 -3
G <1 t3

3& a §

a

c3 ,

PQ ^

g 2^.2

£ 1*8 1

I 2
§ 3
.2 W

a

2

o

K

3

<

s

3

<

co

CU

£

>>

03

X

a

o

pq

O h4

r- 1

CO 03
~ Jh

g

o3

£

>»

o3

X

a

o

pq

>»

a>

o

O

CO

4

&

x

a

o

pq

478

A.G.M. mo-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

j" ig

ft ft S ^ *n
Q w

S’!

ii«

«ti

a- ^ «

ft S 6© <3
ft, 43 ^

^2-t

05 -tf*

I ^

^ «n

§ (N

£

«o

fll

§ gl

£ ft ^

oj

■fe ^3 -ft

S S? ’*'* »* O
a s* h. w co

i||lw

^ g .3

§55 »

8-3 § |

s *$3

<§

*

i co
os HT
O *
co

o o
q tS
o g
© S

CO g

* ^
O © © *>
O O CO Cg
O rH i> S
O co On <i>
vo on -g
<N-S

CM

^J-

CO

«T>

co

q

VO*

d

co

CO

t-

ON

ON

<N

CsJ

rf

^sh

CO

CM

Tt-

co

CO

rH

co

in

CO

CO

1-H

d

?

VO*

co

>.o

©

d

CM

CM

CN

oo

ON

CO

r-i

1-H

«n

CO

1—1

rH

CM

CO

CO

CM*'

»o ^

VO GO

• fl)

co Si2

t-h (U

CM °

TJ <3

U H

E

o ^

SI

<t>

= 1
«3 M

<D 1*H

M c3

5*S

r^- o
<1

a O

-P W

m

u .
8

a

o

p

P

£

09 ^

a §

5tS

u _,

p 3
PQ .2

. 13

B*

1

5 t3
-2 G

J2 3
T5 [Li
<0 ”

1

si

U 13

£E
^ >.
60
g© o
JS o

ia

.§•§■§ :
§o£

o rt
-a £ -g
gH g

P Oj

•§ll
£**-
9- o 13 §
4 -g .2 3

M o 6n+j

ads g

l^ls

CO

G

o g poo

s,3«!
Q„ gm 3

1 §

, o

CD

o H

2 S3

ng
m 1

60 0O

fl r-
>>^
ctf

O <p <? g
^ 5 V 60

g o p.s
g co a'd

O

(h k CO •

0'2IS ’

•P d gv

Qo

d vy ^

••3|°&

5 8 -2

M lZ </s

*« M .3 ffl

jj tg O
> Pi

2 ®,213 .

1-8,11 8

gwWZ o

o

3

479

BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 ST DECEMBER, 1980— {Contd.)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

wo

<3 OO

§ § 3

8 8||S

cq sq
co

vs r r-*.
§vo

•Si «,

S» << -*4

c< ^3

— QJ
Si «

x.

■■8

s*

R 0

5 |

^ <3

1 sJ

•I1

ja ss

VJ

=8 I

>>

<3 -u* ^

^ 1 ^
I h'il0
I***

0

0

O

©

0*

0

VO

r— (

o

co

O

©

<n

©

vq

»— 1

ft

vd

d

d

os

OO

ft

©

OS

T-H

©

©

On

VO

vo

<0

CO

cq

OO

OS

CM

vo"

vo

o'

©

a— (

c^T

00

CM^

CO

©^

0-

OSK

CO

cm"

CO

CM

I

'M

I

I

«ja a

0.3

Q. 0
0.0

°i

| g

l-H 4h

<4-i .

14

o S

T3 O
00

O C?\

C/2

UocT .

3 ^ 3

Ja f> a -4
■s o oo
3 25 o ■

c3 *— i ©

CD OO

ft os

§ «><£3

§ 3 <7 T3
o 3oo i;
w H h- 2
<h ON O
OWh O

O

O o

O GO

d £

O O

S.s

s©

0

©

0

CO

©

WO

vd

8

wo‘

t>

©

00

uo

CO

vo ^

T— * CO

vo £
r- S
vo ft
- 0

qI

.g«

*3 j=!

ad

o f‘

,— 00

O i

<u o

o ^

O .§

ft

3 V-l 2

2o^

O

T> 0
C rO
0 0
[L 0

w o

II

lo

ft

’a* S
o o

V-l ’12

£ 0

l-H rQ

Vj 0
O 3

3 O
S ft

V> o

©

'EB

vs

5~S

> 3

3 £ i

73 3 ft

CM

0

>

3

2

xt

0

0

*g

sl

•I a

ft

/*"\

co

<3 x
3 §

CO

0) 0 .
■a >

S 8

0 GO

0

Q 0

3^2

S o S

0 k *3

3 S

0 >

4*1

S Efe
© ;=; 0
S ms o
§00-0

u

'

*

*

*

©

CM

T— 1

VO

©

1—1

OS

VO

vd

vd

CM

ft

0

OO

vo

os

0

.

vq

os

co"

os"

vo"

vo

'rH

0

©

o

0

VO

VO

CM

vo

CO

©

©

VO

1—4

vq

©

VO

vd

©

©*

VO

0-

i — i

CO

ft

©

o

r-

VO

vo

©

©^

OO

0

0\n

OS

vo

cT

o'

vo

ft

CO

ft

vo"

CO

o

0

Os

VO

1-H

cm"

co

I

:

*

s§

0

0

lH

o

So

©

>

0

00

0

0

0

ft

©

ft

2

u

P

3

480

A.G.M. mo-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

o

oo

on

<3 ^ OO

g ^ *S 5

"^5 « ^ «

a 8«

O3

s

^ St-

a-i*

£

03 ON

as w'

oo

~. 05
.2 -«

& .as s:

§3p|

_ <4J

r~ ^ ■*«• *5
k g to §

s &•§ >>

**

VO

1^

TsjN

fi s”

^ ° I

§ s*3

C5- S3

*

§

o

3

00

P

o

J-t

PQ

ers '-*1 .

8 ° •
fl fl
•S 9
3 '-P 'P

W.J |

^ !3 S
o 3 O

3 M O

£& S

ts g $

d o hH

HH ^5
si pS

- a»*3

S fl o

.2 p3 D,

t3 pq m

a

T3 d

d .go

P 5

q p<

g I

.2u

■Jrt

2 >»

fl 3
u-g

._ <D
dfl ;t3

< 3

OQ

<5 S2

S*

n> qq
<N w

o

o

o

q

o

ON

8

vo

ci

nf

in

(N

o

VO

o

o

vd

oo

so

VO

m

T”H

VO

i-T

. T3

u g

< d
. o

<N

>srl b

'a d ’S

3 cd h

s §1

_r h pq

<D

3 <1 >

d <o
M Q

> ,<D Xi

o*S g
OflSd

§

a

o PP

Sa

« s

<+H <^-

o

>» d

T3 03

3 'S

M C

*3

.a s-

bO «S

o

83

« 8
d «j
Cffi

16

481

BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDED 315T DECEMBER, 1980 —{Contd.)

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

oo

o
oo

Sa cv

<3 n

t; v. §

s ^ 'I

§■ «

2 .5?

"§s 5

03 ^ V)

Cu ^

£ s'0

00

5 ^

-r

; H

Co 5?

§ S ^

HJ

•t? <3

„ bo 3

^ ^ fO

JV. JS

C3 <i>

VJ "i

~2 fc

bs Cs,03)

<N

VO

efunds

djust-

ments

r-

£<

O

0

1H

'si*

vd

rd

vo

10
• CD

CO

vo

Spen
eturn
iring ,
jear

/-S

VO

' — ✓

vo

t>

00

vo

£

^ "S

vo

vo

00

0

CN

0

Co

s

'=d-

t-i

■n-

-a 5^

°\

OO

CN

n-

in

£ ^

/~N

00^

CN

CO

l>

vo

vd'

'*'* vfi>

^L~>

CD

>

O

JS

b0

3

O

in

pq

r/S "*$

5? is
Cl ^ ^

R

b-5

^3

s ^

? k <1

Cl -2 .vj
^ S
i? ^ C

2 I $

9 to §
S 3

CD g tg

£ o*

r] cfl cS

O 3 3

CO Oh. 2

» o-g

3^0

60

O

o

CD

W

ccS _£S
CD

a

O JH
cci 3

~ C/2 ^ -S'
go O 3
0 a
9 ^3

.2^3

2

o £

*5 <D
'p co
>. <D

ffi ^

in'

00

CN

O

O

0

0

K

OO

CN

'st-

in

0

0

m

co

vo"

t'-"

N-

vo"

in

O CD c

& cs

CO Si

03 cs
3 si ccS T3

-0 13 O o

zsM>

- " 0 *-

S3 w 0

^ CD
3 ° CD

0^0

Si ii 3

2 g 3

ci! S S

O co

■Hi Oh

c SH CD
c 03
Si Q -c-4

o

Oh

S

ccS

.„ 5:

os in
3 a

o S

o a
0 >,

482

Total 8,60,026.15 27,18,469.38 10,810.41 35,89,305.94 14,86,148.09 .. 14,86,148.09 21,03,157.85

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Bombay Public Trusts Act 1950
Schedule IX [vide Rule 17(1)]

A.G.M. 1980-81 — PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

3- o

ON O

d «n
— ( rj-
VO CN

o

B

3f

<N

O

£

bJ)

O

c*

o

oo

ON

ft]

1

s

§

&3

1

a

§

i

0

s

fc!

1
1
§

I

P4

VO 00 o
in co O
3" in — i
co *-* vo

t— *n ON

*

T3
T3 <D
O 3

s d k

Bn O <D

O O \3

3 i'B
~ ? 8
^ g! w

K ^ a

o o

^ §
xs v3
u o

X 5-1

3 ^

o ^

^ 5

*5

K 5

3 r_ <
3 oo

«_. i

.3 rO O

3

O O
O O

d o
o o
vo o
oo

0

0

0

q

d

ON

0

VO

0

cT

cm

»o

O O

o o
o o
o o

O in

cd

© o o

o o o

d d d

rn O O

o

JQ rf in

ON

r-4 ri

§5 O

In

-3

||fi

v-> Cb 4)

•5|>

2 e |

5 3

|ISJ

60 <* 5

§J «.

•8 a «

15 « ~C
§ -3
<§

= 3

3 U

Ul

-3 I

* 3

.2 35

M.§ 3
o 33 rT.
-i s3 ^
C/3

1 a

+3 3

g u

CD >>
oo <u

II

2 3

3 ID

IS

a <2

a §•

a ft

*3

00

T3

3

8 ft

CO

8 fl
a o
x a

ID 3

§b I

§,3

& o

O

3

<D

3 [l
U, a ^

° 3 <D

° § ft

2 a’fj" <2

< L. I> 3

3

CD

s

a

■ • co

«S* +2

to

2 ft

5 v-i

C oo

£6

oo

8_<
3 3
3 3
3 O
ID

bO
3

,2 a

3 3

5 a
^ ft

b0

.S So
2 6

ft

00

w-/ 2T
oo > 3N
a ON • £ —■

ffl < O

* g< s

lb

CN d

i/*>

co in

00

O

q

ON

a- q

>n

O

d

VO

s

vd d

3*

ON

CO

d

»n

vo

10

in 00

CO

ON

rf

o'

n— 1

in 00
3- *n

3-"

cT

Omoooo^
on o ^

SD 3- 3- rt d

S' ^ ^ ^ ^

(N^ m 00 o ^

^ 3- <N CO

o

o

»o

0 o

§ ON

Ji id ^ .0

co 3

gog

CO J. -<— »

« o a
0 ^ 3
3 ^ S

3 .. 3

| 2g|

•s a a s

to a +j

^ 2 -S >

& a 3 o

In Oh EO
*

1 :
» 8

b)

8 a
I s

a ^

« s

55 ^ 00
3 O *
00 O
3 1 00

a On ON

3

S2S

ft

co ■

<3

3

O ^
ID

O
O 00

^ a On

C >

d ° ON

00-H

S'f.s

1*3

■i'g'S-

3 d ^0?

,FH 3 3 o

co O H 00

o 5 ON

ft «3 —1
g M
On »H o

ft

ID

a

4-»

3

o

"S

<

0

bO

fl

”3 ^
*3 o
.2 a
« «»
.2 fl

J-n 3

3 a
2 ^
GO

to • 33
2 • 2
M ‘8

3

o

3 "S

a a g

•BAG

a 3 b
• 3 ft. 3

O _ On

° 3
CO TO .2
d' ^ 3

.2 2 bb

8^ ^
w w

ID
3
O

a _
.2 3
^ 2
^ |
8 bo.2

3 a d

»!•§!
ft ft <d

ID
CD

>N

o

Oh „

g 3 a <d

3

O <D

* 9&s

W 3 (D O

o n <=o^
a u .S 3

|pl

H ft 2

483

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , F<?/. 79

O

I

o

o

0

1

b

1

g

§

§

1

>

o

3

oo

3

O

ffl

s

I

$

o 2

5§

& £
H ^

^ -H

^ oo

D i

o o
.. cl oo
• .« ^
•3 o r-(
co ..
£ o

^ o UZ,
^ Cl >n

> Q ©
c> M

-I

3

•4-J n3
3 3

CO

-I

ffl >>

3

- C
OO <

O v-1
oo O
3

a

„ a

s o o
& fe U

T3

C/3

<D

CO

3

i>

a,
x

<u __
00 on
,3

.3 5-

(N

3

m

oo

6

00 C/5

ON .is

b a
O <D

CO

•&1

$1

SS-g

si 1

w g«i

•2 « «

°T*

^ s

3

<aq*5

§ *

*5) T)

2 £
O N

K

£

cx> a

< .ft 'O
h«2
oo C^ 2
6 O <
oo . 3

Os ,£* ctf

g53S

.§!

n: 6 B
^ y c«

<3 w &
il 2

^ c3

r3 O ^
0 o ^

^ O <+H

•23 DJ O
'Oh O

^ 00 C

>5 • 3

« O c/s

^ oo .22

3
<D

a ^2

S s

.3

ON

o
K Ph

a

a

i- 3
3 £

o oo
o

tl

•s|

* 5

Hi ••

«*■§

£ <%
b

lie

«-3
3 3-2
— a 3

d O M

O ats

.2^2
X) 3
3-0

« a p.

6 o
W3 3
¥"*

.§^0

Is

•2 8-3

•§*•§
•&<? S

>* o W

E*sb

M O

o

Uh

(N

I

1
O 5
o PQ

T3 «
a >»

3
3
O
3
3
3 00

vo

ON

O O
— i O

S

<N

ON

cci

vo d

<A

OO

CO

£0

fN

(N

r^-

Os

«n

ri r~{
3-

»— i

vo

vq

T-l

<N

OO

OO

•O

OO

vo^

rf

«n

•— 1

CO

t>T

r4

CO

ON Tj"

vo vq

cri VO

t** — <

«n

-st' cn

cc^

ecT

C/3

<L>

W3

3

O

a

g

vo o
OO o
^ vd
CO vo

(N T— i

o 8
— o*

m in
°°« ^
co

On

O

O >3
C2

3 2 u

o o a

v s §

" cl
cS.a

; o 3

s a

lo#

^5

§

S3

is I s

S 3 O
■K. ^ TO

1 1-S

NX*

s$ -

3

is

3 S
cr

C/3

T3

3

£

O

«

3

a

1/3

<0

W

<U w

c/3 V-i

a ft

0

a 0

3 Ov

Vh «

O O

•lii

U-I

3

O

JD

s; 0
*•§ £

1-I2

^3

75

0

0

| a
&«S

v? 3

O 3

a «

3^

co ve
"2 *?t to
s 3

1 S-2

U

QO

0

x O

3

C/3 O

TJ -3
3 3

cH g
Q

3

3 +_,
> CD
O 0)

”53 rS3
i- &o

o «

3

T3 3
21

-3 C2

O 2

° 5
3
•3 g

<u ,2

g«

O 4>

a 3 35

H C

3

o c

o

tt«a

3 3
O is
_ 0) —

§6 a

3 &2 3

O 3 S
• 3 a) 3

813

Is

a

3

in

3 3 ’

ft <3

15 T3 +3

Z§iS%

>fc § g

J4 D.'M

SI-8.S

3 ^

«s1

S J3*H

ft M

« ^§2

=3 o S §
UN

a

a

484

A.G.M. 1980-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

fO

I>

On O
00 O

O

O

r-

0

0

0^0
0 r4 0

MOO O

IT) P O

O OO
O

SO

r-;

^ 0
0 q

cn

ro

vd O

OS m

O ’-J,

O

O

t-H

0

ir>

00

00 to h

COS fO

OS OS^CM

ri ^

l/s C^S

O mol

0 to

SO PS
00^

00

m

0^

so iri

m

00^

s

00

■p-

00

hH

os

hH

t>

rf £ to'

rt

00

00

Os

Os

R

•S

.5.

p

o

5h

pq

a

•c
3

g •§ .§■

Is 1/3
to <3 o

1 8 s

^2-j|

rR u P

S

S’Sl &

£ § « o

^ £ u

• on A

• a .&
.2 &

a JS
*C p

o co
09

Q CO
1§
3 §

r&

So

| Sts

•Si g

Kfl Ph

Is

•P CD

apft

11

&o

P3

CO CO

0 2

ii

«S

• <D

■ M
p

c

CO CO

© <0

CD

•P P CO

P S
'o O

■5 -§

p s

o g

Cfi P3 .3

p*PQ <
a c
^ p.p

co ‘-3 p

5 a

aft4

- p.§ 2

O ? !h J2

5 Sou

S-Sg

*3 o

d o
.2 -2
;3 o

P Ph
^ 0-,

s 0

ft3 P
o

p .y

2 p

§ O opq|i
it ^ M © to P

5oo^U
co pq PP 00 5

2 ^
O sh
"jU P
03 'P
o p
PS <D

rg

Qj

^ CD

o 3
£ 3
O £

PS

o

DO

P4

O

P

Cu

P

O

83

88
© ^
o' f"
00

Ph *h

o CD

PP

O O 0>

a)

>•

o

jEs

M)

P

O

Ch

PP

p

CD

2

P

>> (U

.PS Vh

3 <S
a £

to to

P P
00 CO

O O
Ph ft

CO

p

rO S$

*0 e

|-S^

0 « P
^ ^ P

tn ,a »p

13

ft,

5 s

I?

O Ph •
jH O *

33 o -gh S3
°S?§gS
*, S °-g&:(S 3

- °-§^^sl

gao S-J4 p

S'SMOWppP

SojchIh^Ohh

S«S 1 aH-O

o « 13 2 2 2 p

CD

T3

©£ X-^ * -=>

B1 co a> po 00 c/2

O ft

to 8 «
«S 2 p

50 S Q

a

1 ^
CD «. .P

cs S m
pp

POO

°d<$~

S.s S

CO ^

p p p
g, pp

M

&0 *5? >»

.s > 0 «>

So O

• O
2 h a 2

5 S ^ a
< S,Qi2

DO H

P pi

5 3 •§ g

&| so

3 cl'-
Sa°

o a

pq

CO 5h

2 p^
g ° p

a ^ i— c

S-&

,9 2*!

LJ co

ef<«

P T3
O P

O 00

M 8

■h o OS

OWh

o £

co -

8 p 0 -a

2 to .25 cu
ft

g- aPn co

W

to >» •

o DO .

• 3

agS

(D P

Q-g

.s&

X) ^

>5

«HH

o (jj y— I

. O 00
'S ^ c>
§•§!
0^2

-• K ‘-B ?

t,oJa^

P o
2 5

D« P U
GOP”

pi* i-s

l.§|g§&

Si

o < U §

co Ph i-O J -
£3

CD O

a3
x
W

* cu o -h

1 Pi ^ J

(N

485

16A

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT— (Contd.)

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

oH

-5t

o

oo

l>

VO

cn

rn

ON

»rj

O

rn

ra

rn

<d

>

o

J3

toO

3

O

S-l

pq

m

^ I

o

o

S

o

J:

§

§

I

M

3

Cl

83
w g

too

s

3 3§
o 3

3 «J O

£ *5
c*-< 3

on

0) U

rd> ccS

Ph a

co

£1, C4-1

■s °*

CD co
2 <D G

^ irt ’S

" 5 o

-3 <d

GO

too CD

.S3
3 t3

•§ s

co co

T) g

3 o

5 i=

£ 3

> (D
toO'O
3

,T- CS

.g £ ^ 3

.5 £ 43 «*-.
$

’§> g

K 3
<3

co co
« >>
ea 3

^ T3

« .s
60

I

.|)

<5l>

£

r

o

J-H

go

■op
o %

3 3 §

0> 5 l— I

§ s

4 Q

3

!-< >— 1
3 ^
" 3

r-. 3

S 8"

<d

r->

o o

e«

R

3

£

I

*

s?

<3

6

R ^
<3 O

I’S

3* J3

T3 T3

3 °

<» o

.2 c

too. <2
O rQ

3 3

O l“l

« 3
3 °*
<

"d

-£2 §
co co

®* 3

C/5
C/5

Co

"S '3 <2

r <D <

KX

IS UN,
rR X! — .

^ O) *g

_><
3 E
o ^

r>3 rN

kj «

O OS

Vh

(s) S CJ
,.2 2 0
5 3 M O

■S3 eg u.

3 To O
g 3 3,
Cl ^ co
S3 CD 3 5,

£Q

<!U

CO* M

W

K

P

H

Q

Z

W

Ph

X

w

CD

>

o

'W

r3

too

ffl

^ -T5

« 2H?
2 5 §
^ 5 ^ fe
S 3 £

"* — . 3

o<-2
S >

co

<3

GO

,8-

tq

(5

CD

Dh

5 g

0*^3 -g

03 5
5 io
co a

b o

w ui: ux _ ^

aos §6

III

|iN

O 53

“ “I

° C-&
CO cd O p

w a 6
JS 3D
^wofi

W

»n

a

Si

3 3 i 4-
8“ | §
S 3 P_, S

2 °

T3 ^

oo

ON

K

VO

fNi

VO*

r}.

o

o

o

<N

-3 3

a |

c3 3

•— , CD
& >

£3

a> (D %
cB 5-h 2 t3

T, 20 3
O C 3

t*-, — cj Ph

S 5h 'S 3

3 *S 0*.S
« 3 . jfa c3
G. 3 0( -O

W

VO

too

®U o
v 5 o

TJ ~ ' 3

Ph co 3
CD <D rr

* S „S

o -3 5 b

*015

CO S g TO

S 1 feS

g- 3>tt,

w

S :

C3

3

O

T3

CD

2

3

O

3 u
O

co +-?
0) CD
do CD

s §

w

oo

■'S eg
3 H

" -3

2§§

^ 2^
o ^

3 Q £

O H O
co ^

oo 8 ^

3 *3 (D
(D a "r~t

agd,

w

ON

^ o is :

-a co

f S3

«og
33 £ 5

^ -I'g

3 3 ^ S

°-S)i5tS

co ea < ^
«&dS
fl S|.9

GO >

w

2

0

T)

1
u

486

A.G.M . 1980-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

<N

00 (N

s

m

«n

cn os

X

©* 00

io3

vo

m

NO

’—1 «o>

©^

<N rn

NO

rf

ON

vo

*/■?

rf

p

o

u

ffl

II

§

Cl

$

d£j *rj 2
; on X

g a g
a p S
S £ p

■ .a 8 4?

-2 G

W I °

P ’3 >

o^o

P W)

5 c o
‘-3 i§ ~
S '3 *g

aw m
P4

O H
oooo
ON ©
£• co
ON ON

Wj CO

rt

co i-i
*-l C3

*«J ^

g p

60 c^

.a o

TJ

'3 o
w O

g

o o

co

0) t3

fl 2

gJ§

X! ^

w

co 42

p 5:3

- 1

co ■ — -.

"§ X

.32, a
x J?
o ^

cp 3

II?

CO CD £J

_ m a
o
o

o o

co

CD _4
co *0

fl W
8 h
a 5

W

on

in

©

NO

©

T— 1

r4

On

rn

'53-

to

in

©^

c

ON

00

ON

t-H

—

T— C

cn

NO

§

&5

§> 3
•§ o

8^

> to
r> ■•-*

+■> .<*>
|f
2 «
pq 2

§

I

-d A
•P 2

X) w
' c*_, P

|i

X X5
3 ^

’ -m C

CO l-H

"as trt
.2 03
'5h co

O as

O N
<D o3‘

a

<

0 3
ai o3
Vh g

00 O

«+-< j-i
O <D

P^

2 3
!<§
g >

O 8
£ 8

I 1+1 C+i

> 0 0
<t> +j

0 S -

dsj o 6
_r co

13 h !s

g 5-

O ^

<u pq

co ,,

<D -£ O
rX P 0)

w u - a
_ P .2 ,<u
« a-o V)
■=.2 SO

fl M W

| as
lia

1 §j

<U •- •£
£ o3 c3

- 3 a

P G 03

° R-3

co a c
.J>3H
xl C<H
3 rt O

03

W) J u

3 o.a

p *c >
S »rJ

S4- o

a ot
2 M x)
* a>£
g£2

kj <4

U C++ *<.

BO O ^
ch <*3

2 g-p

Pa > .2
oflfc

.A 3
60

o a
o O

w

0

44x1 H
P .2 p
^ M JS

X3 P a>
a co
fl .2 P
o x fp

P 2 -- „

fl^S-2 S
-P rrC ■ ^3

• 0) -M

• P P

CO O

'j 0) 1 — '

2 ^

O <

^ ^ |

*S

^ p C

C 73 n

o « £

.H c/D ^

^ G

^ & o
“ X u

W

P a>
a>
C3

fl .a

HH O
V3

c2

C^J +G rGt

h a

g pq bo o ^

T3
03

O H* ° O.X!
m ccj 3 a> co

S oQE

p a

p p
j-i s

60 .P

. I-- «J

# CO

O §

Uu

Sh

^ |
o fl 5
P P p
o 17

p 1/1 H
03 <d
60 co co

P P Vi

M &l

x ^

w

lOi

Is

§

. ^ CO

X3 P .2
c **“' c3
3 rr, P

3 o.| & ■

g*0

C3

^ c X
00 c3 P
fci c/3
60

P X

W

<W P

CO O

G o
0) <u
G- &s

O "P -c
a i-l

fl

o Q

P s~> C 03
X3 <u G i_
0) X 03 o

> 2 H G

487

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT— (Contd.)

JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCETY, Vol. 79

60

D

O

v>i

pq

<n o
oo

O
Ov

co

«n

xt-

d

O',

O

O

vo

VO

co

D.

<D 'B

0

00

VO

co

os

os

os

in

cn

£ >,

(N

O

x

vo"

<N

<u

£ T2

2 3

es

vo~

u

D

>

o

Jg

60

3

O

M

PP

|l

§ £

R«

s i;
§ s

S H

<4-1 CC

O 60
. G

V> £

C ffl

o

<L>

>

o

o3

G

<u ^

o o

§ 'S

5 oo

60

O XS
aca
>> 15

X5 O

-5 -2

o

TJ -5
13 o

V]

+z <D ^

lp° 9

o £ o -J=

o o o 72

w .S 8

^SSjJaS

O j- cn 4-> (j 2 ^ a

3 ° ^3 O

cti q

S3 &•§ S

o < 00 § «

t3 u

s

o Pm

1«
_ § s §
Jszlll

CD

S 3

0) rj

2 o

o

G O

•au

G

2 o

O- *->

X

O m

S3 £

8 0

S .2 05

w - 2

G § CO
£ 8
0 8 g

£ a^

a> .ts
gUM

iS

PM

488

Sd. / -Salim Ali Sd./-A. N. D. Nanavati Sd./-C. V. Kulkarni As per our report of even date

President, Honorary Secretary , Honorary Treasurer , Sd. /-Habib & Co.,

Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural History Society Chartered Accountants

A.G.M. 1980-81— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

£

W

U

s

£

8

GO

HH

ffi

3

6

%

5

pa

S

o

PQ

I

0

ft

b

§

1

o

OQ

Os

-O

S

o

<4i

co

•$

§

§

?s

cu

•s

I

o

CJ

s

CO

!

Os

^5

R

«r>

o

<o>

m

o

O

m

CM

CM

q

cn

.

rn

vd

O

CM

rd

in

Os

vd

oo

oo

O

r-A

vo

oo

m

CM

C'f

cn^

irT

in

i-H

T— I

o

cn

CM

>> <u
a w

s 9

5 25

its

,U O *J3

^ o

o 00

8 c?

pi o

^ .S3

”* M

3

o

T3 „

w 8

<D W>

a 5

o 13 ^ ^
•a 3 Z *

5 8 »

*5

>>

a

X>

a

o

PQ

T3

3

id

CTj

PQ

>> eo

ttf -4->

^ S

* i

03 «
to O

S w>
60 S
5 d

w .a

o

T3
d

•c d

o S

.d d
•tS o

£ fi *

T3

W

<D

m

3

13

£

,d

Jh

u

t3 2

a ,fl

X 60

Vh

J?

.d O

CO .«

ci •«-*

u

CM

O

o

O

o

(''-

CM

OO

o

•n

CO

d

as

as

vd

VO

cn

CM

in

«n

CM

oo

CM

to

tC

CM*'

r-T

t-H

ri

to

i—i

CM

O o
o O
t-I o
vo q

,-H CM

of

..!

0 PQ

00

as r
^ 3

b ^

1 «

1 £

9

»

o

_ a

a -2
§ i

o S
^ m
d g

a 5

d ^
U £

d rC

o .d

*9

S

«l-H

O O
oo

|g

O 2

a

I

&

a

o

PQ

£*

t>

‘5

o

00

>.

■ffi

cti

*3

1 $
® <*$

2 a

Ui PQ

O c

& a

as s
a 2

§ .52

ft W

?s 13

U

V.

s;

5 t§

C/5

3

13

55

>>

«S

a

o

PQ

>»

o

o

£ w

Q ?s 13

3 s

oo

oi

£

>.

a

a

«

« a

a a

03

£

>>

^3

-o

5

489

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY HELD ON 27TH NOVEMBER 1981 AT 6-00 P.M.

AT COOMARASWAMY HALL, PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM, BOMBAY

The following were present :

1. Mr. G. V. Bedekar

2. Mr. Bansi Mehta

3. Mrs. P. Mukherjee

4. Mr. Humayun Abdulali

5. Mr. M. S. Srinivasan

6. Mrs. Parveen Sisodia

7. Mr. D. J. Panday

8. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati

9. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

10. Dr. Salim Ali

1 1 . Mr. R. E. Hawkins

12. Mr. J. P. Irani

13. Prof. P. V. Bole

14. Mr. S. R. Nayak

15. Mr. M. R. Almeida

16. Mr. Ulhas Rane

17. Mr. Chandrakant Wakankar

18. Mr. Oswald Thail

19. Miss Renee Borges

20. Mr. H. K. Divekar

21. Mrs. D. S. Variava

22. Mr. D. P. Banerjee

23. Mr. V. K. Paralkar

24. Mr. N. D. Mulla

25. Mr. S.D. Bhaumik

26. Mr. R. S. Moral

27. Mr. A. G. Puranik

28. Mr. A. D. Kunte

29. Dr. J. H. Thakkar

30. S/Lt. A. Ranga Rajan

31. Mr. M. B. Sukumar

The President (Dr. Salim Ali) requested Mr.
G. V. Bedekar, Vice President, to take the
Chair, and conduct the proceedings.

Agenda item (1) — Committee’s Report* for
calendar year 1980 (which is the 97th year of
the Society’s existence) : The Chairman reques-
ted the Honarary Secretary (Dr. A. N. D.

Nanavati) to present the report of the Committee
for the year 1980. As copies of the report had
been made available and time had been allowed
for perusal, the report was taken as read and
the Honorary Secretary invited comments on
the report.

Mr. Ulhas Rane pointed out that on page 6
of the report as circulated at the meeting the
word 4 Ratnagiri ’ should be corrected to
‘Yellapur in North Kanara district’, with
reference to the 4 Solar Eclipse ’ study. This
was accepted.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali, drew attention to
the delay experienced by him in receiving old
volumes of the Society’s journal in connection
with the compilation of the book ‘A Century
of Natural History’. He referred to the
absence of the Curator from Bombay, in connec-
tion with seminars, conferences and meetings.
He also repeated his complaint that the compu-
terisation of the bird banding data has not yet
produced specific results. He felt that the
association of Dr. Salim Ali as Principal Investi-
gator of several research projects involved a
loss of opportunity to other researchers.
The Chairman and the Honorary Secretary
explained the correct position regarding the
compilation 4 A Century of Natural History ’,
the Curator’s attendance at important meetings
in Bombay and elsewhere and the bird banding
data — computerisation project. Mrs. Variava
expressed the view that it was due to Dr. Salim
Ali’s association with the projects that they
were supported by government funds and grants
from PL-480 allocations and that the Society
Was fortunate in this respect. She felt that
these projects did not come in the way of other
research projects and any member of the Society

* see page 467.

490

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B N H.S.

was welcome to submit for consideration his
own research project and if it was found feasible,
there would be no difficulty in finding funds
for it. Mr. H. K. Divekar stressed that he
himself had been allotted funds for his two
projects (‘ Bastar buffalo survey ’ and 4 solar
eclipse study’) and that there was no basis
for Mr. Abdulali’s complaint, about opportu-
nities and funds for research projects. Mr.
Bansi Mehta stated that Mr. Abdulali seemed
doubtful about the scientific value of bird
counts being conducted but pointed out that
bird counts were also meant for creating inte-
rest in natural history.

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni (Honorary Treasurer)
clarified that all research proposals put forward
by members were considered carefully and no
feasible project would be turned down. It
was for members to take the initiative in research.

The Chairman then requested the Honorary
Secretary to give a brief account of the activities
of the Society during the year 1981 to date.
The Honorary Secretary stated that the activi-
ties of the Society have increased considerably
in extent as well as depth. He added that
during 1981 the publication of ithe Society’s
journal has been brought to-date, the August
1981 issue having come out on the 28th August
1981. A reprint edition of the Checklist of
the Birds of Maharashtra was brought out
during the year, and copies are available for
sale.

The Honorary Treasurer stated that recently
we have received two major donations from
Chen Kim Loke Foundation under Salim
Ali Nature Conservation Fund and there is no
difficulty whatsoever about funds for research
projects.

The Chairman told the members that the
project reports of Avifauna, Bird Hazard and
Asian Elephant Group, and Vedaranyam
Swamp, are available for perusal of members
at the Society.

The Committee’s report was approved.

Agenda item (2) — The Honorary Treasurer
presented the Balance Sheet and Statement of
Accounts* for the year 1980 and drew atten-
tion to the income and expenditure statement,
showing that the Society has been able to wipe
out the long standing deficit of Rs.75, 717.95
and there was now a small surplus. This
was mainly due to the efforts of Mr. H. K.
Divekar in organising the snake exhibition at
Bombay. Moreover, the Society has been
able to create a Staff Welfare Fund for the staff
and a sizeable sum has been put into the
Gratuity Fund. This was made possible by
certain additional activities and by levy of
administrative charges on projects run by the
Society.

The accounts were approved.

Agenda item (3) — Appointment of auditors
and fixing their remuneration : Dr. C. V.
Kulkarni (Honorary Treasurer), proposed that
Messrs Habib & Co., auditors of the Society
for the past several years be appointed for the
year 1981 on the same remuneration, i.e.,
Rs. 1,000. This was seconded by Dr.
Nanavati (Honorary Secretary) and carried.

Agenda item (4) — Election of Executive Com-
mittee for two years (until the Annual General
Meeting for calendar year 1982) : The Chair-
man stated that five nominations for the
Executive Committee have been received in
addition to the twelve persons recommended
by the Committee and an election will be neces-
sary, under the rules. The names recommen-
ded by the outgoing Committee are (apart
from the Secretary, Govt, of India, Depart-
ment of Science & Technology) :

1 . Mr. Humayun Abdulali

2. Dr. S. R. Amladi, M.D.

3. Prof. P. V. Bole

4. Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chawda

* see page 475.

491

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , fa?/. 79

5. Dr. B. Dasgupta

6. Mr. H. K. Divekar

7. Mr. David Fernandes

8. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

9. Mr. Bansi Mehta

10. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

11. Mr. M. S. Srinivasan

12. Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

The five nominations received are :

1 . Mr. M. R. Almeida

Proposed by Mr. K. S. Gopalakrishnan
Seconded by Mr. S. R. Nabar

2. Mr. K. D. Gokhale
Proposed by Mr. G. L. Kalro
Seconded by H. V. Shenoy

3. Mr. Ulhas Rane

Proposed by M. S. Renee Borges
Seconded by Dr. S. D. Jayawant

4. Dr. A. S. Kothari

Proposed by Dr. M. K. Sabharwal
Seconded by Dr. R. V. Katre

5. Mrs. Phillippa H. Mukherjee
Proposed by Mr. G. Y. Shah
Seconded by Dr. (Mrs.) A. S. Mehta

Agenda item (5) — Other business : Mrs.
Mukherjee stated that some members find the
Society’s journal somewhat too technical and
suggested that there may be several members
prepared to waive receipt of the journal which
may be coupled with reduction in membership
subscription ; and therefore we should consider
having two types of membership, one with the
journal and second without the journal, with
reduced membership rates.

Mrs. D. S. Variava suggested that a circular
should be sent to all members to ask them
whether they are interested in the journal
and if not, whether they would waive their

right to receive the journal for a stated period.
The Honoray Treasurer stated that this matter
had been brought up several times in the past
and has been discussed by the Executive Com-
mittee also. A small reduction in the number
of printed copies of the journal will not result
in appreciable saving, but a reduction in
membership fee may involve an overall loss of
revenue, with no commensurate advantage.
Prof. P. V. Bole stated that when we think of
non-journal membership, we should bear in
mind that outstation members of the Society
are more concerned with the journal and
Hornbill, since they are not able to attend
meetings etc. held in Bombay.

It was decided that the Executive Committee
should consider sending a communication to
all members in India asking them, whether they
wish to continue receiving the journal and
if not, to express their waiver, and the period,
so that arrangements can be made to send the
journals only to those who wish to receive it
and thus save on postage /delivery charges, at
least.

The meeting terminated with a vote of
thanks to the Chair.

In the ballot held in December 1981, the
following were elected to the Executive Com-
mittee.

1 . Mr. Humayun Abdulali

2. Dr. S. R. Amladi, m.d.

3. Prof. P. V. Bole

4. Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chawda

5. Dr. B. Dasgupta

6. Mr. H. K. Divekar

7. Mr. David Fernandes

8. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, ph.D.

9. Mr. Bansi Mehta

10. Mrs. Phillippa H. Mukherjee

11. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, m.d.

12. Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

492

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
Mammals

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in
colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations, Rs. 60.00

(Price to members Rs. 55.00)

The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett. Rs. 10

Birds

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and
many monochrome plates, Rs. 60.00

(Price to members Rs. 55.00)

The Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An
up-to-date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those
of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, 2nd edition. Rs. 100.00

(Price to members Rs. 80.00)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali. 2nd edition Rs. 4.00
Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali & J. D.
Panday. Rs, 3.00

Reptiles

The Book of Indians Reptiles By J. C. Daniel (in press )

Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in Gujarati and Marathi. Rs. 5.00

Plants

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and
monochrome plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). Rs. 40.00

(Price to members Rs. 35)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many
coloured and monochrome plates. 2nd edition. Rs. 100 00

(Price to members Rs . 75)

Grasses of Western India, by Toby & Patr.'eia Hodd. With 64 monochrome plates.

Rs. 50.00

(Price to members Rs. 37.50)

Miscellaneous

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History Edited by R. E. Hawkins (it press)

A Century of Natural History Edited bv J. C. Daniel (in press)

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) Kannada. Rs. 0.62

2. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and

Marathi. Rs. 0.80

3. Our Animals (with 8 coloured, plates) in English, Gujarati

and Hindi. Rs. 1.25

Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) ill English Rs. 7.50

(Price to members Rs. 5)

.Back numbers of the Society's Journal. Rates on application.

The society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal , from members
who may not wish to preserve them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Entrance Fees :

Ordinary and Life Members
Student Members . . .

Subscription :

(a) Ordinary individual Members . . '

(b) Ordinary Corporate Members . . . .

(cj Ordinary Members resident outside India
Life Members . . . .

. (Rs. 250 after 20 years)

Compound Corporate Members . . . . . . . . . . Rs. 1500

Student Members (without Journal) .. ... .. .. Rs. 15

Annual subscription to Journal Rs. 135

Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders on their
Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in
each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £6.50 should be paid annually to the Society's
London Bankers: — The Grindlavs Bank Ltd.. 13, St. James’s Sq., London SW1Y 4LF. Account
No. 1101091.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the period
from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

Rs.

25

Rs.

10

Rs.

60

Rs.

125

Rs.

95

Rs.

800

CONTENTS

Territorial behaviour of the Indian Blackbuck {Antilope cervicapra , Linnaeus, 1758) in the
Velavadar National Park, Gujarat. By M. K. Ranjitsinh.

Some post-monsoon birds observed in central Nepal. By Paul Hendricks

Biology and morphology of immature stages of Bracon brevicomis (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)
An important biological control agent . of the Black-headed caterpillar pest of
coconut. By V. V. Sudheendrakumar, U. V. K. Mohamed, T. C. Narendran and
U. C. Abdurahiman . . . . . . , . . . .

. .

The aquatic and marshland flora of Kheri District, Uttar Pradesh. By K. K. Singh '

and R. P. S. Tomar . . . . . . . . . . . .

Restocking mugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris (Lesson) in Andhra Pradesh : evaluation
of a pilot release. By B. C. Choudhury and H. R. Bustard . .

Studies on the estuarine Odonata from 24 Parganas District of West Bengal, with A
note on the reproductive behaviour^ in Urothemis signata signata (Rambur) (Odonata :
Insecta). By M. Prasad and S. K. Ghosh . . . .

Distribution, feeding habits and burrowing patterns of Tatera indica cuvieri (Waterhouse).
By C. M. George, P. J. Joy and G. C. Abraham . .

Recent changes to the Burmese mammal list. By G. W. H. Davison

Material to the Flora of Mahabaleshwar-3. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida

Some aspects of the reproductive biology of the Liontail Macaque — Macaca silemis
(Linn.) — A zoo study. By L. S. Ramaswami, G. U. Kurup and B. A. Gadgil

Taxonomic significance of Spermatheca in some Indian Grasshoppers (Orthoptera :
Ucrididae). By Kharibam Meinodas, Shaikh Adam Shafee and Mohammad Kamil Usmani . .

A Catalogue of the Birds in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society— 25.
By Humayun Abdulali. . .

New Descriptions

Reviews

Miscellaneous Notes

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the Year 1980-81

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting . .

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY K. G. JOHN AT TFIE DIOCESAN PRESS, 10, CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS.

EDITORS : J. C. DANIEL, P. V. BOLE & A. N. D. NANAVATI

241

247

254

261

275

290

296

302

307

324

331

336

361

387

399

466

475

490

C’3161.

Vol. 79, No. 3

Editors'. J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati
DECEMBER 1982 Rs. 45

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observ-
ing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publication to other
journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be
submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only,
and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be underlined.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identifica-
tion has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collect-
ed.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast.
Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20 x 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on
glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably
on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alpha-
betically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or
periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type),
thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. 7. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 55 ( 2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers
should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s
name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise,

clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge.
In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed
among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multi-
ples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed
of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage
and packing.

11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a mem-
ber’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hornbill House, Editors.

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society.

VOLUME 79, NO. 3 : DECEMBER 1982

Date of Publication: 28-3-1983

CONTENTS

Page

Status of the Grey Wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes Sykes) in India — A preliminary

survey. By S. P. Shahi. (With three plates & two text-figures). 493

Foraging behaviour and interactions of Whiteheaded Babblers Turdoides affinis
WITH OTHER species. By A. J. T. Johnsingh, K. Paramanandham, and S. Murali.

(With three text-figures ) . „ 503

Studies on the grasses of Kheri District, Uttar Pradesh. By K. K. Singh. . . 515

Predatory behaviour of an Assassin Spider, Chorizopes sp. (araneidae), and the

defensive behaviour of its prey. By William G. Eberhard . . 522

Studies on the spawning ecology of Kumaun mahseer Tor tor (Hamilton)

and Tor putitora (Hamilton). By S. S. Pathani. (With a text- figure ) .. 525

The Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus ) : A review. By Romulus Whitaker and D. Basu.

(With six plates and a text- figure) . . 531

Breeding habits and associated phenomenon in some Indian bats. Part VII —
Hipposideros speoris (Schneider) (Hipposideridae) from Chandrapur, Maha-
rashtra. By A. Gopalakrishna and Deepa Bhatia . . 549

First records of O donates (/Irtiiropodai Insecta) from the Silent Valley
and New Amarambalam Reserved Forests. By K. Ramachandra Rao and
A. R. Lahiri .. 557

Notes on the occurrence of some plants of West Bengal. By J. K. Sikdar . . 563

Some interesting aspects of the Avifauna of the Point Calimere Sanctuary,

Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu. By R. Sugathan . . 567

Taxonomic significance of Ovipositor in some Indian Grasshoppers (Orthop-
tera: Acrididae). By M. Kamil Usmani and S. Adam Shafee. (With two
plates and a text-figure). .. 576

The Birds of Ranganathittu. By S. G. Neginhal. (With two plates). .. 581

Material for the Flora of Mahabaleshwar — 4. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida 594

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History

Society — 26. By Humayun Abdulali . . 607

Geographic variation in the Barasingha or Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli).

By Colin P. Groves. (With five plates & four text-figures). .. 620

New Descriptions:

A new species of Oligodon from the Palni Hills, South India (Serpentes:

Colubridae). By Romulus Whitaker and Shekar Dattatri. (With a plate). .. 630

On a new genus and a new species of Eremninae (Curculionidae: Coleoptera).

By H. R. Pajni and C. S. Sidhu. (With two text-figures) . . . 632

Record of Polypedilum Kieffer (Diptera: Chironomidae) in Bhutan and India
with A new species from India. By D. K. Guha and P. K. Chaudhuri {With
seven text-figures ). .. 635

On a new species of the genus Irdex Burr (Dermaptera: Labhdae) from

Sri Lanka. By G. K. Srivastava. {With six text-figures) . . 638

A new species of Anemone L. Ranunculaceae from Tehri District (Garhwal)

in India. By A. K. Goel and U. C. Bhattacharyya. {With seven text-figures) . . 641

New Taxa of Ophiorrhiza L. (Rubiaceae). By D. B. Deb and D. C. Mondal. {With

two text-figures) . . 644

Indigofera tirunelvelica — A new species from Tamil Nadu, S. India. By M.

Sanjappa. {With nine text-figures). .. 647

A new species of Elaphoglossum from India. By Anjali Biswas and S. R. Ghosh.

{With five text-figures) . . 650

Microstegium borianum sp. nov. — (Poaceae) — A new species from India.

By P. R. Sur. {With a text-figure). . . 652

Silentvalleya — A new genus of Poaceae from Kerala, India. By V. J. Nair,

P. V. Sreekumar, E. Vajravelu and P. Bhargavan. {With eleven text-figures) 654

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Intra-generic troop formation in Presbytis genera in sanctuaries of Tamil
Nadu. By J. Mangalaraj Johnson (p. 658); 2. The curious death of a panther. By
Humayun Abdulali (p. 659); 3. Note on the autopsy and causes of death of a panther. By
S. M. Niphadkar, V. S. Narsapur, and V. S. Deshpande (p. 661); 4. Transportation of
young by ratel {Mellivora capensis). By M. K. Ranjitsinh (p. 661); 5. Burrowing patterns
of sand-coloured rat, Rattus gleadowi. {With a text-figure). By Ranjan Advani and A. P.
Jain (p. 662); 6. An instance of interspecific aggression between chital {Axis axis Erxleben)
and blackbuck {Antilope cervicapra Linnaeus) at Point Calimere Sanctuary. By S. Faizi
(p. 664) ; 7. A sighting of a large dhole pack in Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu. By S.
Ramanathan (p. 665).

Birds: 8. Pinkfooted Shearwater [Procellaria carneipes (Gould)] in India. By Humayun
Abdulali and Robert Grubh (p. 666); 9. The Pintail {Anas acuta Linn.) — An addition to the
list of birds occurring in Kerala. By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 667); 10. Flamingos breeding
in Thol Lake Sanctuary near Ahmedabad. By P. S. Thakker (p. 668); 11. Occurrence of
certain Waders in Sri Lanka. By T. W. Hoffmann (p. 668); 12. The Chestnut-headed Bee-
eater {Merops leschenaulti Vieillot) in Gujarat. By S. G. Monga (p. 669); 13. Sunbirds
fostering fledglings of the Plaintive Cuckoos. By Erach K. Bharucha (p. 669); 14. Magpie-
Robin feeding on Geckoes. By Stephen Sumithran (p. 671); 15. Occurrence of forest Wagtail
{Motacilla indica Gmelin) in Nagzira Sanctuary, Bhandara District (Maharashtra). By Nitin
Jamdar (p. 671); 16. Birds in 650-1100 mm rainfall Zone of Rajasthan. By Ranjan Advani
(p. 672); 17. Dispersal of sandalwood {Santalum album) by birds in Tamilnadu. By J. Man-
galaraj Johnson (p. 672).

Reptiles: 18. Rediscovery of the forest Cane Turtle, Heosemys {Geoemyda) silvatica (Repti-
lia, Testudinata, Emydidae) from Chalakudy forests in Kerala. By J. Vijaya (p. 676); 19.
Behaviour of the male gharial during the nesting and post-hatching period. By S. Maharana
and H. R. Bustard (p. 677) ; 20. Growth and behaviour of a blind gharial Gavialis gange-
ticus (Gmelin). {With a text-figure). By L. A. K. Singh and H. R. Bustard (p. 681); 21

Trap used for catching a mugger ( Crocodylus palustris) from nature. (With three text-
figures). By L. A. K. Singh (p. 684); 22. Sexing and sex ratios of gharial ( Gavialis gange-
ticus ) raised in captivity. (With a plate and a text-figure). By Shyam Lai and D. Basu
(p. 688); 23. Gecko feeding on a mouse. By Stephen Sumithran (p. 691); 24. A new record
of Salmo trutta fario Linn, from Gobindsagar reservoir. By V. K. Sharma and Y. Rama
Rao (p. 692).

Fishes: 25. Recent records of Garhwal Mahseer (Tor putitora) with a note on its present
status. (With a text-figure). By Prakash Nautiyal and M. S. Lai (p. 693); 26. Extension of
range of Enneapterygius obtusirostre, with notes on its ecology. (With two text-figures) . By
N. A. V. Prasad Reddy and C. Uma Devi (p. 696) ; 27. On a freak of Istiblennius striatoma -
culatus. By N. A. V. Prasad Reddy and C. Uma Devi (p. 698).

Insects: 28. On the occurrence of Cryptotermes bengalensis Snyder (Isoptera: Kalotermi-
tidae) in Gujarat, India. By R. K. Thakur and N. S. Rathore (p. 699) ; 29. Incidence of
mass attraction of Cydnus indicus Westw. (Heteroptera — Pentatomidae) to light. By S. C.
Dhiman (p. 700); 30. A note on the oviposition of Sphaerodema rusticum (Fabr.) (Hemip-
tera). By Tej Prakash Vyas and (Mrs.) Madhu Vyas (p. 700); 31. New record of Paurop-
sylla depressa Crawf. on Ficus lucescens Blume. By S. C. Dhiman and Vinay Kumar (p.
701); 32. Butterflies from Andaman Islands with some new records. B> N. C. Chaturvedi
(p. 702).

Other Invertebrates: 33. Extension of range of the river-crab — Potamon (Potamon)
atkinsonianum Woodmason (Brachyura: Cyclometopa: Potamonidae) — to Poonch Valley
(Jammu and Kashmir State). By Surendra Nath (p. 705); 34. Cannibalism in the garden
snail Macrochlamys indica Godwin-Austen (Stylommatophora : Mollusca). By S. K. Raut
and K. C. Ghose (p. 706).

Botany: 35. Two new combinations under Acacia nilotica (Benth.) Brenan (Mimosaceae).
By E. Vajravelu and S. Y. Kamble (p. 707) ; 36. Two interesting plant records from
Meghalaya. (With two text-figures). By K. Haridasan, Y. Kumar and R. R. Rao (p. 708);
37. A name change for Coleus vettiveroides Jacob (Lamiaceae). By N. P. Singh and B. D.
Sharma (p. 712); 38. Caesalpinia hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink, comb. nov. — A super-
fluous name. By Tenjarla C. S. Sastry and G. B. Kale (p. 713); 39. Record of Datura
ferox L. from Maharashtra. By S. Y. Kamble, Anand Kumar and S. G. Pradhan (p. 714);

40. Heterosmilax polyandra (Liliaceae) : A rare endemic to India. By C. R. Das (p. 715);

41. Interesting distributional records of five Taxa of Cyperaceae. By H. B. Naithani (p. 715);

42. The rare and threatened fern Adiantum soboliferum Wall, ex Hook. — A new find for
Eastern India. By S. R. Ghosh (p. 716); 43. On the occurrence of Selaginella tamarscina
(P. Beauv.) Spring var. pulvinata (Wall, ex Hook, et Grev.) Alston in India and Burma.

By R. D. Dixit (p. 717).

Minutes of the Extraordinary General Body Meeting of the

Bombay Natural History Society 719

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the Year 1981-82 724

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society 732

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting 746

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1982 DECEMBER Vol. 79 No. 3

STATUS OF THE GREY WOLF {CAN IS LUPUS
PALL1PES SYKES) IN INDIA — A PRELIMINARY

SURVEY1

S. P. Shahi2

{With three plates & two text-figures )

In India, grey wolf is recognised as an ‘Endangered Species’. Its destruction is also
illegal. While other subspecies are in Appendix II, the grey wolf of the Indian sub-
continent is in App. 1 of CITES. Information on the species, is, however, scanty. An
attempt has been made in this paper to identify its current distribution. The habitat;
ranges from the deserts of the Rann of Cutch in the west (Gujarat) with 300 mm
rainfall to areas in the east (Bihar and Orissa) having approx. 1500 mm rainfall. In
the south wolves occur in areas characterised by low, 400 mm, precipitation (Karnataka
and Andhra), scrub forests of Rajasthan in the north with 300mm rains have also
wolves. Wolves subsist mainly on sheep and goat in desert and dry areas and prey
upon hare, gazelle and blackbuck in the scrub forests of Rajasthan and ravined
areas of Bihar and Orissa. Killings of humans (children) have been recorded to
emphasise the uigent necessity for a deeper probe into the wolf’s aberrant behaviour.
A study of the Wolf’s ecology, its status and population dynamics has been recom-
mended as a prelude to suitable conservation measures for its protection.

Introduction

Wolves in India do not live in tree forests,
but in open plains with occasional hills. In
the course of the past fifty years substantive
areas of these open plains have been used for

1 Accepted June 1982.

2 P. O. Hehal, Ranchi 834 005, Bihar.

human needs in the form of fresh villages,
marginal cultivation and the wolf habitat has
been systematically depleted. The table gives
the names of the States in the Indian Union
and the administrative districts, currently
known to contain wolves (C. /. pallipes).

An outline map of India showing known
wolf habitats with hatchings, and the States
with a number in brackets accompanies this

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Table

SI. Wolf holding
No. States in che
Indian Union

Localities (Civil districts)

Combined popu-
lation of Sheep
and goats (num-
bers)

1.

Andhra Pradesh

Anantapur, Karimnagar, Warangal and Mahboobnagar

8,47,544

2.

Bihar

Hazaribagh, Palamau and Dalbhum

10,47,229

3.

Gujarat

Little Rann of Cutch, Bhavnagar, Junagadh, Rajkot and
Amreli

24,73,768

4.

Karnataka

Bidar, Gulbarga, Bellary, Raichur, Dharwar, Bijapur,
Chitradurga and Mandya

39,44,434

5.

Madhya

Rajnandgaon, Guna, Shivpuri, Sehore, Bhind and

Pradesh

Morena

5,54,277

6.

Maharashtra

Sholapur, Osmanabad, Bir, Bhandara and Wardha

Not available

7.

Orissa

Dhenkanal

2,76,761

8.

Rajasthan

Barmer, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Nagor, Bikrampur, Sikar,
Jhunjhunu, Churn, Jalori, Pali and Bikaner

1,29,40,142

paper. The number in brackets following the
name of a State in the text, refers to the cor-
responding number on the map.

Rajasthan (8) has the highest number of
sheep and goats. On either side of the com-
mon border of Andhra Pradesh (1) and Kar-
nataka (4) wolves occur, and this wolf habitat
may be regarded as one ecological unit.
Together they contain the second largest sheep
and goat population. There seems to be some
correlation between the population of sheep and
goat and the spread of wolf habitats. Rajasthan’s
wolf habitat is the largest with largest sheep
and goat population. Andhra Pradesh (1) and
Karnataka (4) together with their second
largest population of sheep and goats have the
second largest wolf habitat all in areas of
scanty rainfall. They are marked by high tem-
peratures and wind velocity, with scanty and
erratic rainfall rendering the area perennially
drought prone; 389 mm to 520 mm annual
precipitation, high solar radiation exceeding
450 cal/cm per day; and dessicating winds
blowing from April to August (12 to 16 km/h
velocity) resulting in a high annual potential

evapotranspiration of 1857 mm. Manifestation
of desertification is reflected in the formation
of rocky surfaces (fit for wolf dens) sand-
deflation and dune formation. Wolves in some
of these areas have of late behaved aberrantly
by lifting children (see below). In Rajas-
than too, where wolf habitat forms part of the
Thar desert, it is characterised by sand dunes
(fixed as well as shifting), interspersed with
these dunes is the rocky piedmont plateaus
and saline barren flats. I believe that Rajas-
than (8), Karnataka (4), Andhra Pradesh (1),
and Gujarat (3) — the Little Rann of Cutch
again a very dry and saline desert area with
less than 300 mm rainfall — hold the largest
wolf population in the country. Such a pre-
sumption has, however, to be confirmed by
intensive survey. In these areas, while agricul-
ture sustains 80% of the population, only 10%
of the net sown area is irrigated and rural
economy is largely pastoral.

Taxonomy

The Indian wolf is, indeed, a somewhat
smaller and slighter animal than the Euro-

494

STATUS OF THE GREY WOLF

495

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

pean species, the average difference in the
length of the two animals being about 13 cm.
Also, the hair is rather shorter and there is
little or no under-fur; while the colour is gene-
rally rather more inclined to brown than in
the common wolf. The absence of under-fur
in the Indian wolf might, we think, be well
explained by the hotter climate in which it
dwells; but inspite of this, taxonomists are
probably right in regarding it as a distinct
species, under the name of the Canis pallipes.
(This paper does not deal with the larger
Tibetan Wolves distinguished by their long
soft hair found in the snowy ranges in Ladak
and Kashmir, Western Himalayas; described
as a distinct species Canis laniger or chanco.)

Mendelssohn (1979) considers all the lar-
ger wolves in Israel as C. /. pallipes. He con-
siders the condylobasal length of the skull
(CBL) from the anterior extremity of the
premaxillary to the rear extremity of the
occipital condylus as the most reliable indica-
tor of size. The mean CBL of eight male skulls
in the British Museum is 212 mm with a
range of 201-222 mm, and of three females,
the mean is 205 mm within the range 198-214
mm (Mendelssohn). He found that the mea-
surements of the wolves of Israel correspond
with the above measurements.

Pocock, R. (1939) provides measurements
(CBL) of eight skulls, six male and two
female of Canis lupus pallipes of India. These
are:

Name of locality and sex

Condylobasal
length in mm

Rajasthan (8) male (adult)

212 mm

Rajasthan „ male (adult)

209 mm

Rajasthan „ female (adult)

202 mm

Rajasthan „ female (adult)

198 mm

Gujarat (3) male (adult)

205 mm

Hazaribagh (2) male (adult)

207 mm

(Bihar)

Hazaribagh „ male (adult)

204 mm

Hazaribagh „ male (adult)

201 mm

In addition, I took the CBL measurements of
seven skulls available in the collection of the
Bombay Natural History Society. These are
recorded below:

Uttar Pradesh (9) male 215 mm

Kashmir 230 mm

(This sample is of C. chanco from the North-
West Himalayas and the CBL is much larger;
this subspecies is not discussed in this paper.)

Punjab 208 mm

(This example is from a State whence the
wolf is now extinct.)

Madhya Pradesh (5) 212 mm

Uttar Pradesh (9) female 179 mm

Uttar Pradesh (9) female 178 mm

Gangtok (Sikkim) 178 mm

According to authoritative sources wolves do
not range into the Himalayas, and a skull
from Sikkim — smallest Himalayan State of the
Indian Union between Nepal and Bhutan — is
an exception. The skull was collected in 1915
by the Bombay Natural History Society.

Incidentally wolf is not found westward of
the Indus or in Sri Lanka. That island seems
indeed to enjoy a happy immunity from the
presence of several of the larger Indian car-
nivores as it has neither wolves, wild dogs,
hyenas, nor tigers.

Two skulls of Hazaribagh wolves destroy-
ed for the suspected killing of children in
1981 (see page ) have CBLs of 210 and
215 mm. Perhaps these are of unusually large
males. The mean CBL of eight male skulls,
including the latest two from Hazaribagh is
209 mm with a range of 201-215 mm (ex-
cluding the chanco and Sikkim samples), and
of the four females the mean is 189 mm with
a range of 178-202 mm. Perhaps the Indian
pallipes is slightly smaller to its Israeli counter-
part though such a deduction with only a few
skull samples may not be warranted.

Broadly, wolves in India, occur in two

496

STATUS OF THE GREY WOLF

distinct ecosystems. (A) The desert, semi-
desert, and arid areas, namely those in Rajas-
than (8), Gujarat (3), Karnataka (4) and
Andhra Pradesh (l), and (B) Bihar (Haza-
ribagh, Palamau and Singhbhum) and Orissa
representing the second ecological unit. The
latter is characterised by higher rainfall
(approx. 1500 mm) and open hilly degraded
ravined forests of Sal ( Shorea robusta).

The mean CBL of five male skulls (female
skulls not available) from Hazaribagh is 207
mm and the mean of three male skulls from
the desert and semi-desert areas is 208 mm.
It cannot therefore be said that wolves of
higher rainfall areas are either larger or
smaller. Mendelssohn conclusively proves that
Mediterranean wolves with over 400 mm rain
are larger than those from areas with lesser
rains in Israel. Such does not appear to be
the case with Indian wolves.

Pelage: In general Cams lupus have sandy,
fawn coat stippled with black. Pelt colour
varies more in the wolf than in almost any
other species (Mech). There is one skin in
the collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society from the State of Bihar, which is
rufous in colour — rather an uncommon
colour for pallipes in India.

Food

Whether it be the desert and arid areas like
Rajasthan (8), Gujarat (3), Karnataka (4)
or the higher rainfall areas of Bihar (2) or
Orissa (7), wolves prey mainly on sheep and
goat of the villagers. In blackbuck sanctuaries
in Rajasthan (8) and Karnataka (4) how-
ever, where grassland is protected from cattle
grazing, and the habitat has progressively im-
proved for the antilopes, not only very rare
and endangered Great Indian Bustard
( Choriotis nigriceps) but also the wolf Canis

73

w

Ph

s

73

<

£

0

73

73

sj

Z

<

U

z

1
ffl

73

H

Z

W

S

w

H

<1

H

73

a

D

CQ

<

H

g - ^
6 §S

xJ pj

•g H 3

o

S T3 (fl tfl
^ zi d)

’5 §

- B S3 S?3
° 3 2 ~ 'S

i HI

S GO
Cu t-*

oo .r1

° %

GO g

3 £
a x

I

co

° 3

6 a
!z °

^ o

V)

a

u XI

'E

c a
a u
* oo

<4-1 C

° |
6 «s

2 i

o

u

O0 2

o X

'Hi U)
| 'H

1/5 GO

<4-1 C

° 3

o

Z §

c»

O

"E

GO

(Z3

60

c

•S3

<4—1

;s

X

o

3

6

H

£

Q

CJ

c3 aj

O 'B,

H s

497

Percentage 30 43.10 3.10 7.70 13.80 2.30

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

lupus pallipes co-habit with the blackbuck
( Antilope cervicapra). The blackbuck, the
bustard and wolf prefer open scrub areas and
in sanctuaries of such biotic conditions, it is
suspected wolves also prey upon young fawns
of antilopes. The Desert National Park of
Rajasthan (8) and the Ranibennur sanctuary
in Karnataka (4) are examples. 100 wolf
faecal samples examined in Bihar, however,
indicated that nearly 70% of them contained
the hair of goats and pigs and even their
hoofs. Some contained feathers of birds, teeth
of rats, and even claws of birds.

Indian wolves, found in small parties of half-
a-dozen or so, are never known to collect in
large packs. This may be explained by the
fact that preying on domestic goats, pigs, and
sheep, is less difficult and large packs are not
needed. I have not seen more than three
wolves together in the Mahuadanr valley,
Bihar (2) though evidence indicated that
there were eleven of them in the valley
at the time (1973-74). Once while I was
watching from a hide near a tethered
goat, two young animals made their appear-
ance at dusk; one of them came straight to
the bait while the other stood some distance
away. The first wolf put its muzzle near the
goat’s mouth, as if sizing up its prey, then
caught it by the scruff of its neck and des-
patched it with one powerful snap of its jaws.
It then severed the hoof from its iron fetters
and disappeared into the dark with its com-
panion. The next evening the same (?) two
young wolves appeared at dusk, but this time
remained waiting till a larger male arrived to
make the kill. The story was repeated on the
subsequent night — the three wolves appear-
ed, but the young animals waited on the side
as the larger male made the kill. There is,
however, a recent case of five wolves seen
together (see below).

Mendelssohn (1979) records wolves often
scavenging on livestock carcasses and at gar-
bage dumps. No observation in India on this
point exists, except that unclaimed human
bodies after postmortem that are buried in a
slipshod manner near a morgue in the town
of Hazaribagh, are eaten by wolves, besides
jackals, hyenas, and dogs. Five wolves were
seen by spotlight on the night of 4/5 June
1981 in this burial ground at 02.00 hrs.

Human Interactions

According to Pulliainen (1966) authentic
cases of wolves stalking and killing people
have occurred in Finland and Russia within
recent years (Mech). In the proceedings of
the Wolf Symposium in Wilmington N.C. (23-
24 May 1975), Pulliainen’s paper, however
records differently “no evidence showing that
wolves are dangerous to human beings has
been obtained in Finland during this century”.
The general opinion in Europe and America
appears to be that, except attacks by rabid
wolves there is no basis for the belief that
healthy wolves are any danger to human
beings.

Blanford (fauna of British india, 1891)
records “In the Dumoh district of the Central
Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh) an old
she-wolf and a full-grown cub haunted a patch
of bushes and grass near a village standing
on the slope of a hill, down which ran the
main street, where children were always at
play. The smaller wolf hid amongst bushes
between the village and the bottom of the hill,
whilst the larger animal went round to the
top, and, watching its opportunity, ran down
the street, carrying off a child on the way.
At first the people used to pursue, and some-
times made the marauder drop his prey; but
in that case the companion wolf usually suc-

498

STATUS OF THE GREY WOLF

ceeded in carrying off another of the children
in the confusion, whilst the child first seized
was generally so injured as to be beyond
recovery”.

The District Gazetteer of Hazaribagh
(Lister, E. 1917) records “Wolves for about
four years from 1910 to 1914 killed a large
number of human beings near Champaran; but
a special reward of Rs. 50/- (fifty) led to the
hunting out of the cubs, and the evil has now
ceased. They are found over the whole of
the district and take considerable toll of the
goats. “The statistics relating to human deaths
caused by wolves in Hazaribagh as given in
the Gazetteer is:

Year

No. of Humans Killed

1910

3

1911

44

1912

36

1913

21

1914

8

1915

3

A reward of Rs. 50/- was paid for each wolf
killed until the end of March 1915 as against
Rs. 25/- for a tiger.

Pocock, R. (1939) reports: “At Hazari-
bagh, as reported by Major O. A. Smith, the
wolves were notorious for their man-killing
propensities. Several packs terrorised the
neighbourhood, and became such a curse that
the Indian Government offered rewards for
their slaughter. They hunted by day in pairs
or small packs, displaying deadly cunning and
resource, and pulling down women and
children and sometimes men. The members of
a pack wandered over a wide area, assembling
at fairly regular intervals at particular spots.

Wolves of Hazaribagh shot into notoriety
recently when a pack of five or six operated
within an area of about seven sq. km. around

the district town of Hazaribagh. In eight
months, between February 1981 and August
1981, thirteen children were eaten away, ail
between 4 to 10 years of age and another 13
had close calls by wolves.

On 10-viii-1981 a wolf mauled a boy at
dawn but he escaped death as some adults
happened to be nearby and scared the animal
away. Mention has been made earlier in the
text of five wolves seen at the burial ground
on the night of 4/5 June 1981 at 02.00 hrs.
One of this was shot dead. Prior to this on
15th February 1980 at dusk, an animal entered
a hamlet and in the process of attacking a boy
attracted the attention of several elders who
surrounded the intruder and killed it with
wooden poles. Hamlets in this area are fenced
with brushwood and the animal could not
escape. One of the skulls in my possession
(CBL 210 mm) is of a wolf that had been
similarly surrounded by villagers on 20th
August 1981 and done to death when it attack-
ed a child of 4 years in the fenced area of
the hamlet. Another wolf shot in the ravined
scrub forests — this was not destroyed while
attempting to kill a human — has a CBL of
215 mm was believed to be of the large alpha
male that was reputed to be the killer.
Villagers breathed a sigh of relief and hoped
this was the end of the menace. An event
that followed belied this.

On the 21st of December 1981 again at
dusk, in a hamlet 6 km from the burial ground,
an animal lifted a boy at dusk and ran away.
The Boy’s mother and uncle ran towards the
animal shouting. There was another group of
hamlet a little further but in the same direc-
tion in which the animal had run with the
boy in its grasp. Finding men chasing him
from both sides, the animal dropped the boy
and leaped into the ravined scrub forests near
by. I visited the spot on the 25th. There were

499

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

no pugmarks on the hard ground. I also visit-
ed the hospital in Hazaribagh town in which
the boy was being treated. This was the fifth
day after the incidence. The photographs
show the injury in the region of the boy’s loin.
The beast had lifted the boy, and its canines
pierced the stomach above the umbilicus in
front and near the spine on the back on the
left flank. The distance along the curvature of
the canine holes on either side measured 28
cm. The boy aged 7 years was 3 '5" in height
and weighed 14.5 kg. Wolves or wild dogs
hold their prey with their jaws and teeth. The
tenacity of hold is their mainstay in attack.
It has been made possible in the Canidae by

a lengthening of the jaw bones. On the other-
hand in case of the cats the canines are sup-
ported on short powerful jaws. This campa-
rative shortness of the jaws gives cats that
flatness of features which contrasts so mark-
edly with the long snouts of the Canids. In
this case the canines driven into the body and
measuring 28 cm apart (front and back)
could perhaps be only by a Canid with long
jaws and not by a leopard with comparatively
shorter jaws. No weight of any wolf killed in
Hazaribagh (four were killed in 1981) was
available. Pocock (1939) provides the follow-
ing weights of three Hazaribagh C. /. pallipes.

500

I, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate I

Shahi: Canis lupus pallipes

mmmm

I HI '

Hi H

The canine marks on the ventral (up) and dorsal side of a boy mauled by a wolf.
Over the curve the distance measures 28 cm. Canids have long jaws, hence this distance.
Leopard will not leave marks 28 cm distance.

(Photos: S. P. Shahi )

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate If

Shahi: Canis lupus pallipes

Pug mark of a wolf, taken in the rains after it had dropped a child it had lifted.
The non-retractile claws are clearly visible on the wet ground.

(Photo: S . P. Shahi )

I

J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc. 79

Shahi: Canis lupus pallipes

Plate III

■ -

■

WKSSSSkSSkS^^

I pi /' .v

■>? ' -v. f :

mmm

I j||||

A wolf sizes up the prey before throttling it.
(Photo: S. P. Shahi )

STATUS OF THE GREY WOLF

(a) Adult Male 42 lb.

(b) Adult Male 45.75 lb.

(c) Adult Female 36 lb.

The average weight of an adult male works
out to 19.75 kg. Probably a 20 kg wolf could
not carry a boy of 14.5 kg weight for a long
distance and that too when chased, and so
dropped the boy about 200 metres away.

3500 km down south of Hazaribagh, in a
altogether different ecological niche in the
State of Andhra Pradesh (1) about the same
time the wolves had terrorised villagers in
Hazaribagh; a pack of wolves consisting of
one male, two adult females, two semi-adults
and three cubs operated in an area 30 km
long and 25 km wide. Nine children were
killed, another twelve injured between Octo-
ber 1980 and March 1981. The victims were
in the age of 8-12. It was not possible for
me to visit the area but the report of the
local Forest Officer reads: “The modus

opercmdi shows that the attacking wolf was
generally hiding in a bush or amidst crops
in agriculture fields near the villages and
pounced upon the unsuspecting children
coming near them. They were generally attack-
ed from behind. The victim was pushed down
and the animal bit the neck and skull of the
children to kill them. The skull was opened
first and brain eaten by the animal, and if
sufficient time was available, the animal ate
other parts of the body. Children when ac-
companied by their elders, were not attacked.
It was found that all the adult members
of the pack of wolves, were killers of children.
The method adopted by the wolves, and their
timings (either dusk or dawn) for killing
children was the same both in Bihar (2),
Hazaribagh, and Andhra Pradesh (1) two
widely separated States of India.

All wolf-holding States are not menaced by
such aberrant behaviour. In Rajasthan (8)

killings of humans are an exception. So is the
case in Melekote Wolf Sanctuary in Karna-
taka (4), which I visited in April 1981. The
countryside is a picture of barren and denud-
ed hills with eucalyptus plantations in the folds
of hill ranges. In two villages, Aralkare and
Kattahali, there are 10,000 sheep and goats.
Some 250 of these are taken away by wolves
every year. A pair had, about the time of my
visit invaded a pen and slaughtered without
logic a number of sheep which, of course, they
did not carry away. The Melekote villagers
have, however, taken wolf depredations as an
occupational hazard. Maniappa, a villager said
that in his life span of sixty years he had not
heard of any human being killed, not even a
child”. In Gujarat (3) where there are some
sixty wolves in the Rann of Cutch, there is
no case of child killing in living memory. In
Surendranagar district in which the Rann falls
there are over 2,25,000 (two hundred and
twenty five thousand sheep and goats) and
the sixty wolves live on them. In Bihar

(2) too while Hazaribagh has been noto-

rious for wolf menace, in the other wolf
habitat in the State — the Mahuadanr Valley
— there is no child killing. In their home
range of about 50 sq. km in this valley villa-
gers own 3000 (three thousand) goats and
2000 (two thousand) pigs. 200 goats and 300
pigs are lifted every year. The analysis of

scats is from this valley. As in Melkote,

Mahuadanr villagers have taken wolf preda-
tion as an occupational hazard. Some villa-
gers were, infact, of the opinion that wolves
protected their upland agriculture crops by
scaring away wild boar that would otherwise
dig out the plants. The position is that at the
moment except Hazaribagh in Bihar, and on
the Common border of Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh wolves are not known to attack
humans.

501

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Concluding Remarks

It is likely that wolves occur sporadically
in areas other than those shown in the map.
Though the species is protected by law and
no bounty is paid for its extermination now,
in many parts shephards either club them to
death or poison them. Cubs are either dug
out or smoked out and destroyed. It has not
been possible to effectively enforce the law
that protects the wolf. No one has the remotest
idea as to how many wolves really survive in
this country. Some 35 (thirty five) are re-
ported from Rajasthan, 50 to 70 (seventy)
exist in Karnataka (4), about 30 (thirty) in
Bihar (2), and some sixty in the Little Rann
of Cutch, Gujarat (3). Nothing is known
about their number in Madhya Pradesh (5),
Andhra Pradesh (1), Maharashtra (6),
Orissa (7) and Uttar Pradesh (9) though

Refer

Blanford, W. T. (1891) : Fauna of British India.
Taylor and Francis, London.

Lister, E. (1917) : District Gazetteer of Hazari-
bagh (Bihar).

Lyddeker, R. (1897): Mammalia in Natural His-
tory; The concise knowledge Library, London,
Hutchinson.

Mech, L. David (1970): The Wolf: The ecology
and behaviour of an endangered species.

they have been sighted in these States too.
Perhaps not more than 500 to 800 (eight hun-
dred) wolves, in small packs of five to six
animals survive in India.

The future of the species lies in (a) a
survey to locate viable wolf populations in
different ecological conditions; (b) a study of
its aberrant behaviour and other aspects of
its ecology by modern techniques (namely
radio tracking); (c) a declaration of viable
areas as Wolf Sanctuaries with scientific
management plans and provision for compen-
sation to herdsmen for loss of their livestock,
and (d) an introduction of prey animals like
blackbuck, axis deer and wild boar in wolf
sanctuaries. Potential areas for sanctuaries are
available in Bihar (2), Andhra Pradesh (1),
Karnataka (4), Rajasthan (8) and Gujarat
(3).

ENCES

Mendelssohn, H. (1979) : Wolves in Israel. Paper
presented at the Wolf symposium. Portland, Oregon,
(U.S.A.).

Pocock, R. (1939): Fauna of British India. Mam-
malia. London.

Pulliainen, E. (1966): Ecology of wolf in the
settled area of Finland. Proceedings of the sympo-
sium on behaviour and ecology of wolves held on
23/24 May 1975- Wilmington NC.

502

FORAGING BEHAVIOUR AND INTERACTIONS OF
WHITEHEADED BABBLERS TURDOIDES AFF1N1S
WITH OTHER SPECIES1

A. J. T. Johnsingh,2 K. Paramanandham and S. Murali3
(With three text-figures)

Whiteheaded Babblers were studied from 14th August 1979 to 7th April 1980 in a
0.2 km2 partly cultivated land near Sivakasi (9°27'N., 77°49'E.) in South India.
Their density in the study area was 55 /km2, home range of the study group was
0.16 km2 and mean home area 0.06 km2.

We saw neither cooperative hunting nor food sharing between adults even when
large prey (e,g., a big green grasshopper) were killed and eaten. The babblers foraged
mostly on ground and fed mainly on animal matter (> 80%). During dry months
they intensively foraged in a small part of their home range but covered greater
distance and were active at midday too. They spent more time in areas where water,
food and shade were abundant.

We observed a mutually beneficial association between Black Drongo Dicrurus
adsimilis and the babblers. Shikra Accipiter badius aroused most of the anti-predator
responses. Redvented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer and Indian Wren-Warbler Prinia
subflava were allowed to feed within 5 m. We hypothesize that this tolerance is due
to differences in foraging.

Introduction

Of the nine species of Turdoides in India
the Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus and the
Common Babbler T. caudatus have been studi-
ed extensively (Andrews & Naik 1970,

Gaston 1977, 1978b). Whiteheaded Babblers
T. affinis, which have many of the characte-
ristics of cooperative breeders (Emlen 1978)
are distributed from the Godavari and Pen-
ganga rivers and Western Karnataka from
Belgaum area south through Tamilnadu and
Kerala (Ali & Ripley 1971). However, except
for the ongoing comparative study of the

1 Accepted March 1982.

2 Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill
House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay-400 023.

3 Department of Zoology, Ayya Nadar Janaki
Ammal College, Sivakasi 626 123, India.

ecology and behaviour of the Jungle and
Whiteheaded Babblers in Calicut (as reported
in Zacharias & Mathew 1977) little work has
been done on Whiteheaded Babblers.

It has been well established that the most
important feature of vegetation for birds is
structure rather than species composition
(Gaston, pers. com.). We, however, initiated
the study to find whether variation in vege-
tation density, size of foraging areas and
number of roosting and nesting sites influence
the time spent by the babblers in different
parts of their home range. Interactions with
other species were also recorded.

Study Area

The habitat has a dry stream bordered
by vegetation on either side. Approximately
half of the study area was cultivated by water

503

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

1 /

A

/

/

/

/

/

/

2

3

4

5

\

P

6 M

\ 0 20m

\ 1 1
7 \

a'

\ M

\

\

\

14 \

M

13

M

12

N-

?□

NM A

II □

10

V

T

9 j

\

MXa

f \

i V_

\

\

\

\

15

\ 16

WM

17

A

18

M P

19

V T + '
20 M;:

\

\

"2I <hr

28

\

\

\

\

27 \

C

26

) TS

m

25

FL

24

F

V

T

23+ +r)

*br

PA/

/

i

1

22 /

29

\

\

\

\

4

.30 \

-r ■+

/

M /

8 /

1 1 - . —TLU

f

31

*

s'

»

32

: w f

M

33

M V T
M

34

42

\

\

\

\

41

t-

>

\ 2
\40 <

39

38

37

□ ft/

A

43

44

\

\

\

\

45 \

46

47

\

\

\

\

\ CD
\

S

49

1

50

56

55

\ ®

\

54 AV

,,

52

—

51

Fig.l. Mop of study area showing various vegetation types, home range
of the study group 8 other details. August 1979 to April 1980.

AMVT, FMVT, FL, etc. = various vegetation types or foraging areas.

(See Table i) □= well, ■= tomb, a--a = home range boundary of study group,

• s place where group of 8 was seen,-F = major roosting site, N = nesting site,
)(s stone waliocross stream bed, l~56 = quadrat numbers, — = stream bed,
M = miscellaneous foraging sites

Details of the major vegetation types or foraging areas seen in the study area

FORAGING BEHAVIOUR OF WHITEHEADED BABBLERS

.s -s

ccS

g-

Vi

0)

-o ©
g

60

fl ©

60

■a a

co .ti
0) co

^ ^ -i_>

« X* a
c 13 «
« .y ft

t3 Vi
<L) •£

> c «
•■e 3 72
cJ c s

3 ^ ^

K o a

60 .2 co

u ti fi

> 5 u

^ S-J **r-t

*.S

hH ©

Vi

a 03

.2 oo

3 -S

■S 60

W CCS

60 (h

0) O

>

$

o

A V

© .
<3 <3

o £

AAA

C ©

©

Oh

! I

* *£.§

VO S 't 2

60 CO .5 *S

60 v» v»

a o o

5 S S

©

-S

g H
■2 >

S S

a<

Oo <D

^ >

8 o

hJ &

£ .2
3 £
73

Ph

©

a

H

© .
<3 ©

o £

©

-2 a

gas

® 2
«r o\

o

A A

A

£ S'

_ 7>
.2 §
G C
G
©

Vi

©

Ph

© .
o 2

*2 ^-S ^

.5 co .5 rj-
o ©

s s

8

O

60 —

Gu canvG^t, G L_i (
a.2>

ssPsss|sfe-

a ©

& a

a H

2- &
8 £
05 H

V.

G
O

© [T.

60 ^
©

>

_

■ 0) w 05
£ §

©

6 00

s >

<

a*

o

A V

.2

‘5

S u

Vi Vi
© ©
cd

O £
£

•3^-§

a, r-

© C^>
Co
05

c

"Q p,

•s S
£ H
S e

.52 -

5. 13

S ©
S 60
2 «
a, >

H

JP

s

H

505

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

drawn from wells and other areas remained
fallow except during north-east monsoon. We
divided the study area into 56 quadrats of
60 m2 each and based on the numerically
abundant plants, their associations and terrain
distinguished many vegetation types (Fig. 1).
Table 1 gives details of the vegetation types.

The study group had 11 babblers and be-
sides these there were two groups of 8 and 5 in
the neighbourhood. The birds which interacted
with the babblers are Black Drongo Dicrurus
adsimilis , Shilcra Accipiter badius, Crow Phea-
sant Centropus sinensis , Jungle Crow Corvus
macrorhynchos, House Crow Corvus splendens,
Tree Pie Dendrocitta vagabunda, Spotted Owlet
Athene brama, Blue Jay Coracias bengha-
lensis, Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis , Brah-
miny Myna Sturnus pagodarum, Koel Eudy -
namys scolopacea, Pied Crested Cuckoo
Clamator jacobinus and the Grey Partridge
Francolinus pondicerianus.

Mammals of the area are Threestriped Palm
Squirrel Funambulus palmarum, Blacknaped
Hare Lepus nigricollis, Common Mongoose
Herpestes edwardsi and Jungle Cat Felis
chaus. Reptiles seen were the Cobra Naja naja,
Russell’s Viper Vipera russelli and the Rat
snake Ptyas mucosus.

Methods

The Whiteheaded Babblers have feeble
powers of flight. The maximum distance a bird
covered in a non-stop flight was c. 180 m.
Before flying from one area to another usually
they go up a tree or tall shrub to gain height
in flight. Hence it was possible to mark their
foraging route and the rate of movement as
they moved from one vegetation type to an-
other.

Babblers were located mostly by their ex-
cited calls audible for > 200 m even against

wind. Whenever we decided to follow the
group from the time they left the roost, we
located and followed them till they roosted in
the evening. Next day around 0530 hr we
waited for them to commence activities. Data
on the foraging routes and the rate of move-
ment was collected once a month from August
1979 to March 1980 and the group was follow-
ed from the onset of their activity till they
roosted. The babblers did not always move
as a group as 2 or 3 birds sometimes lagged
behind. In such cases we followed part of the
group which had more members and never
less than seven. As we were careful not to
disturb the foraging route, we did not go
close to the group. This and the habit of the
babblers feeding in the interior of the shrub-
bery made it difficult to identify all food eaten.

Results

Density and home range

Whiteheaded Babblers are cover-dependent
for escaping predators. This reliance prevents
them from occupying the vast stretches of tree
and shrubless plains around Sivakasi. The
habitable area for the three groups, including
the study area, was around 0.4 km2 which
gives a density of 60 birds per km2. The den-
sity for the study area was 55 birds per km2
and the home range of the study group was
c. 0.16 km2.

This home range was not covered when
day range length for 8 days was computed
(Fig. 2) and for the estimation of home range
data collected on other days were also used.
The home area (area covered on single day
— Madison, 1978) for 8 days ranged from
0.024 to 0.099 km2, with a mean of 0.06 km2.

Normally distance between neighbouring
groups was between 100 and 200 m. Twice
group of 11 went deep into the home range

506

FORAGING BEHAVIOUR OF WHITEHEADED BABBLERS

of group of 8 when the latter was not in
that area and once the group of 8 made an
inroad into the home range of group of 11
when the latter was feeding c. 200 m away.
Six observations showed that group of 5 did
not have a fixed home range and lived along
the periphery of north-western and south-
eastern parts of the study area.

Intergroup conflicts were seen on 4 occa-
sions — thrice between group of 11 and 8
and once between group of 11 and 5. Conflicts
were characterized by chases between indivi-

dual birds and loud vocalization. Physical
attack on the intruder was seen twice.
Foraging behaviour

The babblers commenced feeding c. 20
minutes before sunrise. In a foraging site they
moved in different directions and there was
no incidence of either cooperative hunting or
food sharing between adults even when large
prey (e.g., a big green grasshopper) were kill-
ed and eaten. Only once we saw a babbler
chasing an insect flushed by another. A
babbler at a static food source like a termite

1

o>

1

D

a.

<

a>

CO

i D

C\J

rO

00

o

c

-O

a>

o

O)

o

0

“5

Ll

O

m

'3-

ro

rO

00

00

Fig. 2

Cumulative home range and home areas of the study group
(25 Aug. 1979 - 23 Mar 1980 )

507

Activities of Babblers associated with feeding onground based on 77.39 minutes observation

THROUGHOUT THE STUDY AT DIFFERENT TIMES OF THE DAY

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 19

§UIUB9[§

§ui§uip jnsx

-

qnsind JspmH

-

guiqAveq punoiQ

m

iqgip poqs

o

§UIUB3|§
Aq^s punojo

ro

T-H

§UIUB91§

§muin;j9AO psfqo

t"-

<N

§mUB9{§

punojS §uipuBJS

gmddojj

1388

ssijiAipy

Number of
times seen

s a

§uiub9j§

guxSSsq pooj

UOIJBZIJEDOy\

sqnqs guiAV
aqsqs jibx

vtfm *J°qs

gurqjn'q

Suqio

Suiddoji

uoijBospQ

qopjjs guiM. suo

qopjp Suiav qjog
qop-US §9i qpg

§muB9p ^nsg
§niu99Jdoqy

gmnosjd oiny

S9IJIAIPV

508

Number of
times seen 446

FORAGING BEHAVIOUR OF WHITEHEADED BABBLERS

colony attracted others and 3 to 5 formed a
circle and ate.

The following classification of the foraging
methods of babblers is based on the study of
Neotropical Tyrant Flycatchers (Fitzpatrick
1980). Hopping was the major method of
movement on the ground (Table 2). Standing
ground gleaning (catching prey standing on
the ground) was the most common method
of prey capture. Frequently the babblers over-
turned leaves and sticks on the ground (Object
overturning gleaning). In such cases it was not
possible to differentiate pecking at prey from
eating. Prey was picked from vegetation
during a short jump or flight (Ground sally
gleaning) or snatched from air (Ground
hawking). Rarely insects attached to the leaf
were removed and while doing so the birds
momentarily clung to the leaf-tip (Leaf cling-
ing gleaning). Low flying insects were rapidly
pursued in flight (Flutter pursuit) and the
babblers with remarkable agility twisted and
turned in the air. Foraging was frequently seen
in foliage (Table 3). While tearing apart large
prey like grasshoppers or Morinda fruit
( Morinda tomentosa) or while plucking grain
from an earhead a foot was used to press down
the food.

Babblers fed mostly on insects and cater-
pillars (Table 4). While foraging they moved
frequently but the distance covered and speed
of movement varied on different days (Table
5). Average speed of movement for Septem-
ber, October, and November, the rainy months,
characterised by dense vegetation and fruit
abundance was around 105 m/hr and the
data for January, February and March,
part of the dry season, was around 134 m/hr.
The abundance of grasshoppers, a common
prey, varied little between rainy and dry sea-
son. Grasshoppers counted along the foraging
path on 2nd October were 155 and on 7th

qniQ

jopidS

spodpusQ n

sru^doondj

paSSnjj co

vsoiudiuo }
vpuuojy

BJVSjtlA

uitit{8jos

a,

5

d

O

U3P23

pooj JO odAx

509

2

Times seen

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Table 5

Foraging distance and speed of movement of the babblers

Date

Total foraging
time (in hours
and minutes)
h.

m.

Total distance
covered
(in metres)

Speed of

movement (metres
per hour)

25. viii. ’79

12

35

3000

239

23.ix.’79

12

34

1370

109

7.x. ’79

12

32

1040

83

21.xi.’79

12

08

1500

124

30.xii. ’79

12

12

1720

141

31 .i. ’80

12

08

1620

134

24 . ii . ’80

12

16

1600

130

23.iii.’80

12

38

1760

139

Table1 6

Speed of movement of the babblers in metres

IN DIFFERENT TIMES OF THE DAY

Date

Before
1000 hrs.

