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Society

April 1987

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Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society.

VOLUME 84(1) : APRIL 1987

Date of Publication: 15-10-1987

CONTENTS

Page

Changes in the soft part coloration of the Indian Reef Heron, Egretta gularis
(Bose) related to age and breeding status. By B. M. Parasharya and R.

M. Naik .. 1

Survey of the Freshwater Turtles of India Part II: The Genus Kachuga.

By Edward O. Moll. (With two colour plates and four text-figures ) 7

The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera:

Rhopalocera) . By Torben B. Larsen .. 26

Notes on comparative body size, reproductive effort and areas of manage-
ment priority for three species of Kachuga (Reptilia, Chelonia) in the
National Chambal Sanctuary. By R. J. Rao and L. A. K. Singh. ( With a
plate and three text-figures ) . . 55

The genus Piper Linn, in Karnataka, India. By B. A. Rahiman and M. K. Nair.

( With eight text- figures ) . . 66

Polychaeta of the Pulicat Lake (Tamil Nadu). By S. K. Sunder Raj and P. J.

Sanjeeva Raj. (With four plates) . . 84

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History

Society — 32. By Humayun Abdulali . . 105

Geographical distributional list of Ichthyofauna of the Garhwal Himalaya
with some new records. By H. R. Singh, S. P. Badola and A. K. Dobriyal.

(With a text- figure) . . 126

Sundarbans honey and the mangrove swamps. By Kalyan Chakrabarti . . 133

Annual reproductive cycle of the male field rat, Rattus rattus brunneusculus
(Hodgson) in hilly terrain of Mizoram. By N. S. Chauhan and R. N.

Saxena. (With a plate) . . 138

Studies on Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus Theobald, 1901 in Bastar District,

India (Diptera: C’ulicidae). By Zakir Husain Husainy. (With five text-figures) 145

On some insect galls on Tectona grandis Linn, from India. By P. Jayaraman.

(With seven text- figures) . . 157

Two UNUSUAL CASES OF HOMONYMY IN ORTHOPTERA WITH NEW NAMES FOR SPECIES

from India. By M. S. Shishodia and R. K. Varshney . . 167

New Descriptions:

A new species of Asynapta Loew (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae: Porricondylinae)

from Aurangabad, India. By R. M. Sharma. (With twelve text- figures) . . 170

On a new Cyprinid fish of the Genus Danio Hamilton (Pisces: Cyprinidae)

from Manipur, India. By R. P. Barman. (With a text- figure) . . 172

Ophiopinotus pinotus gen. et. nov. (Hymenoptera: Torymidae). By Tasawwer

Husain and Prem Prakash Kudesia. (With seven text-figures) . . 175

Taxonomic studies on the Marine Ostracoda from the east coast of India.

By C. Annapurna and D. V. Rama Sarma. ( With four plates) . . 177

Mecistocerus monubumensis sp. nov. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Cryptorhyn-

chinae) from India. By Lehna Singh Arya and H. R. Pajni. (With three text-
figures ) .. 181

Contribution to the knowledge of Desmids of India — some new taxa from

Karnataka State. By G. R. Hegde. (With five text-figures ) . . 183

Dasineura psorafeae (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) — a new Gall-Midge, infesting
inflorescences of Psoralea corylifolia Linn. By R. M. Sharma. (With thirteen
text-figures ) . . 186

Obituary

S. P. Shahi (1917-1986) . . 190

Reviews

1. Annotated checklist of the birds of Hong Kong. (H. Abdulali) .. 191

2. Threatened animals of India. (R. Reuben) . . 191

3. The useful plants of India. (M. R. Almeida) . . 192

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Group number and composition of Hanuman Langur (Presbytis entellus )

in Jaipur, India. By Reena Mathur and B. Ram Manohar (p. 193); 2. Occurrence of the
Bicoloured Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros fulvus ) in Rajasthan. By S. Bhupathy (p. 199);

3. Sighting of a Rusty Spotted Cat (Felis rubiginosa ). By Digveerendrasinh (p. 200);

4. Note on the sighting of a Caracal (Felis caracal ) at the Sariska National Park. By
Divyabhanusinh (p. 201); 5. Occurrence of Large Indian Civet (Viverra zibetha) in Orissa.
(With a photograph). By L. N. Acharjyo and S. K. Patnaik (p. 201); 6. A note on the
food of the Small Indian Civet (Viverricula indica) at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary,
Tamil Nadu. By M. Ayyadurai, V. Natarajan, P. Balasubramanian and S. Alagar Rajan
(p. 203); 7. Unusual coloration of Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) . By M. K. Ranjitsinh
(p. 203).

Birds: 8. Occurrence of the Barheaded Goose (Anser indicus ) in South India. By M.
Krishnan (p. 204); 9. The Osprey (Pandion haliaetus haliaetus ) preying on a gull. By
M. C. A. Jackson (p. 205); 10. Occurrence of Greyheaded Lapwing. Vanellus cinereus
(Blyth) in Bangalore. By S. Subramanya (p. 205); 11. Addition to the birds of Point
Calimere, S. India. By Nitin Jamdar (p. 206); 12. Further additions to the avifauna of
Point Calimere, Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea). By R. Sugathan, David S. Melville
and S. Alagar Rajan (p. 206); 13. The Whitewinged Black Tern, Chlidonias leucopterus
(Temminck) in Saurashtra, Gujarat. By Taej Mundkur (p. 208); 14. Occurrence of Pied
Crested Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus ) in Suru valley, Ladakh. By Nitin Jamdar (p. 208);
15. Sighting of Blacknaped Oriole. By D. P. Banerjee (p. 209); 16. Nest of the Pied
Myna Sturnus contra Linnaeus. By Vasant R. Naik (p. 210); 17. Kaliveli Tank and
Yedayanthittu Estuary — A little known wetland habitat in Tamil Nadu. By Pieter (p 210);
18. The Redfronted Babbler Stachyris rufifrons and Redheaded Babbler S. ruficeps in
northern Thailand. By C. J. O. Harrison (p. 214); 19. The Indian Grey Tit (Parus major )
on an abandoned honey comb. By Debi Goenka and Heta Pandit (p. 218); 20. Host
plants used by Baya Weaver bird (Ploceus philippinus Linn.) for nesting in eastern
Rajasthan. By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 218).

Reptiles: 21. Distribution of the keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray). By Indraneil
Das (p. 221); Breeding the king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah ) in captivity. (With a photo-
graph). By Shekar Dattatri (p. 222); 23. A list of the snakes of the Bhavnagar District,
Gujarat State, By Raju Vyas (p. 227).

Amphibia: 24. A note on the breeding habits of Jerdon’s Ramanella, Ramanella montana.
By A. G. Sekar (p. 231);

Fishes: 25. On the synonymy of Danio feegraclei Hora, 1937 from Burma (Pisces:
Cyprinidae). ( With a text-figure). By R. P. Barman (p. 232).

Insects: 26. Observations on Indian Trabutinini Silvestri and Phenacoccini Sulc (Pseudo-
coccinae: Pseudococcidae : Homoptera). By R. K. Avasthi and S. Adam Shafee (p. 235);
27. Studies on the biology of Parnara naso Fabr. (Lepidoptera : Hesperiidae) . By V. N.
Rao and K. S. Behera (p. 238); 28. Distribution of Drosophila species inhabiting the
tropical rain forests of Sampaje Ghats (Coorg District), Karnataka, South India. By N.
Muniyappa and G. Sreerama Reddy (p. 240); 29. Polymorphism in Callosobruchus chin-
ensis (Linn.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). By H. R. Pajni, Sadhana Sahnan and Ruchira
Sharma (p. 245); 30. Occurrence and life history of Cassida circumdata Herbst (Coleoptera:
Chrysomelidae) in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, India. ( With four text-figures ).
By M. John George and K. Venkataraman (p. 248).

Other Invertebrates: 31. A note on the food of the spider Argiope arcuata Simon
(Family: Araneidae). By V. Natarajan (p. 253).

Botany: 32. New distributional records of Dicots for Punjab State (India). By M. Sharma
(p. 254); 33. Caldesia parnassiifolia (Linn.) Perl. (Alismataceae) — A New Record for
Western Himalaya. By P. C. Pande and Y. P. S, Pangtey (p. 257); 34. Notes on Cypera-
ceae of Maharashtra. By S. M. Almeida and M. R. Almeida (p. 257); 35. Oianthus
disciflorus Hook. f. — A little known taxon from Peninsular India. (With a text-figure).
By R. R. Venkata Raju and T. Pullaiah (p. 258); 36. On the identity and synonymy of
Hedyotis congesta R. Br. (Rubiaceae). By D. B. Deb and Ratna Datta (p. 261); 37. A
note on the Brachystelma glabrum Hook. f. (Aselepiadaceae) from South India. By E.
Vajravelu (p. 262); 38. Notes on the distribution of rare and little known Carex rostrata
Stocks from north-west Himalaya. (With two text-figures) . By R. D. Gaur, K. S. Negi and
J. K. Tiwari (p. 263); 39. Two new records of grasses from Andhra Pradesh. (With two
text-figures). By N. Yesoda, P. Venkateswara Prasamia and R. R. Venkata Raju and T.
Pullaiah (p. 265); 40. Rectification of the position of Anthraxon microphyllus (Trin.)
Hochst. var. hindustanicus (Jain & Deshpande) Almeida and Almeida. By P. C. van
Welzen (p. 268).

©

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1987 APRIL Vol. 84 No. 1

CHANGES IN THE SOFT PART COLORATION OF THE
INDIAN REEF HERON, EGRETTA GULARIS (BOSC)
RELATED TO AGE AND BREEDING STATUS1

B. M. Parasharya2 3 and R. M. Naik:'

Age dependent changes in the soft part coloration of the Indian Reef Heron,
Egretta gutaris (Bose) from the day of hatching to adulthood are described. The
nuptial colour changes in the soft parts are correlated with the nesting status.

Introduction

Coloration of the soft parts of the Indian
Reef Heron, Egretta gularis (Bose) changes
with the age and breeding status, so that the
coloration when viewed with other evidences
gives a clue to the bird’s age and breeding
status; a knowledge of the soft part colour
changes has been useful in some of our field
studies on the heron. Moreover, in certain
areas where the reef heron is sympatric with
the Little Egret, Egretta garzetta, they tend
to interbreed, and since a striking difference

1 Accepted August 1985.

2 Present address : B. A. College of Agriculture,
Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110,
India.

3 Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra Univer-
sity, Rajkot 360 005, India.

between the two species is coloration of their
soft parts, we feel that a detailed description
of the soft part colours at different stages of
life in both the species should prove useful
in further studies on the inter-relationship
between the two herons.

Plumage colour variations and sequence of
plumage changes in the reef heron are des-
cribed earlier (Naik and Parasharya 1983).
However, a brief review is necessary here. In
the white as well as grey phases the natal down
is white in most of the feather tracts, but it is
subjected to some colour variation ranging
from light grey to grey in the dorsal tract.
The pin juvenile feathers start appearing,
pushing out the natal down at the age of 6-8
days. The juvenile white plumage ranges
from an almost pure white to one heavily
dappled with grey. The juvenile grey is grey

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

dorsally and light grey or white ventrally. The
full adult plumage is attained at the age of
20-21 months. The adult white plumage is pure
white and the adult grey is grey all over except
the chin and throat which are white. Both the
juvenile and adult grey plumages may, or
may not, have wing patch of variable size on
one or both the wings.

Before the breeding season a drooping
nuchal crest of two narrow plumes develops in
both the sexes and phases. In addition to the
crest, filamentous ornamental feathers deve-
lop on the scapular region and long, narrow,
lanceolate plumes on the lower parts of neck
and upper breast. Nuptial feathers are shed
just after the nesting is over, but in some
cases it happens in April when the birds are
still feeding their young, so that in the begin-
ning of the breeding season (February) 90%
of the birds may be with nuchal crest but
during the second peak of breeding (July-
August) only 40% may have it.

Materials and Methods

The present report is based on our field
notes made during the studies on the distri-
bution (Naik and Parasharya in press), breed-
ing biology (Parasharya and Naik in press',
Naik and Parasharya in prep.) and ecology of
the reef heron (unpublished) and also on our
observations of some captive birds maintained
in our University aviary for studying the
sequence of plumage changes and polymor-
phism (Naik and Parasharya 1983).

Observations

Colours of the soft parts described below
are applicable to both the grey and white
phases of the Reef Heron, unless mentioned
otherwise. There were always a small number
of E. garzetta and/or garzetta-gularis hybrids

inter-breeding with E. gularis in the breeding
colonies, so that some of the variations in the
coloration of soft parts may possibly be attri-
buted to the hybridization. The age dependent
changes in the plumage and coloration of soft
parts are summarized in Table 1.

Downy nestlings

Skin. The freshly hatched chicks have pink-
yellow (flesh coloured) skin all over. The skin
appears greyish green at the age of 3 days
when the feather follicles deep within the skin
start generating the juvenile plumage.

Eye. Iris colour of the freshly hatched chick
is brown, and it remains so until the natal
down is pushed out by the juvenile feathers.

Beak. The beak of freshly hatched chick
is pinkish yellow with some brown at the
tip of both the mandibles and base of the
upper mandible. By the time the juvenile
feathers start appearing as pin, the brown on
the upper mandible has increased in density
to be prominent. Though the brown on the
lower mandible also tends to spread a little,
the lower mandible continues to remain almost
yellow throughout the downy plumage stage.

Legs. At the age of about 3 days, a slight
green tinge appears on the tibia and upper
tarsus and the feet start turning light yellow.
Gradually the tibia and tarsus become light
greyish green and the feet become light
yellow, tinged with green.

Lore. Lore (facial skin) which is pink-
yellow at the time of hatching gradually turns
dark brown to grey.

Chicks in juvenile plumage and subadults

Skin. The skin which appears greyish green
during the initial stage of the juvenile plum-
age growth, starts turning yellow after the
age of 10 days, and it is conspicuously yellow

2

SUMMARY OF AGE-DEPENDENT CHANGES IN THE TYPE OF PLUMAGE AND COLORATION OF SOFT PARTS IN

SOFT PART COLORATION OF REEF HERON

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

by about the 16th day. Later, the skin starts
turning grey but the yellow tinge may conti-
nue to persist for a long period. However, all
the birds acquire uniformly grey skin before
reaching the age of 6 months.

Eye. Slight white tinge appears in the
brown iris at the age of 11 days, and the
brown progressively becomes lighter. The iris
turns cream coloured by the age of 4 weeks
and yellow by the age of 6 months.

Beak. The upper mandible is largely dark
brown or grey and the lower one yellow
when the juvenile feathers start appearing. By
the age of 20 days, threefourths of the upper
mandible becomes yellow, the brown being
restricted to the base and tip. An overall
appearance of the beak is yellow at the age
of 4 weeks but the brown at the base and tip
continues to persist and does not disappear
completely even at the age of 6 months.

Legs and feet. When the pins of juvenile
feathers appear, the tibia and tarsus are grey-
ish green and the feet light yellow. The tibia
and tarsus gradually turn yellowish green, but
at the age of 15 days, a tinge of grey appears
on the front face of the tarsus. At the end
of 4 weeks, the tibia and tarsus are greyish
green, and the frontal surface of the tarsus
is marked with black bands. At the end of
6 months a slight dull green colour still
persists on both the tibia and tarsus of some
birds, though they have turned completely
black in the others. The feet remain light
yellowish green at least up to the age of 6
months, but thereafter they gradually turn
light yellow.

Lore. The lore remains dark till 4 weeks of
age. Thereafter, light greenish yellow colour
appears among brown and gradually the yellow
tinge increases to make the facial skin yellow
with only a little tinge of green by the end of
6 months.

Adult

Eye. The iris of the adult bird is yellow.

Beak. The beak colour of the adult bird is
variable. Variations in the beak colour are
categorized into two basic types, yellow and
black, which occur in the grey as well as
white morphs in the non-breeding as well as
breeding seasons. It may be mentioned here
that the birds feeding in certain types of
habitat often get their beak smeared with
mud which on drying obscures the true beak
colour (Naik et al. unpublished).

Yellow : This may range from pure yellow
to pinkish, (a) Pure yellow: Both the man-
dibles are pure yellow. This is the most fre-
quent beak type, (b) Pinkish yellow: Though
the basic colour of both the mandibles is
yellow, there is a pinkish tinge all over.
Though infrequent, the pinkish yellow beak
was recorded during the non-breeding season
also.

Black: Both the mandibles are completely
black without any yellow tinge.

Lore. The lore of the adult birds is yellow.
Occasionally we came across birds that had
small patches of blue on the yellow lore and
also those with bluish green or blue lore.

Legs. In non-breeding adults, the tibia and
tarsus are black and the feet are bright
yellow. The bright yellow of feet often ex-
tends up to the distal end of tarsus.

Nuptial colour changes

The beak, lore and iris are usually yellow,
but they acquire the nuptial colours during
the courtship (pre-pairing and pair formation)
stage of the nesting cycle. In both the grey
and white phases, the beak usually remains
yellow, but in some it may acquire a red tinge.
If the bird happens to have a black beak, no
recognisable change in the beak colour occurs.

4

SOFT PART COLORATION OF REEF HERON

The iris which is normally pale yellow turns
to bright yellow and may even acquire a red
rim in some birds. The lore turns to bright
pink red or crimson. The feet and lower
tarsus which are normally yellow turn to
pink-red. The upper tarsus and thigh region
which is dull grey normally do not change
colour, but in some birds even these parts
also acquire a red tinge. Pink-red in the feet
and lore of the individuals perching alone
(unpaired) is brighter than that of paired
birds or nest-building birds. The pink colour
tends to fade during the nest-building phase,
and it almost completely fades out when the
first egg is laid. The toes turn to pale orange-
yellow and ultimately resume their original
colour. The lore first turns to pale pink, then
to bluish white and thereafter to pale yellow
and ultimately to its original yellow colour.
If a pair loses its clutch during the incuba-
tion period and if it is to re-build the nest,
the nuptial colours return to the soft parts
once again. The birds breeding in juvenile
plumage also acquire nuptial colour when
they start nesting.

We recorded the beak colour of 181 white-
phase reef herons in different stages of their
nesting cycle in breeding colony and the re-
cord is summarized in Table 2. These data
illustrate some of the points we have made
hereinbefore for both the phases, namely the
yellow is the most frequent beak colour for
the birds in every stage of the nesting cycle,
the 3^ellow beak may turn pinkish in some
(but not in all) birds during the nesting
season and a small proportion of birds have
their beak black in colour which remains
apparently unchanged through the nesting
season.

Discussion

The age-dependent changes in the colora-
tion of soft parts of Indian Reef Heron, des-

cribed in this paper and summarized in Table
1 for the convenience of the readers, should
be useful in ageing the chicks and distinguish-
ing the older from younger juveniles in the
field.

Table 2

Frequency of different beak colours of the

WHITE-PHASE REEF HERONS IN RELATION TO THEIR
NESTING STATUS, AS RECORDED IN THE NEW PORT

Colony, Bhavnagar

Nesting

stage

Number

of birds with designated
beak colour

pinkish

yellow

yellow

black

all

com-

bined

Unpaired

1

34

4

39

Courtship

2

20

4

26

Nest-building

2

22

4

28

With eggs

4

43

5

52

With chicks

1

31

4

36

All stages

combined

10

150

21

181

In the present state of our knowledge it is
not possible to say as to how much variation
in the soft part coloration described here is
attributed to hybridization between the Little
Egret and reef heron that has been occurring
since long in our area (Naik and Parasharya
1985) However, it is certain that the appear-
ance of blue lore and black beak (which are
characteristic features of the Little Egret) in
our population of the reef heron is a result
of gene flow from the Little Egret populations.

Nuptial colour changes in soft parts during
early stages of the nesting cycle are now
known to be widespread in the family
Ardeidae (Blaker 1969). Ali and Ripley
(1968) have mentioned colour changes asso-

5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

dated with breeding in many Indian Ardeidae,
but not for the Indian Reef Heron. In certain
populations of the reef heron in Africa, the
beak turns from yellow to black as a part of
nuptial colour changes (Hancock and Kush-
lan 1984). In our population of the reef
heron, however, only noticeable change in the
beak colour is for the yellow to turn pink-
yellow in some birds. A few birds that we
observed having pink-yellow beak in the non-
breeding season were probably exceptional;
an increased blood flow in the subcutaneous
network of blood capillaries, either because of
some emotional stress or premature hormonal
changes, may have turned the beak pinkish.

Recently, Hancock and Kushlan (1984)
have merged the reef heron with the Little
Egret. These authors consider the Little Egret,
Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus) as a polytypic
species consisting of six subspecies, namely
garzetta — an all white race with a range in
the temperate, subtropical and tropical zones
of the Old World, nigriceps — also an all-
white race occurring on the islands of south-
eastern Asia and the southwest Pacific, im-
maculata — also an all-white race of northern

R EFE

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968): Handbook of
the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Blaker, D. (1969) : Behaviour of the Cattle

Egret Ardeola ibis. Ostrich 40(3) : 75-129.

Hancock, J. A. & Kushlan, J. A. (1984) : The
Herons Handbook. Croom Helm, London.

Naik, R. M. & Parasharya, B. M. (1983):
Sequence of plumage changes and polymorphism,
in the Indian Reef Heron, Egretta gularis. Sand-
grouse 5: 75-81.

— — — (in press ) :

and eastern Australia, gularis — a polymor-
phic race on the west African coast from
Mauritania to Gabon, schistacea — another
polymorphic race distributed along the coast-
line extending from the west coast of Indian
subcontinent to Persian Gulf and the Red
Sea, and south along the African coast up
to Tanzania, and dimorpha — also a poly-
morphic race found on Madagascar and
other islands in and around Mozambique
Channel. While available information on the
soft part coloration of the above mentioned
assemblage of herons are illustrated by Han-
cock and Kushlan (1984), detailed informa-
tion of the changes in soft part coloration
dependent on age and nesting status in these
birds are urgently needed to understand their
evolution.

Acknowledgement

One of us (B.M.P.) is grateful to the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
New Delhi, for an award of Senior Research
Fellowship.

E N C E S

Impact of the food availability, natural-habitat des-
truction and regional cultural variations of human
settlements on the nesting distribution of a coastal
bird. Egretta gularis, in western India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc.

(in prep.) :

Inter-breeding and gene flow within Egretta guTaris
and E. garzetta complex, along the Gulf of Kham-
bhat in western India.

Parasharya, B. M. & Naik, R. M. (in press) :
Breeding biology of the Indian Reef Heron, Egretta
gularis (Bose). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

6

SURVEY OF THE FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA
PART II: THE GENUS KACHUGA 1

Edward O. Moll2

{With two colour plates & four text-figures)
[Continued from Vol 83(3): 552]

Subgenus Pangshura

Contains four species — smith'd, sylhelensis,
tecta and tentoria. The subgenus is diagnosed
by a suite of apomorphic or derived charac-
teristics summarized in Table 1 and Figures
2-6. Members are small to moderate-sized
species (< 30 cm CL) with pronounced
sexual dimorphism which inhabit a variety of
lentic and lotic habitats through much of
India. The name is derived from “panshura>”
a Bengalese word for chelonian.

Kachuga smithii (Gray 1863)

Brown Roofed Terrapin — Plate III, A-C

Identification : A small species (to 23 cm
CL) identifiable from other Pangshura by a
relatively low, vaulted shell (H/CL < 44%)
having only a weak, horizontal spine (or
none) on the third vertebral scute.

Description : For coloration see descriptions
of subspecies. Head moderate in size with
short, tapering snout (less than length of
orbit) projecting beyond lower jaw; skin at
back of head divided into large irregular
scales; upper jaw serrate, lacking medial
notch or projection; alveolar surface broad,
decked by a finely-serrate ridge on each side,

1 Accepted December 1986.

x Dept, of Zoology, Eastern Illinois University,
Charleston, Illinois, U.S.A.

converging but not meeting at midline. Lower
jaw serrate with single, projecting tooth
anteriorly, alveolar surface concave except for
a median symphyseal ridge and a serrate ridge
along lingual surface meeting symphyseal ridge
at midline; coronoid process prominent.
Hyoid moderately developed; ossified portions
include a single-element body with a shallow,
rounded notch posteriorly and a shallow “V”
shaped notch anteriorly, a pair of small,
rounded elements attached at either side of
anterior notch (ceratohyals?), a narrow,
elongate, outwardly-bowed pair of first cera-
tobranchial horns and a pair of short (2-3
times longer than wide) second ceratobran-
chial horns.

Shell oval, widest across a plane through
seventh marginals; posterior margin of cara-
pace slightly serrate; median keel low; raised
areas at posterior of scutes not pronounced,
obtuse; Vertebrals 1, 3 and 4 usually longer
than wide, 2 and 5 usually wider than long;
seam contact formula — 1M 4> 6M 8<
10>. Bridge long, exceeding length of either
anterior (shorter) or posterior (longer) lobe
of plastron; axillary somewhat smaller than
inguinal scute; plastron truncate anteriorly;
notched posteriorly; plastral formula — Ab>
F> P> A> H> G.

Distribution : Brown roofed terrapins occur
in the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra Drain-
ages of Pakistan, Nepal, India, and Bangla-

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

desh. Figure 9 map the distribution in India
as verified by this survey.

Geographic Variation : Two subspecies (one
new) are recognized herein.

Kaclsuga smithii pallidipes subsp. nov.
Pale-footed Roofed Terrapin — PI. Ill, B&C

Holotype : Field Museum Natural Flistory
224177, adult male in alcohol; collected in the
Gandak River, Bherihari Wildlife Sanctuary,
Bettiah (West Champaran) District, Bihar on
3 June 1983; original number 2827 Edward
O. Moll.

Paratypes : IJSNM 257779, adult female

in alcohol; Kamali River, Royal Bardia Wild-
life Reserve, 2 km N. Thakurdara, Nepal,
23 April 1985 (obtained by Joseph Mitchell);
FMNH 224186, adult female skeleton, Ghagra
River, near Kailaspuri at Girija Barage,
Bahraich District, Uttar Pradesh, 12 January
1983.

Identification'. A subspecies of Kachuga
smithii differing from the nominate form by
the absence of a plastral pattern and a re-
duction of pigment on head, limbs, feet and
penis.

Description of holotype : An adult male

measuring 8.6 CL, 6.2 CW, 7.8 PL, 3.1 FI
and weighing 88 g. Coloration in life — cara-
pace light grayish olive to brownish olive
(older scutes) with pale yellow rim around
the periphery; single mid-saggital black stripe
with cinnamon-rufous center on Vertebrals 2
and 3. running length of the shell but becom-
ing obscure on V5 and 6; plastron straw
yellow, immaculate, having no dark pattern;
vague dark blotches present on ventral side
of marginals.

Head brownish olive, lightly mottled with
smoke gray dorsally; skin creamy white be-
hind eyes; iris pale gray; throat immaculate,
colorless; a pair of narrow dark stripes ex-
tend anteriorly from eyes converging to meet

at light gray snout; mandibles bright spectrum
yellow; neck smoke gray dorsally, colorless
ventrally, unstriped.

Limbs — ground color on leading face of
front limb smoke gray above elbow and late-
ral half of foreleg; large triangular scales on
lateral border of foreleg, narrow bandlike
scales on anterior aspect; toes and webbing
yellow; posterior aspect of limb, feet and
medial half of foreleg colorless.

Penis colorless lacking the dark pigment
characteristic of most members of the order.

Description of Paratypes: USNM 257779,
adult female measuring 15.6 CL 11.6 CW

15.5 PL 5.65 FI and weighing .453 kg. Colo-
ration of preserved specimen — carapace
brownish gray with a black, middorsal stripe;
plastron light, largely devoid of pattern but
tiny smudges of pigment present near poste-
rior lateral margins of scutes; bridge and
ventral side of Marginals 3-9 with heavy con-
centrations of dark pigment.

Head and neck dark grayish brown dorsally
with lighter cinnamon brown band running
posteriorly from eye over tympanum; throat
light, colorless.

Limbs — anterior face of forelimb and feet
generally grayish brown, becoming lighter on
medial aspect; lateral border of limb light
edged; hind feet immaculate, devoid of pig-
mentation; skin of leading face of hind leg
grayish brown.

FMNH 224186, female measuring 16.2 CL

11.6 CW 15.5 PL 6.0 H and weighing 0.63
kg. Coloration in life — carapace buff with
dark brown middorsal stripe; plastron straw
yellow, unpatterned.

Head and neck drab dorsally with lighter,
cinnamon-colored band running posteriorly
from eye over tympanum; tip of snout and iris
light grayish blue; mandibles light orange
yellow; neck dirty gray above, light cream
ventrally.

8

FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA

Fig. 9. Distribution map of Kachuga smithii in India (see legend of Fig. 7). Solid
circles indicate localities of the nominate race, K. s. smithii. Open circles indicate
localities of K. s. pallidipes. The half open circle indicates Allahabad, a possible
intergrade site between the two races (see text).

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Limbs with toes and skin flap at
lateral edge of hind foot immaculate, devoid
of pigment, otherwise outer leading surface of
fore and hind legs gray; trailing surface of
legs creamy white.

Distribution : The three members of the

type series of this subspecies come from north-
ern tributaries of the Ganges. See Figure 9
and comments on intergradation under
remarks.

Natural History : Little is known about the
natural history of this form. All three records
were associated with riverine environments.
The holotype was collected during the day in
a hoop trap baited with fish set near a sand
bank in the Gandak River. The Nepal speci-
men was collected by hand under a pile of
sticks and debris in a pool on the floodplain
of the Karnali River. The other female was
taken by a fisherman in the Ghagra River but
details are lacking. Remains of a freshwater
prawn were found in the gut of the latter
specimen.

Remarks : Presently it seems best to regard
this taxon as a subspecies of K. smithii rather
than as a distinct species for the following
reasons. 1) The male from the Gandak River
has been selected as the holotype or best re-
presentative of this race. The two female
paratypes from more westerly drainages show
some characteristics of the nominate form
(more dark pigment on the head, limbs and
ventral part of shell) suggesting intergradation.
One of the original types used by Gray
(1863) in the species description from the
Chenab River in northwestern India (BMNH
63.2.21.87) lacks pigmentation on the pecto-
ral scutes and only small amounts are present
on the abdominals. This too could represent
intergradation. More collections are needed to
confirm whether the observed variation has
resulted from intergradation rather than some
other factor such as sexual dichromatism. 2)

A precedent exists for this type of variation
in a related species. In what appears to be a
case of unusual parallelism, populations of
Kachuga tentoria from northern tributaries of
the Ganges also exhibit a reduction of dark
pigment and have no plastral pattern. More
collections are available for this species and
intergradation is evident in the more western
drainages of the Ganges (see K. tentoria).

A peculiar situation exists with a series of
specimens from Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh.
The Zoological Survey of India collection has
five specimens of K. smithii from this locality.
Three reportedly have the dark plastral
pattern (ZSI 457, 471, 472) and two do not
[ZSI 451, 200 (1912)]. Another specimen in
the British Museum (BMNH 1908.12.28.2)
from this locality has dark blotches only on
the anal scutes. Whether these specimens were
actually obtained in Allahabad or whether
they were obtained elsewhere and shipped to
markets there is not known. Neither is there
any information on the coloration of the rest
of the body in this collection. The entire
problem requires additional study.

Kachuga smithii smithii (Gray 1863)
Brown Roofed Terrapin — Plate III, A

Identification'. A subspecies of K. smithii
having a plastral pattern of large dark brown
to black blotches on each scute narrowly
bordered with yellow; sides of head, leading
surface of limbs, feet and penis dark pig-
mented.

Description : Female (FMNH 224143);

carapace brownish olive bearing a middorsal
dark brown stripe; a small dark triangle decks
areolar portion of Pleurals 2 & 3 and vertical
dark bars border seams between the more
posterior marginal scutes and the posterior edge
of Pleural 4; plastron, bridge and ventral side
of marginal chiefly dark but narrowly bor-

10

FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA

dered with light yellow; head and neck olive
dorsally; a tawny blotch present behind eye;
vague striping evident on lateral portion of
neck; iris pale blue-gray; mandibles deep buff
yellow; skin on outer surface of limbs olive
with bandlike scales on forelegs appreciably
lighter than ground color; vague striping pre-
sent on hind legs and rump.

Size and Sexual Dimorphism : Minton

(1966) reported that eight females and three
males from Pakistan ranged from 15.3-22.7
CL and 10.1-10.8 CL respectively. Smith
(1931) recorded the largest specimen as 23.0
CL 15.5 CW and 8.5 H. This race was rarely
encountered on our survey. Six shells found
in garbage dumps near Rajmahal, Bihar rang-
ed from 13.2 to 18.3 (mean 15.7) CL. A
subadult female obtained from fishermen at
Kahalgaon, Bihar measured 14.3 CL 10.3 CW
13.7 PL 5.9 H and weighed 0.315 kg.

Males differ from females by being consi-
derably smaller and by having a longer tail
which is heavier at the base. Minton (1966)
states that the tail of males projects free about
10 per cent of the carapace length whereas
that of the female is about 5 per cent.

Natural History : Brown roofed terrapins

are typically associated with rivers and occur
in current as well as more lentic habitats such
as backwaters. Minton (1966) found them to
be a social basking species on the Indus
where they undergo a period of quiescence
from early December to early March. He
reported finding females with eggs in early
October; a clutch of seven laid by a captive
contained eggs 43 to 45 mm long and 22 to
24 mm wide. Chaudhuri (1912) reported that
five to eight eggs are buried in sand nests but
gave no season. Ewert (1979) reported the
mean size of four hatchlings to be 3.92 CL
and 3.67 PL. The species is generally report-
ed to be omnivorous with a carnivorous bias
(Das 1985, Minton 1966. Smith 1931). Gut

contents of the subadult female from Kahal-
gaon contained only plant material.

Distribution : The brown roofed terrapin

has been reported from the Indus, Ganges and
Brahmaputra Drainages of Pakistan, India and
Bangladesh. The Museum d’Histoire Natu-
relle in Geneve, Switzerland has specimens
catalogued as K. smithii from Assam but I
have not examined these. Minton (1966)
found the turtle to be common in the Indus
Drainage while Smith (1931) considered it to
be much rarer in the Ganges Drainage. Reza
Khan (1982) also reported that the species is
uncommon in Bangladesh. The species was
rarely encountered on our survey. Figure 9
maps localities verified for India.

Specimens were collected from the following
sites :

FMNH 224143 — Ganges River, Kahalgaon, c. 50

km W. Sahibgani. Bhagalpur District, Bihar.

EOM 2720-2725 — Ganges River, Rajmahal, Dumka

(Santhal Parghana) District, Bihar.

Type locality of this race is “North-
western India: Punjab; “River Chenab...”
Syntypes are BMNH 1947.3.4.69-70. Much
of the former Punjab is now part of Pakistan
and most of the Chenab River now found in
India is in Jammu and Kashmir rather than
the state of Punjab. Hence the type locality
could well be Pakistan. The dot on figure 9
is the western-most point of the Chenab in
India. Other preserved specimens verified in-
clude :

MCZ 3233 — Ludhiana, Punjab.

ZSI 17606 — Firozp-ur, Punjab.

Kachuga sylhetensis (Jerdon 1870)
Assam Roofed Terrapin

Identification'. A small terrapin (20 cm
CL) differing from other Pangshura by typi-
cally having 13 pairs of marginal scutes and

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

a fifth vertebral scute that is wider in the
anterior half than in the posterior.

Description : Head medium-sized with

slightly projecting snout; upper jaw slightly
hooked with serrations along the tomium be-
ing fine or absent; head patterned with a pair
of narrow yellow stripes running posteriorly
from eye to meet at mid-line on back of head
forming a chevron; an additional light stripe
runs along underside of the mandible curving
upward to meet tympanum; neck with light
longitudinal stripes.

Shell steeply peaked as in K. tecta and
tentoria but more serrate posteriorly; oval in
shape being widest across plane through sixth
marginals; median keel relatively narrow on
first through third vertebrals; sharp pointed
spines present on the third (largest) and
fourth vertebrals; Vertebrals 3 and 4 longer
than broad, V2 and 5 broader than long and
VI either as wide or somewhat wider than
long; scute contact formula: 1M 4> 6> 8M
11 <; coloration of preserved specimens olive-
brown with a lighter vertebral keel. Plastron
oval with slight notch or no notch between
anals; plastral formula F >< Ab > P >
H > A > G; inguinal and axillary scutes
well developed; pattern a large dark blotch
on each plastral scute, bridge, and ventral side
of marginals.

Size and Sexual Dimorphism : As typical for
the genus, males are much smaller than the
females. The largest specimen recorded is a
female 19.7 cm CL (Jerdon 1870). Measure-
ments of a typical male and female are:
BMNH 1929.11.21.1 M — 8.5 CL 6.8 CW

8.0 PL 4.7 H

BMNH 1947.3.4.22 F — 18.3 CL 14.3 CW

17.8 PL 8.4 H

In addition to being smaller, males have
longer tails which are thicker at the base than
those of females.

Natural History : Most specimens have come

from hill streams; nothing else seems to be
known of the natural history.

Distribution : The Assam roofed terrapin
has been reported from the Khasi, Garo and
Naga Hill areas of Bangladesh and Assam.
As these areas were off limits to our survey,
no living specimens of this species were seen
or collected. I have examined museutn speci-
mens from the following localities:

BMNH 1947.3.4.22 (type) — Khasi Hills, Sylhet
District, Bangladesh.

BMNH 1929.11.21.1 — Khasi Hills, Cherrapunji,
Meghalaya, India.

ZSI 110 — Cachar District, Assam, India.

ZSI 3923 — Garo Hills, Assam, India.

Kachuga tecta (Gray 1831b)

Indian Roofed Terrapin — Plate III, D-F

Identification'. A small Pangshura (23 cm
CL) with a high vaulted shell (height/ length
> 45%) most easily distinguished from its
closest relative, K. tentoria, by its pattern and
brighter coloration. Plastral pattern of small
dark blotches or streaks (1-4) on most scutes;
head with a large red to orange crescent-
shaped blotch behind eye; neck with bright
yellow stripes and limbs bearing bright yellow
spots. Smith (1931) used as a key character
that the second vertebral is longer than the
third in tecta but not in tentoria. Although
useful, this character is variable being correct
in only 76 percent of the 21 K. tecta and only
63 percent of the 45 K. tentoria examined.

Description : Sexes colored similarly (live
female, Lucknow, U.P.); carapace raw umber
(brown) with somewhat lighter middorsal
stripe (can also be red) bordered in black and
a narrow yellow border on marginals; plastron
buff-yellow with 2-4 small, round to elongate,
black markings on scutes other than gulars
and/or anals which may have only one; two
dark spots on bridge, one each on inguinal
and axillary scutes and on underside of each

12

FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA

Fig. 10. Distribution of Kachuga sylhetensis (see legend of Fig. 7).

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 84

marginal; head dark with large orange yellow
to spectrum orange crescent-shaped, post-
ocular blotch curving upward from below eye
and extending obliquely across head to meet
and form chevron with blotch from opposite
side; iris dark; mandible orange yellow be-
coming orange beneath snout; neck dark,
patterned with yellow stripes being brightest
laterally and ventrally; outer surface of limbs
dark, studded with bright orange yellow spots
on scales; rump with vertical orange yellow
stripes on lighter background.

Shell oval, steeply pitched, widest at plane
through sixth or seventh marginals, posterior
edge slightly serrate; middorsal keel widest on
first three vertebrals, a prominent pointed
spine present on Vertebral 3; VI widest in
anterior half, usually as long or slightly longer
than wide; V4 flask-shaped, much longer than
wide; V5 widest in posterior half and wider
than long; V2 and 3 vary in length-width
relationships; scute contact formula — 1>
4M 6M 8M 10M. Plastron truncate anteriorly
and notched posteriorly; anterior lobe shorter
than posterior, both shorter than bridge; plas-
tral formula-Ab >< F > H> A> P> G;
axillary and inguinal scutes large, subequal
in length.

Head moderate; snout shorter than orbit;
skin at back of head divided into a series of
irregular scales; secondary palate broad with
single denticulate ridge; edge of tomium coar-
sely serrate and lacking medial notch. Lower
mandible ending in prominent medial tooth;
alveolar surface concave except for a serrate
ridge along lingual border which joins a
symphyseal ridge at midline; moderate coro-
noid process present. Hyoid moderately deve-
loped; ossified portion comprising a single-unit,
elongated body with a broad shallow notch
posteriorly and a deeper, narrower notch
anteriorly; a narrow, curving, elongated pair

of first branchial horns and a pair of small
kidney-shaped second branchial horns.

Size and Sexual Dimorphism ; Females are
much larger than males. The largest specimen
recorded is 23 cm CL (Smith 1931). Minton
(1966) reported two adult females and a male
from Pakistan measured 16.4, 17.3 and 8.4
cm CL. Measurements of two females and
one male examined in this survey are:

Live F — 15.3 CL 11.5 CW 14.7 PL 7.3 H

weight 0.51 kg.

EOM 2784 (BNHS uncataloged) F — 18.3

CL 14.2 CW 17.2 PL 7.3 H weight 0.96 kg.
Live M (mature?) - 6.6 CL 5.4 CW 6.3 PL

3 . 7 H weight 0 . 054 kg.

In addition to size males differ from
females by having a longer, thicker tail in
which the vent opens beyond the carapacial
rim.

Hatchlings-. Four hatchlings from eggs laid
by a female at Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh averag-
ed 3.15 CL 2.8 CW 2.8 PL 1.8 H and 7 grams
weight. Young K. tecta are strikingly attractive
turtles. The carapace is bright lime green rimm-
ed with a yellow orange border. There is a
broken middorsal stripe of flame scarlet bor-
dered in black and each pleural has a tiny
black spot at the posterior dorsal edge where
a lateral keel would be. The plastron is chrome
orange patterned with small, irregular, black
blotches on each scute including the axillary,
inguinal and underside of the marginals. The
head and neck are dark olive in ground color
with the latter decked with bright yellow
stripes. A large crescent-shaped flame scarlet
blotch begins under the eye, curves upward
behind the eye and meets its counter part from
the opposite side at the back of the head
forming a “V” shaped figure. A small flame
scarlet spot marks the posterior of each eye
lid. The scales of the limbs as well as the
webbing between the toes are bright yellow
on a dark olive background.

14

FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA

Natural History : Indian roofed terrapins

chiefly inhabit lentic habitats (tanks, nullahs
and backwaters) in the Ganges and Indus
drainages. Slow moving or quiet vegetation-
choked waters appear optimal. We observed
this species in a weedy backwater of the
Ghagra River, a small impoundment pond
near Lucknow, U.P. and in a slow moving
nullah crammed with aquatic vegetation which
flowed into a nearby ox bow lake in the
Udaipur Forest Area of Bihar. Khan (1982)
reported K. tecta occupying flowing and stag-
nant waters in Bangladesh. In the Narmada
River where K. tentoria and K. smithii are
seemingly absent, we found K. tecta to be
moderately common.

Like its close relative the Indian tent terra-
pin, the Indian roofed terrapin is commonly
seen basking on logs or the river bank.
Parshad reported that it is herbivorous (Smith
1931). However, we caught one specimen in a
hoop trap baited with chicken entrails.

A specimen from Lucknow laid a clutch of
eight eggs on January 13. The eggs averaged
37 x 21 mm and 10.75 grams. Relative to
the female reproductive efforts, calculations
are: RCM — 0.21, EMI — 2.1, ELI — 24.2
and EW1 — 14.

Distribution : The Indian roofed terrapin

definitely occurs in the Indus, Narmada,
Ganges and Brahmaputra River Systems of
Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. Based on the
Indian distribution, it probably occurs in
Nepal as well. A series of specimens in the
Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ
3459, 3460, and 3462) labelled Rangoon, if
verified would extend the range much farther
East. Figure 11 depicts the distribution in
India as verified by the survey:

Live F — Kukrail, nr. Lucknow, Lucknow District,

India.

Live M — Harhi Nala, 15 km W Bettiah. Bettiah

Dist,, Bihar.

EOM 2658 — 6 km S Katarnia Ghat, nr. Girija
Barage, Bahraich District, U.P.

EOM 2868 — Bedaulia, Manika, Muzaffarpur Dis-
trict, Bihar.

EOM 2784 (uncataloged specimen BNHS) — Nar-
mada River, Dhavdi Ghat, nr. Punasa, East Nimar
District, M.P.

In addition the following preserved speci-
mens have been examined and verified :

BNHS 1290-1291 — Chandola Lake, nr. Ahmedabad,
Ahmedabad District, Gujarat.

ZSI 17609 — Makhu, Firozpur District, Punjab.

ZSI 21672 — Magwall Village, Jammu District,
Jammu-Kashmir.

Uncatalogued specimens BNHS — Hindon River,
Mohen Nagar, nr. Ghaziabad, Meerut District, U.P.
ZSI 18015 — Baradighi Tea Estate, Jalpaiguri Dis-
trict, West Bengal.

ZSI 19236 — Cherrapunji, Meghalaya, India.

Remarks : The Indian roofed terrapin is the
only Kachuga to be listed on CITES (Appen-
dix I) or the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act
(Schedule I). Reasons for listing are obscure;
we found the species to be relatively common
in the aforementioned sites and it did not
appear to be a popular market species. Khan
(1982) judged it to be the most common
turtle in Bangladesh. Nevertheless because of
the turtle’s status, the aforementioned pre-
served specimens were either taken as shells
or in the case of EOM 2784, a turtle which
drowned in a fisherman’s net. All specimens
from the survey were left within the country.

Kadiuga tentoria (Gray 1834)

Indian Tent Terrapin — Plate II

Identification : A moderate-sized Pangshura
(27.1 cm CL) with a high, vaulted shell
(height /length > 45%); differing from K.
tecta by having one or two small reddish to
brownish spots behind the eye instead of a
broad crescentic band and by having a plastron
with a single large dark blotch per scute or
Jacking in dark markings.

Description : Shell oval being widest at a

15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 11. Distribution of Kachuga tecta in India (see legend of Fig. 7).

E F

(A) Kachuga tentoria tentoria — Juvenile (8.1 cm CL) from the Godavari River near Manthani, A.P.

(B) Kachuga t. tentoria — Ventral view of A. (C) K. t. flaviventer — Male (8.3 cm CL) from the Gandak
River, Bettiah District, Bihar. (D) K. t. flaviventer — Ventral view of C. (E) K. t. circumdata — Male
(8.5 cm CL) from the Yamuna River nr. Etawah. (F) K. t. circumdata — 1 Male (8.1 cm CL) and female
(23.5 cm CL) from the Yamuna River near Etawah.

Plate II

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1)
Moll: Freshwater Turtles

E F

(A) Kachuga smithi smithi — Female (14.2 cm„CL) from the Ganges near Kahalgaon, Bihar. (B) K . smithi
subsp. nov. — Male (8.6 cm CL) from the Gandak River, Bettiah District, Bihar. (C) K. smithi subsp,
nov. — Ventral view of B. (D) K. tecta — Immature female (6.4 cm CL) from near Bettiah, Bihar.
(E) K. tecta — Hatchling (3.0 cm CL) from Lucknow, U.P. (F) K. tecta — Ventral view of E.

Plate III

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84( 1)
Moll: Freshwater Turtles

FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA

plane passing through the seventh marginals;
a prominent middorsal keel runs the length
of the carapace breaking at the end of each
vertebral to form a knob or spine, the most
pronounced being a sharp upward projecting
spine on V3; in adults Vertebrals 3 and 4
typically longer than wide with 5 being wider
than long; VI and 2 variable, with 1 often
being hour glass or bell shaped (pinched in
the middle) in large individuals; seam contact
formula — 1> 4> 6M 8M 10M. Plastron
truncate anteriorly, notched posteriorly; plas-
tral formula — AB > F > P > H > A > G;
bridge long exceeding lengths of both the
shorter fore lobe and longer hind lobe of
plastron; axillary somewhat smaller than in-
guinal scute. Cloacal bursae present with pro-
nounced villous lining.

Head medium-sized with short, pointed,
projecting snout; skin at back of head divided
to form a series of irregular-shaped scales;
upper jaw serrate lacking median notch or
prominent projections; alveolar surface broad,
bearing single “V” shaped denticulate ridge.
Lower jaw similarly serrate with single, pro-
minent, projecting tooth at apex; lower alveo-
lar surface concave bordered by serrate ridge
along lingual surface meeting a short symphy-
seal ridge at midline. Hyoid moderately deve-
loped with ossified portions including a single-
element body having a prominent rounded
notch posteriorly and a smaller “V” shaped
notch anteriorly, a pair of thin, elongate, out-
wardly bowed first ceratobranchial horns and
a pair of small, rounded second ceratobran-
chial horns.

Distribution : The Indian tent terrapin is
restricted to drainages of rivers flowing into
the Bay of Bengal in India, Nepal and Bangla-
desh. Figure 12 depicts the distribution in India
as verified by the survey.

Remarks: Until recently K. tentoria has
been considered a subspecies of K. tecta.

However, as both appear to be sympatric
over a broad geographic area including Bangla-
desh (Khan 1982), Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh
(this paper); herein I follow Pritchard (1979)
in regarding them as separate species pending
additional study. Smith (1931) lists the type
locality for K. tentoria as Dhond (Krishna
River Drainage), Poona District of Maha-
rashtra. See Mertens (1969) for a history of
the nomenclature of these two species. -
Three subspecies of K. tentoria (one re-
surrected) are recognized herein. — Kachuga
t. tentoria in the rivers of peninsular India;
K. t. circumdata in the western and central
drainage of the Ganges and K. t. flaviventer
in the eastern Ganges and its northern tribu-
taries.

Kachuga tentoria tentoria (Gray 1834)
Indian Tent Terrapin — Plate II, A+B
Identification : A race with a dark plastral
pattern, no pleuro-marginal ring and reddish
head markings.

Description : Sexes colored similarly (FMNH
224163 juv., Godavari River); carapace anti-
que brown, unicolor except for hazel to amber
stripe along middorsal keel from Vertebrals
1-3; plastron yellow with large dark blotches
on each scute, bridge, axillary, inguinal and
underside of marginals; ground color of head
olive to brownish olive; a poorly defined clay
band present behind eye; red markings in-
clude a small red postocular spot in clay band,
a smaller red mark located at dorsal posterior
edge of eye and a thin poorly defined red line
in occipital region; iris gray olive; mandibles
straw yellow; neck with dull straw yellow
stripes on lateral and ventral portions; limbs
olive with edges of scutes cream; rump mark-
ed with vertical black and cream stripes.

Size and Sexual Dimorphism : Males are
much smaller than females. Three males from
the Mahanadi River measured 8.1, 9.7 and

17

2

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo I. 84

Fig. 12. Distribution of Kaehuga tentoria in India (see legend of Fig. 7). Starred
circles indicate localities of the nominate race, K. t. tentoria. Solid circles indicate
localities for K. t. circumdata. Open circles indicate localities for K. t. flaviventer.

FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA

10.9 cm CL. Another 7.5 cm CL with no
sperm in the epididymides was judged sub-
adult. Six females from this locality ranged
from 19.2 to 23.0 (mean 20) cm CL. Two
other females 18.5 and 18.0 cm CL with no
enlarged follicles on their ovary and relatively
small oviducts were judged subadult.

Proportions of a typical male and female
of this race follow:

BNHS 1329 F — 19.5 CL 14.2 CW 18.9 PL

8.9 H weight 0.86 kg.

FMNH 224141 M — 9.7 CL 7.5 CW 9.2 PL

4.6 H weighing 0.105 kg.

In addition to size, males differ from females
by having a longer (preanal > postanal) and
thicker preanal portion of the tail with a vent
opening beyond the edge of the carapace.

Natural History. Indian tent terrapins occur
in small to large rivers of peninsular India.
They are frequently seen on logs and rocks
basking. Females appear completely herbi-
vorous. They never entered hoop traps baited
with chicken entrails or fish and other than a
small feather, the guts of four individuals from
the Mahanadi River contained only leaves and
stems of vascular plants. Males and juveniles
appear more omnivorous. They did enter bait-
ed hoop traps and the stomach of one male
examined contained 75 percent vegetation and
a fresh water prawn. Ovaries of two females
collected on the Mahanadi River in mid-
February appeared post-reproductive having
few enlarged follicles and several small, old
corpora lutea.

Distribution : Kachuga t. tentoria ranges

from at least the Mahanadi River drainage
southward to the Krishna drainage. The
turtle was taken at the following localities on
the survey:

FMNH 224163 — Godavari River, Manthani,
Karimnagar Dist., A.P.

Live Juvenile — Godavari River, Polavaram, West
Godavari Dist., A.P.

FMNH 224141, BNHS 1329 — Mahanadi River,
Tikarpura, Dhenkanal, Orissa.

The following additional records have been
verified from preserved collections:

ZSI (Type Kachuga t. intermedia Blanford 1870)
— Hasdo River, Bilaspur Dist., M.P.

ZSI 17775 — Seonath River, Bilaspur, Bilaspur Dist.,
M.P.

ZSI 16767 & 68 — Mahanadi River, Cuttack, Cuttack
Dist., Orissa.

Kachuga tentoria flaviventer (Gunther 1864)
Plain-bellied Tent Terrapin — Plate II, C & D
Identification: A small tent terrapin (20.3
cm CL) with reduced pigmentation, an un-
patterned plastron and little or no striping on
neck and rump.

Description : Sexes colored similarly. Male
(FMNH 224178) — carapace brownish olive;
light middorsal stripe with pale orange wash
on Vertebrals 1 and 2, cream on V3, becoming
faint on V4 and 5; pleuro-marginal juncture
and border of shell also cream; plastron,
bridge and underside of marginals cream and
unpatterned; head pale, mottled with brownish
olive; a near colorless patch washed with pale
salmon extending from behind eye back over
mastication musculature to meet patch from
opposite side; immediately posterior a dark
horizontal line marks juncture of head and
neck; neck colorless to pale cream; a small
irregular splotch of cinnamon rufous occurs in
colorless area immediately behind eye; iris
light smoke gray; limbs almost colorless ex-
cept for a scattering of dark pigment along
leading face; webbing and underside of feet
creamy.

Female (FMNH 224132) colored as above
with the following exceptions: carapace light
buff or cinnamon ground color; the central
stripe being a darker, tawny coloration with
a lighter center; plastron unpatterned but dark
blotches present on underside of marginals;
head smoke gray dorsally, cream laterally and
on mandibles; a light cinnamon -brown spot

19

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo 1. 84

behind eye and another at posterior dorsal
edge of eye; three additional spots at posterior
of head (one medial flanked by two lateral);
webbing of feet pale yellow.

Size and Sexual Dimorphism : Sexes widely
disparate in size. A female and two shells pre-
sumed to be female from Kahalgaon measured
16.5, 16.9 and 18.8 CL. Five males from the
Gandak River in northwestern Bihar showing
well developed secondary sex characters rang-
ed from 6.6 to 8.8 (mean 8.0) CL. Measure-
ments of two typical specimens are:

FMNH 224132 F — 16.5 CL 12.4 CW 16.1

PL 7.9 H weight 0.64 kg.

FMNH 224178 M — 8.2 CL 6.3 CW 7.7 PL

4 . 1 H weighing 0 . 09 kg.

In addition to size males differ from females
by having a longer tail (preanal > postanal
portion) which is relatively thicker at the base.

Hatchlings’. Vijaya (1982e) provided mean
measurements for hatchlings from six clutches
of the pale-bellied tent terrapin (see com-
ments under geographic variation) laid in nests
along the Rapti River near Gorakhpur, U.P.
Largest and smallest of these means were:
Clutch I — 2.7 CL 1.7 CW 2.3 PL 1.6 H
and 6.5 g weight. Clutch V — 3.35 CL 2.7
CW 3.1 PL 1.8 H and 10 g weight. Shell
coloration — carapace mottled light and dark
olive with a light yellow stripe along the
middorsal keel; pleuro-marginal ring light
geranium pink at hatching fading in the first
few months to a pale olive; plastron buff
yellow and unmarked; underside of marginals
with a pepper like dusting of dark pigment;
head ground color pale olive; two flesh pink
spots located posterior to eye and at posterior
of eyelid respectively and a narrow, flesh
pink bar, broken in the middle, at back of
head; vague striping discernible on neck and
rump.

Twelve hatchlings obtained from three
clutches of eggs collected at the Katarniaghat

Gharial Sanctuary in U.P. had the following
mean dimensions: 3.55 CL 3.23 CW 3.2 PL
2.0 H and 9.0 g weight. Their shells were
slightly serrate posteriorly with carapacial
spines being very small except for a prominent
projection on V3. VI was broadest anteriorly
lacking the pinched bell-shape of large adults.
None had a plastral pattern but varied as to
the presence of dark pigment on the under-
side of the marginals. Amounts varied from
none to having a dark blotch on each scute.
Another variable feature was the amount of
red in the pattern. Some had an extensive
amount including a geranium pink pleuro-
marginal ring, middorsal stripe and head
pattern. Concerning the latter at one extreme
some individuals had both a transverse pink
line across the back of the head, two pink
spots at the snout and a postocular, pinkish
crescent behind the eye. The crescent (similar
to that of K. tecta but less extensive) was
formed by an elongation of the postocular
spot to meet the elongated one at the rear of
the eyelid (this was evident in other indivi-
duals in which the merger was incomplete).
At the other extreme were individuals with
no pink whatsoever; the pink areas of other
individuals were colorless.

Natural History : Like the other races of
this species the pale-bellied tent terrapin ap-
pears to be chiefly a river turtle. We found
this race in Katarniaghat Gharial Sanctuary,
an impoundment of the Ghagra River, but
otherwise all were seen or collected in areas
of flowing water. Many were observed bask-
ing near the bank in a sandy area of the
Gandak River in May. Gut contents of one
male and one female examined contained only
leaves and stems of aquatic vegetation. How-
ever, five males were taken in traps baited
with chicken entrails and fish suggesting that
they may be somewhat omnivorous.

Vijaya (1982e) found nests of this turtle

20

FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA

in “soft, clayey river bank soil” along the
Rapti River near Gorakhpur from 6-8 Dec-
ember. Nests varied from 15 to 26 cm in depth
and were located 3 to 14 metres from the
water. Six nests contained from 4 to 8 (mean
6) eggs per nest. She provided mean egg sizes
for each nest ranging from 41 x 29 mm and
1 1 . 7 g to 45 x 27 mm and 18.5 g. Incubation
times (time to emergence from substrate?) in
artificial nests ranged from 125 to 134 days at
nest temperatures varying between 27° and
28°C.

On this survey we found three clutches
comprising 6, 7, and 10 eggs in nests made by
this turtle in sand banks along the Ghagra
River in the Katarniaghat Gharial Sanctuary
on December 5. Mean size of the eggs was
42 x 25 mm and 15.3 g weight. Mean in-
cubation time for 12 hatchlings (to emergence
from egg) was 95 days from eggs kept on
moist cotton in plastic boxes at ambient tem-
peratures ranging from 24° to 33 °C.

Distribution : The pale-bellied tent terrapin
inhabits the northern tributaries of the Ganges
and possibly the Ganges proper from Bihar
eastward. So far I have examined no speci-
mens from West Bengal or Bangladesh. Speci-
mens collected on the survey are from the
following localities.

FMNH 224142 — Katarniaghat Gharial Sanctuary,
Ghagra River, Bahraich Dist., U.P.

Hatchlings (Vijaya 1982e) — Rapti River, nr.

Gorakhpur, Gorakhpur Dist., U.P.

BNHS 1339 & FMNH 224178 — Gandak River,
Bherihari Wildlife Sanctuary, Bettiah (West Cham-
naran) Dist., Bihar.

FMNH 224132 — Confluence of Kosi and Ganges
River, Khalgaon. c. 50 km W Sahibgani, Bhagal-
pur Dist., Bihar.

Remarks : Gunther (1864) recognized this
taxon as distinct and described it as a new
species Pangs hura flaviv enter. The description
was based on a single specimen presumed to
be from India but lacking in precise locality
data. It had been collected by a Mr. Mc-

Clelland who had also sent several other speci-
mens of Bengal species. Subsequent authors
(e.g. Boulenger 1889, Smith 1931) considered
it a variant of Kachuga tecta. Now that more
specimens have been found, it is evident that
this is a legitimate taxon. However, it appears
to be a subspecies of Kachuga tentoria rather
than a separate species. Evidence for this
comes from the aforementioned hatchlings
examined from the Rapti and Ghagra Rivers.
Characteristics of these specimens particularly
those from the Ghagra River appear to be
intergrading with those of K. tentoria circum-
data. The presence of circumdata characters
(i.e. the pink pleuro-marginal ring and pink
head markings) on some but not others of this
group is typical of an intergrading popula-
tion. The subject requires more study but for
now I believe a subspecies designation best
fits the evidence.

Kachuga tentoria circimndata (Mertens 1969)

Pink-ringed Tent Terrapin — Plate II, E+F

Identification : A moderate-sized tent terra-
pin (to 27.1 CL) having a single large dark
blotch on all plastral scutes, a reddish ring
at pleuro-marginal juncture of carapace, and
reddish head markings.

Description : Males appear somewhat darker
than females otherwise sexes colored similarly
(FMNH 224162 M) — carapace olive-green
with a geranium pink ring around pleuro-
marginal juncture; middorsal stripe comprised
of streaks of geranium pink bordered by
black; plastron straw yellow with large dark
blotch covering over half of each scute; bridge
and underside of marginals black bordered in
yellow; inguinal with black spot but not
axillary; seams of plastral scutes and margi-
nals washed with pink; head olive green with
a geranium pink circular spot behind eye and
a pair of short, oblique, geranium pink bars at
posterior of head; iris smoke gray; mandibles

21

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

light straw yellow with orange wash becoming
olive near snout; neck olive gray with dull,
cream colored stripes on sides and venter;
rump and base of tail also striped (stripes
more pronounced than in other races).

A female (BNHS 1340) was similar but
differed as follows: Carapace antique brown
with a cinnamon-rufous rather than pink
pleuro -marginal ring; middorsal stripe vague,
almost nonexistent; head markings less red
and more cinnamon rufous; two irregular
spots (instead of bars) present at back of
head.

Size and Sexual Dimorphism : Females great-
ly exceed males in size. A collection of thirteen
females from the Chambal River in the
Morena District of M.P. ranged from 18.1 to
27.1 (mean 22.1) cm CL. A sample of 11
males from the Yamuna River in the Etawah
District of U.P. ranged from 7.7 to 8.8 (mean
8.3) cm CL. Measurements of a typical male
and female are:

FMNH 224162 M — 8.4 CL 6.7 CW 7.8 PL

4.6 Hand 0.0825 kg.

Live F — 23.3 CL 17.2 CW 22.5 PL 11.2

H and 1.6 kg.

In addition to size males differ from females
by having a longer tail with a proportionately
thicker base.

Hatchlings : A single hatchling from an egg
obtained at Deogarth Ghat, on the Chambal
River measured 3.7 CL 3.5 CW 3.4 PL 2.1
H and weighed 11.5 g. Coloration — carapace
smoke gray with vague dark mottling on most
scutes with a cinnamon-rufous pleuro-marginal
ring; anterior portion of middorsal stripe also
cinnamon-rufous bordered with black; plastron
straw yellow with large, black blotches cover-
ing most of the scutes and light cinnamon-
rufous along scute seams; head olive with
bright geranium pink markings including a
spot at posterior edge of upper eyelid and
adjacent skin, a larger postocular spot and a

transverse bar across back of head; chin with
three additional pink spots along lateral edge
of mandible; iris light gray; neck with cream
stripes on an olive gray background; limbs
gray with cream-colored scutes, webbing and
lateral skin flaps; rump with dark and cream
stripes. See Moll (1985) for a colored photo-
graph.

Natural History : The pink-ringed tent ter-
rapin is a riverine form which readily basks
at any opportunity. We observed hundreds of
these turtles basking on logs, islands and
along the banks of the Yamuna and Chambal
Rivers. In January when the larger Kachuga
were scarce and presumably dormant, this
species was still basking in some number along
the Chambal. There is some indication of habi-
tat separation between the sexes and age
groups — small males and juveniles were rare-
ly seen in the river proper where females
were common. However, in a backwater
behind a sandbar projecting out from the
shore of the Yamuna River, we once collected
11 males, 6 juveniles and 3 females. Three
yearlings were also captured in a small (10'
wide) weedy tributary of the Chambal hiding
in and around vegetation masses.

Digestive tracts of one male, one female
and two immature females were examined.
The male contained a beetle and an equiva-
lent amount of aquatic vegetation whereas the
female guts were packed with vegetation alone.
This supports findings from the other races
indicating that females tend to be chiefly herbi-
vorous while males are more omnivorous.

Nesting was occurring along the sandbanks
of the Chambal River when we arrived there
on 19 January but all nests found had been
destroyed by predators. Jackal tracks and
occasionally hyena tracks were associated with
these nests. Two eggs, one cracked and one
entire remained in one of the open nests. The
cracked egg measured 47 x 28 mm while the

FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA

entire egg was 47 x 27 mm and weighed 19.5 g.

Rao and Singh (1985) reported that nesting
occurs from October through January in the
National Chambal River Gharial Sanctuary.
They calculated the turtles’ average clutch size
as 6 (3-12) eggs and thought two clutches
to be typical. Mean egg size was 48.6 x 27.6
mm and 21 g. Using data from eight of their
females, I caculated the mean female repro-
ductive effort as: RCM — 0.08, ELI — 22,
EWI — 12, and EMI — 1.4.

Distribution : The pink-ringed tent terrapin
occurs in the upper and central Ganges and
such tributaries as the Hindon, Yamuna,
Chambal and Gomati. Mertens (1969) named
the type locality for this race as Meerut,
Meerut District, U.P. He was not confident
about the localities of his paratypes which
were listed as Calcutta or vicinity of Calcutta.
Based on our observations from this survey,
it seems likely that Merten’s paratypes were
market specimens shipped in from more
western states. Because of the heavy market
trade in turtles of West Bengal, distribution
records from this state are often unreliable.
More likely the race of tent turtles which
occurs naturally in West Bengal is K. t. flavi-
venter or some as yet undescribed popula-
tion. Specimens of this race were collected at
the following localities on our survey:

FMNH 224105 & 224109 — Hindon River, nr.

Ghaziabad, Meerut Dist., U.P.

BNHS 1335 & FMNH 224162 — Yamuna River,

5 km S Etawah, Etawah Dist., U.P.

Refe

Acharji, M. N. (1950): Edible chelonians and
their products. J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 49: 529-
532.

(1955): A collection of chelo-
nians and snakes from Chota Nagpur, Bihar. Rec.
Indian Mus. 53: 383-392.

Anderson, J. (1876): On the cloacal bladders
and on the peritoneal canals in Chelonia. J. Linn.
Soc. London. 12: 434-444.

BNHS 1 340 — Chambal River, Deogarth, 30 km NE

Morena, Morena Dist., M.P.

FMNH 224185 — Gomati River, nr. Lucknow,

Lucknow Dist., U.P.

Acknowledgements

Many officials and individuals aided in the
surveys from which these observations were
made. I am particularly indepted to Shri Samar
Singh, Joint Secretary for Wildlife, and his
staff for providing introductions and for help-
ing me to obtain the necessary permits in the
states visited. My colleagues and companions
on the survey, Ms J. Vijaya and Satish
Bhaskar provided invaluable assistance on all
aspects of the study. Mr. J. C. Daniel, Shri P.
Kannan and Shri S. Biswas provided consi-
derable useful advice based on their extensive
knowledge of the Indian chelonian fauna. My
thanks to Joseph Mitchell who kindly pro-
vided information on the Kachuga smithii
specimen used as a paratype in this paper and
to the U.S. National Museum for loaning me
the specimen. A special thanks to Rom and
Zai Whitaker who provided living and labo-
ratory space for me at the Madras Crocodile
Bank.

The project was funded through an Indo-
American Fulbright Fellowship and by a grant
from the New York Zoological Society. Bom-
bay Natural History Society kindly served as
my host institution in India.

EN CES

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& Vijaya, J. (1986) : Distri-
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24

FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA

(1985) : Ecological relationship among

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(1983e) : The Travancore tortoise,

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Zangerl (1969):

Zangerl, R. (1969) : The turtle shell. Pages 311-
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demic Press, London.

25

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS OF

SOUTHERN INDIA
(LEPIDOPTERA: RHOPALOCERA ) 1

Torben B. Larsen2

This paper is an account of the three hundred or so butterflies to be found in
the Nilgiri Mountains of southern India. Special emphasis is placed on placing the
butterflies in perspective in relation to a number of defined ecological zones. Follow-
ing a description on the climate, topography and vegetation zones in the Nilgiris is
a section on the history of entomological exploration. The major part of the paper
is devoted to a summary account of each species known to occur in the Nilgiris.
Every attempt has been made to update the nomenclature which is cross-referenced
to that of Wynter-Blyth (1957) whose nomenclature actually dates back to the
1930ies. Since this nomenclature is the same for most of peninsular India and since
the Nilgiris contain populations of virtually all species known to occur in southern
India, the paper should also be useful out of the specific Nilgiri context. The data
included will be the basis for a later analysis of the ecological and zoogeographical

nature of the Nilgiri butterflies, but some
discussed.

Introduction

The Nilgiri Mountains

The Nilgiri Mountains are situated in South
India with their centre at 11°25'N and 76°45'
E. The name means Blue Mountains and was
bestowed upon them by the plains people at
least 700 years ago when the Nilgiris were
only seen rising in the distance from the
steaming and insalubrious jungles that sur-
rounded them.

The Nilgiris are a well-defined massif that
forms the southern limit of the main Western
Ghats system that stretches unbroken from
Bombay in the north. To the immediate south
of the Nilgiris is the Palghat Gap, a stretch
of dry lowlands separating the South Sahyadri
from the main Ghats system. The distance is
not great and on a good day the nearest of the

1 Accepted January 1987.

2 Snoghoj alle 29C, 2770 Kastrup, Denmark.

initial non-quantitative conclusions are

South Sahyadri ranges, the Annamalais, is
clearly visible from the Nilgiri plateau.

To the northeast the precipitous Moyar
Gorge creates a narrow boundary between the
Nilgiris and the Biligiriranga Mountains. The
latter can be looked at as the southwestern
link, though at best a tenuous one, with the
Eastern Ghats system.

The Nilgiris may be described as a right-
angled triangle with the right angle placed in
the northwestern extremity. The western
slopes of the main plateau rise abrupt-
ly from levels of 100 to 300 m through a
steep escarpment to 1800 m or so. At this level
the Nilgiri Plateau commences. Though less
precipitous the same situation pertains to the
southern slopes. The northern slopes rise from
the Mysore Plateau from levels of 700-900 m
in a less precipitous manner still, and they are
hence rather less imposing. However, the
Nilgiris most certainly are a sharply defined
geographical feature.

26

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

The plateau of the Nilgiris is hardly a
plateau in the strict sense of the word. Valleys
drop to 1600 m and peaks rise to more than
2500 m, but most of the area is an undulating
landscape confined within the 1800 m contour
of the scarp and technically the expression
plateau is correct (though slightly disconcert-
ing to an author from a country in which the
highest point is some 180 m and lovingly
known as the Mountain of Heaven).

Just to the north of the Nilgiris proper lie
the Ouchterlony Valley and the Wynaad with
an average elevation of 1200-1300 m, provid-
ing level country at an altitude not found
elsewhere in the range. They form an integral
part of the Nilgiris as well as the link with
the Western Ghats proper and will be includ-
ed in the systematic part of the paper.

When making ones way through the Nilgiris,
whether by car or by foot, it is easy to forget
how small a geographical feature they actually
are. The western slopes extend some 40 km
due south, the southern and the northern
slopes are both some 60 km. As will be seen
there can be few areas of similar size with
as much ecological variation within its boun-
daries.

The area covered by this paper is the Nilgiris
as a geographical feature, from the surround-
ing lowlands to the highest peaks. Most of this
falls into the administrative Nilgiri District
(PIN 643 000) of Tamil Nadu State, but much
of the lower parts of the western slopes fall
into the Mallapuram and Palghat districts of
Kerala State, while portions of the southern
slopes fall into Coimbatore District of Tamil
Nadu.

The northern borders of the area covered
are clearly defined by the Moyar river, and
most of the southern border is defined by the
Bhavani river. Elsewhere the limit is simply
taken as the foot of the mountains and the
immediate surrounding plains.

Climate

Situated at 11° north the Nilgiris are well
into the tropical zone with the result that tem-
perature variations during the year are rela-
tively modest. Mean monthly averages between
the coldest month (December or January) are
normally no more than 5°C below that of the
warmest summer month (usually May). How-
ever, the altitudinal temperature differences
are highly significant. The annual mean tem-
perature is 28° at the foot of the southern
slopes and only about 15° in Ooty at 2200 m.
These altitudinal temperature differences have
profound ecological effects. Average monthly
temperatures for selected localities are given
in table 1 below.

Rainfall patterns are dominated by the mon-
soon regime that affects all of India, but diffe-
rent parts of the Nilgiris are affected in
different ways. The SW monsoon normally
commences in the latter part of May or in
early June, continuing till some time in Sept-
ember with the occasional pauses. This is
India’s life sustaining main monsoon, but the
positioning and topography of the Nilgiris are
such that the main effects of the SW monsoon
are felt on the western and northwestern
slopes. The southern and northeastern slopes
are partly in a rain-shadow and receive as
much of their total rainfall from the retreating
NE monsoon as they do from the main mon-
soon. The plateau receives rain in an inter-
mittent fashion from both the monsoons and
from more localised thunder showers at other
times of the year.

The first four months of the year (January
to April, and much of May) are everywhere
rather dry, though the southern slopes get
some rain even then. Interestingly this dry
season is most marked on those parts of the
western slopes that otherwise receive more
precipitation than any other areas of the
Nilgiris. But for the very pronounced drought

27

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 1

Average

MONTHLY

TEMPERATURE IN

Centigrade for selected

Nilgiri localities

Month

Bhavani S.
290 m

Kallar
457 m

Silent Valley
914 m

Coonoor
1747 m

Ooty Bot.
2225 m

JAN.

25.3

23.9

17.8

13.7

13.1

FEB.

29.9

25.8

19.5

15.2

13.8

MAR.

29.4

28.3

22.3

17.0

15.2

APR.

31.6

28.9

23.6

18.7

16,4

MAY

31.5

29.0

23.5

19.6

16,8

JUN.

31.0

27.7

20.7

18.8

15.4

JUL.

29.9

26.8

18.8

18.2

14.4

AUG.

30.0

27.0

19.2

18.1

15.2

SEP.

29.9

26.9

19.8

17.6

15.4

OCT.

28.1

26.4

20.1

17.1

15.1

NOV.

26.5

25.0

19.3

15.5

14.1

DEC.

25.0

23.5

18.3

14.1

13.3

ALL YEAR

28.8

26.6

20.2

16.9

14.9

Source: von Lengerke (1977)

the wetter parts of the Nilgiris would doubt-
less be even more rich in flora and fauna than
they already are. I suspect that the exceptional
richness of the flora and fauna at Kallar, a
locality with a relatively modest 1500 mm of
rain a year, is due to the fact that it is ex-
ceptionally well distributed in time, avoiding
periods of pronounced drought. Some illustra-
tive examples of rainfall patterns are given in
table 2 below.

The volume of rainfall varies by a factor of
more than twelve in the Nilgiris. Both low-
land and highland areas of the western slopes
that are fully exposed to the SW monsoon
receive more than 6000 mm a year, and more
than 3500 mm is normal in this area. The
driest parts of the Moyar Gorge, an area in
permanent rain shadow, receive less than 500
mm. Some examples are given in table 3 be-
low, compressing data from table 2 above.

Ecology

Rainfall patterns, temperatures and to a
lesser extent topography combine to produce
in the small area covered by the Nilgiris a
network of very complex ecological conditions
with a degree of variation that is not usually
found in so small an area. Given the statistics
this is not surprising: Elevation ranges from
100 m to well over 2500 m; rainfall from less
than 500 mm a year to more than 6000 mm,
perhaps in some cases much more; the lowest
temperature ever recorded at the foot of
Nadgani Ghat is about 18°, while frost is a
regular feature at Ooty and elsewhere on the
plateau.

While broad ecological zones of considera-
ble diversity can be identified the net result
is not always a very tidy pattern because of
topographical quirks, rain-shadows and local
peculiarities. To give one example. The

28

Annual rainfall in selected Nilgiri localities (by month and year total in

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

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p-

o

04

vn

O'

04

o

CO

CO

T— 1

T-H

P-

X

O'

O'

m

c4

O-

04

29

Source: von Lengerke (1977).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 84

Nadgani site where many of the species re-
corded in the systematic part were observed
probably had a rainfall of about 6000 mm a
year, but just two kilometres further west,
where I usually camped, rainfall was down to
3000 mm. On many occasions I was repeated-
ly drenched during a day’s collecting only to
come back and find that there had been no
rain at the camp site.

Table 3

Total rainfall in four selected Nilgiri localities

AND ITS DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN SW MONSOON
MONTHS, NE MONSOON MONTHS AND THE DRY
SEASON IN PERCENT

Season

Western

Southern

Northern

Plateau

Silent Valley

Kallar

Moyar

Kotagiri

914 m

457 m

880 m

1982 m

SW Monsoon
(May-Sep.)

83.5

26.1

46.5

56.2

NE Monsoon
(Oct. -Dec.)

13.0

47.9

41.8

35.5

Dry Season
(Jan.-Apr.)

3.5

26.0

11.7

8.3

Total

100

100

100

100

Rainfall mm

3968

1478

538

1264

Source: Calculated from table 2.

Such differences make the development of
a broad ecological framework difficult, though
such a framework will be essential for a sub-
sequent interpretation of the total Nilgiri
butterfly fauna in ecological biogeographical
terms. I have however, attempted to make
such a framework based on the work of pre-
vious authors, leaning heavily on a simplified
version of the forest classification by Cham-
pion & Seth (1968), as well as on my own
observations and conclusions.

Ecological framework for the Nilgiris

For the purposes of analysing the butterfly
fauna I have arrived at a classification frame-

work covering twelve main ecological zones.
The first, and rather crucial division is one
based on altitude, the attendant climatic diffe-
rences, and their joint effect on the floristic
and faunistic composition. On this basis the
Nilgiris may be divided into three major divi-
sions as follows:

tropical/lowlands 100-1500 m

subtropical/middle levels 1500-1900 m
MONTANE /plateau 1900 m+

The exact altitudes of change from one divi-
sion to the next is subject to local variation
and there is often a transition zone. Where
the subtropical division merges directly with
evergreen tropical forest it may be difficult to
define when the transition between the two
has actually been effected.

The following paragraphs briefly characterise
the salient features of each of the eleven zones,
which are then again summarised in table
4.

TROPICAL DIVISION

1. Rainforest zone. Where rainfall exceeds
3500 mm a year in the lower part of the
tropical division, and if topography does not
militate against it, the climax vegetation be-
comes a fully developed rainforest system
approaching that called giant evergreen by
Champion & Seth (1968). There is a closed
canopy and several storeys with an amazing
faunal and floral diversity. Most of the Nadgani
Ghat and some areas near Mukkali at the base
of the Silent Valley access road belong to
this zone. Were it not for the fact that the
dry period from January to April was very
severe the number of species would be even
greater, but some species without diapause
mechanisms cannot survive. A significant num-
ber of the most interesting South Indian
butterflies are effectively limited to this zone.

2. Wet Evergreen zone. This zone is charac-
terised by a lower rainfall than the previous

30

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

one, ranging from 1800 mm a year to 4000 mm
at the higher levels of the tropical division.
Visually it is less grandiose, the trees lower,
and the typical storied structure of true rain-
forest has become a confused tangle. It covers
the West Coast Tropical Evergreen of Cham-
pion & Seth (1968), and in the zone I also
include the patches of evergreen found on the
southern slopes which they would classify as
Semi-Evergreen. From a butterfly point of
view it is characterised by a great degree of
species diversity, the absence, or near absence,
of the true rainforest elements, and the fact
that species from the more open formations
still do not penetrate. Much of the forests of
the western slopes fall into this category. I
have not worked any spot in this zone con-
sistently, but Kallar forms a transition between
it and the mixed deciduous forest (see 4
below).

3. Wet Agricultural zone. Till a few cen-
turies ago the entire western slopes and good
parts of the southern slopes were covered with
evergreen forests of the two types discussed
above. Both are very fragile eco-systen^s that
do not take kindly to human interference and
where wood has been exploited virtual eco-
logical deserts result, clad only in grasses and
one or two dominant dicotyledons. Such areas
are entomologically useless, but unfortunately
they prevail over long stretches. Much of the
area has been under agriculture for the past
few centuries, with rice, bananas, turmeric,
rubber, palm crops, pistachio and various
fruits as the main crops. Plantation teak is the
worst of all. Any butterflies that remain are
found in fringing riverine forest and untidy
gardens, but they are not many. A very few
skippers thrive on the rice and some common
butterflies of the more open formations manage
to establish populations, but on the whole wet
agricultural lands are disappointing for butter-
flies, except that the occasional forest species

maintains a surprising foot-hold here and
there.

4. Mixed Deciduous Forest zone. Much of
the lowland southern slopes and the central
parts of the northern slopes consist of dense
mixed deciduous forest with considerable floral
and faunal diversity and a wide range of
micro-habitats in response to climatic and
topographical variation. Wherever permanent
moisture is available there is an admixture of
evergreen plants, occasionally leading to local
almost evergreen patches. The rainfall regime
is usually in the range of 1000 to 1800 mm.
The physical aspect is a low, but very dense
forest, at times almost impenetrable. At the
upper levels it merges gradually with the sub-
tropical evergreen forest on the southern
slopes. The mixed deciduous forest is very
different from the moist-deciduous forests of
the Wynaad and the Mudumalai Wildlife
Sanctuary, which are very open with tall teak
as the dominant tree. Moist-deciduous forest is
a relatively poor butterfly habitat which is
weakly represented in the Nilgiris proper and
not dealt with separately in this paper, though
notes are given at relevant points in the syste-
matic part. The whole of the Kotagiri Ghat
below Kunjapannai is typical of the mixed
deciduous forest zone.

5. Thorn Forest zone. Once rainfall drops
to between 500 and 1000 mm the natural
climax vegetation becomes some form of
savanna-like forest which visually is not dis-
similar to parts of East Africa and where, in
fact, much of the dominant vegetation has
African affinities, not least species of Acacia.
This is also the home of one of the Indian
antelopes, the Blackbuck. The floral and faunal
composition is much less diverse and varied
than the mixed deciduous forest. Most of the
area between Masinagudi and Bhavanisagar
via the Moyar Gorge forms part of this zone,
but it is also represented at many places in

31

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

the foothills of the southern slopes, when rain-
fall is not high enough to support mixed
deciduous forest. It is also the home of the
most typically African of the South Indian
butterflies.

6. Dry Agricultural zone. Most of the land
at the foot of the forested slopes now consists
of non-irrigated farmlands, much of which
would have been thorn forest, and in favoured
localities mixed deciduous forest. Often rocky
outcrops and natural fences are left untended.
Such areas contain many of the species charac-
teristic of thorn forest, but by and large it is
a very poor butterfly habitat. Here and there
irrigated agriculture prevails. Except where
trees and palms are grown, such areas mainly
contain the most common plains species and
those that have adapted to man-made environ-
ments. At Kallar, with its extensive planta-
tions, some forest species, even those of the
evergreen forests, survive. Most of these would
probably be absent if Kallar were not imme-
diately adjacent to undisturbed forest.

SUBTROPICAL DIVISION

7. Subtropical Evergreen Forest zone. The
exact altitudinal boundaries of the subtropical
zone vary from 1200/1500 m to 1800/1900 m
depending on local circumstances, and once
these elevations are reached the extreme diffe-
rences in annual precipitation that create such
diversity in the tropical zone have largely
disappeared. Consequently the range of vege-
tation zones has also narrowed, and the pre-
dominant climax vegetation of the western and
the southern slopes is subtropical evergreen
forest, except where the scarps are so steep
that forest cannot cling to them. Where the
subtropical forests abut tropical evergreen
forests (e.g. at Silent Valley) the transition
between the two is both visually and floristi-
cally very gradual. Elsewhere the transition
between mixed deciduous and subtropical ever-

green is abrupt and very noticeable, such as
on the Kotagiri Ghat. Climax subtropical ever-
green forest is often almost impenetrable. As
far as the butterflies are concerned this zone
has a small, but conspicuous, special element.
Most of my own experience of this zone is
from the forests at Glenburn and Kunjapannai.

8. Sub-climax Subtropical Forest zone. In
areas of low rainfall on the northern slopes
and in disturbed and rocky areas of the south-
ern slopes the subtropical evergreen forest
cannot develop fully. The result is some im-
poverished associations drawing from the
evergreen and deciduous zones the most hardy
species, interspersed with grasslands. These are
very poor habitats with no major influence on
the Nilgiri fauna.

9. Subtropical Agricultural zone. Most of
the subtropical zone has been converted to
plantation agriculture, with coffee at the lower
reaches and tea at the upper. On the whole
these are poor butterfly habitats, not least
because weedicides and pesticides are applied
liberally, frequently and consistently. Butter-
flies are only found along streams which, at
least in the coffee country, often has a belt of
fringing, riverine vegetation. Tea country is a
virtual ecological desert, only a handful of
butterflies managing to survive. The grassland
areas are indicators of recent forest destruction
and are not natural habitats for any species.

MONTANE DIVISION

10. Montane Evergreen Temperate Forest
zone. The plateau of the Nilgiris, mainly
above 1900 m, has two characteristic types of
natural vegetation. The evergreen forests
known as sholas, often growing only in shel-
tered places, and rolling open grasslands with
only a few Rhododendron trees. The sholas are
dark, almost impenetrable forests, their edges
often shaped by the prevailing winds. Typical
sholas develop under rainfall regimes from as

32

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

low as 1200 mm to as high as 6000 mm+
without displaying much difference in floral
composition or physical aspect. The reason for
this is that the sholcts in the most heavy rain-
fall area have a rapid run-off of excess water.
Patches of shola remain over most of the
plateau, and extensive forests may still be
found in the Kundahs, at Avalanche and in
the Mukurti Peak area. One of the prettiest
and most accessible is the Longwood Shola
near Kotagiri, which has a most attractive
bog at its centre. The floral composition is
characterised by a large proportion of plants
with Palaearctic and Oriental montane affi-
nities.

11. Montane Grasslands zone. In between
the sholas the normal vegetation consists of
rolling grasslands, but this is now in evidence
only in the remoter parts towards the western
escarpment between the Sispara Pass and
Mukurti Peak. Elsewhere they have been con-
verted to tea. These grasslands are the home
of the famed Nilgiri Tahr. Champion & Seth
(1968) are insistent that the grasslands are
derived and that the entire plateau was once
clad in forest. The presence everywhere of
the fire resistant Rhododendron is their main
evidence. Ranganathan (1938) takes issue
with this (referring to the first edition of
Champion), pointing out that wind and frost
would preclude shola vegetation in some parts
of the plateau. Blaseo (1971) would appear
to support the latter viewpoint. I do not have
the expertise to settle the matter, but certainly
the vegetation of the grasslands is both more
complex and more varied than in the recent
grasslands of Sumatra and Papua New Guinea
which are definitely the result of human inter-
vention. Grasslands were extensively present
when the first explorers visited the Nilgiris just
150 years ago. It is difficult to see how a
tiny handful of Toda pastoralists could, or for
that matter should, have indulged in massive

deforestation.

12. Montane Agricultural zone. Whether or
not the montane grasslands are derived, it is
a fact that more than three quarters of the
plateau has been heavily modified by human
intervention. Beginning in 1832 large areas
have been forested with exotic trees, espe-
cially of Australian origin ( Acacia dealbata,
A . decurrens, A. melanoxylon and E. globu-
lus). One of the latter is now at 78 m one of
the tallest trees in all of India. Somewhat later
a number of temperate conifers were also
planted. Virtually any tree from anywhere
that was of potential promise has been tried
out in the Nilgiris and remnants are some-
times found in surprising places. The amount
of tree planting may well have exceeded the
deforestation in some areas, but diversity was
sacrificed for monoculture. In the Ooty area
some homesick English gentlemen spent their
summers strewing about the seeds of broom
and gorse on the downs, with the result that
these plants are locally dominant. Since their
arrival some 400 years ago the local Badaga
have concentrated on the cultivation of vege-
tables with potatoes, carrots and cabbages as
the main crops, though wild boar is a pere-
nnial problem. However, in terms of both area
and visual impression it is tea, tea and yet
more tea that predominates as a never-ending
ecological desert.

Summary

This concludes the brief overview of the
Nilgiri ecology and outlines the twelve ecolo-
gical zone which will later be used for an
analysis of the ecology and zoogeography of
the butterfly fauna. Table 4 below gives a
brief summary of the information. As
already mentioned a somewhat robust approach
is called for when dealing with major ecolo-
gical zones in a area where so much varia-
tion can be found within a few kilometres.

33

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

Only a robust approach can impose some
element of order into what sometimes
appears to be anarchy; it should not be used
to obscure the fact that genuine anomalies
exist and that surprises do occur. It is also
necessary to highlight once again the fact that
much of the area, especially that above 1200
m, has been the subject of very intensive
human intervention for the past 150 years. It
its good to know, though, that representative
portions have been maintained for posterity.
The proposed inclusion of the Nilgiris in the
World Biosphere Reserves scheme will hope-
fully ensure that the environment is gradually
improved. Few places contain as much diver-
sity within so little space as the Nilgiris. As
an ecosystem it demands our respect.

Table 4

Summary of the twelve major ecological zones
of the Nilgiris

Tropical Division (100-1500 m)

1 . rainforest zone

Rainfall 3500 mm+; temperature range 22-30°.
Tall closed canopy forest with little undergrowth
except where bamboo prevails. Hopea, Dipterocar-
pus, many Guttiferae, many Anacardiaceae, Sapota-
ceae, Meliaceae, etc. Great floral and faunal diver-
sity. Strong affinities to Sundaland. Only western
slopes and not usually above 1000 m.

2. wet evergreen zone

Rainfall 1800-3500 m; temperature range 18-28°.
Dense closed forest, lower than previous zone, and
often with well-developed undergrowth. Much local
variation and transition to moist-deciduous or to
semi-evergreen depending on specific circumstances.
Most of western slopes and part of southern slopes.

3. wet agricultural zone

Rainfall 2000-5000 mm; temperature range 18-30°.
Main crops rice, coconut, coffee, cardamom, fruits
and plantation trees. Mainly at the foot of the
western slopes. Some of the slopes are grasslands of
little diversity slowly regenerating to forest.

4. MIXED DECIDUOUS FOREST ZONE

Rainfall 1000-1800 mm; temperature range 20-30°.

Low dense forest with thick undergrowth though
patches of teak and figs may be taller. Typical trees
Anogeissus, Boswelfia, Tamarindus, Santalum,
Moringa. Some penetration of African derived flora.
Mainly southern slopes and parts of Mudumalai, but
also in western slopes rain-shadows.

5. thorn forest zone

Rainfall 500-1000 mm; temperature range 22-33°.
Open savanna forest with Acacia, Zizyphus, Euphor-
bia and other African elements as dominants and
much admixture of Afrotropical flora. The eastern
half of the northern slopes, the eastern third of the
southern slopes, and locally on the southern foot-
hills where not disturbed by agriculture.

6. dry agricultural zone

Rainfall 500-2000 mm; temperature 20-35°. Crops
are mainly rain-fed millets and certain pulses. Many
tropical weeds and some remnants of thorn forest
vegetation. Very dry during dry season, prone to
drought. Much of the plains adjacent to the southern
and northern Nilgiris where forest has been lost.

Subtropical Division (1300-1900 m)

7. SUBTROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST ZONE

Rainfall 1300-4000 mm; temperature range 15-25°.
In some respects transitional between tropical and
montane evergreen but with some special elements.
Olea dioica is typical. Dense dark forests, now much
reduced in extent. Most of western and southern
slopes where not cut down, and parts of the NW
slopes above the Wynaad and Ouchterlony.

8. SUBCLIMAX FOREST FORMATIONS ZONE

Rainfall 1000-1600 mm; temperature range 18-30°.
Impoverished version of (7) above where rainfall
and soil is deficient. Often clumps of isolated trees
in grasslands. Here and there on northern and
southern slopes but of marginal importance.

9. SUBTROPICAL AGRICULTURAL ZONE

Rainfall 1100-4000 mm; temperatures 15-30°. Coffee
at lower levels, tea at upper reaches, with vestiges
of forest along rivers and where too steep for plan-
tation crops.

Montane Division (1800 m++)

10. MONTANE EVERGREEN FOREST ZONE

Rainfall 1400-6000 mm; temperature range 10-20°.
Dense evergreen forest with Oriental montane and
many Palaearctic plants. Among trees members of
genera such as Ternstroemia, Eugenia, Micheiia,

34

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILG1R1 MOUNTAINS

Gordonia, Rhododendron, etc. Many low montane
plants ( Begonia , Lobelia, Impatiens ) and Palaearctic
plants ( Fragaria , Viola, Rubus). Dotted throughout
the plateau, but much reduced in extent.

11. MONTANE GRASSLANDS ZONE

Rainfall 1300-3500 mm; temperature range 10-20°.
Open rolling grasslands with a somewhat complex
structure, much variation in structure according to
soil, exposure, drainage and rainfall. Only fire resis-
tant tree is Rhododendron but exotic gorse and
broom prevalent in many areas. Now mainly from
western escarpment system to Mukurti.

12. MONTANE AGRICULTURAL ZONE

Rainfall 1300-3500 mm; temperature range 10-20°.
Three types: monoculture of exotic Acacia, Euca-
lyptus etc; monoculture of tea; and vegetable gar-
dening (carrot, potato, cabbage and others) with
some fallow land. Presently covers most of the
plateau.

History of exploration

General

The Nilgiri Mountains long lay as an iso-
lated and unknown ‘jewel of nature’ protected
by a wide band of malarious jungles, guarded
by tigers and fierce elephants, largely unknown
to the outside world. On the plateau lived
the pastoral Todas exploiting the extensive
grasslands, with primitive hunters and
gatherers in the surrounding forests, but never
exceeding the 10.000 mark as far as popu-
lation was concerned. Their impact on the
environment must have been marginal, but
they developed a culture and a matrilineal
kinship system that has been the delight of
anthropologists. More must have been written
per capita of the Todas than of any other
people. The Kotas provided supplementary
skills in the type of symbiotic relationship that
pastoralists often develop with other groups.
Lower down the mountain lived primitive
hunter-gatherer societies, Irula, Kurumba,
Panniya and related tribes. Their numbers
were, in total, somewhat larger than that of
the Todas, but they lived in harmony with

nature and had neither the skill nor the in-
clination to encroach in any major way on
the natural conditions.

Some four hundred years ago the Badaga
appeared on the scene. They were Kannada
speaking people fleeing some political up-
heaval in what is now Karnataka, possibly
the repercussions of the Bijapur Muslim con-
quest of the Vijayanagar empire. They were
the first agriculturalists on the plateau and
settled in the villages that still carry their
original names, digging their fields, but not
maintaining much contact with their area of
origin. Though probably more in number than
the resident Todas, it seems that a modus
vivendi was arrived at so that frictions bet-
ween the radically different life styles of the
two groups were minimised. Life probably
went on much as it had always done, except
for the compact Badaga villages and their
agriculture. We do not know, it has to be
said, because information on the Nilgiris was
almost nil and no written tradition exists.

Just around 1600 the modem world made
its way to the Nilgiris. Rumours of Christian
communities in the distant mountains, derived
from the visit of the Apostle Thomas in the
early days of Christianity, reached the court
of the Bishop of Calicut. He sent off a group
of Portuguese priests to investigate matters,
but his judgment in choice of emissaries was
not too sound. They came back with a report
that was not ‘so sure and complete as was
desirable’, a rather nice turn of phrase. So a
few years later, in 1603, heavier guns were
brought to bear. The Jesuit Father, Jacomo
Ferreira, led an expedition on behalf of the
Bishop of Malabar in Calicut. He brought
back a fair amount of circumstantial and anec-
dotal information, but of one thing he was
certain .... there were no Christians in the
Blue Mountains, and so the Portuguese lost
interest.

35

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

In 1799, after the defeat of Tipu Sultan at
the hands of the East India Company, the
Nilgiris were part of the territory ceded to
the Company through the treaty of Sriranga-
patna, though probably Tipu never held much
actual sway north of the Wynaad. The moun-
tain was visible to the large British garrison
and civil establishment at Coimbatore, but it
was only in 1812 that the first representative
of the colonial power visited the mountain
itself. This was in the form of a somewhat
unimaginative tax collector whose only com-
ment was that the Nilgiris were not worth any
particular efforts on his behalf A more official
and less single-minded party set off during the
winter of 1818-1819. They reported back with
enthusiasm on the climate, vegetation and
wildlife of the plateau, in fact describing a
paradise on earth. They were perhaps over-
enthusiastic, because their reports were flatly
disbelieved at Fort St. George in Madras ....
or at least as flatly as bureaucratic niceties
would allow: It is somewhat difficult to accept

the understandable enthusiasm of a

group of men notwithstanding .... etc.

But truth will not be concealed, and soon
the Collector of Coimbatore became the driv-
ing force in the establishment of the Nilgiris
as a major hill resort. By 1827 there were
seventeen European houses in Ooty and five
in Kotagiri. Ten years later large scale esta-
blishment of plantations was in full swing and
the destiny of the Nilgiris was changed fore-
ver. The population swelled with an influx of
Tamil speaking plains people, needed for the
tea and coffee plantations. The main towns of
Ooty, Coonoor and Kotagiri became trading
centres over and above their recreational
function. By 1860 the foundations of what the
Nilgiris still are to-day were laid.

Entomological exploration

Butterflies from India reached the scientific

community already at the time when Carl von
Linne published his tenth edition of systema
naturae (1758), the starting point of zoolo-
gical nomenclature. This book contains many
Indian species, and many more were describ-
ed by Fabricius and Cramer in 1775. Soon
after the Nilgiris were opened up they were
visited by explorers and naturalists, both pro-
fessional and amateur. The first of these was
the Austrian nobleman and naturalist. Baron
von Hiigel in the late 183Gies. His material
was described by Kollar and the Felders. It
is, however, striking how relatively late some
of the more prominent South Indian endemic
butterflies were actually described as evidenc-
ed by the list below :

Pachliopta pandiyana Moore 1881
Papilio Uomedon Moore 1874
Papilio dravidarum Wood-Mason 1880
Papilio buddha Westwood 1872
Prioneris sita Felder & Felder 1865
Colias nilagiriensis Felder & Felder 1859
Celatoxia albidisca Moore 1884
Parantica nilagiriensis Moore 1877
Idea malabarica Moore 1843
Mycalesis adolphei Guerin-Meneville 1843
Ypthima chenui Guerin-Meneville 1843
Calaenorrhinus ambareesa Moore 1867
Thoressa honor ei de Niceville 1887
Oriens concinna Elwes & Edwards 1897

The first systematic account of the Nilgiri
butterflies dates back almost exactly a century
when Sir George Hampson [1888 (1889)]
made a comprehensive list based on his five
years of residence in the Nilgiri Wynaad as a
coffee planter. He collected mainly in the
northwestern corner, including the Nadgani
Ghat, but only in that part which lay in the
Madras Presidency, and not the Malabar side,
now in Kerala State. His energies were sub-
sequently transferred to moths. On his return
to the United Kingdom he joined the British

36

BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LGIRI MOUNTAINS

Museum (Natural History) and produced the
magnificent series on moths published as part
of FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA. His total output
outstrips most other entomologists that have
ever lived, yet despite this, the quality and
accuracy of his work is legendary.

Hampson’s list contained 275 entries and
he expected that ‘no more than about twenty
species would be added to it’. On current
taxonomical view the list actually contains
somewhat less than 260 species. In all just
about forty species have in fact been added
since, but as a first effort it certainly is no
mean achievement. It is a great shame that
none of his copious field notes were included.
They are available in the British Museum
(Natural History) but I have not been in a
position to avail myself of them.

It is hardly surprising that the nomencla-
ture adopted by Hampson is often difficult to
decipher for a contemporary reader. We are
therefore indebted to Yates (1935) for ‘trans-
lating’ Hampson’s list to the language used
by Evans (1932) which is largely intelligiblle
to-day, and for adding quite a few species
from smaller contemporary collections. Many
of Yates’s additions were species from the
lower parts of the Nadgani Ghat. Yates’s list
comes to 282 entries, some of which are now
considered forms or synonyms.

The next list of Nilgiri butterflies is that of
Wynter-Blyth (1944, 1946). At the time he
was headmaster at the school at Ketti below
Coonoor. Most of his collecting was done at
Ketti, and on the Ghat between Coonoor and
the plains, and not least at Kallar, a magni-
ficent place for collecting butterflies to this
very day. He did make a number of visits to
the Nadgani Ghat, but because of wartime
petrol rationing he did not visit the lower
parts on the Kerala side. In his day, of course,
the forests stretched much more east, almost
to Gudalur.

His list came to 290 entries, later supple-
mented with a further twenty or so. Some of
these were again synonyms or forms, and one
or two were erroneous. His paper is a very
solid one with which I have few quarrels.
Wynter-Blyth was later to publish the most
recent guide to Indian Butterflies (1957) and
the influence of his work in the Nilgiris is
clearly visible in his book.

Various taxonomic works have since scoop-
ed up old unpublished material, and I have
collected six or seven species never before
recorded from the Nilgiris, so that the pre-
sent list contains 299 valid species. As shown
at the end of the list of Nilgiri butterflies there
are about a score of South Indian butterflies
that have not yet been recorded from the
Nilgiris. Some of these, probably about a
dozen, will one day be found also there. They
will be an incentive to future collectors, but
more precise ecological data and better etho-
logical observations than my own should be
the priority, and a much more satisfying pros-
pect that the record of a few additional
species.

Current study

I deliberately chose to study the Nilgiri
fauna because it was already relatively well
known, and because I had some opportunities
for comparison stretching back a hundred
years. It was clear from the outset that the
number of new records would be relatively
small, but I was more interested in the gene-
ral ecology of the area. After publishing this
systematic account of the Nilgiri butterflies it
is my plan to convert the data into a more
formal ecological-cum-biogeographical analysis
over the next few years. Also of interest was
an assessment of the extent to which the eco-
logical degradation that has taken place in
the Nilgiris over the past 100 years had in-
fluenced the butterfly fauna. When choosing

37

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

the Nilgiris I was not unmindful of the fact
that most of the southern mountains in India
are basically very similar as far as the butterfly
fauna is concerned, except that if tropical
rainforest is absent, then so are several of the
more interesting butterflies. Had I chosen the
Ghats below Sultan’s Battery to somewhere in
the South Sahyadri I would have had the
pleasure of filling out some — largely predic-
table — distributional blanks, but it would
have been at the cost of data on the ecology
of the butterflies concerned.

I was in the Nilgiris, with occasional visits
to the Annamalais, the Biligiriranga Moun-
tains, and Kanara, from 11. iv to 18.x. 1986.
During this time I spent roughly half my days
in the field visiting all the ecological zones as
often as possible. My main areas of work were
the Longwood Shola at Kotagiri, the forests
around Glenburn, Kotagiri Ghat, Kallar, Nad-
gani Ghat and especially the little river at its
foot, the area around Masinagudi and the
Coonoor Ghat. Many other localities were
visited once or twice.

It is a pity that I was not able to spend a
whole year in the area. The profound dry
season from January till April has a very
definite effect on the butterflies and it would
have been interesting to study this not ieast
in the Nadgani Ghat area. Some species are
mainly on the wing during dry season in the
rainforest zone. However, I do not think this
loss of information has introduced serious
bias into the systematic part that follows.

Acknowledgements

I have rarely been so well and generously
treated as by my friends and colleagues in the
Nilgiris, none of whom I knew before my
arrival at base in Kotagiri. The Asokan family,
Bunty and Rudi Bosen, the Devadars, senior
and junior, Mr. and Mrs. Dharman, Palni and
Uma Palaniappan, and Mr. Radcliffe. From

many others I received much help and kind-
ness.

Gordon Thompson provided hospitality,
good company and many interesting specimens
throughout, and my debts to him are high.
Thanks are also due to Nancy Fee for gene-
ral encouragement and the necessary impetus
to do things that would not otherwise have
been done. Augustine and Dominic in Kota-
giri did all they could to make my stay at ‘The
Nest’ pleasant.

I spent some interesting and very pleasant
days at the Peechi Forest Research Institute
in Kerala, being looked after in the best
possible way by Dr. K. S. S. Nair and Dr. G.
Matthew.

Mr. J. C. Daniel of the Bombay Natural
History Society aided with a number of prac-
tical issues, as has the Royal Danish Embassy
in New Delhi.

Philip Ackery and Dick Vane-Wright, Pam
Gilbert, Rienk de Jong, Niels Peder Kristen-
sen and Brenda Leonard kindly provided a
lifeline to library resources and advice over
long distances.

In Copenhagen Harish Gaonkar kindly
undertook the task of screening the manus-
cript which resulted in helpful advice on a
number of matters and the eradication of
some errors that would otherwise have
survived.

I am indebted, as often before, to the
Danish Carlsberg Foundation whose grants
have assisted in making this and other pro-
jects economically feasible.

I have not bracketed the names of authors
where the genus has been reassigned since the
original description since virtually all Indian
butterflies are no longer in their original genus.

Systematic part

The systematic part that follows gives the
basic data on each of the species that I accept

38

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILG1RI MOUNTAINS

as having been genuinely reported from the
Nilgiris. The basic sequence is that of Eliot
(1978) except that the Lycaenidae have been
placed before the Nymphalidae in accordance
with modern usage. The subfamilies of the
Nymphalidae were in older literature usually
accorded family rank, but there is increasing
agreement that they should not be.

Every effort has been made to refer to the
butterflies according to the most modern
nomenclature, much of it adopted from Eliot
(1978) and a number of recent revisions. It
has not been thought the place to discuss
nomenclature in any detail, except where ex-
cessive confusion might be engendered, or
where I have deviated from current practice.
Where a name in Wynter-Blyth (1957) differs
in genus or species, the name used by him is
given in brackets below the current one.

Under each species I have endeavoured to
give the status and the distribution in the
Nilgiris, with whatever other information that
might be of special interest. I have also sum-
marised in brief terms the global distribution
of the Nilgiri species. These are not meant to
be definitive, but simply to give an impression
of how the South Indian fauna is related to
its neighbouring regions.

Systematic list of the Nilgiri butterflies
Papilionidae
Papilioninae
troidini

001 . Troides niinos Cramer
( Troides Helena)

The southern birdwing is the largest of the
Nilgiri butterflies, being endemic to southern
India and the Western Ghats. It is replaced
by Troides darsius Gray in Sri Lanka, while
its closest relative in the Himalayas is Troides
aecus Felder & Felder rather than, as often

assumed, Troides helena Linne. Haugum &
Low (1982-1985) discuss these relationships.

The species is not rare and may even be
common on the western slopes during the
monsoon and immediate post-monsoon
months. The main habitat is lowland ever-
green forest, but the species is at home also
in mixed deciduous forest and the subtropical
evergreen. It is a good coloniser of agricultu-
ral lands and is often common in coffee
plantations. Wandering specimens are not in-
frequently met with on the plateau itself
though it cannot breed there. The biggest con-
centration I ever saw was on some land that
had been cleared for coffee a few years ago
at Kokode Estate near Sholarmuttam. Hun-
dreds were feeding from Lantana growing
among the forest trees that had been left as
shade trees. The species is active in the early
morning, coming down from the tree-tops to
feed from Lantana and Mussaenda. By 10.30
they once again ascend and are then very diffi-
cult to catch. Females will often be found
sitting with the wings open with up to three
males assiduously courting them. The adults
do not come to water. In captivity, on cold
mornings, the butterflies will increase their
body temperature by wing-quivering in the
manner of many moths, being able to fly
actively under conditions where other low-
land species are immobilised. The food plants
are Aristolochia indica and in the wet zone
especially Thottea wallichi, a Troides food
plant not mentioned by Haugum & Low
(1982-85). Much concern has been express-
ed over the conservation status of Bird wing
butterflies worldwide, and the European
Economic Community has banned their im-
port and export even for scientific use. The
Southern Birdwing is by no means a threaten-
ed species, and in some cases its numbers
increase through the agricultural activities of
man.

39

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

002. Pachliopta pandiyana Moore

(Tros pandiyana)

The malabar rose is an unusual swallow-
tail which is endemic to the wetter parts of the
Western Ghats system and it is closely related
to the Sri Lankan endemic Pachliopta jophon
Gray. It appears to be strictly limited to the
wettest type of rainforest, where it is some-
what local, but sometimes very numerous
indeed. I have seen hundreds of fresh speci-
mens of both sexes at Lantana on the Nadgani
Ghat. Activity began as early as 06.45 when
the only other butterflies about were skippers,
and it was not unusual to find specimens
flying even in heavy rain. It normally flies
in dense forest but will visit clearings and
roads where flowers grow; at such times the
three South Indian Pachliopta may be seen
side by side though they are normally ecolo-
gically segregated. In the forest the flight of
the species is very slow at the lower level of
the canopy and despite their great difference
of pattern the resemblance to Idea malaharica
is great, though I will not go so far as to
postulate a co-mimicry relationship. A speci-
men escaped from a photo session in Kotagiri
and was immediately snapped up by a Red-
whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus). By
the time the bird had moved out of sight the
wings of the butterfly had been crumpled up,
but the body not yet damaged. I unfortu-
nately did not see whether the butterfly was
actually eaten. It is obviously a protected
species, but the bulbul would not have known
this.

As far as is known the only larval food
plants are Thottea siliquosa\ according to Jason
Weintraub this is characteristic for the group
to which this species belongs.

003. Pachliopta aristolochiae aristolochiae

Fabricius

( T ros aristolochiae )

The common rose is often referred to as

being very common, but this is not normally
the case in my experience, though it is wide-
spread and obvious. Normally numbers are
not all that large, though I did see a huge
migration at Kotagiri in autumn of 1957 in-
cluding millions of this species and of Pach-
liopta hector in roughly equal proportion. It
is at home in most types of habitat with the
exception of dense, wet forest, but it occurs
on the plateau only as a straggler. Contrary
to the two other members of the genus the
Common Rose will visit water, usually early
in the morning well before the Pierids and the
Papilio begin. Large quantities of water are
ingested and immediately excreted through
the anus, so obviously salts or nitrogenous
substances are extracted metabolically. The
flight is slow and deliberate. Flowers are fre-
quently visited and the species often spends
the night in communal roosts with P. hector.
The species is found practically throughout
the Oriental region, being replaced by P.
polydorus Linne in New Guinea. One of the
female forms of Papilio polytes is an excellent
mimic of this butterfly, and in nature it is
often necessary to look twice before being
certain which of the two species is involved.
The female of the Zygaenid moth Histia
nilgira Moore is a fine example of co-mimcry.
I saw it only once, at Glenburn, and it took
some considerable time before I realised that
it was not a small P. aristolochiae. The moth
is certainly aposematic and exuded a foul
smelling yellow substance from the tegulae
when handled. At rest it adopted the normal
Zygaenid posture and all resemblance to a
swallowtail was lost.

004. Pachliopta hector Linne
( Tros hector )

The large and beautiful crimson rose is
endemic to Sri Lanka and South India, being
found mainly south of the Godavery river and
in West Bengal. There are records also from

40

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRl MOUNTAINS

eastern Burma and the Andaman Islands. It
is sometimes very common indeed, may
migrate by the million, and congregates in
small forests and fruit tree groves in commu-
nal roosts during winter. One such roost at
Mahabalipuram in December 1985 must have
contained many tens of thousands and possi-
bly more than 100,000. I have never seen as
many large butterflies in one place [though of
course the wintering sites of the American
Monarch Danaus plexippus (Linne) would
vastly surpass it in numbers]. P. hector is
very fond of flowers, but never comes to
water. The main habitat is open dry decidu-
ous forest and ill-kept agricultural land at low
altitudes, though migrants and vagrants will
be found to the highest peaks. I once saw the
species literally fall out of the sky at Kallar.
On closer investigation it turned out that a
supernumerary male had attached itself to a
copulating couple, clinging so tenaciously to it
that the threesome could be lifted off the
ground by holding a wing of any of the speci-
mens. The species would repay systematic
investigation into diapause and migration.