Between 1000-
1400 hrs.

After
1400 hrs.

25-viii-79

308

318

146

23-ix-79

187

91

60

7-X-79

110

68

79

21-xi-79

79

162

160

30-xii-79

118

125

193

3 l-i-80

207

140

83

24-ii-80

212

135

78

23-iii-80

196

105

145

Total

1417

1144

944

X

177

143

118

April, 169. The Mann- Whitney U-test show-
ed that the babblers covered more distance
during the dry season (U = O, p < 0.05) but
foraged in a restricted part of their home
range (Fig. 2). More distance covered by
babblers in dry season may be correlated with
lack of fruits. In Sivakasi, where the summer
temperature in day time rises to 40°C, one
may expect the babblers to cover more dis-
tance in early morning and evening and re-

main inactive at midday. The distance covered
by the babblers and their speed of movement
between 1000 and 1400 hr were not signifi-
cantly different from data for hours between
the onset of foraging and 1000 hr (Table 6).

If the time spent by the babblers in diffe-
rent vegetation types is calculated, with refe-
rences to the area of vegetation types,
it was seen that the babblers spent more
time (8.61 hr) in the north mango area
(see Table 1 and 7). This area until the end
of November had banana plants ( Musa para -
clisiaca) and throughout had abundant food
perennial water. The Fluggea-Morinda vege-
tation types (Tables 1 and 7) comes

as the second most intensively utilized area and
the reason for this is the combined effect of the
presence of nesting sites, roosting sites, vege-
tation density and shade. During November
and December in this vegetation type the
babblers fledged a cuckoo chick and in Janu-
ary and February 2 babbler chicks were raised.
During the breeding season the group spent
13.07 hr in Fluggea-Morinda vegetation type
and in non-breeding reason 10.12 hr. Total
hours of observation for the breeding and non-
breeding season was 48.73 hr and 50.19 hr

510

FORAGING BEHAVIOUR OF WHITEHEADED BABBLERS

Fig. 3 Aggressive interactions between Babblers 8 other animals of study

area. August 1979 to April 1980.

Note :

Babbler

■> 6

Drongo =

Babbler chased Orongo six times.

511

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

respectively. The time spent by the babblers
in this vegetation type during the breeding
season was not significantly different from the
time spent during the non-breeding season
(t = 0.56, df = 3, p = > 0.05).

Interactions with other species

There were 32 sightings of drongo feeding
with the babblers. Drongo was one among the
three birds — the other two being the Red-
vented Bulbul and the Indian Wren-Warbler,
which were tolerated to feed within 5 m, when
the group raised cuckoo and babbler chicks.
This suggests a mutually beneficial associa-
tion between the drongo and babblers as the
aerially hawking drongo benefited by captur-
ing insects flushed by the babblers (4 observa-
tions). It even robbed a grasshopper from a
babbler. No other bird except a babbler was
seen chasing a drongo (Fig. 3), but drongo
chased off all predatory birds. When the group
had chicks, there was no incidence of the ^
drongo being chased off by the group. Bab- *
biers, therefore, may tolerate drongo’s pre- H
sence, especially, when chicks are present as
the latter gives protection from predators.
Presumably the benefit outweighs the cost to
babblers of having food robbed occasionally.

The babblers responded to predators and
other fear-stimulating objects in different ways
(Table 8). Shikra was the commonest preda-
tor which elicited most of the anti-predator
responses. Alarm is the short shriek-call and
as the call was given the babblers flew to cover.

A hare in the bush, Crow-Pheasant and a shed
snake skin also made the babblers to sound
alarm. Excited calls sometimes lasted for more
than 4 minutes and mobbing call could be
differentiated from an excited call when two
or more babblers called on seeing a predator.
The Blacknaped Hare feeding in open did not
excite babblers. Once the group lost its inte-
rest in a 2 m active snake after mobbing it
for 4 minutes. Spotted Owlets were tolerated

S0JIS gUI

-§bjoj snosu

m ij\ (s

^ m N m

O'

xl*

M 1 "" 1 i'll”

011 s

M.

06

57

38

18

On

«o

quiojL

H.

1

CM

vpuuoj^i

w N xj- O'- OO © VO

i>; ^ M co cn \l- Tf

04

-sidosojj

H.

2

1

1

1

1

1

m *0 h in On

( ^ M _ CM

Vll{}iv£ IOJ

K ill ‘ ’ I

-

sidosojj

•NOO — coOnVOOOqo

^(McOMfO'tO«Oo

C«0

-vpuuoj^l

1 1 1

xj-

Vd88njj

'VOhOOOMO\N(^

m

04

-vpuuojq

H.

1

1

1

1

OO

M © xf OO NO VO o

4 M CO co n tn ^

xf-

o

1S0AV

H.

2

ogireptf

w CO rt CO

g m t-h C'N 1-H

o-

cn

sl^l ■

00

vpuuop\[

^io-HOONricoTt-

cOcoOcoN'trlcoici

-

-vdSSnu

m

<N

pueq

N OO fs

<i O

O'

ffi III

vpuuop\[

w O0 Oc ON OO CO ON

1 O rn CO 1C) CO

O

xf

-9sw8y

H.

1

2

3

2

1

2

1

V)

S0dAx

o > .3 « X « .i :3 :3

3

QiAcAt^ri6^4cA

Ol <N N co co N

H

512

FORAGING BEHAVIOUR OF WHITEHEADED BABBLERS

Table 8

Various antipredator behaviour of Whiteheaded Babblers observed during the study

Types of Alarm Excited Mobbing Hiding Chase

behaviour call call in cover

Number of times

observed 38 17

Prominent

causative Shikra Observer

agents

except for one incident of babblers mobbing
an owlet when they had the cuckoo chick.
Jungle Babblers are known to chase Spotted
Owlet (Andrews & Naik 1970).

Discussion

Density of babblers reported in this study
is not high when compared with the density
of other species of Turdoides (1067 Jungle
Babblers per km2 (Andrews & Naik 1970),
133 Striated Babblers per km2 [Gaston 1978
(a)]; 46 Common Babblers per km2 [Gaston
1978(b)]. Lack of dense vegetation entirely
covering the study area with fewer nest sites
and lower food abundance may be the reason.

Insectivorous birds foraging in flocks can
beat up a higher proportion of flying insects
per bird than can scattered individuals (Wil-
son 1975). Whiteheaded Babblers did not
show this trait. In the absence of cooperative
foraging, group living in babblers may help
them detect predators as in doves (Siegfried
& Underhill 1975) but an optimum size of
the group is necessary to deter predators. We
observed that a group of three babblers was
not successful in chasing off a shikra but
nine did it effectively. Movement from one
area of the home range to another, a charac-
teristic of many territorial species, is not only

10

14

41

Shikra,

Shikra

Shikra

Blue Jay,

Myna

for optimization of foraging (Charnov et cd.
1976) but also for patrolling their territories
to keep away conspecifics (Gaston, pers.
com.).

Since babblers mostly feed near or on
ground, we call them near ground foragers and
drongos, aerial hawkers. This foraging differ-
ence reduces competition for food. The
adaptive value of mixed species flocking in
birds is generally held to be connected with
feeding advantages, protection from predators
or both (Morse 1970). The babbler-drongo
association is another example.

Babbler’s interactions with other species
provide examples for interspecific conflict re-
lated to predation, roosting site and food
resources. Of the 10 species chased off by
babblers (Fig. 3), four species (Jungle Crow,
Shikra, Crow Pheasant and House Crow) were
potential predators of babbler chicks. All in-
teractions with Blue Jay were observed at
roost sites. Birds, such as, Indian Myna, Brah-
miny Myna and Koel probably compete for
the same food resource. Low (1971) found
that 35 of the 38 species, that were chased
off by pomacentrid fish Pomacentrus flavi-
cauda, were food competitors, while all of the
16 species that were allowed to trespass un-
molested exploited different food resources.
Redvented Bulbul and Indian Wren-Warbler,
which probably do not compete with babblers

513

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

for the same food resource and which cannot
harm babbler chicks, were tolerated at all
times and the drongo was not chased off when
chicks were present. This implies that babblers
know what and when to chase off from their
vicinity. A proper understanding of this will
be evident by further studies on this aspect.

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1971): Handbook of
THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN Vol. 6, Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Andrews, M. I. & Naik, R. M. (1970): The bio-
logy of the Jungle Babbler. Pavo 5(1): 1-34.

Charnov, E. L., Orians, G. H. & Hyatt, K.
(1976) : The ecological implications of resource de-
pression. Amer. Natur. 110 : 247-259.

Emlen, S. T. (1978): The evolution of coopera-
tive breeding in birds. In Krebs, J. R. & Davies,
N. B. (eds) ‘Behavioural Ecology an evolutionary
approach’: 245-281, Sinauer Associates Inc., Massa-
chusetts.

Fitzpatrick, J. W. (1980) : Foraging behaviour
of Neotropical Tyrant Flycatchers. Condor 82: 43-
57.

Gaston, A. J. (1977) : Social behaviour within
groups of Jungle Babblers ( Turdoides striatus ).
Anim. Behav. 828-848.

(1978a): Notes on the Striated

Babbler Turdoides earlei (Blyth) near Delhi. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(1): 219-220.

Acknowledgements

We thank A. J. Gaston and Eugene Morton
for having made many improvements in the
first draft. Ideas of J. C. Daniel, Madhav
Gadgil and Guy Greenwell are also gratefully
acknowledged.

EN CES

(1978b) : Ecology of the Common

Babbler Turdoides caudatus. Ibis 120: 415-432.

Low, R. M. (1971) : Interspecific territoriality in
a pomacentrid reef fish Pomacentrus flavicauda
Whitley. Ecology 52: 648-654.

Madison, D. M. (1978) : Movement indicators
of reproductive events among female meadow voles
as revealed by radiotelemetry. J. Mammal. 59: 835-
843.

Morse, D. H. (1970) : Ecological aspects of some
mixed-species foraging flocks of birds. Ecol. Monogr.
40: 119-168.

Siegfried, W. R. & Underhill, L. G. (1975):
Flocking as an antipredator strategy in doves. Anim.
Behav. 23: 504-508.

Wilson, E. O. (1977): Sociobiology — the new
synthesis. Belknap press of Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Zacharias, V. J. & Mathew, D. N. (1977):
Malabar Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus malaba-
ricus (Jerdon) and Whiteheaded Babbler Turdoides
affinis affinis (Jerdon) jointly caring for the chicks
of the latter. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 529-530.

514

STUDIES ON THE GRASSES OF KHERI DISTRICT,
UTTAR PRADESH1

K. K. Singh2

This paper gives an account of the grasses of Kheri district. A Dichotomous Key to
the genera of Poaceae is included. Fifty four genera and seventy seven species are
described. Ecological notes, phenology, local names and field numbers are provided
to the species.

In trodu ction

Kheri district in north Uttar Pradesh lies
between 27°41' and 28°42'N. latitude and
80°2' and 81°19'E. longitude. The district is
separated on the east from Bahraich district
by river Kauriala, and has to its south Sitapur
and Hardoi districts and, Shahjahanpur and
Pilibhit districts to the west, and Nepal to the
north, separated by Mohan river (Anon.
1927). The thick forest belts of the district are
situated in the terai regions of the foot hills
of Himalayas. The grasslands are well repre-
sented in between the sal forest of the district
and are locally known as Phantas.

Seventy seven species of grasses occur in
this region. Ecological notes, phenology, local
names, occurrence, field numbers etc. have
been recorded for the species enumerated.

Key to the genera of family poaceae
(nom. alt. Gramineae )

1 . Culms woody with culm sheath

(reduced leaves) Dendrocalamus

1. Culms not woody; leaves not reduced to culm
sheath :

2. Spikelets of two florets, the upper perfect
and the lower staminate or neutral and

1 Accepted January 1982.

2 National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow.
(U.P.).

usually falling off entirely together with
glumes at maturity:

3. Male and female spikelets in separate in-
florescence :

4. Plant glabrous or slightly hairy; caryopsis

enclosed in stony bracts Coix

4. Plant hairy; caryopsis enclosed in thick

lower glumes Chionachne

3 . Spikelets all hermaphrodite with male or
barren or hermaphrodite spikelets mixed in
the same inflorescence:

5. Spikelets often paired; with one sessile and
other pedicelled, glumes as long as the
spikelets; upper lemma usually awned:

6. All spikelets alike:

7 . Racemens on a short common axis or
cles or racemosely arranged on an elongat-
ed common axis:

8. Spikelets all pedicelled Imperata

8. Spikelets one sessile, the other pedicelled:

9. Panicles narrow, villous to tomentose;

glumes coriaceous Narenga

9. Panicles wide, silky hairy; glumes mem-
branous Saccharum

7. Racemes on a short common axis or
digitate or sometimes solitary:

10. Spikelets 2-flowered Eulaliopsis

10. Spikelets 1 -flowered:

11. Lower glumes dorsally flattened or
shallowly concave between the keels;
upper lemma bidentate at the apex
Eulalia

11. Lower glumes convex on the back; upper
lemma stipiform . . .Pseudopogonatherum

6. Sessile and pedicelled spikelets dissimilar:

12. Joints and pedicels trigonous, rounded
or flat:

515

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

13. Upper lemma awned:

14. Racemes many noded, not enclosed
in a spathe like sheath

Ischaemum

14. Racemes 1 -noded, partially enclosed

into boat-shape, spathe A pluda

13. Upper lemma not avvned:

15. Sessile spikelets globose

Hackelochloa

15. Sessile spikelets not globose:

16. Racemes compressed; spikelets of

each pair similar Hemarthria

16. Racemes cylindrical; spikelets of
each pair dissimilar:

17. Pedicelled spikelets distinct and

more or less of same size
Rottboellia

17. Spikelets all sessile; pedicelled

rudimentary Mnesithea

12. Joints and pedicels slender, rarely thick-
ened upwards:

18. Racemes in whorled panicles, never
spatheate :

19. Lower glumes not flattened on the back:

20. Panicles dense, contracted

Pseudosorghum

20. Panicles lax, open Sorghum

19. Lower glumes flattened on the back:

21. Spikelets triad, one sessile and two

pedicelled Chrysopogon

21. Spikelets biad, one sessile and other
pedicelled Vetiveria

18. Racemes digitate, subdigitate or in pairs

or solitary terminal, usually spatheate:

22. Lemma awned from the back

Arthraxon

22. Lemma awned from the tip or sinus:

23. Margins of lower glumes of sessile
spikelets sharply infolded, two keeled,
awn glabrous:

24. Lemma awned from the tip:

25. Racemes in compound spatheate

panicles . — . Capillipedium

25. Racemes not in compound spatheate
panicles :

26. Lower involucral glumes with pits

Bothriochloa

26. Involucral glumes without pits

Dichanthium

24. Lemma awned from a sinus:

27. Plant aromatic: racemes b innate, sup-
ported by spathe arranged in panicles
Cymbopogon

27. Plant not aromatic racemes solitary
terminal on the culms and branches
Schizachrium

23. Margins of lower glumes inturned and
rounded at the sides; awn usually hairy:

28. Racemes surrounded at the base by an

involucre of homogamous, sessile, non-
deciduous spikelets Themeda

28. Racemes without an involucre

Heteropogon

5. Spikelets solitary or paired, more or
less similar; glumes usually membran-
ous, at the lower usually smaller or
sometimes: suppressed: upper lemma

usually awnless:

29. Spikelets in open or contracted
panicles :

30. Spikelets in open panicles:

31. Spikelets not supported by bristles:

32. Spikelets gibbous laterally com-
pressed Cyrtococcum

32. Spikelets not gibbous

Panicum

30. Spikelets in contracted spike like

panicles Hymenachne

29. Spikelets in secundate spiciform
racemes or false spikes:

33. Upper lemma crustaceous or coriaceous:

34. Spikelets adaxial:

35. Glumes awned:

36. Blades lanceolate to ovate

Oplismenus

36. Blades linear, narrow
Echinochloa

35. Glumes awnless:

37 . Lower glumes well developed :

38. Aquatic plants Paspalidium

38. Terrestrial or marshy plants

Urochloa

37. Lower glumes absent

Paspaium

34. Spikelets abaxial Brachiaria

33. Upper lemma thinly cartilaginous usually
with flat hyaline margin Digitaria

31. Spikelets supported bristles:

39. Bristles caducous, forming an involucre;
upper lemma smooth Pennisetum

GRASSES OF KHERl DISTRICT

39. Bristles persistent, solitary; upper

lemma transversely rugose .Setaria

2. Spikelets always with a single herma-
phrodite floret; if two-flowered, with one of
the floret barren, then lemmas as firm as
glumes :

40. Spikelets arranged in open or contract-
ed spikelike panicles :

41. Spikelets with 2 or more fertile
florets :

42. Glumes shorter than the lowest
florets :

43. Lemmas 5-many nerved Poa

43. Lemmas 1-3 nerved:

44. Spikelets in open, contracted or spikelike

panicle .Erctgrostis

44. Spikelets in open, contracted or spikelike
panicle

45. Rachis ending in spikelets:

46. Spikelets falling entire of straight spikes
which are numerous and crowded into
long narrow dense panicles
Desmostachya

46. Spikelets breaking up at maturity:
spikes few to many Eleusine

42. Glumes longer than the lowest
florets :

47. Lemmas and rachila glabrous

Avena

47. Lemmas and rachila joints with long

silky hairs Phragmites

41. Spikelets with one fertile floret:

48. Glumes minute or suppressed: fertile
lemma and palea very similar in
shape and texture:

49. Blade ovate-oblong or ovate-lanceo-
late with inflated sheath
Hygroryza

49. Blade linear, acute or acuminate

Oryza

48. Glumes well developed; fertile lemma
and palea dissimilar:

50. Spikelets with 3-florets Phalaris

50. Spikelets with 1 to 2-florets:

51. Spikelets with 2-florets

Arundinella

51. Spikelets with 1 -floret:

52. Lemmas 1 to 3-nerved

• . . Perotis

52. Lemmas 5-nerved Polypogon

40. Spikelets arranged on one side of the
tough-rachis :

53. Spikelets awned Chloris

53. Spikelets awnless Cynodon

45. Rachis ending in a sharp point

Dactyloctenium

Species list

1. Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees
Occasionally in North Kheri forest divi-
sion.

K.K.S. 7684. Local name — Bans.

2. Coix lacryma-jobi Linn.

In moist locations near villages. Rare;
FIs. & Frs.: Sept. -December. KKS 4359.

3. Chionachne koenigii (Spreng.) Thw.
Common in grasslands.

FIs. & Frs.: August-November.

KKS 4193, 4291, 7524.

4. Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) Beauv.

Common in grasslands and in open

grounds.

FIs. & Frs.: June-October. KKS 7672,

8420. Local name — Bharuee.

5. Narenga porphyrocoma (Hance) Bor
Occasionally in open areas and in grass-
lands.

FIs. & Frs. : October-November. KKS

4294, 7844.

6. Saccharum spontaenum Linn.

Common along river banks, in swamps
and along the bunds of fields etc.;

FIs. & Frs.: September- January. KKS

3024, 7500.

Local name — Kans.

7. Saccharum bengalense Retz.

Frequent in marshes and along railway
lines.

FIs. & Frs.: September-October. KKS 4330
Local name — Munj.

8. Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) Hubb.
Occasionally in open dry areas near sal
forests.

517

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

FIs. & Frs.: October-February. KKS 7618.

9. Eulalia leschenaultiana (Decne) Ohwi
Occasional in moist areas.

FIs. & Frs.: September-November. KKS
7879.

10. Pseudopogonatherum contortum A. Camus
Frequent in grasslands.

FIs. & Frs. : October-December. KKS

7865.

1 1 . lschaemum rugosum Salib.

Common in marshes and rice fields.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS

7945, 8423.

12. Apluda mutica Linn.

Common in open grasslands and along
railway lines.

FIs. & Frs. : September-February. KKS

4188, 7787, 8534.

13. Hackelochloa granulans (Linn.) O. Ktze.
Frequent in moist places in sal forest and
in grasslands.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS

7397, 7788, 8520

14. Hemarthria compressa (Linn.f.) R. Br.
Common in marshy areas and in rice fields.
FIs. & Frs.: July-September. KKS 8440,
8467.

15. Rottboellia exaltata Linn. f.

Frequent along water courses.

FIs. & Frs. : August-November. KKS

7951.

16. Mnesithea laevis (Retz.) Kunth
Common in grasslands and in the moist
bed of rice fields.

FIs. & Frs.: July-December. KKS 7707.

17. Pseudosorghum fascicular e (Roxb.) A.
Camus

Common in grasslands and along railway
lines.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS
7876, 7881, 7974.

18. Sorghum nitidum (Vahl) Pers.

Common in grasslands and along railway
lines.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS
4179, 4206, 4325.

19. S. halepense (Linn.) Pers.

Occasional in cultivated fields and along
railway lines.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS
8533.

Local name — Ghamoy.

20. Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.
Frequent in open wastelands.

FIs. & Frs. : August-November. KKS 2984.

21. Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash
Common in sal forests and marshy places.
FIs. & Frs.: July-November. KKS 2983,
7550, 7764.

Local names — Seenk, khas .

22. Arthraxon prionodes (Steud.) Dandy
Occurs occasionally in open grasslands.
FIs. & Frs.: October-February. G. Saran
26286.

23. Capillipedium assimile (Steud.) A. Camus
Occurs commonly along railway lines.

FIs. & Frs.: August-December. KKS 4182,
7979.

24. Bothriochloa intermedia (R. Br.) A.
Camus

Common in grasslands.

FIs. & Frs.: August-December. KKS 4191,
7686, 7937.

25. B. pertusa (Linn.) A. Camus
Common in grasslands and in dried up
rice fields, wastelands.

FIs. & Frs.: September- January. KKS
8540; 8551.

Local name — Sandhur.

26. B. kuntzeana (Hack.) Hern,

Occasional in open areas and in grasslands
FIs. & Frs.: September- January. KKS
7984.

518

GRASSES OF KHERI DISTRICT

27. Dichant hium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf
Common in lawns and in wastelands.

FIs. & Frs.: August- January. KKS 7238,
7600, 7619, 8332.

28. Cymbopogon osmastonii Parker
Occasional in the north Kheri forest divi-
sion along forest roads. The grass is ende-
mic to this district.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS
7877.

29. C. jwarancusa (Jones) Schult.

In open areas. Rare.

FIs. & Frs.: August-December. KKS 7181.
Local name — Jarakus.

30. C. jlexuosus (Nees) Wasts. var. micro-
stachys (Hook, f.) Bor

Frequent in grasslands.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS
4315.

31. Schizaehyrium brevifolium (Sw.) Nees
Occasional in open areas.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS
7839.

32. Themeda arundinacea (Roxb.) Ridley
Common in low-lying areas in sal forests
and grasslands.

FIs. & Frs.: August-December. KKS 4211,
8554.

Local name — Ulla.

33. Heteropogon contortus (Linn.) Beauv. ex
R. & S.

Common in grasslands and in open waste-
lands.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS
4274, 7838.

34. Cyrtococcum patens (Linn.) A. Camus
Frequent in low-lying areas and other
moist places.

FIs. & Frs. : August-November. KKS 7536.

35. Panicum austro-asiaticum Ohwi
Frequent in moist places.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS
8524.

36. P. trypheron Schult.

Frequent in cultivated fields and in grass-
lands.

FIs. & Frs. : August-December. KKS 7722.

37. P. paludosum Roxb.

Common in marshy places, still waters
and banks of tanks, ponds throughout the
district.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS
7730, 8473, 8563.

38. Hymenachne pseudointerrupt a C. Muell
Occasional in marshy areas in South
Kheri forest division.

FIs. & Frs.: September-December. KKS
7874.

39. Oplismenus compositus (Linn.) Beauv.
Frequently forms a dense, herbaceous,
undergrowth in moist, shady areas of
orchards.

FIs. & Frs.: August-January. KKS 7822.

40. O. burmanni (Retz.) Beauv.

Common in moist shady areas in orchards
and in forests.

FIs. & Frs. September-November. KKS
7771, 7821.

41. Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P. Beauv.
Common in stagnant ditches and banks
of ponds etc.

FIs. & Frs.: August-December. KKS 7824,
8501.

42. E. colonum (Linn.) Link.

Common in rice fields and other marshy
places.

FIs. & Frs.: July-November. KKS 7523,
8417.

43. E. crus-galli (Linn.) Beauv.

Common in moist places near ponds,
ditches and rice fields of the district.

FIs. & Frs. : August-November. KKS 7761 .
Local name — Sawan.

519

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

44. Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus
Occurs commonly in grasslands and waste-
lands.

FIs. & Frs.: July-November. KKS 7866,
8424, 8508.

45. P. punctatum (Burm. f.) A. Camus
Common in moist places and in rice fields.
FIs. & Frs.: August-December. KKS 8475.

46. Urochloa panicoides Beauv.

Common in moist places and in pastures.
FIs. & Frs. : August-November. KKS 8429.

47. Paspalum distichum Linn.

Common on moist banks of ponds and
ditches.

FIs. & Frs.: June-September. KKS 7417,
8427.

48. P. commersonii Lamk.

Occurs occasionally in rice fields.

FIs. & Frs.: September- January. KKS
2988.

49. Brachiaria reptans (Linn.) Gard. & Hubb.
Frequent in moist places and in rice fields.
FIs. & Frs.: September- January. KKS
8549.

50. B. distachya (Linn.) Stapf
Frequent in grasslands.

FIs. & Frs.: August-December. KKS 8444.

51. B. ramosa (Linn.) Stapf
Frequent in moist wastelands.

FIs. & Frs.: July-November. KKS 8418.

52. B. kurzii (Hook, f.) A Camus
Occurs occasionally in moist places.

FIs. & Frs.: August-November. KKS 8465.

53. Digitaria adscendens (H.B. & K.) Henr.
Frequent in open areas.

FIs. & Frs.: July-November. KKS 8553.

54. Pennisetum polystachyon (Linn.) Schult:
Occurs occasionally in grasslands.

FIs. & Frs.: July-November. KKS 7645.

55. Set aria verticillata (Linn.) Beauv.
Frequent in moist areas.

FIs. & Frs. : August-November. KKS 3067.

56. S. glauca (Linn.) Beauv.

Common in wastelands and in open
grasslands.

FIs. & Frs.: August-October. KKS 3029,
7786.

57. S. foment osa (Roxb.) Kunth
Occurs commonly in moist grassland.

FIs. & Frs.: August-December. KKS 7572.

58. Poa annua Linn.

Occurs occasionally on moist ground.

FIs. & Frs. : December-February. KKS

7890.

59. Eragrostis tennella (Linn.) P. Beauv. ex
R. & S.

Occurs commonly in moist places.

FIs. & Frs. : September-February. KKS

4187, 7818, 7845.

60. E. japonica (Thunb.) Trin.

Occurs commonly in moist places in
wastelands and in grasslands.

FIs. & Frs. : September-February. KKS

4187, 7810, 7845.

61. E. atrovirens (Desf.) Trin. ex Steud.
Frequent in grasslands near moist places.
FIs. & Frs.: August-November. KKS 8435,
8476.

62. E. unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.

Occurs commonly in moist shady places.
FIs. & Frs.: September-November. KKS

4214, 4297, 7376.

63. Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.) Stapf
Frequent in grasslands.

FIs. & Frs.: June-November. KKS 2979,
4108, 8552.

Local name — Kusha.

64. Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn.

Occurs as a weed in cultivated fields.

FIs. & Frs.: August-November. KKS 8433.

65. Avena fatua Linn.

Occurs occasionally in cultivated wheat
fields.

520

GRASSES OF KHERl DISTRICT

FIs. & Frs.: February- April. KKS 7650.
Local name — Jaee.

66. Phragmites maxima (Forsk). Blatt. & McC.
Common in marshy places and near
streams.

FIs. & Frs. : December-February. KKS
2818, 2997, 4229.

Local name — Narkul.

67. Hygroriza aristata (Retz.) Nees & W.&A.
Occurs commonly in lakes and ponds
throughout the district.

FIs. & Frs. : October-February. KKS 7454.

68. Oryza sativa Linn.

Cultivated throughout the district.

FIs. & Frs.: September-November. KKS
7758.

Local name — Dhan.

69. O. rufipogon Griff.

Occurs commonly mixed with paddy in
cultivated fields.

FIs. & Frs. : October-November. KKS

7746, 8487.

Local name — Pasaee.

70. Phalaris minor Retz.

Frequent as a weed in wheat fields.

FIs. & Frs.: January- April. KKS 7645.
Local name — Senhu.

71. Arundinella bengalensis (Spreng.) Druce
Frequent in moist shady places.

FIs. & Frs.: July-October. KKS 8539.

72. Perotis indica (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Frequent in open wastelands and shady
places.

FIs. & Frs.: August-October. KKS 7432,
7720.

73. Polypogon monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf.
Commonly in moist, sandy areas and in
sal forests of the district.

FIs. & Frs.: January-March. KKS 2813,
7117, 7243.

74. Chloris dolichostachya Lagasca
Frequent in moist shady places.

FIs. & Frs.: August-November. KKS 4151.

75. C. barbata (Linn.) Sw.

Occurs commonly in open grasslands in
sandy places.

FIs. & Frs.: August-November. KKS 4359.

76. Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers.

Occurs commonly in wet and dry location.
FIs. & Frs. : Most part of the year KKS
8381.

Local names — Ghas, Dub.

77. Dactyloctenium aegypticum (Linn.) Beauv.
Occurs as a weed in waste sandy areas
and cultivated fields.

FIs. & Frs.: June-November. KKS 4386.
ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. Nitya Nand, Director,
Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow for
the facilities provided during the course of
this study and to Dr. J. K. Maheshwari, Sr.
Asstt. Director, National Botanical Research
Institute, Lucknow for going through the
manuscript.

Reference

Anonymous (1927): Gazetteer of Kheri district,
U.P., Allahabad.

521

PREDATORY BEHAVIOUR OF AN ASSASSIN SPIDER,
CHORIZOPES SP. (ARANEIDAE), AND THE
DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOR OF ITS PREY1

William G. Eberhard2

The araneid spider Chorizopes sp. preys on other araneids, using the aggressive
response of its prey toward smaller-sized intruders in their webs to lure them to their
death. One prey species ( Leucauge sp.) avoids attacks by cutting free sectors of the
web which hold the predator.

Introduction

Spiders are generally thought of as solitary
animals which react aggressively toward others
of their own kind, and this seems to be the
general rule in orb weaving spiders. Web
owners usually respond to the presence of
other spiders by shaking the web strongly; if
the invader is smaller and does not leave, the
owner moves toward it and chases it from the
web (e.g. Buskirk 1975, Eberhard et al. 1979,
Lahmann and Eberhard 1979, pers. obs. of
Alpaida, Cyclosa, Cyrtarachne, Leucauge ,
Metazygia, Nephilengys, Tetragnatha, Philopo-
nella, and Uloborus). This note describes the
behaviour of a rare and previously unstudied
spider, Chorizopes sp. (Araneidae), which
appears to prey regularly on orb weavers by
taking advantage of this aggressive response.

It is probably common for spiders to prey
on each other (e.g. Bristowe 1958, Turner
1979), but most of this predation probably
results from chance encounters involving
species which take a large variety of other
kinds of prey. There are three spider groups
known to be specialized spider predators,

1 Accepted November 1980.

2 Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute and
Escuela de Biologia, Universidad de Costa Rica,
Ciudad Universitaria, Costa Rica.

however: Mimetidae (e.g. Bristowe 1958),
Archaeidae (Kaestner 1968), and some species
of the theridiid genus Argyrodes (Clyne 1979,
Eberhard in prep.). This appears to be the
first report of regular predation on other
spiders by an araneid.

These observations were made in Nov. 1979
during the monsoon at Ayyanar Falls (c. 300
m.) 5 km W. of Rajapalayam, Tamilnadu,
India. The spiders were moderately common
in underbrush in deciduous forest, but were
not found in adjoining thorn scrub.

The first indication that Chorizopes preyed
on web weaving spiders came from finding
four individuals (three mature females and
one penultimate female) in close association
with freshly dead araneids (three mature
Leucauge sp., and one mature female Cyrta-
rachne sp.). In all cases the Chorizopes was
substantially smaller than the other spider.
Two of them were apparently feeding on the
dead spider (mouth in contact with it, other
spider somewhat shrivelled). As I watched,
a third Chorizopes wrapped an apparently
freshly dead Leucauge with slow alternate
movements of legs IV, then slowly transport-
ed it along the edge of the Leucauge web,
using complex behaviour involving fastening
it to a frame line, then breaking the frame
and letting it sag by letting out silk until the

522

PREDATORY BEHAVIOUR OF AN ASSASSIN SPIDER

piey hung vertically, then raising the prey to
attach it to the frame again and repeat the
process until the prey was completely off the
web and under a leaf. There the spider spun
a small mesh sustaining the prey and began
to feed. Three times during the transporta-
tion process the spider paused, moved to the
anterior end of the prey, and pressed its mouth
against the prey’s mouth for several seconds,
perhaps feeding.

I succeeded in confirming this suggestive
evidence of predation by witnessing an attack
in the following circumstances. I found a
mature female Leucauge sp. in the midst of
web construction 30-60 min. after the end of
a rain shower, after all nearby conspecifics
had finished their webs. Close inspection of
this web showed partially collapsed radii in
one sector, and other threads which suggested
that an anchor thread on that side of the web
had been broken near the end of radius con-
struction, and that the spider had tightened
up the damaged sector and continued build-
ing. The Leucauge was unusually “nervous”,
running to the edge of the web several times
in response to apparently minor stimuli, paus-
ing 30 sec. or more during sticky spiral con-
struction several other times, and laying the
sticky spiral in an irregular pattern. The
possible reason for the spider’s delay, its
collapsed web, and its unusual behaviour was
revealed when I searched the leaf where the
hypothesized broken anchor would have end-
ed, and found an immobile female Chorizopes.

When the Leucauge finished building, I
detached the leaf gently and brought the
Chorizopes into contact with an anchor line
of the Leucauge web, which it stepped onto
readily. The Leucauge immediately turned to-
ward this sector and shook the web strongly,
and the Chorizopes responded with vigorous
shakes of its own. The Leucauge then ad-

vanced rapidly toward the invader, pausing
to shake the web and receive answering
shakes on the way. Despite its small size
(estimated weight about one fourth that of
the Leucauge ), the Chorizopes stood its ground
as the other advanced; the spiders met in a
very brief tangle of legs, and the Leucauge
fell free under the web, hung for a moment
immobile on its trail line, then climbed back
to the hub where it briefly cleaned one front
leg in its mouth, then settled into its normal
resting position.

For the next six minutes both Leucauge
and Chorizopes remained nearly motionless,
but toward the end of this period the Leu-
cauge seemed to “sag” slightly, its abdomen
tilting downward at the rear and its hind legs
extending more than usual. My suspicion that
it had been bitten in the brief encounter was
confirmed when the Chorizopes finally began
moving deliberately, first along the frame and
then along a radius toward the hub, and the
Leucauge failed to respond. Its only move-
ment was a weak jerk when the Chorizopes
touched it lightly with a leg; after the
Chorizopes waited another minute, it submit-
ted without resistance when it was bitten and
then wrapped.

I then attempted to elicit another complete
attack sequence by transferring the Chorizopes
to three other Leucauge webs, but instead dis-
covered the defensive behaviour of Leucauge
sp. In a typical sequence, the Chorizopes was
on an anchor thread when the owner shook
the web aggressively and approached in an
apparent attempt to chase it away. Instead of
just walking along the anchor toward the in-
vader, however, the Leucauge damaged its
own web by breaking the line and proceeding
by reeling up the broken end and paying out
new line behind as it advanced. The defen-
sive significance of this behaviour became clear

523

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 79

when the Leucauge stopped short of contact
with the Chorizopes and released the anchor
line it had been reeling in; the result was
that the orb collapsed on that side, while the
Chorizopes fell and dangled on the other end
of the broken anchor line, all connection to
the Leucauge web now lost.

Discussion

The repeated observations of Chorizopes
with dead araneids and its apparently purpose-
ful attack behaviour both suggest that this
species commonly preys on web building
spiders. The fact that both Simon (1896) and
I found it commonly at some sites but could
not associate it with any web is in agree-
ment with this idea. The spider’s attack
behaviour differs from that of other spider spe-
cialists in not involving stealthy approaches
(some mimetids — Bristowe; Argyrodes spp.
— Clyne 1979, Eberhard in prep.), imitations

Refer

Bristowe, W. S. (1958): The World of Spiders.
Collins, London.

Buskirk, R. E. (1975): Aggressive display and
orb defence in a colonial spider, Metabus gravidus.
Anim. Behav. 23: 560-567.

Clyne, D. (1979) : The Garden Jungle. Collins,
London.

Eberhard, W. G. (in prep.) : Argyrodes attenua-
tus (Theridiidae) : a web that is not a snare.

Eberhard, W. G., Barreto, M., and Pfizenmaier,
W. (1979) : Web robbery by mature male araneids.
Bull. brit. arachnol. Soc.

of its host’s courtship behaviour (some mime-
tids — Kaestner 1968), or quick-acting poison
(some mimetids — Bristowe 1958). Chorizo-
pes seems to rely instead on superior fighting
ability after attracting its victim into range by
giving aggressive reactions to web owners’
threats. Perhaps the massive chelicerae with
long fangs typical of this genus (Simon 1896)
are important in these fights. Chorizopes may
be limited to preying on individuals that are
larger enough than itself that they will ap-
proach it close enough to be bitten.

Acknowledgements

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the help and
hospitality of A. J. T. Johnsingh, M. Gadgil,
A. Thangamani, J. Joseph, and N. N. Peru-
malraja. Norman Platnick and H. W. Levi
identified the spiders, and M. J. W. Eberhard
read the manuscript.

iNCES

Kaestner, A. (1968) : Invertebrate Zoology Vol.
II (translated and adapted by H. W. Levi and L.
R. Levi.) Wiley and Sons, New York.

Lahmann, E. and Eberhard, W. G. (1979) :
Ecologia e historia natural de la arana colonial
Philoponella semiplumosa (Araneae: Uloboridae).
Rev. Biol. Trop.

Simon, E. (1892-1896) : Histoire Naturelle des
Araignees (ed. 2, vol. 1) Libraire Encyclopedique
de Roret, Paris.

Turner, M. (1979): Diet and feeding phenology
of the green lynx spider Peucetia viridans (Ara-
neae: Oxyopidae). /. Arachnol. 7: 149-154.

524

STUDIES ON THE SPAWNING ECOLOGY OF
KUMAUN MAHSEER TOR TOR (HAMILTON) AND
TOR PUTITORA (HAMILTON)1

S. S. Pathani2

; !:

( With a text -figure)

The spawning ecology of mahseers ( Tor tor and Tor putitora ) of Kumaun area
was investigated in Bhimtal lake. The spawning grounds of the mahseers in the lake
ranged from a depth of 2.00 to 2.50 m in the inshore region, with sandy bottom,
pebbles and aquatic weeds where higher temperature and dissolved oxygen prevailed
in comparison to other regions of the lake. Spawning season extended from April to
September and May to September for Tor tor and T. putitora respectively. Intermit-
tent breeding (four spawning acts in a season) was recorded. Maturity size and

age of both the sexes of the mahseers were
Introduction

Several investigators have studied the pro-
blem of spawning ecology in many fishes of
commercial importance while a few have re-
corded preliminary observations on mahseers,
T. tor and T. putitora, such as Beavan (1877);
Thomas (1893); Hora (1939, 1940); Khan
(1939); Kulkarni (1971); Jhingran and Sehgal
(1977) and Pathani (1977). However, the pre-
sent paper deals extensively with spawning
habits, spawning periods, spawning grounds,
maturity size, age and egg diameter during
breeding season of mahseers in the cold water
lake of Bhimtal, Kumaun (U.P.)

Materials and Methods

ii

i

Survey of spawning grounds was carried out
with the help of long handled dip nets and
gill-nets. The eggs, larvae and fry were col-
lected by similar dip nets. The colour of ferti-
lized eggs of the two species of mahseers was

1 Accepted October 1980.

2 Department of Zoology, D. S. B. University
College, Nainital (U.P.) .

also obtained.

identified by repeated observations. Dissections
of various mature and ripe fishes were done
during last three years (1975-78) and age of
mature fishes was studied with the help of
scales, operculum and otoliths.

Physical features of lake Bhimtal ;

The lake is situated 22 Km. north-east
(24°21'N, 29°34'E) of Nainital, at an altitude
of 1350 m. The depth ranges from 1.00 to
26.00 m. The lake has a length of 1670.00 m
at its longest and width of 447.00 m at its
broadest region. The shallow littoral region
ranges from 2.00 to 5.50 m in depth, and it
is here, that the spawning grounds of both the
mahseers are located. The map (fig. 1) shows
the location of spawning grounds and sites
(collection spots) of the mahseers in the lake.

Observations

Spawning sites and grounds :

They are located mostly in mallital basin
(upper region of the lake area) and certain
shore regions of the lake. In mallital basin,
where the main spawning grounds are situated
the spawning sites in the inshore region were

525

3

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of spawning grounds and sites (collection
spots) of the mahseers in the lake.

SPAWNING ECOLOGY OF KUMAUN MAH SEER

observed throughout the study (fig. 1). This
spawning ground has a perennial streamlet
(Jhingari nullah) which has a higher tempe-
rature (23.5°C) than the other regions
(21.5°C) of the lake with high dissolved oxy-
gen content (9.5 ppm). The bottom is pebbly
with sand and forms a favourable fish-spawn-
ing substratum. More Aquatic weeds are pre-
sent in mallital basin than in other regions of
the lake. During the breeding season (April to
September), anglers were able to get many
male and female mature fishes in the region.

Experimental gill-netting within the range of
2.50 to 5.50 m was done at night during the
breeding season, specially in August and Sept-
ember, when many mature and ripe male and
female mahseers were caught by me. In other
regions (mid-lake and deep regions), mature
or ripe fishes were rarely caught. The abun-
dant aquatic weeds of the region were iden-
tified as Ceratophyllum, Myriaphyllum,
Hydrilla, Vallisneria, Polygonum, Potamogeton
etc.

Eggs and larvae were collected mainly from
2.00 to 3.50 m. depth by a long handled hand
net, indicating that it was the spawning site.
However, spawning grounds extended upto 5.50

m. depth in certain places from where eggs and
larvae were occasionally collected. Eggs were
some times collected, attached to Hydrilla
leaves; but most of the eggs and larvae of
T. tor and T. putitora were collected free along
with sand and pebbles at the bottom. From
the same inshore area ripe fishes were caught
by large gill-nets during the night, when mah-
seers come out for spawning, there by confirm-
ing that this area was the breeding ground
of the fish. In addition to this the spawning
of the fish was also seen during mid day and
evening.

Spawning habits :

Courtship is a long process, when several
males chase the females at breeding sites. Two
to seven males are seen chasing a female. When
the female found a suitable site the eggs were
laid and at the same time the males swam
around the female contacting it by making
rapid movements of the caudal region after
which they fertilized the spawned eggs with
their milt. After a short time both males and
female returned to the deeper part of the lake,
showing no parental care either by male or
female. The male and female mahseers could

Table I

Four interspersed groups of ova (eggs). a,b,c, and d in the ripe ovary according to their diameter

IN MAHSEERS

Months

Groups (Ova diameter in mm)
Tor tor

Groups (Ova diameter in mm)
Tor putitora

a

b

April

0.512

0.951

May

0.512

0.941

June

0.645

0.875

July

0.720

0.883

August

—

0.930

September

—

1.052

c

d

a

1.40

1.915

—

1.41

1.975

0.744

1.42

1.880

—

1.810

2.427

0.712

1.507

0.180

0.825

1.527

2.840

—

bed

1.196

1.609

2.019

1 . 466

1.504

2.501

1.312

1.706

2.050

1.462

1.980

2.866

1.205

1.712

2.410

527

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

easily be identified in inshore regions by their
sexual differentiating characters (Pathani
1978).

Spawning period and eggs:

Regular dissections of male and female T.
tor and T. putitora showed that the spawning
period of T. tor extended from April to Sept-
ember and of T. putitora from May to Sept-
ember. During ripe condition in both the fishes
the female exudes eggs and male oozes milt
when slight pressure is applied on the abdo-
men. These ripe male and female mahseers
were also examined by continuous microscopic
observations of the gonads for the whole year.
After October, in both fishes, the gonads were
spent. These observations, on spawning
periods of both the species, were also con-
firmed by the collection of eggs and larvae of
T. putitora during May to September and
during April to September, vide Table II.

Table II

Data of fertilized eggs of mahseers collected

BY HAND (dip) NET

Tor tor

Tor putitora

Months

No. of

Fertilized

No. of

Fertilized

eggs/

egg

eggs/

egg

trial

diameter

trial

diameter

(average)

in mm

(average)

in mm

April

10

2.16

—

—

May

8

2.88

25

2.98

June

12

2.76

9

3.02

July

20

2.30

29

2.88

August

11

2.77

26

2.99

September

7

2.23

12

2.92

The fertilized eggs which were collected from
spawning sites, were separated for T. tor and
T. putitora. Tor tor has orange coloured and
smaller sized fertilized eggs than T. putitora;
while T. putitora has yellow slight orange

coloured and larger fertilized eggs. No colour
differentiation of larvae of T. tor and T. puti-
tora could be observed as in the case of ferti-
lized eggs. The d batch of eggs (vide Table I)
was always ripe in both the mahseers where
the diameter is variable. The reared fry (12
days after hatching in the laboratory) of both
T. tor and T. putitora have acquired charac-
ters of their adults with their congenital body
relationships to identify separately (Table III).
The yolk has completely disappeared. The
chromatophores on snout and on head have
also disappeared but many chromatophores
are scattered on the back of the larvae. The fins
are fully formed with 9-10 rays of pectoral
fins and 9 rays of anal fin. A spot on caudal
peduncle is present.

Table III

Distinguishing characters of fry of mahseers

Tor tor

Tor putitora

Total length in mm (TL)

14,01

14.30

TL/ Length of head

4.83

5.00

TL/ Width of body

5.00

6.00

To establish the number of spawning acts
the ovarian ova were measured during the
breeding period. Ovaries in both T. tor and
T . putitora showed four groups of eggs ac-
cording to the size present in the ripe ovary.
These different sized interspersed eggs (a,b,c,
and d; Table I) were present throughout the
breeding season. But the group (smallest sized
group of eggs seen by naked eye) was absent
in the month of August and September in
T. tor as they had developed further (to b,c,
and/or d), indicating four acts of spawning.
The eggs of T. putitora can also be grouped
into four size groups (a,b,c and d; Table I)
which were present throughout the spawning
season, except in the month of September

528

SPAWNING ECOLOGY OF KUMAUN MAHSEER

when breeding season is about to end. Both
T. tor and T. putitora are thus intermittent
breeders.

Maturity size and age :

Maturity size and age of both mahseers
were obtained. The males matured before the
female in both the species. The smallest ripe
male of T. tor was usually only about 202 mm
in total length, i.e. after completion of 2 years,
while the smallest mature and ripe female was
only 289 mm in total length, i.e. within 3
years of age. In T. putitora on the other hand
the males matured (ripe) only after 207 mm
in total length and 2 years of age; while
females only after 309 mm in total length and
within or after completion of 3 years.

Discussion

The first preliminary account on spawning
habits of mahseer was recorded by Thomas
(1893); according to him the fish lays its eggs
in batches, and that the pelvic fins and anal
fins are used during spawning act by the male
fish, which marks out a hollow in gravelly
grounds. In Kumaun T. tor and T. putitora
four batches of eggs are laid in one breeding
season at the gravelly, sandy spawning sites
without hollowing the ground.

Khan (1939) recorded that the mahseer
of Punjab waters spawns thrice in a
year. The spawning grounds according to him
have small stones and pebbles in shallow re-
gions with sand. Smith (1947) reported that
mahseer breeds throughout the whole year.
But in the present study tor and putitora
mahseers have been found to breed from April
to September and May to September respec-
tively. Jhingran and Sehgal (op. cit.) reported
deeper sandy and gravelly spawning grounds
of mahseers in Himachal Pradesh. Some of

the collected fertilized eggs of both the mah-
seers were hatched and reared up to fry stage
to distinguish them.

Kullcarni (op. cit.) recorded breeding sea-
son of T. khudree from July to August when
floods and low temperature prevails but no
impact of floods was seen in the spawning of
Kumaun mahseers. Desai (1973) observed the
breeding season of T. tor (Narbada river)
from July to March and fish attained first
maturity after 360 mm in total length with
four batches of eggs in the mature ovary simi-
lar to Kumaun mahseers.

Beavan (op. cit.) observed small batches of
eggs laid for several months (May to August)
by mahseer, while Hora (1940) recorded that
the breeding season of T. tor extended from
August to September based on collection of
young specimens. Cordington (1946) reported
major and minor breeding season of mahseer.
But in the present study, the breeding season
extended from April to September for tor
and May to September for putitora mahseers
of Kumaun Lakes.

Chaturvedi (1976) reported that the smallest
mature male of T. tor from Udaipur lake was
254 mm and all males mature after 310 mm
in length; while the smallest mature female was
322 mm and all females mature after 390 mm
in length within one year of age. But mahseers
of Kumaun lakes only mature between two
and three years of age at somewhat diffe-
rent lengths. The age determined by Chatur-
vedi (op. cit.) may be doubtful, as he did not
do scale, operculum and other studies. Qasim
and Qayyum (1961) have observed that T.
putitora from Aligarh waters spawned several
times over a greater part of the year having
batches of eggs at all stages of maturity in
the ripe ovary. But in the present study only
four batches of interspersed eggs were esta-
blished which were also recorded by Desai

529

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

(op. cit.) in Narbada T. tor. The sizes of ripe
eggs (d batch) were variable; this may be due
to condition of fish in the lake, as stated in the
case of Russian fishes by Nikolsky (1963).
In Kumaun Mahseers all immature eggs (a,
b,c) were light cream coloured and not trans-
parent in contrast to different coloured eggs
in the ripe ovary of Tor khudree as reported
by Kulkarni (op. cit.).

Refe

*Beavan, R. (1877) : Hand Book of Fresh Water
Fishes of India. London.

Chaturvedi, S. K. (1976) : Spawning biology of
Tor Mahseer, Tor tor (Ham.). /. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., 73(1): 63-73.

Cordington, K. D. B. (1946): Notes on Indian
Mahseers. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46(2) : 336-
344.

Desai, V. R. (1973): Studies on fishery and bio-
logy of Tor tor (Ham.) from river Narbada. Proc.
Indian nat. Sci. Acad. 39( B-2) : 228-248.

Hora, S. L. (1939) : The game fishes of India,
VIII. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 272-285.

(1940) : The game fishes of India. IX.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 518-525.

Jhingran, V. G. & Sehgal, K. L. (1977): Cold-
water Fisheries of India. Inland Fish. Soc. India,
West Bengal, 73-92.

Khan, H. (1939) : Study of the sex organs of
Mahseer. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 4/(1): 231-243.

* Original not consulted.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

My sincere thanks are due to Dr. S. M.
Das for his valuable suggestions regarding this
contribution. This work was carried out with
the award of fellowships made available by
CSIR and DST, Govt, of India, New Delhi.

ences

Kulkarni, C. V. (1971) : Spawning habits, eggs
and early development of Deccan mahseer, Tor
khudree (Sykes). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67(3):
510-521.

Nikolsky, G. V. (1963) : The Ecology of Fishes.
Academic Press, London, 853 p.

Pathani, S. S. (1977): The Problems of Kumaun
Mahseer ( Tor tor and Tor putitora). Uttarakhand
Bharti, 2(1): 65-68.

(1978).: A note on secondary

sexual characters in Kumaun mahseer Tor tor
(Hamilton) & Tor putitora (Hamilton) in Uttar
Pradesh. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 43(10) : 773-775.

Qasim, S. Z. & Qayyum, A. (1961): Spawning
frequencies and breeding seasons of some fresh-
water fishes with special references to those occur-
ring in the plains of North India. Indian J. Fish. 8:
24-43.

Smith, F. W. (1947) : Sex of Mahseer and Bokar
caught in North-east India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 46(4) : 734.

Thomas, H. S. (1893): The Rod. in India. W.
Thacker & Co., London.

530

THE GHARIAL ( GAVIALIS GANGET1CUS ):
A REVIEW1

Romulus Whitaker2 and D. Basu3
{With six plates and a text -figure)

Gharial were observed over a period of several years at wild locations and in
captivity. Surveys were carried out to study the distribution, status and habitat of
the species. The literature on gharial was researched. Gharial are fish eaters, being
specialized by head morphology and riverine habitat. Other than fish, frogs were
taken by captive animals. Birds and rats were usually refused, though the literature
includes mammals and birds, as well as reptiles in the gharial’s diet. Basking and
swimming are common behaviours. One of the most thoroughly aquatic crocodilians,
the adult gharial has weak front legs and does not ‘high walk’ or stand; locomotion
on land is the ‘forward slide’.

Adult males with prominent ‘gharas’ (narial excrescence) are dominant in an apparent
social hierarchy with females and immature males. Adults are tolerant of immature
animals and are sociable, often basking in groups. Interaction with mugger ( Crocodylus
palustris) was observed.

In India gharial nest in March and April, the dry season; the female lays 20-95
eggs in a hole 50-60 cm deep, dug with the hind feet in a riverside sand or silt bank,
one to five metres from the waterline. Courtship was observed in captivity. Gharial
rarely vocalize, the most common sound being a low growl when intimidated.

Egg collection, the rearing of some 2000 juveniles and the release of three and four
year old in three newly gazetted sanctuaries, were carried out by the GOI/UNDP/
FAO project. Captive breeding was successful in India at Nandankanan Zoological
Park and is being attempted at the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust.

In troduction

The gharial or gavial has remained one of
the least known crocodilians despite its former
commonness, wide distribution, size and ac-
cessibility. It was first described by Gmelin
(1788). Adams (1867) expounded on the
abundance and gregarious nature of Gavialis
in north India. Francis (1910), Lowis (1915)
and Rao (1933) remarked on their abund-

1 Accepted October 1981.

2 Madras Snake Park Trust, Guindy Deer Park,
Madras 600 022, Tamil Nadu.

3 D-3016, Ram Sagar Misra Nagar Colony, Luck-
now 226 010, U P.

ance on the Indus River, Pakistan. I.A.K.
(1921) recorded “plenty” of gharial in the
Gandak River, Nepal and Shortt (1921) re-
corded that parts of the Kosi River in Bihar
were “teeming” with them.

Anderson (1875) gave the first description
of a nest, eggs and young. Hornaday (1885)
described the gharial’s basking habits, voca-
lization and the ‘ghara’ or narial excrescence
and proposed early April as the laying period.

Several notes appeared, mainly in this
Journal in the first 65 years of this century
mentioning gastroliths, unusual stomach con-
tents and exceptionally large specimens. Biswas
(1970) reported its extremely depleted status

531

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 79

in some areas; Whitaker et al. (1974, 1976)
and Bustard (1974) gave further evidence of
its rarity.

Gavialis gangeticus is the sole surviving
member of a once well- represented family (see
Fossil history). It is both taxonomically as
well as structurally unique, having the most
attenuated snout of all crocodilians.

It is light to dark olive dorsally, with dark
cross bands (more prominent in young ani-
mals) and a white or yellowish underside. The
snout is 3.3 to 5.5 (in young) times the
basal width; the individually socketed long thin
teeth are arranged thus: 5+23 — 24. Scales are

25—26

arranged in uniform longitudinal rows with a
pair of post-occipitals and nuchals consisting
of four transverse rows of 2 scales, continu-
ous with the dorsal scales. There are 21-22
transverse rows of dorsals (6 scales wide),
18-20 double crested caudal scales, 21-24 sin-
gle crested caudal scales and 30-31 transverse
rows of ventrals (Wermuth 1953, Braziatis
1973, Singh & Bustard 1976).

The future of the gharial appears to be
secure with the formation of several protected
habitats and the successes of State rehabilita-
tion projects in India. Four research scholars
have been studying the species for the past
several years .

Materials and methods

We have been involved in the survey, study
and captive rearing of gharial in India for
several years. Most major habitats in India,
Nepal and Bhutan were surveyed using both
day and night censuses, behavioural observa-
tions on wild and captive groups were made,
and young (from wild collected eggs) and wild
caught adults were reared since 1973. At the

Madras Crocodile Bank (MCB) two adults
and four juveniles are being reared in a large,
landscaped enclosure for captive breeding.
Basu carried out egg collection annually for
six years in Uttar Pradesh (Girwa River) and
Rajasthan (Chambal River).

The literature on gharial was surveyed and
is reviewed here to provide a current, but yet
incomplete, summary of the species’ biology.

Results and Discussion

Fossil history: Members of the family Gavia-
lidae have been found in Tertiary deposits in
Asia, North and South America and Europe.
Five Pliocene species were found in the
Siwalik and Narmada Hills in India, one al-
most indistinguishable from Gavialis gangeti-
cus (Smith, 1935). Hecht (1972) discussed the
differences between the Oligocene, Pliocene and
Miocene gharial of Colombia, Venezuela and
Florida and the tomistomine crocodilians.
Distribution and status in the wild: The range
of the gharial includes the river systems of
the Indus (in present day Pakistan), the
Ganges (India, Bangladesh, with tributaries in
Nepal), the Brahmaputra (with one tributary,
the Manas River, in Bhutan) and the Maha-
nandi in Orissa. The single record for the
Maingtha stream of the Irrawadi in Burma
(Barton 1927) has not been supported by
further specimens. Aung Moe (pers. comm.)
reiterates the unlikelihood of this species occur-
ring in Burma. Bustard and Choudhury (in
litt.) report that the gharial may have occurred
on the upper reaches of the Godavari River
in recent times.

Old references indicate the gharial’s abun-
dance in the past: Indus River in Pakistan
(Francis 1910, Rao 1933); Gandak River in
Nepal (I.A.K. 1921); Jumna River in Uttar
Pradesh (Hornaday 1885), Kosi River in

THE GHARIAL : A REVIEW

Bihar (Shortt 1921). Several authors mention
seeing groups basking together and in one area
on the Jumna River, 22 were counted in two
hours (Hornaday 1885).

Population size and status: Due to the com-
bined effects of shooting, nesting, hooking for
skin and meat and loss of habitat from river
alteration and human settlement, the gharial
dwindled to a trace of its former abundance
by the end of the 1960’s (Biswas 1970, Whita-
ker et al. 1974). By the mid 1970’s the largest
known wild concentration was 34 animals in-
cluding adults and juveniles in 5-6 kms of
river at Katerniaghat, Uttar Pradesh. Two
other relatively substantial breeding popula-
tions were located on: a) the Chambal River
(Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pra-
desh) consisting of perhaps 50 adults and 100
smaller animals in 600 kms of river; b) the
Rapti-Narayani Rivers in Chitawan National
Park, Nepal, where 14 adults were recorded
(B. Wright, pers. comm.).

Gharial seem to be nearly extinct in Bangla-
desh (R. Khan 1979), Bhutan (Bustard 1979)
and nearly so in Pakistan (Minton, pers. comm.).
The total wild populations was estimated as
being under 200 (Whitaker & Daniel 1978).
As a result of captive rearing and release there
are currently about 500 gharial in India now,
in the wild. Another 1800 are in captivity.
Habitat: Annandale (1912 in Biswas, 1970)
remarks that its distribution corresponds to
that of Trionyx gangeticus and Platanista gan-
geticus, and literature emphasizes its prefer-
ence for deep fast flowing rivers. It has even
been surmised that one of the reasons for the
lack of success in captive breeding has been
the failure to provide flowing water for the
potential breeders. However, adult gharial are
not totally restricted to mainstreams; they have
been observed in still water branches of rivers
and an adult was even seen in a jheel (lake)

surrounded by sand hills (“Sind” 1922). Rao
(1933) writes of a sudden increase in gharial
on the upper Indus and reports seeing them
in open water in the jungle as well as on the
main river and ributaries. However, these seem
to be exceptions and the prime habitat of the
gharial is deep rivers. These include the nor-
thern tributaries of the Ganges (up to 300 m
above MSL) which drain from the glaciers
and melting snow of the Himalayas such as
the Girwa, Gandak and Kosi; the rain fed
tributaries such as the Chambal, Ken and
Son; the Brahmaputra with tributaries both
from the Himalayas (north) as well as the
smaller hill ranges (south); and finally the
Mahanadi in Orissa, far south of the rest of
the gharial’ s range.

Adult gharial show a preference for the
comparatively velocity free state found in the
deep “kunds” or holes at river bends and
confluences. Smaller animals seem to conserve
energy by resting out of the main stream in
sheltered backwaters, particularly during the
monsoon (July-September) when water velo-
cities may multiply by a factor of 5.

For most of the year the Ramganga River
in Corbett National Park cannot be called a
deep, fast flowing river; gharial are concen-
trated at the deep pools at sharp bends and
this distribution may be characteristic of past
habitat preference. The occurence of gharial
in some of these larger hill streams, though
perhaps not prime habitat, indicates how little
undisturbed area remains where the species
can survive.

Although there is one report of nesting in
a mud bank (Bustard 1980), gharial usually
use the steeper sand banks for nesting. Sand
and rock outcrops are preferred basking sites
and deep water at river bends and junctions
a usual feature of confirmed gharial habitat.
The relationship and evolutionary significance

533

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

of habitat to the habit of depositing eggs in
a hole (hole nesting) has been suggested in
other crocodilians (Carr 1963, Greer 1970).
Bustard (1974) notes that while habitat loss
is a serious threat to the gharial’s existence,
gharial have adapted to some degree; nesting
in nullahs (side creeks of main rivers) is the
main adaptation.

In contrast to the adult and subadult habi-
tats, young during the first year seem to favour
hiding in vegetation or debris, often roots or
fallen tree branches in the water (Singh 1976).
In mid August, 1978, a 57 cm gharial was
caught by a farmer in a water logged lowland
(Srivastava 1978). It is suggested that in the
past when gharial were numerous the young
often frequented shallow water and densely
vegetated flooded areas away from the m v
rivers.

Size: Hornaday (1885) judged large gharial
he observed to be over 5.40 m long and men-
tions a stuffed specimen at Allahabad Museum
of 5.10 m and another at Jardin des Plantes,
Paris, of 6.18 m. Pitman (1925) gives 6.45 m
as the maximum length. Bustard (1974) esti-
mates that gharial reach over 8 m and that
6-7 m animals were once common. Two adult
males at Satkosia Gorge in Orissa are esti-
mated by Bustard (in litt.) to be 6.6 m long.
Shortt (1921) felt that 4.20 m is the upper
limit for females and well over 5.70 m for
males. Anderson (1875) gives the length of
gharial hatchlings as 395 mm. Recently ave-
rage lengths have varied from 325-374 mm
and average weights have ranged from 75-97
gm (Biswas 1970, Singh 1976, 1979). The wild
juvenile captured near Katerniaghat, Uttar
Pradesh and considered to be a yearling, was
75 cm in length and weighed 550 gm
(Srivastava 1978); however, its age was not
known. Average lengths and weights of hatch-
lings from 6 nests are given in Table 1. Ave-

rage hatchling sizes of Girwa River (Uttar
Pradesh) gharial have been found to be signi-
ficantly smaller than those from the Chambal
River (Rajasthan) population.

Growth rates: A UNDP news release of late
1977 states that the 1409 juvenile gharial be-
ing reared in state projects reach an average
length of 1.02 m in 18 months. Singh (1979)
reports they reach 1 m in 12-18 months. A
2.7 m male gharial at the Madras Crocodile
Bank was 18 years old, and a female of 2.4 m
estimated to be over 20 years old (Whitaker
et al. 1979). Choudhury (1979) gives the fol-
lowing average growth rates for gharial re-
leased in Uttar Pradesh in 1979.

No.

Age

Total length

Weight

5

3

yrs, 9 mo.

193 cm

22.5 kg

9

2

yrs, 9 mo.

140 cm

5.28 kg

15

2

yrs, 9 mo.

16 7 cm

13.6 kg

Biswas (1977) gives growth figures for a
captive reared male gharial at Nandankanan
Biological Park, Orissa. At 1 year, 8 months
and length was 135 cm; at 11 years, 6 months
the length was 250 cm and at 15 years, 7
months the length was 270 cm. Table 2 gives
the average measurements of 588 juvenile from
6 months to 5 years of age.

Longevity: The only longevity . record in the
literature is from a female at the London Zoo
which died in 1972, at the age of about 29
years; its total length was 3.43 m (Guggis-
berg 1972, Martin and Bellairs 1977). Fisher-
men who live in the past geographic range of
the gharial commonly stated the ‘age of man’
and ‘over 100 years’ as being the age attained
by a gharial. Certainly their late maturity and
large size suggest a long life span.

Sexual maturity: In cloacal probing of 20
gharial from 1 to 3 m, Whitaker et al. (1979)
point out the difficulties of sex differentiation
in animals under 2 m in length. A 2.7 m male,

534

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate

Whitaker & Basu: Gaviolis gangeticus

Adult male gharial with prominent ghara.
(Photo: Rajesh Bedi )

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sqc. 79

Whitaker & Basu: Gavialis gangeticus

Plate II

This sequence illustrates a gharial positioning a fish by tossing and then swallowing it.

(Photo : Rajesh Bedi)

THE GHAR1AL : A REVIEW

18 years of age had a penis only a few cm.
long. Clitoral and penal tips appear identical
in sub-adults. We feel that the rate of sexual
development is considerably slower than in
other crocodilians.

Hornaday (1885) records that the smallest
female he shot which contained developing
eggs (15) was 2.70 m. A 2.97 m female shot
on the Sutlej River contained 56 eggs (Par-
shad 1914). From these data, the minimum
breeding size of a female gharial would appear
to be approximately 2.6 m. Males appear to
usually reach maturity at a length of over 3 m
and an age of 13 to 14 years (Biswas 1977).

Geoff rey-Saint-Hilaire (1925) stated that the
narial excrescence or ‘ghara’ of the gharial
is a development peculiar to adult males. It
is generally considered to be a sex character
of very large animals. Hornaday (1885) found
no trace of a ghara in 26 specimens up to
3.6 m in length; the only ones he saw were
on ‘monsters’ of 5-6 m. Large males with
gharas are traditionally recognized as the adult
males and are given special names (see Table
3) (Whitaker et al. 1974; Singh in Martin
and Bellairs 1977). Biswas (1977) outlines the
development of the ghara of a captive male.
It first appeared at an age of 11 years 6
months and at 2.7 m (15 years 7 months) the
male had a well developed ghara with the fol-
lowing measurements: length — 5 cm; ante-
rior width — 4 cm; posterior width — 6 cm;
height — 3.5 cm. Bustard (in Bellairs 1977
and pers. comm.) sexed this male by cloacal
probing and confirmed that it appeared to be
mature.

Hornaday (1885) thought the ghara was com-
posed of bone and Neill (1971) discredits its
existence. Biswas et al. (1977) note that the
ghara grows over the nostrils and that the
hissing of the surfacing male is caused by
this blockage. Earlier, Champion (1934) notes

that gharial hiss like escaping steam’. The
whistle-like exhalation was clearly heard at a
distance of 75 m across the Chambal River.

Martin and Bellairs (1977), in their timely
treatment of the unique but little known
characteristic, give an account of its morpho-
logy. They propose three possible functions
of the hollow, cartiligenous ghara: as a re-
sonator, as a visual sex recognition character,
or in bubbling, spouting or other sexual be-
haviour. Records of vocalization in gharial are
scanty (see ‘vocalization’); furthermore there
are very few adult males either in captivity
or observable in the wild. The function of the
ghara must be of important enough evolu-
tionary significance to remain a trait of the
species for so long and to offset its disadvan-
tage in creating friction while snapping at fish.

The 3.43 m female at the London Zoo has
a partially developed ghara about 3 cm high
and 5.4 cm across the base; Martin and
Bellairs suggest the animal was abnormal.

Habits

Prey capture and food: The strongly attenuat-
ed snout and rows of uniform sharp teeth
are reminiscent of other well known fish eating
taxa such as the bottlenose dolphin ( Tur slops
sp.), gangetic dolphin ( Platanista gangeticus),
garfish ( Lepisosteus sp.) and needlefish (Belo-
nidae). The thin snout meets considerably less
resistance when snapping at fish underwater
than does that of a mugger for example. Sup-
ported by a relatively long, well muscled neck
it is a most efficient fish catcher.

Bustard (in Bellairs 1977) says that the
gharial is probably the most predominantly
fish eating of all extant crocodilians. Singh
(1977) points out the distinctive adaptation of
the snout and teeth to fish eating. He describes
and illustrates the method used by juvenile

535

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vot. 79

gharial to manoeuvre fish back to the open-
ing of the gullet by jerking the head back to
the side; the fish usually slides in head first.
The greater weight of the fish’s head allows
for this, the most efficient position for swallow-
ing. Singh also describes the habit of small
gharial which may run out of the water with
fish, particularly large active fish which are
likely to escape. Gharial also tear their prey
apart by the head jerk technique used by
other crocodilians. Whitaker (1975) gives a
series of photographs showing the typical
swallowing procedure. Neill (1971) describes
feeding in juvenile gharial. The sideways snap
at fish involves the head and neck only.

Singh (1976) remarks that juvenile gharial
feeding on tadpoles and fish seem to rely more
on tactile reception than on sight for catching
prey. This is certainly the case with a gharial
born blind at Satkoshia Gorge (Singh, pers.
comm.). An adult female at MCB which is
blind in one eye will catch thrown fish with
equal success on both sides. The 2.8 m male
gharial at Nandankanan watched an atten-
dant throw a live 1-2 kg murrel fish, submerg-
ed and had the fish at the surface of the
almost opaque water within a few minutes.
One specimen caught a peacock which flew
into its pen but did not swallow it (Acharjyo,
pers. comm.) Juvenile and adult gharial at
MCB has been observed feeding on frogs and
catching free living Tilapia in their large pond.
Rats thrown to them were often snapped at,
occasionally ‘chewed’ and held for some time
but never swallowed. While captive juvenile
and sub-adult gharial are fairly heavy feeders,
larger captive specimens subsist on propor-
tionately less feed.

S. Choudhury (in litt.) estimated that cap-
tive reared juvenile gharial consumed between
1 and 5% of their body weight in fish daily

and that the rate of consumption was tempe-
rature related.

Stomach contents : The larger the gharial

grows the shorter and heavier set is the snout
in relation to its body length (Martin and
Bellairs 1977). Large gharial over 15 ft have
fairly massive, strong jaws and a large gullet;
one can easily imagine their dealing with large
strong prey or large items of carrion. Shortt
(1921) records that gharial feed on turtles in
addition to fish; Biswas (1970) records Trio-
nyx gangeticus, the gangetic softshell turtle,
as a gharial prey item. Forsyth (1910) records
bird remains and weeds in the stomach of a
4.8 m male gharial on the Sarda River. “Sind”
(1921) reports that a gharial caught a wild
cat ( Felis chaus). Pitman (1925) .reports but
doubts a correspondent’s claim of finding the
hindquarters of a donkey in the stomach of a
6.45 m gharial on the Ghara River.

Hornaday (1885) gives the stomach con-
tents of one 3.3 m female as 3 half digested
fish; another 3 m female killed the same day
contained only a few bits of a clay pot; others
contained only fish remains. It must be kept
in mind that fish are soft bodied and quickly
digested. Contrary to the standard conception
of crocodilians as voracious reptiles with great
appetites, Cott (1961) and others have report-
ed and remarked upon the high percentage of
empty stomachs encountered in large samples
of Nile crocodiles.

Hornaday (1885) unequivocably states that
gharial cannot be man-eaters judging from the
way his men plunged into the river knowing
they were there. A fisherman interviewed on
the Brahmaputra in Assam alleged that “many
years ago” a seven year old boy was caught
and drowned by a large male gharial as the
boy was hunting prawns in the shallows.
Dodsworth (1910) apparently examined a
large number of gharial stomachs and remark-

536

THE GHARIAL : A REVIEW

ed on the number of gastroliths found. Large
specimens had empty stomachs except for
stones. Shortt (1921) and Biswas (1970) re-
port that ornaments are sometimes found in
gharial stomachs. Smith (1931) notes that they
will feed on corpses, the probable source of
the ornaments. Martin and Bellairs (1977) re-
cord human leg bones taken from the stomach
of a 4.83 m specimen killed in 1897. Neill
(1971) suggests that ornaments might be pick-
ed up by gharial on the river bottom as gastro-
liths. It is true that hard objects other than
stones are picked up and swallowed by croco-
dilians. Forsyth (1910) records finding 4.5 kg
of stones in the stomach of a 4.8 m male,
the three largest about 225 gms each. He
raises the question of whether the stones aid
digestion. In 1921 Shortt wrote, “there is
always a collection of stones, sometimes quite
large, to aid digestion I suppose.” Gastroliths
remain a subject of considerable debate in
spite of Cott’s hypothesis on the hydrostatic
function of gastroliths (in Nile crocodiles).

Predation:

Basu (1980) reports rats tunnelling into two
of the 13 nests located on the Chambal in
1979, resulting in loss of 50% of the eggs. The
loss of 33 eggs to rats represents about 7%
of the total of almost 500 eggs collected from
the 13 nests. Between 1976 and 1980 nine
attempts of nest robbing by jackals were re-
corded at the Chambal River of which seven
were unsuccessful, for a predation rate of
5.9% for the 34 nests observed (Basu, unpub.
obs.).

Female gharial chased away jackals on three
occasions, once after about 14 eggs had been
eaten. Several predators on other crocodilians
found in gharial habitat are potential preda-
tors on the eggs and young. These include wild
pig, jackals, common, desert and yellow moni-

tor lizards, domestic dogs, large wading birds
and birds of prey. Cannibalism has not been
noted in gharial. Tolerance for young animals
by adults is noted by Hornaday (1885) in the
wild and in captivity at MCB and Mysore
Zoo. Thirty eight young from a clutch of 46
were seen with an adult 40 days after hatching,
indicating that maternal protection is an im-
portant deterrent to potential predators.

Moidart (1895) reports a turtle killing a
small gharial in Rajputana, probably in the
Chambal River. Indeed the genera Trionyx
and Chitra are among the largest freshwater
turtles in the world. These plus fish like
Bagarius will no doubt prey on small gharial.
The most consistently reported predator on
large gharial is man. Most of the references
on gharial in this Journal refer to the killing
of one or many gharial. Aside from factors
such as habitat loss, the almost total demise
of the species has been due to hunting for
skin and meat and human predation on the
eggs for eating (Whitaker 1974, Bustard
1974).

Amphibious behaviour:

Basu and separately Dodwell in Whitaker
et al. (1974) remark on the ghariaPs habit of
returning to the same spot every day for bask-
ing, which makes them very vulnerable to pre-
dation. Singh and Bustard (1977) report that
captive juvenile gharial at Satkoshia in Orissa
bask for longer periods than do mugger. They
typically bask for a few hours after sunrise
and sometimes at other times of day. They
basked daily in winter and very little in sum-
mer.

Whitaker et al. (1979) observed two gharial
sporadically during April 1974 and report
daily basking, mainly in the morning hours
until noon. By 18th April increasing tempe-
ratures were apparently responsible for the

537

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

shift in trend from basking on the rocky
shelves to basking on sand banks in the shal-
lows. High temperatures and a sharp breeze
seemed to discourage afternoon basking.

Hornaday (1885) was impressed by the
amount of time during the day the gharial
spent basking. He attributes this to the cold-
ness and swiftness of water in their typical
habitat. Shortt (1921) accurately outlined the
basking pattern. In the cold season (Dec.-
Feb.) gharial emerge after 9 a.m. and return
to the water at 4 p.m. As the hot weather
advances toward its peak in June, they come
out earlier in the morning and then later in
the evening, returning to the water between
10 a.m. and 5 p.m. He reports that very large
animals occasionally bask at night during the
hot weather.

Gaping:

As reported for most other crocodilians, gap-
ing is a common habit of basking gharial. A
discussion of its possible significance in ther-
moregulation is beyond the scope of this paper.
Ross (unpublished, 1975) writing about the
Corbett Park animals, suggests that the fre-
quent display of the yellowish interior of the
gharial’s mouth while basking was actually a
threat display directed at mugger basking near-
by. Whitaker et al. (1979) report that typical
gaping in gharial at Corbett was for 10-20
minute periods with head raised about 20°.
At MCB gaping is a regular feature of basking
at all times of the year. In summer months
(at the peak of the hot season) juvenile and
adult gharial would rarely leave the water
during the day but hold their heads out of
the water at 20-30° angles, gaping, while keep-
ing the rest of the body submerged. This was
generally observed in the evening about an
hour before sunset and seems to support the

‘cleaning hypothesis’, i.e. that the crocodilian
thus rids its mouth of algae and parasites.

Swimming:

The heavily muscled tail, well webbed hind
feet and elongated smooth body are all adap-
tations for an aquatic existence. Gharial swim
with limbs folded against the body except
when using them for stability and the ‘back
dive’. Whitaker et al. (1979) observed gharial
‘walking’ on the bottom of the clear Ram-
ganga River and reported a sinuous bending
of the body reminiscent of the varanid gait.

Terrestrial locomotion:

Hornaday (1885) was the first to describe
the ‘lazy’ sliding gait of the gharial on land.
Singh and Bustard (1976) report the three
gaits described by Cott (1961) for Nile croco-
diles (high walk, belly run, gallop) in gharial
up to ten months of age. Bustard and Singh
(1977) describe the gait of larger gharial as
a ‘forward slide’, pushing with all four limbs
in a gait the authors describe as similar to
that of a green sea turtle on land. They point
out that gharial rarely move far from the
water’s edge. When they haul out for basking
they generally make a ‘U’ turn near the edge
of the water. This locomotion (due to feebly
developed front feet), the authors point out,
greatly restricts terrestrial movement and could
be a primitive mode derived from this oldest
living family of crocodilians. The fact that
gharial live in deep flowing rivers which do
not dry up and that they only need to leave
the water for basking and nesting favours the
diminishment . or nondevelopment of more
effective powers of terrestrial locomotion.

Whitaker (1978) described a 2.8 m captive
male gharial at MCB which climbed over a
1 m brick wall and used the forward slide
rather than a ‘high walk’ gait to travel a

538

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79
Whitaker & Basu: Gavialis gangeticus

Wild gharial on the Girwa River, Uttar Pradesh.
(Photo: Rajesh Bedi )

j. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate IV

Whitaker & Basu : Gavialis gangeticus

Egg collection at a gharial nest site on the Chambal River. Rajasthan.
(Photo: Rajesh Bedi )

THE GHARIAL : A REVIEW

nocturnal circuitous route of 650 m around
the other enclosures before coming back to its
own enclosure. Overland migration by gharial
is not likely to occur but in case of necessity
(accidental isolation in a dry area) short
distances can be negotiated by smaller animals.

Homing /migration / dispersal:

Singh (1977) describes a 1.5 m gharial
caught on the Mahanadi River and released
15 km downriver, which returned to its origi-
nal place of capture. Singh (1976) mentioned
the extreme sensitivity of hatchling gharial to
a change in the arrangement of the Salix weeds
in their ponds. Alterations in the weed arrange-
ment caused them to leave the water.

Rao (1933) notes the northward migration
of large numbers of gharial on the Indus River
(Pakistan) and attributes their continued pre-
sence on the upper Indus to the closure of a
(then) newly constructed barrage. He states
that they generally go upstream with the rising
water at monsoon time and downstream when
the river goes down in the fall and winter.
Biswas (1970) reports that gharial are said
to move downriver from the Kosi in Bihar
to the Ganges during flood time (monsoon).
Gharial at Katerniaghat are observed to migrate
locally (8-10 kms) every year, always orient-
ing themselves upstream at the flood water
period in the monsoon. Adult migration is
always very local and seems to be merely to
maintain the home range. Juvenile migration
(dispersal) is predictably longer and one re-
leased specimen travelled over 150 km down-
stream in a few months (Basu, unpub. obs.).

The return of the female to the nest site
as reported by Singh and Bustard (1977),
Bustard (1980) and Basu (1980) demon-
strates the homing instinct as does the often
reported propensity of gharial to return to the
same spot to bask.

Bustard (1974) estimates that the 34 young
he observed with a large female were a month
old, indicating that young stay with the female
for at least a month. Maternal attendance may
last for at least a year as it does in the mugger
(Whitaker, unpub. obs.). It is likely that in
undisturbed conditions gharial display protec-
tive behaviour for several months or longer.
Bustard (1979) and Choudhury (1979) give
data on dispersal of captive reared gharial.
Table 4 gives the average dispersal distances
for animals released in April, 1979.

Social organization and reproduction

Interaction with mugger:

Several of the older references refer to
groups of mugger and gharial living in close
proximity. Champion (1934) writes that he
could count up to 45 of both species in a day
on the Mohan River in Uttar Pradesh. He
records watching a 3 m gharial chase a simi-
lar size mugger from a favoured basking spot.
This is contrary to the observations by us and
of others who have observed mugger as the
dominant aggressors. Whitaker et al. (1979)
observed interspecific aggression at the Gharial
crocodile pool in Corbett National Park. One
mugger nested on the same midriver island
in the Chambal River as 3 to 5 gharial during
1976-1980. The mugger nest site was separated
from the others by its rocky aspect (Basu,
unpub. obs.).

Territoriality / Sociality:

In general it was observed that interspecific
aggression is analogous to intraspecific territo-
rialism, with size being the most important
determinant of dominance. The impression
gained in interviewing persons familiar with
the species when it was abundant is that the
‘harem’ group consisted of a large ‘knobbed’

539

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

male with several females. There are nume-
rous references to the gharial’s preference for
the same basking spot but nothing is known
of the degree to which territoriality manifests
itself. Basu (1980) writes of a sand bar and
nearby rocks which were the regular basking
places of 4 adult males (though never toge-
ther) and 6 females. At Mysore Zoo aim
juvenile was often seen basking on the back
of one of the 3 m to 3.5 m adults. At MCB
adults and juveniles have been housed toge-
ther for several years with almost no agonistic
interaction. At Nandankanan Zoo, Orissa a
newly introduced adult male killed the smaller
resident male in the breeding enclosure, indi-
cating a territoriality similar to that seen in
other adult male crocodilians.

Vocalization:

Champion (1934) writes that a 3 m gharial
‘bellowed hard’ a number of times, apparently
to intimidate a mugger which had usurped its
basking spot. Although vocalization has never
been reported in association with breeding,
gharial certainly have the capacity for making
sound in distress situations. Hornaday (1885)
wrote that a 3 m animal which had been shot
‘groaned three or four times like a strong man
in distress’. This groaning sound has been
heard several times at MCB from animals of
1.5 m to 2.7 m when closely approached.
It often preceded a sudden rush for the water.
Choruses of groans were heard in groups of
juveniles at the Kukrail Gharial Rehabilitation
Centre. Hornaday goes on to say that wound-
ed gharial would often ‘bawl aloud like calves
when seized’, a sound evidently similar to the
distress cry of a large mugger when caught.
One of his shot animals (3.45 m female)
‘bawled’ more than a dozen times while strug-
gling. Similarly Basu (974) reports that fisher-
men say that when caught on hooks buried at

basking sites gharial emit loud roars. Rajesh
Bedi (in Basu 1980) heard the ‘noisy grunt’
of a gharial at night as it approached what
was presumably its nest.

Courtship and mating:

Mating is in December- J anuary, winter
months with low water levels and low tempe-
ratures. The near adult male gharial at MCB
was observed to jaw slap on two occasions at
breeding time. On both occasions the behavi-
our consisted of three open mouthed slaps on
the water surface in quick succession. Com-
pared to the powerful signal in some croco-
diles and the American alligator, the gharial’ s
jaw slap is feeble. The jaw slap was followed
by a hissing exhalation from the nostrils.
One occasion the sun was behind the animal
and a cloud of droplets rose to about a meter
over its head while hissing. According to
Martin and Bellairs (1977), the ghara on the
male’s snout (Fig. 1) may be an important com-
ponent of breeding, functioning as a vocal re-
sonator. Considering the weakness of the jaw
slap, it certainly seems that vocalization would
be the more effective signal. No response by
conspecifics was observed.

At Nandankanan Biological Park courtship
behaviour has been observed for several suc-
cessive seasons. Maharana (pers. comm.)
observed courtship in January and February
and infers that the male uses the ghara as a
hook on the female’s snout for leverage when
mounting. A photograph by R. Bedi (in Gore
1978) shows a male and female with crossed
snouts, a feature of courtship behaviour also
observed at MCB. The following is a descrip-
tion of one sequence. On 20 December 1977 at
1630 the 2.7 m male (without ghara) was
observed to be on top of the female at the
deepest end of the poqd. The pair submerged
briefly, surfaced and separated. At 1640 the

540

THE GHARIAL : A REVIEW

Fig. 1. Development of the ghaia or narial excrescence of the male gharial (after Martin and Bellairs, 1977).
(a) juvenile, (b) subadult, (c) subadult, (d) adult.

male approached the female. The female
snapped at the male several times, bubbling
and geysering small spouts of water from her
nostrils. The male then crossed snouts with
the female and swam behind her, he mounted
and the pair submerged. A few minutes later
the female surfaced among the weeds at the
shallow end of the pond. The male approach-
ed her and when close, the female raised her
head exposing the white underside of her
throat. The male turned and swam away.
Shortly thereafter the female swam toward a
2 year old, 1 . 25 m subadult and chased it out
of the water. This was one of the few occa-
sions in which aggression toward smaller
animals was seen.

Nesting:

Nesting is strongly seasonal, occurring in
March and April, during the period of high
ambient temperatures and between the cold
winter months (0-4°C) and the monsoon
floods. Sites with fine sand are chosen in pre-
ference to banks of coarse sand. On the
Chambal River the earliest nesting was re-
corded on 7th April. Anderson (1975) gives
the first description of a gharial nest: 40 eggs
buried in sand. The nest was in two layers
of 20 with sand between. It is possible the
female was disturbed during laying, resulting
in the two tiers. The layer configuration of
three nests on the Chambal was as follows:

541

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Layer

Nest 1

Nest 2

Nest 3

1

20

20

13

2

20

20

23

3

4

7

—

It is presumed that the layers form by the
action of gravity rather than by a deliberate
effort of the female.

Gharial invariably dig their pitcher-shaped
nest holes at night on steep sandy river banks.
Singh and Bustard (1977) report the use of
mud banks for nesting on the Chambal River
after loss of sand banks from damming. The
average nest hole is 40 cm deep and the
spoor formation at trial nests confirms that the
hind legs are used in digging, though Bustard
(in litt.) saw a female engaged in apparent
nest hole digging with her fore-limbs. Nests
are located 1 to 5 m above the water level
and up to 10 m away from the water’s edge
(Singh and Bustard 1977). The spoor of nest-
ing females was found at a maximum dist-
ance of 22 m away from the river.

It is possible that gharial are communal
nesters, as reported for the Nile crocodile
(Cott 1961). Basu (1980) reports three nests
on one 30 m sand bar on the Chambal and
close proximity of nests at other sites. Trial
nest holes are a common feature of gharial
nesting. 5 females on the Karnali River (Nepal)
made 12 trial holes without nesting. The dig-
ging of these trials is a manifestation of the
nesting urge of the female (Bustard, in litt.).
The depths of trial nest holes are compared
below with actual nest holes.

Trial holes

Number

Range of
depth

X depth

23

27 — 52 cm

35.04 cm

Actual nest holes

22

20 — 54.5 cm

40. 1 1 cm

Prior to the

actual

deposition

of eggs

gharial exhibit nesting behaviour consisting of

movement to the vicinity of nest site, travel
over the nest site and the digging of trial
nests. In the Girwa river 4 females that had
been basking on mid-river sand bars since mid
February 1975, gave up the security of these
basking sites and appeared below nesting sites
on the right river bank on the morning of
31st March. One nest was located on 22nd
April in which eggs were deposited on the
previous night but nesting activity continued
till the night of 29 April. Although trial dig-
ging was first noticed on the night of 15 April,
the duration of the nesting period is com-
puted to be 29 nights, that is, the date of
first appearance below the nest sites to the
post laying cessation of activity.

Table 1

Hatchling Measurements

Nest

No.

N

Weight

in grams

Length

in cms

Range

Average

Range

Average

1

50

96-126

116

35-38.5

35.7

2

38

82- 99

90

34.5-36.5

35.5

3

4

121-125

123

38-39

38.4

4

25

84-107

94

35-39

37.4

5

49

95-123

115

34-37.5

35.7

6

32

103-130

118

36-39.2

37.7

Table 2

Growth rates

Year of Age Num- Weight (Kg.) Length (cm)
Hatching Class ber Range X Range X

(year)

1976

4-5

6

27.5-36.0:

31.8

209-218:

212

1977

3-4

143

5.5-28.0:

12.7

130-209:

: 172

1978

2-3

196

1.0-11.0:

6.8

80-158:

138

1979

1-2

91

0.35-4.5:

1.8

61-116:

: 88

1980

0-1

152

0.14-0.4:

0.6

42-66 :

: 56

On

the Chambal

River

the spoor of

an

adult gharial (presumably a female) on 22
March indicated that the animal had travelled

542

THE GHARIAL : A REVIEW

Table 3

Vernacular names of gharial

Language

Place

Vernacular name(s)

Urdu

Pakistan

Sansar

Hindustani

North India

Gharial (ghara=mud pot), nakaar

Bihari Hindi

Bihar

Nakaar, Basoolia nakaar (male)

Oriya

Orissa

Gharial (male), thantia (female)

Miching

Assam

Shormon

Bengali

West Bengal

Mecho kumhir (fish-eating crocodile)

Nepali

Nepal

Chimpta (pincers), thondre, lamthora

(Whitaker et a\.

1974, Martin and Bellairs 1977)

more than 10 m. from the water without dig-
ging any trial nests. Activity continued for 21
nights till the night of 11 April, with the ex-
ception of the night of 31 March and 3 April.
In this period 28 nest holes were dug with
7 holes being the maximum number in one
night. In contrast to the protracted nesting
activity of these sites a solitary nesting female
using a site in a nesting area different from
all other areas mentioned above deposited
her eggs after a single night’s nesting activity
on the night of 5 April in which she dug only
one other nest hole apart from the hole in
which she deposited her eggs.

Singh and Bustard (1977) describe a nest
of 25 eggs on Satkoshia Gorge being 5.9 m
from the water’s edge and 2.6 m above water
level. The first eggs were 37.5 cm below the
surface and the bottom of the nest hole mea-
sured 30 x 22.5 cm. In 23 nests on the
Chambal and Girwa, the depth of sand cover-
ing the eggs averaged 29.03 cm. Depth of the
nest hole averaged 48.89 cm and diameter
52.90.

The banks of the Chambal River can be
broadly classified into the following types: 1)
steep sand banks 2) flat sand banks 2) steep
mud banks 4) flat mud banks 5) rocky banks.

While nest hole excavation would be possible
for gharial in bank types 1, 2 and 3 nesting
was confined to river bank type 1) Alluvial
deposits on a midriver rocky island were also
used for nesting each season between 1976
and 1980. Between 1975 and 1980 all located
gharial nests on the Girwa River in the Kater-
niaghat Sanctuary were found on a 3 km
stretch of bank adjoining the highest land in
the sanctuary. The same approximate sites are
used each season but there are considerable
alterations to the bank each year due to ero-
sion and deposition during the monsoon high
water. The Katerniaghat nest sites are there-
fore almost exclusively sandy subsoil exposed
by erosion. Table 5 gives distances from and
heights above water for 32 nests at 3 sites.
Tables 6 and 7 give clutch sizes and female
relatedness. Twelve nesting female gharial on
the Chambal measured 3.16 m to 4.54 m
(using the method described by Singh and
Bustard 1977) with an average of 3.77 m;
clutch sizes of these females has ranged from
10 to 64 eggs with an average of 42.

Incubation:

Observations on captive animals indicate
an average egg development period of about

543

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Table 4

Dispersal of released juvenile gharial (1979)

Locality No. Dispersal Dispersal Post

in one in two monsoon

month months dispersal

Chambal

River,

U.P. 15 200-500 m <* km <5 km

Girwa

River, U.P. 14 minimal 1-2 km

(Bustard 1979, Choudhury 1979)

Table 5
Nest situation

Nests Distance Height

from above

water (m)

water (m)

A.

Chambal

28

4.6-14.5:9.5

1. 5-3.5 : 2.4

B.

Girwa

3

2.5- 4.0: 3.2

1. 0-3.0: 2.0

C.

Mahanadi

1

5.9

2.5

(Singh & Bustard 1977)

Table 6

Clutch size of gharial nests

Year

Place

Nests (N)

Clutch
size (x)

1976

Girwa R., Chambal R.

10

45.8

1977

Girwa R., Chambal R.

18

39.5

1978

Girwa R., Chambal R.

16

39.2

1978

Rapti/ Narayani R.
(Nepal)

10

30.8

1979

Girwa R., Chambal R.

15

40.1

1980

Girwa R., Chambal R.

11

40.0

Number of eggs in 80 clutches = 3147; x = 39.3:18-95
(V. B. Singh 1979, Kimura 1978)

30-40 days as courtship was seen in first week
February and eggs were laid on March 10th.
Incubation periods in collected clutches from
Nepal, Bihar and Orissa ranged from 71 to
93 days. In 1976 nests took 76 to 92 days to

hatch, an average of 84.5 (Singh and Bustard
1977). Nests on the Chambal took an ave-
rage of 60-65 days to hatch pointing to the
tendency for captive incubation to be done
at a lower temperature. The implications of
temperature for determining the sex ratio of
a clutch could however be very important.
Collected clutches were incubated at an ave-
rage temperature of 30°C. Singh and Bustard
(pers. comm.) give a temperature range of
25 to 37°C for wild nests with a humidity
(sand moisture content by weight) of 4% to
7%. Nests on the Chambal had temperatures
at the top of the egg mass ranging from 22°C
(in April) to 36.5°C (in May). Six nests
monitored for 5 days in May had an average
temperature of 34.9°C.

Breeding success:

Little is known about breeding success in
the wild. The disturbed and altered status of
gharial habitat may affect breeding success.
For example Singh (pers. comm.) reports an
infertile nest at Satkoshia Gorge where boat
traffic is frequent enough that it may inhibit
contact and mating.

All 70 nests found on the Chambal and
Girwa Rivers between 1975-1980 were fertile.
Bustard (in litt.) reported that 2.7% of eggs
were damaged during laying in nests on the
Narayani River in Nepal. 4.4% of the eggs
in 12 nests collected in 1977 on the Girwa
and Chambal Rivers were decomposed. In one
nest only 5 hatchlings emerged from 49 eggs.
The remainder died due to suffocation of the
embryos when dune formation covered the site
with 2 m of sand. One nest excavated natu-
rally by the female was found to contain 45
hatched eggs, indicating 100% success. Most
nests collected on the Girwa River have yield-
ed hatchlings with congenital defects such as
bent necks. These defects occur in up to 25%

544

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate

Whitaker & Basu: Gavialis gangeticus

Gharial hatching.
(Photo: Rajesh Bedi )

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79

Whitaker & Basu: Gavialis gangeticus

Plate VI

Map of the Indian subcontinent showing the four main river systems of gharial distribution
and location of the four rehabilitation projects.

THE GHARIAL : A REVIEW

Table 7

Clutch size and length of female gharial

Clutch size Total length of female

(cm)

15 270

30 300

41 330-360

44 330-360

56 288

44 344

(Hornaday 1885, Parshad 1914, Basu, pers. obs.)

Table 8

Hatching success of collected gharial eggs in
Uttar Pradesh

Hatch-

Year

Nests (N)

Eggs (N) lings (N)

% success

1975

1

38

21

55.3

1976

10

458

364

79.5

1977

18

712

632

88.8

1978

16

627

432

68.9

1979

15

602

492

81.7

1980

11

440

373

84.8

(Singh

1979, Basu,

pers. comm.)

of hatchlings in affected clutches and are sur-
mised to be of genetic origin.

In Uttar Pradesh gharial eggs are generally
left in the natural nest for over half the in-
cubation period and then shifted to the
hatchery by Forest Department personnel.
Table 8 illustrates the high hatching success
obtained (V. B. Singh 1979).

Hatching and post-hatching:

Singh and Bustard (1977) report the only
incident of ‘remnant’ nest guarding behaviour.
During May, 1976 at Kakaraghat, Narayarii
River, Nepal, a party of 12 persons approach-
ed a nest site. The female was basking at the
site and entered the water on arrival of the

team. While the eggs were collected she sur-
faced and remained close to the site.

On 8/4/75 a nest was laid in Satlcoshia
Gorge. The female visited the site 11 times
in the following 77 days; the last three visits
being on the 71st, 76th and 77th days, cor-
responding to possible hatching days (Singh
and Bustard 1977). Hatching is in June, dur-
ing the monsoon, with flood water and medium
temperatures.

Singh and Bustard (1977) write that head
morphology (sharp teeth, location of eyes, long
snout and no space in mouth) preclude gharial
from carrying hatchlings from the nest. Sub-
sequently Basu and Bustard (in press) report
evidence that gharial do excavate and carry
their young to the water. It is possible that
they carry eggs, as has also been reported in
other crocodilians, but this has as yet to be
observed or determined. It should be noted
that the large gullet of an adult has ample
room for hatchlings once in the back of the
mouth.

Creche formation and protection of young
has been reported by Singh and Bustard
(1977). The authors record that in mid- July,
1974 an approximately 450 cm female gharial
was 'seen in the shallows of a nullah off the
Chambal River, Rajasthan. 34 hatchlings of
about 375-400 mm were around and on her,
some lying on her head and others on the
nearby bank. Lang (pers. comm.) reports that
the captive adult female at MCB responded
to an imitation of a hatchling call by close
approach and assuming a head-emergent at
jawline posture. On July 14, 1979, 40 days
post-hatching, a female was observed in the
water below the nest site accompanied by 38
hatchlings. It is speculated that the creche lasts
till the first rise of the river to flood level,
which generally occurs by the end of July.

Captive breeding of gharial was achieved

545

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

for the first time at Nandankanan Park, Orissa,
in 1980. A 4 m male gharial on loan from the
Frankfurt Zoo killed the 2.8 m resident male
and in early 1980 mated with one of the two
females. She laid 25 eggs on March 10th, all
of which reportedly hatched 58 days later on
May 7th.

Conservation:

Since 1975 intensive efforts to rehabilitate
the seriously endangered gharial have met
with considerable success. Under the consul-
tancy of H. R. Bustard (FAO/UNDP), Forest
Departments in the states of Orissa, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar have evolved
rehabilitation schemes. An estimated 100 wild
gharial survived in India in 1975, half of the
estimated world population. Collection of eggs
and rearing the young at four main centres
(Tikerpada in Orissa, Kukrail in Uttar Pra-
desh, Katerniaghat in Uttar Pradesh and Hyde-
rabad in Andhra Pradesh) have so far resulted
in a total of over 2000 hatchlings.

Riverine sanctuaries have been gazetted at
Satkoshia Gorge (Orissa), Chambal River
(Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh),
Katerniaghat (Uttar Pradesh) and Gandak
River (Bihar) specifically for gharial rehabi-
litation. So far 107, 2-3 year old have been
released in the Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary, 75
in the Chambal National Gharial Sanctuary

Refer

Acharjyo, R. N., Biswas, S. and Misra, R. (1974):
Some notes on Gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus ) in
captivity. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. 72. no. 2,
pp. 558-560.

Adams, Andrew Leith (1867) : Wanderings of a
naturalist in India. Edmonton and Douglas, Edin-
burgh.

Anderson, Andrew (1875) : Letter excerpt, an
account of the eggs and young of G. gangeticus.
Journal of Zoology, Zoological Society of London.

and 14 in the Katerniaghat Sanctuary. Studies
on gharial biology are the subjects of four
Ph.D. scholars and students on the fisheries
and riverine ecosystems are planned to sup-
port the gharial programme (Basu and Singh,
pers. comm.)

Captive breeding has occurred at Nandan-
kanan Biological Park, Orissa and is being
attempted at the Madras Crocodile Bank,
Tamil Nadu.

Acknowledgements

The senior author is grateful to the staff and
trustees of the Madras Snake Park Trust and
Madras Crocodile Bank Trust for help and
financial support. The co-author acknowledges
the support of the Chief Wildlife Warden and
the Forest Department of Uttar Pradesh. H. R.
Bustard, Lala A. K. Singh supplied important
field observations; Rajesh Bedi generously
supplied photographs; financial support for
field study and the gharial rearing facility at
Madras was given by the Tamil Nadu State
Department of Tourism, World Wildlife Fund,
USA and India, New York Zoological Society
and the West German Reptile Leather Asso-
ciation. Jeff Lang, Alistair Graham and
Grahame Webb supplied valuable criticism of
the manuscript and Zai Whitaker edited and
typed several drafts. Brenda Bhaskar typed the
final draft.

iNCES

p. 2 (January).

Barton, C. G. (1927) : Gharial in Burma. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 450.

Basu, Dhruva (1980) : Baby crocs in a valley of
death. International Wildlife, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 3-11
(Jan.-Feb.).

Biswas, S. (1970): A preliminary survey of the
gharial in the Kosi river. Indian Forester, 96 (9) :
705-710 (September).

Biswas, S., Acharjyo, L. N. & Mohapatra, S.

546

THE GHARIAL: A REVIEW

(1977) : A note on the protruberance or knob on
the snout of male gharial, Gavialis gangeticus
(Gmelin). /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 74(3): 536-
537.

Braziatis, Peter (1973) : The identification of
living crocodilians. Zoologica, 58(1-4) : 59-101.

Bustard, H. R. (1979): Bhutan: Crocodile con-
servation and commercial crocodile farming. FAO.
FO: DP/BHU / 78/ 003, Rome, pp. 1-9.

(1974) : India: A preliminary

survey of the prospects for crocodile farming. FAO/
FO: IND/71/033, Rome, pp. 1-66.

Bustard, H. Robert (1980) : Maternal care in
the gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin). Brit. J.
of Herp., vol. 6, pp. 63-64 (June).

Bustard, H. R. (1976) : A future for the gharial.
Cheetal, vol. 17, pp. 3-8.

(1979) : News from the state cro-
codile schemes. Makara, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 5 (Octo-
ber).

Bustard, H. R. & Singh, Lala A. K. (1977):
Studies on the Indian gharial, Gavialis gangeticus
(Gmelin) : Change in terrestrial locomotory pattern
with age. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 74(3) : 534-535.

Bustard, H. R. & Singh, L. A. K. (1977) : Studies
on the Indian gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) :

I. Estimation of body length from scute length.
Indian Forester, vol. 103, no. 2, pp. 140-149 (Febru-
ary).

Carr, A. (1963): The Reptiles. Life Nature

Library, Time-Life Publications, New York.

Champion, F. W. (1934) : The jungle in sunlight
and shadow. Chatto and Windus, London, p. 46-51.

Choudhury, Sushant (1979) : Rehabilitation of
gharial in Uttar Pradesh. Makara (newsletter of the
Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Train-
ing Institute, Hyderabad), vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 7-8
(October).

Forsyth, H. W. (1910) : The food of crocodiles.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 20: 228.

Francis, R. (1910): The Broad-snouted Mugger
in the Indus. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 20: 1160.

Gmelin, J. (1789) : Linnei Systema Naturae,
Leipzig, Ed. 13, no. 1, p. 1057.

Gore, R. (1978) : Bad time to be a crocodile.
National Geographic Magazine, vol. 153, no. 1, pp.
90-115.

Greer, A. E. (1970) : Evolutionary and systematic
significance of crocodilian nesting habits. Nature,
227 : 523-524 (August).

Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1972) : Crocodiles. Stack-
pole Books, pp. 1-195.

Hecht, Max A. & Malone, Brian (1972) : On
the early history of the gavialid crocodilians. Her-
petologica, 28(3): 281-284 (September).

Hornaday, William T. (1885) : Two years in the
jungle. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, pp. 39-57.

I. A. K. (1921) : Crocodile shooting in Nepal.
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 28: 291.

Khan, M. A. Reza (1979) : Gharial extinct in
Bangladesh. IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group
newsletter, no. 16, p. 2 (September).

Kimura, W. (1978) : Artificial incubation of

gharial eggs. Bull. Atagawa Institute Tropical and
Alligator Garden, pp. 1-16,

Lowis, R. M. (1915) : Gharial catching on the
Indus. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 23: 779.

Martin, B. G. H. & Bellairs, A. D’ A. (1977):
The narial excrescence and pterygoid bulla of the
gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Crocodilia) . J. Zool.
London, vol. 182, pp. 541-558.

Moidart (1895) : Turtle killing young crocodile.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 10: 153.

Neill, Wilfred T. (1971) : The last of the ruling
reptiles. Columbia Univ. Press, pp. 1-486.

Parshad, Baini (1914) : The gharial (Gavialis
gangeticus), J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 23: 369.

Pitman, C. R. S. (1924) : Length of gharial. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 30: 703.

Rao, C. J. (1933) : Gavial on the Indus. J. Sind
Nat. Hist. Soc., 1(4): 37.

Ross, C. A. (1975): Reflected glow from the
eyes of the gharial. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., vol.
72, no. 2, p. 557.

Shortt, W. H. O. (1921) : A few hints on croco-
dile shooting. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 29: 77.

“Sind” (1922) : Crocodile shooting and snaring.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 28: 809-811.

Singh, L. A. K. & Bustard, H. R. (1976): A
method to identify individual young gharial, Gavialis
gangeticus. Brit. J. of Herp., vol. 5, pp. 669-671.

Singh, Lala A. K. (1978) : Gharial conservation
in Orissa. Indian Forester, vol. 104, no. 12, pp. 823-
828 (December).

Singh, Lala A. K. (1976) : Rearing gharial in
captivity. Hamadryad, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 5-6 (May).

Singh, Lala A. K. (1977) : When back to the
wild. Cheetal, vol. 18, nos. 1 and 2, pp. 20-22.

Singh, L. A. K. & Bustard, H. R. (1976) : Loco-
motory behaviour during basking and spoor forma-

547

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

tion in the gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus). Brit. J. of
Herp., 5: 673-676.

Singh, Lala A. K. (1977) : Gharial feeding. Horn-
bill ( Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.), pp. 20-21 (April-
June).

Singh, Lala A. K. & Bustard, H. Robert (1977) :
Studies on the Indian gharial, Gavialis gangeticus
(Gmelin) : V Preliminary observations on maternal
behaviour. Indian Forester, vol. 103, no. 10, pp.
671-678 (October).

Singh, Lala A. K. (1979) : Gharial research and
conservation. Wildlife Club Newsletter, vol. 6, no.
1, pp. 7-8 (January).

Singh, V. B. (1979): The status of gharial
( Gavialis gangeticus) in U.P. and its rehabilitation.
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75(3): 668-683.

Smith, M. A. (1935) : Fauna of British India,
vol. 1. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London (Ralph
Curtis Books reprint, 1973).

Srivastava, Ajai Kumar (1979): Wild baby

gharial in captivity at Katerniaghat. Hamadryad,
vol. 4. no. 2, p. 8 (May).

Wermuth, Heinz (1953): Systematik der rezen-
ten Krokodile. Mitteil. Zool. Mus. Berlin, vol. 29,
no. 2, pp. 376-514.

Whitaker, R., Basu, D., & Ross, C. A. (1979):
Gharial survey and observations on the Ramganga
River, Corbett National Park, U.P. Hamadryad
Supplement no. 2, pp. 1-17.

Whitaker, R., Rajamani, V. C., Basu, D. &
Balakrishnan, V. (1974): Preliminary survey of
the gharial, Gavialis gangeticus. Madras Snake Park
Trust Report, pp. 1-16.

Whitaker, R. & Daniel, J. C. (1978) : The status
of Asian crocodilians. Tiger Paper (FAO, Asia),
vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 12-17 (October).

Whitaker, Z. (1978): Gharial walk. Hamadryad,
vol. 3, no. 1. p. 5 (January).

Whitaker, Romulus, Whitaker, Zahida &
Vaughan, Allen (1980): Notes on sexing croco-
dilians. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77(2) : 341-343.

Whitaker, Romulus (1975) : Status and con-
servation of the gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus). Herp.
Review, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 2-3 (March).

548

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED
PHENOMENON IN SOME INDIAN BATS

Part VII — Hipposideros speoris (Schneider)
(Hipposideridae) from Chandrapur,

Maharashtra

A. Gopalakrishna and Deepa Bhatia1 2

At and around Chandrapur (19°55'N., 79°28'E.) in Vidarbha (Eastern Maharashtra.
India) Hipposideros speoris has an annual reproductive cycle, but all the females in
the colony do not conceive synchronously. Copulation, followed immediately by ovula-
tion and fertilization, takes place in different individuals of the colony on different
dates from the last week of December to the second week of March. Sperms stored
in the cauda epididymis are viable for over 2\ months after cessation of spermato-
genetic activity. The accessory glands in the males remain in an active state for about
two months after the regression of the testis. Gestation lasts for 135 to 140 days and
deliveries in the colony occur from the 1st week of May to the last week of July.
The left side of the female genitalia exhibits distinct physiological dominance over
the right and a single young is delivered in each cycle. Whereas the females attain
sexual maturity when they are 7y to 8 months old, the males do not become
sexually mature until they are at least 16 to 17 months old. There is an unbalanced
sex-ratio with the females outnumbering the males.

Introduction

The breeding habits of Hipposideros fulvus
julvus, and Hipposideros ater have been des-
cribed in previous parts of this series of papers
on the breeding habits of Indian bats. Hippo-
sideros speoris, which has an extensive distri-
bution in India, has been chosen for detailed
study because of the following important
reasons: (1) It presents certain unique fea-
tures not noticed in the other hipposiderid
bats so far studied; (2) This is perhaps the
first non-vespertilionid bat so far studied in
which there is a protracted storage of sperma-

1 Accepted March 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, Institute of Science,
Nagpur-440 001, India.

tozoa in the epididymis even after the com-
plete cessation of spermatogenetic activity in
the testis; (3) The breeding behaviour of this
species varies in important aspects in different
localities. This species has been studied from
two localities, Chandrapur district in Vidarbha
and Nanded district in Marathwada. The
present paper embodies observation on the
species from Chandrapur. The report on the
breeding habits of this species at Nanded will
be reported separately.

Material and Methods

The specimens of Hipposideros speoris was
collected at and around Chandrapur in
Vidarbha district of Maharashtra State, India
from 5th November 1977 to 14th May 1980

549

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

such that every calendar month is represented
by one or more collections. Altogether 1111
specimens were examined for the present re-
port.

Hipposideros speoris is a small delicate bat,
the body weight of the male and adult non-
pregnant female being 9 to 10 g. They were
found freely hanging from the roofs of dun-
geons in an old fort. Observations were also
recorded on the nature of the external geni-
talia, condition and presence or absence of
the mammary nipples and pubic dugs in the
female. The position of the testis and the pre-
sence or absence of the ‘pubic capsule’ in the
males were also noted. The reproductive
organs and accessory structures were dissected
out and fixed in various fixatives, such as
Bonin’s fluid, Rossman’s fluid, 10% neutral
formalin and Carnoy’s fluid. After 24 hours of
fixation the tissues were transferred to 70%
ethanol, in which they were preserved. In the
males the weight of the right testis was record-
ed with the help of a Mettler balance after
fixation in 70% ethanol.

The characteristics of a batch of specimens
collected on a calendar date or during a given
week or a month were almost the same dur-
ing the three years when the specimens were
collected. Hence, only the month and date
are mentioned in the following descriptions
except where the mentioning of the year has
some special significance.

A detailed collection diary giving the salient
features of each specimen was maintained.
Table I and Table II give the summary of
the collection diary and monthwise collection
of the specimens respectively.

Observations and Discussions

Externally, the female genitalia resemble
those of most of the microchiroptera possess-

ing bicornuate uterus. Morphologically the
two cornua are symmetrical. An examination
of serial sections of the female genitalia re-
veals that, unlike most other bats, Hipposi-
deros speoris does not have a distinct cervical
canal. Instead the two uterine cornua meet
medially and form a common canal, which
extends into the median limb of the ‘Y’
shaped genitalia for some distance, and the
epithelium of the common canal, which is at
first made up of columnar cells typical of the
uterus, becomes imperceptably changed into
the cornified squamous epithelium of the
vagina. In Tadarida brasiliensis cynocephala
(Stephens, 1962) and Hipposideros fulvus
fulvus (Karim, 1975), the vaginal epithelium
extends for some distance into the lateral limbs
of the ‘Y’ shaped genitalia so that a distinct
typical cervical canal is not present. The situa-
tion obtaining in Hipposideros speoris is, how-
ever, unwatched in any other bat. A pair of
pubic dugs without mammary glands are
present in the region of the groin in the parous
females. A hard testis capsule surrounds the
testis in adult males during November and
December when vigorous spermatogenesis
occurs.

1. Breeding habits. An examination of the
collection diary and Table I reveals a number
of interesting features. Females with unmis-
takable pregnancy, as evident by the occur-
rence of a bulbous uterine cornu, were
available only during the period between the
middle of January and the last week of July.
Further, during January, February and March,
although the majority of the females in each
collection were nearly at the same stage of
pregnancy thereby indicating that they had
conceived nearly synchronously, there were a
few females, which carried embryos at earlier
stages of development, and had, therefore
conceived later than the group of specimens

550

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS

Table I

Summary of collection diary

Date

Immature
Attached Free
to

mother

Adult

Total

Immature

Attached

to

mother

Free

Non-

Preg-

nant

Adult

Pregnant

Lact-

ating

Total Grand
total

Right

Left

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

1-1-79

1

9

10

—

—

10

2-1-80

—

—

2

2

—

—

3

—

18

—

21

23

4-1-79

—

—

6

6

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

6

7-1-80

—

1

3

4

—

—

1

—

2

—

23

27

9-1-79

—

—

1

1

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

18-1-80

—

2

3

5

—

—

—

—

4

—

4

9

13-1-80

—

3

3

6

—

—

1

—

—

—

1

7

26-1-79

—

1

5

6

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

6

29-1-78

—

— •

7

7

—

—

—

—

8

—

8

15

6-2-78

—

8

8

1

5

6

14

6-2-80

—

—

2

2

—

—

—

—

6

—

6

8

15-2-78

— x

—

1

1

—

—

1

—

18

—

19

20

17-2-79

—

—

6

6

—

—

—

—

1

—

1

7

28-2-78

—

1

5

6

—

—

1

—

15

—

16

22

9-3-78

^

2

2

21

21

23

13-3-79

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

—

2

2

24-3-78

—

—

2

2

—

— 1

—

1

11

—

12

14

5-4-78

2

2

12

—

12

14

9-4-78

—

—

2

2

—

—

—

1

17

—

18

20

12-4-79

—

—

V

—

—

—

—

—

11

—

11

11

26-4-78

—

—

—

—

—

—

■ —

2

16

—

18

18

26-4-79

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

11

—

12

12

29-4-78

—

—

6

6

—

—

—

1

11

—

12

18

1-5-80

_

1

6

7

_

_

,

8

8

15

2-5-80

1

—

1

2

—

—

—

—

3

1

4

6

10-5-78

1

—

2

3

—

—

—

—

7

1

8

11

14-5-80

1

2

5

8

2

—

—

—

2

9

13

21

17-5-78

—

3

4

7

—

—

—

3

1

4

8

15

23-5-78

5

—

2

7

8

— -

—

—

—

16

24

31

26-5-79

3

—

1

4

2

1

3

—

—

4

10

14

30-5-78

7

—

2

9

6

—

9

—

— •

6

21

30

551

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

5-6-78

5

—

3

8

6

—

—

—

15

21

29

13-6-78

12

—

2

14

5

—

—

—

—

14

19

33

13-6-79

1

—

2

3

1

—

—

—

—

7

8

11

21-6-78

—

—

3

3

—

—

10

1

1

15

27

30

30-6-78

1

2

2

5

2

1

13

— ■

—

9

25

30

4-7-78

—

—

3

3

—

2

8

2

—

11

23

26

15-7-78

1

2

2

5

—

4

10

—

—

3

17

22

24-7-79

1

4

1

6

—

2

4

—

—

1

7

13

29-7-78

—

6

1

7

1

3

7

—

—

8

19

26

30-7-79

—

1

7

8

—

2

2

—

—

3

7

15

11-8-78

2

8

10

—

2

5

—

—

7

14

24

13-8-78

—

—

5

5

—

2

4

—

—

—

6

11

24-8-78

—

6

3

9

—

1

6

—

—

7

14

23

4-9-78

2

2

4

—

1

6

—

—

3

10

14

14-9-78

—

3

9

12

—

3

11

—

—

4

18

23

25-9-79

—

2

2

4

—

2

3

—

—

—

5

9

29-9-78

—

2

6

8

—

— *

17

—

— •

—

17

25

13-10-79

1

1

—

1

9

10

10

14-10-78

—

7

5

12

—

3

5

—

—

—

8

20

24-10-78

—

1

1

2

—

6

11

—

—

—

17

19

5-11-77

—

—

3

3

—

—

9

—

—

—

9

12

8-11-78

—

1

7

8

—

—

8

—

—

—

8

16

14-11-79

— -

—

4

4

—

—

8

—

—

—

8

12

16-11-78

—

3

1

4

—

—

19

—

—

—

19

23

22-11-78

—

—

5

5

—

—

16

—

—

—

16

21

24-11-79

—

1

2

3

—

—

10

—

—

—

10

13

28-11-77

—

—

1

1

—

—

11

—

—

—

11

12

30-11-78

—

2

4

6

—

—

14

—

—

—

14

20

5-12-79

—

—

11

—

—

—

11

11

7-12-78

—

3

3

6

—

—

15

—

—

—

15

21

10-12-79

—

—

2

2

—

—

8

—

—

—

8

10

14-12-77

—

—

3

3

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

3

14-12-78

—

3

9

12

—

10

—

—

—

10

22

15-12-79

—

5

6

11

—

—

3

—

—

—

3

14

26-12-78

—

1

10

11

—

—

3

—

—

—

3

14

28-12-79

—

2

1

3

—

__

—

]

9

—

10

13

29-12-77

—

—

3

3

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

3

Total

39

77

229

345

33

36

296

13

240

148

766

mi

552

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS

mentioned above, and there were also few
non-pregnant specimens. After about the
middle of March until May all the females in
the colony were pregnant, although at diffe-
rent stages of gestation. The first delivery
occurred on 2nd May. During the following
weeks more and more females delivered with
the majority of deliveries occurring between
17th May and 13th June. After this date there
was a progressive increase in the number of
females in lactation and comparative decrease
in the number of pregnant females in the
colony. Since pregnancy commenced on diffe-
rent dates in different females, deliveries also
took place on different dates in the colony.
The last delivery in the colony occurred on
24th July. Females in lactation were collect-
ed from the beginning of May until 14th
September. The young ones were carried
by the mother until the former reach-
ed a body weight of about 6 g, after which
the young ones were often noticed to become
free from their mothers, crawling about among
the other members of the colony and getting
attached to any adult female in lactation for

Table II

Monthwise collection of specimens

Month

$ $

$ $

Total

January

47

57

104

February

23

48

71

March

4

35

39

April

10

83

93

May

47

96

143

June

33

100

133

July

29

73

102

August

24

34

58

September

28

50

78

October

15

35

50

November

34

95

129

December

51

60

111

Total

345

766

mi

suckling. The maximum weight of the young
one carried during flight by a mother was
8.5 g. On a few occasions more than one young
were noticed sucking milk from the same mother
simultaneously. Free young ones with a body
weight of 9 g also had curdled milk in the
stomach. These facts indicate that young ones
suck milk for some time even after they get
free from their mothers.

Microscopic examination of the female geni-
talia during November and December revealed
that although copulation had occurred in some
females on 7th December, and in many females
during the following days until 25th Decem-
ber, as revealed by the presence of sperma-
tozoa in the female genital tracts, ovulation
had not taken place in any of these specimens.
All the females (10) collected on 28th Decem-
ber 1979 had undergone ovulation and ferti-
lization and had an embryo each. The
youngest of the embryos collected on 28th
December was a six-celled stage, which was
present in the ovarian segment of the fallo-
pian tube, and the most advanced embryo was
a free unilaminar blastocyst in the cranial
segment of the left uterine lumen. Since there
was no evidence to indicate that there was
any retarded early embryonic development or
that there was delayed implantation of the
blastocyst, the size of the most advanced em-
bryo in this collection (free unilaminar blasto-
cyst) indicates that ovulation followed soon by
fertilization must have occurred in this
specimen a maximum of 10 to 12 days before,
that is, around 16th to 18th of December. Since
many inseminated females, which had not
undergone ovulation, were collected between
7th December and 25th December, it is evi-
dent that there is a short interval between
copulation and ovulation, or there are repeat-
ed copulations during the first two weeks of
December before copulation takes place in

553

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

the middle of the third week of December in
this species. The first female in the colony to
deliver also must have been the first to have
conceived. Since, the first conception has been
shown to occur around the 16th to 18th of
December and the first delivery was noticed
on 2nd May, the gestation period of this
species should be between 135 to 140 days,
allowing a margin of two to three days on
either side. Since the last specimen in the
colony delivered on the 24th of July, after
which there was not a single pregnant female
in the colony, it is evident that this specimen
must have conceived about the second week
of March. The first batch of mothers, in
which lactation had ceased, were collected on
21st June 1978. Assuming that these were the
females, which had delivered the first batch of
young ones in the colony (that is on 2nd
May), it is evident that the period of lactation
is about 50 to 55 days in this species. This
conclusion is further supported by the fact
that no female was found to be in lactation
after the 14th of September which would be
53 days after the last delivery on 24th July.
The foregoing observations lead to the follow-
ing conclusions:

(i) Although Hipposideros speoris has an
annual reproductive cycle, all the females in
the colony do not conceive synchronously,
(ii) The females of this species reach sexual
maturity within the first year of their birth as
evidenced from the fact that every female in the
colony became pregnant during the breeding
season. The absence of even a single non-preg-
nant female during this period was not an acci-
dent since the specimens were collected from
several colonies during three consecutive years
and at frequent intervals. This leads to the fur-
ther conclusion that the young ones born in May
(that is the first batch of young delivered in
the colony) reach sexual maturity when they

attain an age of about to 8 months and
conceive along with the parous females in the
colony during the latter half of December.
This conclusion is based on the following
facts. The females collected in December,
which had either undergone copulation or
which had embryos in the fallopian tube or
the uterus, could be recognised into the fol-
lowing categories: parous animals, which could
be identified since they had prominent pubic
dugs and mammary nipples, and non-parous
females, which had neither prominent pubic
dugs and nor mammary nipples. The latter
were evidently those which were experiencing
their first pregnancy, and these were evidently
the oldest non-parous females in the colony and,
therefore, must have been the ones which
were delivered in the first week of May. They
were, thus, 1\ to 8 months old when they
reach sexual maturity. Since the season of
copulation extends from December to March,
and it has been shown that the animals reach-
ed sexual maturity at about 8 months of age,
and since deliveries take place during May to
July in different specimens, there were females
carrying conceptuses at different stages of
development and also a few non-pregnant
females during the period between December
to March. Since different specimens were of
different ages as they were delivered on diffe-
rent days, and since the specimens conceived
when they reached an age of 1\ to 8 months
of age, all the females in the colony were preg-
nant between March and May, because by
about the middle of March even the last of
young delivered in the previous year (that is,
about the last week of July) also had attained
sexual maturity as they had reached the requi-
site age.

Microscopic examination of adult males
afforded strong circumstantial evidence to
these conclusions. Although the testes regress-

554

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS

ed and there was a cessation of spermato-
genetic activity, the cauda epididymis was full
of spermatozoa and the accessory glands were
in an active state until the end of April. Evi-
dently, the adult males were sexually active
and contained viable spermatozoa in their
cauda epididymis until the end of April, and
could successfully inseminate the females as
they came to their first oestrus during January
to March when they attained sexual maturity.
This is why a group of females collected on
any given date during January to March con-
tained specimens at different stages of gesta-
tion and also a few non-pregnant ones, and
why deliveries extended from May to about
the last week of July.

2. Growth and maturity. As noted earlier,
although Hipposideros speoris has an annual
reproductive cycle, all the females in the
colony do not conceive synchronously, and that
females of this species reach sexual maturity
within the first year of their birth. This con-
clusion is based on the following: The sexual
maturity in females can be determined on the
basis of the size and nature of mammary nip-
ples and pubic teats taken along with preg-
nancy record. The mammary nipples and
pubic teats are not present in the non-parous
females. They develop during the first preg-
nancy and enlarge considerably during lacta-
tion, and remain as prominently visible pubic
dugs throughout the rest of the life although
they decrease slightly in size during the
sexually quiescent period. Sexual maturity in
the primiparous females in early pregnancy
can be confirmed by microscopic examination
of the ovaries which show a distinct extrovert
corpus luteum. In the case of the males the
examination of the collection diary, the weight
and the histological structure of the testis and
the size and structure of the accessory repro-
ductive organs reveal that there were several

immature males in the colonies during the
breeding period. This indicates that the males
of this species do not reach sexual maturity
within the year of their birth and until they
are at least 16 to 17 months of age assuming
that the males born in July attain sexual matu-
rity by December of the following year.

Immediately after birth the young get at-
tached itself to the pubic dugs of the mother
and are carried by it. The young ones are
carried by there mother until the former reach
a body weight of 6 g, after which the young
ones were often noticed to be free from their
mother. The highest weight of the attached
young ones was 8.5 g.

During April- July many females in full
lactation and having an unmistakable post-
partum uterine cornu were noticed, thereby
indicating that they had delivered recently.
But they were not carrying a young at the
breast. Evidently there is a considerable loss
of young sucklings.

3. Sex ratio. Among 1111 specimens, col-
lected at random, and at frequent intervals for
nearly two years and a half, 766 were females,
and 345 were males giving a sex-ratio of appro-
ximately 450 to 1000 females in the total popu-
lation. Of the sucklings attached to the breast
of the mothers 33 were females and 39 were
males indicating a nearly even sex-ratio during
this stage of life. Among the 925 adult speci-
mens there were 696 females and 229 males.
Since collections were made at random and
from different colonies the above sex-ratio
should represent the normal sex-ratio in this
species at different periods of growths. Among
the free juvenile specimens the males outnum-
bered the females (77 males and 37 females).
This is because of the fact that, while the
females reach sexual maturity within the year
of their birth, the males do not attain sexual

555

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

maturity within the year of their birth and
hence the free immature specimens were not
of the same age group. The uneven sex-ratio
is evidently due to the preferential mortality
of the males.

Acknowledgement

Deepa Bhatia is grateful to the U.G.C, for
awarding a Junior Fellowship for carrying out
this work.

References

Stephens, R. J. (1962): Histology and bioche- Am. J. Anat. Ill: 259-286.
mistry of the placenta and foetal membranes in Karim, K. B. (1973): Occurrence of bicornuate
the bat, Tadarida brasiliensis cynocephala (with vagina in the Indian leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros
note’s on maintaining pregnant bats in captivity), fulvus fulvus (Grey). Curr. Sci. 42: 62-63.

556

FIRST RECORDS OF ODONATES (ARTHROPOD A:
INSECTA) FROM THE SILENT VALLEY AND
NEW AMARAMBALAM RESERVED FORESTS1

K. Ramachandra Rao2

AND

A. R. Lahiri3

A list of 23 Odonate species constituting the first records of Odonate fauna of the
Silent Valley and New Amarambalam Reserved Forests, Kerala, Southern India has
been provided alongwith necessary collection data and field observations.

Introduction

The Silent Valley and the New Amaram-
balam Reserved Forests constitute the thickest
evergreen tropical forests of the Western Ghats
occupying the southwestern slopes of the
Nilgiri plateau. The area surveyed covers the
deciduous forests of Nilambur plains to the
semi-evergreen and evergreen tropical forests
of Silent Valley. Kuntipuzha in the Silent
Valley and Cherrapuzha in the New Amaram-
balam Reserved forests are the main rivers
which drain the respective forests. The Silent
Valley, 45 Km north of Mannarghat in Pal-
ghat district of Kerala receives on an average
an annual rainfall of 3000 mm. The tempera-
ture ranges between 44.67° F to 85 °F.

Our knowledge of Odonate fauna of south
India is confined to the works of Fraser (1924,
1932, 1933, 1934 & 1936) on the odonata fauna
of Western Ghats, south of Maharashtra. The
odonates of the Silent Valley and New Ama-
rambalam Reserved Forests have not been
reported on before.

The present study is based on the collec-

1 Accepted March 1980.

2 Zoological Survey of India, S. R. Station,
Madras-28.

3 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta- 12.

tions made by Dr. R. S. Pillai from the Silent
Valley and by Shri K. R. Rao and Shri T. S.
N. Murthy from the New Amarambalam Re-
served Forests. Twenty-three species are re-
ported in this paper out of which so far 4 are
known only from Southern India especially
from the Nilgiris, 13 are oriental in distribu-
tion, while the rest are widely distributed ex-
tending to the pacific islands.

Systematic account
Suborder: Zygoptera
Family: Chlorocyphidae

Rhinocypha bisignata Selys

Rhinocypha bisignata Selys, 1853, Syn. Cal; 62;
Fraser, 1934, Fauna Brit. India, Odonata, 2: 49.

Material : 2 $ 9, New Amaram-

balam Reserved Forest, Punjakolli, 23.ii.79.
Coll. K. R. Rao.

Distribution : Sole representative of the genus
from south India; Palni, Nilgiri and Shevaroy
hills, Coorg and to a lesser extent at Khandala.

Remarks'. Its larva was originally discover-
ed in the Nilgiris. The species has a graceful
flight and exhibits iridescent coloration
while on wing. The species was observed to fly
actively around a bush near the bank of Puma-
puzha river.

557

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Neurobasis chinensis chinensis (Linnaeus)
Libellula chinensis Linnaeus, 1758, Sy sterna
Naturae, 1: 545.

N eurobasis chinensis (Linnaeus) : Kirby, 1890.

A synomymic Catalogue of Neuroptera Odonata,
102.

N eurobasis chinensis chinensis (Linnaeus) : Ris.
1915, Tijdschr, Ent; 58: 6; Fraser, 1934, Fauna Brit.
India, Odonata, 2: 121.

Material : 2$ $ , Silent Valley, South of 2nd
Camp, 25.L79, Coll. R. S. Pillai.

Distribution’. India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Indo-
china and Malaysia.

Remarks'. Both pairs of wings possess a
remarkable deep tint of burnt brown, and
pterostigma is present on the hind wings only.
This species was seen near fast flowing streams
and the specimens were collected .from the
banks of Kunti River.

Vestalis apicalis apicalis Selys

Vestalis apicalis Selys, 1873, Bull. Acad. r. Belg.
(2) 36: 612.

Vestalis apicalis apicalis Selys: Fraser, 1929, J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 33: 583; 1934, Fauna Brit.
India, Odonata 2: 128.

Material : 2 S d > New Amarambalam R. F.
Punjakolli, 22.iii.79; 1 $, 23.iii.79, Coll. K.
R. Rao.

Distribution : Throughout the oriental re-
gion.

Remarks : This species was found flying
gracefully in the company of the next species.
The species usually rests on bushes in heavy
shade.

Vestalis gracilis montana Fraser
Vestalis gracilis montana Fraser, 1934, Fauna
Brit. India, Odonata 2: 128.

Material: 1 <$ , 1 $ , 23.iii.79, 1 $ , Amaram-
balam R. F. Punjakolli, 26.iii.79, Coll. K. R.
Rao.

Distribution : S. India; Coorg and the Nil-
giri, Wynad.

Remarks: This was found to fly in the com-
pany of Vestalis apicalis apicalis Selys and

Protosticta hiersevi Fraser. This species also
exhibits the same behaviour as the previous
species.

Family: Platystictidae

Protosticta hiersevi Fraser

Protosticta hiersevi Fraser, 1922, Rec. Indian Mus.,
24: 5: 1933, Fauna, Brit. India, Odonata 1: 113.

Material: ld\ 1$, New Amarambalam R.
F. Punjakolli, 23.iii.79, Coll. K. R. Rao.

Distribution: S. India: Nilgiris, Anaimalais
and Travancore.

Remarks: The female has an extra post
model vein in both wings. The abdomen mea-
sures 35 mm instead of the usual length of
32 to 33 mm. This species was found in the
company of the two species described above.
It has a cupreous shining colour and is small
in size.

Family : Platycnemidae

Copera marginipes (Rambur)

Platycnemis marginipes Rambur, 1842, Hist. nat.
ins. Nevropteres, 240.

Copera marginipes (Rambur) : Kirby, 1890, A
synomymic catalogue of Neuroptera Odonata, 129;
Fraser, 1933, Fauna Brit. India, Odonata, 1: 192.

Material: Itf, 11 km, from 3rd Camp of
Silent Valley, l.ii.79. Coll. R. S. Pillai.

Distribution: India, Nepal, Burma and

Malaysia in the East.

Remarks: The species was collected from
Bamboo forests along the banks of stagnant
water bodies. The species shows a number of
variations.

Copera vittata (Selys)

Psilocnemis vittata Selys, 1863, Bull. Acad. Belg.
(2): 170.

Copera vittata (Selys) : Kirby, 1890, A synomymic
catalogue of Neuroptera Odonata, 117; Fraser, 1933,
Fauna Brit. India, Odonata, 1: 198.

Material: New Amarambalam R. F.

Punjakolli, 23.iii.79, Coll. K. R. Rao.

558

ODONATES FROM SILENT VALLEY

Distribution : Widely distributed throughout
southern Asia.

Remarks : The species rests on bushes in
heavy shade near the bank of Pumapuzha.

Family: Coenagrionidae

Ceriagrion auranticum Fraser

Ceriagrion auranticum Fraser, 1923, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc., 29: 748.

Ceriagrion auranticum Fraser: Asahina, 1967,

Jap. J. Zool., 15(3): 307.

Material : 3dd, New Amarambalam R. F.
Sayivala, 16.iii.79; Id1, Punjakolli, 22.iii.79,
Coll. K. R. Rao.

Distribution : Restricted to the Western

Ghats around Nilgiri Wynad.

Remarks'. Reddish brown dragonflies col-
lected well away from water. The species
usually keeps to scrub or tall grass.

Pseudagrion malabaricum Fraser

Pseudagrion malabaricum Fraser, 1924, Rec. In-
dian Mus; 26: 494; 1933, Fauna Brit. India , Odo-
nata, 1 : 284-

Material : 2dd, New Amarambalam R. F.
Nedungayam, 23.iii.79, Coll. K. R. Rao.

Distribution : Throughout the Western Ghats:
Coorg, Kodaikanal, Nilgiris, Ootacamund,
Palni hills and in Sri Lanka.

Remarks : Collected near stagnant water
adjacent to Krimpuzha river. Usually they are
found in great numbers and their presence and
their colour literally makes the area look blue.

Aciagrion hisopa (Selys)

Pseudagrion hisopa Selys, 1876, Bull. Acad. Belg.
Cl. Sci. (2), 42: 509.

Aciagrion hisopa (Selys) : Selys, 1891, Ann. Mus.
CIV Genova, 30: 512; Fraser, 1933, Fauna Brit.
India, Odonata, 1 : 340.

Material : Id, New Amarambalam R. F.
Sayivala, 16.iii.79, Col. K. R. Rao.

Distribution : India, Burma, Sri Lanka and
Malaysia.

Remarks: The specimens were collected from
the banks of a small stream in a bamboo forest.

Ischnura aurora aurora (Brauer)

Agrion delicatum Hagen, 1858, Verh. Zool. Bot.
Ges. Wien. 8: 479.

Ischnura delicata (Hagen) : Selys, 1876, Bull.

Acad. r. Belg. cl. Sci. (2) 41: 281; Fraser, 1933,
Fauna Brit. India, Odonata, 1 : 360.

Ischnura aurora (Brauer) : Ris, 1915, Nova Cal-
cedonia, Zool., 2(4) : 67.

Ischnura aurora aurora (Brauer) : Lieftinek, 1949.
Nova Guinea (New Ser.) 5 : 220.

Material: Id, 1$, Silent Valley, 11 km
from 3rd Camp, l.ii.79; Id, around 3rd Camp
4.ii.79, Coll. R. S. Pillai.

Distribution: Widely distributed throughout
southern Asia, India, Sri Lanka, Burma,
Malaysia, New Guinea, Australia, Philippines.

Remarks: This species has remarkable

powers of flight and making use of upper air
currents has spread all over southeast Asia.

Agriocnemis pieris Laidlaw

Agriocnemis pieris Laidlaw, 1919, Rec. Indian
Mus; 16: 180; Fraser, 1933, Fauna Brit. India, Odo-
nata, 1: 384.

Material: Id, New Amarambalam R. F.
Nedungayam, 28.iii.79, Coll. K. R. Rao.

Distribution: Western Ghats, from Castle
Rock to Malabar, Nilgiris and Coorg.

Remarks : The specimens were collected from
the banks of stagnant pools surrounded by
grass.

Agriocnemis splendidissima Laidlaw

Agriocnemis splendidissima Laidlaw, 1919, Rec.
Indian Mus; 16: 180; Fraser, 1933 Fauna Brit. India ,
Odonata, 1 : 392.

Material: Id, Silent Valley, 11 km. from
3rd Camp l.ii.79. Coll. R. S. Pillai; Id, New
Amarambalam R. F. Nedungayam, Coll. K.
R. Rao.

Distribution: Poona, Mhow, Khandala,

Malabar; Nilgiris and Coorg.

Remarks: The specimens were collected

from beds of stagnant water bodies or narrow
streams with grasslands around.

559

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Family: Libellulidae
Sub-Order : Anisoptera

Orthetrum chrysis Selys
Libella testacea race chrysis Selys, 1891, Ann.
Mus. civ. Genova, 30, 462.

Orthetrum chrysis Selys: Ris, 1900, Archiv, fur,
Natur., 1: 86; Fraser '936. Fauna Brit. India, Odo-
nata, 3: 310.

Material: 1 d, Silent Valley, c. 2 km. away
from 3rd Camp 3.ii.79, Coll. R. S. Pillai.

Distribution : India: Chanan in Travancore
border, Kotagiri, in Nilgiris; Sri Lanka; Burma
and Malaysia.

Remarks : Collected from the beds of small
mountain streams.

Orthetrum pruinosum ueglectum (Rambur)
Libellula neglecta Rambur, 1842, Hist. nat. Ins.
Nevropteres, 86.

Libellula pruinosa (Brauer) 1868, Verh, Zool. Bot.
Ges. Wien; 15: 1013.

Orthetrum pruinosum (Brauer) : Kirby, 1886, Proc.
Zool. Soc. Lond ; 327.

Orthetrum pruinosum neglectum (Rambur) : Ris.
1909, Collections Zool. du Baron, Ee de Selys —
Long champs, 9: 181; Fraser, 1936. Fauna Brit.
India, Odonata, 3: 311.

Material: Id, 19, Silent Valley, Mukkali,
18179, Coll. R. S. Pillai.

Distribution : Throughout India, Sri Lanka,
Burma extending to Tibet, Indochina, and
Hongkong.

Remarks’. Collected near a forest stream in
soft wood plantation. This species occurs
everywhere from plains to an altitude of
7250'.

Orthetrum sabina (Drury)

Libellula sabina Drury, 1770, Illustrations of Natu-
ral History, 1: 114.

Orthetrum sabina (Drury) : Kirby, 1889, Trans.
Zool. Soc., Lond.; 12: 302; Fraser, 1936, Fauna
Brit. India, Odonata, 3: 300.

Material : Id, New Amarambalam R. F.
Punjakolli, 22.iii.79, Coll. K. R. Rao.

Distribution'. Throughout India, Sri Lanka,
Burma and ranging from Somaliland, Persia to
Samoa and Australia.

Remarks: Collected from the bank of a
narrow stream away from the main river
Olikatodu.

Indothemis caesia (Rambur)

Libellula caesia Rambur, 1842, Hist. nat. ins.
Nevropteres, 95.

Indothemis limbata (Rambur): Ris, 1911, Col-
lections Zool. de Baron E. de Selys — Longchamps,
12: 529.

Indothemis caesia (Rambur) : Fraser, 1936, Fauna
Brit. India, Odonata, 3: 340.

Material : Id, New Amarambalam R. F.
Punjakolli, 21.iii.79, Coll. K. R. Rao.

Distribution: Masinagudi at the foot of

Sigur Ghats in Nilgiris, Hasimara, West Ben-
gal and one specimen recorded from Bangkok.

Remarks: Collected from burnt down

patches of soft wood forest area.

Crocothemis servilia servilia (Drury)

Libellula servilia Drury, 1770, Illustrations of
Natural History, 1: 112.

Crocothemis servilia servilia (Drury) : Fraser,

Fauna Brit. India, Odonata, 3: 345.

Material: Id, Silent Valley South of 2nd
Camp, 25-1-79, Coll. R. S. Pillai.

Distribution: Mesopotamia, India, Sri Lanka
and Burma; S. Asia to Japan, the Philippines
and Australia and southwards to Sunda Archi-
pelago.

Remarks: Collected from the banks of

Kunti river.

Diplacodes trivialis (Rambur)

Libellula trivialis Rambur, 1842, Hist. Nat. Ins.
Nevropteres, 115.

Diplacodes trivialis (Rambur) : Karsch, 1891, Ent.
Nachr. 17: 246: Fraser, 1936, Fauna Brit. India,
Odonata, 3 : 337.

Material : 1 9 , Silent Valley, Kantipuzha,
17.i.79, Coll. R. S. Pillai; Id, Silent Valley,
Eastern side of camp. Coll. R. S. Pillai; Id,
c. 11 km. from 3rd Camp l.ii.79. Coll. R.

560

ODONATES FROM SILENT VALLEY

S. Pillai; 3d d, 4 $ 9 , 21-26.iii.79, New Ama-
rambalam R. F. Punjakolli, Coll. K. R. Rao;
1 $ , 14.iii.79, Sayivala, Coll. K. R. Rao.

Distribution : Ranges from Seychelles to the
Pacific through India, Sri Lanka, Burma, S.
Asia to Formosa and the Philippines.

Remarks : It is one of the commonest dragon-
flies found in India. Often seen on roadsides
where it rests on grass. Distributed at all
elevations.

NeisrotSiemis fulvia (Drury)

Libel tula fulvia Drury, 1773, Illustrations of Natu-
ral History, 2: 84.

Neurothemis fulvia (Drury) : Kirby, 1889, Trans.
Zool. Soc. Lond., 12: 271; Fraser, 1936, Fauna Brit.
India, Odonata, 3: 353.

Material : Id1, New Amarambalam R. F.
Meenmutty, 19.iii.79, Coll. T. S. N. Murthy;
Id. Punjakolli, 23.iii.79, Coll. K. R. Rao.

Distribution: India, sparingly distributed all
over southwest India and parts of Tamilnadu,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal, Assam and Tripura; Nepal; Indo-
china and Sumatra in the East.

Remarks : This species has been collected
from shady jungle streams. It usually occurs
in wet and semi-wet areas especially in the
submontane regions.

Neurothemis intermedia intermedia (Rambur)

Libellula intermedia Rambur, 1842, Hist. Nat. Ins.
Nevaropteres, 91.

Neurothemis intermedia (Rambur) Selys, 1889,
Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova 27: 454.

Neurothemis intermedia intermedia (Rambur) :
Ris, 1911, Collections Zool. dw Baron E. de Selys
Long champs, 13: 551; Fraser, 1936, Fauna Brit.
India, Odonata, 3: 357.

Material: Id, Silent Valley, 2nd Camp,
22.i.79, Coll. R. S. Pillai; 2 $ $ , 2 km from
3rd Camp, 3.ii.79, Coll. R. S. Pillai; Id,
around 3rd Camp 4.ii.79, Coll. R. S. Pillai;
lldd, 15 9 $ , New Amarambalam R. F.
Sayivala, 15 to 19.iii.79, Coll. K. R. Rao;

13d d, 99 9, Punjakolli, 21-26.iii.79, Coll.
IC. R. Rao.

Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, In-
donesia and Western Thai.

Remarks: The species has a weak flight.
Collected from the banks of forest streams.

Neurothemis tullia tullia (Drury)

Libellula tullia Drury, 1773, Illustrations of Natu-
ral History, 2: 85.

Neurothemis tullia (Drury) : Kirby, 1890, A syn-
nonymic catalogue of Neuroptera Odonata, 8.

Neurothemis tullia tullia (Drury) : Fraser, 1936,
Fauna Brit. India, Odonata, 3 : 360.

Material : Id, 3 9 9 , New Amarambalam
R. F. Sayivala, 16 to 19.iii.79, Coll. IC. R.
Rao; 9dd, 4 9 9 Punjakolli, 26.ii.79, Coll.
K. R. Rao; 10 Nedungayam, 28.iii.79, Coll. IC.
R. Rao.

Distribution: India, Sri Lanka; Nepal; In-
donesia and Northern Thai in the East.

Remarks: Collected from weedy streams in
the forest. Its flight is short and weak. They
have protective coloration.

Trithemis aurora (Burmeister)

Libellula aurora Burmeister, 1839, Handbuch der
Entomologie, 2: 859.

Trithemis aurora (Burmeister): Brauer, 1868,

Verb. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien., 18: 177; Fraser 1936,
Fauna Brit. India, Odonata, 3: 383.

Material: 2dd» 1$, New Amarambalam
R. F. Punjakolli, 21-22.iii.79, Coll. IC. R. Rao.

Distribution: India; Tibet; Nepal; Philip-
pines; Malaysia and Indonesia.

Remarks: They were seen to rest on her-
bage along the banks of forest streams. Males
are very active. Females wander far away from
water.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, and Dr. R. S. Pillai, Deputy Direc-
tor, Officer-in-Charge, Southern Regional Sta-
tion, Madras for all the laboratory facilities

561

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

provided. Thanks are also due to Shri P. K.
Thampi, Geologist, Geological Survey of India

Refer

Asahina, S. (1967) : A revision of the Asiatic
species of Ceriagrion (Odonata: Agrionidae). Jap.
J. Zool. 15(3) : 255-334.

Fraser, F. C. (1924) : A survey of the Odonate
(Dragonfly) fauna of Western India with special
remarks on the genera Macromia and Idionyx and
descriptions of thirty new species with appendices
I & II. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 423-522.

— (1932) : Additions to the survey of

Odonata fauna of Western India, with descriptions
of nine new species. Rec. Indian Mus., 33 : 443-474.

and leader of the Expedition for extending all
facilities in the field.

iNCES

(1933, 1934 & 1936): The Fauna

of British India, including Ceylon and Burma (Odo-
nata) 1: xiii + 1-418; 2: xix + 1-398; 3: xi 4- 1-
461.

Lieftiniek, M. A. (1940) : Revisional notes on
some species of Co per a Kirby with notes on habits
and larvae (Platycneminidae) . Treuhia, 17: 281-306.

(1954) : Handlist of Malasian

Odonata. Treubia, 22 Suppl.: xiii + 1-202.

(1971) : Odonata from Ceylon.

Ent. Scan. Suppl. I: 180-207.

562

NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SOME PLANTS OF

WEST BENGAL1

J. K. SlKDAR2

During the course of intensive botanical
collections in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal
and consultations at Central National Herba-
rium (CAL) and Herbarium of the Industrial
Section, Indian Museum (BSIS), I studied the
following plants which are interesting in res-
pect of their occurrence in West Bengal. In
addition to previous communications on the
distribution of some plants in Jalpaiguri dis-
trict as well as in West Bengal, notes on the
occurrence of twelve more taxa in Jalpaiguri
and Darjeeling districts and other parts of
West Bengal are given here with their correct
nomenclature.

Balsam in aceae

Impatiens decipiens Hook. f. in Rec. Bot.
Surv. India 4: 17 & 22. 1905; Hara, FI. East.
Himal. 195. 1966.

Flowering 8c fruiting : June to October.

Specimens examined : West Bengal: Darjee-
ling district — Pomong, zt 850 m (Acc. No.
71392), (CAL).

Distributional note : This plant has so far
been known only from the type localities-
Sikkim and Chumbi (J. D. Hooker, 1905)
and South Tibet.

I. gamblei Hook f. in Rec. Bot. Surv. India
4: 15 & 20. 1905.

Flowering 8c fruiting : May to October.

1 Accepted September 1981.

2 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey
of India, Howrah-711 103.

Specimens examined : West Bengal: Darjee-
ling district — between Sandakphu and Phallut,
± 4000 m, 19 Oct. 1904, Bur kill 25229 (CAL);
Birch Hill, ± 2200 m, 11 May, 1940, K.
Biswas 4833 (CAL).

Distributional note : This species was previ-
ously recorded from Sikkim and Chumbi only
by J. D. Hooker (1905).

I. gammiei Hook f. in Rec. Bot. Surv. India
4: 16 & 21. 1905.

Flowering 8c fruiting : September to October.

Specimens examined : West Bengal: Darjee-
ling district — South of Subarkum, ± 4000 m,
1 Oct. 1906, Bur kill 27688 (2-gatherings)
(CAL); 5 miles north of Sandakphu, ± 4000
m, 28 Sept. 1906, Burkill 27619 (CAL).

Distributional note : This taxon was pre-
viously known to occur in Sikkim and Aruna-
chal Pradesh in India.

I. wallichii Hook. f. in Rec. Bot. Surv. India
4: 15 & 20. 1905; Hara in Ohashi, FI. East.
Himal. 3rd Rep. (Bull. No. 8) : 79. 1975.

Flowering 8c fruiting : July to October.

Specimens examined : West Bengal: Darjee-
ling district — Tongloo, ± 3000 m, 3 Aug.
1862, without Collector’s name 8c number
(CAL); Phullalong, ± 3000 m, 5 Oct. 1870,
without Collector’s name, 12688 (CAL);
Sandakphu, ± 4000 m. Sept. 1880, J. S.
Gamble 8423 (CAL); Sandakphu west,
± 1200 m, 16 Sept. 1962, B. Safui 1703
(CAL).

Distributional note : It was recorded so far
from Sikkim and Nepal by Hooker (1905)
and Hara (1975). Of the above cited speci-

563

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

mens, the specimens from Tongloo and Phulla-
long have Hooker’s signature on the sheets.
As Hooker (1905) mentioned Sikkim as one
of the localities, it is presumed that the speci-
mens studied by Hooker himself as evidenced
from his signature are from Darjeeling district.
Hence the present record of the species from
West Bengal is an additional locality.

Compositae

Lactuca dolichophylla Kitamura in Res.
Kyoto Univ. Sci. Exped. Karak. & Hinduk.
1955, viii. (Addit. & Corr. FI. Afghan.) 150,
March 1, 1966 et in Hara, FI. East. Himal.
341. 1966. Mulgedium sagittatum Royle, 111.
Bot. Himal. 252, t. 61, f. 2. 1835, not Lactuca
sagittata Wald, et Kit. (1802). Lactuca longi-
folia DC. Prodr. 7: 135. 1835; Clarke, Comp.
Ind. 264. 1876; Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 405.
1881.

Flowering & fruiting : September to October.
Specimen examined : West Bengal: Jalpai-
guri district — on way to Buxaduar, 850 m,
Buxaduar forest range, rare in open rocky hill
slopes, 15 Sept. 1976, J. K. Sikdar 7825 (CAL)
Distributional note : It is known to occur
in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pra-
desh in India and in Nepal, Afghanisthan,
Pakistan and W. China.

Apocyanaceae

Anodendrosi paniculatum DC. Prodr. 8: 444.
1844; Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 688. 1882;
Prain, Bengal Plants 2 : 504. 1903 (repr.);
Haines, Bot. Bihar & Orissa 2: 572. 1922
(repr.); Das in Kanjilal & Das, FI. Assam 3:
270. 1939.

Flowering : February to May.

Fruiting: January.

Specimen examined : West Bengal: Jalpai-
guri district — around Poro forest bungalow.

Nimati forest range, 2 Apr. 1973, Bijoy Krishna
464 (BSIS).

Distributional note : It is distributed in Ban-
gladesh, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaya Peninsula,
Malesian Islands, Philippines and in India
known to occur in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Mizoram, Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Karna-
taka, Kerala and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Prain (1903) recorded this species from
Chittagong ( Bangladesh ) .

SCROP H U LARI ACE AE

Lindenbergia hookeri Clarke ex Hook. f..
FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 261. 1884; Das in Kanjilal
& Das, FI. Assam 3: 378. 1939; Prijanto in
Reinwardtia 7: 555. 1969; Yamazaki in

Ohashi, FI. East. Himal. 3rd Rep. (Bull. No.
8): 98. 1975.

Flowering & fruiting : February to May.
Specimens examined : West Bengal: Jalpai-
guri district — on way to Buxaduar, 650 m,
Buxaduar forest range, rare along the valleys
and rocky situations on the lower hills, 28 Feb.
1934, K. Biswas 1755 (CAL); Bengal &
borders-without precise locality and date of
collections, V. Narayanswami & Party 2589
(2-gatherings) (CAL).

Distributional note : It was recorded so far
from Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim and Bhutan.

L. macrostachya (Benth.) Benth. Scroph.
Ind. 22. 1835; Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 262.
1884; Prinjanto in Reinwardtia 7: 554. 1969;
G. Raizada in Ind. Jour. For. 1(2): 153. 1978.
Stemodia macrostachya Benth. (in Wallich,
Cat. 3925. 1831, nomen) Bot. Reg. 17: t. 1470.
1832.

Flowering & fruiting : March to May.
Specimen examined : West Bengal : Herb.
Griffith 3883/1 (Acc. No. 321664) (Distribut-
ed at the Royal Botanic gardens, Kew, 1862-
3), (CAL). Generally grows along valleys.

564

SOME PLANTS OF WEST BENGAL

river banks, rocky places and in roadside waste-
lands.

Distributional note : It occurs in Nepal,

West Pakistan, Siam, China and Kashmir,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pra-
desh in India. A single earlier collection by
Griffith from West Bengal is thus mentioned
here as a new distributional record of the
species from the state.

Hooker (1884) pointed out that this species
is “perhaps only a variety of L. philippensis
(Cham.) Benth. but more glabrous, with
shorter petioles”. Usually, L. macrostachya
(Benth.) Benth. is often confused in its gene-
ral morphology with L. philippensis (Cham.)
Benth. It is distinguished by lax interrupted
inflorescence with smaller flowers, triangular
calyx lobes with acute tips, =fc triangular pos-
terior lip of corolla, comparatively shorter
corolla tube and glabrous ovary and style base.

Acanthaceae

Diantliera virgata (Wall, ex Nees) C. B.
Clarke in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 542. 1885.
Leptostachya virgata Wall, ex Nees in PI.
Asiat. Rar. 3: 105. 1832. Justicia virgata Wall.
(Cat. 7177) ex T. Anders, in Journ. Linn.
Soc. 9: 516. 1867. Dianthera virgata Benth. in
Gen. PI. 2: 1114. 1873; Thothathri in Rec. Bot,
Surv. Ind. 20(2) : 163. 1973.

Flowering & fruiting : November.

Specimens examined : West Bengal: Jalpai-
guri district — Lapchakhawa, ± 1200 m,
Buxaduar forest range, rare in shady moist
situations on the hill slopes, 27 Nov. 1975,
7. K. Sikdar 972 (CAL).

Distributional note : This species has so far
been known only from Manipur, Arunachal
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim in India and
Bhutan and Burma. The present collection of
the species after a lapse of more than 100

years from Jalpaiguri district shows its extend-
ed distribution in Eastern India and is being
recorded here from West Bengal for the first
time.

Verbenaceae

Clerodendnim philippinum Schauer, DC.
Prodr. 11:667. 1847. (‘Clerodendron’); Howard
and Powell, Taxon 17: 54. 1968. Volkameria
japonica Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. 3: 48, t. 338.
1798. Clerodendron fragrans Hort. ex Vent.
Jard. Malm. 2: t. 70. 1804; C. B. Clarke in
Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 589. 1885; Prain,
Bengal Plants 2: 624. 1903 (repr.).

Flowering: November to May.

Specimens examined : West Bengal: Jalpai-
guri district — Chunabhati, ± 1200 m, Buxa-
duar forest range, frequent in grassy areas along
the rocky forest paths and here and there on
the hill slopes, 28 Nov. 1975, 7. K. Sikdar 995
(CAL); Buxaduar, d= 1000 m, Buxaduar forest
range, along the hillslopes, 29 Nov. 1975, 7.
K. Sikdar 4026 (CAL); Buxaduar to Chuna-
bhati, ± 1100 m, Buxaduar forest range, 12
May, 1976, 7. K. Sikdar 4591 (CAL).

Distributional note : It is known to occur in
Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, Bihar, Delhi,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pra-
desh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu in
India and in China, Japan, United States,
Mexico, West Indies, Central America, Argen-
tina, and Chile. This report of the species from
West Bengal is a record of its naturalisation
in the flora of Jalpaiguri district, as an escape.

Polygon aceae

Peraicaria tenella (Bl.) Hara in Jour. Jap.
Bot. 44: 375. 1969; FI. East. Himal. 23. 1971.
Polygonum tenellum BL, Bijdr. 530. 1825, non
Roxb. 1832. var. kawagoeana (Makino) Hara
in Jour. Jap. Bot. 375. 1969. P. kawagoeana

565

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Makino in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 28: 115. 1914.
P. minus Hudson (FI. Angl. ed. 1, 148. 1762,
non vidi) sensu FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 36. 1886, p.p.;
Prain, Bengal Plants 2: 663. 1903 (repr.). P.
minus subsp. micranthum (Meisn.) Danser in
Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenz. Ser. 3, 8: 176, f. 8.
1927.

Flowering & fruiting : April to December.

Specimens examined : West Bengal: Jalpai-
guri district — Balapara, Bholka forest range,
rare in muddy situations towards the extreme
eastern border of the district, 6 Dec. 1975, /.
K. Sikdar 4163 (CAL).

Distributional note : This taxon was record-
ed from Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pra-
desh, Manipur, Sikkim, Madhya Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu in India and also from Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, China,
Japan and Europe. It was known from West
Bengal from a single specimen in CAL, collect-
ed by Thornton Ripley from Kalimpong on
18.7.1914, which was cited by Danser (1927).
A recent collection by K. Thothathri on 6.11.
1960 (CAL) from Kalimpong approaches
the present taxon, but on critical examination
it was identified as Persicaria tenella (Bl.)
Hara var. kawagoeana (Makino) Hara which
was considered by Danser (1927) and Hara
(1969, 1971). The present collection which is
also identical with the Wallich’s specimen
(Wall. Cat. 1722) from Nepal after a lapse of
about 65 years is thus interesting and esta-
blishes its occurrence in West Bengal.

Urticaceae

Pilea peploides (Gaud.) Hook. & Arn., Bot.
Beech. Voy. 96. 1832; Wedd. Ann. Sc. Nat.
Ser. 4, 1: 187. 1854; J. D. Hooker in Hook,
f., FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 554. 1888. Dubrueilia pep-
loides Gaud, in Freyc. Voy. Bot. Uran. 495.
1830.

Flowering & fruiting : February.

Specimens examined’. West Bengal: Jalpai-
guri district — Chilapata, Chilapata forest
range, rare in marshy ground associated with
Floscopa scandens, Ranunculus scleratus,
Chenopodium album etc., 25 Feb. 1976, /. K.
Sikdar 4310 (CAL).

Distributional note : In India this taxon

occurs in Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Hima-
chal Pradesh and in Burma, Java and Japan.
Based on the scrutiny of the specimens of this
taxon in CAL, it appears that this plant has
been collected again from West Bengal for
the first time after a lapse of 72 years.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Deputy Director, Cen-
tral National Herbarium, Howrah for provid-
ing facilities, to Prof. R. S. Rao, Andhra
University, Waltair for his encouragement and
valuable guidance and to Dr. R. B. Ghosh,
Central National Herbarium, Howrah for go-
ing through the manuscript.

566

SOME INTERESTING ASPECTS OF THE AVIFAUNA
OF THE POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY,
THANJAVUR DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU1*2

R. SUGATHAN3

The Point Calimere Sanctuary in Thanja-
vur District in Tamil Nadu is one of the major
and important wintering grounds for migrants
from the north. The Bombay Natural History
Society had earlier conducted bird ringing
camps in the sanctuary from 1969 to 1972.
During the course of the ringing programme
it was possible to obtain not only data on
the status and migratory pattern of the migrant
and resident species but also on some distri-
butional peculiarities. Some stray species typi-
cal of wet evergreen forest biotope were re-
corded possibly while on passage to similar
biotopes in Sri Lanka. Some of such typical
species that were repeatedly recorded were the
Threetoed Forest Kingfisher, Pied Thrush,
Orangeheaded Ground Thrush, Broadtailed
Grass Warbler etc. (Raju and Shekar 1971,
Hussain 1976). During the course of the pre-
sent study a total of 38280 birds belonging
to 178 species were ringed and released bet-
ween July 1980 and March 1982. The follow-
ing eight species have been recorded for the
first time in this area.

1 Accepted August 1982.

2 The Bombay Natural History Society in colla-
boration with the United States Fish and Wildlife
Service and the Ministry of Agriculture, Govern-
ment of India, is currently conducting a project
entitled ‘‘Studies on the movement and popula-

tion structure of Indian Avifauna” with Dr. Salim
Ali as the Principal Investigator. The project is
funded from PL-480 grant No. 8851-558-01 released
through the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt, of India.

Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor

The swamps of Point Calimere Sanctuary
are one of the major feeding grounds of the
Large Flamingo in the southern peninsula. The
birds arrive on passage either from the north
or from the south (Sri Lanka). The timing of
arrival and departure has been sporadic. The
main influx occurs soon after the commence-
ment of the NE monsoon (October) and the
birds spread out throughout the swamp. Since
the swamp lies on the flyway to Sri Lanka
there is a constant movement of populations
either way (northbound and southbound). No
adequate data are available of the migratory
movements of the flamingos in the peninsula.
Very few flamingos have been trapped and
ringed and there has been no recovery of any
of these birds. A few stray recoveries within
our limits of the flamingos ringed in Iran have
been recorded from several parts of India in-
cluding as far south as Point Calimere and
Rameshwaram.

A number of juvenile Phoenicopterus roseus
without any trace of pink in the plumage, were

Two major research stations — one in the Keoladeo
National Park, Rajasthan, in north India and
the other in Point Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur
District, Tamil Nadu in South India — have been
established under this project and will be in opera-
tion for about five years. The data gathered will
be analysed periodically and published in the
journal.

3 Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill
House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay-400 023.

567

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

noticed in Point Calimere swamp from July
1980 to March 1982. They were observed
feeding along with adults and later in the
season, in small isolated flocks of their own.
These juveniles were perhaps first year birds
accompanying their parents from their breed-
ing ground in the Rann of Kutch.

The Lesser Flamingos (Phoeniconctias minor)
were first noticed at Point Calimere in July
1980.4 They were observed throughout the
season and also during the subsequent season.
One bird was trapped and ringed in January
1982. Studies on the population fluctuation,
feeding behaviour and food habits, are being
carried out by the project staff.

Baza Aviceda leuphotes leuphotes

The genus Aviceda has a discontinuous dis-
tribution typical of certain forms whose pecu-
liar distribution pattern has given rise to
speculations and hypotheses on the incurssions
of Malayan fauna into the peninsula. Both the
species of Baza occurring in the subcontinent
namely leuphotes and jerdoni, have a similar
distributional pattern. They affect wet ever-
green biotopes of NE Himalayas, the southern
portion of the Western Ghats, and the hill
zone of Sri Lanka.

A single Blackcrested Baza was trapped and
ringed at Point Calimere on 24th October
1981. The bird was apparently on its way to
Sri Lanka. According to the key to the sub-
species in the handbook (Vol. 1) leuphotes
differs from subspecies syama in having a
chestnut breast band as against the all-black
breast of the latter. The specimen from Point
Calimere had a distinct rufous band across
the chest and could well be of the nominate
race.

4 The Lesser Flamingo was first reported from
Point Calimere by R. A. S. Melluish in February
1968 (Newsletter for Birdwatchers Vol. 9(1), p. 4
January 1969).

Handbook (Vol. 1) speculates that the win-
tering populations visiting Sri Lanka could be
the Himalayan form syama. The fact that the
type locality off leuphotes is Pondicherry,
which lies on the east coast approximately
160 km north of Point Calimere, strengthens
the assumption the southern birds may belong
to this subspecies.

Spoonbilled Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus
pygmaeus

The Spoonbilled Sandpiper has been record-
ed as a straggler in West Bengal and Assam.
There have been no other records of this
species within our limits for the past fifty years.

Two birds were netted at Point Calimere
Sanctuary, one on 19th February 1981 (re-
leased with Ring No. AB- 86435) and the
other on 19th March 1981 (preserved in
BNHS collection). A third specimen was ring-
ed and released at Chilka Lake, Orissa on
17th March 1981.

The occurrence of these birds on the east
coast within the space of a month suggests
that the species may be regularly wintering on
our southern seaboard but has been overlook-
ed among the dense flocks of stints with which
it associates. The trappers employed by the
Project when questioned, admitted that they
had trapped these birds on earlier occasions
before the commencement of the bird ringing
programme at Point Calimere. The spatulate
bill was considered by them to be that of
deformed Little Stint ( Calidris minutus)
Greyfronted/ Orangebreasted Green Pigeon
Treron pompadora /Treron hicincta

Two species of green pigeons have been
recorded so far from Point Calimere. One
specimen of T. pompadora was ringed in 1969
by the BNHS ringing camp. Subsequently 2
pompadora and 2 hicincta were ringed in
April /December 1970. A single specimen of
T . hicincta was also ringed and released on

568

AVIFAUNA OF THE POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY

21/12/1980. The latter species was regularly
seen in Point Calimere from August to Dec-
ember which coincides with the fruiting of
Jamun ( Syzygium cuminii) in the area. Sub-
species of pompadora and bicincta occur in
the low country of Sri Lanka as well. It will
be interesting to know whether there is any
local migration between Indian peninsula and
Sri Lanka.

Scops owl Otus scops leggei ?

A single specimen (?) was netted near the
forest bungalow at Point Calimere, on 16/12/
1981. The specimen has been preserved in the
BNHS collection. It has a smaller tarsus
(21 mm) and is darker than three specimens
of sunia in BNHS collection. It appears thus
to be leggei of Sri Lanka.

Indian Cliff Swallow Hirundo fluvicola

A single specimen (cf ) netted on 18/10/1980
and preserved in BNHS collection. The pre-
vious southernmost record for this species is
Coimbatore at the foot of the Nilgiris and
the present record in a way confirms the sight
record by Phillips in Sri Lanka ( JBNHS 47:
740).

Blue Chat Erithacus brunneus

This species breeds in higher hills of the
Himalayan ranges and winters in the hill zones
of South India and Sri Lanka, preferring
evergreen biotopes. It is interesting to note
that it has not been recorded in the plains of
the peninsula or anywhere5 between the breed-
ing and wintering ranges. Seven Blue Chats
were ringed at Point Calimere in October 1969.
Eighteen individuals ( c? $ ) were ringed bet-
ween October-November, 1980. Again five
were ringed during the same period in 1981,

5 Recorded at Bhimashankar, Western Ghats —
SA.

6 Probably Point Calimere birds come down the
Western Ghats. The species is quite common sea-
sonably in sholes in the Nilgiris, e.g. Coonoor-SA.

indicating that Point Calimere is a regular
stage for Blue Chats on their winter migra-
tion. Birds were regularly noted during this
period. However, none were recorded on spring
migration, suggesting that these birds may be
using a different route (Western Ghats?) on
their return migration.6
Forest Wagtail Motacilla indica

Another species seen on passage in Point
Calimere. The first winter arrivals were noted
on census paths within the sanctuary on 15th
September 1980, and thereafter they were re-
gularly seen until third week of January 1981.
Peak influx was noticed in October-Novem-
ber. Six birds were netted and ringed during
this period. Once again no birds were seen
in spring migration suggesting that this species
also takes a different route on return migra-
tion.

Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus

This species has been recorded as wintering
in the Indian peninsula but so far has not
been recorded in Sri Lanka. A single female,
(in BNHS collection) was obtained at Point
Calimere on 24-1-1981.

Several species of birds have been recorded
from Point Calimere Sanctuary during the
course of our studies. A checklist of the birds
ringed /recorded is given in the appendix. Of
the birds recorded so far the Spoonbilled
Sandpiper, hitherto regarded as a rare strag-
gler, may actually prove to be a regular winter
visitor to the area. Evidence is now available
that the Lesser Flamingo occurs on the
eastern seaboard from Chilka in the north to
Point Calimere and possibly Rameswaram and
Sri Lanka in the south. Both large and lesser
Flamingos occur in the same areas, but their
feeding ecology needs to be studied. The
occurrence of Baza, together with that of Blue
Chat, Broad-tailed Grass Warbler, Threetoed
Forest Kingfisher and Scops Owl, is intriguing.

569

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Checklist of the birds of point cal i mere

Breeding, C = Common, R =. Resident, M = Migrant, SM = Seasonal Migrant, Ra = Rare,

O = Occasional.

Common Name

Species

Status

1. Little Grebe

Podiceps ruficollis

SM, B

2. Grey or Spottedbilled Pelican

Pelecanus philippensis

SM

3. Cormorant

Phalacrocorax carbo

O

4. Indian Shag

Phalacrocorax fuscicollis

o

5. Little or Pygmy Cormorant

Phalacrocorax niger

o

6 . Darter

Anhinga rufa

o

7. Grey Heron

Ardea cinerea

SM

8. Purple Heron

Ardea purpurea

SM

9. Little Green Heron

Butorides striatus

O

10. Pond Heron

Ardeola grayii

c

11. Cattle Egret

Bubulcus ibis

c

12. Large Egret

Ardea alba

c

13. Smaller Egret

Egretta intermedia

c

14. Little Egret

Egretta garzetta

c

15. Indian Reef Heron

Egretta gularis

c

16. Night Heron

Nycticorax nycticorax

SM

17. Black Bittern

Ixobrychus flavicollis

Ra

18. Painted Stork

Ibis leucocephalus

C

19. Openbill Stork

Anastomus oscitans

SM

20. Whitenecked Stork

Ciconia episcopus

SM

21. Blacknecked Stork

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus

SM

22. White Ibis

Threskiornis melanocephala

SM

23. Spoonbill

Platalea leucorodia

SM

24. Flamingo

Phoenicopterus roseus

SM

25. Lesser Flamingo

Phoeniconaias minor

SM

26. Barheaded Goose

Anser indie us

Ra

27. Pintail

Anas acuta

M

28. Common Teal

Anas crecca

M.

29. Spotbill Duck

Anas poecilorhyncha

SM

30. Mallard

Anas platyrhynchos

Ra

31. Gadwall

Anas strepera

M

32. Garganey

Anas querquedula

M

33. Shoveller

Anas clypeata

M

34. Cotton teal

Nettapus coromandelianus

SM.

35. Blackwinged Kite

Elanus caeruleus

O

36. Indian Blackcrested Baza

Aviceda leuphotes

R

37. Pariah or Black Kite

Milvus mi grans

O

38. Brahminy Kite

Haliastur indus

C,B

39. Shikra

Accipiter badius

SM

40. Sparrow-Hawk

Acci piter nisus

M

41. Besra Sparrow-Hawk

Accipiter virgatus

M

42. White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle

Butastur teesa

O

570

AVIFAUNA OF THE POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY

Common Name

Species

Status

43. Booted Hawk-Eagle

Hieraatus pennatus

O

44. Tawny Eagle

Aqui'la rapax

O

45. White-bellied Sea Eagle

Haliaeetus leucogaster

o

46. Egyptian or Scavenger Vulture

Neophron percnopterus

o

47. Pale Harrier

Circus macrourus

M

48. Montagu’s Harrier

Circus pygargus

M

49. Pied Harrier

Circus melanoleucos

M

50. Marsh Harrier

Circus aeruginosus

M

51. Short-toed Eagle

Circaetus gallicus

O

52. Crested Serpent Eagle

Spilornis cheela

O

53. Osprey

Pandion haliaetus

M

54. Peregrine Falcon

Falco peregrinus

M

55. Redheaded Merlin

Falco chicquera

M

56. Kestrel

Falco tinnunculus

SM

57. Grey Partridge

Francolinus pondicerianus

C,R

58. Jungle Bush Quail

Perdicula asiatica

C,R

59. Common Bustard-Quail

Turnix suscitator

C,R

60. Bluebreasted Banded Rail

Rallus striatus

M

61. Banded Crake

Rallina eurizonoides

SM

62. Whitebreasted Waterhen

Amaurornis phoenicurus

C,R

63. Water Cock, Kora

Gallicrex cinerea

SM

64. Moorhen

Gallinula chloropus

SM

65. Bronzewinged Jacana

Metopidius indicus

SM

66. Oystercatcher

Haematopus ostralegus

M

67. Blackwinged Stilt

Himantopus himantopus

SM

68. Avocet

Recurvirostra avosetta

M

69. Crab Plover

Dromas ardeola

SM

70. Stone Curlew

Burhinus oedicnemus

SM

71. Great-Stone Plover

Esacus magnirostris

SM,B

72. Collared Pratincole

Glareola pratincola

SM

73. Small Indian Pratincole

Glareola lactea

O

74. Redwattled Lapwing

Vanellus indicus

C,R

75. Yellow- wattled Lapwing

Vanellus malabaricus

C,R

76. Grey Plover

Pluvialis squatarola

M,C

77. Eastern Golden Plover

Pluvialis dominica

M,C

78. Large Sand Plover

Charadrius leschenaultii

M

79. Little Ringed Plover

Charadrius dubius

C,R

80. Ringed Plover

Charadrius hiaticula

O

81. Kentish Plover

Charadrius alexandrinus

C,R

82. Lesser Sand Plover

Charadrius mongolus

M,C

83. Whimbrel

Numenius phaeopus

M,C

84. Curlew

Numenius arquata

M,C

85. Blacktailed Godwit

Limosa limosa

M,C

86. Bartailed Godwit

Limosa lapponica

M,C

87. Spotted or Dusky Redshank

Tringa erythropus

M

88. Common Redshank

Tringa tot anus

M,C

89. Marsh Sandpiper

Tringa stagnatilis

M,C

571

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Common Name Species Status

90 . Greenshank

91. Green Sandpiper

92. Wood Sandpiper

93. Terek Sandpiper

94. Common Sandpiper

95. Turnstone

96. Snipebilled Godwit

97. Pintail Snipe

98. Swinhoe’s Snipe

99. Fantail Snipe

100. Knot

101. Eastern Knot

102. Sanderling

103. Little Stint

104. Temminck’s Stint

105. Longtoed Stint

106. Dunlin

107. Curlew-Sandpiper

108. Spoonbilled Sandpiper

109. Broadbilled Sandpiper

110. Ruff and Reeve

111. Rednecked Phalarope

112. Herring Gull

113. Lesser Blackbacked Gull

114. Great Blackheaded Gull

115. Brownheaded Gull

116. Blackheaded Gull

117. Whiskered Tern

118. Whitewinged Black Tern

119. Gullbilled Tern

120. Caspian Tern

121. Roseate or Rosy Tern

122. Common Tern

123. Sooty Tern

124. Little Tern

125. Large Crested Tern

126. Indian Lesser Crested Tern

127. Indian River Tern

128. Pompadour or Greyfronted green pigeon

129. Orangebreasted Green pigeon

130. Blue Rock Pigeon

131. Indian Ring Dove

132. Spotted Dove

133. Roseringed Parakeet

134. Redwinged Crested Cuckoo

135. Pied Crested Cuckoo

136. Large Hawk-Cuckoo

Tringa nebularia

M,C

Tringa ochropus

M,C

Tringa glareola

M,C

Tringa terek

m,o

Tringa hypoleucos

M,C

Arenaria interpres

M,C

Limnodromus semipalmatus

M.O

Gallinago stenura

M,0

Gallinago megala

M,0

Gallinago gallinago

M,0

Calidris canutus

M,0

Calidris tenuirostris

M,0

Calidris alba

M,0

Calidris minutus

M,C

Calidris temminckii

M,0

Calidris subminutus

M,0

Calidris alpinus

M,C

Calidris testaceus

M,C

Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus

M.Ra

Limicola falcinellus

M,C

Philomachus pugnax

M,C

Phalaropus lobatus

M,0

Larus argent at us

M,C

Larus fuscus

M,C

Larus ichthyaetus

M,C

Larus brunnicephalus

M,C

Larus ridibundus

M,C

Chlidonias hybrida

M,C

Chlidonias leucopterus

M,C

Gelochelidon nilotica

M,C

Hydroprogne caspia

M,C

Sterna dougalli

M,0

Sterna hirundo

M,C

Sterna fuscata

M,0

Sterna albifrons

R,B

Sterna bergii

M,0

Sterna bengalensis

M,0

Sterna aurantia

M,0

Treron pompadora

S,M

Treron bicincta

S,M

Columba livia

C

Streptopelia decaocto

R,B

Streptopelia chinensis

R.B

Psittacula krameri

C,SM

Clamator coromandus

M

Clamator jacobinus

SM,B

Cuculus sparverioides

SM

572

AVIFAUNA OF THE POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY

Common Name Species Status

137. Small Cuckoo

138. Common Hawk-Cuckoo or Brain fever Bird

139. Indian Cuckoo

140. Indian Plaintive Cuckoo

141. Indian Banded Bay Cuckoo

142. Koel

143. Small Greenbilled Malkoha

144. Crow-Pheasant or Coucal

145. Barn Owl

146. Eagle Owl, Great Horned Owl

147. Scops Owl

148. Spotted Owlet

149. Shorteared Owl

150. Indian Jungle Nightjar

151. European Nightjar

152. Longtailed Nightjar

153. Common Indian Nightjar

154. Palm Swift

155. Lesser Pied Kingfisher

156. Common Kingfisher

157. Threetoed Kingfisher

158. Whitebreasted Kingfisher

159. Blackcapped Kingfisher

160. Chestnut-headed Bee-eater

161 . Bluetailed Bee-eater

162. Green Bee-eater

163. Indian Roller or Blue Jay

164. Hoopoe, Hudhud

165. Wryneck

166. Lesser Goldenbacked Woodpecker

167. Indian Pitta

168. Bush Lark

169. Redwinged Bush Lark

170. Ashycrowned Finch-Lark

171. Sand Lark

172. Crested Lark

173. Eastern Skylark

174. Collared Sand Martin

175. Swallow

176. Indian Cliff Swallow

177. Baybacked Shrike

178. Brown Shrike

179. Golden Oriole

180. Black Drongo or King Crow

181. Grey or Ashy Drongo

182. Whitebellied Drongo

183. Ashy Swallow-Shrike

Cuculus poliocephalus

SM

Cuculus varius

SM

Cuculus micro pterus

SM

Cacomantis merulinus

SM

Cacomantis sonneratii

SM

Eudynamys scolopacea

C,SM

Rhopodytes viridirostris

C,R

Centropus sinensis

C,R

Tyto alba

O

Bubo bubo

O

Otus scops

Ra

Athene brama

C,R

Asio flammeus

M,0

Caprimulgus indicus

M,0

Caprimulgus europaeus

Ra

Caprimulgus macrurus

?

Caprimulgus asiaticus

9

Cypsiurus parvus

C.R

Ceryle rudis

SM

Alcedo at this

C,SM

Ceyx erithacus

SM

Halcyon smyrnensis

C,R

Halcyon pileata

SM

Merops leschenaulti

SM

Merops philippinus

SM

Merops orient alis

R,C

Coracias benghalensis

C,R

Upupa epops

SM

Jynx torquilla

O

Dinopium benghalense

C,R

Pitta brachyura

SM

Mirafra assamica

SM

Mirafra erythroptera

SM

Eremopterix grisea

SM

Calandrella raytal

?

Galerida cristata

SM

Alauda gulgula

R,C

Riparia riparia

O

Hirundo rustica

M

Hirundo fluvicola

M,0

Lanius vittatus

SM

Lanius cristatus

C,R

Oriolus oriolus

C,R

Dicrurus adsimilis

C,R

Dicrurus leucophaeus

SM

Dicrurus caerulescens

SM

Artamus fuscus

C,R

573

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Common Name

Species

Status

184. Greyheaded Myna

Sturnus malabaricus

SM

185. Blackheaded or Brahminy Myna

Sturnus pagodarum

SM

186. Rosy Pastor

Sturnus rose us

SM

187. Common Myna

Acridotheres tristis

C,R

188. Indian Tree Pie

Dendrocitta vagabunda

C,SM

189. House Crow

Corvus splendens

C,R

190. Jungle Crow

Corvus macrorhynchos

C,R

191. Common Wood Shrike

Tephrodornis pondicerianus

C,R

192. Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike

Coracina melanoptera

C,R

193. Common Iora

Aegithina tiphia

C,R

194. Redvented Bulbul

Pycnonotus cafer

C,R

195. Whitebrowed Bulbul

Pycnonotus luteolus

C,R

196. Jungle Babbler

Turdoides striatus

C,R

197. Brown Flycatcher

Muscicapa latirostris

M

198. Brownbreasted Flycatcher

Muscicapa muttui

M

199. Redbreasted Flycatcher

Muscicapa parva

M

200. Bluethroated Flycatcher

Muscicapa rubeculoides

M

201 . Paradise Flycatcher

T erpsi ph one par ad isi

M

202. Blacknaped Flycatcher

Monarcha azurea

SM

203. Tailor Bird

Orthotomus sutorius

C.R

204. Thickbilled Warbler

Phragmaticola aedon

M

205. Broadtailed Grass Warbler

Schoenicola platyura

Ra

206. Blyth’s Reed Warbler

Acrocephalus dumetorum

M

207. Paddyfield Warbler

Acrocephalus agricola

M

208. Booted Warbler

Hippolais caligata

M

209. Lesser Whitethroat

Sylvia curruca

M

210. Largebilled Leaf Warbler

Phylloscopus magnirostris

M

211. Dull Green Leaf Warbler

Phylloscopus trochiloides

M

212. Blue Chat

Erithacus brunneus

M

213. Magpie-Robin

Copsychus saularis

C,R

214. Indian Robin

Saxicoloides fulicata

C,R

215. Pied Ground Thrush

Zoothera wardii

M

216. Orangeheaded Ground Thrush

Zoothera citrina cyanotus

M

217. Pipit

Anthus sp.