PAPILIONINI

005. Chilasa dytia clytia Linne
The common mime, in both sexes, occurs
in two forms. The typical form, clytia, is an
excellent mimic of species of Euploea, while
form dissirnilis is an equally good mimic of
the two Tirumala and of Parantica aglea. The
slow and deliberate flight of the Danaid
models is beautifully copied, but try to miss
a specimen with the net — off it goes at a
speed which would give even a Charaxid a
good run for its money. In nature the mimicry,
as it often the case, is much more convinc-
ing than in cabinet specimens, and I have
rarely been quite certain whether I actually
had a Mime in front of me before taking it
out of the net. Working on Sri Lankan mate-
rial Clarke & Karunaratne (1967) found that

/. clytia was the ancestral form, and as in
Sri Lanka my own Nilgiri observations indi-
cate that there are two specimens of dissi-
milis to every specimen of the ancestral form.
As in Papilio polytes the relative proportion
of the two forms may vary from place to
place. Near Karkala in South Kanara Gordon
Thompson and I found /. clytia to be more
common than dissirnilis. In the Nilgiris the
butterfly is quite rare and at best two or three
are seen on any one day. Their main habitat
seems to be the mixed dry-deciduous forests
at low levels and the lowland evergreen forest.
It penetrates the lower level of the subtropical
evergreen zone and at Kallar may be found
in the Arecanut plantations, probably because
the larval food plant Cinnamonum is grown
there. The adult butterfly will come to bolh
flowers and to water where its habit of hover-
ing above the flower or puddle will tell it
apart from the models. The larva is very con-
spicuous (see frontispiece in Woodhouse)
while the twig-like pupa is one of the natural
masterpieces of camouflage. The species is
found throughout the Oriental region, each
subspecies carefully tuned to mimetic resem-
blance of the local Danaids. It would doubt-
less be a fascinating laboratory insect for
further genetic research.

006. Papilio demoleus Linne

The lime butterfly is common and may
be found anywhere in the Nilgiris, though it
does not spontaneously enter the densest and
the wettest of the lowland evergreen forests.

However, numbers fluctuate considerably in
time and space in a somewhat unpredictable
way. It is a pest on cultivated citrus, but it
also feeds readily on any type of wild ruta-
ceous plant. I have not found it on cultivated
fennel and it is perhaps surprising that none
of the South Indian swallowtails has managed
to transfer to this plant. In the immediate
pre-monsoon period P. demoleus is an avid

41

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

participant in mudpuddling assemblies, as
many as one hundred being found in tight
groups, shoulder to shoulder. The distribution
of this Oriental species is somewhat puzzling.
The core area includes India to Malaya and
southern China, with a secondary area in the
Australian region. During the past seven
hundred years it has colonised Arabia (Lar-
sen 1983) where it feeds exclusively on culti-
vated Citrus and where it is almost in contact
with the African vicariant P. demodocus Esper.
It invaded southern Iraq from Iran only since
1957 (Larsen 1977a). In recent years it has
established populations also in Sumatra and
on the Philippines, almost certainly in res-
ponse to human interference with the natural
environment. It is greatly to be hoped that
the recent invasions will be well chronicled.

007. Papilio liomedon Moore

The MALABAR BANDED SWALLOWTAIL is a close
relative of the Oriental Papilio demolion
Cramer, but is definitely specifically distinct
and endemic to the Western Ghats, chiefly in
the wettest parts of the lowland evergreen
forest zone. It is a rather scarce butterfly
which is also somewhat localised. The few
Nilgiri records are all from the Nadgani Ghat,
and here, too, I saw my own only Nilgiri
specimen on flowers (19.0) just on the TN/
Kerala border. In behaviour it is much like
the other swallowtails, though according to
Gordon Thompson it does not come to water.
It is certainly much more common in Kanara
than in the Nilgiris, and in late September
to early October good series may be collected
on the globular red flower heads of Clero-
dendron paniculatum in suitable localities.

008. Papilio dravidaram Wood-Mason

The malabar raven is another endemic of
the Western Ghats system, its closest relative
being a species from Assam and Thailand.
It is rather more common than P. liomedon,

but is not frequently met with. The habitat is
chiefly the wettest of the lowland evergreen
forests and in the Nilgiris the main locality
is Nadgani Ghat, though Gordon Thompson
has occasionally taken it at Kallar. The colour
pattern is reminiscent of the Euploea but the
flight is very rapid and whether a genuine
mimetic relationship is involved is perhaps
doubtful. The butterfly has the disconcerting
habit of suddenly emerging at furious speed
from dense jungle through a road or clearing,
only to vanish immediately again. It may be
hard to distinguish from P. polytes on the
wing. Wynter-Blyth (1957) states that it never
seems to visit flowers, but that is not the case.
I have caught several of my few specimens
on Lantana. The species is regularly found at
mud patches during the drier months and on
hot days.

009. Papilio helenus daksha Moore

The red Helen is the third largest butterfly
of the Nilgiris and is common in the subtro-
pical evergreen forests, relatively common on
the plateau, and less common at lower ele-
vations. It is a good coloniser and exists well
outside of natural forest, and it is one of the
few large butterflies to be found in tea planta-
tions. It is, however, unable to survive in the
drier thorn forests. It is very fond of Lantana
blossoms and will sometimes assemble on
mud patches, usually in the company of other
swallowtails, but not usually with the large
agglomerations of Pieridae. The weaving,
random flight looks most haphazard, but in
fact the butterfly makes rapid progress and is
very difficult to catch. It seems to feed on
virtually all available rutaceous plants and is
easily bred. The global distribution covers
almost the entire Oriental region as well as
the southern fringes of the Palaearctic in China
and Japan. Colour pattern apart, the simi-
larity between this species and P. paris tami-
lana is strong, and it is interesting that the

42

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIR1 MOUNTAINS

South Indian subspecies of both should be
the largest of them all.

010. Papilio polytes polytes Linne
The common mormon is indeed a common
butterfly at lower and middle heights, but it
does not ordinarily breed on the plateau,
though from time to time it is seen even on
the highest peaks. Like others of its kind it
does not really penetrate virgin evergreen
forest, though it colonises whenever it is dis-
turbed by human activity. It comes to flowers
readily and sometimes large numbers of males
are seen mudpuddling. Such assemblages are
usually independent of the Pierid agglomera-
tions, occupying somewhat shady spots, often
in the company of P. crino and other swallow-
tails. The largest assembly that I have per-
sonally witnessed consisted of 34 P. polytes,
5 P. crino, 1 P. demoleus, and 2 Graphium
doson. Two of the three female forms are ex-
cellent mimics of two of the red-bodied
swallowtails, the Common and the Crimson
Rose respectively, while the third female form
is almost like the male. The flight pattern of
the mimetic forms is also a wonderful copy
of the slow and deliberate flight of the models.
During my frequent visits to Kallar I noted
all females seen in nature, though in many
cases it was necessary to check the body
colour to be quite certain whether model or
mimic was involved. At Kallar the two mimetic
forms predominated, the male-like form be-
ing rare and constituting less than 5 percent
of the total female population. The two
mimetic forms were equally common. The
precise data are as follows : hector- mimic

50.4%, aristolochiae mimic 45.7%, and male-
like 3.9%. This is in marked contrast to the
Delhi population of the same species, where
some 60% were mimics of aristolochiae and
about 40% male-like. P. hector does not occur
in Delhi and the mimetic form is very rare,
certainly less than one in a thousand (Larsen

1987). Such differences constitute powerful
support for the concept of balanced poly-
morphism as discussed by Ford (1975). Frjer
(1913) bred the species extensively in Ceylon
to work out the genetics and found that the
male-like form constituted nearly 50% of
the total. These results were puzzling to me
till I realised that he was breeding the species
at an altitude where the models are scarce
indeed, just as in Delhi. The Common Mor-
mon is, by any standards, among the world’s
most interesting butterflies and an excellent
insect for both field and genetic studies. An
indispensable starting point for any research
is the paper by Clarke & Sheppard (1972) on
the genetics of the species.

Oil. Papilio polymnestor Cramer

The blue mormon is the second largest of
the South Indian butterflies, and it is a plea-
sure that such a large and handsome butterfly
should be common practically everywhere.
Only in the driest lowland habitats is it gene-
rally absent, though stray specimens will turn
up even there. I have seen the occasional
specimen at Masinagudi. It is endemic to Sri
Lanka and peninsular India, but is closely
related to the widely distributed Oriental P.
memnon Linne. The latter species has a host
of mimetic female forms, some being quite
similar to Pachliopta pandiyana, and it is per-
haps surprising that the female of the Blue
Mormon is similar to the male. Occasional
females have bright red spots at the base of
the forewing upperside, a feature which enters
the mimetic pattern of some memnon forms.
This red spot is very much more frequent in
Sri Lanka than in the Nilgiris. Possibly the
very narrow range and habitat choice of P.
pandiyana makes it an unsuitable model. The
Blue Mormon is found in all types of habitat,
flying with a rapid weaving flight, covering
long distances. It visits flowers avidly and
comes freely to water. Unlike many swallow-

43

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

tails it comes to foul substances, otter drop-
pings being a great favourite. I once found
three males deep inside a cave where a group
of otters had been dismembering crabs. The
eggs are laid on all the natural rutaceous
plants as well as on cultivated citrus.

012, Papilio paris tamilana Moore

The large and brightly coloured South
Indian subspecies of the paris peacock is the
largest of all, and it qualifies among the finest
butterflies anywhere in the world. It is found in
all types of evergreen forest from near sea
level till at least 2400 m, but I suspect its
main habitat is the subtropical evergreen
forest. It is found locally also in the moist-
deciduous forests of the Wynaad and Mudu-
malai. Wandering specimens may be en-
countered in open country, even in the centre
of Ooty, but this really is exceptional.
Normally it does not stray from dense forest.
The species is not really rare, though never
numerous, but it may be very difficult to
catch. Early in the morning it may be caught
at flowers, and on hot days it visits damp
patches, sometimes settling with the wings
held flat against the substrate, which is some-
what unusual in the family. Unusual, too, is
the fact that females are often found in this
way. At Sholayar in the Annamalai Moun-
tains I found the species hilltopping along a
ridge in primary forest and saw two copulat-
ing pairs. I can subscribe to the view of old
observers that P. paris has fixed patrol routes
in its jungle habitats .... if you miss a speci-
men it is likely to reappear an hour or so
later from the same direction. They are fond
of flowers, and when half a dozen or so are
feeding on the same Lantana patch, the sight
is a highlight of all that is enjoyable in natural
history. The species is found in South India
(but not Sri Lanka), in Orissa, and then from
Kumaon east to most of the Oriental region.
It is curiously absent from Malaysia.

013. Papilio crino Fabricius

The common banded peacock is endemic
to peninsular India and Sri Lanka. I have
seen no phylogenetic reconstruction of the
group, but it would appear that the species is
fairly isolated. In South India it is more or
less restricted to lowland mixed deciduous
forest, with only the slightest of colonising
ability. I have, however, in December 1983
seen it in the centre of Mysore, from where
it was not recorded in lists from early this
century (Watson 1890). The closest South
Indian relative of P. crino is P. buddha which
is essentially limited to the wettest parts of
the evergreen zone with the result that the
two species are hardly ever sympatric. P.
crino is somewhat migratory so it may on
occasion be found far from its natural habitats.
The species is not very common in the
Nilgiris. except at Kallar, where it may abound
about the time of the onset of the monsoon.
A few years ago several thousands were
caught during one season on behalf of Japa-
nese commercial collectors, but the popula-
tion does not seem to have suffered. The
species is very fond of mudpuddling and I
have seen more than a dozen assembled,
though none was a female. Both sexes come
to Lantana, though visits to flowers are infre-
quent at the time when mudpuddling is at its
maximum. The courtship display, with the
male hovering below the female, is very simi-
lar to that of P. polytes. The larval food plant
is known to be Chloroxylon, the Satinwood
tree, but it seems that no-one has found the
larva recently, and I was wholly unsuccessful
in this respect.

014. Papilio buddha Westwood

The buddha peacock is arguably the finest
butterfly in South India. The general pattern
is not unlike that of P. crino and on photo-
graphs they may look alike. In real life the
Buddha is so much brighter and more

44

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILG1RI MOUNTAINS

beautiful than the other gloss swallowtails, and
it is a sight of rare beauty. The species is
limited to wet lowland evergreen forest but
is not usually found where rainfall is much
less than 4000 mm a year, and it seems unable
to survive in severely disturbed forest. On the
Kanara Ghats, however, where paddy fields
are interspersed with primary forest, the
Buddha Peacock emerges from the forest to
feed on Lantana and on Clerodendron pani-
culatum. The latter plant is also a great
favourite of the Purplebacked Sunbird, which
attacks the Buddha in the belief that the
butterfly is a supernormal rival, since the
green colour of Buddha matches the green
crown and the wing shoulders of the bird
(Larsen 1987c). Normally the butterfly flies
in dense forest at canopy level with a furious
flight and is almost impossible to net except
when visiting flowers. There are no records
from damp patches, though P. crino is an avid
mudpuddler. In the Nilgiris it is limited to ihe
western slopes and though not uncommon is
difficult to collect. It is more common in
Kanara. The chief season is just after the end
of the SW monsoon in late September and
early October, but individuals may be met
with at any time. Bell et ad. have data on
diapause in Kanara. It should be mentioned
that Gordon Thompson once caught a male
at Glenburn, an illustration of the potential
dispersal power of such a strong butterfly, I
have given a more detailed account on the
ecology and habits of this species elsewhere
(Larsen 1987).

LE PTOCIRCI N I

015. Graphmm sarpedon teredos! Felder &

Felder

(Zetides sarpedon)

The common bluebottle is a genuinely
common butterfly in the Nilgiris from the
lowest levels to the highest peaks, and it is

the one species able to colonise agricultural
lands. However, it will not survive perma-
nently in the driest tracts. It is an avid visitor
to both flowers and damp patches, but at
lower levels it is often outnumbered by G.
doson. By disposition it is a very nervous
insect and is not easy to catch. More than
most swallowtails it is attracted to natural
baits such as rotting grasshoppers and cicadas.
I have found the larva on Cinnamonum, but
it feeds on numerous other plants as well.
The world-wide distribution covers practi-
cally all of the Oriental region.

016. GrapMum doson eSeius Fruhstorfer

( Zetides doson )

The common jay is essentially a butterfly
of the evergreen forest zone at both tropical
and subtropical levels, but it is occasionally
found away from forest proper. At low levels
in evergreen forest it is sometimes more nume-
rous than is G. sarpedon. Large numbers may
be seen mudpuddling just before the onset of
the SW monsoon, and when the monsoon
changes in Sep. /Oct. My childhood records
indicate that we did occasionally see it as
high as 2000 m, but this is exceptional. The
world-wide distribution covers Sri Lanka and
southern India, suitable spots of the Eastern
Ghats., and then most of the Oriental region.

017. Graphium agamemnon sneakies Felder &

Felder

( Zetides agamemnon)

The tailed jay with its apple green mark-
ings is among the more attractive Nilgiri but-
terflies, but on the whole it is less common
than the previous two members of the genus.
Its relative scarcity is a bit surprising since
it is common in cities such as Mysore, Banga-
lore and Madras. It is absent from the very
driest tracts and not normally resident on the
plateau, though it may breed there during
summer. While it is an avid visitor to flowers

45

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

it is much less of a compulsive mudpuddler
than the two preceding species. The global
distribution covers the entire Oriental region.

018. Pathysa nomius nomius Esper

The spot swordtail may be very common
during the dry season at the foot of
the Kotagiri Ghat and at Kallar, but
it is rare elsewhere and at any other time.
It seems to be a species of dry mixed deci-
duous forest, sharing this habitat with Papilio
crino. Just as the latter species has hardly
any overlap with Papilio buddha, so F.
nomius hardly overlaps with the rainforest
species F. anti pat hes. Hampson caught only a
few specimens on the northern slopes, and on
the Nadgani Ghat I have only caught one,
though F. antipathes may be common indeed.
Normally the species flies high and fast, but
in spring (March to early June) it is an avid
visitor to damp patches. It is a migrant and
specimens are seen on the plateau from time
to time, but it does not breed there. The global
distribution covers virtually the entire Orien-
tal region. I agree with Eliot (1978) that it is
legitimate to maintain the generic name Pathysa
for the Swordtails, rather than to subsume
them under Graphium.

019. Pathysa antipathes akibiades Fabricius

The five bar swordtail is a dramatic in-
sect that is limited to the wettest rainforests
of southern India and Sri Lanka. Generally it
is considered to be scarce, but in the right
spots it may actually be very common indeed.
The flight is fast and furious, and when on
the wing the butterfly looks more like a fast
Pierid than like a swallowtail. During Febru-
ary/March, the main season, it is an invete-
rate mudpuddler. When disturbed on a mud
patch specimens will often perch on vegeta-
tion close by. It is reputed to visit flowers but
I have never personally witnessed this. The
species is found in Sri Lanka, S. India, then

again from Nepal east to most of the Oriental
region. The South Indian subspecies has
usually been referred to as ssp. naira Moore.
However, Fabricius described ssp. alcibiades
after specimens from ‘Tranquebar’, then a
Danish colony and examination of the Fabri-
cian types in Copenhagen by Harish Gaonkar
clearly show them to be of South Indian origin
(though Tranquebar cannot be the correct
locality).

PlERIDAE

PlERINAE

020. Delias eucharis Drury

The common jezebel is one of the most
striking Indian butterflies and it is generally
not rare, occasionally being locally abundant.
It may be found practically everywhere in the
Nilgiris, and it seems that the absence of
frost and the presence of the larval food plant,
Loranthus are the only ecological require-
ments. The adult butterfly is very fond of
Lantana flowers, but unlike the montane mem-
bers of the genus in Papua New Guinea it is
not attracted to water. The species is endemic
to India and Sri Lanka and unlike other mem-
bers of the genus which are forest dwellers, D.
eucharis is common even in major towns and
cities. This trait is shared with D. hyparete
Linne which replaces it from Burma eastwards.
When handled the species feigns death and
it is almost certainly aposematic. In Prioneris
sita it has a beautiful mimic.

021. Leptosia nina nina Fabricius

The psyche is the only Oriental represen-
tative of an African genus with half a score
or so of very similar species. Eliot (1978)
suggests that the Oriental species might be
conspecific with the African L. alcesta but this
seems unlikely in view of significant differ-
ences in haploid chromosome numbers (n=19
in nina and n=12 in alcesta). The species is
very common all year at Kallar but otherwise

46

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRl MOUNTAINS

it appears to be remarkably scarce in the
Nilgiris, though I have found it as high as
1900 m near Kotagiri in the 1950ies. It seems
to avoid the wettest of the evergreen forests
and I have not come across it at Nadgani.
The flight is weak and fluttering, probably
the most feeble of any South Indian butterfly.
Flowers are visited, with Tridax as a firm
favourite, while water is only occasionally
attractive. I have once seen an African
member of the genus actually alight on a
pool of water. The species is distributed
throughout the Oriental region.

022. Prioneris sita Felder & Felder

The painted sawtooth is not rare on the
western slopes of the Nilgiris and on occa-
sion it may be very common on the Nadgani
Ghat during the dry season when large num-
bers are to be found on damp patches in the
company of Graphium doson and Pathysa
antipathes. It is distinctly uncommon during
the rainy season and is only very rarely found
outside of the wettest evergreen forest zone.
I have taken a male (23. v) and a female
(4.vi) at Kallar, but this is most exceptional.
Both sexes are excellent mimics of Delias
eucharis , a butterfly with a much wider range.
The male, it is true, sometimes flies much
faster than the model, in the manner of
Hebomoia glaucippe, but at other times, such
as when circling round a damp patch, the
flight is quite like that of the Jezebel model.
The species is endemic to Sri Lanka and the
Western Ghats system.

023. Artogeia canidia canis Evans
( Pieris canidia )

The Indian cabbage white is a Palaearctic
butterfly that is very common on the plateau
above 1800 m, flying in a series of broods
throughout the year. The original habitat
must have been the edges of sholas, but it is
now especially common in agricultural areas

where it is a moderately serious pest of cab-
bages. In northern India the species is migra-
tory and visits the plains in winter (Larsen
1986a), but I have seen no evidence of migra-
tion in the Nilgiris. The Bangalore record that
so puzzled Wynter-Blyth (1957) probably
came as a pupa with agricultural produce.
The butterfly spends most of its time flying
around in search of flowers and will occa-
sionally visit damp patches on hot, dry days.
It is found on the higher South Indian
mountains but is absent from Sri Lanka. In
all probability the total area above 1900 m
on that island was too small to support a
viable population. Outside of South India it
is found from the Himalaya east to Japan,
just penetrating the tropics in suitable loca-
lities.

024. Cepora nerissa phryne Fabricius
( Huphina nerissa)

The common gull is chiefly a butterfly of
the drier lowland habitats, though it may be
found in clearings at middle heights. Mixed
deciduous forest, ill-kept agricultural land, and
thorn forest are the main haunts of this gene-
rally common butterfly. Due to strong migra-
tory tendencies it is also met with on the
plateau from time to time but I cannot agree
with Wynter-Blyth (1946, 1957) that it is
resident much above 1400 m. In spring large
numbers may be seen mudpuddling with other
Pierids. In behaviour it is more or less a tropi-
cal replacement for the Small Cabbage White
( Artogeia rapae) and it is much less of a
quarrelsome species than the two lxias. The
distribution covers practically the entire Orien-
tal region.

025. Cepora nadina remba Moore
{Huphina nadina)

The lesser gull is limited to the wetter
parts of lowland evergreen forest and is never
seen in open country. Hampson noted that

47

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

it was sometimes common, but generally it is
uncommon. Usually only single specimens are
met with. It spends most of its time flying in
the forest where it is almost impossible to
collect, but one or two can usually be found
on a good mudpuddling patch and occasion-
ally on flowers. Its behaviour and general
aspect in nature contrast so strongly with
those of C. nerissa that it is difficult to accept
them as congeneric. Apart from in Sri Lanka
and South India the species is found from
Nepal east to Taiwan and Sumatra.

026. Anaphaeis aurota Fabricius

The caper white is linked to the drier
tropical habitats, but owing to a great migra-
tory potential it may occasionally be found
in numbers practically anywhere. Vast swarms
are sometimes encountered and, like many
migrants, numbers fluctuate considerably in a
most unpredictable way. In the Nilgiris it is
most consistently common in the thorn forests
around Masinagudi. Under good conditions
this butterfly breeds faster and more profuse-
ly than practically any other and it may com-
pletely strip all available food plants for miles
around. The species is Palaeotropical, being
found on the Indian subcontinent, Arabia and
all over Africa. It occasionally invades the
Mediterranean area (Larsen 1986b).

027. Appias indra shiva Swinhoe

The plain puffin is a rather scarce butterfly
that seems to be centred on the subtropical
evergreen forest zone, though it may be found
both below and above this level. There are
few Nilgiri records. I took one at Tamizagham
in Ooty (ii . 1984) and it seems to have a
headquarters of sorts on the Coonoor Ghat
between Wenlock Bridge and Benhope where
Wynter-Blyth caught most of his material and
where J have seen it on several occasions. I
have seen it once only at Kallar (31. viii) and
Gordon Thompson has a few taken at water

on the Nadgani Ghat where I never saw it.
No clear pattern emerges. It comes freely to
flowers. In Sri Lanka the species is considered
even more of a rarity than is the case in
South India. Otherwise it ranges from Nepal
east to most of the Oriental region where it
is often common.

028. Appias libythea libythea Fabricius

The name striped albatross is something
of a misnomer for the South Indian popula-
tion where the males are practically imma-
culate except for some dark apical shading.
The underside of the hindwing is chalky
white lacking the cream overlay of the other-
wise similar A. albina. A certain distinction
between these two species lies in the cell of
the forewings. A. libythea has the end cell vein
forming a 90° angle to the costal edge, while
in other Appias the angle is only 30°. Hamp-
son considered it to be a rare species while
Wynter-Blyth failed to find it. I have taken
it on the Kotagiri Ghat, at Glenburn, Kallar,
Ronningtown and even on Nadgani Ghat. It
appears to be most unpredictable, possibly
because it is migratory, but its headquarters
are probably the mixed deciduous forests,
though it might be without a permanent head-
quarters. It is certainly most erratic in the
Delhi area (Larsen 1987b). The range covers
Sri Lanka and India, east to the Philippines
and Malaysia. Numbers have increased signi-
ficantly in Malaysia this century (Eliot 1978)
probably because the butterfly does well in
secondary vegetation in the wetter tropics.

029. Appias lyncida Inti fascia Moore

The chocolate albatross is easily recog-
nised by the deep yellow colour of the hind-
wing underside and the broad chocolate
borders. These are not obscured by the con-
siderable level of individual and seasonal
variation. I find it a most enigmatic butterfly
in the Nilgiris, difficult to interpret in ecolo-

48

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILG1RI MOUNTAINS

gical and distributional terms. Hampson re-
cords it simply in the words ‘1000 to 3000 ft’.
Wynter-Blyth took only three at Kallar, com-
menting that it was reputed to be common
on the Kotagiri Ghat, where I never saw it.
On 1 . v and 2 . v I saw single males flying
towards the SW in Kotagiri town in the
manner of normal migrants. I have seen
small numbers on about half of my visits to
Nadgani Ghat, where it sometimes came to
water. Four were collected in mixed decidu-
ous forest at Ronningtown. This is a pattern’
singularly lacking in consistency. The world-
wide distribution covers Sri Lanka, the
Western Ghats, and then from Nepal east to
most of the Oriental region. An apparently
isolated population exists in Orissa.

030. Appias albina darada Felder & Felder
The common albatross is indeed the most
common of the Nilgiri Appias, but like other
members of the genus it is somewhat unpre-
dictable. I would not, however, concur with
Wynter-Blyth’s statement that it is ‘most
abundant everywhere’. I have taken specimens
in most of the localities visited from time to
time, though this species will not be found
in the drier lowland forests where A. libythea
may be met with. The headquarters appears
to be in the drier parts of the lowland ever-
green forest where it merges with the mixed
deciduous. It may be caught at flowers but
more usually at damp patches. In the large
migration that took place in late May and
early June of 1986 (Larsen 1987b) this
species contributed less than 0 . 5% of the
total (some 20.000 individuals). In the migra-
tions of my childhood (Larsen 1978a) there
were millions. It ranges from Sri Lanka and
the Western Ghats, through suitable places in
peninsular India to Sikkim, and from there
east to practically the entire Oriental region,
New Guinea and NE Australia.

031. Appias wardii Moore

The lesser albatross is inappropriately
named since males are usually larger and
more dramatically marked with black than
those of the other species of the genus. The
taxonomy of this and related species is diffi-
cult. There is something to be said for uniting
the large number of often disjunct and distinc-
tive taxa under the ‘ paulina umbrella, but the
South Indian form is so different from the
Sri Lankan that specific status seems the best
solution till a full revision of the species-
group has taken place. In the wet season form
the South Indian taxon is easily identified
since it has the black markings normally
characteristic of female A. albina . The dry
season forms are very similar to male A.
albina, though vestiges of the black apical
markings sometimes remain. Hampson con-
fused the genus so thoroughly that whether
he obtained this species or not is uncertain.
Wynter-Blyth did not mention it in his main
Nilgiri paper. I have caught it on several
occasions at Glenburn, once near Naduvattam,
and on a few occasions at Nadgani. It is
decidedly uncommon. The range is similar to
that of A. albina, but the species is much
less common, confined to dense evergreen
forest, and populations are often disjunct.

032. Colotis amafa amata Fabricius
( Colotis Calais)

The South Indian subspecies of the small
salmon arab has traditionally been known as
ssp. modesta Butler, but the Fabrician type is
from South India and has been checked by
Harish Gaonkar. At best the name modesta
is applicable to the Sri Lankan population,
but that hardly merits a name of its own. From
North India and west through Arabia and the
African Sahel it flies in the very different ssp.
Calais Cramer. The Small Salmon Arab is
chiefly found in the thorn forest formations
and surrounding agricultural land, though I

49

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

have seen specimens also in the mixed deci-
duous forest of the Kotagiri Ghat. The South
and Central Indian subspecies is very different
from the North Indian and African one, and
its main food plant seems to be Azima rather
than the more normal Salvador a. There might
be a case for considering the two taxa speci-
fically distinct, and certainly the presence of
the two subspecies in India would appear to
be due to a multiple invasion from Africa. In
the Nilgiris area the species is quite localised
but usually common where found, often in
the company of the other Colotis species. The
distribution covers all of tropical Africa, much
of Arabia, the drier parts of the Indian sub-
continent. and NE Sri Lanka.

033. Colotis etrida Boisduval

The small orange tip is a common butter-
fly in the drier lowland habitats, but it pushes
further up the mountain and further into the
wetter zones than do the other members of
genus. There is a considerable degree of
individual and seasonal variation, and the
species is often wholly absent during the
wettest months of the year. Occasional speci-
mens are met with on the plateau indicating
some capacity for dispersal. The butterfly
comes avidly to flowers, especially Tridax, but
neither this nor other members of the genus
come to water, despite being found in very
dry habitats. The genus is African, but the
species is endemic to Sri Lanka and the
Indian peninsula.

034. Colotis eucharis eucharis Fabricius

The plain orange tip is a fairly local
butterfly, but it is usually not rare where its
food plant, Cadaba indica grows. This is nor-
mally on rocky ground in the thorn forest of
the foothills, or along the hedges growing at
the edge of fields. It is almost invariably
found in the company of Colotis danae with
which it shares the larval food plant. Usually

most of their time is spent flying about stands
of Cadaba in search of partners, but they will
feed from flowers. On exceptionally hot days
the warmest hours are spent in the shade of
dense trees, usually right down amongst the
roots. The species is an intruder from the
Afrotropical region, where it is found through-
out the tropical zone. In India it is limited
to the Deccan and southern India, being
found in NE Sri Lanka as well, but not in
Sind and Saurashtra where the Afrotropical
species usually occur. This is a classical
Sudano-Deccanian distribution pattern.

035. Colotis danae danae Fabricius

In South India crimson tip butterfly is quite
parallel in distribution and habits to Colotis
eucharis but it is rather more common. If only
one of the species is present it is almost invaria-
bly C. danae. The nominate subspecies is found
on Sri Lanka and in peninsular India as far
north as Madhya Pradesh. A different sub-
species inhabits the area from Saurashtra to
Baluchistan. Usually known as ssp. dulcis
Butler, I find it impossible to separate it from
the Arabian ssp. eupompe Klug. Different
subspecies are found throughout dry, tropical
Africa.

036. Madais fausta fulvia Wallengren

( Colotis fausta)

The salmon arab is a pretty and vivacious
butterfly of the drier foothills where it may be,
on occasion, quite common. It penetrates
higher up the mountains and deeper into the
evergreen forests than most of the related
Colotis species. The flight is rapid and danc-
ing and it is often difficult to capture a good
series of specimens. As elsewhere in India, the
larval food plants are Maerua, though the
nominate subspecies from the Middle East
feeds on Capparis as well. The species visits
flowers freely, not least Tridax, but never
comes to damp patches. The subspecies from

50

BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LGIRI MOUNTAINS

peninsular India differs from the others
through invariably having white females. In
northern India ssp. fulvia has dimorphic
females, while in the nominate subspecies all
females are salmon. The Indian populations
appear to be highly sedentary though the
nominate subspecies in Arabia and the Middle
East is strongly migratory. The genus is
monobasic, very close to Colotis, and the single
species is found in Arabia, the Middle East
and the Indian subcontinent, just penetrating
the East African coastal regions north of
Kenya.

037. Ixias marianne Cramer

The two Indian Ixias are almost identical
in distribution and habits, though in most of
India the white orange tip, /. marianne, is
slightly less common than /. pyrene. They are
both common in the mixed deciduous forest,
in thorn forest and in ill-kept agricultural land
at low levels. There is little penetration into
the subtropical zone, nor into the lowland
evergreen forests. In May and June both are
among the most prominent species in the mud-
puddling assemblages, and both were promi-
nent in the large migration that I observed in
late May and early June (Larsen 1987b).
Normally the butterflies are seen flying about
the open scrubland in search of flowers, mates
or food plants. /. marianne is endemic to
India and Sri Lanka.

038. Ixias pyrene sesia Fabricius

The use of subspecific names for the yellow
orange tip in India has been the subject of
some confusion. I follow Gabriel (1943) in
using the name sesia. There is, in any case,
so much seasonal and individual variation
that the designation of subspecies is difficult.
The habits are like those of the preceding
species and were the ground colour of the two
not different they would be impossible to
distinguish in the field. The range stretches

from Sri Lanka, throughout India east to
Hong Kong and Malaysia.

039. Hebomoia glaucippe australis Butler.

The giant orange tip is one of my favou-
rite butterflies. It is the largest of the Indian
Pierids, and it is a beautiful sight to see it
swooping down the mountains along densely
clad water courses with the wings held
three-fourths open. It is generally common
enough in mixed deciduous and open ever-
green forest at low levels, sometimes being
found also in subtropical evergreen forest. It
is not a good coloniser of agricultural land
and is rarely found in disturbed areas. It
comes to flowers but is then very wary. Often
it hovers on the flower in the manner of the
Papilionidae, the only Pierid to do so. The
species is an avid mudpuddler actively follow-
ing river systems on the look-out for good
spots which may well be situated some dis-
tance from the forest edge. In the afternoon
they may be seen moving up-river again.
When mudpuddling, together with myriads of
other Pierids and some Papilionids, the
camouflage pattern of the underside may be
seen at its best. Never mind how carefully
you study the assemblage, one or two H.
glaucippe will be overlooked. The larva is a
startlingly effective snake mimic. When handl-
ed it rears up its head, revealing a couple of
blue eye-spots that are concealed when the
larva is at rest. Most likely this is a defence
against the Bonnet Macaque Monkey whose
instinctive fear of snakes is almost comical
in its manifestations (try throwing a little bit
of rope out of a car and watch the results).
The species is distributed in suitable country
throughout the Oriental region.

040. Pareronia Valeria hippia Fabricius
( Parenonia ( sic! ) Valeria)

The common wanderer appears to be very
rare in the Nilgiris. Hampson mentions it with

51

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

no detail, Wynter-Blyth and I failed to find
it, though there is a genuine specimen from
Kallar in the Bombay Natural History So-
ciety collections. This scarcity is difficult to
understand as it is common enough in forest-
ed country around Bangalore and as the forests
on the northern slopes seem very suitable for
the species. It is worth mentioning that the
South Indian population throws up the occa-
sional female of the form mimicking Parantica
aspasia Fabricius, a Danaid that does not occur
in peninsular India. The species is not found
in Sri Lanka, but stretches from India deep
into the Oriental region.

041 . Pareronia ceylonica Felder & Felder

( Parenonia (sic!) ceylonica)

The dark wanderer is endemic to Sri
Lanka and southern India where it is more
of a wet zone butterfly than is the preceding
species. The South Indian population is listed
as ssp. pingasa Moore by d’Abrera, but I
agree with Talbot that it is not worthwhile
separating it from the nominate Sri Lankan.
It will be found in the mixed deciduous forests
as well as in tropical evergreen at Nadgani.
It is normally somewhat scarce but may be
quite common at Kallar. The flight is fast and
restless through dense vegetation and even
when coming to flowers it is wary, so pro-
curing a good series is not always easy. I have
never seen it at water, though I have seen a
picture of one of the Pareronia in a mudpud-
dling assemblage. On the wing the female is
a most effective mimic of Parantica aglea,
very much more so than one would suspect
from cabinet specimens.

COLIADINAE

042. Catopsilia pomona Fabricius

(C. pomona & crocale)

The lemon emigrant is a large and power-
ful butterfly that is strongly migratory. Almost
a million participated in the relatively modest

migration that I documented in May /June of
1986 (Larsen 1987b), and many millions were
involved in a month or more of intermittent,
generally southwards migration during Sept-
ember and October. Its main base is the drier
lowland formations, but it can be found
breeding practically anywhere except on the
highest plateau. It is an avid mudpuddler and
has a great liking for flowers. There are two
chief forms: f. crocale has black antennae and
has immaculate undersides; f. pomona has
reddish antennae and the underside has dark
irroration as well as spots at the end of the
cell. Intermediates are found but they are not
very common. There is no doubt that they
represent forms of one species, but the rela-
tive frequency of the two forms varies and
their respective functions are quite unknown.
The large numbers that settled on damp
patches at Kallar in May 1986 were 95%
crocale, while during the wet season the two
forms were roughly equal in number. Both
forms participate in the migrations so we are
not faced with the type of phases so well
known from migratory locusts. A thorough
study of the dimorphism in this species
would be most interesting. The range covers
the entire Oriental region. New Guinea, parts
of Australia to well out in the Pacific. A
Malagasy species ( Catopsilia thaurama Rea-
kirt) is sometimes, in my view not correctly,
linked to C. pomona.

043. Catopsilia pyranthe Linne
(C. pyranthe & C. florella)

The mottled emigrant is a common butter-
fly with both sexes showing a high degree of
variation. The florella form with very narrow
forewing borders and with well-developed,
red-ringed silver spots at the end cell of the
underside has traditionally been accorded
specific status, especially since it is relatively
constant in Africa, while the pyranthe form
is fairly constant in eastern Asia. However,

52

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILG1RI MOUNTAINS

in India’s drier tracts both forms and inter-
mediates occur with little consistency, except
that the florella form is most frequent during
the dry season. The species is common in the
Nilgiris, sometimes very much so, usually in
the py rant he morph. The species is strongly
migratory and the progeny of migrants some-
times breed even on the plateau, though it is
mainly a species of the lowland drier tracts.
It is fond of both flowers and damp patches.
The distribution covers all of tropical Africa,
southern Arabia, the entire Oriental region,
New Guinea and parts of Australia.

044. Eurema brigitta rubella Wallace
( Terias libythea)

The small yellow is a common butterfly
with the widest possible of distributions, both
geographically and ecologically. In the Nilgiris
it may be found at all levels in most types
of habitat, though it tends to avoid the dense
evergreen forests. It is, in fact, one of those
butterflies that seem to thrive particularly well
in areas disturbed by the activities of man.
It is not very common and somewhat local
in the Nilgiris. Flowers are avidly visited, but
the species is rarely seen at damp patches. It
has been known to migrate but I have seen
no evidence of this in the Nilgiris. E. brigitta
was one of the few permanent residents of
my compound in Kotagiri, the population
usually consisting of four to eights individuals
at any given time. One specimen was seen
captured in flight and eaten by the Whitespott-
ed Fantail Flycatcher ( Rhipidura albicollis).
The range covers all of tropical Africa, south-
western Arabia, most of the Oriental region
and parts of New Guinea and Australia. From
Sundaland eastwards it becomes a rather
scarce and local grasslands species, possibly
because of competition from the many other
members of the genus in that area (Holloway
1973 gives an interesting review of the genus).

045. Eurema laeta laeta Boisduval

( Terias laeta)

The spotless grass yellow is normally a
common species, but on the whole this is not
the case in the Nilgiris. Wynter-Blyth was a
long time before finding it in numbers near
Coonoor and at Gudalur. I have found only
modest colonies in one or two places on the
Nadgani Ghat and at Masinagudi. Obviously
colonies may be found in nearly all types of
terrain. There is strong seasonal dimorphism,
but 1 have seen only wet season forms in the
Nilgiris. The species has a limited distribution
compared to some of the other Eurema, be-
ing found only in Sri Lanka and from India
to Burma, Thailand and Indo-China.

046. Eurema hecabe simulata Moore

( Terias hecabe)

The common grass yellow is just that,
very common practically everywhere. Since it
also has a vast range it is probably among
the top ten of the world’s most numerous
butterflies. In the Nilgiris it may be found
literally anywhere, though it is least common
in dense evergreen forest where it is replaced
by E. blanda. Indeed, E. hecabe is often parti-
cularly common in habitats that have been
modified by human activity. The species is a
known migrant, but large scale migration has
not been observed in the Nilgiris, though
some did follow the May 1986 migration
(Larsen 1987b). It visits flowers and often
comes to damp patches. The range covers
the entire old world tropical zone from Africa
and Arabia to India and the Oriental region,
to New Guinea, Australia, Japan, Fiji and
Tonga.

047. Eurema blanda silhetana Wallace

( Terias blanda)

The three spot grass yellow is restricted
to lowland forests where it is sometimes very
common indeed. The flight is often higher

53

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

above the ground than in the other species
of the genus, probably because the larval food
plants are tall trees like Albizzia and asso-
ciated creepers like Wagatea spicata. Contrary
to the other Eurema the present species lays
its eggs in large batches and the larvae and
the pupae are gregarious throughout, the
black pupae being situated so close to each
other as to almost touch, sometimes up to
fifty at a time. The species may assume pest
proportions in Albizzia plantations. E. blanda
is found in Sri Lanka, South India’s wetter
tracts. Eastern Ghats and then east to practi-
cally all the Oriental region to at least Papua
New Guinea.

048. Eurema andersonii ormistoni Watkins
(Terias andersoni)

The one spot grass yelijOW is the odd man
out among the South Indian Eurema inasmuch
as it is a genuinely rare and local species. In
the Nilgiris it seems limited to evergreen
tropical forest below 1500 m, which means
that it just penetrates the subtropical level.
Wynter-Blyth collected a few at Kallar where
I have also taken the species. I also have a
few from the Glenburn forests as well as one
from an evergreen patch on the Kotagiri Ghat.
The flight is weak and irresolute, the butterfly

coming to both flowers and wet patches. It
occurs from Sri Lanka through suitable wet
tracts of peninsular India to Malaysia, and
it seems to be scarce and local everywhere.

049. Colias nilagiriensis Felder & Felder
( Colias erate )

The nilgiri clouded yellow is quite
common on the plateau above 1900 m, flying
throughout the year, especially in places with
some moisture. The biggest concentration I
have seen is in the beautiful bog at Longwood
Shola near Kotagiri where hundreds may be
seen on a good day, buzzing about just above
the surface. The larval food plant here is
Parochetus communis , though I suspect other
plants are used elsewhere. All South Indian
females of this butterfly are white, though
in all its closest relatives females occur in
both white and yellow forms. While related
to the Palaearctic C. erate Esper I can see little
reason for not accepting the isolated and
morphologically very distinctive South Indian
taxon as specifically distinct. As such it is a
South Indian endemic species of obvious
Palaearctic origin.

{to be continued)

54

NOTES ON COMPARATIVE BODY SIZE,
REPRODUCTIVE EFFORT AND AREAS OF MANAGE-
MENT PRIORITY FOR THREE SPECIES OF KACHUGA
(REPTILIA, CHELONIA) IN THE NATIONAL
CHAMBAL SANCTUARY1

R. J. Rao2 and L. A. K. Singh3
(With a plate & three text-figures)

Record lengths of carapace have been reported from the River Chambal for
Kachuga tentoria circumdata (26.5 cm), K. dhongoka (48.0 cm) and K. kachuga
(49.0 cm). The ratios, carapace length/breadth and plastron length/breadth were
similar in all three species. The ratio carapace length/ shell height was less in K.
tentoria as it bears a high dome. Out of 13 areas of nesting identified for manage-
ment-priority, 23.0% were shared by all three species and 46.1% by K. tentoria and
K. dhongoka. Although biometrical features relating ‘body capacity’ to ‘egg mass
occupancy’ in the body indicate similarities between K. tentoria and K. kachuga,
only K. tentotia is known to lay more than one clutch per season while others lay
only one. The incubation period is 5-8 months for tentoria as winter-laying is there,
but is 2 months for the others. The clutch sizes are 4-9 (tentoria), 21-35 (dhongoka)
and 11-18 (kachuga). Egg length x breadth cm x weight g are: 4.7 x 2.7 X 21.4
(tentoria), 5.9 x 3.6 x 44.2 (dhongoka) and 7.0 x 4.1 x 57.4 (kachuga).

I NTRODUCTION

Three species of Kachuga (Emydidae)
namely, K. tentoria circumdata, K. dhongoka
and K. kachuga occur in the National Cham-
bal Sanctuary along the River Chambal of
the Gangetic system (Rao and Singh in press).
In the following we present data on the
body size of these chelonians with preliminary
analysis of the observations on their repro-
duction. Besides, a list is given of the
nesting areas that are of significance to a
Manager for the species in the Sanctuary.

The National Chambal Sanctuary, created
in 1978 extends from Jawaharsagar Dam
(Rajasthan) to Kota barrage (Rajasthan) and

1 Accepted September 1984.

2 Camp: National Chambal Sanctuary. Post Box
11, Morena 476 001, Madhya Pradesh.

Crocodile Research Centre, Hyderabad 500 264.

after a gap of 18 km, from Keshoraipatan
(Rajasthan) through Pali (M.P./ Rajasthan) to
Pachhnada (Uttar Pradesh). The total length
of the river inside the Sanctuary is about
600 km.

Materials and Methods

Three live and 22 caracases of K. t. circum-
data and three caracases each of K. dhongoka
and K. kachuga were collected outside water
during survey trips made by boat and foot
between October 1983 and July 1984. The
shell measurements of all specimens were
taken as described by McRae et al. (1981)
and the data were used to compare the maxi-
mum sizes reported in literature for different
species (Smith 1933, Pritchard 1979, and
Daniel 1983), and determine the similarities
in certain biometrical ratios. The carapace

55

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

length and carapace width (= plastron width)
were taken as straightline measurements.

Four gravid females, represented by two of
tentoria and one from each of the two other
species were examined at the ovary (for
methods see, Moll and Legler 1971. Rao 1982)
to determine the nesting frequency and collect
comparative data on clutch and egg sizes in
relation to the length of the females.

In order to compare the species-wise re-
productive effort, the approximate body capa-
cities (BV) have been considered against the
approximate egg-clutch mass (EM) and egg-
clutch occupancy (EV). The following methods
were used in calculating BV, EM and EV.

PL x PB x SH,

BV f ,

2

EM = CSxEW, and EV = CSxELxEB
In the above, PL and PB are the mean
lengths and breadths of plastron, SH, the mean
shell height; CS, the mean clutch size (mean
number of eggs per clutch); EL and EB, the
mean length and breadth of eggs, and EW
the mean egg weight (g). All measurements
are in centimetres.

The incubation period was determined by
direct corroboration of nesting activities,
period of commencement of embryonic deve-
lopment and periods of sightings of hatchlings.

Different nesting areas and their manage-
ment priorities were determined during the
surveys from the extent of nesting activities
and predation pressure.

Results

Size and biometrical ratios. The average
shell measurements of dead and live speci-
mens of hardshelled turtles collected in the
Chambal river are presented in Table 1. The
mean carapace lengths were 24.65 cm
(Kachuga tentoria circumdata), 44.6 cm. (K.
dhongoka ) and 47.6 cm ( K . kachuga). The

maximum length of the carapace in the three
species were 26.5 cm, 48.0 cm and 49.0 cm,
respectively. The plastron was always smaller
than the carapace but attached to the latter
at such a point in the front that it protruded
out a little behind the rear end of the cara-
pace. Therefore, the total lengths (Table 1)
were larger than the carapace length. The
ratios carapace length/width were 1.38, 1.38
and 1 . 32 for K. tentoria circumdata, K.
dhongoka and K. kachuga respectively (Table
1). The ratio, plastron length /width were 1.26,
1 . 27 and 1 . 25 respectively and the ratio,
carapace length /shell height (body depth)
were 2.24, 2.73 and 2.34. For one male K.
kachuga the ratios were: carapace length/
width 1.25, plastron length /width 1.14 and
carapace length/shell height 2.36. The male
(29.5 cm carapace length) was caught by
net near Babu Singh ka gher (Table 2) on
5 December 1983. The turtle, being in its
breeding colours, had six red longitudinal
stripes along the neck, a pair of oblong yellow
spots on the throat and the head was brilliantly
red on the top and bluish on the sides.

Nesting areas, Distribution pattern. Kachuga
are very scarce in the river upstream of Pali.
Downstream of Pali although pre-nesting acti-
vities were seen, no nests were located. The
first major nesting site was located at Baroli
(Table 2), 57 km downstream of Pali.

Out of the total 13 identified nesting sites
(Table 2) three (23.0%) were common to
all three species, and six (46.1%) were com-
mon to K. tentoria and K. dhongoka. There
were no regular distance-intervals between
any two nesting sites (Figs. 1 and 3).

Nesting frequency. Three predated nests,
about a week old, discovered on 29 October
1983 were the earliest record of nesting by
Kachuga tentoria. Fresh nests (confirmed
from fresh turtle tracks) were located on 5

56

NOTES ON THREE SPECIES OF KACHUGA
Table 1

Body and egg biometrics of Kachuga tentoria circumdata, K. dhongoka and K. kachuga. for SL. no.
1 through 8 n = 25 (tentoria), 3 ( dhongoka ) and 3 (kachuga). sizes in cm and weight in g (range

in parentheses)

SI.

Aspects

K. t. circumdata

K. dhongoka

K. kachuga

No.

1

Carapace

24.65

44.6

47.6

length CL

(22.0-26.5)

(44.0-48.0)

(46.0-49.0)

2

Carapace
length in:

(a)

Smith 1933

23.0

40.0

39.0

(K. tectum/K. t. tentoria)

(b)

Pritchard 1979

17.7 (7")
(K. tentoria)

40.6 (16")

40.6 (16")

(c)

Daniel 1983

23.0

40.0

39.0

(K. tecta/ K. tentoria)

3

Carapace

17.78

32.3

36.0

width CB

(16.5-19.5)

(28.0-35.0)

(35.0-37.0)

4

Plastron

22.45

41.16

45.0

length PL

(21.5-24.0)

(40.5-44.0)

(43.0-46.0)

5

Total

24.8

44.8

49.3

length TL

(22.0-27.5)

(40.0-47.5)

(47.5-50.5)

6

Shell

11.0

16.3

20.3

height SH

(8.0-12.5)

(15.5-17.5)

(20.0-21.0)

7

Anal

4.0

5.3

6.0

width AB

(3. 5-5.0)

(5. 0-5. 5)

(5. 5-7.0)

8

Anal

3.25

6.6

6.7

notch AN

(3. 0-3. 5)

(6. 0-7.0)

(6. 5-7.0)

9

CL/CB

1.38

1.38

1.32

10

PL/CB

1.26

1.27

1.25

11

CL/SH

2.24

2.73

2.34

12

Clutch

5.95

23.64

15.5

size CS

(4-9)

(21-35)

(11-18)

n=20

n=31

n=4

13

Egg

4.755

5.993

7.049

length EL

(4. 5-5.0)

(5.18-6.62)

(6.65-7.54)

n=119

n=220

n=62

14

Egg

2.754

3.611

4.161

width EB

(2.60^-2.90)

(3.20-4.12)

(3.76-4.56)

n=119

n=220

n=62

15

Egg

12.40

44.21

57.42

weight EW

(19.8-23.3)

(36,5-57.3)

(56.5-58.3)

n=119

Mean egg weight

Mean egg weight

from 22 clutches

from 4 clutches

16

BV cu. cm

2195.38

10835.16

16443.0

17

EM sq. cm g

127.33

1045.12

890.01

18

EV sq. cm

77.91

511.58

454.62

19

P(,%

5.79

9.64

5.41

20

P2%

3.5

4.7

2.7

57

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 84

Table 2

Major nesting sites of Kachuga sp. identified in national ciiambal sanctuary, 1983-84. d, K.
dhongoka\ k, K. kachuga and t, K. tentoria circumdata. for tentoria, ** first nesting, ***second nest-
ing. al, alluvium; bs, bush and os, open sand.

SI.

No,

Location

Reference
km *

River bank
(M.P./U.P./
Rajasthan)

Site Description
Shore Nature of

length m nesting

ground

Species-wise

use

Dates of
nesting data
collection

1

Baroli

57

M.P.

500

os/bs

t,d,k

1.2.84/3.4.84 ***

2

Rahu

113

M. P./Raj.

20/100

os

t

22.11.83/24.11.83**

3

Batesura

123

M.P.

100

OS

t

24.11.83**

4

Bharrah

131

M.P.

500

OS

t,d

6.3.84/11.3.84/

25.3.84***

5

Devgadh

(Sarsaini)

165

Raj.

250

OS

t

3.11.83**

6

Basai Dang

173

Raj.

500

OS

t

30.10.83**

7

Gorkha

205

Raj.

100

OS

d

5.4.84

8

Tigri-

Rithaura

209

Island
(M. P./Raj.)

20 sq. m

al

d

29.3.84/5.4.84

9

Papripura

214

M.P.

2000

os

d

5.4.84

10

Babu Singh
ka Gher

226

M.P.

(Islet)

500/100
sq. m

os

t,d,k

4.12.83/26.1.84***
30. 1 . 84/31 .1.84

11

Pureini

229

Raj.

1000

OS

t,d

5.12.83/3.1.84***

31.3.84

12

Kenjra

296

U.P.

1500

os/bs

t,d

31.1.84***

8.4.84

13

Gyanpura

356

M.P.

200

os

t,d

2.3.84***

13.4.84

* In reference to Palighat (Parbati-Chambal confluence) (Fig. 1).

December (10), 3 January (1) and 28 Janu-
ary (1). After 28 January no further nesting
activities were noted. From all the above nest-
ing records, it was presumed that nesting
season of Kachuga tentoria circumdata extend-
ed from October through January (Fig. 2).

A female Kachuga tentoria circumdata (25
cm carapace length) wandering on land at
0730 hrs on 24 November contained six
(3+3 right and left) oviductal eggs
with a mean weight of 23.3 g and length x
width 50±0.564 (50.0-51.5) x 29.08±0.205

(29.0-29.5) mm. The ovaries contained only
six fresh corpora lutea (right 4 and left 2).
Four ovarian follicles of ovulatory size (25-26
mm) were also present suggesting the pro-
duction of at least two clutches per season.

On the same day (24 November) at 1600
hrs, a female turtle (carapace length 23.0 cm)
was captured on land when it was returning
after egg laying. The nest contained 7 eggs
with the mean measurements of 46.0 ±0.925
(45.0-47.0) x 28. 0_ 0.534 (27.0-29.0) mm.
Mean egg weight was 22. 3 ±0.527 (22.0-

58

NOTES ON THREE SPECIES OF KACHUGA

Fig. 1. River Chambal (National Chambal Sanctuary) from Pali (Chambal-Parbati
confluence) to Pachhnada showing important nesting areas of Kachuga sp. (1-13, as
in Table 2). M.P., Raj. and U.P. are the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Uttar Pradesh through which the river flows.

Inset: Position of River Chambal (arrows) in the Gangetic system.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

60

Fig. 2. Relationship among climatic conditions and breeding activities in small (S) and large (L) Kachuga turtles. N,
nesting; H, hatching. Horizontal scale shows months from August (A) 1983 through July (J) 1984. Maximum tempera-
ture (°C) shown as dotted line and minimum temperature (°C) as solid line through hollow circles. Hour of sunshine
(hr) : dotted line through solid circles, relative humidity (%) : solid line through hollow triangles, and rainfall (mm) :

solid line through crosses.

NOTES ON THREE SPECIES OF KACHUGA

l J J_J L _J

5SSSS58!

I

r-ssai

G\

6 2?

** <4-1
<U O
00

2 J

co to

1 a
fl

H O 2

•8-S*

61

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

23.5) g. The ovaries contained seven corpora
lutea (right 4 and left 3) and four ovarian
follicles of ovulatory size (24-26 mm) indi-
cating two clutches per season.

Clutch size and egg size of Kachuga t.
circumdata are shown in Table 1. The clutch
size was determined mostly from the exami-
nation of natural nests (18 no.) and also from
the data on eggs found in the oviduct (n=l)
of live- and in the body cavity (n=l) of dead-
specimen (see above). Mean clutch size was
5.95 with a range of 4-9. Eggs were elliptical
and with a very thin shell crack-
ing to pressure. Mean egg length was
47.5 mm, width 27.54 mm and weight 21.40
g. One female K. t. circumdata, dead presu-
mably a week before location (12 December
1983) had eight shelled eggs free inside the
body. The female measured 26.5 cm in cara-
pace length and the eggs 46.1 x 29.8 mm
(Plate 1).

The breeding season in K. kachuga is ex-
pected to commence by the beginning of
December because the male caught on 5 Dec-
ember was already in its breeding colours. The
nesting season of both the large Kachuga sp.
( dhongoka and kachuga) was March- April.

The first nest of Kachuga dhongoka was
found on 11 March 1984 and after 31 March
no fresh nesting was recorded. The nests of
large Kachuga sp. looked the same as that of
small Kachuga sp. except that these were of
large dimension and most often on ground
with relatively more silt.

Eggs in the size range of 66-75 mm in
length with small clutch size (11-18) were
the eggs of Kachuga kachuga. These eggs were
37-45 mm wide and 56-58 g in weight. Mean
clutch size of Kachuga dhongoka was 23.64
and of Kachuga kachuga was 15.5. Egg
dimensions and clutch size are shown in Table
1. Eggs of K. dhongoka were small, 51-66 mm
x 32-41 mm x 36-57 g (Plate 1).

The body cavity of one K. dhongoka was
examined late in the nesting season. The
turtle was dead about a week before location
(31 March 1984) and had 21 free eggs in-
side the body. The carapace length of the
female was 40.5 cm and the eggs were 60 . 7 x
38.7 cm.

A Kachuga kachuga suspected to be dead
the night before location (5.4.1984) had
well calcified eggs, 4 in the right oviduct and
7 in the left. Except a few atretic follicles
there were no follicles greater than 20 mm
but there were 3 fresh corpora lutea in the
right ovary and 8 in the left ovary. The
female measured 49.0 cm in carapace length,
and the eggs were 66.5 mm x 37.6 mm.

Incubation period. The minimum and maxi-
mum ambient temperature during the nesting
season of K. tentoria (October- January) rang-
ed as 3.5-29°C and 17-39°C, respectively
(Fig. 2). The prevalent conditions of humi-
dity, rainfall and photoperiod (sunshine) dur-
ing nesting are shown in Fig. 2.

The nest temperature during winter nesting
was very low (17°C-25°C) for embryo deve-
lopment. Periodical checks of eggs in an open
hatchery revealed that there was no embryo
development until March but on 3 April, 1984
(30°C nest temperature) development had
already commenced. In the wild hatchlings
have been seen in May.

During the nesting season of K. dhongoka
and K. kachuga (March-April) the ambient
temperature ranged between 11°C and 46°^
(Fig. 2), and the nest temperature 27.5°C-
32°C. The development of embryo was notic-
ed to have started within two days after egg-
laying. Emerged hatchlings of K. dhongoka
were recovered from nests at Tigri-Rithaura
on 4.6.1984. Nesting at Tigri-Rithaura
had occurred during the last week of March.
The incubation period is estimated to be about
sixty days.

62

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84
Rao & Singh: Kachuga spp.

Plate 1

Above : Kachuga terttoria circumdata with eggs recovered from the body.
Below. A nest pit of Kachuga dhongoka with clutch of 23 eggs.

NOTES ON THREE SPECIES OF KACHUGA

Comparative reproductive effort. The appro-
ximate BV of K. tentoria, K. dhongoka and
K. kachuga were 2195.38, 10835.16 and
16443 respectively. The EM and EV were
127.33 and 77.91 ( K . tentoria), 1045.12 and
511.58 ( K . dhongoka) and 890.01 and 454.62
(K. kachuga) (Table 1).

The factor showing the proportion (%)
of EM in BV were 5.79, 9.64 and 5.41 for
tentoria , dhongoka and kachuga respectively
(Table 1). The factor P2 showing EV in BV
were 3.5% {tentoria), 4.7% {dhongoka) and
2.7% {kachuga) (Table 1).

Discussion

The largest specimen of K. t. circumdata,
K. dhongoka and K. kachuga were 26.5 cm,
48.0 cm and 49.0 cm respectively. These
sizes are distinctly larger than the sizes given
in literature (Table 1). We would be inte-
rested to know when larger specimens are
reported.

The ratios CL/CB and PL/CB are almost
the same in all three species, perhaps a basic
requirement in the design of the hardshelled
turtles. Differences in CL/SH are evidently
due to the extent to which the dome is raised
above the plastron (SH) and this makes the
differences in body-capacities.

The production of multiple clutches is to
be expected for forms that have less body
capacity and lay only a few eggs relatively
less secure. In K. t. circumdata the nests are
83 . 5% times on flat sand banks close to main-
land (Rao and Singh 1984) and the clutch
of 4-9 eggs are only 16.13 cm below the
surface. Therefore, a double effort is made
in the species to ensure enough annual re-
cruitment after sustaining all kinds of loss.
These efforts are in the number of turtles and
in laying double clutches spaced over a period
of few months. Singh (1985) has also
reported double nesting by K. tentoria in
Mahanadi.

In the case of K. dhongoka the necessity
to lay more than a clutch is waived because
the size of the clutch and eggs are large. K.
kachuga, although larger in size than K.
dhongoka and produces larger and heavier
eggs, the clutch size is small. The factors Px
and P2 as determined by comparing the body
capacities and clutch-occupancies, are closely
similar in the case of K. tentoria circumdata
and K. kachuga indicating that K. kachuga
may be having the potentiality to produce
more than one clutch like K. tentoria. If, how-
ever, the results of examination of the ovaries
and oviduct in the specimen of 5.4.1984 are
any indication then we can at the best con-
clude that between October and July K.
kachuga lays only one clutch and it is not
known if a second clutch is ever laid.

Hatchling turtles of Chrysemys picta and
Pseudemys scripta (Gibbons and Nelson 1978)
and Chelydra serpentina (Newman 1906) are
known to over-winter in the nest itself, and
Congdon et al. (1983) suspect a direct rela-
tionship between the emergence tactics of
hatchlings and the level of lipid in the eggs.
Singh (1985), based on his notes on ter-
restrial activities in K. tentoria of the River
Mahanadi, suspected that the species
perhaps hibernates. Based on the present
study it is suspected that the eggs of K. t. cir-
cumdata laid early in the season (October)
may be undergoing some development before
the onset of the extremely low temperatures
of December -January but during the winter,
development proceeds at an extremely slow
rate. The eggs laid during November and later
have to remain dormant until the tem-
perature rises to 30°C as has been observed
in developing embryos of April. The above
situation would lead to the hatching of K. t.
circumdata spread over a few months that
would ensure less competition. In any case,
the incubation period is suspected to be 5-8

63

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

months depending on the date of egg laying
and temperature. In large Kachuga sp. since
the temperature is already high development
commences soon after egg-laying. This situa-
tion calls for the greatest care in the event of
a necessity to shift or translocate these eggs.
More stringent than the practice with croco-
dilian eggs, the eggs of K. dhongoka and K.
kachuga may be shifted only on the day fol-
lowing deposition or after 50-55 days
incubation.

The reason why gravid females were dead
at the nesting site without even commencing
to dig a nest-pit, is difficult to explain. Egg-
bound deaths are known in captive reptilians
which are under stress due to lack of suitable
nesting environment but why should such
parallel, though stray cases, occur in nature
is an aspect to study in future. At the pre-
sent, these data provide stimulation to accu-
mulate similar information to compare in
future the body size to the clutch and egg
sizes.

Singh (1978) has found that in the
case of gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus) even
if egg sizes vary among nests there is a
specific “upper-limit” to the “egg capacity”
(considered as the product of egg length and
breadth). In the case of the three species of
Kachuga studied by us the egg-design is simi-

Refer

Congdon, J. D., Tinkle, D. W. & Rosen, P. C.
(1983): Egg components and utilization during

development in aquatic turtles. Copeia 1983 (1):
264-268.

Daniel, J. C. (1983) : The Book of Indian Rep-
tiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Gibbons, J. W. & Nelson, D. H. (1978): The
evolutionary significance of delayed emergences
from the nest by hatchling turtles. Evolution 32:
297-303.

McRae, W. A., Landers, J. L. & Cleveland, G.
D. (1981): Sexual dimorphism in the Gopher tor-

lar to the gharial’ s, longish with round ends,
and there does appear certain extent of varia-
tion in the egg sizes within any Kachuga
species but at present it is not known if there
is an “upper limit” to the egg-capacity.

Most of the Chelonian nesting areas are
either common among themselves (Table 2)
or with the gharial and are under heavy pre-
dation pressure (Rao and Singh in press).
Therefore, a Manager involved in the conser-
vation of the gharial can, with very little
extended effort, attend to the nesting areas of
the turtles too. Once the action is implement-
ed it could form the basis to take up ex-
panded conservation management.

Acknowledgements

We express our gratitude to Government of
India (Wildlife Institute of India), Food and
Agriculture Organisation of the United
Nations, and Government of Madhya Pradesh
(Wildlife wing) for the provision of various
facilities and the permission by the latter to
conduct the study. Several staff members and
colleagues gave assistance in the field. RJR
remained a CSIR Senior Research Fellow for
most part of the study duration and LAKS
is with the Crocodile Research Centre of the
Wildlife Institute of India.

E N CE S

toise ( Gopherus polyphemus) . Herpetologica 36(3):
46-52.

Moll, E. O. & Legler, J. M. (1971): The life
history of a Neotropical slider turtle, Pseudemys
scripta (Schoepff), in Panama. Nat. Hist. Mus. Los
Angeles Cty. Sci. Bull. 11: 1-102.

Newman, H. H. (1906): The habits of certain
tortoises J. Comp. Neuro. Psych. 16: 126-152.

Pritchard, P. C. H. (1979): Encyclopedia of
Turtles. T.F.H. Publications Inc., Neptune, New
Jersey.

Rao, R. J. (1982) : Studies on the neuroanatomy,

64

NOTES ON THREE SPECIES OF KACHUGA

cytology and histochemistry of the reproductive sys-
tem of the freshwater turtle, Trionyx gangeticus
(Cuvier) with special references to the seasonal
cyclicity. Ph.D Thesis, Bhopal University, Bhopal.

& Singh, L.A.K. (1984): Ecological

Relationship among Turtles in National Chambal
Sanctuary. Interim Study Report 1, CRC/NCS/21-
A, August 1984, Field Camp of the Crocodile Re-
search Centre, Wildlife Institute of India, Govern-
ment of India, Deori, Morena, Madhya Pradesh,
iii+54 pp, 2 figs.

— — — — __________ (jVj press) : Notes

on ecological relationship in basking and nesting
site utilisations among Kachuga sp. (Reptilia, Chelo-
nia) and Gavialis gangeticus (Reptilia, Crocodilia)

in National Chambal Sanctuary. /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc.

Singh, L.A.K. (1978) : Ecological studies on the
gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia, Cro-
codilia). Ph.D thesis, Utkai University, Bhubaneswar.

(1985): Notes on tracking and

terrestrial activities of the freshwater turtle, Kachuga
tent or ia in River Mahanadi, Orissa. /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 82(2) : 414-417.

Smith, M. A. (1933) : The Fauna of British
India including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and
Amphibia. Vol. I. Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and
Francis, London.

Note (12 June 1987) : Further studies have con-
firmed double-nesting in K. kachuga between Dee-
ember and March.

65

5

THE GENUS PIPER LINN. IN KARNATAKA, INDIA1

B. A. Rahiman2 and M. K. Nair3
(With eight text-figures)

The family Piperaceae, until 1940, was limited to two genera viz., Piper Linn.,
and Peperamia Ruiz. & Pav. In 1843, F.A.W. Miquel subdivided it into several
ranks and described about 600 species under 20 different segregate genera. Since
then, the family has undergone considerable changes in the circumscription of various
taxonomic ranks. In India, 108 species have been reported from two inde-
pendent ‘centres of distribution’. They are 1) the region of Sub-Hifnalayan and
North-eastern hill ranges and 2) South Deccan. In the present paper an attempt is
made, to revise the taxonomy of Piper species occurring in the Karnataka region
of Deccan, based on the authors’ survey of the region under study and collection
of over 300 herbarium specimens. In all 8 species have been described. An artificial
key for the Karnataka species, field notes, nomenclatural notes, comments on affinity,
world distribution, distribution in India and in Karnataka and type locality are

provided.

The genus Piper Linn., the largest in the
family Piperaceae, occurs throughout the tropi-
cal and subtropical regions. More than 3000
species are on record (index kewensis 1895-
1970, Rahiman 1983). Because of the large
number of species, wide distribution, very
minute, achlamydous and closely packed
flowers, unisexual nature of many of the
species and lack of any recent critical phyletic
study (Hooker 1886; Gamble 1925; Law-
rence 1951), a valid acceptable species con-
cept could not be established till to date. Until
1940, Piperaceae was limited to two genera
namely Piper Linn, and Peperomia Ruiz. &
Pav. In 1843, F.A.W. Miquel in his monograph
system a piperacearum subdivided the family
into several ranks such as tribe, section, cohorts,

1 Accepted November 1984.

* Post Graduate Department in Bio-Sciences,
Mangalore University, Mangala Gangotri 574 152,
Karnataka, India.

3 Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Re-
gional Station, Marikkunnu, Calicut, 673 012, Kerala,
India.

genus and species and described about 600
species of Piper under 20 different segregate
genera. As the report of new species from all
over the world accumulated and the number
of species went on increasing, the segregate
genera started losing their distinctions, mainly
because of the lack of sharp taxonomic dis-
continuities within the family. In 1869, C. de
Candolle in dc prodromus merged these
segregate genera into 9 major genera. Hooker
(1886) further reduced the number of genera
to three and described the various Piper
species under 4 sections. Contemporary taxo-
nomists discontinued even, the practice of sub-
dividing the genus into sections and dealt the
species directly under the genus. From taxo-
nomic point of view, Piperaceae has been
considered as a most difficult family.
According to Howard (1973), the family is
one of the worst messes in plant taxonomy.
Because of all these problems and also due
to the poor quality of the herbarium speci-
mens of pioneering workers. Sir Joseph
Hooker (1886) advised the local botanists in

66

GENUS PIPER LINN. IN KARNATAKA

various ‘centres of distribution’ of species in
Indo-Malayan region to “examine the plants
on the spot, with a view to matching the
sexes, and flowering with fruiting specimens,
and to observing the transition from young
to old foliage, and the effects of locality and
climate on the character of each species”. In
India, two major, independent centres of dis-
tribution of species are recognized. They are:
1) the region of Sub-Himalayan and North-
eastern hill ranges and 2) Southern Deccan.
More than 108 species are recorded from
India (Rahiman & Nair 1983). In the pre-
sent investigation, systematics of all the species
occurring in the Karnataka region of Deccan
were taken up. However, the study does not
include P. betle Linn, (betel vine) which has
not been recorded in the wild state in India
and cultivars of P. nigrum Linn, (common
black pepper vine) . The observations are based
on a survey of the Piper species in Karnataka
by the authors (Rahiman el al 1979, 1981) in
which more than 300 herbarium specimens
were specially collected for the study.

Key to the Species

1 . Spike pendulous, berry large or medium-sized,
bracts adnate or decurrent at lower half, not
pedicelled :

2. Bracts adnate to the rachis at the medial
position, margin narrow but free, berry
does not attain red colour:

3. Female spikes long, developing berry
oblong attenucutum

3 . Female spikes short, developing berry
ovate :

4 . Leaves, peduncle and young branches

hirtellous hookeri

4. Leaves, peduncle and branches glabrous,

rarely minutely puberulous

ctrgyrophyllum

2. Bracts decurrent at lower half, berry large,
becomes reddish nigrum

2. Bracts transformed into a fleshy cup:

5. Outer surface of the cup puberous

trichostachyon

5. Outer surface of the cup glabrous

galeatum

1 . Spike erect, berry small, bracts peltate with a
short pedicel:

6. Fruiting spike sub-globose, leaf base

acute mullesua

6. Fruiting spike cylindric, leaf base symme-
trically or asymmetrically cordate

Ion gum

P. attenuation Ham. ex Miq., Syst. Pip. 306.
1843 & in FI. Ind. Bat. 1(2): 451. 1859;
J. Hooker, FI. Brit. India 5: 92. 1886;

Gamble, FI. Madras 1205. 1925. P. diffusum
Vahl. Enum. 1: 333. 1804. P. Karok Blume,
Cat. Gew. Buitenz 33. 1823. P. malamaris
Roxb., FI. Ind. 1: 160. 1832. P. Sirium C.
DC., in DC., Prodr. 16(1): 160. 1869.
(Fig. 1).

A slender climber, dioecious. Leaves thin,
pressed ones membranous-chartaceous, ovate,
rarely cordate, 9.5-17.5 cm long and 4. 0-8. 5
cm broad, glabrous, sometimes minute white
dots seen on the dorsal surface, ventral side
green, dorsal, dark green, 2-3 pairs of promi-
nent lateral ribs, all arising from the base or
very near to it; stipule adnate, deciduous.
Flowering spike narrow, filiform, c? upto 26.0
cm, $ upto 10.0 cm, fruiting spike upto 21.0
cm, peduncle glabrous. Bracts linearly-obovate
to elliptic, sessile, adnate in the medial posi-
tion with narrow but free margin. Stamens 3,
rarely 4. Carpel single, astylocarpellous, ovary
oblong, stigma mostly 4-lobed, lobes short,
ovule solitary, errect. Berry, mature ones
spherical, developing ones characteristically
oblong, smaller than the commercial black
pepper, 0. 3-0.4 cm in diameter, bitter in taste.

Climbs over the supporting trees with the
help of strong adventitious roots, not more
than 5-9 m in height. The fruit is an indehis-
cent drupe but commonly treated as berry.

67

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 1. P. attenuatum Ham.

A. Branch with fruiting spikes; B. Branch with male spikes; C. Female spike; D. Male
spike; E. Portion of female spike; F. Portion of male spike; Ga. Female bract — side
view; Gb. Female bract — bottom view; Gc. Male bract — bottom view; Ha. Ovary; Hb.
Ovary — L.S.; I. Stamen; Ja. Young berry; Jb. Mature berry.

68

GENUS PIPER LINN. IN KARNATAKA

Young berry green in colour, mature ones
black. Unlike P. nigrum Linn, the berries do
not attain red colour during the development.
Number of mature berries drop before fully
mature. Runners arc in plenty, cuttings of the
runners start flowering in the very next season
of planting. Flowers in May- July period. Off
season flowerings common.

Saldanha and Nicolson (1976) considered
P. attenuatum as synonym of P. trioecum
Roxb. and Gamble (1925) considered the
latter under P. attenuatum. Miquel (1843)
and C. de Candolle (1869) considered them
as two distinct species. F. trioecum was esta-
blished by Roxburgh (1820). In his flora
indica he described a male, a female and a
bisexual vine. A close perusal of the descrip-
tions of these 3 vines furnished by him
clearly showed contrasting diagnostic charac-
ters — the bisexual vine showed 2 stamens
and the berries which are pungent, ripened
perfectly in the spike and the male one
showed 3 stamens and the berries which are
non-pungent, dropped before full maturity in
the spike. (The former set of characters are
similar to the characters observed in F.
nigrum and the latter, are similar to that of
F. attenuatum). From this it is obvious that
these vines do not belong to one and the same
species as William Roxburgh believed. The
type specimen of F. trioecum is not available
in any Indian Herbarium and the figure given
by Wight (1853) in the icones plantarum
indiae orientalis, though said to be taken
directly from Roxburgh’s drawings, is not of
much help to determine the identity. Hence
the epithet F. trioecum is ignored in the pre-
sent study.

Distribution'. Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri
Lanka and Malaysia. In India, the Hima-
laya, Sikkim, Assam, Meghalaya and the
Western Ghats. In Karnataka, very common
in low level forests (lower than 200 m MSL)

of Uttara Kannada and Dakshina Kannada
districts.

Type locality. The Himalaya.

Selected specimens examined. Wallich 6642
D (CNH); Ansari 78563, Subramanian 77003
(BSI); Barber 5051; Henry 17394, 48263,
Hooker & Thomson ex ciccata sin. num., acc.
no. 70410, Joseph 17190, 44488, Narayana-
swami 3537, 5373, Raju & Naganathan 18146,
18156, 18206, Ramamoorthy 16153, Sebastine
15688, 16520, 25055, Subbarao 24528., 30052,
32877, 44384, 42575, Subramanyan 3846,

8066, Vajravelu 32131, Wight sin. num., acc.
no. 43777, 43778, 43779, 10881, 15723 (MH);
Nicolson & Ramamoorthy 246, Saldanha
10068, 11412, 13899, 14232, 14415 (CTS)4;
Rahiman 29, 33, 34, 37, 40, 49, 50, 65, 69,
70, 74, 115, 142, 143, 208, 229, 240, 254, 259,
262, 268 (MUK)5.

P. hookeri Miq., London J. Bot. 4: 437.
1845; J. Hooker, FI. Brit. India 5: 88. 1886;
Gamble, FI. Madras 1204. 1925. P. hyme-
nophyllum Miq., London J. Bot. 4: 437.
1845. F. lanatum Wight ex Miq., London
J. Bot. 5: 533. 1846. non Roxb. 1832. F.
nilighirianum C. DC, in DC, Prodr. 16(1):
364. 1869. F. Wightii Miq., London J. Bot.
5: 552. 1846 (Fig. 2).

Allied to F. attenuatum Ham. ex Miq. and
F. argyrophyllum Miq. Resembles F. atte-
nuatum in majority of morphological charac-
ters. The major differences are the presence
of crisp hairs on young branches, entire
ventral surface and along the major ribs on
dorsal surface of the leaves, petiole and bracts
in this species. Leaves thinly coriaceous, upto

17.0 cm long and 7.0 cm broad, very much
variable in size, shape and thickness.
cT spikes upto 14.0 cm, fruiting spikes upto

20.0 cm, stamens 3 in number.

4 CTS — Centre for Taxonomic Studies, Banga-
lore, Karnataka.

5 MUK — Mangalore University, Mangalore
(Konaje), Karnataka.

69

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 2. P. hookeri Miq.

A. Branch with fruiting spikes; B. Branch with male spikes; Ca. Portion of leaf — dorsal
side showing hairs; Cb. Portion of leaf — ventral side showing hairs; Cc. Tip of the
branch showing hairs; D. Female spike; E. Male spike; F. Portion of female spike;
G. Portion of male spike; Ha. Stamen; Hb. Anther lobes — top view; la. Ovary;
lb. Ovary — L.S.; Ja. Bract — bottom view; Jb. Bract — side view; Ka. Young
berry; Kb. Mature berry.

GENUS PIPER LINN. IN KARNATAKA

Some problem pertaining to the identity of
this taxa was encountered in the literature.
Brandis (1906) and Cooke (1903) described
a species with hairy vegetative and floral parts
from the Western Ghats and considered it as
P. hookeri. Saldanha and Nicolson (1976),
on the other hand, considered a similar taxa
from Karnataka as P. hymenophyllum. Hooker
(1886) and Gamble (1925) described two
such taxa from the Western Ghats and iden-
tified them as two distinct species, namely
P. hookeri and P. hymenophyllum. Gamble
(1925) reported the former from Bababudan
hills (Bababudan hills are situated in the
Karnataka region of the Western Ghats) and
the latter from the Western Ghats of
Mysore (Karnataka). We studied a num-
ber of specimens with hairy nature from
all over Karnataka including Bababudan
hills. The morphological characters showed
wide variation but did not show any sharp
discontinuities to merit differentiation into two
species. P. hookeri and P. hymenophyllum
were established by Miquel in 1845 and 1846
respectively. In the original diagnosis, the
differences mentioned were the presence of
adnate bract in P. hookeri and linear-oblong,
adnate bract with undulated margin in P.
hymenophyllum and the coriaceous to mem-
branous leaves in the former and finely mem-
branous and transparent leaves in the latter.
In all other characters the two were identical.
The leaf characters, as Miquel himself remark-
ed were variable in these two species. In the
light of variability noticed in the morpholo-
gical characters in the genus, the differences
mentioned in the original diagnosis are quite
inadequate to differentiate these two into two
different species. Therefore it would be rea-
listic to consider these two species as conspe-
cific. Since P. hookeri was validly published
in 1845 and P. hymenophyllum , in 1846, the
former is to be considered as the valid specific

epithet. Therefore, in the present work, the
hairy species is considered as P. hookeri.

Distribution : Reported only from the

Western Ghats and Biligirirangan hills.
In Karnataka occurs in Uttara Kannada,
Shimoga, Hassan, Kodagu, Chikmagalur and
Mysore districts, mostly in the forests situated
at more than 200 m above sea level.

Type locality. Bombay.

Selected specimens examined : Arora 46275,
55232, Chibber sin num., Janardhan 72150,
Mahajan 24792, Pan 14462, Rao 79970, Rolla
87487, Raghavan 62477, 67853, 80838, 86982,
94119, Talbot 1602, 2459, Reddi 97261, 97826,
Exiccata sin. num., acc. no. 6962 (BSI); Barber
5450, 5489, 7555, 7539, 7559, 7560, 7563, 7595,
7346, Bourne 6112, 6085, Ellis 16957, Jacob
391, 427, 17666, Ramamoorthy 18188, 22882,
Sebastine 17275, Viswanathan 691 (MH).

Nicolson, Ramamoorthy & Gandhi 2884,
Ramamoorthy & Gandhi 2608, Saldanha
9049, 9053, 10704, 13581, 16753 (CTS); Rahi-
man 12, 890, 893, 905, 910, 911, 957, 958,
984, 998, 1000, Fc 230, 231, 236, 248, 258
(MUK).

P. argyrophyllum Miq., Syst. Pip. 330. 1843;

J. Hooker, FI. Brit. India 5: 93. 1886;

Gamble, FI. Madras 1205. 1925. P. walkeri

Miq., London J. Bot. 4: 438. 1845. P.

Wightii Miq., London J. Bot. 5: 552 in

part 1846. (Fig. 3).

Allied to P. attenuatum. It differs from P.
attenuatum by the presence of silvery scales
or blotches on the ventral surface of the
leaves. Leaves chartaceous to thinly coriace-
ous, upto 21.0 cm long and 7.0 cm broad,
sometimes sparsely distributed minute hairs
are also seen on the ventral side. Stamens 3
in number. Rarely P. argyrophyllum may lack
silvery blotches and P. attenuatum may show
similar blotches in some leaves and as such it
is very difficult to separate these two species,
especially based on herbarium specimens. It

71

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

Fig. 3. P. argyrophyllum Miq.

A. Branch with fruiting spikes; B. Branch with male spikes; C. Female spike; D. Male
spike; E. Portion of female spike; F. Portion of male spike; G. Portion of male spike
showing stamens; Ha. Ovary; Hb. Ovary — L.S.; la. Bract — side view; lb. Bract —
bottom view; Ja. Young berry; Jb. Mature berry.

GENUS PIPER LINN. IN KARNATAKA

is also allied to P. hookeri and because of
the presence of sparsely distributed hairs,
poses difficulty in separating these two species
as well.

Distribution : In India reported only from
the Western and the Eastern Ghats. In Karna-
taka, occurs in Chikmagalur, Hassan, Shimoga,
Kodagu, Uttar Kannada and Mysore districts.
Occurs in higher altitude forests. Both P.
argyrophyllum and P. hookeri are seen in the
same locality.

Type locality. The Western Ghats.

Selected specimens examined. Fisher sin.
num., Singh 124569 (BSI); Barber 6498,
7202, 7313, 7344, 8710, 8712, 8713, 8715,
Ellis 34891, Gamble 18392, Henry 16282,
16286, Joseph 12705, 12793, 13789, Karthi-
keyan 26834, Narayanaswamy 3875, Shetty
32327, Rao 31999, Vajravelu 33840, 35123,
41724 (MH); Nicolson & Ramamoorthy 2866
(CTS); Rahiman 165, 167, 172, 207, 212, 213,
228, 230, 240, 244, 253, 255, 257, 258, 263 (all
the specimens fully glabrous), 209, 231, 232,
240, 242, 243, 264, 272 (all are puberulous in
young vegetative parts) (MUK).

P. nigrum Linn., Sp. PI. 28. 1753; Roxb., FI.
Ind. 1: 150. 1832; Gamble, FI. Madras
1204. 1925; Piper rotundum nigrum Caspa-
rus, FI. Mai. 54. 1696. P. aromaticum Lam.,
Illust. 1: 79. 1791. P. baccatum C. DC., in
DC., Prod. 16(1): 242. 1869. P. colonum
Presl, Bot. Bemerk. 112. 1844. P. fallax
Vahl, Enum. 1: 335. 1804. P. glyphicum
Hoffmag. ex Kunth, in Linnaea 13: 573.
1839. P. malabarense C.DC., in DC., Prodr.
16(1): 242. 1869. P. spurium Link, Enum.
Hort. Berol. 1: 37. 1821. Muldera multi -
nervis Miq., London J. Bot. 5: 557. 1846.
M. Wightiana Miq., l.c. 558. 1846. (Fig. 4).
A vigorous vine, stem thick, rough in tex-
ture. Leaves thick, pressed ones coriaceous,
broadly ovate to elliptic, 9.0-21.0 cm long
and 2.5-13.0 cm broad, in males usually

smaller and narrower, 2-3 pairs of prominent
lateral ribs, the anteriormost pair emerges
alternately about 2. 0-3. 5 cm above the leaf
base, entirely glabrous, dorsal side green,
ventral light coloured, stipules deciduous,
adnate to the petiole. Spike narrow, filiform,
pendulous, young ones green, mature ones
yellowish, upto 16.0 cm and 9 12.5 cm,
female spikes usually much smaller, peduncle
glabrous. Bracts in the cf linearly oblong, de-
current, sessile, upper half with free margin,
in $ same as in the male but the upper
portion forms a thin hemispherical cup-like
depression probably due to the presence of the
spherical ovary, outer surface glabrous. Stamens
consistently 2. Carpel single, ovary spherical,
style represented by a mere constriction, stigma
3-5 lobed, lobes elongate, papillate. Berry
spherical 0.5-0. 6 cm in diameter, pungent.

Very common in the forest slopes of the
Western Ghats, found climbing over the sup-
porting trees both by twining and striking
roots at the nodes, ascends to a height of 10 m
or more. Flowers during May- June period,
off season flowering rare. Fruit in ripening
undergoes a colour change from green to red
to black. More than 75 cultivars are known
to be cultivated for their fruits, which are
marketed as the famous ‘black pepper’. The
cultivars of black pepper are quite similar to
the wild ones. The only major difference is
the monoecious nature of cultivars and dio-
ecious nature of the wild vines. However,
hermaphrodite forms of wild vines and female
forms of cultivars are also known.

Distribution : Indonesia, Malaysia, and

Brazil. In India, occurs wild in the forests
of the Western Ghats and the Eastern
Ghats and cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka,
Tamilnadu and Maharashtra. In Karnataka,
both cultivated and wild forms occur in
Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga,
Kodagu, Chikmagalur and Hassan districts.

73

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 4. P. nigrum Linn.

A. Branch with fruiting spike; B. Branch with male spike; C. Female spike; D. Male
spike; E. Portion of female spike; F. Portion of male spike; Ga. Stamen; Gb. Anther
lobes after anthesis; Ha. Ovary; Hb. Ovary — L.S.; la. Female bract — side view;
lb. Female bract — bottom view; Ic. Male bract — side view; Id. Male bract —
bottom view; J. Mature berry.

GENUS PIPER LINN. IN KARNATAKA

Type locality. India.

Selected specimens examined. Kanodia
9626, Patil 2921, Puri 1114, Rolla 84917,
Subramanian 70796, 71600, Wadwa 4313,
109793 (BSI); Barber 5466, 5945, 7410, 7414,
8708, 8709, Bourne 369, Naithani 24170 (MH);
Saldanha 11474, 12599, 13274, 14634, 15071,
Ramamoorthy & Gandhi 2655 (CTS); Rahi-
man 3, 4, 5, 6, 19, 22, 36, 38, 42, 43, 73, 75,
76, 85, 86, 95, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 122,
130, 132, 148, 200, 210, 211, 239 (MUK).

P. trkhostachyon (Miq.) C.DC, in DC., Prod.

16(1): 242. 1869. J. Hooker, FI. Brit. India

5: 80. 1886; Gamble, FI. Madras 1206.

1925. Muldera trichostachya Miq., London.

J. Bot. 5: 556. 1846. (Fig. 5).

A stout-stemmed climber. Leaves alternate,
coriaceous, entirely glabrous, usually oblong
but variable from ovate to lanceolate, upto
20.0 cm long and 10.0 cm broad, in males
leaves smaller and narrower, 2-3 pairs of pro-
minent lateral ribs, the anteriormost pair
emerges from the midrib simultaneously about
2-3 cm above leaf base, nerves strong beneath,
dorsal side green, ventral, light coloured,
glaucous in appearance. Spike narrow, filiform,
cf upto 9.5 cm, 9 upto 7.0 cm, fruiting
spike upto 10.0 cm, peduncle glabrous except
for a strip of hairy tissue on the upper por-
tion which might represent the decurrent part
of the lowermost bract. Bract decurrent at
the base, upper portion transformed into a
fleshy obconical or hemispherical cup with a
narrow slit like mouth, entire bract puberu-
lous or hirtellous. Stamens consistently 2,
short. Carpel single, ovary obovate, style
absent, stigma 3-4 lobed, lobes short. Berry
spherical or oblong, larger than commercial
black pepper, 0.6-0. 8 cm in diameter.

Climbs to a height of 10 m or more, stem
may grow to a thickness of more than 6.0
cm, covered with thick cork which in old
vines, is longitudinally furrowed. Occurs only in

higher altitude forests (more than 700 m above
sea level). Compared to all the other species,
this one and P. galeatum (Miq.) C.DC., are
hardy species and can withstand slightly dry
climate. These two species are occasionally
encountered along with cultivated Pepper in
some plantations. Flowers in May- June period,
off season flowerings observed. Fruits in ripen-
ing undergo a colour change from green to
yellow to orange to red, slightly less pungent
than commercial black pepper and are some-
times used as adulterant while marketing the
latter.

Distribution : India and Malaya (Malaysia).
In India reported only from the Western
Ghats. In Karnataka, Shimoga, Chikmagalur,
Coorg, southern part of Uttara Kannada and
western part of Hassan districts.

Type locality. Malabar (Kerala).

Selected specimens examined. Cooke 46350
A, Arora 85576, Rao 79977 (BSI); Jacob
537, Narayanaswami 3538, 5407, Subra-

manyam 27703, Vivekanathan 45642, Wight
exciccata sin. num., acc. no 43008, 43009
(MH); Saldanha 12247, 15775, 15798, Nicol-
son, Saldanha & Ramamoorthy 37 (CTS);
Rahiman 62, 105, 107, 121, 138, 144, 147,
155, 162, 163, 178, 187, 191, 196, 201, 202,
203, 210, 213, 233, 234, 235, 237, 246, 266
(MUK).

P. galeatum (Miq.) C.DC., in DC., Prodr.

16(1): 242. 1869; J. Hooker, FI. Brit. India

5: 80. 1886; Gamble, FI. Madras 1206.

1925. P. Talbotii C.DC., in Fedde, Repert.

10: 523. 1912 nomen. Muldera galeata

Miq., London J. Bot. 5: 557. 1846. (Fig. 6).

Similar to P. trichostachyon in all the
characters except for the absence of hairs
on the outer surface of the bracts. Young
spikes are pink in colour in some vines and
green in others.

Several botanists including Miquel (1846),
C. de Candolle (1869), Hooker (1886) and

75

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 5. P. trichostachyon C. DC.

A. Branch with fruiting spike; B. Branch with male spike; C. Female spike; D. Male
spike; E. Portion of female spike; F. Portion of male spike; G. Stamens; Ha. Flower
showing stamens; Hb. Flower with stamen — L.S.; la. Ovary; lb. Ovary — L.S.;
J. Bract; K. Mature berry.

GENUS PIPER LINN. IN KARNATAKA

Fig. 6. P. galeatum C. DC.

A. Branch with fruiting spikes; B. Branch with male spikes; C. Female spike; D. Male
spike; E. Portion of female spike; F. Portion of male spike; G. Stamens; Ha. Female
flower; Hb. Ovary — L.S.; I. Bract; J. Mature berry.

77

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Gamble (1925) distinguished P. galeatum
from P. trichostachyon by distantly arranged
flowers, presence of sessile bracts and
absence of hairs on the outer surface of the
bracts in contrast to the closely placed flowers,
stipitate bracts and presence of hairs on
bracts. Of these, the first two characters are
of relative nature. While the typical P. galea-
tum from Cardamom hills shows stipitate and
distantly placed flowers, the same species
occurring in Anamalai hills shows almost
sessile and comparatively closely placed
flowers6. P. galeatum from Karnataka region
also shows almost sessile and very closely
placed flowers. The third character, namely
the presence and absence of hairs, on the
other hand, is an absolute character and hence
could alone be taken as the diagnostic charac-
ter to distinguish these two species.

Distribution : India and Java. In India, the
Western Ghats from Bombay to Yellapur of
Karnataka and from Anamalai hills to
Travancore hills. In Karnataka, northern part
of Uttara Kannada district.

Type locality. Peninsular India (Courtallum
of Tamilnadu?)

Selected specimens examined. Talbot 1219
(CNH); Ahuja 31626, 47696, Cooke exciccata
sin. num., acc. no. 12333, 16689, Hemadri
104440, Janardhan 70108, 76614, 81777, Maha-
jan 17176, Puri 12605, Reddi 85946,
95813, 99326, Ryan 1757, Rolla 83427, Talbot
1593, 2888, Vasavada 9320 (BSI); Barber
5426, 5441, 5467, 5483, 5484, 5485, 5486, 7192,
Ramamoorthy 16145, Wight exciccata sin.
num., acc. no 42973 (MH); Rahiman 53, 54,
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 270, 273, 297 (MUK).

P. mullesua Ham., ex D.Don, Prod. FI. Nep.

20. 1825; C.DC., in DC., Prod. 14(1): 338.

1869. P. brachystachyum Wall., in Wall. Cat.

6656 in part. 1832. P. guigual Ham. ex D.

6 C. de Candolle (1912) unpublished document
available at Botanical Survey of India, Southern
Circle, Coimbatore.

Don, Prod. FI. Nep. 20. 1825. P. vasculosum
Wall., Cat. 6660. 1832. Chavica Guigual
Miq., Syst. Pip. 280. 1843. C. Mullesua Miq.,
l c. 280. 1843. C. spherostachya Miq., l.c. 278.
1843. (Fig. 7).

Slender-branched extensive climber, stem
rarely attains more than 1.5 cm thickness,
branches entirely glabrous, runners many,
characteristically puberulous. Leaves alternate,
coriaceous, elliptic, upto 14.5 cm in length
and upto 5.5 cm in breadth, usually much
smaller in size, tip caudate-acuminate, bent, 2
pairs of prominent lateral ribs of which the
anteriormost one emerges about one-thirds
above the leaf base, the others emerge from
the base, nerves strong beneath, dorsal side
green, ventral dark green. Spike erect, cylin-
dric in male, upto 4.5 cm in length, female
very small, oblong, white, about 0.4 cm in
length and 0.3 cm in breadth, fruiting spike
upto 1 . 2 cm in length and 0.7 cm in breadth.
Bracts orbicular, peltate, pedicelled. Stamens
2, filament short, thick, anther lobes single re-
niform, attached transversely at the tip of the
filament, pollen sacs 2, dehisce by conspicuous
longitudinal cleft at the crest and the wall of
the sacs recurve and form an umbrella like
structure. Carpel single, ovary ellipsoid, style
represented by a constriction, stigma mostly
3-lobed, lobes minute. Berry very small,
spherical-obovate, very pungent, gives a burn-
ing sensation when chewed. Flowers during
April-May period, off season flowering com-
mon. This species occurs only in very high
altitude forests (more than 700 m above MSL).

This species has been commonly treated as
P. brachystachyum Wall, by many of
botanists including Hooker (1886) and Gam-
ble (1925). The specific epithet 'brachysta-
chyum! was given by Wallich in his catalogue
(1832). Later Hooker (1886) published P.
brachystachyum with requisite diagnosis. How-
ever, long before these, i.e. in 1825 itself, Hamil-

78

GENUS PIPER LINN. IN KARNATAKA

Fig. 7. P. mullesua Ham.

A. Branch with fruiting spikes; B. Branch with male spikes; C. Male spike; D. Female
spike; E. Portion of male spike; F. Portion of female spike; Ga. Stamen; Gb. Anther
lobes — top view; Gc. Anther lobes after anthesis — top view; Gd. Anther lobes
after anthesis — side view; Ha. Ovary; Hb. Ovary — L.S.; la. Male bract — bottom
view; lb. Male bract — side view; Ic. Female bract — bottom view; Id. Female
bract — side view; J. Berry.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

ton validly published this species as F. mullesua
in Don’s prodromus florae nepalensis.
Raizada (1966) corrected this by considering
F. mullesua as the valid name.

Distribution : India, Nepal, Bhutan and

Eastern Islands. In India, the Himalayas from
Simla to Bhutan, Khashi Hills and the Western
Ghats. In Karnataka, Chikmagalur, Kodagu
and Shimoga districts.

Type locality. Nepal.

Selected specimens examined. Wallich 6656
(CNH); Gamble 20631, Subramanian 71165,
Talbot 3193 (BSI); Balakrishnan 129, Barber
1213, 5436, 5437, 5438, 5447, 5447 a, 5447 b,
5448, 5472, 6546, 6547, 7206, 7207, 7208, 7220,
7314, 7578, Beddome exciccata sin. num., acc.
no. 43091, Bharghavan 47443, Bourne 2374,
Deb 31543, Ellis 34727, Gamble 20630, Henry
16421, Hooker exciccata sin. num., acc. no.
70403, 70405, Jacob 16069, 17562, Lawson
exciccata sin. num., acc. no. 43078, 43088,
Narayanswami 3801, 4440, Ramakrishnan

39108, Ramamurthy 18129, Rao 40472, 40489,
Sebastine 2561, 3212, 4466, 18444, 24994,
Sharma 35873, Vajravelu 29196, 35110, 36833,
38213, 38239, 43171, Viswanadhan 807, 975,
Vivekanathan 40614, 40645, Wight exciccata
sin. num., acc. no. 43081, 43082 (MH); Rahi-
man 11, 15, 16, 96, 97, 101, 103, 140, 172, 174.
175, 208, 224 (MUK).

P. longum Linn. Sp. PI. 29. 1753; Roxb., FI.
Ind. 1: 154. 1832; Gamble, FI. Madras
1203. 1925. F. sarmentosum Wall. Cat. 6641.
1832. F. latifolium Hunter, in As. Res. 9:
390. 1809. F. tubinatum Noronha, in Verh.
Batav. Gen. 5: 25, 1790. Chavica Rox-
burghii Miq., Syst. Pip. 230. 1843. C. sar-
mentosa Miq., London J. Bot. 4: 433. 1845;
5: 531 non Syst. Pip. 1846. (Fig. 8).

A slender undershrub, vegetative branches
prostrate, rarely climbing to a short height,
flowering ones erect or subscandent, young
branches puberulous, hair minute but densely

distributed. Leaves on the vegetative branches
upto 13.0 cm long and 7.0 cm broad, cordate,
equilateral with large auricles, leaves on the
fruiting branches cordate to oblong-lanceolate,
with inequilateral lamina, base deeply cordate
with unequal but deep auricle, 3-4 pairs of
prominent lateral ribs, all arise from leaf base,
ventral side pale green, downy or puberulous,
dorsal, light green, glabrous, petiole downy.
Spike cylindric, erect, upto 10.0 cm long
and 0.4 cm broad, $ upto 3.5 cm long and
1 . 0 cm broad, peduncle downy. Bracts peltate,
pedicelled, orbicular, glabrous. Stamens 3-4.
Carpel single, ovary obovate, style represented
by a mere constriction, stigma 3-4 lobed, lobes
short. Berry small, obovate, very pungent,
about 0.2 cm in diameter.

Distribution : India, Sri Lanka and Mala-
yan Islands. In India, east Nepal to Assam,
West Bengal, and west coast of India. In
Karnataka, collected only from Dakshina
Kannada and Shimoga districts. Being an
undershrub which dries and dies in the summer,
it is difficult to locate. Among all the species
in Karnataka, this is the only species which
is found outside the perview of the forests
and woodlands.

Type locality. India?

Selected specimens examined. Ryan sin.
num., Subramanian 70562, 77096, 77144,

Talbot exciccata sin. num., acc. no. 7905,
7906 (BSI). Barber 6078, 6656, 7161, 8728,
Beddome exciccata sin. num., acc. no. 43091,
Bourdillon 449, Deb 30431, 30770, Ellis and
Ramamurthy 18796, Henry 85, 16421, Joseph
17825, Narayanswami 3489, Ramamurthy
18129, 47644, Sebastine 717, 20810, 25369,

4466, 18444, Sharma 42451, Shetty 27381,

Subramanyan 3489, Vajravelu 26277, 33372,

48844, 47443, Wight 886 (MH); Rahiman 1,
77, 78, 215, 222, 267 (MUK).

Several taxonomists described intraspecific
categories such as varieties and forms in a

80

GENUS PIPER LINN. IN KARNATAKA

Fig. 8. P. bn gum Linn.

A. Branch with male spikes; B. Branch with female spikes; C. Runner with a leaf;
D. Male spike; E. Female spike; F. Portion of male spike; G. Portion of female
spike; H. Portion of male spike showing stamens (two of the bract removed); I.
Stamen; J. Ovary — L.S.; Ka. Male bract — bottom view; Kb. Male bract — side
view; Kc. Female bract — bottom view; Kd. Female bract — side view; La. Berry
— side view; Lb. Berry — top view.

81

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

number of species of Piper. Among the Karna-
taka species, only a few such as P. argyro-
phyllum, P. hookeri, P. nigrum and P. mullesua
were found to include subspecific categories.
Hooker (1886) described six varieties under
P. argyrophyllum but gave them just numbers
(1 to 6). Brandis (1906) included a variety
a under P. brachystachyum (P. mullesua) and
a variety /3 under P. hookeri. C. de Candolle
(1912) established a variety mysorensis under
P. nigrum. All these varieties are mainly based
on some minor variations in the length and
breadth of leaves or size variations of spikes
and flower parts. Because of the pre-
sence of extreme variability in the mor-
phological characters in the genus and due
to the absence of sharp taxonomic disconti-
nuities in the characters within the species, it

Refer

*Blume, C. L. (1823) : Catalogus van eenige der
merkwaardigste zoo in-als uit-heemse gewassen, te
vinden in’s Lands Plantentuin te Buitenzorg. Botavia.

Brandis, D. (1906) : Indian Trees. Delhi.

Casparus, C. (1696) : Flora Malabarica sive Horti
Malarici. Lugduni Batavorum.

Cooke, T. (1903) : The Flora of the Presidency
of Bombay. London.

de Candolle, C. ( 1 869) : Piperaceae. In : de Can-
dolle, A.P. (ed.). Prodromus Systematis Regni
Vegetabilis 16(1): 235-471. Germany.

de Candolle, C. (1912): Piperaceae Meebodianae
Herbarii Vratislaviensis. In: Fedde, F. (ed.).

Repertorium Specierum Novarum Regni Vegetabilis
10: 518-523.

Don, D. (1825): Prodromus Florae Nepalensis.
London.

Fedde, F. (1912): Repertorium Specierum Nova-
rum Regni Vegetabilis.

Gamble, J. D. (1925): Flora of the Presidency
of Madras. Calcutta.

Hooker, J. D. (1886) : The Flora of British India.
London.

Howard, R. D. (1973): Notes on the Piperaceae

is not advisable to consider subspecific cate-
gories, unlelss the taxon under study is suffi-
ciently different from the species which it has
to be separated from. In the present study,
none of the species was found to have suffi-
cient variations to merit subdivision into a
distinct variety.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our sincere thanks to
Dr (Fr) C. J. Saldanha, Director, Centre for
Taxonomic Studies, Bangalore, for his kind
help in the study. This paper is a part of the
Ph.D. thesis (University of Mysore) of the
senior author and he gratefully thanks the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
New Delhi, for financial assistance.

E N CE S

of the Lesser Antilles. J. Arnold Arb. 54(3) : 377-
411.

Hunter, W. (1807): Remarks on the species of
pepper, which are found on Prince of Wale’s Island.
Asia. Res. 9: 383-393.

Index Kewensis Plantarum Phanarogamarum
(1895-1970): 2 Vol. & 14 Suppl. Oxford.

*Kunth, C. S. (1939): Linnaea 13: 651-723.

* Lamarck, J.B.A.P.M. de & Poiret, J.L.M. (1791):
Illustrations des genres.

Lawrence, G.H.M. (1951): Taxonomy of Vascu-
lar Plants. New York.

*Link, J.H.P. (1821): Enumeratio Plantarum Horti
Regni Botanici Berlinensis.

Linnaeus, C. (1753) : Species Plantarum. London.
Miquel, F.A.W. (1843): Systema Piperacearum.
Rottendom.

(1845) : Animadversiones in Pipera-
ceae Herbarii Hookeriani. Lond. J. Bot. 4 : 410-470.

(1846): Annotations in Pipera-
ceae Herbarii Arottiani. ibid. 5: 533.

(1859) : Flora Van Nederlandech

India (Flora Indiae Batavae).

*Presl, K. B. (1844): Botanische Bemerkungen.

82

GENUS PIPER LINN. IN KARNATAKA

Rahim'.v, b. A, Murthy, K. N., Nair, M. K. &
Nayar, i . M. (1979): Distribution, morphology
and ecology of Piper species in Karnataka, India.
J. Plant. Crops 7(2) : 93-100.

, Murthy, K. N. & Nair, M. K. (1981) :

Collection and conservation of Piper nigrum and
related species from Karnataka forests. Indian Cocoa
Areca Spices J. 4(4): 110-112.

& Nair, M. K. (1983): Morpho-
logy, Cytology and Chemical constituents of some
Piper species from India. J. Plant. Crops 11(2) :
72-90.

Raizada, M. B. (1966) : Nomenclatural changes
in Indian Plants. Indian Forester. 92(5 ) : 299-320.

Roxburgh, W. (1832) : Flora Indica. Serampore.

Saldanha, C. J. & Nicolson, D. H. (1976) :
Flora of Hassan District, Karnataka, India. New
Delhi.

Vahl, M. (1804) : Enumeratio Plantarum. Havi-
niae.

Wallich, N. (1832): A numerical list of dried
plants in the East India Company’s Museum
(Wallich’s Catalogue). London.

Wight, R. (1853) : leones Plantarum Indiae

Orientalis. Weinheim.

* Original not seen.

83

POLYCHAETA OF THE PULICAT LAKE (TAMIL NADU)1

S. K. Sunder Raj and P. J. Sanjeeva Raj2
(With four plates)

Polychaete fauna of the Pulicat Lake (Tamil Nadu) consisting of 25 species
belonging 23 genera and 13 families, 20 of which are new records to this lake and
two new to the brackishwaters of India are described, together with their distribution
in the lake, and the taxonomic keys for all of them.

I N TROD U CTIO N

Polychaetes constitute a major component
of the bottom fauna of a lagoon like the Puli-
cat Lake as Raman et al (1975) have shown,
and they contribute an important link in the
food- webs of a brackishwater ecosystem.

Among the major brackishwater bodies of
India, the polychaete fauna of the Gangetic
Delta and of the Chilka Lake have been
thoroughly investigated, but no systematic work
on the polychaetes of the Pulicat Lake, which
is the second largest brackishwater body in
India has been attempted.

The present survey was conducted during
the years 1973-1978. As the Pulicat Lake is a
major brackishwater fishing centre in Tamil
Nadu, a knowledge of the polychaete fauna
of this lake would be helpful from both the
academic as well as from the fisheries points
of view. ^

Topography of the Pulicat Lake. Russel
(1898), Hornell (1910), Chacko et al (1953),
Krishnamurthy & Rao (1970), Joel (1973),
Raman et al (1975), Paul Raj (1976) and
Jhingran (1977) have earlier described the
topography of the Pulicat Lake.

Pulicat Lake (Lat. 13°24' to 13°47'N and
Long. 80° 2' to 80°16'E) covers an average

1 Accepted November 1984.

2 Department of Zoology, Madras Christian Col-
lege, Tambaram, Madras 600 059.

area of about 461 sq. kilometres. The average
depth of the lake is about 1 . 5 metres and the
maximum depth is about 7.0 metres. The lake,
at its southern end, close to Pulicat Town,
opens into the Bay of Bengal by a narrow
mouth (pass). In addition to this, there is also
another seasonal pass near Duggirajapatnam
(northernmost point). In the northern part of
the lake, there are two large islands, Venadu
and Irakkam (Plate 1) and a much smaller
one called Kuruvithittu. On the eastern side,
the Sriharikota Island extends north to south
all along, as a narrow strip of land between
the lake and the Bay of Bengal. After the
establishment of the S.H.A.R. on the Srihari-
kota Island it is connected with Sulurpet
Town on the mainland by a cement road. The
Buckingham Canal runs parallel to the entire
length of the lake and it opens into the lake
here and there.

Hydrology and substrata of the Lake. Hor-
nell (1910), Chacko et al (1953), Michael
(1970), Joel (1973), Srinivasan & Pillay (1972),
Krishnamurthy (1973), Raman et al. (1975)
and Paul Raj (1976) have described the hydro-
logy of the Pulicat Lake.

The interesting feature of the lake is that
during the flood season in November-Decem-
ber, the salinity is extremely low, but during
the summer and post-summer months (April
to September) it is hypersaline. Hornell (1910)
observed fine sandy bottom along the shores

84

J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 84 Plate 1

Sunder Raj & Sanjeeva Raj: Polychaeta

1. Pulicat Pass; 2. Karimanal; 3. Dhonirevu; 4. Gunankuppam; 5. Lighthousekup-
pam; 6. Kottaikuppam lock; 7. Koraikuppam; 8. Sattankuppam; 9. Edamani; 10.
Kulathumedu; 11. Moosamani lock; 12. Annamalaicheri; 13. Chunnambukulam; 14.
Arangam; 15. Pulincheri; 16. Zonangipalam; 17. Arambakkam; 18. Irrakkam;
19. Venadu; 20. Berupet; 21. Atakanitippa; 22. Malan; 23. Sriharikotta; 24. Roy-
duruah; 25. Avarivakkam; 26. Tada; 27. Duggirajapatnam.

J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 84

Sunder Raj & Sanjeeva Raj: Polychaeta

Plate 2

Zone I: Sand with little admixture of mud.

Zone II: Sand and mud with equal proportions with patches of weeds.

Zone III: Mud.

1. Pulicat Pass; 2. Karimanal; 3. Dhonirevu; 4. Gunankuppam; 5. Lighthouse-
kuppam; 6. Kottaikuppam lock; 7. Koraikuppam; 8. Sattankuppam; 9. Edamani;
10. Kulathumedu; 11. Moosamani lock; 12. Annamalaicheri; 13. Chunnambukulam;
14. Arangam; 15. Pulincheri; 16. Zonangipalam; 17. Arambakkam; 18. Irrakkam;
19. Venadu; 23. Sriharikotta; 25. Avarivakkam; 26. Tada.

POLYCHAETA OF THE PUL1CAT LAKE

of the lake near the lake-mouth (pass).
Krishnamurthy (1971) observed three zones,
based on the nature of the substratum, one
zone characterised by the predominance of
sand in the substratum, with little admixture
of mud, a second zone having sand and mud
in equal proportions with patches of weeds,
and a third zone consisting entirely of mud.
Of these three zones, the first and the second
zones are rich in flora and fauna, and poly-
chaetes particularly are plenty in the second
zone (Plate 2).

Review of previous work on Polychaeta of

India. The earliest work on the Polychaeta of
the Indian region is that of Willey (1905),
describing collections from the Gulf of
Mannar. Later, Potts (1909) studied the Poly-
chaeta of the Indian Ocean. Southern (1921)
and Gravely (1927) described the Polychaeta
occurring in the Krusadai Island, Chilka lake,
Gangetic delta and Cochin backwaters. Rindra
(1927) studied the polychaetes belonging to
the genus Eurythoe from Karachi. Aziz (1938)
studied the polychaetes of Karachi. Brackish-
water polychaetes of Madras were studied by
Panikkar & Aiyar (1937). This was followed
by the contributions of Fauvel (1930, 1930a,
1932 and 1940), which culminated in 1953 in
the publication of his comprehensive account
of the Polychaeta of India in the fauna of
British India series. He described 283 species
from the coasts of India, which includes 47
brackishwater species and 236 marine forms.
Day (1962) reviewed the list of the Polychaeta
in the Western Indian Ocean. Polychaeta from
the south-east coast of India were studied by
Ghosh (1963). Some polychaetous annelids
from the Andaman waters were studied by
Tampi & Rangarajan (1964). Polychaetes from
the Cochin harbour area were studied by
Cheriyan (1966). Polychaeta from Maharashtra
and Goa were studied by Parulekar (1971).
More recently, the polychaetes of the Indian

Ocean were catalogued by Hartman (1974).

Concerning the brackishwater polychaetes
particularly of India, Southern (1921) in his
classical work on the Fauna of the Chilka
Lake described about 20 species of brackish-
water polychaetes. Brackishwater polychaetes
of the Gangetic Delta and Cochin Backwaters
were also described by Southern (1921).
Sewell (1934) described the brackishwater
polychaetes of the salt lakes of Calcutta (Hugli
river). Panikkar & Aiyar (1937) described
the brackishwater polychaetes of the Adyar and
Coovum estuaries near Madras. Alikunhi
(1941, 1942, 1943, 1946, 1947, 1948 and 1951)
studied the interstitial polychaetes of Madras.