M

218. Paddyfield Pipit

Anthus novaeseelandiae

M

219. Forest Wagtail

Motacilla indica

M

220. Yellow Wagtail

Motacilla flava

M

221. Grey Wagtail

Motacilla caspica

M

222. Pied or White Wagtail

Motacilla alba

M

223. Large Pied Wagtail

Motacilla maderaspatensis

C,B

224. Tickell’s Flowerpecker

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos

C,R

225. Purplerumped Sunbird

Nectarinia zeylonica

SM,B

226. Loten’s Sunbird

Nectarinia lotenia

O

227. Purple Sunbird

Nectarinia asiatica

SM,B

228. House Sparrow

Passer domesticus

C,R

229. Yellow throated Sparrow

Petronia xanthocollis

SM

230. Baya

Ploceus philippinus

SM

231. Blackheaded Munia

Lonchura malacca

SM

232. Common Silverbill

Lonchura malabarica

SM

233. Common Rosefinch

Carvodacus erythrinus

M

574

AVIFAUNA OF THE POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY

It has been postulated (Meher-Homji 1974,
a & b) that the climatic conditions in the
Coromandel Coast in the peninsula was humid
with equatorial climate not unlike that of
S. W. part of Sri Lanka in the recent past,
suggesting the occurrence of a contiguous eco-

Refei

Hussain, S. A. (1976): Occurrence of the Broad-
tailed Grass Warbler [Schoenicola platyura (Jer-
don)] on the Coromandel Coast. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 73(2): 400-401.

Meher-Homji, V. M. (1974 a) : Bioclimates of
south India and Ceylon. Inst. Fr. Pondicherry Tr.
Sect. Sci. Tech 3(2): 134-176,

(1974 b) : On the origin

system between Indian Peninsula and Sri
Lanka. The occurrence and pattern of move-
ments of several species of birds typical of
wet evergreen biotopes in the Point Calimere
scrub, seems to support the above theory.

E n ce s

of Tropical dry evergreen forest in S, India. Inst.
./. Ecol. Env. Sci. (1) : 19-39.

Phillips, W. W. A. (1948) : Occurrence of the
Indian Cliff-Swallow (Hirundo fluvicola) in Cey-
lon. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47: 740.

Raju, K. S. R. Krishna & Shekar, P. B. (1971) :
Some interesting records from Point Calimere. ibid.
68(2): 457-459.

575

TAXONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF OVIPOSITOR IN
SOME INDIAN GRASSHOPPERS (ORTHOPTERA:

ACRIDIDAE)1

M. Kamil Usmani and S. Adam Shafee2
{With two plates and a text -figure)

Comparative study of ovipositor is made in thirty Indian species representing twenty-
eight genera of the family Acrididae. Its taxonomic significance is shown. Shape of

dorsal and ventral valves, length of dorsal
as characters of taxonomic significance.

In troduction

The ovipositor is an organ for the process
of deposition of eggs. It consists of three pairs
of valves. Slifer (1939), Agarwala (1951) and
Uvarov (1966) named first and third valves
of ovipositor as ventral and dorsal valves res-
pectively. Qadri (1940) named them as ante-
rior and lateral valves. The second valve was
named as upper egg-guide by Slifer (1939),
posterior valve by Qadri (1940), mesial valve
by Agarwala (1951) and inner valve by Uvarov
(1966). The present writers followed Agar-
wala (1951) in adopting the names, ventral,
mesial and dorsal valves for first, second and
third valves of ovipositor respectively (fig. 1).
Agarwala (1953) made a comparative study
of ovipositor in various species of Acrididae
and correlated the morphology of ovipositor
with the nature of the oviposition sites.
Mishchenko (1952) and Willemse (1967, 1968,
1975, 1977) gave brief descriptions and illus-
trations of ovipositor in some species of
Acrididae.

Keeping in view the taxonomic importance
of ovipositor, the present writers made an

1 Accepted February 1980.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

valve and lateral apodeme are suggested

attempt to make a comparative study of ovi-
positor in thirty Indian species representing
twenty-eight genera of the family Acrididae.
The characters i.e. shape of dorsal and ventral
valves, length of dorsal valve and lateral
apodeme of ovipositor are suggested as charac-
ters of taxonomic significance.

Descriptions of ovipositor :

1. Pyrgomorpha conica (Olivier) (PI. 1, fig.
A). — Dorsal valve moderately broad, slightly
more than three times as long as wide, dis-
tinctly shorter than lateral apodeme, dorsal
condyle prominent; ventral valve with apical
tip pointed, basal sclerite well developed,
setose.

2. Atractoniorpha ere si u lata (Fabricius)

(PI. 1, fig. B). — Dorsal valve moderately broad,
four times as long as wide, slightly longer than
lateral apodeme, dorsal condyle much pro-
minent; ventral valve with slope deeply con-
cave, basal sclerite narrow; mesial valve and
apical tip long and pointed.

3. Chrotogonus trachypteros (Blanchard)
(PI. 1, fig. C). — Dorsal valve broad, two and
a half times as long as wide, as long as
lateral apodeme, dorsal edge tuberculate, dor-
sal condyle not prominent; ventral valve with
apical tip pointed, basal sclerite narrow.

576

OVIPOSITOR IN INDIAN GRASSHOPPERS

setose on apical half; mesial valve almost
triangular.

4. Aularches scabiosae (Fabricius) (Pl. 1,
fig. D). — Dorsal valve moderately broad,
slightly more than three times as long as wide,
longer than lateral apodeme, apical tip curv-
ed and pointed, dorsal edge tuberculate,
dorsal condyle not prominent; ventral valve
with slope deeply concave, basal sclerite
narrow and tuberculate.

5. Poekilocerus pictus (Fabricius) (PI. 1,
fig. E). — Dorsal valve broad, less than two and
a half times as long as wide, much shor-
ter than lateral apodeme, apical tip small and
pointed, dorsal edge with irregular ridges,
dorsal condyle less prominent; ventral valve
with slope deeply concave, basal sclerite nar-
row and smooth.

6. Ortliacris ceylonica (Kirby) (PI. 1, fig. F).
— Dorsal valve more or less of uniform width,
five times as long as wide, longer than lateral

apodeme, apical tip blunt, dorsal condyle much
prominent; ventral valve with apical tip blunt,
lateral tooth distinct, basal sclerite narrow,
serrated apically; mesial valve with apical tip
small and pointed.

7. HierogSyphus banian (Fabricius) (PI. 1,
fig. G). — Dorsal valve moderately broad, three
and a half times as long as wide, slightly
shorter than lateral apodeme, dorsal condyle
prominent; ventral valve with slope deeply
concave, lateral tooth well developed, lateral
and basal sclerites serrated basally; mesial
valve dilated apically.

8. Spathosternum prasiniferum (Walker) (PI.
1, fig. H). — Dorsal valve moderately broad,
slightly more than three times as long as wide,
as long as lateral apodeme, dorsal condyle
much prominent; ventral valve with slope
deeply concave, lateral tooth absent, lateral
and basal sclerites smooth; mesial valve blunt
apically.

Fig. 1. Ovipositor in lateral view.

Abbreviations : Arc.-Arcus; B.Sc. — Basal sclerite; D.Ap. — Dorsal apodeme; D.C. — Dorsal condyle;
D.Ed. — Dorsal edge; D.V. — Dorsal valve; L.Ap. — Lateral apodeme; L. Sc. — Lateral sclerite; M.T. —
Mesial tooth; M.V. — Mesial valve; SI. — Slope; T. — Tip; V.C. — Ventral condyle; V.V. — Ventral valve.

577

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

9. Oxya hyla Serville (PI. 1, fig. I). — Dorsal
valve long and narrow, five and a half times
as long as wide, longer than lateral apodeme,
dorsal edge with acute spines; ventral valve
long, lower margin with acute spines, basal
sclerite narrow and serrated; mesial valve long
and pointed.

10. Oxya velox (Fabricius) (PI. 1, fig. J). —
Dorsal valve long and narrow, six and a half
times as long as wide, longer than lateral apo-
deme, dorsal edge with small blunt spines;
ventral valve long, lower margin with small
blunt spines, basal sclerite narrow and smooth;
mesial valve long and pointed.

11. Choroedocus robust us (Serville) (PI. 1,
fig. K). — Dorsal valve broad, slightly less
than three times as long as wide, much shorter
than lateral apodeme; ventral valve with slope
slightly cancave, basal sclerite tuberculate at
apical half; mesial valve dilated apically.

12. Eyprepocnemis alacris (Serville) (PI. 1,
fig. L). — Dorsal valve moderately broad, more
than three times as long as wide, as long as
lateral apodeme; ventral valve with slope
broadly concave, basal sclerite punctate;
mesial valve slightly dilated apically.

13. Acrida turrifa (Linnaeus) (PI. 1, fig. M).
— Dorsal valve broad, two and a half times
as long as wide, much shorter than lateral
apodeme, apical tip short; ventral valve with
apical tip short, basal sclerite narrow and
tuberculate; mesial valve with apical tip short
and blunt.

14. Acrida exaltata (Walker) (PI. 1, fig. N).
— Dorsal valve broad, slightly more than three
times as long as wide, shorter than lateral
apodeme; ventral valve with apical tip short,
basal sclerite narrow and tuberculate; mesial
valve slightly dilated apically.

15. Ceracris nigricornls Walker (PI. 1, fig.
O). — Dorsal valve narrow, four times as long
as wide, shorter than lateral apodeme, apical

tip blunt; ventral valve with apical tip long
and pointed, slope deeply concave, basal scle-
rite narrow.

16. Phlaeoba infumafa Brunner (PI. 1, fig.
P). — Dorsal valve narrow, slightly more than
four times as long as wide, shorter than lateral
apodeme; ventral valve with apical tip long
and pointed, slope deeply cancave, mesial tooth
truncated, basal sclerite setose on apical half;
mesial valve blunt.

17. Xenocatantops humilis (Serville) (PL 2,
fig. A). — Dorsal valve narrow, more than
three times as long as wide, shorter than late-
ral apodeme, apical tip blunt; ventral valve
with apical tip long and pointed, slope deeply
concave, basal sclerite narrow and smooth;
mesial valve dilated apically.

18. Eucoptacra praemorsa (Stal) (PI. 2, fig.
B). — Dorsal valve narrow, more than four
times as long as wide, much longer than late-
ral apodeme, apical tip long and blunt, dorsal
condyle prominent; ventral valve with apical
tip long and pointed, slope deeply concave,
basal sclerite narrow.

19. Orthacanthacris sp. (PI. 2, fig. C). —
Dorsal valve moderately broad, three and a
half times as long as wide, shorter than lite-
ral apodeme, apical tip long and blunt, dor-
sal condyle much prominent; ventral valve
with apical tip blunt, slope concave, basal
sclerite narrow and tuberculate; mesial valve
dilated apically.

20. Brachyxenia scutifera (Walker) (PI. 2,
fig. D). — Dorsal valve moderately broad, less
than four times as long as wide, longer than
lateral apodeme, apical tip blunt; ventral
valve with apical tip acute, basal sclerite punc-
tate.

21. Caloptenopsis glaucopsis (Walker) (PI.
2, fig. E). — Dorsal valve moderately broad,
more than three times as long as wide, as
long as lateral apodeme, apical tip blunt;

578

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate 1

Usmani & Shafee: Indian Grasshoppers

Figs. A-P. Ovipositor in lateral view: (A) Pyrgomorpha conica (Olivier); (B) Atarctomorpha
crenulaia (Fabricius); (C) Chrotogonus trachypterus (Blanchard); (D) Autarches scabiosae
(Fabricius); (E) Poekilocerus pictus (Fabricius); (F) Orthacris ceylonica (Kirby); (G)
Hieroglyphus banian (Fabricius); (H) Spathosternum prasiniferum (Walker); (I) Oxya hyla
Serville; ( J) Oxya velox (Fabricius) ; (K) Choroedocus robustus (Serville) ; (L) Eyprepoc-
nemis alacris (Serville); (M) Acrida turrita (Linnaeus); (N) Acrida exaltata (Walker); (O)
Ceracris nigricornis Walker; (P) Phlaeoba infumata Brunner.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79

Usmani & Shafee: Indian Grasshoppers

Plate 2

Figs, A-N. Ovipositor in lateral view: (A) Xenocatantops humilis (Serville); (B) Eucoptacra
praemorsa (Stal); (C) Orthacanthacris sp.; (D) Brachyxenia scutifera (Walker); (E) Calo-
ptenopsis glaucopsis (Walker); (F) Oedaleus abruptus (Thunberg) ; (G) Aiolopus affinis
(Bolivar); (H) Acrotylus humbertianus Saussure; (I) Trilophidia annulata (Thunberg); (J)
Gastrimargus transversus (Thunberg); (K) Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus); (L) Morphacris
citrina Kirby; (M) Dociostaurus decisus (Walker); (N) Stauroderus bicolor (Charpentier).

OVIPOSITOR IN INDIAN GRASSHOPPERS

ventral valve with apical tip blunt, slope con-
cave.

22. Oedaleus abruptus (Thunberg) (PI. 2,
fig. F). — Dorsal valve broad, slightly less than
three times as long as wide, shorter than
lateral apodeme, apical tip blunt, dorsal con-
dyle not prominent; ventral valve with slope
slightly concave, basal sclerite tuberculate;
mesial valve with apical tip blunt.

23. Aiolopus affinis (Bolivar) (PI. 2, fig. G).
— Dorsal valve moderately broad, more than
three times as long as wide, shorter than late-
ral apodeme, apical tip long and much acute,
dorsal condyle much prominent; ventral valve
with apical tip long, curved and pointed, basal
sclerite punctuate.

24. Acrotylus humbertianus Saussure (PI. 2,
fig. H). — Dorsal valve broad, less than three
times as long as wide, much shorter than late-
ral apodeme, apical tip long and acute, dorsal
condyle much prominent; ventral valve with
slope deeply concave, basal sclerite narrow,
setose apically; mesial valve with apical tip
short.

25. Trilophidia annulate (Thunberg) (PI. 2,
fig. I). — Dorsal valve moderately broad, slight-
ly more than three times as long as wide,
slightly shorter than lateral apodeme, apical
tip short and blunt, dorsal condyle not much
prominent; ventral valve with apical tip short
and blunt, basal sclerite well developed, tuber-
culate apically; mesial valve with apical tip
of medium size.

26. Gastrimargus transversus (Thunberg)
(PI. 2, fig. J). — Dorsal valve broad, less than
three times as long as wide, as long as lateral
apodeme, apical tip long and pointed, dorsal
condyle prominent; ventral valve with slope
deeply concave, mesial tooth broadly truncat-
ed, basal sclerite tuberculate; mesial valve
much dilated apically.

27. Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus) (PI. 2, fig.

K). — Dorsal valve uniformly broad, three and
a half times as long as wide, shorter than
lateral apodeme, apical tip short and acute,
dorsal condyle blunt, much prominent; ven-
tral valve with slope slightly concave, basal
sclerite broad and tuberculate.

28. Morphacris citrina Kirby (PI. 2, fig. L).
— Dorsal valve moderately broad, three times
as long as wide, shorter than lateral apodeme,
apical tip blunt, dorsal edge with small tuber-
cles, dorsal condyle blunt and much promi-
nent; ventral valve with slope slightly con-
cave, basal sclerite serrated; mesial valve dilat-
ed apically.

29. Dociostaurus decisus (Walker) (PI. 2, fig.
M). — Dorsal valve broad, three times as long
as wide, shorter than lateral apodeme, apical
tip short and blunt; ventral valve with apical
tip short, mesial tooth well developed.

30. Staurodenis bicolor (Charpentier) (PI. 2,
fig. N). — Dorsal valve narrow, more than three
times as long as wide, shorter than lateral
apodeme; ventral valve with apical tip long
and pointed, slope tuberculate, not much
curved, basal sclerite broad and tuberculate;
mesial valve dilated apically.

Discussion

Comparative study of ovipositor in thirty
species of Acrididae revealed that there are
certain characters i.e. length of lateral apo-
deme and shape of ovipositor valves have
significant value in separating various genera
of the family Acrididae. Dorsal valve broad
and shorter than lateral apodeme in Pyrgo-
morpha, Poekilocerus , Hieroglyphus, Choroe-
docus, Acrida, Orthacanthacris, Oedaleus , Aio-
lopus, Acrotylus, Trilophidia, Locusta, Mor-
phacris and Dociostaurus; dorsal valve narrow
and shorter than lateral apodeme in Ceracris,
Phlaeoba, Xenocatantops and Stauroderus;

579

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

dorsal valve broad and longer than lateral
apodeme in Atractomorpha, Aularches and
Brachyxenia; dorsal valve narrow and longer
than lateral apodeme in Orthacris, Oxya and
Eucoptacra ; dorsal valve broad and as long
as lateral apodeme in Chrotogonus, Spathoster-
num, Eyprepocnemis, Caloptenopsis and
Gastrimargus.

Refer

Agarwala, S.B.D. (1951): A comparative study
of the ovipositor in Acrididae. Indian J. Ent., 13:
147-81.

(1953): A comparative study

of the ovipositor in Acrididae. Indian J. Ent., 15 :
53-69.

Mishchenko, L. L. (1952): Fauna of U.S.S.R.
Orthoptera. Locusts and Grasshoppers (Catanto-
pinae). Zool. Inst. Nauk SSSR. 4: 1-560. (Trans-
lated from Russian.)

Qadri, M.A.H. (1940): On the development of
genitalia and their ducts of Orthopteroid insects.
Trans. R. ent. Soc. Lond., 90: 121-175.

Slifer, E. H. (1939) : The internal genitalia of
female Acridinae, Oedipodinae and Paulininae
(Orthoptera: Acrididae). J. Morph., 65: 437-469.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Prof. S. Mashhood
Alam, Head, Department of Zoology, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh for providing re-
search facilities. Thanks are also due to Prof.
Nawab H. Khan for encouragement.

ENCES

Uvarov, B. P. (1966): Grasshoppers and Locusts.
Cambridge. 1: 1-481.

Willem se, F. (1967) : A preliminary revision of
the genus Tauchiridea I. Bolivar, 1918 (Orth.,
Acridoidea, Acrididae, Oxyinae). Publties natuurh.
Genoot. Limburg. 17: 19-26.

(1968) : Revision of the genera

Stenocatantops and Xenocatantops (Orthoptera,
Acridiidae. Catantopinae) . Mon. Ned. Ent. Ver., 4:
1-77.

(1975): Studies on the Acridoid

genera Opiptacris Walker and Bumacris Willemse
(Orthoptera, Acridoidea). Tijdschr. Ent., 118: 117-
158.

(1977) : A study on the genus

Cranae Stal (Orthoptera, Acridoidea, Catantopinae).
Tijdschr. Ent., 120: 121-152.

580

THE BIRDS OF RANGANATHITTU

S. G. Neginhal1 2
{With two plates )

I N TROD U CTIO N

Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary, near Mysore,
is a well-known heronry of south India where
fourteen species breed from May to Novem-
ber on the islets of the Kaveri river. These
are: Openbill stork {Anastomus oscitans).

Eastern Large Egret ( Egretta alba). Smaller
or Median Egret {Egretta intermedia) , Little
Egret {Egretta garzetta). Cattle Egret {Bubul-
cus ibis). White Ibis {Threskiornis melanoce-
phala). Spoonbill {Platalea leucorodia), Dar-
ter or Snake-bird {Anhinga rufa). Large
Cormorant {Phalacrocorax car bo), Indian
Shag {Phalacrocorax fuscicollis), Little Cor-
morant {Phalacrocorax niger). Night Heron
{Nycticorax nycticorax), Indian Pond Heron
or Paddy bird {Ardeola grayii), and Eastern
Purple Heron {Ardea purpurea).

From November onwards other birds like
the Great Stone Plover {Esacus magnirostris) ,
the Indian River Tern {Sterna aurantia ), the
Indian Cliff Swallow {Hirundo fluvicofa) and
the Streaked Weaver Bird {Ploceus manyar)
breed. In addition the Lesser Whistling Teal
{Dendrocygna javanica), the Pied Kingfisher
{Ceryle rudis), the Whitenecked Stork {Cico-
nia episcopus), the Large Pied Wagtail {Mota-
cilla maderaspatensis) , the Osprey {Pandion
haliaetus) , and the Redwattled Lapwing

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 Deputy Conservator of Forests, Varahi Utiliza-
tion Division, At & Post Thirthahalli-577 432, Dist.
Shimoga (Karnataka).

{Vanellus indicus) and a variety of other
birds are also seen, some throughout the year,
on the vegetation growing along the banks of
the river.

History. At Ranganathittu there is an ancient
weir across the Kaveri river to impound the
waters and convey through an aqueduct to
Srirangapatna, a historical and ancient island-
town nearby. The weir and the aqueduct were
constructed between 1645-1648 A.D. during
the reign of Sri Kanthirava Narasaraj, a king
of Mysore, to perpetuate the name of his
favourite consort “Doddajamma”. The weir
impounded water to form a large and deep re-
servoir and has a number of islets. When
exactly the birds started breeding here is of
course not recorded.

The islets were legally constituted as a bird
sanctuary in 1940 at the suggestion of Salim
Ali, during his survey of the birds of Mysore.

Nesting vegetation. There are 5-6 small islets
in the impounded waters of the Kaveri river.
These islets are insulated by deep waters 20-30
ft deep and bear some riverine vegetation, on
which the birds nest. The main nesting trees
are Terminalia arjuna, Pongamia glabra , Salix
sp., Vitex sp.. Ficus sp., Pandanus and Caesal-
pinia bonducella tangles and rushes; and even
sedges form the nesting vegetation at Ranga-
nathittu.

The sanctuary is surrounded by irrigated
agricultural lands, which provide the feeding
grounds for the nesting birds.

Arrival and Breeding. The arrival timings of
the nesting birds at Ranganathittu varies from

581

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

year to year. Naturally the birds do not settle
down to breed unless the food is assured to
them, which at Ranganathittu, depends upon
the release of the K.R.S. Dam waters by
which the agricultural fields are flooded and
prepared for planting the paddy seedlings. The
commencement of the rainy season, after a
long dry spell of the summer, decides the
commencement of the breeding season of the
heronry birds. Even then the arrival and
breeding timings of the various species of the
birds are not the same. Some birds like the
Openbill Storks arrive earlier in the breeding
season and some like the Spoonbills come
later. The Table gives the arrival timings of
some of the birds that breed at this Sanctuary.

Predation. Crows (both Corvus macrorhyn-
chos and C. splendens) cause heavy damage
to the eggs and nestlings of the breeding birds.
At Ranganathittu boats and coracles take
visitors around the islets for seeing the
heronry. When the boats and coracles go very
near, the breeding birds get frightened and
fly away leaving their nests unprotected. The
crows anticipating this situation follow the
boats and pillage the eggs and even take away
the nestlings from the unguarded nests.

The Brahminy Kite ( Haliastur indus) is
also sometimes seen taking away the nestlings,
but not the eggs.

During the breeding season the Bonnet
macaques ( Macaca radiata) in troops swim
across the river to the islets and plunder the
eggs from the nests. The Bonnet monkeys
cause heavy damage to the birds. The tourists
going close to the islets in the boats aggre-
vate the situation as the birds leave their nests
unprotected against the monkey damage. The
birds ineffectively jab at the monkeys, which
simply ignore this protest and pillage and
feed on the eggs. When the river is in flood

-a

-a -g

Si J— I i-H »1

cn m cn m

a) a> d a> o o kT

g d g g g g

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

H

73 "d
Si G
m

Qji 0)

<3 gj
£ £

tS £

*-< "tf-

>> <L> 4) <D <D <D

3 G G G G G

^ 3 3 3 3 3 3

e M M M

G (U 0) (U <L)

£ a> a) a)

^ £ £ £ £

32 a> d a> a>

32 G G G G

3 3 3 3

X! Xi

& & s * *

<D
G

5 S S

3 o O O O O

S Z Z Z Z Z

>» >*
3 3

>* >» «
3 3 G

on

.22

o

a)

Oh

C/5

g «) 22 «i

oo W &x) w IS

w

8>| ® ■S §

(Tj H CO

O

582

THE BIRDS OF RANGANATHITTU

the monkey damage is averted as the maca-
ques cannot swim in the turbulent river. The
climax of the egg laying period takes place
when the river is in spate, which prevents
damage from monkeys to a great extent.

Floods. Within about ten miles upstream of
the Sanctuary a big dam known as K.R.S.
dam occurs across the Kaveri River. The im-
pounded waters are, from time to time, re-
leased for irrigation. This sudden release of
waters causes heavy damage to the breeding
birds by washing away the low built nests and
the nesting vegetation. Sometimes even some
portions of the islets are washed away.

When the birds arrive for breeding in the
months of May and June the water level of
the river is low. The birds build their nests on
all the vegetation including the low vegetation.
In the months of late July, August and early
September there will be floods due to release
of waters from the upstream reservoir, which
wash away all the low built nests.

Median, Little and Cattle Egrets and the
Night and Pond Herons are much affected
by the floods, as they nest at lower levels.
Openbill storks. White Ibis, Cormorants and
Darter are not much affected by the floods, as
they nest above the flood level.

Inter and intra specific relationships. The
birds nest in their own separate colonies, oc-
cupying the same niches year after year. This
tendency for segregation and sticking to almost
permanent niches for nesting naturally avoids
to a great extent interspecific competition
amongst various species, although some com-
petition cannot be ruled out at the fringes.

As the birds nest in segregated colonies,
with closely packed nests, intra-specific com-
petitions and fights do take place to some
extent, although the birds are by and large not
aggressive.

Departure and migration. By end of Octo-
ber the water flow in the river is much re-
duced. Release of water into the canals is
also stopped. The paddy fields are dry. The
young birds are also sufficiently grown to take
care of themselves. This is the time when most
of the heronry birds, that bred, leave the
Sanctuary; and by November most of the
birds are gone.

As the water in the river is much reduced
by November the sheet rocks and boulders
in the river are exposed and on these birds
like the Great Stone Plover ( Esacus magniro-
stris) and the Indian River Tern ( Sterna
aurantia ) breed.

It is not known from where the heronry
birds come to Ranganathittu for breeding and
to where they go after breeding. To study
this, ringing of the young was taken up in
September 1975 with the help of the Bombay
Natural History Society. Recovery reports are
not yet reported.

Crocodiles and other animals. Marsh Croco-
diles ( Crocodylus palustris ) also breed at
Ranganathittu. They are often seen basking
on the exposed sheet rocks in winter (Novem-
ber to February). Otters ( Lutra sp.) are occa-
sionally seen. Fruit Bats ( Pteropus giganteus)
roost in hundreds during day time on some
of the larger trees along the bank of the river
and on the main island where the heronry
birds do not breed. Ranganathittu is also a
Sanctuary for fish; and thirteen species are
known to breed.

Tourism. The heronry attracts annually
about a lakh of tourists. Boats and cora-
cles are provided to take the visitors on
the river for rowing round the islets to see the
breeding birds. The money collected for en-
trance, boating, photography etc. from the
visitors, forms a sizable revenue.

583

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Notes on breeding birds
Open bill Stork ( Anastomus oscitans)

With the onset of premonsoon showers in
May /June about 200 Openbills come for breed-
ing at Ranganathittu. They nest almost ex-
clusively on a lone, medium sized, Terminalia
arjuna tree that stands in mid-river. Some
Openbills also nest on low growing Ficus
glomerata, Pongamia glabra and Pandanus
plants that also stand in water. The Termina -
Iia arjuna tree holds the main colony. Un-
occupied spaces on the trees are utilised for
nesting by some Egrets, Darters, Little Cor-
morants, Night Herons and Pond Herons (the
last three species inside the foliage). .

When the Openbills arrive in May /June
their plumage is snow-white except the deep
purplish (greenish tinged) remiges and char-
coal black tail. Later as the season advances
the snow-white coat changes gradually to
light grey, which looks dirty. The change of
colour from white coat to light-grey coat is
so natural and gradual that one misses it.
When the Openbills commence building nests,
which is usually by the end of 3rd week or
beginning of 4th week of June, all have snow-
white coat. This white-coat continues through-
out July, when about 50% of them will have
laid eggs and others will be building nests.
The birds start turning greyish as the incuba-
tion period advances and by the 3rd week
of August about 50% of the birds would have
become grey and the remaining 50% would
be turning grey. A few may remain (ten seen
in August 1977) in pure white plumage. By
end of August all breeding birds would have
turned light grey, by which time they will
have chicks in the nest. One bird with white
coat was seen as late as in the 1st week of
September in 1977, when all others had turn-
ed light grey, but this had no nest. Again by

January onwards the greyish coat starts turn-
ing whitish; and this process of change of
colour continues upto April, as seen from
some birds remaining in the sanctuary.

The young from the nestling stage to sub-
adult have light greyish colour. When the sub-
adults become adults (in the next year) i.e.,
when the gap in their bills becomes promi-
nent, they also commence putting on the
white coat of maturity by late June.

In 1975 the Openbills were seen mating on
1 5-vi- 1 975 and commenced nesting on 21-vi-
1975. Matings were seen upto 2-viii- 1975.

Kahl (1970) has recorded for Bharatpur
that the Openbills regurgitate a quantity of
water over the eggs. This was not observed at
Ranganathittu.

The Openbills normally raise only one
brood at Ranganathittu. A few also raise a
second brood, if their first clutch of eggs is
pillaged by the macaques and crows. As these
birds nest at a higher level i.e., well above
the flood level, they are not affected by floods,
which destroy the low built nests of other birds
at this sanctuary. So most of the Openbills do
not have the need to raise a second brood.

A few juveniles with undeveloped gap or
just developing gap in their bills are seen to
accompany adult Openbills, that come for
breeding at Ranganathittu, at the beginning of
the breeding season (such sub-adults, how-
ever, number hardly about 5 to 10 each year).

From the third week of August onwards
chicks are seen and the parents make several
sorties to feed the chicks. One of the pair
always stands as a sentry over the chicks till
the other partner returns with food. In August,
September and October, when the days are
hot, the parents, protect the young against the
sun by providing shade with their half or fully
spread wings. In some nests both the eggs and
chicks are seen together, which fact explains

Os -a
is. X
. o3
U C
O 03
CO feO
G

g oj

H
C
fc • =
CO

< 4h‘
« 03

s

c

5b

o3

«

Left — A bove : Openbills in their white nupital coat, as they arrive for breeding. The one at the centre, by the
side of White Ibis, is having grey coat. Below : White Ibises busily engaged in nesting on low bushes.

Right — Above: A Spoonbill incubating at its nest on a Pandanus thicket. Below: Little Cormorants on a Salix
plant.

(Photos: 5. G. Neglnhal )

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate II

Naginhal: Birds of Ranganathittu

u a>

0 cu

^ QJ

. <U

< M

• •

£ 00
o ^
o

oq a)

It!

fl T3

o c

co «*
a)

G ^

1 1
Cu o

>> a>

15 O

a5 O
'G N

co O
<U co

G

00 -£

.5

Vh

cd 3
•§.2
5 >

•a jg

■ai

S g>

o .S
to £

43 |

3 £

“ go

§ -

S >

^ o

0)

g

oo o

<u co

<u +-*
co oj

3 £

4-1 a

oo

a>

o o

u

a ^

c I

J3 S’

03

00 ^
G

3 on

^ I

-C5

•S 3

43 *

THE BIRDS OF RANGAN ATHITTU

the size-difference later seen in the fledglings
in some cases (normally all the young ones
in a nest are uniformly sized).

When boats carry visitors very near to the
nesting trees, the parent birds move or fly
away from their nests. The crows (both
House and Jungle) at this moment rob the
eggs and the young chicks. The parent birds,
even if perching within a distance of one
metre of their nests do not defend their nests
in such circumstances. But if men clear out at
once, the birds immediately rush back to their
nests and scare away the crows. If in the mean
time the crows have done damage to the eggs,
the parent birds pick up such broken eggs
in their bills and throw them out. I have also
seen parent birds threatening the crows com-
ing near their nests and protecting the nestl-
ings by covering them with their slightly spread
out wings, if men are not nearby in boats.

The Openbill fledglings stay in their nests
and are dependent on their parents for a lon-
ger time than those of other species. The
parents were seen to feed them at their nests,
in some cases, as late as December- January
long after other breeding birds had left the
Sanctuary.

The fledglings spend most of their time in
the nests unlike the fledglings of other species
and over 70% of the fledglings are at their
nests as late as November. From November
onwards the parents are away most of the
time of the day outside the sanctuary, leaving
the young to spend time by themselves in the
Sanctuary.

As soon as the parents land down at the nest
(at times even earlier as the fledglings sight their
parents in the sky) the fledglings stand in a semi-
circle and commence squealing, and till the
food is regurgitated on to the floor of the nest
the fledglings keep on squealing and moan-
ing. They half open their wings, raise the tail-

feathers and move the head up and down,
pointing to and hitting with their bills on the
floor of the nest. If the parent does not disgorge
the food early, the young peck at the feet and
bill of the parent and again hit the floor of
the nest with their bill. The squealing conti-
nues till regurgitation takes place, on which
the young feed noisily and greedily. The
parent regurgitates food rapidly several times
at the centre of the nest. Quite often, when the
parents of adjoining nests land at their nests,
the young first commence their routine squeal-
ing but later stop when they realise their
mistake.

Once I saw a parent Openbill coming to its
nest and feeding its three young ones by re-
gurgitating. At this juncture a grown up fledg-
ling came quite close to this bird. The parent
Openbill immediately started jabbing at the
intruding fledgling. A little later the fledgling
again slowly and steadily approached the
parent bird, submissively squealing and the
parent this time kept quiet. This intruding
fledgling might have been of the parent’s
earlier clutch (this is quite rare) or an orphan,
which perhaps survives by getting food this
way.

In some nests, if a second brood was be-
ing raised on account of damage to the earlier
clutch by monkeys or by crows, a senior
fledgling is often seen along with the younger
brood of the second clutch. This senior fledgl-
ing on many occasions is pestered by the
junior fledglings for food, which are seen col-
lecting in a semi-circle around the senior
fledgling and ceremoniously demanding food.
If the senior has become a juvenile, it may
even try to feed the younger fledglings of its
nest, in the absence of its parents who are
out foraging. In mid January 1976, I observed
one sub-adult (without the development of the
gap in the bill) Openbill bringing a small

585

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

round shelled mollusc in its bill to a nest. As
soon as it landed on its nest another youn-
ger fledgling that was already in the nest start-
ed ceremoniously demanding food. The sub-
adult that had brought the food obliged. It
was also seen disgorging other food. Both the
parents of this nest had gone out, when this
happened.

The fledglings of one nest do not steal the
food of the adjoining nests, but wait for their
own parents to come and feed them.

The frequency of feeding of the young
ones is much reduced from November on-
wards, and the fledglings are left to themselves
most of the day. By January most of the
fledglings leave their nests and spend time on
the rocks in the river. Later they roost in the
evening on river-side trees up-stream with adult
Openbills and other species.

Initially, as the Openbills start breeding
there is not much of intra-specific competi-
tion, but as more birds come the competi-
tion to occupy nesting sites sets in. In such
circumstances the birds were observed fight-
ing amongst themselves by jabbing and peck-
ing at each other.

In October 1976 nests of three pairs of
Openbills were seen on a bough of a tree,
built very near to each other. All three nests
had three nestlings in their nests and were
covered by a parent bird in each nest. The
parent bird in the middle nest was observed
pecking at the bills of the parent birds stand-
ing in their respective nests, on either side
whenever these two birds positioned them-
selves close to the middle nest.

Sometimes the Openbills suddenly erupt into
quarrels amongst themselves for reasons
best known to themselves. On one occasion,
two Openbills, of one nest and two of an
adjoining nest suddenly started jabbing at each

other without any apparent reason. Both
nests had eggs.

The fledglings are also seen to defend their
nests against the fledglings of adjoining nest
if they inadvertently intrude.

Egrets

Ranganathittu provides rare opportunities
for studying the breeding behaviour of four
Egrets namely E. alba, E. intermedia, E.
garzetta and Bubulcus ibis. These birds offer
an added charm to this heronry with their
attractive breeding plumage. Together they
form the majority of the breeding birds of
this heronry. Amongst themselves E. interme-
dia and E. garzetta form the majority.

Eastern large egret ( Egretta alba)

No detailed study has been done on the
food habits of these birds at Ranganathittu.
It is of interest to note that in September
1975, while ringing young ones of the breed-
ing birds at Ranganathittu, a nestling of a
Large Egret while being handled disgorged
from its crop, seventy eight fish fry due to
fright. Another nestling vomited some fish fry
and a half digested small crab.

The birds put on two attractive nuptial
costumes during the breeding season namely
snow-white dorsal plumes and beautiful blue
colour on the lores and orbital skin (Salim
Ali 1968). These plumes are often kept erect
and spread out during courtship and nidifica-
tion periods. The intra- and inter-specific
competition for acquiring and defending nest-
ing sites also provoke these birds to spread
out the plumes. The plumes adorn the birds
right from their arrival in May /June to middle
of August, when they will have nestlings.
Later they disappear. The blue colour of the
orbital skin does not last long. It is bright blue

586

THE BIRDS OF RANGANATHITTU

in May/ June and starts fading and reducing
as soon as the birds have eggs by the middle
or third week of July. By the time the birds
have nestlings, the blue colour completely
fades in the fourth week of July and dis-
appears by the third week of August.

The birds do not segregate but nest in
association with Openbill Storks, Median and
Cattle Egrets, Night Herons, Paddy birds and
Darters. They prefer the low Pandanus thic-
kets to the tall trees for nesting.

Mating is seen in the months of May /June
as soon as they come for breeding.

In July 1976, I saw a Large Egret, with
blue coloured lores, attempting to mount a
Median Egret, with Yellowish-orange coloured
lores. The latter obliged without protesting and
the male Large Egret had mounted the female
Median Egret, but before the copulation could
take place another Large Egret with the blue
lores came and drove away the mounting Large
Egret. This incident suggests the possibility of
occurrence of inter-species mating between
Large and Median Egrets.

Both sexes take part in incubation. One of
the parents is always at the nest when they
have eggs or nestlings. The nestlings soon
grow into fledglings, and when they are large
enough to be beyond predation both the
parents were observed going out for foraging.
While the parents are away the fledglings leave
their nests and take shelter in the foliage of
the nesting plants till their parents return to
feed them. When the days are hot (34-35°C.)
the parents shield their nestlings against the
sun by providing shade with their half open
wings.

Whenever troops of macaques raided the
Large Egrets were seen squealing and pro-
testing and even jabbing at the monkeys. Once
after the monkeys had left a Pandanus thicket
after pillaging the nests, a Large Egret was

seen returning to its nest and picking and
throwing into the river its damaged eggs.

Smaller or Median Egret Egretta intermedia

Birds with both black iris with a white ring
and birds with reddish iris without the white
ring were seen. Whether these characters in-
dicate sex difference needs to be studied.

The Median Egrets develop attractive
Yellowish-orange colour on the orbital skin
and on the lores during the breeding season.
The birds have this bright nuptial colour from
May /June to end of July. As the birds lay
eggs the yellowish-orange colour on the lores
starts fading and reducing in area. By the
time they start having chicks a much faded
yellowish colour remains on the skin around
their eyes, and by end of August the colour
completely disappears. Unlike the Large
Egrets, the Median Egrets develop nuptial
plumes both on the back and on the breast,
the latter being shorter. The nuptial plumes
are often kept erect to look like “Misty-
showers”. The birds have the plumes from
the fourth week of April to end of August,
when they normally have chicks in the nest.

These birds nest gregariously in association
with the Little Egrets, almost at ground level,
on the low thorny tangles of Caesalpinia bon-
ducella growing on the “Rain-tree island”.
Some of these birds also nest in a scattered
way on small trees and on Pandanus thickets
in association with other birds.

It is of interest to note that these birds
(Little Egrets too) collect the floating grass,
straw, tiny twigs and sticks, that come down
the river in the floods, for constructing the
nests, in addition to the nesting material that
they bring from outside. They fly low over
the water and pick up the floating and drift-
ing nesting material with their bills.

Initially when these birds arrive for breed-

587

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 79

ing, the heronry resounds to their croaking
sounds while they jealously defend their nest-
ing places.

When the Bonnet monkeys raid the islets
the Median Egrets jab and lunge at the mon-
keys, keeping erect their plumes. They go on
squealing and croaking till the intruders vacate
the islets. On one occasion four Median Egrets
were observed unitedly jabbing at a raiding
macaque.

Little Egret Egretta garzetta

Little Egrets come in more numbers to breed
at Ranganathittu than the other Egrets. They
have yellow feet as a rule, but a few have pink
feet also.

Two long nuchal plumes (nuptial plumes)
adorn these birds from about third week of
April to end of August, by which time they
have chicks. The orbital skin also gets light
greenish yellow in colour, which is not so
prominent as that of the breeding Large and
Median Egrets. (Birds with pink feet develop
pink colour on the orbital skin.)

These Egrets nest gregariously on the low
Caesalpinia bonducella tangles, on “Rain-tree
islet” in association with the Median Egrets.
Some also nest among other birds. The Little
Egrets also collect the floating and drifting
nesting materials.

Little Egrets are comparatively more aggres-
sive than the other Egrets. They were ob-
served vociferously acquiring and defending
their roosting and nesting territories.

As already stated a few Little Egrets (3-4
pairs) with pink feet and pink lores and pink
orbital skin were observed coming to Ranga-
nathittu for breeding. They bred separately —
not mixing with the normal Little Egrets with
yellow feet. They have two long nuchal plumes
also, and shed these after the breeding is over.

Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis

The birds start turning golden buff (their
nuptial costume) by early or middle of March.
The buff colour first covers the face and neck
and then slowly spreads on the back and
breast. After the peak of the breeding season
is over, the bright buff coat starts fading. By
first week of October, when the birds have
fledglings, these become almost white; and by
end of October the birds turn snow-white
again.

By the second week of June the birds com-
mence nesting. They do not nest gregariously
but in association with other Egrets, Night
and Pond Herons. The Cattle Egrets very
jealously guard their nests.

White Ibis Threskiornis melanocephala

The white ibis nest gregariously on low
vegetation. Such of the birds that come late
in the breeding season even nest in communes
on the bare ground of “Rain-Tree islet.” This
was observed in 1973 and 1975 when a large
number of white ibises came for breeding. They
nested gregariously on the ground using a bare
minimum of twigs and some had laid eggs on
the ground without even forming nests!

Most of the hatchlings are seen in August.
The hatchlings grow remarkably fast into fair-
ly large sized nestlings within a week. When
hardly one month old, they start crawling
about and get mixed up with the young ones
of adjoining nests of their kind.

In October the grown up juveniles are seen
flying around and spending their time in groups
on the exposed sheet rocks of the river, feed-
ing by themselves on titbits till their parents
come and feed them.

Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia

Only 6 to 7 pairs come to Ranganathittu
for breeding. Their number has remained re-

588

THE BIRDS OF RANGANATHITTU

markably constant through out these years.

These birds come quite late in the season
and seem to be exacting in their requirement
of breeding conditions. Unless favourable con-
ditions are available, they do not take up
nesting and may even skip a year without
breeding, if proper conditions are not avail-
able. This happened in 1976, when five pairs
of spoonbills were seen but none nested.
Floods seem to have some bearing on
breeding of these birds at Ranganathittu. Ini-
tially on arrival they are seen spending their
time by standing and dozing on the rocks and
plants. As soon as the river is in spate they
spring into action and commence nesting.

Spoonbills have a favourite nesting place at
Ranganathittu, where they nest on low grow-
ing shrubbery, at a corner of ‘Rain-tree’ island,
segregating into their own colony, with no
other birds nesting nearby. But this traditional
place- was temporarily abandoned in 1975,
when the unusual floods washed away their
nests and eggs.

Cormorants Phalacrocorax sp.

Three Species of Cormorants come to Ran-
ganathittu. Large Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax
carbo)\ Indian Shag ( Phalacrocorax fuscicol-
lis)’. Little Cormorant {Phalacrocorax niger).

Little Cormorants in hundreds come and
roost at Ranganathittu, but only about fifty
pairs breed here in the season. Large Cormo-
rants and the Indian Shag irregularly breed.
In the years 1972 and 1973 only 2-3 pairs of
Large Cormorants nested and although a few
pairs came from 1974 to 1977 they did not
nest. The Indian Shags also irregularly nest.
Between the years 1972 and 1977 the Indian
Shag nested (six pairs) only in 1976, which
was surprisingly a drought year, when mon-
soons failed and the river did not flood.

Little Cormorants commence nesting earlier

than the other two Cormorants in June/ July.
The Large Cormorants and the Shags nest
later in August/ September. Little Cormorants
nest on medium sized trees in association with
Darters, Egrets, Openbill Storks etc.

The Indian Shag has a tendency to segre-
gate and is found nesting on the Salix on
‘Salix’ islet, on which the Darters also nest.
The Large Cormorants build their nests on
the lone large-sized Rain-tree {Pithecolobium
saman ) on Rain-tree islet. In addition to
bringing nesting materials from the round
about areas, the Little Cormorants were also
observed collecting nesting materials that come
drifting down the river.

Darter or Snake-bird Anhinga rufa

The Darter prefers the low growing Salix
trees for nesting. They nest gregariously.
Some birds also nest in association with other
birds. These (Night and pond Herons also)
commence nesting earlier than other birds.
By middle of April they are seen thumping
down the vegetation to make their tops flat
to begin the nesting and within a week their
nests would be almost half ready. Nidification
may be postponed to May or June depending
on monsoon conditions. At the time of nest-
ing, and even a little earlier, these birds be-
come noisy, and call repeatedly with a “Keke-
Ko, Keke-Ko”. They also keep erect their
nuptial silvery-grey plumes on their back while
defending their nesting sites and nests. They
are more vociferous in April/May; and in
later months they become almost silent. By
middle of May they are seen incubating in
their nests with their long necks and tails
projecting outside their nests.

Both sexes take part in nest building and
other activities. The birds also collect floating
twigs for nesting (in addition to fetching

589

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

material from outside). The snow-white nestl-
ings turn grey as they grow into fledglings.

Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax

These crepuscular birds become conspicu-
ously diurnal during the breeding season. The
Night Herons are seen sitting and suspicious-
ly staring at the intruders with their large
blood red eyes, their general coloration so
naturally blending with the vegetation that,
unless they fly, they are not easily sighted. The
birds which are silent during the day, be-
come noisy at dusk; and commence flying
noisily about giving out a harsh “Kwaclc,
Kwack” call. Night Herons are seen foraging
in the freshly transplanted paddy fields. While
ringing, a fledgling disgorged quite a big fish,
remarkable for the fledgling’s small size. These
birds (and Little and Cattle Egrets also) are
at times seen around Crocodiles that bask on
the rocks, perhaps to feed on the ecto-
parasites.

The two long nuptial plumes (nuchal) are
kept erect during various competitive and
aggressive activities of the breeding birds.
Although nidification activities are mostly seen
in the afternoons, the birds are sometimes
observed carrying nesting twigs even during
the mid day. The birds vehemently defend
their nesting sites against other birds. They
prefer Pandanus breaks for nesting, and nest
gregariously in association with other birds.
Though some birds are seen with eggs as early
as the third week of March, the birds gene-
rally commence nesting in April /May.

The Night Herons defend their nests against
Crows and Bonnet Monkeys by fluffing out
their feathers, raising their crest feathers and
jabbing. They squeal and protest till the mon-
keys move away from their nests.

These birds do not easily give up their
drowning nests during floods. They sit tightly

on their nests, till the rising waters forcefully
drag away the nests. During floods I saw
many of these birds sitting tightly on their
nests, which were lifted off by the rising
waters and were being carried away down
stream. The Night Herons floated down the
river sitting on their nests and only when their
nests disintegrated did they fly off.

Indian Pond Heron or Paddy Bird

Ardeola grayii

The Pond Heron has an attractive bluish
colour to its orbital skin and looks handsome
with its changed nuptial colour of dark red-
dish colour during the breeding season.

Pond Herons favour Pandanus thickets for
nesting. They repair the previous-season’s nests
for breeding in addition to building new ones.
They nest in loose association with Night
Herons and Egrets, and occupy the lower and
interior portions of the vegetation (like the
Night Herons) for nesting.

Eastern Purple Heron Ardea purpurea

These are very shy birds, and at the sight
of man, even from a distance they fly away
inconspicuously without making any sound.
Only in 1977 did I spot the Purple Heron
breeding a little distance upstream from the
main islets on which other birds normally
bred. It was a chance discovery. The Purple
Herons gregariously nest in exclusive colo-
nies, on Pandanus thickets that stand in the
river. The birds nest on the top of the Pan-
danus after flattening the leaves. The nests are
markedly small in size compared to the birds’
large size. The light blue eggs are quite big.
I have observed these birds incubating from
January to June.

As one goes in the boat to the nesting
colony of Purple Herons, the birds leave their
nests unprotected and go and perch on nearby

590

THE BIRDS OF RANGANATHITTU

trees, watching the intruders. However when
crows come to take advantage of this situa-
tion to rob the nests, the Purple Herons im-
mediately return to their nests to protect their
nests, if the men in the boat are reasonably
away or prudently withdraw. While returning
to protect their nests, the birds give out a
peculiar protesting harsh ‘honks’ with the
plumes on their crest (nuptial) raised. They
jab at the crows and drive them away.

Great Stone Plover Esacus magnirosiris

Great Stone Plovers commence breeding at
Ranganathittu after the breeding season of the
heronry birds is over. As the river recedes,
(soon after the monsoons are over) these
birds appear on the exposed sheet rocks, on
which they breed. They are often seen dur-
ing the day dozing and drowsing on the rocks,
surrounded by water. If men in boats go to-
wards them, they fly giving out agitated
and quick “Kill-ick, Kill-ick, Kill-ick” calls in
quick succession.

One to two eggs (two common) are laid
on the bare sheet rocks surrounded by deep
water, in the middle of the river. Sometimes
eggs are laid at the base of short grasses
growing on the rocks. The eggs are at times
seen surrounded by dry fallen leaves of near-
by shrubbery. The nests cannot be easily
traced out although in the open, the camou-
flage being so perfect. As the incubation
advances the eggs become smudged and cover-
ed with red and white coloured excreta. This
makes the surroundings so natural that the
eggs are not easily spotted by nest-robbers.

I have seen these birds with eggs in all the
months from November to March. While one
of the parents is incubating, the other is
usually found nearby squatting and dozing.
The birds are very timid and wary. On near
approach the incubating birds get up and

start running from one end of the rock to
the other calling with a deep whistling note
and keeping watch over the intruder’s move-
ments. Ultimately they fly away taking a long
semi-circle, but keep watch on the intruder
from a distant rock. If a crow tries to take
advantage of the situation, the birds imme-
diately return to their nests to protect the
eggs (if we clear out in the meantime). The
nesting River Terns ( Sterna aurantia) in the
vicinity offer added indirect protection to the
nests of these birds, as the River Terns vehe-
mentally drive away any intruder coming in
the neighbourhood of their nests. Once a pair
of River Terns were seen attacking even a
nearby Great Stone Plover which was incubat-
ing in its nest. The Stone Plover fanned out
its tail and ducked several times to avoid the
attack of the River Terns.

Salim Ali (1969) states that the incubation
period of the Great Stone Plover has remain-
ed undetermined. However from my field
observations I deduce the incubation period
of the birds to be 28 days.

While I was the Curator, Mysore Zoo a
Great Stone Plover had laid an egg on 28-1-
1978, which hatched on 26-2-78. So the in-
cubation period at the Zoo was also 28 days.

Even one day old chicks are marvellously
active. They run about quite fast on the rocks.
They can also swim quite swiftly and easily
and go from one rock to the other, when
followed. They lie doggo either floating in
water or on the rocks with their eyes wide
open, watching the activities of the intruders.
Their ccdour so perfectly camouflages that
hours of searching may be futile, even when
the nestlings are quite close by. As the boats
go near the nesting rocks the parents give a
cautioning deep whistling and the nestlings
freeze, A nestling was observed lying doggo
for full two hours. Once a one day old chick

591

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

was observed swimming in water and going
from one rock to the other continuously for
45 minutes. Even a fortnight old nestling sud-
denly hides in the crevices of the rocks, on
hearing the cautioning whistle of their parents
on the approach of intruders. They feign death
without moving but with eyes wide open. They
do not move even after one takes them in
one’s hand and even after keeping them back
on the rock. They are amazingly immobile for
an indefinite time till the intruders clear out.

At the Mysore Zoo I observed the strange
behaviour of a captive pair of adult Great
Stone Plovers. On entering the cage the pair
used to come and attack the cage keeper and
others by keeping their wings horizontally
spread out and their tail feathers fanned out.
I soon found the reason for this strange be-
haviour. The pair was trying to protect their
false egg; a roundish stone of their egg size.
As the cage keeper with a broom went near
this stone, on which one of the birds was
squatting as if to incubate, it used to issue out
hissing sounds and fly up at his face. On keep-
ing the broom on the ground the bird would
vehementally pull out the long leaves of Agave
plants planted inside the cage with its bill.
A re-directed action! This behaviour was not,
however, observed in the wild at Rangana-
thittu, where the birds were very timid, though
I went very near to the nests. The parents used
to stand far away on other rocks observing my
activities.

Indian River Tern Sterna aurantia

River Terns are seen at Ranganathittu by
October after the main breeding season of
the heronry birds is over. At this time the
waters become still as the river almost stops
flowing; and the River Terns are seen flying
over the Ranganathittu reservoir in an “Up
and down” manner, or are found sitting on

rocks. The birds commence pairing by Nov-
ember, and then become noisy.

In the natural depressions of bare rocks
exposed by the receding water, in the midst
of the Ranganathittu reservoir, the River Terns
lay eggs. Sometimes gravel may be found
around the eggs, which help to prevent the
eggs rolling down into the water. Year after
year the same rocks and depressions, even
when disturbed are used for laying eggs.

Two to three eggs are laid in each clutch.
More than one brood is raised in each season.
Even when the fledgling of the first clutch is
present, the parents start the second clutch.
The eggs are seen from January to May and
are smaller in size compared to the eggs of
the Great Stone Plovers.

The chicks freeze in the depressions of the
rocks on hearing the warning calls from their
parents on the near approach of men. Their
greyish colour perfectly camouflages with the
greyish colour of the nesting rocks. As the
chicks are on bare hot rocks they need to be
kept cool by the parents. So one of the parents
is always at the nest keeping the chicks below
its breast and thereby giving protection against
the hot sun. The parents are also seen flying
very low over water and grazing against the
water-surface, keeping their wings horizontally
stretched, to wet their feet, stomach and
breast. After this skating on water-surface, the
parents fly back and settle on their nests, put-
ting the chicks below their wet breast and
stomach to moisten them. This helps them to
considerably cool their chicks and the hot
rocks below. The chicks also appear to lick
the wet breast feathers of their parents to
quench their thirst. This grazing flight is also
performed as a re-directed action against in-
truders. The nestlings were observed calling
to their parents flying above them with a
whistling note.

592

THE BIRDS OF RANGAN ATHITTU

The hatchlings were not observed swimming
immediately on hatching, as the hatchlings
of the Great Stone Plovers do. However 3-4
days old chicks enter water and paddle at
the sight of approaching human beings. Some
nestlings even took 15 days to get into water
and swim. They would helplessly stand at their
nests even without running. The nestlings have
slightly developed webbed feet, which help
them to paddle and later swim in water. When
their young get into water and start swimming
from rock to rock to evade approaching
human beings, the parents follow them in the
air giving out anxious assuring notes. The
nestlings lie doggo and feign death till the
observers move away. Even swimming nestl-
ings are observed to feign death by becoming
absolutely immobile and freezing and floating
in the water, keeping their eyes wide open.

till the observers move away. When the young
are about 23 to 25 days age they commence
flying from rock to rock. Both parents con-
tinue taking care even after the young start
flying. Even when the parents raise their
second clutch the fledglings are seen resting
by the side of the incubating parents, and
even at this stage they are dependent upon
their parents for food.

The River Terns jealously guard their nests
and the young. Inspite of this, crows rob the
eggs. How the crows manage to penetrate the
surveillance of the terns is an unobserved
mystery to me. However in many cases the
eggs are lost before hatching. Bonnet monkeys
and perhaps otters, may also cause damage.
In addition many of the second and third
clutches are washed off by the unpredictable
premonsoonic showers.

References

Ali, Salim and Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook Kahl, M. P. (1970): Observations on the Breed-
of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I. Bombay ing of Storks in India and Ceylon. J. Bombay nat.
Oxford Univ. Press. Hist. Soc. 67: 454-456.

593

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR— 4

P. V. Bole and M.
[continued from Vol.

Asteraceae

4.

16.

1.

All florets on the same head bearing same

16.

colour

17.

2.

All florets orange, yellow or

white 3

18.

3.

All florets orange

19.

3.

All florets yellow or white .

4

19.

4.

All florets white

5

18.

5.

Florets in same head either

all ligulate or all

20.

tubular

6

21.

6.

Florets all ligulate

22.

6.

Florets all tubular

7

22.

7.

Stems with white cottony
pubescens

21.

7.

Stems without white cottony pubescens 8

20.

8.

Stems glabrous, prostrate or
spreading

23.

8.

Stems pubescent; plants erect

9

23.

9.

Leaves alternate

10

10.

Heads collected in globose or

ovoid

17.

clusters

24.

10.

Heads not collected in globose or ovoid

25.

clusters

11

11.

Pappus absent

Artemisia (p.p.)

25.

11.

Pappus present

24.

9.

Leaves opposite

12

26.

12.

Involucral bracts very acute, ribbed on the

27.

back, ciliolate and scarious on the

27.

margins

28.

12.

Involucral bracts obtuse or sub-acute, glabrous,

glandular or scabrid; margins

not

28.

scabrous

5.

Inner and outer florets in the

same head

29.

different

13

29.

13.

Leaves sessile

30.

13.

Leaves petiolate

14

14.

Palea narrow; pappus of 2-4 spreading

30.

awns

. . Bidens (p. p.)

14.

Palea concave; pappus 0 or

of few unequal

26.

acute scales

15

31.

15.

Achenes ciliate; pappus 0 . .

Spilanthes

15.

Achenes not ciliate; pappus of few

32.

scales

33.

R. Almeida
79(2): 323]

All florets yellow 16

Achenes curved, muricate Calendula

Achenes not curved, not muricate 17

Leaves lobed 18

Plants with radical leaves 19

Pappus absent Cyathocline

Pappus present Sonchus (p. p.)

Plants without radical leaves 20

Leaves alternate 21

Florets either all ligulate or all tubular 22

Florets all ligulate Sonchus (p. p.)

Florets all tubular Artemisia (p. p.)

Outer florets ligulate,

inner tubular Senecio (p. p.)

Leaves opposite 23

Pappus of 2-4 retrorsely hispid

hairs Bidens (p. p.)

Pappus of many aristate, feathery

bristles Tridax

Leaves entire or serrate, not lobed 24

Radical leaves present 25

Florets outer ligulate, inner

tubular Senecio (p. p.)

Florets all ligulate Sonchus (p. p.)

Radical leaves absent 26

Leaves opposite 27

Achenes ciliate Spilanthes (p. p.)

Achenes not ciliate 28

Achenes of ray florets

cuneiform Blainvillea (p. p.)

Achenes of ray florets

not cuneiform 29

Achenes of two types Synedrela

Achenes of one type 30

Achenes longitudinally ribbed;

pappus absent Guizotia

Achenes not ribbed; pappus a ciliolate

ring Wedelia

Leaves alternate 31

Outer florets ligulate,

inner tubular 32

Leaves sessile or subsessile 33

Anther bases obtuse entire Conyza

594

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

33 . Anther bases variously tailed or sagittate .... 34

34. Involucral bracts 1-2 seriate,

equal Senecio (p. p.)

34. Involucral bracts many-seriate,

unequal Vicoa

32. Leaves petiolate 35

35. Achenes of the disc florets truncate,

triquetrous 36

36. Pappus of 2-5 unequal

bristles Blainvillea (p. p.)

36. Pappus of 15-20 fimbriate scales Galinsoga

35. Achenes of the disc florets not

triquetrous 37

37. Achenes 5-10 ribbed Senecio (p. p.)

37. Achenes not ribbed 38

38. Heads less than 2 cm across Vicoa

38. Heads more than 10 cm across Helianthus

31. Florets all tubular, or tubular and

ligulate in the same head, but ligulate ones
are small and inconspicuous 39

39. Leaves petiolate 40

40. Pappus absent Artemisia (p. p.)

40. Pappus present 41

41 . Pappus copious Notonia (p. p.)

41. Pappus uniseriate, slender . . . .Blumea (p. p.)

39. Leaves sessile or subsessile 42

42. Pappus absent Artemisia (p. p.)

42. Pappus present 43

43. Pappus many seriate Notonia (p. p.)

43. Pappus 1-2 seriate 44

44. Anther bases obtuse, entire Conyza

44. Anther bases sagittate 45

45. Heads solitary Blumea (p. p.)

45. Heads in clusters Gnaphaiium

2. Florets in the head red, pink, purple,

violet or blue 46

46. All leaves sessile 47

47. Anthers tailed Eupatorium

47. Anthers not tailed 48

48 . Receptacle densely bristly Carthamus

48. Receptacle not densely bristly .....49

49. Leaves all radical Elephantopus

49. Leaves all not radical 50

50. Leaves white tomentose beneath Vernonia

50. Leaves not white tomentose beneath 51

51. Pappus absent or of few short hairs 52

52. Involucral bracts scarious Tricholepis

52. Involucral bracts not scarious Adenoon

51. Pappus present Vernonia (p. p.)

46. All leaves petiolate .53

53. Leaves dense white tomentum beneath 54

54. Achenes 8-10 ribbed Centratherum

54. Achenes not ribbed Lamprachenium

53. Leaves without white tomentum 55

55. Fruits covered with hard spines Xanthium

55. Fruits not covered with hard spines 56

56. Leaves opposite Ageratum (p. p.)

56. Leaves alternate 57

57. Pappus uniseriate Blumea (p. p.)

57. Pappus 2-many seriate Vernonia (p. p.)

1 . Florets in same head with two or more

colours 58

58. Leaves compound Bidens (p. p.)

58. Leaves simple 59

59. Florets all tubular Artemisia (p. p.)

59. Outer florets ligulate, inner tubular 60

60. All leaves petiolate Dichrocephala

60 . Leaves cauline and sessile Erigeron

Adenoon Dalzell

1. Adenoon indicum Dalz. in Kew Journ.
Hot. 2:344, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 121; FBI
3:299; Birdwood, 16; Cooke, T. 650 & 2:9 (2:
64); Puri & Mahajan, 125.

Frequent herb on exposed hill-slopes near
Lingmala. Rarely seen at Bhilar Estate, Arthur
seat and behind Madhu Kosh.

flowers & fruits: October-November.
local names: Kusamb, Mothi Sonki.

Adenostemma Forst.

1. Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O. Kuntze,
Rev. Gen. PI. 304, 1891; Santapau, 124.
Verbesina lavenia Linn., Sp. PI. 902, 1753.

A. viscosum Forst., Char. Gen. 90, 1776; Graham,
98; FBI 3: 242; Birdwood, 16; Cooke, 650 & 2:
13 (2: 69); Puri & Mahajan, 125.

A. latifolium Don. Prodr. FI. Nepal. 181, 1825.
Wight, Icon. t. 1087; Dalz. & Gibs. 122.

A. rivale Dalz. in Kew J. Bot. 3: 231, 1851.
Common herb along the edges of the forests
and along the water courses. Quite common
at Kate’s point, Wilson point, Lodwick point.

595

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Madhu Kosh, Fitzgerald ghat and Folkland
point, but nowhere it is abundant.

flowers & fruits: October-December.

local name: Jungli jira.

Ageratum Linn.

1 . Leaves cordate at base; margins deeply crenate,

not ciliate A. houstonianum

1. Leaves blunt or rounded at base, narrowing
into the petiole; margins crenately dentate,
ciliate A. conyzoides

1. Ageratum conyzoides Linn., Sp. PI. 839,
1753; Graham, 243; FBI 3: 243; Cooke, T.
650 & 2:14 (2:70): Lisboa, 215; Birdwood,
16; Puri & Mahajan, 124.

Common weed of wastelands in white
flowers. Whole plant has some unpleasant
smell and locally applied for healing cuts and
wounds by local people.

flowering: Throughout the year.

local names: Osadi, Ghanera

localities: Chinaman’s Falls, Petit Road.

2. Ageratum haustonianum Mill., Gard.
Diet. ed. 8, no. 2, 1768.

An erect herb common in wet places near
Chinaman’s falls. Flowers blue in colour.

flower : August-December.

localities: Madhu Kosh, Chinaman’s Falls,
Dhobi’s Falls.

Anaphalis DC.

Dr H. M. Birdwood (1897) has reported
Anaphalis oblonga DC., in his catalogue. We
have not seen this species at Mahabaleshwar

* Clements R. Markham, ‘Peruvian Bark’, A popu-
lar Account of the introduction of Cinchona culti-
vation into British India. Chapter VIII. The Maha-
baleshwar Hills, pp. 384-386, 1880.

and there is no reliable specimen in any of
the herbaria consulted.

Artemisia Linn.

1. Disc flowers sterile A. parviflora

1. Disc florets fertile A. nilagirica

1. Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pampanini.
in Nov. Giorn. Bot. Ital. 33: 452, 1926.

A. vulgaris var. nilagirica Clarke, Comp. Ind. 162,

1876.

A. vulgaris auct. ( non Linn., 1753) Hook f. in

Flora Brit. India, 3: 325, 1881; Cooke, T. 2: 47 (2:

105); Puri & Mahajan, 125.

A. indica Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 102, 1839
{non Willd. 1801); Dalz. & Gibs., 112; Markham*

386.

A common undershrub in grasslands and
along roadsides. Abundant at Bhilar Estate.

There is a certain amount of confusion re-
garding the nomenclature of this species. J. D.
Hooker in Flora of British India (vol. 3: 325,
1881), gives a long synonymy under Artemisia
vulgaris Linn. Rev. Fr. Santapau, in FI. Khan-
dala (ed. 3, p. 134, 1967) states “Pampanini
(loc. cit.) has demonstrated that none of the
Indian species of Artemisia corresponds to the
European A. vulgaris of the Linnaean herba-
rium, and in this case the oldest name for the
plant is that of Clarke, which is therefore
raised to specific rank”. J. D. Hooker while
merging Artemisia grata Wall, ex DC. from
western peninsula with A. vulgaria expresses
his inability to separate these two species ex-
cept that A. grata has broader leaves. There-
fore we feel Artemisia grata Wall, ex DC. is
the oldest name for our western peninsular
species.

flowers & fruits: October- January.

2. Artemisia parviflora Buch-Ham. ex
Roxb. FI. Ind. 3:420, 1832; Dalz. & Gibs.
314; Birdwood, 16; FBI 3:322; *Markham,

596

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

386; Cooke, T. 650 & 2:47 (2:104); Puri &
Mahajan, 125.

A. glabrata DC, in Wight, Contr. 20, 1834; Wight,
Icon. t. 1111.

Common undershrub among the grasses.
Very common at Bhilar Estate.

local name: Dauna.

flowers & fruits: October- April.

1. Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merrill &
Sherff ex Sherff, Bot. Gaz. 88:293, 2929; San-
tapau, FI. Purandhar, 68, 1957.

Coreopsis biternata Lour., FI. Cochinch. 508, 1790.

B. pilosa auct. (non Linn., 1753) Hook f., in
Flora Brit. India 3: 309, 1881; Cooke, T. 650 &
2:44 (2:101); Birdwood, 16.

B. wallichii DC., Prodr. 5: 598, 1837; Graham,
101; Dalz. & Gibs. 128.

Common weed in wastelands and among
grasses at Lingmala and Bhilar Estate.

flowers & fruits: October- April.
Blainvillea Cass.

1. Blainvillea acmella (Linn.) Philipson,
Blumea 6: 350, 1950; Chavan & Oza, FI. Pava-
garh, 125, 1966.

Verbesina acmella Linn., Sp. PI. 901, 1753.

Eclipta latifolia Linn. f. Suppl. PI. 378, 1781.

B. latifolia (Linn, f.) DC. in Wight Contr. Bot.
Ind. 17, 1834; Dalz. & Gibs. 127; FBI 3: 305.

B. rhomboidea Cass, in Diet. Sc. Nat. 29: 494.
1823: Cooke, T 2:40 (2:97).

Rare species in wastelands and along road-
sides.

flowers & fruits: September-December.

Blumea DC. (nom. cons.)

1 . Plants densely white wooly all over

B. malcomii

1 . Plants glabrate or pubescent, never wooly all

over 2

2. Phyllaries at least the outer oblong-ovate to

oblong-lanceolate B. lanceolata

var. spectabilis

2. All phyllaries linear or linear-lanceolate 3

3. Capitula glomerate B. fistulosa

3. Capitula paniculate 4

4. Leaves spinous-toothed; corolla of both types

of florets hairy 5

5. Heads in sessile, axillary clusters

B. belangeriana

5. Heads in pedunculate clusters 6

6. Plants erect B. eriantha

6. Plants prostrate B. oxyodonta

4. Leaves not spinous-toothed; corollas of

female florets glabrous 7

7. Achenes ribbed 8

8. Plants glabrate B. virens

8. Plants pubescent or glandular

hairy B. membranacea

7. Achenes sub-angulate to terete 9

9. Leaves usually not lobed; corollas purple , to

lilac B. mollis

9. Leaves often lyrate; corollas

yellow B. lacera

1. Blumea belangeriana DC., Prodr. 5:444,
1936; FBI 3:266; Cooke, T. 2:22 (2:78);
Randeria, Blumea 10(1) : 277, 1960.

Rare species at Mahabaleshwar.
flowers : December-February.

2. Blumea eriantha DC. in Wight, Contrib.
Bot. Ind. 15, 1834; FBI 3:266; Cooke, T. 2:
22 (2:78); Randeria Blumea, 10(1) :279, 1960.

Common along road-sides and in open forest
areas.

flowers: December-March.
local name: Nimurdi.

3. Blumea fistulosa (Roxb.) Kurz., Jour.
As. Soc. Bengal, 46(2): 187, 1897; Randeria,
Blumea 10(1):256, 1960.

B. glomerata DC. in Wight Contrib., 15, 1834;
Dalz. & Gibs. 125; FBI 3: 262; Cooke, T. 2: 20
(2: 76), Birdwood, 16.

B. holosericea Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay Flora 126,
1861 (non DC., 1834).

This species is included here on authority
of Birdwood. Cooke in Flora of Bombay Pre-

597

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

sidency reports it on the authority of Dalzell
& Gibson only.

local name: Bhamburda.

4. Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) DC. in Wight
Contrib. 14, 1834; Graham, 97; FBI 3:263;
Cooke, T. 2:20 (2:76); Randeria, Blumea
10(1): 264, 1960.

Conyza lacera Burm. f., FI. Ind. 180. t. 59, f. 1,

1768.

B. leptocladea Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 126,

1861 (non DC., 1834).

Rare species at Mahabaleshwar.

flowers : September- J anuary .

local name: Burando.

5. Blumea Sanceolata (Roxb.) Druce var.
spectabilis (DC.) Randeria in Blumea 10(1):
220, 1960.

B. spectabilis DC., Prodr. 5: 445, 1836; FBI 3:

269; Cooke, T. 2: 23 (2: 79).

There is only one specimen of this species
from Mahabaleshwar in Blatter Herbarium.
Collected by L. J. Sedgwick.

flowers: January.

6. Blumea malcolmii (Clarke) Hook f. in
Flora Brit. India 3:266; 1881; Birdwood, 16:
Crooke, T. 2:22 (2:78); Puri & Mahajan, 125;
Randeria, Blumea 10(1) :278, 1960.

Pluchea malcolmii C. B. Clarke, Comp. Ind. 95,

1876.

Rare herb among rocky places along Fitz-
gerald Ghat. Common near Chinaman’s falls.

flowers: October-March.

7. Blumea membranacea DC., Prodr. 5:
440, 1836; FBI 3:265; Cooke, T. 2:21 (2:77);
Randeria, Blumea 10(1): 269, 1960.

Common and abundant herb on earthbanks
on Fitzgerald Ghat.

flowers : December-March.
local name: Mharbir.

7. Blumea mollis (Don) Merrill, Phil. Jour.
Sci. Bot. 5:256, 1910; Randeria, Blumea 10
(1) :261, 1960.

Erigeron molle D. Don, Prodr. 172, 1825.

B. wightiana DC. in Wight Contrib. 14, 1834;
FBI 3:26; Cooke, T. 2: 19 (2:75).

Rare species at Mahabaleshwar near Ling-
mala.

flowers: December-January.

8. Blumea oxyodonta DC. in Wight Con-
trib. Bot. Ind. 15, 1834; FBI 3:266; Cooke,
T. 2:21 (2:77); Randeria Blumea, 10 (1):280,
1960, Puri & Mahajan, 125.

Rare species at Mahabaleshwar. Only known
from a single collection.

flowers: March.

9. Blumea virens DC. in Wight, Contrib.
Bot. Ind. 14, 1834; FBI 3:264; Cooke, T. 2:
21 (2:77); Randeria, Blumea 10 (1):272,
1960.

Rare species.
flowers: May- June.

Caesulia Roxb.

1. Caesulia axillaris Roxb., Pi. Cor. 1:64,
t. 93, 1795; Graham, 96; Dalz. Gibs. 126;
Wight, Icon. t. 1102; FBI 3: 291; Cooke, T.
2:35 (2:92); Puri & Mahajan, 125.

Rare species at Mahabaleshwar, in damp
places and in ricefields.

flowers: August-May.

Calendula Linn.

1. Calendula officinalis Linn., Sp. PI. 921,
1753; Graham, 101; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 48;
Cooke, T. 2:68 (2:126); Bot. Mag. t. 3204,
Birdwood, 17.

598

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

Cultivated garden plant frequently grown in
private gardens.

flowers: Throughout the year.

Carthamus Linn.

1. Carthamus tinctories Linn., Sp. PI. 830,
1753; Graham, 95; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 45;
Cooke, T. 2:68 (2:126-7).

Frequently cultivated for its oil seed.

flowers: March-May.
local name: Kusumba.

Centrantherum Cass.

1. Achenes deeply ribbed C. phyllolaenum

1 . Achenes faintly ribbed C. lilacinum

1. Centratherum lilacinum (Dalz. & Gibs.)
comb. nov.

Decaneuron lilacinum Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI.
314, 1861;

C. tenue (Wight) Clarke, Comp. Ind. 4:1876; FBI
3:228;

Cooke, T. 650 & 2:7 (2: 63);** Lee, 634; Bird-
wood, 16;

Puri & Mahajan, 125; Santapau, 122.

C. molle Benth. var. tenui Wight ex Clarke, Comp.
Ind. 4, 1876 (as synonym).

Rare species at Mahabaleshwar near Arthur’s
Seat, and along the Fitzgerald Ghat.

flowers : October-November.

*2. Centratherum phyllolaenum (DC.) Benth.
ex Clarke, Comp. Ind. 4:1876; FBI 3:228;
Cooke, T. 2:7 (2:62); Birdwood, 16; Dalz.
& Gibs. 667; Puri & Mahajan, 125.

Decaneuron phyllolaenum DC. Prodr. 7:264, 1838.

D. molle Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 122, 1861
(non DC., 1838).

**Major H. H. Lee, Apendex A — List of Maha-
baleshwar Plants, in Bombay Gazetteer Vol. 19
(Satara), pp. 625-646, 1885.

* Recently all our specimens of this species sent to
L. K. Kirkman, University of Georgia Herbarium
have been identified by her as Phyllocephalum
scabridum (DC. in Wight) Kirkman,

Common herb in partially shaded places
along margins of forests and along roadsides.
flowers : August-October.

Conyza Less.

1 . Leaves linear to spathulate; achenes puberulous
C. stricta

1 . Leaves lanceolate; achenes glabrous C. viscidula

2. Conyza stricta Willd., Sp. PI. 3: 1922, 1804;
FBI 3:258; Birdwood, 16; Cooke, T. 650 &
2:17 (2:73); Puri & Mahajan, 125; Santapau
401, 1962.

C. absinthifolia DC. in Wight, Contr. 16, 1834;
Graham, 97; Dalz. & Gibs. 124; Lee, 635.

C. adenocarpa Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 125,
1861; FBI 3: 259.

Frequent herb on loose sandy soil with
yellowish white flowers.

localities: Lodwick Point, Tiger Path,

Lingmala, Kate’s Point, Wada and Petit road.

flowers : October-December.

2. Conyza viscidula Wall, ex DC., Prodr. 5:
383, 1834; Clarke, Comp. Ind. 63, 1876; FBI
3:258.

Quite frequent, much branched herb along
forest borders.

localities: Fitzgerald Ghat, Chinaman’s

Falls, Bhilar Estate, near Pratapsing Park.

flowers: December- January.

Cyathocline Cass.

1. Cyathocline purpurea (Don) O. Kuntze,
Rev. Gen. PI. 338, 1891; Puri & Mahajan, 125.

Tanacetum purpureum Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal. 181,
1825.

C. lyrata Cass, in Ann. Soc. Sci. Nat. ser. 1, 17:
420, 1829; Wight, Icon. t. 1098; FBI 3: 246;
Birdwood, Cooke, T. 2:15 (2:71).

Common and abundant herb in semi -shaded
places and along water courses. It is also quite
common in ricefields after the harvests.

599

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

localities: Chinaman’s Falls, Dhobi’s Falls,
Madhu Kosh.

flowers: September-March.
local name: Gangotra.

Dichrocephala DC.

1. Dichrocephala integrifolia (Linn, f.) O.
Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 333, 1891; Hara, FI.
East Himal. 338, 1966.

Hippia integrifolia DC. in Wight, Contrib. 11.
1834; Dalz. & Gibs. 124; Wight, Icon t. 1096;
Birdwood, 16; Cooke, T. 650 & 2:14 (2:70);
Puri & Mahajan, 125; Santapau, 292, 1963.
Common and abundant weed all over in
wastelands and along roadsides. Plants are very
variable in size and in the nature of pubes-
cence. Mahabaleshwar plants show both glab-
rous as well as densely pubescent nature. In
fact Rev. Fr. Santapau had separated pubes-
cent forms of this species and kept them in a
separate folder under the name D. tomentosa ,
but to the best of our knowledge it has not
been published.

localities: Chinaman’s Falls, Dhobi’s Falls,
Yenna Lake, Petit Road, Madhu Kosh, Satara
Road, Market.

flowers: May-October.

Echinops Linn.

1. Echinops echinatus Roxb., FI. Ind. 3:447,
1832; Graham, 95; Dalz. & Gibs., 131; FBI
3:358; Cooke, T. 2:54 (2:112); Puri & Maha-
jan, 126.

Common herb on arid dry land.

flowers: February.

Eclipta Linn. (nom. cons.)

1. Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk., PI. Jav. Rar.
528, 1848; Dalz. & Gibs. 117; FBI 3:304; San-
tapau, in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 150, 1953; T. P.
Ramamoorthy, in FI. Hassan Dist. 612, 1976.

Verbesina alba Linn. Sp. PI. 902, 1753;

E. prostrata (Linn.) Linn., Mant. 2:286, 1771;
Graham, 99; Dalz. & Gibs. 127; Santapau in J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 475, 1957.

V. prostrata Linn., Sp. PL 902, 1753.

Common gregarious herb in moist places. It
is also found as a weed among the grasses in
cultivated fields and in gardens.

flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: Maka, Bhangra.

Elephantopus Linn.

1. Elephantopus scaber Linn., Sp. PI. 814,
1753; Graham, 96; Wight, Icon. t. 1086; FBI
3:242; Lee 634; Cooke, t. 2:12 (2:68).

Rare herb in shady places.

flowers : September-December.

Erigeron Linn.

1. Erigeron karvinskianum DC., Prodr. 5:
285, 1836; Santapau, 126.

Common along the hedges from Ripon Hotel
to Bus stand. Also common weed near race-
course. Probably it is an escape from cultiva-
tion.

flowers; November-March.

Eupatorium Linn.

1. Eupatorium giandulosum H. B. K., Nov.
Gen. & Sp. 4:122, 1820 & Bot. Reg. t. 1723,
1834; Bot. Mag. t. 8139, 1907.

E. adenophorum Spreng., Syst. 2:420, 1826; Koster,
in Blumea 1(3): 502, 1935.

Common herb near water courses, in fields
and on forest fringes. Flowers pure white.

Koster, in Blumea (1. c.) puts E. glandu-
losum H.B.K. in synonymy of E. adenopho-
rum Spreng. But E. giandulosum H.B.K. is the
earlier and the correct name for this species.

600

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

flowers: March- April.
localities: Chinaman’s Falls, Yenna Lake,
Goatweed, Mexican white Floss Flower.

Galinsoga Ruiz & Pavon

1. Leaves with non-ciliate and dentate margins

G. parviflora

1 . Leaves with ciliate and serrate margins

G. ciliata

1. Galinsoga ciliata (Raf.) Blake, in Rho-
dora, 24:35, 1922.

Adventina ciliata Raf., New FI. N. Amer. 1:67,
1936.

G. parviflora var. hispida DC., Prodr. 5:677, 1836.
(non G. hispida Benth., 1844).

Common weed in cultivated fields and in
gardens.

flowers : September- April.
localities: Tiger Path, Lingmala, Bhilar
Estate, Yenna Lake, Petit Road.

2. Galinsoga parviflora Cav., Ic. Descr. PI.
3:41, t. 281, 1795; Clarke, Comp, Ind. 112,
1876; FBI 3:311.

An American weed in cultivated lands and
in waste places. Abundant especially on the
sides of irrigation canals.

localities: Chinaman’s Falls, Tiger Path,
Madhu Kosh, Bhilar Estate.
flowers: August-May.

Gnaphalium Linn.

1 . Heads in leafy spikes; plants less than 15 cm

tall G. polycaulon

1. Heads in corymbs; plants more than 20 cm. tall
G. luteo-album

1. Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn., Sp. PI. 851,
1753; FBI 3:288; Birdwood, 16; Cooke, T. 650
& 2:30 (2:86).

Common erect herb in wet places and near
the lake. Flowers heads golden yellow.

flowers: March- June.

2. Gnaphalium polycaulon Persoon, Syn. 2:
421, 1807; T. P. Ramamoorty in FI. Hassan
Dist. 616, 1976.

G. indicum auct. {non Linn., 1753); Dalz. & Gibs.
130, 1861; FBI 3:289; Cooke, T. 2:30 (2:87);
Puri & Mahajan, 125.

Prostrate herb abundant in moist soils near
lake and in wet places. Branches radiating on
ground.

flowers : October-December.

Guizotia Cass. (nom. cons.)

1. Guizotia abysinica (Linn, f.) Cass., Diet.
Sci. Nat. 59: 248, 1829; FBI 3:308; Cooke,
T. 2:66 (2:125).

Polymnia abysinica Linn. f. suppl. 383, 1781.

G. oleifera DC., Prodr. 5:551, 1834; Dalz. & Gibs.
128.

Cultivated for oil seeds. Occasionally found
in wild as an escape from cultivation.

flowers : October- J anuary .
local names: Til, Ramtil, Kala Til.

Gynura Cass.

1. Gynura cusimbua (D. Don) S. Moore in
Journ. Bot. 50:212, 1912; Santapau, FI. Khan-
dala, ed. 3, 134, 1967.

Cacalia cusimbua D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal. 179,
1825.

G. angulosa DC., Prodr. 6:298, 1837; Clarke, 170;
FBI 3:334; Cooke, T. 2:49 (2:106); Puri &
Mahajan, 125.

G. simplex Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 130, 1861;
Cooke, T. 650, 1885.

G. nitida Woodrow in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
11:650, 1898 {non DC., 1837).

Common along Fitzgerald Ghat and along
the edges of forests, but nowhere abundant.

601

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

flowers : September-November.

Helianthus Linn.

1. Helianthus annus Linn., Sp. PI. 904, 1753;
Graham, 100; Cooke, T. 2:66 (2:124).

Very common in gardens as an ornamental
plant. Rarely cultivated on large scale for oil
seeds.

flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: Surya phul.

Lactuca Linn.

1. Lactuca sativa Linn. Sp. PI. 795, 1753;
Maheshwari, FI Delhi, 188-9, 1976.

L. scariola Linn. var. sativa (Linn.) Hook. f. in
FI. Brit. India 3:404; Cooke; T. 2:61 (2:119).
Cultivated vegetable plant. Leaves used as
salad.

flowers & fruits: October-March.
local names: Lettuce, Salad.

Rirdwood, in his catalogue (p. 16), has in-
cluded Lactuca heyneana DC., but subsequent-
ly this species has not been collected by any
collector and there is no authentic specimen
in any herbarium.

Lamprachenium Benth.

1. Lamprachenium microcephalum (Dalz.)
Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. PI. 2:226,
1873; FBI 3:229; Lee, 634; Birdwood, 16;
Cooke, T. 650 & 2:8 (2:64); Puri & Mahajan,
125.

Decaneuron microcephalum Dalz., in Kew Journ.
Bot. 3: 231, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs, 122.

Common herb along hedges and in waste-
lands.

flowers: December,
local name: Bramhmadandi.

Notonia DC.

1. Notonia grandiflora DC., Wight, Conic
24, 1834; Dalz. & Gibs. 132; Markham, 386;
Birdwood, 16; Cooke, T. 2:50 (2:107).

N. corymbosa DC., Prodr. 6:442, 1837.

N. balsamina Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 133, 1861.
It is very common species along Khandala
Ghat near Wai. But we have not seen it on
Mahabaleshwar plateau or Mahad Ghat.

flowers : September-November.
local name: Vander roti.

Parthenium Linn.

Farthenium hysterophorus Linn., Sp. PI.
988, 1753; R. S. Rao, in J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 54: 218-20, t. 1, 1956.

American weed gradually spreading in grass-
lands and in open wastelands.

flowers : J uly-December.
local names: Congress gavat.

Senecio Linn.

1. Heads ebracteolate; pappus absent

S. belgaumensis

] . Heads bracteolate; pappus present 2

2. Pappus hairy, slender S. dalzellii

2. Pappus paleaceous S. grahami

1. Senecio belgaumensis (Wight) C. B. Clarke,
Comp. Ind. 200, 1876; FBI 3:348; Birdwood,
17; Cooke, T. 2:53 (2:111); Puri & Mahajan,
125.

Madacarpus belgaumensis Wight, in Calcutta Journ.
nat. Hist. 7:157, 1847; Wight, Icon. t. 1152; Dalz.
& Gibs. 130; Birdwood, 17.

Rare herb at Mahabaleshwar.

flowers: August-January.
local name: Sonki.

2. Senecio dalzellii C. B. Clarke, Comp. Ind.
201, 1876; FBI 3:346; Birdwood, 17; Cooke,
T. 2:52 (2:110).

602

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

S. lawii C. B. Clarke, Comp. Ind. 201, 1876.
Reported here on the authority of Birdwood.

flowers : November-December.

3. Senecio graliami Hook. f. in Flora Brit.
India 3:347, 1881; Birdwood, 17; Cooke, T.
650 & 2:52 (2:110); Puri & Mahajan, 125;
Santapau, 400, 1962 & 293, 1963.

S. reticulata Clarke, Comp. Ind. 199, 1876. (non
DC., 1834).

Doronicum reticulatum Wight, Cal. Journ. nat.
Hist. 7:156, 1847; Wight, Icon. t. 1151B; Dalz &
Gibs. 130.

Common and abundant herb in open grass-
lands.

flowers : August-December.
local name: Sonki.

Sonchus Linn.

1. Sonchus asper (Linn.) Garsault, Fig. PI.
Anim. Med. 4:332, t. 565, 1767; FBI 3: 414;
Graham, 94; Cooke, T. 2:61 (2:120).

S. oleraceus var. asper Linn. sp. PI. 794, 1753.
Rare plant near Lingmala falls on earth
banks.

flowers: January-March.
local name: Mhatara.

Spilanthes Linn.

1. Spilanthes paniculata Wall, ex DC, Prodr.
5:625, 1834.

S. acmella auct. (non [Linn.] Murr., 1774); Gra-
ham, Cat. Bombay PI. 99, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs.
129; FBI 3:307; Birdwood, 16; Cooke, T. 650 &
2:42 (2:99); Puri & Mahajan, 125.

S. calva Wight, Icon. t. 1109, 1846 (non DC., 1834).
Suberect herb along sides of streams and
lake. Quite common in wet ricefields after har-
vests. Leaves on chewing cause numbness of
tongue followed by profuse salivation.

flowers: December.
local name: Akkalkara.

Synedrela Gaertn.

1. Synedrela nodiflora (Linn.) Gaertn. Fruct.
2:456, t. 171, f. 7, 1791.

Verbesina nodiflora Linn. Cent. PI. 1:28, 1755,
Amoem. Acad. 4:290, 1759.

A tropical American weed growing in cul-
tivated and wastelands.
flowers: November.

Tricholepis DC.

1. Pappus absent or rarely of few hairs

T. amplexicaulis

1 . Pappus rigid, sub-paleaceous .... T. glaberrima

1. Tricholepis amplexicaulis C. B. Clarke,
Comp. Ind. 240, 1876; FBI 3:281; Cooke, T.
2:51 (2:115); Puri & Mahajan, 126.

This is not a common plant but found in
patches at Elphinston Point.

flowers: December.
local name: Dahan.

2. Tricholepis glaberrima DC. Prodr. 6: 754,
1837; Dalz. & Gibs. 131; FBI 3:381; Lee, 635;
Birdwood, 17; Cooke, T. 650 & 2:56 (2:114);
Puri & Mahajan, 126.

Serratula indica Willd. Sp. PI. 3:1642, 1804;
Graham, 95.

Frequent herb among the grasses in open
grasslands.

flowers: October.
local name: Dahan.

Tridax Linn.

1. Tridax procumbens Linn., Sp. PI. 900,
1753; FBI 3:311; Birdwood, 16; Cooke, T.
2:45 (2:102); Puri & Mahajan, 125.

A South American weed naturalized and
growing everywhere in wastelands and in
gardens.

flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: Pathri.

603

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Vernonia Schreb.

1. Achenes pubescent or silky V. cineria

1. Achenes glabrous or glandular 2

2. Leaves thin, membranaceous, not tomentose

V. diver gens

2. Leaves thick, coriaceous, densely wooly to-
mentose beneath V. indica

1. Vernonia cineria Less, in Linnaea 4: 291,
1829; Graham, 96; Dalz. & Gibs. 121; FBI
3: 233; Birdwood, 16.

Conyza cineria Linn. Sp. PI. 862, 1753.

Frequent on the lower slopes of the Ghat
roads.

flowers: Throughout the year.
local names: Sahadevi, Moti sadori.

2. Vernonia divergens (Roxb.) Edg. in Journ.
Asiat. Soc. Bengal 21:172, 1853; FBI 3:234;
Lisboa, 216; Cooke, T. 650 & 2:11 (2:67);
Puri & Mahajan, 125.

Eupatorium divergens Roxb., FI. Ind. 3:414, 1832;
Dalz. & Gibs. 123.

Decaneuron divergens DC., Prodr. 5: 68, 1836;
Wight, Icon. t. 1084.

Rare undershrub along the edges of the
forests.

flowers : December-March.
local names: Bundar, Bondar.

3. Vernonia indica C.B. Clarke, Comp. Ind.
16, 1876; Lisboa, 216; FBI 3:238; Cooke, T.
2:11 (2:67); Puri & Mahajan, 125.

Decaneuron dendigulense DC., in Wight, Contrib.
Bot. Ind. 7, 1834 non Vernonia dendigulense DC.,
1838).

This species included here on authority of
Puri and Mahajan.

Vicoa Cass.

1. Vicoa cemua Dalz. in Dalz. & Gibs. Bom-
bay FI. 126 & 314, 1861; FBI 3:297; Birdwood,
16; Lee, 635; Cooke, T. 650 & 2:32 (2:89);
Puri & Mahajan, 125.

Rare herb among grasses in partially shaded
places and along the margins of forests.

flowers: October- January.

Wedelia Jacq. (nom. cons.)

1. Wedelia urticaefolia (Bl.) DC. in Wight
Contrib. 18, 1834; Wight, Icon. t. 1106; FBI
3:306; Birdwood, 16; Cooke, T. 2:41 (2:98).

Wollastomia biflora Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI.
128, 1861 (Excl. syn., non DC., 1834).

Verbesina biflora Wall, ex Graham, Cat. Bombay
PI. 100, 1839.

V. urticaefolia Blume, Bijdr. 911, 1825.

Rare undershrub in shady places among the
undergrowths near the margins of the forests.
flowers : August-September.

Xanthium Linn.

1. Xanthium strumarium Linn., Sp. PI. 987,
1753; FBI 3:303; Cooke T. 2:37 (2:94).

X. indicum Koen. ex Roxb., FI. Ind. 3:601, 1832;
Graham, 101; Dalz. & Gibs. 127; Wight, Icon. t.
1104.

Rare weed in wastelands.
flowers & fruits: September- April.

Lobeliaceae
Lobelia Linn.

1 . Erect stout herbs; flowers in terminal racemes

L. nicotinaefolia

1 . Prostrate or procumbent herbs; flowers axillary,

solitary 2

2. Stems not winged L. alsinoides

2. Stems winged L. heyneana

1. Lobelia alsinoides Lamk., Encycl. 3: 588,
1791; Santapau, FI. Khandala, ed. 3, 140.

L. trigona Roxb., FI. Ind. 2:111, 1824; FBI 3:
423; Dalz. & Gibs. 133; Wight, Icon. t. 1170;
Cooke, T. 2:72 (2:130).

Birdwood, 17; Puri & Mahajan, 126.

Common weed in moist places and in drying
ricefields.

604

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

flowers: September-March.

2, Lobelia heyneana Roem. & Schultz. Syst.
5:50, 1819, Santapau, 139.

L. trialata Buch.-Ham. in D. Don, Prodr. 157,
1825; Birdwood, 17, FBI 3: 425; Woodrow, in
Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 162, 1898;
Cooke, T. 2:72 (2:130); Puri & Mahajan, 126.
Frequent herb on earth clearings along road-
sides.

flowers : August-October.

3. Lobelia nicotinaefolia Heyne ex Roth.,
Nov. Sp. PL 143, 1821; Graham, 102; Dalz.
& Gibs. 133; FBI 3:427; Birdwood, 17; Cooke,
T. 2:72 (2:131); Puri & Mahajan, 126.

Very common herb. Often gregarious on
open grassy slopes along the edges of the
forests. A very distinct and attractive plant
conspicuous by the masses of white flowers in
long terminal spikes, above the dense foliage.

flowers: October- April; fruits: Novem-
ber-April.

local names: Devnal, Bokenal, Dhaval.
Campanulaceae

1. Capsules loculicidally dehiscent within the calyx-

teeth 2

2. Corolla rotate, lobes linear; stigma capitate

Cephalostigma

2. Corolla campanulate, lobes short and broad;

stigma lobed W ahlenbergia

1. Capsule dehiscing at the base or on sides below
the calyx teeth Campanula

Campanula Linn.

1. Flowers dimorphic; corolla 5-6 mm long

C. cordata

1. Flowers all similar; corolla 10-13 mm long

C. alphonsii

1. Campanula alphonsii Wall, ex DC.,
Prodr. 7:473, 1837; FBI 3:440; Wight, Icon,
t. 1177; Cooke, T. 2:76 (2:134); V. D. Var-
tak, J. Univ. Poona, 10:8, 1957.

A rare species. Only collected from a verti-
cal rock near Kate’s Point.

flowers: October.

2. Campanula cordata Wall, ex Roxb., FI.
Ind. Carey ed., 2: 101, 1832; Rao, in Bull.
Bot. Surv. India, 10 (suppl. 2): 45, 1969.

C. canescens Wall., DC., Prodr. 7:473, 1837; FBI
3:439; Santapau, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
45: 446, 1945.

446; 1945.

Cephalostigma spathulatum Thwaites, Enum. 422,
1859.

Rare slender herb, found on moist beds of
streams in wet soils. Collected from Lingmala
and Old Mahabaleshwar only.

flowers & fruits: November-December.
Cephalostigma DC.

1. Stems erect; leaves oblong C. erecta

1 . Stems flexuose; leaves broadly ovate

C. flexuosa

1. Cephalostigma erecta (Roth ex. R. & S.)
Vatke in Linnaea, 38: 699, 1874.

Dentella erectum Roth, ex Roem. & Schultes,
Syst. Veg. 5:25, 1819.

C. schimperi Hochst. ex Rich., Tent. Abyss. 2:
2, 1851.

W ahlenbergia perfoliata Wight & Arn., in Prodr
405, 1834; Wight, Icon. t. 842, 1844.

C. hirsutum Hk. f. & Thomson, in Journ. Linn.
Soc. 2:9, 1858 (p. p.); Dalzell & Gibs. 133 (non
Edgew., 1851).

Rare species, only collected from Bhilar
Estate.

flowers: November.

2. Cephalostigma flexuosa Hk. f. & Thomson
in Journ. Linn. Soc. 2:9, 1858; Cooke, T. 650
(Bombay Gazette).

This species is reported here on the autho-
rity of T. Cooke only. Although he reports it
in the earlier publication he does not repeat
its occurrence at Mahabaleshwar in Flora of
Bombay Presidency later.

605

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Wahlenbergia Schrad.

1. Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) DC.,
Monog. Campan. 143, 1830; Santapau, 140.
Campanula marginata Thunb., FI. Japan, 89,
1784.

C. dehiscens Roxb., FI. Ind. 1:504, 1832; Graham.
103.

W. gracilis Schrad., Blumea 38, 1827; FBI 3:429;
Cooke, T. 650 & 2:74 (2:133).

W. agrestis DC., Prodr. 7: 434, 1836; Dalz. & Gibs.
134; Wight, Icon t. 1175.

Common in moist grounds near Yenna Lake
and near streams and in ricefields.
flowers and fruits: December-May.

Plumbaginaceae
Plumbago Linn.

1 . Flowers white or blue 2

2. Calyx covered with stalked glands all over

P. zeylanica

2. Calyx glandular in the upper part only

P. auriculata

1. Flowers red P. indica

1. Plumbago auriculata Lamk., Encycl. 2:270,
1786; Degener, in FI. Hawai. f am. 292, 1946.

P. capensis Thunb., Prodr. Capen. 33, 1794; Gra-
ham, 166; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 72; Cooke, T. 2:
78 (2:137).

Cultivated garden plant with pale blue
flowers grown as ornamental plant.

flowers: May-December.
local name: Nila chitrak.

2. Plumbago indica Linn, in Stickman Herb.
Amb. 24, 1754; Merrill, Interpr. Rump. 414,
1917.

P. rosea Linn., Sp. PI. ed. 2, 215, 1765; FBI 3:
481; Graham, 166; Cooke, T. 2: 78 (2:137).

P. coccinea Boiss. in DC. Prodr. 12:693. 1848;
Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 71.

An ornamental cultivated plant .

flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: Lai chitrak.

3. Plumbago zeylanica Linn., Sp. Pi. 151,
1753; Graham, 166; Dalz. & Gibs. 220; Wight
111. t. 179; Cooke, T. 2:78 (2:136-7).

Rare perennial herb along the edges of the
forests, in white flowers. Sometimes seen in
cultivations and in gardens.

flowers : August-September.

local names: Chitrak, Safed chitrak.

Primulaceae

Anagallis Linn.

1. Leaves alternate; flowers white A. pumila

1 . Leaves opposite; flowers blue A. arvensis

1. Anagallis arvensis Linn., Sp. PI. 148, 1753;
FBI 3:506; Birdwood 17; Cooke, T. 2:80 (2:
139); 136; Maheshwari, FI. Delhi, 203, 1976.

A. coerulea Lamk., FI. Lips. 5: 1771.

A. arvensis Linn. var. coerulea (Lamk.) Gren.
& Godr. FI. Pr. 2: 467, 1852.

Rare herb at Fitzgerald Ghat, and in Yenna
Valley.

flowers: September-October.

2. Anagallis pumila Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind.
Occ. 1: 40, 1788; Pax & Kunth, Pfreich. 22:
331, t. 71, 1905; Santapau, 401, 1962.

Centanculus tenellus Duby, in DC., Prodr. 8:72,
1844; FBI 3: 506; Cooke, T. 2:80 (2:140).
Micropyxis tenella Wight, Icon. t. 1585, 1850.
One of the most common and abundant
herb among the grasses. Due to its smaller
size it is generally hidden among the grasses
and goes unnoticed in field studies.
flowers & fruits: October-November.
Lysimachia obovata Ham. ex Hook. f.
Flora Brit. Ind. 3: 503, 1881, has been report-
ed by Lisboa (Climate of Mahabaleshwar,
1886). But subsequently nobody has collected
this species from Mahabaleshwar. Probably an
escape from cultivation.

{To be continued )

606

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 26

Muscicapidae (Timaliinae) (contd.)

Humayun Abdulali

[Continued from Vol. 79(2) : 360]

348 specimens of 45 species and subspecies
(Nos. 1235 — 1271 in Indian handbook with
5 extra-limitals) are included. The last speci-
men in this group is Reg. no. 26086. Mr. Eric
D’Cunha, Research Assistant, helped with the
work.

1235 Panur us biannicus russicus (Brehm)
(Russia) Bearded Tit-Babbler

2: 1 $ 1 $ (?)

I Kenya, 4300'; Khotan, Sinkiang, China.

Measurements on p. 615.

1236 Conostoma aeinodium Hodgson

(Nepal) Great Parrotbill 1:104

1 $ Dakuri, Kumaon, U.P.

Wing 126 (about 130 to 133 mm); bill 24 (cul-
men about 20 mm); tarsus 38.5 (about 37 mm);
tail 128 (about 140 mm).

Measurements on p. 615.

1237 Paradoxornis unicolor uiticoSor

(Hodgson) (the Cachar, Nepal) Brown Suthora
Parrotbill 1:198

2: 1 $ 1 $

1 Bunthang, Bhutan; 1 Tongloo, nr. Darjeeling.

The female from Tongloo which goes back
to the early part of the present century, is
rufous, while the male (1973) is olive-brown
above and marked with grey below.

Measurements on p. 615.

1238 Paradoxornis fulvifrons fulvifrons

(Hodgson) (Nepal) Fulvousfronted Parrotbill

2: 1 $ 1 $ Sandakphu, Darjeeling

Measurements on p. 615.

1239 Paradoxornis fulvifrons diayulensis
(Kinnear) (Lung, Chayul Valley, S.E. Tibet)
Tibetan Fulvousfronted Parrotbill

nil.

1239a Paradoxornis nipalensis garhwalen-
sis Fleming & Taylor (Kurumtoli, Garhwal,
U.P.)

nil.

1240 Paradoxornis nipalensis nipalensis

(Hodgson) (Nepal, restricted to Kathmandu
Valley) Ashy-eared Parrotbill 1:109

nil.

1241 Paradoxornis nipalensis humii
(Sharpe) (Darjeeling) Blackfronted Parrotbill

1:110

1 o? Shamgong, Central Bhutan.

The orange-yellow ear-coverts immediately
separate it from all the others available.

Measurements on p. 615.

1242 Paradoxornis nipalensis poliotis

(Blyth) (Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills) Assam
Orange Parrotbill 1:109

4: 3 $ $ 1 $

1 $ Tezu, Lohit Valley, Upper Assam; 3 Miao,
Tirap Div., Arunachal Pradesh.

607

[460]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

The single c? from Tezu shows more
orange-rufous and less olive on the upperparts
than the other 3 from Miao. It has also a
brighter yellow head. Dr. Ripley, who has
also access to specimens from both places,
writes that he cannot see any difference bet-
ween them and I am leaving them together.
The 9 has the blackest chin.

Measurements on p. 615.

1243 Paradoxornis nipalensis crocotius
Kinnear (Yonyu La, near Trashigong, E.
Bhutan) Tibetan Small Parrotbill

nil.

1244 Paradoxornis nipalensis patriciae
Koelz (Blue Mountain, Lushai Hills) Mizo
Hills Parrotbill

nil.

1245 Paradoxornis atrosuperciiaris oatesi

(Sharpe) (Darjeeling) Lesser Redheaded Par-
rotbill 1:117

nil.

1246 Paradoxornis atrosuperciliaris atro-

superciliaris (Godwin-Austen) (Sadiya, Assam)
Blackbrowed Parrotbill 1:114

3 $ $

1 Dening, Lohit Valley, N. E. Assam; 1 40th m.
from Miao, Tirap Div., Arunachal Pradesh; 1
Cachar Hills.

In the bird from Dening, the rufous of the
head and nape is darker.

Measurements on p. 615.

1247 Paradoxornis ruficeps ruficeps Blyth
(Bootan) Greater Redheaded Parrotbill 1:116

5:1 $ 4 9 9

1 Kurseong; 2 Tama, Central Bhutan; 1 Buxa
Duars; 1 40 m. from Miao, Tirap Div., Arunachal
Pradesh.

The c? from Tirap Div., shows no more
buff on the underparts than the others and

only differs in having no rufous in the olive-
brown back, but may well be left with the
nominate form.

Measurements on p. 616.

1248 Paradoxornis ruficeps foakeri (Har-

tert) Hungrum, N. Cachar) Assam Redhead-
ed Parrotbill 1:117

3: IS 1 9 1 o?

2 Rema Tea Estate, Sylhet; 1 Rotung, Abor Hills
28°N, 95°E.

All three have pale buff underparts which
may well pass for sullied white and their
upperparts are also all differently coloured.

Measurements on p. 616.

1249 Paradoxornis guiaris gularis (Bhutan)

Greyheaded Parrotbill 1:118

2: 1 $ 1 9 Tama, C. Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 616.

1250 Paradoxornis guiaris transfiuvialis

(Hartert) (Guillong, N. Cachar) Assam Grey-
headed Parrotbill 1:118

1 9 Guillong, N. Cachar Hills.

The underparts are very fainty washed with
buff and the upperparts slightly redder.

Measurements on p. 616.

1251 Paradoxornis flavirostris flavirostris

Gould (Nepal) Gould’s or Blackthroated
Parrotbill 1:105

1 9 Hassemara, N. Lakhimpur, Upper Assam.

Measurements on p. 616.

1252 Paradoxornis guttaticollis David

(Moupin, east Chwanben, China) Whitethroat-
ed Parrotbill 1:106

4: 1 S 3 o?

2 Chin Hills, 1 4000' Bambo (?), 1 N. Shan
States, Burma.

The two unsexed birds from the Chin Hills
(1915) have very pale heads and worn feathers
on the back.

Measurements on p. 616.

608

[461]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 26

1253 Turdoides caudatus buttons (Blyth)
(Kandahar, Afghanistan) Afghan Babbler.

1:199

7: 4 $ $ 3$ $

5 Deh-Jotegh, Sistan Delta, Iran; 1 Suran, 24
m. NE of Pahrah, 2800', Persian Baluchistan; 1
Sitani, 28° 19 'N, 65° 5 fE, Baluchistan.

The distribution of this species has always
been a little confusing, having been mixed up
with eclipes in northwest India and salvadori
in western Iran. Ticehurst, 1926, ‘Birds of
British Baluchistan’ (JBNHS 31, p. 694) has
given a detailed account of its distribution in
Sind and on our western borders which ap-
pears to be correct.

Measurements on p. 616.

1253a Turdoides caudatus eclipes (Hume)
(Peshawar) Northern Common Babbler

11:5 $ $ 5 $ $ 1 o?

2 Peshawar, 5 Rawalpindi, 1 Campbellpur, 1
Jholar, Kala Chitta Hills, Salt Range, 1 South
Waziristan, 1 Damdil, Waziristan.

See note on validity of this form, JBNHS
Vol. 79(1): 199-200.

Measurements on p. 616.

1254 Turdoides caudatus caudatus
(Dumont) (India) Common Babbler 1: 199

41: 27 $ S 10 $ $ 4 o?

1 Phulji, Larkana, Sind; 1 Kashmor, Sind Fron-
tier; 2 Bhung, Bahawalpur; 1 Lahore, 2 Patiala
State near Kalka (Simla), 1 Simla, 2 Chandigarh,
1 Labru, 1 Jagadhri, Ambala, Punjab; 3 Delhi; 3
Bharatpur; 1 Phalodi, 2 Hamavas Lake, 1 Pali, Jodh-
pur, Rajasthan; 1 Kutch, 1 Rudra Mata, 3 Kariro-
har, 1 Chohri, Bachau disk, Kutch; 2 Dabka,
Baroda, Gujarat; 1 Bhind, 1 Narwar Fort, Gwalior,
1 Jaithari, Bhopal, M.P.; 1 Nasik; 1 Goregaon, 1
Salsette, Bombay; 1 Dhond (Poona), Maharashtra.
1 Tirthamalai, Salem disk, 1 Manalur, Palni Range,
T.N.; 2 Tirhut, Bihar.

There is considerable variation in the in-
tensity of the colour of the upperparts but it
has not been possible to localise the dark and/

or pale form in any one area, both being
found in the same place. Two from Bharat-
pur (1970) which are the most recent addi-
tions show a lot of grey on the upper and
lower plumage. This has almost disappeared
in another from the same place obtained in
1961. The illustration of hut torn in Blanford’s
zoology of Persia differs from the specimens
in the same manner. An old undated skin from
Kutch registered in 1907 is almost an albino.

Measurements on p. 616.

EL Turdoides caudatus salvadori (De

Filippi) (Shiraz, Fars, Iran).

6:4 $ $ 2 $ $

3 Mishuna, Persian Gulf; 1 Mand, 1 Persia, 1
Pusht-e-Kuh, Laristan, Persia.

Measurements on p. 616.

EL Turdoides caudatus theresae (Meinert-
zhagen) (Baghdad)

11: 7 $ 8 3 9 $ 1 o?

5 Tigris, 1 Kazimani, 4 Baghdad; 1 Bursa, Meso-
potamia.

These birds were first named huttoni but
Ticehurst, Buxton and Cheesman in 1922 in
‘Birds of Mesopotamia’ (JBNHS 28, p. 396)
said they were the same as nominate caudatus
and the name huttoni which has been struck
off from some of the labels was presumably
done at this stage.

Later in 1930 Meinertzhagen described
theresae presumably without reference to
salvadori, and subsequent writers, e.g. Etche-
copar (1970) and Deignan in Peter’s check-
list (1964, 10, p. 332) have synonymised this
with salvadori.

Neither of the original descriptions1 is avail-
able but the specimens here are more heavily
streaked and darker on the underparts, and

1 Both descriptions have since been seen and the
statements made herein appear to be in order.

[462]

609

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 79

with larger bills and tarsi. Two of the speci-
mens have the feathers of the forehead “squa-
mated” as in squamiceps (infra) but are not
large enough to be placed among them. The
material available appears separable from
salvadori and is for the moment listed apart.

Measurements on p. 616.

, EL Turdoides squamiceps muscatensis de
Schauensee & Ripley (As Sib, near Muscat,
Oman).

3 o? Muscat, Arabia.

Measurements on p. 617.

EL Turdoides squamiceps yemensis (Neu-
mann) (Between Sheikh Othman & Laheji)

1 o? Randhar, Tanhat, Yemen, Arabia.

In the absence of any nominate material the
single specimen is separated in accordance with
the distribution in Peter’s checklist (1964, 10,
p. 3'34)

Measurements on p. 617.

1255 Turdoides earlei sonivius (Koelz)
(Khinjar Lake, Sind) Western Striated Bab-
bler.

9: 6 $ $ 2 $ $ 1 o? (juv.)

1 Chak, 1 Sukkur, Sind; 1 Bahawal Nagar, Baha-
walpur, 6 Jagadhri, Ambala, Punjab.

I cannot separate the two races by a paler/
darker throat and the grouping has been
done on a geographical basis. Two from
Sukkur, Sind, have pale upperparts, but these
go back to 1900 and 1915, though they are
not the oldest. The juvenile from Jagdalpur
is uniformly buff below, with a slightly darker
chin, throat and upperbreast.

Measurements on p. 617.

1256 Turdoides earlei earlei (Blyth) (Vici-
nity of Calcutta) Striated Babbler.

1:197

10: 6 $ $ 3 $ $ 1 o?

1 Bulandshar, U.P., 1 Darbhanga, Bihar; 3 Mor-

nai Tea Estate, Goalpara, 1 Gafaldhubi, N. Lakhim-
pur, Assam; 1 Monywa, 1 Upper Burma; 1 Yebank,
Henzada, 1 Shurdaung, Prome Dist., Burma.

The three from Mornai Tea Estate, Goal-
para, Assam, have darker chins and more
heavily streaked upper breasts.

Measurements on p. 617.

EL Turdoides altirostris (Hartert) (Fao,
southeast Iraq, at mouth of the Shattal Arab)

7: 2 H 3 $$ 2o?

3 Amara, 3 Basra, 1 Fao, Mesopotamia.

The two sexed males are larger than the
females and also greyer (Jan-Feb. contra
March-October).

Two of the females from Fao and Amara
are very rufous and appear very different, but
have been marked altirostris by an earlier
worker (Ticehurst?).

Both squamiceps and altirostris though cor-
rectly named on the original labels were re-
gistered with caudatus.

Measurements on p. 617.

1257 Turdoides longirostris (Hodgson)

(Nepal) Slender-billed Babbler 1:202

2: 1 $ 1 o?

2 Mornai Tea Estate, Goalpara, Assam.

Measurements on p. 617.

1258 Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes) (Dukhun,

Poona) Large Grey Babbler 1 :200

24: 7 $ $ 14 $ $ 3 o?

4 Ambala, 1 Dhirpur, Punjab; 2 Delhi; 1 Jalor,
Jodhpur, Rajasthan; 1 Gir Forest, 1 Cambay City,
1 Dabka, Baroda, Gujarat; 2 Saugor, C.P.; 1 Sak-
bada, Nasik, 2 Satara, Maharashtra; 3 Chumbum
Valley, Kurnool dist., A.P.; 3 Kalianpur. Cawnpur,
2* Meerut, U.P. (*1 albino).

Sp. $ No. 1066 from Meerut is an albino
with the primaries mostly brown. There is
some variation in the intensity of the colour
of the underparts, but these cannot be asso-
ciated with place, sex or season.

Measurements on p. 617.

610

[463]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 26

1259 Turdoides suforufes subnifus (Jerdon)
(Manantoddy, Wynaad) Rufous Babbler 1 : 20 1

14: 11 $ $ 1 $ 2 o?

2 MolCm, Goa, 1 Karwar, 2 Mercara, Coorg,

2 Billigirirangan Hills; 2 Belemane, Mysore; 1 Guda-
lur, 2 Cherambadi, Wynaad, Nilgiris; l Perumalai,
Palni Hills; 1 Shevaroy Hills.

There is much variation in the extent of
rufous on the underparts, and some are rufous
and others with an olive tinge above. These
differences are however scattered and if hype-
rythrus is separable by the richer rufous of
the underparts, this can apply only to two
specimens from Travancore, mentioned below.

Measurements on p. 617.

1260 Turdoides-. subrufus hyperythrus
(Sharpe) (Madras, restricted to Palghat) Kerala
Rufous Babbler

2 $ $ (1* juv.)

1* Thirumalai, 1 Thekadi. Travancore.

See remarks above.

Measurements on p. 617.

Tordoides striatus

As in other babblers, an examination of the
material available from over the whole coun-
try indicates differences which have not yet
been accepted. Attention is drawn to some
of them below, and a more detailed exami-
nation will no doubt require either the des-
cription of new races or the acceptance of
once described forms now treated as synonyms.

1261 Turdoides striatus sindianus (Tice-
hUrst) (Karachi, Sind) Sind Jungle Babbler

1:193

23: 7 $ $ (1 juv.) 12 $ $ (3 juv.) 4 o?

1 Khipro, Thar & Parkar, 1 Katray Taluk, Sind;
1 Bhunj, Bahawalpur, 1 Mubarikpur, near Ambala,

3 Ambala, 3 Simla, 1 Bhimtal, Kumaon; 3 Bharat-
pur, 1 Khara Ghoda, 1 Ganganar, Palanpur, 1 Jam-

nagar, 2 Dabka, 1 Bodeli, Baroda; 1 Dohad, 1
Vallabh-Vidyanagar, Anand; 1 Ramgarh, Jaipur.

Measurements on p. 618.

1262 Turdoides striatus orientalis (Jerdon)
(Jungles of Carnatic & Eastern Ghats restric-
ted to Horsleykonda, west of Nellore) Penin-
sular Jungle Babbler. 1:191 (part)

This was described as “Lighter than mala-
baricus especially beneath, where almost white,
upper breast marked”. In Indian Handbook
(6, p. 227) this form is said to extend across
India through Madhya Pradesh and south-
wards in peninsular India. The birds from the
Eastern Ghats agree very well with the origi-
nal description but not with those westwards
which though marked orientalis by Salim Ali
have their breast more heavily marked and
darker underparts tinged with rufous. The
birds from Mysore were also named orientalis
by Salim Ali (JBNHS 43, p. 318) but none
of the seven specimens then listed is now
available in Bombay. We have six more from
Mysore but they appear neither orientalis nor
malabaricus, and though perhaps nearer to the
latter are listed here. To my mind there are
at least three separate populations but I am
for the moment leaving them under orientalis
but separately.

(a) Nominate orientalis 13: 9 $ $ 3 $ $ 1 o?

2 Kurumbapatti, 1 Shevaroy Hills, 5 Chitteri
Range, Salem dist.; 2 Kaduru, 2 Palkonda Hills, S.
Cuddapah, 1 Nallamalai Range.

Measurements on p. 618.

(b) 17: 6 $ $ 10 9 9 1 o?

1 Mathar, Bhopal, Narbadda Valley; 2 Pili, Mel-
ghat, 1 N. Chaurakund, Amraoti, Berar; 2 Jubbul-
pore, 1 Gondia; 2 Bhopalapatnam, 2 Darba, 2 Gola-
palli, 1 Amraoti, 1 Chota Dongar, 1 Lohattar
Reserve Forest, Bastar; 1 Bhanupratapur, Ranker.

The first four westernmost birds have pale
underparts, showing a tendency towards sin-
dianus in the northwest. The others have more

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

heavily marked breasts and darker underparts
tinged with rufous.

These birds average slightly larger than those
under (a).

Measurements on p. 618.

(c) 6: 4 $ $ 2 $ $

3 Ulair, 1 Bilimani, 1 Talaguppa, Sagar, 1 Gomat-
ghatta, Shimoga, Mysore.

These birds have the streaking restricted to
the upper breast and the lower parts show
more rufous than in both (b) above and mala-
baricus below.

Measurements on p. 618.

1263 Turdoides striatus somervillei (Sykes)
(Ghauts = Bombay Ghats) Bombay Jungle
Babbler. 1:197

The original Latin description by Sykes as
translated by Jerdon reads “reddish brown;
abdomen, vent, lower back and tail light
rufous, the latter obsoletely banded with dar-
ker; quills brown; the feathers of the throat
and breast marked in the middle with blueish
found in the Ghauts only”.

It has been customary to accept all the birds
from western India, from the Surat Dangs to
South Karwar, in N. Kanara from both the
Ghats and the low country to the west as
somervillei, separable from the other races by
the preponderance of rufous all over, parti-
cularly on the tail. When the forty specimens
of this subspecies were laid on their backs
in accordance with their geographical distri-
bution, those from the Ghats, i.e. Suriamal
(2), Bhimashankar (1) and Khandala (4)
could be immediately separated by the bluish
tinge on the feathers at the middle of the
upper breast, and the almost black outer pri-
maries. This does not appear to have been re-
ferred to in subsequent literature. Those from
the low country though more rufous than any
of the other races described, do not have these

characters, nor did several glassed near Bom-
bay. The birds from Ratnagiri are the most
rufous all over, but some of them were col-
lected as far back as 1878, and may have
foxed. Here the primaries are dark brown and
there are large buff spots on the upper breast.

Southwards, the rufous on the underparts
deepens and in the birds from N. Kanara and
Goa, the buff spots on the breast have narrow-
ed to streaks and almost merged into the
background.

The “ghat” and N. Kanara birds are sepa-
rately listed but I am leaving them all under
the same name until there has been an oppor-
tunity to compare freshly collected series from
different places.

a) somervillei 7: 3 ^ 3 $$ 1 o?

2 Suriamal, Thana; 1 Bhimashankar, 4 Khandala,
Poona,

(b) 33:24 $ $ 8 $$ 1 o?

1 Mahal, 1 Malegaon, 2 Waghai, Surat Dangs;
1 Borivli, 1 Marol, 2 Andheri, 3 Bandra, Salsette;
1 Mumbra, 1 Mumbra -Taloja Rd., Thana; 2 Maha-
baleshwar, Satara Dist. 1 South Konkan, 3 Rajapur,

1 Dorli, 4 Ratnagiri; 2 Molem, 1 Goa; 1 Alanki,

1 Kumta, 4 Karwar, N. Kanara.

Measurements on p. 618.

1264 Turdoides striatus malabaricus (Jer-
don) (Travancore & forests of Malabar) Mala-
bar Jungle Babbler 1:192

13: 5 $ $ 7 $ $ 1 o?

4 Nilambur Valley; 1 Thattakad, N. Travancore,

1 Changanur, Edanad, 3 Tenmalai, C. Travancore;

1 Nilgiris; 1 Palnis; 2 Shenemenalla, Coimbatore
dist.

The breast is strongly marked with whitish
buff streaks on a dark background. The streaks
continue further down than in any of the
others. Except for No. 942 from Thattakad,
N. Travancore, the others show no trace of
rufous above or below.

See notes on Mysore birds under 1262

Measurements on p. 618.

612

[465]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 26

1264a Turdoides striatus orissae (Jerdon)
(Neotype Barkot, Bamra, Sambalpur, Orissa)
Orissa Jungle Babbler

6: 2 $ $ 4 9 $

1 Anantgiri, Vizagapatnam; 1 Tikarpara, 1 Tige-
ria, 1 Barkot, 1 Badrama, Bamra, Sambalpur, 1
Barkul, Chilka Lake.

These are uniformly pale rufous below with
the throat and upper breast very faintly
marked.

Measurements on p. 619.

1265 Turdoides striatus striatus (Dumont)

(Bengal) Bengal Jungle Babbler 1:191

8: 2 $ $ 6 9 9

1 Sameli, W. Bhutan; 3 Cawnpore, 1 Bijnor, U.P.
1 Kishenganj, 1 Baghowni, Behar; 1 24-Parganas,
Bengal.

The feather shafts of the breast show up
as streaks which is probably the origin of
the name. There is a varying amount of grey
and/or rufous on the upper and underparts
but the absence of any striking differences and
with no series from any place, there is no
option but to leave them all together.

Measurements on p. 619.

1266 Turdoides rufescens (Blyth) (Ceylon)

Ceylon Rufous Babbler 1:195

3: 1 $ 2 $ $

1 Karpoogalla, Pundalaya, 1 Opanayake, 1 Pelwa-
dulla, Ceylon.

Measurements on p. 619.

1267 Turdoides affinis affinis (Jerdon)
(Travancore) Whiteheaded Babbler 1:193

32: 11 $ $ 17 9 9 4 o?

1 “Specimen No. 23880, 22 December 1973, from
Point Calimere was labelled T. striatus by the col-
lector. Field observers have always considered the
Turdoides species found in coastal forest at Calimere
to be striatus but this specimen appears to me to
be affinis. A.J. Gaston (pers, comm.) informs me
that the vocalisations of the birds found at Calimere
are more like those of affinis than striatus .”

5 N. Kanara; 1 Mundgoda, Dharwar Dist; 1
Hikkerisagar, Mysore; 1 Kallar, Nilgiris; 2 Tope,
Palnis; 2 Trivandrum, Kerala, 1 Nagarcoil, Kanya-
kumari Dist.; 1 Pt. Calimere,1 Tanjore Dist.; 1 Titha-
malai, 6 Kurumbapatti, 2 Chitteri Range, Salem
Dist; 1 Vellore, 1 Madras City; 1 Shriharikota, 1
Palkonda Hills, 1 Seshachalam Hills, S. Cuddappah,
A.P.; 2 Golapalli, Bastar, M.P.; 2? locality?

The 10 birds with white heads include 5
(1 (f 4 9 ) from N. Kanara. The other five
(again 1 c? 4 9 ) are from Dharwar, Salem
(3) and Cuddapah Dist. The N. Kanara series
was collected in 1890/1 and the white on the
head is slightly foxed, though still forming a
very distinct cap. In both males the head can-
not be said to be pure white, the colour flow-
ing into that of the back. All this suggests
that the white head is restricted to the adult
female?

The series from N. Kanara has darker
underparts as also the two from Tope, Palni
Hills (1958/9). The others also show colour
differences which cannot be isolated.

Measurements on p. 619.

1268 Turdoides affinis taprobanus Ripley,
(Ceylon), Ceylon Whiteheaded Babbler.

1 $ Uragala, Ceylon

The bird does not have a white head and
there are no markings on the chin or upper
breast.

Measurements on p. 619.

1269 Turdoides nipafensis (Hodgson)

(Nepal) Spiny Babbler 1:204

3: 2 $ $ 1 $

1 Baila 3500', Doti, West Nepal; 1 6500' Nepal
Valley; 1 5500' N. Katmandu Valley.

The female (R. L. Fleming, Baila, Doti)
and male (D. Proud, N. Katmandu Valley)
are marked as having the “iris pale blue”
while the other male (Nepal Valley, D. Proud)
is said to have been “white”. Hodgson, quot-
ed in Stuart Baker’s fauna said it was smoky

[466]

613

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

brown while the handbook (6:236) says 1271 Babax waddelli waddelli Dresser
white. (Tsangpo Valley, Tibet = Chaksam) Giant

Measurements on p. 619. Babax 1:189

1 o? Rongka, Tibet.

1270 Babax lanceolate wood! Finn (Kan- Measurements on p. 619.
petlet, Mt. Victoria, Chin Hills) Chinese
Babax 1:187

2 : 1 $ 1 $ Mount victoria. Chin Hills. Burma. (See Measurements on pp. 615-619)

Measurements on p. 619.

614

[467]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECT ION —26

00 ^
Cl ^7
^ ON
Cl

f"*"* <96»

«3Rr

v>

©

VN

i l

co

^ 1

C/5 *— i «— )

« vo ci d

[2q

“ ci

>/N O

® d

*£

o

S

o o S

— 4>

^5

Cl </>

s

o

Vi

*s

-e

2

£

£ i

2.122

vo»oiz

^ £
o

•O. v£>

ON OO ^ .

r-^cCM
00 ’"H 00

= On

vi R c,

£<*

O

*c

C8

oo 5£

^ *5

S5 ci

&

75

5« ^

P

1

I «3

^ e

ci £

IT £

C

tn ci
NO NO

00 fC

.£

d*00*
NO ^oot

d <jq

fo

c~

cc

cl

1C 00

On oo

£

On
• 00

&00

oo

m

On vo

cl

NO*?
»o »c

NC Tf Nn

<?o^

Of

fo

Of

^o04-

*

T3

-h ^ NO

vn ■'t 2 tt

'■t £^-

o<o S

* S

H w

d

r-

.S;o

> c- c-

oj

«oOf

r~K

615

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol; 79

r-

J > in

£r'u='A,'t'

I

vo
o

£ oo
co

o ^

°f C-ET1 oo

t-

&8:

on~oc-

-H^Sr^^'O n 2" o
_< O _i — < t-h © o Zl rl

’—I T— i 1 T-h r+ ’— 1

CO 2

&

Cu

&

3

75

a

3

1

©

8

-©

t^-

S

75

3

75 r-

05 '

<

H

ooc5N(S

n)

■

d

»n

cu

mi

<£

n

-D

3

75

•a

03

vo

3sS|3Ssl

:38 I

V*J ^ in

4 4 2

COOC ON

O . 00

Zoo >Otoonrt
C00 ^^00 00 00^

>> oo

Sg

OO w

«o

2 1

ra

8

%

T3

£

O

vn

ON

s

«n

£ .3 id £ J?

m

ON Os

■ OO

m

°°°°«o O'w

00

ON m 00 o

«o

NO 2

I*

fd ^ g>
00 £

’-' 2
T"1 u

’-H Of

00

<o

1

u

tn

03

©

©

T5

2

£

n

U-5

<N

m d (
OO. |

<d r".
in
<d

i

4

>

^ *ON

®°<nob

On

S E

Tf

3)

VO >00

00 *6

m oo
oo

4 ,.

°°s

cu

cu

75

x>

3

75

1/3

©

©

73

a>

T3

os^tr^r^
»n v© r-^ On
oo ed rd c-i (nj
<d

• > > > >
n d d d d
d

o l/Tci *0 ^

cn oo o© c4
' M N N m
70 i i i i

NO ^ ^ ^
cd rd »n t-- r--
rd cd <d rd

t-* N-'. oo “ i
“2°?!

in

m t

^vdS 4

OCM^^C
rd rd m
„ • > cd „
in > dMt^

rS,; ^.4n

VO r-^ .,

vo ON rd ^ m
vd i <n
rd d- _; td
td ^

S O ^ d <1

H

■ sr

. 75

o

CO

VO

<N

td

N O N M N

<?c^ofc

^OO^On

on ^^4

3 $888
°°«sss

NTN I I •

1 oo oo oo

ON’—

oo ’— 1 d

r-4 fd

^ i- • ©

^.n ^

Cn) On VO •'

4o2(N

^nJ- n

<Nl GO CTN

vq n

.,©

ON <N

ON

co

%

VS^rC

oo «_^-oo

r.’— -o© 00
■t—i 00 i V'N

00^00 oo
d- r-
r-

<o

«o

ISILItll

in

S2 w C

_ 2 Q

c ^ ' . S's

o w SjNs'-^-s; o.«a &o

<3 -

616

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 26

ri'OO-CJ
< cN co

vo

g

»— 1 1/->
. CN

> — 1
■ci

co On
(N —H

• a „

> ’r; 00 M

.JS^Soo

CO

*■ 2

00

On

s

sis s

sfe

00

ON

00 vo

o rl

s - $

. in > V0

^«~=>

lo OS CO 00 — *

*7 V *A

o oo
cN O

00 in-nO

to-t - -

VO

co £~ *
OOoo

HHfv

©

*2

3

H

cN

D *xin

S^oo

H ■«

V0.

I

3

$ d2

pj3 vo,

CN

cn

Ids

00 2
si* ®

S*15 ^

VO <N <✓->
cN ^

£©
*7 fo

• CO
(X <N
&

£

3

C/3

cN

co

Ov

CN

C> co
CO

CN

OO

cn »q

00

ON cs

CN v/N CN

<n2

..

VO CN VO

® *

^ -VO
vn cl
>c
CN

8

"O

*3

'S

H

VO

vr<

in

in

cN

> T— t

cn r- >
co

Y] r-T t-h co

JS d cn

^ cN cn

00 dv

2 ^

vo ^

d d

ok on

VO,

■£osr* £

cO „ oo cO

<N

VO Ov CN

ON ON

I 00
Cv| ©
„cN
co
ON

Tf ON 00

ON 00

On O
00 ON

o 00

00 ©"«>

r-

©

*2

CO

CN cj

©

vq

JJ-

C/3

O

•a

'c

vq

15

<— <

ON

vq

s

s

Cl

C5

©

CN

.

d

CN

22

i

co ^ cq

^©

ON ON

s

9

2 s

T3

•3

1

H

00

»n

CN

N- vo

t" r-

00 o
t"

CN

CO

CN

CO

g<8

£oo4g

ST*" -

>A vi:S

a a

_ r^. ON-<fr

d 1-1 2

> „ CO_VO

cO *3 *3 06

CN C/3 o CO

06 §2 o£

rH Int^

i> n-

O 00 ,— <

> >-H

^ 1 ^1 fC

h°o<n©o

CN CO VC

^g2g^

&

3

m

aa

o

»T3

vq *

• co r?

> «o co co

ci co co

CO CN CO r. -

co vr, VO

G* »n
O-i crv

Jfi CN

43

3

W3

03

3

^.o

OO CN

. CN »n

>J^w»5<NO00

«* d • <N <N *->

ov^Ssd*-'

. ^ < cN cN *

Ov

2 ^
5 -

s

ON

vn

cN

Ov ^v
. Ov
> 00
CCS O

^On

<N^°

Ov

CN

Ov

00 . O

00 x ON

a 00

s s

c^-

° CH-
.03

|.S

I S

§ s

-1&

^OCM-^^O Of'
Of «o Of

^o0f

CN Of

wOf

-c ^

S ?N

o

vq

CN

■617

1261-1265 Turdoides striatus subspp.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

1261 sindianus $ S (7, 1 juv.) 94-116 (Simla) av. 20.5-21,5 av. 21.1 30.5-34.6 av. 32,5 98-116 av. 107.3

(IH 104-111 from skull 21-25 35-37 100-114)

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

S2

109

97.7
av. 9’

106

104.4

98.1

101.3

101

99.3

102.5

98.2

101.1

99.2

av.

.• rc

r-

av.

av.

av.

, 96

av.

av.

00

> _
d 0

/ s

av.

)5)

av.

102)

■'t

■

©©

On

^ ri

1

©^

8S~

©©

rr>

©

00

On

w l

_ ^ r- on
~ © ©

©

00 .
00 f~

*

"'g:

v5

O'.

is

00 rf
oe On

1

. 31.7
34.6
av. 33

N!t

<s°-.

r)

00

©

. 33
32.8

m
. oo

P!"

ri ni
m m

<4

rN

<4

m

av.

a «-h

^ >

>5

^ m

av.

av

.2

av.

av.

.6

av.

.4

r-

m

§

36

rr

_ c6
r^ r*N
r)

»A

r- ,

t n

r- Sn

m

m

1

»n

in

in rf>

in *0
m ro

«n

•rt- m

m

m

S

35”

r6

1 rr
^ X

1 ■

r- -r

\b

^.iA

<4

1

in

1

Nt

O rr

• m
r*N

ON

On)

r- ’
n m

m

©

m

m

f" IT)

o^1

rl m
cl

>

d ~
3

^44

e

n c

os ^

£ 8 >
a

C4

_5 V) 00

>

NO ON

r) on
cl O

2

8 22o<

ON O'.

X © ^

Nr) Hi

ggi

03

rac-. ,-s

rn rn ctf

<4, ,2, r j

O

<^ON

'ct

r^oc
ci —

ci

o

.’S

-r.a

C) -O

m rs
VO x>

*0 f".
cl ci

> >
d CS »n

ttN

rC m
Cl Cl
On VO
00 On

TO •

d

r ! M i rtTf

or) d

<^4

. Cl fN|

N H

~*44 ^44

x 4/5 d 5/5

N c r) -
On.H On *■«

m On
*—< On

S;E

C) cn

2 8 2“

M

2 -*nj£

~ od

■i- .

2

Of

«o

Ov.ti

So ^

^.■8

r- 71
oo g

n7_,

— ^ On hh

>o
a ~

£ cA
O

> >
cti cS

3

oe oo
O O

s:

t~-~ oo
<4 m*
© ©

> >Q
cd os ©

CO

o ©

1

> jcj

SS

*-H ©

Of^

«o0

0C r~i

© s

-g -g

© t- ©

£- 2-

Bi 8S 2*

rc

cl

’foot-

fOOf-

rf cl

<oot

foot

»

I?

ftS o

£>r) 3

-§voC ^

«o<>

,0

618

[471]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT . HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-26

vo

§

^ „ t-H CCS 'T

■ <N
£§2

Vn

CN

,sr-°

^ assess

s

o\

Oh>-
’—1 of

/■“s

sss§

SS£

iA ^ »A
Oo\^CV

8

zzz

^vo2

p

v-> *£j
cm iQ

£6 g

vo

cu

Oh

C/3

3

C/5

in

vo

<M

3

rf

VO

CM

sS i 'Z*

c/5 to ,q

os . -co ^j. co vo f\j
co co

. co
> co
c3

H cm
co

-H Tt .M*

in CM NON

<N . rJ <A

<sj _ > «*! O <M

d J3 . ^3

«2"2rf^S-§

is i^i

^ S .H ov .H

S

-i- O . 00^^

><^o^ . r-

rtOv^r-i > O

« „ ,co ^ ’T

^nOhvcoooom;
P’Ohh^Oho^

gog

3

rs

©

"S

VO

VO

<N

cm

■^t vo »o

<o ^ CO ^
^ co r/M
CO f\J CO

<M

CM oc

■0=83

3D M 4> <4

s"1

0

r-H VO

q<N©

© i-i Ov

^>2 ^

3 3

O.

Oh

C/3

*o

3

V3

C/5

*8

1

-

H

00

VO

t"-

VO

CM

7_J CO

CO

> m

& <?

CM I
r- ^ ,

r-.P?

CM d

gjS^K

cm

6$

©

"Q

*©

^ win w

2 cm 2

24> 2

cm ^

co 2; co o

o2°h

Tj- . C\
< Ov > Ov
03 03

«OoO o+

o ^»2 Of

isis

oo

Ov

©

»A

O

VO 03

oo P

CO

cm

O

©

TS

fa

CO C/3

n£

o

Ih

-=3 I CM

8

O

t>

CM

rT«o*»

OO

*0 Of

K ffi

vn

cm <•;

*

pO

C8

PQ

CM

8

Ov d

3

! co rs| «n co

OJ

&

vn

S

o

Oc^cm
0v o Ov

0s

CN

■

‘I

n

i

*©

a

IS

M"

4-

!

irT

oo

CJ

ca

qM

§

vr> clj

»e

CO

C" ©5

2

o

© ^
co W

/— s

VO

CM

S_H

M

CM

/-S

/— s

' /

Of

^-H

Of

t-H

«o

*o

Of

Of

<60

Of

/ — s

M-

«o

co

1

co

S

•S

a

/•N

n

CM

w'

Of

O-

o

#c«a

S

<3

►C3

0-\

CM

s

ci

fa
. ^

Of

Of

’S

§

*5

f

O

|

«o

'fo

s

CM

1265

vo

CM

CM

00

VO

re

toot

[472]

619

GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE BARASINGHA OR
SWAMP DEER ( CERVUS DUVAUCELI)1

Colin P. Groves2
(With five plates & four-text-figures)

The Barasingha or Swamp Deer, C. devauceli, is revised; a new subspecies is describ-
ed from Assam. Adaptations and relationships of the species are briefly reviewed.

The Barasingha or Swamp Deer ( Cervus
duvauceli) was reputedly spread widely in
Northern India and southern Nepal in histo-
ric times. Lydekker (1907) gives the distri-
bution from the Assam valley in the east to
the Kyarda Dun in the west, and from the
foot of the Himalaya south to the Godavari
river; with a few outliers in the Sunderbans to
the east and on the Indus to the west. North
of the Ganges it would be restricted to swampy
grasslands; south of it, to Sal forest. Today
the species is reduced to three small pockets:
the Nepal-India border in the Kumaun-
Kanchanpur-Dudhwa-Kheri region; a few
sanctuaries in Assam (Manas, Orang and
Kaziranga); and the Kanha National Park,
near Mandla, Madhya Pradesh. The only re-
cent record outside these three areas is for
the Chitawan district of Nepal; Schaller (1967)
quotes R. Willan to the effect that “a few”
occur there, but they are extinct there today
(A. Laurie, pers. comm.). It seems probable
that the species was always restricted to poc-
kets of suitable country, such that local exter-
mination was relatively easy.

Since the work of Pocock (1943), the
species has been divided into two subspecies:

1 Accepted April 1982.

2 Department of Prehistory and Anthropology,
Australian National University, Canberra, Act. 2600.

C. d. duvauceli, the true Swamp Deer from
north of the Ganges, and C. d. branded, the
Hard-ground Barasingha from between the
Ganges and Godavari rivers. Apart from the
hooves — splaying, with bare pasterns in the
former, and hard-knit with normally haired
pasterns in the latter — the differences bet-
ween the two have always been a little vague,
due in part to the changes with sex and season,
in part to lack of familiarity with living speci-
mens.

Both the Assam and the Nepal /U.P. popu-
lations have customarily been assigned to the
nominate subspecies, C. d. duvauceli : but M.
K. Ranjitsinh (in epist., 1979, 1980) has noted
that they differ strongly from one another, and
suggested to me that it might be worthwhile
to investigate the possibility that they differ
subspecifically.

Material and Methods

Skulls and antlers of this species were exa-
mined and measured in the following institu-
tions: British Museum (Natural History);

Powell-Cotton Museum, Birchington, Kent;
Bombay Natural History Society; Van Ingen
& Van Ingen, Mysore; Indian Forestry Col-
lege, Dehra Dun; and the private collections
at the palaces of H. H. the Maharana Saheb
of Wankaner and H. H. the Maharaja of

620

J. Bombay nat, Hist. Soc. 79 Plate I

Groves: Cervus duvauceli

Fig. 5. Skull of C. d. duvauceli, BM 12.10.31.6, from Kheri.
(Photo: M. K. Ranjitsinh )

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79

Groves: Cervus duvauceli

Plate II

Above : Fig. 6. Herd of C. d. duvauceli : Kishanpur Sanctuary, Pilibit district, U.P.
Below : Fig. 8. C. d. ranjitsinhi in Kaziranga National Park, Assam.

(Photo: M. K. Ranjitsinh )

GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE BARAS1NGHA

Table

Measurements of skulls (all male) and antlers Ccrvus duvauceli

C. d. duvauceli

C. d.

ranjitsinhi

C. d.

branderi

Kumaun

Kheri

Assam

M.P.

Mean

s.d.

n

Mean

s.d.

n

Mean

s.d.

n

Mean

s.d.

n

Greatest skull length

377.0

6.24

3

393.2

7.49

6

388.7

10.26

3

366.7

6.11

3

Nasal length

129.7

9.07

3

130.5

8.55

6

138.3

9.29

3

127.5

—

2

Nose depth

52.3

4.16

3

53.8

4.92

5

57.7

2.08

3

50.0

— I

2

Snout length

132.3

2.89

3

132.6

5.94

5

125.0

—

2

114.5

—

2

Antler length

686.4

13.43

5

675.1

39.79

8

626.0

58,62

3

706.8

39. 39

5

Burr to brow tine

47.6

9.61

5

57.5

8.00

8

58.3

15.00

3

58.8

12.89

5

Brow tine to main fork

381.0

57.69

5

361.5

47.47

8

332.3

28.36

3

402.4

49.53

5

Length of brow tine

239.8

26.98

5

306.9

37.96

8

233.0

89.11

3

299.8

35.51

5

Length of anterior branch

306,0

42.95

5

309.9

46.65

8

263.3

43.66

3

345.6

39.48

5

Length of posterior branch

278.8

53.66

5

276.9

42.23

8

241 . 3

69.00

3

264.2

35.79

5

Kolhapur. With one exception, all skulls in the
collection are male.

The skull measurements taken were mostly
those of Lowe & Gardiner (1974). Standardi-
sation of skull measurements within restricted
groups of vertebrates is very desirable, and
I would like to take this opportunity to recom-
mend that future workers on the Cervidae
follow the Lowe & Gardiner method, which
seems to describe all major parameters of skull
variation. A few measurements were also taken
on antlers and their pedicels: both antero-
posterior and transverse diameters of pedicels
and of the antlers themselves between burr
and brow-tine; and lengths of tines and dis-
tances between branching-points. It should be
noted that the point of measurement on the
antler was always the centre of the node, i.e.
the triradius where the longitudinal grain of
the tine meets the ascending and descending
grains of the beam.

Results

The skulls and antlers studied were assign-
able to four main geographic samples:

Kumaun, Kheri (Sarda river, Pilibit, Sonari-
pore, Bahraich), Assam (including Gauhati),
and Madhya Pradesh. Under this latter head-
ing are included specimens from the Mandla
district, where the species still survives; from
Junga (approx. 20°N., 82°20'E.); and from
“Dewas”, (probably the Dewas district some
400 km west of Mandla). Two skulls from
Nanpara and two from “Nepal” were studied
in addition.

Samples differed from one another in abso-
lute skull size, as measured by greatest length;
nasal length (Lowe & Gardiner, 1974: 200,
Appendix I, measurement no. 7); nose depth
(Lowe & Gardiner no. 15); snout length
(Lowe & Gardiner no. 5); minimum maxilla
breadth (Lowe & Gardiner no. 9); antler
length; length of brow-tine; and distances bet-
ween branching points of antlers. These mea-
surements are listed, with means and standard
deviations for each of the four samples, in
the Table; and depicted in bivariate plots in
Figs. 1-4.

The Kumaun and Kheri samples differ in
two features only: absolute size, and length

621

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 79

Nasal length

Fig. 1. Plot of Nasal Length vs. Snout Length (Lowe & Gardiner, 1974, nos. 7 vs. 5). Regression
equations as follows:

C. d. duvauceli : y = 63.77 + 0.511 x (r = .555)

C. d. ranjitsinhi + branderi: y = 29.00 + 0.675 x (r = .979)

of brow-tine. Although the size difference is
quite marked, known environmental responses
in the growth of deer (Huxley, 1931; Hooger-
werf, 1956) suggest extreme caution before
assuming a genetic basis for this. Brow tine
length, though again quite strongly different
on average in the two, overlaps when observed
ranges are considered, and the standard devia-
tion limits nearly overlap.

The two Nanpara skulls are 373 and 385
mm long respectively; they are thus within the

Kumaun size range, although separated from
the Kumaun area by the Kheri region. This
clearly identifies the size difference as of strict-
ly limited significance: a microgeographic

phenomenon, whether genetic or environmen-
tal. Brow-tine lengths are 305 mm in both,
nearly identical to the Kheri mean, indicating
in this case a rather clearer geographic trend.
An adult skull from “Nepal” in the British
Museum is 397 mm long with a brow-tine of
340, both characters aligning it with Kheri;

622

GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE BARASINGHA

but the exact locality in Nepal is unknown.
The second Nepal specimen, the type of Cervus
dimorphe Hodgson, is a young adult of 364
mm, with deformed antlers: it was reared in
captivity for at least a year (Hodgson 1843),
and is doubtless stunted.

Assam skulls are between the two above

samples in size, but with long nasals, deep
muzzle, short snout, short antlers branching
low down, and short brow-tine. While none of
these differences by itself quite reaches the con-
ventional level of subspecific differentiation
(75% rule), the bivariate plots throw the shape
differences into relief. The nasals are very long

Minimum maxilla breadth

Fig. 2. Plot of Nose Depth vs. Minimum maxilla breadth (Lowe & Gardiner, 1974, nos. 15 vs. 9).
Regression equations as follows:

C. d. duvauceli:
C. d. ranjitsinhi :

y = 11.94 + 0.767 x (r = .710)
y = -3.00 + 1.167 x (r — .971)

623

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Antler length

Fig. 3. Plot of Antler Breadth (transverse) vs. Antler Length. Regression:

C. d. duvauceli ; y = 18.54 + 0.032 x (r = .496)

C. d. ranjitsinhi ; y = -10.17 + 0.084 x (r = .983)

relative to the snout length (Fig. 1); the nose
is deep but narrow (Fig. 2); the antlers are
short and thick (Fig. 3) and their pedicels
tend to be antero-posteriorly flattened (Fig. 4),
though this is not such a strong difference.

Madhya Pradesh skulls, referable to C. d.
branded, are small in size with a very short
snout; the antlers are very long, with a long
beam before the first fork, and the anterior
branch is especially long. In the shape rela-
tionships in which the Assam sample differ
from Kheri and Kumaun, the M.P. sample fall
with the latter: except in the long nasals and
short snout in which they are like Assam. It

is evident that on the basis of its skull and
antler form, C. d. branded is a valid subspecies;
while a further subspecies needs to be recog-
nised for Assam.

Cervus duvauceli duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823.
Western Swamp Deer; Gond.

1823 Cervus duvaucelii G. Cuvier. “No doubt
North India” (Pocock, 1943) ; Kumaun here
chosen.

1835 Cervus elaphoides Hodgson. Nepal.

1837 Cervus smithii Grey. Northern India; Kumaun
here chosen.

1843 Cervus dimorphe Hodgson. Morung region.
Nepal.

1850 Cervus euceros Gray. “India”: Kumaun here
chosen.

624

GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE BARASINGHA

1868 Cervus eucladoceros Falconer. South of Hard-
war.

Specimens seen. Kumaun 5 [BM(NH) 3,
IFC 2], Nanpara 2 (Van Ingen), Pilibit 2
(Wankaner), Kheri 8 [BM(NH)], Nepal 2
[BM(NH)].

Diagnosis'. Nasals short relative to snout
length, nose not deep, antlers long, slender,
not compressed or palmated (Fig. 5).

Description. Observations of living herds
show that the hinds are very large in this form.

Pedicel transverse

Fig. 4. Plot of Pedicel diameters: transverse vs. antero-posterior. Regressions of:

C. d. duvauceli;
C. d. ranjitsinhi ;
C. d. branded :

5 = 5.24 + 0.829 x (r = .83)
y = 14.24 + 0.678 x (r = .875)
y = 8.55 + 0.731 x (r = .957)

625

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

comparable in size with the stags, and with a
thicker neck; the tail in both sexes is rela-
tively long and slim with prominent white hair
on the undersurface; the ears are very large
and rounded, with a thick growth of white
hair on the inside. Fig. 6 shows some of these
features; good close-up photos can be found
in Schaaf (1979). The Kheri sample is, as
mentioned above, slightly differentiated from
the Kumaun one: by its large size (perhaps
not a genetic character) and elongated brow-
tine. The Nanpara specimens are smaller again,
but have the same long brow-tine; they pos-
sibly represent the same population as the now
extinct Chitawan barasingha.

None of the names in the above synonymy
is very firmly based; and only Cervus dimor-
phe appears to be represented by a type speci-
men, which is a young adult skull with antlers
deformed by captivity. On historical grounds
there is no probability that any of the names
apply to the Assam valley race, which thus
needs a new name.

Cervus duvauceli ranjitsinhi subsp. nov.
Eastern Swamp Deer or Barasingha

Type. British Museum (Natural History)
91.2.7.9, skull with antlers, from Gauhati,
Assam, presented by A. O. Hume in 1891. The
skull is mounted on a display shield, and the
basicranium has been cut off to mount it.

Referred specimens. (1) BM(NH) 23.10.
5.54, “Assam”, skull with antlers, the ante-
rior maxillae and premaxillae missing. (2)
BM(NH) 12.10.31.5, Gauhati.

Origin of name. For M. K. Ranjitsinh, pre-
sently Secretary of the Forest Department,
State of Madhya Pradesh, India. Ranjitsinh’s
name has been associated with many wildlife
conservation projects in India, and recently in
Thailand; in the late 1960s his insistence and
energy was primarily responsible for reviving
C. d. branderi from near extinction, and he

has more recently been concerned in the still
more difficult problem of saving the Manipur
Thamin ( C . eldi eldi).

Diagnosis. Compared with the nominate
race, distinguished by its elongated nasals and
short deep snout; short thick antlers, branch-
ing low down, with especially shortened ante-
rior branch; antlers somewhat compressed and
tend to be palmated (Fig. 7).

Description. M. K. Ranjitsinh {in press; in
lift., 4.8.1980 and 2.9.1980) points out that
in the field this race is heavily built, but linear-
ly of the same height as C. d. branderi, i.e.
smaller than the nominate race and with the
hinds especially small; the muzzle is more slen-
der from side to side and pointed, giving the
impression of being more elongated; the ears,
which have very little white hair on the in-
sides unlike the other two races, are smaller,
less rounded and distinctly pointed; the tail is
shorter; and in moult the white spots in the
mid-dorsal region are much less prominent.
These features are clearly visible in Figs. 8 and
9, as are the short, flattened, low-branching,
somewhat palmated antlers, highly characte-
ristic in the field. The feet are splayed with
bare “heels”, as in the nominate race, as far
as is known.

Notes. Although for comparative purposes
the sma!' number of specimens is to be re-
gretted, collection of further specimens is
clearly undesirable at this time. From a con-
servation point of view the identification of
this new subspecies is of the greatest urgency.

Cervus duvauceli branderi Pocock. Southern
Swamp Deer; Hard-ground Barasingha

1943 Rucervus duvauceli branderi Pocock. Mandla.

Specimens seen. “Central Provinces” 2 [BM
(NH)], Mandla 3 [holotype, BM(NH); Wan-
kaner, 2], Junga 1 (Powell-Cotton Museum),
Dewas 2 (Kolhapur).

626

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79

Groves: Cervus duvauceli

Plate III

§§31

■hSI

pgfMg

k

giipiiiil

Fig. 7. Skull of C. d. ranjitsinhi , BM 91.8.7.9. from Gauhati (Holotype)
(Photo: M. K. Ranjitsinh)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79

Groves: Cervus duvauceli

Plate IV

Above: Fig. 9. C. d. ranjitsinhi in Kaziranga National Park, Assam.
Below : Fig. 11. C. d. branderi stag: Kanha National Park, M.P.
(Photos: M. K. Ranjitsinh )

GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE BARASINGHA

Diagnosis. The feet are “well-knit”, with
hair-covered pasterns, unlike the other two
races; size is small; nasals long, snout short
as in ranjitsinhi, but nose is not deep; maxilla
rather broad as in nominate race; antlers as
in nominate race but extremely long and many-
branched, with long brow-tine; branching high
up the beam, and anterior branch especially
long (Fig. 10).

Description. According to M. K. Ranjitsinh
{in lift.), the stag has a darker rutting pelage
than either of the other two races, a better
developed ruff on the neck, and a noticeably
short snout. The note by Dunbar Brander
(1923) that the colour is “often” much darker
is plainly a failure to distinguish between rut-
ting and non-rutting pelage. A supposed colour
difference in the antlers, also mentioned by
Dunbar Brander, is difficult to maintain on
modern observations, and was in any case
disputed by Pocock (1943).

As in the nominate race the ears are large
and rounded, with thick white hair internally;
the tail is somewhat shorter, but not as short
as in C. d. ranjitsinhi; the muzzle is broad and
blunt; there are prominent white spots along
the dorsal lines, especially during the moult
(Fig. 11). Lydekker (1907) records an
unusual “curved” type of antler from the
(then) Central Provinces (now Madhya Pra-
desh), on the evidence of a series shot by
Major C. B. Wood; but for Dunbar Brander
this is the “Terai” type, being rarer according
to him in the Central Provinces, whereas the
straight, spreading type is rare elsewhere. This
discrepancy is probably a matter of semantics:
most antlers, throughout the range, would
appear to be of the type Dunbar Brander calls
“intermediate” (and which indeed accounts
for 14 out of his sample of 31 heads), but the
finest, most spreading and angular antlers are
almost confined to M.P. It is interesting that

Dunbar Barnder classes 3 out of his 31 as of
“sambar type”; and Ranjitsinh (in lilt.) has
occasionally seen individuals in Kanha with
antlers “quite indistinguishable” from sambar.

Discussion

The discovery of a new subspecies of
Cervus duvauceli raises the question of the
nature of the species and its adaptation; what
are its nearest relatives, and what was its origi-
nal habitat: swampy grassland, or Sal forest
and glades?

Although C. duvauceli and its relatives, C.
schomburgki and C. eldi, have traditionally
been referred to a subgenus Rucervus, there
have been dissenting voices. Pocock (1943)
referred each to a separate genus — Rucervus,
Thaocervus and Panolia respectively — imply-
ing that interrelationships among them are no
closer than between any one of them and the
other subgenera of Cervus (or rather, in
Pocock’s scheme, genera of the Cervinae) :
such as Cervus, Rusa, Ussa and Axis. Such a
classification appears much oversplit: it neither
indicates any closer degrees of relationship,
nor does it use the species category in any use-
ful way, since most of the genera are mono-
specific.

A very different, and surely more useful
classification, is that of Flerov (1952). This
author arranges the species of Cervus in just
five subgenera: Cervus (for C. elaphus and
C. nippon), Axis (for C. axis, C. porcinus,
C. calamianensis and C. kuhli), Dama (for
C. dama and C. mesopotamica) , Przewalskium
(for C. albirostris) and Rusa (for C. alfredi,
C. timoriensis, C. tavistocki, C. unicolor, C.
duvauceli, C. schomburgki and C. eldi). The
characters on which this arrangement are based
are well defined, and the fivefold division seems
acceptable, at least as a working arrangement.

627

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

For present purposes, the point that “Rucer-
vus” and Rusa sensu stricto are closely related
is accepted.

Many species of Flerov’s subgenus Rusa
are, broadly, adapted to soft ground, and often
to parkland as much as forest (there is a clear
differentiation here between C. unicolor and
C. timoriensis) . As well as two of the three
races of C. duvauceli, one of C. eldi has in-
vaded swampland. It seems plausible that
adaptation to a swampy environment may have
occurred independently in different species,
and equally that such adaptations may have
been reversed.

For a number of reasons it seems more like-
ly that C. duvauceli is basically adapted to
swamplands, and that it is C. d. branded
which has invaded a new habitat. First is the
fact that C. d. duvauceli does not utilise the
Sal forest and interspersed meadows in its
range, habitat that is the very type to which
C. d. branded is confined; on the other hand,
there is no suitable swampy grassland habitat
within the range of the latter. Thus the nomi-
nate race, as far as habitat goes, has a (hypo-
thetical) choice, and “chooses” swampland;
while branded is constrained.

The second line of evidence comes from
Indian prehistory. The rich profusion of rock
paintings at Bhimbetka, near Hoshangabad,
M.P., shows a faunal variety which includes
rhinoceros (presumably Rhinoceros unicornis )
and wild buffalo (Bubalus arnee), as well as
Swamp Deer, recognisable at once by their
complex antlers (Mathpal 1978). Buffalo and
rhino are the two Indo-Nepalese species which
are consistently associated with swampy plains,
and their presence in the Bhimbetka paint-
ings implies that [at an uncertain date, per-
haps early Holocene (Mathpal 1978)] in the
past there was such habitat in Madhya Pra-
desh, not too far from Kanha and the Mandla

628

district. The depictions of Barasingha sug-
gests that this species was able to extend its
range to the region when conditions were right,
and that when the environment changed the
Barasingha, unlike the rhino and buffalo, was
able to adapt and survive in unfamiliar habi-
tat, in isolation (by the Ganges valley) from
its parent populations further north.

The final point to be made concerns a Thai-
land relative, the now extinct Schomburgk’s
deer ( Cervus schornburgki) . Pocock (1943)
separated this species from Rucervus as genus
Thaocervus; the differences invoked were mar-
ginal at best, and depended on a single skull of
the new genus. The habitat, in the Central
Plains of Thailand, was precisely that of the
two northern races of C. duvauceli (Lekagul
& McNeely 1977), and indeed Giles (1937)
argues strongly that it is only a local form of
C. duvauceli. This latter view is probably cor-
rect: the differences from the Barasingha are
probably no greater than those among the
three Indian subspecies. Its dark colour and
neck mane were like branded; the form of the
ears and tail resembles both branded and
duvauceli; but the form of the antlers, while
quite idiosyncratic, in their low branching and
flattened form were most like mnjitsinhi. It is
interesting that, despite the habitat, the pas-
terns were hairy (Mohr 1968, Abb. 11); which
might mark this as the most primitive of the
subspecies of swamp deer. Whether the swamp-
living “pr e- branded” had bare pasterns and
has lost them, or never had them, would in
this light be an open question.

Conclusion

I conclude that Cervus duvauceli is a deer
basically adapted to swampy grassland condi-
tions; that it has three Indian subspecies; that
a now extinct deer from Thailand was likewise

J. Bombay nat, Hist. Soc 79

Groves: Cervus duvauceli

Plate V

Fig. 10. Skull of C. d. branded : BM 30.4.24.7. from Mandla (Holotype).
(Photo: M. K. Ranjitsinh )

GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE BARASINGHA

probably conspecific; and that environmental
change in Madhya Pradesh, south of the Ganges
valley, forced the species there to change in
response to an altered environment. The two
swampland races, of Assam and of U.P. /Nepal,
have probably, by the very nature of their
habitat, been isolated by environmental fac-
tors for some thousands of years, rather than
being separated by recent extermination of in-
tervening populations as has usually been
assumed .

The taxonomic data on the species are as
follows :

Genus Cervus Linnaeus, 1758.

Subgenus Rusa H. Smith, 1827 (synonyms
including Rucervus Hodgson, 1841;
Thaocervus Pocock, 1943)

Cervus duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823.

C. d. duvauceli G. Cuvier, 1823.
Kumaun, Kheri, S. W. Nepal.

C. d. ranjitsinhi subsp. nov. Assam.
C. d. branded Pocock, 1943. Mandla
district, and formerly west to Dewas,
east to Junga.

C. d. schomburgki Blyth, 1863. Chao
Phraya valley, Thailand (extinct since
1938).

Refer

Dunbar Brander A. A. (1923): Wild Animals
in Central India. Edward Arnold, London, xv +
296 pp.

Flerov, C. C. (1952): Fauna of USSR: Mam-
mals. Vol. 1, No. 2: Musk Deer and Deer. Transl.
Israel Program for Scientific Translation, 1960. S.
Monson, Jerusalem, 257 pp.

Giles, F. H. (1937) : The riddle of Cervus schom-
burgki. J. Siam Soc. (Nat. Hist. Suppl .) 11: 1-34.

Hodgson, B. H. (1843) : On a new species of
Cervus, Cervus dimorphe. J. roy. Asiat. Soc. Ben-
gal 12: 897.

Hoogerwerf, A. (1956) : Over een nieuwe on-
dersoort van het Java hert, Rusa timoriensis laro-
nesiotes Van Bemmel. Penggemar Alam 36: 13-28.

Huxley, J. S. (1931) : The relative size of antlers
in deer. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 819-864.

Lekagul, B. & McNeely, J. (1977): Mammals
of Thailand. Sahakambhat Co.. Bangkok. 758 pp.

Other species of the subgenus are C. eldi
McClelland, 1842; C. unicolor Kerr, 1792;
C. alfredi Sclater, 1870; C. mariannus Desma-
rest, 1822; and C. timoriensis de Blainville,
1822 (of which C. tavistocki Lydekker, 1900,
is a synonym). For a review of some of these
species, especially those in the Philippines, see
Grubb & Groves (in press).

Ack nowledge m e n ts

Grateful acknowledgement is given to the
following persons for access to specimens in
their charge: Dr. Ian Bishop, Mr John Ed-
wards Hill; Mr Lester Barton; Mr J. C. Daniel,
Dr Robert Grubh; Messrs J. and D. Van In-
gen; H. H. the Maharana Saheb of Wankaner,
and M. K. Digvijaysinh; the staff of the Indian
Forestry College, Dehra Dun; and the staff of
H.H. the Maharajah of Kolhapur. Finally, I
would like to thank M. K. Ranjitsinhji for the
stimulus for this study, and for information and
correspondence; and, on behalf of all who are
concerned with the survival of the world’s wild
heritage, for saving the Hard-ground Bara-
singha, and trying to save the Manipur
Thamin.

E n ce s

Lowe, V. P. W. & Gardiner, A. S. (1974): A
re-examination of the subspecies of Red deer
(Cervus elaphus) with particular reference to the
stocks in Britain. /. Zool., London 174: 185-201.

K Lydekker, K. (1907): The Game Animals of
India, Burma, Malaya and Tibet. Rowland Ward,
London, xiii -f 409 pp.

of Bhimbetka, Central India. Ph.D. Thesis, Deccan

Mathpal, Y. (1978): Prehistoric Rock Paintings
College, Pune, 507pp.

Mohr, E. (1968) : Halting und Zucht des Schom-
burgk-Hirsches, Rucervus schomburgki Blyth, 1863.
Zool. Garten 36: 34-57.

Pocock, R. I. (1943) : The larger deer of British
India. Part II. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43: 553-572.

Schaaf, D. (1979): Swamp deer in a human sea.
Nat. Hist., New York, 88: 46-55.

Schaller, G. B. (1967) : The Deer and the Tiger.
Chicago University Press, 370 pp.

629

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF OLIGODON FROM THE PALNI HILLS,
SOUTH INDIA (SERPENTES: COLUBRIDAE)1

Romulus Whitaker and Shekar Dattatri2
( With a plate)

I NTRODU CTION

While on a herpetological survey of the
Palni Hills, South India, we collected a hither-
to unreported species of kukri snake of Oli-
godon along with several other interesting rep-
tiles and amphibians. It is named here as:

Oligodon nikliili sp. nov.

Description :

Seven supralabials, the third and the fourth
touching the eye; the sixth rising slightly above
the labial border; one anterior temporal; in-
ternasals present, loreal absent; nostril in elon-
gated nasal completely divided by a vertical
suture. Scales around mid body in fifteen rows.
Ventrals: 144; Caudals: 33, paired; anal

divided.

Hemipenis extending to the 13th caudal
plate; proximal quarter of the organ smooth,
the next quarter with equal sized spines and
the distal half flounced, the flounces edged with
numerous small spines; three prominent longi-
tudinal folds present.

Colour :

Ground colour light brown, each scale with
a minute black speck. Two chocolate brown
dorso -lateral stripes 1 . 5 scales wide extending
from the posterior end of the characteristic

1 Accepted September 1982.

2 Madras Snake Park Trust, Madras 600 022.

chevron head pattern to the tip of the tail.
Two indistinct lateral lines on scale row three,
extending from above the fifth ventral to the
anal plate; belly whitish with prominent ven-
tero-lateral speckling and two broken lines of
black spots.

Holotype :

Museum of the Madras Snake Park Trust,
an adult male from Tiger shola, 1500 mts.,
Palni Hills, Tamilnadu, South India, 20.9.81,
collected by Romulus and Zahida Whitaker
and Shekar Dattatri. No other specimens re-
ported.

Measurements :

Snout-vent: 350 mm
Vent-tail: 73 mm
Total length: 423 mm
Head length: 11 mm
Head width: 9 mm
Neck width: 8 mm
Diameter of eye: 2 mm

Scalation :

Ventrals : 144
Caudals: 33
Scale rows: 17-15-15

Diagnosis and Discussion

The cylindrical body with smooth scales,
presence of the nostril in an elongated nasal,
one pre- and two post-oculars, circular pupil
of eye, typical head shape and pattern esta-

630

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 Plate I

Whitaker & Dattatri: OUgodon nikhili sp. nov.

OJigodon nikhili sp. nov. from Palni Hills. Tamil Nadu.
(Photos: Rom Whitaker )

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

blish beyond doubt that this snake belongs to
the Genus Oligodon.

Of the 33 species of this Genus recorded
from the oriental region, eleven other species
have 15 scale rows at mid-body. Tabulated
below are the differences exhibited by the holo-
type compared to the most similar forms.

collected five species uropeltids ( Uropeltis,
Platyplectrurus and Teretrurus spp.), one
species of Xylophis, several forest frogs and
lizards. The new kukri snake was found by the
three year old son of one of us (R.W.), Nikhil,
who was left at the roadside to play at “snake
hunting”. The snake was hiding behind a piece

Character

O. taeniolatus

brevicaudata

erythrorachis

sublineatus

new species

1 .

Supra labials:

7

7

7

7

7

2.

Scale rows:

15

15

15

15

15

3.

Ventrals :

158-218

158-173

154

134-161

144

4.

Caudals :

29-56

25-29

46

23-37

33

5.

Loreals :

present

absent

absent

present

absent

6.

Inter nasals :

present

absent

present

present

present

7.

Distribution

India

Western

Assam

Sri Lanka

Western

Sri Lanka

Ghats

Ghats

From the characters enumerated above, it is
evident that the new species closely resembles
O. erythrorachis described by Wall (1910)
based on a single specimen collected in Assam.
However, it differs from the latter in coloration
and in the ventral and subcaudal counts.

The next most closely resembling species is
O. sublineatus described from Sri Lanka.
However, O. sublineatus differs in having com-
plete head shields and in the hemipenis being
spinose throughout, the spines being almost
uniform in size and regularly arranged. This is
not the case with the new species.

Habitat :

Tiger shola, where our specimen was col-
lected, is a medium altitude rain forest (1500
mts. above MSL) a few kilometres below
Shembaganur on the Kodaikanal ghat road. It
remains one of the few intact pockets of ‘shola’
forest in the area and on the same trip we

of cement on the roadside retaining wall and
fell at the child’s feet when he removed the
loose slab of cement.

Conclusion

When we started out on this trip, a new
species of snake was the last thing we ex-
pected. Our discovery shows only too clearly
that a great deal lies hidden in the complex
and unique forest hill ranges of the Western
ghats. It is appalling to see the destruction man
has wrought in many of these areas. Hill
slopes that were lush with vegetation in the
senior author’s younger days are deforested,
barren, hot and eroded today. What we are
losing in terms of our fauna and flora is any-
body’s guess.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Madras Snake Park
Trust for funding the survey.

Reference

Wall, F. (1910) : A new snake from Assam..
Oligodon erythrorhachis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
19: 923-924.

631

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 79

ON A NEW GENUS AND A NEW SPECIES OF EREMNINAE
(CURCULIONIDAE : COLEOPTERA)1

FI. R. Pajni and C. S. Sidhu2
(With two text -figures )

I N TRODU CTION

We have studied 102 species of subfamily
Eremninae during a five year US PL-480 pro-
ject on Curculionidae of India. The studied
species include several new genera and many
new species. The present report concerns the
description of a new species, sensarmai under
the new genus Indophytoscaphus.

Observations and Discussion

C. chandigarhensis was tentatively referred
to genus Corigetus (Pajni & Singal 1974),
fully realising the remarks of Marshall (1918)
about the heterogeneous nature of the genus
Corigetus Desbr. It was felt that the species
might ultimately provide the type for a new
genus. An examination of the true Corigetus
Desbr. in the British Museum (natural history),
London has revealed that the rostrum of the
present species lacks the characteristic oblique
curved costa running from the upper edge of
the scrobe towards the middle of the eye and
also shows other differences in the structure
of the rostrum. Accordingly, this species has
been designated as the type of a new genus
Indophytoscaphus and a new species is also
being described under the genus.

The two species of this genus, according to
the key to the genera of Cyphicerini by Mar-
shall (1944), resemble the African genus

1 Accepted July 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, Punjab University,
Chandigarh- 160 014. India.

Afrophytoscaphus raised by Hustache (1936),
but differ from it in several respects. In this
genus the antennae are squamose and have
the second joint of funicle equal to the first,
scrobes do not reach the eyes and the lateral
margins of elytra are strongly excised near the
bases to receive the dilated bases of metepis-
terna. In the genus Afrophytoscaphus Hust.,
on the contrary, the antennae are not squamose
and have the second joint of funicle shorter
than first, the scrobes reach the eyes and the
lateral margins of elytra are not excised near
bases. The genus is very similar to Phytosca-
phus in outer appearance but like Afrophytos-
caphus it also differs from Phytoscaphus in
having 4 setae on the mentum.

Indophytoscaphus gen. nov.

Head with frons somewhat broader than
dorsal area of rostrum; eyes flat, subovate,
large. Rostrum distinctly longer than broad,
interantennal area bifoveate; epistome very
small, forming an obtuse angle behind, with
two lateral processes in male; lateral areas
each with a squamose costa running straight
from scrobe to eye; scrobes small, narrow,
curving inwards; mentum with 4 setae.
Antennae densely squamose and setose; funi-
cle with first and second joints subequal; club
oval. Prothorax rounded laterally, anterior
margin with well-developed ocular lobes, sub-
truncate at base. Elytra with dorsal outline
convex, intervals with scale-like setae. Legs
with tibiae less slender, corbels of hind tibiae
open. Male genitalia with aedeagus pointed

632

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

and triangular at apex, without exophallic
valve; phallotreme with small orincial plates.
Female genitalia with bursa copulatrix mode-
rately developed; spermatheca with collum and
ramus lying parallel to each other.

Key to the species of Genus Indophytoscaphus
Gen. nov.

i . Pro thorax transverse; rostrum stouter and broader;

scutellum squarish

chandigarhensis Pajni and Singal

Prothorax as long as broad; rostrum slender and
narrower; scutellum rectangular, longer than
broad sensarmai sp. nov.

Indophytoscaphus sensarmai sp. nov.

Figs. (1 & 2)

Head with frons black, somewhat broader
than dorsal area of rostrum, flat in front and
a little convex behind, separated from rostrum
by a shallow transverse impression, densely
covered with pale scales and sub-erect broad
setae; central fovea deep and elongated, almost
concealed by scales; eyes shining black, large,
sub-ovate, flat. Rostrum black, distinctly lon-
ger than its apical width, running parallel from
base to scrobes, then strongly dilated at apex;
dorsal area deeply impressed throughout,
densely covered with pale scales and broad
pale setae, with interantennal area bifoveate;
central carina fine, running throughout its
length, concealed by scales; dorsolateral carinae
distinct, diverging apically and parallel behind;
epistome very small, forming an obtuse angle
behind; lateral areas each with a squamose
costa running from scrobe straight to eye and
a deep longitudinal stria running above and
below it; scrobes small, narrow, curving in-
wards, almost visible from above. Antennae
moderately long, fuscous, densely clothed with
whitish scales and pale recumbent setae; scape
cylindrical, gradually clavate, almost straight,
reaching one-third of prothorax; funicle with

joints 1 and 2 subequal, 3-6 subequal but half
as long as 2, 7 a little longer, each joint with
a distinct whorl of sub -recumbent whitish
setae; club fuscous, small, sub-globular, with
apex acuminate, as long as 2 apical funiculat
segments, finely and uniformly pubescent.

Prothorax black, almost as long as broad,
with anterior margin straight, having well-
developed ocular lobes and fine vibrissae;
dorsal surface convex, coarsely and somewhat
closely punctate and each puncture with a very
short and pale recumbent seta, covered with
interspersed pale and brownish scales; lateral
sides narrowly rounded, almost as broad at
apex as at slightly bisinuate base. Scutellum
small, rectangular with its anterior margin
rounded, completely covered with whitish-pale
scales. Elytra black, oblong, dorsal outline con-
vex, running parallel from base to beyond
middle and then narrowing at apex, with apices
jointly sinuate, much wider at shoulders than
base of prothorax, shoulders very prominent
and roundly rectangular; striae narrower than
intervals, formed by deep squarish punctures
and each puncture with a minute seta, inter-
spaces squamose; intervals broad, flat, densely
covered with dark-brown and brownish scales
and some patches of whitish scales, each in-
terval with a row of distantly placed scale-
like recumbent setae.

Legs black, densely covered with pale scales
and fine recumbent setae; fore-coxae contigu-
ous, placed in middle of prosternum; femora
clavate, each with a small femoral tooth; an-
terior tibiae bisinuate internally, with a row
of spines on their inner apical halves, apical
end of each tibia with a fringe of fuscous
bristles and a mucro, corbels of hind tibiae
open; tarsi densely setose, first joint of hind
tarsi 1 . 5 times as long as second, third bilobed
joint shorter than second and spongy beneath;
claws free. Thoracic sterna black, densely

633

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Fig. 1. Adult Indophytoscaphus sensarmai sp. nov.

Fig. 2. Female genitalia of Indophytoscaphus sensarmai sp. nov.

covered with pale scales, punctate and each
puncture with a short and spathulate pale seta.
Abdominal sterna black, covered with brow-
nish and greenish scales, punctate and each
puncture with a recumbent pale-seta.

Male genitalia not studied. Female genitalia
with ovipositor long and weakly sclerotized;
coxites comparatively more sclerotized and
sparsely setose; bursa copulatrix moderately
developed, with a pair of plates at apex; spicu-
lum ventrale long, thick and bent, spathulate
at apex. Spermatheca with cornu pointed,
collum and ramus lying parallel to each other.
Measurements :
length:

Female body: 7.0 to 7.6 mm; rostrum:
1.2 to 1.3 mm.

BREADTH !

Female body 2.7 to 3.1 mm; rostrum:
0.7 to 0.8 mm.

Holotype $; Dehradun (U.P.); wild vegeta-
tion; H. R. Pajni : Paratypes 2 $ ; Dehradun
(U.P.); 1 $, Nadaun (H.P.); source and col-
lector for paratypes same as for Holotype:
Material in department of Zoology, Punjab
University, Chandigarh.

Remarks : This species is more or less similar
to the type species i.e., /. chandigarhensis
(Pajni and Singal) in general appearance
and colour pattern of the scales on the body.
However, it differs from the same in the struc-
ture of the rostrum, the prothorax, and the
scutellum. The rostrum is relatively narrower,
prothorax almost as long as broad and the

634

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

scutellum is longer than broad in this species
as compared to the broader rostrum, transverse
prothorax and squarish scutellum in /. chandi-
garhensis (Pajni and Singal 1974).

Acknowledge m en ts

We are grateful to Indian Council of Agri-
cultural Research and U.S. department ot
Agriculture for financing a project on Curcu-

Refe

Hustache, A. (1936): Entomological expedition
to Abyssinia 1926-27 (Col. Cur.). Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., London. 75(10) : 353-373, 419-446, 483-505,
563-587, 24 figs.

Marshall, Sir G. A. K. (1918): Platymycterus,
a new genus of Asiatic Curculionidae (Col.). Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., (9)7: 245-252.

lionidae of India and for arranging funds for
the visit of senior author to various European
museums. They are also thankful to Dr. R. T.
Thompson of British Museum (natural his-
tory), London, for allowing the comparison
of material with the identified collection. Re-
search facilities provided by Chairman,
Zoology department. Panjab University, Chan-
digarh are also gratefully acknowledged.

E n ce s

(1944) : On the genera

of the tribe Cyphicerini (Col. Cure.). Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., (11)77: 73-98, 433-462.

Pajni, H. R. & Singal, Shiv K. (1974): Cori-
getus chandigarhensis sp. nov., a Curculionid from
Chandigarh (Col. Cure. Otio.: Ptochini: Cyphi-
cerina). Zool. J. Linn. Soc., 55 (1): 61-64.

RECORD OF POLYPED1LUM KIEFFER (DIPTERA:
CHIRONOMIDAE) IN BHUTAN AND INDIA WITH A NEW SPECIES

FROM INDIA1

D. K. Guha2 and P. K. Chaudhuri3
(With seven text-figures)

The survey of Chironomids from Bhutan
and India yielded a large number of insects
belonging to the different subfamilies of family
Chironomidae. The account of the species
in each genera have been published or
awaits publication elsewhere (Chaudhuri &
Ghosh 1981, 1982). This paper records three
species of the genus Polypedilum Kieffer, pre-
viously known from the countries other than
India, and describes one Indian species as new
to Science. In Bhutan, the genus is represent-

1 Accepted March 1982.

2 Department of Zoology, Vivekananda Maha-
vidyalaya, Burdwan 713 103, (W.B.).

3 Department of Zoology, University of Burdwan,
Burdwan 713 104. (W.B.).

ed by four species namely Polypedilum
ascium, P. chaudhurii, P. nudiceps and P.
tripunctum recently described by Chaudhuri
ed al. (1981).

The insects including types of the species are
at present kept in the collections at the de-
partment of Zoology, University of Burdwan
and will be deposited in the National Zoolo-
gical Collections, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta.

Key to the species of Polypedilum Kieffer

1 . Wing pattern with clouds and pale spots 2

Wing pattern without clouds but with dark spots
3

2. Fore tibial scale triangular with a sharp spine;

Anal point trifid aegyptium Kief.

Fore tibial scale oval without such spine; Anal
point simple and slender stictopterus John.

635

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 79

3. Gonostylus bulky bearing 6 setae at its inner

apical margin alticola Kief.

Gonostylus moderate bearing 12 setae at its inner
apical margin obscurum sp. nov.

Polypedilum aegyptium Kieffer

Polypedilum aegyptium Kieffer, 1925, Bull.
Soc. ent. Egypte 8: 270; Freeman, 1958. Bull.
Br. Mus. nat. Hist. Ent. 6\ 281. Polypedilum
iris Goetghebuer, 1937, In Linder: Die. Flieg.
Palaear. Reg. 3(1 3c) : 61. Polypedilum airense
Freeman, 1956, Bull. I.F.A.N., 18(A): 96.

This species is recognised by the absence of
frontal tubercle, presence of dark brown thorax
bearing 14-16 paired acrostichals, 8 dorsocen-
trals, prealars 3 and scutellars; triangular fore
tibial scale having a sharp spine; wing with
similar nature of brown markings and clouds
as shown by Freeman (1958). The hypopygeal
features of the present species conform with
those described by Freeman (1958) in the
African species.