Chacko et al <1953) merely listed five
species of Polychaeta from the Pulicat Lake,
namely Lycastis indica Southern, Nereis chilka-
ensis Southern, Marphysa gravelyi Southern,
Lumbriconereis polydesma Southern and Poly-
dora kempi Southern. Krishnamurthy (1963)
described six brackishwater polychaetes from
the Adyar estuary, Madras. Balasubramanyam
(1964), while describing the fauna of the
Vellar estuary (Porto Novo) listed 28 species
of polychaetes. Radhakrishna & Ganapati
(1967) worked out the fauna of the Godavari
estuary describing about 19 polychaete species.

In addition to the above faunistic surveys,
some work has been done on the other aspects
like anatomy, behaviour, reproductive biology,
ecophysiology and biochemistry of some select-
ed polychaetes. Ranganathan (1942) worked
out the anatomy of Glycera embranchiata.
Tampi (1946) worked out the structure of the
eyes and tube-building organs of some selected
polychaetes. Krishnan (1952) studied the
nephridia of Nereidae and also the develop-
ment of Diopatra variabilis. Anatomy and
development of Dasychone cingulata was
studied by Thomas (1955). Physiological
studies on Marphysa gravelyi were conducted
by Krishnamurthy (1962, 1963 and 1968).

85

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Salinity tolerance and weight regulation in
Lycastis indica were studied by Mary (1965).
Table 1 compares the occurrence of the
brackishwater polychaetes of India and their
distribution.

Taxonomic methods. Southern (1921) has
given more emphasis to parapodial structures
rather than to the appendages of the anterior
end. Fauvel (1953) has given more emphasis
to the head morphology (prostomium, eyes,
tentacles, tentacular cirri, gills, proboscis with
its jaws and denticles). The keys given herein
to identify the families of the polychaetes of
the Pulicat Lake are based mainly on the
head structures, whereas the keys for generic
and specific levels are based on head struc-
tures as well as on parapodial characters.

Laboratory maintenance of polychaetes. A

number of attempts were made to maintain
polychaetes alive in the laboratory at the
Madras Christian College, Tambaram, about
80 km inland from the Pulicat Lake. Most
often the worms survived only for a week or
so. The following method was successfully
evolved subsequently to keep the worms alive
for more than six months, away from their
natural habitat.

Polychaete worms collected from the Puli-
cat Lake were transported by rail and road
in about 4 hours and were brought to Tam-
baram in glass bottles containing the lake
water. A perforated lid was used to allow
ventilation. The lower halves of the glass
bottles were filled with the bottom mud from
the lake and the rest was filled with the lake
water. The worms were seen to be readily
burrowing into the mud at the bottom. After
arriving at the inland lab, the worms, along
with the lake water and mud, were transferr-
ed to glass troughs of five-litre capacity. Two
litres of the lake mud at the bottom and two
litres of the lake water were used in each
glass trough. Dark slushy mud was noticed

to decompose fast, hence shore sand was
found to be ideal. The water in the glass
troughs was constantly aerated, to avoid oxy-
gen depletion. Salinity of the water was main-
tained around 35.01%o by adding distilled
water and sea water as may be required. The
optimum salinity was noted to be 30±5%o.
The dissolved oxygen content in the water was
on the average 3.684 ppm. Temperature of
the water was on an average 26 °C. The worms
were able to live well in varying temperatures,
the optimum temperature being 26dz5°C. In
each such glass trough, about 25 worms were
stocked. Species maintained at the inland lab
were Marphysa gravelyi, Nereis chilkaensis,
Heteromastus similis and Euclymene annan-
dalei. If the number in each trough was raised
above 25, mortality was noticed and this may
be due to overcrowding in a small container.
Stocking density may be 10-12 worms per litre.

Since most of the worms are detritus feeders,
no supplemental food was supplied. They were
presumed to be feeding on the detritus and
on the plankton available in the water. These
worms under such laboratory conditions sur-
vived for more than six months, so that they
could be used for the present work.

Materials and Methods

Polychaetes were collected from nearly 27
stations representing all possible biotopes of
the lake. Fishermen of the Pulicat Lake also
collect polychaetes as bait for angling. Two
methods are in vogue.

(i) Intertidal collection. The body fluids of
crabs like Portunus sp., ZJca sp., by breaking
their appendages are spilt over the sandy shore.
This odour of the crab seems to attract the
worms to come out of their burrows. They
are then gently caught by their heads and
pulled out of their burrows.

(ii) Bottom collection. The villagers use a

86

POLYCHAETA OF THE PUL1CAT LAKE

Table 1

Distribution

of Polychaetes

IN BRACKISHWATER

BODIES

in India

Brackishwater polychaetes
of India

Pulicat Lake

Salt Lakes of
Calcutta

Chilka Lake

Godavary Estuary

Madras

Brackish waters

Vellar Estuary

Vembanad Lake

1.

Harmothoe ampulUfera

+

-

-

+

-

-

+

2.

Leonira japonica

-

-

-

-

-

+

-

3.

Pisionidens indica

+

-

-

-

-

+

-

4.

Pisione com pie xa

+

-

-

-

-

-

-

5.

Hesione pantherina

-

-

-

+

-

-

+

6.

Hesione intertexta

+

-

-

-

-

+

-

7.

Eteone barantollae

+

+

-

-

-

-

-

8.

Ancistrosyllis constricta

-

-

+

-

+

+

. -

9.

Tomopteris elegans

-

-

-

-

-

+

-

to.

Lycastis indica

+

+

+

-

+

+

+

11.

Tylonereis fauveli

+

-

+

-

-

+

-

12.

T. bogoyawlenskyii

-

-

-

-

-

-

+

13,

Nereis chilkaensis

+

-

+

-

+

+

+

14.

N. glandicincta

-

+

+

-

+

+

+

15.

N. re duct a

-

-

+

-

-

-

-

16.

N. cavifrons

+

-

-

-

-

-

17.

N. cricognatha

-

+

-

-

-

-

-

18.

N. chingrighattensis

-

+

-

-

-

-

-

19.

Perinereis cavifrons

-

-

-

-

-

-

+

20.

P. marjorii

-

-

+

-

-

-

-

21.

P. cultrifera

-

-

-

-

-

-

+

22.

Dendronereis aestuarina

-

+

+

+

—

-

+

23.

D. arborifera

—

—

-

+

—

-

-

24.

D. heteropoda

-

+

+

-

-

-

+

25.

Nephthys polybranchia

-

-

+

-

+

-

26.

N. oligobranchia

-

+

+

-

-

.+

-

27.

Goniada emerita

-

-

—

—

-

-

+

28.

Glycera alba

+

-

+

—

—

—

+

29.

Glycinde oligodon

-

-

+

—

-

-

-

30.

0 nu phis eremita

-

-

—

—

—

+

—

31.

Diopatra neapolitana

+

—

“T

+

+

+

' +

87

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

32. Marphysa gravelyi

33. M. sanguined

34. M. stragulum

35. Lumbriconereis polydesma

36. L. simplex

37. L. pseudo bifilaris

38. L. heteropoda

39. S co l o pi os marsupialis

40. Scoloplos indica

41 . Nerine cirratulus

42. Polydora ciliata

43. P. hornelli

44. P. kempi

45. Sp/o bengalensis

46 . Prionospio krusadensis

47 . P. polybranchiata

48. P. cirrifera

49. Myriochele picta

50. Cossura delta

51. Capitella sp.

52. Heteromastus similis

53. Paraheteromastus tenuis

54 . Mastobranchus indicus

55. Barantolla sculpta

56. Branchiocapitella singularis

57. Euclymene annandalei

58. E. insect a

59. Sternaspis costata

60. Pectinaria crassa

61. Amphicteis gunneri

62. Loirnia medusa

63. P/sfa indica

64. Sabellaria spinulosa

65 . S', pectinata

66 . Laonome indica

67. Potamilla leptochaeta

68. Fabricia spongicola

69. Hydroides norvegica

70. Ficopomatus macrodon

71. Mercierella enigmatica

Table 1 (contd.)

+ — + + + +

+

+

+

+

+

+

88

POLYCHAETA OF THE PULICAT LAKE

special teak plank, like a cricket-bat, made
just for collecting polychaetes. The plank is
about 60 to 75 cm long and about 15 cm
broad, and about 10 cm. in thickness. The top
has a handle, but the bottom is pointed. After
choosing the proper habitat of polychaetes,
they insert this plank deep into the soft ooze
almost up to the handle, incline it outwards
and rotate it in a semi-circle, thus scooping
out the bottom mud. Polychaetes dislodged
from such mud are collected by handpicking.

Polychaetes associated with oyster-shells
were collected by dislodging the shells with a
chisel and hammer. Interstitial polychaetes
were collected by “Corer” as designed by
McIntyre (1968).

Key for Identification

(a) KEY TO IDENTIFY ERRANTIA AND SEDENTARIA
Body vermiform, undivided into two regions; all

segments nearly alike; Free-living ERRANTIA

Body divided into two distinct regions, thorax and
abdomen; usually tubicolous SEDENTARIA

(b) KEY TO IDENTIFY FAMILIES OF ERRANTIA

1 . Elytra present on a limited number of segments

only; the posterior segments carry cirri

Aphroditidae

Elytra absent 2

2. Proboscis armed with four teeth; prostomium

fused with buccal segment; feet uniramous

Pisionidae

Proboscis unarmed 3

3. Tentacles four to five; dorsal and ventral cirri

foliaceous; setae compound Phyllodocidae

Dorsal cirri long and moniliform 4

4. Head with two pairs of eyes; two or three ten-
tacles; palps present or absent Hesionidae

Proboscis with paragnaths 5

5. Proboscis armed with a single pair of toothed

jaws; tentacles two; parapodia biramous

Nereidae

Proboscis armed with two pairs of jaws
tentacles four or more; parapodia

biramous or sesquiramous 6

6. Prostomium conical, ringed with four small ten-

tacles; palps absent Glyceridae

Prostomium distinct and well developed with

tentacles and palps; proboscis complex

Eunicidae

(c) ICEY TO IDENTIFY FAMILIES OF SEDENTARIA

1 . Body clearly divided into regions 2

Body not clearly divided into regions; prosto-
mium without tentacles; palps without suckers;
dorsal and ventral cirri foliaceous; hooded hook-
ed setae Spionidae

2. Prostomium conical without appendages; pro-
boscis unarmed; dorsal and ventral cirri absent.
Capitellidae

Prostomium not conical 3

3. Prostomium rimmed with a cephalic plate; anal

funnel with cirri. No gills Maldanidae

Prostomium trilobed or hidden 4

4. Prostomium trilobed, buccal tentacles long and

retractile into the mouth; three to four pairs of
subulate branchiae inserted on the anterior seg-
ments Ampharaetidae

Prostomium hidden; with or without operculum
5

5. With an operculum; a thoracic membrane; tube

calcareous Serpulidae

Without operculum; no thoracic membrane; tube
membranous Sabellidae

(d) KEY TO IDENTIFY GENERA AND SPECIES

Family 1. Aphroditidae

Eyes four; prostomium bilobed; three tentacles;
dorsal setae stouter than the ventral with biden-
tate tips; sessile; elytra fringed with small

papillae; ventral lamellae conspicuous

Harmothoe ampullifera

Family 2. Pisionidae

Presence of two non-serrated buccal spines bet-
ween the two palps with genital papillae in the

35th segment Pisione complexa

Absence of buccal spines and palps longer than

dorsal cirri of the buccal parapodia

Pisionidens indica

Family 3. Phyllodocidae

Prostomium with two pairs of tentacles and two
pairs of tentacular cirri; proboscis with soft rows
of papillae Eteone barcmtollae

89

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Family 4. Hesionidae

Prostomium with two tentacles; palps absent;
proboscis unarmed; paired brown spots on each
inter segmental line Hesione intertexta

Family 5. Nereidae

1 . Feet uniramous; eyes arranged in a line; dorsal

setae absent Lycastis indica

Feet biramous 2

2. Paragnaths present; dorsal cirrus longer and
larger than ventral cirrus; no dorsal homogomph

falcigerous bristles in posterior feet

Nereis chilkaensis

Paragnaths absent; ventral setigerous lobe bilob-

ed in few segments; jaws with 12 teeth

Ty loner eis fauvel i

Family 6. Eunicidae

1. Tentacular cirri present; tentacles with cirrato-

phores Diopatra neapolitana

Tentacular cirri absent 2

2. Gills present, pectinate; comb setae arranged in

middle region of the body Marphysa gravelyi

Gills absent 3

3. Gills and eyes absent; feet with wing capillary

setae and hooks absent. . . Lumbriconereis simplex
Hooks present Lumbriconereis polydesma

Family 7. Glyceridae

Gills inserted on the dorsal edge of the foot;
proboscis with four long jaws; Dorsal setae
simple capillary and ventral setae compound and
winged; posterior lobes unequal Glyceraalba

Family 8. Spionidae

Prostomium conical; bidentate; hooded hooks;
gills in anterior segments; anal cup present ....

Nerine cirratulus

Prostomium rounded; gills pinnate; hooded hooks
with four teeth; median anal cirrus present ....

Prionospio krusadensis

Prostomium rounded, but slightly notched in
front and prolonged up to the 3rd segment . . .
Poly dor a ciliata

Family 9. Capitellidae

1 . Thorax with seven segments; dorsal and ventral
hooks begin from tenth segment; gills present in

posterior segments Branchiocapitella

singularis

Thorax with more than seven segments 2

2. Thorax with 11 segments; segments one to five
capillary setae; segments six to 11 long hooks;
short hooks in the rest ..... Heteromastus similis
Thorax with 12 segments; segments two to seven
capillary setae; eight to 12 long crochets; short
crochets in the rest Barantolla sculpta

Family 10. M aldan idae

Head with cephalic plate; anal segment with
anal cirri; total segments 19. Ocelli present in
cephalic plate; median ventral cirrus in caudal
funnel stouter than others

Euclymene annandalei

Absence of ocelli in cephalic plate; median ven-
tral cirrus in caudal funnel longer than others
Euclymene insecta

Family 11. Ampharetidae

Thorax 17 segments; gills four pairs and arrang-
ed on either side of the first two segments

Amphecteis gunner i

Family 12. Sabellidae

Thorax six segments; no pickaxe-shaped setae;

ranchiae four pairs Laonome indica

Thorax seven segments; presence of pickaxe-
shaped setae; Branchiae six pairs

Potamilla leptochaeta

Family 13. Serpulidae

Operculum compound; funnel shaped with a
crown of horny spines; radii of operculum sharp
with more than one pair of lateral processes
Hydroides norvegica

Taxonomy

ERRANTIA

Family Aphroditidae

Species 1. Harmothoe ampullifera (Grube) 1878
(Plate 3, figs, la & lb)

Polynoe ampullifera Grube 1878, p. 35; Lepido-
notus ampullifera Gravier 1901, p. 214; Harmothoe
ampullifera Fauvel 1911, p. 368; Paralepidonotus
ampullifera Horst 1917, p. 76; Harmothoe ampulli-
fera Fauvel 1927, p. 414; 1930a, p. 8; 1930b, p. 508;
1932, p. 22; 1940, p. 254; 1953, p. 43-44; De Silva
1965, p. 538-539; Pillai 1965, p. 117-119. Parulekar
1971, p. 732.

90

j. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 84

Sunder Raj & Sanjeeva Raj: Polychaeta

Plate 3

{see captions overleaf)

Captions to Plate 3

Harmathoe ampullifera Grube, 1878
Fig. la — Median foot;

Fig. lb — Ventral seta.

Pisionidens indica Aiyar & Alikunhi. 1940
Fig. 2 — A typical parapodium.

Pisione complexa Alikunhi, 1947
Fig. 3 — Anterior end, Dorsal view.

Eteone barantollae Fauvel, 1932.

Fig. 4a — Head, Dorsal view;

Fig. 4b — Proboscis with rows of papillae.

Hesione inter texta Grube, 1878
Fig. 5 — Median parapodium.

Lycastis indica Southern, 1921

Fig. 6a — Heterogomph falciger from median parapodium;
Fig. 6b — Homogomph spiniger from same parapodium.

Nereis chilkaensis Southern, 1921.

Fig. 7 — Median right foot.

Tylonereis fauveli Southern, 1921
Fig. 8a — 5th right foot;

Fig. 8b — posterior end, Dorsal view.

Marphysa gravely i Southern, 1921
Fig. 9 — Branchiate foot.

Diopatra neapolitana Delle Chiaje, 1941
Fig. 10 — 10th right foot with gills.

Lumbriconereis simplex Southern, 1921
Fig. 11a — Anterior foot;

Fig. lib — Anterior end, Dorsal view.

Lumbriconereis polydesma Southern, 1921
Fig. 12a — Anterior end, Dorsal view;

Fig. 12b — Tip of crochet from median parapodium.

Glycera alba Rathke, 1843
Fig. 13a — 8th right foot;

Fig. 13b — jaw enlarged.

Nerine cirratulus Delle Chiaje, 1828.

Fig. 14a — Anterior end. Dorsal view;

Fig. 14b — Ventral bidentate hooded hook.

POLY CH A ETA OF THE PULICAT LAKE

Habitat. Collected from within the crevices
of oyster shells.

Description. Length 25 to 35 mm, including
parapodia on either side. Elytra 15 pairs,
overlapping each other posteriorly. Total num-
ber of parapodia 37 pairs. Dorsal setae
slightly curved and serrated. Ventral setae
long and bidentate. Tentacles black in colour.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Madras, Rame-
swaram and Pam ban (coral reefs).

Distribution outside Indian waters. Philippine
Islands, Persian Gulf and Red Sea.

Remarks. This species is closely related to
Harmothoe imbricata, but it differs from that
in having elongated nephridial papillae and
ventral lamellae.

Family Pisionidae

Species 2. Pisionidens indica Aiyar & Alikunhi
1940

(Plate 3, fig. 2)

Pisionella indica Aiyar & Alikunhi 1940, p. 89;
Fauviella pulchra Tebble 1953, p. 938; Pisionidens
pulchra Day 1957, p. 68; Pisionidens indica Day 1962,
p. 636.

Habitat Pulicat Mouth (Interstitial).

Description. 7 to 12 mm in preserved con-
dition. Body consists of about 35 segments.
Prostomium highly reduced. Eyes not clearly
visible. Parapodia uniramous.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Indian Ocean
and Bay of Bengal.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Durban
and West Indian Ocean.

Remarks. The forms described here are not
fully grown. In fully grown forms the third to
sixth parapodia are non-setigerous, setae pre-
sent from the seventh segment only. However
in this juvenile, almost all the parapodia
bear compound as well as simple setae.

Species 3. Pisione complexa Alikunhi 1947
(Plate 3, fig. 3)

Pisione complexa Alikunhi 1947, p. 105; Rao &
Ganapathi 1968, p. 110.

Habitat. Collected from Pulicat Pass (Inter-
stitial).

Description. 6 to 10 mm long, possessing
about 40 segments. Two non-serrated buccal
spines present between the two palps. A pair
of eyes present. Parapodia uniramous. Each
parapodium bears two long acicula and five
setae, both of simple and compound types.
The anal segment bears a pair of long anal
cirri. Genital papillae are seen in the 35th
segment.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Madras beach,
Waltair coast.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Bay of
Bengal.

Remarks. Out of the 15 worms collected
only 4 worms possess anal cirri. In all the
others, the anal cirri are absent.

Family Pliyllodocidae

Species 4. Eteone barantollae Fauvel 1932
(Plate 3, figs. 4a&4b)

Eteone barantollae Fauvel 1932, p. 72; 1953, p. 127.

Habitat. Collected from Pulicat Pass area,
along with Pisione complexa and some nema-
todes.

Description. Length 10 to 15 mm; breadth
1 to 1.5 mm. The worm possesses about 90
segments. A pair of eyes present. Proboscis
bears rows of papillae. Simple setae absent.
Paired anal cirri present.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Saltwater lakes
near Calcutta.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Not
known.

Remarks. Only two worms were collected
by Fauvel (1932 & 1953) who described that
there are five rows of papillae on the proboscis.

91

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

But in the present collection, the papillae are
not arranged in five definite rows, but are seen
to be rather irregularly arranged.

Family Hesionidae

Species 5. Hesione intertexta Grube 1878
(Plate 3, fig. 5)

Hesione intertexta Grube 1878, p. 102; Chamber-
lin 1919, p. 188; Monro 1926; p. 311; Pruvot 1930,
p. 29; Fauvel 1932, p. 60; Monro 1937, p. 270;
Fauvel 1953, p. 105; Tampi 1964. p. 104.

Habitat. Collected from the crevices of
oyster shells.

Description. Prostomium bilobed. Two pairs
of eyes present. A pair of tentacles and eight
pairs of tentacular cirri present with cirrato-
phores. Parapodia uniramous. Setae sickle-
shaped. Total segments 16. Proboscis unarmed.
Segments distinct at the sides.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Gulf of
Mannar, Port Blair, West Indian Ocean.

Distribution outside Indian waters. New
Caledonia, Philippine Islands, Australia.

Remarks. These worms were collected along
with Harmathoe ampullifera.

Family Nereidae

Species 6. Lycastis indica Southern 1921
(Plate 3, figs. 6a & 6b)

Lycastis indica Southern 1921, p. 578; Horst 1924,
p. 4; Fauvel 1930a, p. 19; 1932, p. 82; Aziz 1938,
p. 27; Fauvel 1940, 'p. 257; 1953, p. 167; Ghosh
1963, p. 240; De Silva 1965, p. 5.

Habitat. This species is an euryhaline form.
It was collected from Sattankuppam, Light-
house laippam and Edamani on the Pulicat
Lake.

Description. Length 30 to 40 mm and con-
sists of about 130 setigerous segments. Pro-
boscis without paragnaths. Jaws possess nine
teeth. Feet uniramous. In larger specimens, the
dorsal cirri are long and finger-shaped. The
dorsal cirri consist of a few homogomph

spinigerous setae. The ventral tuft bears both
heterogomph, spinigerous and heterogomph
falcigerous setae.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Chilka Lake,
Salt lakes (Calcutta), Cochin, Madras, Tra-
vancore, Kilakarai, Waltair and Porto-Novo.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Not
known.

Remarks. Southern (1921) describes the
dorsal longitudinal groove ending in a pit, but
the Pulicat species do not show this pit.

Species 7. Nereis chilkaensis Southern 1921
(Plate 3, fig. 7)

Nereis chilkaensis Southern 1921, p. 584; Fauvel
1932, p. 94; Panikkar & Aiyar 1937, p. 293; Fauvel
1940, p. 258; 1953, p. 185; De Silva 1965, p. 543;
Parulekar 1971, p. 739.

Habitat. This species is available in almost
all regions of the Pulicat Lake except at the
pass. It lives in burrows and occasionally
comes out to the surface of the water.

Description. Length 50-75 mm and consists
of about 75 segments. Characters are very
similar to those of Southern’s (1921) descrip-
tion. Feet biramous. Each foot bears about
40-50 setae in general. Variations may occur
due to the varying degrees of sexual maturity.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Chilka Lake,
Ennur backwater, Pamban, Madras coast and
T ravancore.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Sri Lanka.

Remarks. The colour of the worm varies in
different areas of the lake.

Species 8. Tylonereis fauveli Southern 1921
(Plate 3, figs. 8a & 8b)

Tylonereis fauveli Southern 1921, p. 582; Fauvel
1930a, p. 19; 1932, p. 84; 1953, p. 169.

Habitat. It was collected at the following
stations : Venadu, Berupet, Sriharikota, Ataka-
nitippa and Royduruah.

92

POLYCHAETA OF THE PULICAT LAKE

Description. Length 40-80 mm and consists
of about 125 segments. Eyes black. Tentacles,
palps and tentacular cirri well developed. Feet
biramous, setae arranged in three groups. Anal
segment bright red in colour.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Chilka Lake
and Pamban.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Mergui.

Remarks. This species has more resemblance
to Tylonereis bogoyawlonskyi Fauvel (1911),
but it differs from the latter in having a
bilobed ventral setigerous neuropodium, instead
of a trilobed one. The worms are pale pink
in colour.

Family Eunicidae

Species 9. Marphysa gravelyi Southern 1921
(Plate 3, fig. 9)

Marphysa gravelyi Southern 1921. p. 617; Gra-
velyi 1927, p. 19; Fauvel 1932, p. 142; Aiyar 1933,
p. 207; Fauvel 1953, p. 246; Krishnamurthy 1963,
p. 97; Pillai 1965, p. 110-177; Cheriyan 1966, p. 44.

Habitat. These worms live in long burrows
in muddy bottom of the Pulicat Lake. Their
burrows are not vertical but pass through the
soil irregularly in various directions. The open-
ings of their burrows can be easily located
by the presence of a circular ridge of fine sand
all round. During breeding season one can
notice the large cucumber-shaped egg mass of
jelly, attached to the mouth of each burrow.
These worms were collected from the stations
Sattankuppam, Lighthousekuppam, Edamani,
Kottaikuppam lock, Avarivakkam, Dhonirevu,
Annamalaicheri, Moosamani lock, Arangam,
Chunnambukulam, Arambakkam, Irakkam,
Malan, Dugirajapatnam and Royduruah.

Description. Large specimens measure about
300 mm and carry about 500 segments. Ante-
rior end slightly cylindrical up to the 7th seg-
ment behind which it is depressed. Anterior
region greenish in colour, posterior region
blood-red in colour. Gills vary from blood-red
to pale yellow. Out of the five tentacles the

middle one is the longest. In general, two eyes
present in young individuals. Two pairs of
anal cirri, of which one pair larger than the
other. Dental apparatus similar to Southern’s
(1921) description. Feet highly vascularised;
setae arranged in two groups; capillary type.
Their length varies very much. The blades
very minutely serrated.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Chilka Lake,
Adyar estuary, Ennur backwaters, Vellar
estuary and Cochin harbour area.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Philip-
pines and Indonesia.

Remarks. Eyes are usually said to be absent
in adults, but they are well developed in the
adults of Chunnambukulam and Pulincheri
stations. However, adults from Edamani,
Lighthousekuppam and Sattankuppam do not
possess eyes. This is an instance of intraspecific
variation.

Species 10. Diopatra neapolitana Delle Chiaje
1841

(Plate 3, fig. 10)

Diopatra neapolitana Delle Chiaje, 1841; Me In-
tosh 1903, p. 128; Crossland 1903, p. 132; Diopatra
amboensis Willey 1905, p. 214;Diopatra variabilis
Southern 1921. p. 611; Diopatra neapolitana Fauvel
1923, p. 419; 1930, p. 29; 1932, p. 144; 1933, p. 28;
Monro 1933, p. 293; Aziz 1938, p. 39; Fauvel 1953,
p. 252; Tebble 1955, p. 116; Pillai 1961, p. 13;
Cheriyan 1966, p. 45; Diopatra variabilis Hartman
1974, p. 223.

Habitat. It was collected at the Pulicat Pass,
Karimanal, Kottaikuppam lock, Kulathumedu
and Pakkam.

Description. Purple-green in colour. Up to
250 mm and consists of about 320 segments.
Out of the five occipital tentacles the median
one can be stretched up to the middle of the
10th segment. All tentacles bear cirratophores.
Eyes absent. Gills begin from the fourth foot
only. Gill filaments spirally arranged. There is

93

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

no variation in the dental apparatus from
Southern’s description. The tube is membra-
nous and partly buried in sand, the upperpart
thick, tough and more or less encrusted with
broken pieces of molluscan shells.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Gangetic delta,
Orissa coast, Madras coast. Gulf of Mannar
and Cochin harbour area.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Pacific
Ocean, China Sea, Gulf of Siam, Arabian Sea,
Gulf of Oman, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Atlantic
Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.

Remarks. According to Fauvel (1953), there
is not much difference between Diopatra
neapolitana Delle Chiaje 1841, and Diopatra
variabilis Southern 1921 except for the teeth
in comb setae.

Species 11. Lumbriconereis simplex Southern
1921

(Plate 3, figs. 11a & lib)

Lumbriconereis simplex Southern 1921, p. 625;
Fauvel 1953, p. 264; Cheriyan 1966, p. 46.

Habitat. Available at Dhonirevu only and
is collected along with Euclymene annandalei.

Description. Prostomium conical. Eyes, palps
and tentacles absent. Feet highly vascularised.
Parapodia absent in the first two segments.
Setae simple winged, capillary type. There is
not much variation in the pharyngeal complex
from Southern’s (1921) description. Length
15 to 30 mm., breadth about 2 mm.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Saltwaters of
Calcutta, Chilka Lake and Cochin harbour.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Not
known.

Remarks. According to Southern (1921),
there is a dark amber coloured spot near the
base of each foot. Such spots are not observed
in the Pulicat forms.

Species 12. Lumbriconereis polydesma Southern
1921

(Plate 3, figs. 12a & 12b)

Lumbriconereis polydesma Southern 1921, p. 632;
Panikkar and Aiyar 1937; Fauvel 1953, p. 264.

Habitat. Available only at Dhonirevu.

Description. Prostomium round; eyes absent.
Two achaetous rings between the head and 1st
setigerous segment. Feet increase in size up to
the 10th segment and then taper gradually
towards the posterior end. Flooks present from
the 29th feet. Flooks or crochets have two
broad wings over the tip with delicate stria-
tions. The setae are stout winged capillaries.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Chilka Lake.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Not
known.

Remarks. According to Southern (1921),
there is a small patch of pigment near the
posterior border of the head, a little on the
right side of the median line. Such a pigment
patch is not observed in the Pulicat forms.

Family Glyceridae
Species 13. Glycera alba Rathke 1843
(Plate 3, figs. 13a & 13b)

Glycera alba Ehlers 1868, p. 661; Moore 1903,
p. 464; Izuka 1912, p. 247; var. cochinensis Southern
1921, p. 627; Fauvel 1923, p. 385; Gravely 1927,
p. 9; Fauvel 1932, p. 126; Aziz 1938, p. 31; Fauvel
1940, p. 261; 1953, p. 292; Cheriyan' 1966, p. 47;
Parulekar 1971, p. 745.

Habitat. This form is confined to Pulicat
Pass (sandy beach) only.

Description. Length 50 to 60 mm about 100
setigerous segments. Body rounded, prosto-
mium conical and pointed with four small ten-
tacles. Proboscis with four hooked jaws and
well developed papillae. Gills simple and in-
serted on the dorsal side of the parapodia.
Anal segment bears a pair of long tapering
cirri. Dorsal setae simple, ventral setae com-
pound.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Gan jam coast.
Cochin backwater and Mormugoa Bay.

94

j. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 84

Sunder Raj & Sanjeeva Raj: Polychaeta

Plate 4

( see captions overleaf)

Captions to Plate 4

Prionospio krusadensis Fauvel, 1929
Fig. 15 — Median parapodium.

Polydora ciliata Johnston, 1838
Fig. 16 — Anterior end, Dorsal view.

Heteromastus similis Southern, 1921
Fig. 17 — Anterior end, side view.

Barantolla sculpta Southern, 1921

Fig. 18 — Dorsal view of segments with branchiae.

Branchiocapitella singularis Fauvel, 1932

Fig. 19 — Dorsal view of segments with branchial lobes.

Euclymene annandalei Southern, 1921
Fig. 20a — Anterior end, lateral view;

Fig. 20a — Uncinus of the 10th segment.

Clymene ( Euclymene ) insecta Ehlers, 1904
Fig. 21a — Anterior end, side view;

Fig. 21b — Acicular hook.

Amphicteis gunneri Sars, 1851

Fig. 22a — Thoracic foot with dorsal cirrus and pinnules;
Fig. 22b — Thoracic uncinus.

Laonome indica Southern, 1921
Fig. 23a — Anterior end, Dorsal view;

Fig. 23b — Thoracic uncinus.

Potamilla leptochaeta Southern, 1921
Fig. 24a — Tip of a gill;

Fig. 24b — Avicular uncinus.

Hydroides norvegica Gunnereus, 1768
Fig. 25a — A single radiole enlarged;

Fig. 25b — Baynet shaped bristle.

POLYCHAETA OF THE PULICAT LAKE

Distribution outside Indian waters. Red Sea,
Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean.

Remarks. The worms are milky white in
colour.

SEDENTARI A
Family Spionidae

Species 14. Nerine cirratulus Delle Chiaje 1828
(Plate 3, figs. 14a & 14b)

Nerine cirratulus Fauvel 1927a, p. 36; 1953, p.
312; Day 1962, p. 648; De Silva 1965, p. 553.

Habitat. These forms are available only on
the sandy shores of the Kottaikuppam lock
but completely absent in the muddy areas.

Description. Worms bright red up to the
anterior 30 segments, rest bluish green in
colour. Length 30-50 mm. Prostomium with
two long tentacle-like palps. A single occipital
tentacle-like keel. Four large eyes arranged in
a single transverse row. Gills begin from the
second setigerous segment, absent in the few
posterior segments. Dorsal lamellae long in the
anterior region but short in the posterior re-
gion. Ventral lamellae narrow. Feet biramous
and possess winged capillary setae. The hood-
ed hooks begin from the 30th segment. The
tip of the hooks is bidentate. Their number
varies in various segments.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Vishakapatnam
channel, Sri Lanka, Indian Ocean.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Atlantic
Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and Madagascar.

Remarks. This form differs from Fauvel’s
(1953) description in the following characters.

1 . The colour of the Pulicat form is red
up to the first 30 segments and the rest
of the segments are bluish green in colour,
but the whole worm is bluish green in
colour according to Fauvel.

2. Four eyes are arranged in a transverse row
in the Pulicat forms. They are arranged in
a trapezium according to Fauvel’s descrip-
tion.

3 . The posterior occipital peak is not well
developed in the Pulicat forms. According
to FauvePs description, this reaches upto
the second segment.

Species 15. Prionospio krusadensis Fauvel 1929
(Plate 4, fig. 15)

Prionospio krusadensis Fauvel 1929, p. 182; 1930,
p. 38; 1953; p. 326.

Habitat. This form is available only in the
sandy shores of the Pulicat Pass.

Description. Body slender, anterior region
slightly enlarged. Prostomium long and round-
ed. Four small eyes arranged in a trapezium.
Branchiae arise from the second setigerous
segment onwards. Gills large and oval in shape.
Setae are capillary. Ventral hooks begin from
the 18th segment onwards. Dorsal hooks be-
gin from the 40th foot. Hooks bear three teeth.
Median anal cirrus present. Length 30 to 50
mm. Breadth about 2 mm.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Gulf of
Mannar, Krusadai Island.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Not
known.

Remarks. These forms are milky white in
colour but turn yellow in alcohol.

Species 16. Polydora ciliata Johnston 1838
(Plate 4, fig. 16)

Polydora ciliata Fauvel 1927a, p. 49; Panikkar
and Aiyar 1937; p. 293; Fauvel 1953, p. 319.

Habitat. This species was collected from the
oyster bed area, along with serpulids and
sabellids.

Description. Prostomium slightly notched in
front and prolonged backwards upto the 3rd
segment. Four small eye-spots present on dor-
sal side. No dorsal setae on the 1st setigerous
segment. Ventral capillary setae well develop-
ed. Ventral bidentate hooks present on the

95

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

7th setigerous segment. Gills from the 7th
segment onwards.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Chandipore,
Orissa coast and Mangalore coast.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Austra-
lia, Indo-China, Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean,
Mediterranean Sea and Falkland Islands.

Remarks. Though they are small in size
(25mm /1mm), they are capable of producing
mud-blisters in the mantle of the edible oyster,
Crassostrea madrasensis (Stephen, 1978b).
They are considered as pests of bivalves. Their
burrow is U-shaped. Although another closely
related species Poly dor a kempi was recorded
by Chacko et al. (1953) in Pulicat Lake, dur-
ing the course of the present investigation over
a period of seven years it was not possible
to record this species.

Family Capitellidae

Species 17. Heteromastus similis Southern 1921
(Plate 4, fig. 17)

Heteromastus similis Southern 1921, p. 640; Grave-
ly 1927, p. 26; Fauvel 1930a, p. 46; 1932, p. 195;
1953, p. 366; De Silva 1965, p. 554.

Habitat. This is widespread in Pulicat Lake.

Description. Bright red in colour and con-
sist of about 200 to 220 segments. Length 60
to 70 mm. The anterior end enlarged and
gradually tapers towards the tail. Peristomium
long and achaetous. Thorax of 11 segments.
Segment two to the sixth possess short capillary
setae. Gills absent. Anal segment bears a
slender clavate tail. Posterior segments possess
dorsal hooks in each foot. The hook has two
large teeth and one small one.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Chilka Lake,
Vishakapatnam and Gulf of Mannar.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Teleh-
Sap, Gulf of Siam.

Remarks. These are very closely related to
Heteromastus filiformis Claperede (1864). The
head as well as the arrangement and structure

of the setae are almost identical. In H. fili-
formis, the anterior abdominal segments are
much longer than the thoracic segments,
whereas in H. similis the segments do not
differ in length.

Species 18. Barantolla scuSpta Southern 1921
(Plate 4, fig. 18)

Barantolla sculpta Southern 1921, p. 643; Fauvel
1932, p. 196; 1953, p. 370.

Habitat. These forms were collected from
Gunankuppam along with Heteromastus simi-
lis from the dark mud.

Description. Reddish brown in colour, about
50 mm long by 2 mm. Total number of seg-
ments about 60. Body wider near fourth or fifth
segment. Eyes absent. First four segments slight-
ly tassellated. Segments two to seven have only
capillary setae. Segments eight to twelve possess
long crochets. These crochets are short in the
abdominal segments. Branchiae arise from the
56th segment onwards. They lie under the dor-
sal parapodial lobes. Number of branchiae is
more towards the anal end. Anal cirrus single
and median. 12 thoracic segments.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Barantolla
near Calcutta.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Taleh-
Sap, Gulf of Siam.

Remarks. The head is contracted and with-
drawn under the peristomium. According to
Southern (1921), there are 12 thoracic seg-
ments, but in Pulicat forms they are not very
distinct from the abdominal segments.

Species 19. Branchiocapitella singulars Fauvel
1932

(Plate 4, fig. 19)

Branchiocapitella singularis Fauvel 1932, p. 197;
1953, p. 371; De Silva 1965, p. 555; Pillai 1965,
p. 1 10-177.

Habitat. These worms are available only in

96

POLYCHAETA OF THE PUL1CAT LAKE

the dark sand near the Lighthousekuppam area.

Description. Total length 50 to 60 mm/
2 mm. Body slender and slightly enlarged in
the thorax. Seven thoracic segments. Dorsal
and ventral hooks start from the tenth segment
onwards. Gills present nearer the anal seg-
ments only. Pygidium ends in a bilobed knob.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Porto-Novo
and Vishakapatnam.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Sri
Lanka.

Remarks. The copulatory spines described
by Fauvel (1953) are not seen on the eighth
and ninth segments.

Family Maldanidae

Species 20. Eudymene annandalei Southern
1921

(Plate 4, figs. 20a & 20b)

Eudymene annandalei Southern 1921, p. 648;
Fauvel 1932, p. 199; 1953, p. 377.

Habitat. They live in sandy tubes and from
the dark muddy areas of the Pulicat Lake,
namely from Sattankuppam, Lighthousekup-
pam, Avarivakkam, Dhonirevu and Moosa-
mani Lock.

Description. Length 20 to 60 mm. Total
segments 21, of which two achaetous. Head
carries the cephalic plate. Numerous ocelli.
Caudal funnel bears short, bluntly rounded
cirri. Parapodia very close to Southern’s
description.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Vellar Estuary,
Kakinada Bay and Chilka Lake. Camorta,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands,

Distribution outside Indian waters. Amoy
(China).

Remarks. The sandy tubes are not as brittle
as Southern (1921) has stated. The segmenta-
tion is very distinct.

Species 21. Clymene (Eudymene) insecta
(Ehlers) 1904
(Plate 4, figs. 21a & 21b)

Clymenella insecta Ehlers 1904, p. 54; Paraxillella
insecta Augener 1926a, p. 192; Clymene ( Eucly -
mene) insecta Fauvel 1932, p. 199; 1953, p. 377;
Krishnamurthy 1963, p. 95.

Habitat. This also lives in sandy tubes. This
is available only from the Chunnambukulam
area.

Description. Bright red in colour. Body deli-
cate, total number of segments about 22.
Nuchal grooves not clearly seen. Prostomium
does not bear any appendages other than the
cephalic plate. The caudal funnel possesses a
number of short cirri, of which one is longer
than the others. The first three setigerous
segments possess acicular hooks. Fourth to
seventh segments bear hooded hooks with two
to three teeth. Capillary and capillary wing
setae present from the eighth segment onwards.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Vishakapatnam
and Madras.

Distribution outside Indian waters. New
Zealand.

Remarks. Caudal funnel is similar to that
of Euclymene annandalei , but it differs in hav-
ing a longer median ventral cirrus. In E.
annandalei, the median ventral cirrus is slight-
ly stouter than in others.

Family Ampharetidae

Species 22. Amphicteis gunneri Sars 1835
(Plate 4, figs. 22a & 22b)

Amphicteis gunned Malmgren 1865, p. 365;
Amphicteis japonica McIntosh 1885, p. 431; Amphi-
cteis gunned Fauvel 1897, p. 411; Hessle 1917, p.
116; 1927, p. 231; 1932, p. 216; Monro 1933, p. 313;
Fauvel 1953, p. 407; Day 1967, p. 695.

Habitat. These forms were collected from the
crevices of oyster shells.

Description. Body divided into thorax and
abdomen. Thorax bears 17 segments and
abdomen bears about 15 to 25 segments. Eyes
or eye-spots completely absent. Thorax pos-
sesses dorsal capillary setae and ventral un-
cinigerous pinnules. Abdomen bears only

97

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

uncinigerous pinnules. Four pairs of gills pre-
sent. Anal segment does not bear anal cirri.
Tube is muddy and the length varies from 40
to 60 mm.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Bay of Bengal,
Orissa coast.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Gulf of
Oman, Japan, Indo-China, Atlantic Ocean,
Mediterranean Sea and Antarctic Ocean.

Remarks. The worms are pink in colour.
According to Fauvel (1953), there are nume-
rous eye-spots. Pulicat forms do not possess
any eye-spots.

Family Sabellidae

Species 23. Laonome indica Southern 1921
(Plate 4, figs. 23a & 23b)

Laonome indica Southern 1921, p. 652; Fauvel
1953, p. 446.

Habitat. This was collected from the Kula-
thumedu station, from within the crevices of
oyster shells.

Description. Very thin, about 50 segments.
Posterior ten segments shorter than anterior
ones. Only four pairs of branchial lobes in-
stead of seven as Southern (1921) describes,
but they are symmetrical. Eyes completely
absent. Thorax composed of about six seg-
ments. The abdominal segments possess uncini.
The arrangement of setae agrees with
Southern’s (1921) description.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Chilka Lake.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Not
known.

Remarks. The colour is brown in live con-
dition, but it turns pale when preserved in 5%
formalin.

Species 24. Potamilla leptochaeta Southern
1921

( Plate 4, figs. 24a & 24b)

Potamilla leptochaeta Southern 1921, p. 651;
Gravely 1927, p. 27; Fauvel 1932, p. 231; Aziz

1938, p. 47; Fauvel 1953, p. 449; De Silva 1965,
p. 559.

Habitat. It is commonly available at Moosa-
mani lock, Lighthousekuppam and at Gunan-
kuppam stations.

Description. 20-30 mm long. Prostomium
bears about 10 to 12 branchiae. Each branchia
possesses about 40-45 filaments. Gills without
eyes. Colour of the worm differs from
Southern’s (1921) description. All the worms
are pale green with white stripes. The arrange-
ment of setae agrees with Southern’s (1921)
description. Tube is made up of mud and sand.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Chingrighatta
near Calcutta and Vishakapatnam.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Malay
Archipelago.

Remarks. This species closely resembles
Potamilla ceylonica Augener (1926), but it
differs from P. ceylonica with regard to the
arrangement of setae in both the thoracic as
well as in the abdominal segments.

Family Serpulidae

Species 25. Hydroides norvegica Gunner us
1768

(Plate 4, figs. 25a & 25b)

Eupomatus elegans Haswell 1883, p. 633;
Hydroides multispinosa Marenzeller 1884, p. 21;
Hydroides norvegica Pixell 1913, p. 74; Hydroides
multispinosa Augener 1914, p. 139; Hydroides nor-
vegica Fauvel 1927a, p. 356; 1932, p. 242; 1953, p.
458; Filial 1960, p. 12.

Habitat. Large numbers of the tubes of this
species were collected from the crevices of
oyster shells at the Kulathumedu station, but
worms were present only in some tubes.

Description. 20-25 mm long. Tubes white,
cylindrical and more or less erect. Gills around
the mouth, bearing numerous radicles with
two rov/s of barbules. Thorax possesses dorsal
capillary setae and ventral uncinigerous tori,
but the abdominal segments possesses dorsal

98

POLYCHAETA OF THE PUL1CAT LAKE

uncinigerous tori and ventral capillary setae.
Operculum well developed.

Occurrence in Indian waters. Madras.

Distribution outside Indian waters. Persian
Gulf, Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean and Mediterra-
nean Sea.

Remarks. These worms are purely marine
and sedentary forms.

Distribution and Ecology

The two major factors which influence the
distribution pattern of the polychaetes in the
Pulicat Lake are salinity and the nature of the
substratum. On the basis of salinity, the lake
may be divided broadly into three habitats,
namely marine, brackishwater, and freshwater
habitat.

The marine habitat includes stations like
the Pulicat pass, Karimanal, Gunankuppam,
Lighthousekuppam, Kottaikuppam lock and
Dhonirevu. The polychaetes collected at these
stations include mostly marine forms (Table
2). The salinity at these stations ranges from
25.3l5fc to 38.45%c.

The brackishwater habitat includes the rest
of the stations, except the stations in the three
river beds, namely the Araniar river, Kalinga
river and the Swarnamuki river. The average
salinity at the brackishwater stations varies
from 11.65*o to 48.51%c. Out of the 14
species collected from this habitat, Nerine
cirratulus was collected only from the Kottai-
kuppam lock and Lumbriconereis simplex and
Lumbriconereis polydesma were collected only
from Dhonirevu. This shows that these three
species are designed to live at these stations
alone, mainly because of the nature of the
substratum rather than the salinity at these
stations.

The freshwater habitats of the Swarnamuki
river, Kalinga river and the Araniar river have
the river bed mostly sandy and in some places
it is muddy. Distribution pattern of the poly-
chaete worms in the freshwater habitat is

mainly controlled by salinity. The polychaetes
collected in the freshwater habitat are Mar-
physa gravelyi, Nereis chilkaensis , Lycastis
indica, Heteromastus similis, Potamilla lepto-
chaeta, and Diopatra neapolitana. The species
Potamilla leptochaeta and Diopatra neapolitana
were not available during the monsoon season
in the freshwater habitat. This might have
been due to the lowering of salinities of the
river water during such monsoon seasons.

Besides salinity the other major factor deter-
mining the distribution of the polychaetes in
Pulicat Lake is the nature of the substratum.
On the basis of the type of substratum, Pulicat
Lake may be considered to have four types
of substrata for polychaetes, namely sandy,
sand-silt, weedy and the oyster-bed substrata.

The sandy substratum in Pulicat Lake is
distributed at the following stations, namely
Pulicat Pass, Karimanal, Dhonirevu, Gunan-
kuppam, Lighthousekuppam, Kottaikuppam
lock, Irakkam, Venadu, Sriharikota and Ataka-
nitippa. Interstitial polychaetes like Pisione
complexa, Pisionidens indica and Eteone baran-
tollae were collected only from such sandy
substratum. Other polychaetes in sandy sub-
stratum include Glycera alba, Prionospio
krusadensis, Tylonereis fauveli, Euclymene
annandalei and Euclymene insecta.

The sand-silt substratum is observed at the
following stations, namely Annamalaicheri,
Arambakkam, Tada, Berupet, Malan, Roy-
duruah, Edamanai and Duggirajapatnam. The
muddy substrata at these stations are dark in
colour, and possess decayed vegetable matter.
The polychaetes collected at these stations
were Marphysa gravelyi, Tylonereis fauveli,
Nereis chilkaensis, Lumbriconereis simplex,
Lumbriconereis polydesma, and Heteromastus
similis. This sand-silt or sand-clay substratum
extends over the majority of the lake, and the
concentration of the polychaetes was maximum
in this type of substratum.

99

Marine Stations Brackishwater Stations

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100

POLYCHAETA OF THE PULICAT LAKE

The weedy substratum is observed at a few
stations only. Arangam, Pulincheri, Moosamani
lock and Zonangipalam are the only four
stations where the substratum is covered with
weeds. The bottom macrophytes consist mainly
of rooted submerged plants like Halophila
ovalis and Cymododea isoetifolia and filamen-
tous algae such as Chaetomorpha sp., Entero-
morpha sp., and Acetabularia sp. etc. The
marine angiosperm Halophila ovalis (Gaud)
flourishes in places where soil is dark and
clayey. Generally polychaetes are plenty in
places where this plant is abundant. Polychaetes
are said to be detritus feeders, hence there is
some association noticed between polychaetes
and this vegetation; perhaps these worms feed
on the decayed leaf blades of this plant. Mar-
physa gravelyi in fact was collected more in
areas where this plant thrives.

The oyster beds form another kind of sub-
stratum in Pulicat Lake. They occur in Kula-
thumedu village. A number of polychaetes
were collected only from the oyster beds. The
oysters of Pulicat Lake belong to the species
Crossostrea madrasensis (Preston) and Sacco-
strea cucullata (Born). The oysters have spread
even upto the Kottaikuppam lock. The poly-
chaetes associated with these oysters are Poly-

Refer

Aiyar, R. G. (1933) : On the anatomy of Mar-
physa gravelyi (Southern). Rec. Ind. Mus: 35(3):
287-323.

& Alikunhi, K. H. (1940) : A new

Pisionid from sandy beaches Madras, ibid. 42: 89-
107.

Alikunhi, K. H. (1947) : On a Pisione complexa,
new species from the sandy beach, Madras. Proc.
Nat. Inst. Sc. India. 73(3) : 105-127.

Apurba Ghosh (1963): On a collection of poly-
chaeta from the south-east coast of India with a
new eunicid record. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India., 5. (2) :
239-245.

dor a ciliala, Hydroides norvegica, Amphicteis
gunneri, Hesione intertexta, Harmathoe ampul -
lifera, Diopatra neapolitana and Nereis chilka-
ensis. Out of these, Hydroides norvegica and
Polydora ciliala are encountered more in num-
ber. The tubes of Hydroides norvegica are
chalky white, cylindrical and slightly convo-
luted. The tubes are more or less erect or
sometimes spirally coiled. Atleast eight to ten
tubes are found attached to a single oyster
shell. Polydora ciliala is a spionid polychaete
which is also collected in large numbers from
this lake. The members of Polydora are said
to be pests of bivalves. They form mud-blisters
on the mantles of bivalves (Stephen, 1978b).
It is now considered to be a major problem
in coastal shellfish aquaculture.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr K. Rama-
moorthy and Dr Mary Florence for their
valuable suggestions in planning this work.
Our sincere thanks go to Dr P.H.D.H. De
Silva, Director of National Museums, Colombo,
Sri Lanka, for identifying some of the poly-
chaetes encountered during the course of this
study.

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POLYCHAETA OF THE PUL1CAT LAKE

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

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Rep. 30, pp. 243-324, pis, 1-8.

104

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION
OF BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 32

Humayun Abdulali
Muscicapidae (Turdinae)

[Continued from Vol. 83(2): 359]

This part ending with Synopsis No. 1691
up to Register No. 265171 includes 888 Speci-
mens of 56 species of the Turdinae. There are
8 forms (5 species and 3 subspecies) of which
we have no specimens in our collection. Dr
(Mrs) S. Unnithan has assisted with the work.

1635 Brachypterix stellate stellate Gould

(Sikkim) Gould’s Shortwing 2:16

nil.

1636 Brachypterix hyperythra Jerdon &
Blyth (Darjeeling) Rustybellied Shortwing 2:17

15 (by plumage) Margherita, Assam.

Measurements on p. 117.

1636a. Brachypterix cryptica Ripley (40-
mile Camp east of Miao, Noa Dihing River,
Arunachal Pradesh).

This bird described in 1980 ( JBNHS 77:
p. 1) has been found to be Tickell’s Babbler
[Trichastoma tickelli (Blyth) ( JBNHS 81 p.
700/1]

1637 Brachypterix major major (Jerdon)
(Nilgherries) Rufousbellied Shortwing 2:10

2: $ $ 1 Avalanche, 6700', 1 Longwood Shola,
Kotagiri, Nilgiri.

Measurements on p. 117.

1638 Brachypterix major albiventris (Blan-
ford) (Palni Hills) Whitebellied Shortwing

2:11

2: 1 $ 1 $

1 Moir Point, 6500', 1 Kodaikanal 7000', Palnis.

Measurements on p. 117.

[593]

1639 Brachypterix leucophrys nipalensis

Moore (Nepal) Lesser Shortwing 2:19

9: 2 $ $ 6 9 $ 1 o?

4 Margherita, Assam; 4 N. Cachar Hills; 1 Mt.
Victoria, Burma.

Neither of the two males show any blue
and Fleming (1970) in birds of Nepal, pp.
248 states “birds with blue not yet seen here”.
Koelz when describing geokichla from Manipur
(which is not accepted by Ripley) says he
examined 11 S d none of which were blue.

The unsexed bird from Mt. Victoria is the
smallest in all respects.

Measurements on p. 117,

1640 Brachypterix montana cruralis (Blyth)
(Darjeeling) Whitebrowed Shortwing 2:17

11:6^3 (1 blue) 5 9 9

1* Rangpo, Sikkim; 1 Honka, 1 Gedu, West
Bhutan; 1 Darjeeling, 1 Miao, 1 Deban, 1 Firm
Base, Arunachal Pradesh; 4 Margherita, Upper
Assam.

Five of the six males are in female plumage,
but have larger wings, *the one blue bird hav-
ing the longest. All except one dated 22nd
January 1903 show a white streak over the
eye.

Measurements on p. 117.

1641 Erythmpygia galactotes familiaris

(Menetries) (Kur Southern Caucasus) Rufous
Chat or Greybacked Warbler 2:386

24: 12 5 $ 5 $ $ 8 o?

2 Muscat ; 1 Feluja, 1 Rustem, 1 Fahama, 1 Bagh-
dad, 5 Basra, Mesopotamia: 1 Shiraz, 1 Kasoin,

105

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 84

Persia ; 1 Chaman, 1 Kandera Pass, east of Mashkai
Valley, Baluchistan; 1 Sakesar, Shahpur Dist., 1 Mul-
tan, Pakistan; 4 Bhujia Fort, 1 Nakhatrana, 1 Shinai,
Anjar, Kutch; 1 Dwarka, Okhamandel, Kathiawar.

Measurements on p. 117.

EL Erythropygia galactotes syriacus Hem-
prich & Ehrenberg (Beyrouth)

1 $ Felujah, Mesopotamia.

This is slightly rufous above and marked
“indistinguishable from syriacus

Measurements on p. 118.

1642 Erithacus megarhynchos hafizi (Severt-
zov) (Turkestan) Persian Nightingale 2:87

nil.

EL Erithacus megarhynchos africana (Fis-
cher and Reichenow) (Klein Arusha, near
Kilimanjara) Nightingale

10: 6 8 8 2 $ $ 2 o? (1* fledgling)

1 Sheikh Saud, 1 Fao Iraq ; 2 Enzeli, Caspian
Coast, 2* Gulahek, Tehran, 3 Shiraz, 1 Bog Miza-
khani.

Specimen No. 3174 from Enzeli is marked
by Cheesmann <fafricana in song and evidently
breeding. This is the new name for the Persian
Nightingale hafizi’ \ This specimen is very dark
and similar to Luscinia luscinia but can be
separated on the characters mentioned there-
under.

Measurements on p. 118.

1643 Erithacus calliope (Pallas) (Yenesei)

Ruby throat 2:91

22: 16 8 8 (2 by pi.) 4 $ 9 2 o?

1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 1 Partapur, Nepal; 1 Sir-
pur, 1* Sarun, 1 Assam; 3 Baghowni, Tirhut; 2
Darbhanga, Bihar & Orissa; 1 Tikerpara, 1 Bhusand-
pur, Chilka Lake, 2 Mahendragiri, 1 Berbera, Orissa;
2 Sankrametta, 1 Padevalsa, Vizag Dist.; 1 Goda-
very Delta; 1 Tientsein, 2 Peking (cage birds),
China.

The last two males from Peking have the
largest wings — 81 and 82 mm and the chin
is pale pink in one and almost white in the
other. Other males from Assam, Sarna and

Godaveri Delta have pinkish chins but are no
larger. The earlier specimens are marked
camschatkensis, but this race is no longer
recognised.

Measurements on p. 118.

Erithacus svecicus Bluethroats

This is an extremely difficult group to divide
into the many subspecies named, for to quote
Vaurie (1959) “Some, perhaps most, of the
variation is clinal in some characters but it is
complicated by much local variation, seasonal
changes in coloration and pattern, and sexual
dimorphism in the males of some populations”.

Our material consists largely of non-breed-
ing migrants and this makes it more difficult.
There has been no alternative but to accept
the trinominal identifications made by earlier
workers or distributional limits accepted in
Indian literature. More extensive ringing ac-
companied by appropriate collecting may help
to clarify matters.

1644 Erithacus svecicus svecicus (Linnaeus)
(Sweden) Northern Bluethroat 2:83 and 85

10: 9 8 8 1 o?

1 Peshawar, N.W.F.P., 1 Nawashahar, Jullundur,

1 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Sanchi, Bhopal; 1 Baghownie,

2 Madhubani, Darbhanga dist., Bihar; 1 Cawnpur,
U.P.; 1 Laisingah, Cachar, 1 Peking, China.

Measurements on p. 118.

1645 Erithacus svecicus pallidogularis

Zarudny (Orenburg, Russia, c. 55 E, 52 N.)
Turkestan Bluethroat 2: 85

43: 27 8 8 13 9 $ 3 o?

3 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Wana? Waziristan; 8 Am-
bala, 1 Shikohpur, Jullundur, 1 Campbellpur, 1
Jagadhri, Punjab; 1 Harunabad, Bahawalpur; 1
Kashmir; 1 Badantpur, Bhaji State, Simla Hills; 2
Hamavas Lake, Pali, Jodhpur, Rajasthan; 2 Delhi;
4 Bahawalpur; 1 Kutch; 1 Amreli, Kathiawar, 1
Mehmedabad, Kaira, 1 Ajwa, Baroda, 1 Dohad,
Gujerat; 1 Wada, 1 Shil, 1 Murbad, Kalyan, 1 Bela-
pur, 1 Andheri, Bombay; 1 Madhubani, 1 Baghowni,
Tirhut, Darbhanga, Behar; 1 Barul, 2 Cawnpur, U.P.;
1 Laisingah, Cachar, 1 Prome, Burma.

106

[594]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 32

Measurements on p. 118.

1646 Erithacus svecicus abbotti (Richmond)
(Nubra Valley, Ladak) Ladakh Bluethroat

2: 86

7:5 $ $ (1 fledgling) 2 $ $

2 Panamik, 10800', 1 Nubra Valley, 1 Kharchar,
11200', 1 Harje, 9500', Ladak; 1 Chachran, Baha-
walpur State; 1 Ajwa, Baroda.

d 26 from Harje, 9500', shows an ultra-
marine blue which is brighter than in any of
the others available and the black bill 13.2
mm also appears the largest. This has been
presented to us by the National Institute of
Virology who sent us four for identification.

The others d 3132 from Chachran, Baha-
walpur, $ 3130 Ajwa, Baroda and $ 3131
from Narsampet, all have attenuated bills and
have been marked abbotti by Meinertzhagen.

All ten, examined including a juvenile with
streaks above and below show an attenuated
bill, an apparently consistent character.

Measurements on p. 118.

1646a. Erithacus svecicus saturatior (Sush-
kin) (Djoievo, near Minusinsk) Central Asian
Bluethroat

8:7 $ $ 1 $

1 Darazpur, Ambala, 1 Jagadhri, Punjab; 1 Delhi;

1 Shil, 1 Kalyan, Thana; 1 Asifabad, Hyderabad;

1 Laisingah, Cachar, 1 Prome, Burma.

The upper parts are darker than in palli-
dogularis. Vaurie (1959, p. 384) refers to
przevalskii of Tagarnov (Zagan-Bulyk, Ala
Shan Range) being recorded in winter from
northern Bengal and northern Bihar, but this
is synonymised with saturatior in Ripley’s
synopsis (1982). The male from Asifabad,
Hyderabad dt. 12 December 1931 is one of
the first saturatior recorded from India, but it
has a 79 mm wing and an attenuated bill, the
latter being a character of abbotti and the wing
being too large for both abbotti and saturatior.

Measurements on p. 118-19.

EL Erithacus svecicus magna (Zarudny and
Loudon) (Bidesar, Arabistan)

6: 3 $ $ 1 $ $ 2 o?

1 Lake Akkarkuf, near Baghdad, 1 Nahr Umar,
left bank of Tigris, 1 Feluja, 2 Basra, 1 Shaiba,
Mesopotamia.

The large wing 78-81 mm in both the sexes
together with the absence of the black border
to the red of the breast appear distinctive.
The jugular spot is absent in all except for a
small white one in d No. 3165 dated 28 March
1917 from Feluga. The plastron is of varying
shades of pale blue.

Measurements on p. 118-19.

EL Erithacus svecicus volgae Kleinsehmidt
(Sarpa, lower Volga)

5: 2 $ $ 2 $ $ 1 o?

2 Ctesiphon, Baghdad, 1 Amara, 1 Sheikh Saud,
1 Fao, Mesopotamia.

These are slightly smaller than nominate
svecicus (and magna) obtained in Mesopota-
mia over the same period.

Measurements on p. 118-19.

1647 Erithacus pectoralis pectoralis (Gould)

(Western Himalayas) West Himalayan Ruby-
throat 2:92

12: 10 $ $ (1 juv.) 2 $ $

1 Chitral, N.W.F.P., 1 Fagu, Keonthal State; 1
Above Chini, Bashchi State, Punjab; 1 Liddar
Valley, 1 Sonamarg, 1 near Suru, Ladakh, 2 Kash-
mir; 2 Badrinath, Garhwal, 2 Ranibagh, Kumaon.

Some of the males have paler and an almost
pink chin and throat.

Measurements on p. 119.

1648 Erithacus pectoralis confusus (Hartert)

(Sikkim) Eastern Rubythroat 2: 93

nil.

1649 Erithacus pectoralis tsehebaiewi
(Przevalski) (Kansu) Tibetan Rubythroat 2:94

8: 7 $ $ (1 by pi.) 1 $

1 Hasimara; 2 Bhutan, Duars; 1 Goalpara, 1
Lakhimpur, 1 Sadiya; 1 Miao, Tirap Div., Arunachal
Pradesh; 1 no data*.

* This specimen bore No. 3204 and the

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107

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vot. 84

same data as on a S of the nominate race
from Suru, Ladakh. It has been renumbered
(26533) and left with no data.

The red of the chin and throat varies in
intensity as in the nominate form, but the
white malar streak is distinctive.

Measurements on p. 119.

1650(1651) Erithacus brunneus (Hodgson)
(Nepal) Indian Blue Chat 2: 14

26: 16 $ $ (1 juv.) 9 $ $ 1 o?

1 Nathia Gali, N.W.F.P.; 1 Kufri, Patiala State;
1 Fagu, Keonthal State, 3 Koti State, 3 Simla; 1
Garhwal, U.P.; 2 Mahabaleshwar, Satara, 1 Shola-
pur; 1 Munnar, 1 Ponmudi, Kerala; 1 Longwood
Shola, Kotagiri; 3 Pt. Calimere, Tamil Nadu; 1 R.
V. Nagar, 1 Sankrametta, Vizagapatnam dist., 2
Jeypore Agency; 1 Shillong, Assam; 2 Mt. Victoria,
Pakokku Hill Tracts, Burma.

Sp. No. 2187 Mt. Victoria has a small (69
mm) wing and tail (36 mm) but there is no
evidence of a moult in progress.

Measurements on p. 119.

1652 Erithacus pectardens (David) (Mou-
pin = Paohing, Eastern Sikang) Firethroat

nil.

1653 Erithacus cyane cyane (Pallas) (Dau-

ria, Southeastern Transbaikalia) Siberian Blue
Chat 2: 12

3: 2$ $ 1 $

1 Chiria Tapoo, S. Andamans; 2 Peking, China.
The female from Chiria Tapoo has the wing

as large as in the males, and the tails are
shorter than in Dementiev (quoted in Indian
handbook).

Measurements on p. 119.

1654 Erithacus cyanurus pallidior (Baker)
(Simla) Kashmir Redflanked Bush Robin

2: 101

26: 15 $ $ (2 in first year pi.) 7 $ $ 4 o?

2 Gora Galli, Murree Hills, Rawalpindi; 2 Gilgit,

1 Miniming, Gilgit Road, 1 Baltal, 1 Dossoo, 1 Gul-
marg, 1 Liddar Valley, 1 Kashmir; 1 Dharamsala,

9 Simla, 1 Chakrata, Dehra Dun, 2 Pindari, 2
Kumaon, 1 Yoshinath, Garhwal.

See remarks under 1655.

Measurements on p. 120.

1655 Erithacus cyanurus rufilatus (Hodg-
son) (Central & northern regions of hills,
Nepal) Eastern Redflanked Bush Robin 2: 99

17: 10 $ $ (5 in first year pi.) 6 $ $ 1 o?

3 Rinchingpong, West Sikkim; 1 Batase, 2 Sham-
gong, 1 Tama, Central 1 Rongtong, 2 Gomchu, 1
Narphong, 3 Wamrong, East Bhutan; 1 Endoling,
Dibang Valley, Mishmi Hills, 1 Bomdila, A.P.,
1 Kargpokpi, Manipur.

There is appreciable variation in the inten-
sity of the blue in the male in adult plumage
and the two races are not very distinct, a
statement made earlier by Meinertzhagen ( Ibis
1927, p. 588) and others.

The adult males are larger than the first
year birds which are known to breed. Sp. No.
25343 a <$ from Tama, Central Bhutan has
a 90 mm wing which is exceptionally large
contra 81-86 av. 83.7 in the remaining four.
Another $ No. 25342 from Gomchu c. 7500'
E. Bhutan has the brown upperparts very
pale and washed with blue, very different
from the others available. Its measurements
are included with those of 1st year birds.

Measurements on p. 120.

1656 Erithacus cyanurus cyanurus (Pallas)

(Yenesei) Japanese Blue Chat 2: 98

9: 5 $ $ 4 $ $

9 Temple of Heaven, Peking, China.

The males have a very distinct white eye-
brow, but the specimens go back to 1901 and
being in very poor and fragile condition, this
character is not visible in the females. Both
sexes have their tails shorter than in the other
races.

Measurements on p. 120.

1657 Erithacus chrysaeus whistleri (Tice-
hurst) (Simla) Western Golden Bush Robin

2: 97

108

[596]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 32

5: 2 $ $ (1 by pi.) 3 $ $

1 Dharamsala, Punjab; 1 Bhajji State, 1 Tara
Devi, Patiala; 1 Flaghill, Mussoorie; 1 Bhim Tal.

These skins are older than those under 1658
below and the difference in colour may to
some extent be due to this factor.

Measurements on p. 120.

1658 Erithacus chrysaeus chrysaeus (Hodg-
son) (Nepal) Eastern Golden Bush Robin

2: 95

11:5 $ $ 4 $ $ 2 o?

1 Chapcha, 1 Gedu, West; 2 Tama, Central; 1
Narphong. 2 Wamrong, 2 Khosela, 1 Bumthang,
East Bhutan; 1 Kohima, Naga Hills.

Measurements on p. 120.

1659 Erithacus indicus indicus (Vieillot)
(Darjeeling) Whitebrowed Bush Robin 2: 102

nil.

1660 Erithacus hyperythrus (Blyth) (Dar-
jeeling) Rufousbellied Bush Robin

5: 3 $ $ (1 by pi.) 2 $'$ (1 by pi.)

1 Bumthang, 10850', Central; 1 Gomchu, 1 Wam-
rong, E. Bhutan; 1 Bipani, 1 Ratane, Dibang Valley,
Mishimi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh.

One female No. 25336 was registered under
E. cyanurus.

Measurements on p. 121.

EL Erithacus rubecula hyrcamis Blanford
(Ghilan) North Persian Robin

6: 1 $ 5 o?

1 Baghdad, 1 Sheikh Saud, 1 Kurna, 2 Hawi Plain,
Samara, Mesopotamia; 1 A hid, S. Persia.

These and the next form are marked
hyrcanus and caucasicus by Ticehurst (?) and
are grouped accordingly though I cannot see
any difference.

Measurements on p. 121.

EL Erithacus rubecula caucasicus (Butur-
lin (Caucasus) Caucasian Robin

2: 1 $ 1 o?

1 Dialia, Baghdad, 1 Shat-el-Adhaim, left bank of
R. Tigris, Mesopotamia.

See remarks under last form above.

Measurements on p. 121.

EL Luscinia luscinia (Linnaeus) (Sweden)
The Thrush Nightingale

4: 1 $ 3 o?

1 Shaiba, 1 Residency, Baghdad, 2 Feluja, R.
Euphrates, Mesopotamia.

Though correctly identified by Ticehurst et
al. both on the labels and in Birds of Meso-
potamia (1922, JBNHS 28 p. 406) these were
mixed up with Luscinia megarhynchos in the
register. They can be separated by the tiny
first primary, the emargination on the outer
edge being restricted to the third primary, and
the broad band across the breast.

Measurements on p. 121.

1661 Copsychus saularis saularis (Linne)
(Bengal) Indian Magpie Robin 2: 113

59 (including 8 from Burma)

(a) 51: 31 $ $ 17 $ $ (2 juv.) 3 o?

1 Patiala, 1 Bhagat State 4000', 1 Simla Hills;
1 Mussoorie, 1 Garhwal, 2 Almora; 2 Ambala, 3
Meerut, 1 Delhi; 1 Bharatpur; 1 Dabka, Baroda; 1
Kodinar, S. Kathiawar, 1 Jamnagar (?); 1 Gore-
gaon, 1 Santa Cruz, 1 Pali Hill, Bombay; 1 Satara,
1 Ratnagiri; 1 Chitteri Range, 1 Shevaroy Hills,
Salem dist; 1 Palkonda Hills; 1 Seshachalam Hills,
S. Cuddappa; 2 Nallamalai Range, S. Kurnool; 1
Godavari delta; 3 Sankrametta, 1 Jaypore Agency,
Vizagapatnam dist.; 1 Darba, Bastar, 2 Bhanu-
pratappur, Ranker, C. P., 1 Tikarpara, Angul dist.,
Orissa; 1 Banhar, Darbhanga dist., Bihar; 1 Nawa-
cot, Nepal; 1 Rongtong, 1 Wamrong, E. Bhutan, 1
Mangdeshu, 1 Jalpaiguri. 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley,
W. Bengal; 1 Dibrugarh, 1 Sadiya 3 Assam; 1
Haflang, North, 1 Cachar.

The amount of black in the 4th rectrix
varies and cannot be localized except in the
3 from S. Andaman. Species No. 1663 erimelas
of Oberholser (Type Tenasserim) which was
said in Indian handbook to occur in north-
east India has been merged with saularis in
synopsis 2nd ed. (1982) and there is no con-
sistant difference in the amount of black and
white in the tail.

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109

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

In juveniles, in addition to the spots on
the breast, the rufous edges to the primaries
form a distinct patch at the end of the closed
wing, as is noted for C. m. malabaricus (Indian
HANDBOOK, 8 p. 245).

(b) 8 : 5 $ $ 3 $ $

3 Upper Burma', 1 Thayetmyo; 1 Sandoway, 3
Prome f Burma.

The single male from Sandoway has the 4th
rectrix, all black with a small white tip as in
those from south Andaman (q.v.). But the
others are otherwise inseparable from nomi-
nate saularis.

Measurements on p. 121.

1662 Copsychus saularis ceylonensis Sclater

(Ceylon) Ceylon Magpie Robin 2: 115

12: 7 $ $ 5 $ $

1 Kumta, 1 Karwar, N. Kanara; 1 Murgimatta,
1 Lingandhalli, 1 Taluppa, 1 Sagar, Mysore; 1
Wynaad; 1 Gudalur, Nilgiris; 1 Palni Foothills, 1
Vangayam Palnis (?); 1 Mercara, Coorg; 1 Marai-
yur, Travancore.

The males do not show the greenish irides-
cence ( contra purplish) as required in the key
in Indian handbook (8, p. 239) but not
referred to later under Museum Diagnosis.
Dr. B. Biswas tells me that two males from
Kerala at the Zoological Survey are similar
and do not show a greenish tinge. In the
absence of any specimens from Sri Lanka
these birds are listed separately from nominate
saularis mainly on the strength of the state-
ments of earlier workers, and the fact that the
females have darker breasts.

Measurements on p. 121.

1663 Copsychus saularis erimelas Ober-
holser (Tenasserim) Indian Magpie Robin

This has been synonymised with saularis in
synopsis 1982, p. 455 and there is no con-
sistent difference in the amount of black and
white in their tails.

1664 Copsychus saularis andamanensis

Hume (Andaman Island) Andaman Magpie
Robin 2: 116

4: 3 $ $ 1 $

1 Bakultala, Middle, 1 Port Blair, 2 Manarghat,
S. Andaman.

The bills are heavier than indicated by the
measurements. In both sexes the white of the
underparts is edged with grey. In all 3 from
South Andaman the 4th rectrix is completely
black on both the inner and outer webs ex-
cept for a small white edge at the tip, a
character shared with only one male No. 3336
from Sandoway dist., Burma. The single male
from mid-Andamans has the heavy bill and
grey edges to the white of the underparts but
the 4th rectrix is largely white with black
edges to both sides, a character often found in
saularis.

Measurements on p. 121.

1665 Copsychus malabaricus malabaricus
(Scopoli) (Mahe, Malabar) Malabar Shama

2: 118

12: 10 $ $ (1 Juv.) 2 $ $

1 Waghai, Surat Dangs; 1* Hills near Thana,
Bombay; 1 Koina River Project, Satara Dist.; 1
Sawantwadi, Maharashtra; 1 Canacona, Goa; 3 N.
Kanara; 1 Murgimatta, Sagar, Shimogai dist.,
Mysore; 3 Mudamallar; Nallacotta, Nilgiri Hills.

See remarks under 1667 C. m. indicus

Measurements on p. 122.

1666 Copsychus malabaricus leggei (Whist-
ler) (Uragaha, Ceylon) Ceylon Shama

nil.

1667 Copsychus malabaricus indicus (Baker)

(Bhutan Duars) Indian Shama 2: 118

42 : 27 $ $ 15 $ $

2 Kurumbapatti; 1 Chitteri Range, Salem dist.,
1 Palkonda Hills, South Cuddappa; 1 Anantgiri,
Vizagapatnam Hills; 2 Lohattar, Ranker; 4 Anta-
garh, 1 Chota Dongar, Bastar, M.P.; 2 Berbera,
Puri, 1 Tikerpara. Angul, 2 Kuldiha, Nilgiri, 1
Badrama, Bamra, 2 Koira, 1 Toda, Bonai, 2 Gur-
guria, 1 Simlipal Hills, Mayur Bhanj, 1 Orissa;

110

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BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 32

1 Sarda(r) River, Haripur, 1 Dehra Dun,, U.P.; 1
Pershoke, Sikkim; 1 Longview Tea Estate, Darjee-
ling; 2 Samchi, West, 3 Gaylegphug, Central Bhutan;

1 Margherita, Assam; 1 Haishanbao, 1 North
Cachar; 1 Upper Burma, 1 Nyannggyo t Myingyan
dt., 1 Thome, Prome dist., 1 Sandoway, Burma ; 1
cage bird (Origin?)

Stuart Baker when describing indica from
Bhutan Duars compared it with macrurus
from Malaya and said it was found over the
whole of India as far south as Sri Lanka and
the north of Tenasserim in Burma. Later,
Whistler ( JBNHS 36, p. 74) changed the name
to malabaricus and identified birds from
Kurumbapatti etc. in the Eastern Ghats as of
this form. Ripley ( JBNHS 49, p. 398) drew
attention to northern birds having shorter tails
and used the name indicus for birds south to
the Cauvery river. The key in Indian hand-
book (8, p. 244) separates them by “tail ave-
raging longer” and “shorter” but due to the
overlap in sizes this appeared to be unwork-
able. However, if it is accepted that winter
males in both areas (or subspecies) have their
tails 30 mm shorter than in summer, the ave-
rage difference of about 10 mm in tail length
is consistent between the western malabaricus
and indicus north of the Cauvery. There is an
insufficient number of females to offer any
comparative remarks.

Sp. No. 16624 from Gurguria, Simlipal Hills,
has a female plumage and measurements but
is marked cf, presumably in error. Another
$ No. 16623 from the same place has the
chestnut of the underparts darker than in the
others. Female No. 3386 from Sardar (Sarda)
river, Haripur U.P. collected on 9 February
1924 is a much paler brown above and strik-
ingly different. The females have a varying ex-
tent of grey on the chin.

The single juvenile ( malabaricus ) has rufous
edges to the flight feathers as in juvenile
saularis.

The 7 Andaman birds have dark edges to

the flight feathers but in both malabaricus
and indicus the majority of winter birds of
both sexes have them paler, but not rufous.

Measurements on p. 122.

1668 Copsychus malabaricus albiventris
(Blyth) (Andamans) Andaman Shama 2: 119

7: 4 ^ A 3 $ $ (1 juv.)

1 Calicut, 4 Chiria Tapoo, 2 Pyinmanala, S.
Andaman.

See remarks under 1667.

Measurements on p. 122.

1669 Phoenicurus erythrouotus (Eversmann)

(Altai) Eversmann’s Redstart 2: 73

26: 18 $ $ (7 by plumage) 8 $ $

1 Piri Sana, 9 m. south of, 3 Shiraz, Iran’, 1
Drosh, 1 Ghairat, 2 Nagar, 1 Ayun, 1 Chitral, 1
Risalpur, 1 Rawalpindi, 1 Kohat, N.W.F.P.; 1 Wana,
Waziristan, 2 Chaman, 3 Quetta, Baluchistan; 1
Attock Fort, 2 Campbellpur, Punjab; 1 Keonthal,
Simla Hills; 1 Kaying Bashi, 1 Kashgar, 1 Kenya,
Chinese Turkestan.

The 4 from Shiraz, Iran (Feb. /March) all
in male plumage (though 2 are marked
females) have paler gray heads than the other

15.

In INDIAN HANDBOOK (8, pp. 248-9) the
key for the identification of the female re-
quires a wing over 90 mm but the measure-
ments which follow read 81-86 mm. All our
measurements are also under 90 mm.

Measurements on p. 122.

1670 Phoemcurus caeraleocephalus (Vigors)

Blueheaded Redstart 2: 104

29: 16 $ $ 13 $ $

1 Drosh, 9 Chitral; 1 Kurram Militia, Parachinar,
N.W.F.P.; 1 Ghora Gali, Murree Hills, Rawalpindi, 1
Dalhousie, Gurudaspur, Punjab; 1 Chini, Bashahr,
1 Mashobia, 8 Simla, 2 Keonthal, 1 Taradevi, 1
Patiala; 1 Nila Valley, 1 Garhwal, U.P.

The head is hardly blue, but more greyish.

Measurements on p. 122.

Phoemcurus ochrurus

The specimens include several taken in
Mesopotamia and Iran during and just after

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111

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

the First World War and it is difficult to sepa-
rate the three races ochrurus, phoenicuroides
and rufiventris occurring in the area. They
have however been marked when fresh by
Ticehurst and others while working on the
birds of Iraq, Iran and India, and the present
grouping is to some extent guided by their
findings. The discrepancies, if any, are referred
to under each form.

EL Phoenicums ochrurus ochrurus (Gmelin)
(Mountains of North Persia) Black Redstart

11:6 $ $ 5 $ $

1 Mosul, 1 Sheik Saud, 1 Bait-al-Khalifa, N. of
Samarra’, 5 Hawi Plain, Samarra, 1 Kazimain, Bagh-
dad, Mesopotamia’, 2 Shustar, Persia.

3 of the males Jan. /Feb. /March have chest-
nut underparts meeting the black breasts while
the other three (Dec. /Jan. /Feb.) lack the
chestnut below, only one (No. 3025 Feb.)
having a rufous crissum. All have been mark-
ed nominate ochrurus by Ticehurst (?) and 5
are so listed in ‘Birds of Mesopotamia’ JBNHS
28, p. 404-5. With the evidence available they
are now so accepted.

Measurements on p. 123.

1671 Phoenicurus ochrurus phoenicuroides
(Moore) (Shikahpur, Sind) Kashmir Black
Redstart 2: 76

70: 45 $ $ (11* imm. plumage) 21 $ $ 4 o?

1 Zohab, 1 Nisiriyeh', 3 Mishun, Persian Gulf,

1* Tamb Island, Mesopotamia’, 1 Peri Banu, 9 m.
S. of Shiraz', 3 Shiraz', 1* Koh-i-Sifta, llm.n.e. of
Pahran', 1* Pahran, llm.e. of Bampur, Persian
Baluchistan', 1 Chaman, 1* Bostan Terek, Pishin

dist., Quetta; 3 Harboi, 1 Panjgur, Kalat, Balu-

chistan; 1 Wana, N.W.F.P., 5 Chitral, 1 nr. Camp-
bellpur, 1 Rawalpindi; 1 Shikahpur, Jullundur, 3
Ambala, 1 Jagadri, 1* Punjab; 1 Kiber, Spiti,

Kangra, 1 Simla,, 1 Koti, Bhagat State; 1 Kashmir;
1 Tankse, 1 Karzok, 1 Tso Morari, 1 Shvok Valley,
1 Matyan, Ladak; 1 Rham, Tibet, 2* Kying Bashi,
Chinese Turkestan , 2 Bhung, 1 Chachran, 1* Baha-
walpur Town Environs, 1 Manthar, Cholistan, 1
Bahawalpur State; 1 Bulandshar, 3 Meerut, 4**
Delhi; 1 Kanpur, 1* Jalar, Jodhpur, Rajputana; 1

Sukkur, Sind; 1 Chobari, Bachau dist., 2* Bhujia Fort,

1 Devisar Tank, Bhuj Environs, 2* Bhuj, 1 Kuar Bet,
Kutch; 1 Patan, 1 Vagjipur, Mehsana, Gujerat.

The 30 adult males have greyer heads but
are no larger than the immature (first year)
males*, all the 45 males together having their
wings 77-87 av. 82.2 as compared to 29
rufiventris 84-93, av. 88.5. The females ave-
raging 81.4 and 84, i.e. 85% and 5% smaller
respectively. The females of rufiventris are
slightly darker both above and below but there
appears to be no certain means of separating
the females of the two races. In phoenicu-
roides the females number 47% of the whole
population as against only 20% in rufiventris’,
it is probable that some of the latter are in-
cluded with the former.

Measurements on p. 123.

1672 Phoenicurus ochruros rufiventris

(Vieillot) (Gyantse) Eastern Black Redstart

2: 77

37: 29 $ $ 6 9 $ 2 o?

1 Khardong, Ladakh; 1 Shikohpur, Jullundur, 2
Ambala, Punjab; 2 Delhi; 3 Bharatpur, 1 Maval,
nr. Abu Road. Rajputana; 1 C'hangalra, Bhuj, Kutch,
1 Dwarka. Okhamandal, 1 Ghatwad, S. Kathiawar,

1 Bodeli. Baroda, 1 Mahal, Surat Dangs; 1 Gwalior;

1 Saugar, 1 Sanchi, Bhopal; 1 Raipur, Melghat,
Berar; 2 Mehda, 1 Satara; 1 S. Konkan; 1 Sesha-
chalam Hills, Cuddapah dt., 1 Bhopalpatnam, 1
Geedam, Bastar; 1 Nuhar, Madhubani, 2 Baghowni,
Bihar, 2 Goalpara. Assam; 1 Kalianpur, C'awnpur,

I Ganga Canal, Meerut, 1 Niti, Garhwal, U.P.; 1
E. Everest, Nepal, 1 Nyenyam, 1 Jungla, S. Tibet.

See remarks under 1671. The males in im-
mature plumage cannot be separated into the
two races accepted in India and none of the

II birds in this plumage have been obtained
east of Delhi and Meerut where the two forms
overlap.

If all birds in this plumage are left as
phoenicuroides as has been done, rufiventris
does not acquire this plumage? As this is un-
likely (?) it must be admitted that some of
them are rufiventris and birds in this plumage

112

[600]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 32

cannot, until this matter is clarified, be accept-
ed as distributional records of either race.
Measurements on p. 123.

1673 Phoenicurus phoenicurus phoenicurus

(L.) (Sweden) The Whitefronted Redstart

Not in Fauna

21: 16 $ $ 5 $ $

2 Niton, I. of Wight, England ; 1 Mosul, 1 Sulai-
maniya', 1 Kazimain, 3 Baghdad', 1 Nahr-Umar, left
bank of R. Tigris, 1 Basra, 2 Felujah, 3 Shatt-el
Adhaim, 2 Sheikh Saud, Mesopotamia', 1 Fao, 1
Persian Gulf', 1 Chitral, N.W.F.P.

This species is separated from Phoenicurus
ochruros by the absence of emargination on
the outer web of the 6th primary, and the
white on the forehead in summer. 6 males
with white on the forehead are dated 5th
April to 15th May, the last being from
Chitral and one of the few obtained in Indian
limits.

Measurements on p. 123.

EL Phoenicurus phoenicurus samamisicus

(Hablitz) (Gilan, N. Persia) Persian Redstart
5 : all males ( 1 by plumage)

2 Felujah, 1 Zubier, 1 Shaik Saud, 1 Hawi Plain,
Samarra, Mesopotamia.

The birds are marked mesoleuca (Hemprich
& Ehrenberg, Jidda, Arabia) synonymised
with this form by Meinertzhagen birds of
Arabia (1954). Meinertzhagen also states that
the females cannot be told with certainty from
those of the nominate race and it is quite
possible that some are included with the
females from Mesopotamia under 1673.
Measurements on p. 123.

1674 Phoenicurus hodgsoni (Moore) (Boo-

tan) Hodgson’s Redstart 2: 74

14: 7 $ $ 7 $ $

1 Kharta, S. Tibet', 1 Godaveri Nepal; 1 Rangpo,
Sikkim; 1 Chapcha, 2 Samchi, West, 1 Tama, Central,

1 Rongtong, 1 Tashigong, East, 1 Gyetsa, Bhutan;

2 Bhutan Duars, Bengal; 2 Dibrugarh, Assam.
Though the measurements were rechecked,

the females have their tarsi fractionally larger
than the males.

Measurements on p. 123.

1675 Phoenicurus frontalis (Vigors) Blue-

fronted Redstart 2: 69

36: 24 $ $ 8 9 $ 4 o? (1 fledgling)

1 Lidar Valley, 2 Kaishoo Nallah, 1 Chichoti,
Kishtwar, 1 Murree, 2 Dharamsala, 6 Simla, 1 Fagu,
Keonthal State, 2 Mornala, 1 Kumaon, 1 Himalayas;
2 Chemgthang, North, 2 Rinchingpong, West, 1
Lachen, Sikkim; 1 Chima kothi, 1 Honka, West, 1
near Dochu La, West, 1 Tama, 1 Shamgong, Central,
1* Gomchu, 1* Rongtong, 4** Narphong, East
Bhutan, 1 Mokokching, Naga Hills, 1 Rotung, Abor
Country, Assam.

* With dark breasts.

Some have more blue on the forehead, breast
and chin than in others. The four birds in first
year or female plumage (Id1 3 $ $ ) from
Eastern Bhutan (Feb. /March 1966) have a
much darker brownish wash both on the
under and upperparts than in five others from
west Bhutan (Nov. 1968) and further west,
including Sikkim. The 2 adult males from
East Bhutan show no difference from others
further west.

Measurements on p. 123.

1 676 Phoenicurus schisticeps (Gray) (Nepal)

Whitethroated Redstart 2: 70

4:1$ (by plumage) 3 $ $

3 Lachung, North Sikkim; 1 Rongtong, East
Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 124.

1677 Phoenicurus auroreus leucopterus

(Blyth) (Malay Peninsula) Daurian Redstart

2: 71

13: 5 $ $ (2 by pi.) 7 $ 9 1 o?

1 Triphi, 1 Tunbe, Lower Tsang Valley, S. Tibet',
3 Dibrugarh, 1 Sadiva, 1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, Assam;
1 Abor Country, Upper Assam; 1 Monywa, Lr.
Chindwin, 1 Loi-Long, N. Shan States, Burma’, 3
Temple of Heaven. Peking, China.

The two females from Triphi and Tunbe,
Lower Tsang Valley, S. Tibet obtained by
Capt. F. M. Bailey in July and August 1913

[601]

113

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

lack the rufous on the underparts and the
labels were marked “for identification of eggs”.
As they appeared to be a different species they
were sent to the British Museum (N.H.) at
Tring and Mr. Colston says they are of the
same but in badly worn plumage.
Measurements on p. 124.

1678 Phoenicurus erythrogaster grandis

(Gould) (Afghanistan & Tibet) Giildenstadt’s
Redstart 2: 78

17: 11 $ $ (1 first year, 1 by pi.) 6 $ $

6 Chitral Drosh, N.W.F.P., 1 Sangpoche 15800'
Shaksgam, Kashmir; 1 Karzok, Tsho Marari, 1
Madhopur, Punjab; 1 E. Everest, Tibet, 1 Kashgar,
Chinese Turkestan; 3 Gyantse, 1 Ugu Nallah, Ladak;
2 Lachung, N. Sikkim.

Two males from E. Everest and Gyantse,
and a female from the last place have their
wings 113, 110 and 108 mm which are the
largest in both sexes. The two females from
Gyantse have both their upper and underparts
tinged with rufous, separating them from the
other females. A larger series is required to
warrant a separation. No. 3075 from Chitral
marked female has a white patch on the wing,
a character of a juvenile male referred to in
birds of soviet union 6, p. 657, but not in
Indian literature.

Measurements on p. 124.

1679 Rhyacornis fuliginosus fuliginosus

(Vigors) (Himalayas, restricted to Simla
Almora Area) Plumbeus Redstart 2: 81

33: 21 $ $ (1 juv.) 8 $ $ 4 o? (1 juv.)

5 Chitral Drosh; N.W.F.P.; 1 Yusmarg, 2 Kashmir;
1 Pulbahl, 7000', 9 Simla, 1 Koti State, 1 Simla
Hills; 2 Gupta Kashi, 2 Lohba, Garhwal; 1 Pindar
Valley, U.P.; 1 Rangpo, Sikkim; 1 Samchi, 1 Honka,
West, 1 Bumthang, Central, 2 Gomchu, East Bhutan;
1 N. Cachar, 1 Abor Country, Assam.

cf No. 21062 collected by Salim Ali at
Rangpo, Sikkim on 2/12/52 has the underparts
diagonally separated into two colors on — one
(smaller) like a female and the other black
like an adult male. The label bears a note

by SA “only one pigmented testes on side of
adult plumage”.

Measurements on p. 124.

EL Irania guttural is Guerin — (Menevilte
Abyssinia) Persian Robin

6: 2 $ $ 3 $ $ 1 o?

1 Sheik Saud, 1 Felujah, R. Euphrates, 1 R.
Tanhar, 1 Baghdad, 1 Basra, Mesopotamia; 1 Shiraz,
Iran.

Measurements on p. 124.

1680 Hodgsonius phoenicuroides phoenicu-

roides (Gray) Hodgson’s Shortwing or White-
bellied Redstart 2: 21

7:4 $ $ 1 $ 2 o? (1 juvenile*)

1 Gulmarg, 3 Liddar Valley, Kashmir; 2* Nar-
kand 9000', Kumarsian State, Simla Hills, 1 Samchi,
West Bhutan.

Only one male (No. 16360) from Narkand
shot on 18th July had enlarged testes and is
in full breeding plumage. Another (No. 2202
in $ or juvenile plumage) and d/20 June is
marked “Breeding. Shot at nest”.

Measurements on p. 124.

1681 Cinclidium leucurum (Hodgson)

(Nepal) Whitetailed Blue Robin 2: 106

26: 17 $ $ (2 by pi.) 9 $ ? (1 by pi.)

1 Gangtok, Sikkim; 1 Hazimara Tea Estate, Dar-
jeeling, Bengal; 1 Honka, 1 Samchi, 1 Phuntsholing,
W. Bhutan; 3 Margherita, Upper Assam; 1 Shillong,
2 Dening, Lohit Valley, N. E. Assam, 4 Miao, 1
Tirap, 1 Firm Base, 3 Arunachal Pradesh; 2 Gora,
2 Hai Bum, Upper Burma; 1 Mt. Victoria, 1
Nyamgyo, Prome, Burma.

$ Nos. 26064 and 26332 from Arunachal
Pradesh differ from the others in the heavy
markings on the chin.

Measurements on p. 124.

1682 Cinclidium frontale frontale Blyth

(Sikkim) Bluefronted Robin 2: 107

nil.

1683 Grandala coelicolar Hodgson (Nepal)

Grandala 2: 89

114

[602]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 32

11: 8 $ $ (1 juv.) 3 2 2 (1 juv.)

1 Nila Valley, 2 Garhwal; 3 Thangu, Sikkim; 4
Lachung, 1 Native Sikkim.

The immature male is like the female but
has the streaks larger.

Measurements on p. 125.

1684 Enicurus scouleri scouleri Vigors

(Himalayas-Simla) Little Forktail 2: 65

25: 7 $ $ 13 2 $ 5 o? (1 juv.*)

3 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Chichoti, Kishtwar, 1 Kash-
mir; 1 Keonthal State; 1 Koti State, 1 Wanghu
Bridge, 3 Simla, 3 Simla Hills; 3 Rambara, Kedar-
nath, 1 Pindari, Garhwal; 1 Hetwada, Nepal; 1 Kur-
seong, Darjeeling; 1 Honka, West, 1 Tongsa, Central,

1 Gomchu, East, 1 Khosela, 1 Bhutan.

The unsexed juvenile from Wanghu Bridge
(Jones’s Collection) has a spotted breast.
Measurements on p. 125.

1685 Enicunis immaculafus (Hodgson)

(Nepal) Blackbacked Forktail 2: 61

11: 9 $ $ 2 2$

2 Kalijhora, Tista Valley, Sikkim; 1 Lakhimpur,

2 North Cachar, 1 Larsingha T. E., Cachar; 1
Changchangpani, 1 S. Sylhet, Assam; 2 Thayetmyo,
1 Nyaunggyo, Burma.

Measurements on p. 125.

1686 Enicurus schistaceus (Hodgson)

(Nepal) Slaty backed Forktail 2: 59

17: 11 $ $ 4 2 2 2 o?

1 Kumaon, U.P.; 2 Rongni R., Martam, 1 Seooke,
1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, Sikkim; 1 Samchi, West,
1 Mangdechu, Central, 1 Gomchu, 1 Deothang, East
Bhutan; 1 Arunachal Pradesh, 1 Dening, Lohit
Valley, N.E., 4 Margherita, Upper Assam, 1 Jatinga
Valley, 1 North Cachar.

Measurements on p. 125.

1687 Enicurus leschenaulti indicus Hartert

(Margherita, Upper Assam) 2: 62

3: 2 $ $ 1 2

2 Margherita; 1 Mishing, Abor Country, Assam.

The wing of single female is much smaller

(104 mm.) than the two males (114, 119).

Measurements on p. 125.

1688 Enicurus maculatus maculatus Vigors
(Simla) Western Spotted Forktail 2: 57

26: 12 $ $ 10 2 2 (1 juv.) 4 o? (3 juv.)

2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 2 Galhar, Kishtwar, 1 Doosoo,
1 Banihal Village, Jammu side of tunnel, Kashmir; 3

Summer Hill, 1 Patiala State, 3 Simla; 1 Magra,
Mussoorie; 2 Karchana, 1 Pithorgarh, Garhwal; 1
Bans, Almora, 3 Dakuri, Kumaon, U.P.; 1 Bans
Behari, 1 Chalna Khel, 1 Godavari, 1 Kaikani,
Nepal; 1 Cherra, Cherrapunji, Shillong, Khasi and
Jaintia Hills.

The 4 juveniles are smoky brown above and
below, with traces of streaks on the breast and
with white forehead or spots above. The last
two characters are not mentioned, in the
fauna or in handbook.

The females have their tails 109-146 (ave-
rage 133), longer than in the males 102-148
(avg. 122), a character not noticed earlier.

Measurements on p. 125.

1689 Enicurus maculatus guttatus Gould
(Sikkim, Darjeeling) Eastern Spotted Forktail

2: 58

5: 2 $ $ 1 22 2 o?

1 Gedu, 1 Chimakothi; West, 1 Batase, Central,

1 Rongtong, East Bhutan; 1 Loi Lam, North Shan
States, Burma.

Neither of the two keys to subspecies sepa-
rating this race from the last in (1) fauna
by large and lunate white spots on the back
(contra small and round spots) nor in (2)
handbook requiring black breast feathers with
white tips (contra without white tips) are con-
sistent. The eastern birds listed here under
1689 do appear to have a straight white divid-
ing line between the black and white on the
breast but closer examination shows a straight
white tip to the breast feathers which is not
easily visible.

Measurements on p. 125.

[603]

115

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

1690 Cochoa purpurea Hodgson (Nepal)
Purple Cochoa 2: 184

4: 3 $ $ 1 $

1 Mussoorie, 1 Naini Tal, U.P.; 1 Sipuri, Nepal;
1 Gedu, West Bhutan.

The female from Sipuri, Nepal was marked
and registered as C. viridis of which we have

no specimen.

Measurements on p. 125.

1691 Cochoa viridis Hodgson (Nepal) Green
Cochoa 2: 18.5

nil.

116

[604]

1636 Brachypterix hyperythra

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

66 12.5 26.9 46

(Baker $$ 63-64 c. 11 28-29 38-45)

1637-38 Brachypterix major subspp.

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION— 32

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b (2) 86 14.9, 15 21.3, 23.9 64, 64

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125

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTIONAL LIST OF
ICHTHYOFAUNA OF THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA
WITH SOME NEW RECORDS1

H. R. Singh, S. P. Badola and A. K. Dobriyal2
( With a text-figure)

This paper deals with the fish fauna and their distribution in different river
systems of the Garhwal Himalaya. In all 69 species of fishes have been reported.
Of them many fishes inhabit the coldwater streams but some are fishes of the
foothills and plains.

Introduction

The fish fauna of the neighbouring Hima-
chal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir Himalaya
have been studied by Heckel (1844), Silas
(1960), Das & Subla (1964), Malik (1966),
Saxena (1968) and Sehgal et al (1971). There
are many reports on the fish fauna of other
parts of Uttar Pradesh including those on the
fishes of Muzaffarnagar (Mahajan 1961), Mora-
dabad (Singh 1974), Meerut (Sinha & Shiro-
mani 1953), Aligarh (Sehgal 1973), Eastern
U.P. (Srivastava 1968), Pilibhit (Motwani &
Saigal 1974), Banda (Grover & Gupta 1977),
Corbett National Park (Husain 1975), and
Kanpur (Verma et al. 1962), etc. The fish
fauna of the adjoining Kumaon hills has been
described by Hora (1937), Menon (1949a,
1949b, 1962, 1971), Chaudhury & Khandelwal
(1960), and Pant (1970). But the
reports on the fish fauna of the Garhwal hills
have been very scanty and limited to Dehradun
district only (Hora & Mukerji 1936, Das
1960, Lai & Chatter jee 1962, Singh 1964, Tilak
& Husain 1973).

As no information was available on the

1 Accepted February 1983.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Garhwal,
Srinagar, Garhwal 246 174.

fish fauna of the remaining four districts,
namely Pauri, Tehri, Chamoli and Uttarkashi,
an extensive survey was made by the authors.
In the earlier papers (Badola & Pant 1973;
Badola 1975; Badola & Singh 1977a & b) 18
species from Uttarkashi, 43 species from Pauri,
28 species from Chamoli, and 33 species from
Tehri district were reported. Recently Badola
& Singh (1981) described the fish and fisheries
of the River Alaknanda and Singh & Dobriyal
(1982) published the first report on the occur-
rence of Botia geto in the River Alaknanda
of the Garhwal Himalaya. The present paper
aims at describing the distribution of fishes
in different rivers of the Garhwal Himalaya
(Table 1) and the 27 new species which were
not included in the earlier reports.

Physiographic features

The Garhwal Himalaya forms the western
part of the Uttar Pradesh hills. This region is
situated between the latitudes 29°26'-31°28'N
and longitude 77°49'-80°6'E with a total area
of about 30,090 km2. The north region extends
up to the snow-clad peaks making the Indo-
Tibetan boundary. The river Tons separates
it from Himachal Pradesh in the west, and the
Kumaon hills in the east. Geographically, the

126

ICHTHYOFAUNA OF THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA

Table 1

Distribution of fishes in important river systems of the Garhwal Himalaya

a

g

*g

id

Name of the species

§

S

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o

z

1 . Schizothorax richardsonii (Gray)

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

c

c

c

c

n

n

n

2. Schizothorax sinuatus Heckel

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

c

c

c

c

n

n

n

3. Schizothorax plagiostomus Heckel

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

c

c

c

c

n

n

n

4. Schizothorax curvifrons Heckel

a

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

n

c

n

n

n

n

5. Schizothorax niger Heckel

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

n

c

n

n

n

n

6. Schizothorax intcrmedius McClelland

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

n

c

n

n

n

n

7. Schizothorax micropogon Heckel

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

n

c

n

n

n

n

8. Schizothoraichthys progastus (McClelland)

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

r

r

n

n

n

n

9. Schizothoraichthys esocinus (Heckel)

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

r

r

n

n

n

n

10. Tor tor (Ham.)

c

r

r

c

c

c

c

a

c

r

c

r

r

c

11. Tor putitora (Ham.)

c

r

r

c

c

c

c

a

c

r

c

r

r

c

12. Tor chilinoides (McClell.)

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

r

c

c

c

n

n

r

13. Labeo dero (Ham.)

c

n

r

c

c

c

c

a

c

c

c

c

c

c

14. Labeo dyocheilus (McClell.)

c

n

r

c

c

c

c

a

c

c

c

c

c

c

15. Labeo boga (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

c

n

c

c

c

c

16. Puntius chola (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

r

n

c

c

c

c

17. Puntius ticto (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

c

n

c

a

a

a

18. Puntius conchonius (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

c

n

c

a

a

a

19. Puntius sarana (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

a

r

n

r

c

c

c

20. Puntius phulunio (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

n

n

n

c

c

c

21 . Puntius sophore (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

n

n

n

c

c

c

22. Garra prashadi (Hora)

c

n

n

c

c

c

c

c

a

c

a

a

a

a

23. Garra lamta Ham.

c

r

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

r

a

a

a

a

24. Garra gotyla gotyla (Gray)

c

r

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

a

a

a

a

25. Crossocheilus latius latius (Ham.)

c

r

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

c

26. Chagunius chagunio (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

c

n

c

c

c

c

27. Barilius bola (Ham.)

r

n

n

n

n

c

c

a

c

r

c

c

c

c

28. Barilius bendelisis (Ham.)

c

r

r

c

c

c

c

a

a

c

a

a

a

a

29. Barilius barna (Ham.)

c

n

r

c

c

r

c

a

a

c

a

a

a

a

30. Barilius barila (Ham.)

c

n

r

c

c

r

c

a

a

c

a

a

a

a

31. Barilius vagra (Ham.)

c

n

r

c

c

r

c

a

a

c

a

a

a

a

32. Barilius shacra (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

r

r

n

r

r

r

n

33. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

c

n

c

c

c

c

34. Danio (Danio) aequipinnatus (McClell.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

r

a

r

n

c

a

a

a

35. Danio (Brachy danio) rerio (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

n

n

n

c

c

c

36. Danio(Danio) devario (Ham.)

r

n

n

n

n

n

n

a

r

n

r

a

a

a

37. Esomus danricus (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

r

n

n

c

c

c

38. Botia dario (Ham.)

r

n

n

n

n

r

r

c

c

r

c

c

c

n

39. Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.)

r

n

n

n

n

n

n

a

r

n

r

a

a

a

40. Noemacheilus botia (Ham.)

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

c

n

n

r

a

a

a

127

Khoh & Malan

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 1 (Contd.)

Name of the species

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41. Noemacheilux montanus (McClell.) a

42. N oemacheilus rupicola (McClell.) a

43. N oemacheilus bevani Gunther a

44. N oemacheilus savona (Ham.) a

45. N oemacheilus mullifasciatus Day a

46. N oemacheilus scaturigina (McClell.) n

47. N oemacheilus zonatus (McClell.) c

48. N oemacheilus corica (Ham.) n

49. Balitora brucei Gray n

50. Amblyceps mangois Ham. r

51. Glyptothorax cavia (Ham.) c

52. Glyptothorax pectinopterus (McClell.) c

53. Glyptothorax madraspatanum (Day) c

54. Glyptothorax trilineatus Blyth c

55. Glyptothorax telchitta (Ham.) n

56. Glyptothorax brevipinnis (Hora) c

57. Glyptothorax conirostris (Steindachner) c

58. Pseudecheneis sulcatus (McCell.) c

59. Clupisoma garua (Ham.) r

60. Mystus vittatus (Bloch) n

61. Channa gachua (Ham.) n

62. Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) n

63. Mastacembelus armatus (Lac.) n

64. Botia geto (Ham.) r

a = abundant, c = common, n = nil, r = rare

a

a

a

a

a

a

r

r

a

r

n

n

n

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

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Garhwal Himalaya has been divided into :
(i) The Greater Himalaya with snow peaks
having a height of about 7817 m (Nanda
Devi) above the sea level, and (ii) the lower
Himalaya (middle) with peaks and valleys,
and (iii) the Siwaliks with Siwalik ranges and
the “Bhabar” (foothills). The ‘bhabar’ region
has a height of about 325 m above the sea
level. The Garhwal region comprises the dis-
tricts of Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Pauri, Tehri and
Dehradun, the first two being border districts.

Most of the holy rivers of India owe their

origin to the snow peaks of Chamoli and
Uttarkashi districts of this region. There are a
large number of snow-fed rivers and streams
such as the Jamuna, the Alaknanda, the
Bhagirathi, the Jar ganga, the Asi ganga, the
Dhauli ganga, the Mandakini, the Pinder, the
Nandakini, and the Ganga (at Deoprayag the
two parent streams, namely the Alaknanda
and the Bhagirathi, meet and form the Ganga) .
Besides the snow-fed rivers there are many
non-snow-fed rivers such as the Birahi, the
Nayar, the Khoh, the Malan, the Tal, the

128

ICHTHYOFAUNA OF THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA

N

/?\

1. YAMUN07RI

2. GAN60TRI
3KEDARNATH

4. BA ORINATH

5. VISHNU PRAYAG

6. NANDPRAYAG

7. KARN PRAYAG

8. RUDRA PRAYAG
9 .SRfNAGAR

10.DEOPRAYAG
11 .TEHRI
12.UTTARK AS HI
13-SATPULl

15KM

Fig. 1. Garhwal Himalaya river systems.

129

AG

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

Rawasan, the Bhilangana, the Hinwal, the
Gular, the Lastar, the Badiyar, the Song, and
the Suswa, etc. and hundreds of rivulets. They
all contain a very rich and colourful fish fauna.
However, many of them have so far remained
unexplored, because in the past the various
regions of the Garhwal Himalaya were in-
accessible due to lack of transport facilities.
But now many areas are well linked with
motorable roads and this helped the authors
in surveying the fish fauna of the Garhwal
Himalaya.

Discussion

Fish fauna of the Garhwal includes a large
number of coldwater fishes. Schizothorax,
Schizothoraichthys and Pseudecheneis species
are the fish which always prefer the snow-fed
Greater Himalayan rivers and streams, such as
the Bhagirathi, the Jamuna, the Alaknanda,
the Nandakini, the Finder, and the Mandakini,
etc. Garra, Crossocheilus, Noemacheilus and
Glyptothorax species are also commonly found
in the snow-fed and the non-snow-fed rivers
from the Greater Himalaya to the foothills
(Siwalik) of this region. Tor tor, T. put it ora,
and Labeo dyocheilus are not found throughout
the year in the snow-fed rivers. These species
start their migration from the Siwalik ranges
to the snow-fed rivers from March to June
for the purpose of breeding and thereafter
they return to their native places. Tor chili-
noides and Balitora brucei are also found in
the high altitude rivers. Barilius species always
prefer non-snow-fed rivers but they were also
observed in the sidewaters of the snow-fed
rivers of the Greater Himalayas. They migrate
towards the uplands in the rainy season and
inhabit and breed in the sidewaters of the
Alaknanda, the Bhagirathi, and the Jamuna
etc. Botia dario, Barilius bola, Chagunius
chagunio, Clupiosoma garua and Mastacem-
belus armatus were frequently seen during the

rainy season in the lower reaches of the snow-
fed rivers.

Some of the fishes ( Labeo boga, Puntius
sarana, P. chola, P. ticto, P. sophore, P. phutu-
nio, P. conchonius, Rasbora daniconius,
Danio sp., Esomus damicus, Lepidocephalus
guntea, Noemacheilus botia, N. corica, Ambly-
ceps mangois, Mystus vitattus, Channa gachua,
and Xenentodon cancila ) could not be seen
in the snow-fed rivers. These fishes were com-
mon in the foothills (Siwalik ranges) adjoin-
ing the plains. They were common in the rivers
like Khoh, Malan, Rawasan, Hinwal, Tal,
Gular, and the backwaters of the Ganga river.

The exotic fish Sal mo trutta fario (brown
Trout) was introduced at Kaldayani hatchery
(Uttarkashi) from Kashmir in 1910. This
hatchery is situated at an elevation of 1540 m
on the bank of the snow-fed river Asiganga,
a tributary of the Bhagirathi; Salmo gairdneri
(rainbow trout) was introduced at Talwari
hatchery (Chamoli) in 1964. This hatchery is
situated at an elevation of 1770 m and is fed
by a natural spring. Cyprinus carpio has been
introduced recently at Talwari hatchery from
Bhimtal (Nainital).

Twenty seven fishes which were not men-
tioned in the earlier papers and are being
reported now are: Salmo trutta fario, Salmo
gairdneri, Schizothorax curvifrons, S. niger, S.
intermedius, S. micropogon, Schizothoraichthys
esocinus, Labeo boga, Puntius sophore, P.
chola, P. sarana, P. phutunio, Barilius bola,
Rasbora daniconius, Esomus danricus, Cypri-
nus carpio var. communis, Cyprinus carpio
var. specularis, Botia geto, B. dario, Noema-
cheilus scaturigina, Amblyceps mangois, Clupi-
soma garua, Mystus vittatus, Glyptothorax
cavia, G. brevipinnis, Euglyptosternum linea -
turn and Xenentodon cancila.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are extremely grateful to Dr. A.G.K.

130

ICHTHYOFAUNA OF THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA

Menon, Emeritus Scientist for his valuable Department of Science and Technology, New
suggestions. Financial assistance from the Delhi is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Badola, S. P. (1975) : Fish fauna of the Garhwal
hills. Part II. Ind. J. Zoot. 76(1) : 57-70.

& Pant, M. C. (1973): Fish fauna

of the Garhwal hills. Part I. Ind. J. Zool. 74(1):
37-44.

— & Singh, H. R. (1977a) : Fish fauna

of the Garhwal hills;. Part III (Chamoli district).
Ind. J. Zool. 18(2): 119-122.

(19776) : Fish fauna

of the Garhwal hills. Part IV (Tehri district). Ind.
J. Zool. 18(2): 115-118.

(1981): Fish and

Fisheries of the river Alaknanda. Proc. Nat. Acad-
Sci., India 557(2) : 133-142.

Chaudhury, H. S. & Khandelwal, O. P. (1960):
The fish survey of Nainital district. Vigyan Pari-
shad Anusandhan Patrika 3: 139-145.

Das, S. M. (1960) : The fishes of Doon valley.
Uttar Bharti.

& Subla, B. A. (1964) : The Ichthyo-
fauna of Kashmir. Part II. The speciation of Kash-
mir fishes with two new records of species. Ichthyo-
logica 3(1-2) : 57-62.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India: being a
Natural History of the Fishes known to inhabit
the Seas and Freshwaters. of India, Burma and
Ceylon. Vols. 1 & 2. xx + 778, PI. cxcv.

Grover, S. P. & Gupta, S. K. (1977) : Fish and
Fisheries of Banda district (U.P.). Proc. Nat. Acad.
Sci., India. 475 (IV) : 204-218.

Heckel, I. J. (1844) : Fishes Kaschmir's in Huggel,
C.A.A. Von Kaschmir und Das Reich Der Seik.
Bd. 4. abdh 2: 351-392.