Material examined : 5 $ $ , Arunachal Pra-
desh, Pasighat, 2-3, iv. 1977, Coll. B. Bhuyian;
2 SS, Burdwan, West Bengal, 4. iv. 1980,
Coll. P. K. Chaudhuri; 1 $, Garia, West Ben-
gal, 18.V.1980, Coll. P. K. Chaudhuri.

Polypedilum alticola Kieffer

Polypedilum alticola Kieffer, 1913, Voy. All
aud. Jean. afr. Or. Ins. Dipt., 1\ 22; Freeman,
1955, Explor. Parc. nat. Albert. Miss, de Witte,
83: 26; Freeman, 1955. S. afr. Animal Life,
2: 377; Freeman, 1958, Bull. Br. Mus. nat.
Hist. Ent., 272; Chironomus ornatipus
Kieffer, 1918, Ann. Mus. nat. Hung., 16: 68.

The species is distinguished by the wing
spots of which the most conspicuous are at
the basal third of cell R4+5, other markings
being faint. The characters in the present
species fully resemble the African counterparts

described by Freeman (1958) except the
chaetotaxy which have been put forward as:
acrostichals 10 in pairs, dorsocentrals 10, prea-
lars 2 and scutellars 8 in thorax.

Material examined : 4 $ S , Raniganj, West
Bengal, 17.vii.1977, Coll. P. IC. Chaudhuri.

Polypedilum stictopterus Johannsen

Microtendipes stictopterus Kieffer, 1921,
Philip. J. Sci., 18: 580.

Polypedilum stictopterus Johannsen, 1932,
Arch. Hydrobiol. Suppl. 11: 518.

Identification of this species was made by
pale spots on the wing, fore tibial scale and
the flagellomeres of antenna. Other characters
are more or less similar to those described by
Johannsen (1932). The chaetotaxy of thorax
which may be added to the original descrip-
tion are: acrostichals 12 in pairs, dorsocen-
trals 9, prealars 3 and scutellars 10.

Material examined : 3 $ $ , Darjeeling, India,
23.iii.1969, Coll. P. K. Chaudhuri.

Polypedilum obscurum sp. nov.

male: Body length 4.41 mm, wing length
1.94 mm and breadth 0.52 mm.

Head: Dark brown in colour. Vertex with
13 setae. Corona with 4 setae. Clypeus with
24 setae, clypeal ratio 0.87. Eyes bare, re-
inform with a dorsal extension of 0.12 mm
long. Frontal tubercle absent. Antenna dark
brown, length ratio of flagellomeres I - XIV
3:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2: 1 : 1 : 1:45, AR 1.96.
Pedicel ratio 1.0, CA 0.53, CP 1.23.

Thorax: Dark brown in colour. Anteprono-
tum thin collar like without emergination.
Acrostichals 18-20 in pairs, dorsocentrals 24-26
at the anterior half, prealars 4. Scutellum with
12-13 setae, postscutellum dark brown and
bare.

Wing (Fig. 1): Hyaline with yellow veins.

636

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-7. Polypedilum obscurum sp. nov. 1. Wing; 2. Fore tibial scale; 3. Male hypopygium; 4. Female
genitalia 5. Dorsomesal lobe 6. Ventrolateral lobe; 7. Apodeme lobe.

Brachiolum with 1 seta. R with 18, Rx 11 and
R4+s with 20 setae; R2+3 meets C at distance
of 0.17 away from Rx; r-m proximal
to f-cu; An ends below f-cu. Wing with
spots distributed as: cell R4+5 with 3 spots,
distal being larger, cell M3+4 with 1 spot
near the fork and cell An having 1 irregular
marking. In addition to the above, 1 linear
dark streak runs along Mi+2. Squama with 14
setae. Haltere brown. CR 0.96, VR 1.05.

Legs : Yellow to brown in colour except

dark brown femur. Fore tibial scale (Fig. 2)
with 2 setae. LR 1.38 in fore, LR 0.6 in mid
and LR 0.75 in hind legs. TR of hind leg
1.27.

Abdomen : Dark brown in colour. Segment
VIII constricted at the base.

Hypopygium (Fig. 3): Anal point 0.08 mm
long with 3 setae on each side. Gonocoxite
well developed having 10-12 setae; gonostylus
little swollen bearing 12 small setae along its
inner apical margin. Appendage 1 bare, fila-

637

10

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

mentous and bent at tip, appendage 2 out-
wardly bent with 10 apical incurved setae.

female: Body length 2.78 mm, wing

length 1.72 mm and breadth 0.57 mm.

Similar to male with usual sex differences.
Antenna yellow except dark brown flagello-
mere V, length ratio of flagellomeres I-V 23:18;
20:19:38, AR 0.48. Genitalia (Fig. 4):
Notum 0.19 mm long. Coxosternapodeme S
shaped. Gonapophysis VIII divided into long
dorsomesal lobe (Fig. 5) and a stout ven-
trolateral lobe (Fig. 6). Apodeme lobe (Fig.
7) weak. Gonocoxite IX with 2 setae. Post-
genital plate V shaped. Seminal capsules
rounded, ducts of seminal capsules joined to-
gether before opening to the vagina.

Material examined : Holotype d (Type no.
104, B.U. Ent.), Kakdwip, West Bengal,
1 1 . xi . 1978, Coll. A. K. Chatterjee. Allotype
$ , data same as holotype. Paratypes 5 d d\
3 $ $ , Burdwan, West Bengal,, 23-26, x. 1979,
Coll. M. Ghosh; 2 dd, Pasighat, Arunachal

Pradesh, 2.viii.l979, Coll. B. Bhuiyan. Types
and paratypes are in the collections of insects
in the University of Burdwan.

This species appears to be close to Poly-
pedilum nubifer (Skuse) from Formosa, Sri
Lanka, Africa, Australia and Japan in respect
of some aspects of wing, leg and male hypo-
pygium. It shows affinity to P. bruneicornis
Kieffer from African Countries in anal point
and gonostylus and with P. annulatum Free-
man (1958) from Sudan in wing spots, chaeto-
taxy of thorax and hypopygeal features. But
the characters like details of wing markings
and hypopygium of male clearly distinguish
it as a new member of the genus Polypedilum
Kieffer.

Acknowledgement

Sincere thanks are due to the Head of the
Department of Zoology, University of Burd-
wan for laboratory facilities.

References

Chaudhuri, P. K. & Ghosh, M. (1981): A new
genus of Podonomine midge (Diptera) from Bhutan.
Systematic Entomology, 6 : 373-376.

(1982): Ortho-

cladid midges of the genus Orthocladius v. d. Wulp
(Diptera: Chironomidae) of the eastern Himalayas.

Annls. Zoologici (in press).

Chaudhuri, P. K., Guha, D. K. and Das Gupta,
S. K. (1981) : Taxonomic studies of Chironominae
(Diptera: Chironomidae). Genus Polypedilum Kie-
ffer. Tijdschr. Ent. 124(4): 11-147.

ON A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS IRDEX BURR (DERMAPTERA.
LABIIDAE) FROM SRI LANKA1

G. K. Srivastava2
(With six text-figures)

Through the kindness of Dr. Karl V. Krom-
bein. Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., I receiv-

1 Accepted January 1982.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

ed for study four specimens of Dermaptera
which were collected during the course of a
field project, “Biosystematic studies of insects
of Ceylon”. Of these one male representing a
new species is described below.

638

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Irdex ceylonensis sp. nov.

male: General colour yellowish brown, an-
tennae lighter, sides of pronotum, mouth parts
and legs yellow, elytra in middle somewhat
lighter in colour, wings at base with a trans-
verse, yellow stripe and forceps with tip
black. Body covered with long and short pubes-
cence.

Head slightly longer than broad, frons mode-
rately convex, sutures obsolete, hind margin
emarginate in middle. Eyes about as long as
post-ocular length. Antennae (partly broken;
three segments on the left and nine on the
right remaining) with 1st segment stout, nar-
rowed basally, slightly shorter than the distance
between antennal bases; 2nd small; 3rd long
and cylindrical; 4th gently expanded apically
and slightly shorter than the preceding; 5th as
long as the 3rd but stouter, remaining thinner
and gradually increasing in length. Pronotum
trapezoidal, about as long as broad, anteriorly
and laterally straight, latter feebly reflexed,
strongly diverging posteriorly, hind angles and
margin well rounded, median sulcus finely
marked; prozona raised and well differentiated
from flat metazona. Legs normal, hind tarsi
with 1st segment slightly longer than the third.
Elytra and wings well developed. Abdomen
weakly convex, slightly enlarged posteriorly.
Penultimate sternite transverse, broadly round-
ed posteriorly with slight emargination in
middle. Ultimate tergite transverse, depressed,
sides straight, hind margin faintly trisinuate,
feebly oblique laterally. Pygidium strongly de-
clivous and convex at base, afterwards
forming a horizontal plate, oval in shape,
laterally in the middle provided with a sharp,
posteriorly directed minute tooth, hind
margin deeply marginate with angles pro-
duced into minute point. Forceps remote
at base, depressed, tapering apically, gently

curving in middle, apices gently hooked and
pointed, internal margin ventrally sharp with
minute teeth in middle, armed with one or two
larger and triangular teeth in apical one third.
Genitalia as in figs. 4 and 5.

female: Unknown.

Measurements (in mm) : Holotype $ : Length of
head 1.4; Width of head 1.2; Length of eye 0.39;
Post-ocular length 0.39; Length of 1st antennal seg-
ment 0.52; Distance between antennal bases 0.57;
Length of pronotum 1.3; Width of pronotum 1.25;
Length of elytra 1 . 9; Length of wing 1.1; Length
of ultimate tergite 0.9; Width of ultimate tergite
1.7; Length of pygidium 8.5; Width of pygidium
0.6; Length of body 7.6; Length of forceps 3.0.

Material examined, sri lanka: Rat. Disk,
Gilimale, Induruwa jungle, collected near Kalu-
ganga, Holotype d (genitalia mounted bet-
ween two coverslips and pinned with the speci-
men), 5-7 February, 1977, Coll. K. V. Krom-
bein and party; Type No. 100312, deposited
in Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

This species comes very close to Irdex Stella
samsingensis Srivastava (1975) from India
(Darjeeling Dist.) but differs in the shape of
the pronotum being distinctly widened poste-
riorly (vs. sides parallel or a trifle widened
posteriorly in /. 5. samsingensis) ; pygidium
with lateral margin beyond lateral tubercle
gently convex (vs. lateral margin straight);
forceps stouter, armed internally below in api-
cal one third with one or two sharp teeth (vs.
slender; armed internally along the ventral
margin with sharp serrations in apical one
third and dorsally with two minute teeth in
basal two third and a larger teeth at apical
one third) and d genitalia with parameres
enlarged in middle with external margin con-
vex and virga longer (vs. parameres almost of
uniform width, straight and virga compara-
tively shorter, fig. 6).

639

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Fig. 1-6: Irdex ceylonensis sp. nov., Holotype $; 1. Anterior portion of body, legs
and antenna of one side not shown; 2. Posterior margin of penultimate stemite, 3. Ulti-
mate tergite and forceps; 4 Genitalia; 5. Paramere of one side only enlarged. Irdex Stella
samsingensis Srivastava, Holotype $ ; 6. Paramere of one side only, enlarged.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Acknowledgements lities and to Dr. Karl V. Krombein, Natural

History Museum, Smithsonian Institution,
I am thankful to the Director, Zoological Washington, D.C., U.S.A. for placing this
Survey of India, Calcutta for necessary faci- material at my disposal.

References

Srivastava, G. K. (1975): Notes on Indian species Tiwari and C. B. Srivastava (Eds.), Zoological So-
of the genus Irdex Burr (Dermaptera: Labiidae). ciety of India, Calcutta.

Dr. B. S. Chauhan Comm. Vol. : 267-278. K. K.

A NEW SPECIES OF ANEMONE L. (RANUNCULACEAE) FROM
TEHRI DISTRICT (GARHWAL) IN INDIA1

A. K. Goel and U.

( With seven

During the course of studies on “Herbaceous;
Flora of Tehri District (Garhwal)” a taxon
belonging to the genus Anemone L. was col-
lected from Gangi (3000 m) in August 1978.
A critical study of literature and herbaria
shows that it is taxonomically distinct from
any other known species of Anemone L. and
is being described as new.

Anemone rani sp. nov.

A. elongatae D. Don affinis, sed different
foliis majoribus, 9-18 (-20) cm daim, flori-
bus in cymis dischasialibus, perianthio anguste
obovate, parviore, 9-15 x 4-6 mm, staminibus
20-35, pistillis 3-6, acheniis 1-4, elliptico-ovatis,
rostro parum curvato, seminibusque glabris.

Elolotypus lectus ad locum Gangi, 3000 m,
Garhwal die 12-8-1978, A. K. Goel 64419-A,
et positus in herbario BSD.

Herbae erectae, 50-75 cm altae, 0.4-0. 6 cm
crassae, caudex perennis. Caulis 30-50 cm lon-
gus, basi validus, petiolorum fibrosis reliquiis

1 Accepted March 1982.

2 Northern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, 3,
Lakshmi Road, Dehra Dun, (U.P.).

C. BH ATTACH ARYYA2
text-figures)

tectus, glaber, villosus ad articulos involucrales.
Folia radicalia longipetiolata, petioli 12-32 cm
longi, anguste vaginantes ad basin; lamina 9-18
(-20) cm diam, palmatim 3-loba, pentitus
cordata, subglabra, pilosa praesertim in nervis,
segmenta sessilia, inaequaliter late obovata,
prof unde vel non prof unde 3 -partita, cuneata,
5-10 x 4.5-9 cm; segmenta secundaria denuo
3-loba, irregulariter grosse serrata. Inflorescen-
tia varie divisa cyma dichasialis, haud umbella.
Involucrum ordinis primi-2, sessile, utrinque
3-5 x 4-6 cm, late obovatum, cuneatum, sub-
glabrum, utrinque pilosum in nervis, segmenta
trifida, cuneata, unumquidque segmentum 3-
lobum, irregulariter serratum; involucrum ordi-
nis secundi et ultra parvius, late obovatum,
cuneatum, segmenta 3-loba, apice acuta, 1.5-
3.0 cm longa; pedunculi 5-15 cm longi, pedi-
celli 2.5-8 cm longiis medianus semper par-
vior, sursum parum pubemlus ad pubescens.
Perianthium 5, anguste obovatum, 9-15 x 4-6
mm, album, glabrum. Stamina 20-35, filamenta
1 . 5-3 mm longa, complanata ad filiformia, in-
aequalia, antherae 0.8- 1.2 mm longae, anthera
exterior lineari elliptica, ea interior late obo-
vata. Pistilla 3-6, sessilia, 3. 0-3. 5 mm longa.

641

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 79

Figs. 1-7. Anemone raui sp. nov. : 1. Habit; 2. Flower; 3. Petal; 4. Stamens; 5. Gynoe-
cia; 6. Achenes; 7. Seeds. ( Gael 64419A, BSD).

642

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

glabra, ovarium compressum, lineari-ovatum,
stylo leniter curvato, in stigmatis apice obtusum
angustato. Achenia, maturitates attingentes,
pauca (1-4), plana, elliptico-ovata, 5-7 x 3-4
mm, symmetrica. Stylus persistens, parum cur-
vus, ad achenium contiguous, anguste margina-
tus. Semina plana, 5-6 x 2.5 mm, late lanceo-
Iata, atro-brunnea, glabra.

Anemone raui sp. nov.

Allied to Anemone elongata D. Don, but
differs in its large 9-18 (-20) cm across
leaves; inflorescence a dichasial cyme; perianth
narrowly obovate, smaller, 9-15 x 4-6 mm;
stamens 20-35; pistils 3-6; achenes 1-4, elliptic-
ovate beak slightly curved. Seeds glabrous.

Holotype : garhwal; Gangi 3000 m, 12-8-
1978; A. K. Goel 644 19- A, deposited at the
Herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India,
Northern Circle, Dehra Dun (BSD).

Erect herbs 50-75 cm high, 0.4-0. 6 cm thick;
root stock perennial. Stem 30-50 cm long, base
stout covered with fibrous remains of petioles,
glabrous, villous at involucral joints. Radical
leaves long petiolate; petioles 12-32 cm long,
narrowly sheathing at base; lamina 9-18 (-20)
cm across, palmately 3-lobed, deeply cordate,
subglabrous, hairy chiefly on nerves; segments
sessile, unequally broadly obovate, deeply or
shallowly 3-partite, cuneate, 5-10 x 4.5-9 cm;
secondary segments again 3-lobed, irregularly
coarsely serrate. Inflorescence a variously
divided lax dichasial cyme, never in umbels.
Involucres of first order-2, sessile, each 3-5 x
4-6 cm; broadly obovate, cuneate, subglabrous,
hairy on nerves on both surfaces; segments
trifid, cuneate, each segment 3-lobed, irregu-
larly serrate; involucres of the second order
and above, smaller, broadly obovate, cuneate,
segments 3-lobed with acute apex. 1. 5-3.0 cm

long; peduncles 5-15 cm long. Pedicels 2.5-8
cm long; median always smaller, slightly pube-
rulus to pubescent above. Perianth-5, narrowly
obovate, 9-15 x 4-6 mm, white, glabrous.
Stamens 20-35; filaments 1. 5-3.0 mm long,
complanate to filiform, unequal, anthers 0.8-
1 . 2 mm long; outer linear-elliptic, inner broad-
ly ovate. Pistils 3-6, sessile, 3. 0-3. 5 mm long,
glabrous, ovary compressed, linear-ovate with
gently curved style, tapering into obtuse stig-
rnatic apex. Achenes few (1-4) attaining matu-
rity, flat, elliptic-ovate, 5-7 x 3-4 mm, sym-
metrical; style persistent, slightly curved, con-
tiguous to achene, narrowly margined. Seeds
flat, 5-6 x 2.5 mm long, broadly lanceolate,
dark brown glabrous.

Type: garhwal; Gangi 3000 m, 12-8-1978;
A. K. Gael 644 19- A (Holotype-BSD) ;

kumaon: Below Odiyar 2900 m, 8-8-1972.
C. M. Arora 49738 (Paratype-BSD); Below
Odiyar 3300 m, 6-8-1972, C. M. Arora 49636
(Paratype-BSD) .

Flowers & Fruits: July-September.

Distribution: India; Garhwal and Kumaon
Himalaya in Uttar Pradesh.

Ecology: Common on open grassy slopes,
between rocks and near streams in temperate
regions.

Etymology: The species has been named in
honour of Dr. M. A. Rau, a well known bota-
nist, plant explorer and retired Deputy Direc-
tor, Botanical Survey of India, Northern
Circle, Dehra Dun.

ACK N OWLEDGEM ENTS

We are thankful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah for encouragement
and to Dr. N. C. Majumdar, Systematic Bota-
nist, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, for
providing the latin diagnosis.

643

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

NEW TAX A OF OPHIORRHIZA L. (RUBIACEAE)1

D. B. Deb and D. C. Mondal2
( With two text-figures)

Ophiorrhiza nepalensis sp. nov.

Differt ab O. heterostyla Dunn foliis latio-
ribus, apice breviter acuminatis, pedunculis
confertim pilosis, floribus parvioribus, corollae
lobis tubos similibus, pollinis granis suboblatis.

Typus. East Nepalia, J. D. A. Stainton 6881
(Holotypus BM).

This is allied to O. heterostyla Dunn, differ-
ing in broader leaves, shortly acuminate leaf
apex, densely hairy peduncle, smaller flowers,
corolla lobes as long as the tube and sub-
oblate pollen grains.

Herbs with woody base, branching, about
50 cm tall; stem terete, quadrangular and
pubescent when young. Leaves petiolate, 7-14 x
2-4.5 cm, elliptic or lanceolate, acuminate,
entire, attenuate at the base, glabrous above,
pubescent on the nerves beneath; nerves sub-
opposite, 7-11 on either side; petioles 0.5-1
cm long, pubescent; stipules 4-8 mm long,
subulate, entire or bifid above, puberulous.
Inflorescence terminal and at the upper axils,
dichotomously branched corymbose cymes,
sometimes the ultimate branches helicoid;
peduncles 1-2 cm long, pilose. Flowers pedi-
cellate, bracteate, bracteolate, 6-8 mm long,
pale green; pedicels 0.6-0. 8 mm long, pube-
rulous; bracts and bracteoles minute. Hypan-
thium 0.6-0.75 x 0.8-1 mm, ribbed, pube-
rulous; calyx lobes 5, ovate, 0.5-0.75 x
0.4-0. 6 mm. acute, puberulous. Corolla

1 Accepted April 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Indian Botanic Gar-
den, Howrah-711 103.

5.25-7 mm long, tube cylindric, glabrous
outside; lobes 5, linear, as long as the tube,
acute at the apex, inwardly curved, strongly
keeled at the back, sparsely hairy inside with
a villous ring at the throat. Stamens 5, epipe-
talous, adnate to 1 /3rd the length of the corolla
tube, exserted; filaments 3.5-4 mm long,
glabrous; anthers 1.25-1.5 mm long, linear,
bilobed, dorsifixed, introrse, dehiscing longitu-
dinally; pollen grains suboblate, semiangular in
polar outline, polar axis (P) x equatorial axis
(E) = 29-(31)-32 x 35-(36)-38 /xm, tricolpo-
rate, colpi 28-30 x 5-5.5 /xm, tapering to
acute ends; ora circular, 5.25-6.25 /xm in
diameter; exine 1.75-1.8 /xm, sexine 1.5-

l . 6 /xm, nexine 0.25 /xm ruguloreticulate;
lumina 0.6-0. 8 /xm, muri 0.75 /xm. Ovary
0.5-0. 6 x 0.75-0.8 mm, obovoid, 2-
loculed, with many ovules in each locule on
exile placenta; disc 0.4-0. 5 mm thick, fleshy,
2-lobed; style 1.5-1.75 mm long, glabrous;
stigma 2-lobed, 0.75-1 mm long, lobes lan-
ceolate, acuminate, puberulous. Capsule 2-3 x
5-8 mm, obcordate, compressed, with a thick-
ened band in the middle, puberulous, inter-
nally 2-locular, angle of divergence of the locule
with the midseptum 55°-60°, locules ovate-
oblong, tip slightly curved outwards, dehiscing
loculicidally. Seeds numerous in each locule,
irregularly angular, 0.3-0. 4 x 0.25-0.3
mm, surface glabrous, brown; testa areolate,
areoles alveolate, wall of the areole thick with
a number of globules on it or hooded over
the areolar space.

Type ; East Nepal, Soktim Tea Estate, 450

m, 22nd May, 1971, /. D. A. Stainton 6881
(Holotype BM).

644-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. O. nepalensis sp. nov. : A. habit; B. flower outer view showing calyx, corolla
and androecium; C. flower split open; D. fruit; E. seed.

645

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Fig. 2. O. pauciflora Hook f. var. glabra var. nov. : A. habit; B. flower showing calyx
and bracteole; C. flower split open showing long style and short stamens; D. flower
split open showing short style and long stamens.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Growing in shady places at about 450 m in
East Nepal.

O. pauciflora Hook f. var. glabra var. nov.

A varietate typica, differt in cymis floralibus
partibusque glabris, floribus longioribus.

Typus. Arunachal, F. Kingdon Ward 8148
(Holotypus K).

Differing from the typical variety in glabrous
cyme as well as floral parts and longer flowers.

Herbs 12-25 cm long; creeping at the base,
branching, slender, pubescent. Leaves petio-
late, 0. 8-2.0 x 0.5- 1.8 cm, ovate or
oblong, obtuse at the apex, obtuse or slightly
attenuated at the base, glabrous or with scat-
tered short hairs above; lateral nerves 4-6 on
either side, subopposite, pubescent beneath;
petioles 0.3-2 cm long, pubescent; stipules
2-3 mm long, linear, entire, sometimes bifid,
glabrous. Inflorescence terminal cyme, 0.5-
1 cm across, glabrous. Flowers pedicellate,
bracteate, bracteolate, 10-12 mm long, tubular,
white; pedicels 0.5-1 mm long, glabrous;
bracts 5-6 mm long, linear, with prominent
midrib, acute, glabrous; bracteoles 3-5 mm
long, linear, with prominent, midrib, acute,
glabrous. Hypanthium 0.9- 1.4 x 1-1.5
mm, obovoid, glabrous; calyx lobes 0.8-1
x 0.6-0.75 mm, ovate, obtuse, glabrous.
Corolla 9-11 mm long, tube cylindric, wide at

the mouth, glabrous outside, villous at the
middle or slightly above within; lobes 5, ovate,
2-3.25 x 1.25-2 mm, acute, glabrous.
Stamens 5, epipetalous, adnate either above
the base or above the middle of corolla, in-
serted; filaments 0.5-0.75 mm or 1-1.3 mm
long, glabrous; anthers 1.25-1.3 mm long,
glabrouse; anthers 1.25-1.3 mm long, linear,
bilobed, dorsifixed, introrse, dehiscing longitu-
dinally. Ovary 0.8- 1.2 x 0.75-1.25 mm, obo-
void, 2-locuIar, with many ovules in each locule
on axile placenta; disc 0.5-0. 7 mm high,
fleshy, 2-lobed; style either as long as or
1 /3rd of corolla tube, glabrous; stigma 2-lobed,
0.5-0. 6 mm long and lobes ovate or 0.8- 1.3
mm long and lobes ovate-lanceolate.

Type: Arunachal, Lohit district, Debi valley
(28°20'N & 96°37'E), 1500-1800 m, 3.5.1928,
F. Kingdon-Ward 8148 (Holotype K).

Note : One flower shows 6 stamens and
minute style and stigma; style as long as the
height of disc and stigma 0.5 mm long.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Directors and Keep-
ers, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and British
Museum (Natural History), London for loan
of specimens for the study, and to the Direc-
tor, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, for
facilities and granting a scholarship to one of
the authors (DCM).

INDIGOFERA TIRUNELVELICA — A NEW SPECIES FROM
TAMIL NADU, S. INDIA1

M. Sanjappa2
(With nine text-figures )

Indigofera tirunelvelica sp. nov. bus parvis, pedunculis fructiferis brevioribus.

Holotypus lectus ad locum Tirunelveli, Tamil

/. glandulosa Roxb. ex Willd. affinis sed
differt leguminibus complanatis non altis acute i Accepted April 1982

rostratis, valvis prominenter nervatis, semini- 2 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah 711 103.

647

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Figs. 1-9. Indigofera tirunelvelica sp. nov. : 1. A twig of the plant; 2. Calyx; 3. Stan-
dard; 4. Wing; 5. Keels; 6. Stamens; 7. Carpel (with glands at the base of style);
8. Pod; 9. Seed.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Nadu, secus viam, inter Kalkad et Sengalteri,
330 m, die 18 December 1980, a M. Sanjappa
111 A, et positus in herbario CAL, Isotopi M.
Sanjappa 111B-F positi in eodem herbario.

Indigofera tirunelvelica sp. nov.

Allied to /. glandulosa Roxb. ex Willd. but
differs from it in having pods flattened, wing-
less, sharply beaked, prominently veined on
valves, seeds small, fruiting peduncles shorter.

Annual, erect herbs, about 60 cm high;
branches woody, angular, light brown pubes-
cent when young, terete, striate and glabrous
at maturity. Leaves 3.5-4 cm long, pinnately
trifoliolate, alternate; petioles 1-1.3 cm long,
slender, canaliculate above, pubescent, glan-
dular; leaflets (10-) 15-20 (-25) x (5-) 10-15
mm: terminal leaflet larger, obovate or elliptic-
obovate, base obtuse or cuneate, apex obtuse
to rounded, mucronulate, uniformly adpressed
pubescent on both surfaces; brown punctate-
glandular beneath; stipules 0.8- 1.2 mm long,
subulate, pubescent without, stipels absent;
petiolules 1 mm long pubescent. Racemes 5-10
mm long, axillary, sessile, rachis pubescent,
glandular, elongating in fruits, upto 20-flower-
ed. Flowers pink, 5 mm long; pedicels short,
pubescent, glandular; bracts 1-1.5 mm long,
lanceolate, acute, pubescent without, caducous;
calyx 2 mm long, 5-lobed, lobes 1-1.5 mm
long, adpressed pubescent and glandular with-
out, tube less than 1 mm long; standard 3-5 x
1-1.2 mm, obovate or elliptic, mucronulate,
pubescent and glandular without, wings 3-4.5
mm long, obliquely oblong, shortly clawed at
base, obtuse at apex, glabrous; keels 3-5 mm
long, spathulate, pubescent and glandular with-
out, spurred, spur 1-1.5 mm long, hyaline;
stamens diadelphous (9+1), standard stamen

free to the base, filaments alternately long
and short, anthers apiculate; ovary 1-1.5 mm
long, glabrous, 1-2-ovuled; style 1.5 mm long,
glandular at base, stigma capitate. Pods 3-6 x
2-2.5 mm, oblong, flattened, slightly torulose,
sharply beaked, upper suture broader, valves
prominently veined, adpressed pubescent, glan-
dular; seeds 1 mm across, reddish-brown
variously shaped, generally ellipsoid, often trun-
cate at one end.

Flowering : November-December.

Fruiting : December-March.

Distribution : Tirunelveli Hills, Tamil Nadu.

Specimens examined : India: Tamil nadu,
Tirunelveli Dist. along the roadside, between
Kalakkad and Sengalteri, Alt. 300 m, 18 Dec.
1980, M. Sanjappa 111 A (CAL, holotype);
M. Sanjappa 111B-F (CAL, Isotypes); Sen-
galteri to Kalakkad, Alt. 1000 m, 16 Feb. 1913
Hooper and Ramaswami 39230 (CAL); Near
Tiger Falls — way to Mancholai, Alt. 333 m,
4 Mar. 1958 K . M. Sebastine 5520 (CAL,
MH); “Peninsulae Indiae Orientales” (without
locality) R. Wight s.n. (Royal Garden, Kew
distribution no. 651 -CAL).

Etymology: This species is named after
the type locality Tirunelveli (“Tinnevelly”)
district, Tamil Nadu, India.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Director, Botanical Survey
of India, Howrah for providing facilities and
to Dr. K. Thothathri, Deputy Director, Central
National Herbarium, Howrah for encourage-
ment. My thanks are also due to Dr. N. C.
Majumdar, Systematic Botanist, Botanical Sur-
vey of India, Howrah for rendering diagnosis
into Latin.

649

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo/. 79

A NEW SPECIE S OF ELAPHOGLOSSUM FROM INDIA1

Anjali Biswas and S. R. Ghosh2
(With five text-figures )

During the revisionary studies on the genus
Elaphoglossum from India, we came across a
few specimens, collected by Dr. King’s collec-
tor and G. Mann from Jowai, Assam and
noted as Elaphoglossum conforme. These after
careful study turn out to be a new species of
Elaphoglossum.

This new species differs from Elaphoglossum
conforme Sw. in the following characters: (1)
Rhizome short creeping with dark brown linear
lanceolate scales, (2) Lamina base not de-
current on the stipe, (3) Stipe not filiform.

The new species comes nearer to Elaphoglo-
ssum stelligerum (Wall, ex Bak.) T. Moore
ex Alston et Bonner but differs from it in
the following characters. Presence of short
armed stellate scale on the stipe which are
adherent to the surface; base of the stipe
black; Lamina oblong-lanceolate; apex of the
lamina acuminate, base shortly cuneate, not
decurrent on the stipe. Lower surface and mid-
rib with minute dark brown long armed stellate
scale which are closely adherent to the surface;
upper surface with pale stellate scales with
long arms and adherent to the surface.

Elaphoglossum jowaiense sp. nov.

E. stelligerum (Wall, ex Bak.) T. Moore
ex Alston et Bonner proxime affine, a quo
differt squamis stellatis brevi-armatis in stipite,
superficiei adhaerentibus, stipitis basi nigro,
lamina oblongo-lanceolata, acuminata, basi

1 Accepted January 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India,. P. O. Botanic Gar-
den, Howrah-711 103.

cuneata sed non decurrenti in stipite, infra
contaque squamis stellatis minutis atro-
brunneis longi-armatis superficiei adhaerentibus,
supra squamis stellatis pallidis longi-armatis,
superficiei adhaerentibus.

Rhizome breve, reptans, squamis profunde
brunneis, linear-lanceolatis tecta, ad marginem
Integra. Frondes in seriebus duabus in rhizo-
mate, stipes frondis sterilis 9-20 cm longus
squamatus, squamis brunneis brevi-armatis stel-
latis, superficiei adhaerentibus, basi nigellis,
stipes frondis fertilis longus, squamatus, squa-
mis brevi-armatis stellatis, lamina brunnea,
oblongo-lanceolate, 25-45 cm longa, 2.5-3 cm
lata ad medium, apice acuminata, basi breviter
cuneata, sed non decurrens in stipite tenuis
sed firma, ad marginem tenuis sine margine
cartilaginea. Venae distintae infra. Costa valida,
minus squamato, squamis minutis stellatis,
breviarmatis, brunnies, superficiei adhaerenti-
bus, supra squamata, squamis stellatis longi-
armatis pallidioribus et superficiei adhaerenti-
bus. Lamina fertilis in longiore.

Holotypus lectus collector Kingii ad locum
Jowai, Assam, mense Augusti anni 1892 et
positus in CAL sub numero accessione 25226.

Paratypus lectus G. Mann ad locum Jowai-
punji, Assam, et positus in CAL sub numero
accessione 25248.

Elaphoglossum jowaiense sp. nov.

Rhizome short creeping, covered with linear-
lanceolate, deep brown scale with entire mar-
gin. Frond in two rows on the rhizome, stipe
of sterile frond 9-20 cm long, brown blackish
at base scaly with brown short armed stellate

650

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. Photograph of Elaphoglossum jowaiense sp. nov. Fig. 2. Rhizome scale. Fig. 3.
Stellate scale from upper surface of lamina. Fig. 4. Stellate scale from lower surface
of lamina. Fig. 5. Stellate scale from stipe.

scale which are adherent to surface, stipe of
the fertile frond long, scaly with short armed
stellate scales. Lamina brown coloured, oblong-
lanceolate, 26-45 cm long, 2.5 to 3 cm broad
at middle, apex acuminate, base shortly cuneate
but not decurrent on the stipe, texture thin
firm margin without cartilaginous border.
Veins distinct on lower surface. Midrib stout,
less scaly, scale minute, stellate with short arm.

brown closely adherent to the surface; upper
surface scaly, scale stellate with long arm, paler,
and adherent to the surface. Fertile lamina on
longer stipe, 20-25 cm long 1.5 cm broad,
linear.

Holotype: Jowai, 1500 m, Assam, Aug. 1892.
Dr. King’s collector s.n. (CAL-25226).

Paratype : Jowai Pungi, 1500 m, Assam, G.
Mann s.n. (CAL 25248).

651

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Acknowledgement C. Mazumdar, Systematic Botanist, Central

National Herbarium, Sibpur, Howrah for the
We express our gratitude to Dr. N. latin description of the species.

MICRO ST EGIUM BORIANUM SP. NOV. — (POACEAE) — A NEW

SPECIES FROM INDIA1

P. R. Sur2
(With a text -figure)

Microstegium Nees was known to be re-
presented in India by 6 species. One more new
species has been found and named here Micro-
stegium borianum sp. nov. from Meghalaya
state, Khasia & Jaintia Hills, Lowlyngdoh.
This new taxon is near to M. petiolare (Trin.)
Bor but differs in less number of racemes (3-4),
rudimentary pedicelled spikelet, lower floret
empty, bifid palea of upper floret.

Microstegium borianum sp. nov.

Culms 128 cm long, tall stout, simple, gla-
brous, pubescent at the nodes and below the
panicles. Leaves 25 cm long and 1.5-2 mm
wide, lanceolate, acuminate, tubercle based
hairs in both surfaces, ligules linear oblong,
2-4.5 mm long; leaf sheath pubescent. Inflo-
rescence of 3-4 racemes, forming panicle, 5-10
cm long, axis glabrous. Sessile spikelet promi-
nent, 5.5-6 mm long, lanceolate, oblong, pedi-
cel ciliate; lower involucral glume 5.5 mm
long, lanceolate, dorsally channelled, charta-
ceous, tip 2-toothed, 9 nerved, keels ciliate.
Upper involucral glume 5.5 mm long, lanceo-
late acute, chartaceous, keel scabrid, 5 nerved,
a small awn at the tip. Lower floret empty,
lemma 4.5 mm long, lanceolate, toothed, mid-

1 Accepted April 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Industrial Section,
Indian Museum. Calcutta - 700 016.

die of the margins ciliate, 3 -nerved, hyaline;
palea 3.5-4 mm long, oblong, hyaline, apex
obtuse. Upper floret hermaphrodite; lemma
3.5-4 mm long, ovate oblong, membranous,
hyalines, divided into two lobes from the mid-
dle, lobes, acute, glabrous, 3-nerved, awned
from the sinus, awn 9-10 mm long; palea 3.5
mm long, linear lanceolate, hyaline, bifid, glab-
rous; stamens 3, anthers 3 mm long, filament
small; ovary small, style long, filiform, stigma
2, plumose. Pedicelled spikelet rudimentary.

Holotype ; India, Meghalaya, Khasia &
Jaintia Hills, Lowlyngdoh, 26.9.1937, G. K.
Deka 15683 (CAL).

Microstegium borianum sp. nov.

Differt a M. petiolari (Trin.) Bor race-
morum numeris redactis (3-4), spicula majore,
spicula pedicellata rudimentali, flosculo infe-
riore casso, flosculi superioris paleae apice
bifido.

Culmi 128 cm longi, alti, validi, simpli, glabri,
ad nodes infra paniculasque pilosi. Folia 25
cm longa, 1.5-2 mm lata, lanceolata, acumi-
nata, utrinsecus pilosa, pilis basi tuberculatis,
folii vagina pubescens. Racemi 3-4, paniculam
formantes, 5-10 cm longi, axis glaber. Pedi-
cellus ciliatus, spicula sessilis prominens, 5.5-6
mm longa, lanceolata, oblonga, gluma involu-
cralis inferior 5.5 mm longa, lanceolata, dor-
saliter canaliculata, chartacea, 9-nervis, apice

652

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A

Fig. 1. Microstegium borianum sp. nov. : A. Habit; B. Spikelet; C. Lower glume;
D. Upper glume; E. Lower lemma; F. Palea; G. Upper floret; H. Stamens & Pistil;
I. Palea.

11

653

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

bidentata, carinae ciliatae, gluma involucralis
superior 5 . 5 mm longa, lanceolata, acuta, char-
tacea, 5-nervis, carinae scabridae, apice arista
brevi. Flosculus inferior cassus; lamma 4.5mm
longa, lanceolata, dentata, 3-nervis, hyalina,
margo ad medium ciliata; palea 3.5-4 mm
longa, oblonga, hyalina, apice obtusa, flosculus
superior bisexualis, lemma 3.5-4 mm longa,
ovato- oblonga, membranacea, hyalina, a medio
bilobata, lobi acuti, glabri, 3 -nerves, a sino
aristata, arista 9-10 mm longa, palea 3.5 mm
longa, lineari-lanceolata, hyalina bifida, glabra;
stamina 3, antherae 3 mm longae, filmenta
parva, ovarium parvum, stylus longus filifor-

mis, stigmata 2, plumosa. Spicula pedicellata
rudimentalis.

Holotypus lectus a G. K. Deka ad locum
Lawlyngdoh, K. & J. Hills, Meghalaya, India,
die 26.9.1937 et positus in CAL.

Ack n owledge m e n ts

I would like to express my gratitude to the
Director of the Botanical Survey of India for
the facilities provided and to Dr. N. C. Mazum-
der of the Central National Herbarium, How-
rah, for valuable suggestions and Latin
diagnosis.

SILENTV ALLEY A — A NEW GENUS OF POACEAE FROM
KERALA, INDIA1

V. J. Nair, P. V. Sreekumar, E. Vajravelu
AND P. BHARGAVAN2
(With eleven text -figures)

Silentvalleya gen. nov.

Pertinet ad Eragrosteae e familia Poacearum
et affinis Diplachne P. Beauv., sed differt spicu-
lis lateraliter compressis; callus dense barbatis,
glumis superis 3- nervatis, lemmatibus longe
aristatis, nervis lateralibus glabris et incon-
spicuis

Plantae caespitosae et perennes. Laminae
lineares. Ligulae membranaceae. Inflorescen-
tiae effusae, aliquot racemis in axis une centra-
lis. Racemi graciles, recti vel felxuosi. Spicu-
lae ad nodi solitariae, biseriatae, lateraliter
compressae, floribus 6-10, inter flosculos sece-
dentes. Calli dense barbati. Glumae inaequales;
glumae infemae inconspicuo 1- nervatae; glu-
mae superae 3-nervatae. Lemmata glumis

1 Accepted March 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore- 3.

exserta, 3-nervata, nervi laterales glabri et in-
conspicui; apices integri, longe aristati. Paleae
2-nervatae, 2-carinatae. Lodiculae 2. Stamina
3. Stylo 2, stigmata plumosa. Caryopsides
oblongo-lanceolatae, teretes.

Specia typica sequens:

Silentvalleya nairii sp. nov.

Gramina caespitosa et perennea. Culmi 40-
100 cm alti, erecti; nodi glabri. Folia 40-60 x
0.4-0. 6 cm, linearia, apicibus filiformibus, ver-
sus ores villosa aliter scabrida vel glabra. Vagi-
nae spisse adligantes, rigidae, coriaceae, asperae
et scabridae. Ligulae angustae, truncatae, mem-
branaceae. Inflorescentiae paniculatae, 15-30
cm longae, 6-10 racemis, 8-20 cm longi, dis-
persis secus axes unos centrales. Spiculae
oblongo-lanceolatae, c. 8x2 mm, 6-10
floribus, flosculo terminali redacto. Glumae in-

654

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-11. Silentvalleya nairii gen. et sp. nov. : 1. Plant. 2. Spikelet. 3. Florets split
apart to expose callus (semi diagramatic) . 4. Lower glume. 5. Upper glume. 6. Lemma.
7a & b. Palea, dorsal and ventral views. 8. Lodicule. 9. Stamen. 10. Pistil. 11. Grain.

655

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 79

fernae c. 2x1 mm, ovatae, acutae, inconspicuo

1- nervatae, glabrae. Glumae superae c. 4 x 1.25
mm, lanceolatae, acuminatae, 3-nervatae, nervi
laterales ineonspicui et tantum manifesti ab
dimidio inferno. Lemmata 4 x 1.75 mm, ovato-
lanceolata, 3-nervata, nervis lateralibus in-
conspicuis; apex decinens in imam aristam;
arista c. 5 mm longa, scabrida. Paleae c. 3x1
mm, eflipticae, glabrae, tenellae, 2-carinatae,
carinis minute alatis et breviter ciliatis. Lodi-
culae 2, c. 0.3 x 0.15 mm, obovatae, apicibus

2- cornutis. Stamina 3, anthera c. 1.25 mm
longa, fila brevia. Ovarium c. 0.4 x 0.25 mm,
oblanceolatum, breviter stipitatum. Styli c. 0.3
mm longi. Stigmata c. 0.5 mm longa, plumosa.
Caryopsides c. 2 x 0.4 mm, oblongo-lanceo-
latae, stipitatae.

Silentvalleya gen. nov.

Belongs to Eragrosteae of family Poaceae
and is related to the genus Diplachne P. Beauv.
from which it differs in the spikelet being late-
rally compressed; callus densely bearded, upper
glume 3 -nerved, lemma long awned and with
the lateral nerves glabrous and faint.

Tufted perennial plants. Leaf blades linear.
Ligules membranous. Inflorescence an open
panicle with several racemes on a central axis.
Racemes slender, straight or flexuous. Spike-
lets solitary at each node, biseriate, laterally
compressed, 6-10 flowered, disarticulating bet-
ween florets. Callus densely bearded. Glumes
unequal; lower glume faintly 1 -nerved, upper
glume 3 -nerved. Lemmas exserted from the
glumes; tip entire, long awned; 3 -nerved, late-
ral nerves glabrous and faint. Palea 2-nerved,
2-keeled. Lodicules 2. Stamens 3. Styles 2,
stigmas plumose. Caryopsis oblong-lanceo-
late, terete.

Type species follows:

Silentvalleya nairii sp. nov.

Tufted perennial grasses. Culms 40-100 cm
high, erect; nodes glabrous. Leaves 40-60 cm
long, 0 . 4-0 . 6 cm wide, linear with filiform tips,
tough, glaucous, villous towards mouth and
scabrid or glabrous elsewhere. Sheaths closely
fitting, rigid, coriaceous, rough and scabrid.
Ligule a narrow truncate membrane. Inflores-
cence a panicle, 15-30 cm long, with 6-10 race-
mes scattered along a central axis, each 8-20
cm long. Spikelets c. 8x2 mm, oblong-
lanceolate, 6-10 flowered with a terminal re-
duced floret, at times purplish. Lower glumes
c. 2x1 mm, ovate, acute, faintly 1 -nerved and
glabrous. Upper glumes c. 4 x 1.25 mm, lan-
ceolate, acuminate, 3 -nerved, lateral nerves
faint and visible only in the lower half.
Lemmas c. 4 x 1.75 mm, ovate-lanceolate,

3 -nerved, lateral nerves faint, tip ending in
an awn 3-5 mm long which is scabrid. Paleas
c. 3 x 1 mm, elliptic, 2-keeled, keels minutely
winged and shortly ciliate, delicate, glabrous.
Lodicules 2, each c. 0.3 x 0.15 mm, obovate,
2-horned at apex. Stamens 3; anthers c. 1.25
mm long, filaments short. Ovary c. 0.4 x 0.25
mm, oblanceolate and shortly stalked. Styles
c. 0.3 mm long, stigmas c. 0.5 mm long, plu-
mose. Grain c. 2 x 0.4 mm, oblong-lanceo-
late, stalked.

Holotype — India — kerala: Palghat District,
Silent Valley dam site, ± 850 m, 5.10.1979,
N. C. Nair 64268 (CAL).

Isotypes in MH (3 specimens).

Paratypes — Same locality, — 700 m, 23.4.
1980, E. Vajravelu & V. J. Nair 67260 (1 speci-
men in K, 4 specimens in MH) ; Palghat District,
Silent Valley Reserve Forest, Aruvampara,
± 725 m, 10.10.1979, N. C. Nair 64465 (5
specimens in MH).

Grows in the crevices of rocks and other
similar rocky areas. It is fairly common along

656

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

the sides of Kunthipuzha river and forms
large tufts on the boulders near the proposed
Silent Valley dam site. It was also observed
along the rocky slopes of Aruvampara but was
less common.

The generic name denotes the type locality.
The specific epithet is after Dr. N. C. Nair,
the senior author’s teacher and present Joint
Director, Botanical Survey of India, Coimba-
tore in recognition of his valuable contribu-
tions to Indian Botany. His collections also
form type materials of this taxon.

Dr. Thomas A. Cope, of the Herbarium,
Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, after critical exa-
mination of our specimens gave the following

opinion (personal communication), “

is a new genus. It is, as you thought, related
to Diplachne (but not to Bewsio ), presumably
derived from it. Diplachne is pantropical and
has three awned derivatives. Gouinia in Ame-
rica, Lophacme in Africa and your new genus
in India”. We are very grateful to Dr. Cope
for his constant help in our studies on the
grasses of South India.

657

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. INTRA-GENERIC TROOP FORMATION IN PRESBYTIS GENERA
IN SANCTUARIES OF TAMIL NADU

At the first hair-pin bend while proceeding
from Sethumadai up the Ghat road towards
Topslip a bi-sexual Unimale troop of Presbytis
entellus is seen. The troop composition was
adult cf , 3 adult 2 $ and 3 infants on 11.3.77.
One sub-adult Presbytis johnii was found in
association with members of the above troop
and appeared to have been well knit into the
troop fabric. It was grooming other members
including the adult cf. On one occasion it
held one grey infant. The habitat is transition
from dry-deciduous to moist deciduous forest
types, with trees about 20 m to 25 m tall
with partially closed canopy, closely standing
and with branches touching were distributed
along the river course. The movement pattern
of the troop coincided with the general dis-
tribution of trees around the river course. All
observations were made near the road. The
sub-adult Presbytis johnii continued to live
(upto 23.2.81) with Presbytis entellus troop.

Two sub-adult Presbytis entellus have been
associated since 3.5.78 with a troop of Nilgiri
Langur (Presbytis johnii ) near Erumaiparai.
The habitat consists of trees of about 25 m
tall generally situated far apart, with admix-
ture of Bamboo clumps. Ground fire occurs
as evidences indicate. The composition of
Presbytis johnii troop is 1 adult cf, 3 adult
2 2 and 1 sub-adult 2. The Presbytis ente-
llus and Presbytis johnii were feeding, forag-
ing, moving and resting together. Allogroom-
ing only occurred between the two Presbytis
entellus.

Mundanthurai Sanctuary

Near Manimuthar falls a Presbytis entellus
troop composed of adult cf , 3 adult $2,1
sub-adult 9 and 3 infants has been accompa-
nied by a sub-adult Presbytis johnii with a
broken tail tip since 6.12.77. The habitat
consists of trees and huge boulders.

In Mundanthurai in the vicinity of the
Power House of Lower Dam, there has been
a Presbytis entellus troop of 1 adult cf, 5
adult $ $ , 3 sub-adult 2 2 and 3 infants
since 1976. Almost always they can be found
near the road. The habitat is bouldery with
sparse and isolated trees, Gyrocarpus is fre-
quently seen. The langurs can be seen either
on the ground or on the boulders and parapet
walls eating leaves of bushes. Grooming bet-
ween of Presbytis entellus and Presbytis johnii
was common. The Presbytis johnii was found
also to hold grey infants on several times.
When one sub-adult Presbytis entellus died,
probably due to electrocution and fell between
boulders, the Presbytis entellus troop with the
sub-adult. Presbytis johnii remained around the
carcass for 3 days. The carcass probably was
dragged by a Panther into the boulders dur-
ing the night. The sub-adult $ Presbytis johnii
is a member of Koraiyar troop, with home
range along the fringe of the forests o f moist
deciduous trees on the Koraiyar banks. The
troop was subjected to poaching and the troop
was being slowly decimated.

658

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

In a nutshell composition of intra-generic

TROOPS

Host troop Guest

Sp.

Sp.

Age

Sex No.

ANAMALAI SANCTUARY

1. First Bend troop

P.e.

P.j.

SA

One

2. Erumaiparai

P.J

P.e.

SA

Two

MUNDANTHURAI SANCTUARY

3. Manimuthar Falls P.e.

P.j.

SA

One

P.e.

P.j.

SA

One

KALAKAD SANCTUARY

5. Nambikoil

P.e.

P.j.

SA

One

The following parrellel situations can be
considered.

1. The habitat was holding populations of
both the species their home ranges over-
lapped.

2 . The host troops are Bisexual Unimale
troops.

3 . Where as generally dry zone habitat
Presbytis entellus are large here the host
troops are composed of 5-12 members.

4. In all cases the guest is a sub-adult and
female.

Wildlife Warden,

Kalakad Sanctuary,

Kalakad,

Tamil Nadu,

October 20, 1981.

5 . Whereas social grooming is not a common
social interaction amidst Presbytis johnii,
a considerable part of daily activity of
Presbytis entellus involve mutual groom-
ing! However, when the sub-adult Pres-
bytis johnii got associated with Presbytis
entellus they probably acquired this be-
haviour but the Presbytis entellus mem-
bers of the Presbytis johnii troop groom-
ed only among themselves and did not
groom Presbytis johnii.

6. There have been no earlier records of
members of other species living with Pres-
bytis entellus except in one incident when
a male Rhesus macaque probably an
ciation of Presbytis entellus with Presbytis
entellus group atleast for 7 years.

7 . Considerable structural fluidity among
groups, peridelic addition to and depar-
ture from, the group take place in Pres-
bytis entellus. This may explain the asso-
ciation of Presbytis entellus with Presbytis
johnii.

This may be a temporary phase only. Never-
theless this area opens up possibilities of
future research.

J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON

2. THE CURIOUS DEATH OF A PANTHER

On 22nd February 1981, we spent a day in
the Borivli National Park. At about 4 p.m.,
while returning we met a Forest Department
jeep driving along the road with an iron cage
on a trailer behind it. A Forest Ranger, whom
I knew, was in the jeep and we stopped to
exchange greetings. We were told that a pan-

ther had been trapped in a village near Padgha
(Bhiwandi Taluka, Thane District) about 40
miles along the Agra Road and they were
driving down to fetch it. This sounded an
interesting project and we linked up with
them.

A little before Padgha the jeep turned off

659

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

toward the Mahuli Hills and after some tricky
driving (at least for my Fiat) along a cart
track we reached the village of Railing. A
large crowd of people indicated something of
interest. We left our car about 50 yards away
and walked up. The crowd was densely packed
against a hut and we had to elbow our way
through. The hut was the usual Kathori
type, about 18 inches off ground level, the
floor paved with cowdung and with the walls
of Karvi ( Strobilanthes ) stalks. The Karvi wall
on one side had been almost completely
knocked down to exhibit a full-grown panther
lying at the far end of the room which
was perhaps 10' x 10'. It was obviously
very sick and looked helplessly at the crowd
which had gathered to see it. It was indeed
an extraordinary experience looking at an
adult live panther at less than 20 feet with
no bars in-between.

The forest jeep then maneuvered against
another wall and they proposed to get the
animal to walk into the cage. Upon my en-
quiring how the animal was to be persuaded
and what was to be done in the event of its
refusing to comply, I was told that some blan-
kets had been sent for and that these would
be thrown upon it if such a contingency should
arise. I strongly advised against any such effort
and offered to stand by with a gun if one
could be produced. While this discussion was
in progress the animal moved slightly and the

75, Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay-400 003,

February 23, 1982.

crowd stampeded backwards in such a hurry
that it was with the greatest difficulty that we
remained on our feet. The animal settled again
in the same place. There was further discus-
sion and as light was fading I thought I had
enough of this adventure and turned home-
wards after warning the Ranger against any
attempt to “catch” the panther.

The next day we learnt that the animal had
died and that it had been sent to the Bombay
Veterinary College for a postmortem.

I was unable to get reliable information
regarding the manner of its death but I re-
quested Mr. P. W. Soman, a member of the
Society, who lives at Bhiwandi, to visit the
place and get such information as he could.
It would appear that a farmer Namdeo Jadhao
in an adjoining village had encountered the
animal on the previous day and been bitten
and scratched in several places. His shouts
brought help but Namdeo fell unconscious
and was removed to hospital. On the next day
the animal injured two more persons but was
obviously very ill and finally took refuge in the
aforesaid hut.

Though I have no definite information as
to whether the animal was actually wrapped
up in a blanket and put into the cage or had
passed out before this was done, it was in-
deed a most curious happening.

The postmortem report follows.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

660

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3. NOTE ON THE AUTOPSY AND CAUSES OF DEATH OF A

PANTHER

The carcass was in an emaciated and put-1
rifled condition.

Throughout its length the intestine showed
numerous pea-sized fibrous nodules visible
through the outer surface of the intestine. Each
nodule communicated with the lumen of the
intestine by 2 or 3 openings and contained one
to three nematode parasites 10-15 mm. long.
The cavity of the nodule and also the inte-
stine of the living worm were full of blood,
They have been identified as Galunchus sp.
of the “Hook worm” family which worms are
well known as voracious blood suckers. Baylis
and Daubney recorded a single specimen from
a leopard in Calcutta in 1922. The present
finding is the first occasion when such large
numbers are found in a single panther in India.

The eggs of these worms pass through the
faeces of the panthers and develop into in-
fective stages in moist localities. The carnivora
generally acquire the infection by the entry of
the worms in their soil-stages through their
foot pads in moist localities.

The presence of numerous fibrinous nodules
in a large portion of the intestine rendered it

Bombay Veterinary College,

Parel,

Bombay-400 012,

February 23, 1982.

incapable of absorbing the digested food
which resulted in emaciation and loss of vita-
lity. The loss of blood led to anaemia and
finally death.

In addition, the lungs revealed two hard
nodules of the size of a groundnut. After care-
ful dissection it was observed that each nodule
contained a pair of flukes identified as
Paragonimus westermanii (Lung flukes). They
were 8-12 mm. long, 4-6 mm. broad and 3-5
mm. thick. This parasite was first discovered
by Westerman in 1877 from the lungs of two
tigers which died in the Amsterdam Zoo. Man
is an important definitive host of this fluke as
are other carnivorous animals. The panther
may have acquired the flukes by eating crabs
or cray fish containing the early stages of the
flukes or by drinking water containing the
larval stages detached from dead crabs. Schal-
ler 1967, in ‘The Deer and the Tiger’, page
236, refers to these matters and adds that
though in his experience no crab remains were
found in the fasces, Burton (1936) and Perry
(1964) listed crabs as being part of the tiger’s
diet.

S. M. NIPHADKAR
V. S. NARSAPUR

V. S. DESHPANDE

4. TRANSPORTATION OF YOUNG BY RATEL
( MELLIVORA CAPENSIS )

While going through my old field notes I
came across an entry which may be of inte-
rest to the readers of the Journal
In Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh in
1963 we saw a ratel ( Mellivora capensis )

running on the road in front of the vehicle
on a winter evening. A hunter shot the animal,
which turned out to be a female. On going
upto it we found that a male cub which was
unscathed, had fallen off its mother’s back.

661

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

I kept the cub for a couple of weeks and it
was doing quite well on a mixture of minced
meat and milk, laced with vitamins. It had
already been weaned. The body emanated a
very strong, musky and pungent unpleasant
scent which was not related to food or up-
keep, as it was always given fresh food and
kept clean. Whilst away on tour the careless-,
ness on the part of my servant allowed it to

The Palace,

Wankaner,

Gujarat,

May 10, 1982.

5.

contract disease and it died 3 days later.
Autopsy revealed it to be Pneumonia.

Carrying of juveniles and young on the back
is a well recorded fact among the bear family
(Ursidae) to which, of course, the ratel is rela-
ted. But this behaviour does not appear to
have been yet recorded in the ratel of which,
in fact, so little is known.

M. K. RANJITSINH

BURROWING PATTERNS OF SAND-COLOURED RAT,
RATTUS GLEADOWl

{With a text-figure)

The Sand coloured rat, Rattus gleadowi
(Murray, 1885) has a localised distribution
in the Indian desert. A highly specialised
species, it is nearer the genus Acomys and
possesses characteristics of Gerbillinae (second
palatal foramina and hypertrophied bullae tym-
panicae). In western Rajasthan, it occurs in
very low numbers, 0 . 6 per cent of total rodent
fauna and prefers sandy (66.6%) and gravel
(33.3%) habitats in the desert biome (Prakash
et al. 1971). Their burrows are found scattered
in open sandy or gravel plains, but are also
seen under the thickets of Zizyphus nummu-
lar! a. In Sind, this rat has been reported to
live near the roots of salt wort plant (Cheno-
podiaceae) (Roberts 1980).

The rat does not excavate very large and
extensive burrow systems (Figure 1) as found
in case of the predominant rodent species of
the desert, Meriones hurrianae (Fitz water &
Prakash 1969). Most of the burrows are sim-
ple and short and it appears that such burrows
are excavated for temporary shelter, feeding or
escaping from predators. The burrow open-

ings are of 3.5 x 5 x 5 x 4 cm dimension.
About 50% burrows are ‘L’ shaped, 30%
‘V’ and ‘D’ shaped, 10% long tunnels, 8%
burrows small tunnels with a blind end and
only 2% are complete burrows. A complete
burrow system possesses 4 to 6 external open-
ings in addition to a plugged one, possibly
for emergency escape. Burrow depth ranged
from 9 to 21 cms. The largest burrow length
recorded was 130 cms (range 7 cms to 130
cms) which is quite long as compared to the
records from west Sind (45-61 cms; Roberts,
loc. cit.). Perhaps, the burrow systems in
Pakistan were excavated in the non-breeding
season, while in present report these were dug
at the end of breeding season (in November)
August to October (Prakash 1971).

In some burrows, gryllids and carabid bee-
tles were found to inhabit the burrows as
associates. Seeds of Cenchrus biflorus, C.
ciliaris, C. setigerus and Trihulus terrestris
were found in nest chambers, indicating that
this species may be damaging the rangeland
in the Indian desert.

662

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Burrowing patterns of Rattus gleadowi.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. H. S. Mann, Direc-
tor, C.A.Z.R.I., Jodhpur for providing faci-

COORDI NATING & MONITORING CENTRE

for Rodent and Training,

Central Arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur-342 003,

January 18, 1982.

Refer

Fitz water, W. D. & Prakash, I. (1969) : Burrows,
behaviour and home range of the Indian desert
gerbill, Meriones hurrianae Jerdon. Mammalia 33:
598-606.

Prakash, I. (1971): Breeding season and litter
size of Indian desert rodents. Zeit. angew. Zool. 58:
441-454.

lities and to Dr. Ishwar Prakash, Professor of
Eminence at the same Institute for his kind
guidance and critical editing of the note.

RANJAN ADVANI
A. P. JAIN

EN CES

Prakash, I., Gupta, R. K., Jain, A. P.. Rana, B.
D. & Dutta, B. K. (1971): Ecological evaluation
of rodent populations in the desert biome of Rajas-
than. Mammalia, 35 : 384-423.

Roberts, T. J. (1977) : The Mammals of Pakis-
tan. Ernest Benn Limited, London & Tonbridge,
i-xxvi + 1-361

.663

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

6. AN INSTANCE OF INTERSPECIFIC AGGRESSION BETWEEN
CHITAL ( AXIS AXIS ERXLEBEN) AND BLACKBUCK ( ANTILOPE
CERVICAPRA LINNAEUS) AT POINT CALIMERE
SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

At 8.35 hrs on 5th May 1982, I had the
chance of observing an aggressive interaction
between a male Chital (Axis axis Erxleben)
and a male Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra
Linnaeus).

Intraspecific fights and interspecific encoun-
ters in the form of chasing each other have
been noticed in ungulates, but actual physical
encounters has not been reported between
these species.

The area where this encounter occurred was
towards the southern part of the Sanctuary
close to a wedge of scrub jungle, opening out
into grassland. Both animals appeared highly
agitated and it was not possible to identify
the aggressor. Each would back 2-3 steps and
then leap forward to clash head-on. The con-
testants appeared to be equally matched. The
forehead was the most affected body part in
the bout for both the animals. The horns
were thrust forcefully when they tried to push
back each other during the bout. The spikes
of the stag’s antlers seemed to be advantage-
ous as they could reach the soft portions of
the body other than the forehead of the enemy.
At least twice the Buck tried to twist side-
ways and jab the side of the stag, with its
pointed horns, but the Chital defended itself
successfully. It was impossible to assess as
to who was winning. Twice the Buck managed
to push the stag a few steps back and once
he himself was pushed back. I observed the
duel for minutes when they dispersed on
seeing me. The Chital ran into the nearby
jungle and also the Buck which ran for about
15 metres and disappeared into the same forest
patch. No other animal of either species was
seen in the vicinity.

Some notes on the status of the two species
at Point Calimere may be of interest. The
preferred food plants of the Blackbuck in this
area are Alleuropus sp. and Cyperus sp.
which grow extensively in the meadows, their
usual habitat. But in May all the grasses in
the meadows, dry-up and the green patches
occur only at certain places. This situation
is apparently aggravated by the high popu-
lation of the Blackbuck. All wildlife have to
compete with a large number of domestic
stock for grazing.

The Chital in this dry evergreen forest is
chiefly a browser and prefers the jungle to
the grassy open areas, unlike Chital in the
dry deciduous forest as described by Sharat-
chandra and Gadgil (1975) from Bandipur.
The Chital also faces a shortage of food in
this sanctuary in the month of May since the
leaf production is at a minimum in this month
(Avifauna Project Report — I, 1981).

The threat to the Blackbuck population in
this sanctuary is mainly due to their dynami-
cally increasing population. Daniel (1967) sug-
gested the possibility of the population ex-
ceeding the carrying capacity of the sanctuary
in 1967 itself when the population was 750.
The Forest College, Coimbatore team censused
the population at 2,100 in July 1982. Accord-
ing to this latest census it has registered an
increase of 280% within a period of 15 years.
Nair (1974) had recorded a decline of the
population to 340 in 1974, the reason for
which he attributed mainly to poaching. There
is apparently a certain amount of confusion
in census methods. The increased number of
fawns however suggests a high rate of breed-
ing success.

664

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

If the current census figures are accepted
there is apparently a cause for considerable
concern. The individual share of the availa-
ble grazing land has been reduced to 0.5
hectares. They have to share it with a variety
of ungulates. For the survival of viable popu-
lation they need more area than the total of
the individual shares. This sanctuary is sus-
ceptible to seasonal variations and the Black-
buck faces food shortage in the dry season as
described above and the condition in the
rainy season deteriorates further as during this
season they are deprived of most of their
feeding grounds as these areas are filled with
brackish water. They are then compelled to
take shelter in the unflooded patches and the
jungle, where food is scarce for them and the
seashore, where the vegetation comprises
mainly of the succulent plants, Salicornia

Avifauna Project,

Point Calimere Sanctuary,

Kodikkarai,

Thanjavur District,

Tamil Nadu,

August 10, 1982.

brachiata Roxb. and Suaeda maritima Dumort,
the preference of Blackbuck towards these is
the least. Naturally this situation drastically
changes their biological and behavioural acti-
vities. Such a large population will find it
difficult to survive in this circumscribed eco-
logical regime with extremely limited food and
space for movement. This may lead to a steep
decline in the population and bring down the
genetic quality of the stock, if not their total
disappearance from this sanctuary. Proper
management techniques should be applied so
that the biotic, edaphic and climatic factors of
this ecosystem can remain in dynamic equili-
brium, with respect to the Blackbuck. Introduc-
tion of this unique endemic antelope of the
Indian plains, from this sanctuary to other
similar habitats also can be tried.

S. FAIZI

Referen ces

Ali, Salim & Husain, S. A. (1981) : Annual
Report — I (1980-81) : “Studies on the Movement
and Population Structure of Indian Avifauna”, p. 32.
Bombay Natural History Society.

Daniel, J. C. (1967) : The Point Calimere Sanc-
tuary, Madras State — May 1967. /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 64(3): 512-523.

Nair, S. S. (1974) : A population survey and
observations on the behaviour of the Blackbuck in
the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(2): 304-310.

Sharatchandra, H. C. & Gadgil, Madhav (1975) :
A year of Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72
(3): 623-647.

7. A SIGHTING OF A LARGE DHOLE PACK IN K AN Y AKUMARI
DISTRICT, TAMILNADU

In the first week of April, 1982 while going
in a jeep through coupe VIII of a rubber
plantation in Keeriparai Division, Kanya-
kumari District a pack of dholes ( Cuon
alpinus ) was seen. The time was around 1600

hrs. and I counted 28 dholes before the pack
entered the adjoining tropical moist decidu-
ous forests with dense undergrowth. The pack
had some pups and as the distance between
the leading and the last dhole was around

665

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

200 m. I could not exactly differentiate the
pups from the adults.

The forests of this division still have sambar
(Cervus unicolor ), wild pigs (Sus scrofa) and
mouse-deer ( Tragulus meminna). In addition,
numerous domestic cattle graze in these
forests. Earlier, while working in Kalakad
Wildlife Sanctuary as Wild Life Warden in
1977, I have seen 26 dholes. Johnsingh (per.

Deputy Conservator of Forests
(Head Quarters),

Office of the Chief Conservator of
Forests, Madras - 600 006,

August 4, 1982.

comm.) reports that the maximum number of
dholes, he saw in Bandipur was 18, and he
attributes this to the size of the common
prey. Chital (Axis axis) which is one third
of the size of the sambar. If prey size deter-
mine pack size, the larger packs seen in Kala-
kad and Keeriparai could be attributed to the
common prey, the sambar.

S. RAMANATHAN

8. PINKFOOTED SHEARWATER [PROCELL A Rl A CARNEIPES
(GOULD)] IN INDIA

On 19th May 1979, one of us (R.B.G.) was
at Kanyakumari at the southernmost tip of
India, when he saw some fisher boys on the
shore offering for sale six petrels which they
had caught on fish-hooks a few miles out at
sea. Two of these were purchased, skinned
and added to the Society’s collection, but
though correctly identified as the Pinkfooted
Shearwater [Procellaria carneipes (Gould)]
the record was inadvertantly not published at
the time.

Indian handbook (1, p. 11) refers to two
examples taken in Ceylon, one in 1879 and
the other in 1945 as the only records from
our area. Subsequent to this, small numbers
were observed by W.W.A. Phillips in Equa-
torial Channel in the southernmost Maldives
in early July ( JBNHS 55, p. 216) and Strick-
land and Jenner ( JBNHS 74, p. 490) in Birds
of Addu Atoll (southernmost portion of the
Maldives, south of the Equator) say “Pro-
bably mainly a passage migrant. Noted March
- — May 1958 and 16th-20th October 1975, but

hundreds of birds passed close inshore”.

Bourne (1960) in Sea Swallow (13 p. 26)
Petrels of the Indian Ocean says “northward
movement starts during May and birds are
seen flying northwest reaching the vicinity of
Java, Ceylon, and south coast of Arabia by
mid-summer — concentrate off Arabian coast
in late summer and return in September, when
numbers have been seen off Cochin”.

There is also a sight record at 08°16'N,
69°15'E on 4th August — A. S. Cheke, Ibis
1969, p. 628.

There are really few records from Indian
limits and the two specimens referred to above
apart from adding a new species to the Bom-
bay collection may be worth publishing. They
are both males and their wings are 308 and
322 mm., (vs. 299 to 316 in Ind. Hb. repro-
duced from Stuart Baker’s Fauna 6:305) bill
42-42.5 (41-46), tarsus 42, 42 (about 52 to
56) and tails 101, 107 (137 to 148). The tails,
it will be noticed, are appreciably shorter than
recorded.

666

75 Abdul Rehman Street,
Bombay-400 003.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

Bombay Natural History Society, ROBERT GRUBH

Hornbill House,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

July 18, 1981.

After completion of the above H.A. saw a note
in the Bulletin of the British Ornithologists Union
(1980) 100 p. 205 where P. R. Colston, British
Museum (N. H.) wrote of a sea-trip from Australia
when “the first Pale-footed Shearwaters (P, carnei-
pes ) were sighted in rough seas on 16 July near Bom-
bay.” In reply to an inquiry Mr. Colston says “The
ship arrived and left Bombay on 15 July 1963 and

it was on the following day 16 July that I saw
c. 20 Pale-footed Shearwaters. I would guess some
500 miles west of Bombay — en route for Aden.
So they were not close enough for your Bombay
list”. This may be mentioned for completion of
records in Indian literature.

May 5, 1982.

9. THE PINTAIL (ANAS ACUTA LINN.) — AN ADDITION TO THE
LIST OF BIRDS OCCURRING IN KERALA

A small artificial lake brought into being
around 1968 for the supply of fresh water to
the Cochin Unit of the Fertilizers and Chemi-
cals Travancore Ltd., at Ambalamedu began
to be used as a daytime refuge by wintering
wildfowl soon after its creation. On my first
visit to this excellent refuge (7 to 9 February,
1981). I was surprised to find that in addition
to the Garganey ( Anas querquedula ) and the
Lesser Whistling Teal ( Dendrocygna java-
nica) there were not less than 3000 Pintail
(Anas acuta) on the lake. As nearly 50% of
the Pintail were males in summer plumage,
there was absolutely no doubt regarding their
identity. I was able to watch the Pintail and
the other ducks many times during the three
days I spent at Ambalamedu.

On 7 March, 1981, I was able to spend
a few hours beside the Ambalamedu lake once
again. On this occasion too all the three
species noted a month ago were present, but
the number of Pintail was below hundred. On
the previous day, when camping at Kumara-

kam near Kottayam, from the number of
ducks seen overhead in the evening, I con-
cluded that the well-known roosting site off
Pathiramanal in the Vembanad backwaters
(Salim Ali 1969) continues to be used by
large numbers of ducks. Here, however, the
ducks are being persecuted regularly by hun-
ters, whereas at Ambalamedu they are given
good protection. Unfortunately, the Ambala-
medu lake is too small for all the ducks to
resort to it during the daytime. Therefore, and
especially since this area is being developed
into a tourist centre with the accent on boat-
ing and water-sports, immediate steps have to
be taken to provide complete protection to
the wildfowl that spend the daytime on the
water off Pathiramanal. This is the only major
waterfowl resort left in Kerala today.

Considering the fact that the Pintail is one
of the easiest of wild ducks to identify, it is
surprising that no previous record of its occur-
rence in Kerala seems to exist. Could the
drought of 1980-81 on the eastern side of the

667

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Peninsula have forced the Pintail to move
west?

The Cochin Unit of FACT deserves the
gratitude of all bird lovers and conserva-
tionists for the commendable manner in
which they are managing the environment
generally, and the lake in particular, in order

26/1643 Unni’s Lane,

Trivandrum,

July 6, 1981.

to provide the maximum security to their
birds, both resident and migrant. I am per-
sonally obliged to Mr Vijaya Sankar, Manag-
ing Director, Mr T. Nandakumar and Mr
Padmanabhan, Officers, of the FACT Cochin
Unit, for their hospitality and help.

K. K. NEELAKANTAN

Reference

Ali, Salim (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford
University Press, Madras, p. 41.

10. FLAMINGOS BREEDING IN THOL LAKE SANCTUARY NEAR

AHMEDABAD

On 21 June 1981, I visited the Thol Lake
Sanctuary about 30 km from Ahmedabad
along with a party from Doordarshan for
making a film programme on Flamingos.

The flamingos were approximately 5000-
6000 in number, and other water birds were
also seen in large number. The most surpris-
ing sight was the presence 70-80 of Flamingo
nests. Young ones of the Flamingo were also
noticed. As the birds had remained through-
out the whole year (May 80-May 81) in this

17, Swaraj n agar,

Ambawadi, Ellisbridge,

Ahmedabad - 380015,

June 27, 1981.

area, I wondered whether the birds had bred
also, and this had lead me to search for their
nests. Finally we were successful in locating the
nest colony. The nests were 70-80 and in
small groups of 5-6 at different places, on the
opposite bank of the lake .

The possibility of this area being an addi-
tional breeding ground for Flamingos in India,
apart from already known breeding ground in
Great Rann of Kutch, needs to be placed on
record.

P. S. THAKKER

11 OCCURRENCE OF CERTAIN WADERS IN SRI LANKA

Recently I had occasion to leaf through
Volume 2 of the 2nd Edition of the hand-
book and a few comments in regard to the
occurrence of certain Waders in Sri Lanka
seem necessary.

No. 374. Large Sand Plover ( Charadrius

leschenaultii ) — Although the distribution
map shows Sri Lanka as a wintering place for
this species, Sri Lanka is not mentioned in the
text. The Large Sand Plover is reported fair-
ly often (see Bird Club Notes).

No. 378. Eastern Ringed Plover — ( Cha -

668

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

radrius hiaticula tundrae ) — There have re-
cently been several authentic sight records of
this species, all recorded in the Bird Club
Notes, by Dr T.S.U. de Zylva, myself and
one or two others. There can be no doubt
about these. 1979 seems to have been a parti-
cularly good year for relatively rare Waders.

No. 389. Blacktailed Godwit ( Limosa

limosa limosa ) — “... becoming very rare
in South India and Ceylon”. This has changed
during recent years and these birds now
come to Sri Lanka by the hundreds every
winter. I myself have seen large congregations
in northern lagoons prior to the return migra-
tion. These observations have been frequently
reported in the Bird Club Notes; also in my
annual Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club,
published in the June issue of ‘Loris’ each
year.

No. 392. Spotted Redshank ( Tringa ery-
thr opus) — This bird too is now regularly
seen. There are at least one or two reports
every year. I think its “rarity” is chiefly due
to the difficulty of distinguishing it from the
Common Redshank. I saw one in unmistaka-

Ceylon Bird Club,
c/o. P. O. Box 11,

Colombo,

Sri Lanka,

June 10, 1981.

ble breeding plumage on the east coast on the
16th of April, 1976 (see Bird Club Notes,
April 1976, page 18). I then wrote that during
that winter I had seen nearly a dozen Spotted
Redshanks.

No. 395. Marsh Sandpiper ( Tringa stagna-
tilis ) — Very large congregations of this Sand-
piper have been seen in the salterns of Ham-
bantota.

No. 400. Terek Sandpiper ( Tringa terek)

— This species is not only found on the north-
west coast, but all along the coasts, especially
also the north-east coast.

No. 413. Eastern Knot ( Calidris tenuiros-
tris) — 4 birds of this species were recently
seen near Mannar by Ben King and party (see
Notes for May 1981).

No. 420. Dunlin ( Calidris alpina alpina)

— Several Dunlins have been seen in Sri Lanka
in recent years by myself and other observers.
One was an authentic sighting by me of a bird
moulting into breeding plumage at the edge
of a lagoon in Yala East on the 10th of April,
1979, (see Bird Club Notes 1979, page 20).

T. W. HOFFMANN

12. THE CHESTNUT-HEADED BEE-EATER ( MEROPS
LESCHENAULTI VIEILLOT) IN GUJARAT

While accompanying Shri R. Naoroji on an
expedition to photograph birds in the Chandod
and Rajpipla areas of Gujarat State I sighted
a pair of what seemed to be Chestnut-headed
Bee-eaters while walking towards Poecha vil-
lage across the Narmada from Chandod which
is about 22°N and 73.5°E. The pair was seen

first flying around some bushes and then
alighting on a large rock about 35 feet from
me. Looking through 8 x 30 binoculars I
clearly noticed the chestnut head (colour re-
miniscent of crow-pheasant wings) and bright
yellow throat under which was a dark and
pale chestnut band. Both birds did not have

669

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

the central tail feathers prolonged and the birds
were slightly bigger than the Common Green
Bee-eaters but slightly smaller than the Blue-
tailed Bee-eaters, a colony of which had nest-
ing holes on a vertical sand bank. After watch-
ing them for sometime, the pair flew south-
wards towards Rajpipla. When I returned to
Bombay, though I had with me Salim Ali’s
invaluable book of Indian birds, for reference
I checked up my notes in with the specimens
and also the handbook of Indian Birds Vol.
4, Ali-Ripley at the BNHS and was convinced

45/46, Madhurima,

M. G. Road,

Kandivli (west),

Bombay - 400 067,

August 17, 1981.

that the pair was that of the Chestnut-headed
Bee-eaters. Since these birds are not recorded
north of Goa or Belgaum, it might be
the northernmost record for the species in
Western India. The birds were recorded on
5th June, 1981 in the morning. These birds do
have sudden local migrations as stated in the
handbook. The birds seen appear to be migrat-
ing and were not found in regular forest but
amongst scattered trees and shrubs not far from
the Narmada river.

S. G. MONGA

13. SUNBIRDS FOSTERING FLEDGLINGS OF THE PLAINTIVE

CUCKOOS

On two occasions I have seen sunbirds be-
ing used by the Plaintive Cuckoo as foster
parents for its young. Both incidents were
observed in my garden in Pune. The first time
I saw this was during the 1960s when I saw
a pair of Purple Sunbirds ( Nectarinla asiatica )
bring up a fledgling cuckoo.

More recently, in 1978, I have photographed
the Purplerumped Sunbird ( Nectarinia zeyla-
nica) rearing the young of the Plaintive
Cuckoo.

The nest was in a Jambul tree in my garden
at Bund Garden Road. For several days I had
seen a rather large head poping out of the
nest for feeds. Shortly thereafter there was a
storm, the nest broke open and I saw the
cuckoo fledgling, clumsily fluttering around,
and noisily following its little foster parents.
It had dark brown bars over its back and
wings and a lighter streaked buff belly. There

was a pale patch on his wing better seen in
flight. I observed them for more than a week
by which time he had grown considerably
larger. The foster parent’s head would be
engulfed in his gaping mouth during each
energetic feed.

Looking for references I have come across
one published by M. F. Suter (JBNHS, 45:
235). He had seen a cuckoo chick fostered
by purple sunbirds and being also fed in turn
by Tailor birds in Pune in 1944. I believe
another similar observation has also been
made in Pune in the 1980s.

I have thus come across four instances of
such parasitism all from Pune, the earliest in
1944. This might indicate a local change in
the pattern of parasitism?

A female cuckoo is believed to use the same
host for parasiting as she herself was reared
by. Thus if early imprinting results in the

670

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

female cuckoo selecting nests similar to the
one she was bom in, these birds which have
been reared by sunbirds will look for sunbird
nests to lay their own eggs when they become

23/5, Bund Garden Road,

Pune - 411 001,

August 24, 1981.

adults. The new pattern should then become
more common. Further observation especially
in Pune may throw more light on the pro-
blem.

ERACH K. BHARUCHA

14. MAGPIE-ROBIN FEEDING ON GECKOES

Recently, I have observed for several even-
ings in succession, an adult female Magpie-
Robin, late in the evenings, swooping on to
medium-sized (about 3 inches in total length)
Hemidactylus leschenaulti, on the outer walls
of our bungalow in the scrub- jungle. At every
swoop from its hovering in the air, the robin
pecks at the pelvic region of the gecko, per-
haps to disable the gecko, and when it falls

to the ground ultimately, the bird pecks off
the contents of the abdomen first, and then
eats away the rest of the body, tearing it piece-
meal. Just one gecko a day, but the same
female Magpie-Robin everyday, at the same
time, from among the nearly 3 to 4 pairs of
these robins permanently residing and nesting
in the ceiling of our bungalow.

5, College Estate, STEPHEN SUMITHRAN

Madras Christian College,

Tambaram, Madras 600 059,

August 21, 1979.

15. OCCURRENCE OF FOREST WAGTAIL {MOT ACILLA IND1CA
GMELIN) IN NAGZIRA SANCTUARY, BHANDARA DISTRICT

(MAHARASHTRA)

On 24th April 1981 during the carnivore
survey of Nagzira, I spotted a wagtail which
appeared to be a Forest Wagtail (M. indica)
on the edge of a tank. The white wing bars,
the necklaces and the habit of swaying its tail
sideways made this bird quite unmistakable.

I watched it for about 10 to 15 minutes until
it took flight and disappeared into the woods.
I searched for it thereafter but never saw it
again.

This is apparently the first record for this
part of the Peninsula.

NITIN JAMDAR

27A/1, Civil Lines
Nagpur,

August 18, 1981.

[The Forest Wagtail has a very capricious winter
distribution in the Subcontinent and may sporadically
occur as a vagrant almost anywhere, even in the most
unlikely localities and habitats. One has been record-
ed from Thatta district of Pakistan! (JBNHS 75: 218.
1976) — Eds.]

671

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

16. BIRDS IN 650-1 100 MM RAINFALL ZONE OF RAJASTHAN

During faunistic surveys conducted by the
Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of
India, Jodhpur in November-December 1975,
thirteen species of birds spread over nine
families were collected from districts of
Boondi, Tonk, Jhalawar, Dungarpur and
Banswara in south Rajasthan. This region
receives annual rainfall ranging from 650 mm
to 1100 mm (avg. 850 mm). The relative
humidity is 52 percent with 35 rainy days. The
forest is of dry teak type with vegetation domi-
nated by species of the genera Cardcimine,
Crotalaria, Cyperus, Ipomoea, Planera and
Lindernia. Three rivers Mahi near Banswara
and Dungarpur, Kali Sindh near Jhalawar and
Banas near Tonk attract several species of
migratory birds.

The birds observed and collected during the
survey under the respective families were:

Ardeidae: Cattle Egret, Bubulcus ibis coro-
mandus, Indian Pond Heron, Ardeola g.
grayii ; Charadriidae : Red Wattled Lapwing,
Vanellus i. indicus, Ruff, Philomachus pugnaxe
Apodidae: Indian House Swift, Apus a. affinis ;
Meropidae: Green Bee-eater, Merops orien-
talise Upupidae: Hoopoe, Upupa epops\

Laniidae. Bay-backed Shrike, Lanius vittatuse

Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Jodhpur (Rajasthan), India,

August 31, 1981.

Pycnonotidae : Red-vented Bulbul, Pycnonotus
cafer humayuni; Muscicapidae : Indian Robin,
Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis, Jungle Bab-
bler, Turdoides striatus sindianus, Black Red-
start, Phoenicurus ochruros rufiventrise Plocei-
dae: House sparrow. Passer domesticus.

Observations on the spot and examination
of crop and gizzard contents showed that
species like, P. domesticus, T. striatus , P.
ochruros and P. cafer were serious pests of
agricultural and fruit crops like millet, barley,
rice, guava and grapes. Whereas, some species
viz., L. vittatus , S. fulicata, U. epops, M. orien-
lalis, A. affinis, B. ibis and A. grayii were
thriving upon various polyphagous insect pest
of crops like grasshoppers ( Hieroglyphus sp.,
Oxya sp., Chrotogonus sp.), termites (Ana-
canthotermes sp., Microtermes obesii, Odon -
totermes obessus), white grubs ( Holotrichia
insularis ), and cutworms ( Agrotis spp., Spo-
doptera sp.). Thus, these are considered to
be beneficial to agriculture in minimising
populations of these harmful insects in the
crop ecosystem.

Thanks are due to Dr. A. K. Mukherjee,
Supt. Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta for confirming identification of birds.

RANJAN ADVANI

17. DISPERSAL OF SANDALWOOD {SANT ALUM ALBUM) BY
BIRDS IN TAMILNADU1

Introduction the pleasure it gives one and had been taking

notes among other things, on their feeding

This paper has no pretensions and is not

an outcome and product of any purposive , Paper presented at the Second A11 India SandaI
research. I have been watching birds just for Seminar, Salem — May 1981.

672

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

habits. The period of fieldwork for the Forest
Resources Survey of Ramnad and Tiruchira-
palli Districts, and service as warden of the
Mundanthurai and Kalakad Sanctuaries in
Tirunelveli District provided opportunities to
work in sandalwood areas and for observing
the birds feeding on sandalwood fruits. This
article is based on those notes.

Materials and methods

Avian fauna was checklisted during the
field work for preparation of Forest Resour-
ces Survey Reports of Ramanathapuram and
Tiruchirapalli Districts and for Kalakad and
Mundanthurai Sanctuaries. The sandal bearing
areas Srivilliputhur R. F., Pachamalai, Mun-
danthurai plateau and Valliyur R. F. have

rich and variegated bird life. Ingestion of
sandalwood fruits by birds was not systema-
tically noted. Quantification of parameters like
feeding rate, dispersal distances, and areas of
spread relevant to the quest were not thought
of. Only materials collected sporadically are
described. The birds found eating sandalwood
fruits are listed below in the sequence of
Ripley (1961).

Among the birds listed here, bulbuls, mynas,
greenbilled malkoha, koels and fruit pigeons
appear to consume large quantities of fruits
(more than 10 observations). Redvented bulbul
appears solely responsible for spreading of
sandalwood upto distances of 3-4 Km. in
Vaigai Dam. Blackheaded bulbul consumes
large quantities of these fruits in foothill and
hill forests. Common myna and Brahminy myna

ORDER

FAMILY

SPECIES

COLUM BIFORMES

Columbidae:

1.

Treron phoenicoptera Green pigeon

2.

Ducula badia Imperial pigeon

3.

Columba livia Blue Rock pigeon

4.

Streptopelia chinensis Spotted dove.

PSITTACIFORMES

PSITTACIDAE :

5.

Psittacula krameri Roseringed parakeet

CUCUL I FORMES

ClJCULIDAE :

6.

Clamator jacobinus Pied crested cuckoo

7.

Cuculus varius Common hawk-cuckoo

8.

Eudynamys scolopacea Koel

9.

Rhopodytes viridirostris Small greenbilled
malkoha

CORACIFORMES

Bucerotidae

10.

Tockus birostris Common grey hombill

11.

Buceros bicornis Great Indian hornbill

PICI FORMES

Capitonidae

12.

Megalaima viridis Small green barbet

PASSERIFORMES

PlTTIDAE

13.

Pitta brachyura. Indian pitta.

Oriolidae

14.

Oriolus oriolus Golden oriole

Sturnidae

15.

Sturnus pagodarum Brahminy myna

16.

Acridotheres tristis Common myna

Corvidae

17.

Dendrocitta vagabunda Tree pie

18.

Corvus splendens House crow

19.

Corvus macrohynchus Jungle Crow

Irenidae

20.

Chloropsis aurifrons Goldfronted chloropsis

Pycnonotidae

21.

Pycononotus atriceps Blackheaded bulbul

22.

Pycnonotus jocosus Redwhiskered bulbul

23.

P. cafer Redvented bulbul

m

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

consume considerable quantities of these
fruits. As these birds are gregarious and cover
long distances in their diurnal movements, they
may make efficient dispersers. The Evergreen
Forest dwellers — Green pigeon. Imperial
pigeon. Great Indian hornbill come to lower
elevations from 1000 m to 200 m as in Mun-
danthurai in small parties of 5-7 during the
fruiting season and consume large quantities
of fruits. Green pigeon and Imperial pigeon
were seen only in the mornings, throughout the
fruiting season. Great Indian hornbills spend
longer duration 3-5 hours consuming these
fruits on even short trees 5 m tall. Koels again,
in large noisy parties spend many (3-6) hours
consuming these fruits throughout the fruit-
ing season in almost all areas. On Mundan-
thurai plateau, small greenbilled malkohas
were seen consuming the fruits throughout the
day all through the fruiting season. Even a
small bird like Indian Pitta consumes the fruit
with surprising ease. Roseringed parakeets
generally damage the seeds and eat cotyledons.
Other birds were seen only for less than 10
observations.

The habitat types in these districts where
the birds were seen are listed below.
The Forest types are based on Working Plans
of the relevent areas (Johnson 1976, 1977a,
b).

1A

C4

2A

C2

2A

C3

5A

Cl(b)

5A

C3

5

DS 2

5A

DS a

6A

Cl

6A

C2

6A

DS 1

7

Cl

8A

Cl

In

most

West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forest.
West Coast Semi-Evergreen Forest.
Tirunelveli Semi-Evergreen Forest.

Dry Teak Forest

Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest.

Dry Savannah Forest

Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous

Scrub.

Southern Thorn Forests
Carnatic Umbrella Thom Forest
Southern Thorn Scrub.

Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest.
Southern Sub-tropical Hill Forest,
of our forest types and in large

areas bird life is abundant and all frugivorous
birds have the potential for dispersing the
sandalwood. Distribution of suitable perches,
abundance of fruit bearing trees in all seasons
and availability of insect food during breed-
ing season generally govern the distribution of
the birds. The location of mature sandal trees
and their natural dispersal appear to be signi-
ficant. Natural propagation is effective in the
openings between two forest types and in
clearings fringing two or more habitat types as
in Valliyur R.F.