Hora, S. L. (1937) : Notes on fishes in the In-
dian Museum. On a collection of fish from Kumaon
Himalayas. Rec. Indian Mus. 39: 338-341.

& Mukerji, D. D. (1936): Fishes

of the Eastern Doon, United Provinces with in-
troduction and remarks on Mahseer Fisheries, ibid.
38: 133-146.

Husain, A. (1975) : Fish fauna of Corbett

National Park, Uttar Pradesh. Cheetal 77(2) : 39-42.

Lal, M. B. & Chatterjee, P. (1962): Survey of
eastern Doon fishes with certain notes on their

biology. J. Zool. Soc. India. 74(1-2) : 229-243.

Mahajan, C. L. (1961): Fish fauna of Muza-
ffarnagar district, Uttar Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 62 ( 3): 440-454.

Malik, G. M. (1966) : A revision of the fishes of
the genus Oreinus McClelland from Kashmir and
in the Indian Museum,, Calcutta with description of
new variety. Kashmir Science. 3(1-2) : 126-144.

Menon, A.G.K. (1949a): Fishes of Kumaon

Himalaya. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48(3) : 535-542.

(19496) : Fishes from the Kosi

Flimalaya, Nepal. Rec. Indian Mus. 47 ( 3-4): 231-
237.

(1962) : A distributional list of

fishes of the Himalayas. J. Zool. Soc., India. 74(1-2) :
23-32.

(1971): Taxonomy of fishes of

the genus Schizothorax Heckel with the description
of a new species from Kumaon Himalayas. Rec.
Zool. Surv India. 63(1-4) : 195-208.

Motwani, M. P. & Saigal, B. N. (1974) : Fish
fauna of Sardasagar reservoir in Pilibhit (U.p.)
and some recommendations for development of re-
servoir fisheries. Indian J. Fish. 21(1): 109-119.

Pant, M. C. (1970) : Fish fauna of the Kumaon
hills. Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 64 ( 1-4): 85-96.

Sehgal, J. K. (1973) : Fish and fisheries of

Aligarh with a note on the fish catches. J. Inland
Fish. Soc. India. 5: 23-28.

Saxena, D. B. (1968) : Fish and fisheries of

Jammu and Kashmir State. Part II. Systematic ac-

count of the fishes of the State. Ichthyologica 7
(1-2): 48-65.

Sehgal, K. L., Shukla, I. P. & Shah, K. L.

(1971): Observations on fisheries of Kangra valley
and adjacent areas with special reference to Mahseer
and other fishes. /. Inland Fish. Soc. India. 3: 63-71.

Silas, E. G. (1960): Fishes from the Kashmir
Valley. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57(1): 66-77.

Singh, H. R. & Dobriyal, A. K. (1982): First
report on the occurrence of Botia geto (Ham.) in
the river Alaknanda of the Garhwal Himalaya. Proc.
Nat. Acad. Sci., India. B 52(2) : 137-139.

131

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

Singh, P. P. (1964): Fishes of the Doon valley
Ichthyologica 3(1-2): 86-92.

Singh, S. P. (1974): Fishes of Moradabad

(U.P.). Ind. J. Zoot. 15 { 2): 75-78.

Sinha, B. M. & Shiromani, A. A .(1953): The
fishes of Meerut. Rec. Indian Mus. 51: 61-65.

Srivastava, G. J. (1968): Fishes of eastern Uttar
Pradesh. Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan Varanasi: 1-

163.

Tilak, R. & Husain, A. (1973) : Notes on fishes
of Doon valley, Uttar Pradesh I. Distributional and
morphological studies on some Glyptosternoid fishes
(Sisoridae). Rec. Zool. Surv. India, 67(1-4) : 391-
399.

Verma, S. S., Chitray, B. B. & Saxena, D. B.
(1962): Fishes of Kanpur district. Proc. nat. Acad.
Sci. India, 32B(3): 213-232.

132

SUNDARBANS HONEY AND THE MANGROVE

SWAMPS1

Kalyan Chakrabarti2

The present paper discusses various aspects of honey production and the behaviour
pattern of the honey bees in the estuarine tracts of the Sundarbans where the terrain
is peculiar, the environment is tropical and humid, wind velocity is high and the forests
are dense and low. It covers the aspects of (i) annual honey and wax production and
corresponding number of the permit holders and their casualties from man-eaters, (ii)
the size pattern of the honey combs and corresponding honey production; (iii) honey
production relating to the distance of honey comb from the ground level; (iv) host-comb
relationship; (v) nectar, pollen grains and colour of honey; (vi) phenology of forest
plants. The observations have been statistically analysed and the findings clearly
stated and represented. These aspects of Apis dorsata have never been studied in
such detail in estuarine tract in its. natural habitat and the results of the observations
has economic significance and will help at better work schedule for honey collection.

The tract

The vast expanse of tidal swamp forests
of the Sundarbans studded with fan-
tastic labyrinths, bifurcations of rivers around
tiny mud-flats are one of the thickest and im-
penetrable forests, where the honey bee ( Apis
dorsata) migrate during March to June every
year. Numerous swarms of bees are ceaselessly
active in collecting nectar from the vast tracts
of forests flushed with fragrant flowers and form-
ing huge low combs, close to the ground level.
In a tract where venomous snakes, sharks, cro-
codiles, tigers and spotted deer occur. Honey
collection in this animal infested terrain, where
the forests are impenetrable, mud extremely
soft, land inundated twice a day by high
tide, innumerable sharp and hard pneumato-
phores point dangerously above ground level,
is the most hazardous, laborious and risky

1 Accepted August 1985.

2 Regional Deputy Director, Wild Life Region,
Eastern Region, Nizam Palace, Calcutta-700 020.

among all type of work in the Sundarbans
forests.

Object of study

The study has been initiated to ascertain

(i) the percentage of different plant species
that form the host plant of the honey bees,

(ii) if the bees are selective of any particular
plant or plants for making combs and what is
the percentage of different host plant species;

(iii) if the comb size has any relation with
the yield of honey and wax; (iv) if the height
of comb from the ground level has any rela-
tion with yield of honey and wax; (v) if the
pollen analysis of honey samples can indicate
the nectar preference for any particular flower
or flowers; (vi) the peak period of production;
and (vii) the death pattern of the honey col-
lectors and other permit holders from the
tigers.

Methods of study

A large number of honey combs were inspect -

133

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

ed in different parts of forests over a wide area.
The measurement of length, width and thickness
were noted and honey and wax production for
each comb was measured. These observations
were also made by the field foresters and forest
guards all over the forests (the tract is exten-
sive and difficult) and recorded in proforma
sheets specially made for this purpose. A num-
ber of honey collectors were also questioned
and their observations were recorded. All these
observations were later summarised. Samples
of honey were microscopically examined and
the host plants were identified from the pollen
grains. Total collections from time to time
were enumerated and correlated with flower
production; fortnightly collections of honey
were measured and continued for a period of
75 days.

Host plants

The bees showed the following perference
percentages to trees for making honey combs

Avicennia sp. — 16.0%

Heritiera formes — 9.0%

Xylocarpus ganitrus — 2.8%

X. gangeticus — 1 . 9%

Rhizophora mucronata — 10.0%

Cereops sp. — 11.0%

Agialitis rotundifolia — 1.0%

Excoecaria agallocha — 39.0%

Aegiceros corniculatus — 0.5%

Sonneratia apetala — 5.3%

Rruguiera gymnorrhiza — 3 . 5%

Excoecaria trees are an obvious choice,
although this tree does not either have a suita-
ble crown or spreading branches. Phoenix-
Excoecaria combination offers an ideal habitat
for the honey comb formation. The cool
atmosphere and moisture laden tunnel formed
by Phoenix palm with the Excoecaria branches
hanging over the thickets have the maximum

number of combs per unit area. Contrary to
this, Sonneratia apetala, the tallest and much
branched tree of the Sundarban forests does
not have sufficient number of combs. Xylocar-
pus species are avoided although the trees have
thick dense crown and are branched; yet Heri-
tiera with its sporadic occurrence and light
thin crown have a good percentage of
combs in them. Cereops species which occupy
90% of the forest areas have only 11% of
the combs; the reasons may be the shrubby
bushes of C. roxburghiana and unbranched
thick crown of C. candolleana both of which
are found unsuitable for comb formation. The
Rhizophora and Avicennia (A. alba and A.
officinalis) have proportionately high percen-
tage of combs although the trees grow only
along the island boundary and beside the
creeks, khals and rivers. The honey bees avoid
such trees growing open or along a wide khal
which is evident from complete absence of the
combs on the trees standing along the boun-
dary of islands that generally form the in-
spection route of the forest staff. Contrary
to this, these species when they occur along
narrow creeks inside the islands have a good
number of combs.

Comb sizes and the yield of honey and wax

A number of honey combs occurring all over
the forests were measured. It has been
found that width and thickness are rather
constant in all cases but the length is varia-
ble. The average calculated from the measure-
ments is given below:

Length Width Thickness

Maximum 120 cm 95 cm 7.5 cm

Average 75-90 cm 37-45 cm 6.0cm

Minimum 37-45 cm 25 cm 6.0 cm

Honey yield corresponding to all available
sizes was noted and the results of yield with
size and distance from the ground level were
analysed statistically. From actual measure-

134

SUN D ARB AN S HONEY AND THE MANGROVE SWAMPS

ment it has been found that combs of 0.028
cubic meter volume yield about 3 kg of honey,
combs of 0.035 cu. m. yield about 4-6 kg.,
combs of 0.042 cu. m. yield about 10 kg, and
0.056 cu. m. about 14 kg of honey, but the last
two sizes are not of general occurrence.

But the honey output possibly depends on
various factors like (i) proper strain of honey
bee; (ii) ideal weather condition; (iii) size of
comb; (iv) first or second formation; (v) dis-
tance from ground level; (iv) optimum flower-
ing of tree species, and other factors.

A swarm of bees generally form only one
honey comb on a tree however branched and
wide-crowned the trees may be. It is only in
5 to 10% cases that two honey combs are
formed on a tree. In such cases one becomes
bigger and the other smaller. These perhaps are
formed when there are two queen bees in a
swarm. Not a single tree was found with three
combs. Generally all the combs are construct-
ed on a new site although the waxy bases of
honey combs are left out on the branches to
invite the honey bees to form combs for a
second time. It is only in 7.3% cases that a
second comb has been found constructed on
the left-out waxy base of the first hive. The
combs on slanting branches have been found
to yield more honey than those on horizontal
branches. Honey accumulates on the lower
portions of the comb.

It has been found that the combs made
early in the season are bigger in size. The
combs that face at right angles to the rays
of the sun have high honey contents.

Comb distance from the ground level

AND HONEY YIELD

Honey combs are formed at a very low
height contrary to the comb-formation by this
very species elsewhere. The trees in these
forests are 5 to 10 metres tall, yet few combs
are made above 4-5 metres from the ground

level. Optimum height is 1.5 to 2.0 metres
from the ground level. A survey of 406 trees
showed that only ten trees contained combs
above 2.5 metres from the ground level; the
rest were at heights from 1.5 to 2.5 metres.

An effort has been made to find out
a definite relationship between honey yield
with length of honey comb and distance from
the ground level. It shows that honey yield has
a definite relation with the size. Normally,
with the increase in the distance of the comb
from the ground level there is an increase in
the yield of honey up to the height of 2.59
metres. Any increase in height beyond that
meant decrease in the yield of honey.

Another clear observation made was that
during the last phase of honey comb-forma-
tion, low level branches were avoided and
higher branches selected. It is because the forest
environment close to ground gets hot at the
lower levels. For the comb-formation for the
second time Avicennia, Sonneratia, Bruguiera
and Rhizophora species are selected. Honey
combs formed in the Excoecaria-Phoenix
formation were found at a height as low as
60 to 240 cm from ground level. (In Phoenix
area the high tide water does not reach the
tree level. Crabs have been found to eat honey
in these combs.)

The honey combs that are made for the
second time have four characteristics:

(i) They are made far above ground level.

(ii) They are smaller in size, but

(iii) They yield comparatively more honey.

(iv) The quantity of wax is proportionately
more than the first formation.

Honey combs which are formed at the fag
end of the season from Excoecaria agallocha
nectar are smaller in size, but the honey con-
tent is comparatively more. Statistical analy-
sis of random sample of 60 combs suggests
that in 98% cases the distance of honey comb

135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 84

from the ground level lies within 1.5 to 2.1
metres. But the optimum distance of honey
comb which yields the maximum quantity of
honey has been found to be 2.5 metres other
factors remaining constant.

is slightly acidic and hot. It has fermented
effect and burns the throat. The bulk collec-
tion of honey occurs in the following sequence
from April to June. The results are shown as
follows :

Phenology and honey production

The phenological pattern shows the peak
period of flowering of different species of
flowering plants. This can be divided into
several 15 -day phase as follows

April 1st to April 15th

— 40.8%

April 16th to April 30th

— 33.2%

May 1st to May 15th

— 20.0%

May 16th to May 31st

— 4.4%

June 1st to June 15th

1.6%

Phase I

March 20th to April 5th
Aegiceros corniculatus
Acanthus illicifolius
Suaeda maritima and
.< Sisuvium portulacastrum
March 31st to April 15th
Phoenix paludosa
April 5th to April^Oth
Cereops sp.

Honey formed from the first four flowers
has thick consistency and is creamy white in
colour. Honey made from Aigeceros nectar is
considered best and is cream coloured. Honey
from Cereops is a bit reddish.

Phase II April 15th to May 5th
Sonneratia apetala

Honey derived out of these flowers is
yellowish and slightly light.

Phase III May 1st to May 20th

Avicennia sp.

The honey has reddish tinge and is light.
Phase IV May 20th to June 5th
Excoecaria agallocha

The honey has reddish colour and its taste

This gives an impression that the bulk of
the honey is produced from Aegiceros corni-
culatus, Xylocarpus species. Acanthus illici-
folius (a shrub), Phoenix paludosa and Cereops.

Similarly the honey that is collected during
the latter half of April is mainly from Sonn-
eratia and Cereops. The last phase of collection
is from a mixture of many species of which
Excoecaria agallocha contributes maximum
(verified from the pollen study).

But analysis of a few samples of honey
under the microscope also shows the pollen
grains of several species that do not even occur
in the reserved forests area or in the vicinity.
Such analysis shows good quantity of Cereops
pollen and the pollen of Crotalaria and seve-
ral other species that do not occur in the
Sundarban forests.

Nectar, Pollen production and weather

Nectar is a product of glandular secretion.
All the flowering trees of the Sundarbans have
small and fragrant flowers ( Acanthus illicifo-
lius and Derris species have bigger flowers).
Nectar and pollen grains are food of the bees.
The coloration in honey, is held by some
experts to be, due to climatic conditions and
also owing to the chemical composition of the
nectar. The pollen grains of the following
species have been found mixed with honey:

136

SUNDARBANS HONEY AND THE MANGROVE SWAMPS

Acanthus illicifolius — Yellow pollen grain
Rhizophora mucronata — Cream coloured grain
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza — Vermillion coloured grain
Xylocarpus sp. — Yellow to deep brown grain

Cereops sp. — Cream coloured grain

Phoenix paludosa — Red coloured grain

They do impart some colour to the honey.

Why does the honey bee. Apis dorsata,
migrate to the Sundarban forests during March
to July? Do the vast low forests with profuse,
nectar yielding, fragrant flowers attract them?
In migrating to these forests they have to cover
hundreds of miles and work in an atmosphere
where humidity varies from 75% to 85%.
They work during the period in tropical humid
climate, yet the bees detest continuous rain
on bright sunny days, the former being detri-
mental to flush of flower and nectar forma-
tion, and the latter for changing the optimum
humidity and temperature level. Sunny days
with intermittent rains are ideal for
honey production. Excessive rain or lack of
rain affects normal honey production. Storms in
the flower flushing season damage the flowers.
The best nectar, it is said, is produced under
the influence of suitable soil and in favoura-
ble climate; the Sundarbans perhaps provide
such a soil and climate.

Honey bee and Wildlife

The honey bee operates in an area where
the entire land mass is flooded in high tide
and the land animals have to lead an amphi-
bious life. Most important land animals are
tigers, spotted deer, pigs and monkeys ( Macaca
mulatto). It has been observed that the mon-
keys and tigers are interested in honey and
they do break the low-lying combs. The mon-

keys are said to smear the body with a thick
layer of silt before approaching the combs !
Crabs ( Scylla , Portunus , and Mutala spp.),
have been found clinging to the combs. Even
though some aquatic mammals like the little
porpoise, lizards ( Varanus sp.), brackish water
snakes ( Natrix , Enhydris, Gerardia spp.),
terrestrial snakes ( Naja , Dryophis, Python
spp.) and Crocodylus porosus live near the
low-lying combs, yet the honey bees, it seems,
are unconcerned. It is not known why the
combs are made within easy reach of ani-
mals. Gastropods ( Nerita , Telescopium, Melon-
gena, Lymnaea, Orchidium spp.) may be
associated with the comb in some way or the
other.

But the profession of honey collection is
associated with a tragic human problem. On
an average over the last twenty years it is
recorded that about 1000 honey collectors are
engaged each year in this profession, amongst
whom 10 fall victim to man-eaters, another 30
are attacked and robbed by dacoits. The an-
nual average of honey collection was 450
quintals and wax about 40 quintals for the
last twenty years.

Conclusion

The present study is a preliminary investiga-
tion. It has enabled us to find out the
principal plant species responsible for best
honey production, the best size and height of
the combs from the ground level that yield
maximum honey, and many other relevant
information not so far recorded from this
area. The findings have economic significance
and it should be possible to manage the forests
and formulate better work schedule for honey
collection.

137

10

ANNUAL REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE OF THE MALE
FIELD RAT, RATTUS RATTUS BRUNNEUSCULUS
(HODGSON) IN HILLY TERRAIN OF MIZORAM1

N. S. Chauhan and R. N. Saxena2
( With a plate)

The males of the field rat, Rattus rattus brunneusculus (Hodgson) were collected
every month during the period 1976 to 1979 from different areas of Mizoram. Body
weight of each rat was noted. The observations were made on the weight and
histology of the testes and various accessory sex organs during different months of
the year.

The male of this species is a seasonal breeder and shows a single long breeding
season from May to October. During this period, the weights of testes and accessory
sex organs are high. The testicular histology shows broad seminiferous tubules with
sperms and large interstitial cells with vesicular nuclei. The breeding phase is followed
and preceded by the short regressive and progressive phases respectively. The non-
breeding phase extends from December to February. During these months, there is
significant reduction in the testis weight and the seminiferous tubules have germ
cells limited to primary spermatocytes. The interstitial cells are inconspicuous and
have small often pycnotic nuclei and little cytoplasm. Parallel to the reduction in the
testis weight, the accessory sex organs also exhibit a decrease in weight.

Introduction

The field rat, Rattus rattus brunneusculus
(Hodgson) is commonly found in Mizoram,
a Union Territory of India. It usually inhabits
crop fields, forests and tribal settlements. It is
observed that the population of this rat in-
creases exponentially at the time of bamboo
flowering. It inflicts incalculable loss to paddy
(Oryza sativa) and vegetable crops as well as
stored grains thereby resulting in famine con-
ditions. Therefore, this rat is of great econo-
mic importance. An attempt has been made
to investigate the physiology of reproduction
of this rat. The present study deals with the
annual reproductive cycle of the male.

1 Accepted April 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Delhi,
Delhi-110 007, India.

Materials and Methods

More than eight hundred adult males of
Rattus rattus brunneusculus were collected
from crop fields and adjacent forests located
in different areas of Mizoram from 1976 to
1979. The animals were either caught alive
from their burrows or trapped by using
‘Sherman’ traps. The animals which had mini-
mum body weight of 45 g and length of 28 cm
were taken as adults and used in this study.
The animals were autopsied within 10-12 hrs
of their capture. The body weight was noted
prior to autopsy. The testes, epididymides,
prostate glands and seminal vesicles were dis-
sected free of fat and connective tissue and
weighed on a precision balance to the nearest
0.2 mg. All the weights given in the tables,
wherever applicable, are the mean weights of
paired organs.

138

I. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84

Chauhan & Saxena: Rattus rattus brunneusculus

Plate 1

Photomicrographs of T. S. of testes showing:

Fig, 1. Non-breeding conditions, x 400. Fig. 2. Recrudescence, x 250. Fig. 3. Breed-
ing conditions, x 250. Fig. 4. Regressive changes, x 250.

REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE OF RATTUS R. BRUNNEUSCULUS

Only the tissues from representative ani-
mals of each month collections were fixed in
Bouins fluid for histological study. Sections
were cut at 5-7 micra and stained with
Haematoxylin and Eosin. The diameter of
approximately 15-20 seminiferous tubules and
nuclei of 25-30 randomly selected interstitial
cells from each testis section was measured
by means of an ocular micrometer.

Results

Tesfis

Weight (Table 1)

The testis showed marked variations in the
weight during different months of the year. It
was lowest in February, started increasing in
March and a significant increase was observed
in April (p<0.001). It further increased in
May and this peak value was almost main-
tained till October. Thereafter, regression sets
in and the weight started decreasing gradually
and significant reduction was noted in Decem-
ber (p< 0.001), reaching lowest once again
in February. During non-breeding phase (Dec-
ember to February) the testes become abdo-
minal in position while they descend down into
the scrotum during breeding phase (May to
October) .

Histology (Plate 1 — Figs. 1-4, table 1)

From December to February when testes
weights were very low, the histology also show-
ed regressed state. It was characterized by the
presence of a thick, fibrous and crumpled
tunica albuginea. The seminiferous tubules
were narrow, the germ cells were restricted to
primary spermatocyte stage and lumen was
almost clear (Fig. 1). There was an apparent
increase in the number of Sertoli cells. The
intertubular spaces were enlarged, the intersti-
tial cells were small with oval and small nuclei
and appeared non-secretory. In March and
April, with the testis recrudescence, concur-
rent regenerative changes were seen in its
histology. It was characterized by an increase

in diameter of seminiferous tubules (Table 1)
and even the appearance of spermatozoa in a
few tubules indicating reinitiation of the germ
cell activity. The interstitial cells also became
prominent and showed some secretory activity
as was evident by their vesicular nuclei (Fig.

2) . At the time when testes weights were very
high (May to October) the histology showed
perfect breeding characteristics. The tunica
albuginea was thin and smooth. Spermatozoa
were seen in most of the seminiferous tubules
which became more compact in arrangement
due to increase in their diameters thereby the
intertubular spaces were greatly reduced (Fig.

3) . The interstitium was less marked. The in-
terstitial cells were large, polyhedral and with
spherical vesicular nuclei. In November, when
the testes weights were significantly decreased,
the seminiferous tubules were reduced in
diameter resulting in an increase in the inter-
tubular spaces. Degenerated spermatozoa, sper-
matids and even secondary spermatocytes in the
form of debris were characteristically observed
in the lumen of the tubules. At the advance
stages of regression, the tubules were almost
cleared off their debris. The interstitium be-
came more visible due to narrowing of the
tubules and the interstitial cells became less
prominent (Fig. 4).

Accessory sex organs
Weight (Table 2)

The changes in the weight and histology of
the accessory sex organs were closely parallel
to the testicular cycle. From December to
February when the testes were regressed, the
weights of different accessory sex organs
(epididymis, prostate, seminal vesicle) were
lowest and the histology showed non-secretory
characteristics. While during the breeding phase
(May to October) these organs were maxi-
mally grown and appeared to be highly secre-
tory. The details of histology of these organs
are being presented elsewhere.

139

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 1

Monthly changes in testis weights (mean±s.e.) and diameter of seminiferous tubules and

interstitial cells of R. y. brunneusculus

Testis Seminiferous tubules

Interstitial cells

Month

Number

(mg/100 g Number

Diameter

Number

Nuclear

of

body weight) of tubules

(micron)

of cells

diameter

animals

measured

measured

(micron)

January

78 ‘a’

251± 17.3 27

111 .5=1=12. 86

38

4. 32+0.085

February

75

139± 14.9 18

100.6±12.76

30

4.92+0.360

March

58 Mr

476 ± 40.5 26

171 .2=1=16.91

41

5.74 + 0.121

April

37 ‘c’

1114± 126.0 15

275. 0± 10. 00

25

5.73+0.210

May

50 ‘d'

2105 ± 46.5 24

257. 5± 3.82

37

5.92+0.374

June

54

2111±130.0 30

296.8=1=11.75

50

5.94 + 0.234

July

60

1927 ±100.0 24

289. 6± 17. 63

40

6.22+0.266

August

102

1834± 67.5 30

296.7±18.33

38

5.82+0.158

September

69

2099 ± 76.5 32

280. 8± 6.51

36

5.98+0.104

October

97

1616=1=113. 0 21

297. 5± 7.50

39

5.95+0.161

November

84

1417±160.0 26

222. 5± 13. 50

31

5. 13+0.251

December

58 ‘e’

614 ± 40.4 35

126.7=1=10. 14

35

4.28+0.192

‘p' Values

Testis

Seminiferous tubules

Interstitial cells

V vs ‘d’ <0.001

‘a’ vs ‘b* < 0.005

r vs ‘b’ < 0.001

‘d’ vs ‘e’ <0.001

‘b' vs ‘d’ < 0.001

‘d’ vs ‘e’ < 0.001

Talle 2

Monthly

changes in weight of epididymis, seminal

VESICLE AND PROSTATE OF R. Y

. bYunneusculus

Number

Epididymis

Seminal vesicle

Prostate gland

Month

of

(mg/ 100 g

(mg/ 100 g

(mg/ 100 g

animals

body weight)

body weight)

body weight)

January

78 ‘a’

28. 9± 4.9

12. 9± 1.8

30.5+ 3.4

February

75

29. 1± 4.9

11. 9± 2.5

17.2+ 6,2

March

58 ‘b’

166. 7± 6.2

32. 4± 1.4

122.1+ 8.4

April

37

283. 1±83. 8

134.7±23.1

278,2+57.5

May

50 ‘c’

404.2±85.9

122. 3±25. 8

275.4+67.4

June

54

768. 8± 35.1

188.4±22.9

350.7+41.7

July

60

716.5±34.0

207.4±20.4

409.0+ 36,7

August

102

662. 3=1= 39 . 3

187.6±23.9

362.3+35.2

September

69

558.6±92.9

1 88 . 9 — 27 . 1

371.2+62.4

October

97

584.2±66.0

185.5=1=21 .9

318.2+48.8

November

84

436. 9± 81. 8

128,9±17.1

236.8+52.0

December

58 ‘d’

174. 3± 5.2

23. 5± 6.6

36.8+16.3

‘p‘ Values

Epididymis

Seminal vesicle

Prostate gland

‘a’ vs ‘b’ < 0.001

‘b’ vs ‘c’ <0.001

!a’ vs ‘c’ <0.001

cb’ vs £c’ <0.001

‘c’ vs ‘d’ < 0.001

:c’ vs ‘d’ <0.001

‘c’ vs ‘d' < 0.001

140

REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE OF RATTUS R. BRUNNEUSCULUS

Discussion

As revealed by monthly changes in the
weight and histology of testes and accessory
sex organs, the male of the common field rat.
Rat t us rat t us brunneusculus (Hodgson) in
Mizoram is a seasonal breeder. The breeding
season extends from May to October whereas
the non-breeding phase is of a shorter dura-
tion (December to February).

Throughout the breeding phase of R. r.
brunneusculus, the testes remain maximally
grown with abundant spermatozoa in their
seminiferous tubules. Clusters of interstitial
cells with vesicular nuclei are seen in reduced
intertubular spaces. Short non-breeding phase
(3 months) is characterized by low testis
weight, absence of spermatozoa in its semi-
niferous tubules, germ cells only up to sperma-
tocyte stage and a few small interstitial cells
in broadened intertubular spaces. Annual
breeding cycle of almost the same pattern was
observed in certain other rodents such as
Apodemus sylvaticus (Asdell 1946) and Rattus
cutchicus cutchicus (Prakash 1971). Besides
these features, the testes also become abdomi-
nal during non-breeding phase and descend
down into the scrotum during breeding phase.
Similar change in testis position has also been
reported for Malacomys longipes and Apo-
demus sylvaticus (Asdell 1946).

In animals showing regular periodicity in
reproductive activity, there exists a close rela-
tionship between the absolute number, size
and functional activity of the interstitial cells
and gametogenic activity. In Tatera indica
cuvierii (Prasad 1956), Funambulus pennanti
(Reddy and Prasad 1968) and Nesokia indica
(Gariyali 1975) the interstitial cells show
parallel changes with that of gametogenic
activity. Whereas, a reverse condition in
which the interstitial cells show increase in
size, number and functional activity in regress-

ing or regressed testes, has also been reported
in Myotis griescens (Miller 1939). In the
present rat species, the interstitial cells show
changes which run parallel to gametogenic
activity. The periodic increase in the number
of interstitial cells in sexually active animals
may be either due to division of the existing
interstitial cells or by transformation of inter-
tubular non-secretory stromal cells into secre-
tory interstitial cells as suggested by Gopala-
krishna (1949) and Prasad (1956).

Prior to attainment of perfect breeding or
non-breeding characteristics, testes show
gradual but marked changes in weight and
spermatogenesis. After termination of breed-
ing activity, a decrease in testis weight and
degeneration of spermatozoa along with some
other types of germ cells occurs. The deposi-
tion of degenerated components as debris with-
in the lumen of tubules marks the regressive
phase (November). Subsequent clearance of
the debris and presence of germ cells only up
to spermatocytes leads the animals to non-
breeding phase. After non-breeding phase the
recrudescence of testes, as marked by increase
in their weights and onset of spermatogenesis,
begins and culminates into perfect breeding
condition. This growth period is called as pro-
gressive phase (March- April). Similar pro-
gressive and regressive phases have also been
identified in Funambulus pennanti (Reddy
and Prasad 1968). Thus, on the basis of the
changes occurring in testes, the annual repro-
ductive cycle of the male of this rat can be
divided into breeding (May to October),
regressive (November), non-breeding (Dec-
ember to February) and progressive (March-
April) phases.

These cyclical changes in the testis may be
possibly due to variations in the levels of
pituitary gonadotropins. In certain seasonally
breeding mammals like ram (Ortavant et al.
1964, Pelletier 1973, Katongole et al. 1974,

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Sanford et al. 1974a, b. Gomes and Joyce
1975), snow shoe hare (Davis and Meyer
1973a, b) and white tailed deer (Mirarchi et
al. 1978) a definite relationship has been
shown between testis activity and pituitary
gonadotropins. During the breeding phase, the
level of pituitary gonadotropins was found to
be highest while it was lowest during the non-
breeding phase. Recently, Lincoln and Kay
(1979) observed increasing circulating levels of
LLI during growth phase of the testis and con-
sequently testosterone peak was observed coin-
ciding with the active spermatogenesis in the
red deer stag. All these observations lead us
to speculate that in this rat also, the seasonal
increase and decrease in the levels of pituitary
gonadotropins may be the primary factor
controlling the cyclic changes in the gonadal
activity. Besides, various other factors, both
intrinsic and extrinsic either independently or
jointly, may also be responsible for the regu-
lation of the reproductive cycle.

It may be possible that the regression occurs
due to cumulative effect of negative feedback
by high levels of sex hormones secreted dur-
ing the breeding phase because of which the
circulating levels of gonadotropins decrease
and consequently gradual regression sets in
which leads to non-breeding phase. This phase
is maintained for a considerable duration either
because of non-stimulatory levels of gonado-
tropins or occurrence of a refractory period
following the breeding phase as reported in
most of the seasonally breeding animals
(Reiter 1972, Turek et al. 1975, Sansum and
King 1975, 1976, Murton and Westwood 1977,
Grocock 1980. Zucker et al. 1980, Soares and
Hoffmann 1982). It is during this period that
hypothalamo-hypophvseal-gonadal axis or any
one of its components becomes unresponsive
to a stimulus. However, when the levels of
gonadotropins start increasing possibly due to
positive feedback effect of low levels of sex

hormones from regressed testes or when the
refractoriness is over, the gonads once again
show recrudescence and the animals get into
progressive phase.

The increase and decrease in the weight and
functional activity, as judged by histological
studies, of various accessory sex organs are
seen to be closely related with the testicular
cycle. The interstitial cells are known to be
the principal source of androgens which
control the growth and functional activity of
the accessory organs. Seasonal variations in the
androgen synthesis and release by these cells,
associated with the testis cycle are reflected in
a series of changes in the accessory organs.
During the breeding phase when the testes
show maximum gametogenic activity and the
interstitial cells are conspicuous, large and
active, the accessory sex organs show maxi-
mum weights and functional activity. At the
termination of breeding phase, a gradual re-
gression of the accessory sex organs occurs
following regression of the testes which ulti-
mately leads to regressed state of these organs
in December, the beginning of non-breeding
phase. The recrudescence of testis is accom-
panied by increase in weight and reinitiation
of functional activity of the accessory sex
organs. Such cyclical changes in the accessory
sex organs related with testicular cycle are also
reported in other seasonally breeding mam-
mals (Wislocki 1949, Mossman et al. 1955,
Short and Mann 1965, P.eddi and Prasad
1968, Ellis and Balph 1976, Lincoln and
Kay 1979). The high levels of androgens dur-
ing the breeding phase seem to be responsible
for the maximum growth and functional
activity of the accessory sex organs. Whereas,
the reverse may be for the non-breeding phase.
Our results can be explained on the basis of
the work of Lindner (1963) which shows
differences in the concentration of androgen
between the lymph and blood of the testis in

142

REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE OF RATTUS R. BRUNNEUSCULUS

ram. The testosterone concentration during
the testicular growth phase in the lymph was
higher than that in systematic blood plasma. It
is likely that in this rat, during recrudescence
the testosterone concentration maintained by
testicular lymph is adequate only for gameto-
genic activity but its concentration in the blood
plasma is below the threshold level required
for the accessory sex organs functions. Sub-
sequent increase in the androgen level in blood
plasma may initiate and maintain the accessory
organs activity.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Government of Mizoram
and the local people, especially the farmers
for their co-operation and providing the neces-
sary facilities for carrying out this work in
different areas of Mizoram. The work was
supported by a grant for a research assign-
ment from the I.C.A.R., New Delhi which is
gratefully acknowledged.

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144

STUDIES ON ANOPHELES ( CELL1A ) MACULATES
THEOBALD, 1901 IN BASTAR DISTRICT, INDIA
(DIPTERA : CULICIDAE)1

Zakir Husain Husainy2
( With five text-figures)

A total of 168 specimens of Anopheles maculatiis were collected in 12 villages
of Bastar District, Madhya Pradesh, India, out of 105 surveyed in 1206 man-hours.
This mosquito was not found either in cattle-sheds or human dwellings in the day.
A uniform feeding pattern was not seen all round the year. This species of Anopheles
appeared to be more numerous in rainy season and to be more abundant in the
forests of the Hot-moist climatic region with an elevation of 609 to 761 m. The
anopheline was not captured from the human bait. None of the females dissected
showed gut or gland infection by malarial parasites.

I N TRODU CTION

The oriental element Anopheles maculatus
has so far been recorded from Afghanistan
(Ward 1972); Pakistan, Bangladesh (Aslam-
khan 1971); Nepal (Brydon et at. 1961); Sri
Lanka (Harrison et al 1974); Burma (Khin
Maung-Kyi 1971); China (Chow 1949); Hong-
kong (Pal and Sharma 1955); Taiwan
(TAMRI and W.H.O. 1958); Thailand (Pey-
ton & Scanlon 1966); Cambodia (Harrison
and Klein 1975); Vietnam (Stojanovich and
Scott 1966); Philippines Islands (Baisas 1974),
Malaysia (Reid 1968) and Indonesia (Van
Hell 1952) (Fig. 1). This mosquito is the most
important vector of malaria in the interior of
Malaysia (McArthur 1950), Philippines, Indo-
nesia, Vietnam (Dy 1954); Yunnan and
Hongkong (Pal & Sharma 1955). It does not
appear to be a vector of malaria in Thailand
(Scanlon et al 1968). In India it is of no
vectorial importance whatever, save in Shillong

1 Accepted February 1982.

2 Assistant Entomologist, National Malaria Eradi-

cation Programme, Jagdalpur, Dist. Bastar, (M.P.).
Present address: 83/26, 1250 Qrs., Tulsi Nagar,

Bhopal, M. P. (India).

town in the Khasia Hills of Assam (Senior
White 1948). Its present distribution in India
has been summarised by Puri (1955) (Fig. 2).

The Bastar District has been reported as
hyper-endemic for malaria and Anopheles
culicifacies Giles and Anopheles fluviatilis
James were considered as the primary vectors
(Vaid & Nagendra 1964). Despite all precau-
tionary measures, the district still continues to
be in the attack phase of the present nation-
wide malaria eradication programme which
was started in 1959. Studies were, therefore,
carried out to determine the epidemiological
significance and bionomics of the anopheline
fauna of the area. In this communication,
findings on Anopheles maculatus Theobald
have been described and discussed.

Area and Climate

Bastar District lies roughly in the central
part of India and extends from 17°46'N to
20°34'N latitude and from 80°15'E to 82° LE
longitude (Fig. 2). It has an area of 39,086
sq. km containing 3154 villages and three
towns which fall into five main physiographi-

145

SIA

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

146

Fig. 1. Map of the Oriental region showing countries where Anopheles maculatus
has so far been recorded.

ANOPHELES (CELLIA) MACULATUS IN BASTAR

147

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

cal divisions (Fig. 3). Almost 70 percent
(22,169 sq. km) of the area is covered with
forests. The altitude ranges from 48.5 m
(village Konta) to about 1275.5 m (village
Bailadila) (Agarwal 1968). This district shares
a monsoon type of climate with the general
Indian landmass, although the diversity of its
relief does not encourage a uniform climate.
The period from March to mid-June embraces
dry early summer while from mid- June to
October it is wet late summer. The winter
season is from November to February while
the period from June to October covers the
general rainy season. There are three distinct
mean temperature divisions, viz . 22 to 24°C,
24 to 27 °C and 27 to 29 °C. There may be
two annual rainfall divisions, e.g. 152 to 178
cm and 127 to 152 cm. With three tempera-
ture and two rainfall divisions, the district is
divisible into five climatic regions (Fig. 4).
The villages consist of several hamlets called
paras each with a few hutments situated at
some distance from one another. The area is
sparsely populated. Every family residing in
the village generally keeps such domestic ani-
mals as cow, goat, pig, dog, and poultry. Most
of these are accommodated in rickety cattle-
sheds.

Material and Methods

Mosquitoes were caught by day and night
time, through general and routine collections
made inside human dwellings and cattlesheds of
selected villages. Collections were also made by
the Pyrethrum spray technique inside human
dwellings to detect mosquitoes resting there.
Outdoor collections were made in early morn-
ing hours in the area between the nearest
potential larval habitat and human dwellings.
A pit shelter was made in village Bispur under
a tree in a rice field located in between a
pond and a house. Its size was 2 m x 1 m x
2 m deep. Two pits each oflmximxlm

deep were excavated on each wall of the pit
and a ladder was placed on one side of the
pit. A roof of matting was laid on this pit
leaving a gap at the side of the ladder for
entrance. Collections were made in this pit for
15 minutes every morning. In order to deter-
mine feeding times and seasonal prevalence, all
night collections were made between 1800 and
0600 hr at intervals of two hours for half an
hour each time. The first collections were
always made at the time of sunset in different
months which normally occurred between
1800 and 1900 hrs while other collections of
the night were made at fixed hours all round
the year. In every night of work seven man-
hours were spent on the collection. Man-
biting rates were determined by placing a man
as a bait and another collecting mosquitoes
actually feeding this bait since landing rates
do not always indicate biting. In all these
campaigns, only anopheline mosquitoes were
collected by an aspirator in the torch light
and were identified at the end of collection
time on the spot in either sun or bright
petrcmax light and their species, abdominal
conditions and time and site of captures were
noted. The females were dissected to determine
parity status and sporozoite infection.

Observations

These studies were conducted between Octo-
ber 1968 and January 1975. In this duration
21,716 specimens of 19 species of Anopheles
were collected in 1206 man-hours from 105
villages which had 168 specimens of Ano-
pheles maculatus taken from 12 villages as
follows. The number of specimens collected
from each village is given within brackets,
while the name of each village is preceded by
a numeral which marks its location on Fig. 3.

Specimens collected. (1) Ban Usri (1); (2) Bispur
(11); (3) Burdum (5); (4) Darbha (114); (5)
Gawadi (2); (6) Jagargunda (2); (7) Kamanar

148

ANOPHELES (CELLIA) MACULATUS IN BA STAR

Fig. 3. Map of Bastar District showing physiographic divisions and distribution of
Anopheles maculatus. For locality serials please refer text.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 84

KMS

Fig. 4. Map of Bastar district showing climatic regions.

150

ANOPHELES (CELLIA) MACULATUS IN BASTAR

(9); (8) Kotamsar (7); (9) Kukalgur (9); (10)
Machkot (1); (11) Mamadpal (4); (12) Tirathgarh
(3): Total 168.

Distribution. This species has been recorded
from the North-eastern plateau, Abujh Marh
Hills, Indravati Plains, and Godavari-Sabri
Lowlands. It has been secured at an elevation
from 152 to 761 m and moderately hot-wet,
hot-wet, hot-moist and very hot-moist clima-
tic regions of the district.

Diurnal resting places. In Table 1 are dis-
played the collection of this mosquito in
various habitats. It may be seen that in human
dwellings this species was not encountered
either in the day or in the night. On bamboo
fencings, roofs and wooden pillars of the
rickety cattlesheds, 161 females were taken
in the night. Among these 24 females were
unfed and 143 were fed while one was part
gravid. Outdoors, from 0600 to 1800 hrs seven
freshly fed females were secured from such
sites as bushes, tall grasses, and other such
vegetation in between the houses and poten-
tial larval habitats.

Feeding times of female adults. In the forest
village of Darbha 78 routine all night collec-
tions were made to determine the biting times
of anopheline mosquitoes. In these catches
which were made between August 1969 and
October 1974, 132 freshly fed females of this
species were taken in the rickety cattlesheds
at different hours of the night. In Fig. 5 are
displayed the biting cycles prepared from the
combined data of the collections of different
hours of respective months.

The longest feeding periods were noted in
September and October while shortest in Dec-
ember and January. In September this species
was taken in increasing numbers after dark
peaking at 2230 hrs and declining progressive-
ly through the night. In the winter season from
October to February the peak of feeding acti-
vities were noted immediately after sunset

while in summer season, the peak occurred at
2230 hrs declining abruptly thereafter. In the
rainy season most of the feeding was complet-
ed before mid-night. In summary, 98 freshly
fed females were taken before mid-night while
34 after mid-night.

Density buildup. Between October 1969
and September 1970, a total of 36 all night
regular captures were made to determine the
density buildup of Anopheles maculatus at
village Darbha which had the hot-moist climate.
In this campaign of 252 hrs, 2866 specimens
of 18 species of Anopheles were captured of
which 66 were females of Anopheles macu-
latus (Table 2). It was revealed that 32 speci-
mens, forming 48.3 percent were secured in
the rainy season (June to August). The peak
of density was noted in July. In other seasons
it was found less numerous.

Seasonal prevalence. The monthly captures
of Anopheles maculatus in other villages are
shown in Table 2. Although this mosquito
was taken all round the year, 54 specimens
forming 52.9 percent were secured in rainy
season (June to August). In the peak of
winter (December- January) and the summer
(May) this Anopheles was less numerous. The
density build up pattern appeared to confirm
the general seasonal composition of this
anopheline in this area.

Area of abundance. In Table 3 the collec-
tion of Anopheles maculatus in respective
climatic belts of Bastar District have been
displayed. In the hot-moist belt, where 142
specimens forming 84.5 percent of total cap-
tures were encountered, annual rainfall from
127 to 152 cm and mean temperature from
24 to 27 °C are recorded. In moderately hot-
moist and very hot-moist regions which are
the coolest and hottest parts respectively, this
mosquito was found as least numerous. It was
not taken in the plain area villages. The peak
density was noted in a forest village of Darbha

151

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 1

Composition of Anopheles maculatus captured at various sites in Bastar District, M.P., India

No. Habitat and time of collection

Man-hour

spent

Numbers collected

Percent

Male

Female

Cattlesheds

1. A. From 0500 to 1800 hrs

144

0

0

B. From 1800 to 0500 hrs

819

0

161

95.9

Human dwellings

2. A. From 0500 to 1800 hrs

58

0

0

B. From 1800 to 0500 hrs

81

0

0

—

Outdoors

From 0600 to 1800 hrs

104

0

7

4.1

Total 1206

0

168

100

Table 2

Seasonal prevalence of Anopheles maculatus at different places

Numbers

collected at

Area

Bastar District

Nilgiris,

Tamil Nadu, India

Jalan Kayu

M.P.

India

East

West

Singapore

Months Source

Present studies

Russell and Jacob (1942)

Chan (1969)

Density

Seasonal composi-

build up

tion in other

in Darbha

villages

Actuals

Actuals

Per-man

Per-man

Per-man

collected

collected

hour

hour

hour

January

0

3

0.4

—

—

February

2

2

0.2

1.1

—

March

0

5

9.1

0.4

0.70

April

0

6

0.2

0.7

0.74

May

8

2

0.1

—

0.12

June

9

7

—

0. 1

0.00

July

16

27

0.1

0.1

0.00

August

7

20

—

0.4

0.10

September

9

13

0.2

0.3

0.00

October

8

5

—

0.3

—

November

7

9

—

—

—

December

0

3

0.1

0.1

—

Total

66

102

152

PER CENT FRESH FEEDING

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

< HRS. >

Fig. 5. Feeding times of Anopheles maculatus female adults at village Darbha,

Bastar District.

of the North-Eastern Plateau with elevation
between 609 and 761 m.

Man-biting rate. This mosquito was not
obtained from human baits placed inside
houses during a total of 80 man-hours spent
in the determination of man-biting rate,
although 330 females (67 anopheline, 263
culicine) were taken in three villages in these
campaigns.

Dissections. Out of a total of 133 females
dissected, 92 were nulliparous. Sacs were seen
in 8 and retained eggs were found in 7 females
(1 unfed, 6 fed). Six of the remainder (41)
had two dilatations and one had three. The
dissection data are given in the Table 4. None
of the specimens dissected showed gut or
gland infection for malarial parasites. Mites
were recovered from 25 (8 unfed, 17 fed)
females.

153

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 3

Collection of Anopheles maculatus in different
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF BASTAR DISTRICT, MADHYA

Pradesh, India

No.

Climatic Region

Nos.

collected

Percent

1.

Moderately hot-moist region —

—

2.

Moderately hot-wet region

7

4.0

3.

Hot-wet region

17

10.5

4.

Hot-moist region

142

84.5

5.

Very hot-moist region

2

1.0

Total

168

100.0

Discussion

Anopheles maculatus was noted as a rare
species in the anopheline fauna of the Bastar
District, as it occupied only 0.07 percent in
the total collection. Srivastava (1950) reported
that at Kichha, Nainital District, his anophe-
line collection had 0.7 percent of this mos-
quito. In Afghanistan, Rao (1951) found only
two specimens of Anopheles maculatus in his
collection of 6,242 individuals of 13 species
of Anopheles. This insect comprised only 1.49
and 0.09 percent in two surveys made in 1965
in South Andamans although in the first survey
of Middle and North Andamans, this Ano-
pheles was 38.01 and 10.16 per cent respec-
tively of total collection (Krishnan and Halern-
kar 1967). Srivastava and Diwan Chand
(1951) had 6.2 percent Anopheles maculatus
in their collection of Anopheles of Sarda
Canal, Nainital District. Contrary to these
findings, Khan (1942) found 1725 specimens
of Anopheles maculatus (almost 50 percent)
in his collection comprising 3487 individuals
of 12 anopheline species taken in Darjeeling.
The elevation of distribution of this mosquito
ranged between 152 and 761 m, however,
Scanlon and Esah (1965) reported that this

species was encountered between 305 and 1830
m in Thailand.

This mosquito appeared to visit cattlesheds
during the night while diurnally it took asylum
out of doors. Biitticker (1958) described this
behaviour as a complete deliberate type “A”
exophily (endophagy of Senior White). Chris-
tophers (1933) stated that Anopheles macu-
latus is commonly taken in houses and cattle
sheds in certain areas. Krishnan and Halern-
kar (1967) collected Anopheles maculatus in
cattlesheds at night only in the Andamans
islands. In west Nilgiris, Russell and Jacob
(1942) took 38 specimens in houses, one in
mixed dwellings and 37 in cattlesheds while
in the same habitats of east Nilgiris, they
secured 6, 2 and 9 individuals respectively.
Pal and Sharma (1955) stated that adults of
this species are found in houses, cattlesheds
and outdoor resting places during the day.
McArthur (1950) reported that this Anopheles
was never found resting in houses. However,
Misra (1956) collected Anopheles maculatus
from human dwellings in North East Frontier
Agency.

The feeding times were not uniform in diffe-
rent months. Pal and Sharma (1955) reported
that this mosquito bites man between 2100
and 0200 hrs although apparently the feeding
habits of this species differs in different re-
gions.

Anopheles maculatus appeared to be mainly
a rainy season species although it was taken
throughout the year. In Table 2 are indicated
monthly collection of this mosquito at Nilgiris
District, India and at Jalan Kayu, Singapore.
It may be seen that in West Nilgiris, Madras
State, Russell and Jacob (1942) collected this
insect all round the year with the peak of
numerical abundance in February while in
East Nilgiris, this Anopheles virtually remain-
ed absent in June, August, October and in
November, Chan (1969) noted peak of den-

154

ANOPHELES (CELLIA) MACULATUS IN BASTAR

Table 4

Physiological age of female Anopheles maculatus collected in the cattlesheds of Bastar District,

M.P., India

Site of Abdominal Numbers

collection Conditions disse^ Nulli-

cted parous

Cattle sheds Unfed 20

Fed 112

Part

Gravid 1

13

79

Total 133 92

Condition of ovarioles
Sacs Reta- Dilatation
ined 1 2 3 4

eggs

1 1 4 2-0

7 6 21 4 1 0

8

7 25

6

1 0

Numbers Numbers
posi- infected
tive with Ecto-
Gut/ parasite
glands (miles)

00/00 8

00/00 17

00/00

25

sity in March/April while virtual absence in
June/ July.

From human baits placed in houses, this
species was not encountered in the present
studies. McArthur (1950) stated that in Tam-
bunan, Indonesia, it was rarely found attempt-
ing to feed on man and using the human bait
trap, only one specimen was taken on an
average every three weeks of all night trapp-
ing, although in the presence of hyperendemic
malaria. Moussa and Nawarat (1969) collect-
ed blood fed females while biting man at Kao
Mai Kaeo, Chon Buri Province, Thailand dur-
ing February, 1967.

Sporozoite infection was not found in any
female dissected. Such infection from India

has rarely been reported so far. Anderson and
Viswanathan (1941) dissected 8483 females of
Anopheles maculatus and encountered oocyst
infection on the guts of 24 females and sporo-
zoites in only five females in Assam during
1931-41. Viswanathan et al, (1941) noted
oocyst in 13 females and sporozoites in one
female in 1573 dissections of this mosquito
collected in the State of Assam in 1940-41.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Dr. Ronald A. Ward, Medi-
cal Entomology Project, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Washington, for the critical comments on
this paper.

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156

ON SOME INSECT GALLS ON TECTONA GRANDIS
LINN. FROM INDIA1

P. Jayaraman2
( With seven text-figures)

Anatomical investigations are made on three foliar galls and one shoot-axis gall
on Tectona grandis Linn, caused by different gall-midges. Two of the foliar galls are
reported for the first time. The stem gall is a lateral outgrowth of rinden-gaU type.
Several larval cavities occur in the vicinity of the cambial zone and cause distortion
of that part of the cambium nearest the larvae. The gall grows due to proliferation
of the cortical tissues. The foliar galls are circular, discoid and lenticular with a
central short stalk. Anatomically these three foliar galls exhibit subtle differences,
while the trichomes occurring on the gall surface differ quite considerably. The same
tissues of the host plant respond differently to the different species of the gall-midges
indicating that the host tissues have different latent morphogenetic potentials and
the cecidozoa are specific to invoke the expression of a particular potential.

This paper deals with four insect galls on
Tectona grandis Linn, collected by Prof. M. S.
Mani and the author near Trivandrum during
May, 1980. Three of these galls arise on leaf
and one on the branch axis; two of the leaf
galls are new. The galls appear about the
same time and are nearly all equally abundant.
Brief descriptions, with notes on the anato-
mical characters and mode of development of
these galls are given below. The galls are identi-
fied by characteristic numbers, which are con-
tinuation of the system given by Mani in his

PLANT GALLS OF INDIA (1973).

A. SHOOT AXIS GALL

Gall No. 280 by Asphondylia tectonae Mani
(Mani 1948, 1959, 1973)

This gall was listed as early as 1899 by Steb-
bing, erroneously as a ‘Cynipid’ gall and the
error was continued by Sundar Raman in
1924. It was first correctly recognized as a
midge-gall by Mani in 1948 (op. cit. ) , who later

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 Department of Botany, Presidency College,
Madras 600 005, India.

described the midge reared from the gall in
Top Slip (Anamalai Hills) by Dr Sen-Sharma.
The gall seems to be widely distributed along
the Western Ghats and parts of the Vindhya-
Satpura, where teak forests occur. The follow-
ing anatomical notes form a supplement to the
general description of the gall by Mani (op.
cit.).

The normal young stem of Tectona grandis
is typically four-angled and has a narrow
periderm, followed by indistinct cortex. The
vascular cylinder approximates to the general
quadrate outline of the stem section (Fig. 1).
The secondary wood is diffuseporous with
narrow rays. Two or three concentric narrow
bands of libriform fibres occur in the region
of secondary phloem. The secondary xylem is
composed of vessels with simple perforations
and pitted lateral walls (Fig. 2-A) and short,
wide-lumened fibres (Fig. 2-B). The paren-
chyma cells containing crystals also occur in
the secondary xylem.

The gall arises as a lateral outgrowth of
cortex. The larva seems at first to penetrate
in between the secondary xylem and the cam-

157

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

bium. The part of the cambial zone nearest
the larva grows out into several distorted
strands that later come to be embedded in the
gall tissues (Fig. 1). The remote side of the
stem develops practically normally.

In a transverse section of the gall the outer-
most region consists of periderm, which is
slightly thicker than in the normal stem. Be-
neath this lies a broad zone of parenchyma,
mixed with an abundance of brachy-sclereids
(Fig. 2-C). Inside of this peripheral zone there
are several larval cavities scattered at different
levels radially about the cortex of the axis.
Each larval cavity is elliptical (Fig. 1), sur-
rounded by broad zones of concentric paren-
chyma cells (Fig. 2-D). The innermost layer
of cells lining the cavity are collapsed. The
vascular strands in the parenchyma zone con-
sist of tracheary elements with reticulate late-
ral wall thickenings (Fig. 2-E) and all con-
verge toward the larval cavities (Fig. 1).

B. FOLIAR GALLS

The normal leaf consists of an even layer
of thickly cuticularised, rectangular adaxial
epidermal cells (Fig. 3-A). The abaxial epi-
dermis is rugose and consists of small cubical
cells with the stomata on the ridges. Uni- or
multicellular, uniseriate, unbranched, acute
hairs and stalked glandular trichomes with
multicellular spherical head are copious on
the lower surface (Fig. 3-B). The short thick
unicellular acute hairs, with heavily cuticularis-
ed walls account for the general roughness of
the upperside of the blade. The mesophyll con-
sists of two layers of elongate narrow palisade
cells. The cells of the first row are longer than
those of the second row. The spongy paren-
chyma has two or three layers of irregular
cells. The vascular bundles occur in the spongy
mesophyll and the major veins have paren-
chymatous bundle sheath with adaxial and
abaxial extensions.

Gall No. 414 by Gall-midge (Mani 1953,
1959, 1967, 1973).

Hypophyllous or epiphyllous, circular, dis-
coid lenticular gall, about 3 mm in diameter
and 1 mm in thickness, inserted on the blade
by a narrow, short, central stalk. The first
visible indication of the development of gall
is a cushion of hairs, which grow denser and
turn thickly villous on the mature gall. Tran-
section of the early gall is flat and lenticular,
with a small adaxial conical projection and a
wide abaxial covering-growth over a shallow
larval chamber (Fig. 4-A). The larval cavity
opens to the outside by a large ostiole through
a narrow passage, lined by straight, short, thick-
walled hairs directed outward to the ostiole.
The abaxial surface of the gall is clothed with
soft, multicellular, dichotomously branched
hairs, while the adaxial surface remains almost
glabrous. In the transverse section of a young
gall three tissue zones are recognised : (1) the
adaxial epidermis and its periclinal derivatives
alligned in vertical files; (2) a bowl-shaped
meristematic zone, around the larval cavity,
consisting of small cells with dense cytoplasm
and prominent giant nuclei; and (3) an inter-
mediate zone between these two, with the cells
vertically elongated and vacuolated. A narrow
two-celled layer, at the junction of the vacuo-
lated and meristematic zones below the larval
chamber, soon differentiates into sclereids (Fig.
4 A-C). At a later stage, arises lignification of
the cells bordering the ostiole and the larval
chamber, and vacuolation of the cells around
the ostiole, thus delimiting the meristematic
zone in the form of hollow circular disc around
the larval chamber (Fig. 4-A). The cells of the
meristematic zone divide in the anticlinal plane
and the derivatives expand radially so that
the gall becomes disc-shaped.

On maturation of the gall the meristematic
zone turns into a dark tissue, around the small
larval cavity and extends down below as a

158

INSECT GALLS ON TECTONA GRANDIS LINN.

Fig. 1. Tectona grandis Linn. Gall No. 280
Stereoscopic diagram of the shoot axis gall caused by Asphondylia tectonae Mani.

(Fi — Fibres;

S — Stem; Sc-
Vascular Strands.)

G— Gall;
-Sclereids;

LC — Larval Cavity; N-
S. P — Secondary Phloem;

-Node; Pe — Periderm; Pi — Pith;
S. X — Secondary Xylem; V. S —

159

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 2. Tectona grandis Linn. Shoot-axis Gall.

A. Vessel elements of normal stem; B. Xylem and cortical fibres of the normal stem;
C. Brachysclereid of the gall; D. Storied arrangement of the cells around the larval
cavity; E. Lateral wall thickenings of the tracheary elements of the vascular strands
in the gall. (C.C — Collapsed cells around the larval cavity.)

thick pillar axially in the middle of the stalk
of the gall (Figs. 5-A, B). Two or three layers
of cells on the boundary of the dark zone
differentiate into sclerotic zone. Clusters of
prismatic crystals occur in the cells of the dark
zone and in the lumen of the sclereids. Outer
to the sclerotic zone is the compact, thin-
walled, parenchyma zone, the cells of which
are elongated parallel to the surface. The vas-

cular strands of the leaf extend into the gall
through the stalk radiating around the gall
cavity. The surface layer of the gall gives rise
to a characteristic densely matted long-branch-
ed trichomes. The base of each trichome arises
from a pyramid of compact cells (Fig. 5-C).
The hair cells are elongate, uniseriate and
cylindrical with granular contents. Apart from
this type of trichomes, a second type, which

160

INSECT &ALLS ON TECTONA

GRANDIS LINN.

Fig. 3. Tectona gmndis Linn.

Structural of the normal leaf and epidermal hairs.

A. T.S. of normal leaf; B. Three types of epidermal hairs on the leaf.

(A.E — Adaxial epidermis; Cu — Cuticle; G — Gland; Pa — Palisade tissue; SM — Spongy
Mesophyll; St — Stoma; V.B — Vascular bundle.)

is shorter, thicker and thick-walled, also occurs
mixed with the first type (Fig. 5-D).

Gall No. 899 by Gall-midge

This gall is wholly hypophyllous, but with a
conspicuous epiphyllous chlorotic depression.
The gall is 3 mm in diameter and 1 mm thick;
pale yellow, subsessile and cup-shaped with the
ostiole at the centre of depression (Fig. 6-C).
The surface lacks the long brownish hairs, but
is clothed with short thick-walled acute
trichomes.

The course of development of this gall is
more or less similar to that of gall No. 414.
The gall arises as a hemispherical covering-
growth with median larval cavity (Fig. 6-A).
A cup-shaped meristematic zone develops

around the larval cavity, which foreshadows
the shape of the mature gall. The meristematic
cells divide in vertical plane and grow radially,
resulting in the formation of a discoid growth
with a central ostiole (Fig. 6-B). Soon, the
cells abutting the meristematic zone differen-
tiate into a thin layer of sclerotic cells. The
sclerotic zone extends down as a central pillar-
like axis inside the stalk. The essential diffe-
rence between gall Nos. 414 and 899 is in the
trichomes. In the gall No. 899, the surface is
densely clothed with short, stumpy, unicellular
and multicellular branched hairs with extreme-
ly thick lignified walls with canal-like pits (Fig.
6-D). As these trichomes are short and dense,
the surface of the gall appears smooth to the
unaided eye.

161

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 4. Tectona grandis Linn. Foliar gall No. 414
A. An early stage of the gall; B, C. Two sectors of the Fig. A shown as insets.
(Ab. S — Abaxial surface with epidermal trichomes; Ad. E — Adaxial Epidermis; La —
Larva; M. Z — Meristematic Zone; Os — Ostiole; Sc. Z — Sclerotic zone just differentiating;
V. Z — Vertically elongated cell zone.)

INSECT GALLS ON TECTONA GRAND1S LINN.

Fig. 5. Tectona grandis Linn. Gall No. 414
A. Vertical section of a mature gall; B. A sector of the Fig. A shown as inset;
C, D. Two types of trichomes occurring on the gall surface.

(C.T — Cushion of cells from which the trichomes arise; D.Z — Dark cell zone; La —
Larva; L.C — Larval chamber; Os — Ostiole; P.Z — Parenchyma zone; V.S — Vascular
Strand; Tr — Trichomes.)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 6. Tectona grandis Linn. Gall No. 899
A, B. Two developmental stages of the gall; C. Vertical section of a mature gall;
D. A few representative types of trichome of the gall.

(D.Z — Dark cell zone; La — Larva; M.Z — Meristematic zone; Os — Ostiole; P.Z —
Parenchyma zone; S.Z — Sclerenchyma zone; Tr — Trichomes; V.S — Vascular Strand.)

Gall No. 900

Though this gall shares certain features with
other two, there are basic differences. This is
a lenticular gall, mostly hypophyllous, only
sometimes epiphyllous, white or pale yellow,
discoid and subsessile covering growth, with a
short, stumpy subconical projection in the
middle of the disc, where opens the ostiole
(Fig. 7-A). On the lower surface of the gall,
around the stalk, occur long, branched, fila-
mentous hairs similar to those of the gall No.
414. The upper surface bears two different
types of trichomes — glandular trichomes with
large spherical unicellular knob and multi-
cellular uniseriate stalk and short multicellular

branched hair clusters (Fig. 7-B, C). This tri-
chome differs from those of the gall No. 899
in the thin cell walls and larger size of cells.
The larval cavity is a large circular strongly
depressed, biconvex space, occupying almost to
the middle of the disc (Fig. 7-A). The larval
cavity is surrounded by a zone of deeply
staining cells, which in turn is ensheathed by
the sclerotic zone which extends below as a
broad column axially into the stalk, where the
sclereids are vertically elongated. The outer-
most zone of the gall consists of parenchyma
cells arranged in layers parallel to the gall sur-
face. This zone is vascularised as in other
galls.

164

INSECT GALLS ON TECTONA GRANDIS LINN.

Fig. 7. Tectona grandis Linn. Gall No. 900
A. Vertical section of a mature gall; B, C. Trichome types of the gall.

(DZ — Dark cell zone; La — Larva; Os — Ostiole; P.Z — Parenchyma zone; S.Z — Scleren-
chyma zone; Tr — Trichomes.)

Discussion

The three types of foliar galls on Tectona
grandis display similar basic organisation in-
spite of certain definite structural differences.
In the gall Nos. 414 and 900, there is a small
central conical projection bearing the ostiole
at its summit (Figs. 5-A; 7-A). In the gall
No. 899, a shallow circular umbilicus-like pit
is seen with the ostiole at the centre (Fig. 6-A).
All the three gall types have darkly staining,
small celled nutritive zone around the larval
cavity followed by the sclerotic and paren-
chyma zones. The gall surface develops specific
type of trichomes in each case, all of which
differ from the trichomes of the normal leaf.
The ground tissues on which these three diffe-

rent types of gall are built up are the same.
However, they respond differently to the three
different species of gall-midges, indicating that
the same tissues react in different morphogene-
tic ways and the stimulatory agents of the
cecidozoa are specific to invoke the expression
of a particular potential.

It is generally believed that the epidermal
tissue is relatively passive with regard to its
meristematic potential (Linsbauer 1930). It is
interesting to observe that in the foliar galls of
Tectona grandis, the epidermis and its appen-
dages are equally sensitive and reactive to the
insect stimuli.

The stem gall on Tectona grandis induced
by Asphondylia tectonae Mani is remarkable
in its anatomical aspects. Several radially dis-

165

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

posed larval chambers occur at different levels
of the gall. The cecidogenetic stimulus greatly
influences the vascular cambium as a result of
which the meristem is torn into several strands
which ultimately differentiate into long reticu-
lately pitted elements (Fig. 2-E). These vas-
cular strands surround the larval chambers and
serve as ‘fascieux de irrigation reported in
several galls (Mani 1964). The cortical paren-
chyma is greatly proliferated and some of them
differentiate into brachysclereids; but they do
not form definite sclerotic zone. The paren-
chyma cells around the larval chamber are
alligned in regular concentric whorls conse-
quent to repeated anticlinal divisions. In this
respect, this tissue differs from the wound callus
formed in the lepidopterous galls in which the

cells are arranged in radial files due to repeated
periclinal divisions. The elements of the gall
tissues differ fundamentally from those of the
normal stem. The stem tissues are influenced
both quantitatively and qualitatively by the
cecidogenetic factors and deviate from their
normal course of morphogenesis.

Acknowledgement

I am greatly indebted to Dr. M. S. Mani,
Professor Emeritus at the School of Entomo-
logy, St. John’s College, Agra, for his sustain-
ed interest during the course of this investiga-
tion and for offering valuable suggestions dur-
ing the preparation of the paper.

References

*Linsbauer, K. (1930): Die Epidermis: Hand-
buch der Pflanzen anatomie. Band 4. Lief 27.

Mani, M. S. (1948) : Zoocecidia and Cecidozoa
from India. /. R . Asiatic Soc. Bengal ( Sci .) 14(2) :
27-195.

(1953) : On a collection of plant

galls and gall-midges from India. Agra Univ. J. Res.
(Sci.) 2(1): 135-156.

(1959) : Cecidotheca Indica. ibid.

S(2): 91-220.

(1964) : Ecology of Plant Galls. The

Hague: Dr. W. Junk, Publishers, Netherlands.

(1967) : Some plant galls from India.

Marcellia 34(3/4): 191-201.

(1973): Plant Galls of India. Mac-
millan, India.

*Stebbing, E. (1899): Injurious Insects of Indian
Forests, pp. 83-84.

Sundar Raman, A. H. (1924): A contribution to
the study of Indian Zoocecidia. J. Indian Bot. Soc.
4: 1-17; 35-49.

* Not seen in original.

166

TWO UNUSUAL CASES OF HOMONYMY IN
ORTHOPTERA WITH NEW NAMES FOR
SPECIES FROM INDIA1

M. S. Shishodia2 and R. K. Varshney3

Homonymy has been reported in two cases: Coptotettix parvulus Hancock 1912
is preoccupied by C. parvulus Hancock 1909; the former is renamed here as C.
hancockus nom. nov. Pteronemobius panteii Chopard 1969 is preoccupied by P.
panteli (Hebard 1913), and P. pantelianus Chopard 1967 is a nomen nudum. As
both the names given for the same species are invalid, it is renamed as P. pantel-
chopardorum nom. nov.

Introduction

Two unusual cases of homonymy have been
determined, wherein in the first case an author
(Hancock) committed homonymy himself; and
in the second case, another author (Chopard)
twice tried to name a new species discovered
by him, but both the times failed. The first
case belongs to the Tetrigid grasshoppers and
the second to the crickets (Gryllids), and the
species bearing junior homonyms in both cases
happen to be from India.

The particulars of both species, under their
valid new names, are reported in this paper.

Coptotettix hancockus nomen novum
(Orthoptera: Tetrigidae)

= Coptotettix parvulus Hancock 1912: 145.

(preoccupied)

Hancock (1909) described a new species and
named it as Coptotettix parvulus. The material
came from “Zambesi, 3000 ft., Victoria Falls,
Africa — ‘Rain forest’ ” and was collected and

1 Accepted April 1983.

2 Zoological Survey of India, M Block, New Ali-
pur, Calcutta-700 053.

3 Gangetic Plains Regional Station, B/ll Lohia
Nagar, Patna-800-020, Bihar.

presented by Prof. H. Beare to the University
Museum, Oxford. This is a valid species and
has been catalogued by Steinmann (1962) re-
cording its distribution in Zanzibar.

Curiously, three years later Hancock des-
cribed another new species from India in 1912
and named it also as Coptotettix parvulus.
These specimens came from “Chapra, Bengal”,
collected by Mackenzie. Later this species was
referred by Hancock (1913) recording it
further from “Dibrugarh, N.E. Assam; Kobo,
400 ft., Assam; and Janakmukh [Arunachal
Pradesh]”, and by Hancock (1915) recording
it from “Singla, Darjeeling Distt., 1500 ft.;
Kushtea [Bangladesh]; Sikkim and Calcutta”
also. It was catalogued by Fletcher (1921), but
strangely not included by Steinmann (1970)
in his CHECK-LIST OF ORIENTAL TETRIGIDAE.

Tinkham in 1937 gave to its Type specimen a
label “Paratettix parvulus" y but does not seem
to have published it.

Thus, Hancock himself committed primary
homonymy and under the present situation
C. parvulus Hancock 1912, applied to the
Indian species is an invalid name. There being
no other synonym of this species, it is renamed
as C. hancockus Shishodia & Varshney, nom.
nov.

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Diagnosis. Body small; colour brown or
lighter brown, variegated with fuscous on the
pronotum; head not exserted; vertex a little
narrower than the width of an eye and fossu-
lated on each side; frontal costa arcuately pro-
duced between the antennae, widely and even-
ly divergent forwards; antennae inserted near
the lower margin of the eyes.

Pronotum short, reaching up to the middle
of hind femora, widely rounded at apex;
dorsum of pronotum granulate, transversely
tectiform between the shoulders; median carina
compressed, little arcuate forward, straight on
the disc, sloping toward the apex; angles of
lateral lobes of pronotum obtuse; elytra
minute; hindwings not visible; the first and
second pulvilli of the posterior tarsi acute
spinose, the third longer.

Measurements (in mm). Male: Length of
body from head to the apices of hind femora:
6.8; pronotum: 4.3; posterior femora: 4.5.

Material examined. Holotype, which is in
Hancock’s collection at the Academy of Natu-
ral Sciences of Philadelphia (U.S.A.) has
been examined by the senior author.

Pteronemobius pantelchopardorum

nomen novum
( Orthoptera : Gryllidae )

= Pteronemobius pantelianus Chopard 1967: 168.
(nomen nudum)

= Pteronemobius panteli Chopard 1969: 167.
(preoccupied)

Chopard described a new species of cricket
collected from “West Bengal: Kurseong”.

Naming it as Pteronemobius panteli he includ-
ed its description for publication in his volume
on the Grylloidea in the fauna of India
series. It may be assumed that he must have
submitted it for publication before “26.10.1964”,
the date on which he has signed the preface
to this volume. However, the fauna volume
itself was published and released after about
five years only in April 1969.

It further appears that soon after submitt-
ing the manuscript of the fauna volume, he
perhaps found out that the name Pteronemo-
bius panteli is preoccupied by Pteronemobius
panteli (Hebard 1913). Hence, Chopard re-
named his species as Pteronemobius pantelia-
nus and included it as such in his world cata-
logue of gryllids, which was published in
July 1967. Unfortunately, he neither corrected
his MSS of the fauna volume, nor mentioned
about his P. panteli in the catalogue. Perhaps
he was sure that the fauna volume would be
published and released within 1967, and under
this assumption he gave full citation and pagi-
nation of all taxa dealt within the fauna
volume, in the catalogue; and mentioned 1967
as the year of publication of the fauna,
which was incidentally not correct.

Under the circumstances, a nomenclatural
confusion exists regarding this species. Looking
through the original publications and with the
application of Articles under the inter-
national CODE OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE,
it is hereby concluded that (i) P. pantelianus
Chopard 1967 is a nomen nudum, since no
indication, description or illustration accom-
panied this proposal, except mentioning of the
collection locality of the specimens and an in-
correct reference to his then unpublished
fauna volume. In fact, Chopard (1967) has
not used either ‘sp. n.’ or ‘nom. nov.’ epithets
or any other words to these effects while pub-
lishing the name pantelianus ; (ii) P. panteli
Chopard 1969 is a preoccupied name by
Nemobius panteli Hebard 1913, a species
occurring in Mexico and Costa Rica, which
has been subsequently brought under the genus
Pteronemobius, and shown in this combination
by Chopard (1967). (Incidentally the entry
of “ panteli ’ is missing in the Index of the
fauna volume.) Thus, Chopard twice tried
to name his species but failed both the times.
P. panteli Chopard 1969, presently stands as a

168

HOMONYMY IN ORTHOPTERA

junior secondary homonym and must be re-
jected; (iii) there being no other valid name
available for this species, it is renamed as P.
pantelchopardorum Shishodia & Varshney,
nom. nov.

Diagnosis. Body rather short and stout;
colour uniformly brown, or dark brown, shin-
ing, almost glabrous except for the long
bristles; head big, rounded; vertex sloping; eyes
rounded; ocelli yellow; antennae brown;
maxillary palpi brown with the last two joints
white, 3rd and eighth tergite of abdomen with
white band dorsally.

Male: Posterior tibiae armed with 3 ex-

ternal and 4 internal spines, the first spine
tuberculiform and the 4th strongly swollen at
base; elytra extending to the apex of abdomen;
mirror divided into two almost equal parts by
an oblique vein; diagonal vein long, feebly
curved at base; hind wings absent.

Female : Posterior tibiae armed with 3

spines on each margin; elytra a little shorter
than the abdomen; dorsal field with 4 parallel.

Refer

Chopard, L. (1967): Orthopterorum Catalogus

(ed. M. Beier), Pars 10: Gryllides. Uitgeverij Dr.
W. Junk, Gravenhage: 211 pp. [p. 168].

(1969): The Fauna of India and

the Adjacent Countries — Orthoptera Vol. 2 Grylloi-
dea. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta: i-xviii,
1-421 pp. [p. 167].

Fletcher, T. B. (1921) : Catalogue of Indian
Insects. Part I — Acrydidae (Tettigidae) . Supdt.
Govt. Printing India, Calcutta: 40 pp. [p. 31].

Hancock, J. L. (1909): Further studies of the
Tetriginae (Orthoptera) in the Oxford University
Museum. Trans, ent. Soc. Lond. 1908(5) : 387-426
[p. 421],

(1912) : Tetriginae (Acridiinae)

in the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, Bihar,
with the descriptions of new species. Mem. Dep.

almost equidistant veins, the 2nd furcate near
the apex, the 3rd and 4th united a little before
the apex; ovipositor short, feebly curved; hind
wings absent.

Measurements (in mm, vide Chopard 1969).
Length of body: 5; pronotum: 1.2; posterior
femora: 4; elytra (male): 3.4; elytra (female):
2.2; ovipositor: 2.5.

Material examined. Holotype is stated to be
in Pantel’s collection, at the Museum National
d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris (France). We
have examined identified specimens of it
in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are very grateful to Dr. R. V. Melville,
Secretary, International Commission on Zoolo-
gical Nomenclature, London, for confirming
the observations regarding P. panteli and P.
pantelianus. We also record thanks to the
Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
for facilities.

1NCES

Agric. India, ent. Ser. 4(2) : 131-160 [p. 145].

(1913): Zoological results; of the

Abor expedition — Orthoptera. Rec. Indian Mus. 8 :
311-316 [p. 314].

(1915) : Indian Tetriginae. ibid. 11:

55-132 [p. 118].

Hebard, M. (1913): A revision of the species of
the genus Nemobius found in North America north
of the Isthmus of Panama. Proc. Acad. nat. Sci.
Philad. 1913 : 395-492 [p. 444].

Steinmann, H. (1962): The Tetrigidae of Afrika
(Orthoptera). Folia ent. hung. 75(17): 303-326

[p. 321],

(1970): Check-list of the Tetri-

cidae (Orthoptera) of the Oriental faunal region.
Acta zool. hung. 16: 215-240.

169

12

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF ASYNAPTA LOEW (DIPTERA:
CECIDOMYIIDAE: PORRICOND YLINAE ) FROM AURANGABAD,

INDIA1

R. M. Sharma2
(With twelve text-figures)

Asynapta aurangabadensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-12)

male : Body 1 . 28 mm long. Eyes confluent
above. Palpus’, quadriarticulate, long, light-
straw, sparsely setose, densely hairy with
wrinkled surface; first segment (17:7) cylin-
drical, length 2.42 x its maximum thickness;
second segment (25:9) cylindrical, 1.47 x
longer than first, length 2.77 x its maximum
thickness; third segment (33: 7), 1.32 x longer
than second, length 4.71 x its maximum thick-
ness; fourth segment (44:6) cylindrical, lon-
gest of all, length 7.33 x its maximum thick-
ness. Antenna : Shorter than body with 2+14
cylindrical segments, enlargements with low
circumfila and two whorls of long setae, stems
short; scape (15:15) cup-shaped; pedicel (15:
12) sub-globose; third segment (32) longer
than and not confluent with fourth, basal stem
(3:7); enlargement (22:13) a little less than
0.70 the length of the segment and nearly 1.70
x its maximum thickness; stem (7:7) 0.31 the
length of the enlargement and as long as thick;
fourth segment (29) with enlargement (20:13)
0.69 the length of the segment and a little less
than 1.54 x its maximum thickness, stem
(9:7) 0.45 the length of the enlargement and
1.28 x its maximum thickness; fifth segment

1 Accepted April 1985.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional
Station. Pune -41 1016.

(29) similar to the fourth; distal segments be-
coming shorter; penultimate segment (15)
shortest of all, enlargement (13:10) 0.86 the
length of the segment and 1 . 30 x its maximum
thickness, stem (2:2) very short, 0.15 the
length of the enlargement and as long as thick;
terminal segment (25), enlargement (19:10)
0.76 the length of the segment and 1.90 x its
maximum thickness, stem (6:4) in the form
of an apical nipple-like prolongation, 0.32 the
length of the enlargement and 1 . 50 x its maxi-
mum thickness. Wing : (58:29) hyaline, 2.00 x
as long as broad, vein R5 curved, reaching
wing margin a little beyond apex, vein Ml+2
complete, vein Cu simple. Legs : Long, mode-
rately hairy, metatarsus (5) shorter than ter-
minal tarsal segment (10); second tarsal seg-
ment (35) longest of all, shorter than the
following segments combined together (40);
claw evenly curved, dentate on all legs; em-
podium as long as claw (7:7). Abdomen
narrow and recurved terminally. Genitalia :
Yellowish-brown, sparsely setose, basal clasp
segment (56:28) cylindrical, length 2.00 x its
maximum thickness; terminal clasp segment
(30:11) slender, broadest subapically, ending
in a strong tooth, lower margin fringed with
short setae, a little less than half the length
of the basal clasp segment and 2.72 x its
maximum thickness; dorsal plate (20:20)
deeply bifid, densely hairy, lobes rounded api-
cally, longer than subdorsal plate; later (31:11)
entire, broadly rounded apically, slightly lon-

170

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

antennal segments 8; 6. Third & fourth antennal segments $; 7. Pedicel, third &
fourth antennal segments $ ; 8. Terminal two antennal segments $ ; 9. Palpus $ ;
10. Ovipositor $; 11. Claw 12. Palpus $.

ger than broad; aedeagus (30:2) rod-like,
reaching upto subdorsal plate, length 15.00 x
its maximum thickness; two pairs of claspette
in the form of curved spines, encircling dorsal
& subdorsal plates; basal one short, mode-

rately sclerotized, apical longer and weakly
sclerotized.

female: Body 2.55 mm long including
ovipositor. Palpus as in male. Antenna shorter
than body, with 2 + 14 sessile, cylindrical seg-

171

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

slide.

Allotype : ? and Paratypes, 2 $ $ dissected
and mounted on slides, data as in Holotype.
All types are deposited in the collections of
Zoological Survey of India, Pune for the time
being.

Remarks : This species closely resembles A.
indica (Grover) but can be readily distinguish-
ed from it in the following set of characters:
i) different number and proportions of the
antennal segments; ii) basal clasp segment
without apical lobe; iii) subdorsal plate being
entire; iv) simple claspette and v) straight
aedeagus.

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NTS

I am thankful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Direc-
tor, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta and
the Officer-in-Charge, Zoological Survey of
India, Pune, for facilities, I am greatly inde-
bted to Prof. S. N. Rao (Retd.), Dept, of
Zoology, Marathwada University, Aurangabad
for encouragement and guidance.

Reference

Grover, P. (1964): Studies on Indian gall-midges six new species of Indian Porricondylini. Marcellia
XI (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera). Two new genera and 31(3): 189-229.

ON A NEW CYPRINID FISH OF THE GENUS DANIO HAMILTON
(PISCES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1

R. P. Barman2
(With a text-figure)

A new cyprinid fish of the genus Danio Hamilton collected from Manipur, India
is being described and illustrated under the name Danio manipurensis in this paper.

It is closely related to Danio naganensis Chaudhuri (1912) from Naga Hills, Nagaland
from which it differs in lateral line scale, predorsal scales and dorsal fin rays counts
and body depth and eye diameter.

Introduction

The cyprinid fishes of the genus Danio
Hamilton are distributed throughout the Indian

1 Accepted January 1986.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

subcontinent, Thailand, Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra and China. Day (1889) recorded 10
species and Jayaram (1981) enumerated 17
species belonging to the genus Danio from the
Indian subcontinent. Barman (1983, 1984a,
1984b, 1985) discovered four new species

ments, constricted in the middle, with low
circumfila and two whorls of long setae; scape
not clear in preparation, pedicel (14:15) sub-
globose; third segment (23) not confluent with
and longer than fourth, with a small basal
prolongation (3:6), enlargement (20:12) 1.66
x its maximum thickness; fourth segment
(17:12) 1.41 x its maximum thickness; fifth
segment (16:11) shorter and thinner than
fourth, length 1.45 x its maximum thickness;
distal segments gradually decreasing in size;
penultimate segment (12:11); terminal seg-
ment (25: 10) longest of all, with apical nipple-
like prolongation, length 2.50 x its maximum
thickness. Wing, legs, claw and abdomen as in
male. Ovipositor : lamellate, basal lamellae

(28:8) oblong, 3.50 x as long as broad, ter-
minal lamellae (14:6) oval, setose, half the
length of basal and 2.33 x as long as broad,
ventral lamella short.

Holotype\ S at light, Khadkeshwar, Auran-
gabad, Maharashtra, India, R. M. Sharma coll.
Dated 6.vii.l976. Dissected and mounted on

172

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

under the genus from India and Burma. While
studying the taxonomy of the cyprinid genus
Danio from the Indian subcontinent, 18 speci-
mens of a species referable to the genus were
found and examined. When compared with
the known species under the genus, they prov-
ed to be of a hitherto undescribed species.
The new species is being described under the
specific name Danio manipurensis in this paper
after its locality.

Danio manipurensis sp. nov.

Material : Holotype (Fig. 1): 25 mm. SL.
Reg. No. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
FF1999. Locality: Manipur, India. Coll. Dr. S.
L. Flora. Date of collection: 8.3.1920. Para-
types : 17 examples, 16 mm. - 38 mm. SL. Reg.
No. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
FF2000. Locality, collector and date of collec-
tion same as in holotype.

Lateral line scales 33-34.

Description

Flead length 3.33-3.87 and body depth
3.00-3.30 in standard length. Eye diameter
2.66-3.00 in head length, 1.10-1.33 in inter-
orbital width. Snout length 3.75-5.00 in head
length, 1.50-2.00 in interorbital width. Snout
shorter than eye diameter. Mouth obliquely
directed upward, lower jaw longer than upper
jaw, with a symphysial knob. The maxilla ex-
tending anterior margin of the orbit. Barbels
2 pairs, the rostral pair half the length of eye
diameter and maxillary pair half of the rostral
pair. Minimum depth of caudal peduncle 1 . 20-
1.25 in its length.

Scales : Lateral line complete with 33-34
scales. Lateral transverse scales 8-9; l\ rows
of scales between lateral line and base of
pelvic fin. Predorsal scales 14-15 and circum-

Fig. 1 . Lateral view of holotype of Danio manipurensis sp. nov.

Diagnosis

Flead length 3 . 33-3 87 and body depth 3 . 00-
3.30 in standard length. Eye diameter 2.66-
3.00 in head length. Least depth of caudal
peduncle 1.20-1.25 in its length. Barbels 2
pairs, maxillary pair shorter than rostral pair.

peduncular scales 10.

Fins : D. ii-iii, 10-11; A. ii-iii, 12-13; P. i,
12-13; V. i, 6-7; C. 19. Dorsal fin originates
in the opposite interspace between pelvic and
anal fin, nearer to base of caudal fin than to
tip of snout. Pectoral fin extending the base of
pelvic fin. Both pectoral and pelvic fin possess

173

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

scaly flap or appendages at their bases. Caudal
fin emarginate, almost equal to head.

Colour in alcohol : A light darkish longitu-
dinal straight narrow band extending from
behind the head to base of caudal fin. Fins
are hyaline.

Detailed measurements of different body
proportions of this species are given in table 1.

Distribution : Danio manipurensis is known
only from Manipur, India (Latitude 23.8°N
to 25.8°N and Longitude 93°E to 95°E).

Discussion

Danio manipurensis sp. nov. is closely relat-
ed to Danio naganensis Chaudhuri but can be
easily separated from the latter species by the
much deeper body depth 3.00-3.30 vs. 3.60-
4.16, longer eye diameter 2.66-3.00 vs. 3.33-
4.33 in head length, least depth of caudal
peduncle much deeper 1 .20-1 .25 vs. 1 .50-2.00
in its length, fewer number of lateral line
scales 33-34 vs. 40-42, dorsal fin rays more
numerous 12-14 vs. 10 and predorsal scales
14-15 vs. 18-20.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director, Zoolo-
gical Survey of India. Calcutta for laboratory
facilities and Dr. K. C. Jayaram, Joint Direc-
tor, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for
his valuable suggestions. I also thank Dr. P. K.

Refer

Barman, R. P. (1983) : A new species of the
genus Danio Hamilton from (Pisces: Cyprinidae).
Curr. Sci., 52(4) : 177-178.

(1984a) : On a new species of the

genus Danio Hamilton from Burma (Pisces: Cypri-
nidae). Bull. zool. Surv. India. 5(2&3): 31-34.

(1984b): A new freshwater fish

of the genus Danio Hamilton (Pisces: Cyprinidae)
from Assam, India, ibid., 6(1-3) : 163-165.

(1985) : A new cyprinid fish of

the genus Danio Hamilton (Pisces: Cyprinidae)

from Andhra Pradesh, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Talwar, Deputy Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta for his encouragement.

Table 1

Measurements of different body proportions of

Danio manipurensis

SP. NOV.

Proportions

Range

Mean

Standard length/Head length

3.33-3.87

3.62

Standard length/Body depth

3.00-3.30

3.14

Standard length/Predorsal

distance

1.65-1.72

1.67

Standard length/Prepelvic

distance

2.00-2.13

2.07

Standard length/Preanal

distance

1.59-1.68

1.63

Standard length/Caudal

peduncle length

5.00-6.33

5.66

Head length/Depth of head

1.11-1.33

1.22

Head length/Width of head

1.60-2.00

1.78

Head length/Eye diameter

2.66-3.00

2.82

Interorbital width/Eye

diameter

1.00-1.33

1.16

Head length/Snout length

3.75-5.00

4.37

Interorbital width/Snout length

1.50-2.00

1.75

Standard length/Length of

longest dorsal fin ray

4.50-5.33

4.98

Standard length/Length of

longest anal fin ray

5.00-6.75

5.90

Standard length/Pectoral

length

3.85-4.57

4.28

Standard length/Pelvic length

6.25-8.00

7.16

Standard length/Length of

caudal fin

3.25-3.80

3.58

Length of caudal peduncle/

Depth of caudal peduncle

1.20-1.25

1.23

: n ces

Soc., 82(3): 602-605.

Chaudhuri, B. L. (1912) : Descriptions of some
new species of freshwater fishes from North India.
Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 437-444.

Day, F. (1889) : The Fauna of British India, in-
cluding Ceylon and Burma, Fishes, 1 : i-xx, 1-548.
Taylor and Francis, London.

Jayaram, K. C. (1981): The Freshwater Fishes
of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri
Lanka. A handbook. Govt, of India, i-xxii, 1-475,
pis. XIII.

174

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

OPHIOPINO T US PINOTUS GEN. ET SP. NOV. (HYMENOPTERA:

TORYMIDAE)1

Tasawwer Husain and Prem Prakash Kudesia1
(With seven text -figures )

Ophiopinotus has been proposed as a new
genus with Ophiopinotus pinotus sp. nov. as
the type-species in the family Torymidae.

Ophiopinotus gen. nov.

female: Body coloration mostly black; head
densely pubescent, toruli placed just below
the middle of frons; scape short not reaching
front ocellus; occipital carina absent; mandi-
bles tridentate; maxillary and labial palpi 4
and 3 -segmented respectively; antennae 13-
segmented (11173); thorax with densely pubes-
cence; propodeum with inverted ‘V’ shaped
carinae; hind femora narrow with one tooth
at subapex; gaster short, compact, tergites I-II
glabrous. III- VII densely setose, exerted part
of ovipositor as long as the length of gaster.

Female length : 5 . 00-5 . 80 mm.

Type-species: Ophiopinotus pinotus sp. nov.
(Monotypic).

Comments : Ophiopinotus gen. nov. differs
from closely related genus Ditropinotus Craw-
ford, 1907 in the general coloration of the
body, antennae with one annellus, propodeum
with inverted ‘V’ shaped carinae, hind femora
narrow with one tooth at subapex, exerted part
of ovipositor as long as length of gaster.

Ophiopinotus pinotus sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7)

FEMALE

Body colour mostly black except eyes, ocelli,
apices of fore and mid femora, tibiae and
tarsi of all legs pinkish yellow.

Head — Wider than long in facial view,
unpitted with dense pubescence of silvery white

] Accepted May 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, Sri Varshneya College,
Aligarh -202 001 (U.P.).

hairs; scrobe cavity shallowly excavated, un-
limited; toruli situated just below middle of
frons; ocelli in obtuse triangle, malar space
shorter than major axis of eyes; occipital
carina absent; pre-orbital carinae absent, post-
orbital carinae distinct (Fig. 1); mandibles
tridentate (Fig. 2); maxillary and labial palpi
4 and 3- segmented respectively. Antennae
(Fig. 3) 13- segmented, scape short, not reach-
ing front ocellus, 5 times as long as wide, as
long as 2.5 preceding funicle segments com-
bined; pedicel 1.5 as long as wide; annellus
2.0 wider than long; FI -3 wider than long,
F4-6 as long as wide, F7 longer than wide;
club 3 -segmented, less than three times as
long as wide, as long as preceding 2.5 funicle
segments combined.

T horax — Unpitted, with dense pubescence
except glabrous at apex of scutellum, apex of
scutellum rounded. Forewings (Fig. 4) — hya-
line, about 2.5 as long as wide, wing disc with
few setae below submarginal, rest part of disc
densely setose, submarginal 1.5 of marginal,
marginal 1 . 7 of postmarginal, stigmal shorter
than postmarginal. Hindwings — hyaline, about
3.5 as long as wide. Propodeum (Fig. 5)
— with inveryed ‘V’ shaped carinae. Hind legs
(Fig. 6) — coxae about twice as long as wide,
transversely striated, outermargin with long
setae; femora strong, narrow, with one pointed
tooth at subapex, densely setae, tibiae with
one spur at apex.

Gaster (Fig. 7) — Acuminate at apex,
shorter than thorax, tergites short, I-II glabrous,
III-IV densely setose, exerted part of ovipo-
sitor as long as length of gaster.

Female length : 5.00 mm.

175

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Figs. 1-7. Ophiopinotus pinotus sp. nov. $ : 1. Head (lateral view); 2. Mandible;
3. Antenna; 4. Fore wing; 5. Propodeum; 6. Hind leg; 7. Gaster.

176

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

References

Erdos, J. (1957) : Miscellanea chalcidologica

Hungarica. Ann. Hist. -Nat. Mus. Nat. Hung. 7 :
347-374.

Nikolskaya, M. N. (1952): Chalcids fauna of
USSR. Opred Faune SSSR, 44: 101-149.

Peck, O., Boucek, Z. & Hoffer, A. (1964) : Keys

to the Chalcidoidea of Czechoslovakia (Hymenop-
tera). Mem. Ent . Soc. Canad. 34: 120pp.

Szelenyi, G. (1957) : The genera of the subfamily
Monodontomerinae (Hym., Chalcidoidea). Ann. Hist-
Nat. Mus. Nat. Hung. 7: 381-388.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE MARINE OSTRACODA FROM
THE EAST COAST OF INDIA1

C. Annapurna and D. V. Rama Sarma2

( With four plates)

I N TRODU CTIO N

While investigating the systematics and eco-
logy of benthic ostracods, 40 species belonging
to 27 genera and 14 families were identified
from the marginal marine/ estuarine environ-'
ments, namely Bimili backwaters (17°54'N;
83°28'E), Balacheruvu tidal stream (17°39'N;
83°15'E), and Vasishta Godavari estuary
(16°18'N; 81°42'E).

Among the members of the family Cythe-
ridae Baird 1850, Cythere dentaculatum,
N eomonoceratina indica, N. spinosa and Eopai-
jenborchella subcaudatum are new to science;
Cythere darwinii and Hemicytheridea trunca-
tula were recorded for the first time from
Indian waters. Palmenella mckenzii Annapurna
and Rama Sarma 1985 was described earlier
from the Bimili backwater, on the east coast
of India (Annapurna & Rama Sarma 1985).

Cythere darwinii Brady, 1868
(PI. 1, Fig. A)

Lateral outline elongate-ovate. Anterior end
evenly rounded,posterior end narrowly round-

1 Accepted August 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, Andhra University,
Walta,ir 530 003.

ed below and compressed above. Dorsal margin
straight. Ventral margin turns upwards towards
the posterior end. Surface of the carapace
ornamented with a larger pit with numerous
small punctae in between the smaller arranged
in rows behind the anterior and posterior
margins. Hinge amphidont type. In the left
valve the median hinge bar crenulate, smooth
in the right valve. Normal pores numerous,
central muscle scars in the form of vertical row
of 4 adductor scars with one frontal scar. Eye
spot absent. Left valve larger than right. Right
valve dorsally higher than the left.

Length 0.88 mm; height 0.49 mm.

Occurrence : Backwaters of Bimili and

Balacheruvu tidal stream.

Distribution : Northwestern Europe, North
America, Japan.

Cythere dentaculatum sp. nov.

(PI. 1, Fig. B; PI. 2, Fig. 1)

Carapace laterally compressed. Ventral mar-
gin sinuate, dorsal margin straight, maximum
height approximately at the anterior end. Sur-
face sculptured with strong ridges and fossae
arranged parallel to the ridges. Anterior end
rounded, bears marginal denticulations. Poste-
rior end truncate, bears two marginal denti-

177

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

culations. Hinge merodont/entomodont type.
Inner lamella widest anteriorly. Marginal pore
canals not clear. Central muscle scars in the
form of 4 adductor scars and one fulcral V-
shaped scar. Normal pores numerous and
fairly wide. Length 0.60 mm; height 0.27 mm.

Remarks’. The present form differs from
known species of the genus Cythere Muller in
surface sculptured with strong ridges and
fossae arranged parallel to the ridges. Anterior
end rounded and consists of marginal denti-
culations, posterior end truncate and consists
of marginal denticulations.

Type-locality: Bimili backwater, east coast
of India.

Type-specimens : Holotype and 2 paratypes
are deposited in the Museum of Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Occurrence: Backwaters of Bimili (India).

Genus: Hemicytheridea Kingma, 1948

Hemicytheridea truncatula (Brady, 1868)
(PI. 1, Fig. C; PI. 3, Figs. 1-7)

In lateral view the valves are elongate,
subreniform in outline, strongly resembling
those of Cytheromorpha and Leptocythere.
Dorsal margin straight, ventral margin sinu-
ous. Highest in the anterior cardinal angle,
posterior end turned upwards. Anterior end
broadly rounded, posterior end truncate. Sur-
face sculptured with rounded fossae. Marginal
denticulations absent. Valves moderately heavi-
ly calcified. Hinge amphidont type. In the left
valve a smaller anterior socket present. Sub-
triangular in lateral view. In front of this
socket is a slightly projecting tooth which is
widest dorsally and subacute below. Behind
the socket lies a long crenulate bar. The poste-
rior tooth of right valve serrate. The median
hinge-element of the right valve are comple-
mentary to those in the left valve. The inner-
lamella moderately wide anteriorly, compara-
tively narrow vestibulum present. Marginal

pore canals moderately few, simple and
straight. Central muscle scars vertical row of
4 adductor scars with one frontal scar.

Length 0.57 mm; height 0.30 mm.

Antennule 5-segmented, penultimate podo-
mere with 2 claw-like setae. Ultimate podo-
mere short, ends with 2 claw-like setae.
Antenna 5 -jointed, spinneret seta well deve-
loped, ultimate podomere with 2 claw-like setae
and 2 slender setae. Mandible with 5 serrate
teeth placed laterally on cutting edge. Mandi-
bular palp 4-segmented, the first segment bul-
bous, second segment with one slender seta,
ultimate segment with 2 long feathered ventral
bristles and 5 slender and elongated setae.
Maxilla with 3 short, broad masticatory lobes
each with short setae, vibratory plate bears
unfeathered rays. Thoracic legs 4 segmented,
each ends with slender setae. Distal ends of
each segment with short setae.

Occurrence : Backwaters of Bimili and

Vasishta Godavari estuary (India).

Distribution: Indo-Pacific region.

Genus: N eomonoceratina Kingma, 1948
Neomonoceratina indica sp. nov.

(PI. 1, Fig. D; PI. 2, Figs. 2, 3; PI. 4, Figs. 1-10)

Carapace subrhomboidal in lateral view,
the height generally equals more than half the
length. Dorsal margin straight, ventral outline
sinuous. Anterior end obliquely truncated
above, rounded below. Posterior end with
clear caudal process situated above the middle.
Valves rather deep, pronounced vertical sub-
central sulcus dividing them into 2 inflated
parts. Anterior and posterior peripheral areas
compressed laterally. Each valve with two
closely set ventral longitudinal ridges; inter-
costal areas reticulate. Hinge amphidont type,
anterior and posterior ends smooth, median
hinge element crenulated in the left valve.
Inner lamella wider at anterior end than poste-

178

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 1

Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda

E F

A. Cy there darwinii — Exterior view of right valve. B. Cy there dentaculatum — In-
terior view of left valve. C. Hemicytheridea t r uncat ula — Exterior view of complete
shell. D. N eomoncceratina indica — Exterior view of left valve. E. Neomonoceratina
spinosa — Exterior view of left valve. F. Eopaijenborchella subcaudatum — Exterior
view of complete shell.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 2

Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda

VM7-Q

1. Cy there dentaculatum -= Exterior view. 2. Neomonoceratina indica — Interior
view of left valve. 3. N eomonoceratina indica — Interior view of right valve. 4, Neo-
monoceratina spinosa — nterior view of left valve. 5. Neomonoceratina spinosa —
Interior view of right valve. 6. Eopaijenborchella subcaudatum — Interior view of
right valve. 7. Eopaijenborchella subcaudatum - — Interior view of left valve.

WW 10

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 3

Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda

Hemicytheridea truncatula

1. Antennule; 2. Antenna; 3. Mandible with palp; 4. Maxilla; 5. First thoracic leg;
6. Second thoracic leg; 7. Third thoracic leg.

0-1 MM

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84

Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda

Plate 4

N eomonoceratina indica sp. nov.

1. Antennule; 2. Antenna; 3. Mandible; 4. Mandibular palp; 5. Maxilla; 6. Mid
masticatory lobe of maxilla; 7. First thoracic leg; 8. Second thoracic leg; 9. Third
thoracic leg; 10. Genital organ.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

rior end. Marginal pore canals simple and
straight. Normal pores moderately few, central
muscle scars not known in detail. Eye spot
absent. Left valVe slightly larger than the
right.

Length 0.76 mm; height 0.37 mm.

Antennule 5-jointed. Ultimate podomere
short and narrow with 2 elongated claws,
penultimate podomere with 2 posterior claw-
like setae. Second podomere with single elon-
gated seta. First podomere consists of bristles.
Antenna consisting of 3 podomeres. Ultimate
podomere short, bearing two posterior claw-
like setae, penultimate or second podomere
broad and long and bearing 3 posterior claw-
like setae and single small seta. Exopodite
(spinning bristle) 2 jointed and reaching the
distal ends of claws. Mandible with 2 rows of
6 serrate teeth laterally placed on cutting
area. Palp 3 -jointed. First segment bulbous,
second segment elongate with 2 elongated
setae; third segment short, bears 5 terminal
bristles. Maxilla with three broad masticatory
lobes, each ending in numerous setae. First
thoracic leg 3 jointed. First podomere bears
single anterior bristle, second podomere bears
2 anterior bristles, ultimate podomere bears
single anterior bristle ends with elongated claw.
First thoracic leg smaller than other two.
Second thoracic leg smaller than third thoracic
leg and the first podomere bears single bristle.
Second podomere twice the length of the re-
maining podomeres. The ultimate podomere
ends with strong elongated claw. Third
thoracic leg 3 jointed. First podomere
bears single anterior and 2 posterior bristles.
Second podomere long and narrow and bears
elongated setae. The ultimate podomere con-
sists of 3 posterior bristles and ends with
elongated claw.

Remarks : In the general shape, arrange-
ment of radial pore canals, hingement and
marginal area Neomonoceratina indica resem-

bles N. kutchensis Guha, 1961 and N. micro-
reticulata Kingma, 1948, N. oertlii Guha, 1967,
N eomonoceratina sp. Guha et ai. 1965, N.
bataviana Brady, 1867, N. iniqua Brady, 1867,
N. rhomboideum Brady, 1867, N. entomon
Brady, 1890, N. macropora Kingma, 1948. But
it differs from N. medilerranea Ruggieri, 1953
in the straight and simple marginal pore canals.
It also differs from all the above species by
the presence of 2 prominent vertical ridges on
the surface of the carapace.

Type-locality : Vasishta Godavari estuary.

East coast of India.

Type-specimens : Flolotype and two para-
types are deposited in the Museum of Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Occurrence : Vasishta Godavari estuary and
Bimili backwater. East coast of India.

Neomonoceratina spinosa sp. nov.

(PI. 1, Fig. E; PI. 2, Figs. 4, 5)

Carapace sub-rhomboidal in lateral view, the
height generally equals more than the half the
length. The anterior end rounded with spines.
There is a very pronounced caudal process in
the ventral half of the posterior end. Dorsal
margin straight in the left valve, sinuous in the
right valve, surface of the carapace sculptured
with prominent spines. Hinge amphidont type,
no crenulate tooth in the posterior socket, the
median hinge bar crenulate in left valve,
smooth in the right valve. Inner lamella mode-
rately wide, marginal pore canals straight and
simple. Normal pores moderately few, small,
scattered and open. Muscle scars in the form
of vertical row of 4 adductor scars. Eye spots
absent. Left valve slightly larger than right.

Length 0.59 mm; height 0.30 mm.

Remarks : In the general shape, arrange-
ment of radial porecanals, hingement and
marginal outline Neomonoceratina spinosa
resembles N. kutchensis Guha, 1961, N. micro-
reticulata Kingma, 1948, N. oertlii Guha, 1967,

179

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

N eomonoceratina sp. Guha et al, 1965, N.
bataviana Brady, 1867, N. iniqua Brady, 1867,
N. rhomboideum Brady, 1867, N. entomon
Brady, 1890 N. macropora Kingma, 1948 and
N. indica sp. nov. But it markedly differs from
the N. mediterranea Ruggieri, 1953 in the
straight and simple marginal porecanals. It
differs from all the above species by the pre-
sence of prominent spinose structures on the
carapace. This species is named after the pre-
sence of the characteristic spinose structures
on the carapace.

Type-locality : Bimili backwater. East coast
of India.

Type-specimens : Holotype and two para-
types are deposited in the Museum of Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Occurrence : This species is represented at
Bimili backwater. East coast of India.

Genus: Eopaijenborchella Keij, 1967

Eopaijenborchella subcaudatum sp. nov.

(PI. 1, Fig. F; PI. 2, Figs. 6, 7)

In lateral view the carapace is ovate, wedge
or pear shaped. There is a very pronounced
caudal process in the ventral half of the
posterior end. Anterior end broadly rounded.
Dorsal margin with well marked posterior
cardinal angle. The surface of each valve is
traversed vertically by a deep sulcus. Inter
costal areas pitted. Innerlamella moderately
wide. Line of concrescence and inner margin

R EFE

Annapurna, C. (1978) : Systematic and ecology
of benthic ostracoda from selected marginal marine
environments, east coast of India. Ph.D. thesis sub-
mitted to the Andhra University, Waltair.

coincide throughout and run subparallel to the
outer margin. Marginal pore canals straight,
simple, widely spaced. Hinge — all elements
crenulate. Normal pores moderately numerous,
scattered, small, open. Central muscle scars
unknown. Eye spot absent. Left valve larger
than the right.

Length 0.52 mm; height 0.34 mm.

Remarks’. The present form differs from
Eopaijenborchella coeaenica, E. indica , E.
mohani, Eopaijenborchella sp., as illustrated by
Khosla, 1967 in having an ovate to wedge
shaped to pear shaped carapace, caudal pro-
cess pronounced, pits arranged in lines, mar-
ginal pore canals simple and straight, hinge
elements crenulated. The species is named
after the pronounced caudal process.

Type-locality: Bimili backwater. East coast
of India.

Type-specimens: Holotype and two para-
types are deposited in the Museum of Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Occurrence: Bimili backwaters, East coast
of India.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Andhra University,
Waltair for the facilities provided, to Mr. M.
Ananda Rao and Prof. M. Subbarao, Geology
Dept, for their help in confirming the identity
of species. Finally C. A. thanks the C.S.I.R.,
New Delhi for financial assistance.

ENCES

Annapurna, C. & Rama Sarma, D. V. (1985) :
Occurrence of a podocopan ositracod Palmenella
mckenzii sp. nov. in the marginal water bodies, east
coast of India. Jour. Geol. Soc. India, 26: 141-144.

180

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

MECISTOCERUS MON UBU MEN SIS SP. NOV. (COLEOPTERA:
CURCULIONIDAE : CRYPTORHYNCHINAE) FROM INDIA1

Lehna Singh Arya2 and H. R. Pajni3

(With three text -figures )

Introduction

The genus Mecistocerus Fauvel is so far
represented by nine species from India
(Hustache 1936), among these five, M. crista -
tus, M. petruelis, M. nigropunctatus, M. geni-
culus-albis and M. nigrostriatus have been re-
ported from Andaman Islands (Chevrolat
1884). Thus, only four species have so far
been described from the mainland, and of these
two, M. ricini and M. fumosus (Marshall
1921, 1933) were recorded from United Pro-
vince (Uttar Pradesh) and the remaining two
M. simplex (Faust 1898) and M. fossatifrons
(Marshall 1936) were described from eastern
India and Kalimpong, in North West Bengal
respectively. It is, therefore, apparent that only
one species viz., M. simplex Faust has been
reported from Eastern Himalayas from where
this new species is recorded.

Description

Head black, coarsely and reticulately pun-
ctate, clothed with pale recumbent overlapping
scales forming an arc in front; frons with
deep, elongate, bare sulcus; eyes shiny-white,
latero-ventral, ovate. Rostrum piceous in basal
half, ferruginous in apical half, tricarinate in
one fourth basal region, punctate prominently
in three fourth basal region, scattered and in-
conspicuous in remaining, furnished with
sparse suberect scales in closely punctate re-

1 Accepted September 1986.

2 Biologist Incharge, Urban Malaria Scheme,
Thanesar ( Kuruk shetra- 1 32 118).

3 Department of Zoology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh - 160 014 (India) .

gion, with setae elsewhere. Antennae ferrugi-
nous, inserted in middle; funicle pubescent,
with segment 1 as long as 2, 3-6 moniliform,
7 transverse; club subconical, with first two
joints subequal. Pronotum niger, longer than
broad, broadest and truncate at base, parallel-
sided in basal three fourth region then gradually
narrowing towards apex, without subapical
constriction, longitudinally convex, coarsely
and reticulately punctate with each puncture
accommodating horizontal foliaceous scale and
intervals furnished with erect setae except api-

Fig. 1. Adult of Mecistocerus monubumensis sp. nov.

181

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

cal region clothed with dense scales. Scutellum
black, triangular, impunctate, bare. Elytra
piceous, broader than base of pronotum, ob-
long-ovate, with roundly rectangular humeri;
strial punctures each accommodating horizon-
tal seta; intervals as broad as striae almost flat
except interval 4 and 5 rugulose and granu-
late at base, furnished with black and pale
oblong scales as well as each with row of
pale erect setae; vestiture black variegated with
light-yellow scattered patches and bands of
which two-one in middle other on declivity,
conspicuous. Legs with femora black, closely
punctate, densely clothed with grey scales inter-
spersed with setae, hind femora with a small
fulvous patch at posterior extremity; tibiae
curved at base, feebly bisinuate ventrally, with
a black patch at base, densely clothed with
greyish scales as well as setae in apical half,
amucronate. Sternal canal ending just behind
hind end of midcoxae.

Abdominal sternites coarsely punctate, fur-
nished with greyish recumbent scales as well
as setae at both punctures and interspaces.

Male genitalia with aedeagus slightly curved
inwardly, broader at both ends tapering
towards middle, more sclerotized laterally;
aedeagal apodemes longer than aedeagus,
approximate at base becoming gradually far-
ther behind; endophallus studded with cellular
granules forming sheets; phallotreme subapi-
cal, slit like; phallobasic ring complete, weakly
sclerotized; phallobasic apodeme rather small;
parameres median, separate. Spiculum gastrale
with median arm strongly sclerotized, uniform-
ly tubular; lateral arms subequal, as sclerotiz-
ed as median.

Measurements : Body length 6.2-6.56 mm;
Body width 1.84-2.14 mm; Rostrum length
1.88-2.0 mm; Rostrum width 0.28-0.35 mm.

Specimens Examined : Hototype : Male,

Arunachal Pradesh: Monubum; tube light,

PL-480 project Coll.; 24. vi. 1977. Paratype :
Male; data same as that of holotype.

3

0.2MM

Fig. 2. Male genitalia of M. monubumensis\

Fig. 3. Gastral spiculum of M. monubumensis.

A bbreviations

ADA — Aedeagal apodeme; END — Endophallus;
LA — Lateral arm; MA — Median arm;

PHB — Phallobase; PHBA — Phallobasic apodeme;
PHT — Phallotreme.

182

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Type Depository : Entomological Museum,
Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (U.P.),
India.

Remarks'. The species can be readily dis-
tinguished from other Indian species by its
narrow and elongate body. It is also the only
species that bears a row of erect setae on each
interval of the elytra. Besides, the body is
devoid of scales but for a few scattered patches
and two oblique scaly bands-one in middle
and the other on the declivity of the elytra.

Refer

Chevrolat, A. (1884) : La description d’un neu-
veaux genera Cryptorhynchides Coleopterite. Ann.
Soc. Ent. Fr. (6) 4: 105.

Faust, J. (1898): Beschreibung neuer coleopteren
von vorder-und Hinterindien. Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr .:
315.

Fauvel, (1862): Bull. Linn. Normandie VII: 159.

Marshall, G.A.K. (1921): On new species of

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Ministry of agricul-
ture, United States of America for sanctioning
the project in which senior author has been
the Research Scholar; to Dr. P. K. Sen-Sarma,
Director, Biological Research, F.R.I., Dehra
Dun (U.P.) for allowing the comparison of
the material with identified material of his
museum. The facilities provided by the Chair-
man, Department of Zoology, Panjab Univer-
sity, Chandigarh are duly acknowledged.

ENCES

Curculionidae attacking forest tree in India. Bull.
Ent. Res. 12: 168-170.

(1933) : On new Indian Cur-
culionidae (Col.). Ann. Mag. nat . Hist. (10) 12:
565-575.