There is a forested island in the Lower Dam
reservoir in Mundanthurai Sanctuary, where a
good number of sandalwood trees (about 300)
aged about 25-30 years occur. These areas
were clearfelled in the early forties and only
birds, koels, bulbuls and malkohas, have been
responsible for the propagation of the sandal
here. Lantana was probably the first to in-
vade the island. Attracted by lantana berries,
available in plenty throughout the year, birds
visited the island and disseminated sandal
seeds from the mainland.

Fruiting season

Authorities have recorded differently the sea-
son of flowering and fruiting of sandal. Brandis
(1906) flowering February- July; Troupe
(1921) flowering February- April, fruiting
May- June; (Dickinson) Flowering at the end
of hot weather or early in the rains and ripen-
ing in a few months usually by the close of
rains, (Hutchins) Venkataramanan (1957)
flowering May- June and February-March, fruit-
ing October-December and July-August; Bour-
dillon (1980) flowering and fruiting all the year
round; In Vaigai Dam Forestry Training
School there were seven trees close to the
Principal’s room, three to six years old, which
were being watered daily and were in flower

674

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and fruits all through the year, different trees
flowering at different times. In other parts of
the School Campus, the flowering and fruiting
of sandalwood trees had direct dependance on
the first heavy showers. On Mundanthurai
plateau, flowering and fruiting were observed
throughout the year — flowering first ten to
fifteen days after the first heavy showers. Older
trees flowered later, while planted young trees
flowered earlier. The birds do not feed ex-
clusively on any one fruit, though abundant
and available in nearby localities. The occur-
rence of a variety of fruit trees helps in keep-
ing the birds in a particular habitat.

Conclusion

Dispersal of seeds by birds, obviously ap-
pears to be beyond our control and establish-
ed forestry practices. Production of seeds, dis-

Wildlife Warden,

Kalakad Sanctuary,

Tirunelveli Dist.,

Tamil Nadu,

October 6, 1981.

Ali, Salim (1972): The Book of Indian Birds.
Bombay Natural History Society.

Brandis, Dietrich (1906) : Indian Trees. Govern-
ment of India.

Bourdillon, T. F. (1980): Flora of Travancore.

Champion, Sir Harry, G. and Seth, S. K. (1968) :
A Revised survey of the Forest types of India.
Government of India.

Gamble, J. R. (1902): A Manual of Indian
Timbers.

Gamble, J. S. (1935): The Flora of Madras
Presidency.

Johnson, Mangalaraj J. (1976): Forest Re-
sources of Ramanathapuram District A Quantita-
tive assessment.

— — (1977a) : Forest Re-

persal at right places during the right season,
germination and establishment are sequence
of factors over which we can have no com-
mand. However conditions, extant and obvi-
ously congenial for the propagation of sandal-
wood can be maintained. There appears to
be no exclusive preference of birds towards
sandal fruits. So occurrence of other fruiting
trees and shrubs, which may not be of any eco-
nomic importance may have to be left. Creation
of sandalwood patches amid other plantations of
longer rotation may enable extensive establish-
ment in due course. Depending on local con-
ditions the distribution pattern of sandalwood
trees can be planned, to a limited extent.

I am thankful to Thiru T. Achuya I.F.S.,
Chief Conservator of Forests for the interest
evinced and general encouragement given to
me.

J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON

EN CES

sources of Trichirapally District. A Quantitative
Assessment.

(1977b): Manage-
ment Plan of Mundanthurai.

Prater, S. H. (1965): The book of Indian Ani-
mals. Bombay Natural History Society.

Scott, Thomas G. (1958) : The Ornithologists
responsibility to the future. In Readings in Wildlife
Conservation. The Wildlife Society (1974) U.S.

Ripley, Sidney Dillon II (1961) : A synopsis
of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural
History Society.

Troup, R. S. (1921) : The Silviculture of Indian
Trees Vol. VI.

Venkataraman, S. V. (1957): Lectures Notes on
the Silviculture of species.

675

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

18. REDISCOVERY OF THE FOREST CANE TURTLE, HEOSEMYS
(GEOEMYDA) S1LVATICA (REPTILIA, TESTUDINATA,
EMYDIDAE) FROM CHALAKUDY FORESTS IN KERALA

During a recently conducted search for
Heosemys silvatica (Henderson 1912) a single
specimen was found in the Chalakudy forests
of Kerala State after a period of 70 years.
The forest cane turtle or choorel amai, as it
is called by tribals was first discovered by Dr.
Henderson in 1912 when two male Heosemys
silvatica were found in the Kavalai area about
1500 ft high in the Chalakudy forests (Smith
1931). A subsequent search for the turtle
proved unsuccessful. (Groombridge, in prep.).

Heosemys silvatica is a small, little known
turtle, which is entirely terrestrial. All the
known specimens have been found at an alti-
tude of above 1000 ft in the rain forests of
the Western ghats within Kerala State.

‘Ponna’ ( Dillenia pentagyna), Cordia obliqua,
and fallen jack fruits ( Artocarpus integrifolia) .
It does not frequent water, usually concealing
itself under reed bamboo groves, fallen logs,
rock crevices and similar dark recesses.

In the specimen of Heosemys silvatica col-
lected, the head is an attractive red colour —
the region around the iris within the
eye also being red, the jaw-line is pale
yellow, the neck is deep brown, limbs and
tail are pale brown. The carapace is orangish,
the scutes being slightly imbricate. The plas-
tron is yellow with two irregular brown patches
placed on the bridge. The head is large and
the upper and lower jaws are deeply hooked.
There is a small 2 mm long scaly protrube-

Measurements (in mm) of Heosemys ( Geoemyda ) silvatica
(Henderson 1912)

Carapace

Carapace

Plastron

Plastron

Shell

Forelobe

Bridge

Hindlobe

length

width

length

width

height

length

length

length

Total length: 129.2

93.5

108.0

77.0

45.0

45.5

46.0

38.0

Notch to notch: 127.2

—

118.5

—

—

Curve: 137.0

117.0

124.0

86.0

—

According to the tribals, the cane turtles are
not common as the Travancore tortoises Geo -
chelone travancorica (Boulenger 1907) which
shares the same habitat. The specimen col-
lected was found by using native hunting dogs
by the tribals. This small turtle is much re-
lished by them for its flesh.

This terrestrial emydine is herbivorous in
diet, reportedly feeding on fallen fruits of

ranee on the hind feet which might be sexually
diagnostic.

In captivity the turtle is generally inactive
during the day, while it feeds and moves in
the dark. It is suspected to be crepuscular in
its activities in nature. It feeds on fruits and
greens.

According to one source 2 eggs were found
within a female. Eggs are deposited in small
cavity on the ground.

676

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Research Associate, J. VIJAYA

Madras Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu,

September 16, 1982.

Referen ces

Groombridge, B. (in preparation) : Red Data Vijaya, J. (1982) : Rediscovery of the Forest

Book, Reptilia and Amphibia. Cane Turtle ( Hoesemys silvatica) of Kerala.

Smith, M. A. (1931): Fauna of British India Hamadryad. Sept. 7: (3): 2-3.
including Ceylon and Burma, vol. I.

19. BEHAVIOUR OF THE MALE GHARIAL DURING THE
NESTING AND POST-HATCHING PERIOD

Introduction

During the first captive breeding of the
gharial in 1980 (Bustard & Maharana 1980)
observations were recorded on the behaviour
of the male during nesting and incubation and
also following hatching of the young. These
data provide comparison with observations re-
corded elsewhere on other species of croco-
dilians. Del Toro (1969) and Hunt (1969),
both reported on parental care in Caiman
crocodilus . Del Toro stated that the male and
female remained near the nest all the time
permitting no one to approach. The male took
the main defensive role. Both individuals
watched the nest and its surroundings even
when in the water. The male opened the nest
and liberated the hatchlings while the female
remained in the water calling to the young.
Hunt noted that humans approaching the nest
were not attacked. Both male and female oc-
cupied an area next to the nest by day and
often the male guarded the nest at night.
Neither parent opened the nest in response to
croaking of the young. Hunt (1975) noted for
Crocodylus moreleti that the mother crocodile
chased other crocodiles except the dominant

male away from the hatchlings, and that the
dominant male chased all other crocodiles (in
this mixed species display) except the two
female moreleti out of the water but he allow-
ed the hatchlings to bask on his back. Lever
(1975) stated that in C. porosus the male
assisted in nest defence in captivity and Lever
and Balson (1978) recorded in C. novae gui-
neae that the male also helped to open the
nest at hatching time and also picked up
hatchlings in his jaws for transportation from
the nest to the water.

Materials and Methods

Observations were recorded on the beha-
viour of a 3.8 m male gharial which had
mated with a 3.17 m female gharial housed
in an ideal breeding enclosure (Bustard &
Maharana, in press), the pool of which mea-
sured 59.5 m x 29.7 m x 9.1 m in maximum
depth.

Results

1 . At time of trial nesting :

During the pre-nesting season, when the
female emerged during the night to dig trial

677

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

nests, the male gharial was sometimes observ-
ed in the water near the edge of the pool
adjacent to the area where the female was
digging.

2. When the female defended her nest
(against humans) :

When the research staff approached the
nesting sandbank, the female gharial immedia-
tely emerged from the water and approached
the nest. At such times, if the male noticed
this behaviour of the female, he swam to the
edge adjacent to the pool where he kept
watch.

Shortly before the eggs were due to hatch,
the nest was excavated and 15 of the 25 eggs
laid were removed for hatchery incubation. In
order to prevent disturbance by the female
during this operation, the water level in the
pool was reduced by 1 m and staff were posted
at the adjacent side of the pool to prevent
the female emerging. During the entire opera-
tion, the female remained at this area, periodi-
cally trying to emerge, and the male also
came to this edge of the pool. At no time
during this operation or during the operation
described above, did the male emerge from the
water.

3. At the time of opening the nest :

The role of the male, if any, at the time
of opening the nest by the female is not known
as the actual nest opening was not observed.

4. At the time of post-hatching parental care :

The male contributed to post-hatching

parental care by his periodic presence with the
hatchling group. However, he at no time assist-
ed the female in chasing away the other five
adult /subadult female members of the group.
The mother gharial did not tolerate other
members of the group approaching the area
of the pool where she remained with the
hatchlings.

The hatchlings emerged from the nest on the
morning of 7th May 1980. On 12 May 1980
the male was first observed to show an active
interest in the hatchlings. The following obser-
vations were recorded :

1010 hours :

The male approached the female/ hatchl-
ing group and came close to the hatchlings
some of which were attempting to climb
onto the female’s back. The female showed
no response to the male’s close approach,
in marked contrast to the behaviour exhibit-
ed towards any other members of the gharial
group to approach this area of the pool
which were chased off. A hatchling climbed
onto the base of the male’s tail and crawled
up to bask on his back. The individual was
followed by two further hatchlings, one of
which basked on his head and the other on
his back. The male cruised slowly towards
the middle of the pool with the hatchlings
basking on his body and returned to the
location of the female and the remaining
hatchlings :

Similar observations were observed ex-
tending over 15 minutes from 1620 hours.

13th May

At 0600 hours the male approached the
female and hatchlings and floated near them.
Two hatchlings climbed onto his head and
back and three more floated near him in the
water.

When the male came to the area of the
female and hatchlings at 0700 hours several
hatchlings climbed onto his back and head.

At 0745 hours, the male was carrying one
hatchling on his back. The other five gharial
remained at the opposite end of the pool.
The male was observed visiting the female/
hatchlings later in the morning and again
in the afternoon.

678

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Similar observations were observed on 14
May and again on 15 May when both the
mother and the male were providing bask-
ing sites for the hatchlings on their heads
and backs between 0900 and 1100 hours
and again between 1300 and 1700 hours.

17th May

At 1700 when male approached the hatchl-
ings, the mother gharial was lying outside
the pool on the sand under the tree. Three
hatchlings climbed onto his head and back.
He remained with the hatchlings for 10
minutes.

18th May

At 1100 hours the male came to the group
and three hatchlings basked on his back.
Again at 1400 hours the male floated near
the mother and some hatchlings came to the
male and climbed onto his head and back.
Other hatchlings were basking on the
mother’s back.

19th May

When the male came to the group at 0900
hours he gathered the hatchlings together
by placing his body between them and the
edge of the pool and slowly moving them
backwards. This action, frequently seen by
the female serves to aggregate the hatchlings.
This is the only time that the male was
observed to do this. He then floated with
them for five minutes, with three hatchlings
basking on his back, then returned to his
favourite basking site in shallow water at
the other end of the pool. After a further
five minutes he returned to float near the
mother and the hatchlings climbed onto his
back and remained there for one and a half
hours.

At 1600 hours the male again returned

to the group and he floated with hatchlings
on his head and back.

20th May

At 0900 hours the male came to the group
and three hatchlings rode on his back. This
was repeated at 1400 hours when two hatch-
lings rode on his back and head.

Similar observations were recorded during
the period 21-30 May but at a lower inten-
sity. Since this was equally true of the
mother, it would appear that the constant
protection afforded the hatchlings group by
the female was waning, and with it the
attention of the male.

Discussion

The male gharial played no part in nest-
guarding unlike the observations recorded by
both del Toro and Hunt for Caiman crocody-
lus and Lever (1975) for C. porosus. However,
this behaviour agrees with that reported by
Whitaker and Whitaker (1977) for the Indian
mugger ( Crocodylus palustris). Nor did the
male gharial take part in nest opening, as des-
cribed by del Toro (1969) for Caiman croco-
dylus and Lever and Balson (1978) for C.
novaeguineae. However, the male gharial’s
role with the young is closely paralleled by the
descriptions given by Hunt (1975) for C.
moreleti.

It is noteworthy both that the male gharial
showed interest in the hatchling group and
that the brood-guarding mother allowed the
male to closely approach the hatchlings and
carry them on his back, observations parallel-
ed by Hunt (1975) for Crocodilus moreleti.
Similarly other members of the gharial group
were not tolerated near the hatchlings.
However, at other times all members of the
group are extremely tolerant towards each
other.

679

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

It is not known how far captive observa-
tions such as these can be extrapolated to
nature. To date we know of no data demon-
strating parental care by any male crocodilian
in the wild other than the vigorous response
shown by crocodilians of both sexes to the
distress call of hatchlings. However, in the
relatively confined space available in captivity
as demonstrated above and also by del Toro
(1969), Hunt (1969, 1973, 1975), Lever (1975)
and Lever and Balson (1978), the male may
share parental care duties with the female.

There may be considerable interspecific dif-
ferences in parental care behaviour by either
sex. This is strongly indicated for instance for
C. porosus in the wild (Kar 1981) and by the
differing parental care profiles of the two pairs
of Caiman crocodylus reported on by del Toro
(1969) and Hunt (1969).

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P. O. Barang 754 005,

Cuttack,

Orissa.

Central Crocodile Breeding and

Management Training Institute,

19-4-319 Lake Dale,

Rajendranagar Road,

Hyderabad 500 264,

July 1, 1981.

Refei

Bustard, H. R. & Choudhury. B. C. (1980):
Parental care in the saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus
porosus Schneider) and management implications.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77 (1) : 64-69.

Bustard, H. R. & Maharana, S. (1980): First
captive breeding of the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus).
Brit. J. Herpetol. 6(3) : 106.

— — (in press).

First captive breeding of the gharial ( Gavialis gan-
geticus) (Reptilia, Crocodilia). Interl. Zoo Year-
book.

Hunt, R. H. (1969): Breeding of spectacled cai-

As discussed by Bustard and Choudhury
(1980) parental care, which clearly has sur-
vival value is also limited by the ability of
the mother to efficiently protect the typically
large hatchling brood. Any part of the paren-
tal care burden shared by the male, therefore,
will further increase the survival value of
parental care.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

We acknowledge facilities provided by the
Orissa State Forest Department and the oppor-
tunity for one of us (S.M.) to carry out this
research. Thanks are also due to the research
staff of the Nandankanan Crocodile Project:
Sri Narayana Sahoo, Rabinarayan Sahoo, and
Mangu Munda.

S. MAHARANA

H. R. BUSTARD

EN C ES

man ( Caiman c. crocodylus) at Atlanta Zoo. Interl.
Zoo. Yearbook 9: 36-37.

(1973) : Breeding Morelet’s Croco-
dile at Atlanta Zoo. Inter!. Zoo. Yearbook 13: 103-
105.

(1975) : Maternal behaviour in the

morelet’s crocodile Crocodylus moreleti. Copeia 1975
(4): 763-4.

Kar, S. K. (1981) : Studies on the saltwater cro-
codile ( Crocodylus porosus Schneider). Ph.D. Thesis
submitted to Utkal University.

Toro, M. A. del (1969): Breeding the spectacled

680

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

caiman at Tuxtla Guttierrej Zoo. Interl. Zoo. Year-
book 9: 35-36.

Lever, J. (1975) : Behaviour of Crocodylus poro-
sus — Defence of nest. Privately circulated infor-
mation.

Lever, J. & Balson, E. (1978) : Excavation of

nest by C. novaguineae. FAO/UNDP Project of the
Government of New Guinea “Assistance to the
Crocodile Industry”.

Whitaker, R. E. & Whitaker, Z. (1977): Notes
on captive breeding in mugger ( Crocodylus palus-
tris). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (1) : 228-231.

20. GROWTH AND BEHAVIOUR OF A BLIND GHARIAL
GA VI A LIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)

(With a text-figure)

Introduction

During the operation of a large-scale con-
servation programme for the gharial, we have
incubated 1062 eggs collected from the Nara-
yani and Kali rivers in Nepal and the Chambal
river in Madhya Pradesh. Occurrence of eye
defects, among a total of twelve types of con-
genital defects, was the most common for
eggs collected from the Narayani-Kali-Gandaki
rivers originating in Nepal (Singh and Bustard,
in prepn.). The various eye defects ranged
from simple defects relating only to ciliary
muscles to complete absence of one, or more
commonly, both eyes. Seven embryos deve-
loped without eyes four of which were found
dead in the egg. In addition one embryo deve-
loped with only the left eye present. The indi-
vidual reported on here is the only one to have
survived. The present paper discusses the case
history of the only surviving blind gharial, in
particular its growth and behaviour from its
hatching in June 1975 to January 1981 a period
of about 6 years.

Materials and Methods

The individual reported on here hatched
from one of seventy-two eggs collected imme-
diately following laying and incubated in hat-
chery conditions described by Singh (1978) and

Bustard and Singh (in prep.). Besides 40 nor-
mal young, one young with defective umbilical
constriction, and two, one dead and the other
alive, with complete absence of eyes, were sur-
gically removed from their eggs by the second
author on 23rd June 1975 after a period of
76 days incubation. The surviving blind hatch-
ling was the heaviest of the brood with a
hatching weight of 94.8 g and length 36.0 cm
against a mean weight of 75.3 g and length
of 35.8 cm (N = 40). It had a normal amount
of residual yolk. Along with the normal hatch-
lings the blind hatchling was reared under
simulated natural conditions in captivity at the
Gharial Research and Conservation Unit,
Tikerpada. The normal rearing techniques are
described by Bustard (in FAO 1975) and
Singh (1978). The blind gharial was always
kept in the same pool with its own hatch-
mates, ten in number, and trained to accept
food from the hand (‘hand-fed’) from the age
of three months. (In force-feeding the food is
introduced into the mouth and pushed towards
the throat when normal swallowing takes
place) .

Observations

1. Swimming : The blind gharial perform-
ed typical gharial swimming behaviour using
the tail aided by the hind limbs. A peculiarity

681

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

observed, however, was that it often showed
a circular swimming pattern as if moving
around a central point. There was no indica-
tion of any preference for clock or anti-
clockwise movement.

2. Hauling out and basking : Hauling out
of the water was extremely rare during the
non-winter season and when it did emerge it
usually basked on the half submerged pool
wall or branches of aquatic plants. When it
hauled out of the pool, it usually kept a foot

or the tip of the tail dipped into the water
like a temperature sink in thermoregulating
gharial (Singh 1978).

3. Feeding : As a supplementary diet, com-
mencing about a month after hatching, it was
‘force fed’ daily with one or two stunned fish
of suitable size. When it and its pool mates
were ‘hand-fed’ it exhibited normal behaviou-
ral displays including responding to the sound
of water splashing in a bucket of fish and
opening the jaws when a fish was thrown

Table 1

Measurements of the blind Gharial
(Length in mm and weight in kg)

Date

Snout

Snout vent

Tail

Total body length

Weight

23.6.1975

167

193

360

0.095

21.7.1975

50.0

179

218

397

0.090

21.6.1976

111.0

341

382

723

0.580

(1 year)
7.6.1977

155.0

472

505

977

1.550

(2 years)
10.7.1978

195.0

630

685

1315

5.000

(3 years)
17.7.1979

250.0

840

780

1620

10.2

(4 years)
16.6.1980
(5 years)

280.0

950

910

1860

15.4

Table 2

Measurements for normal Gharial
(Length in mm and weight in kg)

Date

Snout

Snout vent

Tail

Total body length

Weight

Hatchling

29.7

164.8

193.0

357.9

0.075

1 year

125

517

500

1017

1.9

2 years

180

738

682

1420

6.9

3 years

252

1086

1010

2096

23.9

4 years

302

1368

1108

2476

48.9

5 years

326

1538

1250

2788

71.8

682

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

kgW

-L. L

-1— L

/

r '

4-

3-

2*

1-

By,*/

/

/

Btbl/

/ ^ -

TBL^'

*■

/

/ /*'
I /

I '

« /

I /

i

0-* r^— *“

/

/

/

/

/ '

s

xlOcmTBL

T 1 T —7 5 1 T"

11 13 15 17 19 21 23

A i — r

27 29 31

Fig. 1. Comparison of growth in total body length (TBL) and weight (W) between
the blind gharial (B) and normal gharial (N) over the first five years of life.

near it. It was further noted that its sense
of touch and hearing were even better deve-
loped than the already well developed condi-
tion in normal animals.

4. Social relation with other animals : All
its pool-mates, though of similar age soon out-
grew it, yet they appeared to be tolerant of
the blind individual even at the time of feed-
ing. If it came towards them they preferred
to move aside. Similarly, at the time of haul-
ing out, basking and surfacing, if it climbed
over the body of others, they did not object.
Furthermore, on no occasion have the normal
animals been seen to victimise or even show

their ‘playful snout-stroking’ behaviour (Singh
1978) towards it.

5. Growth : Five years’ growth data for the
blind gharial is presented in Table 1 and for
normal gharial in Table 2. As indicated in the
Tables, the blind gharial’s growth was slow
in comparison to normal animals. The growth
in weight and length for the blind gharial com-
pared to normal individuals is shown diagra-
matically in Figure 1. However, at no time
was it underweight with respect to its length.

Discussion

The cause of death of the other blind indi-
viduals is not known. The other two without

683

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

eyes died after nine days and one month
respectively and the one-eyed individual died
after twenty days. These individuals were of
normal size or slightly smaller.

We are likewise unable to explain the slower
growth of the surviving individual whose
weight in proportion to its length has been
normal throughout (Figure 1). There would
appear to be deleterious side effects to blind-
ness quite apart from the inability of such
individuals to emerge from the eggs unaided.

We consider the reason for keeping a foot
or the tip of the tail in the water when it
hauled out on the pool perimeter was to guide

Gharial Research and Conservation Unit,
Tikerpada 759 122, Orissa.

Central Crocodile Breeding & Management
Training Institute, Hyderabad 500 264,
June 22, 1981.

it back to the water since experiments indicat-
ed that once removed from the immediate
vicinity of the pool it could relocate it only
by trial and error movements.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We wish to express our thanks to Orissa
Forest Department, Government of India,
F.A.O. and U.N.D.P for assistance during the
study. LAKS is Research Officer, Orissa Forest
Department and HRB, Chief Technical Advi-
ser to Government of India, Crocodile Breed-
ing and Management Project.

L. A. K. SINGH
H. R. BUSTARD

References

FAO (1975) : Gharial and crocodile conservation Singh, L. A. K. (1978) : Ecological Studies on
management in Orissa, India. (Based on the work the Indian Gharial [Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)]
of H. R. Bustard). FO: IND/71/033. December, (Reptilia, Crocodilia). Ph.D. Thesis Utkal Univer-
1975. FAO Rome. sity, Orissa.

21. TRAP USED FOR CATCHING A MUGGER ( CROCODYLUS
PALUSTRIS) FROM NATURE

{With three text-figures)

I NTRODU CTION

Between 1977 and 1979, during the breed-
ing season, a female mugger of the Satkoshia
Gorge, River Mahanadi, Orissa showed strong
sexual attraction towards captive males at the
Gharial Research and Conservation Unit
(GRACU) which is situated on the banks of
the river. On 31 Jan. 1979, the mugger was
sighted near the mugger enclosure of GRACU

at mid-night. She was surrounded from all
sides with suitable strawed-bamboo mat
covers, and then skilfully directed into the
muggei enclosure. On August 4, 1980 she broke
through the wiremesh wall of the enclosure and
returned back to the river. Data collected to
this stage have been reported earlier in Singh
1979 and Singh (in press).

During 1980 post-monsoon she again dis-
played a behaviour suggesting her intention

684

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

hill

Fig. 1. Ground plan of the Mugger enclosure at GRACU, over which the trap was
designed to catch the female mugger from nature. AB, plane through which section
have been taken for Fig. 2. D, door.

685

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

to enter into the enclosure where captive male
muggers had still remained. This situation de-
manded the design of a trap to catch her,
because waiting to see her near the enclosure
and then to catch her was extremely difficult,
though not impossible. Earlier experience was
that when we wait for her to climb the banks
and come near the enclosure, she would not
do so, perhaps because she was able to detect
our presence.

Conditions of the Trap

Any live trap would require a precise
knowledge of the behaviour of the animal to
be trapped, which was well studied in the pre-
sent case. The work of trapping was facilitat-
ed because the female came near the enclosure
and searched for a way into the enclosure.
The males in the enclosure were the source
of attraction for the female. The requirement
in designing the trap, therefore, was to pro-
vide a passage into the enclosure which could
not be used by those inside to come out. The
other requirement was to trap the female
unhurt.

Trap Design

The enclosure in which the male muggers
were housed (Fig. 1) was of 16 x 14 m area
with two small pools and one large pool. Only
the pool area with near by basking areas was
provided with a roof cover, the rest was open.

Over a surface of 2.5 x 1 m the lower sheet
of wiremesh was removed from the front wall
of the enclosure facing the river. The removed
sheet was folded inside over a bamboo-frame
platform, held from the roof of the enclosure
by strong wire tied at two points, and sup-
ported from the bottom by strong poles. The
inside edge of the platform remained hanging
over the water surface of the large pool at a
height of 1.5 m from water. The outer edge
of the platform, now standing on the outer
massonry wall, 0.35 cm high, of the enclosure
was provided with a gentle slope of sand
levelling down to the ground. On the plat-
form light leafy branches were spread with
straw and covered with a 10 cm thick layer
of earth (Fig. 2).

During February 1931 the female mugger

686

Fig. 2. Vertical section along A-B plane (Fig. 1) to show the design of the trap.
P, platform; W, wire holding the platform to roof ot the enclosure.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

entered through the trap and fell into the
pool, to be detected by the staff of the Unit
later.

Discussion

In crocodile management catching a croco-
dile unhurt may be required at times. For
example, situations may arise to catch a male
or a female to support captive breeding, or
to catch and remove a nuisance crocodile
from the natural population. Live capture
techniques have been described in the litera-
ture for the American Alligator ( Alligator
mississippiensis) by Chabreck (1965), Jones
(1968), and Murphy and Findley (1973), and
for the Saltwater Crocodile ( Crocodylus poro-
sus) by Webb and Messel (1977).

The live-capture technique described in
the present paper was for a specific
situation, where enclosures were present on
the river bank, the males acted as the ‘bait’
and the female from nature was only search-
ing a way into the enclosure. The requirement
was to provide a one-way passage. However,
the technique can be suitably modified for
use in the field in catching crocodiles which
come out of water being attracted towards a
putrifying food bait. Such a design is
made in Fig. 3 and is open for testing.

Fig. 3. Proposed design of a ‘trap’ to catch Mugger
and Saltwater Crocodile in the wild. B, bait (e.g.,
food like goat intestine or any other meat) ; F, fence
to direct the crocodile; N, a bag-like net held from
the tree and spread at the bottom of the artificial
pool (W). The opening into the net is fastened at
W-end of P. the platform originating from the main
water source.

Once the crocodile is known to have entered into
the net, it can be untied from the tree and closed
at its mouth fastened near P to be finally pulled out
of water.

Acknowledgements

I thank, the Government of Orissa (Forest
Department), Government of India, F.A.O. and
U.N.D.P. and the staff at the Gharial Research
and Conservation Unit, in particular, Sri D. K.
Sahoo and Sri I. C. Sahoo, Research Assistants,
for their help.

Gharial Research and Conservation L. A. K. SINGH1

Unit,

Tikerpada 759 122,

May 31, 1982.

References

Chabreck, R. H. (1965) : Methods of capturing, used to capture and tag alligators in Florida. Proc.
marking and sexing alligators. Proc. 17th Annu. 19 th Annu. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm.
Conf. S.E. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm. 17: 47-50. 19: 98-101.

Jones, F. K. jr. (1968): Techniques and methods

1 Present address: Govt, of India, Central Croco-
dile Breeding and Management Training Institute,

19-4- 319? Lake Dale. Bahadurpura, Hydera-
bad-500264. India.

687

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Murphy, T. M. jr. and Fendley, T. T. (1973) :
A new technique for live trapping nuisance alliga-
tors. Proc. Annu. 21th Conf. S.E. Assoc. Game and
Fish Comm. 27: 308-311.

Singh, L. A. K (1979): Sexual attraction of a
wild mugger ( Crocodylus palustris Lesson) toward
captive muggers. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 76(1):
167-172.

(in press) : The Indian Mugger,

Crocodylus palustris Lesson (Reptilia, Crocodilia) :
Observations on the behaviour of a female from
nature. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Webb, G. J. W. and Messel, H. (1977): Croco-
dile capture techniques. J. Wildl. Manage. 41 ( 3):
572-575.

22. SEX1NG AND SEX RATIOS OF GHARIAL ( GAVIALIS
GANGETICUS) RAISED IN CAPTIVITY

(With a plate & a text -figure )

I NTRODU CTION

Determination of the sex of individual ani-
mals and the sex ratios of populations is an
important tool in the study and management
of Crocodilians. A pot like ‘ghara’ or narial
excresence on the snout tip of adult male
gharial distinguishes them from females, but
otherwise sex of Crocodilians cannot be dis-
tinguished from external features. Therefore
probing of the cloaca and examination of the
penial /clitoral organ, hereafter referred to as
the sex organ, is the only method of identi-
fying the sex of individual crocodiles.

Whitaker et al. (in litt.) on the basis of
cloacal probing of 20 gharial between 1 to 3 m
in length state that it is difficult to sex
gharial under 2 m in length. They further
point out that a 2.7 m long male gharial 18
years of age had a penis only a few cm long
and conclude that the sexual development of
gharial is considerably slower than in other
Crocodilians. M. V. Subba Rao (1981) states
that the sex of gharial may be distinguished
by cloacal probing if a minimum limit of 75
cm for total body length is observed while
sexing gharial. V. B. Singh (1979) has re-
ported on the sex ratios of gharial observed
in nature.

At the Gharial Rehabilitation Centre at
Kukrail near Lucknow, sexing of juvenile

gharial hatched from eggs collected from the
Chambal river and reared at the centre, was
done by probing of the cloaca on animals
upto 4 years of age. After initial difficulty in
unambiguously distinguishing the sex of ani-
mals, it was observed that in relation to the
total body length, gharial displayed discretely
differential development of the sex organ. This
paper describes the basis for sex distinction
in cloacal probing of juvenile gharial and sex
ratios determined in different age classes of
captive raised juveniles. Production of diffe-
rent sexes in Crocodilians has been discussed
in light of sex ratios of captive and wild popu-
lations reported for other Crocodilian species.

Methods

Probing of the cloaca and extrusion of the
sex organ was done with the little finger of
the right hand. Prior to probing the finger
was neatly manicured and the hand of the
examiner and the cloacal vent of the gharial
was cleaned and freed of sand particles by
washing with a solution of potassium per-
manganate. Vaseline was used in cases to faci-
litate probing. The sex organ which lies for-
ward of the anterior extremity of the cloacal
vent was located and extruded by the finger
to reveal it’s floral tip for examination.

The sex of the animal was then distinguish-
ed on the basis of appearance of the sex organ

688

J, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 79

Lai & Basu : Gavialis gangeticus

Plate I

Above : View of an extruded female clitoral organ.
Below : View of an extruded male penial organ.

EXTRUDIBLE LENGTH OF SEX ORGAN IN MMS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

30 -
28 -
26 -

ff

22 -
20 -
I 8 -
16 -
14 -
12 -
10 -

8 -
6 -

$

?

s <f <#

9

4

4 999 9

9 99

9 9 9

? *

? W ? ? ?

? f? ?

? ? ?

? ?

4

9

?

? 9

? ?

9 9 9

9

0 L — 1_ ! — — . 1 . i ^ 1 . i . i . i i i 1 1 1 1— — 1 —

90 100 NO 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

total body length of gharial sexed IN CMS.

Fig. 1. Relationship of total body length of gharial to penial /clitoral organ length
in different sexes.

(length, thickness and floral tip development).
This fell into two broad categories illustrated
in plate 1. The total body length of the gharial
and the length of the exposed portion of the

sex organ, after manipulating for maximum
extrusibility were then recorded. The extrusi-
ble length of the sex organ was plotted against
total body length (figure 1).

689

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Table 1

Year

Number Number of

Number of

PercentageNumber

Percen-

Number

Percen-

Male is to

hatch-

of clutches

eggs

Gharial

survival

of

tage of

of

tage of

female

ing

collected

collected

surviving
at the time

males

males

females

females

ratio

of sexing

1976

6

225

190

84.4

52

27.4

138

72.6

1 : 2 . 65

1977

12

513

282

55.0

187

66.3

95

33.7

1:0.51

Results

Cloacal probing was not possible in a group
of gharial below 80 cm in length (average
length 80 cm), as the size of the cloacal vent
did not permit insertion of the finger without
causing great inconvenience or fear of injury
to the animal. The length of the smallest
gharial whose cloaca could be successfully
probed was 96 cm and the length of sex organ
in this case was 5 mm. Of the 81 gharial whose
sex organs were measured, the mean extru-
sible length of 27 gharial distinguished as
males was 17.1 mm (mean total body length
144.53 cm), while the mean extrusible length
of the sex organ of 54 gharial distinguished
as females was 6.9 mm (mean total body
length 147.23 cm). See also fig. 1. The per-
centage constituents of different sexes and the
sex ratios of two successive age classes are
given in Table 1.

Discussion

The incubation of gharial eggs collected from
the Chambal river for hatching at the Gharial
Rehabilitation Center, Kukrail is generally
semi -completed (40 out of total 60-65 incu-
bation days) in situ and the development of
male and female embryos may be assumed to
be the same as that in nature. Singh (1979)

reported a male to female ratio of 1:2 in
the Chambal river and 1:4.5 in the Girwa
river for wild adult gharial. Although the
above figures deal with extremely small rem-
nant populations they imply that greater num-
bers of females are produced in nature and /
or survive to adulthood. This is in agreement
with the observed proportion of females
hatched from eggs at Kukrail in 1976 (72.6%),
see Table 1.

The greater proportion (66.3%) of males
observed among gharial hatched from eggs
in 1977 may be due to sex-specific mortality
among the females of that year. Of the gharial
hatched in 1977 only 55% were surviving at
the time of sexing, as compared to 84.4% of
gharial of the 1976 batch which were surviv-
ing at the time of sexing.

Among other crocodilians Kar and Bustard
(1980) have reported production of extremely
high proportion of females for Crocodylus
porosus hatched in captivity. The male to
female ratio observed by them in two succes-
sive age classes were 0:100 and 1:13.66 res-
pectively. Cott (1961) quoted in Turner (1977),
judged the male to female ratio of Croco-
dylus niloticus as 1:1 on the basis of a collec-
tion of 324 males and 327 females while
Chabreck (1966) also quoted in Turner (1977)
states that a surplus of males seem to be typi-
cal of all size classes in alligator population.

690

MISCELLANEOUS A OTES

on the basis of sex determination of 186 alliga-
tors killed at random by hunters (60.8% males)
in one instance and of 46 adults (60.1% males)
in another instance. However Turner (1977)
comments that Chabreck’s above observation
may be biased in favour of males which were
selectively killed, as “females in captivity were
extremely timid and rarely seen except dur-
ing courtship and nesting periods”, Joanen and
McNease (1971), quoted in Turner (1977).

It has been hypothesized for turtles that
embryonic production of sexes is co-related to
incubation temperatures (reference not aavil-

Divisional Forest Officer,

National Chambal Sanctuary Project,

13 La j pat Rai Marg,

Lucknow-226 001.

Surveyor,

Gharial Rehabilitation Project,

Kukrail Manoranjan Van,

Ghazipur, Lucknow 226 010,

October 1, 1981.

R E F E ]

Kar, S. K. and Bustard, H. R. (1980) : Sexing
of the Crocodiles in Captivity. Indian Forester, Vol.
106, No. 8.

Singh, V. B. (1979) : The Status of the Gharial
(Gavialis gangeticus ) in U.P. and it’s Rehabilitation.
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3) : 668-683.

able with the authors) and this may also be
true for Crocodilians, but a relevant question
which emerges in this context is whether evo-
lutionary selection has opted for selective pro-
duction of males or females. Either case may
have it’s own survival significance. Production
of greater numbers of females will result in
optimum utilisation of available habitat by the
polygamous Crocodilians in terms of returns
in off-spring production, while production of
greater numbers of males will ensure fertiliza-
tion of all available females.

SHYAM LAL

D. BASU

ENCES

Subba Rao, M. V. (1981) : Sex determination in
living Crocodilians. Tigerpaper, Vol. 8, No. 1.

Turner, Fredric B. (1977): The Dynamics of
Populations of Squamates, Crocodilians and Rhyn-
chocephalians. Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 7, Aca-
demic Press, London.

23. GECKO FEEDING ON A MOUSE

Our bungalow in the scrub-jungle is inha-
bited by a number of large geckoes ( Hemi -
dactylus leschenaulti) , and one evening about
8 p.m. I observed a large gecko (about 5 in-
ches in total length), in our kitchen, snatching
by its head, a young mouse ( Mus musculus )
(about l\ inches in total length), running on
the rafters. It then started hitting the mouse
against the wall repeatedly, very much as it

does with cockroaches or other insects, or as
some birds do with their live-prey. At the same
time, the gecko squeezed the head of the mouse
within its mouth, and waited for a long time,
till I presume, life was extinct in the mouse.
It then started swallowing the mouse, head
first and took nearly 15 minutes to swallow
the whole lot, as slowly as a python does.

691

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

5, College Estate,

Madras Christian College,

Tambaram, Madras 600 059,

August 21, 1979.

24. A NEW RECORD OF SALMO
GORINDSAGAR

The fish fauna of Gobindsagar and its asso-
ciated waters has been described by various
workers Bhatnagar (1973), Tilak & Hussain
(1977), Sehgal (1974), and Sharma et cd.
(unpublished) but occurrence of trout has not
been reported from this reservoir. Observation
on occasional occurrence of this species in the
reservoir after 1977 were made in 6th Work-
shop Report. However the first confirmed re-
cord of Salmo trutta jario Linn. (T. L. 280
mm; T. W. 250 gm.) was from Damera Ghat,
in Lathiani area, in April 1981, and another
weighing 2.250 kg, caught in 155 mm mesh
size gillnet near Berighat at Bilaspur, giving
credence to the information about stray occur-
rence after construction of the Beas-Sutlej link.
The specimen obtained from Lathiani had the
following characteristics :

Fin formula: D. 12 (3/9); A. 10 (3/7);
P. 14; V. 9 (1/8); C. 18. Total length: 290
mm; Weight: 250 gm; Standard length: 253
mm; Furcal length: 273 mm.

Reservoir Fisheries Project,

Central Inland Fisheries,

Bilaspur (H.P.) 174 001,

October 19, 1981.

Refer

Anon. (1980): 6th Workshop Report, All India
Co-ord. Research Project on Ecology and fisheries
of fresh water reservoirs, held at Simla on 25 & 26
Nov. 1980.

Bhatnagar, G. K. (1973) : J. Inland Fish. Soc.
India. 5: 135.

Sehgal, K. L. (1974): Fisheries survey of Hima-
chal Pradesh and some adjacent areas with special

STEPHEN SUMITHRAN

TRUTTA FARIO LINN. FROM
RESERVOIR

Sutlej has trout streams (Baspa) and is
serviced by trout hatchery (Sangla), but trout
were never caught below Rampur. There was
no report of trout from this reservoir which
came into existence in 1964 after construction
of dam at Bhakra; or till the Beas-Sutlej Link
canal, completed in 1977, bringing water of
Beas river in considerable quantity from
Pandoh reservoir. Beas river has extensive

trout streams in its course, besides Pandoh
reservoir itself yielding considerable quantity
of trout every year, from its inception; besides
it is serviced by two hatcheries (Katrain and
Patlikuhl or Naggar). This suggests the possi-
bility of trout entering Gobindsagar from the
river Beas through the Beas-Sutlej Link. Which
ever may be the source, its occurrence in

Gobindsagar, that too in Lathiani area
(Lunkhar Khad) and Bilaspur are of interest
as the surface water temperature remained
between 24°C. and 17°C. in the area.

V. K. SHARMA

Y. RAMA RAO

E N C E S

reference to trout, Mahseer and allied species. /.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(3) : 468.

Sharma, V. K., Rama Rao, Y., Kaushal, D. K.
& Pisolkar, M. D. — A list of fishes of Gobind-
sagar reservoir of Himachal Pradesh (in press).

Tilak, R. & Husain, A. (1977): Zool. Jb. Syst.
Bd. 104 : 265.

692

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

25. RECENT RECORDS OF GARHWAL MAHSEER (TOR
PUT1TORA ) WITH A NOTE ON ITS PRESENT STATUS

( With a text-figure)

This contribution deals with the rare records
of mahseer, both past and present ones. The
latter includes 28 Kg and 23 Kg putitor mah-
seer recorded by us from the rivers Alaknanda
and Nayar, respectively. Though Tor putitora
is a game fish, in the Garhwal hills it has
achieved a commercial status. But on the
other hand gradual decline can not be totally
ruled out, attributed to its overexploitation.
We suggest induced breeding as a measure to
protect and propagate mahseer instead of
awaiting for convincing proof of its depletion.
The Central or the State Governments should
come forth with financial assistance for such
projects.

I N TROD U CTIO N

For the past one century mahseer have been
known to provide good sport. This favourite
game fish has shown a gradual decline, attri-
buted to indiscriminate fishing of broodfish and
juveniles, pollution, low fecundity, cannibalism
etc. (Raj 1945, Pathani 1977, 1978, Das &
Pathani 1978, Kulkarni & Ogale 1978, Nautiyal
& Lai, in press). The principal species inhabit-
ing the rivers and lakes of the Central and the
Western Himalayan sector are Tor putitora
(Ham.), Tor tor (Ham.) and Tor progenius
McClelland.

The Garhwal region lies in the Central
Himalayan sector and the hillstreams of this
region harbour only two species, namely Tor
putitora and Tor tor (Badola 1975). In the
present contribution we have dealt only with
Tor putitora.

One of us (P.N.) while on a collection

trip to Banghat (a fish landing centre of river
Nayar, Fig. 1) and nearby areas, collected a
number of large mahseers of which a female
specimen of Tor putitora weighed c. 23 Kg.
and measured 137.7 cm in length. Mahseer
ranging from 5 Kg to 14 Kg were commonly
landed either by angling or by gill nets (Nauti-
yal & Lai, in press) during July-September.
In fact they migrate upwards from the Ganga
to the foothill stretches to spawn in some of
its tributaries during these months. Similarly,
we have recorded heavy mahseers from the
river Alaknanda during March- April (1981)
weighing about 7.800 Kg 10.500 Kg, and
12.50 Kg. Previously, in the year 1978
a large mahseer weighing 28 Kg was also
observed by the second author (M.S.L.). It
was caught by a local angler. Besides these
records we have unconfirmed information
from the fishermen inhabiting the Nayar valley
that they landed two heavy mahseers weighing
about 52 and 38 Kgs during August, 1981. It
is obvious that giant mahseers still frequent
the hillstreams of the Garhwal Himalayas.

Present status of Garhwal mahseer

Kulkarni & Ogale (1978) have discussed
the status of mahseers and have com-
mented that sport fishing had shrunk consi-
derably in recent years and had resulted in
disappointing reports on their numbers and
size. They also reported that the status of T.
khudree was in no way better in Maharashtra
rivers like Bhima, Koyna etc. where the fish
has become a rarity. The situation is similar
in South India also. Karamchandani et al
(1967) have reported a remarkable decline in
the fishery of Tor mahseer from Narbada and

693

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

4 SHRINAGAR

Fig. 1. Map showing the rivers explored
surveyed in Pauri Garhwal District.

Tapi rivers in Madhya Pradesh. Sehgal (1972)
has assessed that in Jammu, Himachal Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh, the ascending and descend-
ing mature individuals mainly constituted the
putitor mahseer fishery. SehgaFs (1972) and
our observations tally, for in the Garhwal re-
gion of Uttar Pradesh not only the brood fish
but also the juveniles were exploited for its

and some important fish landing centres

fishery. In fact the latter constitute a major
part of the fishery, the brood fish being avail-
able for a limited period only. Thus the Garh-
wal mahseer has achieved a commercial status
in this region.

Although it seems from the recent records
of the mahseers from Nayar and Alaknanda
rivers of Garhwal Hills, that Garhwal mahseer

694

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

is biologically in a better position, it is be-
ing overexploited in this region also. We have
observed local inhabitants using destructive
fishing methods and we anticipate a fall in
population. Earlier, M. L. Mehta gave a vivid
pen picture in Times of India (6.6.1976)
of the immoral destruction of mahseer in the
rivers near Dehra Dun (U.P.). We should not
await further proof of its depletion for insti-
tuting conservation measure as then it may be
too late to undertake any rehabilitation
measures.

C/o. Shri N. M. Mishra,

Gola Bazar,

Srinagar Garhwal,

(U.P.) 246 174.

Principal Investigator (UGC Project),
Fishery Biology Research Laboratory,

Dept, of Zoology,

Garhwal University,

Srinagar Garhwal,

(U.P.) 246 174.

October 1, 1981.

Refei

Badola, S. P. (1975) : Fish fauna of Garhwal Hills
III. Pauri-Garhwal (U.P.). Indian J. Zoot. 16 (1) :
57-70.

Das, S. M. & Pathani, S. S. (1978) : Biological
resources of the Himalayas and their decimation by
man. National Seminar on Resources, Development
and Environment in the Hamalayan region. 498-501.

Karamchandani, S. J., Desai, V. R. & Pisolkar,
M. D. (1967) : Biological investigations on the fish
and fisheries of Narmada river. Bull. Cent. Ind. Fish.
Res. Inst. 19: 1-39.

Kulkarni, C. V. & Ogale, S. N. (1978) : The
present status of Mahseer (fish) and artificial pro-
pogation of Tor Ichudree (Sykes). /. Bombay nat.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. H. R. Singh, Pro-
fessor & Head, Department of Zoology, Garh-
wal University for his valuable suggestions and
the laboratory facilities provided to us. The
first author (P.N.) is also thankful to Dr. S.
S. Pathani, Department of Zoology, Kumaun
University for help with literature pertaining
to his work on mahseer.

PRAKASH NAUTIYAL

M. S. LAL

EN CES

Hist. Soc. 75: 651-660.

Nautiyal, P. and Lal, M. S. (in press) : Fishing
techniques in river Nayar and their impact on the
Garhwal mahseer ( Tor putitora). In Symposium on
“Ecology and Resource Management in Tropies,”
Pathani, S. S. (1977) : The problems of Kumaun
Mahseer. Uttrakhand Bharti 2(1) : 65-68.

(1978) : A note on Ecology and

conservation of Mahseer, Tor tor and Tor putitora
Hamilton in Kumaun lakes. Env. India., I (II) : 36-
37.

Raj, B. S. (1945) : The decline of Mahseer fisheries
of Kumaun lakes and possible remedy. Proc. Nat.
Inst. Sci. India. 77(31): 341-345.

695

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

26. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF ENNEAPTERYGIUS
OBTUSIROST RE, WITH NOTES ON ITS ECOLOGY

{With two text- figures)

In the handnet catches from the tidepools
off Visakhapatnam (17°41' N, 83°17' E) speci-
mens of Enneapterygius obtusirostre (Kluzin-
ger) were a regular feature. The species is so
far known only from the Western Indian Ocean
(Smith 1961). As such the present record from
Eastern India forms an additional distribu-
tional record.

Description : D III, XIII (XII in one speci-
men, XIV in one specimen), 9-10; A I, 17-19;
P 15-16; V I, 2; C 9; lateral line series 34-36
(33 in one specimen); gill rakers 0+1+6 (one
may be rudimentary on long arm).

As percentage of standard length : total
length 118.46-126.42; body depth 18.03-
24.59; head length 30.0-35.85; snout length

8.0- 11.54; eye diameter 0.8-11.48; interorbi-
tal distance 3 . 23-4 . 92; postorbital 13.33-18. 75;
pastoral length 30.0-33.85; ventral length

20.0- 25.0; depth of caudal peduncle 7.69-10.0;
distance from snout tip to dorsal 22.64-30.0;
to anal 50.0-56.14, to pectoral 29.51-35.09,
to ventral 18.87-28.07.

As percentage of head length: Snout length

25.0- 35.29; eye diameter 26.32-35.0; inter-
orbital distance 0.09-15.79; postorbital 44.0-
56.25.

size:

Body deepest below first dorsal, scales
ctenoid, head and basal part of first dorsal
naked, head dorso-ventrally flattened, mouth
moderate with snout slightly produced, teeth
minute, curved and sharp in a single row ante-
riorly, vomer and palate devoid of teeth; eyes
large, maxilla reaches below anterior margin
of eye; single nasal cirrus, supra-orbital cirrus

leaf-like, simple, sometimes with 2-4 free tips;
pre-opercular margins and angle smooth; 3
dorsal fins present, first two fins with delicate
spines, first spine of the first dorsal is the
longest, dorsal rays longer than spines and
reach 1/3 of caudal peduncle; anal rays longer
than the spine and reach 2/3 of caudal pedun-
cle when folded back, ventral does not reach
vent, pectorals reach beyond vent, caudal trun-
cate with edges round.

Colour : female (Fig. 1) — Very pale brown
with orange and brown melanophores which
more or less form 5 irregular oblique bands
on body. Chin and throat possess only orange
melanophores. Chest and belly white without
any melanophores. Dorsal fin hyaline, the
membrane between first and second spines of
first dorsal is black. Other fins pale yellow,
base of pectoral has an inconspicuous brown
blotch, caudal with 4 vertical, discontinuous
bands.

male (Fig. 2) — Grey with vague bands,
nape brown with black melanophores. The
spaces between n^res, postorbitals, bases of
pectorals, pelvics and belly are orange. Cheeks,
chin, throat, part of operculum and pectorals
are lustrous green with blue spots in live con-
dition and turn black after death. A promi-
nent blue black ocellus on the base of pecto-
ral, 2 black longitudinal lines on second dorsal,
dark grey anal are characteristic.

Ecology : This little fish occurs only in lower
level tidepools which are totally exposed dur-
ing low tides. As such the salinity of the pool
water varies from time to time and some-
times touches 43 %0 during summer when
low tides prevail for long periods. The

696

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Enneapterygtus obtusirostre (Kluzinger) : Female.

Fig. 2. Enneapterygtus obtusirostre (Kluzinger) : Male.

diel oxygen content and pH varies abnormally
as does the temperature. It is an excellent
example for camouflage and concealment and
is rather difficult to locate as it blends per-
fectly with the weeds. They are encountered
all through the year but more frequently dur-
ing October-February which is apparently their
breeding period. The chief food for this fish
is the phytal fauna occurring on the algal thalli

Dept, of Marine Living Resources,

Andhra University,

VlSAKHAPATNAM 530 003.

of Enteromorpha, Caulerpa, etc. This tiny
fish picks up the tinier fauna with utmost deli-
cacy, aided by the large pectorals and wide
eyes. It also eats small molluscs.

Acknowledgements

One of us (C.U.D.) is grateful to C.S.I.R.
for a Junior Research Fellowship. Andhra
University is acknowledged for facilities.

N. A. V. PRASAD REDDY

697

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Dept, of Zoology, C. UMA DEVI

Andhra University,

VlSAKHAPATNAM 530 003,

August 10, 1981.

References

Smith, J. L. B. (1961) : The sea fishes of southern
Africa. 4th edit. [Cape Town]. Central News Agency
Ltd., pp. xvi+580,

27. ON A FREAK OF ISTIBLENNIUS STRI ATOMACULATUS

While studying the fish fauna of rock-pools
along the coastline between Visakhapatnam
and Bheemunipatnam (17°40'-54'N, 83° 16-
28'E), a blennid fish possessing abnormal
vertical fins was collected on August 10, 1979.
It was identified as Istiblennius striatomacula-
tus (Kner 1866) Smith- Vaniz & Springer
(1971) of the tribe Salariini in the family
Blenniidae. A brief description of this abnormal
fish is provided with a comparison of its fea-
tures with those of a normal fish of about
the same standard length.

The specimen is characterised by D XIII,
20; A III, 22; p. 14; V I, 3; C 3; supra-orbital
cirri 6; nasal cirri 2; gill rakers 2+1+12.

Percentage of Standard Length :

Total length 112.77; body depth 20.21;
head length 23.40; eye diameter 6.38; inter-
orbital distance 2.13; orbital cirrus 5.32; nasal
cirrus 2.13; distance between dorsal notch and
caudal base 44. 68.

Percentage of Head Length :

Eye diameter 27.27; inter-orbital distance
0.09; orbital cirrus 22.73; nasal cirrus 9.09.

The body is anguilliform and naked with
prominent forehead and eyes, nasal cirrus
twice branched and supra-orbital cirrus having
6 branches. The spinous dorsal is a little lower
than the soft dorsal, mid-spines being longer;

the 13th spine is the smallest, lying hidden
in the notch between the soft and spinous parts
of dorsal. Membrane of the dorsal fused with
that of caudal fin. Last dorsal ray compara-
tively much elongated, curved and continued
parallel with caudal fin rays. Anal spines
small and hidden, first spine positioned as a
small papilla after the vent, and anal fin base
adjacent to that a caudal fin.

Body olive with brown spots and streaks
and 6 pairs of brown bands descend rather
irregularly; under-parts lighter without any
markings. A small black spot between the 1st
and the 2nd dorsal spine and another between
2nd and 3rd dorsal spine. Spinous part of the
dorsal fin with brownish wavy lines running
posteriorly and inclining gradually towards
the base. Rayed portion has several zigzag,
lines. Pectoral fin pale with semicircular rows
of brown spots. Caudal fin olive with brown
spots arranged in semicircles.

This description conforms quite closely with
that for /. striatomaculatus provided by Smith
(1959). However, there are some deviations.
The abnormal fish has an additional anal spine
and only three caudal rays in the retarded
tail as against 13 in the normal. Furthermore,
the dorsal fin is united completely with the
caudal fin and the anal has come to be very
close to the caudal fin.

In taxonomic studies, it is a general prac-

698

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tice to attach significance to the form and
number of anal spines and caudal rays. The
present specimen, as already indicated, shows
deviations in these characters.

Dept, of Marine Living Resources,

Andhra University.

Dept, of Zoology,

Andhra University,

Waltair 530 003, (A.P.),

April 5, 1981.

Refer

Smith, J. L. B. (1959) : Fishes of the families
Blenniidae and Salariidae of the Western Indian
Ocean. Rhodes Univ. ichth. Bull. 14: 229-252.
Smith-Vaniz, W. E. & Springer, V. G. (1971) :

Acknowledgements

We thank the University Grants Commission
and Council of Scientific & Industrial Re-
search respectively for financial assistance.

N.A.V. PRASAD REDDY
C. UMA DEVI

E N CE S

Synopsis of the tribe Salariini, with description of
5 new genera and 3 new species (Pisces: Blenniidae).
Smithson. Contrib. Zool. 73: 1-72.

28. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CRYPTOTERMES BENGALENS1S
SNYDER (ISOPTERA: KALOTERMITIDAE) IN GUJARAT, INDIA

Cryptotermes bengalensis Snyder was des-
cribed in 1934 from the Sunderbans (21°40'-
22°50'N and 88°10'-89°40'E), West Bengal
(type locality) on the basis of imagos and
soldiers. It has been since recorded from vari-
ous places in India and Bangladesh (vide infra) .
This species has recently been collected at
Kaprada Forests, Bulsar District in Gujarat,
attacking dead portions of a living tree of
Tectona grandis (Teak), thus extending its
range westwards.

Material: A vial with six soldiers and seve-
ral workers, Gujarat: Kaprada forest (Bulsar
District), N. S. Rathore coll., 27.12.1980.
Ex: Tectona grandis.

Measurements {in mm.) of soldier:

Total body-length with mandibles 4. 9-5. 6

Head length without mandibles 1.47-1.51

Maximum length of head up to

frontal ridge 1.25-1.32

Median length of head up to

frontal ridge 1.05-1.12

Maximum width of head 1.33-1.37

Length of mandibles 0.49

Maximum length of pronotum 0.84

Maximum width of pronotum 1.33

Distribution: India: West Bengal: Sunder-
bans, Jhingakhali forest. Assam: Digboi, Jokhai
reserve forest. Madhya Pradesh: Mandla fort;
Surhi village, Lormi range (Bilaspur); Kesli
range (Hoshangabad) and Jaisinghnagar
(Sahdol). Tripura: Belonia and Paratia. Uttar
Pradesh: Gorakhpur and Ramnagar. Gujarat:
Kaprada forest (Bulsar District), Present re-
cord. Bangladesh: Dacca.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Officer-in-Charge
Dr. T. D. Soota, Zoological Survey of India,
Jodhpur for providing laboratory facilities.
We are also grateful to Dr. M. L. Roonwal
for useful suggestions and to Dr. M. L. Thakur
Senior Research Officer, Regional Forest Re-
search Centre, Coimbatore for confirmation of
identification.

699

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Zoological Survey of India, r. k. THAKUR

Desert Regional Station, n. S. RATHORE

Paota ‘B’ Road,

Jodhpur 342 006,

October 1, 1981.

29. INCIDENCE OF MASS ATTRACTION OF CYDNUS 1NDICUS
WESTW. (HETEROPTERA — PENTATOMIDAE) TO LIGHT

Cydnus indicus Westw., the common black
“geranium bug” has been found living in soil
in large numbers. I observed in 1980 a good
number of insects attracted to light including
Cydnus indicus in this locality. In 1981 during
the months of July and August an unusual
phenomenon of mass attraction of this black
bug was observed while making further
studies on the phototropic responses in insects.
On 29th July there was heavy rainfall at
Saharanpur (45.0 mm.) and at 9.00 p.m.
when rain had stopped, forty bugs were found
around light source (60 Watt Bulb) and on
the ground below. The same phenomenon was
observed on 2nd, 15th and 22nd August. In
another locality on the 27th August at 8.00
p.m. these bugs were watched emerging from
soil and taking flight towards light source
(fluorescent tube) situated at a distance of
four metres. After taking a short flight around
light, most of them fell down on the ground.

Department of Zoology,

M. S. College,

Saharanpur 247 001,

September 11, 1981.

Their number was counted and recorded as
43. Meanwhile, a toad Bufo melanostictus
suddenly appeared and started feeding on
the insects. Within half an hour it had con-
sumed 35 bugs, but the rest were beyond its
reach on the wall of the house.

On 29th July, we presume that the flood-
ing of the soil compelled the bugs to emerge
out from their hide outs and then to fly
towards light. But, on 2nd, 15th, 22nd and 27th
August, there was no rain at Saharanpur. So,
it can be concluded that it is a normal habit
to be attracted to any light source in the
vicinity during the rainy months, i.e., from
July to September, in this region.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. G. D. Garg, Professor
of Entomology for encouragement and to Prof.
V C. Chatterjee for help.

S. C. DHIMAN

30. A NOTE ON THE OVIPOSITION OF SPHAERODEMA
RUSTICUM (FABR.) (HEMIPTERA)

Sphaerodema rusticum is an aquatic bug and Breeding took place between February to mid
is commonly available in ponds at Dhar. November. It is an interesting example of
These were collected and reared in aquaria, parental care by the male.

700

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

In mating the male mounted on the back of
the female and copulation lasted for an hour.
Oviposition took place after 25 to 30 hrs of
copulation. Female selected a male mounted
upon it and laid an egg on the posterior ex-
tremity of the abdomen. The female then got
down, again mounted on the same male and
laid another egg just in the vicinity of the first.
This procedure continued for about 4 to 6 hrs.
in different cases. The female also excluded
some adhering secretion which helped the eggs
to adhere to the back of the male and a com-
plete raft of eggs was formed. A female ovi-
posited 60 to 70 eggs at a time. The male
loaded with these eggs moved about till the

Lecturer,

P. G. Department of Zoology,

Govt. College,

Dhar 454 001, (M.P.).

hatching took place. Generally the hatching
took place in about 10 days. On 11th October
1980, in an aquarium two females selected a
male and started lying eggs alternately upon it.
The number of eggs laid was 132.

In fresh collections of the animals from
ponds also many males were found with the
raft of eggs on their back. In such collection
also once we found 138 eggs on the back of a
male. It was also definitely due to the ovipo-
sition by two females on one male, as a female
lays only 60 to 70 eggs at a time.

The Male Sphaerodema is an excellent exam-
ple of parental care in hemipteran insects.

TEJ PRAKASH VYAS

School of Studies in Zoology, (MRS.) MADHU VYAS

Faculty of Life Science,

Vikram University,

Ujjain 456 010 (M.P.),

January 2, 1981.

31. NEW RECORD OF PAUROPSYLLA DEPRESS A CRAWF. ON
FICUS LUCESCENS BLUME

During an insect collection survey in district
Saharanpur, galls of Pauropsylla depressa
Crawf. (Homoptera) were observed in large
numbers on Ficus lucescens (= F. infectoria
Roxb.). This is a new record on this plant.
Mathur ( 1975) 1 has described the psyllid,
Psausia indica Mathur from F. lucescens. Obser-
vations made during 1979 and 1980, on the in-
cidence of the insect on F. lucescens are
reported here.

1 Mathur, R. N. (1975): Psyllidae of the Indian
Subcontinent. ICAR publn ., New Delhi, pp. 429.

Ficus lucescens Blume. has been found
heavily infected by these galls throughout the
year except September-November. Nearly 90
per cent leaves bear galls. Leaf-fall on this
Ficus plant occurs during mid September and
continues up to mid October in this locality.
During this period, the older leaves contain-
ing galls fall and new foliage appears by early
November. Oviposition by Pauropsylla depressa
then takes place. Young galls can be seen in
late November. Only second, third and fourth
instar nymphs were seen up to mid January,
but in late January, fifth instar nymphs were

701

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

found in the galls. In first half of February,
the adults were seen wandering over the foliage
of the plant. Thus, in winter months (Decem-
ber and January) of this locality, the deve-
lopment of this Psyllid slows down to pass the
colder weather in nymphal stages. As soon as
the warm weather sets in during February,
the adults emerged from the fifth instars.
During the rest of the year, i.e., from Febru-
ary to October, all the stages were seen.

Distribution in Saharanpur — Nakur
(Sadholi, Kharibans, Gangoh), Deoband

Department of Zoology,

M. S. College,

Saharanpur 247 001,

January 25, 1982.

(Majri, Nomehra), Roorkee (Iqbalpur, Bhag-
wanpur, Haridwar, Jwalapur), Saharanpur
(Panwarka, Behat, Rampur Maniharan, Kai-
lashpur, Gagalheri).

Acknowledgements . .

We are extremely thankful to Dr. G. D.
Garg, for encouragement and to the authorities
of M. S. College, Saharanpur, for providing the
facilities. We are also grateful to the Director,
Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, Lon-
don, for the identification of the insects.

S. C. DHIMAN
VINAY KUMAR

32. BUTTERFLIES FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS WITH SOME NEW

RECORDS

Introduction

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, situated in
the Bay of Bengal between 6° and 14°N; and
between 92° and 94° E, have been explored
by several naturalists in the past. A consoli-
dated list of butterflies was published Ferrar
(1948) in this journal. Since then many changes
have been taken place in the islands due to
deforestation, and refugee settlement. During
a recent visit to the Island with Dr. Salim Ali,
from the last week of January to the first week
of March in 1980, I collected several specimens
of butterflies and other insects. In this paper
the status of the species collected is compared
with the status as reported by Ferrar (op. cit).
The collection was made at Chirria Tapu, Ross
Island, and Port Blair in South Andaman,
Mayabunder, Tugapur and Interview Island
in Middle Andaman and Northreef Island,

Aerial Bay (Diglipur) in North Andaman. One
day was spent at Smith Island, Ross Island
and Wharf Island all in the North Andaman.
Though climatically the islands are more or
less uniform there was difference in Vegetation.
In some islands the tidal zone is occupied by
thick impenetrable mangrove swamps and in
others there are sandy beaches. In the latter
the littoral or beach forest consists of some
flowering bushes, Andaman bullet-wood and
Pandanus trees. This zone is followed by semi-
evergreen forest and Tropical climatic forest.
It was observed that some Nymphalids and
Pierids like. Maps, Wanderers, Orange Tips,
regularly visit the seashore and settle on damp
patches for a few seconds, while others like
Sailers, Lacewings, Pansies, Blues confined
themselves to the forested area. The Satyrs
and Skippers remain within the forest.

702

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA
Family Danaidae

8.

1 . Euploea andamanensis andamanensis Atk.
Andaman Crow

As described by Ferrar, the species is
very common throughout Gt. Andaman.
Specimens were collected from Aerial
Bay, Mayabunder and Chirria Tapu.

2. Danaus chrysippus (Lin.)

Plain Tiger

Not very common at Portblair as des-
cribed earlier. A single specimen was col-
lected from Portblair.

Family Satyridae

3. Orsotrioena medus medus F.

Nigger

Common throughout Gt. Andaman as
described earlier from December to
March. Collected from Mayabunder.

4. Melanites leda ismene Crammer
Common Evening Brown
Very common throughout Andaman, I did
not see a single specimen of M. zitenius
andamanica recorded earlier from Anda-
man.

Family Nymphalidae

5. Apatura pari satis parisatis Wd.

Black Prince

Rare, not recorded by Ferrar. Not rare
in Burma. Specimen collected from
Aerial Bay.

6. Euthalia kesava M.

Powdered Baron

Not rare, not recorded earlier. Collected
from Mayabunder.

7. Parthenos sylvia roepstorfii C.

Clipper

Not rare as described earlier. Seen at

Diglipur, Mayabunder, Chirriatapu. Col-
lected from Wharf Island near Aerial Bay.
Neptis hylas andamana M.

Common Sailer

Common throughout Andaman as describ-
ed earlier by Ferrar collected from Chir-
riatapu, Mayabunder, Diglipur, Aerial bay.
9. Neptis soma mananda M.

Sullied Sailer

Common, collected from Aerial bay North
Andaman.

10. N. hordonia Stoll
Common Lascar

Common, collected from Mayabunder.

1 1 . Cyrestis thyodamas andamanica W.M. &
de N. Common Map

Not common as described earlier seen
only at Chirriatapu. Regularly visits sea-
shore and settles on damp patches.

12. Hypolimnas bolina L.

Great Eggfly

Not common in February, but Ferrar des-
cribed it as common in September and
October and again in June- July.

13. Precis hierta F.

Yellow Pansy

Very common. Found in areas cleared
for settlement at Tugapur near Maya-
bunder and Diglipur.

14. Precis almana aimana L.

Peacock Pansy

Common in open country. Collected from
Diglipur.

15. P. atlites L.

Grey Pansy

As described earlier common in South
Andaman. Collected from Chirria Tapu.

16. Phalanta alcippe andamana Pruh
Small Andaman Leopard

Not common in February, but Ferrar had
seen these butterflies in clouds in April
and again in October.

703

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

17. Cethosia cyane Drury
Leopard Lacweing

Not recorded by Ferrar. It is common at
Chirria Tapu and Mayabunder, both
sexes were collected. Earlier C. biblis
andamana was recorded from andaman.

18. Ergolis merione merione Cr.

Common Castor

Not recorded earlier. Specimen collected
from Diglipur.

Family Erycinidae

19. Abisara chela chela De N.

Spot Judy

Specimen collected from Aerial Bay.
Common in North Andaman. Not re-
corded by Ferrar.

20. Castalius rosimon alarbus Fr.

Common Pierrot

Very common throughout Andamans.
Collected from Chirria Tapu and Maya-
bunder.

21 . Jamides celeno blairana Evans
Common Cerrulean

As described by Ferrar very common
throughout Andamans.

22. Heliophorus epicles indicias Fruh
Purple Sapphire

Collected at Mayabunder and Interview
Island, near a stream. Common. Ferrar
had collected it from Middle Andamans
in June.

23. Curetis saronis saronis M.

Burmese Sunbeam

Common in North and middle Anda-
mans. Specimens collected near streams
from Interview Island.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Horn bill House,

SlIAHEED BHAGAT SlNGH ROAD,

Bombay 400 023,

August 28, 1982.

24. Loxura atymnus prabha M.

Yamfly

Common. Specimens collected from Mid-
dle Andamans.

Family Pieridae

25. Leptosia nina nina F.

Psyche

Common in February whereas Ferrar
collected them in June and December.

26. Cepora nerissa dapha M.

Common Gull

Very common in North Andaman. Ferrar
writes ‘On a brief visit to Tillanchong
Nicobars in 1924 I took two DSF females.
They may have been stragglers from
Burma.’

27. C. nerissa lichenosa M.

Common throughout Great Andamans.

28. Catopsilia crocale pomona F.

Lemon Emigrant

Common in February-March. Ferrar had
collected specimens in October and April
and described it as rare.

29. Gandaca harina andamana M.

Tree Yellow

Common throughout Andaman Islands.

30. Eurema blanda silhetana Wall.

Common throughout Andamans.

31 . Ixias pyrene latifasciata Butler
Yellow Orange Tip

Common throughout Andaman Islands.

32. Ixias pyrene andamana M.

Common throughout Andaman Islands.

33. Valeria ceylanica naraka M.

Very common. Collected from Chirria
Tapu.

N. C. CHATURVEDI

704

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

33. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE RIVER-CRAB — POTAMON
(POTAMON) ATKINSONIANUM WOODMASON (BRACHYURA;
CYCLOMETOPA; POTAMONIDAE) — TO POONCH VALLEY
(JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATE)

Cyclometopan crabs of the family Potamo-
nidae are permanent inhabitants of freshwaters
such as rivers, mountain streams and canals
as well as ditches in the lands of the eastern
Mediterranean and Asia Minor. Several species
of river-crabs of the genus Potamon occur in
Northern India even at altitudes of about 2100
metres (Alcock 1895-1909, Rathbun 1904-
1906, Colosi 1920, Ramakrishna 1950, Serene
1968).

The river-crab — Potamon ( Potamon )
atkinsonianum Woodmason — is one of the
most abundantly found Decapod crustaceans
in Poonch Valley. It inhabits shallow rock-
pools, rice fields and boulder- streams flanking
the course of Poonch River and Betarh Nallah,
lurking in the crevices between large, partially
submerged boulders and shares its niche with
typical mountain-stream teleosts such as Noe -

Professor & Head,

Department of Zoology,

Islam ia College of Science & Commerce,
Srinagar 1900 002 (Kashmir),

April 25, 1982.

macheilus botia (Ham.), Crossocheilus latius
(Ham.), Garra gotyla gotyla (Gray) and Gly-
ptothorax lineatus (Day), as well as aquatic
insects of the genera Nepa and Ranatra. Dur-
ing the day these crabs leave their shelter and
move about actively on dry land, but they do
not venture very far from water. There being
no previous record of this species of crabs
from Jammu and Kashmir State so far, the
present report of Potamonid crabs from Poonch
Valley is a new record.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Direc-
tor, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for
confirming the identification of the specimens
under report.

SURENDRA NATH

References

Alcock, A. (1895-1900): Materials for a carci-
nological fauna of India. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal,
Calcutta.

(1909) : Diagnosis of new species

and varieties of freshwater crabs. Rec. Indian Mus.
3 (4): 375-382.

Colosi, G. (1920) : I Potamonidi del R. Museo
Zoologico di Torino. Bull. Mus. Zool. Ana. T.
Comp. Torino 35: 1-39.

Ramakrishna, G. (1950) : Notes on some Indian
Potamonid crabs (Crustacea. Decapoda). Rec. Indian
Mus., 48 (1): 89-92.

Rathbun, Mary J. (1904-1906): Les crabes

d’eau douce (Potamonidae). 3 Parts. Nouv. Arch.
Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Paris, vi, vii, viii.

Serene, R. (1968): The Brachyura of the Indo-
West Pacific region. UNESCO — Singapore (Mimeo-
graph) .

705

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 79

34. CANNIBALISM IN THE GARDEN SNAIL MACROCHLAMYS
IN D1C A GODWIN- AUSTEN (STYLOMMATOPHORA : MOLLUSCA)

Macrochlamys indica, a minor agri-horticul-
tural pest, is one of the commoner land snails
occurring in India. It is found in abundance
in gardens in the rainy season. As a rule, like
other land snails, this species is phytopha-
gous in habit (Raut & Ghose 1982) but an
unusual feeding on the flesh of their own kind
was observed.

In the evening of July 22, 1976, a cloudy
day in monsoon, while studying the behaviour
of M. indica some individuals were accidentally
crushed under foot; and within a few minutes
a good number of M. indica of different size-
groups from the adjoining areas crawled to-
wards the crushed snails, and started feeding
on their flesh avidly. To ascertain
their preference, portions of choice food
plants namely the leaves of marigold, bean and
lettuce were placed close to the crushed snails
but these did not attract the snails till the
last bit of flesh was consumed. Subsequent ex-
periments were conducted in the garden and
also in the laboratory to determine cannibalism
in M. indica.

A number of crushed M. indica were placed
on a brick. The leaves of preferred food-plants
were placed around the brick. Within four
minutes 38 snails moved to the spot. All of
them crawled over the leaves to reach the
crushed snails and started feeding on the flesh,

Department of Zoology,

Calcutta University,

35, Ballygunge Circular Road,

Calcutta - 700 019,

June 28, 1982.

and they started eating plant materials only
after consuming the flesh.

M. indica were supplied with fresh flesh of
the land snails Achatina fulica, Ariophanta
interrupta and Rachis bengalensis but they
showed no interest. In another experiment
freshly killed M. indica and partially decom-
posed ones were placed side by side. The snails
always preferred fresh flesh, though the other
form was not spared.

Twenty M. indica were released in a terra-
rium of 30 x 15 x 20 cm on August 10, 1977.
The snails were kept active by artificial means
but denied food. In the evening of August 16,

16, 4 snails were consumed by the rest of their
fellows. Subsequently, 2, 4, 3, 2, 2, and 1 indi-
viduals were eaten by other snails on August

17, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22 respectively. The
remaining 2 died on August 24.

Necrophagous habit in pulmonates has been
reported by a number of workers (Mitra &
Biswas 1974; Moquin-Tandon 1855, Watson
1915, Hyman 1967) but cannibalism in the
family Ariophantidae is not on record. Possi-
bly cannibalism or necrophagous habit is
innate in pulmonates in general, and it becomes
pronounced in the scarcity of the normal
plant-food and/or with the easy availability of
dead or decomposed flesh, and they do not
ordinarily kill their fellows.

S. K. RAUT
K. C. GHOSE

706

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

R E FE RE

Hyman, L. H. (1967) : The Invertebrates. VI,
Mollusca. McGraw-Hill, New York, vii + 792 pp.

Mitra, T. R. & Biswas, S. K. (1974): Necro-
phagous habit in Opeas gracile (Stylommatophora :
Subulinidae). Malac. Rev. 7: 136.

Moquin-Tandon, A. (1855): Histoire naturelle
des Mollusques Terrestres et Fluviatiles de France.

II. Paris, 646 pp.

Raut, S. K. & Ghose, K. C. (1982) : Food pre-

35. TWO NEW COMBINATIONS
(BENTH.) BRENAN

Brenan (1957) has shown that the correct
nomenclature of the plant mentioned in Indian
Floras as Acacia arabica Willd. is Acacia nilo-
tica (Linn.) Del. subsp. indica (Benth.)
Brenan. In this treatment he, however, has not
said anything about the two varieties. Acacia
arabica Willd. var. cupressijormis Stewart and
A. arabica Willd. var. vediana Cooke dealt by
Cooke in the Flora of Presidency of Bombay.

A study of the living and herbarium materials
clearly indicate that these two varieties are
quite distinct from the plants commonly treat-
ed as the typical A. arabica Willd. in Indian
Floras. Stewart’s var. cupressiformis has a very
peculiar arrangement of the branches giving
it a remote resemblance to a Cupressus tree
and is in this way quite distinct from the typi-
cal plants. When these plants grow side by
side nobody can miss this very striking differ-
ence in appearance. We are of the opinion that
this taxon deserves a varietal status under
Acacia nilotica subsp. indica.

With regard to A. arabica Willd. var.
vediana Cooke, Talbot (1909) in the Forest
Flora of the Bombay Presidency and Sind,
says “This is a distinct variety and may even-
tually be separated from arabica as a species.
‘Vedi-babhul’ is distinguished from ‘godi-

: n ce s

ference and feeding behaviour of two pestiferous
snails, Achatina fulica Bowdich and Macrochlamys
indica Godwin-Austen. Rec. Zool. Surv. India. (In
press).

Watson, H. (1915): Studies on the carnivorous
slugs of South Africa, including monograph on
genus Apera, and a discussion on the phylogeny of
the Aperidae, Testacellidae, and other agnathous
Pulmonata. Ann. Natal. Mus. 3(2): 107-267.

UNDER ACACIA NILOTICA
(MIMOSACEAE)

babhuV or true A. arabica by its quicker
growth, characteristic fissured bark and by its
very different pods which are flat, shortly
stalked, 2.5" x 0.15" and very little constrict-
ed between the seeds. The spines on vedi-
babhul are also more numerous, stouter and
whiter than in the type”.

The collection and study of fresh materials
from different localities resulted in finding
more distinguishing characters in addition to
those already mentioned by Talbot. The two
taxa can be distinguished as follows:

Bark much fissured, pods flat and with very
little constrictions between seeds, inflorescence
heads up to 8 with longer peduncles, involu-
cel below the middle of the peduncle (in
blossomed heads) A. arabica var. vediana

Bark less fissured, pods moniliform with
deep constrictions between the seeds; inflores-
cence heads up to 6 with shorter peduncle,
involucel above the middle of the peduncle

(in blossomed heads)

A. arabica (of Indian floras).

Considering the facts put forth by Talbot
(1905) and the additional characters observed,
we are of the opinion that var. vediana Cooke
deserves a subspecies rank under Acacia nilo-

707

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

lica. The two new combinations as discussed
earlier are presented here.

Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. subsp. indica
(Benth.) Benan var. cupressiformis (Stewart)
Vajravelu & Kamble, Comb. nov.

A. arabica Willd. var. cupressiformis Ste-
wart, Punjab PI. 51. 1869; Cooke, FI. Bombay
Pres. Part 3: 444. 1903; 1: 473. 1958 (Repr.
ed.); Talbot, For. FI. Bombay Pres. Sind. 1:
481. 1909.

Local name: Ramkathi, Ramkanti, Ram-
kantu.

Specimens examined : Maharashtra. E.

Vajravelu and S. Y. Kamble 154077; S. Y.
Kamble 154082.

Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. subsp. vediana
(Cooke) Vajravelu & Kamble Comb, et Stat.

Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore 641 003.

Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle,

Pune 411001,

December 10, 1980.

nov.

A. arabica Willd. var. vediana Cooke,
FI. Pres. Bombay part 3: 444. 1903; 1: 473.
1958 (repr. ed); Talbot, For. FI. Bombay
Pres. Sind. 1: 481. 1909.

Local name : Vedi babhul.

Specimens examined : Maharashtra: E.

Vajravelu & 5. Y. Kamble, 154076, 154078 &
154079; K. P. Janardanan 72751, 66470, 70045,
69004, 76357; R. Hemadri 98295, 98024,
83797; K. V. Billore 113625, J. Cheriyan
109294; G. S. Puri 2649, 58438; R. S. Rao
71327, 76882, 78934; S. K. Jain 8299; L. D.
Garade 467. gujarat: G. A. Gammie dt.
18.12.1904. MADHYA PRADESH: A. S. Rao

84166, 79232. diu & daman: M. Y. Ansari
94184, R. S. Rao 88966.

E. VAJRAVELU

S. Y. KAMBLE

Refe

Brenan, J. P. M. (1957) : Notes on Mimosoideae.
III. Kew Bull. 1957: 84.

Cooke, T. (1903) : The Flora of the Presidency
of Bombay. Part 3: 444. 1903; 1: 473, 1958 —
repr. ed.

36. TWO INTERESTING PLANT

( With two

During the course of botanical explorations
in Meghalaya we collected two interesting or
otherwise rare plants in certain restricted
localities, which were identified as Styli-
dium kunthii Wall, ex DC. (Stylidiaceae)
and Poly gala tricholopha Chodat (Poly-

fences

Santapau, H. (1966) : The Flora of Khandala
on Western Ghats of India. Rec. hot. Surv. India.
16(1): 83.

Talbot, W. A. (1909): Forest Flora of the Bom-
bay Presidency and Sind. 1: 481.

RECORDS FROM MEGHALAYA
text-figures)

galaceae). Reference to literature revealed that
Stylidium kunthii subsequent to its first report
(FI. Brit. India 3: 420. 1881) has not been
collected again from N.E. Region and there
are no specimens of this in the Assam herba-
rium. The present collection (after about 100

708

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Stylidium kunthii Wall, ex DC.

A Habit; B. flower enlarged; C. dehiscence of capsule.

years) therefore, forms a significant report and
is described here.

The other species. Polygala tricholopha has
also not been reported from this region by

Kanjilal et al. (1934-40). There is however a
solitary, not well preserved sheet in the Assam
herbarium collected by Kanjilal himself in
1931. But following Bennett, (in Hk. f. FI.

709

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 79

Fig. 2. Polygala tricholopha Chodat.
A. Twig; B. flower enlarged.

Brit. India 1: 200) he treats this taxon under
Polygala arillata Ham. ex Don which is clear-
ly distinct from the present species. Mukherjee
(1958) reports P. tricholopha from Assam and

Meghalaya based on old collection of
King deposited in CAL; and also based on
Wallichian Catalogue (Wall. Cat. 4191B, in
part) . This species has not been collected again

710

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

after 1931 from N.E. region. Therefore, the
present collection from Meghalaya forms an
interesting report from the area.

Detailed descriptions of these two species
and illustrations are provided to facilitate their
easy identification.

Stylidiuin kunthii Wall, ex DC. Prodr. 7:
335. 1839; C. B. Cl. in Hk. f. FI. Brit. India
3: 420. 1881. (Fig. 1).

Slender, erect herbs, 3-15 cm high; leaves
alternate, sessile upper often resulate or false-
ly whorled, lower ones much smaller, scatter-
ed, obovate or orbicular, obtuse, cuneate at
base, entire, glabrous, nerves obscure, 0.7-2 x
0.3- 1.5 cm; inflorescence of racemose cymes;
peduncles usually more than one, dichotom-
ously branched, glandular hairy as are the
pedicels; bracts 2, opposite in the forks; flowers
white; calyx bilabiate, upper 2-lobed, lower 3-
lobed; corolla gamopetalous, irregularly 5-
lobed, 4 lobes in 2 pairs and the remaining one
smaller and recurved; stamens 2, connate
with the style in a column; anther cells con-
fluent; ovary inferior, elongated 2-celled; ovules
many in each cell; fruit a capsule, 0.8-1. 5 cm,
splitting at the apex; seeds minute, brown.

FIs. & Frts.: November-December.

Distribution : Sikkim Himalayas eastwards,
Khasi Hills, Bangladesh and Burma.

One of the ephemeral plants commonly
associated with Utricularia bifida, mosses, etc.
along the moist road cuttings in forests.

Specimens examined : Meghalaya: Garo

Dept, of Botany,

School of Life Sciences,

North-Eastern Hill University,

Shillong 793 014,

November 30, 1980.

Hills, Mahadeo Y. Kumar 5456; Maheshkola
K. Haridasan 4108 (NEHU).

Polygala tricholopha Chodat in Mem. Soc.
Phys. Genev. 31, 2: 98. 1893; Mukherjee in
Bull. bot. Soc. Bengal 12: 33. 1958. — P.
hasskarlii Merr. & Chun, in Sunyatsenia 2:
254. 1934-35. — Chamaebuxus paniculata

Hassk. in Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 1: 154,
1863; (Fig. 2).

Climbing shrubs; leaves 5-15 x 2-5 cm, alter-
nate, entire oblong-lanceolate or oblong-ellip-
tic, abruptly acuminate, base rounded, nerves
prominent beneath; inflorescence a terminal
panicle; flowers pink or pink-purple with an
yellow crest, gibbous at base, highly zygomor-
phic; sepals 5, imbricate, 2 laterals (wing
sepals) Purple, larger and recurved in open
flowers rest 3 obovate, rounded; petals 3, 2
lateral and the third keeled and crested, crest
yellow, multifid, deeply incised stamens 8,
united below the middle; anthers oblong; ovary
2-celled; fruit a 2-seeded capsule, ovoid, wing-
ed; seeds arillate.

FIs. & Frts.: August-September.

Distribution : Khasi Hills; very rare, collect-
ed only once and never again.

Specimens examined : Meghalaya: Khasi

Hills — Mawsmai Sacred forest K. Haridasan
5959 (NEHU).

We are thankful to Dr. R. S. Raghavan,
Regional Botanist at Kew for determining our
specimens. Our thanks are also due to the
Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India,
Shillong for Herbarium and Library facilities.

K. HARIDASAN
Y. KUMAR
R. R. RAO

711

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Referen ces

Kanjilal, U. N., Kanjilal, P. G, Das, A., De, Mukherjee, S. K. (1958) : A synopsis of the In-
R. N. & Bor, N. L. (1934-40): Flora of Assam. dian and Burmese Polygala. Bull. bot. Soc. Beng.
5 Vols. Shillong. 12: 29-49.

37. A NAME CHANGE FOR COLEUS VETTIVEROIDES JACOB

(LAMIACEAE)

Loureiro (1790) raised the genus Coleus to
accommodate the species of Plectranthus
L’Herit. with the stamens united at base. This
character was regarded by Bentham (1832,
1848) as of over-riding importance and thus
these two genera came to stay. But this has
been a matter of discussion since then. How-
ever, Morton (1962), Keng (1978) and
Willemse (1979), among others, considered this
character as unreliable and therefore the two
genera have now been merged, Plectranthus
L’Herit. (1788) taking precedence. According-
ly the latter two have transferred all the
Malayasian and Sri Lankan species of Coleus

Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle, Pune 411001,

April 8, 1981.

Lour, under Plectranthus L’Herit., which in-
cidentally has also covered 7 of the 9 Indian
species while another Indian species C. spica-
tus Benth. has been transferred by Wickens
(1976). Therefore, the following new combi-
nation is proposed for the only remaining
Indian species Coleus vettiveroides Jacob.

Plectranthus vettiveroides (Jacob) Singh et
Sharma comb. nov.

Coleus vettiveroides Jacob in J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 42: 320. 1941.

Distribution : India: Tamil Nadu (mostly
cultivated). Endemic.

N. P. SINGH
B. D. SHARMA

References

Bentham, G. (1832) : Labiatarum Genera et
species, part. 1 : 29-58. London.

(1948): Labitae in A.P. De Can-
dolle, Prodr 12: 55-79. Paris,

Keng, H. (1978): Flora Malesiana I, 8: 382-393.
Leyden.

L’Heritier de Brutelle, Charles-Louis (1788):
Stirpes Novae 84, t. 41. Parish.

Loureiro, de J. (1970) : Flora Cochinchinensis
2 : 272. Lisbon.

Morton, J. K. (1962) : Cytogenetic studies on the
West African Labiatae. J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 58: 231-
283.

Wickens, G. E. (1976) : The Flora of Jebel Marra
(Sudan Republic) and its geographical affinities.
Kew Bulletin Additional Series V. 152. London.

Willemse, R. H. (1979) : New combinations and
a new name for Sri Lankan Coleus species (Labia-
tae) . Blumea 25 (2) : 507-5 1 1 .

712

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

38. CAESALPINIA HYMENOCARPA (PRAIN) HATTINK, COMB.-
NOV. — A SUPERFLUOUS NAME

During the revision of Caesalpinia Linn, for
‘the wealth of India: A Dictionary of In-
dian Raw Materials’, the following observations
have been made by us regarding the nomen-
clature of C. hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink
comb. nov. Since the monographic revision by
Hattink (1974) was for ‘The Flora Malesiana’,
the authors felt the urgency for necessary
corrections.

The name C. hymenocarpa, first published
by Wallich {Cat. List. No. 5832, 1831), is a
nomen nudum and hence invalid. Wight and
Arnott (1834) mentioned that C. hymenocarpa
Wall, belongs to Mezonev{u)ron Desf., but
again this happened to be a nomen nudum.
Hooker /. and Jackson (1895) attributed M.
hymenocarpum to Wight and Arnott, whereas
Hattink attributed it to Jackson (1895)
(? Hooker f. & Jackson, 1895). This reference
also happens to be a nomen nudum.

Baker (1878), while working on Legumi-
nosae for the flora of British india, men-
tioned C. hymenocarpa Wall., as a synomym,
under M. pubescens Desf., incidentally vali-
dating Wallich’ s binomial. But, this placement,
was wrong, since the plant of Desfontaines is
different from C. hymenocarpa Wall. Prain
(1897) attributed the binomial Mezoneuron
hymenocarpum to Wight and Arnott and refers
to the work of Baker in the flora of British
india as a synonym {non Desf.) along with
C. hymenocarpa Wall, and C. glenniei Thw.
Prain distinguished this species from others and
discussed their relationships. The quotation of
the name of Wallich by Baker, and later
Prain quoting the work of Baker {non Desf.)

Publications & Information

Directorate,

Hillside Road,

New Delhi 110 012,

March 7, 1981.

in the flora of British india as a synonym
to the supposed binomial of Wight and Arnott
M. hymenocarpum validate C. hymenocarpa
Wall, as well as M. hymenocarpum Wt. & Arn.
This results in C. hymenocarpa Wall, ex Baker
under Caesalpinia, and M. hymenocarpum
[Wall. (? ex Baker)] Wt. & Arn. ex Prain under
Mezoneuron; if Baker’s validation is, for any
reason, not accepted, the binomial should be
C. hymenocarpa Wall, ex Prain under Caesal-
pinia and M. hymenocarpum (Wall, ex Prain)
Wt. & Arn. ex Prain.