(1936): New Indian Curcu-
lionidae (Col.), lnd. For. Rec. ( N.S .) Ent. 1, No. 1 1 :
207-208.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF DESMIDS OF INDIA —
SOME NEW TAXA FROM KARNATAKA STATE1
G. R. Hegde2

{With five text -figures )

Introduction

Extensive collections from freshwater ponds
and lakes of Shimoga District in Karnataka
State (India) were made during Nov.-Dee.
1978. This district extends between 13° 17' &
14°39'N latitude and 74°38' & 76°04'E longi-
tude. The average temperature varies from
9°C to 38°C and the rainfall reaches 8275
mm in the region of Agumbe, which is known
as the southern Chirapunji. The samples collect -

1 Accepted September 1985.

2 Algal Laboratory, P. G. Department of Botany.
Kamatak University, Dharwad-580 003.

ed contained five new taxa of desmids and are
described.

(Following abbreviations are used in the
text: L = Length; W = Width; I = Isthmus
and T = Thickness.)

Closterium presto ttii sp. nov. (Fig. 1).

Cellulae fusiformes, cingulo medio praeditae,
c. 10 plo longiores quam latae; margines late-
rals fere rectissimi a loco prope centrum ad
polos angusta rotundatos; membrana interior
incrassata ad polos; membrana cellularis 10-14
strias praebens.

Iconotypus : Fig. 1.

183

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Locus typi : lkkeri (Sagar).

Cells spindle shaped with median girdle
band; about 10-11 times longer than wide;
lateral margins almost perfectly straight from
near the center to the narrowly rounded poles,
inner wall thickened at the poles; cell wall
with 10-15 striations. L 868 /xm; W 67 /xm;
W pole 8 /xm.

I conotype: Fig. 1.

Distribution : lkkeri (Sagar).

Closterium shimogaense sp. nov. (Fig. 2)

Cellulae fere rectae, c. 14 plo longiores
quam latae, margines laterales utrimque
paululo inflati; membrana cellularis 10-15 strias
praebens; poli fere plani.

Iconotypus : Fig. 2.

Locus typi : Shimoga.

Cells almost straight, about 14 times longer
than wide, lateral margins slightly inflated on
both the sides; cell wall with 10-15 striations;
poles almost flat. L 760 /xm; W middle 55 /xm.

I conotype: Fig. 2.

Distribution: Shimoga.

Pleurotaenium verrucosum (Bail.) Lund. var.
validum Scott et Gronbl. fa. irregularis fa. nov.
(Fig. 3).

Varietas magnitudine varietati similis. Diffe-
rens ut granuli polares plures, area infra polos
ut videtur levis, areae incrassatae ambitu irre-
gulares, areae tenues granulationes praebentes.
Semicellulae paululum curvatas.

Iconotypus: Fig. 3.

Locus typi: Tyarendur.

Similar to the variety (Scott and Prescott
1961, pi. 5, fig. 9, p. 20) in size. Differs in
having more number of polar granules; area
below the poles apparently smooth; thickened
areas irregular in outline, thin areas show
granulations. Semicells slightly curved. L 445
/xm; W 51 /xm; I 46 /xm; W pole 35 /xm.

I conotype: Fig.. 3.

Distribution: Tyarendur.

Cosmarium miyajimense Hinode var.
papillatum var. nov. (Fig. 4).

Varietas magnitudine formaque speciei simi-
lis, differens ut pori pauciores maioresque.
Superficies papillam subapicalem obtusam
habens. Isthmus comparate angustior.

Iconotypus: Fig. 4.

Locus typi: Agumbe.

Similar to the species (Hinode 1977, figs. 12
& 13, p. 84) in size and shape. Differs in hav-
ing fewer and bigger pores. Surface with sub-
apical blunt papillum. Isthmus comparatively
narrower. L 21-22 /xm; W 21-22 /xm; 13-4 /xm;
T 9-10 /xm.

I conotype: Fig. 4.

Distribution: Agumbe.

Staurastrum galeatum Turner var. verrucosum

var. nov. (Fig. 5).

Varietas magnitudine speciei similis; diffe-
rens processibus paululo brevioribus, crassis
atque paululum incurvatis. Omnis processus
verruca juxta basim in latere ventrali praeditus.
Processus, speciei dissimiles, in 4 spinas ter-
minates. Verrucae in latere processuum dor-
sali, ad basim, comparate breviores. Semi-
cellula a vertice visa triangularis anulum cen-
tralem verrucarum 3 spinis praeditarum
praebens.

Iconotypus: Fig. 5.

Locus typi: Bharatipura (Agumbe).

Size similar to the species (Hirano 1959;
pi. 52, fig. 4, p. 382) differs in having slightly
shorter stout and slightly incurved arms. Each
arm with a verruca near the base on ventral
side. Unlike the species, arms end in 4 spines.
On dorsal side of arms, near the base, the
verrucae are comparatively shorter. Vertical
view triangular with a central ring of verrucae
having 3 spines. L 28-30 /xm; W with arms
40-42 /xm; I 7-8 /xm.

1 conotype: Fig. 5.

184

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-5.

1. Closterium prescottii sp. nov.; 2. Closterium shimogaense sp. nov.; 3. Pleurotae-
nium verrucosum (Bail.) Lund. var. validum Scott et Gronbl. fa. irregularis fa. nov.;
4. Cosmarium miyajimense Hinode var. papiUatum var. nov.; 5. Staurastrum galeatum
Turner var. verrucosum var. nov.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Distribution : Bharatipura (Agumbe).
Summary

Five new taxa of desmids (Chlorophyceae)
collected from freshwater ponds and lakes of
Shimoga district (Karnataka State) during
Nov. -Dec. 1978 are described.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. G. W. Prescott for
his critical observations and suggestions. Thanks
are also due to Dr. Hannah Croasdale for
rendering the Latin diagnoses of the new taxa.
I am grateful to Prof. S. G. Bharati, P. G.
Department of Botany, Karnatak University,
Dharwad for the encouragement.

References

Hinode, T. (1977) : Desmids collected from Miya- nicarum. Contr. biol. Lab. Kyoto Univ., 9: 303-386.
jma Island, Hiroshima Prefecture. Hikobia, 8: 71-90. Scott, A. M. & Prescott, G. W. (1961): Indo-
Hirano, M. (1959): Flora Desmidiarum Japo- nesian Desmids. Hydrobiologia, 17: 1-132.

DASINEURA PSORALEAE (DIPTERA: CECIDOMYIIDAE) — A NEW
GALL-MIDGE, INFESTING INFLORESCENCES OF
PSORALEA CORY LIFO LI A LINN.1

R. M. Sharma2

(With thirteen text -figures)

A new species of gall-midge, Dasineura psoraleae infesting the inflorescence of Psoralea
corylifolia Linn. (Leguminosae) from Aurangabad (Maharashtra has been describ-
ed and illustrated.

Genus Dasineura Rondani is represented in
India by six species, Grover (1981). In Nov-
ember 1979 a large number of midges were
bred from the inflorescence of Psoralea coryli-
folia Linn, at Aurangabad (Maharashtra) and
were determined as assignable to the genus
Dasineura. This midge is distinguished from
the known species by many morphological
characters. It does not cause any marked galls
on the flower buds. The larvae fed on the
ovary of the buds which ultimately fail to pro-
duce legumes. The larvae pupate in the flower-
bud and not in the soil.

1 Accepted July 1985.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional
Station, Pune -41 1016, India.

3 Numbers in parentheses indicate length and
breadth proportions, measured with the help of an
oculometer.

Dasineura psoraleae sp. nov. (Figs. 1-13)
male: Body 1.91 mm long, yellowish-
brown; eyes confluent above; trophi normal;
palpus 4-segmented, moderately long, sparsely
setose; first segment (9:6)3 cylindrical, length
1 . 50 x its maximum thickness; second segment
(19:8) cylindrical, length a little more than
2.37 x its maximum thickness; third segment
(27:6) cylindrical, longer and thinner than
second, length 4.50 x its maximum thickness;
fourth segment (30:5) cylindrical, longest and
thinnest of all, 6.00 x as long as thick.
Antenna : shorter than body with 2 + 12 to
2+14 segments (2 + 13 in holotype), segments
with cylindrical enlargements and long apical
stems; enlargements with a whorl of long setae,
circumfila ring-like; scape (14:21) cup-shaped,
wider than long; pedicel (13:14) subglobose;

186

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

third segment (26) confluent with and shorter
than fourth, with a very small basal prolonga-
tion; enlargement (16:12) 0.61 the length of
the segment and 1 . 33 x its maximum thick-
ness, stem (7:6) 0.43 the length of the enlarge-
ment and a little less than as long as wide;
fourth segment (37) with enlargement (21:22)
0.56 the length of the segment and 1.75 x its
maximum thickness, stem (16:5) 0.76 the
length of the enlargement and a little more
than 3.00 x its maximum thickness; fifth seg-
ment (37) as long as and similar to the fourth,
except apical stem (17) a little longer than
the stem of the fourth segment; 6- 13th segments
gradually becoming shorter and thinner;
penultimate segment (23) with an enlargement
(13:10) 0.56 the length of the segment and
1.30 x its maximum thickness; stem (10: 3)
0.77 the length of the enlargement and 3.33 x
its maximum thickness; terminal segment
(19:8) shortest of all, conical, length a little
more than 2.37 x its maximum thickness.
Wing: (53:24) hyaline, 2.20 x as long as
broad, costa sparsely hairy, vein R± joining
costa a little beyond 0.25 the length of the
wing; vein R5 reaching costa well before the
wing apex, interrupted at its union with the
latter, vein C u forked. Legs long, moderately
hairy, metatarsus (9) as long as terminal tarsal
segment, second tarsal segment (72) longest
of all, longer than the following segments com-
bined together (65); claw (6) dentate on all
legs, evenly curved, empodium shorter or as
long as claw (10:10). Genitalia : light brown,
sparsely setose, basal clasp segment (41:21)
enlarged apically and narrowed basally with a
heavily setose cylindrical, elongated basal lobe,
length nearly 2.00 x its maximum width, shor-
ter than terminal clasp segment, later (45:6)
slender evenly narrowed, ending in a dark
pointed tooth, length 7.50 x its maximum
thickness; dorsal plate (20:20) as long as
broad, deeply bifid, setose, tips rounded; sub-

dorsal plate (17:9) shorter and narrower than
dorsal plate, nearly 2.00 x as long as broad,
shallowly notched in the middle, setose, lobes
narrowly rounded apically; parameres bilobed,
shorter than aedeagus, each lobe cylindrical,
beset with fine setae laterally; aedeagus (28:2)
rounded apically longer than dorsal and sub-
dorsal plates, length 14.00 x its maximum
thickness.

female: Body 1.56 mm long (including
ovipositor). Palpus : 4-segmented, first segment
short not distinct in the preparation; second
segment (17:7) cylindrical, length 2.43 x its
maximum thickness; third segment (23:6)
longer and thinner than second, length nearly
4.00 x its maximum thickness; fourth segment
(27:6) cylindrical, longest of all, 4.50 x as
long as thick. Antenna : 0.33 the length of the
body with 2+11 to 2+13 cylindrical, sessile
segments, segments with a whorl of long setae,
circumfila low; scape (11:12) cup-shaped;
pedicel (11:13) subglobose, wider than long;
third segment (21) confluent with and as long
as fourth, enlargement (19:9) slightly more
than 2.00 x its maximum thickness; fourth
segment similar to the third; fifth segment (16:
9) shorter than fourth, 1 .77 x as long as thick;
distal segments gradually becoming shorter,
penultimate segment (10:9) shortest of all,
nearly as long as thick; terminal segment (17:
9) conical, longer than penultimate, length
nearly 2.00 x its maximum thickness; wing,
legs and claw as in male. Ovipositor : exserted,
protractile, nearly as long as abdomen, termi-
nal lobe (24:6) elongate, length 4.00 x its
maximum thickness, tip beset with a few setae;
ventral lobe very small.

Holotype <$ , Allotype 9 and Paratypes: 6
c? d , 6 $ $ all dissected and mounted on
slides ex inflorescence of Psoralea corylifolia
Linn. Himayat Bagh, Aurangabad, India,
13 .xi. 1979, Coll. R. M. Sharma, (Many
cT cT and 9 $ in alcohol). All types are de-

187

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

3. terminal antennal segments $; 4. claw $; 5. wing $; 6. scape, pedicel, third
and fourth antennal segments $ ; 7 . fifth antennal segment $ ; 8 . terminal two anten-
nal segments $ ; 9 . scape, pedicel, third and fourth antennal segments $ ; 10. fifth
antennal segment $; 11. palpus $; 12. claw $; 13. ovipositor $.

188

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

posited in the collections of Zoological Survey
of India, Pune, for the time being.

Sex-ratio : cf : 9 = 32:48 (i.e., 38.75%c?).
This species is univoltine.

Parasites'. Three different unidentified chal-
cid parasites were reared along with the
midges.

Remarks'. This species comes very close to
D. sesami Grover and Prasad (1966) but differs
in the number, length and proportions of
antennal segments; empodium as long as claw;
basal clasp segment with cylindrical basal lobe;
aedeagus tip rounded; ovipositor half the

length of the body and dorsal lamella 4.0 x as
long as broad.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Direc-
tor, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta and
the Gfftcer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of
India, Pune for facilities. I am also thankful
to Prof. S. N. Rao (Retd.), Department of
Zoology, Marathwada University, Aurangabad
for his keen interest in my studies on Indian
gall-midges.

References

Grover, P. & Prasad, S. N. (1966) : Studies on
Indian gall-midges XVIII. Two new species of the
genus Dasineura Rondani. Marcellia, 33(2): 119-132.

Grover, P. (1981): A catalogue of Indian Gall-
midges. Cecidologia Internationale, 2(2-3) : 63-108.

189

OBITUARY

S. P. SHAHI
(1917-1986)

The ranks of conservationists in India lost
one of its outstanding members, a year ago,
in the passing away of Suresh Prasad Shahi
on 23 April 1986, at Ranchi.

S. P. Shahi was born on 10th March 1917
at Muzaffarpur in Bihar. He joined the Bihar
Forest Service in 1942 and became the Chief
Conservator of Forests at the age of 43 in
1960 — the youngest ever to do so in the
country. His tenure of 15 years as the CCF
is perhaps one of the longest. Like many of
us, he saw the light and turned from the gun
to camera, recalling his hunting days with
remorse and regret. Some of the outstanding
pictures taken by him during his last five years
in the service, may be seen in his book, back
to the wall, which he dedicated to “his erst-
while colleagues .... with the fervent hope
that they will preserve and enrich for poste-
rity the priceless trust in their charge
Wildlife”.

His contribution to the development of the
crocodile breeding project in Bihar, the esta-
blishment of the tiger reserve in Palamau and
various other sanctuaries are among some of
the notable achievements. Even after his re-
tirement he continued his attempts to extend
conservation measures to the wetland areas in
North Bihar, especially the Kawar Lake in
Begusarai District.

He worked actively for the conservation of
nature and natural resources, long after his
retirement even though he had a heart pro-
blem. He was the only wildlifer who was in-
vited as a special guest in some meetings of
the Steering Committee of Project Tiger. He
was the senior member of an Expert Commit-
tee which studied the man eating problem
in Kheri District of U.P. and in the Sunderbans

Tiger Reserve, which helped a great deal in
formulating the practical strategy for solving
this problem.

He was the Co-ordinator of the Central
India Task Force of the Asian Elephant Group,
set up by the Species Survival Commission
(SSC) of the International Union for Conser-
vation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN). He carried out extensive status sur-
veys and his final report contains many recom-
mendations for elephant conservation and the
creation of additional sanctuaries.

He was a member of the Wolf Group of
the SSC and attended their meetings in the
USA and Sweden. His paper, on the status
of the wolf in India was greatly appreciated.

He contributed a number of articles on
conservation in newspapers and magazines, in
India and abroad. His slide illustrated talks to
the young participants of nature education
camps will be long remembered.

He was a member of the Indian Board of
Wild Life (IBWL) both during his service
and after his retirement. He passed away in
harness, for he attended a meeting of the
Standing Committee of the IBWL only a few
days earlier, in New Delhi.

To quote Dr. M. K. Ranjitsinh — “he was
amongst the foremost of the foresters of the
day who regarded nature conservation and
forest and wildlife preservation as a major
integral task of a forest officer’s duties. He
was in many ways an example to forest offi-
cers who, despite the fact that they were keen
on nature conservation, were at that point of
time unable to find an identity of their own
in the set-up, of the department throughout
the country”.

JACK SAWHNEY

190

REVIEWS

i. ANNOTATED CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF HONG KONG.
By M. L. Chalmers. 4th Edition, pp. 279 (21.5 x 15 cm), with many
illustrations and black-and-white photographs. Hong Kong, 1986. The
Hong Kong Bird Watching Society. Price not mentioned.

This is the fourth edition of the Checklist
of the Birds of Hong Kong (the first pub-
lished in 1960), all being revised or rewritten
by different persons. It covers 784 species on
270 pages and deals in some detail with the
status, general abundance, and if migrant gives
the first and last dates together with a histo-
gram showing frequency of occurrence in
different months and when marked resident
have a further break-up into possible, proba-
ble, and confirmed breeders.

The area covered extends over a thousand
square kilometres and includes some 200
islands. The bibliography includes over 500
titles and judging by names and language of

writing are almost entirely by Englishmen or
Americans. The compilation has indeed been
a laborious piece of work and an example of
the checklist which can be an excellent guide
to the beginner and tell him at a glance the
relative value of his observation and decide
which one would be worth offering for publi-
cation.

Collections have no doubt been made in
the area but there is nothing to show the total
number collected and their availability for
checking upon the correctness of the identi-
fication.

H. ABDULALI

2. THREATENED ANIMALS OF INDIA. By B. K. Tikader. pp. 307
(24 x 17 cm), with 125 coloured plates, 56 maps and a text-figure.
Calcutta, 1983. Zoological Survey of India. Price Rs. 150.00, $45, £25.

This book on the endangered animals of
the Indian fauna was commissioned by the
Department of Environment. It briefly dis-
cusses the status of 146 species of mammals,
birds and animals selected from Schedules I
to IV of the Indian Wild Life (Protection)
Act. Species believed to be extinct are in-
cluded, of which one, the Jerdon’s Courser,
has happily been rediscovered since the publi-
cation of this book. The peacock is included,
although it certainly should not figure on the
danger list and is protected, in Schedule I,
principally because it is India’s national bird.
There are distribution maps for some of the
species and colour plates (unnumbered) for

most of them. While some of the illustrations
are from photographs taken by the author,
many, particularly those of the birds, have
been borrowed from other publications, appa-
rently without acknowledgement. None of the
information is particularly new, but it is useful
to have it collected in a single volume, toge-
ther with annexures which include notes on
the constitution of the Indian Board for Wild
Life, the Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act,
and the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora. (CITES)

If, as the author implies in his foreward,
this book is meant to interest lay readers, its

191

REVIEWS

style is rather too dry and official. Anecdotes,
such as the dramatic reappearance of the
Pigmy Hog and the Hispid Hare in Assam,
when these species were believed to be ex-
tinct, could have been used with effect. Since
this book comes from the Zoological Survey
of India, one would have expected some refe-
rence to the fact that the official danger list
is relatively haphazard because our knowledge
of the current status of species of certain
groups is simply inadequate. Fresh water fish
and bats for instance do not figure except
that fruit bats are classified as vermin in
Schedule V., without knowing to what extent

they are responsible for pollination, crossferti-
lisation and dispersal of different trees both
cultivated and indigenous. Yet what do we
about populations of insectivorous bats, which
must be threatened by the increased use of
agricultural pesticides? The status of inverte-
brate species for example butterflies, like the
spectacular bird-wings of Assam, needs to be
reviewed. One hopes that the Zoological Survey
has some of these issues under examination
for future editions.

R. REUBEN

3. THE USEFUL PLANTS OF INDIA. Edited by S. P. Ambastha,
Kamala Ramachandran, K. Kashyapa and Ramesh Chand. pp. 918
(22 cm. x 15 cm.), New Delhi, 1986. Publications & Information Direc-
torate, CSIR. Price Rs. 128/- Or $32 Or £24.

This is a concise edition of ‘Wealth of
India — Raw materials’ giving botanical
names, synonyms, vernacular names and their
utilities. The book is more or less planned on
the format of CSIR’s earlier excellent and
well received publication, “Glossary of Indian
Medicinal Plants (1956)” and its supplement
(1969), by Chopra et al.

There are a few additions as compared to
the list of plants given in the ‘Glossary and
its supplement’ and many synonyms and
vernacular names have been added. However
a number of entries on plants given in the
glossary have been deleted making it more or
less incomprehensive. This volume lacks the

excellence of a scientific report because it does
not quote the earlier references for the uti-
lities and related information. It also lacks in
pharmacological and phytochemical data as
well as excludes distribution of the species.

Nomenclature of plants in some cases re-
quires correction in modern terms of their
taxonomical concepts, e.g. Messua ferrea Linn.
(=M. nagassarium (Burm. f.) Kosterm.),
Zanthoxylu/n limonella (Dennst.) Alston
(= Z rhetsa (Roxb.) DC.), Hydnocarpus
laurifolia (Dennst.) Sleummer (H. pentandra
(Ham.) Oken.), Wagatea spicata Dalz. ( -Moul -
lava spicata (Dalz.) Nicolson), etc.

M. R. ALMEIDA

192

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. GROUP NUMBER AND COMPOSITION OF HANUMAN LANGUR
0 PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS) IN JAIPUR, INDIA

{With a text-figure)

Introduction

Langurs and rhesus are commonly seen in
most of the north Indian cities. There are very
few long term, behavioural and demographic
studies conducted systematically on any one
population (Mohnot 1968, 1971, 1974, 1975,
1978, 1980; Mohnot et at. 1981) or on diffe-
rent populations (Southwick 1960, 1980; South-
wick et al. 1961, 1980; Southwick and Siddiqui
1966, 1968, 1970, 1977), and even fewer studies
on urban monkeys (Singh 1966).

The present investigation, therefore, was
taken up for two main reasons (i) to add
some basic information about primate popula-
tion, and (ii) to collect baseline data for
future comparative behavioural, demographic
studies, particularly of langurs occupying
different habitats.

Methods

Jaipur, our research site, is the capital city
of the state of Rajasthan in India. It is situat-
ed amidst the Aravali hill ranges at an alti-
tude of 430 m above mean sea level, and
lies on latitude 26°55'N, and longitude
75°50'E. The region is semi-arid and mode-
rately vegetated, with 600 mm average annual
rain fall. Maximum temperature is 46°C dur-
ing June and minimum is 6°C in January.
Humidity is 80% during monsoon months.

Jaipur city has two parts, old city and out-
skirts (Fig. 1). The population survey of

langurs was started in May 1985 with the
collection of verbal information from the local
people, roadside shop keepers and from areas
which are known to have monkeys. For this, a
road survey was launched using scooter and
jeep during early morning hours once in a week
covering 20 km/trip at various routes. Repeat-
ed travelling and verbal information helped in
locating groups. Location of each group was
marked on the map and the local people were
interviewed to know more about that group.
After this, each group was visited for 5-8 con-
secutive days for its identification, group type,
and to count the total number of individuals
in different age-sex classes.

The counting was done either (i) early
morning when monkeys are most clearly seen
leaving their roosting site in almost single file
or (ii) during afternoons and evenings by
feeding and attracting monkeys with peanuts
and gram seeds.

On an average, individuals of each group
were counted for 10-20 times. The individuals
of each group have been classified into age-sex
classes viz. : adult male, adult female, sub-
adult male, sub-adult female, juvenile, infant
I and infant IT.

Results

During the past twelve months, 25 groups
of langurs have been located, identified, follow-
ed for their group identification and other de-
tails of the group. The surveyed area included

193

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Of Jaipur

00

kha*tipuk*=

fifoViMOSO
*5* Temple

Scale. - i-Scml/km

Fig. 1. Jaipur, old city and outskirts.

194

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

old city (less number of trees, markets of
grains, vegetables, fruits, jaggery, presence of
temples, palaces, gardens and residences) and
outskirts (more trees; generally offices and
residences).

Out of 25 groups only six langur groups are
found in old city, otherwise, they seem to
prefer the outskirts of the city. The six groups
in the old city rely mainly on provisioning,
which they get maximum at a temple
“Govindeoji” (Fig. 1). Among the six, 3
groups live in this area, whereas, 12 other
groups have occupied the outskirts of the city.

These 12 groups are seldom fed by human
beings, on the contrary, they are considered as
pests. These groups exploit a variety of plants
and trees they even raid kitchen gardens. The
seven remaining groups inhabit Galta area
where there is heavy provisioning but they also
have the chance to feed upon many plant
species a few of them are mentioned in
Table 1.

Out of a total of 25 there are 16 unimale
bisexual groups, 6 all male groups and 3
multimale groups. There is a great variation in
the group size of unimale groups; the smallest

Table 1

Some trees exploited by langurs in Jaipur

Species

Young
Leaf buds leaves

Mature

leaves

Peteole Bark

Flowers

Fruits

1 .

Hoi optelea in tegr if alia

* *

*

*

*

2,

Ficus bengalensis

*

*

*

*

3 .

Ficus religiosa

*

*

*

*

4.

Ficus racemosa

*

*

5.

Azadirachta indica

*

*

6.

Dalbergia sissoo

*

*

*

7.

Tamarindus indica

*

*

8.

Pithecolobium dulce

*

*

9.

Anogeissus pendula

*

*

*

10.

Morus alba

*

*

11.

Prosopis juli flora

*

*

*

12.

Prosopis cineraria

*

*

13.

Boswetlia serrata

*

*

*

14.

Albizzia lebbek

*

*

15.

Delonix regia

*

*

16.

Dichrostachys cinerea

*

*

17.

Acacia totilis

*

*

18.

Acacia nilotica

*

*

19.

Bauhinia variegata

*

*

20.

Cardia gharafi

*

*

21.

Mitragyna parvifolia

*

22.

Manilkara hexandra

*

*

23.

Tecoma stans

*

*

24.

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

*

*

25.

Psidium guajava

*

* Part exploited.

195

Group number, composition of unimale groups

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

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Group number, composition, sex ratio of multimale and all male groups of Jaipur

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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197

As mentioned in table

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

unimale bisexual group has only 19 individuals
which lives in the residential area of the out-
skirts and the biggest group has 118 indivi-
duals and is found at Galta (Table 2).

On an average unimale groups are bigger
than multimale and all male groups. The ave-
rage number of individuals in unimale group
is 54.4, whereas, multimale groups have an
average of 40.0 individuals in each group, and
all male has 25.3 individuals per group (Table
3).

The number of groups and individuals noted
so far form a part of total population of lan-
gurs of Jaipur. There are still 5-7 or more
groups to be studied.

Discussion

In the city of Jaipur 25 groups of langurs
were located and observed in one year after
800 km. long road surveys (repeated survey),
and during 550 contact hours. All three kinds
of social groups, unimale, multimale, all male
are found in this region. The majority of the
groups were unimale bisexual. The groups were
generally smaller in residential areas (Group
JWUM I) as compared to groups at temples
(Govindeoji and Galta; Table 2).

It has been noted during the present in-
vestigation that very few groups of langurs are
found in the old city, as they prefer the out-
skirts of the city. One reason could be to avoid
rhesus. The old city is dominated by rhesus
(Mathur and Lobo; Wolfe and Mathur — in
press) and the other reason could be their
folivorous nature. There are very few trees in
the old city (except in temples) as compared
to the outskirts and Galta.

A comparison between the size of unimale
groups indicate a relationship between group
size and amount of provisioning (Table 4).

Table 4

Group size in relation to the provisioning

OF FOOD

Sr.

No.

Degree of
provisioning

Group size

(no. of individuals)

1.

Heavy

118, 102, 80, 111,76

2.

Moderate

42, 42, 55, 54

3.

Little

31, 27, 36

4.

Very little or almost nil

19, 36, 20, 21

Wherever groups have heavy provisioning they
have a bigger group size as compared to
groups occupying areas where there is little
provisioning or almost nil. At temples not only
feeding is high but the animals also enjoy
greater protection in comparison to residential
areas — where monkeys are treated as pests
and are chased away. Galta forms a specially
favourable place for monkeys. It is a holy
place, it is surrounded by low altitude hills.
The area supports a variety of plant
species on many of which langurs feed.
Alongwith this there is heavy provisioning dur-
ing certain days in a week. The present investi-
gation is a preliminary report, and, further
information is being collected for evaluating
our data statistically.

Ack no wledgements

We are very thankful to Dr. Mohnot, De-
partment of Zoology, University of Jodhpur,
Jodhpur, for his suggestion to start the popu-
lation studies of Primates of Jaipur.

Financial assistance from UGC, New Delhi,
is also gratefully acknowledged.

Department of Zoology, REENA MATHUR

University of Rajasthan, B. RAM MANOHAR

Jaipur - 302 004,

July 22, 1986.

198

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Mathur, Reena & Lobo, A. ( in press) : Density
estimate of monkeys of Jaipur under communication
with XI International Congress on primatology to
be held in Germany in July 1986.

Mohnot, S. M. (1968): Interactions and social
changes in troops of Hanuman langur ( Presbytis
entellus) in India. Abstracts symposium. Natural
Resources Rajasthan (Jodhpur, Oct. 23-26, 1968),
Jodhpur, pp. 26.

(1971) : Ecology and behaviour

of the Hanuman langur ( Presbytis entellus) Pri-
mates: Cercopithecidae) invading fields, gardens and
orchards around Jodhpur, Western India. Trop. Ecol.
12: 237-249.

(1974) : Ecology and behaviour

of the common Indian langur, ( Presbytis entellus
Bufresne). Ph.D., Thesis, Univ. of Jodhpur, India.

(1978) : Peripherialization of

weaned male Juveniles in Presbytis entellus. In:
Olivers, D. J., and Herbert, J. (eds.) recent advances
in Primatology, Vol. I: Behaviour. Academic Press,
London, p. 87-91.

(1980) : Intergroup infant kidnap-
ping in Hanuman Langur. Folia primatol. 34: 259-
277.

Mohnot, S. M., Gadgil, M. & Makwana, G. C.
(1981): On the dynamics of the Hanuman Langur
populations of Jodhpur (Rajasthan) India. Primates
22(2): 182-191.

Singh, S. D. (1966) : The effects of hyman en-
vironment on the social behaviour of rhesus mon-
keys. Primates 7 : 33-39.

Southwick, C. H. (1960) : A population survey
of rhesus monkeys in northern India. Part 1, Abun-
dance, habitat, distribution and group sizes. Part 2,
Population, composition and trends. Bulletin of the
ecological society of America 41: 119-120.

Southwick, C. H. (1980) : Rhesus monkey popu-
lation in India and Nepal: Patterns of Growth,
Decline, and Natural regulation, pp. 151-170. In:
Bio-Social mechanisms of populations regulation ed.
Cohen, M. N., Malpass, R. S. and Klein, H. G.

Yale University Press.

Southwick, C. H., Beg, M. A. & Siddiqui, M. R.
(1961) : A population survey of rhesus monkeys in
northern India, Part 2, Transportation routes and
forest areas. Ecology 42: 698-710.

Southwick, C. H. & Siddiqui, M. R. (1966):
Population changes rhesus monkeys in northern
India, pp. 339-362. In: Primate conservation ed.
Prince Rainier III and G. H. Bourne. Academic

press, New York.

(1968):

Population trends of rhesus monkeys in villages and
towns of northern India, 1959-65. /. of Animal
Ecology 37: 199-204.

0970):

Primate population trends in Asia, with specific refe-
rence to the rhesus monkeys of India. Papers and
proceedings of the Eleventh Technical Meeting of the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature
(New Delhi) Nov., 1969. 1: 135-147.

— — (1977):

Populations of Rhesus monkeys in Northern India.
In: Primate conservation ed. Ranvier and Bourne,
Academic Press.

Southwick, C. H., Siddiqui, M. F., Cohen, J. A.,
Oppenheimer, J. R., Khan, J. & Ashraf, S. W.
(1980): Further declines of rhesus populations of
India. Anthropol: Contemp. Abstr. VII Int. Congr.
Primatol. 3(2) : 275.

Wolfe, L. & Mathur, Reena (in press) : Mon-
keys of Jaipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

2. OCCURRENCE OF THE BICOLOURED LEAF-NOSED BAT
(. HIPPOS1DEROS FULVUS) IN RAJASTHAN

On 29th November 1985, while observing
Pythons in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,
I saw some microchiropterans moving inside
one of the python holes. Later, the bat was
collected and identified as bicoloured leaf-nosed
bat ( Hipposideros fulvus).

The upper part of the specimen had reddish
brown hair with white base and the under
part was more or less whitish. It had large
pinna and tail which measured about 22 mm
and 29 mm respectively.

Bicoloured leaf-nosed bat prefers porcupine

199

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

burrows for diurnal roosts (Roberts 1977). In
this Park it co-exists with python and por-
cupine.

This is the first record of this species from
Rajasthan as the distribution range of this
common microchiropteran has been recorded

Junior Field Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,
Bharatpur - 321 001,

Rajasthan,

January 30, 1987.

as Central and Western India, Pakistan, Indo-
nesia, Thailand, Taiwan (Brosset 1962 and
Roberts 1977).

I thank Mr. Manoj Muni, BNHS for identi-
fying the specimen and Dr. V. S. Vijayan,
Project Scientist for encouragement.

S. BHUPATHY

References

Brosset, A. (1962): The Bats of Central and Roberts, T. J. (1977): The Mammals of Pakistan.
Western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 59(2) : Ernest Benn Limited. London & Ton bridge.

613-618.

3. SIGHTING OF A RUSTY SPOTTED CAT (FELIS RUBIGINOSA)

The Rusty Spotted Cat was noticed fairly
frequently in the forests of South Gujarat,
especially of the Dangs and Valsad districts.
I had myself sighted this cat in the Dangs
and Vansda forests on a number of occasions
in the past. However, in the last decade and
a half, no sightings were reported and I
feared that, with the inroads of human acti-
vities in these forest areas and the consequent
destruction of it’s habitat, this little cat may
be on its way to extinction. It was therefore
with a sense of happiness and some relief that
I spotted one some time towards the 1st week
of November 1986. I was driving along the
main road going through the Vansda National
Park when, on one of the turns of the ghat
road known locally as “Vis-Gholiani Bari”,

Digvir Niwas,

Vansda-396 580,

Dist. Valsad,

Gujarat State,

January 20, 1987.

I saw the small cat rush across in front of
jeep and cross the road in full view in the
headlights of my car. It was around 8-8.30
p.m. It stood for some time and then disappear-
ed in the grass.

This species is rare throughout the country
and I am not aware of there being any speci-
mens in any Zoo. It may therefore be a good
idea to trap two or three of these cats and
try to breed them in captivity because other-
wise we may stand to lose this species
altogether.

I would also like to suggest that the Gujarat
State Forest Department undertakes a quick
field survey to determine the present status
and distribution of this and other lesser cats in
the state.

DIGVEERENDRASINH

200

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. NOTE ON THE SIGHTING OF A CARACAL ( FEUS CARACAL)
AT THE SARISKA NATIONAL PARK

On 24th April between 6.15 and 6.30 a.m.
I was travelling in a jeep between the Sariska
National Park Gate and Kalighati within the
park. The forest guard Shri Pratap Singh who
was with me drew my attention to the caracal
which was behind a few bushes and walking
along the road and identified it as such. In a
moment it passed a clearing before turning off
away from the road when I could unmistak-
ably see the animal’s black ears with tufts on
them.

This region has always had caracals, in fact
there is a picture post card from Jaipur of
about the turn of the century vintage which
shows a cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus) and a

No. 1, Mansingh Road,

New Delhi-110 011,

June 4, 1986.

caracal in captivity. The neighbouring erst-
while Jaipur state had a “cheetah khana” and
the Maharajas hunted with both these animals.
Incidentally, to the best of my knowledge the
animal is identified in northern India by its
Persian name only “Shia gosh”, i.e. black ears.

I have been visiting this forest since 1972,
but this is the first time 1 have come across
a caracal there. However, according to a paper
presented to the Cat Specialist Group at Kanha,
April, 1984 entitled “Vanishifig Cats of Rajas-
than” by Vishnu Sharma and Kailash Sankhala,
there are two reports of caracals in 1956, two
in 1962, one in 1979 and one in 1982 in the
Sariska region.

DIVY ABHANUSINH

5. OCCURRENCE OF LARGE INDIAN CIVET (VIVERRA
ZIBETHA) IN ORISSA

( With a photograph)

An adult Large Indian Civet (Viverra
zibet ha) was caught by villagers near screw-
pine ( Pandanus tectorius) bushes of the village
Banguari (Fulnakhara area in Cuttack Dis-
trict, Orissa) on January 12, 1986 and received
at Nandankanan Biological Park in an injured
condition (Photo. 1). The animal recovered after
treatment. It is housed in an enclosure having
a floor space of approximately seven square
metres; height 2.80 metres and with two cave-
like retiring dens. It is fed with minced meat.

milk, boiled rice and fruits like banana and
apple. The animal is sluggish during day and
becomes active late in the evening when all
the visitors had left. This appears to be the
first record of occurrence of this Civet in
Orissa.

Prater (1971) gives the distribution of
Large Indian Civet as Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan,
Upper Bengal and Assam, extending eastwards
into Burma, Southern China, Siam and the
Malay Peninsula. The distribution of this

201

14

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Photo 1. Large Indian Civet (Viverra zibetha ) in Orissa.

species is given as Southern China, Nepal,
Assam and eastward to the Malay Peninsula
(Walker et al. 1964). The species has not been

Veterinary Assistant Surgeon,
Nandankanan Biological Park,

P.O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack,

Orissa-754 005.

Director,

Nandankanan Biological Park,

Orissa, 145-Saheed Nagar,

Bhubaneswar-751 007,

April 25, 1986.

Refer

Behura, B. K. & Guru, G. B. (1969): Wildlife
of Orissa. Prakruti-U tkal University journal-Science,
6(2): 95-126.

Das, P. K. & Agrawal, V. C. (1973) : New Re-
cords of Mammals from Orissa. Science & Culture
39: 429-430.

reported from Orissa (Das and Agrawal 1973,
Behura and Guru 1969).

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. K. PATNAIK

ENCES

Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Book of Indian Ani-
mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,
pp. 90-91.

Walker, Ernest P. et al. (1964) : Mammals of
the World. Vol. II. The John Hopkins Press, Balti-
more.

202

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. A NOTE ON THE FOOD OF THE SMALL INDIAN CIVET
( VIVERRICULA 1ND1CA) AT POINT CALIMERE
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

On 6th May 1986, by 0830 hrs. we found
a dead Small Indian Civet possibly run over
by a vehicle near Muniappan Eri at Point
Calimere. We opened its stomach to examine
the stomach contents and were surprised to
see a large number of centipedes (not yet
digested) and other food in the stomach. The
stomach contents are as follows: 1. 16 Centi-
pedes (intact; average length is 6-8 cm), 2. three
broken portions of centipedes, 3. 7 crickets
and broken parts of a few crickets, 4. a grain

Junior Field Biologists,

BNHS Avifauna Project,

Kodikkarai - 614 807,

Tanjore Dist., Tamil Nadu,

January 7, 1987.

of paddy, 5. one Prosopis juli flora seed, 6.
three legs of a frog and 7. a small quantity of
fibrous portions of Palmyrah fruit (?). Though
it has been recorded (Prater 1971) that the
Small Indian Civet will feed on rats, squirrels,
small birds, lizards, insects and their grubs,
poultry, on anything which it can catch and
kill, fruits, roots and other vegetable matter,
it is interesting to note that it feeds on a
large number of centipedes.

M. AYYADURAI
V. NATARAJAN
P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
S. ALAGAR RAJAN

Referen ce

Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Book of Indian Animals, 3rd ed. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay, pp. 91-92.

7. UNUSUAL COLORATION OF NILGAI ( BOSELAPHUS
TRAGOCAMELUS)

On a recent visit to Sariska National Park
in Rajasthan I came upon a young nilgai male
which was uniformly a off-white colour and
appeared a dirty white and distinct from the
normal coloured nilgai which it was accom-
panying. It was not an albino as the eye
coloration was normal.

In the same trip I also saw in the same
locality around Kalighati a normal coloured

Joint Secretary,

Deptt. of Environment & Forests,
(Wildlife Wing),

PARYA VARAN BHAWAN,

C. G. O. Complex,

Lodhi Estate, New Delhi,

May 24, 1986.

nilgai with a streak of white coloration extend-
ing from the forehead to the nostrils and with
a literal marking extending from eye to eye.
This colour patch look was thus a T shape
configuration. The bare skin around the nostrils
was also cream coloured.

During my more than 40 years of observa-
tion of nilgai I have never come across colora-
tion of this kind.

M. K. RANJITSINH

203

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

8. OCCURRENCE OF TEIE BARHEADED GOOSE (ANSER INDICES)

IN SOUTH INDIA

According to S. Dillon Ripley’s synopsis of
the birds of India and Pakistan, the bar-
headed goose, a winter visitor to peninsular
India, comes mainly to northern India, and
south to Chilka Lake in Orissa, and is rare in
Gujarat and Deccan but fairly regular in
Karnataka in small numbers.

It certainly comes much farther south, to
the purplieus of Tiruchi (where it has been
shot), and I have seen it at Point Calimere
which has a latitude of 10° 15' to 10° 35' N,
as the BNHS team here must also have. In
old ornithological literature, a still more south-
ern sighting is reported: in the birds of
southern India by H. R. Baker and C. M.
Inglis, it is said, with regard to this bird, “Mr.
Hatchell records it from near Nellore and
Cuddapah, and Geese [sic], which are pro-
bably this species, are reported to frequent the
seacoast as far south as Pamban Island.”
Pamban Island is well above 9° N latitude.

In recent years, I have seen this goose in
flocks of about 40 to 50 at two waterspreads
south of Tirunelveli town, to both of which I
went to observe the small flocks of the greater
flamingo ( Phoenicopterus roseus) which so-
journ in them. On 27 January 1983 I visited
Karungulam tank (besides Karungulam village
and right beside the main road to Tiruchendur,
some 15 km from Palayamkottai) and saw,
besides the flamingos, a flock of about 40 bar-
headed geese which flew away at my approach.
Inquiry of the local villagers elicited the in-
formation that they were regular visitors to
this tank about January. The latitude of

52 Dr. Radhakrishnan Road,

Madras - 600 004,

Tamil Nadu,

August 9, 1985.

Karungulam is about 8° 32' N. On 11 January
this year (1985) I went to Koonthakulam, some
30 km south-east of Palyamkottai, and on the
way saw a regular formation of about 50
white storks ( Ciconia ciconia, and no doubt
ciconia again) feeding busily in the grassy
scrub besides the road. At Koonthakulam
village, there is a mixed heronry of grey peli-
cans, painted storks, egrets and little cormo-
rants nesting in the trees around, and flamingos
haunt the tank right next the village. After
a while, the flamingos flew off in a south-
easterly direction, and following them I came
upon a sizeable waterspread about 1 km away,
at which they settled. A number of painted
storks and 3 black ibises were on the slushy
banks of the water, and a flock of barheaded
geese (about 50) on the water. Villagers arriv-
ing to fill their water-pots made the birds take
wing, and I had a good look at the geese as
they flew overhead, and also pointed out to
my companions that they were barheaded
geese. The latitude of Koonthakulam is
8° 28' N.

The interesting aspect of these sightings is
that there does not seem to be any record of
of the barheaded goose having been sighted
in Sri Lanka, though there is a single record
of the greylag. In recent years, migratory birds
visiting south India have shifted their haunts
considerably, and it could be that it is only
comparatively recently that barheaded geese
have taken to coming so far south. I do not
know if they go to waters still farther south,
as in Kanyakumari district.

M. KRISHNAN

204

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

9. THE OSPREY ( PANDION HALIAETUS HALIAETUS )
PREYING ON A GULL

I was very interested to read Mr. D. N.
Goenka’s letter dated 31.10.83 which you
published in the Miscellaneous Notes of Vol.
82 No. 1 as it brought to mind the memory
of an incident I observed in the Periyar Wild-
life Sanctuary, as it then was, a good many
years ago.

I quote from my notes at that time: 16.8.69.
Periyar Lake. Seen harrying a common sand-
piper and causing feathers to fly.

I can remember that the incident occurred
near to Mullakudi. The osprey ‘stooped’ two

Ferndale, Kilpedder,

Greystones, Co. Wicklow,

Repubilc of Ireland,

October 30, 1985.

or three times at the sandpiper which was
flying along the shore-line. I do not know
whether the attack was successful or not as
the sandpiper, which was flying strongly, dis-
appeared around a corner out of sight but I am
sure I would have noted that the osprey went
in pursuit of it had it done so.

As a matter of interest 16th August is a very
early record for the arrival of the common
sandpiper at Periyar, and that date is the
earlier I recorded for the arrival of the osprey
also.

M.C.A. JACKSON

10. OCCURRENCE OF GREYHEADED LAPWING, VANELLUS
CINEREUS (BLYTH) IN BANGALORE

On 18 April 1984 while observing birds in
a paddy field at Kodigehalli, a village close to
the Hebbal campus of the University of Agri-
cultural Sciences, I sighted a Greyheaded
Lapwing, Vanellus cinereus (Blyth). The bird
which flew past me, settled close to a Red-
wattled Lapwing (V. indicus ) in an inundated
plot freshly transplanted with paddy seedlings.
The bird was observed for 36 minutes with a
pair of 8 x 30 field glasses.

The field characters of this bird agreed with
the adult plumage of the species as given by
Ali and Ripley (1969: 211). Besides, it was
observed that the white in the secondaries of
both wings was contiguous with the white of
the rump and formed a wide ‘V’ pattern in
flight. Before landing and take off. the bird
spread its white tail out, exposing the con-

spicuous black subterminal band that narrowed
out towards either side of the tail. The bird
uttered a single plaintive quee-ikt, quite audi-
ble at a distance of about 10 m, whenever it
took to the wings. While foraging at the edge
of an inundated plot, covered with paddy
stubbles and nut-grass ( Cyperus sp.), the bird
walked slowly stopping after every 2-3 steps
and bent steeply to pick up some food item.
When my approaches, to have a closer look,
became frequent, the bird flew away with
flight typical of lapwings. The bird was not
seen again.

According to Ali and Ripley (1969), the
breeding area of Greyheaded Lapwing spans
over Mongolia, China (south to Yangtse valley),
Manchuria, Korea and Japan. It winters in
Southern China, India, North-East of Bihar,

205

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Bangladesh, Burma, Malaya and the Indo-
chinese region. Within Indian limits, it winters
in small flocks in West Bengal, Assam, Mani-
pur and N. Bihar. The bird is also reported
from the Kathmandu valley of Nepal; and is

Department of Entomology,

University of Agricultural
Sciences,

Hebbal, Bangalore-560 024.

September 11, 1985.

Refe

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969) : Handbook of the
birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2. Oxford Univer-
sity Press. Bombay, xvi+345 pp.

recorded as a straggler in Kashmir, Dehra Dun,
Bharatpur (Grubh 1968) and Andaman
Islands. The present sighting is the first record
of the species in Peninsular India.

S. SUBRAMANYA

ENCES

Grubh, B. Robert (1978): Greyheaded Lapwing
Vanellus cinereus (Blyth) : New record for Rajas-
than. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 : 484.

11. ADDITION TO THE BIRDS OF POINT CALIMERE, S. INDIA

In the checklist appended at the end of the
paper on the Avifauna of Point Calimere
(Sugathan ( JBNHS 79: 567), Muscicapa

parva is listed as occurring in Point Calimere.
Recently while going through the collection
of birds in BNHS I came across a specimen
of Muscicapa subrubra (BNHS No. 23279 d )
collected from Point Calimere on 9/10/1969.
The specimen was identified as M. parva
subrubra but presently subrubra is no longer
considered as a race of parva and is given the
status of a full species by Ripley (a synop-

3 Rocky Hill,

Malabar Hill,

Bombay 400 006,

July 12, 1985.

12. FURTHER ADDITIONS TO THE

Ruddy Shelduck ( Tadorna ferruginea)

A group of 15 to 20 large ducks seen flying
westwards over saltpans near Ramarpadam in

SIS OF BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN 2nd ed.
1981). This would make subrubra an addi-
tion to the checklist.

In Overa Wildlife Sanctuary, in Kashmir,
this year in May, I had the opportunity to
examine both M. parva and M. subrubra in
hand, as they were caught in the mist-net on
the same day. The latter is common breeder
in that locality. Also from the field observa-
tions I am quite convinced that they are diffe-
rent species.

NITIN JAMDAR

AVIFAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE

the afternoon of 9th November 1983. The birds
were typically ‘Shelduck’ in shape, the neck
being proportionately too short for Anser.

206

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The birds were seen against the sun thus
colours were difficult to determine, however
the forewing was clearly white/ pale grey. The
handbook records the species are ‘rare
or absent in the South’ of the Peninsula but
‘occasional’ in Sri Lanka.

Wigeon (Anas penelope )

This species was inadvertently omitted from
the first checklist (Sugathan 1983). Small num-
bers of wigeon are occasionally seen among
the larger flocks of Pintail (Anas acuta) and
Garganey (Anas querquedula) . The largest
number recorded is at least 200 on 31 January
1984 in association with c. 4,000 Pintail and
500 Garganey following heavy rain. The
handbook records it as ‘less common in
the Peninsula’ and ‘sparse and irregular’ in Sri
Lanka.

Slenderbilled Gull ( Lams genei )

One adult specimen of this gull was obtain-
ed on (17th Nov. 1969) while trapping waders
for ringing. Published records of this species
make no mention of the occurrence of the
species beyond Bombay on the south (hand-
book vol. 3, pp. 35). The above specimen ex-
tends its range to Point Calimere in the south.
The bird was ringed and released.

House Swift (A pus affinis)

A flock of 50-60 were seen over Kodikkarai
harbour at mid-day on 7 November 1983. This
species was seen in varying numbers (upto
150) throughout the Point Calimere area dur-
ing the next fortnight.

Avifauna Project,

Point Calimere,

Kodikkarai-614 807,

Tamil Nadu,

July 16, 1985.

Red-backed Shrike (Lanius schach)

Small numbers seen in November 1983.

Tree Pipit (Anthus trivialis )

Several tree Pipits were seen during Novem-
ber 1983 in an area of open grassland with
scattered Casuarina trees. The back of these
birds was reddish-brown, rather than the olive-
brown of the Indian Pipit (A. hodgsoni), and
heavily streaked with dark brown.

Indian Drongo-Cuckoo (Surnicutus lugubris)
During October 1982 one of these birds was
seen perched on an electric line in the Point
Calimere Sanctuary. There after few more
sightings were recorded from various parts of
the sanctuary.

Dusky Horned Owl (Bubo coromandus )

On 16th October 1983, a specimen of Bubo
coromandus was obtained from some village
boys near Point Calimere sanctuary. The bird
was very weak and died after a few hours.
It was added to the skin collection of the
Bombay Natural History Society.

Great Whitebellied Heron (Ardea insignis)
While driving along the Eastern side of the
sanctuary Dr. Salim Ali identified one bird
among a mixed flock of Egrets and Grey
Herons at a drying water hole as Ardea in-
signis. During 1983 December again it was
recorded along the edge of one of the arti-
ficial waterholes in the sanctuary. Perhaps this
will be the first record of this species from
South India (see Ali & Ripley handbook
Vol. 1, pp. 53).

R. SUGATHAN
DAVID S. MELVILLE
S. ALAGAR RAJ AN

207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

13. THE WHITEWINGED BLACK TERN, CHLIDONIAS
LEUCOPTERUS (TEMMINCK) IN SAURASHTRA,
GUJARAT

On May 14, 1985 1 visited Lakhota, a lake
in the middle of Jamnagar city, on the north-
ern coast of Saurashtra. Flying about over the
water was a loose group of 8-10 Whiskered
Terns, Chlidonians hybridus indicus (Stephens).
Some of the birds had already acquired their
summer plumage while others were in an
intermediate stage of moult. One bird in the
group was with a black head, neck, back and
belly, the underwing coverts also black and
contrasting sharply against the silvery white
wings, and a short slightly forked tail which
was white in colour. The bird was unmistaka-
bly a Whitewinged Black Tern, Chlidonias
leucopterus (Temminck) in full summer plum-
age. Its style of feeding was similar to that of
the Whiskered Tern and the bird occasionally
flew down to pick up something from the
waters surface. After a few minutes of flying
about in the area, the bird moved on to the
other end of the reservoir beyond a bund and
out of sight.

When the lake was visited six days later
with Mr. Rishad Pravez the bird was seen
again flying around in the same area.

Research Fellow,

Department of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University,

Rajkot 360 005,

June 4, 1985.

Ali and Ripley (1983, handbook of the
birds of India and Pakistan, Compact Edi-
tion) state that this tern is a rare visitor to
Assam, East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), West
Bengal and Ceylon. There is one report of the
bird from Raipur, Madhya Pradesh (D’Abreu,
JBNHS 38: 112). This tern has been recorded
thrice on the west coast of India, twice in
Jasdan, Saurashtra by Shivrajkumar ( JBNHS
53: 130) in June 1949 and May 1955 and
once in Bombay by Abdulali ( JBNHS 49:
310) at the end of March 1950. Roberts
( JBNHS 75: 216) reported three birds north
of Karachi in May 1977.

Ali and Ripley (l.c.) point out that this
bird is possibly less “vagrant” than is record-
ed, as they are indistinguishable from the
Whiskered Terns in their winter plumage. This
seems to be well indicated by the fact that
all the sightings of the bird have been made
after late March when the tern starts moulting
to its summer plumage.

I am grateful to my guide Prof. R. M. Naik
for having read through the manuscript.

TAEJ MUNDKUR

14. OCCURRENCE OF PIED CRESTED CUCKOO ( CLAMATOR
JACOB1NUS) IN SURU VALLEY, LADAKH

In the last week of June 1985, I made a
brief visit to Suru Valley, Ladakh, to study
the Mountain chif chaff (Phylloscopus sindia-

nus). On 28th June I was in the village Kanoor
(alt. approx. 2590 m), 16 km from Kargil
and situated on the left bank of Suru river.

208

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Here the valley spreads out, and is cultivated
with barley fields with willow groves on the
borders.

In the afternoon while I was examining a
nest of P. sindianus, a large black & white bird
flew overhead, calling. It landed on a branch
of a willow tree, 20 feet from the ground. It
perched in strong sunlight for 6-7 minutes,
before making a dash to the next willow tree.
To my amazement I found it to be a Pied-
crested cuckoo ( Clamator jacobinus) which
could be mistaken here for a Pied magpie ( Pica
pica), at a casual glance. But closer scrutiny
settled the doubt. As I am very familiar with
this cuckoo in the plains, I did not hesitate to
put it down as Pied-crested cuckoo (C. jaco-
binus). Its distinctive calls further aided the
identification. This bird was later heard call-

3, Rocky Hill,

Malabar Hill, Bombay 400 006,

July 10, 1985.

ing in the next willow grove. It was giving
the same plaintive calls as it gives in plains,
when it arrives in the monsoons.

The distribution of this cuckoo is given by
Ali & Ripley (handbook Vol. 3) as “West
Pakistan & Northern India, Sind, Punjab, Gilgit,

Kashmir, U.P “Vagrants have been

recorded from Tingri (4270 m) in Tibet and
below Rohtang pass in Himachal Pradesh at
3800 m”. The distribution and migration of
this cuckoo is not clear and is very ambigu-
ous. Its worth noting that the forest depart-
ment, in recent years has undertaken large scale
afforestation programmes, which has drasti-
cally changed the ecology of the valley.
Occurrence of this species in the area where it
has never been recorded before, is possibly
linked with the above factor.

NITIN JAMDAR

15. SIGHTING OF BLACKNAPED ORIOLE

While on a visit to Karnala Bird Sanctuary
on 25th November 1985 I and Miss
Nita Mehta spotted a group of Blacknaped
Orioles ( Oriolus chinensis) flying around and
calling in the teak plantation and other trees
growing near a dammed stream. The sighting
of Blacknaped Oriole reported around Bom-
bay in 1944 and 1946 in handbook of the
birds of India and Pakistan by Salim Ali
and S. Dillon Ripley and “Checklist of the
Birds of Maharashtra” by Humayun Abdulali
were reported as RS (Stray Record). How-
ever, a few specific observations made during
the sighting are as under:

1 ) All the birds observed, four in all, had

8 /A, Devyani Apartments,

M. G. Road,

Borivli (East), Bombay 400 066,

December 7, 1985.

olive green /grey back with black on wings
and tail. Incidentally, this plumage is
that of female and immature Oriolus
chinensis diffusus reported for this region.

2) The birds had narrower line running
through their eyes and round the nape than
reported for Oriolus chinensis diffusus
and more like that of Slenderbilled Black-
naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis tenuirostris.
Further, none of the Orioles observed had
any streaks on plumage.

However, the Orioles considering the distri-
bution could only be Oriolus chinensis diffusus
and it would be of interest if observations are
made on immature plumage of the blacknaped
oriole and forwarded to BNHS.

D. P BANERJEE

209

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

16. NEST OF THE PIED MYNA STURNUS CONTRA LINNAEUS

The true home of the Pied Myna is conti-
nental India, Assam and Manipur, whence it
ranges into Burma, the Indochinese and the
Malaysian subregions.

A favourite cage bird, the Pied Myna is
usually available in Bombay’s bird market,
consignments being obtained from north India.
Escapes of these cage birds have now esta-
blished themselves in and around Bombay. In
1951 its breeding was recorded in the Bom-
bay area of Dharavi by Humayun Abdulali
(/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 736-7). Since
then a number of nests have been recorded all
over Greater Bombay, and the bird appears to

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, opp. Lion Gate,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

November 23, 1985.

be extending its range northwards.

Normally the Pied Myna builds a globular
nest composed of dry grass, hay and rags, plac-
ed in forks of tree trunks or branches. The
nests are domeshaped over the egg chamber
with a side entrance.

I recently, however, came across a nest in
the Aarey Milk Colony at Goregaon, Bombay
placed in an up-turned oblong glass shade of
a street lamp. The bird entered and left the
nest through the broken side of the lamp. The
Pied Myna appears to be versatile, adapting
itself to conditions obtaining in its new home.

VASANT R. NAIK

17. KALIVELI TANK AND YED A Y ANTHITTU ESTUARY —
A LITTLE KNOWN WETLAND HABITAT IN
TAMIL NADU

Situated to the north of Pondicherry is the
Kaliveli tank and its estuary. It runs along
the coast towards Marakkanam and beyond
where it enters the sea. The tank is an integral
part of what is known as the kaliveli water-
shed. The watershed comprises about 400 sq.
km. and is a selfcontained mini ecosystem.
The area can be roughly divided into three
habitats. One is the plateau, which is mainly
dryland area. It has a system of tanks, ponds
and ravines through which the run-off rain-
water is being fed into the tank. The plateau
has a maximum elevation of 55 m. Second is
the tank proper and third the estuary. The
tank is a non tidal seasonal fresh water habitat
and comprises about 850 ha. The water

level fluctuates according to precipitation.
The highest water level observed was about
2.1m after a period of heavy rainfall. Mean
water level is about 0.91 m. The tank empties
into the sea through a narrow channel which
connects the tank with the estuary. The estuary
is a tidal salt water habitat with a saltpan com-
plex. The area is about 567 ha.

Historic indications are that the area sur-
rounding the tank was at one time heavily
forested, even as recent as 25 years ago.
Recently, in a village close to the tank, a stone
slab was discovered with inscriptions. One of
the inscriptions deciphered tells how a king
was hunting elephants in the surrounding
forest. Archeologists dated the stone as from

210

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the 18th century. This is indicative of the
wildlife that once must have existed in the
Kaliveli area. Old people in the villages some-
times tell you that many years ago they were
employed to help clear large tracts of forest.
At two locations one can still find the remnants
of the ancient forest. A few acres is all that is
left. It is therefore assumed that the tank must
have been once covered with water the year
round. Now, in years of scant rainfall, the tank
is dry for a few months. By the outlet to the
sea there are low sand dunes. A few straggly
mangroves are all that remain of what once
must have been a large mangrove forest.

Indications are that the tank plays an im-
portant role in the migratory habits of many
bird species as it lies on the same migratory
trail as Point Calimere. During the migratory
season there are usually about 40,000 birds of
different species present in the tank and about
20,000 in the estuary. Although the number
of species present during this period remains
roughly the same, the numbers present within
the species do fluctuate. It is assumed that
there is a fair amount of movement of various
species between the tank and the tanks and
ponds on the plateau. It is also assumed that
there is a continuous movement of various
species between Point Calimere, Vedanthangal
and the Kaliveli tank. On the plateau one
often sees great flocks of birds passing over,
generally wetland birds, going either north-
south or south-north. In March 1984 a survey
took place for 5 days. More than 120 species
were observed (see appendix). The following
points were of particular interest:

1 . There was a large concentration of dabbling
ducks, numbering at least 10,000 birds. Four
species were recorded all in large numbers:
Garganey, Wigeon, Shoveller and Pintail.

2. A flock of 36 Ruddy Shelduck was seen
feeding in the estuary. This species is rare

or absent in the south. (Ali, S. & Ripley,
S.D. 1981)

3. Both Greater and Lesser Flamingos were
recorded. The Lesser Flamingos status is
uncertain. (Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. 1981)
5 were observed in the estuary.

The pattern observed for the Greater
Flamingo is a gradual increase in numbers.
Usually the first birds arrive during the
end of November and the beginning of
December. A flock of about 300 is normal
for this time. It increases to about 3000 to
4000 birds during March-April after which
the birds disperse for the return journey to
their breeding grounds. On May 15th 1985,
5 birds were still found in the tank which
is unusual.

4. There is a major tern roost in the estuary.
Observed at one time 10,000 Whiskered
Tern, 400+ Gullbilled Tern and very few
Caspian, Large Crested and Little Tern.

5. One morning a flock of 35 Spotbilled Peli-
cans was observed feeding in the middle
of the estuary. That same evening a flock
of 41 was observed sitting on the bunds of
the saltpan complex.

In June 1984 a flock of 54 birds was seen
in the tank although there was little or
no water. In November 1984 about 70 were
observed in the tank. In January 1985 a
solitary bird was seen and in February 1985
a flock of about a hundred were observed
in the tank. Spotbilled Pelican is thought
to be an endangered species by some autho-
rities. (Neelakantan. K. K. 1980).

6. One pair of White-Bellied Sea Eagles was
observed attending a large eyrie in the
estuary. The eyrie was very large and pre-
sumed to be at least several years old.

For some species a presence of a few
thousand is not uncommon. Others are repre-
sented only by small numbers. Of the birds

211

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

observed during March 1984, 43 were migrants,
6 species of which the status is unknown and
14 species which are considered rare in the
south. (Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. 1981, 1969,
1969).

The coast is visited by many birds during
the migratory season, many of whom roost in
the tank or estuary during the night. The early
morning sees many such birds flying and feed-
ing along the coast. At certain places along
the coast turtles (pres. Ridley) come to the
beach to lay their eggs. The only evidence of
this we have so far are turtle eggs offered for
sale by the local population. Regarding the
marine life in the tank and estuary little is
known to date. The local population catch
fresh water prawns, mainly for their own con-
sumption. Once a Little Tern was observed
catching a small fish. The French Institute in
Pondicherry has some information on the flora
of the tank and its surrounding area.

The health and potential improvement of
this unique eco-system depends to a large
extend on the health of the watershed. The
tank is one of the last unpolluted estuaries on
the east coast of India although it is suspect-
ed that because of the use of agricultural pesti-
cides on the plateau the tank is slowly being
polluted. Possible threats to this eco-system is

Centre Field,

Auroville 605 101,

September 24, 1985.

Refer

Aei, S. (1978): The book of Indian Birds. Bom-
bay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1981, 1969, 1969,
1970, 1972, 1973 and 1984): Handbook of the birds
of India and Pakistan. Vol. I, 2. 3, 4, 5, 9, and 10.

the planned industrialization of an enclave of
Pondicherry State in Tamil Nadu. Already a
caustic soda factory is in operation releasing
its affluent into a ravine. The environmental
damage this causes has as yet to be ascertained.
This area is one of few such eco-systems on
the sub-continent and its destruction would be
a serious loss. It is therefore recommended
that the entire Kaliveli watershed area should
be declared as a bird sanctuary and effectively
protected. The Centenary seminar of the
B.N.H.S. requested that high priority should
be given to the identification and listing of all
significant wetland habitats and the setting up
of wetland nature reserves. (Resolution 4, no.
7). It is my opinion that the Kaliveli water-
shed area is such a habitat and is in need of
full protection.

Ack n owledgem e n ts

We are grateful to Richard Grimmet and
Craig Hobson who took time from their busy
itinerary to survey the birdlife in the Kaliveli
tank. The birdlist is mostly their work as well
as some of the information. S. A. Hussain for
sending them and for all the help and en-
couragement he has given and still gives.

PIETER

E N CE S

All S. and Ripley, S. D. (1983): A pictorial
guide to the birds of the Indian Sub-continent. Bom-
bay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Neelakantan, K. K. (1980): A Pelican’s Pathe-
tic plight. Tiger Paper VII (2) 21-24.

212

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

APPENDIX

List of bird species observed at Kaliveli tank and Yedayanthittu estuary. November 1983 till July 1985

1. Spottedbilled Pelican, Pelecanus philippensis.

2. Grey Heron, Ardea cinerea.

3. Paddybird, Ardeola grayii.

4. Large Egret, Ardea alba.

5. Median Egret, Egretta intermedia.

6. Little Egret, Egretta garzetta.

7. Indian Reef Heron, Egretta gularis.

8. Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax.

9. Painted Stork, Mycteria leucocephala.

10. Openbill Stork, Anastomus oscitans.

1 1 . Whitenecked Stork, Ciconia episcopus.

12. White Stork, Ciconia ciconia.

13. Blacknecked Stork, Ephippiorhynchos asiaticus.

14. White Ibis, Threskiornis aethiopica.

15. Glossy Ibis, Plegadis falcinellus.

16. Spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia,

17. Flamingo, Phoenicopterus roseus.

18. Lesser Flamingo, Phoeniconaias minor.

19. Barheaded Goose, Anser indicus.

20. Ruddy Shelduck, Tadorna ferruginca.

21. Pintail, Anas acuta.

22. Wigeon, Anas penelope.

23. Garganey, Anas querquedula.

24. Shoveller, Anas clypeata.

25. Pariah Kite, Milvus migrans:

26. Brahminy Kite, Haliastur indus.

27. Shikra, Accipiter badius.

28. Booted Hawk-Eagle, Hieraaetus pennatus.

29. Whitebellied Sea-Eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster.

30. White Scavenger Vulture, Neophron percnop-
terus.

31 . Pale Harrier, Circus macrourus.

32. Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus.

33. Pied Harrier, Circus melanoleucos.

34. Marsh Harrier, Circus aeruginosus.

35. Osprey, Pandion haliaetus.

36. Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus.

37. Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus.

38. Grey Partridge, Francolinus pondicerianus.

39. Blackwinged Stilt, Himantopus himantopus.

40. Avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta.

41 . Stone Curlew, Burhinus oedicnemus.

42. Indian Courser, Cursorius coromandelicus.

43. Redwattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus.

44. Grey Plover, Piuvialis squatarola .

45. Eastern Golden Plover, Piuvialis dominica.

46. Little Ringed Plover, Charadrius dubius.

47. Kentish Plover, Charadrius alexandrinus.

48. Lesser Sand Plover, Charadrius mongolus.

49. Whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus.

50. Curlew, Numenius arquata.

51. Blacktailed Godwit, Limosa limosa.

52. Spotted Redshank, Tringa ery thro pus.

53. Redshank, Tringa totanus.

54. Marsh Sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis.

55. Greenshank, Tringa nebularia.

56. Green Sandpiper, Tringa ochropus.

57. Wood Sandpiper, Tringa glareola.

58. Terek Sandpiper, Tringa terek.

59. Common Sandpiper, Tringa hypoleucos.

60. Turnstone, Arenaria inter pres.

61. Pintail Snipe, Gallinago stenura.

62. Fantail Snipe, Gallinago gallinago.

63. Little Stint, Calidris minuta.

64. Temminck’s Stint, Calidris temminckii.

65. Longtoed Stint, Calidris subminuta.

66. Dunlin, Calidris alpina.

67. Curlew Sandpiper, Calidris testacea.

68. Ruff, Philomachus pugnax.

69. Herring Gull, Larus argentatus.

70. Great Blackheaded Gull, Larus ichthyaetus

71. Brownheaded Gull, Larus brunnicephalus.

72. Blackheaded Gull, Larus ridibundus.

73. Whiskered Tern, Chlidonias hybrida.

74. Whitewinged Black Tern, Chlidonias leucop-
terus.

75. Gullbilled Tern, Gelochelidon nilotica.

76. Caspian Tern, Hydroprogne caspia.

77. Common Tern, Sterna hirundo.

78. Little Tern, Sterna albifrons.

79. Large Crested Tern, Sterna bergii.

80. Blue Rock Pigeon, Columba livia.

81. Spotted Dove, Streptopelia chinensis.

82. Roseringed Parakeet, Psittacula krameri.

83. Common Hawk-Cuckoo, Cucutus varius.

84. Spotted Owlet, Athene brama.

85. Palm Swift, Cypsiurus parvus.

86. Pied Kingfisher, Ceryle rudis.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

87. Common Kingfisher, Alcedo atthis.

88. Whitebreasted Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis.

89. Bluetailed Bee-Eater, M crops philippinus.

90. Green Bee-Eater, Merops orientalis.

91 . Indian Roller, Coracias benghalensis.

92. Crimsonbreasted Barbet, Megalaima haemace-
phala.

93. Hoopoe, Upupa epops.

94. Goldenbacked Woodpecker, Dinopium
benghalense.

95. Redwinged Bush Lark, Mirafra erythroptera.

96. Ashycrowned Finch- Lark, Eremopterix grisea.

97. Rufoustailed Finch-Lark, Ammomanes phoeni-
curus.

98. Eastern Skylark, Alauda gulgula.

99. Collared Sand Martin, Riparia riparia.

100. Swallow, Hirundo rustica.

101. Black Drongo, Dicrurus adsimilis.

102. Common Myna, Acridotheres tristis.

103. Brahminy Myna, Sturnus pagodarum.

104. Indian Tree Pie, Dendrocitta vagabunda.

105. House Crow, Corvus splendens.

106. Jungle Crow, Corvus macrorhynchos.

107. Common Wood Shrike, Tephrodornis pondi-
cerianus.

108. Common Iora, Aegithina tiphia.

109. Redvented Bulbul, Pycnonotus cafer.

110. Whiteheaded Babbler, Turdoides aff inis.

111. Tailor Bird, Orthotomus sutorius.

112. Green Warbler, Phylloscopus nitidus.

113. Magpie Robin, Copsychus saularis.

114. Indian Robin, Saxicoloides fulicata.

115. Paddyfield Pipit, Anthus novaeseelandiae.

116. Richard’s Pipit, Anthus n. richardi.

117. Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava.

118. Pied Wagtail, Motacilla maderaspatensis.

119. Purplerumped Sunbird, Nectarinia zeylonica.

120. Loten’s Sunbird, Nectarinia lotenia.

121. Purple Sunbird, Nectarinia asiatica.

122. House Sparrow, Passer domesticus.

123. Yellowthroated Sparrow, Petronia xantho-
collis.

124. Baya Weaver Bird, Ploceus philippinus.

125. Whitethroated Munia, Lonchura malabarica.

18. THE REDFRONTED BABBLER STACHYRIS RUFIFRONS AND
REDHEADED BABBLER S. RUFICEPS IN NORTHERN THAILAND

I N TRODU CTION

In south-east Asia there is a pair of very
similar species of rufouscapped babblers of the
genus Stachyris which nevertheless have diag-
nostic characters (Harrison 1985). The more
northerly species, the Redheaded Babbler
S. ruficeps, has a uniform chestnut cap extend-
ing back to the nape and merging with the
mantle. The pale throat merges into the paler
parts of the ochraceous-buff bordered upper
breast. The more southerly Redfronted Babbler
S. rufifrons has a chestnut cap extending back
no further than the hind-crown and showing
indistinct dark streaking along the feather
shafts. The pale throat is separated from the
rest of the underside by a more distinct zone
of slightly rufous buff on the upper breast.

S. ruficeps occurs from the Yangtze Valley

southwards in China to Yunnan and the
northern parts of Vietnam and Laos. West-
wards it occurs through the Himalayas to
Sikkim and into north-eastern and north-
western Burma. It has an isolate population in
southern Vietnam.

S. rufifrons occurs in the Himalayas from
Nepal eastwards into Assam, north-eastern and
southern Burma, northern Laos and Vietnam,
and into Malaya, Sumatra and Burma. It has
an isolate population in southern Laos.

The two species appear to overlap in range
in areas from northern Laos to Sikkim. There
seems to be an altitudinal difference in breed-
ing range, following the general rule with the
higher latitude species S. ruficeps breeding at
higher altitudes where they overlap. Baker
(1922) writing of their range in India and
Burma, stated that ruficeps bred from upwards

214

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of 760-915 m, and rufifrons up to 610 m. He
stated that rufifrons may breed “ . . occasional-
ly higher than this and nests of both . . may
be found in the same jungle.” This would
appear to infer local sympatry when breeding,
but since Baker’s work has shown some evi-
dence of poor species differentiation (Harrison
and Parker 1966) and apparent deception
(Harrison 1966, Harrison and Parker 1967) in
other instances, there may be some reservation
about accepting the statement without addi-
tional confirmation.

S. rufifrons in northern Thailand

Deignan encountered a problem concerning
the distribution of these species in northern
Thailand and, in attempting to solve it, altered
some of his views between an early paper
(1939), his list of birds of northern Thailand
(1945), and his Thailand checklist (1963) and
list of Timaliinae in Peters’s Checklist (1964)
without fully justifying them.

He collected a specimen at 1340 m on Doi
Ang Ka, a high peak of the Thanon Thong
Chai range 56 km WSW of Chiang Mai, and
saw other pairs in thick vegetation. He assigned
the specimen (now in the Field Museum,
Chicago) to the nominate subspecies S. rufi-
frons rufifrons Hume 1873 which occurs from
the Burmese Shan States into western Thailand.

Meyer de Schauensee had collected a speci-
men at 1950 m on Doi Horn Pok, a peak of
the Daen Lao range on the Thailand/ Burma
frontier about 77 km WNW of Chiang Rai.
Gyldenstolpe had specimens from Pha Kho,
east of the Khun Tai range, and Doi Pha
Sakaeng, both from the undergrowth of dense
evengreen forest in valleys. These were typical
specimens of S. rufifrons and Deignan (1945)
assigned all three to the subspecies S. r. in-

suspect a Deignan 1939, the type of which was
a specimen of the isolate form from the Bolo-
vens Plateau of southern Laos. Later (1963,
1964) he transferred them to the subspecies
S. r. adjunct a Deignan 1939, the type of which
was from Phong Saby in northern Laos.

On Doi Chiang Dao, a 2182 m peak in the
Thanon Thong Chai range 40 miles north by
west of Chiang Mai, three birds were collected
at 1166-1676 m, one by Meyer de Schauensee
in grassland, the others by Deignan in tall
bamboo forest. They resembled S. rufifrons,
but were darker and greyer than any describ-
ed subspecies. Deignan first assigned them to
a new species S. rodolphei Deignan 1939, but
in 1945 treated this as a subspecies of S. rufi-
frons, and in 1963 and 1964 reverted to species
status for it.

There would therefore appear to be evi-
dence from various scattered localities across
the highlands of northern Thailand of speci-
mens of S. rufifrons, assigned to various
poorly-differentiated subspecies, with a distinc-
tive and apparently isolate form on Doi Chiang
Dao.

The second species on Doi Chiang Dao

On Doi Chinag Dao in 1931, on steep grass-
covered slopes at c. 1829 m above the lati-
tudinal range noted for S. rufifrons rodolphei,
Deignan encountered a small party of Stachyris
babblers and collected one specimen. He des-
cribed it as “mutilated” and later as “frag-
ments” and it was not preserved with his other
specimens. He stated “It was identified in the
flesh as a form of Stachyris ruficeps as under-
stood by Stuart Baker (fauna of British
India. Birds, Ed. 2, Vol. 1, 1922, p. 268), and
my identification of the fragments was subse-
quently confirmed by Chasen at the Raffles
Museum.”

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Baker, in the work cited, gives a key and
descriptions of two subspecies S. ruficeps and
two of rufifrons. There should have been no
problems of identity involved. From his state-
ment there would appear to be no reason to
doubt that Deignan had identified the presence
of a party of S. ruficeps at higher altitudes on
Doi Chiang Dao, with the distinctive isolate
of S. rufifrons, S. r. rodolphei at lower alti-
tudes, reflecting the altitudinal preferences
evident elsewhere.

Subsequent taxonomic changes

The apparent distribution of the two species
with an isolate of S. ruficeps in northern
Thailand, sympatric with a distinctive popu-
lation of S. rufifrons, but apparently separated
altitudinally, would appear to be a fairly sim-
ple one.

However, in his 1945 study of birds of
northern Thailand Deignan, fourteen years
after his examination of the specimen he had
identified as S. ruficeps and not subsequently
retained, stated “I have no doubt that the
example belonged to the race later named
insuspecta He does not say why, nor why he
assigned a specimen he had identified as S.
ruficeps to a subspecies then considered to
belong to S. rufifrons. In this work he had
treated rodolphei as a subspecies of S. rufifrons
and now had a problem of sympatry which he
solved by assigning insuspecta as a whole to
S. ruficeps, appearing to ignore the fact that
all but one of the specimens involved were
typical of S. ruficeps.

In his arrangement of the babblers in the
Thailand checklist (1963) and Peters’s checklist
(1964) he changed his mind again, and appa-
rently wished to return these birds to rufifrons.
He transferred them to the subspecies adjuncta
of the latter species. He makes no mention of
the Doi Chiang Dao ruficeps specimen, nor of

the locality, but may have been aware that
he might have a problem of sympatric sub-
species in his new arrangement, since he now
treats rodolphei as a full species.

The problems raised in his mind by the Doi
Chiang Dao birds would seem to be the only
rational explanation for his division (1963,
1964) of the subspecies of S. rufifrons to form
two species, using ambigua Harington 1915 as
the second specific name. In doing so he re-
tained pallescens, obscura, poliogaster and
sarawacensis in S. rufifrons’, and transferred
planicola, adjuncta and insuspecta to his new
S. ambigua. Dickinson (pers. comm.) has sug-
gested that he may have been influenced to
some extent by the relative proximity in
northern Thailand of the specimens he had
assigned to S. r. rufifrons and S. r. adjuncta
(or insuspecta)’, but since, as Dickinson point-
ed out, the former is in the drainage of the
Chao Phaya and the latter in that of the Mae
Khong, they are not sympatric, a fact of which
Deignan must have been aware.

At no time did Deignan state the characters
which would justify the recognition of two
species based on the subspecies normally
assigned to S. rufifrons. From an examination
of skins it seems possible that he was attempt-
ing to use the presence of absence of some
yellowish tint in the plumage of the populations
in order to separate them. He appears to have
ignored a more striking pigmentation variation
of this kind in the subspecies of S. ruficeps.
There appears to be no justification for such a
separation other than as an attempt to over-
come a taxonomic problem which he had in any
case solved for himself by elevating rodolphei
to a full species.

Conclusions

Further material from the Doi Chiang Dao
region would be useful. From a study of

216

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

specimens, and from the information given by
Deignan on the specimens involved, it would
appear that in northern Thailand S. rufifrons
is present in various localities, showing some
local variation, with a distinctive isolate on
Doi Chiang Dao which has been treated at
times as a separate species S. rodolphei. An
isolated population of S. ruficeps may be pre-
sent at higher altitudes on the same peak.

If Deignan’ s unsubstantiated second thoughts
(1945) about the second isolate on Doi Chiang
Dao were correct, then one would need to
envisage a double invasion by S. rufifrons in
this locality with S. rodolphei as a species aris-
ing from the earlier invasion.

In either instance there would appear to be
no justification for a subdivision of the sub-
species of S. rufifrons to form two species as
suggested by Deignan (1964). It has not been
generally accepted. Ali and Ripley (1971)
treat ambigua as a subspecies of rufifrons.

Summary

The Redfronted Babbler Stachyris rufifrons

Sub-department of Ornithology,

British Museum (Natural History),

Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 6AP, U.K.,
September 10, 1985.

is known to occur in scattered localities in
northern Thailand. A distinctive form rodol-
phei, originally described as a new species,
occurs on Doi Chieng Dao. A specimen from
higher altitudes on that mountain was identi-
fied as the Redheaded Babbler S. ruficeps.
This Deignan assigned, with specimens of S.
rufifrons, to a subspecies which he then moved
from ruficeps to rufifrons. He attempted to
solve the ensuing taxonomic confusion by
dividing subspecies of S. rufifrons to create a
new species S. ambigua without justifying or
defining the latter, and using an earlier sub-
specific name. This action appears unnecessary.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to E. C. Dickinson for his
summary of Deignan’s treatment of these
species and for his comments; to Dr. D.
Willard for information on specimens in the
Field Museum of Natural History; and to the
Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet of Stockholm for
loan of specimens.

C. J. O. HARRISON

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1971): Handbook of
the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 6. Oxford
University Press, Bombay, London, New York.

Baker, E. C. S. (1922) : The fauna of British
India. Birds — vol. 1 (2nd Edn.). Taylor & Francis:
London.

Deignan, H. G. (1939) : Three new birds of the
genus Stachyris. Zool. Ser., Field Mus. nat. Hist. 28:
109-114.

(1945) : The birds of northern

Thailand. Bull. U.S. Natn. Mus. 18: 1-614.

(1963) : Checklist of the birds

of Thailand. Bull. U. S. Natn. Mus. 226: 1-263.

(1964) : Subfamily Timaliinae.

In: Peters, J. L. Checklist of Birds of the World.
Vol. X: 240-442. Mus. Comp. Zool.: Cambridge,
Mass.

Harrison, C, J. O. (1966) : Some clutches of
wader eggs from E. Stuart Baker. Bull. Br. Orn. Club
86: 96-97.

(1985) : The diagnostic plum-
age characters of the redheaded babblers Stachyris
ruficeps and S. rufifrons. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
81: 197-198,

217

15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Harrison, C. J. O. & Parker, S. A. (1966): The Harrison, C. J. O. & Parker, S. A. (1967): The
eggs of the White-tailed Blue Chat Cinclidium eggs of Woodford’s Rail, Rouget's Rail and the
leucurum and the Large Niltava Niltava grandis. Malayan Banded Crake. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 87:
Bull. Br. Orn. Club 86: 71-73. 14-16.

19. THE INDIAN GREY TIT ( PARUS MAJOR) ON AN
ABANDONED HONEY COMB

In the compound of the Irrigation Depart-
ment’s guest house at Nandur-Madhameshwar
(Nasik District), there are a number of honey
combs on the branches of two large ficus
trees at a height of over 50 feet. On 11th
February 1985, while we were watching two
spotted owlets on an adjacent tree, we noticed
a Grey Tit ( Parus major) perched on the top
half of an abandoned honey comb. Perching
at an angle of 135° to the ground, the tit kept
probing into the hexagonal cells in the comb.
Though we are unable to state with any degree
of certainty that there were no insects present
in the comb, we are reasonably certain that
there were none. This is because the top half
of the comb was white, and therefore totally
devoid of honey, the bottom portion of the
comb was brown and may have contained
some honey residue, and therefore maybe
some insects also. Secondly, during a previous
trip to Nandur-Madhameshwar in July 1984,

13, Neel Tarang,

210 Veer Savarkar Marg,

Mahim, Bombay 400 016.

74, Turner Road,

Ban dr a, Bombay 400 050,

July 10, 1985.

we had picked up a honey comb from the
ground from practically the same spot. This
honey comb was also empty both of honey
and insects, and the fact that the entire comb
was intact indicated that the comb had not
been knocked down from the tree by any
human agency for the sake of its honey.

Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley, in the
HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKIS-
TAN (Vol. 9, pp. 169) state that the food of
the grey tit comprises of “insects, caterpillars,
seeds, flower buds and berries”. We are unable
to find any other reference on the food of
the Indian Grey Tit. Mr Humayun Abdulali,
when consulted, was unable to recall the sight-
ing of a grey tit on a honey comb.

We would therefore conclude that though
there is a possibility that the grey tit may not
have been feeding on the wax, the sighting
of the tit on the honey comb itself should be
recorded.

DEBI GOENKA

HETA PANDIT

20. HOST PLANTS USED BY BAYA WEAVER BIRD ( PLOCEUS
PHILIPP1NUS LINN.) FOR NESTING IN EASTERN RAJASTHAN

(Breeding period 1982)

A study has been done by me on plants
preferred by Ploceus philippinus Linn, for
nesting in two districts of Eastern Rajasthan
viz. Alwar and Bharatpur. For this purpose I
cycled some 280 km on the following roads:

1. 30 km on N.H. 11 from Bharatpur to
Halena; 2. 110 km on S.H. 14 from Bharatpur
to Alwar; 3. 60 km on S.H. 14 from Alwar
to Behror; 4. 20 km on N.H. 8 from Behror
to Neemrana; 5. 30 km on S.PI. 13 from Sariska

218

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Dicot hosts for nesting

SI.

Name of

S. No.

Name of Plant

No. of

Special

No.

family

of

plants

note

of

species

used for

family

nesting

1.

Capparidaceae

1.

Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew.

2

2.

C. sepiaria Linn.

4

2.

Simaroubaceae

3.

Balanites aegyptica (Linn.) Delile

6

3.

Celastraceae

4.

Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou.

6

4.

Meliaceae

5.

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

14

6.

Melia azedarach Linn.

3

5.

Rhamnaceae

7.

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.

38

6.

Leguminosae

8.

Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre

2

9.

Dal berg ia sissoo Roxb.

18

10.

Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. subsp. indica

1246

11.

A. n. (Linn.) Del. subsp. cupressiformis

3

12.

A. leucophloea Willd.

71

13.

A. jacquemonti Benth.

8

14.

A . tortilis

2

15.

A. Senegal (Linn.) willd.

9

16.

A. catechu Willd.

10

17.

Prosopis cineraria (Linn.) Druce

373

18.

P. chilensis (Molina)

2

19.

Albizzia lebbek (Linn.) Benth.

4

20.

Tamarindus indicus Linn.

2

21.

Sesbania sesban (Linn.) Merr.

2

22.

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.

5

23.

Leucaena leucocephala (Lamk.) De. wit.

1

24.

Bauhinia racemosa Linn.

1

25.

Parkinsonia aculeata Linn.

3

7.

Myrtaceae

26.

Eucalyptus tereticornis

8

8.

Tamar icaceae

27.

Tamarix dioica Roxb.

8

9.

Moraceae

28.

Ficus religiosa Linn.

6

29.

F. benghalensis Linn.

1

30.

Moms indica Linn.

5

10.

Moringaceae

31.

Moringa oleifera Lamk.

1

11.

Combretaceae

32.

Anogeissus pendula Edgew.

3

12.

Lythraceae

33.

Lawsonia enermis Linn.

5

Inside Alwar
City

13.

Rubiaceae

34.

Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.

10

14.

Salvadoraceae

35.

Salvador a persica Linn.

12

15.

Asclepiadaceae

36.

Calotropis procera R. Br.

1

On a vertical
bank of river

16.

Apocynaceae

37.

Wrightia tinctoria R. Br.

1

17.

Boraginaceae

38.

Cordia dichotoma Forst.

4

39.

C. gharaj (Forsk.) Ehrenb.

1

On berm of
old well

219

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

18,

Bignoniaceae

40.

Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Seem

4

19.

Acanthaceae

41.

Adhatoda vasiga Nees

1

On berm of
old well

20.

Casuarinaceae

42.

Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.

1

21.

Fuphorbiaceae

43.

Embiica officinalis Gaertn.

2

22.

Ulmaceae

44.

Holoptetia integrifolia Planch

8

23,

Punicaceae

45.

Punica granatum

6

Inside Alwar
City

Total

23 Families

35 Genera
45 Species

1923

Table 2

Monocot hosts for nesting

SI.

No.

family

Name of
family

S. No.
of

species

Name of Plant

No. of
plants
used for
nesting

Special

note

1 .
2.

Palmae

Gramineae

1 .

2>

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.
Cynodon dactylon Pers.

24

Hanging grass
trail in old
wells.

Total

2 Families

2 Genera
2 species

24+

tiger project to Alwar and 6. 30 km on local
roads.

To study the preferred nesting plants I con-
centrated my attention on 50 m wide strips
of land on either side of the road. My obser-
vations are as follows: (see Tables 1 & 2).

It is clear from these tables that Acacia
nilotica subsp. indica is the most preferred
host tree in Eastern Rajasthan followed by
Prosopis cineraria , Acacia leucophloea, Zizy-
phus mauritiana and Phoenix sylvestris. Simi-

larly the Family Leguminosae is the most
preferred family of all others.

It is very interesting that Acacia nilotica
subsp. cupressiformis which is very near to
Acacia nilotica subsp. indica is not preferred
by baya for nesting. The only reason seems
to be that the subsp. cupressiformis has up-
wardly directed branches while the baya pre-
fers drooping branches for hanging its nest
which are abundent on subsp. indica.

Forest Range Officer, SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

West Range, Gulab Bagh,

Udaipur - 313 001,

Rajasthan,

October 12, 1985.

220

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

21. DISTRIBUTION OF THE KEELED BOX TURTLE
PYX1DEA MOUHOTII (GRAY)

The keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii
(Gray) is one of the several little-known
terrestrial emydid turtles inhabiting the tropical
forests of south and south-east Asia. It is
identifiable by its conspicuously flat-topped
tricarinate shell, weak plastral hinge, deeply
serrated posterior marginals and presence of
tubercles at the base of the tail and on the
thighs.

The types of Pyxidea mouhotii were collect-
ed by the artist-explorer Henri Mouhot from
the Laos mountains on the ‘Annam - Siam
border’ (Gray 1862) and are at the British
Museum (Natural History), London. Pritchard
(1979) gives the distribution of the species as
Laos, Viet Nam and Hainan Island, while
Pope (1935) reports it from Namfong in
Hainan, China, mentioning that the species is
also known from Indo-China, including Tong-
king. Both the authors omit Assam, from
where an earlier worker. Smith (1931) had
reported the species. Wirot (1979) mentions
of the occurrence of the turtle from the north-
ern region of Thailand, from the Chiang Rai,
Chiang Mai and Mae Hong Son Provinces.

Several specimens of Pyxidea mouhotii have
been collected from India, and are now in
the National Zoological Collection, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, and the British
Museum (Natural History), London. Here I
present a discussion on the distribution of this
little-known species, based on these and other
records.

Material at the Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, collected by Captain Williamson in
1872 include three specimens (Reg. Nos. 14,
708 and 1016) from the Garo Hills presently
under Meghalaya and one (Reg. No. 709)
whose locality is given as ‘Assam’. More re-
cently. a single example (Reg. No. 23923) was

collected by a Z.S.I. expedition to Namdapha,
Arunachal Pradesh. This specimen was col-
lected on 27.4.1981 from Deban, 27 Km. east
from Miao, in the Tirap District, and is an
extension of range of Pyxidea mouhotii by
atleast 350 Km. to the north-east. This exam-
ple, which was collected from the rocky bank
of a stream inside a forest, has distinct tuber-
cles on thigh measuring upto 4 mm.

The British Museum (Natural History),
South Kensington, London has a fairly large
collection of the species, including the types
collected by Mouhot from ‘Lao Mountains’
and an adult shell, presented by T. C. Jerdon
and labelled ‘Cachar’? (Reg. No. 70.11.29.53).
Smith (1931) mentions of a British Museum
specimen which he provisionally referred to
the present species. This example, BM(NH)
Reg. No. 98.12.20.1, a well preserved hatch-
ling with an egg- caruncle is registered as from
‘Eastern Assam hills, probably North Cachar
near Barail Range’. Standard measurements of
the specimen taken with vernier calipers have
been given below :

British Museum (Natural History) Reg. No.
98.12.20.1. Carapace length 39.2 mm., cara-
pace breadth 30.7 mm., plastron length 35.0
mm., shell height 18.85 mm., tail length (vent
to tip) 16.75 mm.

As mentioned by Smith (op. cit) the speci-
men is unusual in several aspects. Perhaps the
most striking among these is the tail which
exceeds the length of the plastron. However,
it matches the description of the species in
the possession of a flat-topped, tricarinate shell,
markedly serrated posterior marginals, a long
and narrow nuchal shield, short but distinct
bridge, strongly hooked upperjaw, large shields
on the posterior part of the forehead and on
the forelimbs and half-webbed digits.

221

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

The carapace of this unusual specimen is
chocolate-brown, the vertebral keel brownish-
yellow edged with dark brown. The plastron
is chrome yellow with a single large chocolate-
brown patch in the middle, and inframarginals
of the same colour, as opposed to the usual
plastral pattern of dark brown spots on a
yellow-brown background. The head is brown
with a yellow spot and streak behind each eye.

The known range of the species is therefore
Tirap District, Arunachal Pradesh and Garo
Hills, Meghalaya, possibly also North Cachar
Hills, Assam, in India. Extralimitally, it is

Department of Limnology,

Bhopal University,

Bhopal - 462 026,

January 13, 1987.

known from Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai and Mae
Hong Son Provinces in Thailand, Laos, Viet-
nam and Namfong in Hainan, China.

I wish to thank the British Council for a
grant-in-aid, under the Visitorship Programme
to study the Asian turtles in the collection of
the British Museum (Natural History), Lon-
don, in October, 1986. For numerous cour-
tesies extended, I am grateful to Mr. A. F.
Stimson and Dr. J. McCarthy, BM(NH). I am
also indebted to Mr. D. P. Sanyal and Mr. B.
Datta Gupta for assistance rendered at the
Zoological Survey of India collection.

INDRANEIL DAS

References

Gray, J. E. (1862): Notice of a new species of
Cyclemys from the Lao mountains, in Siam. Ann.
Mag. nat. Hist. (3) : 157.

Pope, C. H. (1935): The reptiles of China. Ame-
rican Museum of Natural History, New York.

Pritchard, P. C. H. (1979): Encyclopedia of
turtles. T. F. H. Publications. New Jersey.

Smith, M. A. (1931): The fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and amphibia.
Vol. I. Loricata. Testudines. Taylor and Francis,
London.

Wirot, N. (1979): The turtles of Thailand. Siam
Zoological Garden, Bangkok.

22. BREEDING THE KING COBRA ( OPHIOPHAGUS HANNAH)

IN CAPTIVITY
(With a photograph)

In December 1982 the Madras Snake Park
Trust (MSPT) obtained on breeding loan a
4.0 m, 6.5 Kg. male king cobra ( Ophiophagus
hannah Cantor) from the Mangalore Wildlife
Trust in Karnataka to mate with the Park’s
three six year old females which were born
and raised in captivity. Copulation between the
male and the smallest of the three females was
observed on several occasions in February
1982. Forty five days after the last observed

mating this female laid a clutch of 23 prema-
ture, unviable eggs under a small mound of
bamboo leaves that she had gathered from the
floor of the enclosure. Another female that
had appeared to be gravid did not lay any
eggs. Our first attempt to breed king cobras
in captivity was therefore unsuccessful.

In November 1983 the experiment was tried
again with the same male. Matings occurred
in February and March 1984 and resulted in

222

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 84

the smallest female laying again, this time a
total of 24 eggs of which 6 were unshelled,
6 shelled hut infertile and 12 fertile. The eggs
were discovered by the keeper on 26 April
3984 at 8.30 a.m. and were presumed to
have been deposited the previous night. The
eggs were situated in a saucer-like depression
in the enclosure floor and covered over by a
small mound of bamboo leaves gathered by
the female. A week later the eggs were re-
moved for artificial incubation as conditions
inside the enclosure were not ideal for this
purpose. 11 out of the 12 fertile eggs (i.e.,
92% of the fertile eggs) hatched successfully
between 28 June and 1 July 1984 after an
incubation period of 63 to 66 days. This is
perhaps the first time that this species, the
longest venomous snake in the world, has been
bred in captivity outside the united States of
America.

Introduction

An excellent review of the literature per-
taining to the reproductive habits of the king
cobra is given by Oliver (1956) who also
documented in considerable detail the captive
breeding exercises for this species at the New
York Zoological Park in the United States
(Oliver 1956 and 1957). Burchfield (1977)
reported on the captive breeding efforts at the
Gladys Porter Zoo in Texas.

Since our observations on courtship, mating
and oviposition compare closely to the accounts
given by the authors cited above I have avoided
treating these aspects in detail here. The em-
phasis of this paper is on care of animals,
incubation techniques for eggs and rearing of
young under conditions prevailing in Indian
zoos.

Table 1

Breeding records from other institutions

Institution

Year ,

Mating

Oviposition

Eggs

Hatchlings % Success

Source

New York Zoo,

1955

10 Mar.

U.S.A.

14 Mar.

18 Mar.

24 Apr.

41

14

34%

Oliver, 1956

1956

16 Jan.

17 Jan.

26 Jan.

8 Mar.

14 Mar.

24 Apr.

51

0

0

Oliver, 1956

1957

—

24 Apr.

56

39

70%

Oliver. 1957

Gladys Porter

Zoo,

1974

8 Mar.

28 Jun.

28

19

68%

Burchfield, 1977

Texas, U.S.A.

1975

26 Apr.

17 Jun.

28

0

0

Burchfield, 1977

Table 2

Breeding data

(MSPT) :

MATING

Mating

Time

Duration

Female No.

Temperature

23.2.83

0745 Hrs.

45 min.

3

21 °C

26.2.83

1005 Hrs.

67 min.

3

26°C

06.3.83

1400 Hrs.

45 min.

1

26° C

11.2.84

0600 Hrs.

95 min.

3

21°C

13.3.84

0745 Hrs.

45 min.

9

21 eC

223

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 3

Breeding data (MSPT) : eggs

Female No. Oviposition Gestation No. of eggs Incubation Date of hatching

3 14 Apr. 1983 45 days 23 — eggs unviable

3 19-25 Apr. 1984 66 days 24 63-66 days 28.6-1.7.84

History of the MSPT king cobras:

The three female king cobras are the survi-
vors of a clutch of 20 eggs collected from a
wild nest 100 m from a mangrove in Panighat
in the Andaman Islands. The eggs were resting
on a compressed pad of bamboo leaves, one
inch thick and covered over by a mound of
bamboo leaves 12 inches high and 36 inches
in diameter. The female was in attendance,
resting coiled over the nest mound. She
measured 7 feet in total length and did not dis-
play any sign of aggression or resistance at be-
ing captured. The average measurement of the
eggs was 65 mm x 30 mm. A single egg was
cut open at the nest site to reveal a fully
developed embryo measuring 33.5 cm. Air
temperature measured at the nest site at 0600
hrs. and 1800 hrs. were 26 °C and 29 °C res-
pectively. Nest temperature at 0600 hrs. was
28°C, 2°C higher than the surrounding air tem-
perature.

The female and her clutch of eggs were
brought back to MSPT where 19 of the 20
eggs hatched beginning on 8th July 1976, 23
days after collection. Average total length of
the hatchlings was 45 cm. All the hatchlings
sloughed for the first time between 15 and 18
July, 7 to 10 days after hatching. From 20 July
onwards they were offered a variety of food
including hatchling water snakes ( Xenochro -
phis piscator, Atretinm schistoswn ) and strip-
ed keel backs ( Amphiesma stolata), a common
grass snake. However, all except the three
females died within six months of their birth.
(Romulus Whitaker, pers. comm.)

Housing :

The three surviving females, now over 10
years old, measure between 3.0 and 3.5 m in
length. From the slight differences in their size
and hood markings it is possible to distinguish
them as snakes 1, 2 and 3. Until two years
of age they were housed in individual boxes,
6 feet x 1 ft. x 1 ft. in a semi-darkened, air-
cooled room. In 1979 they were put on public
display, one at a time, housed in a glass front-
ed wooden enclosure measuring 6 ft. x 3 ft. x
3 ft. This cage had a small door at the back
which led into a similar sized cage inside the
air cooled room. The snake on display was
thus free to choose the enclosure of its prefe-
rence and went through a gradual acclimati-
sation to the local climate.

In 1981 a bigger enclosure was built to
accomodate all three females at the same time.
This, the present arrangement, consists of two
interconnected enclosures placed side by side
(henceforth to be referred to as units A and
B). Unit A is a glass fronted room approxi-
mately 12 ft. x 5 ft. x 6 ft. with a keeper
entrance at one end. A small door at the oppo-
site end communicates with unit B which is
approximately 7 ft. x 6 ft. x 6 ft. This enclo-
sure is constructed of weld mesh and has a
keeper entrance at the other end.

Unit A has a mud floor covered with a
thick layer of dry bamboo leaves. A desert air
cooler placed outside the enclosure maintains
the summer day temperature inside the enclo-
sure at 26° to 30°C. Two cement bowls pro-
vide drinking water. Unit B has a thick layer
of soil and is landscaped with grass, logs, rocks

224

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and plants. A creeper ( Vernonia sp.) on the
roof partially shades the enclosure.

The snakes spend the cooler hours of the
day during summer and most of their time
during the cooler months of the year basking
or resting in Unit B. Apparently because they
are free to move at will from one enclosure
to the other to suit their thermoregulatory
requirements the snakes seem to have adjusted
well to the predominantly hot climate of
Madras.

Feeding :

The MSPT king cobras are fed once a week.
The preferred, and hence proffered, food item
is chequered keelback water snakes ( Xeno -
chrophis piscator ). The water snakes fed to
the king cobras are normally quarantined for
a week prior to the feeding date and dosed

with Mebendazole, a broad spectrum anti-
helminth, as a precautionary measure. The
snakes are fed alive but always under the
supervision of the keeper to prevent any
mishaps.

Breeding notes', egg incubation

The following procedure, adopted for in-
cubation of the 1984 clutch of king cobra eggs,
has proven its worth in the incubation of the
eggs of several species of snakes.

The female was first removed from her
position on the nest mound (the MSPT king
cobras are quite tame). After being uncovered
but before being removed the eggs were mark-
ed on top with a lead pencil to ensure that
they could be reoriented properly in the in-
cubator. The eggs were then measured and
weighed.

Photo. 1. King Cobra mating.

225

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 4

Egg measurements

Length

Diameter

Mean

: 56 . 8 mm

42.6 mm

Minimum

: 48.0 mm

24.0 mm

Maximum

64.5 mm

38.0 mm

Fertility was assessed by candling. This
technique, long in use in poultry management,
is highly useful to the reptile captive breeder.
A circular piece of tin or card with a small
centrally placed hole in it is fitted in front of
an ordinary table lamp. The light is switched
on in a darkened room and the egg is held
in front of the hole. Blood vessels and other
signs of embryonic development can be seen
in fertile and developing eggs, even within a
week after they are laid. The alternative tech-
nique to guage fertility of a clutch of eggs by
cutting open one or two is, as Ross (1980)
rightly points out, useless and wasteful “in as
much the egg opened, if fertile, may actually
be the only fertile egg, and if infertile, may
be the only infertile egg”. In our experience
candling works with the eggs of all species of
snakes in our collection with the exception
of python eggs whose shells are too thick for
the light to show through.

The fertile eggs were divided into three
groups of four eggs each and each group was
placed inside a polythene bag, over a substrate
of damp cotton wool or newspaper. The bags
were fully inflated by mouth and closed tightly

by means of rubber bands. Further inflation
was done as and when required. The substrate
was also wetted when required (Dattatri 1985).
All the plastic bags were placed inside a
cross-ventilated wooden box, over a layer of
bricks.

A desert air cooler placed two feet away
kept the air inside the wooden box at the
right temperature and humidity. If the tem-
perature within the box had to be further
lowered, the bricks on the floor of the box
were wetted. The entire box was elevated on
a stool, the legs of which stood in small basins
of water to deter ants from climbing into the
box. Temperature inside the box was moni-
tored constantly and recorded three times a
day. Humidity inside the box was maintained
at 75 to 90% as measured by a cyclometer.
The cotton wool substrate had to be replaced
on two occasions due to growth of fungus.

A close watch was kept on the eggs and
when the first slit appeared in one of them
they were all removed to plastic bread boxes
to hatch. The hatchlings were measured,
weighed, sexed and placed one each in a glass
fronted wooden box 15 inches x 8 in. x 7 in.
Each box had a layer of newspaper on the
floor, covered by a layer of green leaves and
a thin green leaved branch, giving the hatch-
lings a choice of substrates to rest upon or
under. A small bowl of water was provided
for drinking. In addition a little water was
sprayed on the leaves of the branch, as many
young snakes prefer drinking this way.

Table 5

Tncijbation temperature (°C)

9.00 Hrs. 12.00 Hrs. 18.00 Hrs.

Average Min. Max. Average Min. Max. Average Min. Max.

29.5 28,5 31 29.2 27.8 31.5 29.3 27 32

226

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 6

Hatchling measurements

Total length (N=6)

Weight (N— 1 1 )

Average :

46.7 cm.

14 gms.

Minimum :

45.5 cm.

99 gms.

Maximum

: 49 cm.

17 gms.

All eleven hatchlings shed their first skins
between 7 and 9 days after hatching. Com-
mencing on day 10 a variety of food was
offered to them. This included small sized

Plot No. 40,

III East Street,

Thiruvanmiyur,

Madras 600 041,

August 30, 1986.

Burchfield, Patrick M. (1977) : Breeding the
king cobra at Brownsville Zoo. International Zoo
Year Book, Vol. 17.

Dattatri, S. (1985): A note on reproduction in
the flying snake Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw). J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3 ) : 677-678.

Oliver, J. A. (1956): Reproduction in the king
cobra, Ophiophagus hannah Cantor. Zoologica 41 :

23. A LIST OF THE SNAKES OF

GUJARAT

Bhavnagar District is situated along the Bay
of Cambay, at c. 21.46°N latitude, 72.11°E
longitude. The area is arid and dry with
scanty rainfall and the forests are dry thorny
deciduous the rocky and hilly area of forest
land is estimated to be about 15061.67 hec-
tares in this District, while 15928.07 hectares
are grasslands.

Family Typhlopidae

(1) Typhlops porrectus, Stoliczka, 1871

Common, seen under stones, logs and

skinks — juvenile Mabuya carinata, M. bibroni
and Rio pa punctata — and hatchling snakes
— Xenochrophis pi scat or, Atretium schisto-
sum, Amphiesma stolata and Cerberus rhyn-
chops. However, all the hatchling king cobras
refused to feed. Some responded well initially
to assisted feeding — i.e., they swallowed dead
snakes which were placed in their mouths. The
others were force fed as a last resort. Despite
these efforts the baby king cobras died one
after the other, for no apparent reason, within
two months after hatching.

SHEKAR DATTATRI

ences

145-152.

Oliver, J. A. (1957) : Feeding baby king cobras
is easy (they say) — you give them milk. Anim.
Kingd. 60: 126-127.

Ross, R. (1980): The breeding of pythons in
captivity. Reproductive biology and diseases of cap-
tive reptiles. Society for the Study of Amphibians
and Reptiles.

THE BHAVNAGAR DISTRICT,

STATE

moist soil in gardens and also occasional-
ly in side houses.

(2) Typhlops braminus (Daudin, 1803)

Very common.

Family: Boidae

(3) Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758)

One young specimen was collected on
Palitana hills.

(4) Eryx conicus, (Schneider, 1801)

Very common. A female in captivity de-
livered three young in August.

227

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

(5) Eryx johni (Russell, 1801)

Common.

Family: Colubridae

(6) Ly codon striatus (Shaw, 1802)
Uncommon.

(7) Ly codon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1754)

Fairly common, commonly found in
houses.

(8) Ly codon flavomaculatus, (Wall, 1907)
One specimen seen, was from the
compound of Alcock Ashdown-Barges
Co., at Bhavnagar.

(9) Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802)
Common, A banded kukri snake laid two
eggs in captivity in the month of Nov-
ember, The eggs were 33 x 40 mm.

(10) Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853)
Common. I collected one gravid female
in August.

(11) Sibynophis subpunctatus (Dum. & Bibr.
1854)

A male collected from Amargadh, was
33.5 cm. in length ( Sibynophis is a genus
of hill snakes but I collected one from
the middle of Jamnagar City, I also col-
lected a specimen from Barda hills).

(12) Amphiesma stolata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Uncommon.

(13) Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799)
Very common. I collected one speci-
men from Desainagar, Bhavnagar, which
showed unusual scales on the head.
Right side supralabials nine, 4th and 5th
of the same size and touch the eye.
Temporals 2+2 the first two are longer
than posterior two. Left side supralabials
eight only 4th one touches the eye 4th is
bigger than 5th, Temporals 2+2 first two
are smaller and short than the posterior
two.

(14) Acrochordus granulatus (Schneider, 1799)
Common on Bhavnagar shore and
Shetrunji river estuaries.

(15) Elaphe helena (Daudin, 1803)

Very common. I collected 25 specimens
of this species from densely populated
areas in central area of Bhavnagar city.
One specimen was collected from the
Railway Station by Shri Shukla which
was totally golden yellow with yellow
marking, the pattern being the same as
in ordinary trinket snake. The eyes were
pink red.

(16) Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Common.

(17) Argyrogena fasciolatus (Shaw, 1802)
Common, a gravid female was collected
from the Alcock Ashdown & Co. Ltd. at
old port Bhavnagar had a total length
180.0 cm. This is the longest specimen
ever recorded. I got 23 eggs from this
female. The animal died two days after
collection.

(18) Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803)
Uncommon.

(19) Psammophis leithi Gunther, 1869

A specimen was collected from Bhav-
nagar University campus.

(20) Boiga trigonata (Schneider, 1802)
Common.

Family: Elapidae

(21) Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801)
Common.

(22) Naja naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758)

Very common.

(23) Enhydrina schist osa (Daudin, 1803)
Common along the shores of Bhavnagar
District.

(24) Hydro phis spiralis (Shaw, 1802)
Common.

(25) Hydro phis cyanocinctus Daudin, 1803
Common.

Family: Viperidae

(26) Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801)
Common, The longest specimen recorded

228

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

was 78.8 cm in length (Daniel 1983).
In my collection a female was collected
from the compound of Alcock Ashdown
& Co. Ltd., at old port Bhavnagar had
a record length of 92.0 cm.

26 species of snakes contained in 20 genera
belonging to 5 families have been recorded
from various parts of Bhavnagar District.

Two species are being recorded for the first
time from Saurashtra region of Gujarat State,
namely yellow spotted wolf snake (Ly codon
flavomaculatus) and Dumerils black headed
snake ( Sibynophis subpunctatus) . In two
species saw-scaled viper ( Echis carinatus )
and Banded racer (Argyrogena fasciolatus)
the record length specimen have been recorded.

More than 20 species of snakes were collect-
ed by me are from Bhavnagar city area only.
The Trinket snake ( Elaphe helena ) is common-
ly found in forest, fields and other places away
from the human population. But to our sur-
prise, we have collected about 25 specimens
from the City area.

As it is important from the human point of
view, data on the deaths recorded due to
snake bites were collected from the statistical
section of the Health Department, Civil Hospi-
tal, Ahmedabad for the years 1979 to 1981
(Table 1). It is evident from the figures that
the people in rural area are still following
their old belief and customs and very few go
to hospitals for snake bite treatment.

Table 1

Snakes bite deaths in Gujarat (District-wise)

District

1

1979
Number in
Rural
2

area

Urban

3

1980

Number in
Rural
4

area

Urban

5

1981

Number in area
Rural Urban

6 7

(1) Ahmedabad

7

1

13

1

24

1

(2) Amreli

18

3

12

10

40

3

(3) Banaskantha

20

5

16

1

25

3

(4) Bharoch

15

4

23

1

34

—

(5) Bhavnagar

10

22

28

15

33

29

(6) Dang

16

—

22

—

—

—

(7) Gandhinagar

5

—

—

—

—

—

(8) Jamnagar

13

10

15

9

40

4

(9) Junagadh

21

19

20

19

22

25

(10) Kheda

30

13

20

14

47

11

(11) Kutch

3

2

16

2

28

7

(12) Mehsana

1

5

14

13

32

10

(13) Panchmahals

16

4

13

9

17

1

(14) Rajkot

17

14

19

10

35

10

(15) Sabarkantha

15

—

5

1

13

3

(16) Surat

26

1

10

10

29

4

(17) Surendranagar

4

7

8

2

18

8

(18) Vadodara

15

20

31

7

43

7

(19) Valsad

9

2

27

7

32

1

Total

261

132

312

131

512

127

229

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2

Snakes collected from Bhavnagar City area (by R. V. Vyas).
Numbers given in parenthesis are collected by Shukla

1

Common Name
2

1980

3

1981

4

1982

5

1983

6

(1)

Slender worm snake

1

—

—

1

(2)

Common worm snake

2

1(4)

1(2)

2(1)

(3)

Common sand boa

2(2)

5

2

3

(4)

Red sand boa

3

2(1)

-(1)

1

(5)

Barred Wolf snake

-(4)

-(7)

1(16)

1(24)

(6)

Common Wolf snake

10

15

5

6

(7)

Russell’s Kukri Snake

2

3

1

2

(8)

Common Kukri Snake

4(1)

4

1

—

(9)

Striped keelback

KD

-(2)

-(2)

-(1)

(10)

Common trinket snake

12(3)

8(1)

3(5)

5(13)

(11)

Banded racer

8(2)

5

2

1

(12)

Rat snake

15(6)

10(6)

3(16)

1(H)

(13)

Checkered keelback Water snake

25(1)

20(49)

10(34)

8(28)

(14)

Common bronzeback Tree snake

2

5(2)

3(2)

5(2)

(15)

Common Cat snake

6(1)

1

1(1)

3(1)

(16)

Common krait

2

1

-(2)

1(2)

(17)

Indian Cobra

30(8)

18(35)

14(32)

12(43)

(18)

Saw-Scaled Viper

5

3(2)

2(1)

3(D

Total

130(29)

101(109)

49(114)

55(127)

As an act of conservation Mr. Shukla and
his family and I collect snakes from the city
(Table 2) as and when we get reports from
the public and after identifying-measuring
release them away from the residential areas
of the city.