These observations, perhaps, escaped the
notice of Hattink who made a new combina-
tion with Wallich’s plant as type and Wallich’s
original binomial as a base.

In our view, the combination of Hattink
happens to be a superfluous name and the
details of the taxon shall be as follows:

Caesalpinia hymenocarpa Wall., Cat. List
No. 5832, 1831, nomen nudum; ex Baker in
Hooker f. FI. Brit. India, 2, 259, 1878.

Mezonev{u)ron pubescens Baker, loc. cit .;
non Desf.

M. hymenocarpum [Wall. (? ex Baker)] Wt.
& Arn., Prod. 283, 1834, nomen nudum; ex
Prain, J. Asiatic Soc. Beng., 66, Pt. ii (2), 472,
1897; Hooker f. & Jackson, lnd. Kew., 2, 223,
1895, nomen nudum.

C. hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink, Reinward-
tia, 9, 35, 1974.

Thanks are due to Mr Y. R. Chadha, Chief
Editor, and Mrs K. Ramachandran, Scientist,
Wealth of India, PID, for the facilities pro-
vided.

TENJARLA C. S. SASTRY
G. B. KALE

713

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

References

Baker, J. C. in Hooker, J. D. (1878): The Flora
of British India, L. Reeve & Co. Ltd.. Kent, Rep.
1961, 259.

Hattink, T. A. (1974) : A Revision of Malesian
Caesalpinia including Mezoneuron (Leguminosae —
Caesalpiniaceae), Reinwardtia, 9: 35.

Hooker, J. D. & Jackson, B. D. (1895): Index
Kewensis — Plantarum Phanerogamarum. Oxford

University Press, London, 2: 223.

Prain, D. (1897) : Some additional Leguminosae.
/. Asiatic Soc., Beng., 66, Pt ii (2), 472; Noviciae
lndicae : Some additional species of Indian plants.
West, Newman & Co., London, 1905, 306.

Wight, R. & Walker- Arnott, G. A. (1834):
Prodromus Florae Peninsulae India, Orientalis. Par-
bury Allen & Co., London, p. 283.

39. RECORD OF DATURA FEROX L. FROM MAHARASHTRA

During plant collections in Akola and Pune
districts of Maharashtra an interesting species
of Datura Linn, was collected, which after
critical studies was identified as D. ferox L.
This plant is a native of China, so far, it has
been reported in India from Rajasthan only
by Bhandari & Mehta (1980). It is reported
here for the first time from Maharashtra. This
species can be easily identified from other
species of Datura L. by its large and very
stout unequal spines covering the capsule. This
species may possibly occur in other parts of
India also, as it might have been erroneously
kept under other species. All the specimens
examined have been deposited in the herba-
rium of Western Circle, Botanical Survey of
India, Pune (BSI).

Its citation, field notes etc. are as follows:

Datura ferox L. Amoen. Acad. 3: 403. 1756;
Avery et al . in Blakeslee, Genus Datura 21-22
fig. 4. 1959; Haegi, Austr. J. Bot. 24: 415-435.

Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle,

Pune,

February 17, 1981.

1976; Bhandari & Mehta in J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 76: 550-551. fig, 5. 1980.

Field notes : An undershrub, upto 1.5 m
high, in waste places along with Abudlon in-
dicum (L.) Sweet, Amaranthus spinosus L.,
Cassia tora L. and Xanthium strumarium L.
Flowers white. Fruits green drying brown,
erect. Seeds many, black.

Specimens examined : Maharashtra: Akola
district: Medhshi village, Kamble 150101,

August 1977; Pune district: Koregaon Park,
Anand Kumar 66356, December, 1980.

FIs. & Fr. : August-December.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

We thank the Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Howrah for facilities and to Dr. B. D.
Sharma, Deputy Director, Western Circle,
Botanical Survey of India, Pune for encourage-
ment during the course of this work.

S. Y. KAMBLE
ANAND KUMAR
S. G. PRADHAN

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

40. HETEROSMILA X POLYANDRA (LILIACEAE) : A RARE
ENDEMIC TO INDIA

Heterosmilax Kunth (Liliaceae) : Hook. f.
in FBI 6: 314 (1894) is a small genus, dis-
tinguished from the allied genus Smilax, by
tubular perianth, corolla tube smooth, sta-
mens-3 with more or less connate filaments. In
India, only one species occurs in northern part
of W. Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya and Manipur.

H. polyandra

Gagnep Bull. Bot. France 71:70 (1934). —
H. indica A. DC.: syn. nov., T. Koyama, 1/
1981 ( Meebold , CAL 7163).

Climbing slender shrubs, leaves — 3 nerved
with rounded base, suberect petiole, rather thin

Central National Herbarium,

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah-711 103,

W. Bengal,

February 3, 1981.

and sharply acuminate. Peduncle-solitary, axil-
lary flattened umbellate with many small
flowers, bracteoles — minute, ovate acuminate.
Flowers — many obovoid, with male and
female. Fruit — small globose, seeds-2 hemis-
pheric.

Specimen examined : West Bengal: CB

Clarke, 36359, Mongpo 1700 m, (North Ben-
gal). Arunachal Pradesh: Burkill, 35913,

37040 (CAL, 1911), Kobo, Abor Expdt.
Meghalaya: G. Gallatly, 576, 607 (CAL, 1878),
Khasia & Jayantia Cherapoonji 320 m. Assam
— Gowhati hills, 478299 (CAL, 1853). Moni-
pur — Meebold, 7163 (CAL, 1907), Naga Hills
1700 m.

C. R. DAS

41. INTERESTING DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS OF FIVE TAX A

OF CYPERACEAE

The paper presents new distributional re-
cords of five species of Cyperaceae in India.
Specimens of these are deposited in Forest
Research Institute Herbarium, Dehra Dun
(DD.).

Cyperus thonisonii Boeck. in Linnaea 36:294.
1870; Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6:608.
1893; Kern in FI. Males, ser. 1,7 (3): 552.
1974; Siddique & Dixit in Journ. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 72(2) : 620. 1975.

This species is known from Bengal, Assam
and Bihar in India. It has been recently re-
ported from Uttar Pradesh (Siddique & Dixit
/. c.). A collection (L. C. Singhai, 14th Sept

1953, Saugor) is now a new report of its occur-
rence from Madhya Pradesh.

Fimbristylis aphylla Steud (in Zoll. Syst.
Verz. 1:61. 1854. nom. nud .) Syn. PI. Glum.
2:114. 1855; Som Deva and Naithani in Indian
For. 100 (10): 649. 1974-F. quinquangularis
(Vahl) Kunth var. crassa Clarke in Hook. f.
FI. Brit. Ind. 6:644. 1893.

It is distributed in Tamilnadu and Karna-
taka. Recently (Som Deva & Naithani /. c.)
reported its occurrence from Dehra Dun dis-
trict of Uttar Pradesh. A collection (O. P.
Sharma, Dec. 1957. East Punjab) indicates its
occurrence in Punjab.

715

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Fimbristylis insignis Thwaits Enum. PI. Zeyl.
349. 1864; Clarke in Hook f. FI. Brit. Ind.
6:645. 1893; Kern in FI. Males, ser. 1, 7 (3):
555. 1974.

From India this species is known only from
Tamilnadu. An old collection (/. S. Gamble,
4513 (A), 4th July 1877, near Simla in Hima-
chal Pradesh) is now a new record for North
India.

Fimbristylis salbundia (Nees) Kunth En. 2 :
230. 1837; Clarke in Hook f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6:
643. 1893; Kern in FI. Males, ser 1, 7 (3) : 553.
1974. Trichelostylis salbundia Nees in Wight.

New Forest,

Dehra Dun 248 006,

February 4, 1981.

Contr. 105. 1834.

It is known from Bengal, Assam and
Madhya Pradesh. An old collection ( Brandis
3321, Aug. 1864, Kulu) indicates its occur-
rence in Himachal Pradesh.

Fimbristylis yunnanensis Clarke in Jour.
Linn. Soc. Bot. 36: 247. 1903; Kern in Blumea
10 (2) : 648. f. 3. J-S. 1960.

Kern in FI. Males, ser 1, 7 (3): 591. 1974
has mentioned its occurrence from North India
without giving any locality. A collection ( Bor
638, Year 1936, Naga Hills) indicate its occur-
rence in Eastern India from Naga Land.

H. B. NAITHANI

42. THE RARE AND THREATENED FERN ADIANTUM SOBOLl-
FERUM WALL. EX HOOK. — A NEW FIND FOR EASTERN INDIA

During the course of revisionary study of
the genus Adiantum, I examined a few speci-
mens from Eastern India representing
Adiatum soboliferum. Scrutiny of literature re-
vealed that A. soboliferum Wall, ex Hk. was
first known from Ava in Burma. Later Bed-
dome (1883) reported its occurrence from
Travancore mountains in South India. Its
occurrence in Eastern India, and non collec-
tion of the plants after 1901 upto date by the
Regional circles of the Survey at Shillong and
Coimbatore may indicate the endangered
nature of the species.

A. soboliferum is closely allied to A. lunu-
latum Burm. f. — a well known, widely dis-
tributed species in India. As such a key to
distinguish the two species is provided for
easy identification.

Key to species

Stipes, rachis, stalks of the pinnae winged, not

glossy, Texture of pinnae sub-membranaceous...

A. soboliferum

Stipes, rachis, stalks of the pinnae not winged,
but glossy, Texture of pinnae membranaceous. . .
A. lunulatum

Adiantum soboliferum Wall. ex. Hook. Sp.
Fil. 2: 13, t. 74 A. 1851; Bedd., Ferns Brit.
India t. 19. 1866; Christensen, Index Fil. 33,
1906, Holttum, Ferns Malaya 2: 598, 1954. A.
mettenii Kuhn ex Hook, et Bak., Syn. Fil. ed.
2. 472. 1874; Christensen Index Fil. 30. 1906.

A. caudatum var. soboliferum Bedd., Handb.
84, 1883.

A. lunulatum var. mettenii Bedd., Handb.
83, t. 83. 1883 et suppl. 17. 1892.

Rhizome erect, bearing tuft of fronds, scaly,
scales lanceolate, brown, margin entire. Stipe
black, scaly at base, smooth above, winged
throughout, rachis black winged with a lateral
wing of 5 mm wide, wing of stipe and rachis

716

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

plain. Lamina lanceolate, simple pinnate, ter-
minated by deltoid apical pinnae. Lateral
pinnae stalked, sub-dimidiate, glabrous, stalk
of pinnae winged, wing of stalk some what
crisped. Lowest pinnae broader, less crescent
shaped, outer edge of pinnae lobed to depth of
equal to about of width of pinnae, sterile
lobe often denticulate, texture sub-membrana-
ceous, veins free, dichotomously branched,
raised on the upper surface, grooved on upper
surface, lobes soriferous bearing reflexed soral
flaps. Spores tetra-hedral brown.

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah,

February 11, 1981.

Specimens Examined :

Zamka, 150 m, Nagahills, H. Collect 16
(July 7th, 1882), Sumding, Assam, N. Gill
115 (Feb. 24th, 1901).

Ack no wledge m e n t

I am grateful to Dr. J. N. Vohra, Regional
Botanist, (Cryptogams), Cryptogamic Section,
Headquarters, Botanical Survey of India for
encouragement.

S. R. GHOSH

43. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SELAG1NELLA TAMARSC1NA (P.
BEAUV.) SPRING VAR. PULVINATA (WALL. EX HOOK. ET GREV.)
ALSTON IN INDIA AND BURMA

Alston (1945) reported the occurrence of
Selaginella tamarscina var. pulvinata (wall, ex
Hook, et Grev.) Alston, in India (Kumaon
and Assam) based on two herbarium speci-
mens in the Kew Herbarium (Wall. cat. no.
7087 from Kumaon, collected by Robert Blink-
worth, and anonymous s. n. from Assam), but
remarked that “this species has not been col-
lected in India in recent years and it is possible
that existing specimens have been so labelled
in error. . . .”. Also, he held that its reported
occurrence from Burma (Mason, 1883) is
doubtful, as no herbarium vouchers are avail-
able. A duplicate of Wall. Num. List No. 7087
is available in the Central National Herbarium,
Howrah, but it bears no mention of the loca-
lity of collection. No other specimen of this
taxon is available in any Indian herbaria, nor
has it been collected during the extensive ex-
ploration of Kumaon and Assam areas under-
taken by the Forest Research Institute, Dehra

Dun, as well as the Botanical Survey of India,
for the past 25 years. This confirms Alston’s
surmise that Wall. Num. List. No. 7087 is
perhaps not from India. Similarly the other
specimen in Kew Herbarium, reportedly col-
lected from Assam, is also from source
other than India. S. tamarscina var. pulvinata,
thus, does not occur in India.

As regards its occurrence in Burma, Mason
(1883), while reporting it. remarked that “the
specimen being unmanageable could not be
placed among other species and is finally lost”.
This accounts for the absence of herbarium
vouchers noted by Alston. The Industrial Sec-
tion of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, however,
has in its collection a specimen of S. tamars-
cina var. pulvinata collected by the Reporter
on Economic Products from Mandalay in 1908
(Accession no. 41904). This confirms the
occurrence of this taxon in Burma.

717

15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. A. S. Rao, Joint Direc-
tor, Botanical Survey of India and Prof. B. K.

Botanical Survey of India,

Allahabad,

September 1, 1980.

Nayar, University of Calicut, Calicut for going
through the manuscript and helpful sugges-
tions.

R. D. DIXIT

References

Alston, A. H. G. (1945): An enumeration of tions or notes on the fauna, flora and Minerals of

the Indian species of Selaginella. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. Tenasserim, Pegu and Burma. Vol. II. ed. 2, Stephen

India 11 (3): 211-235, Austin & Sons, England.

Mason, F. (1883) : Burma its people and produc-

718

MINUTES OF THE EXTRAORDINARY GENERAL BODY MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

In

requisition to a request made

by 13

30.

Mr D. J. Panday (In the Chair)

members in accordance with rule 29,

an Ex-

31.

Mr Narayan Chhatbar

traordinary General Body Meeting

of the

32.

Mr Sidney D’Souza

Society was held on Wednesday, the 29th

33.

Mr K. N. Naoroji

September 1982 at 6.30 p.m. at Coomaraswamy

34.

Mr Anil Dave

Hall

in the Prince of Wales Museum when

35.

Mr D. S. Gaitonde

the following were present:

36.

Miss S. G. Khadilkar

37.

Dr P. J. Deoras

1.

Mr Mahesh N. Sanzgiri

38.

Mr Humayun Abdulali

2.

Mr Nitin Jamdar

39.

Mr J. B. Dordi

3.

Mr S. G. Monga

40.

Mr R. Holkar

4.

Mr Oswald Thayil

41.

Dr R. M. Naik

5.

Mr Sudip D. Bhaumik

42.

Mrs P. Mukherjee

6.

Mr Rishad Naoroji

43.

Mr Parvish Pandya

7.

Mrs Parveen Sisodia

44.

Mr Premchand Dabrai

8.

Mr Hasan Tyabji

45.

Mr M. R. Almeida

9.

Mr J. P. Irani

46.

Mr Dilip Patil

10.

Mr Bansi Mehta

47.

Miss Arati Kaikini

11.

Mrs Panna Raiji

48.

Mr Farhan Thakur

12.

Mr V. N. Raiji

49.

Mr M. D. Agharkar

13.

Mr N. M. Mulla

50.

Mr Ulhas Rane

14.

Mr Naresh Dutt

51.

Mr A. G. Nawalkar

15.

Mr K. D. Gokhale

52.

Mr K. K. Vajifdar

16.

Mr Vasant Gandhi

53.

Mr A. G. Puranik

17.

Mr R. S. Moral

54.

Mr Shashikumar Menon

18.

Mr A. D. Kunte

55.

Mr H. K. Divekar

19.

Mr S. N. Mistry

56.

Miss M. M. Haribal

20.

Mr Y. K. Nagrath

57.

Mr S. R. Nayak

21.

Mr P. R. Cama

58.

Mr AJ.T. Johnsingh

22.

Mr Jimmy Ollia

59.

Mrs S. M. Kothari

23.

Mr R. E. Hawkins

60.

Miss Raina Potnis

24.

Mr N. D. Mulla

61.

Miss Nafisa Khapra

25.

Mr S. T. Tambe

62.

Mr J. C. Daniel

26.

Mr D. N. Goenka

63.

Miss Saber S. Driver

27.

Miss Heta Pandit

64.

Mr S. A. Ruparel

28.

Mr A. K. Joshee

65.

Mr Vijay Porecha

29.

Dr A.N.D. Nanavati

66.

Mr A. G. Patwardhan

719

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

67. Mr Amir J. Ali

68. Mr Ram V. Jethmalani

69. Dr E. Sequeira

70. Dr Bipin Chandriani

71. Mr Ghansham L. Kalro

72. Mr S. P. Bavdekar

73. Mr V. James

74. Dr S. R. Amladi

75. Mr R. Sahgal

76. Mr Bittu Sahgal

77. Mr Kiran Srivastava

78. Mr G. C. Patel

79. Mr A. V. Ghangurde

80. Mr P. C. Gandhi

8 1 . Mr Firoze Mistry

82. Dr C. V. Kulkarni

83. Dr Salim Ali

Dr Salim Ali, the President of the Society,
requested Mr. D. J. Panday, the Vice-President
to take the Chair and conduct the meeting.

Mr. D. J. Panday thanked the President and
began with an apology for the delay of half
an hour in commencing the meeting owing to
a mistake in the timing announced in the
papers.

The meeting had been called in response to
a requisition by several members to question
the proposal for the BNHS establishing an
Institute of Ornithology and Natural History
with funding and support from the Government
of India and either to approve or oppose the
move. The Chairman therefore requested the
Honorary Secretary to give a resume of the
proposal and its background.

The Honorary Secretary, Dr. A. N. D.
Nanavati, explained that in the past paucity
of funds had prevented the Society from be-
ing as active as it should be in field research.
The current research projects with temporary
financial assistance from outside agencies had
to some extent remedied the shortcoming. But

the fundings for the projects were for limited
periods at the end of which they would have
to be wound up leaving such scientific work
incomplete. More importantly the enormous
investment made in training workers in tech-
niques of field research would be lost. It is
therefore essential to find ways and means to
support our scientific work and employment
of our research scientists on a continuing basis.

Dr Nanavati went on to say that when dis-
cussing this problem with the Department of
Environment we were informed that the De-
partment was funding elsewhere an Institute
of Ecology and an Institute of Wildlife Studies.
They therefore did not wish to support an-
other institute of the same type but would be
prepared to support an Institute of Ornitho-
logy at the BNHS as they felt that our main
strength was in this field. The Department
further indicated that there would be no objec-
tion to the BNHS raising independent funds
for an allied Institute of Natural History.

During the prolonged exchange of views by
a large number of persons the Chairman had
to urge members several times to be brief and
confine discussion to matters raised in the
requisition for the meeting. He had to rule
out of order remarks bearing on extraneous
issues and on personalities.

Several members both in favour of and
opposed to the proposal raised a number of
questions seeking clarification of certain issues.
Most of the queries were answered as fully
as it was possible to do so within the limited
time available.

In response to inquiries how the Society was
being financed by Government grants and the
extent of control by such financing bodies, the
Honorary Treasurer, Dr C. V. Kulkarni, stated
that in addition to a small grant by the Gov-
ernment of India for the Journal, the Society
since 1958 was receiving from the Government

720

MINUTES OF THE E.G.B.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

of Maharashtra Rs. 65,000 per year, for the
maintenance of the collection, but this year it
was raised to Rs. 1,20,000 and next year it
would be Rs. 1,25,000. These grants cover
salaries of collection maintenance staff and the
maintenance of the building. It was pointed
out that grants recently received from the
Centre and the State for repairs of Hornbill
House and the charges collected for the work-
ing of the Society’s projects have saved it from
financial loss.

Regarding Government control a represen-
tative of the Department of Science and Tech-
nology was appointed as an ex-officio member
of the Executive Committee. But there is no
interference by Government in the working of
the Society.

In answer to an inquiry by Mr Agharkar
about the actual assets of the Society, the
Honorary Secretary stated that assets com-
pletely owned by the Society were its Library
and its records. Under an agreement between
the Government, the Museum and the Society
made about 20 years ago when the Society
was being moved into Hornbill House, the So-
ciety had no absolute ownership or control
over the collection. At this stage Mr Humayun
Abdulali stated that he was one of the signa-
tories of the agreement and disagreed with
the statement just made. Dr. Nanavati then
read out the relevant clauses of the agreement
in support of what he had said. The clauses
of the agreement are recorded as follows:

i) a representative of the Ministry of Scien-
tific Research and Cultural Affairs will be a
member of the governing body of the Bombay
Natural History Society;

ii) the Bombay Natural History Society
will make its collections available to the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for pur-
pose of research and reference;

iii) the Bombay Natural History Society

will not sell, donate or give in exchange or
otherwise dispose of to any person or body its
collections without the prior approval of the
Government of India. If at any time the So-
ciety decided to dispose of any collections,
these shall first be offered to the Zoological
Survey of India;

iv) if at any time the Bombay Natural His-
tory Society ceases to exist its collections will
become the property of the Zoological Survev
of India.

In reply to a query whether an agreement
had already been reached with the Govern-
ment regarding the proposed Institute it was ex-
plained that the Society had been asked to
put up a proposal. If Government were inte-
rested it would appoint a Committee to discuss
the terms and conditions for the scheme. The
final decision would be taken by the BNHS
Executive Committee after satisfying itself
about reasonable safeguards for preserving the
integrity and interests of the Society and its
control over the new Institution and its staffing.

Among members who expressed views gene-
rally critical of the proposal in its present
form were: Mr Humayun Abdulali, Mrs

Phillippa Mukherjee, Dr Deoras, Mr Narayan
Chatbar, Dr A. K. Joshi, Mr Ulhas Rane, Mr
K. N. Naoroji, Mr Debi Goenka, Mr Parvesh
Pandya, Mr Kiran Gokhale. Opinions express-
ed ranged from an outright rejection of the
idea to conditional support of the proposal
with changes both in its content and in the
mode of preparation of the proposal and pre-
sentation to Government. The opinion for re-
jection was based on the apprehension that a
large Government controlled scientific institute
fostered by the BNHS would swamp the in-
dependent status of the parent body and would
be to the detriment of the amateur activities
of its members and their interest in its assets,
i.e. the library and collections. Moreover the

721

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL WST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

new Institution would increase the work of
the existing staff and cause neglect of their
routine duties and services to members over
which shortcomings there are already com-
plaints. Some members said that though they
would favour a large Institute, the Society did
not have the managerial talent for running a
big project which should be kept completely
separate from the Society. The Society could
only act as a catalyst for setting it up and be
associated with it in a consultative capacity.
Most members however did not oppose the
formation of the Institute but demanded assu-
rances on several heads against any associa-
tion between the BNHS and the Institute
which should be detrimental to the former,
namely the extent of Government representa-
tion on the governing body, the sort of parti-
cipation by amateur members in the activities
of the new Institution, the parity of salaries
between the Society’s and the Institute’s staff
etc. Reference was also made to the Presi-
dent’s letter in Hornbill of 1977. For this
purpose it was sought that the Executive Com-
mittee should not be allowed to forward the
proposal without rediscussing and redrafting
it in consultation with the General Body. The
arguments were crystalized in a resolution
subsequently introduced by Mr Ulhas Rane.

Mr M. D. Agharkar, Dr C. V. Kulkarni,
Dr R. M. Naik, Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Mr
Bansi Mehta, Mr J. C. Daniel, Mr H. K.
Divekar, Mr Ratansinh Moral, Mr Bittu Sahgal,
Mr Dayanand Gaitonde spoke in support of
the proposal for establishing the Institute of
Ornithology and Natural History. It was ex-
plained that the apprehension expressed by
members about the new Institute was unrea-
listic. The Society should go ahead with the
formation of the new Institute and during nego-
tiations ensure against the Society losing
control over the Institute and over its own

affairs. There was no question of change in
the status of the Society’s library and collec-
tion which would continue to be lodged at
Hornbill House and available for use of mem-
bers as at present. Amateur interest in Natural
History was always being fostered by the So-
ciety. Members have participated in certain
scientific programmes, but amateurs could
only devote part-time attention to these pro-
grammes which could only be conduct of by
a staff of full time workers. The proposed
Institute could initiate a number of necessary
study projects on a proper continuing basis in
Ornithology and other allied branches of
Natural History without which Ornithology in
isolation could not be adequately studied. In-
terested members could be given encourage-
ment for participating in the new facilities
created by the Institute. Staffing of the Insti-
tute would be under the control of the BNHS
and staff salaries would have to be on a par
in the same organization. It was pointed out
that the Society has a national commitment
gathered over the last 100 years which it has
to exploit. We should independently raise funds
by having, for example, a walk-in aviary at
the new Institute. Members supporting the
proposal were emphatic in stating that the
proposal should be processed by the Execu-
tive Committee which had been elected by
and represented the General Body of the
BNHS and was the proper channel for nego-
tiation with the funding authority.

Finally the following Resolutions were in-
introduced :

1. By Mr. M. D. Agharkar , seconded by
Dr. S. R. Amladi: RESOLVED that the Gene-
ral Body desired that the Executive Committee
should make all efforts to obtain funds from
Government and establish the Institute of Orni-
thology as proposed.

1. a .An amendment to the above Reso -

722

MINUTES OF THE E.G.B.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

lution was proposed by Dr Deoras, seconded
by Dr A. K . Joshi: RESOLVED that any
proposal to be finalized to have an institute
of ornithology under the Bombay Natural
History Society be first discussed by the Gene-
ral Body of the Bombay Natural History So-
ciety and published in the Hornbill before
being sent up to Government.

2. By Mr Ulhas Rane , seconded by Mr K.
N. Naoroji : RESOLVED that no commit-
ment be made on the proposal in its present
form of setting up an Institute of Ornithology
at/under the BNHS. RESOLVED further that
whilst the offer of • funds for setting up an
Institute of Ornithology or an Institute of
Natural History be kept open and live, the
actual mechanics of how to implement the
setting up of the above institute should be
given more thought, such that the existence
of the Society, i.e. the BNHS or its amateur
status or its independence of thought, policy

and action is not jeopardized; that to this end
a further meeting and dialogue with members
be arranged within a reasonable period of
90 days or at a suitable time to discuss alter-
native methods for setting up of the proposed
institute.

The Resolution of Mr Ulhas Rane, repre-
senting the views of the signatories of the
requisition was, first put to vote. There were
24 votes in favour and 34 votes against, the
resolution being defeated.

Dr Deoras’s amendment to Mr M. D.
Agharkar’s resolution was then voted on and
was lost, 25 voting in favour of it and 34
against.

Mr M. D. Agharkar’s resolution was then
voted on and was passed by 36 votes in favour
of it and 28 against.

The meeting terminated with a vote of
thanks to the Chair.

723

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1981-82

Executive Committee

President

Dr. Salim Ali, d.sc., f.n.a.

Vice-Presidents
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, i.c.s. (Retd.)
Mr. D. J. Panday

Ex-Officio

Member

Director, Dept, of Science &
Technology, Government of India.

Elected Members Advisory Committee

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. H. G. Acharya

A hmedabad

Dr. S. R. Amladi, m.d.

Mr. F. C. Badhwar o.b.e.

New Delhi

Prof. P. V. Bole

Dr. B. Biswas

Calcutta

Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chawda

Mr. S. Chaudhuri

New Delhi

Dr. B. Dasgupta

Dr. Madhav Gadgil

Bangalore

Mr. H. K. Divekar

Mr. N. D. Jayal

New Delhi

Mr. David Fernandes

Mr. Shi vara jkumar

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, m.sc., ph.d.

Khachar

Jasdan

(Honorary Treasurer)

Mr. Lavkumar Khacher

Rajkot

Mr. Bansi Mehta

Mr. M. Krishnan

Madras

Mrs. Phillippa H. Mukherjee

Mr. Duleep Matthai

New Delhi

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, m.d.

( Honorary Secretary)

Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

724

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1981
98TH ANNUAL REPORT

Membership

The Executive Committee is pleased to re-
port that for the first time in many years the
number of ordinary members crossed the 1000
mark during the year under review.

While this is a matter of some satisfaction,
it does not in any way meet the needs of the
Society. On current rates of income and ex-

lities to company members for a period of 25
years. I hope members employed or involved
in management or owning progressive com-
panies will enroll them as members and pro-
vide the Society with a sound financial base.

Details of membership for the past quin-
quennium, showing members fully paid up on
31st December of each year are given in the
statement below:

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

Ordinary members

541

640

660

764

1044

Corporate members

180

184

180

168

176

Life members

257

274

305

327

349

Compound Corporate members

2

9

9

20

37

Student members

39

96

83

94

165

Honorary members

4

4

4

3

3

Forest Department nominees

—

—

—

— -

—

1023

1207

1241

1376

1774

Members elected in 1981, but not paid

28

Members paid for 1980, but not paid for 1981

104

penditure we should have an additional 5000
ordinary members if we are to meet our mem-
bership commitments from membership sub-
scriptions.

We repeat our appeal to members to recruit
more members, particularly Compound Corpo-
rate Members, a field of recruitment in which
we have done poorly indeed. The total recruit-
ment at the end of the year was 37 in a target
of 1000. The Compound Corporate Member-
ship fee of Rs. 1500/- offers the Society’s faci-

Pu BLICATION S

Journal :

Five issues of the Journal were published
during the year under review and we were
finally successful in our efforts to publish the
journal on time. The August and December
issues for the year were published during those
months.

The journals published in 1981 included the
August & December issues for 1980 Vol. 77

725

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

(2 & 3) and Vol. 78 for 1981. The 1031 pages
of the journal published during the year con-
tinued to present authoritative data on the
natural history of the oriental region.

Hornbill :

The Hornbill now in its 5th volume con-
tinued to maintain its popular appeal to
members and we are glad to report that it has
become one of the reasons for attracting and
retaining members on the Society’s member-
ship rolls. We again remind members that it
will be difficult to maintain its popular appeal
without support from members in the form
of articles and photographs. We thank the
Seth Purshotamdas Thakurdas Devaliba Chari-
table Trust for generous financial assistance
for the publication of the Hornbill.

Books

Our popular publications the book of
. Indian birds by Salim Ali and the book of
Indian animals by S. H. Prater continued to
have good sales as is evident from the sales
statement given below. However considering
their value these publications could sell better
with more publicity.

Books under preparation :

GRASSES OF WESTERN INDIA
By T. Hodd (1st edition):

The fully illustrated, handy, field guide for
the identification of Grasses of Western India
will be available in 1982.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA &
PAKISTAN

By Dillon Ripley (2nd edition) :

The printing of this definitive work on bird
taxonomy of the Indian region was completed
during the year and copies will be available
in 1982.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS
& SHRUBS

By Bor & Raizada (2nd edition) :

This excellent ready reference on the wild
and cultivated shrubs and climbers occurring
in India will be published in 1982.

Sales in

1980

1981

Balance stock
31-12-1981

The Book of Indian Birds

2197

1389

5582

The Book of Indian Animals

1007

1392

2510

Some Beautiful Indian Trees

264

234

1988

Glimpses of Nature in India Booklet

353

192

1608

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra

(1st edition)

102

106

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra

(2nd edition)

81

1890

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra &

Bharatpur

54

89

185

726

A.G.M. 1981-82— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN NATURAL

HISTORY

Centenary Publication 1883-1983:

It is hoped that the Encyclopedia when
ready will provide a ready reference volume
for students in schools and colleges and to the
general readers on the natural history of the
Indian region.

A CENTURY OF NATURAL HISTORY,

Centenary Publication 1883-1983:

A book of selected articles of natural his-
tory interest covering general natural history,
expeditions and explorations, hunting, fishing,
conservation, wildlife photography, mammals,
birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, other inverte-
brates and botany from the Society’s journal
published during the hundred years of its exis-
tence. The selection has been completed and
the book will be available in the Centenary
year.

Conservation

The Society is recognised by the Central
and State Governments in India and by Inter-
national Organisations abroad as an authori-
tative source for information on conservation
of wildlife and natural resources. This recog-
nition is expressed in the form of association
of its officials with State and Central Wildlife
Advisory Boards and representation on the
Specialist Groups of the Species Survival Com-
mission of the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

As the Western Regional Representative of
the Indian Board for Wildlife, the Curator, is
a member of the State Wildlife Board of Rajas-
than, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Goa.

The Curator was a member during the year
of the following committees of the Central
Government and other organisations concern-
ed with conservation:

(a) Expert Committee for Management Guide-
lines for National Parks, Government of
India

(b) University Grants Commission on Wild-
life Studies

(c) Pine Plantation in Bastar Enquiry Com-
mittee, Government of India

(d) Goa Afforestation and Natural Resources
Committee of the Planning Commission.

Seminars & Conferences

The Curator attended the meeting of the
Species Survival Commission at New Delhi in
February 1981 and the meeting of the Con-
vention on International Trade in Endangered
Species at New Delhi in February.

Mr. V. C. Ambedkar represented the So-
ciety at Bird Watchers’ Camp at Lonavla,
Maharashtra.

Members’ Activities

Sikkim survey :

An application was made to the Dorabji
Tata Trust for financial assistance for Mr.
Ulhas Rane and other members of the Society
for a field survey to Sikkim to study birds,
butterflies, and the botany of the area.

Bird counts:

The monthly roadside count of birds at the
Borivli National Park on the last Sunday of
each month was continued. Apart from the
collection of data to record the fluctuations in
the bird fauna the main aim is to introduce
members to bird watching.

727

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

Nature walks :

Nature walks were held in various areas of
natural history interest around Bombay for
bird watching, vegetation study and general
natural history. The programme helped in re-
cruiting new members and fostering interest
in natural history among members.

Nature camp :

A nature camp was organised at Pachmarhi,
Madhya Pradesh, from 8th October to 20th
October 1981 and 85 members participated
(in three batches). Members also prepared list
of birds, butterflies and a list of the plants seen
and studied during the camp.

Research and other activities funded

FROM FIELD WORK FUNDS

The field work funds available at the Society
supported the following activities:

Salim Ali — Loke Wan Tho Ornithological
Research Fund :

Mrs. K. R. Lalitha studied ‘Comparative
Ecology of Drongos, with special reference to
Ecological Isolation among them’, and Mr.
Shahid Ali on ‘the ecology of Grey Partridge’
at Point Calimere.

Financial assistance was extended to Mr.
Koneri Rao, a member of the Society, to study
the Yellow-headed Bulbul in the Gingee area
of Tamil Nadu.

Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund :

(a) A study of the disappearing bamboo stock
in Tamil Nadu and its socio-ecological
impact — by Ramesh Bhat. The study
examined the status of bamboo forests
in certain selected areas of Tamil Nadu
and regeneration of bamboo resources.

(b) Ecological studies on the Lions of the Gir
Forest: by S. P. Sinha. Assistance was
extended to Mr. S. P. Sinha to commence
monitoring the possible progressive
changes of the food and food habits of
the lion with reference to environmental
conditions.

In addition the fund subsidised the publication
of the Hornbill and purchase of books for
the library.

Pirojsha Godrej Fund:

Conservation Education — Assistance was
given from the fund for the Wildlife Exhibition
at Patkar College and Ruparel College under
the auspices of the Nature Education Scheme
of the Society.

Research funded by government &

GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES

Studies on the movement & population
structure of Indian avifauna:

A field research station was established at
Point Calimere. Operations at Point Calimere
laid emphasis on netting, trapping and ring-
ing of birds. At Point Calimere baseline data
on weather, botany, entomology, marine bio-
logy and other factors such as mammals and
reptiles were collected comprehensively.

A total of 45,378 birds belonging to 277
species were ringed and released in all the
four stations worked by the project.

Data on plumage, age, physical measure-
ment, habitat preference etc. were recorded.

The capture/ recapture trends both at Point
Calimere and Bharatpur indicate that several
resident and migrant birds tend to remain in/
revisit the same ecological regimes. This sug-
gests that netting /ringing causes very little dis-
turbance to wintering /resident species in these
areas.

728

A.G.M. 1981-82— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Station

Duration

Species

Total

Point

July 1980 to

153

26040

Calimere

June 1981

(19

exclusive)

Bharatpur

November 1980

127

15535

to April 1981

52)

(166 days)

exclusive)

Chilka

February 1981

52

2158

March 1981

(13

(55 days)

exclusive)

Harike

December 1980

58

1645

March 1981

(29

(80 days)

exclusive)

Total

277

45378

An ecological study of Bird Hazards at Indian
Aerodromes :

The years programme of work at two air-
ports in the country with the specific aim of
identifying all birds species potentially hazard-
ous to aircraft and the habits of these birds
their ecological requirements and methods of
discouraging problem birds from the vicinity
of aerodromes was completed.

The report giving details of work and re-
commendations resulting from the study was
sent to the Aeronautics Research and Deve-
lopment Board. A more detailed study has now
been approved. This study will spread over a
period of 4 years and will cover 20 airfields
in various parts of the country.

Hydrobiological ( Ecological ) Research Station
at Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary :

This project to study the ecology of the
water bird species at the Ghana Bird Sanctuary
and the ecology of the Bharatpur Sanctuary
in relation to its bird fauna commenced ope-
ration. Dr. V. S. Vijayan, formerly Wildlife

Biologist at the Kerala Forest Research Insti-
tute and a former student of Dr. Salim Ali
took over as Project Scientist. The laboratory
has now been established at Bharatpur and
data collection started on a regular program-
med basis.

Ecology of Certain Endangered Species of
Wildlife and their Habitats :

Financial assistance for this project which
aims at studying the ecology of the Great
Indian Bustard and Indian Elephant as a be-
ginning was received during the year and work
was commenced on the Great Indian Bustard.
Two field stations were established, one at
Solapur, Maharashtra and one at Karera,
Madhya Pradesh. Data on the breeding season
at Solapur was collected during the year.

Donations

For Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund :

1. Dr. Salim Ali Rs. 7500.00

2. Cheng Kim Loke Foundation,

Singapore Rs. 180873 . 14

3 . Darbar Shri Alakhachar Public

Charitable Trust, Jasdan Rs. 4000.00

4. M/s N. S. Gazdar & Co. Pvt.

Ltd. (for Save Silent Valley
Campaign) Rs. 2500.00

5. M/s Airfreight Pvt. Ltd.

(for Save Silent Valley

Campaign) Rs. 2500.00

For Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology Field
Work Fund :

6. Mr. S. Chaudhuri Rs. 600.00

7. Mr. A. A. Faizee Rs. 175.00

729

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 19

For Salim Ali — Loke Wan Tho Ornithologi-

cal Research Fund:

8 . Sir Dorabji Tata Trust

Rs. 50000.00

For Hospitality Fund:

9. Dr. Salim Ali

Rs.

1000.00

For Publications Fund:
10. Dr. Salim Ali

Rs.

6500.00

For Life Membership Fund:
11. Mr. K. M. Khareghat

Rs.

2500.00

12. Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Rs.

1000.00

For General Fund:
13. Mr. Bill Harvey

Rs.

525.00

14. Mrs. S. R. Grubh

Rs.

250.00

15. Prof. P. R. Pisharoty

Rs.

300.00

16. Mr. Usha Kumar

Rs.

500.00

17. Grindlays Bank, Bombay

Rs.

1000.00

Reference collection

During the year under reference 122 sped-

mens were registered into the

collections.

Mammals

1

Birds

92

Reptiles

15

Amphibians

14

122

Among these the following species of birds
were additions to the collections.

1 . Sterna fuscata

2 . Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus

Nature Education Scheme

Students from 84 schools participated in
various activities of the Scheme. Besides school
students, 108 trainee teachers and 85 college

students, took advantage of our programmes.
In addition this year 9 new schools from Thane
participated.

Field trips:

A total of 970 students from 34 schools
were taken on field trips.

A camp for Municipal School children was
organised by the National Sponsorship Coun-
cil at the S.N.D.T. College. A series of lectures
illustrated with slides were arranged as well
as film shows on wildlife. The students were
taken to Victoria Gardens on a field trip and
also guided in the preparation of projects on
different topics such as migration of birds,
resident birds, reptiles, mammals and common
trees.

A Gulmohur camp for Municipal School
children from Bandra was organised by the
Society for Clean Cities, Children’s Complex,
Bandra. Slides and films on wildlife were
shown, and talks on natural history given.

Material for 2 nature booklets on insects was
completed. Matter for the 3rd booklet on rep-
tiles and amphibians is ready.

Meetings

J anuary , 25 : Nature W alk :

Kanheri Caves.

February, 1: Nature Walk:

Sasunavagarh.

„ ,4: Slide show:

Fauna & Flora of Sikkim by
Miss Meena Haribal.

March, 21-22: Nature Camp:

Murud Janjira.

April, 12: Nature Walk:

Kakuli Lake.

„ ,27-29: Film Show:

1. Devil Birds;

2. Marshes of Bharatpur;

3. Safari by Balloon.

730

A.G.M. 1981-82— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

June, 13-14: Nature camp :

Matheran.

July, 3: Film Show :

1. Crocodiles;

2. Great Barrier Reef.

„ ,12: Tree Planting.

September, 5: Nature Walk :

Chinchota Falls.

„ ,11: Film Show :

1. Language of Birds;

2. Elsa the Lioness.

October, 31: Slide Show:

By Dr. Ralph Schreiber, Natu-
ral History Museum,

Los Angeles County.

Nov., 29: Nature Walk:

Palasdari Lake.

Dec. ,16: Slide Show :

By Mr. Hanumantha Rao.

„ ,25-27: Nature Camp:

Koynanagar.

Revenue & Accounts

The financial situation of the Society has
improved. After many years of deficit, the
year’s working showed a small surplus.

Staff

The Committee wishes to record its appre-
ciation of the willing cooperation of the staff
in the activities of the Society.

731

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 79

s

O 'C
in

O S

p4

o

H

in

<

OC

O

H

£

<

«

s

o

PQ

§

'w'

i

o

£

*6

bO

CD

od

oo

Os

EH

03

§

8

E*a

Q

U w

3

< d

Q

y± S

H

W w

tta

D Q

g >

u H

tta

Co

§>

>N

tta

?

CO

Ss

>H D

hn

< o

03 W

D<

CU

s s

o

s ^

S*M

CO

Eta

Eta

?

co

I

kI

03

8 8

© ©

8 8

m rj

rQ r-

O Tj-

Tf OO

O r4

Os Os

l-H

Os Os

os r-

Os IT)

m

CJ

00

00

<n

i© in
O nl

O *-<

©\ T-l

2 •§

1 1
2 a
53

*3 ^

St

o

~5 3,

M

■»- ^

Pi £-<

I'S

"3 o

•x, «

Si ^

*S

c

3 1/3 £

^ <D ~

tl|

^ cd
£«•§
EJ tS r!

03

<3 <D

•> s

v. c3
O

O 03 k]

3

03

0)

0)

.. -G U

* w s
& « >»
S S 2

•5" ,2 +3
S *<3 hft

3<CQ 2>

ki w -9

vj CO rj
°$ « ^
vi »-i O

5 <U CO

* &.§

« a I

§■§!;
Gj JC3 *TS
C « 5

s ^

k<

^ J3
3 00
3

k< «

88

8 8
m
e'-
en c-l

03

0)

>*

J5

K a>
W •«

a> -a
a g

co O
03 |

sl

c . .

J2 “3
oS "3

03 X

u

o3

>»

J§

W)

.3

Sh

G

-o

Xt

8 .8

« §

a *»

© -M

•3 G
q d

S!

„ <«
i «
« i

o a

o G
G M
,2 -

03 G

03 O

+-> ^
CO

• • o3 73
"3 ~ «

| £ fc
a S§ §

<U I— i

« H

o

o

s

a S
§ R

§ I

§ o

OS ^

<D

5

^3

00

o

a

03

^ «

3 -M
3 «2
ki -2

60

.9

»-i

3

T3

a

.o

.2

s

a

(D

Q

S ^2

a

D

X d

1 •« S3

S( B5 >J

G
O
d ^
•— .2
'd ’o
C j>

O >H

& a

S G

u

o

d 9
£ J2

§ w

O

.

>3 e*

3 co
3 03

^ O
6« ^
.5 9

3 3

•= W

732

A.G.M. 1981-82— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

o

X

oo

©

©

©

©

©

l"

m

ft

©

ft

m

ca

r-

oO

©

oo

oo

©

vo

VO

oo

T_J

c4

8

t-H

Os

oo

m

m

©

X

©

©

t-H

m*

o

X

O

ft

X

oo

©

q-

C\

oo

in

m

00

8

ft

o

CO

r-

i — i

q-

©

cn

1—1

a

r~<

C/5

H

/-s

-ft

O

o

pa

C/5

•S

6J)

C/5

o

T)

<

blj

4)

Vi

>

■S

4)

-a

00

P

o

Vi

CQ

a o

&

0)

8
Is

O d

3

OJ «)

03 0)

fl <U

SI

s a

5 O

4>
>
o

<D O
4) 4>

E <»

c W

q ^

rrl q
■“< 0)

,2 &
H <u

0)

I

X

o

00

q

.0

3

P

X

W

o

2 &
Vi m

« 3

X oj
o £

H H

&

o

c

4) 4)

> X!

q ^
*

4> ■"

°*T3

g <£

>»

C-<

q

■s

8

cu

00

E?

q

Vh

O

q

o

ffi

v. O

cu

"Q «5
a 72
a •-

,fflg

? <D 3

O .22

'5 "■' X

§ vi— i q

•2 o ft

~a

a

ft

o .
U -

CO

00 ^

ft ^
o .2
q 3
fc* q

o &
<* 2
X .2

!«
Is
S' I

q ,2
W £

Oo

.C

Hi

C

e

00
<w ft
O —

Ck

QJ ^

Q >>

OJO

cf O
3 2
3 x

. 8

ca ° H
oo

- t *

00 ° o
^ U u

ft q

§< £
£ o

a

£

X

on

q

o

Vi

CQ

8

8 8

§5J
"q 3

| IB

! ’S

S co

<3 Vi

* a

J2
ft: <

ft* $
K -1
a ._
ft 8

ft

e> g

00

q

"C

q

T3

X

0)

’<3

o

4>

Vi

q

0)

ft

x

pa

4)

0 S

-8

^ 05

o PQ

ft

a ^

ft u
a <u
O ft

O to

„ <q

5 L>

•S c

vi q

"2 3
g CQ

ft

>< c

pa 5

^ g
2 £

4) .5

3 g

«3 ft
4> 8

P <0

q 3

hH

Vi

a 3

o

q

g 8

° s

00 3
CO
X
etf

*8

a

X
<

1 §

<u q

IH

«5 ..

I!

Hi

■q a

T3

3

6

U

00

4)

113
e -S

+-> T3

X oj

o q
V 5 c
ft X •-

<m .a

® «4— i Jr4

i_> o ft

a o

s « <3

CO 4)
tj 4)

> X
a oo

§ q
a ^

■§ «
.a

G co
4i cO

ft 7

a u
•2 c
S5 q

’> 3

O CQ

16

733

Centenary Celebration Fund:

Transferred from Income & Expenditure

account for the year 100000.00 Income Tax Refundable: 2355.40

FUNDS & LIABILITIES I ASSETS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 79

NO

n

m

Tt

VO

VO

O

VO

VO*

ON

^H*

vn

VO*

Tj-

00

V/N

1—1

O

o

C^l

r-

m

O

vn

<s

ON

m

oo

Tj-

rx

m

tJ-

Tf

T-H

cx

m

43

W)

3

O

u

05

m

CX

O

O

o

Tl*

Is js

* 3 a

5 44 pq
3 £ l"M

8 s -

o

« 2

^ <» O
-

3 2 .

sip

o o S

o ^

-O 1_

a <l>

o ft

^ vo
• tJ-

c ©

c3

m ^

vo

3 ON
«-rt ^
1 22

O S

cx

>»

43

s

o

05

44
3
c3

05

-O

<u

■g

c

3

O

o

o

5)

.3

5

3

CO

8

O

o

Tf

&

x>

8

o

05

M *

rS

c3

a s

>>

Saj

x>

§ E

00 o

3 05

a o

1 9

S3 S— i
1—1 05

l+H

O 1/3
OX)

44 .5

S >

i2 3
05 CO

2 cn
0) CX

> o

*8 ©

•— \ o

t-1 TI-
CS >>

o|

s I

« ffl

14-1

o J3

* g

C c3
ca »h
05 05

* m
os rx

° 8

•S *

w 3
x>
c £
.2 o

■s «

i-i

o 4-r

ft <u
}-. Q
O £

U co

•s 8

£ ffl

ft S3
hh

Q <w

• 3 OX) ^

'ES

co o

° 8 §

■ ° -

- — 33

O O S3

© -a 3
8 H
^ S3
c3 43

* £ 8

* O S

v> C/D

o 3

O

3 5 ^

.3 < O

3 x)
CQ 3

>»

3

X>

^ O O

>>

o3

43

8

O

05

>* Jq

1 o

6 °

05 ^

■2 ^

3 £

05 K

t» OD

*g 3
.8 T>

s-h S3
O W

OX)

o

2

o

.N

© /«—N

2 2
Jg §
2

CQ

rx

7— H

O

r^-

rx

NO

in

o

rx

ON

VO*

o’

o*

On

VO

o

cx

m

VO

r-

VO

m

m

m

T— C

r-

m

oo

3

O

1h

CO

8

a

<3

2.3

C/D

+3 o

■g 8*
o 0

GO W

g b ^

§3 2

;§ s 5 -I

jO l-( 1-1 U

»S o o o
«

<u

<u

.. 43

•g w

§ I

o S3

0 03
^ 2

<0 «

1 1
*3S

01 (D

ft ft

feS eg

^ 8

8

cz

i §

o CQ
3

o

1H

a .4
2

S3 0)
<D ft
ft >C
X nj
O w

c3
<D <U

° 8

o 2 ^

8 8 2

O *-H

O . 1-1

.8 | 2

3
3
O

8

<D <!

J-l ^

2 8

8 •
on

<

3 <U
os »3
^3 in 3
"3 ^ ^

734

FUNDS & LIABILITIES

A.G.M. 1981-82— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

00

§

CQ

^3 <D

1 S

^ Jb

£P

d

o o
s; »h
« «
53
CQ

g

£

l a
-.5 -s

s3- M

&I

.o P-<

£ .b

...s*

t ^ §

a o
.■g ffl 2

Co

g d .
^ *3 cd

q «

b ^

-« & .a

Si t? T3
•2 O d

fe, o 13

VT)

o

£

53 5

e 3

.2 d

-M 00

<3

*b 4-1

d o

o -L
o

VO

r$

E

-O ^

O co'

a p< ;

bO

O

o

-5

s

o ^

T3

o s

fi £

£ d g
> .8 T3

vw

'B % o
S| .
§ § *
O ". s

3 '5

•r| aJ
es CO

VO

O oo
b ^
b ov

Cj

^ <$

bO

J3

'o

,d

*d

t-4

o

o

-d

■H

d

cb

§’ S

2 *
I: §

* £

> £

O I

-o ^

CO

£

it

it

735

Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural. History Society

JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

CQ

§

ttJ

a

Q

hs

u ^

CO c*s

fej

hi

fal

CQ

(fa

O

X

A*

KU

£

£

O

b3

Q

t*3

§

w

fa

D

O

w

X

o

CO

£ ^ os

slilf

§!“s~

so

o r

— R

fa 8

R=S

"R ^ £
R .3. R

C<

5- S? R
C.Rg

fa | ^
^ -§^

S-. 05 vs
O c

1|
fa 8

<3

^t

cn

Gri

so

vs

!« R
d O 3
fa

cu

"R -R
*> *- ,

F £?R

o-S^

^ a
*R

■*— R! ^r*

R h

lit sis

R *

X *■

- S
■R

■j- cy

5 R
a ^

V. *R -R

8.3 *>

0 fa'

s

1

I I

os n-
oo rr
O cJ

so

1 I

Tt 00
Os r-
os o
8$
^ P;

^ V)
(N O

c*S

a 8

I i i i

83

-H in
(N O
r<s

Tj-

oo

ri

tJ- OO

O

t—

vs

OS *-H

00

Os

00

so

n;

oo

so

m

CnI

O

m

v-H

^ OO

m

n

t-H

r~

so

r<s

oo

vs

I I

O vs
m <*s
m

8 °
VS Tf
l"' C«S

r- n

tj- vs
Os Rs
O d
<N m
oO vs
os os
OS

$

t"- ^

<i on

3- x

os r?
(N Z
^ pa

i i

2 I I I I

3

8 8 8 8 3

I I I I

I I I I I

Os

8 8

S

S

3

vs

y—i

rf-

1— 1

VS

o

o

Os

VS

Os

o

rl

00

00

*— <

on

— * V)

12 3
S r1-1
d H
fa

■a |

I:-

X)
to a

IS o
fa Q

d

cd

§ ©
Ll ^

^ O

© fa
u sT

,«j

v

d .§

5 S3
on co

M

O H

tn a
cd 5
« cd

C/3 H-y

o Z

.1 o

g1?

2 oa

X3

S o
O O

i

0 vi

d *>
cd »h
> cd

a ^

2^ U

t3 cd
[u £

E

00

o g
o d

O vcd

N CO

3

cd

z

p

cl

0 'Cd

d co

g S'

S 5
2 >

Igl

d .2 'Cd
3*!W

d U
d S O

n 5> ©
*2

0>

■g d u d
§ .SP , §
fa g^C g

o I ’S §

d U O d

cd

d

d ‘-i

I ^

fa

-d

's’!

d fa
o
°

S 8 3

ifa K <3

a ««

O u<

if
1 1

fa

•& d ’ob

' < 3

o

fNj fVS

£3

cd

o e §

d d d

O 'Cd

on on O

o-s

a?

R a>
cd >

z ^

ft d

■8 .2

a|

d
o
fa

fa d

T3
d

fa

'Cd O * -i

on d fa

S d
•d n tj

•8 I

o p

cd £

d M

•%-v

2 d
d d
fa fa

736

Balance as Additions! Interest Transfers Total of Spent Refunds j Total of Balance

per last Amount earned from columns during Adjust- columns as at 31 st
Name of the Fund ] Grant Balance received during the other 2, 3, 4&5 the year ments 7 & 8 December

Sheet during the year Funds 1981

year (6 minus 9)

A.G.M. 1981-82— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

rx

8

3

»n

2 x

a *

£ PQ

©

ni

00

m

in

©

00

00

«n

in

m

m

NO

NO

m

©

©

©

*

• •

a o

ob

o 00

o M

2

5 HH

2

4-1 'O

<4M 2

d

S

5

o

S 9

rx

0) ~

ll

S ¥

pa S

on

On

,o B

C S

2 B

P V)

o w

8 *
OS

S-2 J

C5 .“2
a> +j P
■g d X

.S 2

lo>2

-

oo

Os

8 sl

d to
a> 3
d d -g

SOW

00
.s

OO 2

• d
© 3
00 CQ
On

| <3
.S &

rt *

S o

5 <* -

o

o

.B®

o

6 d
oo X)

On

O

4-1 nl
+-> 00
d J<

s ss

On

<3 -6

n c

|«

B

6 ?

03

°? 3
o d

£ &

5 ®o
S o a

13, Kw

00 2
t". - X

• © -m
r- oo

I °

CO

Q o
00 2
.S O

3*

d

Qj

OQ S

ON O

r- <m
ON

rx

oo

ON J*

r- oo
ob a

2*

= I !

d d *P
8 HH C/3

o d £

vm rij .in

^ -o

t+-i

oo o

2oo|

es .2
Vh O K-l

o x d W

•“ •“ =5 „

« §• & e

£ o d
2 g o (3

a -5

737

Balance as Additions I Interest Transfers Total of Spent Refunds/ Total of Balance

■ per last Amount earned from columns during Adjust 4 columns as at 3lst

Name of the Fund I Grant Balance received during the other 2,3,4 &5 the year ments 7 & 8 December

Sheet during the year Funds 1981

year (6 minus 9)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vdl. 79

On

ON

NO

VN

NO

rn

ON

OJ

01

NO

On

O

O

c<l

<0

<0

OO

On

' •

ITN

G*

•O

Cl

NO

to

m

t-'

>o

r-

cn

10

i ::

G

.5

*3

ti

o

T3 g

1°

g +2

o s

G u

G O

g ^
o

S3 *2

o

0 «

O

1 5

£

TO

•tj 8
ea <l>
<

w G
G

-&1
S3 ^

O SJ

52 -s:
•S .2

m K

3 3 -o

1|,

-O O

g

<0

->

o

.. a

^ o

^ O

§ -2
*C G3
■a G

o

G G
P G
oc 3
G

. <4-1

G ’>
•2 <

'I c

G o3

O ^
On £

° §

O *43

O C3

w

co

G g

■g1

2 0>

.2 e*

>P

o _

O .i

Js >>
G ofi
o

is

S “

CO

o
<0

i g' ^

^ 2 ~

W), G

>> >>
.S -2

-t R

2 G
2 rG

0)

G3 ,G
d> +■*

Dfl ^

G ,2

."O

g 2

o '3 £

CO G

ft

£

%

m

o
o

2 E

G

.2 £

O . G

73 ^

O 2
0) >>

■ rv >V

t7 p
o G
O 00

a

rH P

1 -2

is

u P£3

g .3

-a pq

s

3

H

A.G.M. 1981-82— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

s

o

PQ

'xl*

d

£

bJQ

o

c*

739

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

o c

oj Vd

4)

o

d

•2

Q

u

4)

0

u

4)

>

0

8

d

.2

n

oo

oo

^.s

11

X

X

o

00

ON

c«

0)

4) rv
>» ^
O ^

&Q

00

d

o

00

d

o

.a

ft

<4-1

o

Vh

o

<4-4

t»

8

a fa*
ft o

Id

d

n

u

PQ

X

u

PQ

c

d

4)

>>

00

n

4)

<N .2

°? ffi

w

d

X

4-* ft/

• ^ d

| & *6

4) 0)

OQH

DO 00 —

.2 s 2

a k -g
*3 D *
o. ft z

£ 2
: l

o ft
<2 X
0)

£ 60

S-8f

1 1 •§
ft < ft

<4-4 4)

° s

si

_r d
.2 o

c “
£ <

<4-1

O 4>
4>

X d

> £
o

a q

^ 4)

oo V, £

2 5 2

5-4 <4-4 "q

o o 2

<4-( qj

X

cd 5 £

° W.2
ft X

4_> Cd ^

c °

« wt;
g jp
ft 'o
J2 o ^

4> ft Cd
O d cd

Q < X

x

•S,

*c

=3

ft

s

X

u

o3

00 o

ON O

-H •-;

o £

5 x

P ft ^

X X

U Q

00
c

3 ’5b

S .5

§ T3

=3

ft d
c

ft .2

.2 ts

« ft

2 | ^

<4-4 > 4)

p 8 .a

X w fa

ft D 0)

u ^ W

^ X X
ro ^
> d

D > ft

d

<=3 .2

X

d 5

4)

£

4)

£ 2
° £

^ O

°!

</)

.2 d

If §

*11
u Q, ft
O o >
ft ft <

ft' cd
o3 ej
.2 d

oo ft
jo O

8 o

a-s

03

o 4> ^

oo ft

O

O d

ft

o
d

_ o3
CO C/5

03

1.

5-4 Cfi

o <u .d
ft ft OP

8

ft

C/5

X

4>

O d fa* o

<D H

00 oo|

4>

o 0) X

ft u ^

>>

ft

X

00

d

o

5-4

ft

*fc»

Cl

0 0X0

x o r- o

OO w oo N
X *-< o
n n x h

ft

3 d

ft

e

4/

ft

rX

ft C/5

o «

5 d

t>

CD 4) CD
Cl 60 60
v d C
O 03 o3

5- x X
ft CD tS
X X
c/5 <0 <D

ft

^ O ^

r; 4>

q < — i y

ft d C

S § o

_ d d
C3 S .£P •"

S S

,o .2

oo d
d o

d ts

ft .2

^ft^o555ft

o

>*

CJ

o

<

<%

4)

U

ft

d 2

cr1 o
ft g

^5 vT

<D 03

« d o

" r*^ S-h _*

O 3 O

3 ft S

ft

o d d

Q O O

O

xh

ft

o

OO

ON

00

00

o

o

00

00

00

Tj-

o

ft

m

f<N

'xf

»n

ft

ft

X

<n

«n

O

cn

oo

>«o

ft

ft

X

in

r-~

in

m

ft

O

ft

C3

ft

Jd

.ft

2

m

o

2

$

X

C/3

’V 2

4) d

C/3

C"

4)

u

*—

s-i 03

X

# ♦—

d

4>

5-4 <— ;

4) cd
H-c ro

C/3 ^

d _,

d .£

4-4 5— 1

d

<H

C/5

X

d

d

d

d

o

X

4)

!h

5-4

.4)

<4-4

IS

"o3

ft

06

4)

4)

ft

X

£

4)

S

•8 E

§4J

r» 1/3

ft C

OS

O 5— ■
G C/5

4) -£

ft 2
0 <3 d

2^8
>• o d
4) c2

g "o d

4) 03

O

__, W5 23

a q

2 o t»

*"’ 4)

0x3^
^ «j d

■» fa «

d <D 03

. 2 ^ ft

? d 2
d vh x
o

1/3 -T-l

4) ^2

a) d
ft ^

^ ft

.2 M
X *H
w 2
Vj X
4) c

x 2
g 5

J

fjB

^4)

• & <D 2

x ^ ^

C/3 ^

5-h ft

4) CD

X O O

i ?

<5 O ol

x: ft ft

XI
d d

0 d

1

g Of

Q %

X d

»s s
§ <2
4) o ;

740

A.G.M. 1981-82— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

© r-

oo oo

oo 'sj- o O
— < On O ©

\D O in O
<N tj- in
m m C'i
<N © r)
r- c)

oo ir>

m m

Tj- *03
O'! —

o t-i

© 2; O
m © 103

t> Ti"
© t fn
cc — n
c4 «—

§88

ra cm
in O iO
Tt- o r-

CM» m
Tf m

oo

d

O

Sh

QQ

g *

n

O <u

x a

o

£

<D

CD

2

u

Id

l t

vj ^

.&S i

§

0

CU

<D

Oh

O

<D

& 2 -

%-H

O

O

>

B |
8 ftq

X 0 S=

S E X

cu 5 d

"oo

X

P.

ss

s 6 53

OD 03

12 x
o £
o ^
CQ

OQ

X 0

JD

" S.-S
g S 3

C/5

*Tj

5 <

>3

-ini
O
o
CQ

■+-.

O

d ^
^ .2 •-
^ X *5
B £ “

°^<S
65 O O

22 H

Cd

- .2

« ^ A

d

a u

X X 2
5T o o £
3 o O o
CO CQ CQ CO

O

PU

«+H j_,

O tJ
_

d x

© a

Cd 05
CD CD

cd x

■-^ £
d d
<3 oo

X

>>

CQ

OX)

d

o

i-H

CQ

■§ >
C o
a _
^ xi
o oo
<c. 2
o 2

' &,«

*>5

s 5

o

B 8
^ oq

e2

*0 d

<D 03
U< cd

<d CQ

tHH

d ^
« 5

pH "c

c«3

% |

03 03

Qh >

CD

o3

^ t3
<+_i d

o d

£ fl

a o

x

tw -3

O £
•3 o

CD 't~‘

o>

O

>H X

a, o
_ o

CQ

CO <D

x t:
.d os

CQ X

O

4>

X O

0 o ^

a x o

x 22

o d

CD os

X ±3

cd

w X

x £
cd d
<d 2

p |

E, ^
« o

A

X

13

pq

o

o

o

N

3

2

x

CD

t5

X -o

> d
. d

§ ^

6 ^

CD O

x <3

CD

X <D

E x

d 8

o a

QD O

d x

<D _
1 -2

1 a

>> cd

^ O

Cd 12

co ."2

d g
o ^
^ &

‘g 2

© © O

© © ©

© © ©
© © ©
© © ©
© © ©
>0 © T-.

l

C3

I

s “

>> 'S (D

loss

X . 4-C

e fc |
- o s

8 id | 5Jd

.S 2 § 2

.52 00 o CO

o Vh »-< 5-«

jC o o o
pH fQ fL,

cx O

<d .s:

-« d

CD

H-< Oh

0 CO

V CD

65 *1

1 6

2

o 'w

s

O a
65 g

& *5
hq bq

If

‘d ^
d u
/d CC

c *5

§ o
O CO
co c*-
(D O
co

d ti
CD d

u -g

w rj

K §
a q

1/3 £
cd W

0 (5
a.§

0/
o

X

i §

(f

« -2

XT O

« S'

CO X

H 2

3 dd
d E

^ O
x

d o

d x

° £ P

d-5
I tf

^ .

g 3D »

£ CD ON

CUD d ’-
CD

c o
« >.

O X

1/5 d
<w O
O CD

X C °®

B £ 6

« O g

g. X >»
X d W)
cd h o

J O

< o d

741

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 79

742

A.G.M. 1981-82— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 79

s

VC

tj-

m

S

8

Z

8

o

-d

f

u, ^

> *■*
O

X)

2? t»

2 <4>

2 <>

03 o

«

0

).

1

0 TJ

1 |

fc. CQ Si

£

$ "3 §

Su|

M s >
3 o in

0 3 Si

d

5* 5

«« o

CD

*2 "8 ^

| £

8 g*

CD C

* g

.2 c
60 5
° &
o d
o ea
PQ

C4

a °?

C/3 -H
_ 06
d On

*o ~
ca

£ 3

d3 £

a 8

H ^
^ 06

a 6

o 2?

03

d o

£3 «M ^

o) 3
0, +3
* ca

W

8 «g

CO O

|§

W co

g 3

a 3

00 m

<4-( d

o a

ON

On rj-

u~)

»o r-~

vc

t—

r-

m to,

C4

O O

06

rn

TT Vo

|

*d aJ
d ©

&«

“ I

CD 5

> dS

O ca

o «

Is

c -

j>

o 0

wj "O
go <D

Si

u S

744

Sd/- Salim Ali, Sd/- A. N. D. Nanavati, Sd/- C. V. Kulkarni,

President, Honorary Secretary, Honorary Treasurer,

Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural History Society

A.G.M. 1981-82— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Pi c^

oo O
££
do

*§
^ hs
< X

s

o

CQ

oo

ON

1

CQ

S

Q

hs

03

§

l

ba

ft!

x

tta

Eta

£

s

1

§

£

§

a

ftN

I

s

On

s

a:

§

I

On cn itn v-> d-

oo d" «o On •/->

N &\ t' »h oo

(d d" fd

3 s

.a ‘z

£|

s S3

»
c3

S'

X>

O

cq

&

jq

3

o p
.2 P

w 3 is

_ £ ^

d . cd

£ 3 O

■3 cd a

a -r< o

z 3 o

s -a

3Q «

3> ■*« C*
§£

5 ^ 12 g
to « -S s

a
§

*3

$ W)

“= s

to .c *2
o G o

Oh Ph CQ

a 5
£ o

n §

t— I +H *3

•a I

«j $7

« Q

eo

>> -O

C3 1)

=5 .a

•§*
O .S

3

cS

z

£

^ 9
•s £?
9 o

^ a

8 3

d

js a

«* P
C« T3

O W

ro

o

8

NO

td

oo

d-

r-

ON

o

On

ON

00*

ON

oo

On

ON

OO

NO

o

O

tn

d-

NO

OO

00

<d

O O

d- o

ON O

00 o
oo cd
co

&

1

o

CQ

0

C/5

1

OX)

£3

3 hJ

*. .. a
^ g o S

sfll

^ 3 a ^
8.1 | 1
8 a 5 z

| £ a £

1? °?

H

*-« C

6 |

oo •>

ON <

^ 3

g 1

o a

3*

<u

*o

0

CO

1

o fe

-I

T3 tCJ
1/5

-3
3
o
o
. CO

i!

& s

Q^*

?>n a

z IS

. O d

< § z

" !
CQ

* .

3

o

*§
C/5

>»
lH

o

to

s S S
3 a _

< Jo c3

, 4 |

— ^ C3

S5

>*

oj

!

CQ

3

K -

o
o u

& S

u ca

745

Bombay, 15th October, 1982. Chartered Accountants .

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY HELD AT BEST CONFERENCE HALL, COLABA, BOMBAY, ON
MONDAY, THE 29TH NOVEMBER 1982, AT 6 P.M.

When the following were present:

1. Mr R E. Hawkins (in the Chair)

2. Dr. P. J. Deoras

3. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

4. Dr. Salim Ali

5. Dr. A.N.D. Nanavati

6. Mr. S. D. Bhaumik

7. Mr. N. D. Mulla

8. Mr M. K. Mistry

9. Mr. M. D. Agharkar

10. Mr. H. K. Divekar

11. Mrs. P. Mukherjee

12. Mr. Humayun Abdulali

13. Mr. J. C. Daniel

14. Mr. V. K. Paralkar

15. Mr. Ashraf I. Macchiwalla

16. Mr. J. P. Irani

17. Mr Bansi Mehta

18. Mr. D. J. Panday

19. Mr. S. R. Nayak

20. Mr. K. N. Naoroji

21. Mr. S. G. Monga

22. Mr. R. Naoroji

23. Mr. Anil Dave

24. Mr. G. L. Kalro

25. Mr. Parvish Pandya

26. Mr. Ulhas Rane

27. Mr. Bittu Sahgal

28. Sanctuary Magazine

29. Mr. R. S. Moral

30. Mr. S. Mistry

3 1 . Mr. Oswald Thayil

32. Miss Meena Haribal

33. Mr. M. R. Patel

34. Mr. G. R. Rege

35. Mr. F. A. Thakur

36. Miss Usha Ganguli

37. Mr. D. N. Goenka

38. Mr. Ramani N. M.

39. Mr. Suresh Bhatkal

40. Mr. Sam J. Bhacka

41. Mr. A. G. Puranik

42. Mr. K. S. Khambad Kone

43. Mr. M. Bharucha

44. Mr. Chandragupta Bhogilal Mehta

45. Mr. Dhun Mehta

46. Mr. Dilip Patil

47. Mr. D. P. Bannerjee

48. Mr. Hilla Mewavala

49. Mr. K. K. Vajifdar

50. Miss S. S. Driver

51. Mr. J. H. Thakkar

52. Mr. Chandrakant Wakankar

Dr Salim Ali, President of the Society, pro-
posed that Mr R. E. Hawkins take the Chair
and conduct the proceedings of the Meeting.
This was seconded by Mr. D. J. Panday.

1 . The Chairman suggested that as the
Honorary Secretary’s main report had been
previously circulated it was unnecessary to
read it but questions could be raised about it
after the Honorary Secretary’s Supplementary
Report. There was no objection to this sug-
gestion.

2. Dr C. V. Kulkarni, the Honorary Trea-
surer, summarized the salient points of the
accounts for the period covered by the meet-
ing. Fortunately, he said, there is a surplus of
Rs. 1350/-, after setting aside Rs. 38,000/-
for enhanced salaries and dearness allowance.

746

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

Rs. 5000/- for medical assistance to the staff,
Rs. 1,00,000/- for Centenary celebrations, Rs.
50,000/- for staff gratuity fund, and
Rs. 10,000/- for the staff welfare fund. This
surplus had been generated through various
donations and overhead charges received from
the projects which were being handled by the
Society.

No questions were raised on the accounts,
and the Chairman declared the Balance Sheet
and Statement of Accounts for 1981 accepted

3. Dr C. V. Kulkarni, the Honorary Trea-
surer, proposed that Messrs Habib & Co., the
present auditors of the Society be reappoint-
ed on the same remuneration as before. This
was seconded by Mr D. J. Panday and was
accepted.

4. In his Supplementary Report for the
period since January 1982 the Honorary
Secretary stated that for the Avifauna Project
an additional bird-ringing camp had been
arranged at Harike in the Punjab and later
would be additional camps in the Siwaliks,
Nilgiris and other areas. For these we would
welcome assistance from competent ornitholo-
gists and a notice to this effect would be circu-
lated to members seeking their assistance.

In the Hydrobiology Project problems in
regard to arranging accommodation and labo-
ratory premises for the staff had arisen, as
the old Palace quarters used for this purpose
were now required for other purposes by the
owner. These problems are being solved. Labo-
ratory has been established and data collection
is in progress in Bharatpur.

For the Endangered Species Project, the
Honorary Secretary stated that two permanent
study camps for conducting studies on the
Great Indian Bustard have been opened —
one at Solapur, Maharashtra, and the other
at Karera, Madhya Pradesh. A preliminary
survey of the Lesser Florican’s habitat has

been initiated. On the status and populations
of elephants a preliminary survey is being con-
ducted in Chilla Sanctuary in Uttar Pradesh
in addition to other areas, where work is in
progress already.

As regards publications, he said that the
second edition of S. D. Ripley’s A SYNOPSIS
OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKIS-
TAN, the second edition of N. L. Bor & M.
B. Raizada’s SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN
CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS, and T. & P.
Hodd’s GRASSES OF WESTERN INDIA
had been published. THE BOOK OF INDIAN
REPTILES, by J. C. Daniel, is now in the
press and is expected to be available in 1983.
A selection of articles published in the So-
ciety’s Journal over the years, under the title
of A CENTURY OF NATURAL HISTORY
is hoped to be ready well before the Cente-
nary celebrations commence. However, the
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN NATURAL
HISTORY, a second Centenary publication,
may be delayed as some contributions are still
outstanding. The Honorary Secretary also re-
ported that the Society is concerned with the
reproduction of coloured plates by John Henry
Dick for a bird book to be published by the
Oxford University Press.

The Honorary Secretary reported that he
was in negotiation with the Maharashtra State
Government for a piece of land suitable for
the Society’s proposed Institute. A proposal
for the Institute had been sent to the Depart-
ment of Environment in accordance with the
decision taken at the Extraordinary General
Body meeting held on 29th September 1982.

He explained that the Extraordinary Gene-
ral Body meeting planned for 29th October
1982 for amending the Society’s constitution
had had to be postponed as the day was (un-
expectedly) declared a public holiday. He said

747

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 79

the meeting would be convened on a date to
be notified.

For the Centenary Celebrations, a Seminar
will be held from 15th to 19th September 1983.
The subject of the seminar is CONSERVA-
TION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. A
number of proposals from people who would
speak on this occasion have been received. As
soon as a synopsis of their talks is received
from the participants they will be refereed by
experts, mostly referees of the Journal. The
last day, i.e. 19th September, of the seminar
would be devoted for a general discussion of
the proceedings and formulation of goals and,
where necessary, recommendations to be put
up to the Government.

An exhibition of the activities of the Society,
including the activities under the various Re-
search Projects, will be held along with a
Snake exhibition around Diwali or Dassera, a
few weeks after the Seminar, to sustain inte-
rest in the Society.

A Photographic Exhibition of wildlife
photographs from India and the neighbouring
countries will be arranged. It is proposed to
limit entries to not more than 5 photographs
for an entrant. It is also proposed to publish
the best photographs in a commemorative
volume. Suggestions and donations for the two
exhibitions were invited from members.

On conclusion of the Honorary Secretary’s
supplementary report the Chairman invited
members to ask questions and make comments.

Dr P. J. Deoras made the following sugges-
tions : (1)A special issue of the Journal should
be published on the occasion of the Centenary
Celebrations, with articles on a given theme.

(2) That the papers presented at the Semi-
nar on Conservation in Developing Countries,
should not be concerned exclusively with bird
ecology, migration and other ornithological
items but with Conservation in its wider and

more general aspects.

(3) That a snake exhibition should be
avoided because it results in killings snakes.
The exhibition should concentrate on the col-
lections at the Society. He was of the opinion
that listing of the various taxa in the Society’s
collections, with their localities of collection,
and comments on the status and details of
collection, if published would be valuable for
future workers. The exhibition should be de-
signed to educate rather than to raise money.
He desired that a committee be appointed to
go into all these aspects, and exhorted the
Committee to consider the opinion of the mino-
rity and not to go only by the opinion of the
majority.

Dr Deoras also wanted to know whether
the recovery of rings had first been statistically
analysed before computerizing it.

Mrs. Phillippa Mukherjee then made her sug-
gestions :

(1) She deplored the absence of Nature
Education in the Secondary School Certificate
syllabus, and exhorted the Society to take up
the matter with the Government of Maha-
rashtra with a view to correct this defect.

(2) While appreciating the excellent work
done by the Society’s Nature Education Orga
niser single-handedly Mrs Mukherjee said that
funds ought to be found to expand the scheme,
and extend it to a greater number of schools
and institutions. She said the Rs. 3000/- or so
now available for the Nature Education
Scheme was ludicrously inadequate. She sug-
gested a deputation should request the Edu-
cational authorities to change the Secondary
School Certificate syllabus and introduce more
natural history for the primary and secondary
standards.

(3) She suggested that the Brains Trust
sessions once held by the Society should be
revived.

748

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

(4) She suggested that a larger Editorial
Board should be constituted to assist the three
Editors of the Journal.

(5) She suggested that much more atten-
tion should be paid to children’s education.
Exhibitions should be arranged for them and
a Children’s Corner organized in the Hornbill.

(6) She drew attention to the difficulties
experienced by members and visitors to the
Society is being directed to the right person to
solve their problems. Mrs Mukherjee suggest-
ed that a person be appointed to attend to
these needs efficiently.

Mr Humayun Abdulali then spoke:

(1) He deplored the poor cooperation he
and his suggestions received from the Honorary
Secretary and the Executive Committee. He
said most of his letters did not reach the Exe-
cutive Committee at all and were being either
ignored or replied to by the Honorary Secre-
tary.

(2) Mr Abdulali pointed out that an Advi-
sory Committee has not yet been formed after
the last elections, and the Society is without
one at the time of the current Annual Gene-
ral Meeting.

(3) Mr Abdulali pointed out that though
the late Dr C. D. Deshmukh was a member
of the Society and served for quite some years
on the Executive Committee of the Society,
no condolence resolution had been passed by
the Society’s Executive Committee to mourn
his death.

(4) Mr Abdulali pointed out that in spite
of constant reminders indexes for nearly 15
volumes of the Society’s Journal were not
available up to now, the last being for Vol. 63.

(5) Mr Abdulali wanted to know the pro-
gress made in regard to computerizing of the
bird ring recovery records.

(6) Mr Abdulali said that there had been
a deliberate attempt at the Society to keep

Mr G. V. Bedekar’s letter of resignation as a
Vice-President from the Executive Committee,
and that it was only because of his own efforts
that it had been brought to the Executive Com-
mittee for discussion.

(7) Mr Abdulali deplored the non-availa-
bility of staff in the office when necessity
arises. The experienced staff is being sent to
the Projects, and the newcomers are unable to
attend specific demands made by the members.

(8) Mr Abdulali pointed out that he had
been asked to select some articles for the
A CENTURY OF NATURAL HISTORY,
and had made some selections but had heard
nothing more. He felt he was entitled to know
what progress had been made.

(9) He asked for information about the
papers received for the proposed Centenary
Seminar.

(10) Mr Abdulali pointed out that there had
been no notice of the current Annual General
Meeting in the local papers. He said that
whenever a meeting or a film show was
arranged jointly by the Society and the World
Wildlife Fund, the role of the latter was notic-
ed in papers while the Society’s role was left
unnoticed.

(11) Mr Abdulali suggested that short bio-
data of candidates desiring to contest elections
to the Society’s Executive Committee should
be circulated, and wished to propose a Reso-
lution to this effect, but the Chairman ruled
that the business of the meeting must be res-
tricted to the Agenda and no resolutions could
be considered.

(12) As an afterthought, Mr Abdulali re-
ferred to the resignation of Mr R. E. Hawkins
as a Vice-President and alleged it was due to
dissatisfaction with the conduct of the Society’s
affairs.

Mr M. D. Agharkar asked what progress
had been made in our negotiations with the

749

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 79

Central Government regarding the proposed
Institute of Ornithology.

In ersponse to the remarks on the death of
Dr C. D. Beshmukh, the Chairman ruled that
this meeting record our appreciation of his
unfailing helpfulness to the Society and our
regrets on his demise and directed the Hono-
rary Secretary to convey our condolences to
the family.

The Honorary Secretary replied as follows:

To Dr Deoras: He stated that certain of
the suggestions made were already being acted
on, and the rest would be seriously considered.

To Mrs Mukherjee: He agreed entirely with
her remarks on the Nature Education curri-
culum and the entirely inadequate financial
support for Nature Education activities of the
Society. He would do his best to implement
her suggestions with support from other mem-
bers.

Mr Abdulali’s remarks referred to letters
which had already been answered, as in the
case of computer analysis. A digest of the
preliminary analysis had been supplied to him,
and he had been informed that 300 sheets of
computer printout were available for study if
he so desired. Further work on these lines,
which is expensive, has been delayed until
some of the fresh data from the projects, which
is more complete and comprehensive, is also
recorded. The Society’s Advisory Committee
has been formed, and he would inform Mr

Humayun Abdulali about the date of the meet-
ing at which this was decided. The question
of indexes has been discussed by the Execu-
tive Committee and decisions taken are being
implemented. Regarding the staff going to the
projects, he pointed out that we cannot deny
our staff an opportunity to work on field pro-
jects, but whenever one of them was selected
for project work, a replacement on the Gov-
ernment grant was appointed in his place.
The new recruits were generally untrained and
needed some time to learn the work. They
could not be expected to answer queries as
effectively as former workers who may have
worked at the Society for years. There had
been no attempt at suppression of Mr Abdul-
ali’s letters, but he was unable to place on the
agenda letters in which facts were incorrectly
stated.

The Honorary Secretary informed Mr
Agharkar that the proposal for the Institute
had been sent to the Department of Environ-
ment, but so far no response had been re-
ceived from them.

Referring to the last remarks of Mr
Abdulali, the Chairman said he had reached
the age of 75, had been a Vice-Chairman of
the Society for twelve years, and felt it was
time for a change.

The meeting terminated with a vote o
thanks to the Chair.

750

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

The Book df Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in
colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 60.00

( Price to members Rs. 55)

The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett.

Rs. 10

Birds

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and
many monochrome plates. Rs. 60.00

( Price to members Rs. 55)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-
date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. Rs. 100.00

{Price to members Rs. 80)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 4

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali &
J. D. Panday. Rs. 3.00

Reptiles

The Book of Indian Reptiles By J. C. Daniel ( in press)

Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 5

Plants

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and
monochrome plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). Rs. 40.00

{Price to members Rs. 35)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many
coloured and monochrome plates. 2nd edition. Rs. 100.00

{Price to members Rs. 75)

Grasses of Western India, by Toby & Patricia Hodd. With 64 monochrome plates.

Rs. 50.00

{Price to members Rs. 37.50)

Miscellaneous

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History Edited by R. E. Hawkins {in, press)

A Century of Natural History Edited by J. C. Daniel {in press)

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Kannada Rs. 0.62

2. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi

and Marathi. Rs. 0.80

3. Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati,

and Hindi. Rs. 1.25

Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) in English Rs. 7.50

{Price to members Rs. 5)

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal , from members
who may not wish to preserve them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Entrance Fees :

Ordinary and Life Members . . . . . . . . Rs. 25

Student Members . . . . . ; . . Rs. 10

Subscription :

{a) Ordinary individual Members . . . . . . . . Rs. 60

v (b) Ordinary Corporate Members . . . . . . . . Rs. 125

(c) Ordinary Members resident outside India . . . . . . Rs. 95

Life Members . . .... . . . . Rs. 800

(Rs. 250 after 20 years)

Compound Corporate Members . . . . . . . . Rs. 1500

Student Members (without Journal) . . . . . . Rs. . 15

Annual subscription to Journal .. .. .. .. Rs. 135

Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders on
their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the 1st
January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £6.50 should be paid annually
to the Society’s London Bankers—The Grindlays Bank Ltd., 13, St. James’s Sq., London
SW1Y 4LF. Account No. 1101091.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the
period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

CONTENTS

Page

Status of the Grey Wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes Sykes in India — A preliminary

survey. By S. P. Shahi , . 493

Foraging behaviour and interactions of Whiteheaded Babblers Turdoides affi -
nis with other species. By A. J. T. Johnsingh, K. Paramanandham, and S.

Murali . . 503

Studies on the grasses of Kheri District, Uttar Pradesh. By K. K. Singh . . 515

Predatory behaviour of an Assassin Spider, Chorizopes sp. (Araneidae), and

the defensive behaviour of its prey. By William G. Eberhard . . 522

Studies on the spawning ecology of Kumaun mahseer Tor tor (Hamilton)

and Tor putitora (Hamilton). By S. S. Pathani .. 525

The Gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus) : A review. By Romulus Whitaker and D. Basu 531

Breeding habits and associated phenomenon in some Indian bats. Part VII
— Hipposideros speoris (Schneider) (Hipposideridae) from Chandrapur,
Maharashtra. By A. Gopalakrishna and Deepa Bhatia .. 549

First records of Odonates (Arthropoda: Insecta) from the Silent Valley
and New Amarambalam Reserved Forests. By K. Ramachandra Rao and
A. R. Lahiri ' . . 557

Notes on the occurrence of some plants of West Bengal. By J. K. Sikdar . . 563

Some interesting aspects of the Avifauna of the Point Calimere Sanctuary,

Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu. By R. Sugathan . . 567

Taxonomic significance of Ovipositor in some Indian Grasshoppers (Orthop-

tera: Acrididae). By M. Kamil Usmani and S. Adam Shafee .. 576

The Birds of Ranganathittu. By S. G. Neginhal . . 581

Material for the Flora of Mahabaleshwar-4. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida 594

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History

Society — 26. By Humayun Abdulali . . 607

Geographic variation in the Barasingha or Swamp Deer ( Cervus duvauceli).

By Colin P. Groves . . 620

New Descriptions . . 630

Miscellaneous Notes . . 658

Minutes of the Extraordinary General Body Meeting of the

Bombay Natural History Society 719

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the Year 1981-82 724

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society 732

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting 746

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103
and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay
Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023.

s SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOllflillSNI NVINOSHlIiNS S3IBVHan LIBRARIES SMITHSONIA

Z r~ z > Z 2

o ~ 2 m ^ — x^ir^vs — o

pitlv^ ^ /AiTFKA ^ SS^

£ s>

<o

^ m x^yosv^x ~ ^5*0^ rn ' ^ xjvasv^x m

I_NVIN0SH1IWS</>S3 I d VH 3 II ~u B R AR I ES SMITHSONIAN'"lNSTITUTION</>NOIXriXIXSNI NVINOSHXIW
z «2 i, 5 \ £ ^ z \ ’

8 s jbkps s x^*n * m ji) 8 s (li

x teE- 3lj o JW0J-- x 2 x o wv '#7J' x V£®

m 2 to 2 CO *'* Z CO

S SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIXnXIXSNI_NVINOSHXIIAIS S3 I HVH 3 I1_U B RAR I ES SMITHSONIA
in zz <n z \ ffj z

ii NViNOSHiiiNs ssiavaan libraries Smithsonian institution NoixnxixsNi nvinoshxiw

p- 2 r“ z r~

Z. ____ __ O — * ^?usnTr> ^

3 .'/i

t

1/5 ri ^ rn Ns^SiL££^/ ^ ^i'uuSjV m

SU,SMITHSONIAN“lNSTITUTION W NOI-LnilJLSNI_NVINOSHilWS S3 1 avd 9 n_LI B RAR I ES ^SMITHSONIA

/ n M t r\ Z CO z . CO

< /<v'so^tX SI , <

z
o

CO
X

§/ £ v V ±

^ 2 ^ > XiouiS^

Jo Z CO * z

H^NVINOSHilWS^Sa IBVUanXlBR ARIES SMITHSONIAN _ INSTITUTION ^NO IIfUliSNI_NVINOSHJ.il*

z .xx* . iii x in, z ui ^ ^

cn
<

m \SJWK7 g x v^i-y m

$Z SMITHSONIAN-* I NSTITUTION Z NOIXDXIXSNI NVIN0SHXIIMS__S3 IBVaai"l_LIBRARI ES^SMITHSONI/
z r* v

CD
PD

* >

’ P3

m m ' ^ xjvas^x m

Jl ~ NVINOSHXUNS^SB I ava a n~L,BRAR 1 ES SMITHSONIAN_INSTITUTION^NOIXnXIXSNI~NVINOSHXIV

CO Z \ ^CCTT><«. 2 ^

^^1

2 •>^r g 2 ' \y > ■ 2 X^QS^>

S^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITUTION </>^0liniliSNI_NVIN0SHilWS</’s3 I d VH 3IUI B RAR I ES^SMITHSONIA

CO HI CO Z * 60

Hi

tr
. <
cl:

o Naygy>y - 5 V>»F 3 o

Nl_ NVINOSHXIWS2 S3 | a VU a n"*1- 1 B R AR ' ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinXIiSNI NVINOSHXIl1

TITUTION NOlinillSNI NVINOSH1IWS S3iava8IT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOI
^ r v z r~ 2 ’ z

co

23
>

iavyanIL,BRARI ES^SMITHSONIAN JNSTITUTION^NOIinillSNI^NVINOSHlIWS^Sa I d Vd a 11 2LI b

TITUTION NOliOlllSNl _ NVIN0SH1IWS S3 IBVBail^LIBRARI ES ^SMITHSON IAN__ INSTITUTION J^01

££

w i

/>?

lavnan libraries Smithsonian institution NosiniiiSNi nvinoshjliws saiavaan lie

r- z r* _ 2 r* 2 ^

rn ^ m 2 m

5TITUTION ^ N0I101I1SNI~NVIN0SH1IW$ S3 l B VB 8 1 1 L I B R AR I ES SMITHSONIAN ~ INSTITUTION NO

1 JBrJF o x

O X o 2

*•. 2 CO 2 CO * Z SO 2

lavaan libraries Smithsonian institution NouniusNi nvinoshiiws saiavaan lii

2 ^ CO 5 ^ ^ w 5 ^ „ 2

^ 1x1 , co m . W CO

O tt! O ^<^DCjy *Z Ns^i|1c,r^Z Q o

STITUTION Z NOIiDillSNI^NVINOSHilWS SBIHVHail^LIBRARI ES^ SMITHSON IAN-* INSTITUTION MO

” V 2 r* 2 w “

lava an libraries Smithsonian institution NouniusNi nvinoshuiais saiavaan lii

2 S <2 - _ 2 t CO 2 to ^ 2

<

^

►TITUTION ^NOliniUSNI^NVINOSHlIWS^Sa 1 B VB 8 Il^Ll B R AR I ES^SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NO

I av

L I b4WIr I E

O

2 _j 2 -J

'SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3iavaail LI
2 r* 2 r~ 2