Acknowledgements

I take this opportunity to express my sin-
cere thanks to Dr. B. H. Patel, Prof. & Head
of the Department of Zoology, Sir P. P. Insti-
tute of Science, Bhavnagar University, Bhav-

nagar, under whose able guidance. I had the
incentive to go ahead with my research work.
I also wish to convey my thanks to the Direc-
tor, Department of Health, Statistical section,
Civil Hospital-Ahmedabad for providing me
the statistical record of death due to snake
bite and to the Curator, Bombay Natural His-
tory Society, Bombay for extending kind help
in identifying snakes. I am also thankful to
the President, Wildlife Conservation Society,
Bhavnagar for helping in all aspects of my
work.

Lal Bungalow, RAJU VYAS

DE SAIN AGAR,

Bhavnagar - 364 003,

March 5, 1985.

230

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Daniel, J. C. (1983): The book of Indian Rep- Amphibian Fauna of Kachh (Kutch). Proc. Asiatic

tiles, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Soc. Bengal, May. 71.

Stoliczka, F. L. (1872) : Notes on Reptilian and

24. A NOTE ON THE BREEDING HABITS OF JERDON’S
RAMANELLA, RAMANELLA MONTANA (JERDON, 1854)

RamaneUa montana is not an uncommon
microhylid in the Bombay area, at the begin-
ning of the monsoon, but rarely seen during
the other seasons of the year. I had the oppor-
tunity of studying their breeding habits at the
Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Borivli, during
the monsoon of 1982-83.

Breeding season and sites : The species starts
to breed in the early monsoon and the breed-
ing activity is very brief and is over within a
period of 3 to 4 days. The breeding congre-
gation of a good number of the frogs was seen
in the Dahisar river of the park which has at
this time a gentle flow of water. However,
some of the frogs were also observed calling
from a rain pool.

Call: On 20th June 1983 at 1220 hrs while
it was raining heavily I heard the frogs call-
ing from the stream. The current was very
gentle and there were some stagnant pockets.
The water depth was c 75 cm. The atmos-
pheric temperature was 29.1°C and that of
the water 28.0°C. The frogs called from the
water close to the bank. The call could be
syllabilised as brong . . .brong . . .brong. The
single small vocal sac looks like a white
bubble when fully inflated. On 24th June 1983
at about 1200 hrs the species was observed on
both banks of the stream in heavy rain. The
current was strong and the water turbid with

the temperature at 27.7°C. Litter in the form
of twigs had gathered at the base of the trees
on the edge of the stream. The frogs hid under
the litter. Some sat above the waterlevel and
were calling while others sat on the slender
branches that overhung and touched the run-
ning water. On an average each call sequence
was for 114 seconds. The chorus was very
coarse. They were very wary of intruders and
when I approached the bank, the frogs ceased
calling though those on the opposite bank con-
tinued calling.

Amplexus : The amplexus was in the water
and was axillary the male’s forelimbs holding
the female at her armpit. They were swimming
freely. They swam slowly and could be caught,
and though they were disturbed they conti-
nued in amplexus. A pair which was kept in
a jar started laying eggs at 1145 hrs. The
female lifted up the cloaca and released the
eggs. After 10 seconds she again lifted up the
cloaca and released more eggs. This process
was continued for 15 minutes. At 1201 hrs
the male released the female.

Spawn : The egg mass was obtained in the
stream but in water that was more or less
stagnant and had a depth of about 15 cm. The
spawn was plate like with a diameter of 95 mm
and the eggs similar to mustard seed were

231

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

embedded in it. The animal pole which was eggs which were surrounded by gelatinous sub-
black in colour was exposed at the top. The stance measured 1 mm in diameter.

Research Assistant, A. G. SEKAR

Herpetology Section,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S. B. Singh Road,

Bombay - 400 023,

January 1, 1987.

25. ON THE SYNONYMY OF DANIO FEEGRADEl HORA, 1937
FROM BURMA (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE)*

(With a text-figure)

Danio feegradei Hora was discovered and described from a single specimen
from Burma. This species is proposed to be synonymized with Danio dangila
(Hamilton 1822) in this communication.

I NTRODUCTION

Hora (1937) described a new species, Danio
feegradei based on a single specimen from
Sandoway, Lower Burma. He remarked that
this species falls intermediate between the
genera Danio and Brachydanio in having 9
branched dorsal fin rays (2/9) and a complete
lateral line. Hora & Mukerji (1934) gave a
synopsis of the Indian and Burmese species of
the cyprinid genus Danio Hamilton, including
all the species then known in the two sub-
genera Danio and Brachydanio. Species having
12-16 branched dorsal fin rays and a complete
lateral line were included under the subgenus
Danio, and species with 7 or less branched
dorsal fin rays and incomplete or absent late-
ral line were included under the subgenus
Brachydanio. They included 8 species under
the subgenus Danio. My revisionary study of
the cyprinid genus Danio shows that 5 species
are known viz., D. dangila (Hamilton, 1822),

* Part of Ph.D. thesis accepted by the University
of Calcutta, Calcutta.

D. aequipinnatus (McClelland, 1839), D.
kakhienensis Anderson, 1878, D. naganensis
Chaudhuri, 1912 and D. neitgherriensis (Day,
1867) out of the 8 species in which there are
8 to 11 branched dorsal fin rays. Comparative
data of these species are shown with special
reference to the number of their dorsal and
anal fin rays, barbels and lateral line in Table
1. Jayaram (1981) included D. feegradei
among the members of the subgenus Brachy-
danio without any comment for this inclusion.
This species is proposed here as a synonym
of D. dangila in view of their striking simila-
rities in proportional measurements, meristic
counts, squamation, complete lateral line and
two pairs of long barbels.

A brief description of Danio feegradei Hora
is given here.

Danio feegradei Hora

Danio feegradei Hora, 1937, Rec. Indian
Mus., 39(4): 325-327, text-fig. 3 (type-locality:
Sandoway, Lower Burma). (Fig. 1).

232

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Danio feegradei Hora.

Material : Holotype : 43 mm. SL., Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta Reg. No. F 12477/
1. Locality: Sandoway, Lower Burma. Coll.:
Lieut. E. S. Feegrade. Date of collection: June-
August, 1936.

Description'. Head length and body depth
3 . 90, predorsal distance 1.72, prepelvic dis-
tance 2.26, caudal peduncle length 4.77 in
standard length. Least depth of caudal pedun-
cle 7.16 in standard length, 1.50 in its length.
Depth of head 1 . 37 and width of head 1 . 83
in head length. Eye diameter 3.66 in head
length, 1.60 in interorbital width. Snout length
4.40 in head length, 1.60 in interorbital width.
2 pairs of well developed barbels, anterior or
rostral pair shorter than head and posterior
or maxillary pair equal to head length.

Scales : Lateral line complete, covering 39
scales, lateral transverse series of scales at the
origin of pelvic fin 10; scales between the late-
ral line and base of pelvic fin 2\. Predorsal
scales 18 and circumpeduncular scales 14.

Fins : D. ii, 9; A. iii, 12; P. i, 11; V. i, 7;
C. 19.

Dorsal fin originates nearer to the base of
caudal fin than to the tip of snout. Pelvic fin
commences on a vertical anterior to dorsal fin.
Both the pectoral and pelvic fins possess scaly

flap at their bases on superior margins. Pecto-
ral fin reaches base of pelvic fin. Caudal fin
emarginate.

Body part proportions of D. feegradei and
D. dangila are shown in table 2.

Colour in alcohol (from Hora, 1937): Pale
olivaceous, dusky dorsal surface with a black
streak along the mid-dorsal line. In the middle
of the fish there is a black band which is con-
siderably broader anteriorly and terminates
posteriorly in a somewhat darker spot at the
base of caudal fin. Anteriorly black band is
marked, both above and below, with short
pearl-white bands and in the posterior region
there is a white longitudinal band above it.
Dorsal and anal fin rays marked with longi-
tudinal bands across them.

The present state of this specimen of this
species preserved in the collection of the Zoo-
logical Survey of India, Calcutta is damaged
and decolourized; therefore, coloration of the
species could not be studied.

Distribution’. Burma: so far far known only
from Sandoway, Lower Burma.

Discussion

Examination of the type specimen of D.
feegradei preserved in the collection of the

233

16

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 1

Meristic counts of 5

species of Danio with

RAYS AND ALSO

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
BARBELS AND LATERAL

NUMBER OF DORSAL
LINE

AND ANAL FIN

Name of species

D. fin rays

AA. fin rays

Barbels

Lateral line

D. aequipinnatus

13-15

16-18

2 pairs, short

Complete

(2-3/11-12)

(2-3/14-16)

D. dangila

11-13

14-17

2 pairs, long

Complete

(2/9-11)

(2-3/12-15)

D. kakhienensis

10(2/8)

14(2/12)

1 pair, short

Complete

D. naganensis

10(2/8)

14-15

2 pairs, short

Complete

(2/12-13)

D. neilgherriensis

11-14

13-14

2 pairs, short

Complete

(2-3/9-11)

(2/11-12)

Table 2

Body part proportions of D feegradei and
D. dangila

Characters

D. feegradei

D. dangila

Standard length/Head length

3.90

3.90-4.25

Standard length/Body depth
Standard length/

3.90

3.25-4.00

Predorsal distance
Standard length/

1.72

1.62-1.76

Prepelvic distance
Length of caudal peduncle/

2.26

2.09-2.40

Depth of caudal peduncle

1.50

1.20-1.66

Head length/Eye diameter

3.66

3.00-4.00

Head length/Snout length

4.40

4.00-4.50

Lateral line scales

39

36-40

Predorsal distance

18

16-18

Circumpeduncular scales

14

12-14

Transverse row of scales

10

9-10

Dorsal fin rays

11

11-13

(2/9)

(2/9-11)

Anal fin rays

16

14-17

(3/12)

(2-3/12-15)

Lateral line Complete

Complete

2 pairs of long barbels

Present

Present

Distribution

Burma India, Burma
and Nepal

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, reveals
that this species is strikingly similar to

D. dangila. From comparison of a large series
of specimens of D. dangila from different loca-
lities of India and Burma with D. feegradei ,
it appears that there is no character that can
be considered as differentiating this species
from D. dangila as shown in Table 2. An
analysis of the characters shown in Table 1
also reveals that this species comes very near
D. dangila among the members of the genus
Danio by the possession of a complete lateral
line, 9 branched dorsal fin rays and 2 pairs
of long barbels. Besides this, taxonomically D.
feegradei should be included among the mem-
bers of Danio and not in Brachydanio as was
done by Jayaram (1981), since it has 11(2/9)
dorsal fin rays and a complete lateral line.
Myers (1953) also remarked that D. feegradei
can be easily identified as a member of Danio
by the possession of 9 branched dorsal fin rays
and a complete lateral line. Therefore, in view
of the above mentioned characters it is pro-
posed here to synonymize D. feegradei with
D. dangila.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta for laboratory facilities and

234

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Dr. K. C. jayaram, Emeritus Scientist and Directors, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
Drs. A. K. Ghosh and P. K. Talwar, Deputy for valuable suggestions and encouragement.

Zoological Survey of India, R. P. BARMAN

Calcutta,

October 4, 1986.

Referen ces

Barman, R. P. (1984) : Biosystematic studies of
the cyprinid fishes of the genus Danio Hamilton
from the Indian region with a discussion on the
phylogeny of the subfamily Rasborinae. Ph.D. Thesis,
Calcutta University, Calcutta (unpublished).

Hora, S. L. (1937) : Notes on fishes in the In-
dian Museum. XXXI. On a collection of fish from
Sandoway, Lower Burma. Rec. Indian Mus., 59(4) :
323-331.

Hora, S. L. & Mukerji, D. D. (1934): Notes on
fishes in the Indian Museum. XXII. On a collection
of fish from Shan States and Pegu Yomas, Burma.
Rec. Indian Mus., 56(1) : 123-138.

Jayaram, K. C. (1981) : The Freshwater Fishes
of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka.
Govt, of India, XXII+475, pi. XIII.

Myers, G. S. (1953) : Classification of the Danios.
Aquar. J. 24: 235-238.

26. OBSERVATIONS ON INDIAN TRABUTININI SILVESTRI AND

PHENACOCCINI SULC

(PSEUDOCOCCINAE: PSEUDOCOCCIDAE: HOMOPTERA)

The present study deals with the observa-
tions on 6 species representing 6 genera be-
longing to the tribes Trabutinini and Phena-
coccini in India. The two tribes are distinctly
separated from each other by the following
key characters:

1 . Quinquelocular pores and dentate claws entirely

absent; body enclosed within the ovisac

Trabutinini Silvestri

— Quinquelocular pores or dentate claws or both
present; body not enclosed within the ovisac . . .
Phenacoccini Sulc

Tribe trabutinini Silvestri

This tribe is represented by a single genus
Naiacoccus Green from India.

Genus Naiacoccus Green

Ferris (1950) placed this genus in a group
including the genera Amonostherium Morri-

son, Trabutina Marchal and Nipaecoccus Sulc.
But Bodenheimer (1953) placed it under sub-
family Trabutininae. This genus is represented
by a single species from India.

Naiacoccus serpentinus Green

In the field, adult females of this species are
easily recognized by the presence of an enor-
mously elongated (about 20 mm long) white
tubular ovisac in the form of a simple twisted
loop within the anterior extremity of which
the insect lies concealed. We have observed a
heavy infestation of this species on Tamarix
articulata at Hathras (Aligarh).

Material examined : 5 9 , India : Uttar

Pradesh, Aligarh, Hathras, on Tamarix arti-
culata Wall., 26. iv. 1978; 8 9 , Mathura, Farah,
5. v. 1978 (R. K. Avast hi).

Tribe phenacoccini Sulc

Koteja (1974) recognized Trabutininae as
subfamily of Pseudococcidae and placed under

235

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

it the group names, Phenacoccinae Sulc, Coc-
curini Borchsenius, Ceroputo + Nairobia sec-
tions of Afifi, and Putoidae Beardsley. Accord-
ing to him “the group name Trabutininae had
priority over all other names.” In the present
paper Phenacoccini is treated as a distinct
tribe of Pseudococcinae and is represented by
6 genera from Indian region which are sepa-
rated by the following key characters:

key to Indian genera of Phenacoccini Sulc,

BASED ON ADULT FEMALES

1. Dorsum without longitudinal series of promi-

nences bearing stout conical or large truncate
spines, except on cerarii 2

— Dorsum with longitudinal series of prominences,
each bearing variable number of stout conical or
large truncate spines which resemble with the

cerarian spines (Ferris, 1954: fig. 40)

Coccidohystrix Lindinger

2. Crateriform ducts absent 3

— Crateriform ducts present, each with the orifice

at the apex of a sclerotized prominence and often
with one or more setae attached to the base of
the duct prominence (Avasthi & Shafee, 1982:
fig. 1) Heliococcus Sulc

3. Quinquelocular pores absent on dorsum; trilocu-

lar pores present throughout venter; claw with
denticle; antennae 8- or 9-segmented 4

— Quinquelocular pores present on both surfaces;

trilocular pores confined near spiracles only; claw
without denticle antennae 6- or 7-segmented

(Williams, 1970: fig. 3)

Brevennia Goux

4. Cerarii anterior to anal lobe not formed upon

a sclerotized plate or area 5

— Cerarii including anal lobe formed upon a sclero-

tized plate or area bearing more than 6 enlarged
setae or spines (Williams, 1970: fig. 21; Ali,
1975: fig. 1) Birendracoccus Ali

5. Most of the cerarii with 2 and few with 3-5
conical spines (Avasthi & Shafee, 1978: fig. 1)
Phenacoccus Cockerell

— All cerarii with numerous truncated spines

(Ferris, 1954: fig. 41; Avasthi & Shafee, 1983:
fig. 1) Rastrococcus Ferris

Genus Birendracoccus Ali

Ali (1975) assigned this genus in a group
of genera having all the cerarii with basal area
sclerotized. The presence of numerous multi-
locular pores on venter of posterior abdominal
segments may be an significant character for
separating Birendracoccus from Puto Signoret.
This genus is represented by a single species
from India.

Birendracoccus saccharifolii (Green)

This species is a vector of spike disease on
sugarcane (Ali 1962) and is a major pest in
Bihar (Williams 1970).

Material examined : 10 $, India: Uttar

Pradesh, Aligarh, on leaf sheath of Saccharum
officinarum Linn., 7.ix.l978 ( R . K. Avasthi).

Genus Brevennia Goux

The genus is represented by a single species,
B. rehi (Lindinger) from India. It is redescrib-
ed and illustrated by Williams (1970). It is
known to us only by the descriptions of earlier
workers.

Genus Coccidohystrix Lindinger

Only a single species has so far been includ-
ed in this genus from India.

Coccidohystrix insolitus (Green)

The species is widely distributed throughout
India infesting about 13 different species of
plants (Ali 1970). We have observed it for
the first time infesting Solanum hispidum and
Euphorbia pulcherrima at Aligarh. Both
nymphs and adults were usually found on
undersurface of the leaves and their infestation
causes serious damage to the plants.

236

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Material examined : 2 9, India: Bihar,

Gaya, on Achyranthus aspera L., 25.x. 1969
(S'. Adam Shafee)', 4 9 , 10 d1, Uttar Pradesh,
Aligarh, on Solatium melongena L., 2.viii. 1977 ;

3 9, 2 cU on Solanum hispidum, 24.x. 1977:
2 9,3 cf, on Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd.,
24. xi. 1977; 6 9,6 <$ , on Abutilon indicum,
5 . xii . 1977; 5 9, Tamil Nadu, Coimbatore, on
Abutilon indicum and Achyranthus aspera L.,
27.iii.1979 (R. K. Avasthi).

Genus Heliococcus Sulc

The genus Heliococcus (with H. singulars
Avasthi & Shafee) was reported for the first
time from India by Avasthi & Shafee (1982).

Heliococcus singulars Avasthi & Shafee

Material examined : Holotype 9, India:

Andhra Pradesh, Prakasam, Chirala, on Cupres-
sus sp., l.iv.1979 ( R . K. Avasthi).

Genus Phenacoccus Cockerell

Ali (1970) catalogued a single species
P. saccharifolii Green from India which was
later designated by him (1975) as type-species
of his new genus Birendracoccus. Here we
have assigned only a single species of Indian
origin under this genus.

Pheuaeoccus imlicus (Avasthi & Shafee),
comb. nov.

Peliococcus indicus Avasthi & Shafee, 1978:
905.

The species agrees in every respect with the
generic diagnosis given by Ferris (1950),
McKenzie (1962), ^Williams (1970) for the
genus Phenacoccus. The absence of clusters of
multilocular pores each with one or more
slender tubular ducts near the centre separate

it from the genus Peliococcus Borchsenius.
Therefore, P. indicus is transferred to the genus

Phenacoccus.

Material examined : Holotype 9 , Paratypes

4 9 India: Mysore, Bangalore, Hebbal, on

Prosopis spicigera L., 29. vi. 1968 ( S . A.

Shafee).

Genus Rastrococcus Ferris

The genus is represented by four species
R. cappariae Avasthi & Shafee, R. iceryoides
(Green), R. mangiferae (Green) and R. orna-
tus (Green) from India. The later two species
were included in Rastrococcus by Ferris (1954)
who was of the opinion that the generic diagno-
sis applies only to the type-species of the
genus whereas the other species referred to
this genus here have some peculiar characters
which need either naming of a new genus or
their inclusion in a single genus which is
definable with difficulty. However, the absence
of dentate claw separate these two from the
genus Rastrococcus Ferris.

Rastrococcus cappariae Avasthi & Shafee

R. cappariae Avasthi & Shafee, 1983: 103.
Material examined : Holotype 9 Paratypes

5 9, India: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh, Naqvi

Park, on Capparis sepiaria Wall., 2.vi.l977;
4 9 , Bulandshahar, Danwar, on Mangifera

indica Linn., 12. vi. 1977; 10 9, Tamil Nadu,
Coimbatore, on Acacia maniliformis, Ceiba
pentandra and Capparis sepiaria Wall., 27 . iii .
1979 (R. K. Avasthi).

Acknowledgements

We are deeply indebted to the Chairman,
Department of Zoology, for providing re-

237

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

search facilities. Thanks are also due to Prof. (R.K.A.) is grateful to C.S.I.R., New Delhi
S. M. Alam for encouragement. One of us for financial assistance.

Section of Entomology, R. K. AVASTHT

Department of Zoology, S. ADAM SHAFEE

Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh, India.

August 13, 1985.

References

Ali, S. M. (1962): Coccids affecting sugarcane
in Bihar (Coccidae: Hemiptera). Indian J. Sugar-
cane Res. Develpmt., 6: 72-75.

(1970) : A catalogue of the oriental

coccoidea, Part IV (Insecta: Homoptera: Coccoidea).
Indian Mus. Bull . 5(2): 71-150.

(1975) : Birendracoccus new genus for

the sugarcane leaf mealybug (Insecta: Homoptera:
Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae). Dr. B. S. Chauhan
Comm. 279-283.

Avasthi, R. K. & Shafee, S. A. (1978): A new
species’ of Peliococcus Borchsenius from India
(Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 75(3): 905-908.

(1982): A new

species of Heliococcus Sulc (Coccidea: Pseudococ-
cidae) from South India. Current Science, 51 (6) :
306-308.

(1983) : A new

species of Rastrococcus Ferris (Homoptera: Pseudo-
coccidae) from India. The Ent. Mon. Mag., Oxford
119: 103-104.

Bodenheimer, F. S. (1953): The Coccidea of

Turkey. III. Instanbul Univ., Facult. des Sci. Rev.
Ser. B. 18: 91-164.

Ferris, G. F. (1950) : Atlas of the Scale Insects
of North America. Series 5. Vol. V. The Pseudoco-
ccidae (Part I). Calif. Stanford Univ. Press, 278pp.

(1954): Report upon scale insects

collected in China (Homoptera: Coccoidea), Part
V. (Contribution No. 89). Microentomology, 19:
51-66.

Koteja. J. (1974) : On the phylogeny and classi-
fication of the scale insects (Homoptera: Coccinea)
(discussion based on the morphology of the mouth
parts). Acta Zool. Cracov. 14: 267-325.

Mckenzie, H. L. (1962) : Third taxonomic study
of California mealy bug, including additional species
from North and South America (Homoptera: Coc-
coidea: Pseudococcidae). Hilgardia, 32: 637-688.

Williams, D. J. (1970) : The mealy bugs (Homop-
tera, Coccoidea, Pseudococcidae) of Sugarcane, rice,
and sorghum. Bull. ent. Res., 60: 109-188.

1 Present Address: Department of Zoology, Vaish
College. Rohtak. India.

27. STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF PARNARA NASO FABR.
(LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE )

The rice skipper feeds on the rice leaves
and occurs throughout the rice growing tract.
Rao et al. (1970) recorded it in nurseries and
planted crops causing varying amounts of
damage. Baoris guttatus Bada ( Parnara naso
bada M.) was recorded by Kulshreshtha et al.
(1973) as causing damage to growing rice.
Though a large number of references on the
occurrence and biology of Parnara sp. on rice
are available, information on the habits and

biology of P. naso is scanty. Hence, a detailed
study of the biology, larval habits and the
common larval parasites was undertaken.

Materials and Methods

Females of P. naso were collected from rice
fields and released in glass chimneys on potted
rice plants for egg laying. After hatching of
the eggs the larvae were transferred to cut rice

238

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

leaves in glass vials (15x15 cm.). Mature
larvae were transferred to potted rice plants
for pupation. The pupae were kept in glass
jars for emergence of adults. Potted rice plants
containing larvae and pupae of P. naso were
placed in rice field for three days to trap the
parasites. Later these were clipped and placed
in glass vials for emergence of parasites.

Results and Discussion

Egg: Eggs were laid irregularly and singly
both on leaf surfaces and stems of rice plants.
Ventral side of the leaf was preferred to dor-
sal side for egg laying. Eggs were round and
bluish ash coloured with brownish specs which
were absent in infertile eggs. Virgin females
also laid eggs but infertile. Diameter of the
egg measured 0.86 mm. Incubation period was
4 . 5 days. On the third day after egg laying the
head of the larva appeared as a brownish spot
on the top of the egg. Hatching took place
during early morning hours. Just after hatch-
ing the larvae moved a little away from the
egg shell and then turned back again and
started feeding on the empty egg shell and
later moved downwards along the leaves and
entered the folds of tender leaves.

Larva : Five larval instars were observed in
the laboratory. Duration and measurements of

Table 1

Morphometric studies on
Tamara naso

IMMATURE

Farr.

STAGES OF

Stage of the insect

Length
in mm

Width
in mm

Duration
in days

Egg (diameter)

—

0.86

4.50

First instar

2.50

0.52

3,63

Second instar

3.38

0.72

3.12

Third instar

6.30

1.13

3,39

Fourth instar

10.00

1.62

4.06

Fifth instar

19.62

2.46

7.06

Pupa

19.00

■ —

5.00

the different larval instars and pupa are pre-
sented in Table 1. Anterior one third region
of the freshly hatched larva is fight greenish
blue and rest of the body dirty white. Head
dirty brown. Just behind the head on the
dorsal side a narrow dark brown fine occurs
on the collar. This fine was not continuous on
the ventral side. Eight to ten hours after
hatching larvae fed on leaf blades from inside
small leaf folds with lateral notches. Second
instar larva was similar to first instar larva
except in size and the last abdominal segment
being more elongated and projecting. Colour
of the head was similar to that of first instar
but the median suture was more prominent.
The mode of feeding was similar to the first
instar larva but the lateral notch on the leaf
blade deepened upto the mid rib. Head of the
third instar larva is fight black and length of
the larva increases considerably. In the fourth
instar larva, head is brown with whitish mark-
ings in a specific pattern. In the fifth instar
whitish markings on the head became more
prominent. Head pinkish brown. Dorsal side
of the head yellowish green. Deep green mid
dorsal fine from anterior to posterior end of
the body prominent. On the third day after
moulting, corresponding to the last three pairs
of legs and one segment behind that, four
oval whitish patches were seen laterally on
both sides of the body of the larva. Day by
day these patches became more pronounced.
Dirty white powder came out of these patches
when touched by hand or brush.

Moulting : Six to eight hours before moult-
ing of any instar larva, thorax region appear-
ed swollen and whitish. Collar fine became
shortened and thickened. Head of the freshly
moulted larva was white and no collar fine
was observed, however, within an hour of
moulting head became dark and the collar
fine reappeared.

Pupa : Before pupation the larva became

239

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

soft to touch and looked yellowish green.
White incrustations at the posterior lateral side
of the abdomen bulged outside. Larvae pupat-
ed inside a cocoon constructed by joining two
to three leaves together or in between rice
stems. Inside the cocoon the pupa was covered
by white dust possibly produced by the four
pairs of posterior encrustations. Freshly form-
ed pupae were yellowish green and changed
to brownish colour afterwards.

Parasites : The following parasites were rear-
ed from the field collected larvae of P. naso,
Apanteles sp. incogn.. Apanteles sp., Charops
bicolor and Argarophylax sp. The following

Central Rice Research Institute,
Cuttack-753 006. Orissa, India.

August 13, 1985.

pupal parasites were reared from pupae of
P. naso, T hecocarcelia oculata Baranov,
Brachymeria sp. nr. lasus Walk., Ischnojoppa
I ut eat or Fabr. and Xanthopimpla sp.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director and the
Head, Entomology Division, Central Rice Re-
search Institute, Cuttack for providing the
facilities and to Dr. J. D. Holloway, Dr. I. D.
Gauld and Dr. K. M. Harris of the Common-
wealth Institute of Entomology, London for
identifying the pest and the parasites.

V. N. RAO
K. S. BEHERA

References

Kulshreshtha, J. P., Verma, A. & Kalooe, M.
B. (1973) : Occurrence of a new Hesperiid Cater-
pillar ( Baoris guttatus bada M.) as a pest of Paddy
at CUttack. Labdev J. Sci. & Tech. 11 B(l-2) : 34.

Rao, V. P.. Chacko, M. J.. Phalak, V. R. & Rag,
D. (1970) : Leaf feeding Caterpillars of Paddy and
their Natural Enemies in India. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 66(3): 455-477.

28. DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES INHABITING THE
TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS OF SAMPAJE GHATS (COORG
DISTRICT), KARNATAKA, SOUTH INDIA

Introduction

Judging from the reports on the occurrence
and the pattern of distribution on the mem-
bers of the genus Drosophila from other parts
of the world it appears that only little has
has been done in the Indian sub-continent.
Inspite of the considerable progress made dur-
ing the past few years (Parshad and Paika
1964, Parshad and Duggal 1965, 1966; Rehman
and Singh 1969, Gupta and Ray Chaudhuri
1970, Singh 1970, Jha, Mishra and Singh 1971,
Reddy and Krishnamurthv 1971, 1974, 1977;
Vaidya and Godbole 1971, 1972, 1973, 1976;

Ranganath and Krishnamurthy 1972, Gupta
1973, 1974; Gupta and Singh 1977, Prakash
and Reddy 1978) information pertaining to
the occurrence and pattern of distribution of
the members of the genus Drosophila in diffe-
rent eco-geographical regions of the country
is not clearly known. For instance many parts
of the tropical rain forests of western ghats
still await exploration. In view of this, Sam-
paje ghats near Madikeri, Coorg district (a
part of western ghats) has been chosen to get
an insight into the Drosophila species inhabit-
ing this region. The complex natural habitats
of the tropical rain forests of this area with

240

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

diverse plant species provide most congenial
natural environs for the colonization by mem-
bers of the genus Drosophila. The detailed
account of the collection data and the distri-
butional pattern of different species inhabiting
Sampaje ghats are presented here.

Materials and Methods

Drosophila survey was carried out at 15
different sites having variable altitudes rang-
ing from 300-1200 metres, along the mountain-
ous slopes of Sampaje ghats. Flies were
collected by usual banana bait technique using
about ten 250 ml milk bottles at each site.

The flies which are attracted by the fer-
menting banana were etherised, categorised
and the number of each species were recorded.
The individual females that could not be
identified were isolated into separate media
vials. The progenies of such single gravid
females were used for detailed morphological,
anatomical and cytological investigations to
assign them to their respective groups.

Observations

A total of 2340 flies comprising 24 species
were collected, of which 23 belong to the genus
Drosophila and one to the genus Scaptomyza.
The members of the genus Drosophila are re-
presented by three sub-genera namely Sopho-
phora, Drosophila and Scaptodrosophila, of
which majority of them belong to either
Sophophora or Drosophila comprising nearly
98.8% of the total population. While only
two species, namely D. meijerei indicus and
D. mundagensis are represented by 2 and 10
individuals belonging to Scaptodrosophila. Of
the remaining 21 species, 17 species belong to
the sub-genus Sophophora comprising nearly
55.7% of the total population and only 4
species comprising of about 43.1% belong

to the sub-genus Drosophila. Among the
members of the genus Drosophila only four
species D. malerkotliana (24.7%), D. taka-
hashii (13. 5% ) , D. nasuta (19.9%), D. im-
migrates (19.3%), comprise nearly 77.4% of
the total population. While the other species
such as D. bipectinata (3.8%), D. anomelani
( 2 . 4% ) , D. jambulina ( 1 . 4% ) , D. nagarhol-
ensis (2.1%), were found in moderate num-
bers and contribute about 9.8% to the total
population. The remaining 11.6% of the total
population is shared by 15 species represented
by a few individuals. Of the 24 species collect-
ed 4 species, D. sampajensis, D. cauverii, D.
madikerii and D. gangothrii were new and
have been described by us (1980, in press).

The relative abundance of each species
encountered in the collections and their dis-
tributional pattern along with the altitudes of
the collection sites are shown in Table 1. The
species composition and the relative numbers
of different species in the sites under study
vary a great deal inspite of the similarities in
the environmental factors such as temperature,
humidity, rainfall, vegetation availability of
food etc. Perusal of the table reveals that only
4 species, D. malerkotliana, D. takahashii, D.
nasuta and D. immigrans occurred in almost
all the sites in considerable numbers, while the
other species were found in small numbers and
are sparsely distributed.

Discussion

Members of the genus Drosophila are cos-
mopolitan in distribution. However the pattern
of distribution depends not only on several
ecological factors but also on the colonizing
or invasive abilities of the species. vSince the
environment is not uniform in space and time
the numerical variation of different species
and their relative abundance in a given area
is a common feature. The Drosophila investi-

241

Distribution of different species of Drosophila in Sam pa je ghats (Coorg district), Karnataka

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

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gation made in the vast unexplored area of
Sampaje ghats (Western ghats) throws some
light not only on the pattern of distribution
but also on their dependance on the tropical
rain forests. For instance the 15 sites with
variable altitudes having more or less similar
habitats reveal considerable differences in the
species composition as well as in the relative
abundance of different species. This may be
partly ascribed to the differences in the alti-
tudes and partly to the unknown micro-
environmental factors in which the sites differ
as well as to the intrinsic abilities of the
species to colonize.

Analysis of the Drosophila sample reveals
that even though many species could be col-
lected, only 4 species, D. immigrans, D. nasuta
D. malerkotliana and D. takahashii were found
to be present in almost all the sites in con-
siderable numbers, indicating their ecological
dominance over other species. Further, other
species such as D. pseudoananassae , D. jam -
bulina, D. mysorensis, D. bipectinata, D. nigra,
D. mejeri indicus which were reported occas-
sionally in the plains (Reddy and Krishna-
murthy 1974) were found to occur more or
less frequently in the tropical rain forests in-
dicating the availability of favourable breeding
sites for their colonization. In addition several
species such as D. anomelani, D. eugracilis, D.
giriensis, D. punjabiensis, D. nagarholensis, D.
suzukii and D. mundagensis, which were not
reported from the orchards and gardens of the
peninsular India occurred in the tropical rain
forests indicating the dependence of these
species on the forest type of vegetation. D.
ananassae, a common domestic species on the
plains were found absent in almost all the
sites except a few individuals at one site in-
dicating its lack of competence to colonize in
the tropical rain forests.

Another interesting feature in the Droso-
phila fauna of the tropical rain forests of
Sampaje ghats is the finding of four new
species D. sampajensis, D. cauverii, D. madi-
kerii and D. gangothrii which have been des-
cribed by us (1980, in press). In view of this,
the Drosophila fauna of Sampaje ghats is of
special interest and value as it offers a rich
variety of species.

The most noteworthy feature of the Droso-
phila fauna of Sampaje ghats is in its domi-
nance of the members of the melanogaster
and immigrans species groups belonging to 2
sub-genera, Sophophora and Drosophila res-
pectively. Such sympatric association and eco-
logical dominance of the members of 2 species
groups in the area under investigation is in con-
firmity with the findings of Reddy and Krishna-
murthy (1974, 1977), Prakash and Reddy
(1978) and also with the suggestion of Bock
and Wheeler (1972). Incidentally the finding
of 4 new species belonging to the melanogaster
species group from this area corroborates with
the suggestion of Bock and Wheeler (1972)
who regarded the Indian sub-continent as the
general area for the origin and wide speciation
of melanogaster species group.

The diversity in the species composition as
well as the finding of four new species in the
area under study indicate that the Drosophila
fauna of Sampaje ghats is exceedingly more
complex than that of other habitats in the
plains of peninsular India. In view of this it is
felt that the Sampaje ghats with its luxuriant
flora offer a variety of natural environs for
colonization by the members of the genus.
Drosophila.

Ac K NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are greatful to Dr. N. B. Krishnamurthy,
Professor and Head of the Department of

243

Zoology, University of Mysore for providing ful to the University of Mysore for the award
necessary facilities. One of us (NM) is thank- of Teacher fellowship under FIP.

Department of Post-Graduate Studies N. MUNIYAPPA

and Research in Zoology, G. SREERAMA REDDY

University of Mysore,

Manasagangothri, Mysore 570 006,

India,

January 2, 1981.

References

Bock, I. R. & Wheeler, M. R. (1972): The Dro-
sophila melanogaster species group. Univ. Tex. Pubis.
7213: 1-102.

& Ray Chaudhuri, S. P. (1970):

Some new and unrecorded species of Drosophila
(Diptera : Drosophilidae) from India. Proc. R. Ent.
Soc. Lond., 59B: 57-72.

Gupta, J. P. (1973) : A preliminary report on

Drosophilids of Manipur, India. D.I.S. 50: 112.

(1974): The family Drosophilidae

in India. Indian Biologist., 5 : 7-30.

& Singh, (1977) : Two new and un-
recorded Indian Species of Drosophila (Dipt.) from
Kurseong, Darjeeling. Entomologists' monthly maga-
zine., 113 : 71-78.

Jha, Mishra, & Singh (1971): Abnormal sex-
ratio in Darjeeling Drosophila population. D.I.S., 47 :
98.

Muniyappa, N. & Reddy, G. S. (in press) : A
new species of the montium sub-group of genus
Drosophila (Diptera: Drososophilidae). Entomon.

(in press) : Droso-
phila cauverii — A new species of Drosophila from
Coorg district (Western ghats) South India. Ento-
mon.

(in press) : Droso-
phila madikerii sp. nov. from Coorg district (West-
ern ghats), Karnataka, South India (Diptera: Droso-
philidae) . Oriental Insects.

(1980): Des-
cription of a new species Drosophila gangothrii,
(Diptera: Drosophilidae) from South India. /. Bom.
nat. Hist. Soc. 77(3) : 486-490.

Parshad, R. & Paika, I. J. (1964): Drosophilid
survey of India. II. Taxonomy and cytology of the
sub-genus Sophophora [Drosophila') . Res. Bull. Pun-
lab. Univ. Sci. 15: 225-252.

Parshad, R. & Duggal, K. K. (1965): Drosophi-
lidae of Kashmir, India. D.I.S., 40: 44.

(1966): Drosophilid

survey of India. III. The Drosophilidae of Kashmir
valley. Res. Bull. Punjab. Univ., 17 : 277-290.

Prakash, H. S. & Reddy, G. S. (1978) : Droso-
phila fauna of Bababudangiri and Kemmangundi hill
ranges (Western ghats). Entomon., 5(1): 85-90.

Ranganath, H. A. & Krishnamurthy, N. B.
(1972): Preliminary survey of Drosophila in Biligiri-
rangan hills (Mysore state, India). D.I.S., 48: 132.

Reddy, G. S. & Krishnamurthy, N. B. (1971) :
Preliminary survey of Drosophilids in Nilgiris and
Kodaikanal ranges, D.I.S., 47: 116.

_ (1974):

Systematics and distribution of Drosophila fauna of
South India. J. Mys. Univ., 26B : 54-64.

(1977):

Distribution of different species of Drosophila in
Jogimatti hills, Chitradurga district, Karnataka, In-
dia. D.I.S., 52: 105.

Rehaman, & Singh (1969) : A survey of Bhagal-
pur population of Drosophila. D.I.S., 44: 70.

Singh, A. (1970) : Drosophilidae of South Anda-
man. India. D.I.S., 45: 106.

Vaidya, V. G. & Godbole, N. N. (1971): Syste-
matic study of Drosophilidae in Poona and neigh-
bouring areas. I. J. Univ. Poona., 40: 49-61.

(1972): Systema-
tic study of Drosophilidae in Poona and neighbour-

ing area II. ibid.. 42: 93-94.

(1973): Systema-
tic study of Drosophilidae in Poona and neigh-
bouring areas III. ibid., 44: 41-43.

(1976): Systema-
tic study of Drosophilidae in Poona and neighbour-

ing areas IV. ibid.. 48: 85-92.

244

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

29. POLYMORPHISM IN CALLOSOBRUCHUS CHINENSIS (LINN.)
(COLEOPTERA: BRUCHIDAE)

Introduction

Callosobruchus chinensis (Linnaeus) is a
well known pest of stored grams and other
edible legumes and is widely spread in Asia
and Africa, Much work has been carried out
on its general biology in this laboratory
(Arora & Singh 1970) and elsewhere (Howe
and Currie 1964, Seddiqi 1972). During the
course of our observations, we have come
across three different types of females which
appear in the laboratory cultures of this species
in different parts of the year. Two distinct
forms have earlier been recorded in the allied
species, Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius),
which show differences not only in the colour
pattern of the body but also in their fertility,
activity and other characteristics (Southgate et
al. 1957, Arora and Pajni 1959, Caswell 1960,
Sano 1967, Utida 1954, 1972, 1976). Even the
genitalia of these two forms have been found
to show structural variations (Arora et al.
1967, Spirina 1974). In the background of the
recorded dimorphism in C. maculatus , the
three different forms of C. chinensis were
studied for their fertility as well as for the
time of their appearance in different months
of the year. The collected information is being
reported for the first time in the present com-
munication. The laboratory cultures of the
pest have been maintained on the seeds of
Vigna radiata Wilcz.

Earlier, Nakamura (1966, 1969) indicated
the presence of two forms in C. chinensis in
Japan, one of which is more active and less
fecund than the other but did not mention any
morphological differences in the two forms.
Likewise, Applebaum et al (1968) compared
an Israeli strain of this species with a strain
from Japan and noted appreciable differences

in their antennae and the arrangement of setae
on the prothorax and pygidium but did not
comment on their relative fecundity. Fujii
(1968), on the other hand, compared the bio-
logical characteristics of four strains of C.
chinensis procured from different localities of
Japan and Iran, but did not find much differ-
ence in the fecundity, fertility and the longe-
vity of their adults.

Observations and Discussion

Detailed observations made between August,
1983 and February, 1985 have revealed the
presence of three different forms of females in
the laboratory cultures of C. chinensis. These
can be made out from one another on the
basis of the pattern of setae on their pygidia.
One of the forms, which is available through-
out the year, shows a median stripe of white
setae on the pygidium, with the rest of its
surface covered uniformly with brownish
setae. Another common form has the surface
of the pygidium almost uniformly covered
with white setae. The third form also has a
stripe of white setae in the middle of pygidium,
but the central portions of the lateral areas
of the pygidium are completely bare to expose
the black ground colour while their surround-
ing surface is beset with brownish setae. For
the sake of brevity, these forms have been
designated as ‘brown pygidium’, ‘white pygi-
dium’, and ‘black pygidium’ females respec-
tively.

A monthwise random sampling from the
laboratory cultures has shown that the ‘brown
pygidium’ females are available throughout the
year, although their number fluctuates a good
deal and the variation appears to be related
to the appearance of other two forms during

245

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

different months. The ‘white pygidium’ females,
on the other hand, first appear with the warm-
ing of atmosphere in the month of March and
increase in number through the summer
months to reach a population peak during
August-September. Thereafter it falls through
October-November to disappear in the Second
half of November. The ‘black pygidium’ form
is noticed in the winter months of October to
February. The highest population of this form
is noted during November-December, after
which the population gradually declines and
the form disappears in March.

As far as the fecundity of the three types
of females is concerned, it is seen from Table 1
that the ‘brown pygidium’ female shows more
or less normal fecundity and the monthwise
variations is according to the general pattern
in the normal females of bruchids in general.
Just like other bruchid species and infact other
stored grain pests, the fecundity is the highest
during the most favourable conditions of hot
and wet months of July to September and is
relatively low during the extreme hot and cold
months. However, the fecundity of the ‘white

pygidium' females is comparatively much
lower from that of brown pygidium’ females
during ail the eight months of their coexist-
ence. On the other hand, the number of eggs
laid by the females with ‘black pygidium’ is
in the same range as that of the ‘brown
pygidium’ females but the fecundity of the
former is definitely more than the latter dur-
ing the months when they exist together.

It is evident from the foregoing account that
a ‘white pygidium’ female with reduced fecun-
dity appears due with a rise in temperature
during the hot parts of the year as has also
been reported in C. maculatus (Caswell 1960,
Sano 1967, Utida, 1972). Likewise, the ‘black
pygidium’ female is presumably the result of
fall in temperature during the winter months
which appears to be a unique feature of this
species as no such form has been described in
any species of bruchid so far. It is also observ-
ed that the ‘white pygidium’ female neither
visits the fields for oviposition like the ‘active’
and ‘white pygidium’ female of the Japanese
and African populations of C. maculatus
(Utida 1972, Caswell 1960), nor does it be-

Tarle 1

Showing the incidence and fecundity of the three types of females of Callosobruchus chinensis

(Linn.) during different months

Month

Brown pygidium Females
%age Fecundity

incidence

White pygidium Females
%age Fecundity

incidence

Black pyg
%age
incidence

idium Females
Fecundity

March, 84

81.4

60.7±5.33

18,6

48. 3+4.80

—

— -

April, 84

80.9

61.7±6.14

19.1

47.7+6.70

—

—

May, 84

79.6

37.6±5. 39

20.4

30.8+4.39

—

—

June, 84

61.7

50. 3±5.55

38.3

41.6 + 3.86

—

—

July, 84

56.0

69.4±6.60

44.0

58.7+4.66

—

—

August, 84

30.2

78.6±7.12

69.8

61.8+4.88

—

—

Sep., 84

32.7

69.1±3.50

67.3

51.0+4.75

—

—

Oct., 84

41.7

63. 6 ±6. 46

20.8

46.0+6.03

37.5

74.05±8.28

Nov., 84

47.9

53. 3±7. 19

—

—

52.1

60.3 ±6,70

Dec., 84

53.0

54.0±4. 83

—

—

47.0

65. 5± 10. 39

Jan., 85

60.9

52. 1±6. 38

—

—

39.1

58.1 ±5.76

Feb., 85

57.5

53.7±5.92

—

—

42.5

55.9 ±6.74

246

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

come totally sterile like the similar female of
Indian strain of that species (Arora & Pajni
1959, 1967; Pajni et al. 1984). The exact signi-
ficance of the cyclical appearance of the three
forms of C. chinensis in the course of the
year is not properly understood but it is likely
that the phenomenon regulates the increase or
decrease of the pest population through a self
regulating system leading to the appearance of
variably fecund females under the stimulus of
different climatic conditions. Further studies
and experimentation for establishing the true
causes of the appearance of polymorphic
females are underway.

Department of Zoology,

Pan jab University,

Chandigarh - 160 014,

July 4, 1985.

Refer

Applebaum, S. W., Southgate, B. J. & Podoler,
H. (1968) : The comparative morphology, specific
status and host compatibility of two geographical
strains of Collosobruchus chinensis. J. Stored Prod.
Res., 4: 135-146.

Arora, G. L. & Pajni, H. R. (1959) : Sterility
and associated morphological changes in Calloso-
bruchus analis (F.) (Bruchidae: Coleoptera). Current
Science, 28: 19-20.

Arora, G. L., Pajni, H. R. & Singh, T. (1967) :
The ambiguity of the abnormal male of Calloso-
bruchus maculatus (F.) (Bruchidae: Coleopetera) .
Res. Bull. Pan j. Univ., 18: 501-503.

Arora, G. L. & Singh, T. (1970): The biology
of Callosobruchus chinensis (L.). Res. Bull. Pan).
Univ., 21: 55-65.

Caswell, G. H. (1960) : Observations on an ab-
normal form of Callosobruchus maculatus. Bull. ent.
Res., 50: 671-680.

Fujii, K. (1968): Studies on interspecies compe-
tition between the Azuki bean weevil and the south-
ern cowpea weevil. III. Some characteristics of
strains of two species. Res. Popul. Ecol., 10: 87-98.

Howe, R. W. & Currie, J. E. (1964) : Some labo-
ratory observations on the rates of development,
mortality and oviposition of several species of

It may also be stated here that some odd
looking forms with colour patterns different
from the normal individuals and with impair-
ed fecundity have also been recently observed
in the laboratory cultures of C. analis (Fabri-
cius) and Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boheman).
Dimorphism or even polymorphism, therefore,
seems to be quite prevalent in Bruchidae.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Chairman, Depart-
ment of Zoology, Punjab University, Chandi-
garh for providing laboratory facilities.

H. R. PAJNI
SADHANA SAHNAN
RUCHIRA SHARMA

EN CES

Bruchidae breeding in stored pulses. Bull. Ent. Res.,
55(3): 437-477.

Nakamura, H. (1966) : The activity type observ-
ed in the adult of Callosobruchus chinensis (L.).
Jap. Jour, of Ecology, 16: 236-241.

(1969) : Geographic variation of

the ecological characters in Callosobruchus chinensis
(L.). Jap. Jour, of Ecology, 19(4): 127-131.

Pajni, H. R., Tewari, P. K. & Seli, A. (1984) :
Present status of dimorphism in Callosobruchus
maculatus (Fabr.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) (Ab-

stract). Ill Oriental Entomology Symposium, Tri-
vandrum.

Sang, I. (1967): Density effect and environmental
temperature as the factors producing the active form
of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera:
Bruchidae). J. Stored Prod. Res., 2: 187-195.

Seddiqui, P. M. (1972) : Studies on longevity, ovi-
position, fecundity and development of Callosobru-
chus chinensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Z.

ang. Ent. 72: 66-72.

Southgate, B. J., Howe, R. W. & Brett, G. A.
(1957) : The specific status of Callosobruchus macu-
latus (F.) and Callosobruchus analis (F.). Bull. Ent.
Res., 48: 78-89.

Spirina, T. S. (1974): The comparative morpho-

247

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

logy of the male and female genitalia in the two
forms of the four spotted compea beetle, Calloso-
bruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae).
Ent. Rev. Wash., 53: 22-27.

Taylor, T. A. (1974): Observations on the effects
of initial population densities in culture, humidity
on the production of ‘Active5 females of Calloso-
bruchus maculatus. J. Stored Prod. Res., 10: 122-133.

Utida, S. (1954) : “Phase dimorphism” observed
in the laboratory population of the cowpea weevil,

Callosobruchus quadrimaculatus. Oyo. Dobuts. Zasshi,
18: 161-168.

(1972): Density dependent polymor-
phism in the adult of Callosobruchus maculatus
(Coleoptera: Bruchidae). J. Stored Prod. Res. 8:
111-126.

(1976): Polymorphism in the adult of

Callosobruchus maculatus. Proceedings of the Joint
U.S.-Japan Seminar on stored product Insects, Kan-
sas: 174-185.

30. OCCURRENCE AND LIFE HISTORY OF CASS1DA
CIRCUMDATA HERBST (COLEOPTERA: CHR Y SOMELID AE)

IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, INDIA

(With four text-figures)

Cassida circumdata damages the leaves of Ipomoea reptans in Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur. Their grubs feed on chlorophyll from the underside of the leaves
and skeletonize them completely which then dry up. The adults of C. circumdata
are small and of yellowish green colour. The eggs are faintly brownish and the
eggs hatched within 3 to 4 days. The grubs have a peculiar habit of carrying their
excreta at the tail end. The larval stage lasted for 11 to 18 days under laboratory
conditions. Pupation takes place on the leaves and the pupal stage lasted for 5 to 8
days. The life cycle from egg to adult took 21 days. The maximum size of egg, larva,
pupa and adult were recorded.

Introduction

Though the species of Chrysomelidae are
among the commonest insects, perusal of lite-
rature of Chrysomelidae in India shows they
are poorly known taxonomically and ecologi-
cally (Jacoby 1908, Maulik 1919, 1926, 1936).
There is no comprehensive systematic and life
history study of the species of chrysomelidae
except that of Trehom and Bagal (1957),
Pajni and Bansal (1977), Pajni and Singla
(1981), Barrows (1979), Katiyar and Gargav
(1975), Visalakshi et at. (1980) and John
George and Venkataraman (1986). The present
study reports the occurrence and life history
of the tortoise beetle Cassida circumdata
Herbst, a polymorphic species parasitic on
Ipomoea reptans (Linn.) an aquatic weed

forming a dominant aquatic vegetation of the
Keoladeo National Park at Bharatpur (27°
7.6 ' to 27° 12.2' N and 77° 29.5' to 77°
33.9' E).

Material and Methods

Cultures of acclimatized C. circumdata were
kept at a temperature of 28 d= 2°C and rela-
tive humidity of approximately 50-70% under
laboratory conditions. The room where the
experiment was conducted had two eastfacing
windows and was not illuminated with electric
light during the day and night.

Newly hatched larvae were kept one each
in fifteen cylindrical transparent plastic con-
tainers 95 mm height and 75 mm diameter
for life history studies. The screw tops had

248

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

holes for ventilation. Discs of filter paper were
placed at the bottom of the containers to
absorb excess moisture and facilitate cleaning.
Fresh, clean and young leaves of /. reptans
were supplied to the larvae daily. The body
length and width were measured everyday
using an ordinary compound microscope with
calibrated ocular micrometer. The egg, larval
stages, pupa and adult were drawn using
camera lucida.

Results and Discussion
Cassida circumdata Herbst, 1979
(Figure 1).

Synonym: Metriona circumdata Spaeth,

1903, p. 128; Maulik, 1913, p. 114.

Egg : The eggs of C. circumdata measure
1.071 ± 0.041 mm in length and 0.453 dt
0.045 mm in width. Egg oval, covered with
a white papery substance (Fig. 1). One egg
is laid in each case and most of the eggs
were laid singly; very rarely they laid eggs in
clusters of two to three. The incubation period
of C. circumdata is 4 days. In Aspidomorpha
furcata it is 3-4 days (Visalakshi et al 1980),
while in Gratiana lutescens it is 6 days (Siebert
1975), in Metriona bicolor 5 to 8 days and
in Deloyala guttata 2 to 7 days (Barrows
1979).

Larva : The first instar grub is yellowish but
becomes green soon after it starts feeding. The
body of the larva is flat and has spines around
the periphery with two long caudal spines.
Tt is 1.042 ± 0.249 mm in length and 0.631 ±
0.160 mm in width. The larvae feed on the
green matter from ventral surface of leaves.
In the present study maximum number of 1st
instar larvae moulted on the 3rd day and the
moulted skin remained attached to the anal
process (Fig. 1). The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th
instars measure 1.752 ± 0.169 mm, 2.336 ±
0.304 mm. 3.482 ± 0.622 mm and 4.810 ±

Fig. 1. Larval stages of C. circumdata : DV — Dorsal
View; VV — Ventral View; E — Egg; EX — Exuvia;
P — Pupa; I and III — larval instars.

0.558 mm in length and 0.888 ± 0.094 mm,
1.177 ± 0.120 mm, 1.773 ± 0.371 mm and
2.522 ± 0.371 mm in width respectively. The

249

17

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

duration of the different instars is 2, 2, 2 and
2-4 days respectively (Fig. 2). Except for the
size and the accumulation of exuvial and other
fecal debris on the caudal spines, there is very
little difference in appearance among the
instars.

Pupa : Under normal conditions the pupa
does not differ greatly in appearance from the
larva. It has similar pale green colour which
blends well with the foliage of Ipomoea rep-
tans. The larva has branched spines around
the anterior part of the body, whereas the
smooth shield forming the thoracic segments
in the pupa bears many broad — based slender
straight spines. The abdominal segments bear
broad-based almost triangular groups of fused
spines projecting outwards from the periphery.

The pupa measures 4.84 ± 0.252 mm in
length and 2.86 =t= 0.211 mm in width. The
mounted skins are held dorsally on the pupa.
The adult comes out after a pupal period of
3 to 5 days.

In the present study the larval and pupal
period of C. circwndata varied from 11 to 18
days and 5 to 8 days respectively. In other
species like Aspidomorpha miliaris (Katiyar
and Gargav 1975) and Aspidomorpha furcata
(Visalakshi et al. 1980) the larval period vari-
ed from 29-35, and 10-11 days and the pupal
period varied from 7-11, and 7 days respec-
tively. In Deloyala guttata and Metriona bicolor
(Barrows 1979) the larval stage lasted for
18-23 days and 21-25 days and the pupal stage
lasted for 3-9 days and 6-9 days respectively.

NUMBER OF DAYS

Fig. 2. Longevity of larvae, pupa and adult.

250

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The total number of days taken from egg to
adult for C. circumdata was 21 days. However,
the number of days varies for different species
under different environmental conditions
(Lefroy and Howlett 1909, Katiyar and Gargav
1975, Barrows 1979).

Adult : Shortly after emergence, the adult is
pale green. Males are usually smaller than the
females. Laboratory reared females were 5.135
±0.182 mm in length and 4.224 ± 0.159
mm in width, whereas males were of 4.631 ±
0.50 mm in length and 3.912 ± 0.246 mm
in width. In both the male and female along
the middle of each elytron a broad black stripe
joins the other forming a TJ’ shaped marking
posteriorly at the suture. The newly emerged
adult rests for a while. They do not feed on
the leaves entirely and do not even skeletonize
them to the same extent as larvae do.

The mating which began after 7-10 days of
emergence occurred on almost all days. Out
of the twenty two pairs (male and female)
that were collected and kept in separate con-
tainers, only nine pairs survived for 30 days.
Aspidomorpha miliaris did not lay eggs in
captivity (Katiyar and Gargav 1975). Adult

C. circumdata mated and laid eggs daily in
captivity. A single pair of C. circumdata which
survived for 30 days under captivity laid 368
eggs. The maximum number of eggs laid by
a single adult female in captivity within 24
hours was 36.

Longevity : The longevity of the C. circum-
data from egg to adult was measured under
laboratory conditions. Around 18th day all of
the pupae became adult and adults survived
only upto the 25th day (Fig. 3). A. miliaris
(Katiyar and Gargav 1975) and A. furcata
(Visalakshi et al. 1980) took 29-35, and 10-11
days for larval, 7-11, and 7 days for pupal
periods respectively. The larval stage of C.
circumdata lasted for 11 to 18 days and pupal
period for 5 to 8 days respectively. However,
for adults it varies. In the present study the
adults lived only for 7-8 days in captivity.
The adult A. miliaris (Katiyar and Gargav
1975) continued to survive for more than 25
days in captivity. Adult M. bicolor and D.
guttata (Barrows 1979) lived for 111 and 105
days respectively. Another study made later
on C. circumdata shows that the adults emerg-
ed in captivity lived upto 80 days under diffe-

Fig. 3. Survival curve of C. circumdata cultured under laboratory conditions

(28°-30°C).

J)

<r

UJ

>

£ 50^

251

SIZE mm

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

rent conditions. From this it is apparent that
the longevity of larvae, pupae and adult varies
at different conditions.

Growth : The mean body length and width
(Breadth) of each day are shown in Figure 4.
The maximum growth rate in the body length
(0.962 mm) occurred between the 5th and
6th day. The rate of growth is fastest in the
larval stages, as it is true with other members
of family Chrysomelidae. The body width also
grows along with body length and it reaches
more than 2/3 of the body length when the
larvae become adult. The pattern is almost
same in Aspidomorpha jurcata (Visalakshi et

al. 1980), Deloyala guttata and Metriona bi-
color (Barrows 1979) and Cassida varians
(Maulik 1919).

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Pro-
ject Scientist, Hydrobiology Project of Bombay
Natural History Society, for providing faci-
lities.

This study is an offshoot of the long term
ecological project taken up by the Bombay
Natural History Society in Keoladeo National

Fig. 4. Relationship between the mean body length, breadth and number of days.

252

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Park, which is sponsored by the Department financed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
of Environment, Government of India and through PL - 480 scheme.

BNHS Ecological Research Centre, M. JOHN GEORGE

331, Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur - 321 001, K. VENKATARAMAN

Rajasthan, India,

April 8, 1986.

References

Barrows, E. M. (1979) : Life cycles, mating and
colour change in tortoise beetles (Coleoptera:
Chrysomelidae : Cassidinae). The coleopterists Bull.
33(1): 9-16.

Jacoby, M. (1908) : The Fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma (Coleoptera, Chryso-
melidae) 1. Taylor and Francis, London.

John George, M. & Venkataraman, K. (1986) :
Tortoise beetle — Cassida circumdata Herbst (Chry-
somelidae: Cassidinae) as a biological control on
the growth Ipomoea reptans in Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(2) :
460-461.

Katiyar, O. P. & Gargav, V. P. (1975): Aspido-
morpha miliaris Fabr. (Coleoptera: Cassidinae) a
pest of Ipomoea cornea Jacq. in Raigarh and Raipur
districts of Madhya Pradesh. Indian J. Entomology
37: 83.

Lefroy, H. M. & Howlett, F. M. (1909): In-
dian insect life, Agricultural Research Intitute, Ptisa.
Government of India 786 pp. (Reproduced by To--
day and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New
Delhi).

Maulik, S. (1919): The Fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma (Coleoptera: Hispinae
and Cassidinae). Taylor and Francis, London.

(1926) : The Fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma (Coleoptera: Chryso-

melidae: Halticinae). Taylor and Francis, London.

— (1936) : The Fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma (Coleoptera: Chryso-
melidae: Galerucinae) . Taylor and Francis, London.

Pajni, H. R. & Bansal, R. K. (1977): First re-
port on the Chrysomelid fauna of Chandigarh.
Research Bulletin (Sci.), Punjab University, 28:
55-59.

Pajni, H. R. & Singla, S. R. (1981) : Second
report on the Chrysomelid fauna of Chandigarh and
adjoining hilly areas (Coleoptera). Research Bulle-
tin (Sci.), Punjab University 32: 139-142.

Siebert, M. W. (1975) : Candidate for the biolo-
gical control of Solanum elaegnifolium Cav. (Sola-
naceae) in South Africa. 1. Laboratory studies on
the biology of Gratiana lutescens (Boh.) and Gratiana
pallidula (Boh.) (Coleoptera: Cassidinae). J. Ent.
Soc. Sth. Afr. 38(2) : 297-304.

Trehom, K. N. & Bagal, S. R. (1957) : Life his-
tory Bionomics and control of sweet potato weevil
(Cylus formicarius F.) with short notes on some
other pests of sweet potato in Bombay state. Indian
J. Ent. 19(4): 245-252.

Visalakshi, A., Santhakumari, K., George
Kgshy & Nair, M.R.G.K. (1980) : Biological studies
on Aspidomorpha furcata Thunb. (Chrysomelidae:
Coleoptera). Entamon 3: 167-169.

31. A NOTE ON THE FOOD OF THE SPIDER ARGIOPE ARCUATA
SIMON (FAMILY: ARANEIDAE)

On 24th November 1 985 when I was walking
on a bird survey from Fatehpur to Hanuman
Jhora at Karera Bustard Sanctuary, Madhya
Pradesh I noticed the spider Argiope arcuata
in its web with two butterflies of Acraea violae

Fabr. (Family Nymphalidae) entangled on it.
In addition I saw 23 butterflies of the same
species underneath the spider web. As soon
as the spider completed sucking the sap of
the butterfly it cleared the butterfly from its

253

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

web and dropped it on the ground. The butter-
fly was abundant in the month of November.

On 3rd December 1985 I again visited the same
area and cleared the area underneath the
spider web in order to count the daily trapped
butterflies. But due to area clearance butter-
flies were not entangled on the web.

Junior Field Biologist, V. NATARAJAN

BNHS Avifauna Project,

Kodikkarai-614 807,

Thanjavur District,

Tamilnadu,

December 27, 1986.

Acknowledgement

I thank to Dr. Animesh Bal, Zoologist,
Zoological survey of India, Calcutta for the
identification of the spider specimen.

32. NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS OF DICOTS FOR
PUNJAB STATE (INDIA)

I have been engaged in the study of the
flora of Punjab State eversince July 1963.
Consequently, detailed distributional and eco-
logical accounts along with the lists of sedges
(Sharma 1979, 1980), grasses (Sharma 1983 a,
b) and the rest of the monocots (Sharma
1985) have been published. The study of the
dicotyledonous plants collected by me during
the last 22 years from Punjab shows that 16
species recorded here have not been reported
earlier from this area. It may not be out of
place to mention that these have not been
recorded even by Nair (1978) in his compre-
hensive and the latest floristic work dealing
with Punjab. He has accounted for 1064 taxa
of spermatophytes and has taken into account
all the previous publications pertaining to the
flora of Punjab as well as the pertinent exsi-
ccata conserved in the herbaria of Forest Re-
search Institute, Dehra Dun (DD) and Bota-
nical Survey of India, Dehra Dun (BSD).

Listed below are 16 species of dicots distri-
buted among as many genera and 13 families.
But for the minor modifications to conform
to the present day circumscription and deli-

neation, the arrangement of the families here
is the same as in Hooker (1872-1888). Dispo-
sition of genera, however, is alphabetical
under the pertinent family. All specimens cited
presently are housed in Herbarium Punjabi
University, Patiala (PUN).

Cruciferae

Capsella bursa-pastoris (Linn.) Medik.
Occasionally found in cultivated fields.

FI. & Fr. : January- April.

Specimens examined : Ropar, M. Sharma
8992.

VlOLACEAE

Viola cinerea Boiss. var. stocks!! (Boiss.) Beck.

Some plants were gathered from rocky
slopes of the hill. This taxon was treated under
V. cinerea by Hook. f. & Thoms, (in Hook. f.
1872). However V. cinerea is a slaty white
perennial, whereas the present taxon is a
glabrescent annual.

FI. & Fr. : February- April.

254

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Specimens examined’. Ropar Shivaliks, M.
Sharma 10493.

Sterculiaceae

Waltheria indica Linn.

Very rare, only one plant seen.

FI. & Fr. : August-December.

Specimens examined: Ropar, M. Sharma,
10441.

Rhamnaceae

Helinus lanceolatus Wall, ex Brand.

Locally common in Shivaliks.

FI. & Fr. : November-May.

Specimens examined : Nangal, M. Sharma
8961.

Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew.

Rare, on a hill slope.

FI. : May-June.

Specimens examined: Nangal Shivaliks, M.
Sharma 8991.

Onagraceae

Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven subsp.
sessiliflora (Mich.) Raven
Occasionally found along water courses in
the foot-hill zone of the State.

FI. & Fr. : March-November.

Specimens examined: Chamkaur Sahib, M.
Sharma 10407.

CUCURBITACEAE

Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. var. amara
(Roxb.) Cl.

On roadside bushes and hedges in the drier
parts of the State.

FI. & Fr. : August-October.

Specimens examined : Jhunir, M. Sharma
11721.

Aizoaceae

Moliugo sfricta Linn.

Locally common in fallow fields, along the
edges of cultivated fields or irrigation channels.
In Indian taxonomic literature, this taxon has
often been treated as conspecific with M. pen-
taphylla Linn. According to Sivarajan & Usha
(1983) these two Linnaean species are distinct.
FI. & Fr. : August-October.

Specimens examined : Rajpura, Sirhind,

Sanour, Patiala, Chamkaur Sahib; M. Sharma
1412, 1527, 1558, 1605, 10322.

Con VOLVU LACEAE

Ipoinoea sindica Stapf.

Common in the semi arid areas of the State
in cultivated sandy fields and among hedges.

FI. & Fr. : August-November.

Specimens examined: Mansa, M. Sharma
11441.

SCROPH U LARI ACEAE

Bacopa procumbens (Mill.) Greenm.

A native of tropical America. It is found on
moist ground.

FI. & Fr. : March-May.

Specimens examined: Ropar, Nangal; M.
Sharma 10508, 10557.

Lindernia imiltiOora (Roxb.) Mukerjee

Plentiful in rice-fields along Chamkaur
Sahib-Bela Road.

FI. & Fr. : August-October.

Specimens examined : Bela, Chamkaur

Sahib; M. Sharma 10460, 10483.

Veronica persica Poir.

Rare, some plants gathered from the foot-
hills.

FI. & Fr. : March-May.

Specimens examined: Nangal, M. Sharma
9185.

255

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Acanthaceae

Justicia diffusa Willd.

Rare, in a ‘cho’-bed.

FI. & Fr. : August-November.

Specimens examined : Anandpur Sahib. M.
Sharma 10446.

Labiatae

Scutellaria repens Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Common near Bhakra Dam site.

FI. & Fr. : August-November.

Specimens examined : Bhakra Dam, Nangal
Shivaliks; M. Sharma 3229, 8962.

POLYGONACEAE

Rumex hastatus D. Don

Very common at Nangal along the banks
of river Sutlej.

FI. & Fr. : October-March.

Specimens examined : Nangal, M. Sharma
8963.

Moraceae

Ficus hederacea Roxb.

Rare.

Receptacles: Appear in March but mature
in August-September.

Specimens examined: Faridkot, M. Sharma
11742.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Heads of Botany depart-
ments of Punjab, Punjabi and Punjab Agri-
cultural Universities for assistance in various
ways. Herbarium and library facilities provid-
ed by the concerned authorities of some Indian
Herbaria (DD, BSD, LWG, CAL) are thank-
fully acknowledged. I am also obliged to UGC
New Delhi for providing travel grants to visit
these herbaria.

Department of Botany, M. SHARMA

Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002,

August 30, 1985.

References

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1888) : The Flora of British
India. Vols. 1-5. L. Reeve & Co., London.

Nair, N. C. (1978): Flora of the Punjab Plains.
Rec. Bot. Surv. India 27(1): i-xx-f 1-326.

Sharma, M. (1979) : A contribution to the flora
of Punjab — family Cyperaceae. In: Bir, S. S. (Ed.)
Recent Researches in Plant Sciences 709-712.

(1980) : Sedges of Punjab — eco-
logy. distribution and enumeration. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 77: 424-428.

Sharma, M. (1983a): Grasses of Punjab, Part T.
Indian For. 109: 407-416.

(1983b) : Grasses of Punjab, Part

II. ibid. 109: 495-508.

(1985) : Further contribution to the

monocot flora of Punjab State (India). J. Econ. Tax.
Bot. 6: 253-261.

Sivarajan, V. V. & Usha, T. (1983): On rein-
stating Mollugo stricta L. (Molluginaceae) . Taxon
32: 123-126.

256

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

33. CALDESIA PARNASSIIFOLIA (LINN.) PERL. ( ALISM AT ACE AE)
— A NEW RECORD FOR WESTERN HIMALAYA

During an extensive plant collection in
Almora district of Kumaun region, the senior
author collected an interesting aquatic herb
Caldesia parnassiifolia (Linn.) Perl., which is
now being reported for the first time from
Western Himalaya. The specimens are lodged
in the Herbarium, Department of Botany,
Kumaun University Campus, Almora.

Caldesia paraassiifolia (Linn.) Perl., FI. Hal.
3: 599, 1853; Hartog in Steenis, FI. Male-
siana Ser. 1, 5: 319, 1957 ( parnassiifolia );
Subramanyam, Aquatic Angiosperms. 84, fig.
51, 1962; Saldanha and Nicolson, FI. Hassan
Dist. 631, fig. 105, 1976. Alisma parnassii-
folia Bassi ex L., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, 3 (App.) :
230, 1768. A. reniforme D. Don, Prodr. FI
Nepal 22, 1825; Hooker, FI. Brit. Ind. 6:
560, 1893; Gamble, FI. Madras 1594 (1112),
1931. Caldesia reniformis (D. Don) Makino,
Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 20: 34, 1906.

A glabrous aquatic herb. Leaves floating

Department of Botany,

Kumaun University Campus,

Almora - 263 601,

October 1, 1985.

deeply cordate, subcoriaceous, 13-15 veined,
posterior lobes round. Flowers white, in pani-
cle; branches of panicle in whorls of three.
Stamens 6, filaments broadened at base. Pistils
5-8, crowded on a small receptacles; style
subterminal, persistent. Achenes awned, ellip-
tic, with 3-5 smooth longitudinal ribs on the
dorsal side.

Specimen examined : Kumaun Himalaya,

District Almora, Baijnath (1400 m), P. C.
Pande 4004.

Ecology : Scarce, in ponds, tanks and shallow
water bodies along river bank at Baijnath near
Garur, and commonly associated with Nelumbo
nucifera, Utricularia stellaris, Monochoria
vaginalis and Blyxa auberti etc.

Acknowledgement

We are indebted to Prof. Som Deva, D.A.V.
(P.G.) College, Dehra Dun for help in
identification.

P. C. PANDE
Y. P. S. PANGTEY1

1 Present address: Department of Botany, Kumaun University Campus, Nainital.

34. NOTES ON CYPERACEAE OF MAHARASHTRA

During our studies on the Cyperaceae of
Maharashtra we have come across some inte-
resting data regarding the distribution and
identify of some species which require correc-
tions and additions to the existing literature.

1. Cyperus castaneus Willd. Sp. PI. 1: 278,
1797; Clarke, in Hook. f„ FI. Brit. Ind.

6: 598, 1893, Cooke, FI. Bombay Pres. 2:
861 (2: 374), 1909; Blatter & McCann,
Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(2): 258,
1934.

This species has been reported from Konkan
by T. Cooke (1909) and by Blatter & McCann
from Konkan, Bombay and Laddapur (1934)

257

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

on the authority of T. Cooke. Vartak and
Ghate (1983) have not included this species
in their enumeration of sedges from Western
Maharashtra, thereby indicating that it is not
represented in Poona herbaria (BSI, MACS).
There is no specimen of this species in Blatter
Herbarium too. We have collected it from
Aronda-Savantwadi.

Exsiccata : S. M. Almeida — 1904; M. R.
Almeida — 51 (ALC).

2. Fimbristylis cinnamometorum (Vahl)
Kunth. Enum. 2: 229, 1837; Kern, in FI.
Males. Ser. 1, 7 (3): 565, 1974. Scirpus
cinnamometorum Vahl, Enum. PI. 2; 278,

1908. F. cyperoides Br. var. cinnamome-
torum C. B. Clarke, in Hook, f., FI. Brit.
Ind. 6: 650, 1893 & 111. Cyper. t. 44, f. 1-4,

1909.

This species is not reported from Maha-
rashtra earlier. We have collected it from
Savantwadi.

Exsiccata : S. M. Almeida — 2843.

3. Fimbristylis kingii C. B. Clarke ex Boek.,
Cyper. Nov. 2: 1890; Clarke in Hook, f.,
FI. Brit Ind. 6: 633, 1893.

This species is not reported from Maha-
rashtra as well as from erstwhile Bombay
Presidency. We have collected it from Maha-
rashtra, from Savantwadi taluka. In Blatter
herbarium (BLAT), there are specimens from
Nilgiris. (Fyson-2706; Gamble-397, 16695).
Exsiccata : S. M. Almeida — 3637, 3732.

4. Fimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) R. Br.,
Prodr. 226, 1810, Clarke in Hook, f., FI.
Brit. Ind. 6: 632, 1893 & 111. Cyper. t. 40,
ff. 8-9, 1909; Kern, FI. Males. Ser. 1, 7 (3);
586, 1974. Scirpus polytrichoides Retz. Obs.
Bot. 4: 11, 1786.

There are a number of specimens of this
species in Blatter Herbarium collected from
Madh-Island, near Bombay, along with speci-
mens from other localities. All the Madh-
Island specimens, however, differ from the rest

of the material and the description of the
species in literature, in having brown coloured
nuts (not yellow) and glumes exceedingly lon-
ger than so far described.

Exsiccata : SMA — 2421, 2951.

5. Fimbristylis siberiana Kunth, Enum. PI. 2:
237, 1837; Kern, in Blumea 8(1): 131,
1965; Naithani & Raizada in Ind. For. 103:
416, 1977. F. ferruginea (non Vahl, 1806);
Decne, Nouv. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris
3: 352, 1834. F. ferruginea Vahl var. sibe-
riana Boek. in Linnaea 37: 17, 1871.

The species probably goes in our local floras
under Fimbristylis ferruginea Vahl. For des-
cription and distinguishing characters see
Naithani & Raizada (1977).

In Blatter Herbarium there are specimens
from Poona and Malad.

Exsiccata : M. Ezekiel-Poona-30420; G. L.
Shan-Malad-4774, 7105 (BLAT).

6. Fuirena trilobites C. B. Clarke in Hook. f.
FI. Brit. India 6: 66, 1893; Vartak, Journ.
Univ. Poona 40: 196, 1971.

The species has been reported from Gujarat
and Bangalore (Karnataka). We have collect-
ed it from Savantwadi, in Maharashtra. For
description see Vartak (1971).

Exsiccata : S. M. Almeida — 3393, 4223,
3662.

7. Scleria nigosa R. Br., Prodr. 240, 1810;
Kern in Reinwardtia 6: 76, 1961 & Blumea
11: 206, f. 8, 1961; Govindarajalu in Journ.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1): 246, 1972;
Naithani & Raizada in Ind. Forester 103:
411-23, 1977. S. flaccida Clarke in Hook,
f., FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 688, 1893 (non Steud.,
1855). S. zeylanica Clarke in Hook, f., FI.
Brit. Ind. 6: 687, 1893 (non Poir, 1806).
S. annularis Steud., Syn. PI. Cyper. 176,
1855 (non Kunth., 1837); Blatter & Mc-
Cann, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37
(4): 778-9, 1935.

258

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The species is included here for purpose of
correct identity and nomenclature of our mate-
rial. Vartak and Ghate (1983) reported it from
Goa and Thana, under S. annularis. In Blatter
Herbarium there are specimens from Borivli,
near Bombay.

Exsiccata : R. R. Fernandez — 2652, 2665-6.

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay-400 001.

Alchemie Research Centre,
Thane-Belapur Road,

Titane-400 601,

January 30, 1986.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. (Mrs.) Daru walla
and to Mr. Manek Mistry for the help render-
ed in preparing this paper.

S. M. ALMEIDA

M. R. ALMEIDA

35. OlANTHUS DISCIFLORUS HOOK. F. — A LITTLE KNOWN
TAXON FROM PENINSULAR INDIA

(With a text-figure)

During the intensive exploration of the plant
wealth of Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh,
a little known taxon was collected and was
identified as Oianthus disciflorus Hook. f. of
the family Asclepiadaceae. The species is very
poorly represented in Indian Herbaria. There
are only two specimens at MH collected on
31-8-1917 in Ramanapenta in Kurnool district.
Perhaps this taxon is endemic to Kurnool dis-
trict. Although Hook. f. in Flora of British
India mentioned that the species occurs in
Western peninsula, he was not sure about the
area of occurrence and suggested the Konkan.
The species is not reported in the Flora of
Madras Presidency.

A short description with line diagrams are
given to facilitate identification of the plant.

Oianthus disciflorus Hook. f. in FI. Brit.

India 4: 49. 1883. (Fig. 1)

Twining undershrubs, branches glabrous,
pubescent when young. Leaves opposite, ovate,
ovate-oblong or elliptic-oblong, 3-7 x 1.5-5 cm,
acute, glabrous above, minutes pubescent be-
low, entire, base cordate, petioles 1-2.5 cm
Jong, pubescent. Flowers pale violet with pink
inside in axillary cymes. Calyx lobes 5, divid-
ed nearly to he base, lobes equal, ovate, im-
bricate, 0.4 x 0.2 cm, sparsely pubescent
below, obtuse. Corolla disciform, vertically de-
pressed, 5-lobed purplish pink with in, divided
to the mid half, 1 x 0.5 cm, obtuse, corona
adnate to the staminal column. Pollinia pendu-
lous, pollinial bags oblong, 1.5 x 0.4 mm,
caudicle 1 mm long, corpusculum 0 . 4 mm long.
Ovary globose — oblong, 4 mm long, placenta
bifurcate. Follicles not seen.

259

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 1. Oicmthiis disciflorus Hook. f.

A. Twig. B. Flower. C. L.S. of flower. D. Pollinia.

FI. : July-October. from North Dhone RF on 13-9-1984, housed

Distribution : Rare in forests. in SKU and MIT.

Specimens examined: RVR 2522 collected

Department of Botany, R. R. VENKATA RAJU

Sri Krxshnadevaraya University, T. PULLAIAH

Anantpur-515 003, A.P.,

February 7, 1986.

260

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

x

36. ON THE IDENTITY AND SYNONYMY OF HEDYOTIS
CONGEST A R. BR. (RUBIACEAE)

The genus Metabolos was postulated by
Blume (1826) for reception of a group of
species allied to Hedyotis auricularia L. which,
later on, has been found to be conspeeific with
M. venosus Bl.

Korthals (1851) synonymised all the species
of Metabolos to Hedyotis sect. Hedyotis.

Hooker f. (1880) followed Korthals in re-
ducing Metabolos species to Hedyotis except
M. rugosus Bl. which he considered as distinct
from Hedyotis but identical with a Sri Lankan
plant described by Thwaites (1859) as Allaeo-
phania decipiens Thw.

As all other species of Metabolos have been
transferred to Hedyotis, Hochreutiner (1934)
suggested that the name Metabolos might be
retained for M. rugosus Bl. on restricting its
generic delimitation. This choice must be
regarded as legitimate and therefore the genus
Allaeophania Thw. becomes superfluous. Bre-
mekamp (1939) proposed a new generic name
Exallage for accommodating H. auricularia
and allied species. But Fosberg (1943) and
Bakhuizen (1965) rightly did nof recognize
this genus as distinct for cogent reasons.

Metabolos rigidus Blume (1826) described
from Java was characterised by elliptic-oblong
leaves acuminate at both ends, flowers in in-
volucrate clustered heads and campanulate
calyx. It was transferred to the genus Hedyotis
L. by Miquel (1857). H. carnosa Korth. (1851)
was described from Sumatra and Borneo, and
was characterised by oblong-ovate, acuminate
leaves, laciniate stipules and ovate, acute calyx
lobes. In course of taxonomic revision of In-
dian Hedyotis, we have, on the basis of the
study of types and other specimens of these
taxa observed that the leaves are variable
in shape and size, cymes few to many flowered
and calyx campanulate or lobes ovate, round-

ed, obtuse or acute. For these reasons distin-
ctions of these taxa are not tenable. King
(1903) while distinguishing H. congesta R.
Br. ex G. Don var. nicobarica King from the
typical variety by narrowly elliptic-lanceolate
leaves tapering at both ends, noted (in Sched.)
that his specimen is like H. carnosa. On the
other hand characters on which King (l.c.)
distinguished his var. nicobarica are evident
on the type specimens of the typical variety.
Therefore this variety nicobarica also does not
stand.

Merrill (Enum. Philipp. FI. PI. 3: 500. 1923)
reduced H. leucocarpa Elm. occurring in
Philippine to H. rigida (Bl.) Miq. Bakhuizen
in Backer & Bakhuizen, FI. Java 2: 288. 1965,
accepted this reduction but treated H. leuco-
carpa Elm. as the correct name since H. rigida
is already preoccupied. Specimens named as
H. leucocarpa Elm. in herb. CAL show dis-
tinction from H. rigida in thinner leaves, long
fimbriate calyx lobes and larger fruit. But as
the type specimen of H. leucocarpa Elm. was
not available to us it could not be definitely
established if these are taxonomically same or
distinct, therefore H. leucocarpa is not consider-
ed here in the synonymy. Even if it is synony-
mous H. congesta being the earliest valid and
effective publication amongst all the names
involved, is the correct name, and the syno-
nymy is given as follows.

Hedyotis congesta R. Br. ex G. Don, Gen.
Syst. Gard. Bot. 3: 526: 1834 (Type: Penang,
1822, Wall. Cat. 844 K-W microfiche CAL!);
Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 61. 1880; King &
Gamble in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 72(2) :
161. 1903. Oldenlandia congesta (R. Br.) O.
Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 2. 1891. Exallage con-
gesta (R. Br.) Bremek. in Verh. Kon. Netherl.
Akad. Wet. Afd.-Natuurk. ser. 2, 48(2): 142.

261

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

1951. H. argentea Wall, ex G. Don, Gen. Syst.
Gard. Bot. 3: 526. 1834 (Type: Paulo Penang,
1822, Wall. Cat. 858 CAL!). Metabolos rigidus
Bl. Bijdr. 992. 1826 (Type: Java, Blame s.n.
L!). H. rigida (Bl.) Miq. FI. Ind. Bat. 2: 181.
1857, non (Benth.) Walp. 1851. H. congesta
R. Br. var nicobarica King in Journ. Asiat.
Soc. Beng. 72(2): 161. 1903 (Type: Nicobar,
1884, King 506 CAL!), syn. nov. H. carnosa
Korthals in Nederl. Kruidk. Arch. 2(2): 161.

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah,

February 28, 1986.

1852 (Type: Sumatra, Korthals s.n. L!), non
Dalz. 1850.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the Director, Rijksher-
barium, Leiden for loan of several type speci-
mens and to Director, Botanical Survey of
India and Deputy Director, Central National
Herbarium (CAL) for facilities.

D. B. DEB
RATNA DUTTA

37. A NOTE ON THE BRACHYSTELMA GLABRUM HOOK. F.
( ASCLEPI AD ACE AE ) FROM SOUTH INDIA

Gamble in his Flora of Presidency of Madras
has dealt with six species of the genus Brachy-
stelma R. Br. and most of them are restricted
to south India. Two new species of the above
genus have been described and published by
Govindappa Arekal & T. M. Ramakrishna ( B .
ciliatum in Current Science 50( 3) : 145-146.
1981; B. kolarensis in the Proceedings of the
Indian Academy of Science (Plant Science)
90: 203-205. 1981) from Karnataka state.
Hooker dealt with seven species of this genus
in the Flora of British India which include four
species described by Gamble.

Most of the species dealt with by Gamble
are not represented in the herbarium of Bota-
nical Survey of India, Southern Circle,
Coimbatore (MH). Due to their restricted dis-
tribution, tiny nature of the species, tubers
being eaten away (evidenced by the disturbed
habitat) by wild animals like hare, rats, Wild
boar etc. grazing and trampling by domestic
as well as wild animals are some of the pro-
bable reasons for their poor representation in
herbaria.

However I could locate one of the species,
Brachystelma glabrum Hook. f. among the
grass patches along water drips on open rocky
slopes in Shevaroy hills, Salem district, Tamil
Nadu when I visited the hills for collection of
rare/ endemic /threatened plants under the Pro-
ject on Study Survey and Conservation of
Endangered species of Flora (POSSCEF). This
is one of the rare endemic species of south
India, not represented in MH. Hence a short
description is given below for better under-
standing as well as for recording the new loca-
tion of this rare species. The specimens have
been deposited in MH. A few live plants with
tubers have been introduced in the experi-
mental garden, Botanical Survey of India,
Yercaud.

Brachystelma glabrum Hook. f. FI. Brit.
India 4: 65. 1883; Gamble FI. Pres. Madras
598. 1957 (repr. ed.) (Asclepiadaceae).

A short slender, glabrous, tuberous herb
with erect stems up to 10-15 cm high; branches
2-3 at top. Tubers globose to some what flat,
2. 5-4.0 x 1.5-2. 5 cm. Leaves 4-16, 3-5 cm,

262

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

opposite, decussate, linear-lanceolate, acute,
glabrous except the hirsute midrib beneath and
upper margins, crowded at the end of branches.
Bracts 2, leafy, slightly longer than pedicel
during flowering. Flowers in terminal umbels
of 2-3 whorls; pedicels 3 mm in flower, 5-6
mm in fruits, hirsute. Calyx-lobes 5, linear-
lanceolate, acute. Corolla brownish-yellow;
lobes 4-5, linear, obtuse from broad base,
glabrous. Corona shortly toothed without subu-
late process. Fruits of 2 very slender, smooth,
divaricate follicular mericarps 3-4 cm, tapering
at both the ends, somewhat flat in the middle.

Gamble (l.c.) reported this species from
Deccan hills of the Cuddapah district based
on the collection of Beddome but I collected

Botanical Survey of India,

Arid Zone Circle,

Jodhpur - 342 003,

March 5, 1985.

this species from Shevaroy hills of Tamil Nadu
extending its distribution to further south.

Specimens : Tamil Nadu: Salem district,

Shevaroy hills, Kakka Shola-canteen area, 7-6-
1983, Vajravelu 77732 (Flowering and Fruit-
ing); from the same area, 29-8-1983, Vajra-
velu 77740 (Fruiting).

Acknowledgements

I thank Shri A. V. N. Rao, Orchidologist,
National Orchidarium and Experimental Gar-
den, Botanical Survey of India, Yercaud,
Salem district, Tamil Nadu, for his help and
for deputing Shri Allimuthu, Fieldman during
the plant collection work.

E. VAJRAVELU1

1 Present address : Botanical Survey of India,

Southern Circle, T.N.A.U. Campus, Lawley Rd. P.O.,
Coimbatore 641 003.

38. NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF RARE AND LITTLE
KNOWN CAREX ROSTRATA STOCKS FROM
NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA

(With two text -figures)

Car ex rostrata Stocks (Cyperaceae) was pre-
viously collected by E. T. Atkinson during
Sept. 1874, from the Himalayan region (Her-
barium No. 24169 C and D Cal.), and for
more than a century, there was no record on
the distribution of this species from North-
West India, specially from Himalayan region.
Recently, the species has been collected by us
from an interior part of Garhwal Himalaya.
The plant has fodder, religious and local medi-
cinal value.

In the present text, a note on the distribu-
tion, a brief description with figure of the
species has been incorporated. The specimen
has been deposited at the Botanical Survey of
India, Northern Circle, Dehradun (BSD) and
Herbarium Garhwal University, Srinagar

(GUH, 5614).

Carex rostrata Stocks in With. Arrang. Brit.
PI. ed. 2. 2: 1059, 1787; Kuekenth. in Engl.,
Pflanzenr. 4 (20): Heft 38: 720, 1909 (excl.
syn.). (Figs. I&II).

Carex obtusangula Retz. FI. Scand. Prodr.
223, 1779.

C. hifurca Schrank, Baier. FI. 1: 304, 1789.
C. ampullacea Gooden, in Trans. Linn. Soc.
Bot. 2: 207, 1794; Kunth. Enum. PI. 2: 494,
1837.

C. longifolia Thuill. FI. Paris ed. 2: 490,
1790, non Host. 1809.

C. inf lata Sut. FI. helv. 2: 265, 1802, non
Huds. 1762.

C. vesicaria sensu Clarke in Hook. FI. Brit.
Ind. 6: 740, 1894, auct non Linn.

263

cm s.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

m. i

Carex rostrata Stocks

Fig. I. Flowering spikes (male and female).
Fig. II. A. Glume; B. Utricle.

264

0.* cm.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A glabrous loosely tufted herb. Rhizomes
woody, stoloniferous. Stem erect, compressed,
3-gonous, angles obtuse, 35-75 cm long, 0.2
cm thick, ribbed, glabrouse, covered at base by
leaf sheaths. Leaves basal and sub-basal ex-
ceeding the stems, flat or revolute on margins,
0.3-0.6 cm wide. Sheaths thick, dark-brown
black, slightly concave at mouth. Inflorescence
consisting of 5-7 spikelets, upper 1-4 spikelets
male, linear, 2.0-6.0 cm long, yellowish-brown,
dense flowered, remaining spikelets female or
uppermost androgynaecous. Staminate part
much shorter than the pistillate part, oblong-
cylindric, 5.0-7. 0 cm long, 0. 2-1.0 cm wide,
upper 2-3 spikelets approximate, sessile, lower-
most dense-flower distant, peduncled; peduncles
capillary, glabrous. Bracts of lower spikelets
foliaceous, upper bracts reduced to glumes,
hardly sheathing, auricled at base; auricles
brown, thick. Female glumes oblong-lanceo-
late, flat, apex acute, emarginate, 0.2-0. 4 cm
long, 0.1 cm wide, brown shining. Utricles

Plant Systematics and
EtH NOBOTANY LABORATORY,

Department of Botany,

Garhwal University,

Srinagar - 246 174, U.P.,

March 27, 1986.

ellipsoid-obovate, trigonous, inflated, 0.4-0. 6
cm long, 0. 1-0.2 cm wide, many nerved, emar-
ginate, abruptly contracted below into a beak;
beak shortly bifid, glabrous.

Flowering & Fruiting : May-November.

Carex rostrala Stocks has been previously
reported from Europe, Pakistan and Turkey
and Western Himalaya (Jammu and Kashmir)
in India. During a recent collection in July 1984-
85 this species was collected from Khatling
Glacier (Bhumka, 3200 m Tehri District), in
North-West Himalaya at the elevation of 3200
m. The plant grows on open sunny and alpine
slopes.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the authorities of BSI,
Northern Circle, Dehradun for Herbarium con-
sultation and to Dr (Mrs) Neelam Ghildyal
for the help in identification of the plant. We
are grateful to Depth of Environment, New
Delhi for financial assistance.

R. D. GAUR
K. S. NEGI
J. K. TIWARI

References

Kuekenthal, G. (1909): Cyperaceae-Caricoideae Hooker, J. D. (1894): Flora of British India. Vol.
in Engler Das Pflanzenreich IV: 20 Heft 38: 1-824. VI, pp. 740. (Reprinted by Bishen Singh and
ff. 1-128. Berlin. Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun).

39. TWO NEW RECORDS OF GRASSES FROM ANDHRA PRADESH

(With two text-figures)

The grasses Paspalum paspaloides (Michx.)
Scribn. and Rhynchelytrum repens (Willd.) C.
E. Hubb. recorded here are not reported by
earlier botanists from Andhra Pradesh. Illustra-
tions and distinguishing characters are given
for each of the species to facilitate their easy
identification. The citation and comprehensive
distribution data are included.

Rhynchelytrum repens (Willd.) C. E. Hubb. in
Kew Bull. 1934, 110. 1934; Bor Grass. India
355. Saccharum repens Willd. Sp. PI. 1.
322. 1798. Tricholaena rosea Nees Ind. Sem.
Hort. Vratisl. 1835 and in Linnaea 11, Litt
— Bericht, 129, 1837. Rhynchelytrum roseum
(Nees) Stapf & C. E. Hubb. ex Bews. The
World’s Grasses 223, 1929. Tricholaena

265

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Val. 84

Fig. 1. Rhynchelytrum repens (Willd.) C. E. Hubb. A. Plant; B. Spikelet; C. Lower
glume; D. Upper glume; E. Lower lemma; F. Upper lemma; G. Anther of lower
floret; H. Ovary of Upper bisexual floret; I. Anther of upper floret.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

repens (Willd.) Hitchc. Man. Grasses W.

Indies (U.S.D.A. Miscl. Publ. no. 213.

331) 1936. (Fig. 1)

This grass can readily be distinguishable by
its pink feathery panicles.

Flowering & Fruiting : August-November.

Distribution : andhra pradesh: Occasional
in plains and lower slopes. World distribution :
Tropical and South Africa.

Specimens examined : Kekathi RF (Ananta-
pur district), TP & NY 783; Rangapuram RF
(Kurnool district), RVR & GO 3352.
Paspaluni paspaloides (Michx.) Scribn. in Mem.

Torr. Bot. Club. 5. 29. 1894. Paspaluni dis-

tichum auct non Linn. 1759. Bor. Grass.

India 338; F.B.I. 7: 12. (Fig. 2).

A notable feature of this grass is that it
possesses slender rhizomes and extensive
stolons by means of which it forms loose mats
near marshy habitats.

Flowering & Fruiting : September-Novem-
ber.

Distribution : andhra pradesh : A very com-
mon grass of marshy areas and often as a
weed in rice fields. World distribution : Tropics
and sub tropics of the world.

Specimens examined : Pennahobilam (Anan-
tapur district), TP & NY 359; Vaddemanu
(Kurnool district), PVP & RVR 2529.

ACK NOWLEDGE M E NTS

Our grateful thanks are due to Dr. V. J.
Nair and Mr. P. V. Sreekumar of BSI, SC,
Coimbatore for their help in identification.

Department of Botany,

Sri Krishnadevaraya University,
Anantapur 515 003,

March 5, 1986.

Fig. 2. Paspalum paspaloides (Michx.) Scribn.

A. Plant; B. Spikelet; C. Upper glume; D. Lower
lemma; E. Upper lemma; F. Palea; G. Ovary and
anthers; H. Caryopsis.

N. YESODA
P. VENKATESWARA PRASANNA
R. R. VENKATA RAJU
T. PULLAIAH

267

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

40. RECTIFICATION OF THE POSITION OF ANTHRAXON
MICROPHYLLUS (TRIN.) HOCFIST. VAR. HINDUSTANICUS
(JAIN & DESHPANDE) ALMEIDA & ALMEIDA

Arthraxon micropkyllus (Trin.) Hochst. var.
hindustanicus (Jain & Deshpande) Almeida &
Almeida was originally described as a variety
of A. lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst. by Jain &
Deshpande (in Jain 1972). Almeida & Almeida
(1985). who supposed that A. lancifolius was
synonymous with A. micropkyllus , have pro-
vided a new combination for var. hindustanicus.
All unifications of the two species were per-
formed without study of the types, e.g. the
one by Hackel (1889) on which Almeida &
Almeida based their decision. A study by Jain

Rijksherbarium,

P. O. 9514, 2300 RA Leiden,

The Netherlands,

Refer

Almeida, S. M. & Almeida, M. R. (1985) : Arti-
cle 25 of ICBN and its application in nomenclatural
changes of some inter-specific taxa from India. 7.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(2 ) : 444-446.

Bor. N. L. (1972): A further note on Arthraxon
microphyllus (Trin.) Hochst. Ind. For. 98: 520-522.

Hackel, E. (1889): Andropogoneae. In : A. &C.
de Candolle: Monographiae Phaneroganum 6: 345-
359. Paris.

(1971) of the type material of A. microphyl-
lus (present in herbarium of Leningrad) re-
vealed that both species are distinct. This view
was followed by Bor (1972; his A. sikkim-
ensis is a synonym of A. microphyllus ) and
by myself (van Welzen 1981). Consequently
A. microphyllus var. hindustanicus is a syno-
nym of A. lancifolius var. hindustanicus, one
among the numerous synonyms within Arthra-
xon; in my revision I was even unable to
recognize any varieties within A. lancifolius.

P. C. van WELZEN

E N C E S

Jain, S. K. (1971) : A note on Arthraxon micro-
phyllus (Trin.) Hochst. Ind. For 97 : 220-222.

— (1972) : The genus Arthraxon P.

Beauv. (Poeceae) in India. 7. Ind. Bot. Soc. 51 : 176-
178.

Welzen, P. C. van (1981): A taxonomic revi-
sion of the genus Arthraxon Beauv. (Gramineae).
Blumea 27: 288-293.

268

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CONTENTS

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Changes in the soft part coloration of the Indian Reef Heron, Egretta gularis
(Bose) related to age and breeding status. By B. M. Parasharya and R.
M. Naik ‘

Survey of the Freshwater Turtles of India Part II: The Genus Kachuga .
By Edward O. Moll.

The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera:
Rhopalocera) . By Torben B. Larsen

Notes on comparative body size, reproductive effort and areas of manage-
ment priority for three species of Kachuga (Reptilia, Chelonia) in the
National Chambal Sanctuary. By R. J. Rao and L. A. K. Singh.

The genus Piper Linn, in Karnataka, India. By B. A. Rahiman and M. K. Nair.

Polychaeta of the Pulicat Lake (Tamil Nadu). By S. K. Sunder Raj and P. J.
Sanjeeva Raj

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History
Society— -32. By Humayun Abdulali

Geographical distributional list of Ichthyofauna of the Garhwal Himalaya
with some new records. By H. R. Singh, S. P. Badola and A. K. Dobriyal.

Sundarbans honey and the mangrove swamps. By Kalyan Chakrabarti

Annual reproductive cycle of the male field rat, Rattus rattus brunneusculus
(Hodgson) in hilly terrain of Mizoram. By N. S. Chauhan and R. N.
Saxena

Studies on Anopheles ( Cellia ) maculatus Theobald, 1901 in Bastar District,
India (Diptera: Culicidae). By Zakir Husain Husainy

On some insect galls on Tectona grandis Linn, from India. By P. Jayaraman.

Two unusual cases of homonymy in Orthoptera with new names for species
from India. By M. S. Shishodia and R. K. Varshney

New Descriptions

Obituary

Reviews

Miscellaneous Notes

1

7

26

55

66

84

105

126

133

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VOLUME 84(2) : AUGUST 1987

Date of Publication : 20-2-1988

CONTENTS

Page

Record of two unique observations of the Indian Cheetah in Tuzuk-i- Jahangir i.

By Divyabhanusinh . . 269

Birds of Deforested Hills. By Prakash Gole. (With two text-figures) . . 275

The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera :

Rhopalocera) . By Torben B. Larsen 291

Interspecific behaviour of the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps

(Vigors). By Asad R. Rahmani and Ranjit Manakadan. ( With seven plates) 317

Breeding of pond-raised hybrids of Mahseer fish, Tor khudree (Sykes) and

T. tor (Ham.). By S. N. Ogale and C. V. Kulkarni . . 332

Feeding behaviour of free-ranging Rhesus of Tughlaqabad. By Iqbal Malik

and Charles Southwick . . 336

Impact of the food availability, nesting-habitat destruction and cultural
variations of human settlements on the nesting distribution of a
coastal bird, Egretta gularis, in Western India. By R. M. Naik and B. M.
Parasharya. ( With seven plates and five text-figures) . . 350

Mating behaviour and mate choice by wild Axis Deer in Sri Lanka. By Cyrille

Barrette. (With five plates) . . 361

Material for the Flora of Mahabaleshwar — 8. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida 372

New Descriptions:

A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF PYRAUSTINAE (PYRALIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA) FROM INDIA.

By H. S. Rose and Jagbir Singh Kirti. (With five text-figures) . . 392

A new species OF Lathromeromyia of the subgenus Lathromeromina (Hymenop-
tera: Trichogrammatidae) from the eggs of Corythauma ayyari (Hete-
roptera: Tingidae). By David Livingstone and Mohammed Yacoob. (With
seven text-figures) . . 395

Homoeogryllus indicus sp. nov. (Orthoptera: Phalangopsidae) from Madhya

Pradesh, India. By S. M. Agarwal and K. M. Sinha. (With four text-figures) 398

A new species of genus Dacus Fabricius (Tephritidae: Diptera) from India.

By Premlata and Awtar Singh. (With six text-figures) . . 401

A new species of genus Lithurgus Latreille, (Hymenoptera : Apoidea: Mega-
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text-figures) . . 405

Syzygium parameswaranii (Myrtaceae) — A new species from southern India.

By M. Mohanan and A. N. Henry. (With a text-figure) . . 408

On the identity of three new species of Urginea (Liliaceae). By D. B. Deb

and Syamali Dasgupta . . 409

A new species of Lasianthus (Rubiaceae) from Burma. By D. B. Deb and

Mohan Gangopadhyay. {With a text-figure ) . . 412

Reviews :

1. Shorebirds in Australia. (Humayun Abdulali) 415

2. Invertebrate Zoology. (B. F. Chhapgar) . . 415

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Neonatal mortality among some captive mammals at Nandankanan Zoo.
By L. N. Acharjyo and A. T. Rao (p. 418); 2. Reaction towards sick animals by con-
specifics in the common grey langur {Presbytis entellus). By R. Mathur and A. Lobo
(p. 421); 3. Hyena predating on a domestic calf. By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 422);

4. The wolf ( Canis lupus ) of Mewar Region, Rajasthan. By Raza Tehsin (p. 422); 5. On
a collection of Long-Eared Bats of the Genera Otonyeteris Peters and Plecotus Geoffroy
(Family: Vespertilionidae) from Kashmir Valley. By Surendra Nath (p. 425); 6. Unusual
nest site of a three striped Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum at Point Calimere. By

5. Alagar Rajan, S. Balachandran and P. Balasubramanian (p. 426); 7. A note on the
post-partum reproduction in the short-tailed Bandicoot Rat ( Nesokia indicd) . By N. P. S.
Chauhan (p. 426); 8. Albinism in the blue bull or Nilgai, Boselaphus tragoeamelus (Pallas,
1766). By J. Smielowski (p. 427).

Birds: 9. Microscopic identification of feathers aiding bird hazard prevention programme
in India. {With two plates ). By Lima Rosalind and Robert B. Grubh (p. 429); 10. Great
crested grebe sighting. By Amrut Dhanwatay (p. 431); 11. On the capture of Wilson’s
storm Petrel Oceanites oceanicus oceanicus (Khul) from the South East Coast of India.
By D. B. James (p. 432); 12. First report of Masked Booby, Sula dactylatra from the
shores of coastal Karnataka. {With a photograph ). By N. A. Madhyastha (p. 433); 13. The
Goshawk, Accipiter gentilis (Linne) in Poona, Maharashtra. By Shrikant Ingalhalikar,
Taej Mundkur and Tejas Gole (p. 434); 14. On the identification of some Indian Buzzards.
By Hanne Secher (p. 435); 15. The Sandwich Tern {Sterna sandvicensis ) in Sri Lanka.
By Thilo W. Hoffmann (p. 440); 16. Kashmir Roller {Coracias garrulus Linnaeus) in
Ranebennur, Karnataka. By S. Subramanya, N. N. Gopalakrishna, R. Vasudev and Vinayak
Kapatral (p. 442); 17. An interesting feeding behaviour of the Whitecheeked Nuthatch
{Sitta leucopsis ). By Nitin Jamdar (p. 443); 18. Munias as facultative nest parasites.
By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 444).

Reptiles: 19. Additions to the Herpetofauna of Chilka Lagoon, Orissa. By T. S. N. Murthy
and Kaza V. Rama Rao (p. 444); 20. Retention of eggs by the Emydine Turtles Kachuga
tectum tectum and Kachuga smithi. By V. K. Gupta (p. 445); 21. Turtles using domestic
buffaloes as basking rafts. {With a photograph ). By Erach Bharucha (p. 447); 22. A note
on the breeding of Estuarine Crocodile {Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) at Nandankanan
Biological Park, Orissa. By L. N. Acharjyo and S. K. Patnaik (p. 448); 23. Food of
the Common Skink Mabuya cctrinata (Schneider). By Raju Vyas (p. 450); 24. Killing
of the Yellow Monitor, Varanus flavescens (Gray 1827) (Squamata: Sauria) in some
villages of Birbhum District. West Bengal, India. {With a photograph ). By S. Chakra-
borty and R. Chakraborty (p. 450).

Insects: 25. A note on predation of Catopsilia sp. (Lepidoptera : Pieridae) by birds and
wasp. By H. M. Patel, D. N. Yadav, B. M. Parasharya and R. C. Patel (p. 452); 26. Record
of new alternate host plants of spiny bollworm Earias insulana Boisduval. By K.
K. Mrig. Ram Singh, J. P. Chaudhary (p. 454); 27. First record of Coccinellimermis
rubtzov (Mermithidae) from India. By M. Rhamhalinghan (p. 455); 28. First records
of predators of cotton pests in the Punjab. By Joginder Singh, Ramesh Arora and A. S.
Sidhu (p. 456); 29. The House Sparrow Passer domesticus (Linn.) as a predator of the
peach leaf curl Aphid Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kaltenbach) . By G. S. Mann (p. 457).

Botany: 30. New taxa of the genus Lasianthus (Rubiaceae). ( With three text-figures).
By D. B. Deb and Mohan Gangopadhyay (p. 458); 31. Massive occurrence of Enhydra
fluctuans Lour. (Enydra) in a city Pond. ( With a text figure). By S. M. Almeida and
A. R. Daruwalla (p. 463); 32. Occurrence of three interesting plants at Nandur Madh-
meshwar, Nasik District, Maharashtra. ( With three text-figures). By Rajendra Shinde and
S. M. Almeida (p. 465); 33. Nomenclatural notes on Embelia robusta Auct. Mult., non
Roxb. (Myrsinaceae). By G. Panigrahi and S. M. Almeida (p. 470); 34. New taxa of
Anabaena Bory — The blue green algae from Paddy fields of Karnataka State (India).
{With three text-figures). By U. D. Bongale (p. 473); 35. Variability in Balanites roxburghii
PL. in the Indian Desert. By V. A. Amalraj and K. A. Shankamarayan (p. 476); 36. Addi-
tional reports of the Asteraceae for Punjab State. By M. Sharma (p. 478); 37. Limnological
investigation in the Back-water Lagoon of Gopalpur-on-sea. {With two text-figures). By
Siba P. Adhikary (p. 480); 38. Additions to the pteridophytic flora of Kumaun and
Nainital (Western Himalaya). By Y. P. S. Pangtey and S. S. Samant (p. 486); 39. On
the occurrence of few little known plant species from Garhwal Himalaya. {With two text-
figures). By R. A. Silas and R. D. Gaur (p. 489); 40. Correct name for Antidesma
ghesaembilla Gaertn. By M. R. Almeida and S. M. Almeida (p. 492); 41. New records
of freshwater Algae from Karnataka State (India). {With two plates). By G. R. Hegde
and L. V. Karanth (p. 493); 42. Limnology of the thermal springs of Orissa. {With two
text-figures). By S. P. Adhikary and Jayanti Sahu (p. 497).

Ilf

9 Jk*

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-A 1

V ■■■
tOOI!

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1987 AUGUST

Vol. 84

No. 2

RECORD OF TWO UNIQUE OBSERVATIONS OF THE
INDIAN CHEETAH IN TUZUK-I-JAHANGIR11
Divyabhanusinh2

The Mughal Emperor Jahangir, who ruled
from 1605 to 1627 A.D., was an enigmatic person
deserving the highest attention of any Natu-
ralist. Inheritor of a large empire and successor
to Akbar the great, he had the leisure, incli-
nation and talent to hunt and observe Nature
with such an astonishing accuracy that one
would ascribe his observations to a scientific
investigator of a later date. His memoirs, the
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, are replete with descriptions
of hunts, animal behaviour, plants, fruits and
even of a comet and a meteorite. He went to
the extent of having some of his trophies
weighed, measured and recorded, and in some
cases, had them even dissected in his presence
to satisfy his ever curious mind.

Ur like his father. Emperor Akbar, who
caused his reign to be chronicled by his cour-
r \bul Fazl, Jahangir chose to write his
memoirs like his great-grandfather Babur,
vccepted March 1986.

umber One, Man Singh Road, New Delhi-
11.

This he did in his own hand for the first 16
years of his 22 year reign. Many manuscripts
survive but for the purpose of this article we
shall confine ourselves to the edition of Sayyid
Ahmad printed in Ghazipur in 1863 and
Aligarh in 1864 which is accepted as the
authentic version. It was translated into English
by Alexander Rogers and edited by Henry
Beveridge and published between 1909 and
1914.

I. In the third year of his reign (1608 A.D.),
the Emperor records the following event:

‘On this day3 Raja Bir Singh Deo brought
a white cheeta to show me. Although other
sorts of creatures, both birds and beasts, have
white varieties, which they call tuyghan, I had
never seen a white cheeta. Its spots which are
(usually) black, were of a blue colour, and
the whiteness of the body was also inclined to
bluishness. Of the albino animals that I have

3 Saturday, 21st March or Sunday, 22nd March.
The text is confusing about the day and date,
though the month is not in doubt.

269

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

seen there are falcons, sparrow-hawks, hawks
(, Shikara ) that they call bigu in the Persian
language, sparrows, crows, partridges, florican,
podna (Sylvia olivacea) [sic.], and peacocks.
Many hawks in aviaries are albinos. I have
also seen white flying mice (flying squirrels)
and some albinos among the black antelope,
which is a species found only in Hindustan.
Among the chikara (gazelle), which they call
safida in Persia, I have frequently seen albinos”
(Rogers and Beveridge, pp. 139-40, Vol. I,
1909).

Let us look closely at the passage and see
what it portends. The Emperor wrote his
memoirs in Persian and the words for the
white cheetah in the text are yuz-i safed. The
Persians like the Arabs used the cheetah
(Acinonyx jubatus) for hunting and distin-
guished it from the panther by giving it a dis-
tinct name. In Persian the word is yuz while
in Arabic it is fahd. On the other hand, the
much confused panther or leopard (Panthera
pardus ), was identified by the Persian word
palang and by the Arabic word namir
respectively. Jahangir was a keen hunter, who
often hunted with cheetahs in the tradition of
his father. It is inconceivable for anyone
familiar with his life and times to believe that
he could have confused the two Safed ,
ofcourse, means white.

It is pertinent to note that even Maasir-i
Jahangiri, a chronicle of Jahangir’s reign
written by one of his courtiers Khwaja Kamgar
Husaini, also records this event and does so
precisely though it is silent regarding the other
white birds and animals seen by the Emperor
(Alavi, p. 113, 1978).

It is therefore strange that Alvi and Rahman
(p. 51, 1968) have taken the words to mean
a snow leopard (Panthera uncia). Raja Bir
Singh Deo was from Orcha in Central India.
It is most unlikely that he would have come
across a snow leopard in his life. On the other

hand his area must have had a large cheetah
population if blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra ),
cheetahs’ main prey, were any indication.
British naturalist-sportsmen reported seeing
groups of these antelopes of a thousand strong
upto the days of the Mutiny (Forsyth, p. 60,
1886). Actually, it is recorded that cheetahs
were caught from Mughal hunting grounds
some 90 kilometres north-west of Orcha and
elsewhere in Central India (Habib, Sheet 8B,
1982). It is more likely that a snow leopard
(if there was one) would have accompanied
as Himalayan prince whose name could not
have ended with the suffix “singh deo” which
is found only in a tract of land from Central
India to Orissa.

The Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri text under reference
gives the name as Raja Narsingh Deo. A
person by this name does not feature other-
wise in the life of Jahangir. Whereas, Raja
Bir Singh Deo of Orcha was a close confidant
of Jahangir, a frequent visitor to the imperial
court and indeed the nemesis of Abul Fazl at
the instance of Prince Salim. In all probability,
the slip has occurred in transcribing the text
from the original.4 However, Maasir-i Jahan-
giri in its account gives the name correctly as
Raja Bir Singh Deo (Alavi, p. 113, 1978).

Further, the passage describes in detail the
“blue” spots and the whiteness of the body
of the animal. In other words, the animal
lacked pigmentation of its hair except the light
or blue spots, and nor does Jahangir comment
on the colour of its eyes. If there was some-
thing unusual about them, would the emperor

4 Such a slip has also occurred in Amal-i-Saleh a
chronicle of Shah Jahan’s reign (Yazdani, p. 123,
Vol. II, 1927). The name of Jhujhar Bundela’s father
is given as Nar Singh Deo while it is well known
that he was the son of Raja Bir Singh Deo. Obvi-
ously the transcriber/editor has confused the word
“Bir” with “Nar” which when written in Persian
looks almost alike with a difference of only the dots
for the letter, “noon” (Above) and “ba” (below).

270

INDIAN CHEETAH IN TUZUK-I-JAHANGIRI

have omitted its description? To illustrate the
point let me quote Jahangir’s reaction on seeing
a Zebra at his court in the fifteenth year of his
reign (1620 A.D.): “I saw a wild ass ( gur -
khar), exceedingly strange in appearance,
exactly like a Hon [sic.]. From the tip of the
nose to the end of the tail, and from the point
of the ear to the top of the hoof, black mark-
ings, large or small, suitable to their position,
were seen on it. Round the eyes there was an
exceedingly fine black line. One might say the
painter of fate, with a strange brush, had left
it on the page of the world. As it was strange,
some people imagined that it had been colour-
ed. After minute enquiry into the truth, it
became known that the Lord of the world
was the Creator thereof” (Rogers and Beve-
ridge, p. 201, Vol. II, 1914).

To get back to the cheetah, Jahangir was
so astonished at the sight of this particular
animal, that he lists all the white animals and
birds he had seen and comments with wonder
that he had never seen such an animal before.
The passage in question should be looked at
more closely as the Rogers and Beveridge
translation is not as accurate as one would
have wished.

In describing the animal’s spots the Persian
text uses the words neela rang, i.e. blue colour.
In the translation it is stated that the whiteness
of the body “was also inclined to bluishness”.
However, a more accurate rendering would
have been “inclined to ( hamagi mail dasht in
Persian) the same colour” (i.e. of the spots).
The passage from Maasir-i Jahangiri which

5 The editor has written the sentence as “safedi-ye
badan-i u niz mail-ba milki dasht". This in my
opinion is an error in transcribing the text. The
word milki here appears to be meaningless. There is
a strong possibility that this word is nilaki which
when written in Persian resembles very much the
word milki. Nilak in Persian means bluish, a little
blue.

records the same event when translated reads
thus: “Raja Bir Singh Deo brought to the
emperor a white cheetah. Its spots which are
normally black, were of blue colour, and the
whiteness of its body was also inclined to
bluishness” (Alavi, p. 113, 1978) 5.

In other words the white of the body had a
tinge of blue. The light spots of the animal
could have looked bluish with the white areas
of the body tinged with the same colour with
a side light falling on it. This is noticeably the
case with the stripes of a white tiger.

In the translation the word albino is used
at three places. However, in each case the
word in the text is tuyghan which is a Turkish
word and means white. A white animal can
be either a mutant or an albino, as such, the
translation is misleading. Now let us look at
the white birds and animals seen by the Em-
peror: (a) Shahin (translated falcon) is deriv-
ed from the Persian Shah een asth meaning a
“king among raptors”, it is Falco peregrinus ;
(b) Basha (translated Sparrow-hawk) is Acci-
piter nisus; (c) Shikara (translated hawks) is
Accipiter bad i us; (d) Kunjashk (translated
sparrows) is a general term in Persian for
many small birds but it is mainly applied to
sparrows; (e) Za-gh (translated crow) can be
a jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos , or a
house crow C. splendens, or a carrion crow
C. corone, or a raven C. corax; (f) Kabk
(translated partridge) is the Persian chukor,
Alectoris chukor; (g) Durraj (translated flori-
can) is the grey partridge, Francolinus pondi-
cerianus; (h) Podna or bodana is the grey quail,
Coturnix coturnix; (i) Taus (translated pea-
cocks) is the common peafowl, Pavo cristatus;
(j) Baz (translated hawks) is the goshawk, Acci-
piter gentilis; (k) Mush-i paran (translated flying
mice, flying squirrel) can be any one of the
eleven different forms of flying squirrels found
in the sub-continent; (1) Ahu-i siyah (trans-

271

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

lated black antelope) is the blackbuck, Anti-
lope cervicapra ; (m) Chikara (translated

gazelle) is the Indian Gazelle, Gazella gazella.

It is apparent from the foregoing that
Jahangir took great care to write this passage
for, the event he was recording was unique
indeed. What he was describing is a mutant
cheetah rather than an albino. At any rate this
is the only known record of a white cheetah
throughout history.

Jahangir made a practice of commissioning
his court painters to paint interesting birds and
animals. For example, a turkey ( Theleagris
gailapova ) reached his court from Goa. Not
only did Jahangir order his painters to paint
it, but also he went to great lengths to des-
cribe it, for he found the bird strange (Rogers
and Beveridge, pp. 215-17, Vol. I, 1909). In
another instance, Jahangir was so impressed
by a falcon [identified by Dr. Salim Ali (Das
1983) as a red capped or Barbary falcon
( Falco peregrinus bahylonieus)] that was pre-
sented to him, that he specifically instructed
his Master painter Mansur, to paint it even
after the bird had died (Rogers and Beveridge,
pp. 107-8, Vol. II, 1914). Both these paint-
ings survive, the former is preserved at the
Victoria and Albert Museum, London, while
the latter is at the Maharaja Sawai Man
Singh II Museum, Jaipur.

The memoirs make no mention of the white
cheetah (or for that matter any of the other
white birds or animals recorded in the passage)
being painted. In this context, it may be noted
that many animals and birds were painted by
Jahangir’s painters of which there is no men-
tion in the memoirs. Thus to mention but two
startling instances, there is a painting of a
Mauritius dodo ( Raphus cucullatus L.) con-
sidered by Dr. Salim Ali “to be the most
scientifically accurate one extant” (Alvi &
Rahman, p. 17, 1968), and there is a remark-
ably accurate painting of a Siberian crane

(Grus leucogeranus) done one hundred years
before the bird itself was scientifically describ-
ed by Peter S. Pallas (Sauey 1981). Both
these paintings are attributed to Ustad Mansur
and fortunately both survive to this day, the
former is preserved at the Hermitage, Lenin-
grad, while the latter is at the Indian Museum,
Calcutta. Did Jahangir have the white cheetah
painted by one of his master painters? Did
his court painters paint this rare animal as a
matter of course? These questions must remain
unanswered as such a painting has not been re-
ported.6

0 There are other instances of white birds and
animals recorded by the Mughals some of which
may be noted: (a) Jauhar Aftabchi, Humayun’s

ewer bearer, who chronicled his master’s life during
the reign of Emperor Akbar, notes that Humayun
ordered his painters to take the likeness of a white
bird encountered by him (Das 1983). (b) The illus-
trated royal copy of the Akbarnama preserved in
the Victoria and Albert, Museums, London contains
a painting of Akbar slaying a tigress (Panther a
tigris ) near Gwalior in 1561 A.D. Two of the five
sub-adult cubs slain with the mother are white
(Divyabhanusinh 1986). (c) Emperor Jahangir him-
self received a gift of five “tuyghun ” (White) Baz
(Accipiter gentilis, could they have been A. g. albidus
of which form “about 50% are white with pale
bars”? Brown and Amadon, p. 454, Vol. II, 1968)
erroneously translated as falcon, from Transoxiana
in the thirteenth year of his reign, 1618 A.D. (Rogers
& Beveridge, p. 10, Vol. II, 1914). (d) A white
elephant (Elephas maximus indicus ) reached Akbar’s
court from Arakan and a painting of this animal
survives. Another white elephant reached Emperor
Shah Jahan according to the Padshah Nama.
(Chandra 1955-56) and there is a painting of
“Dara Shikoh on a pink elephant” attributed to the
famous painter Bichiter dated C 1628-30 A. D.
(Beach, p. 105, facing p. 176, 1978). (e) A Mughal
album of Emperor Aurangzeb’s time preserved in
Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II Museum, Jaipur,
contains a painting which has an albino house crow
and a partial albino house crow ( Corvus splendens)
according to the identification done by Dr. Salim
Ali (Das 1983).

272

INDIAN CHEETAH IN TUZUK-I-JAHANGIRI

II. In the eighth year of his reign (1613 A.D.),
the Emperor records the following event:

“It is an established fact that cheetahs in

unaccustomed places do not pair off with a
female, for my revered father once collected
together 1000 cheetahs. He was very desirous
that they should pair, but this in no way came
off. He had many times coupled male and
female cheetahs together in gardens, but there,
too, it did not come off. At this time
a male cheetah, having slipped its collar,
went to a female and paired with it, and after
two and a half months three young ones were
born and grew up” (Rogers and Beveridge,
p. 240, Vol. I, 1909). Maasir-i Jahangiri re-
cords this event as well, and it contains exactly
the same information (Alavi, p. 169, 1978).

This passage of the Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri is
well-known and it has also been noted by
scholars in the past (e.g. Ali 1927, Alvi and
Rahman, p. 44, 1968). However, there are
certain unique aspects of the event recorded in
it which have been overlooked.

Firstly, this is the only record in history of
trained cheetahs breeding. That these were
Indian cheetahs makes it truly unique. Second-
ly, this is the only known instance of cheetahs
breeding in captivity anywhere until the second
half of this century. Philadelphia Zoo, U.S.A.
bred African cheetahs in 1956 (Eaton, p. 33,
1974) thus, becoming the first to do so in cap-
tivity in our time. The period of gestation
according to Jahangir was 75 days plus, for
he records that the birth of 3 cubs took place
“after two and a half months”. No record is
available of the breeding habits of the Indian
cheetahs in the wild (Prater, p. 81, 1948) 7
while this is the only recorded instance in
captivity. Information is available however, on
the African cheetahs. In twelve instances ob-
served between 1964 and 1968, the period of
gestation varied between 86 and 95 days
(Eaton, p. 30, 1974). Twentysix instances of

births were recorded among African cheetahs
in captivity between 1956 and 1971. Of these,
in 14 cases only a single cub was born, in 6
cases the litter was of 2 cubs each and in 6
cases the litter was of 3 cubs each (Eaton,
p. 33, 1974). Thirdly, it is important to note
that these cheetahs mated, conceived and pro-
duced cubs in captivity without any artificial
interference, inducement or assistance. In fact,
imperial attempts to induce breeding among
cheetahs failed during the time of Emperor
Akbar as the passage records. Finally, it is
noteworthy that the cubs survived and grew
up.

Actually, the rarity of this event was not
lost on the ever so keenly observant Emperor
though he did not have the benefit of our
knowledge. He concludes this passage with the
statement: “This has been recorded because
it appeared strange” (Rogers and Beveridge,
p. 240, Vol. I, 1909).

7 There is a tantalising miniature painting dated
C 1570 A.D. and tentatively attributed to Akbar’s
famous painter Basawan, of “A family of cheetahs in
a rocky landscape”. Its contents are described thus :
“The mother lying in a glade, suckling one of her
four cubs while grooming another, the other two
playing in the foreground, the male cheetah lying
amongst rocks on the right, a tree on the left with
two palm squirrels, a pair of birds, and a monkey
who watches the cats with interest” (Falk, Frontis-
piece, p. 18, 1978).

There are many paintings of cheetahs of the
Mughal period but these are of hunts, court scenes,
and such like. This is the only known surviving
instance of a painting depicting a cheetah family
in their natural surroundings. It may be possible
that the animals portrayed here were studied from
tame specimen. Yet it is a known fact that Mughal
painters had personal field knowledge of animals
in the wild since they accompanied their royal
masters on hunts, travels and expeditions. Could this
painting be the record by the painter of a natural
scene observed by him? If so, we have a litter of
four cubs in an Indian cheetah family in the wild.

273

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. Asok Kumar Das,
Director, Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II
Museum, Jaipur, for drawing my attention to
the passage of the white cheetah in the Tuzuk-i-
Jahangiri ; to Dr. Muzaffar Alam of Jawahar-
lal Nehru University, New Delhi, who helped
in examining the Persian texts; to Mr. Moha-

mad Osman Amir of Dehra Dun who helped
me to identify the birds and animals mention-
ed in the passage; and to M. K. Ranjitsinhji
who read the draft of the article and made
valuable suggestions.

Their generosity has greatly contributed to
the making of this article. However, I am
solely responsible for inaccuracies if any.

Refer

Alavi, Azara (Edt. by) (1978) : Maasir-i Jahan -
giri by Khwaja Kamgar Husaini. Bombay.

Ali, Salim A. (1927) : The Moghul Emperors of
India as Naturalists and Sportsmen. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc., p. 851, Vol. XXXI, No. 4, Bombay.

Alvi, M. A. & Rahman, A. (1968): Jahangir:
The Naituralist. New Delhi.

Beach, Milo Cleveland (1978): The Grand
Mogul: Imperial Painting in India 1600-1660,

Williamstown, Mass.

Brown, Leslie & Amadon, Dean (1979): Eagles,
Hawks and Falcons of the World, London, 1968.

Chandra, Moti (1955-56) : The White Elephant.
Lalit Kala, pp. 96-7, Nos. 1-2, New Delhi.

Das, A. K. (1983): Treasures of Indian Painting,
Series 4, Jaipur.

Divyabhanusinh (1986): The white Predator,
Chronicles in the Akbarnama. The India Magazine,
pp. 20-27, New Delhi. February.

Eaton, Randall L. (1974): The cheetah: The
Biology, Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered

EN CES

species. (Malabar, Florida, U.S.A., 1982).

Falk, Toby & Smart, Ellan S. (1978) : Indian
Painting : Mughal and Rajput and a Sultanate Manus-
cript. London.

Forsyth, Capt. J. (1889) : The Highlands of Cen-
tral India. London. 1889. (New Delhi, 1975).

Habib, Irfan (1982): An Atlas of Mughal India.
Delhi. (Delhi, 1986).

Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Ani-
mals. Bombay Natural Hisitory Society. Bombay.
(Bombay, 1980).

Rogers, Alexander & Beveridge, Henry (Edt. &
tr, by) (1909-1914) : The T uzuk-i-J ahangiri or Me-
moirs of Jahangir. (New Delhi, 1978).

Sauey, Ronald (1981) : Saving the Siberian

Crane, An International Effort. Span Magazine, p. 23,
New Delhi.

Yazdani, Ghulam (Edt. by) (1927) : Amal-i-
Saleh or Shah Jahan Nama by Mohamed Saleh
Kambo, Vol. II, Calcutta.

274

BIRDS OF DEFORESTED HILLS1

Prakash Gole2
{With two text-figures)

The hills of Western Ghats south of Bombay
(roughly between latitude 18°N to 19°N)
present more or less a very barren aspect.
Large trees or groves of trees are few and far
between and extensive tracts even lack shrub-
bery. During the rainy season these hills are
covered with grass but as the dry season is
ushered in, grazing and lack of moisture take
their toll, grass withers, shrubs wilt and the
soil is exposed to the full impact of the sun
and the wind. Just before the rainy season,
dried grasses are set afire presumably in the
hope of getting a luxuriant cover of grass
once again.

Rainfall in these hills ranges from 9000 mm
to 2000 mm per year and decreases rapidly
from west to east. Inspite of a prolonged dry
season which lasts roughly from October to
May, the annual rainfall appears to be suffi-
cient to cover these hills with a varied forest,
yet the hills present a barren aspect today.

When and how the process of deforestation
of these hills began is nowhere documented
in detail. The process might have begun in the
closing years of the last century and gradually
gathered momentum. For, in the nineteen-
thirties one Mr. Garland, a forest officer, in
his working plan of Pune District has express-
ed surprise in finding these hills so barren and
bereft of trees (Garland 1934). It means that
even more than fifty years ago these hills
lacked tree-cover to any appreciable extent.

1 Accepted June 1985.

2 IB, ‘Abhimanshree’ Society, Pashan Road, Pune-
411 008.

What could be the causes that led to de-
forestation of these hills? The same forest
officer’s remarks are interesting enough. He
says, “In the west (i.e. in Western Ghats) the
main influence of man appears to be due to
shifting cultivation and in the east due to
grazing and cutting for fuel and house timber.
Burning for obtaining a grass crop is also evi-
dent wherever rainfall is above or about 70
cm.” (Garland, loc. tit). These remarks aptly
describe the conditions in Western Ghats in
the area which I have been studying for the last
two years. This area is the 120.80 sq. km.
catchment area of the Panshet dam located
about 42 km to the west of Pune city. The
Panshet reservoir supplies drinking water to
the city as well as irrigation to the areas further
to south-east in the direction of Solapur. The
dam is built on the river Ambi which is a
tributary of the river Mutha which flows
through Pune city. The Ambi originates near
Dapsar on the main ridge of Western Ghats
at a height of about 1200 metres. It flows west
through the hills for a distance of about 30 km
to Panshet where its valley is reduced to a
narrow neck facilitating the construction of the
dam.

Before the dam was built the peasants of
the Ambi valley cultivated rice on the valley
floor which was fertile and practised shifting
cultivation on the lower and middle slopes of
the surrounding hills by clearing the vegetation
but sparing such economically important trees
as mango ( Mangifera indicd) and Hirda ( Ter -
minalia chebula). Forest of moist deciduous

275

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi 84

to semi-evergreen type of trees was mainly
restricted to upper hill slopes and was cate-
gorised as reserve forest. Due to lack of trans-
port facilities these forests were not worked.
But when it was decided to construct the dam,
a road was built to link Panshet with Pune.
As the valley floor was going to be submerged
the cultivators sold off the trees standing on
their lands to timber and charcoal merchants
of Pune who could cart away the wood in
trucks thanks to the construction of the road.
The contractors from the city even bought out
the trees on lower and middle slopes leading
to their almost complete deforestation (Gadgil
1979). The people whose lands were submerg-
ed under the reservoir were asked to resettle
on the stony, dry plateaus near Dhond south-
east of Pune near the end of the command
area. Many of them returned to Panshet catch-
ment, being unable to adjust to the new sur-
roundings and populated the slopes above the
reservoir level where they began the age-old
practice of shifting cultivation for hill millets,
and became dependent on this type of culti-
vation having lost their paddy fields under the
reservoir. They even encroached upon the
reserve forest areas for their fuel needs,
timber and to a lesser extent for grazing their
cattle. Consequently most of the reserve forest
areas have been cut up and burnt. The only
redeeming feature in this picture of deforesta-
tion is the presence of certain sacred groves
which are dedicated to tribal deities and are
not to be overtly cut.

Physical Character of the Hills :

The hills of the Panshet catchment area
form part of the great trap region of the Deccan
Plateau. The general aspect of the hills is very
rugged and much cut up by gorges and ravines,
through which a number of streams, many of
them only seasonal, flow. Beyond Dapsar (see
Fig. 1) near the western end of the catchment.

the descent to the Konkan from the main ridge
of the Ghats, is abruptly precipitous. But to
the east the hills taper off gradually, though
till Panshet their character remains fairly
rugged and difficult of access.

Basalt or Deccan trap which is the result
of volcanic lava flows, occupies the hills in the
catchment area. It is normally dark grey or
blue grey in colour. The rock weathers into
a disintegrated form known as Murrum and
finally produces soils of varying depth, texture
and colour. The red soils are common in
these hills. They are generally shallow and
coarse and often spoilt by a mixture of gravel.
Soils produced from Murrum mostly lack in
humus, are non-acid and naturally well-drained
by the under-lying murrum.

The Western Ghats present a formidable
barrier to the monsoon winds that come in
from south-west after collecting a lot of mois-
ture over the Arabian sea. Thus during the
rainy season the effect of the ridge of Western
Ghats on the western boundary is not only
to cause excessive precipitation on the ridge
itself, but also to create a rain-shadow to
leeward side so that there is an amazingly
sudden drop in rainfall on the eastern side.
This is well illustrated by the rainfall data given
in Table 1.

In the table the year 1960 was the year
when the dam was almost complete and water
was impounded for the first time. I began the
present study in July 1983 and the other years
in the table present rainfall data of the period
just preceding the year 1983. The four rain-
gauges are located to the west of the dam
site, i.e. Panshet is near the dam site;
Shirkoli and Mangaon are respectively further
to the west and Dapsar is at the western end
of the catchment, just below the crest-line of
the main ridge.

It will be seen from Table 1 that village
Dapsar which is situated near the western end

276

PANSHET CATCHMENT! SPREAD OF RESERVOIR

BIRDS OF DEFORESTED HILLS

211

TALUKA VELHE 0 X? 1 2 Miles , 6a0,han

The pattern of annual rainfall in the study

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

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BIRDS OF DEFORESTED HILLS

of the catchment, experiences an average
annual rainfall of 9193 mm. Further east at
Mangaon and Shirkoli the average annual rain-
fall drops to 5446 mm and 3630 mm respec-
tively. While still further east at Panshet the
annual average drops to 2157 mm. As said
above the dry season begins in October and
continues till the end of May during which
temperatures vary between 17°-18°C to 35 °-
37 °C. In the absence of biotic interference the
character of vegetation and birds should cor-
respond to the climatic conditions. In such
climatic conditions the character of vegetation
in the catchment may probably vary from dry
deciduous in the east to evergreen in the ex-
treme west where the rainfall is the highest.
However, biotic disturbances make it difficult
to identify natural climax vegetation. It can
only be guessed from a study of the vegetation
of groves sacred to temples as vegetation in
these sacred groves has remained more or
less undisturbed over a considerable period of
time, and of forest patches found in certain
inaccessible situations. The varied nature of
vegetation existing over the remainder of the
catchment may also help in this guesswork.
Likewise the bird-life of sacred groves and
that found in remote forest patches may pro-
vide clues to the character of bird-life that
should prevail in this region in the absence of
biotic interference. But before we consider the
character of vegetation in greater detail, it will
be convenient for our purposes to divide the
study area into smaller manageable segments.

The Three Zones :

Three factors namely, the rainfall, the
character of vegetation and the degree
of influence of biotic factors, have been taken
into account in dividing the catchment into
three zones. The first zone extends from the
dam site to village Givashi (see Fig. 2) on the
right bank of the river Ambi and Ambegaon

Khurd on its left bank. This zone with an
annual average rainfall between 2000 and 3000
mm has been subjected to maximum pressure
from biotic factors and presents a denuded
and devastated aspect. The second zone ex-
tending westwards from Ambegaon Khurd
and Givashi and reaching Kasedi on the left
and Mangaon on the right bank, bears an
average annual rainfall of 3100 to 6000 mm
and may be termed as a buffer zone between
the low rainfall first zone and the high rainfall
third zone, lying still to the west. The third or
the last zone which includes the source region
of the river Ambi stretches westward from
Mangaon and Kasedi to the crest-line of the
main ridge of the Western Ghats. The annual
average rainfall in this zone ranges between
6001 mm to over 9000 mm.

Vegetation of the Three Zones :

The first zone presents an aspect of intense
devastation and denudation. As biotic influ-
ences are severe, a sub -climax with grasses as
dominants and only scattered trees and shrubs
has become established. Only a few mango
trees are left standing and lands lying fallow
have been run over by Lantana camara and
less nutritive grasses like Themeda quadravul-
vis and Heteropogon contortus. The next in
dominance is Terminalia tomentosa. But the
stability of associations among the sub-climax
especially the grasses, can be easily disturbed.
Fires and variation of grazing and cutting in-
cidence result in a constant series of sub-
series. Other plants occurring in this zone in-
clude Carissa congesta , Lasiosiphon erioce-
phalus and Vitex negundo. As reserve forests
have mostly been cut up Lantana has invaded
these areas also. T. tomentosa and climbers like
Diascorea pentaphylla and shrubs like Solanum
indicum are the other plants commonly found
in this zone. There are perhaps more trees
around villages than in rest of the area of this

279

PANSHET CATCHMENT:
LOCATION OF SACRED GROVES

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

BIRDS OF DEFORESTED HILLS

zone. They are mostly fruit trees such as
mango and banana planted by the villagers.
Here and there lone examples of Alstonia
scholaris, Scdmcdia malabarica and Erythrina
variegata stand as mute testimony to days gone
by when the land was less intensely cultivated
and conditions were moister.

The fallow period is as short as one year
and slopes are cultivated almost annually in
the first zone. As soil becomes exposed to
wind and rain, it is quickly lost. Where
erosion is particularly severe, rock is exposed
and stony plateaux are the result. The slopes
where erosion is less support grasses like
Tkemeda and Heteropogon and herbs like
Smithea hirsuta, S. setulosa, Celosia argentea
and Alysicarpus vaginalis. These stony and
grassy patches were seen to support their
characteristic biid life too.

Near the western extremity of this zone on
the right bank lies the Sacred Grove of Ambe-
gaon Khurd. Vegetation in this grove remains
more or less undisturbed over a number of
years and may be said to exhibit vegetation
typical of this zone if biotic influences did not
have their full play. Terminalia foment osa,
Vanqueria spinosa, Phyllanthus emblica, Bride-
lia retusa, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Ficus
glomerata, Bombax ceiba, Bauhinia racemosa,
Cassia fistula, Albizzia procera and Randia
dumetorum are some of the trees commonly
occurring in this grove. As will be seen later
the grove harbours its peculiar bird-life also.

Grassy plateaux are not extensive in the
second or the middle zone; though wherever
they exist the dominant grasses are not diffe-
rent from those found in the first zone. The
fallow period is longer in the second zone and
the patches lying fallow for more than a year
quickly lose their character as grassy plateau
and are occupied by plants next in biological
succession. Lantana camara has invaded areas
in this zone also though not as much as in

the first zone and is closely followed by
Carissa congesta, Meynea laxiflora, Lasiosiphon
eriocephalus, Woodfordia fruticosa, Zizyphus
rugosa, Emblica officinalis, and Syzygium
cumini. Around cultivated patches there are
more trees left standing in this zone than in
the first zone. Such trees include Melia com-
pos ita, Bridelia retusa, Erythrina indica, Butea
monosperma, Terminalia tomentosa, Lager-
stroemia microcarpa, Albizzia procera, Cassia
fistula etc. Around hamlets the fruit trees in-
clude mango, jackfruit and banana. Besides
there are extensive thickets of Bamboo ( Den -
drocalamus strictus) which form a major
source of income for the villagers. Syzygium
cuminii and Ficus glomerata also occur
commonly around hamlets.

There are certain areas in this zone which
have remained fallow for more than five to
seven years and thus support some characte-
ristic vegetation. Here plants include Vanqueria
spinosa, Wrightia tinctoria, Randia dumetorum,
Ficus retusa Olea dioica etc. Here also shrubs
and climbers such as Strobilanthes callosus,
Randia malabarica, Crotalaria triquetra, Jas-
minum malabaricum, Flacourtia latifolia and
Pavetta indica have enveloped the trees and
have provided a peculiar habitat for birds.
Steeper slopes are dominated by Strobilanthes
callosus and Ficus rumphii, while reserve forest
areas which are less cut up in this zone than
in first, are dominated by T. tomentosa and
Strobilanthes. Other plants found in these areas
are Actinodaphne hookeri, Carissa congesta,
Embelia tsjeriam-cottam, Lasiosiphon erioce-
phalus, Xeromphis spinosa etc. Some magnifi-
cent specimens of Bombax ceiba, Alstonia
scholaris, Terminalia belerica and Terminalia
chebula still remain in the more remote and
inaccessible areas. Near Mangaon on the left
bank and near the western end of this zone,
lies the Sacred Grove dedicated to the deity
Janni. Spread over an area of more than 16 ha

281

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vat. 84

this grove provides refuge to a number of
trees as well as displays a characteristic bird-
life of its own. Trees commonly occurring in
this grove include Bom box ceiba, Terminalia
belerica, T. chebula, Sterculia guttata, Meme-
cylone edule, Acacia concinna, (climber)
Acdnoclaphne hookeri, Macaranga peltata,
Caryota urens, Mappia foetida etc.

The vegetation of the third zone with its
very high annual rainfall presents a peculiar
aspect. Ideally, in the absence of biotic inter-
ference, evergreen forest should be the clima-
tic climax in this zone. However, biotic
influences coupled with a long dry period are
factors adverse to the existence of a pure ever-
green crop. A series of sub-climaxes is the
inevitable result. In lands lying fallow for less
than five years, while no plant could exert as
much dominance as Lantana camara in the
first zone, the following plants were found to
be common: Woodfordia fruticosa, Strobilan-
thes callosus, Carissa congesta, Embelia tsjeri-
am-cottam, Lasiosiphon eriocephalus , and
Glochidion hohenackeri. Where erosion is
heavy and rock is exposed Euphorbia nerii-
folia has become established. Where the soil
is poor and shallow a dwarf type of forest
forms a sub-climax in which Memecylone
edule remains dominant. Syzygium cuminii
and Actinodaphne hookeri dominate in areas
which are under some degree of protection.
The hamlets in this zone, as in the middle,
remain concealed among lush growth of
Bamboo and fruit trees such as Syzygium
cuminii and mango. There are sacred groves in
this zone also though not as large as in the
middle zone. For example, in the group of
three sacred groves at Dapsar the plants com-
monly found include Entada scandens, Mappia
foetida, Actinodaphne hookeri, and Ficus sp.

Bird-life in the Three Zones :

The character of vegetation should reflect

the character of bird-life. Broadly speaking,
the character of bird-life depends upon the
availability of habitat. But in these hills a
general lack of vegetation density and of bota-
nical variety have restricted the availability of
habitat. Human practices like shifting cultiva-
tion, cutting and burning of vegetation for
clearing the ground and for making coal have
created tension zones and disturbances which
are not likely to be favourable to the existence
of a varied avifauna. Further the valley floor
stands submerged under a large and deep sheet
of water. Water of considerable depth, steeply
sloping and often rocky banks and lack of
protective vegetation along the shoreline are
also not conducive to birds. On this background
therefore, the character of bird-life of these
deforested hills has to be examined.

Very few birds were encountered on the
deep, open sheet of water of the reservoir. A
few Spotbill ducks, an occasional Little and a
Large Cormorant and once a Blackheaded
Gull were seen on the reservoir. As the re-
servoir water is let out during the dry season
(usually from December onwards) and the
water level goes down. Little and Median
egrets. Common Sandpipers and Little Stints
come to forage near the edges of water and
the rapidly drying up mudflats. Common and
Pied Kingfishers, Grey and Large Pied wagtails
are also normally to be found along the water’s
edge. Whitenecked Storks and an Osprey have
also been noted in sheltered bays and inlets
of the reservoir. However, many other species
that frequent aquatic and semi-aquatic habi-
tats in the plains were never encountered in
the catchment. It appears therefore, that these
deep, open sheets of water in the mountains
are not much favoured by birds presumably
because they do not provide adequate food
and shelter.

282

BIRDS OF DEFORESTED HILLS

Birds in the I Zone:

It may be recalled that in this zone due to
severe biotic pressures forests have been re-
placed by such habitat-types as thorn and
scrub, rocky and grassy plateau, scattered
trees and cultivation and village environs. In
addition there were certain birds that were
always observed only in flight. The sacred
grove near Ambegaon Khurd constitutes a
distinct habitat also. Table 2 sets out the dis-
tribution of birds recorded in zone I accord-
ing to broad habitat-types.

In this table a particular habitat is assigned
to a bird species if it is frequently encountered
in it. This does not mean it can never be seen
in other habitat-types. Indeed birds such as
Pond heron, Redwattled lapwing. Common
green bee-eater. Little brown dove, Redvented
and Red whiskered bulbuls. Jungle babbler.
Jungle crow, Indian robin and Pied bush chat
were seen to be widely distributed in the catch-
ment and were sometimes encountered in other
habitats also.

It is seen from the table that out of the
total number of 89 species recorded in this
zone, the comparatively undisturbed area of
the sacred grove appears to harbour less than
10% only. These may be said to indicate
avifauna that was once typical of this zone.
As biotic influences have eliminated most of
the dry deciduous to moist deciduous types of
forest, the birds characteristic of these bio-
topes have disappeared also. As xerophytic
conditions are created birds belonging to
stony, barren, thorn and scrub types of habitat
have invaded this zone. Such species now con-
stitute about 45% of the total avifauna record-
ed in this zone. These species perhaps indicate
the degree of degradation of habitat from an
idyllic state dictated solely by environmental
conditions. The complete disappearance of
birds belonging to moist deciduous biotope

may also provide another indication of the
degradation of the habitat.

Birds in the II Zone:

Table 3 likewise shows the distribution of
birds in the second or middle zone. The table
shows that this zone is far richer in birds than
the first. The highest number of species are
from the habitat, ‘trees interspersed with
shrubs’ followed by those from ‘trees’ and
‘sacred groves’. If species recorded in the
sacred grove are to be considered as typical
of this zone, their percentage in the total re-
corded number is 12 only; i.e. species belong-
ing to moist deciduous and semi-evergreen
biotopes have been reduced to 12%. Species
from dry deciduous and to a lesser extent
open, thorn and scrub types of habitat seem
to have invaded this zone due to biotic pres-
sures. However, these pressures do not appear
to be strong enough to reduce to insignificance
the species from moist deciduous and semi-
evergreen biotopes. Neither do they seem to
be restricted to sacred groves only. Outside
sacred groves such species have been recorded
from ‘trees interspersed with shrubs’ and ‘trees
and village environs’. Indeed the existence of
scattered groups of trees, of lush vegetation
around villages and of a large sacred grove in
this zone appear to have contributed to the
maintenance of many species that otherwise
would have been eliminated. While the degree
of degradation of the habitat in this zone may
be gauged by the number of species belonging
to more open and drier habitats, the process
of degradation itself appears to have been
arrested by certain conservation practices of
the local people.

Birds in the III Zone:

The third zone again presents a very pecu-
liar picture if its bird-life is examined. Table 4

283

Distribution of birds according to habitat in zone I in the catchment of Panshet Dam

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

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284

Distribution of birds according to habitat in zone II in the catchment of Panshet Dam

BIRDS OF DEFORESTED HILLS

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Motacilla Saxicoloides Acridotheres Corvus Hypothymis Hirundo

maderaspattnsis fulicata fuscus macrorhynchos azurea rupestris

HABITAT TYPES

THE CATCHMENT OF PANSHET DAM

Table 3 (contd.)

Aquatic Grassy Thorny Shrubs & Trees & Village Sacred Seen i

Plateau Scrub Trees Environs Groves Flight

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

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286

erythrorhynchos

BIRDS OF DEFORESTED HILLS

Table 4

Distribution of birds according to habitat in zone III in the catchment of Panshet Dam

HABITAT TYPES

Aquatic

Thorny

Shrubs &

Trees & Villages

Sacred

Seen in

Scrub

Trees

Environs

Groves

Flight

1

2

3

4

5

6

Ardeola

Perdicula

Acci piter

Bubulcus

Gallus

Elanus

grayii

asiatica

badius

ibis

sonneratii

caeruleus

Anas

Vanellus

Accipiter

Amaurornis

Chaleo phaps

Pernis

poecilorhyncha

indicus

nisus

phoenicurus

indica

ptilorhyncus

Larus

Streptopelia

Spilornis

Columba

Otus

Spizaetus

ridibundus

senegalensis

cheela

livia

bakkamoena

cirrhatus

Alcedo

Merops

Falco

Streptopelia

Bubo

Ictinaetus

at this

orientalis

tinnunculus

orientalis

zeylonensis

malayensis

Myiophonus

Lanius

Galloperdix

Oriolus

Strix

Gyps

horsfieldii

schach

spadicea

oriolus

leptogrammica

indicus

Motacilla

Pycnonotus

Centro pus

Sturnus

Dicrurus

Gyps

cinerea

jocosus

sinensis

pagodarum

leucophueus

bengalensis

Motacilla

Pycnonotus

Caprimulgus

Acridotheres

Sturnus

Falco

maderaspatensis

cafer

indicus

fuscus

malabaricus

peregrinus

Turdoides

Megalaima

Corvus

Pericrocotus

A pus

subrufus

viridis

macrorhynchos

flammeus

melba

Turdoides

Lanius

Alcippe

Hypsi petes

Hemiprocne

striatus

vittatus

poioicephala

indicus

longipennis

Phylloscopus

Coracina

Muscicapa

Pellorneum

Hirundo

collybita

melanoptera

parva

ruficeps

rupestris

Phylloscopus

Pomatorhinus

Muscicapa

Hypsi petes

Hirundo

sp.

horsfieldii

pallipes

madagascari-

ensis

concolor

Saxicola

Muscicapa

Culicicapa

caprata

tickelliae

ceylonensis

Saxicoloides

T urdus

Rhipidura

Ter psi phone

fulicata

merula

aureola

paradisii

Nectarinia

An thus

Orthotomus

Hypothymis

asiatica

trivialis

su tori us

azurea

Petronia

Erithacus

Monticola

xanthocollis

brunneus

cinclorhynchus

Carpodacus

Copsychus

Zoothera

erythrinus

saularis

citrina

Parus

Citta

xanthogenys

castanea

Dicaeum

Nectarinia

agile

minima

Dicaeum

Aethopyga

erythrorhynchos

si par a ja

Zoster ops
palpebrosa

287

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

gives the distribution according to habitat in
this zone.

It may be recalled that the average annual
rainfall in this zone ranges between 6001 to
9000 mm. As such the zone should be clothed
with semi-evergreen to evergreen forest. But
biotic influences have reduced the vegetation
to scattered trees and bushes. The sacred
groves near villages Tekpowale and Dapsar
are not as large as those near Ambegaon
Khurd and Mangaon and they are the only
masses of vegetation that now remain in this
zone. Also some reserve forest area near the
source of the river Ambi still remains more
or less wooded. The number of species of
birds recorded in this zone is far less than the
number in the middle zone and is even margi-
nally lower than the number from the first
zone. Out of the total number of species re-
corded in this zone only 3 namely, Redwattled
lapwing. Little brown dove and Indian robin
may be properly said to represent thorn and
scrub type of habitat. In spite of widespread
availability of shrubbery species from open and
scrub type of biotope do not seem to be suc-
cessful in colonising this zone. Species repre-
senting dry deciduous biotope also are less
numerous than in the middle zone. While there
are 43 species which may be said to represent
moist deciduous to semi-evergreen biotope,
species representing evergreen forest appear to
be totally absent. Species like Nilgiri Wood
Pigeon ( Columba elphinstonii), Greyfronted
Green Pigeon ( Treron pompadora), Bluewing-
ed Parakeet ( Psittacula columboides) and
Shama ( Copsychus malabaricus ) which occur
in other protected areas in these hills, have
disappeared from the catchment. Out of these
43 species 21 were found to be restricted to
sacred groves only. They are likely to dis-
appear if these groves are further disturbed.
The role of large areas of undisturbed indige-

neous vegetation such as sacred groves in the
maintenance of avifauna is thus again high-
lighted. The peculiar weather conditions pre-
vailing in this zone may perhaps make it unfit
for colonization by species from drier habitats.

It therefore, appears that biotic influence
has disturbed this sector to a greater extent
than any other sector. The peculiar weather
conditions in this zone, dominated as they
are by the Western Ghats which are instru-
mental in bringing torrential rains into this
area, have probably rendered the character of
vegetation and bird life a specialised one. Only
a restricted number of bird families appear to
be able to adapt to these conditions and their
food and habitat requirements may be typical.
They quickly succumb if these are interfered
with and other bird species, though their needs
are less specialized, seem not to be very suc-
cessful in colonising this area. The hills in
this zone therefore, represent a very fragile
eco-system which needs strict protection if its
characteristic vegetation and bird life are to
survive.

It may not be inappropriate to recapitulate
here the main points that are made out in the
above analysis:

1 . In a particular area the extent to which
the character of bird life differs from the
one indicated by environmental conditions
may point to the degree of deterioration
of the habitat.

2. In certain areas climatic conditions and
consequently the character of vegetation
may be so specialised as to render biotic
interference doubly destructive. On the one
hand, biotic interference leads to elimina-
tion of certain specialized bird species
through destruction of their habitat, on the

288

BIRDS OF DEFORESTED HILLS

other, the peculiar climatic conditions pre-
vailing in the area may prevent the in-
vasion by other bird species belonging to
different biotopes. Such regions thus de-
serve a greater degree of protection to pre-
serve the peculiar character of their
avifauna. Here the character of bird life
may provide an answer to the question why
a particular region needs special protection.

3. Examination of the character of bird life
of a particular region may bring out the
importance of certain age-old practices that
contribute to conservation of nature. Im-
portance of indigenous vegetation in the
maintenance of avifaunal diversity and
richness is also brought out through the
above analysis.

Conservation Implications'.

The major destructive factor in these hills
appears to be the practice of shifting cultiva-
tion. River valley projects in these hills have
only forced the inhabitants to resort to such
cultivation with a greater intensity. The sooner
they are given alternative sources of income
the better for hill flora and fauna.

In these hills sacred groves appear to be
pools or islands of biological diversity in the
midst of increasing impoverishment of the
habitat. They should be carefully protected.
Certain groves are being progressively destroy-
ed due to erosion of religious sentiments and
economic pressure; at some sites only a dila-
pidated temple under a large tree provides
clue to the existence of a sacred grove. Such
groves need to be identified by reestablishing
their former boundaries and the whole area
should be given protection to rehabilitate it.

The ridges with very high rainfall with their
specialized flora and fauna need complete pro-

tection. These ridges also give birth to a
number of our famous rivers that flow east-
ward and benefit millions who live on their
banks in the plains. Complete protection will
make the source regions of our important
rivers inviolate. All these ridges should as
such form part of a vast national park or
protective zone that should run north-south
along the entire length of the Western Ghats.

In the end, some general remarks regarding
birds of deforested hills may not be out of
place. A total of about 160 species of birds
in an area of about 121 sq. km may be said
to indicate a general paucity of birds. No
comparable figures are available though it may
be pertinent to note that areawise the number
of species is far less than the number recorded
in Pune city! (Gole 1980). If aquatic birds
are excluded the proportion of bird species
that feed on the ground and in low bushes
appears to be high and reflects perhaps the
scarcity of trees in these hills. In particular
the complete absence of woodpeckers and
hornbills is striking and perhaps reflects the
lack of old mature trees in the hills. The
variety of birds of prey may also be noted.
It is probable that the widespread practice of
shifting cultivation may invite rodents on a
large scale which in turn attract birds of prey.
Cultivators when asked, uniformly complained
about the menace of rodents such as mice,
rats and hares, and fields when examined at
random for the presence of rodent burrows,
revealed it not insubstantially. However, only
the Crested serpent eagle was found to be
nesting in these hills. Others are probably
transients and cannot nest as suitable nesting
trees are scarce. The paucity of game birds
such as ducks and waders, partridges and
junglefowls and pigeons and doves may also
be noted. This denies local residents an im-
portant source of protein for which perhaps

289

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

they themselves are to blame. But it may also
be added that with better management of the
habitat it is possible to rehabilitate these
species. Lastly, it may be interesting to note
that commensals of man such as House crow,
House sparrow and Common myna have not
as yet penetrated these hills to any appreciable
extent and their general absence provides a
welcome change to the trekkers and observers
of bird life that care to visit our hills.

Refe

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983) : A Pictorial Guide
to the Birds of the Indian Sub-continent. Bombay
Natural History Society/Oxford University Press,
Bombay.

Gadgil, M. (1979): Hills, Dams & Forests, Some
field observations from the Western Ghats, Proceed-
ings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Vol. C2,

Acknowledgements

This study formed a part of a wider study
involving a status survey of plant and animal
life of the Panshet catchment in order to pre-
pare an eco-development plan for the area.
The study was sponsored by Department of
Environment, Government of India. Their
assistance is gratefully acknowledged.

ENCES
Part 3, p. 294.

Garland, E. G. (1934): Working Plan for Poona
Forest Division, Forest Department, Bombay Presi-
dency.

Gole, Prakash (1980) : A March Bird Count in
Poona. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 49.

290

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS OF

SOUTHERN INDIA
(LEPIDOPTERA: RHOPALOCERA)1

Torben B. Larsen2

[Continued from Vol. 84 ( 1): 54]

Lycaenidae

Miletinae

050. Spalgis epeus epeus Westwood

The apefly, so called because the pupa

looks like a miniature monkey head, is an
unusual little butterfly that is the only repre-
sentative of its subfamily in South India. The
underside is greyish brown with a dark irrora-
tion that differs from the pattern of any other
species in the area. It is found mainly in

lowland evergreen formations, though it should
occur also in the denser mixed deciduous

forest. I do have a definite record from near

Kotagiri (1900 m) from May 1957 which is
most unusual; the specimen is still in my
possession. The flight is rather fast and erratic
for such a small butterfly, but it usually does
not fly high. It seems to be scarce in the
Nilgiris. Wynter-Blyth caught three at Kallar
from where I have one and I have collected
only half a dozen or so at various points on
the Nadgani Ghat. The larva is unusual since
it feeds exclusively on Coccidae (mealy bugs),
the only wholly carnivorous butterfly in the
Nilgiris. It occurs in Sri Lanka, in suitable
jungles of peninsular India, and from Kumaon
to practically the entire Oriental region. One
or two species of Spalgis also occur in Africa.

1 Accepted January 1987.

2 Snoghoj alle 29C, 2770 Kastrup. Denmark.

POLYOMMATINAE
POLYOM MATINI

051. Castalius rosimon rosimon Fabricius

The common pierrot is found in most types
of country up to about 1400 m, rarely higher,
provided open forest is present. It spends its
time fluttering about Zizyphus shrubs which
are the larval food plants, but it visits flowers
readily and also comes to damp patches dur-
ing the dry season or on exceptionally hot
days. Dead insects and bird droppings are also
an attractant. The genus is monobasic and the
many other species which have been allotted
to it are now transferred to resurrected genera,
and in the case of the African species to
Tuxentius Larsen (1982). The species is found
throughout the Oriental region.

052. Caleta caleta decidia Hewitson
{Castalius caleta )

The angled pierrot is a moderately com-
mon butterfly whose black upperside with the
prominent white discal band on all four wings
makes it unmistakable in the Nilgiris. The main
habitat is open evergreen forest, but it may be
found also in mixed deciduous and in sub-
tropical evergreen forest. It is, however, a very
poor coloniser of disturbed habitats. It is one

291

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

of the most frequent visitors to mudpuddles
and it is quite inordinately fond of bird drop-
pings. Wynter-Blyth found it common to
8000 ft, but that would be quite exceptional
in my experience. The distribution covers Sri
Lanka, suitable localities in peninsular India,
Orissa, Bengal, from whence east to Indo-
china and the Philippines. It is replaced by
very similar species in Sundaland proper.

053. Discolampa ethion vavasanus Fruhstorfer
(Cast alius ethion)

The banded blue Pierrot is a delightful
little butterfly, the only one in South India to
have a defined white band on a shiny blue
background. It is not rare in lowland ever-
green forest, being a bit scarcer in dense mixed
deciduous forest, and only just penetrating the
lower levels of the subtropical evergreen
forests. It never ventures away from forest. It
comes less frequently to water than do the two
preceding species, and it seems disinterested
in bird droppings. It is very fond of sweat,
though, and often settled on my shirt or
shoulder bag both in India and in Thailand.
The flight is very weak and the butterfly is
rather unobtrusive. It is found in Sri Lanka
and in South India, recurring from Assam to
practically the entire Oriental region and New
Guinea.

054. Tarucus ananda de Niceville

The dark pierrot is quite a unique little
butterfly and I cannot help wondering whether
it does not need a genus of its own. It is very
scarce in the Nilgiris. In September 1883
Hampson took a long series on the northern
slopes, presumably in the Ouchterlony Valley
area (5000 ft). Wynter-Blyth failed to procure
it. I have taken a few at water in the forests
below Glenburn on two occasion? only (12.vi
and 15.viii). Near Karkala in Kanara I found
a tall jungle tree which was infested with this

butterfly. Every second or third leaf had one
or more larvae and hundreds of battered
imagines were flying about. A vicious small
ant was in agitated attendance. The tree was
a big-leaved evergreen and successive genera-
tions of larvae had removed more than 25%
of all the chlorophyl, carefully avoiding damage
to the leaf membranes. Seriously damaged
leaves were eaten to the point that they re-
semble the Peepal leaves from which painted
souvenirs are made in northern India. It is
amazing that such a tiny butterfly could do
so much damage. The species is found only
in southern India, and then again from Nepal
east to Burma.

055. Tarucus nara Kolia r

( T . nara, T. extricatus, & T. alteratus)

Despite the fact that the male genitalia
always give a firm determination in the Blue
Pierrot group, they have always been the
victims of great confusion. The striped
pierrot is a common Indian butterfly of the
drier tracts and it is quite frequently met with
at the foot of the northern and southern slopes
of the Nilgiris, nearly always where Zizyphus
nummularia, the larval food plant, grows. Very
occasionally one may find Castalius rosimon
on the same plants, though their ranges do not
overlap much. The Tarucus are essentially
eremic butterflies of the subdesert zone that
stretches from Mauritania through Arabia to
NW India. The present species is endemic to
India and Sri Lanka.

056. Tarucus caliinara Butler

The spotted pierrot is very similar to the
preceding one, but there is a clear tendency
that the black markings on the underside have
a more macular shape. This is especially true
for the submarginal series. The only records
of this species that I have from anywhere in
southern India are my own from Masinagudi

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRl MOUNTAINS

(9.vi and 18.x). Evans (1955) does not men-
tion it from much south of Madhya Pradesh
where I have found it quite widespread. It is
perhaps not surprising that other firm records
are not available since older literature is con-
fused about the genus. Hampson does describe
specimens that sound as if they are genuinely
T. callinara. In habits they do not differ from
the preceding species. The distribution covers
the area from India to Burma, and it has
recently been found also in Thailand ( pers .
obs. unpublished, from Kanchanaburi).

057. Syntameus plinius Fabricius

This is the only Oriental species of an essen-
tially African genus and it appears to be
phylogenetically closest to Syntarucus babaoulti
Stempffer, based on genital morphology, the
only certain way of telling species in the genus
apart. The species is common more or less
everywhere, though essentially tied to the open
and dried biotopes. It is also somewhat perio-
dical and may go missing for months in places
where it was previously common. It does not
penetrate the densest wet evergreen forests or
the plateau sholas, but otherwise it may turn
up anywhere. It has a wide range of larval
food plants but I have always found Plumbago
zeylonica to be exceptionally attractive to this
and to some of the African species. The adult
butterfly visits flowers and wet patches. It
covers most of the Oriental region, but seems
to be absent from Malaysia.

058. Azanus ubaidus Cramer

The bright babul blue is an Afrotropical
butterfly that has penetrated the Indian sub-
continent and Sri Lanka. Hampson thought it
‘rather rare, 1000 to 7000 ft’. Wynter-BIvth
found it common on the southern slopes to
the very top of the hills. I have seen it fre-
quently at water on both the northern and the
southern slopes, especially during the dry

season, but only at low levels. The species is
a known migrant and probably of somewhat
erratic occurrence. It may also be met on
flowering Acacia in some numbers. No one
seems to have come across the rather similar
Azanus uranus Butler in the Nilgiris. The two
fly together in Delhi and the latter is definitely
a valid species and not a form of A. ubaidus
(Larsen 1987a). It ought to occur in the area.
A. ubaidus is found throughout the drier parts
of Sri Lanka and India, the main range en-
compassing all of Arabia and Africa.

059. Azanus jesous Guerin-Meneville

The African babul blue is not common in
the Nilgiris. Hampson thought it rare at low
levels. Wynter-Blyth found it common at Kallar
in November, 1941 but did not otherwise see
it. I have found moderate numbers at Masina-
gudi on various occasions (esp. 9.vi and 18.x),
collected a few at Kallar (23.v) and found
it common at Ronningtown (25. v). It would
appear to share with many other migrants a
degree of unpredictability. Most of my speci-
mens have been seen at damp patches with a
dozen or so other Lycaenids, but it may also
be caught on the flowers of Acacia. The distri-
bution covers most of Sri Lanka, India, Arabia
and Africa, with slight penetration of the hotter
parts of the Mediterranean.

060. Everes lactumus syntala Cantlie
(Everes parrhasius )

The Indian cupid (a poor common name
given the vast range of the species) is not rare
at lower levels in the Nilgiris, penetrating also
the subtropical zone. It comes readily to flowers
and water and is most frequently seen during
the dry season. The species appears to be
somewhat migratory. It was common in a Delhi
Park during 1984, from where it had never
been recorded, but was missing from this

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

locality in 1985 (Larsen 1987a). It is mainly
found in the drier lowland formations, includ-
ing the savannas at Masinagudi. The genus is
essentially Palaearctic, but E. lacturnus covers
the entire Oriental region. New Guinea and
Australia.

061. Udara akasa mavisa Fruhstorfer
(Lycaenopsis akasa )

In the Lycaenopsis group of genera I follow
the recent monumental work of Eliot &
Kawazoe (1983), though possibly their generic
level splitting is somewhat excessive. The
WHITE HEDGE blue is a common little butterfly
everywhere on the plateau, even some distance
from forest. Though tiny and weak in flight
they manage to cover considerable distances.
The species descends through the dense ever-
green forests of the subtropical zone and may
be found at quite low levels in wet evergreen
forest such as at Nadgani. Mostly it is seen
patrolling tirelessly along forest roads or edges,
often stopping to feed from flowers. I never
saw it at water. It is also found in Sri Lanka
where it is quite rare and then recurs in the
montane zones of Malaysia and Vietnam, a
very strongly disjunct pattern for such a small
butterfly. It extends further to Sumatra, Java
and the Lesser Sunda Islands.

062. Acytolepis puspa felderi Toxopeus
( Lycaenopsis puspa )

The common hedge blue male has a white
disc otherwise only found in the very similar
Celatoxia alhidisca. The former is a low level
species found in wet forest to the mixed
deciduous, being unable to survive in thorn
forest or agricultural lands. The latter is essen-
tially montane and the two have only the most
fleeting zone of overlap in parts of the sub-
tropical zone and are rarely found together.
A. puspa is a more robust insect with less
precise black markings on the underside. It is

an avid mudpuddler that also visits bird drop-
pings and fresh cowpats. I have rarely encoun-
tered any on flowers. It is found in forested
country from Sri Lanka, through India to most
of the Oriental region.

063. Acytolepis lilacea lilacea Hampson
( Lycaenopsis lilacea)

hampson’s hedge blue is a rare little
butterfly which is found in Sri Lanka and
South India (Palnis, Nilgiris and Coorg). It
occurs everywhere with Acytolepis puspa in
lowland forest, just penetrating the subtropical
zone, but it is very much scarcer. I have
specimens from Nadgani, Kotagiri Ghat and
Glenbum, while Wynter-Blyth took it at
Kallar. On the wing it is difficult to tell from
A. puspa though the male lacks any white on
the disc of the forewings. The broad black
border of the forewing upperside will serve to
distinguish it from Celastrina lavendularis.
Apart from the populations of South India
and Sri Lanka the species is found in parts
of Indo-China and Burma. Till quite recently
it was considered endemic to southern India
and Sri Lanka.

064. Celatoxia albidisca Moore
(Lycaenopsis albidisca)

The whitedisc hedge blue is endemic to
the hills of southern India where it is common
along the edges of and in clearings within the
typical montane sholas. It may descend to the
subtropical zone but is then very much scarcer.
Occasional wandering specimens may be seen
flying in open country. Inside sholas the butter-
flies are often seen flying high among the
tangled crowns, but not infrequently it will
come to flowing water, even on a cool day.
I have found this to be the case for certain
other montane species such as Parantica nil-
giriensis, the Sumatran Euploea martini and
many montane butterflies in Papua New
Guinea. It is rarely seen on flowers.

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRl MOUNTAINS

065. Celastrina lavendularis lavendidaris

Moore

( Lycaenopsis lavendularis)

The plain hedge blue lacks the white discs
of the previous montane species. According to
Wynter-Blyth it is a common species above
1500 m, especially in montane shotas, but I
never met with it. In all likelihood it is at the
trough of a cyclical decline. Col. Eliot recently
told me that such cyclical variation occurred
in some Malaysian montane members of the
group. The species is found practically
throughout the Oriental region.

066. Neopithecops zalmora dharma Moore

The Quaker is a characteristic little butter-
fly that is common in the lowland evergreen
forests, penetrating the mixed deciduous and
the subtropical evergreen, and showing some
ability to colonise agricultural land if Glycos-
mis, one of the rutaceous larval food plants,
is present in quantity. It may be very common
in the agricultural area at Kallar. It must be
one of the weakest butterflies on the wing,
fluttering helplessly about in low vegetation.
The black upperside and the white underside
lead to a peculiar flickering flight profile.
Flowers do not seem to hold much attraction
for the species, but it avidly visits damp patches.
The distribution covers Sri Lanka, the Western
and Eastern Ghats, and then from Kumaon
east to practically the whole of the Oriental
region.

067. Megisba malaya twaithesi Moore

The Malayan is a species of dense lowland
evergreen forest that is surprisingly rare in the
Nilgiris. Wynter-Blyth caught only one, at
Nadgani. I have taken three in this locality
in July, September and October. I have single
males from the Glenbum area from 4.vii and
1.x. The South Indian and Sri Lankan sub-
species is untailed. The species is tailed in

most of the Oriental region, but untailed
forms recur towards the Papuan subregion. It
is an avid mudpuddler, being partial also to
bird droppings, otter dung and fresh cowpats.
The distribution covers practically the entire
Oriental region.

068. Zizeeria cnaha ossa Swinhoe

The pale grass blue is generally by far the
most common of the four Grass Blues in
South India and may be found practically
anywhere, even on paths in primary wet ever-
green forest. It is often abundant in tea and
coffee plantations because one of the larval
food plants, Oxalis, seems to do well here des-
pite the heavy application of weedicides and
pesticides. It is found in India and Sri Lanka,
extending east to Hong Kong and the Phili-
ppines, but not southeast to the core of the
Oriental region.

069. Zizeeria karsandra karsandra Moore

The dark grass blue is scarcer in the

Nilgiris than it is in many other parts of India,
but localised colonies may occur practically
anywhere in the area. Most of my own re-
cords are from low levels, but Wynter-Blyth
recorded it from as high as 8000 ft. This tiny
insect has a wholly disproportionate range,
being found from Australia to Algeria where
it merges with the African vicariant, Z. knysna
Trimen.

070. Zizina otis decreta Butler
(Zizeeria otis)

The lesser grass blue needs collecting in
order to tell it apart from Z. karsandra with
complete certainty, and I have not been
diligent enough in so doing. Wynter-Blyth
records it from up to 2000 m, but my own
highest records are from about 1500 m. It is an
unobtrusive little butterfly rarely flying more
than a few centimetres above the ground. Like

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the other Grass Blues it is fond of feeding
from the flowers of the Tridax weed. There
are three sister species in this complex which
probably demand a modern review: Z. otis
throughout the Oriental region; Z. labradus
Godart in the Australian subregion; and Z.
antanossa Mabille throughout Africa.

071. Zizula hylax hySax Fabricius
( Zizeeria gaika )

The tiny grass blue is very variable in
size. Small specimens vie with Freyeria tro-
chylus putli for the title of the smallest Indian
butterfly, while large specimens are often larger
than the other Grass Blues. It is worth men-
tioning that when at rest the butterfly often
waggles its wings from side to side in a way
that I have not seen in any other Lycaenid;
the same behaviour has been observed in
Arabia. The species may be found anywhere
in the Nilgiris and may be locally very com-
mon. Wynter-Blyth considered it to be mainly
a low-level species that was scarce on the lower
plateau. On 20. v I found it to be very
common on dry, open grassland surrounding
the Mukurti dam. Indeed, the ecological
tolerance and the geographic distribution of
this tiny insect is truly amazing. The larval
food stuffs are many, some of which highly
unusual for the subfamily. It is found through-
out Africa and Arabia, from India through-
out the Oriental region, and then through New
Guinea to the New Hebrides.

072. Chilades lams talus Cramer

The lime blue is fairly common at low
levels in all types of country, but I have never
seen it in abundance. For long periods it may
be missing in areas where it used to be com-
mon. The seasonal difference is very consi-
derable, but I did not find any very good
correlation between the occurrence of these
forms and actual weather conditions. The

species visits both flowers and damp patches
in the company of other Lycaenids and is not
easy to identify on the wing. The larvae feed
on the young shoots of Citrus and perhaps
other rutaceous plants. This is so unusual that
I was inclined to think it more likely that the
larvae were carnivorous, but I found them on
fresh Citrus at the government fruit garden
at Kallar. The range covers the northern parts
of the Oriental region from Sri Lanka to the
Philippines but not Sundaland proper.

073. Chilades parrhasius Fabricius

( Euchrysops contracta & E. minuta)

The small cupid has had an unfortunate
nomenclatural and taxonomic existence, hav-
ing been quite wrongly placed in the genus
Euchrysops and confused in name with the
species now known as Everes lacturnus. The
confusion may not be over. Nekrutenko (1984)
erected the new genus Lachides for among
others this species and retrieves the name
contracta. The paper is in Russian and I have
still not been able to check personally.
The butterfly is the one linked to the very
driest tracts; it is one of the most common
butterflies in Delhi. My only Nilgiri records
are from Masinagudi and Ronnirigtown, just
the type of localities where it was to be ex-
pected. It is fond of flowers and comes freely
to damp patches. The distribution covers the
Indian subcontinent, parts of Afghanistan and
southern Russia, Iran and the Arabian penin-
sula.

074. Chilades panda va panda va Horsfield

( Euchrysops pandava)

The plains cupid is rather seasonal and
quite erratic of occurrence, though it is often
common in the wetter lowland forest
tracts. There is, hardly any overlap
between this species and the preceding one.
I have met with it at Kallar, where it is
intermittent, and at the lower end of the

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRl MOUNTAINS

Nadgani Ghat where it may be very common
indeed. While not being averse to joining in
the normal communal mudpuddling assem-
blages, the species often forms large, dense
assemblies consisting exclusively of this species,
often in shady places. It is more attracted to
foul substances than most species of its group.
The distribution is from Sri Lanka to Sunda-
land.

075. Freyeria trodiylus putli Kollar
(Zizeeria putli )

The grass jewel shares with Zizula hylax
the distinction of being the smallest Indian
butterfly. It is found in open places practically
throughout the Nilgiris though it is essentially
a dry zone species. It is rather local, very
easily overlooked, and probably under reported.
With one exception all specimens I have seen
match ssp. putli : it differs from the nominate
subspecies in being darker, usually having
more elongated wings, lacking the red anal
spots of the hindwing upperside, and in having
one or two extra silver-centered black spots
along the hindwing underside margin. How-
ever, a single large specimen from as impro-
bable a place as the Nadgani Ghat in all
respects matches the nominate form. Despite
much searching no more could be found in
the area. The range is grossly at odds with
the size of the butterfly and somewhat enigma-
tic. It occurs throughout Africa, in the eastern
Mediterranean and much of the Middle East
to Pakistan and NW India. Ssp. putli covers
the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka, very
selected parts of the Oriental region, parts of
New Guinea and northeastern Australia.

076. Euchrysops cue jus cnejus Fabricius

The gram blue is a dry zone butterfly that

is an effective coloniser of agricultural lands
where it is usually more common than in
natural habitats. It may be found practically
anywhere in the Nilgiris, though it tends to
avoid the densest lowland evergreen forests.
It was one of the few butterflies actually resi-
dent at my Kotagiri compound. It is fond of
flowers and comes readily to water. Its habits
are unexceptional. The distribution covers the
whole of the Oriental region, extending to
Australia and deep into the Pacific. Eliot
(1978) repeats the old records from Aden
which are due to taxonomic and nomencla-
tural mix-ups with the African E. osiris.

077. Catochrysops straho strabo Fabricius

The forget-me-not is not rare at low levels

in the Nilgiris flying mainly along roadsides
and visiting flowers and damp patches. It seems
to be at its most common during the dry
season. In behaviour it is very much like the
other members of the subfamily in the genera
Euchrysops and Chilades. The distribution
covers practically the entire Oriental region.
There is an additional species in Sri Lanka
in the form of Catochrysops panormus lithar-
gyria Moore which has a somewhat lighter
hue. This species also occurs in Asia proper
and its absence from South India is puzzling.
It would be well worth keeping a look out
for it. However, Tite (1959) does not mention
it, and there is certainly no South Indian
material in the British Museum (Natural
History).

078. Lampides boeticus Linne

The pea blue (the English name, the
Long-Tailed Blue, is quite unsuitable to
Indian conditions) is found everywhere, at

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JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

all levels, most of the year. It is not, how-
ever, invariably as common as is often sug-
gested, neither in the Nilgiris, nor elsewhere
in India. Its frequency is probably mediated
in part by migration, and I have seen small
numbers as part of the October 1986 migra-
tion in Kotagiri. When the exotic Cytisus and
Genista bloom on the Ooty downs the butter-
fly may be phenomenally common. It comes
to flowers and occasionally to water. The
larval food plants are many and varied, and
it is sometimes a real pest on cultivated peas
and beans. It is found right through the tropics
of the old world, penetrating well into the
Palaearctic region during summer, reaching
England regularly but in small numbers.

079. Jamides bochus bochus Cramer

The dark cerulean is an unmistakable
butterfly. The blue of the male upperside is
more intense than possibly in some Neotropical
Morpho. In flight it looks like a series of
metallic blue flashes. It is widely distributed
below the plateau level except in the very
driest tracts, but since it is a persistent migrant,
it may be found even there. In the late 1950ies
I saw a definite directional migration towards
the east at Kotagiri. It visits flowers inter-
mittently, usually those of its very varied
leguminose larval food plants. Damp patches
are visited only sporadically. Much of the
time is taken up with simply sitting on leaves
in a shady spot. The flight is faster, higher
and more erratic than in the two following
species of Jamides.

080. Jamides ceieno aelianus Fabricius

The common cerulean is one of the most
common butterflies of the lowland tracts in the
Nilgiris, from the driest to the wettest, but
most happy where there is a plentiful supply

of the main larval food plant, Pongamia
glabra. In the savanna forests it is mainly found
along streams. It becomes progressively
scarcer as one moves up through the sub-
tropical zone, and it is a rare visitor to the
actual plateau where Wynter-Blyth recorded it
as high as 7500 ft. The larvae are not grega-
rious but often so crowded that several are
found on each leaf of the food plant. They
are avidly attended by ants. Both sexes visit
flowers and males will come to water, but not
with any obsessional zeal like so many other
Lycaenids. The flight is weak and fluttering
and it is often possible to mistake the species
for something more interesting than it is. The
distribution covers the whole of the Oriental
region to New Guinea.

081. Jamides alecto aloeina Swinhoe

The metallic cerulean flies with the
Common Cerulean but only in the wetter
lowland tracts where its somewhat unusual
food plant, cardamom, grows. It has been
recorded as a serious pest of this valuable
crop, but this does not seem to be a problem
in the Nilgiris according to many planters with
whom I spoke. The species is quite rare in
the Nilgiris and I only obtained three at Glen-
burn, Mukkali and in the Wynaad. I saw well
over a dozen in evergreen forest in the Bili-
giriranga Mountains during one day. There is
normally no difficulty in telling the two species
apart even on the wing. J. alecto is much
darker and much more brilliant in colour
than its close relative, which often looks more
white than blue. The range is more
restricted than that of the Common Cerulean,
being limited to Sri Lanka and South India,
then from Nepal to Malaysia. It is interesting
that Sri Lanka should have additional species
of this genus that do not occur in India.

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

Nacaduba and related genera

The members of the genus Nacaduba at first
sight appear somewhat confusing and since
their distribution according to Wynter-Blyth is
not fully correct, a brief summary will be given
here:

Two species, the four line blues, lack
the lines at the base of the fore wing underside.
Of these N. hermus is very much darker than
N. pactolus whose delicate violet is semi-
transparent so that the lines of the underside
are faintly visible on the upperside.

Four species belong to the Six-Line Blues,
all of which are tailed, and only two of which
are listed as South Indian by Wynter-Blyth.
N. kurava is rather large, with somewhat
pointed wings, and a delicate violet ground
colour which permits the underside lines to be
faintly visible. N. beroe and N. berenice are
smaller and both have more rounded wings;
the ground colour is a denser violet and in
N. beroe the male forewing is clearly overlaid
with fuzzy androconial scales that are entirely
missing in N. berenice. The last species, N.
calauria, is a dark steely blue, reminiscent of
that of N. hermus.

The three members of the genus Prosotas
are only half the size of the Nacaduba proper.
Of these P. nor a is tailed while P. dubiosa
differs mainly in being untailed. The rare P.
noreia can be told from the others by two
characters in the male sex: The cilia of the
forewing apical margin is white, and the basal
band of the forewing underside is confined to
the cell.

The two species assigned to the genera
lonolyce and Petrelaea cannot be confused
with other species.

082. Nacaduba pactolus continentalis
Fruhstorfer

The large four line blue is decidedly

scarce in the Nilgiris though it has been re-
corded from Wenlock Bridge, Kallar and
Nadgani. Gordon Thompson collected a fine
male at Kallar on 2.vi.l986 but we never
saw additional specimens. It appears to be a
species of the denser forest formations at
moderate to medium heights, but too few
records are on hand. It is found in Sri Lanka
and South India, extending to Hainan and
Java in the Oriental region.

083. Nacaduba hermus hermus Felder &
Felder

I follow Tite (1963) in allocating the South
Indian population to the nominate subspecies.
The names nabo, sidoma and viola have also
been applied. In the Nilgiris, at least, the
species tends to be smaller and darker than
the previous one. It is quite rare, turning up
here and there in dense tropical or subtropical
forest. Wynter-Blyth found it just below
Coonoor and at Nadgani in both of which loca-
lities I have also taken it. Apart from that I
have some from the middle level of the
Coonoor Ghat. It is somewhat darker on the
win g than the more common N. kurava but
they share roughly the same habits, including
a very fast flight for such a relatively weak
looking butterfly. The range covers Sri Lanka
and South India, then from Assam to Malaysia
and the Philippines.

084. Nacaduba kurava canaraica Toxopeus

The transparent six line blue is rela-
tively large, with somewhat pointed wings and
with the underside pattern showing faintly
through the blue ground colour. It is not easily
confused with any other species. It is more
common than the two Four Line Blues but
rarely met with in more than one or twos.
The habitat is evergreen forest at all levels
from the plateau sholas to the foot of Nadgani

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Ghat. Occasionally specimens are also found in
mixed deciduous forest. Inside the forest
specimens fly very fast about naked twigs on
which they settle from time to time. The flight
is very powerful. They settle avidly on bird
droppings and are occasionally found on
damp patches. The range covers practically
the entire Oriental region in a number of
subspecies.

085. Nacaduba calauria evansi Toxopeus
The dark ceylon six line blue is very

like a specimen of N. hermus with additional
basal lines on the forewing underside, and
much darker than the following two species
which also tend to be of a lighter violet hue.
I collected one specimen of this butterfly at
water at the upper reaches of the Nadgani
Ghat near the TN/Kerala border. I have not
previously seen records of this butterfly from
South India; normally it is considered a Sri
Lankan speciality in the Indian area. The
genitalia of my single specimen match those
of Malaysian and Sri Lankan specimens and
there can be no doubt about the determina-
tion. There are a few battered specimens from
the Western Ghats in the British Museum
(Natural History) which appear to pertain to
this species which must be very rare indeed
in South India to have escaped positive iden-
tification for so long. Apart from South India
and Sri Lanka the species occurs in Malaysia
and Sundaland but seems to be scarce every-
where.

086. Nacaduba beroe gythion Fruhstorfer
The opaque six line blue has rounded

wings of a shining light violet and resembles
the next species except that the wings are
covered with hair-like androconial scales that
are readily visible with a small hand lens, at
least in fresh specimens. The distribution in
the Nilgiris is essentially in evergreen and

mixed deciduous forest at low to medium
heights. Most of my specimens have been
collected at damp patches on roads and along
rivers and I cannot say much about the habits
except that bird droppings are visited. N.
heroe extends into the Oriental Region at
least as far as the Philippines and Java. It is
found also in Sri Lanka.

087. Nacaduba here nice ormistoni Toxopeus

The rounded six line blue is very much

like the preceding species except that the wings
lack the special, prominent androconial scales,
but the genitalia are very different. Very worn
specimens are accordingly not easy to deter-
mine without dissection. I have seen no re-
cords of this butterfly from southern India
though it is common in Sri Lanka and its
absence from our area would have been sur-
prising. In the event I have a small series from
mixed deciduous forest on the Kotagiri Ghat
and my impression is that it is less of an
evergreen forest species than most of the other
Nacaduba. Despite the lack of written records
there are many South Indian specimens in the
British Museum (Natural History). However,
I did not find the species common. The species
is found throughout the Oriental region and
beyond.

088. lonolyce helicon viola Moore
( Nacaduba helicon )

The unmistakable pointed line blue is very
rare in the Nilgiris. No other Nilgiri Lycaenid
has so pointed forewings, and there are also
differences in the underside patterns. Hamp-
son notes it from about 3000 ft. Wynter-Blyth
took a single male at water near Kallar
(31 .vii. 1941). I failed to see it even once. The
forewing is so pointed that it would be im-
possible to confuse a specimen even in a large
assemblage of mudpuddling Lycaenidae. It is
found in Sri Lanka, South India, and then

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRl MOUNTAINS

from Sikkim east to most of the Oriental region
and beyond to the Moluccas and Australia.

089. Prosotas nora nora Felder & Felder
(Nacaduba nora)

The common line blue is sometimes by
far the most abundant butterfly in the lower
parts of the Nilgiris, vast swarms being found
on wet roads in the mornings, especially during
the dry season. Often the closely related P.
dublosa is almost as common. When not
coming to water the butterflies are very in-
conspicuous sitting around on broad leaves or
on the food plants, species of thorny climbing
Acacia- type plants that wreak havoc with a
butterfly net. They visit the flowers of these
plants but otherwise do not seem interested in
flowers to any great extent. The underside of
this tailed species often has a distinctly
Dchreous hue. The females are rarely seen
though I have taken one or two at water. The
distribution of this tiny butterfly spans the
entire Oriental region, as well as New Guinea
and parts of Australia.

090. Prosotas dublosa indica Evans
{Nacaduba dubiosa)

But for the lack of tails the tailless line
blue is practically identical with P. nora and
it is almost as common, sharing the same
range and habits. For long it was considered
simply a tailless variety, but it is certainly a
distinct species. It is less tolerant of extreme
arid conditions and in places like Masinagudi
P. nora is sometimes the only representative
of the two. The range covers most of the
Oriental region to as far east as Fiji.

091. Prosotas laoreia hampsoni de Niceville
(Nacaduba noreia)

The WHITE TIPPED LINE blue may be re-
cognised by two standard indicators : the fringe
of the apical area of the forewing when seen

against a black background is white; and the
basal pair of lunules on the forewing underside
does not extend beyond the cell. However/ the
general aspect of the butterfly is also somewhat
different from the two common species. My
only specimen was sitting in a big mudpuddling
assemblage but I had no difficulty in marking
it out as something potentially interesting.
Hampson thought it ‘fairly common’, but he
seems to have confused some of his Line Blues.
Wynter-Blyth did not find it, and my only
record is a male from Kotagiri Ghat (19.v).
It genuinely seems to be very rare and is so
considered also in Sri Lanka and at Coorg. It
is found over much of the Oriental region as
far east as Java but is generally rare.

092. PefroSaea dana dana de Niceville
(Nacaduba dana)

The dingy line blue does not have all that
much in common with Prosotas and Nacaduba
and is readily identified. Though Hampson
called it common this is not in line with sub-
sequent experience. Wynter-Blyth caught one
at Ketti and three at Kallar. I have just one
from the Kotagiri Ghat (iv.86) in mixed deci-
duous forest. I have taken it under similar
circumstances at Dhimbam in the Biligiriranga
Mountains (30 . viii) , both specimens being
caught at damp patches. The behaviour does
not seem to differ much from the other Line
Blues. It is found in Sri Lanka and in South
India, then from Kumaon eastwards to New
Guinea via Sundaland. Its absence from the
book on Thailand’s butterflies (Boonsong et at.
1977) must surely be an oversight.

lycaenesthini

093. Anthene emolus emolus Felder & Felder
(Lycaenesthes emolus)

The ciliate blue seems very rare in the
Nilgiris where both Hampson and Wynter-
Blyth failed to obtain it, though the latter

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located a specimen in the collections of the
Bombay Natural History Society. I have taken
half a dozen males in all on three different
dates at the foot of the Nadgani Ghat. Its
rarity in the Nilgiris is particularly hard to
understand since it is quite common in many
localities on the Eastern Ghats in Orissa and
in the Himalayan foothills from Nepal east-
wards. It flies east to Sundaland, but does not
reach the Philippines or Sri Lanka as does the
other South Indian member of the genus.

094. Anthene lycaenina lycaenina Hewitson
( Lycaenesthes lycaenina )

The pointed ciliate blue is quite common
in most types of lowland forest during the dry
season, but becomes decidedly scarce during
the rainy months. It rarely occurs in disturbed
habitats. Normally it is only collected when
visiting damp patches and, occasionally, flowers.
The flight of both the Anthene is noticeably
faster than that of most other Polyommatinae
and when seeing a horde of them flying around
a puddling spot, there is usually no problem
in picking out the Anthene. Females are very
rarely seen. The genus is strongly centred
on Africa, but the two Indian species have an
Oriental distribution. A. lycaenina is found in
Sri Lanka and South India, in Orissa, and then
from Nepal east to the Philippines and Sunda-
land. Tite (1966) provides an excellent over-
view of the genus.

095. Talicada nyseus nyseus Guerin-Meneville

The red pierrot is a most amazing little

butterfly, the only member of its genus, with
a colour pattern that is totally different from
any other butterfly that I know. Perhaps
Luthrodes cleat as Guerin-Meneville from New
Guinea is a partial exception; though its
ground colour is blue rather than black it shares
the red hindwing patch and the basic under-
side pattern. It is placed last among the Polyo-

mmatini since I am uncertain of its exact status
within the group. The butterfly is locally
abundant from the foot of the Ghats to the
highest peaks, accepting a rainfall regime from
500 to 6000 mm. I have seen it on the streets
of Colaba in Bombay. Its only ecological
requirement seems to be the presence of crassu-
laceous plants such as Kalanchoe and Bryo-
phyllum. The young larvae tunnel inside these
plants, only emerging from the fleshy leaves
when more food is needed. The excreta are
not evacuated and the larva lives in a frightful
mess. Pupation takes place on the leaf of the
food plant. The flight is slow and deliberate,
the crimson patches of the hindwings being
most visible. The suggestion that it is a pro-
tected species is difficult to escape. There are'
two main centres of distribution. The nominate
subspecies is in peninsular India south of
Bombay and Orissa. Two other subspecies are
found in Assam and Burma.

Theclinae

ARHOPALINI

096. Arhopala pseudocentaurus pirama

Moore

( A mbly podia centaurus)

The WESTERN CENTAUR OAKBLUE is the
largest South Indian Lycaenid and, though
rather rare, among the most common of the
genus in the Nilgiris. The somewhat similar
Ar ho pal a amantes may be recognised by the
presence of well-developed tomal lobes on the
hindwings which on the underside have green
metallic shading. For application of the names
centaurus and pseudocentaums see Eliot
(1978) for analysis of the tangled story. I have
met this butterfly on a number of occasions
on the lower reaches of the Nadgani Ghat but
never in quantity. There is also a record from
Kallar where I think I have seen it as well.

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

The adult butterfly spends most of its time
sitting on broad leaves quite high up and is not
much on the wing and then usually making
the briefest of flights. Beating the vegetation
with a long stick is the best way of flushing
it out. Oakblues occasionally come to damp
patches but not to flowers, but I have not seen
this species at water. The larvae are beautifully
camouflaged in green and brown, but their
presence is inevitably revealed since they are
covered by up to thirty large red tailor ants of
the genus Oecophytla. Larvae which I brought
home died in the absence of ants. The species
is found in the wettest parts of South India
and Sri Lanka, then from Kumaon east to the
Philippines and Sundaland, being replaced by
A. pseudocentaurus in the Papuan subregion.

097. Arhopala amantes amantes Moore
(Ambly podia amantes)

The large oakblue is fairly uncommon but,
though I did not often see it, probably mar-
ginally more common than the preceding
species. There are records from Kallar, Burliar,
Coonoor Ghat, Kotagiri Ghat and the Nadgani
area. It may turn up in evergreen forest of
both the tropical and the subtropical variety
as well as in mixed deciduous. It has a most
irritating habit of alighting at a damp spot for
just a split second, then racing off to investi-
gate another one. As is the case with other
Oakblues, flowers hold no attraction, but appa-
rently sap exudations are sometimes visited.
It is found in suitable forests in Sri Lanka and
much of India, extending east to Burma and
Thailand. I once found it very common in
Corbett National Park in U.P.

098. Arhopala canaraica Moore
(Ambly podia canaraica)

The kanara oakblue seems to be a very
rare butterfly of the lower reaches of the
Western Ghats system, and the only Nilgiri

records are by Hampson from the northern
slopes. It is smaller than the two preceding
species and the male has a black border of
1 mm. The very rare Tamil Oakblue (Arhopala
bazaloides) is also to be expected. Its ground
colour is more purple than in the other three
and the black border of the male is 2 mm
broad. I never came across either in the
Nilgiris, but I did collect a few A. canaraica
near Karkala in South Kanara. The species is
only found on the Western Ghats.

099. Arhopala abseus indica Riley

(Amblypodia abseus)

The aberrant oakblue is smaller than the
others with a characteristic, variegated under-
side. It must be considered rare in the Nilgiris
since the only record is one seen at Kallar
by Wynter-Blyth on 28.iii.1943. Apart from
a Coorg specimen this was the only record
from South India, but it has been seen by
A. J. Sharman in the Palnis (Rodericks &
Ugarte 1960). It is also rare in Sri Lanka, but
much more common from Nepal east to the
Philippines and Borneo.

100. Thaduka multicaudata kanara Evans

The many-tailed oakblue, not closely

related to the real Oakblues, is a lovely butter-
fly with its metallic blue colour and the four
fluttering tails. It may not really belong in the
Amblypodiini. It has the reputation of being
everywhere rare to very rare, probably at
least partly because it does not fly much spon-
taneously. I have found it most frequently not
in the forest proper but along rivers at the
edge of forest. It is not uncommon along the
Coonoor and Kotagiri rivers where they join
at Kallar and I have seen up to a dozen in a
day. Rather surprisingly Wynter-Blyth failed
to find it in the Nilgiris. Normally it is neces-
sary to beat it out of low bushes since it never
visits flowers and not normally damp patches

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either. This is the toughest butterfly I have
ever come across. It is practically indestructi-
ble. Pinched several times in the traditional
way, in a manner that would kill even a
Danaid, chances are that it will happily fly
off when the envelope is opened several hours
later. This type of toughness is normally the
prerogative of protected species, but I have
also encountered it in the Hesperiid, Bibasis
sena. The distribution is strongly disjunct,
covering the Western Ghats system, Burma
and Thailand. The genus is monobasic.

101. Surendra quercetorum biplagiata Butler

The common acacia blue is usually a
species of the lowland wet zone, which is local,
but occasionally common, sometimes very
common at Kallar. The male is violet, the
female brown. The disposition of the tails
differs between the two sexes. The adult
butterflies spend much of their time sitting
on twigs and fresh shoots, often those infested
with ants, and usually head down. Often three
to five are found in little clusters, sometimes
physically sitting on top of each other. At
Kallar they often sat on the flowers of Lantana
but paid no attention to nectar. I have seen
females at the nectaries of leguminose plants,
again in the company of ants, but I was never
able to satisfy myself that they really took
nourishment. There is not much spontaneous
flight activity and any flights are of very short
duration. Adult butterflies occasionally bask
with the wings three-fourths open. The range
covers Sri Lanka and South India, then from
about Simla to Indo-China. In Sundaland
proper it is replaced by S. vivarna whose female
is purple.

102. Zinaspa todara todara Moore
{Surendra todara)

The silver streaked acacia blue was re-
corded as common by Hampson, but according

to Yates (1935) this is because he confused
it with Surendra quercetorum, while recording
females of the present species under the name
of Rapala distorta. Wynter-Blyth failed to find
it and I have found it very scarce. I have a
specimen from Nadgani Ghat on the TN/
Kerala border (12.v) and I have seen it in
the moist-deciduous forest of the Wynaad
Wildlife Sanctuary. I also have a female from
moist-deciduous forest in the Biligiriranga
Mountains below the Honametti Estate. The
species really does appear to be scarce in
South India. The genus is monobasic and the
species recurs from Sikkim to Thailand and
Malaysia. It is curious that it should not occur
in Sri Lanka.

A M BLYPODII N I

103. Iraota timoleon arsaces Fruhstorfer
The silverstreak blue is one of the most
handsome of all the South Indian Lycaenidae
and the variegated underside is unmistakable.
It is unfortunately rare in the Nilgiris. Hamp-
son mentions it, giving no details, and Wynter-
Blyth failed to collect it. Between 16 and 29. vi
Gordon Thompson and I took a few speci-
mens on fig trees along the Coonoor river at
Kallar and saw quite substantial numbers of
very worn specimens. They were probably the
progeny of a single female and despite careful
monitoring of these trees over the next five
months none was seen again. The species
appears to be found in hilly country with
reasonable rainfall, but not necessarily in
evergreen forest. Though the larvae will feed
on most species of Ficus the butterfly is very
local. Perhaps some special combination of
figs and attendant ants are needed. It is rare
in Sri Lanka, fitfully distributed and not nor-
mally common in peninsular India, then from
Simla east to southern China, Hong Kong and
Malaysia. Other members of the genus popu-

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

late the remainder of the Oriental region.

104. Amblypodsa anita dina Horsfield
(Horsfieldia anita )

The leaf blue is decidedly rare in the
Nilgiris having been recorded only by Hamp-
son. Possibly the climate is on the wet side
since the species is not uncommon in the drier
jungles of eastern Madhya Pradesh and Chota
Nagpur. It will only be found in reasonably
undisturbed jungle and is an insect that does
not take to the wing very often. It may be
met with in some numbers on damp patches
and sometimes on carrion or bird droppings.
The shape and underside pattern is a minia-
ture replica of that of the Kallima butterflies.
The range is from Sri Lanka, through suitable
places in peninsular India to Malaysia and
Java. Other members of this small and com-
pact genus are to be found in the remainder
of the Oriental region and in the Papuan
subregion.

APHNAEINI

105. Spindasis vulcanus volcanos Fabricius

The common silverline is a species of

open lowland country which I have taken at
Kallar, Mettupalayam, Kotagiri Ghat and
Masinagudi. The orange markings of the fore-
wing upperside are generally well developed
in both sexes in contrast to S. schistacea.
Wynter-Blyth found it very common on the
lower plateau near Ketti in November and
December. I think he must have chanced upon
an exceptional situation. All the Spindasis are
somewhat unpredictable in their occurrence and
frequency and though usually not numerous
there may be temporary abundance (thus at
Gir Forest in Gujarat in October 1986 I saw
more S. elima, S. vulcanus and S. ictis during
one day than throughout four years of collect-
ing in all of India). The flight is extremely

rapid and how courting couples manage to
maintain visual contact during their frenzied
courtship flights is a source of wonder. How-
ever, the members of genus are fond of flowers,
not least Tridax, and are then easily netted.
The species is endemic to Sri Lanka and the
Indian subcontinent.

106. Spindasis schistacea Moore

The plumbeous silverline is very similar
to the Common Silverline but normally the
males have obscured orange markings on the
forewing upperside and a small patch of shot
blue scales in the tornal area of the hindwings.
My only female is a silvery grey and very
different from any other Spindasis I have seen.
S. schistacea seems to be found in more mesic
country than S. vulcanus and I have taken it
at Nadgani, Kallar and the forests below
Glenburn, as well as at Sholayar in the Anna-
malais. The habits are those of the genus. The
species is endemic to peninsular India and Sri
Lanka.

107. Spindasis ictis ictis Hewitson

The shot silverline is scarce in the Nilgiris
area and was not mentioned by Hampson or
Wynter-Blyth. It does figure in the revised
Nilgiri list of Yates (1935) though with no
supporting data. It is one of the most season-
ally variable butterflies that I know of, extreme
dry season forms lacking most trace of the
normal bands on the underside. I have taken
it at Masinagudi on two occasions : a dry
season form on 18.v and a wet season form
on 9.vi in the very same spot. Though many
Silverlines live in dry habitats they never fre-
quent damp patches. The species is endemic
to the Indian peninsula and Sri Lanka.

108. Spindasis elima elima Moore

Hampson recorded the scarce shot silver-
line as ‘common, 2000-4000 ft’ with no addi-

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tional detail. This is not in accord with sub-
sequent data. Wynter-Blyth records a single
specimen from Kallar, and I have failed to
find it. I did see hundreds in so unlikely a
place as the Gir Lion Sanctuary in Gujarat.
Moore’s names trifurcata and lunulifera have
been used instead of elima by some authors,
but given the virtual absence of Nilgiri mate-
rial I have not looked into the matter. The
species is endemic to Sri Lanka and peninsular
India and is probably mostly associated with
slightly less dry habitats than is S. ictis.

109. Spindasis abnormis Moore

The abnormal silverline is easily recog-
nised by the fact that most of the usual bands
of the underside are obsolete, leaving only the
central discal bands with any prominence. It
was described after a few Coonoor specimens
collected in 1880. A very few were then taken
in the Coorg area. Florence found additional
specimens near Coonoor early this century
since then very little additional material has
come to hand. One must assume that this
South Indian endemic is strictly localised, and
in all probability linked to some fairly obscure
species of ant, since the genus has one of the
closest symbiotic relationships with ants of all
the Lycaenidae.

110. Spindasis lohita iazularia Moore

The long-banded silverline is perhaps the
prettiest of the South Indian members of the
genus. The upperside is a deep shot blue with
a prominent orange patch at the tomus, though
the female is a dull black. It is more of a
forest insect than the others and may be found
in lowland mixed deciduous forest and in the
evergreen formations. It is not very common
and I have less than a dozen picked up as single
specimens in many localities, usually while
feeding from the flowers of Acacia horrida
and other thorny leguminose plants. Wynter-
Blyth doubted its presence in the southern

Nilgiris but I have caught it on the Kotagiri
Ghat as well as at Kallar. The range covers
Sri Lanka and South India, a few chosen
spots in central and eastern India, then from
Kumaon east to Taiwan, Hong Kong and
Sundaland.

CATAPAECILMATINI

111. Catapaecilma major callone Fruhstorfer
The name myositina Fruhstorfer is normally

associated with the South Indian populations
of the common tinsel, but Cantlie (1962)
insists that this should be limited to the Ceylon
population which is morphologically different
from the South Indian one. Though Hampson
called it ‘common’ the Common Tinsel appears .
to be relatively scarce in the Nilgiris. Wynter-
Blyth failed to find it during four and half
years of intensive collecting and I have only
taken two in widely separated spots in the
Nadgani area. On 1.x. 1986, S. Imber found a
thriving colony at Kunjapannai in an area I
had exploited frequently without seeing the
species. Elsewhere it has been taken in a wide
variety of habitats, even as high at 1600 m
at the St. Catherine’s Falls near Kotagiri where
I took it in 1956. I took a good series in very
dry country in the foothills of the Palnis in
July 1984. Wynter-Blyth (1957) adduces evi-
dence that in both Sri Lanka and southern
India it has entered a cyclical decline since
the 1880ies. I have personally not found any
species of Catapaecilma common anywhere
else in the Oriental region. The species is
found in Sri Lanka, South India, along the
Eastern Ghats, then from Mussoorie east to
Taiwan and south to Malaysia. Other species
inhabit the rest of the Oriental region.

LOXURINI

112. Loxura atymims atymnus Cramer

The unmistakable yamfly is not rare and
sometimes common in the wetter lowland

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

forest formations, especially where bamboo is
present, and it may sometimes be found in
the vicinity of villages. Normally the butterfly
flutters weakly in the shade but it has a capa-
city for rapid flight if disturbed or faced with
open sunshine. I have not seen them on
flowers, but they seem to be attracted to
homopteran insects, especially those feeding
on their larval food plants, Smilax and Dios-
corea, but I have not positively seen them
imbibing the sugary secretions. The inevitable
traffic of ants in such places does not disturb
the butterflies. The species is found in Sri
Lanka, suitable localities on the Indian Penin-
sula, then east to Sundaland and the
Philippines.

CHERITRINI

113. Cheritra freja freja Fabricius
The common imperial may be found in
small numbers on the Nadgani Ghat, and in
the Nilgiris it seems to be limited to the wettest
tracts of lowland evergreen forest. The long
tails make confusion with any other South
Indian butterfly but the much darker Binda-
hara phocides impossible. The South Indian
population is normally known under the sub-
specific name of jaffra, but Harish Gaonkar
has examined the Fabrician type of freja in
Copenhagen and it is clearly of South Indian
origin, like much else of Fabricius’ type mate-
rial. Hampson found it on the western slopes,
Wynter-Blyth did not obtain it, while I have
seen it on most visits to the Nadgani Ghat. I
have never seen it on flowers or at water.
Males sometimes perch on a prominent leaf,
usually out of reach, sometimes with the wings
three-fourths open. From such perches they
may launch brief flights. Good specimens are
difficult to procure since the tails often break
off in the net. In dull weather the butterflies
settle under leaves. It is amazing that they

can manage this act without the tails getting
in the way. The range covers Sri Lanka and
South India, then from Kumaon to Indo-China
and Sundaland.

HORAGINI

114. Rathinda amor Fabricius

The monkey puzzle is a very distinctive
little butterfly in a monobasic genus that is found
only in Sri Lanka, South India and Assam.
It is a retiring species that has to be looked
for actively in the mixed deciduous forest
that constitutes the main habitat. It is usually
found sitting on the top of broad leaves, some-
times with the wings three-fourths open bask-
ing in the sunshine. When disturbed it will
only fly a short distance and the flight is very
weak by the normal standards of the Theclinae.
The larva is covered in long fleshy tubercles,
supposed to give a monkey food for thought
and responsible for the English name (!?).
The pupa is attached only by the cremaster,
lacking the girdle round the thorax. These two
traits unite Rathinda and Horaga.

115. Horaga onyx cingalensis Moore

The common onyx is very rare in the
Nilgiris. Hampson recorded it as ‘rare’, Wyn-
ter-Blyth and I failed to find it, though I did
see a specimen in the Biligiriranga Mountains.
Generally it is found in dense shrub or forest
undergrowth, not necessarily that of the wet-
test types. Thus, it is reputedly not rare in the
vicinity of Bangalore. The habits are probably
somewhat like those of Rathinda amor. The
range covers Sri Lanka and South India, then
from Kangra east to Taiwan, Hong Kong and
Sundaland.

116. Horaga viola Moore

The violet onyx is a rare little butterfly
whose exact taxonomic status has been the

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subject of considerable discussion. It is very
rare in the Nilgiris but it is mentioned in the
list by Yates (1935). I have no personal ex-
perience of the insect, but it probably frequents
slightly more mesic habitats than the preced-
ing species. It is found in Sri Lanka and South
India, as well as Burma. It is not mentioned
from Thailand by Boonsong et al. (1977) and
taxonomic and nomenclatural issues make it
difficult to say how far it penetrates into the
Oriental region (possibly to the Philippines
and Sundaland).

ZEZIINI

117. Zezius chrysoitiaMus Hiibner
The redspot is a very distinctive butterfly
in a monobasic genus that is endemic to Sri
Lanka and the Indian subcontinent. While
local, it is not rare, and may be found in low-
land country under a large variety of ecolo-
gical conditions. It is rare in the Nilgiris,
however, Hampson caught a single female and
Wynter-Blyth found a single male forewing at
Kallar. Over the six months that I spent in the
Nilgiris I collected a dozen or so at Kallar
with the help of Gordon Thompson. Of these
three were males. We sometimes found both
sexes sitting on a bush infested with Oecophylla
ants which are known to tend the larva. Three
of the Kallar females were taken at water as
was a single specimen at Ronningtown, rather
unusual in the Theclinae. A female from the
foot of Nadgani Ghat is so different from the
others that one would spontaneously consider
it a distinct species. The upperside is a more
or less uniform dark brown with a coppery
sheen instead of powdery blue with broad
brown borders. The underside is very dark
with the space between the heavily marked
lunules filled in with red, contrasting strongly
with the lightly marked underside of the usual
female. Only the unique disposition of the

spots of the underside and the special arrange-
ment of the tails make it certain that it is a
Redspot. It is presumably a product of the
extreme humid conditions of the Nadgani
locality.

IOLAINI

118. Ancema blanka argentea Aurivillius
( Pratapa blanka)

The silver royal is the first of a series of
seven very beautiful strong blues, most of
which have eluded me, all being genuinely rare
to very rare in the Nilgiris. The underside
of the male in this species has a special silver
sheen that will distinguish it from all other
South Indian species. Yates (1935) records a
Nilgiri specimen taken by Stokes-Roberts and
Wynter-Blyth collected a single female at
Kallar on 22.viii. 1941. I did not come across
it. It is found in South India, and then from
Sikkim to Sundaland.

119. Creosi cleobis cleobis Godart
(Pratapa cleobis)

The broadtail royal is rare at medium
heights in the Nilgiris according to Hampson.
Wynter-Blyth took a single specimen below
Coonoor on 2.x. 1942 and there is a record of
one from the Gudalur Dak Bungalow (Yates
1935). I caught a fresh male on the flowers of
Polygonum in my Kotagiri garden on 6.x. 1986,
a most surprising record as the garden was
normally a butterfly desert. The underside is
a creamy brown that differs from the other
related species. The genus is monobasic and
the single species is found in South India and
then from Simla east to S. China, Hong Kong
and Malaysia.

120. Pratapa deva deva Moore

The white royal has been recorded from
Kallar and the Mettupalayam Ghat, but I
have not come across it. It is found on Sri

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LGIRI MOUNTAINS

Lanka, in South India, through suitable loca-
lities in peninsular India to Ambala and east
to Sundaland.

121. Tajuria maculata Hewitson

The spotted royal with its white underside
adorned with large, disjunct black spots is
quite unmistakable. Yates (1935) includes it
in his list on the basis of a Stokes-Roberts
specimen in the de Niceville collection. All the
new records to the Nilgiris based on his mate-
rial have since been validated by others and
the species is so distinctive that it is difficult
to see how a labelling error would have sur-
vived. Otherwise the range covers the area
from Sikkim to Sundaland and there appears
to be no geographical differentiation. If it is
a genuinely South Indian species a long series
from more than one locality is a great desi-
deratum. It could well be an undescribed sub-
species.

122. Tajuria cippus cippus Fabricius

The peacock royal also seems to be rare
in the Nilgiris though generally speaking it is
more common than most of the members of
this group of genera. It is also much less
demanding in habitat choice. Wynter-Blyth
failed to find it. I am almost certain that I
saw it near Masinagudi, but it might just have
been T. jehana. It ranges from Sri Lanka
through much of India to South China and
Sundaland.

123. Tajuria jehana Moore

The plains royal does not figure on
Wynter-Blyth’s original Nilgiri list but is men-
tioned from Kallar and below Coonoor in a
later supplement. It also figures in Yates
(1935) as collected by Winkworth. I have a
specimen from Kallar (28. v). Given the Kallar
records I suspect that this is the species which

Gordon Thompson saw on a Loranthus in-
fested chikoo tree at Rahman Gardens in
Mettupalayam. All members of the group feed
on loranthaceous plants. The species is closely
allied to T. cippus but is endemic to Sri Lanka
and peninsular India.

124. Tajuria melastigma de Niceville

The branded royal is a rare species that
was recorded from the Nilgiris by Hampson
and of which Wynter-Blyth saw a specimen
from a local collection probably from the
Mettupalayam Ghat. The underside is brownish
with a rosy tinge. The species is endemic to
India and Burma having been recorded from
the Nilgiris, Kanara and the Himalaya from
Kumaon to Burma. It is generally considered
to be rare.

125. Rachana jalindra macarita Fruhstorfer
0 Charana jalindra)

The banded royal is a handsome butterfly
that is very rare in South India. Wynter-Blyth
collected a male at Burliar in April and a
female at Ketti in June. Since the species is
normally associated with lowland evergreen
forest the Ketti record is curious. On the under-
side the outer third of all four wings is a rich
chocolate, making it very different from all
other South Indian species of the group. All
members of the lolaini ( Ancema , Creon,
Pratapa, Tajuria, Rachana ) feed on parasitic
mistletoes of the genera Loranthus, Dendroph-
thoe and Scurrula. They rarely stray far from
the trees on which the plants grow, nor are
they much given to flying spontaneously. They
only rarely visit flowers and even more rarely
damp patches and hence they probably seem
scarcer than they actually are. A. jalindra is
found in South India, then from Nepal east to
Sundaland, generally being rare throughout its
range.

V

309

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

HYPOLYCAENINI

126. Hypolycaena nilgirica Moore

The first specimen of the nilgiri tit was
caught in the Nilgiris just about one hundred
years ago by one A. Lindsay. It was later
collected also in the Palnis and a few speci-
mens turned up in Sri Lanka. Hampson did
not record it, Wynter-Blyth took a total of
fifteen at Kallar where I have taken three on
different dates. Kallar would thus appear to
be a headquarters of sorts for a rare and
local butterfly. I have only seen it at water
and know nothing of its behaviour except that
the flight is weak and fluttering, so much so
that confusion with Ypthima ceylonica is a
possibility. Nothing is known about the early
stages.

127. ChSiaria othona othona Hewitson

The orchid tit is rare in South India and
is recorded here from the Nilgiris for the first
time on the basis of a single fresh male that
I caught at water in the forests below Glen-
burn on 12. vi. 1986. The underside and geni-
talia of this and the preceding species are so
similar that they should possibly be treated as
congeneric. It is fitting that the larval food
plants of such a pretty and delicate little
butterfly should be species of orchids. It seems
likely that the species is limited to lowland
and subtropical evergreen forest in the Nilgiris.
It is found in South India, then from about
Dehra Dun east to at least Malaysia, but
further east taxonomic difficulties makes it
difficult to say which exact species are repre-
sented.

128. Zeltus amasa amasa Hewitson
(Zeltus etolus )

The fluffy tit appears to be very rare in
the Nilgiris. Hampson took three females in
the Nadgani area in 1888 and I have a single

female from near the foot of the Ghat. Wynter-
Blyth failed to procure it. It appears to be
limited to lowland evergreen forest in our area.
It is much more common elsewhere in its
range which stretches from Nepal east to
Hainan, the Philippines and Sundaland. The
genus is monobasic.

DEUDORIGINI

129. Detidorix epijarbas epijarbas Fabricius

The cornelian is a widely distributed butter-
fly that is remarkably scarce in the Nilgiris.
Wynter-Blyth obtained one at Runnymede and
two at Kallar, from where I also have two (2.vi
and 13 . viii) both collected by Gordon Thomp-
son. The species is often quite common in a
wide variety of habitats to as high as 2500 m
in the Himalaya so its scarcity in the Nilgiris
is doubly puzzling. It is not rare in lowland
Sri Lanka, found in suitable localities through-
out peninsular India, then practically through-
out the Oriental region, extending via New
Guinea and Australia as far into the Pacific
as Samoa.

130. Detidorix isocrates Fabricius
( Virachola isocrates )

The common guava blue is another species
that is rare in the Nilgiris despite being quite
common on the open plains of Sri Lanka and
peninsular India. Hampson gives an upper
limit of about 1200 m but no further
details. W3mter-Blyth caught one at Kallar
(28 . iii) and saw one at Nadgani in December.
I never came across it despite checking hun-
dreds of guava and pomegranate trees, the
favourite, but not exclusive, larval food plants.
In addition to India and Sri Lanka the range
covers Burma and Thailand.

131. Deudorix perse ghela Fruhstorfer
( Virachola perse)

The large guava blue is another rarity in

310

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

the Nilgiris. Hampson mentions it as ‘2000-
4000 ft’ with no details and I know of no
further records. It is a denizen of more forest-
ed country than is Deudorix isocrates but they
are otherwise very similar in both facies and
habits. The range covers Sri Lanka and South
India, then from Kangra east to Burma, Thai-
land and the Philippines. There is a popula-
tion also in the Eastern Ghats.

132. Bindahara phocides moorei Fruhstorfer

The plane in the Nilgiris is found mainly

on the western slopes where Hampson col-
lected 15 specimens and where I have seen
small numbers on several occasions in dense
forest on the Nadgani Ghat and near Rousden
Mullai estate at Devala. On 23. v a specimen
unexpectedly turned up at Kallar. Wynter-
Blyth caught one at flowers near Ketti (1900
m), a most unexpected record since the species
is definitely essentially one of the lowland
evergreen forests. The flight is rapid, often
inside dense vegetation, and I have found it
very difficult to capture in good condition.
Apart from Sri Lanka and South India, the
species occurs from Sikkim east to practically
the entire Oriental region, thence to Australia
and the Solomon Islands.

133. Rapala iarbus iarbus Fabricius
(A. iarbas & R. melampus)

Some authors would distinguish the South
Indian populations of the Indian red flash
as ssp. sorya Kollar, but the species is so
widely distributed, yariable and probably
migratory that I do not feel there is much
point in doing so. It is another widely
distributed plains butterfly, often common, that
is curiously scarce in the Nilgiris, the only
record being Hampson’s note ‘2000-7000 ft’.
It is probably best looked for in places like
Masinagudi and in mixed deciduous forest,
but I found no trace of it. The species is

distributed practically throughout the Oriental
region and beyond.

134. Rapaia lankana Moore

Despite the scientific name the English
name of this very scarce butterfly is the
malabar flash. It is endemic to Sri Lanka
and the Western Ghats and there are a few
Nilgiri records. Hampson records it as ‘1000-
3000 ft, not common’, presumably on the
western slopes. A local collector, Gopal-
krishnan, showed me a photograph of one in
a Japanese collection and thought it was from
the Nadgani area. Very little is known about
this butterfly.

135. Rapala inanea schistacea Moore
{Rapala schistacea)

The slate flash is relatively scarce in the
Nilgiris, though I would not accept Wynter-
Blyth’s view that it is very rare outside the
western slopes. I have regularly picked up
single specimens on the Kotagiri Ghat, near
Glenburn, at Kallar and at various points of
the Coonoor Ghat in addition to Nadgani. I
have just over a dozen, all females, and mostly
caught on the flowers of Acacia horrida, a
thorny creeper that can wreak havoc to a
butterfly net. It is found in Sri Lanka, wooded
parts of the Indian subcontinent with ade-
quate rainfall, east to Thailand and Burma
and perhaps deeper into the Oriental region
where the taxonomy of the group becomes
very difficult.

136. Rapala vartma lazulina Moore

The indigo flash is much rarer than the
preceding species, notwithstanding Hampson’s
comment that it was common. Wynter-Blyth
did not find it and I have but three females,
all collected at the level of about 1100 m on
the Coonoor and Kotagiri Ghats. One settled
on the shirt of a passenger awaiting the depar-

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

ture of the toy train from Benhope Station.
His surprise at my catching a butterfly off his
shirt with my fingers was at least as great
at my seeing the species in this manner. It is
found in Sri Lanka, South India and from
Kangra east at least to Malaysia and pro-
bably beyond.

Curetinae

137. Ceretis thetis thetis Drury

The Indian sunbeam is the most common
of the three Curetis in South India, but it is
still not an insect which is met with anywhere
on any day. The female is the only one with
white instead of orange markings. The narrow
black border of the male is not continued
along the termen of the forewing and the
ground colour is more intense than in the two
other species. It is not too rare at Kallar,
where females are often seen on Pongamia
glabra, a favourite larval food plant. I have
seen it on the Kotagiri Ghat and I have taken
specimens also at Nadgani and Ronningtown.
The males are mostly taken at damp patches,
usually by themselves and not as members of
the larger mudpuddling assemblies. They are
inordinately fond of bird droppings. I have
seen as many as three on one small dropping,
so engrossed in their task that when I lowered
the net over them they remained sitting.
Occasionally a male may be seen basking in
the sun with the wings three-fourths open, but
otherwise they manage to stay out of sight.
The species is endemic to the Indian subcon-
tinent, Sri Lanka and Burma. Records from
further east pertain to populations now consi-
dered to be distinct species.

138. Curetis dentata dentata Moore

The dentate sunbeam and the following
species, C. siva are very similar and may be
distinguished as follows: In the former the

discal band on the hindwing underside, faint
as it may be, is strongly disjunct, the streaks
in spaces 6 and 7 being inwardly displaced
almost to the end cell; in C. siva the band is
almost continuous all through spaces 2 to 7,
much as in the otherwise very different C.
thetis. I have a few specimens from the
Nadgani Ghat but Wynter-Blyth caught the
species (or possibly C. siva) at Kallar. All
but one of my four or five specimens were
taken on bird droppings. The distribution of
the species covers South India, then from
about the level of Kulu east to Indo-China
and Hong Kong.

139. Curetis siva Evans

The shiva sunbeam was described by Evans
(1954) and is endemic to South India with
firm records from Travancore (Kerala),
Mysore, Coorg, N. Kanara and the Nilgiris.
The distinguishing characters are given under
the preceding species. I have not come across
it and the only record I have is the original
description.

Riodininae

140. Abisara echerius pranosa Moore

The plum judy is the only South Indian
representative of this distinctive subfamily, given
family rank by many authors. Older Indian
literature often lumped the Riodininae and
the Libytheinae as the Erycinidae, though the
two are phylogenetically as far apart as almost
possible. The species is mainly found in low-
land and subtropical evergreen forest though
in my childhood there was a permanent colony
in an old fruit plantation at Kotagiri (1900
m). It is not rare, but is best met with early
in the morning when the males perch on
leaves along forest paths. Later in the day
they retire to some more secluded roost. They
are rarely seen away from dense forest. Neither

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRl MOUNTAINS

sex seems interested in flowers or damp
patches. The species is found in South India
and Sri Lanka, suitable parts of peninsular
India, extending in a northerly pattern to
Indo-China and the Philippines. Other similar
species replace it in Sundaland. The genus is
also represented in Africa.

Nymphalidae

Danainae

Danaid butterflies are well known for their
need to frequent sources of pyrrolizidine alka-
loids which are essential for the males to
prime the pheromones that are necessary for
successful courtship. Ackery & Vane-Wright
(1984) give a good review of this phenome-
non. Before dealing with the individual Danaid
species it is worthwhile summarising the in-
formation I obtained on this issue in the
Nilgiris in the form of an introduction since
more than one species is usually involved at
each pyrrolizidine alkaloid source.

From the very beginning of my stay in the
Nilgiris many coffee plantation managers spon-
taneously informed me of large assemblages
of Tirumala septentrionis and Euploea species
on a large, yellow Crotcdaria. a known alka-
loid source that is sometimes interplanted with
coffee. Their enthusiastic descriptions of this
phenomenon made it clear that hundreds or
even thousands would be present at the same
time. I have personally only seen the occa-
sional specimen on this plant.

At Ronningtown I found a large Heliotro-
pium that had been overturned in such a way
that a cave some 30 cm deep had been ex-
cavated around the root system. At any given
time up to fifty Danaids were settled on the
plant or more especially the upturned and
exposed roots ( Danaus chrysippus, D. genutia,
Tirumala septentrionis, E. core, E. Sylvester).

Many crawled into the cave beneath the plant,
jostling with each other to get at the best
roots. Heliotrope is again well known as a
pyrrolizidine alkaloid source.

At Kallar I found thousands of the same
five species on Ageratum conyzoides that had
been sprayed with weedicide inside the exten-
sive Arecanut plantations, usually in little
clusters of three to five individuals on the
chosen plants. According to Gordon Thomp-
son the plants were most attractive about three
days after weedicide application, so that the
butterflies moved about the plantations accord-
ing to dates of spraying.

By the Coonoor river at Kallar I once found
fourteen Tirumala septentrionis on the tiniest
possible cut stump of an unidentified plant,
crammed so closely together as to be hardly
believable. Most ingestion of pyrrolizidine
alkaloids takes place as a social activity,
almost exclusively male. I suspect that the so-
cial aspect is simply because the easiest way
for a Danaid to localise an alkaloid source is
by the proxy of looking for other males.

141. Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Linne
(Danais chrysippus)

The plain or common tiger is one of
India’s most widespread and well-known plains
butterflies, being very common also in disturb-
ed areas, villages and agricultural land. No
resident of India can have escaped seeing it.
It avoids deep evergreen forest and becomes
progressively rare as one ascends the moun-
tains, and I do not think it breeds regularly
on the plateau of the Nilgiris. The species is
migratory, but it constituted only a small
fraction of the migrations that I have seen in
the area. The butterfly is essentially mono-
morphic in South India the two regular
forms being of extreme rarity, though the form
with white hind wings has become predomi-
nant in Malaysia and North Sumatra this

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

century. The range is vast, covering all the old
world tropics with some penetration into the
Palaearctic in China, the Middle East and
the Mediterranean.

142. Danaus gemitia genufia Cramer
( Danais plexippus)

The striped tiger is widespread throughout
the Nilgiris in most types of country though
it is rarely very common. Only at Ronning-
town have I seen it in very large numbers.
It is, however, more at home in the wetter
forests and on the plateau than is Danaus
chrysippus. It participates in the migrations
with other Danaids and may also share com-
munal roosts for the night. It comes to water
occasionally, certainly more frequently than
D. chrysippus. It is found practically through-
out the Oriental region, and in Australia, but
not on New Guinea.

143. Tirumala limniace exoticus Gmelin
{Danais limniace)

The blue tiger is generally a common
butterfly in peninsular India but it is scarce
in the Nilgiris, being outnumbered by T.
septentrionis by a factor of at least 100 to 1.
This was also the experience of Wynter-Blyth
in the 1940ies. In the drier tracts, such as at
Masinagudi, both species are scarce, but equal
in number. The species is migratory and may
occasionally be met with on the high plateau,
but I doubt that it ever breeds there except in
exceptional cases. The species is found in most
of the Oriental region, but is absent from
Sumatra and Borneo, where T. septentrionis
is present. The African populations are now
considered to be specifically distinct from T.
limniace.

144. Tirumala septentrionis dravidarum
Fruhstorfer

{Danais melissa {hamata))

The dark blue tiger is found in the forests

of the lowland and the subtropical zones, but
is not normally resident on the plateau, though
migrants, stragglers and the occaiional tem-
porary population may occur. It k sometimes
very common indeed at lower levels with large
numbers coming to water, especially where
salts are present. I have seen cows licking
water sources on vertical mud faces also
utilised by this species. It is one of the major
components of migratory activity in southern
India whenever mixed migrations occur. The
range covers Sri Lanka and South India, then
from Himachal Pradesh east to Malaysia,
Sumatra and Borneo. T. limniace is absent
from these two islands, but it is present on
Java and Sulawesi, from where T. septentrionis
is absent.

145. Parantica aglea aglea Cramer
{Danais aglea)

The glassy blue tiger is often reported
to be common or very common but that is
not normally the case in my experience. Cer-
tainly it is best classed as not rare in the
Nilgiris, being found practically anywhere
where there is decent forest, but in small
numbers only. It may be found also in more
open country on occasion. Wynter-Blyth appa-
rently did not find it much above 5000 ft, but
it is certainly resident at 2000 m in the Long-
wood Shola near Kotagiri. It is a much weaker
butterfly than the two Tirumala and usually
only emerges from forest when seeking the
flowers of Lantana. I have not seen it at damp
patches but would not rule out that it occa-
sionally frequents them. I have never seen it
migrating in the Nilgiris, but I did see large
numbers as part of mixed migrations in the
Konkan in October 1986. It is found in Sri
Lanka and South India, then from the level
of Jammu to Hong Kong and Malaysia, being
replaced by very similar species further east.

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIR1 MOUNTAINS

146. Paralitica nilgiriensis Moore
( Danais nilgiriensis )

The nilgiri tiger is an unmistakable species
that is endemic to the higher mountains of
southern India and most closely related to P
fumatci Butler, a Sri Lankan endemic. It is
basically a butterfly of the evergreen sholas of
the plateau, but it may be found in more open
country as well, though the extent to which
it breeds outside of the forest is doubtful. It
descends to the subtropical evergreen forests
and I have exceptionally seen it as low as
1000 m. The flight is rapid, low and erratic
for a Danaid, giving the impression that it may
not be a protected species. The flight pattern
reminds one of the day flying moth A glia tau
of northern Europe as it makes its way through
the spring beech forests. It is often seen in
numbers on flowering trees or on the occasional
Lantana in clearings in sholas. From time to
time it is also met with sipping moisture from
water seepages in vertical banks in the forest
or along clear brooks, something that may
also be observed in other montane butterflies,

147. Idea malabarica Moore
(Hestia lynceus)

The malabar tree nymph, like the other
members of the genus, is a true delight to
watch as it makes its way slowly through the
lower parts of the forest canopy in a ghostly
fashion, sometimes exposed to sunlight as it
crosses a glade or a forest road. Often little
companies of up to a dozen specimens will be
performing a muted aerial ballet as they circle
about some communal cross-roads. The butter-
fly is a South Indian endemic, limited to wet
evergreen forest of the Western Ghats system,
replaced by the ecologically somewhat more
tolerant /. iasonia Westwood in Sri Lanka.
Other species occur from the Sundarbans east-
wards, though rarely are more than two species
found in any one locality. I have never seen

them at water, but despite the statement by
Ackery & Vane-Wright (1984) that they
rarely or never visit flowers, I have seen them
on Lantana and flowering jungle trees on many
occasions. They are, though, less avid nectar
seekers than most other Danaids. The flight
is effortless at all times and their ability to
hover in the same spot for minutes on end
is remarkable, but when needed they can make
very rapid progress indeed. The species is
quite common in the right type of habitat.

148. Euploea core core Cramer
The common crow is abundant at lower
and middle heights in all types of terrain. It
is also strongly migratory. Though seen regu-
larly on the plateau it is probably not truly
resident. During the dry season large roosts of
this and/or the next species are frequently
found in cool forests, sometimes in the com-
pany of other common Danaids. Damp patches
are attractive at certain times, at others not.
Various types of diapause mechanisms seem
to be operating in the species, but I have not
been able to determine their exact nature and
timing. For a winter roost of Danaids in
Corbett National Park see Larsen (1987d).
Many early authors have remarked on the habit
of this and other Euploea of patrolling a
limited territory with the abdominal hair pen-
cils fully extended even though no females or
rival males are in sight. I have witnessed more
than fifty such displays, often lasting half an
hour or more. The hair pencils are extended,
the abdomen curled downwards, the wing beat
slow and more precise than normal. The area
patrolled is very small, usually not more than
five to ten metres in diameter and sometimes
less. In an open forest near Glenburn I could
see more than ten males at any given time.
During several hours of combined observation
I never saw male-male interaction, nor did I
see any females approach or being courted.

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I never saw Euploea Sylvester engage in this
type of behaviour. On three occasions I have
seen courtship displays, though neither the
inception, nor the final copula. Here the male
hovers above a sitting female, standing almost
still in the air some 10 to 15 cm from the
female. If the female moves, the male follows.
At this stage of courtship I never saw the
hair pencils extended. The species is found
from Sri Lanka to most of the Oriental region
and Australia to the Pacific, but according to
Ackery & Vane-Wright (1984) it is lacking
from Borneo, Sulawesi and the Philippines.

149. Euploea Sylvester coreta Godart
( Euploea coreta & E. harrisi)

The double branded crow differs from the
Common Crow in having two long prominent
brands along the termen of the forewing
upperside instead of one small brand, but in
flight there is no difference. The abdominal
hair pencils are a sullied yellow rather than
the rich egg-yolk yellow of the common Crow.
This is also a common species, but it is less
at home in the drier habitat than is E. core.
In the large migration of May 1986 (Larsen
1987b) both species were present in roughly
equal numbers. In late May 1986, a bit up
the Coonoor Ghat I found a roost of this
species comprising some 300 individuals. None
of a random sample of fifteen or so was E.
core though they sometimes roost together.
There is little difference in habits between the

two common crows. The species is found in
Sri Lanka and South India, then from Nepal
to most of the Oriental region, the Papuan
subregion and the Pacific.

150. Euploea klugii kollari Felder & Felder
{Euploea crassa)

The brown king crow is very much rarer
in the Nilgiris than the two others and is
much more closely confined to wet evergreen
forests. I have taken moderate numbers only
on the Nadgani Ghat and at Mukkali near the
entrance to Silent Valley (1000 m). Hampson
appears not to have found it, but Wynter-Blyth
caught a few at Kallar where it is not normally
found. Although it may easily be overlooked
since it is much like the other two on the
wing, the species does appear genuinely to
be quite rare. The curved termen of the male
forewing is very characteristic. All three
Euploea may be caught together at Mukkali
and Nadgani, and on a few occasions I have
tested their pheromonal odours. All three were
pleasant, but definitely different, though I will
not venture to try a description. All are fond
of flowers, but I have not taken E. klugii at
water, though I will not rule out that it occa-
sionally visits damp patches. The species is
found in Sri Lanka, in South India, and from
Nepal east to Indo-China and Sumatra.

{to be continued)

316

INTERSPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREAT INDIAN
BUSTARD ARDEOTIS N1GRICEPS (VIGORS)1

Asad R. Rahmani and Ranjit Manakadan2
( With seven plates)

The Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps
(Vigors) lives in grassland, open scrub land
and semi-deserts of the Indian subcontinent
(Ali & Ripley 1983) along with a large num-
ber of species such as the blackbuck Antilope
cervicapra, fox Vulpes bengalensis, white-eyed
buzzard-eagle Butastur teesa, Indian roller
Coracias benghalensis, black drongo Dicrurus
adsimilis, etc. In its interaction with other
species, the bustard shows fear of some, is
antagonistic to others, and is neutral in atti-
tude to a few. The species which are either
feared/avoided/partially tolerated are termed
here as ‘non-associate species’ while the ani-
mals which sometimes move with the bustard
are termed as ‘associate species’. Non-associate
species are fox, vultures, eagles, crows and
livestock while the associate species like drongo,
roller, white-eyed buzzard-eagle, etc. are tole-
rated when they come very near to the bustard
and even perch on it (as in the case of the
drongo). This paper deals with the interspeci-
fic behaviour of the great Indian bustard with
the animals found in its habitat. This study
is a part of the investigatiop of the ecology,
behaviour and present distribution of the great
Indian bustard under the Endangered Species
Project of the BMHS.

Study Areas : The main study areas were
Nanaj in Solapur district, Maharashtra
(17°41'N and 75°56'E, alt. 486 m) and Karera

1 Accepted December 1985.

2 Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023.

in Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh (25°30'N
and 78°5'E, alt. 271 m). The Nanaj Study
area consists of about five sq km of grassland,
woodlot, grazing land and crop fields, while
Karera consists of about 50 sq km of open
scrub dominated by 50-60 cm tall Zizyphus
rotundifolia bushes. This area forms a part of
the 202 sq km Karera Bustard Sanctuary. The
study period extended from September 1981
to June 1985.

Observations

A. Birds

a . NON-ASSOCIATE SPECIES
1. Vultures

The Scavenger Vulture Neophron percnop-
terus appears to be the bird most feared by
the bustard, especially the nesting hen. On
many occasions we had seen female bustards
frightened by scavenger vultures. For exam-
ple, on 13 June 1982 at Karera, a scavenger
vulture flew over the nest of a female bustard.
Within seconds, the hen lowered her neck
and sunk to the ground. After five minutes
she slowly raised her neck, looked all
around and then relaxed. Another encounter
recorded was of a female bustard foraging
alone on 19 June 1982 at Karera. A scavenger
vulture landed nearby and the bustard hid
among Zizyphus rotundifolia bushes as long
as the vulture was in the vicinity. A large eagle.

317

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

probably Tawny Aquila rapax, was also seen
at that time in the area.

Other species of vultures are not so feared.
On 7 June 1982 at Karera in the evening we
were watching an adult cock bustard and a
hen. The hen was foraging near her nest. At
1750 hrs two King vultures Sarcogyps calvus
landed in the area to drink. At once the hen
became alert and started walking towards the
nest. Soon a Whitebacked Vulture Gyps
bengalensis joined the king vultures. The hen
stood near the nest and then settled down on
the egg but soon got up and again stood near
the nest, watching every movement of the
vultures which were 100-150 m away. The hen
later flew off towards the river to drink though
the vultures were in the vicinity. After 23
minutes she came flying back and landed
600-650 m from the nest and as usual started
drifting towards the nest while foraging. The
whitebacked vulture flew over her head but
no aggressive behaviour was seen. The hen
settled on the egg and five minutes later both
king vultures flew off, watched by the hen as
long as they were visible. The cock bustard
which was also in the area kept on displaying
and remained unconcerned by the presence of
vultures.

Though our observations are limited, it
appears that the bustards are afraid of
Neophron probably due to the vulture’s
well-known egg breaking habit (Alcock 1972).
Bustards are not very frightened of the king
and the whitebacked vultures as there is no
potential danger from them to the egg or to
the chick. McCann (1939) had seen scavenger
vulture trying to break an egg of a flamingo
( Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum) in the
Rann of Kutch. Recently Auffenberg (1981)
saw an Egyptian (Scavenger) vulture using a
stone to break the shell of a live turtle ( Lis -
semys punctata). Apparently there seems to

be more chances of predation of a bustard
egg by scavenger vultures.

2. Eagles and Falcons

On a few occasions we have seen bustards
being frightened by eagles. On 14 July 1982,
for instance, at 1800 hrs a large eagle, pro-
bably Tawny settled on the ground in an area
where two female bustards were foraging.
Both hens reacted, one flew away for a short
distance while the other stood alert with neck
feathers erected in threat behaviour. We
suspect that of the two bustards, one was a
post- juvenile female following its mother and
this young bird was more frightened. Soon
both hens walked away from the eagle which
looked exhausted and was being mobbed by a
great grey shrike (Lanius excubitor) and a
redwattled lapwing ( Vanellus indicus).

On another occasion two subadult male
bustards were slowly drifting towards three
females when an eagle came flying from a
nearby jheel and flew above the bustards. All
the five birds flew off in different directions.
The females landed together and the males
landed nearer to each other. The eagle was
probably an immature greater spotted ( Aquila
clan go).

Another interesting eagle-bustard interaction
was seen in April 1984 in Karera. Appearance
of an eagle scattered all the bustards from our
study area. Though up to nine bustards were
seen frequently in that area in April-May,
as long as the eagle was present, only the
territorial cock remained. One hen was on the
nest when the eagle appeared for two days.
On 1 May in the morning, we saw her sitting
crouched on the nest throughout our three
hours of observation. She did not leave for
the usual foraging activity when the eagle was
around. Dharmakumarsinhji (1962) has noted
‘freezing’ of an incubating hen bustard when
an occasional eagle flew overhead.

318

INTERSPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR OF ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS ( VIGORS )

We have observed an adult cock bustard
boldly but unsuccessfully threatening an eagle
Aquila sp. near a termitarium. On 2 August
1983, a subadult male bustard was seen eating
white ants (alates) as they emerged from a
damp hole in the morning. Bank ( Acridotheres
ginginianus ), and common (A. tristis) mynas,
Indian roller ( Coracias benghalensis) , crows
( Corvus splendens and C. macrorhynchos ) and
drongo ( Dicrurus adsimilis) were present
around the bustard. The bustard was seen
snapping the winged termites as they flew out
from the hole. The tail of the bustard was
cocked up in a fan shape, perhaps to threaten
other birds. An adult cock then came over
and chased the younger male away and started
picking the alates. It also fanned its tail but
only for a short time. The subadult male kept
lingering around and soon the alates stopped
emerging from that hole. Both the bustards
walked away amicably and were joined by
another subadult male. The adult male saw
emergence of winged termites from a new
hole and quickly went over and started pick-
ing the insects but kept the two subadult males
away. Shortly thereafter an eagle landed and
all the smaller birds scattered but the cock
bustard moved only a few feet. The eagle
started eating the alates and while the subadult
males moved away the adult male vainly tried
to threaten the eagle which ignored the demon-
stration. The cock then walked away and all
three males flew and settled about 100 m where
they soon found a new hole from which the
alates were emerging.

A similar encounter near an active termi-
tary was reported by Howells & Fynn (1979)
between a Denham’s Bustard ( Otis denhami)
and about forty Black and Yellow kites (Milvus
migrans mi grans and M. m. parasiticus ), one
Steppe Eagle ( Aquila nipalensis), three Lesser
Spotted Eagles (A. pomarina) and two
Wahlberg’s eagles (A. wahlbergi). The Den-

ham’s bustard was seen defending the ephe-
meral food source. When a kite landed at the
termitary, the bustard ran towards it ‘with
wings raised’, tail partially erect and neck

craned forward the kite was struck twice

before escaping”.

Though we do not have any direct evidence
of an eagle killing a great Indian bustard,
our observations suggest that the bustards,
especially hens, consider eagles as a potential
threat. Fraser (1982) found a Martial Eagle
(Polemactus bellicosis) on a freshly killed
adult Kori Bustard ( Ardeotis kori). Some ten
metres from the kill, another Kori Bustard
was seen hiding in tall grass probably
too frightened to move” (Fraser 1982).

Though falcons (mainly lanner Falco biarmi-
cus) is occasionally seen at Karera and at
Nanaj, we have not seen any encounter with
the bustard. We think, there is no danger to
an adult great Indian bustard from a falcon.
Even trained falcons are seldom able to kill a
great Indian bustard. Elliot (1880) wrote that
falconers sometimes try to kill bustards with
Peregrine (Falco peregrinus peregrinator) but
they are no match for the bustard. “So rarely
has the pursuit been successful that the Nawab
of Banganapiliny (sic) in Cuddapah confered
a village Inam (or free tenure) on a falconer
who achieved the feat” (Elliot 1880).

3. Owls

Due to the temporal differences in the acti-
vity periods of the owls and the bustard, very
few encounters were seen. The great horned
owl (Bubo bubo ) and the shorteared owl
(Asio flammeus ) are seen at Nanaj and we
have observed one bustard-owl encounter with
each species. On 14 August 1982 at 0550 hrs,
a cock bustard was seen displaying (threat
display?) near a rubble wall on which Bubo
bubo was sitting. Both the birds were calling.
Soon the bustard stopped displaying and

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo I, 84

moved away. The owl flew and settled nearer
to the bustard. The male again cocked the
tail and started calling. In the dim light visi-
bility was poor. The owl flew to its roost when
the light increased.

The great horned owl is a formidable pre-
dator (Grossman & Hunlet 1965). Even
remains of a peafowl have been found in its
stomach contents (Ali & Ripley 1983). Though
we have no direct evidence of a great horned
owl killing an adult or young great Indian
bustard, it is perhaps capable of doing this.
Winterbottom (1962) has described that Town-
send found a fresh-plucked Korhaan ( Eupo -
dotis afroides) ready for eating, in an old
raptor nest from which he had shot a Bubo
lacteus.

One interspecific encounter was seen bet-
ween the bustard and the shorteared owl. In
October 1983 at Nanaj at dusk before settling
for roosting two young chicks of about 6-8
weeks old and three hens were frolicking. The
chicks were jumping and exercising their wings.
Suddenly a shorteared owl appeared and it
followed the chicks who flew effortlessly and
made a circle of nearly 200 m. The hens just
looked at the owl and made no attempt to
threaten it probably knowing that the owl can
not harm the chicks who were slightly bigger
than the owl. The owl also made no attempt
to catch the chicks which slowly returned to
their respective mothers. The bustards did not
change the roosting site due to the appearance
of the owl.

4. Harriers

Pale ( Circus macroums), Montagu’s (C.
pygargus) and Marsh (C. aeruginosus) harriers
are quite common in winter at Karera and
at Nanaj. At Karera, the harriers arrive in
September when most of the bustard chicks
have fledged so there is practically no danger
to them from the harriers. At Nanaj/ the

harriers are present September onwards
when the bustard chicks are still very small.
Even then there appears to be no danger from
the harriers due to the effective protection
provided by the hen bustard to the chick. The
bustards either ignore the harriers or at the
most threaten them by partially cocking the
tail. The harriers also generally avoid the
bustards. On a few occasions we saw a juve-
nile bustard threatening a harrier which came
near to it while its mother just ignored the
raptor.

5. Yellow-wattled Lapwing

At Karera on the morning of 1st May 1984
a solitary female bustard was mobbed by two
yellow-wattled lapwings ( Vanellus malabari-
cus) when it came near their nest. The bustard
was apparently unperturbed and it walked away
' at its usual pace. The lapwings were aiming at
the head of the bustard. A complete egg of a
quail ( Coturnix ) was recorded from the sto-
mach of a great Indian bustard (Ali & Ripley
1969) so there are chances that it can also
pick up eggs of a lapwing.

6. Cranes

Three or four pairs of Sarus cranes ( Grus
anti gone) are resident in our study area at
Karera. Sarus and bustards both feed in har-
vested wheat fields though not necessarily at
the same time. However, in 1984-85 when we
started baiting bustards with wheat near our
hide, a pair of sarus was also ‘hooked’ to the
bait and every morning they were seen eating
the bait with the bustards. Similarly in a bengal
gram ( Cicer arietinum) field, both the species
were seen together (Plate 1 A-B) and bustards
were seen moving freely between the sarus
without any agonistic behaviour. The male
bustard appears to be more tolerant of sarus
than a female.

Between September and December 1984,

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INTERSPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR OF ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS ( VIGORS )

about 400 Demoiselle Cranes ( Anthropoides
virgo) were seen at Karera. They used to fly
noisily in flocks all over the area but very
few encounters with bustards were seen. Once
they flew over seven female bustards which
just looked up and resumed foraging. In an-
other instance, nearly 100 cranes landed in a
groundnut field ( Arachis hypo geo) where ten
bustards were foraging. After landing the cranes
started feeding vigorously while the bustards
appeared to be visibly uncomfortable and they
kept looking at the cranes. Slowly all the
bustards drifted away leaving the cranes in the
field.

7. Bar headed Goose

During winter, more than 500 Barheaded
Geese (Anser indicus) are found in our study
area in a jheel at Karera. These geese greatly
damage the bengal gram crop. The bustards
are also very fond of this crop. Occasionally
we have seen both the species feeding in the
same field but the bustards were never seen
walking in the middle of a flock of geese. By
the end of winter in 1984, only one gram
field was left unharvested which was grazed
by the geese, sarus and bustards. Once we saw
the three species feeding at the same time
but not very close to each other. Generally,
the geese and the bustards fed at different
times in the same field mainly because the
appearance of geese attracted the attention of
the field owner while the bustards were tole-
rated by him. Therefore, few geese bustard
encounters were noted.

8. Crows

Crows ( Corvus splendens and C. macror-
hynchos ) are feared by incubating hen bustards
and generally avoided by non-breeding females.
According to Dharmakumarsinhji (1962)
crows appear to be a constant menace to the

egg. We suspect that one of the eggs in 1983
at Karera was destroyed by a crow. In the
subsequent year we actually saw egg preda-
tion by a crow. On 11 April 1984 when a hen
bustard had gone to drink water from a river,
at 0725 hrs, a jungle crow saw the hard-set
egg and pecked at it. When the hen returned
she atonce started chasing the crow but the
damage had already been done. For more than
an hour, the crow was in the vicinity of the
nest and was actively threatened by the hen.
As soon as the crow landed, the bustard used
to rush at it, beak widely open, wings droop-
ing and sometimes, tail cocked. She was very
agile in following the persistent crow. Many
times the bustard jumped up to peck at the
crow with the beak open as widely as possible.
This went on for 8-10 minutes, then the crow
flew away but returned at 0900 hrs, for a
short while. In the evening, the hen bustard
was roaming in the nest area and when she
saw the crow on the nest, she came flying
and aggressively threatened the crow. Thrice
she jumped over the crow but could not catch
the wily predator. However, she was success-
ful in chasing the crow away. Next day the
crow was not seen in the area though the
bustard was seen in the vicinity of the destroy-
ed egg. A crow can destroy a bustard egg
only in the absence of a hen bustard because
on many occasions we have seen a hen suc-
cessfully chasing away a crow from the nest.

9. Rock Bush Quail

On 18 June 1985, we saw an adult bustard
vigorously displaying to three rock bush quail
Perdicula argoondah. The bustard was inten-
tionally moving towards the foraging quails
which soon disappeared in the bushes. This
display lasted for about two minutes. When
the quails disappeared the cock returned to its
favourite spot in the arena and continued
displaying.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

b. ASSOCIATE SPECIES

Black drongo ( Dicrurus adsimilis), white-
eyed buzzard-eagle ( Butastur teesa), redhead-
ed merlin ( Falco chicquera) and Indian roller
(Coracias benghalensis) are the four birds often
seen with the bustard. These four species great-
ly benefit by their association with the bustard
as they eat the insects flushed by the bustard.
This association falls under the classical case
of commensalism. Commensalism is defined by
Clarke (1954) as an “association (of different
species) in such a way that only one of the
organisms is benefited but neither is harmed”.
Feeding association occurs when a bird (or
mammal) intentionally approaches another
organism and thereby gains foraging advantage
(Dean and MacDonald 1981).

1. Drongo

Between our two field stations, we have
commonly seen drongo ( Dicrurus adsimilis )
associated with bustard in Nanaj but rarely in
Karera. When we started our work in Septem-
ber 1981 in Nanaj, drongos were seen moving
with the bustards. An additional development
since .1982 is that the drongo has learnt to
ride on the back of the bustard. This
seems to be a recently acquired behaviour due
to the change in the habitat. In 1981 most of
the drongo-bustard associations were observed
in a semi-woodlot plantation where there were
many perches in the form of small saplings
for the drongo to perch on. From 1982, the
bustards were sighted more often in a pure
grassland area where there were very few
perches. In the absence of perches, the drongo
started sitting on the back of the bustard.

The drongo at Solapur shows local move-
ment. It is practically absent from the grass-
land in summer and early monsoon though
some are seen near the villages and towns.
We have kept a record of the first sighting

of the drongo and first sighting of a drongo
riding on a bustard:

Year

First sighting of a

First sighting of

drongo in the

a drongo riding

study area

on a bustard

1982

28 September

28 October

1983

5 October

24 October

1984

4 October

25 October

In 1982, the first drongo was seen in Nanaj
study area on 28 September in a grassland
plot with stunted Neem Azadirachta indica
bushes of not more than 70-90 cm in height.
Slowly their number increased. Exactly a
month later on 28 October, a drongo was seen
riding on a bustard. Soon this habit was
acquired by most of the drongos. Due to lack
of rains, movements of bustards in our study
area was erratic (Rahmani & Manakadan
1986), but whenever bustards were seen they
were followed by one or two or even more
drongos. The drongo used to follow the
bustards throughout their foraging period,
sometimes even waiting near a resting bustard.
For instance, one day a drongo sat on a bush
near the resting adult cock bustard for 25
minutes before flying away. As soon as the
cock became active again in the afternoon, a
drongo was seen following it. Even if a bus-
tard flew and landed in a new area, the drongos
followed. Sometimes up to five drongos were
seen with a single bustard.

A female bustard is more tolerant of a
drongo sitting on her back than a male. Even
a hen with a month old chick ignores a drongo
following it. On 23 November 1983, we saw
two hens together each with a chick and each
with a drongo sitting on its back. Similarly a
sub-adult male also allowed a drongo to sit on
it. However, the adult cock bustard evidently
finds it irritating to have a drongo sits on its

322

INTERSPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR OF ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS ( VIGORS )

back. We have rarely seen a drongo sitting on
the adult male bustard for more than a few
seconds, while on females they sit up to five
minutes at a stretch. As soon as a drongo
alighted on a cock’s back, it turns and shoos
it off. Once in November 1984, three drongos
were following an adult cock when one settled
near the tail, the male gave a startled jump
and on landing threatened the drongos by
opening its wings, cocking the tail and erecting
neck feathers, but the drongos continued to
pester the bustard.

The sitting spot of a drongo on the back of
a bustard also differs in the male and the
female. On the adult cock, they generally sit
(momentarily) on the rump but on a female
or a subadult cock, they sit on the mantle or
the back. This was markedly noticed in 1984
than in earlier years. Apparently this is an
adaptation of the drongo to keep itself away
from the beak of a pugnacious adult cock who
generally looks back and tries irresolutely to
peck at the drongo.

After settling in the grasslands of Nanaj for
a few weeks, the drongos become so used to
following the bustards that on 31 October
1984, when a dummy of a female bustard was
put out to decoy a male, a drongo came and
sat near the dummy for 15 minutes !

At Karera the drongo is a resident species
but it is very rarely seen following bustards.
Moreover, whenever we saw a bustard being
followed by a drongo, the association was
always for a few minutes and after a long in-
terval. Sometimes this association was not seen
for weeks or for months. Only once for a
whole week a drongo was seen following a
bustard every now and then. Unlike Nanaj,
this association is not a long term one here.
At Nanaj the drongos were such persistent
companions of bustards that it became easy
for us to locate a bustard just by searching for
the drongos. All drongos were not necessarily

near bustards, but all bustards had a drongo
or two in attendance. Such type of persistent
association was never noticed at Karera.
Secondly at Karera we never saw drongos sit-
ting on bustards probably because at Karera,
the ubiquitous Zizyphus rotundifolia bushes
provide a convenient perch so a drongo has
no reason to sit on a moving bustard. At
Nanaj also, most sightings of a drongo sitting
on a bustard were in the grassland plot where
there were hardly any bushes for perching. In
the semi-woodlot plots or where a perch was
available, the drongo preferred to use it while
attending a bustard.

The first drongo-bustard association at
Karera was seen on 2 June 1982, five days
after we started intensive studies. A hen bus-
tard was followed by two drongos and an
Indian roller at 1755 hrs. The roller displaced
the drongos and after about ten minutes both
the drongos flew away.

The second such association was noticed after
a year on 21 July 1983 when the drongo was
seen following a female bustard for five minutes.
After that no such association was seen for
a couple of months though the bustards were
watched daily. In 1984 on 8 June a drongo
was seen following a hen with a chick for
40 minutes. The hen was not disturbed and
she never threatened the drongo even when it
came near the young chick. On another occa-
sion we saw similar behaviour probably with
another mother and chick.

Drongo-bustard association is purely com-
mensal with the former as a beneficiary since
the drongo (s) catches the insects flushed by
the foraging bustard. Thus the drongo uses
the bustard as a beater’. Occasionally the
drongo (s) may actually compete with the
bustard for the insects but generally it takes
only those that are fast fliers and thus beyond
bustard’s capacity to catch.

It is difficult to explain the very casual

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

drongo-bustard association at Karera though
both the species are resident and are seen in
the same open-scrub area throughout the year,
while at Nanaj, both the species have a local
movement and they are seen in the grasslands
mainly during the monsoon. If a drongo is
equally benefited at both the places (i.e.
Karera and Nanaj) by following a bustard,
logically a more persistent association should
be seen at Karera rather than at Nanaj be-
cause a resident population should learn and
retain its experience of following a bustard if
the experience is beneficial to it.

The answer possibly lies in the difference
of habitat/vegetation between Karera and
Nanaj. At Nanaj, there is a sudden increase
in the population of insects after the rains
and as the grass becomes almost uni-
formly tall, most of the insects in it
lie hidden unless they are flushed out by
some moving object. As there are very few
perches in grassland from where a drongo can
sally to catch flying insects, it is advantageous
for this adaptable species to utilize a big bird
like a bustard as a mobile perch which at
the same time flushes numerous winged insects.
On the other hand, at Karera the Zizyphus
bushes and the occasional Acacia leucophloea
trees provide innumerable perches for a drongo.
Unrestricted livestock grazing also does not
allow the grass to grow uniformly tall and
leaves many open patches where detecting
insect prey is easy. Moreover, the insect popu-
lation (chiefly grasshoppers) reaches its peak
in summer and early monsoon when spotting
an insect from a convenient perch is appa-
rently easier than from the back of a bustard
whose movement to a particular area is un-
predictable.

In Africa the feeding associations of the
Carmine Bee-eater ( Merops nubicoides) with
the Kori Bustard have been documented
(North 1944, Jackson 1945, Lynn-Allen 1951).

Interestingly, the northern race of the Carmine
Bee-eater has developed the habit of sitting
on the backs of mammals and bird species
(North 1944) while in the southern race this
habit is not seen. Ali & Ripley (1983) have
recognised two subspecies of the Black Drongo
within the Indian limits: Dicrurus adsimilis
al birictus in north India and D. a. macrocercus
in the peninsula below the Tropic of Cancer.
Like the Carmine Bee-eater, the drongo also
shows some behavioural differences in its two
subspecies, i.e. macrocercus has developed the
habit of perching on a moving bustard while
albirictus does not show this habit though it
perches on other animals like cows, sheep and
goats. However, we think this is more due to
adaptation to the local conditions rather than
any inherited subspecific behavioural difference.

2. White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle

The White-eyed buzzard-eagle Butastur teesa
is another associate of the bustard. In Karera
it is commonly seen in the monsoon months
but with the arrival of winter it moves to other
areas. Like a drongo or a roller, the buzzard
also follows a foraging bustard but only at a
distance.

Buzzard-bustard association is more persis-
tently seen at Nanaj than at Karera. The buz-
zards are so much benefited by the flushing
of grasshoppers by the bustards that some-
times as many as four buzzards were seen
together in attendance. For instance on 18
August 1982 at 0845 hrs. four buzzards were
seen following a cock bustard at Nanaj. The
same day at 1000 hrs. three buzzards foraged
with the bustard. When the bustard sat down
among a tussock of grass for resting, a
buzzard came and sat near it for eight minutes,
waiting for the bustard to get up and flush
insects for it.

In 1983 and 1984 very few buzzard-bustard
associations were seen at Nanaj. Moreover,

324

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 1

Rahmani & Manakadan: Ardeotis nigriceps

A. A male great Indian bustard with a sarus crane in a chana field.

B. A subadult male bustard moving inbet ween a pair of sarus cranes in a chana field.

Photos: Asad R. Rahmani

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84

Rahmani & Manakadan: Ardeotis nigriceps

Plate 2

A. Black drongos are often found in association with the bustards at Nanaj.

■ :';

B. Five drongos following a male bustard.

Photos: Asad R. Rahmani

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84 PLATE 3

Rahmani & Manakadan: Ardeotis nigriceps

A. An Indian roller following a great Indian bustard.

B. An Indian roller sitting very close to foraging bustards.

Photos: Asad R. Rahmani

A. An Indian roller expectedly waiting near a bustard for an insect to be flushed.

B. An Indian roller waiting on a bush close to a foraging bustard.

j. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84

Rahmani & Manakadan: Ardeotis nigriceps

Plate 4

Photos: Asad R. Rahmani

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84

Rahmani & Manakadan: Ardeotis nigriceps

Plate 5

A. A pair of common myna following two female bustards.

B. The same pair of myna near another female bustard.

Photos: Asad R. Rahmani

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 6

Rahmani & Manakadan: Ardeotis nigriceps

A. A young female bustard walking away from a blackbuck.

B. Three female bustards alerted by a herd of goats.

Photos: Asad R. Rahmani

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 7

Rahmani & Manakadan: Ardeotis nigriceps

A. An adult cock bustard being disturbed by cows.

B. A hen with a post-juvenile male chick moving away from a herd of goats and a goatherd.

Photos: Asad R. Rahmani

INTERSPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR OF ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS ( VIGORS )

most of these associations were seen with the
adult cock, perhaps because we watched that
male most frequently, possibly also because a
cock bustard is more tolerant of the presence
of a small raptor compared to the timid
females.

3. Redheaded Merlin

The redheaded merlin ( Falco chicquera)
is present at both the Nanaj and Karera
field stations and was seen by us in
many other bustard areas as well. But a
merlin-bustard association was seen only at
Nanaj in 1982. On 29 July 1982, for the first
time we saw a merlin following the adult
territorial male at Nanaj. Even when the cock
flew to threaten another adult cock the merlin
followed it. It shows the persistency of the
bond. During two hours of observations on
that day, the merlin caught an insect flushed
by the bustard thrice. Soon another merlin
joined in and for some time both merlins
followed the foraging bustard much like
drongos.

Merlins were seen again on 7, 12, 14 and
18 August. Unlike drongo the merlin gene-
rally sat in front of the foraging bustard chiefly
on the numerous stone heaps. Here again
the adult male bustard appeared to be more
tolerant of the merlin then the hens.
On 14 August, for example, four bustard
females were seen foraging together attended
by a merlin. Twice the merlin flew near a
female and she threatened it. The same merlin
flew towards a cock who was displaying on
seeing the hens, but when the merlin found
the male not moving (except for the display
movement) it flew back to re-join the forag-
ing females who were clearly flushing grass-
hoppers from the tall grass.

Once we saw both a merlin and a white-
eyed buzzard-eagle following an adult male
bustard who was foraging in a new sunflower

field. The buzzard was sitting on top of a
mound while the merlin was flying ahead of
the foraging bustard. When the bustard ap-
proached the mound, the merlin came back
and flew low over the head of the sitting
buzzard who momentarily lost its balance but
did not budge. The merlin was trying to sit
on the mound because that was the only spot
which gave a clear view of the area. Undeterr-
ed the merlin settled on the ground in front
of the bustard. Soon an insect was flushed by
the bustard and it was quickly snapped up
by the buzzard in the air. After a short while,
the merlin flew away but the buzzard followed
the bustard for some more time.

By the end of September 1982 the merlin
was not seen with the bustard as they had
moved out locally. We did not see any merlin-
bustard association in 1983 and 1984 at Nanaj.
No such association was ever observed at
Karera.

4. Indian Roller

The Indian roller or blue jay Caracias
benghalensis was seen with the bustard
quite frequently at Karera but only once
at Nanaj. On 5 July 1984 at Nanaj, a
roller followed two hen bustards and a young
male for sixteen minutes in the morning (Plate
3). Many times the roller caught grasshoppers
flushed by the bustards. Such an association
was not seen in earlier years. However, at
Karera we noticed this commensalism as soon
as we started our work there in May 1982.
Between May and July, the roller was seen
following bustards on five occasions. But from
September when we resumed our studies at
Karera till the end of March the roller was
never observed with the bustard though it was
present in the area. From 29 March 1983
onwards this association was started again. A
roller-bustard association is not as permanent
as between drongo and bustard. For days

325

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

together we would not see any roller with a
bustard, then a day or two both the species
would be seen together.

The absence of a roller-bustard association
between September and March could be ex-
plained by the fact that during this period
the insect, especially grasshopper, population
was very low so the roller found following a
bustard unprofitable as hardly any other big
insect was flushed. As soon as the number of
grasshoppers increased by the end of March,
the rollers resumed their association with the
bustards.

Similarly in 1984, though the first roller-
bustard association was noticed on 16 Febru-
ary, when a roller was seen following three
males for half an hour, many more sightings
were recorded after the first week of March
when the insect population had gone up. '

Like a drongo or a buzzard, a roller is tole-
rated by an adult bustard even when it comes
to within a metre (Plate 3, B). Once a roller
was seen trying to snatch an insect from the
beak of an adult cock bustard. The roller was
also commonly seen following a mother with
a juvenile male chick, the latter used to fre-
quently threaten the roller. On 6 April, we saw
a roller following a hen with a ten-day old
chick. The hen was not much disturbed by
the proximity of the roller to the chick. The
same day we saw another roller sitting beside
an incubating hen waiting for her to get up
and flush insects. We have seen the same beha-
viour with the drongo and with the white-eyed
buzzard-eagle.

The roller appears to be less agile in catch-
ing fast flying insects than a drongo, a buzzard
or a merlin. Rollers generally pounce on in-
sects disturbed by the bustard. Thus, they
generally sit on top of a bush close to the
place where the bustards are foraging (Plate
4, A,B). The roller also changes its perch less
frequently in comparison to the three species

mentioned above. Only when a bustard has
gone quite far (100-200 m) does it fly to
catch up with the foraging bustard. The
buzzard and the merlin are more persistent
followers of a bustard, mainly because they
have to catch a flying insect in the air before
it is again lost sight of in the vegetation. Rollers
prefer to sit on top of a bush so as to scan
a wider area. The smallest movement of an
insect on the ground is detected and the prey
is pounced upon.

5. Common Myna

We have only a few observations of
Common Myna Acridotheres tristis associat-
ing with the bustard. All these cases were
mainly seen at Nanaj in 1984. On 22
June a pair of mynas were seen following
a female bustard in the morning (Plate 5, A)
but they soon flew off to their nest. At 0730
hrs two mynas (probably the same pair) were
sighted with the adult cock bustard in the
same area.

Myna-bustard association was again observ-
ed on 29th morning when a myna was seen
following three female bustards for three
minutes (Plates 5, B). Then it flew towards
the nest in which we suspected chicks. Later
the same morning twice we saw a myna with
the female bustards, each time after catching
a big grasshoppers it flew towards the nest. On
3 July, nine mynas were seen associated with
three female bustards. Like drongo, buzzard,
roller, myna-bustard association was purely
commensal with mynas profitting by catching
insects flushed by the big bird.

B. Mammals

Blackbuck, chinkara, wolf, jackal, fox and
mongoose are (or were) present in almost all
the bustard areas. In most of the places, the
wild animals are complemented or more com-
monly replaced by a large population of domes-

326

INTERSPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR OF ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS ( VIGORS )

tic animals like cow, buffalo, sheep and goat.
The bustard frequently comes across these
animals and reacts positively (tolerates/ignores)
or negatively (moves away/threatens) depend-
ing upon the nature of the species encountered.
We have kept a record of all the mammal-
bustard interactions and the results are given
below.

I. WILD MAMMALS

1. Wolf: Adult great Indian bustard has

presently few natural enemies. Though there
are no records available of the Indian cheetah
Acinonyx jubatus (now extinct) hunting bus-
tards, it could perhaps have been the bustard’s
predator when both the species were common.
The wolf Canis lupus has also become rare.
It is present in highly depleted numbers both
in Nanaj and Karera. The wolf is greatly
persecuted by shepherds at Karera so it has
become almost nocturnal and extremely
stealthy. Nevertheless, we saw wolves atleast
ten times in four years but no interaction with
the bustard was noted.

At Nanaj, four wolves were frequently sight-
ed and we saw three interactions with the
bustards. On 14th August 1982, for instance
a wolf was seen chasing blackbucks in the
morning. Adult blackbucks were not very
afraid and reacted by just trotting away. An
adult cock bustard was foraging in the area.
The wolf saw the bustard and chased it for a
short distance. The bustard who was already
alert by now, flew and settled nearly 200 m
away and resumed foraging as if nothing had
happened. The wolf did not continue the chase
and vanished into a gully.

A few days later, a wolf (probably the same)
was seen chasing a sub-adult blackbuck in the
same area in the late evening. The terrified
antelope and the pursuing wolf made a com-
plete circle of the study plot where we were

present, and when the displaying adult cock
bustard saw the fleeing blackbuck it stopped
displaying and when the wolf came near it,
the bustard flew away after pooking and settled
on a ridge in the open grazing land. It roosted
there. We suspect that it changed its roosting
place from the grassland to the open, stony
bare area so that it could easily see approach-
ing danger (wolf) at night.

In 1983 at Nanaj, four wolves were fre-
quently sighted in our study area and we
think that one female bustard was lifted from
the nest by a wolf because one morning we
found lots of feathers scattered around the
nest and no trace of the hen. A day earlier,
two wolves had been sighted in that area.
Incidentally, the predator (wolf?) had not
touched the egg which was present on the
nest.

Though it is very unlikely that a wolf can
catch the usually alert adult bustard during the
day, it is a potential predator of a roosting or
nesting bustard. One of the reasons the bus-
tard’s roost in the bare area is that they can
see a ground predator.

2. Jackal : The jackal Canis aureus is pre-
sent both at Karera and at Nanaj though
at the latter place, we saw it only once and
we have no observation of jackal-bustard
interaction. However, at Karera the jackal is
relatively more common and we observed
three encounters of bustards with jackals. On
5 November 1982 at the end of the day, four
hens and a hen with a post- juvenile male chick
were seen at 1745 hrs in open bare area pre-
paring to roost. The mother and chick were
in a nearby fallow field. A pair of jackals
appeared and two of the females became alert
and started moving towards the jackals. Soon
they were joined by the remaining two hens.
The mother and chick stopped preening when
they saw the jackals and the hens mobbing

327

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

them and they also started to walk towards
the jackals who were slowly trotting along the
bare area. Soon all the six birds caught up
with the jackals and chased them. The jackals
quickly disappeared into the scrub. While
chasing, all the birds appeared to be very con-
fident-even the young male was ahead of its
mother in threatening the jackals. When the
jackals had disappeared, the birds relaxed and
returned to their respective roosts. Before
roosting, they frolicked for few minutes. The
mother and chick returned to the same spot
in the fallow field from where they had
started.

After a month, we were watching the four
females and the hen and chick. Suddenly all
the birds became alert and stood motionless.
Four jackals appeared about 20 m from the
birds but ignored them. The females, however,
flew and settled about 300 m away but the
mother and chick remained motionless and
when the distance between them and the jackals
increased, resumed foraging.

The third encounter was also seen in the
evening. On 30th April 1983, three hens were
foraging in the Zizyphus area. At 1845 hrs
when two jackals appeared about 200 m from
the birds they became alert for a few minutes
but soon resumed foraging. This time also the
jackals ignored the birds. These incidents
suggest that adult bustards are generally not
afraid of jackals.

3. Fox: The fox Vulpes bengalensis is very
common in Karera, less so in Nanaj. The adult
bustard is not at all afraid of the fox. Often
we have seen foxes moving in the same area
where the bustards were feeding but the birds
just looked at them and resumed foraging.
Bustards were rarely seen to change their
course of action after seeing a fox. On the
other hand we have seen the birds threatening
if the fox came close to them. For example.

on 7 August 1982 in Nanaj, the adult cock
was in full display at 1855 hrs when a fox
appeared near it. It stopped displaying and
threatened the intruder by spreading its wings
and erecting the neck feathers. The fox ran,
followed by the bustard for a short distance.

We saw one interesting fox-bustard encoun-
ter at Karera on 7 March 1984. A hen and a
post-juvenile male chick were foraging. The
chick was still being fed by the mother. At
1845 hrs we saw the mother walking briskly,
followed by the chick. In front of them was a
fox walking away from the annoyed birds.
The bustards were purposely chasing the fox
and were walking very fast. The neck feathers
of the birds were erect. When the fox dis-
appeared, the birds relaxed. The chase was
seen for a little more than hundred metres.
Later, the birds roosted in the same area.

Though a fox is not a danger to a healthy
adult bustard it is a menace to the egg. We
saw one bustard egg being preyed upon by
a pair of foxes when the hen had gone for
foraging. On 13th April 1984 at Karera, in
the early morning when the hen bustard was
foraging about 200 m away from the nest,
the unattended egg was discovered by two
foxes who atonce started eating it. Simultane-
ously, the hen saw the foxes, she came running
and started threatening the predators. The
foxes started running round and round the
Zizyphus clump followed by the angry bus-
tard. After a few minutes of futile chase, the
hen returned to the nest, stood there for some
minutes, and slowly picked up the scattered
egg shell pieces and carried them some 32 m
away from the nest site. The foxes and the
bustard were seen throughout the day in the
nest area.

4. Mongoose : Two encounters with a com-
mon Indian mongoose Herpestes edwardsi were
seen in Karera under different circumstances

328

INTERSPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR OF ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS ( VIGORS )

and thus showing contrary results. On 7 October
1982 three male and two female bustards in
sex sub-groups were foraging in the open scrub
area with the females walking about 30 m from
the males. An adult mongoose appeared in
between the two sub-groups. A female threat-
ened it with open wings and erect tail. The
mongoose went on its way and the birds re-
sumed foraging. The males who probably had
not seen the mongoose showed no reaction.

Female bustards with egg or a young chick
are very frightened of mongooses. For exam-
ple, on 30 March 1983, in Karera a large
mongoose was seen near the nest of a bustard.
The hen which was foraging nearby first froze
when she saw the mongoose, then she started
walking in a hunched posture towards the nest.
Later she squatted down and we saw her
moving on her tarsi. The mongoose was
searching about 20-30 m from the nest. When
the mongoose went away, she slowly got up
and sat down on the nest. She was panting
and it took a few minutes for the hen to relax
even after the departure of the mongoose.

When a hen bustard is on her nest she is
capable of defending but when she is away
foraging or for drinking, then the bustard egg
is in a great danger of being preyed upon by
a mongoose.

5. Blackbuck and Chinkara : Blackbuck

(. Antilope cervicapra ) and chinkara ( Gazella
gazella) are present in Karera. Though they
are not the enemies of the bustard, we have
seen bustards threatening them or walking
away from the antelopes, depending upon the
circumstances and the proximity of these ani-
mals. As a rule bustards do not bother either
blackbuck or chinkara unless they come very
near. According to Morgan-Davies (1965) in
Tanzania, kori bustard attend blue wildebeest
(Connochaetes taurinus) and feed on small
mammals disturbed by them. We have never

seen any great Indian bustard following the
antelopes to feed on the disturbed insects.

In Nanaj between 400 to 500 blackbucks
are present. We have many times seen a
female bustard threatening an inquisitive fawn
or a nervous doe. Once a 3-4 month old fawn
was threatened four times by a female bustard
when the young antelope persisted in follow-
ing her.

Due to an abnormally high population of
the blackbucks at Nanaj (compared to the
size of the area, i.e. about five sqkm), black-
buck-bustard encounters are frequent and we
have often seen bustard suddenly finding
themselves amidst a big herd of the antelope.
On many occasions, the adult territorial cock
bustard at Nanaj was seen walking towards
blackbucks or continuing display even among
a passing herd of blackbucks.

The blackbucks have become so numerous
in our study area at Nanaj that they are per-
haps now a danger to the egg of the bustard.
In 1983, one egg was probably trampled by a
blackbuck which used to sit near the nest.
We found the broken egg with a fully deve-
loped embryo a few centimetres from the nest
as if someone had kicked it. Up to 200 black-
bucks were seen in that study plot. The male
buck which used to sit near the nest on its
own midden had frequent territorial fights
with other passing males and we suspect that
during one such fight the egg was inadvertently
kicked while the hen was away foraging.

II. DOMESTIC ANIMALS

In most of the bustard areas, a very large
number of domestic animals like cow, buffalo,
sheep and goat are present. The main danger
from these animals is the destruction of habi-
tat by over-grazing and trampling of egg. Here
we will discuss only the domestic animal-
bustard interactions.

1. Cattle : The Cow is the most numerous

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

domestic animal in Karera and Nanaj. Bus-
tards generally do not go near a grazing herd
and if the cows move toward a foraging
bustard, it briskly walks or flies away. At
Nanaj in 1983, an adult male was trying to
establish its territory on a ridge. However,
that ridge was on the path of the cows which
used to disturb the cock while returning to
the village. After three or four such disturb-
ances, the male finally abandoned the area.

At Karera on numerous occasions we have
seen bustards being disturbed by cows (Plate
7, A). However, we think the chief cause of
disturbance is not the cow per se but the
cowherd who generally accompanies the ani-
mals. Nevertheless, unlike the blackbuck herd
we never saw a bustard moving inbetween a
herd of cows even when the cows were' not
accompanied by human beings. Smithies (1946)
reported that a pair of Stanley bustard ( Neotis
denhami) were often seen together with cattle
and were probably feeding on disturbed in-
sects. We never saw such type of behaviour
in the great Indian bustard.

Reaction of a bustard to a buffalo is similar
to that of a cow. Bustards scrupulously avoid
going near a buffalo herd, especially when a
cowherd is present. Once at Karera in 1984,
we saw 12 unaccompanied buffaloes grazing
close to a nest. The hen bustard was vainly
trying to chase away the buffaloes but with
no effect. The egg was saved from getting
trampled by our intervention. One buffalo
came as close as two metres of the egg.

2. Goats and sheep : Probably due to their
smaller size, goats and sheep are tolerated by
a bustard if the goat-herd is not present (which
is very rare thanks to the wolves in the areas).
A few times we saw bustards becoming alert
when the goats/sheep came near them (Plate
7, B) but they flew off only when the goat-
herd appeared on the scene. Once when a

goat -herd was prevented from going near the
alert birds, the bustards relaxed and started
foraging very close to the goats. This proves
that the bustards are not disturbed by the
goats/sheep but by the goat-herd. Once we saw
an incubating female bustard getting up from
the nest and threatening a few goats. How-
ever, she ran and hid when the goat-herd came
near. Mr. J. P. Rogers (quoted by Mathews
1913) has seen similar incidents with the
Australian bustard ( Ardeotis australis). Once
he saw a hen “with widely expanded wings,
confronting the sheep, and with croaking
noises trying to keep them from the vicinity
of the eggs”.

C. Reptiles

The monitor lizard ( Varanus henghalensis)
is one of the major threats to the egg of the
bustard when the hen is not near the nest.
For example, on 12 June 1982, a hen bustard
was foraging around the nest at 0825 hours.
A big (75-100 cm) Varanus appeared nearly
40 m from the nest. At once the hen came
and threatened the monitor, forcing it to run
away.

The same day in the evening at 1819 hours,
the same hen got up from the nest to threaten
a monitor lizard (probably the same). After
successfully chasing it, she came back to the
nest and stood near it for a minute, then settl-
ed down on the egg very tightly when the
lizard appeared again. In Nanaj in 1983, we
suspect that one bustard egg was preyed upon
by a monitor lizard which had a hole close
to the bustard nest.

Among snakes, we have seen cobra ( Naja
naja), striped keelback ( Amphiesma stolata),
saw-scaled viper ( Echis carinatus), Russell’s
viper ( Vipera russelli ), common Indian krait
( Bungarus caeruleus) in Karera and/or in
Nanaj. On four occasions we saw a bustard
eating a small snake but we did not see any

330

INTERSPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR OF ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS ( VIGORS )

encounter of a bustard with a big snake. Pro-
bably the bustard avoids them.

Acknowledgements

This study forms a part of investigation on
the ecology, behaviour and the present status
of the great Indian bustard, under the
Endangered Species Project of the BNHS. The
project is sponsored by the Department
of Environment, Government of India, and is
financed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

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vide Grant No. 8851-658-04.

We want to thank Dr Salim Ali, Mr J. C.
Daniel and Mr S. A. Hussain for their
valuable comments and suggestions during the
writing of this paper. Our gratitude are to
Mr B. R. Koppikar, retired Additional Chief
Conservator of Forests of Maharashtra, and to
Mr J. J. Dutta, retired Principal, Chief Con-
servator of Forests of Madhya Pradesh, for
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331

BREEDING OF POND-RAISED HYBRIDS OF MAHSEER
FISH, TOR KHUDREE (SYKES) AND T. TOR (HAM.)1

S. N. Ogale2 and C. V. Kulkarni3

First generation hybrids between Tor khudree and T. tor do mature even in
small ponds in oxygenated water and with special feeds. Gravid specimens of these
fish can be stripped and eggs fertilised successfully without the use of pituitary hormone
injections. T. tor can also be bred similarly.

Introduction

Depletion of stocks of the mahseers all over
India is well known, and different methods
for their rehabilitation and conservation are
being considered. Experimenting with various
methods of breeding the fish has therefore,
assumed considerable importance for conserv-
ing the mahseer resources of our country.
Several authors had in the past drawn atten-
tion to this problem.

In recent years (1970), concrete steps for
artificial propagation and rehabilitation for
conservation of the Deccan Mahseer, Tor
khudree were taken at the fish seed farm of
Tata Electric Companies at Lonavla (Maha-
rashtra), thanks to the foresight of Shri S.
Moolgaokar, who visualised the problem and
initiated the efforts. As a result of these studies,
Kulkarni (1971) gave a preliminary account
of the spawning habits, eggs and early deve-
lopment of the fish, including a method of
stripping the spawners. The report of the
Agricultural Commission of the Government
of India (1976) also emphasised the need to
conduct biological and ecological investiga-
tions on the life history of different mahseers.

1 Accepted February 1987.

2 Tata Camp Flats, Lonavla 410 401, Maharashtra.

3 B/4 Sharadashram, Bhawanishankar Road. Dadar,
Bombay 400 028.

These recommendations encouraged such
studies on Tor putitora in the Kumaon and
Garhwal regions of the sub-Himalayan tracts
(Pathani 1982, Das 1978 and Nautiyal 1985)
and on Tor tor near Hoshangabad on tfie
Narmada river (Desai 1970). Tripathi (1978)
attempted breeding Tor putitora by stripping
on a small scale, while Kulkarni and Ogale
(1978) elaborated the method of artificial
propagation of Deccan Mahseer, fertilising
more than five lakh eggs every year since
1974. However, as the method of collecting
ripe spawners for stripping has its limitations,
efforts were made to breed mahseer success-
fully by hypophysation method (induced
breeding) with the help of pituitary hormone
injections at the Lonavla fish farm and the
particulars have been detailed by us earlier
(1986). However, since further simplification
in breeding methods of this fish was desirable,
fresh experiments were undertaken and the
results are recorded in this paper.

Limitations of the stripping method : Strip-
ping the spawners (male and female), arti-
ficial fertilisation of eggs and their rearing
afterwards are the conventional methods fol-
lowed extensively in Europe, America, Japan,
etc., especially in the case of Salmon and
Trout. However, the collection of ripe and
oozing spawners is the crux of the problem.
In the case of the salmon, this becomes possi-

332

HYBRIDS OF TOR KHUDREE (SYKES) AND T. TOR (HAM,)

ble because of its very distinct migratory habits
for spawning, provision of suitable fish ladders
and the consequent concentration of popula-
tion of spawners in small areas. In the case of
mahseer, such detailed study is yet to be ac-
complished and collection of mahseer spawners
continues to be a problem. In Walwhan and
Shirawta lakes where Kulkami and Ogale
(1978) had conducted most of their studies,
the spawners could be collected because of
special environmental conditions which were
favourable for the purpose. Both these lakes
are surrounded by hills and the rain water
running through the small ravines formed tem-
porary streams which cascade into the lakes
at certain points in the marginal area. These
streams form torrents when the rainfall is
heavy and create a mild fluatile condition in
that part of the lake. Consequently, gravid
fish which are attracted by the sound of run-
ning water and its high oxygen content, follow
their breeding instinct but being unable to
ascend the forceful streams, keep on milling
in the shallow marginal area of the lake. In this
condition, some of them re-absorb their repro-
ductive products, while some release them on a
small scale and breed, the rate of survival of
the young being very poor. If fishing is done
in this area with the help of gill nets or large
cast nets, ripe spawners can be caught and
used for stripping. But in many of the mahseer
streams seen by the senior author, such favour-
able situations do not prevail and gravid fish
keep on migrating into small streams which
are very much dispersed in the forest area,
resulting in dispersal rather than concentra-
tion of the breeding population. Collection of
spawners for stripping thus becomes a problem
and sometimes disappointing. Breeding of the
fish in farm ponds, therefore, assumes greater
importance.

Raising and breeding of hybrids

The impression prevalent so far has been
that like the commercial carps such as Catla,
Rohu etc. the mahseer also would not breed
naturally in farm ponds. Hypophysation was,
therefore, considered essential. This method
was tried for mahseer in the Lonavla fish farm
and had proved successful (see Kulkarni and
Ogale 1986). However, a search for simpler
method of breeding mahseer by improvement
of environment such as running v/ater, exer-
cise, better feeding and then stripping the
gravid fish was considered promising and
attempted successfully.

Incidentally the farm had a stock of hybrids
between T. khudree and T. tor. In 1982, gravid
specimens of T. khudree collected from Wal-
whan lake were stripped and 2000 ova were
cross fertilised with semen of T. tor raised in
the fish farm. Fertilisation was almost cent
percent. About 90% eggs hatched out and the
resultant fry and fingerlings were then grown
in a separate pond. The hybrids of this first
generation showed characters intermediate
between the two species concerned and the
rate of growth was almost similar to that in
both.

During the monsoon of 1985, both sexes of
the stock appeared to be unripe. However,
improvement in gonadial development was
achieved both with age as well as special feed
and exercise. In early August 1986, two females
were stripped and 3,500 ripe ova obtained and
fertilised with semen of T. khudree. Fertilisa-
tion appeared complete but the hatching rate
came down to 70%. The effort was repeated
on October 18, 1986 when five females were
stripped. One of them gave bad eggs with
their perivittaline membrane ruptured. This
was probably the result of the ovary being in
a state of resorption. The remaining four
females gave 5,200 ova which were again

333

5

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 84

fertilised with semen of T. khudree without
administration of pituitary hormone injections
to either sex. The rate of fertilisation was
slightly lower, being about 95%. The eggs
were hatched in the usual hatching trays
(Kuikarni & Ogale 1978) but at this time the
water temperature was 24 °C and ambient tem-
perature 29 °C. As expected, the hatching time
was reduced to 50 to 60 hours. However, the
mortality rate went up to 50% which was
much higher than in the case of females caught
directly from the lake. No evident reason for
this high mortality could be given but the
possibility of better results if the efforts were
made in the earlier month cannot be ruled out
when the climate was cooler. However, the
hatching rate improved to 90% and the fry
and fingerlings were healthy and active as
usual.

Special care of the brood fish : The brood
fish which were used for experimentation were
stocked in a small rectangular pond 10 m x
25 m and a depth of 1 . 2 m, along with other
major carps, such as Catla, Rohu, Mrigal etc.
The special care of the brood fish consisted
in using a feed additive of 3 nitro (3 nitro-4
hydroxyphenylarsonic acid), a 5% premix in
the usual feed of groundnut cake and rice
polish 1 : 1 ratio. This works out to 1 gm of
premix per kg. of feed and this feed was given
at 3 to 4 p.c. of the body weight of the pros-
pective brood fish. Further, the fish were given
exercise by netting the pond once or twice

R E F E

Das, S. M. and Pathani, S. S. (1978): Studies
on the biology of Kumaun mahseer, Tor putitora.
Indian Journal Anim. Sc. 48{6) : 461-465.

Desai, V. R. (1970): Studies on fishery and bio-
logy of Tor tor (Ham.) from river Narmada. /. Ind.
Fish. Soc. India, 2: 101-102.

Kulkarni, C. V. (1971): Spawning habits, eggs
and early development of Deccan Mahseer, Tor

a week from January to June. A small 4 cm
wide pipe provided constant running water to
the pond. These conditions represent the
minimum requirements for the growth of the
gonads and these cannot be said to be very
specialised and difficult for any fish farm.

Our recent efforts indicate that pure Tor tor
can also be stripped and bred in a similar
manner. In Tor tor the method is more fruit-
ful because they mature in ponds even in April.
Such mature fish were examined and stripped
in April 1984 in a lake, Telcosagar, near Pune.
With such early maturity, three trials can be
taken with each pair of fish and a sufficient
number of eggs obtained.

Conclusion : Maturation of gonads and strip-
ping of eggs and their successful fertilisation
without use of pituitary or any other hormone
in T. khudree and T. tor have great signifi-
cance in mahseer breeding and its conserva-
tion. Fecundity in these experiments was found
to be comparatively low, put these results
provided a proof that mahseers can be raised
in pond and bred, thus creating a dependable
source of fry and fingerlings for stocking
depleted waters. Second finding is that the
mahseers can be easily hybridised and the
resultant progeny is likely to have useful
characters but this would need extensive re-
search and observation. Further, what is true
in the above two species is likely to be true
in the case of other species of mahseers also,
but this too needs actual trials.

ENCES

khudree (Sykes). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67:
510-521.

Kulkarni, C. V. & Ogale, S. N. (1978): The
present status of Mahseer (fish) and artificial pro-
pagation of Tor khudree. ibid. 75: 651-660.

Kulkarni, C. V. & Ogale, S. N. (1986): Hypo-
physation (induced breeding) of Mahseer fish. Tor
khudree (Sykes). Punjab fish, Bull. X; 2: 23-26.

334

HYBRIDS OF TOR KHUDREE (SYKES) AND T. TOR (HAM.)

National Commission on Agriculutre (1976) :
Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi.

Nautiyal, P. & Lal, S. M. (1985): Fecundity of
Garhwal Himalayan mahseer Tor putitora (Ham.).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 253-257.

Pathani, S. S. & Das, S. M. (1979): Induced

breeding by hypophysation of Mahseer, Tor putitora
in Bhimtal. Sc. & Cult. 45: 209-211.

Pathani, S. S. (1982): Studies on spawning eco-
logy of Kumaun mahseer, Tor tor and Tor putitora.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79: 525-530.

Tripathi, Y. R. (1978) : Artificial breeding of
Tor putitora (Ham.). J. Ind. Fish. Soc. India 9: 161.

335

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF FREE-RANGING RHESUS
OF TUGHLAQABAD1

Iqbal Malik2 and Charles Southwick3

Numerous primate studies show food as a key ecological variable, influencing
social behaviour and population dynamics. A long term study showed, that although
the rhesus of Tughlaqabad spent an average of only 2.34 hours daily, feeding and
foraging which constitutes 17.5% of their day time activity, which is rather less as
compared to other studies, yet their feeding behaviour affected their many other
activities. The Tughlaqabad monkeys consume three types of foods, 1) food provided
by humans, 2) natural food in the terrain, 3) agricultural crops. Of the 45 different
species of food plants consumed by them, only 24 constituted a significant intake.
Of these 24, 9 were leaves, pods and fruits of trees and rest 15 were agricultural
crops. 59% on an average, yearly, of their feeding time was spent on food from
human and 41% on foraging for natural foods and crops making the results rather
unique. The time spent on foraging on a particular day depends upon the availability
of food from visitors. It was seen Jhat the activities of rhesus of Tughlaqabad are
governed by one major component of the ecosystem namely, the human population.
Thus evidently groups modify their feeding behaviour markedly, depending upon
specific habitat and environmental conditions.

Introduction

The purpose of the present study has been
to employ quantitative field techniques to study
the feeding patterns of the free ranging rhesus
population of Tughlaqabad. In the absence of
any long term study at Tughlaqabad, the pre-
sent work has necessarily been exploratory
and of a rather general nature. Hopefully, it
provides a comprehensive backdrop for future
studies that focus on more specific problems
and relationships.

Relatively few studies of rhesus feeding be-
haviour have been done in India, and none in
a habitat like Tughlaqabad. Lindburg (1975,
1976) and Neville (1968) studied the food
habits of rhesus groups around Dehra Dun and

1 Accepted May 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, Institute of Home Eco-
nomics, University of Delhi, Delhi, India.

3 Department of EPO Biology, University of
Colorado, Colorado, U.S.A.

Haldwani feeding primarily on natural forest
vegetation. Siddiqi and Southwick (1980) studi-
ed the food habits of roadside groups in an
agricultural habitat north of Aligarh. Tughlaqa-
bad offers the most diverse of these habitats
in that it contains forest patches, agricultural
fields, pastures, and a public archaeological
site.

The habitat exerts a profound influence on
the successful use of field techniques. There
are many advantages of studying this group of
monkeys as it is not a confined colony but yet
has almost all the advantages of a semi-pro-
tected population. Good visibility provides an
opportunity to acquire information relating to
spatial relations and both interspecific and
intraspecific social relations amongst the ani-
mals; the presence or absence of territoriality,
the extent of home ranges, night sleeping
quarters, and utilization of available resources.
Since the components of the ecosystem change
seasonally, and from year to year, and the

336

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF RHESUS OF TUGHLAQABAD

weather varies annually, data have been col-
lected during 5800 contact hours over 3 breed-
ing seasons. Such a longitudinal study pro-
gramme allowed examination of seasonal or
other periodic variables and their influences on
group activities. This longitudinal study also
helped to investigate the influences of various
personalities upon critical roles in the group,
such as the differences in the diet of different
age and sex classes and reasons behind it. Thus
art attempt has been made during the study
to examine the relations between social orga-
nisation and ecology. The techniques used to
collect data on various activities and population
dynamics of rhesus monkeys of this area were
Goodenough’s Time Sampling method (1928),
Smith’s Scan technique (1968) and Sampling
all occurrences of some behaviours (Rowell
1967). The population and habitat at Tughlaqa-
bad have been described in previous papers
(Malik, Seth and Southwick 1984, 1985).

Background

Many primate studies have shown food as
a key ecological variable, influencing social
behaviour and population dynamics. Both field
(Chalmers 1968) and laboratory studies (Zim-
merman et al 1973) have demonstrated that
a large proportion of aggressive interactions
occur as a result of competition for food. Play
which requires “surplus” energy, decreases as
the amount of available food decreases
(Altmann 1959, Loizos 1967). Increased avail-
ability of food produces a decrease in day
range because the group does not have to
travel far to secure sufficient food (Altmann
and Altmann 1970, De Vore and Hall 1965,
Crook 1966). Hall (1963) postulated that
groups which spend less time foraging, spend
more time engaging in social activities espe-
cially grooming; similar propositions have been
advanced by Crook (1970) and Rowell (1972).

Under a constantly abundant food supply,
an increase in population size has been noted
among the provisioned colonies of Japanese
macaques at Takasakiyama (Itani et al. 1963,
Itani 1975) and the rhesus macaques at Cayo
Santiago (Koford 1965b). Conversely, in a food
limited population of Macaco, sinica, the sur-
vivorship of infants and juveniles has been
reduced, and the population has remained
stable (Dittus 1975, 1977). The diversity of
food consumed by each primate species has
not been evaluated, due in part to great diffe-
rences in observational opportunities to tally
the number of plant and animal species eaten
by the group under study (Jolly 1972).

The extent to which animals select a parti-
cular food can be estimated by dividing the
amount consumed by the availability of the
food in that environment (Clutton-Brock and
Harvey 1976). Several studies have calculated
selection ratios for particular foods by dividing
the proportion of time spent feeding on the
‘natural vegetation’ by some measure of the
relative availability/abundance of the vegeta-
tion (or, in some cases, the relative abundance
of the canopy cover they provide). The larger
the cover, the greater the availability of the
food (Clutton-Brock and Harvey 1976, Struh-
saker and Oates 1975).

Nutritional analysis of diet and the energy
costs of activities have only recently begun to
figure in primate studies (Coelho 1973).
Detailed accounts of feeding behaviour for the
12 or 13 species comprising the genus Macaca
have been published only for Macaca sinica
by Hladik and Hladik (1972).

Struhsaker and Oates’ (1975) estimates of
the time spent consuming different foods by
red colobus were very similar to those obtained
in the neighbouring troop by Clutton-Brock
and Harvey (1976).

Marriot (1978) reported that the rhesus
monkeys of Kathmandu spend 10.5% of their

337

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

day time in feeding based on a comparative
study of the food supplied by humans and the
naturally available food. Her main interest was
in the type of food eaten, amount consumed
and nutritional content of the food. Taylor
(1975) observed that the temple monkeys of
Kathmandu obtained 68% of their overall diet
from worshippers and the remaining 32% from
natural sources. Teas (1978) found that feed-
ing changes from being the second most pre-
dominant activity in the summer to the most
consuming activity in the fall. Shrestha, Malla
and Majupuria (1980) reported monkeys eat-
ing nettle grass during the solar eclipse in 1980.
Feeding behaviour of the rhesus monkeys of
Swayambhu (Nepal) have also been studied by
Bajracharya (1979).

Macaca mulatto, frequently eats earth in
small quantities (sometimes taken from ter-
mite mounts) (Blanford 1888-91, Roonwal
1956, Mandal 1964, Mukherjee and Gupta
1965, Lindburg 1971, Puget 1971, Krishnan
1972). Drinking behaviour of Macaca mulatto
in India has also been studied (Mukherjee
1969, Mukherjee and Gupta 1965 and Mandal
1964).

Results

Feeding plays one of the most important
roles in determining the daily routine. Although
the rhesus of Tughlaqabad did not have to
spend long hours in foraging, an average of
only 2.34 hours daily constituting 17.5% of
the daytime activity, nonetheless their feeding
behaviour affected many other activities. The
priority of feeding was illustrated by the obser-
vation of a mating pair who terminated the
bout to obtain food from a visitor. Even after
eating, mating was not resumed. The animals
sat close for a short while and then went in
different direction.

The Tughlaqabad area provides rhesus mon-

keys with a wide range of food. The vegeta-
tion found in the area is xerophytic and sub-
tropical. Crops are grown in adjacent fields.
The monkeys consume three types of food:
(1) food provided by humans, (2) natural
food in the terrain, and (3) agricultural crops.
The food provided by humans is fairly con-
sistent, almost ritualistic, but it comes in
greatest abundance on Tuesdays and Saturdays.
This does not change much seasonally; only,
as the summer days are longer and daylight
hours are more the people have more time to
feed the monkeys. Thus the monkeys spend
10% of their time during summer on food
given by humans, slightly more than 9% dur-
ing the winters. The food provided by nature
and agriculture varies more seasonally: (1)
when crops have been sown and trees bear
fruits (January, February), or (2) when crops
have been harvested and trees bear no fruit
(May and November). In the first instance,
when the monkeys have not had enough food
provided by man, they fall back upon the natu-
fal food. In the second instance, even nature
does not provide food in abundances, so they
spend more time foraging, i.e., 11% in the
month of May as compared to only 6.5% in
the months of March, September and Decem-
ber. Thus the dietary pattern is variable and
adaptable at different times of the year. The
peak of the feeding time on any given day is
between 9 A.M. and 11 A.M. during winters
and 8:30 A.M. to 10:30 A.M. during summers.
This is the period when the animals either are
fed by the humans or have waited long enough
to be fed by humans, and if they are not fed,
resort to the natural vegetation. The other
period of equally intense feeding is in the even-
ing between 3 P.M. till 5 P.M. during winters
and 4 P.M. during summers.

The rhesus of Tughlaqabad were observed
to consume 45 different species of food plants,

338

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF RHESUS OF TUGHLAQABAD

but only 24 of these constituted a significant
intake. Of these 24, 9 were leaves, pods and
fruits of trees, and 15 were agricultural crops
(Table 1). These numbers do not include the

was certainly not as diverse as the forests
available to the monkeys in Lindburg’s study,
where they were observed to eat portions of
more than 100 species (Lindburg 1975, 1976).

Table 1

Natural and agricultural foods in the terrain

Local Name

Botanical Name

Part Eaten

Energy in
Kilo Calories

Babul (Desi kikar)

ON TREES

Acacia arabica

leaves and pods

Date Palm (Khajoor)

Phoenix dactylifera

fruit

144 fresh

Gum Tree (Kikar)

Acacia arabica

leaves and pods

Indian Jujube (Ber)

Zizyphus jujuba

all but the seed

158

Margosa (Neem)

Azadirachta indica

tender leaves

158

Peepal

Ficus religiosa

figs

110

Oak

Ouercus incana

fruit

Siras

—

leaves and pods

—

Sissoo (Shisham)

Dalbergia sissoo

leaves and pods

— „

Brinjal

IN fields

Solanum melongena

leaves & fruits

40 & 24

Cabbage

Brassica oleracea

leaves

27

Cauliflower

Brassica oleracea

leaves & stalk

66

Carrot

Dancus carota

leaves

77

Chari (Jo war)

Sorghum vulgare

leaves

349

Lima beans

Vigna catjang

leaves

290

Maize

Zea mays

grain & leaves

125

Masoor

Raphanus sativus

leaves

28

Methi

Medicago falcata

leaves

—

Mustard

Brassica acampestris

leaves

34

Peas

Pisum sativum

leaves & pods

315

Radish

Raphanus sativus

leaves

28

Spinach

Spinacia oleracea

leaves

26

Turnip

Brassica rapa

leaves

67

Wheat

Triticum aestivum

Grain, stalk & leaves

341

Quantitative food requirements are usually estimated in terms of heat units calories. A physiological calorie
(also called Kilocalorie and abbreviated Kcal*) is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature
of one kilogram of water by one degree centigrade and this heat unit is different from the physical heat
unit which is one-thousandth of the physiological calorie. This is an amount of food having an energy-
producing value of one large calorie.

* also known as the large calorie.

variety of foodstuffs provided by people which It was, however, more diverse than the tree
ranged from chapatis to eggs and mutton patties species available to the rural monkeys in the
or similar picnic items. The natural vegetation study of Siddiqi and Southwick (1980) where

339

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

only 4 sp sties of native trees were available in
addition to mango and guava.

The Tughlaqabad rhesus spent 41% of their
feeding time on natural vegetation on the
yearly average, and 59% of their feeding time
on food provided by humans (Table 2). This

catching a cockroach, smelling and rejecting
it, which was later taken up by a juvenile who
also rejected it after smelling. Juveniles are
more exploratory with food and acquire new
food habits more easily than the adults. At
one time a fruit with a hard shell (B&Ql-Aegle

Table 2

Distribution of time by activity in different seasons

Average

seasons

Eat natural
vegetation

Fed by humans

Drink

percentage

Winter

07.30

09.00

02.00

time spent

Summer

08.49

10.00

04.71

per day

Annual

07.99

09.50

03.35

Average

Winter

00.88

01.08

00.24

hours

Summer

-

01.02

01.20

00.56

per day

Annual

00.96

01.38

00.42

differs from the Chhatari group of Siddiqi and
Southwick where only 7% of the feeding time
was spent on natural vegetation, 10% on agri-
cultural crops, and 83% on direct handouts
from people. In the Sumera Fall rhesus group
near Aligarh, however, 53% of the feeding
time was on natural vegetation, 17.5% on
agricultural crops, and only 29% on food
directly from people. Thus rhesus groups seem
to modify their feeding behaviour markedly
depending upon specific habitat and environ-
mental conditions.

Acquisition of New Food Habits and Adapta-
bility: The rhesus monkeys here wait to get
food from the local people or visitors before
plundering the vegetation of the area. The
Tughlaqabad monkeys’ diet is composed of
vegetable food, though at times they have
been observed scrounging and sucking eggs
from food baskets brought there by picnickers.
Other than eggs, the rhesus monkeys of all age
groups, and both sexes have rejected all types
of non-vegetarian food. An adult was observed

marmelos) was cracked by a visitor and thrown
in pieces to the rhesus monkeys. The first
piece was grabbed by an adult female who
smelled the fruit and rejected it. But the reject-
ed piece was taken by a juvenile of about 7
months who ate the fruit after smelling and
tasting it. The bael v/as probably rejected by
the adult as she had had enough food and did
not want to risk experimentation, or adults are
by nature more rigid in their food habits than
juveniles.

Acquisition of new food habits are related
to the amount of food available at a time. At
the time of food scarcity even adults eat the
food they had refused to eat at a time when
surplus food was available. Supporting this is
the instance of a female adult rejecting a
mutton patty after sniffing it. When a juvenile
tried to pick up the rejected patty it was cuffed
by the adult and forced to leave it alone. But
approximately two hours later, during which
she did not get anything to eat, at a different
spot, when the same adult female was given

340

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF RHESUS OF TUGHLAQABAD

a patty she sniffed it and tasted the bread and
proceeded to eat the bread but rejected it
when she reached the meat inside the patty.

The diet of the rhesus monkeys of Tughla-
qabad also includes bark, seeds, cereals, fruits,
vegetables, leaves, earth and buds. On just one
occasion an adult male was seen eating bird
droppings. This was the only occasion when
such a behaviour was observed.

Posture : The most usual feeding method
involves sitting on their haunches conveying
the food to their mouth by hand and biting
off the desired morsel. The hand engaged while
conveying the food is mostly the right hand,
though at times they use both hands together
or alternatively. When extremely hungry or
in danger of being attacked by the others, a
rhesus monkey will gobble down the food
rapidly. At times when food is plentiful for
all, or a rhesus monkey feels safe from attack
by others, it will eat the food slowly, seeming
to ‘relish’ each bite. When there is scarcity
of food, the monkeys have been observed
scraping the inside of banana peels leaving
just the thin membrane. A rhesus monkey was
observed licking banana from the road where
it had been dropped by another.

The other method employed while feeding
is to stand on their hind feet, using forepaws
to pick food from the ground and conveying
it straight to the mouth, alternately with each
paw. The feeding can be intense, relaxed or
lazy. Intense when they are eating both their
favourite foods and are very hungry. Relaxed
when there is no threat of any danger and
when they may be hungry. Rhesus monkeys
of Tughlaqabad have been observed lazily
eating wild fruits, grass and leaves.

Processing : The rhesus monkeys have been
observed on numerous occasions, dusting the
food picked from the ground before it is con-
veyed to the mouth. This they usually do with
food they eat without peeling; for example.

chappatis, bread, biscuits, apples, chikoos, etc.
Certain foods need special preparation before
being consumed. For instance, the shell sur-
rounding the peanuts is first removed with the
incisors and the nut is eaten. The skin of the
mango is first peeled with the incisors and
the hands and the fleshy pulp is eaten by
scraping the fruit with the incisor teeth. The
skin of the banana is likewise stripped before
being eaten, first half the length, the other half
may be discarded or eaten, depending on how
full the monkey is.

Rhesus monkeys eat grass blades by pluck-
ing them with the right hand and conveying
them to the mouth. They break small pods
of sheesham by pressing the pod against the
teeth with the hand and then consuming them.

Food Preferences'. The rhesus eat and relish
fruits, which are also eaten by human beings.
Bananas are fed most often, hence their fond-
ness for the fruit. But they also eat other
fruits like apples, chikoos, and tomatoes with
as much fondness as bananas, when given.
The second food preference is the food pre-
pared by humans, like chappatis, bread, rusks,
biscuits, etc. Lastly, they prefer the wild
fruits, leaves, pods and crops of the area.

These preferences are relative: related to
the extent of their hunger. On the other hand
when they are very hungry and resort to the
vegetation of the area for nourishment, they
eat the natural food just as intensely as they
eat bananas or biscuits.

Interaction with Human Beings : Rhesus

monkeys at Tughlaqabad at times greedily
pounce upon food even before it is offered to
them. At one instance, some visitors had
brought bananas for the monkeys in a car.
Before the bananas were taken out of the car,
monkeys pounced upon the food greedily
grabbing as much as they could carry. At
other times, they do not come near the man
handing out food. And yet at other times, they

341

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

are apprehensive to start with, testing the
intentions of the giver before they eagerly
approach him in swarms demanding their
share by tugging at his pant or shirt, and
climbing on to him. But will not snatch the
food from his hand and will wait for their
turn, eager yet not hostile if they know the
giver and he is firm. They only threaten visi-
tors who come to give the food if they are
threatened first. Pirta (1984) has also described
the behaviour of rhesus in taking food from
people.

Foraging : Foraging behaviour is affected by
age, sex and social rank of the individuals.
This is illustrated by the fact that a dominant
animal consistently fed to the exclusion of
subordinates in those regions where food was
most abundant. Subordinate animals often had

animals. All food items and their rates of
consumption by these four focal animals were
recorded every minute. The individuals were
followed from 5.30 A.M. till 7:30 P.M. The
data thus collected revealed that dominant
males get the maximum calories, followed by
the dominant females (Table 3). The lowest
or poorest food was consumed by the juvenile
females. The subordinate animals approached
the food only after the dominants had had
their pick of the food while they fed on the
leftovers, also the dominants were the first to
pounce upon the food given by the visitors.

Use of Buccal Pouches : Buccal pouches are
used on two occasions: (1) when there is
surplus food and the rhesus monkeys want to
store the food to be eaten later. For example,
when being fed by human beings and when they
do not want to waste time chewing the food.

Table 3

Food consumption in relation to age and sex class1

Age & Sex
Class

Bananas

Channa
peanuts &
other seeds

Chappatis

Leaves,
shoots
& herbs

Wild

fruit

Total

calories

consumed

Adult male

12

22.5 Gms.

2

—

4

2196

Juvenile male

6

35 Gms.

1

j handful

10

1235

Adult female

7

40 Gms.

1

I handful

25

1449

Juvenile female

4

50 Gms.

3

4

1 handful

33

1115

1 During 14 hrs.

of 1 day, from

5:30 a.m. to

7:30 p.m.

their food usurped. In times of general food
scarcity when foraging time in all age classes
had increased, the order of least time spent
but most food consumed, was most marked and
evident. Adult males spent the least amount
of time in food foraging, then adult females
followed by juvenile males. The most time
spent in foraging was by juvenile females. As
to the quantity, it was not easily observed on
a day when food was in abundance, i.e., a
Tuesday. On Tuesday, 13th May, 1980, four
known active healthy individuals were the focal

the food is gobbled down to fill the buccal
pouches to be eaten later at leisure, (2) at a
time when there is threat of the food being
snatched by the dominants, it is stored in a
hurry to be eaten later, e.g., on lean or normal
days when visitors offer food to the juveniles,
they store it immediately in pouches without
looking at the dominant adults around.

Intra-group Relationship While Feeding :
The infants are a privileged class in the group.
The attitude of the other members of the group
towards the infants is one of tolerance. The

342

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF RHESUS OF TUGHLAQABAD

male adults tolerate from them what they
would not tolerate from juveniles. For instance,
while feeding, the leader is the first one to
approach to take the food and the one who
tries to precede him is severely punished, but
not so the infants. An infant, however, may
take a morsel even out of its mother’s hand
and eat. This way the infants learn to recog-
nise the food. Having eaten what the mother
eats, the infant learns the taste and smell of
the food. The mother would not permit this
of an older offspring. For example, when any
attempt is made by a juvenile to take the food
from the mother, the juvenile is snarled at,
but not so the infant. The leader at one in-
stance bit a juvenile on the neck when it tried
to take food before he could take food.

Spacing Mechanism : When eating intensely
on the food given by humans no spacing
mechanism is ever observed. While raiding
farms or cultivated plots each individual in-
cluding the dominant males and females, sub-
ordinate males and females, and juveniles eat
with a space of 2 or more feet separating them
from others. Time to time they look up to
survey their surroundings. Anyone violating
the empty space has a fight on its hands.
Frequent threatening and at times even biting
occurs.

Threats : The majority of threats occur dur-
ing foraging. A threat during foraging has
several effects: (i) it prevents an animal from
approaching another engaged in foraging, (ii) it
causes the respondent to sit still and cease
feeding while a dominant feeds nearby, (iii)
usually it displaces the subordinate. The usur-
pation of food by dominants from subordinates
is sometimes carried to the extent of snatching
it away from its hand. Normally this occurs
during a period of general food shortage.

Fights occurring over food do not start in
the customary fashion, i.e., with a warning of
any sort. Unlike territorial fights where the

monkey threatens, shows its teeth and chest,
assumes a very alert stance, etc., fights over
food begin abruptly and end likewise. The
offender is pounced upon before one knows
what has happened. The quickness with which
a rhesus monkey will pounce upon food before
the leader, tends to save it from punishment
and the loss of its food. The difference in
getting away with offending the leader and
getting caught is the speed with which they
move. At one instance, food thrown for the
leader was approached by a juvenile whom
the leader caught, and bit on the neck. But
while the leader was punishing this one, an-
other juvenile hastily took the fruit away.
Fights over food are of a very short duration,
involving the offender and the offended alone.

There are two consequences of aggression
between adults. Either the challenge is taken
up and fighting occurs or the threat is ignored,
which results in pacification of the aggressor
and eventual repose. Fights occurring within
a group never involve everyone of the group,
but when fighting erupts, for a moment all
group members are alarmed, including small
infants.

Attitude Towards Senile Female : The senile
female that lives among the rhesus monkeys
of Group ‘A’ at Tughlaqabad is totally ignored.
She is not threatened but neither is she allowed
to feed among the other rhesus monkeys of
the same group. She will either wait till all
have eaten and then feeds on the leftovers. If
a person feeding the monkeys spots her, she is
thrown a fruit, but even the fruit especially
thrown for her is sometimes grabbed by the
others. She herself stays aloof from the others
and never tries to compete with the others for
food.

Farm Raiding : The rhesus monkeys at

Tughlaqabad have ample opportunity to raid
cultivated fields. As the fields are situated
away from the village it is not possible for the

343

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

villagers to protect their plots at all times. The
rhesus monkeys usually go into the fields in
the evening, usually in large numbers, and at
times as many as 120 animals are together in
an area of 2-3 acres. It is interesting to note
that at the time when this observation was
made (1980) there were only two groups in
the area and the total membership of the two
groups was 120.

While feeding in a cultivated plot, there is
no apparent sentinel to watch for impending
dangers. The animals, while eating, will look
up every few seconds to survey their surround-
ings. If any animal spots anything threatening
it will immediately give a high pitched call
to warn the others of the dangers, whereupon
they all flee.

While raiding farms, the rhesus monkeys
eat wheat by bending the stalks and prying
the grain loose, either with their fingers or
with their incisors. They will leave only the
bare stalk (there is no wastage). At times they
even eat the stalk. After a raid at the farm
all that remains to be seen is just bare sticks
where once there had been wheat.

Recognition of Food : Most rhesus monkeys
locate and recognize their food mainly by
sight. Odours of ripe fruits attract them occa-
sionally. When they recognize the food by
sight they do not smell it, but if food is given
that they are not familiar with, they will first
sniff it and then proceed to eat it or reject it,
depending on their choice. For example, when
given a green onion for the first time, it was
sniffed by an adult female and only then did
she eat it and seemed to enjoy it. In case of a
tomato, it was not sniffed but was eaten with
the smacking of lips and lingering over it as
if to prolong the experience with obvious
relish. A piece of candy wrapped in a bright
wrapper, when given to a sub-adult male, was
first stripped off the wrapper, sniffed and eaten
with such relish that he refused a banana

offered later on and was content to just sit
where he was and smack his lips. The other
members who watched him were tempted and
many came down from the trees to examine
the wrapper, one even went so far as to put
it in his mouth, but spat it out when he realis-
ed it had no taste.

Rhesus monkeys not only recognize the food
but recognize the visitors as well who have
fed them on earlier occasions. Certain cars
which come regularly to feed them are instan-
taneously recognized by these monkeys. It is
evident from the fact that even before the
vehicle has stopped and the food is offered to
them, they start moving towards it in large
numbers.

Rhesus monkeys are usually never hostile
or afraid of visitors who come to feed them
periodically. They will go right up to the
person, extend one hand, tug at his pant with
the other hand asking for their share. Even
when the man stamps the ground with his foot
to shake them loose, they do not threaten
him but converge upon him again once he
starts giving out the food. But sometimes
monkeys are apprehensive of strangers who
bring food for them.

A oooonnnnhh (sounding like the mewing
of a cat) type of call is given by members of
the group as soon as they recognize or suspect
that food is anticipated, thus informing other
members of the arrival of food. On hearing
this call the whole group converges upon the
vehicle or the people.

Drinking and Water Requirements : Drinking
is clearly predictable as there are two sources
of water available to them. One is from the
leaves and juicy fruits. The second is the
direct water source.

During winters most of the water require-
ments seem to be met by consuming leaves
and juicy fruits. Time spent on drinking is
only 2%. In summer, because not sufficient

344

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF RHESUS OF TUGHLAQABAD

water is available (for, even natural water
sources dry up) they spend more time (4.71%)
looking for drinking water. Little direct drink-
ing behaviour was witnessed in the early part
of March. However, towards the end of March
and from April onwards, direct drinking was
observed, and at times, even three or four
times a day, each time a majority of the
animals drink.

We have seen the rhesus monkeys drinking
at all hours of the day. At times, even at 6:00
A.M. shortly after waking up the rhesus
monkeys have been observed drinking water.
There is no relationship between troop spac-
ing or numbers and availability of water. At
times, large groups comprising over hundred
animals gathered at one place may space their
drinking over a long period, interrupted by
bouts of playing and eating. They lean on their
forelegs and dip their snouts in water and
suck through their lips for 2-3 seconds, lift
their heads sharply, look around and then dip

their snouts again if they need more. After one
has finished, other rhesus monkeys drink in
the same way as the one before.

This is the only method observed while the
rhesus drink water. Hands were never used
to facilitate drinking water, except on one
occasion on 15th April (1980). One adult male
used his right hand to clear the water surface
at least 5 times before he finally drank water
by dipping his mouth the usual way. At times
even 10-15 rhesus monkeys have been observed
dipping their mouths in water not individually
but all at the same time. Rhesus monkeys
frequent the village pond, the tubewell, the
drain and the well for their requirements of
water though they readily drink from rain
water puddles when available. At times of
acute scarcity rhesus monkeys explore the
whole length and breadth of their territory for
fresh sources of water, even if it is dirty water
collected from construction work (as on 23rd

Table 4

Distribution of time by activity in different months

Eat Natural Vegetation

Fed by Humans

Drink

Months

A

B

A

B

A

B

January

00.84

07.00

01.08

09.00

00.18

01.50

February

00.84

07.00

01.08

09.00

00.18

01.50

March

00.78

06.50

01.08

09.00

00.24

02.00

April

01.08

09.00

01.20

10.00

00.69

05.80

May

01.22

11.00

01.20

10.00

00.84

07.00

June

01.14

09.50

01.20

10.00

00.85

07.10

July

00.81

06.80

01.20

10.00

00.78

06.50

August

00.99

07.60

01.20

10.00

00.24

02.00

September

00.78

06.50

01.20

10.00

00.24

02.00

October

01.08

09.00

01.20

09.00

00.30

02.50

November

01.20

10.00

01.08

09.00

00.36

03.00

December

00.78

06.50

01.08

09.00

00.24

02.00

A: — Mean No. of hours/Day
B: — Average percentage Time

345

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

April they moved to Adilabad in search of
water and had water from a pit at the con-
struction site).

When foraging for water, the leader takes
the whole troop but when ample water is
available to them in their core area no one
leads. The adults get priority over the sub-
adults and juveniles if they happen to reach
the water hole at the same time. And if the
sub-adults and juveniles do try to be the first
ones, the adults chase them away with threats
and baring of the teeth.

Adults were never observed playing with
water, but juveniles and infants have been
observed jumping, splashing and swimming,
at times chasing each other in or around water.
On one occasion the mother patted her young
infant (2-3 weeks old) as a signal to' move,
thus discouraging it from fooling around with
water. Juveniles and adolescents were never
discouraged.

Discussion

The rhesus monkeys of Tughlaqabad spend
20% of their waking hours in the trees and
the rest 80% on the ground, i.e., in the fort,
its surrounding pastures and cultivated fields
and around the tomb. About 17% of the day-
time is spent in active foraging for food and
3.3% for water. The time spent on foraging
on a particular day depends upon the availa-
bility of food from visitors. For instance, when
food is provided in abundance by visitors,
monkeys spent more time on other activities
and when there were too few visitors to offer
the food then the time spent on other acti-
vities decreased, as they spent more time on
foraging. Southwick (1962) found that rhesus
spent approximately 10% of their waking
hours in feeding, based on his study of the
temple population in Aligarh. Altmann (1962),
on the other hand, in his study of rhesus

macaques reports that a maximum of 80% of
their time is spent on foraging, which is far
higher than 17% of Tughlaqabad monkeys.
The time spent on feeding at Maroth is almost
the same as that of the Tughlaqabad monkeys
(Ojha 1982).

The activities of rhesus of Tughlaqabad
are governed by one major component of the
ecosystem, namely, the human population. In
light of the above, it would not be wrong to
support the theory of Shukla, Seth and Seth
(1982) that pattern of activities are based on
the components of ecosystems. Presuming that
the components of ecosystems affect the
various behaviours, it is understandable why
the results/findings of the present study are
different from others.

Tughlaqabad monkeys are known to have
rejected all types of nonvegetarian food except
eggs which they steal from food baskets brought
by picnickers. Koford (1965a), during his study
of an island colony of rhesus monkeys, re-
ported the animals frequenting bird’s nests,
but there are no other instances reported of
the monkeys eating eggs. Lindburg (1971), on
the other hand, noted the rhesus monkeys in
the forest of Dehra Dun ate termites, grass
hoppers, ants and beetles. Rhesus juveniles
were observed eating earth in small quantities
on at least seven different occasions during
this study. Rlanford (1888-91), Roonwal
(1956), Mandal (1964), Mukherjee and Gupta
(1965), Lindburg (1971), Puget (1971) and
Krishnan (1972) have reported rhesus eating
earth frequently in their studies though they
do not mention any particular age or sex class.
Yet during this study, it was specifically noted
that the earth-eating animals were juveniles
less than 2 years of age. This did not occur
during any particular month or season but was
observed at different times of the year. Though
a monkey was observed eating bird droppings,
no record of such a habit has been reported

346

FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF RHESUS OF TUGHLAQABAD

by others. Since this was observed on only
one occasion, it was difficult to determine the
reason.

During the summer months rhesus monkeys
have been observed drinking water even at
6 A.M., that is, shortly after waking up, follow-
ed by drinking at least 4 or 5 times a day
from rain puddles or nala in the field area.
Mukherjee (1969) observed the rhesus mon-
keys of U.P. to drink stagnant water 2 or 3
times a day from the roadside ditches. On
the other hand, rhesus monkeys in the man-
grove forest studied by Mandal (1964) were
never seen drinking water. According to
Mukherjee and Gupta (1965), rhesus monkeys
of mangrove forests obtained water by licking
dew from leaves, by eating succulent leaves
and long juicy blades of grass. The rhesus
monkeys of Tughlaqabad met their water re-
quirements in a similar way. Oppenheimer (in
press) in his study of Presbytis entellus report-
ed 68 plant species eaten by two troops over
a period of 19 months in Jalaghata and Apurba-
pur Study area. Whereas in Tughlaqabad only
45 plant species comprised the diet of the

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349

6

IMPACT OF THE FOOD AVAILABILITY, NESTING-
HABITAT DESTRUCTION AND CULTURAL
VARIATIONS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS ON THE
NESTING DISTRIBUTION OF A COASTAL BIRD,
EGRETTA GU LARIS y IN WESTERN INDIA1

R. M. Naik and B. M. Parasharya2

( With seven plates & five text-figures)

The nesting distribution and location of ninteen nesting colonies of the reef
heron, Egretta gularis, in the Gujarat State of India, are described. The numerous
bays, estuaries and swamps in Gulf of Kachchh and extensive tidal mudflats in Gulf
of Khambhat are highly favoured by the herons for feeding. Much of the rocky
and sandy coast of the western and southern Saurashtra is not favoured by the
herons, but, they occur wherever there are tidal creeks and estuaries. In Gulf of
Kachchh, the mangrove swamps still exist on numerous tidal islands, and the bird
breeds there rather than on the mainland. Elsewhere on the shores, the mangroves
are degraded or eliminated so that the bird breeds in the trees on dry land in human
settlements. The coastal human communities predate on birds, so that the safe
nesting trees are fewer in small coastal villages and towns. In large cities where a
majority of the people protect the nesting birds, there are many safe trees for
nesting. Where there is no coastal city around a rich feeding ground, the bird turns
inland where a cropland, or a city, may provide ample safe nesting sites.

Introduction

At one time, the mangrove forests on the
coast of Gujarat State provided the tree-nesting
coastal birds a natural site for nesting. The
large scale destruction to the extent of virtual
extirpation at times, of mangroves for cattle
fodder, firewood and timber during the pre-
sent century, resulted in an important loss of
the nesting habitat, so that the coastal birds
have taken to nesting on trees in human settle-
ments (Parasharya and Naik 1983). The
cultural environment of a human settlement
that determines whether it would be safe for

1 Dedicated to Dr. S&lim Ali on the occasion of
his 88th birthday. Accepted November 1984.

2 Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University,
Rajkot 360 005, India.

the birds to nest there, varies regionally; this
has added another dimension to the factors
determining locations of the colonies of tree-
nesting birds in the region. The present paper
illustrates an interplay between an important
nesting requirement, proximity of the feeding
area, with the other nesting requirement, safe-
ness of the nesting site ensured or denied by
the human settlements, in determining the
nesting distribution of a colonial tree-nesting
bird, the Indian Reef Heron, also called
Western Reef Heron, Egretta gularis on the
coast of Gujarat, India.

The reef heron is found on the coasts of
West Africa and Red Sea and western coasts
of the Indian Ocean (Ripley 1982). The heron,
which is polymorphic with respect to its plum-

350

NESTING DISTRIBUTION OF EG RETT A GULARIS IN W. INDIA

age colour ranging from dark grey to pure
white (Naik and Parasharya 1983) and occurs
in the coastal regions, is ecologically separated
from its pure white close relative the Little
Egret, Egretta garzetta, which occurs inland.
The nesting distribution of the reef heron is
poorly known (see, Naik et al, for a review,
1981) and it was thought that the bird “possi-
bly migrates locally to special areas” to breed
(Ali and Ripley 1968). This paper, therefore,
also represents a first serious attempt to study
the nesting habitat preference and distribution
of the reef heron in a part of its range in India.

Materials and Methods

Gujarat State, where the present studies
were conducted/ is divided for geographical
and historical reasons into Gujarat, Saurashtra
and Kachchh (Kutch) regions; the Gujarat
region is further divided into northern, central
and southern parts (Fig. 1).

Several representative coastal areas of
Saurashtra and South Gujarat (Fig. 1) were
surveyed during the heron’s breeding season
from March to September (see, Naik et al
1981) mainly during 1980 to 1983. Wherever
we found a nesting colony, we visited that
area more than once in most cases and
thoroughly surveyed a large area around the
nesting colony. The nesting trees, number of
nesting pairs, extent of nest predation and
feeding habitats of the nesting birds were
observed and recorded. We made observations
on the proportion of different morphs of
herons at the nesting colonies and nearby
feeding grounds, and also on the breeding
behaviour and feeding techniques, but, we hope
to present those observations elsewhere.

We have had the occasion to re-visit some
of the study areas outside the heron’s breed-
ing season as well, and we took these oppor-
tunities to look for the bird’s roosting sites.

Observations

Gulf of Kachchh and northern coast of
Saurashtra

Gulf of Kachchh bounded by Kachchh
on the north, Saurashtra on the south
and Little Rann (Desert) on the east,
opens in the Arabian sea (Fig. 1). The gulf
has an average depth of 30 m and an irregular
coastal configuration with a number of islands,
creeks and bays (Shrivastava and John 1977).
Many tidal islands close to the gulf coast are
covered with mangroves, and the reef heron
is a common bird here throughout the year.

We have not looked for the heronries on
northern coast of the gulf, but Ali (1954) has
recorded a breeding colony on a tidal island
in Kandla creek, near Kandla. We visited
several places on the southern coast, namely,
Jodia, Jamnagar, Sikka (16 km northwest of
Jamnagar) and Okha (Fig. 1) and areas of
the mainland around these places, but, failed
to find any nesting colony of the heron. This
was so, despite the fact that we have seen a
large number of reef herons feeding in the
coastal estuaries and inland waters in the non-
breeding season. On the other hand, we have
received several authentic reports of the herons
breeding on some of the islands such as,
Chusna and Sona Miya (Lavkumar, Personal
Observations) near Okha in the Gulf. Pirotan
is one such island where the birds are reported
to be nesting. We could not visit this island
during the peak period of breeding, but visited
it from 8 to 10 March just about the time
nesting started in 1980. Our several other
visits to the island were made in the winter.

Pirotan is a tidal island which is connected
by a land bridge to the Pirotan swamp and
Saurashtra coast during the low tides (Fig. 2);
the Pirotan swamp supports mangroves in
various stages of degradation. On the northern
side of the island, there is a lighthouse and

351

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

6 8° 69° 70* 71* 72°

Fig. 1. A map of the Gujarat State locating the places (solid circles) referred to in
the text. The locations where the reef herons are found nesting are encircle by open
circle. The inset on the upper right shows location of the Gujarat State within
India. The inset on the lower left shows a divisions of the Gujarat State into
Saurashtra ( 1 ) , Kuchchh (2) and Gujarat regions, and a further divisions of the
Gujarat region into northern (3), Central (4) and southern (5) parts.

a few buildings housing the lighthouse staff
and on the southeastern side a small mangrove
swamp (Plate la). The extensive intertidal
zone around the island has silty and/or sandy
substratum interspersed on the northern side
by reefs of live and dead corals. A large popu-
lation of the reef heron roosts in and around

mangroves on the island along with the Grey
Heron ( Ardea cinerea) and Great White or
Large Egret (A. alba). During our visit in
March, we observed the reef heron as well
as the Grey Heron in courtship display, on
the mangroves and recorded that a few of
them had their facial skin in the nuptial colour

352

NESTING DISTRIBUTION OF EGRETTA GULARIS IN W. INDIA

(crimson). We could only reach up to a few
nests of the Grey Herons on the periphery of
the swamp; it was difficult to move on soft
silty floor of the swamp without causing serious
disturbance to the birds.

Summarizing the above, the reef herons of
Gulf of Kachchh breed on various islands
where a natural nesting-habitat is still available
and do not seem to do so on the mainland.

Southern coast of Saurashtra

The Saurashtra coast from Okha to Diu
(Fig. 1) has a relatively narrow intertidal zone
which is mainly sandy and/or rocky. In this
sector, we visited Dwarka, Chorwad, Porban-
dar, Veraval and Somnath and found that the
heron on the coast proper is relatively less
common in the breeding as well as non-
breeding seasons. We have been told that many
years ago there was a reef heron colony on
mangroves in a riverine estuary of Miyani
Creek, near Harsad Mata, north of Porbandar
(Lavkumar, Personal Communication). One of
us (R.M.N.) visited this place on 7 April
1984, and found that only a few patches of
mangroves had managed to survive in the
creek and they supported a small colony of
the Large Egrets and reef herons. We did not
find any heronry in Chorwad, Veraval and
Somnath. We, however, found it in Porbandar
city, a part of which has grown around the
tidal estuaries and creeks.

One, or both, of us visited Porbandar on
18 March 1981 and 3 July 1982. The herons
nested here in thickly populated parts of the
city and most of the nesting trees were within
a kilometer of the feeding places which were
the mudflats and tidal pools in the creeks and
estuaries (Plate lb). The nesting trees, chiefly
Neem ( Azadirachta indica), Peepal ( Ficus
religiosa), Banyan ( Ficus benghalensis) and
Casuarina ( Casuarlna equisetifolia) , were in
the compounds of Rupadiba Hospital (Plate

lc), General Hospital, Court House and Dar-
bar Gadh (Palace) as well as on the sides of
Mahatma Gandhi Road. We saw the herons
nesting exclusively in March and with the
Cattle Egrets ( Bubulcus ibis). White Ibis
( Threskiornis aethiopica ) and Black Ibis
( Pseudibis papillosa) in July; this is attributed
to the fact, earlier recorded by Naik et al
(1981), that the reef heron starts nesting
earlier than the other Ciconiiform birds.

From Diu to the Gopnath point (Fig. 1),
there are low overhanging cliffs on the coast
and the shore is rocky, sandy and muddy.
On this stretch of coast the reef heron occurs,
but, it is rather sparse. Here, the herons were
found nesting in the Jafarabad city in 1982 by
Mr. P. C. Malli (Personal Communication).
The birds have been nesting in the city for a
long time, as they were also observed nesting
there about 35 years ago by Mr. B. B. Vaidya
( Personal Communication ) .

In Summary, on the southern coast of
Saurashtra which has a shoreline without
many bays or creeks and a narrow rocky and/
or sandy intertidal zone, the reef heron is
sparse or rare. However, wherever there are
tidal creeks and estuaries with extensive mud-
flats, the reef heron occurs commonly and
may breed in the nearby cities, exception be-
ing a small number of the reef herons nesting
on mangroves in the Miyani Creek.

Gulf of Khambhat

Coastline of the gulf of Khambhat (Cambay)
extends from Gopnath in Saurashtra to the
mouth of Tapi (Tapti) river in south Gujarat.
Several rivers from the eastern Saurashtra
and central and south Gujarat, including two
major rivers Narmada and Tapi, open in the
gulf. The silt brought by these rivers has made
the gulf rather shallow and muddy. The gulf
coast has a gentle slope so that an extensive
intertidal zone, which is mainly muddy, is

353

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 54

exposed during the low tide (Figs. 3 to 5).
Here as in Gulf of Kachch the reef heron is
a common bird. For a study of the bird’s nest-
ing distribution, we surveyed a small area
immediately north of the Gopnath point, Bhav-
nagar-Gogha area, Bharuch (Broach) city and
the banks of Tapi river from Surat to the sea
coast.

Both, or one, of us visited the Gopnath area
on 8 February and 19 March of 1980, 26
March and 15 May of 1981 and 26 March of
1983, and found four nesting colonies, one each
at Gopnath, Gadhula, Khandhera and Pithal-
pur (Fig. 3).

In a grove of Banyan and Peeper ( Ficus
amplissima) close to a 15th century Gopnath
(Shiva) temple, some reef heron pairs were
nesting. Two kilometres north of the' temple
there is Gadhula village (population of 2000
people, who are mainly farm labourers and
fishermen) right on the sea coast. The reef
herons were nesting in a grove of tall Peepuls
and Banyans around a temple of Goddess Kali
within the village (Plate 2f). We also saw a
Black Ibis and Indian Whitebacked Vulture
( Gyps bengalensis) pair nesting and a number
of Night Herons ( Nycticorax nycticorax) roost-
ing in the same grove of trees. Plate 2 sharply
contrasts a thick growth of trees of the sacred
grove (f) with those in the rest of the village
(d&e); the trees outside the sacred grove are
widely scattered and many of their branches
are lopped off.

The other two colonies in the Gopnath area
were in the croplands close to the Khandhera
and Pithalpur villages. The Khandhera colony
of about 30 nests on a Peeper tree is close
to a tidal creek, about 2 km away from the
coast and about 11 km north of Gopnath.
The Pithalpur colony also located in an agri-
cultural farm (Plate 3, g&f) was the biggest
colony in this area. The farm, where the colony

was located, comprised of a farm house, couple
of barns and a cropfield and had about 250
coconut trees ( Cocos nucifera) planted on its
border. The crown of 50 to 60 among the
tallest coconut trees here were used by 112
to 133 pairs of herons in different years. There
were some young Peeper and Banyan trees
on the farm, but these were not used by the
herons for nesting. The farmer told us that
they first nested in the farm in 1978, and since
then they have been nesting every year. During
one of our visits in winter we found that many
reef herons were roosting on the same coco-
nut trees. Because of the birds’ nesting and
roosting activities, there was considerable loss
of flowers and young coconuts. The coconuts
were also damaged by the birds’ excreta drop-
ping on them; we saw that the birds’ excreta
had dripped down the surface of most of the
coconut fruits (Plate 3h). The farm owner
estimated that he lost about 50% of his coco-
nut crop every year because of the herons.
Despite the heavy loss of income, the farmer
and his family tolerated the herons and did
not molest them in any way. The herons and
their broods on top of the tall coconut trees,
were almost free from predation. The Cattle
Egrets, White Ibis, House Crow ( Corvus
splendens ), Jungle Crow (C. macrorhynchos) ,
Common Myna ( Acridotheres tristis) and Rosy
Pastor ( Sturnus roseus) came to roost in the
farm, and the Cattle Egrets even nested there.
The nesting reef herons readily came down
on the ground to collect nesting materials
close to the barns and farm house. However,
they did not feed on the farm, or anywhere
nearby, but flew about 5 km to the sea coast
to feed.

In the Gogha-Bhavnagar area (Fig. 4) we
found three heron colonies, one each at the
Gogha town. New Port of Bhavnagar and
Bhavnagar city, within a distance of about

354

(

NESTING DISTRIBUTION OF EGRETTA GULARIS IN W. INDIA

- 35

- 30

Fig. 2.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 5.

Figs. 2 to 5. Maps showing the extent of intertidal zone near some of the heronry sites,
namely, Pirotan island (Fig. 2), Gopnath, Gadhula, Khandhera and Pithalpur (Fig. 3),
Gogha, New Port and Bhavnagar (Fig. 4), and Surat and Bhimpore (Fig. 5). The inter-
tidal zone is marked with thin closely spaced lines and the areas partially covered only
during the spring tide is hatched with thick widely spaced lines. The rural and urban areas
are shown in solid black.

20 km. Because we had selected these areas
for the intensive studies of the reef heron to
be published elsewhere, we visited them fre-

quently in all seasons throughout the study
period.

The Gogha colony is located in a coastal

355

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

town of Gogha with a population of about
7000 people, a majority of them belonging to
fishing and seafaring communities. The colony
had been described earlier by Naik et al.
(1981). The majority of herons here nest
in a grove of young Neem, Peeper and
Peepul (Plate 4 j&k) within a quadrangle
surrounded by the barrack-type buildings hous-
ing the Mamlatdar’s office, small jail and resi-
dential quarters of the constabulary. The Pond
Heron ( Ardeola grayii), Night Heron, Spoon-
bill ( Platalea leucorodia) and Painted Stork
(Mycteria leucocephala) also nested with the
reef herons on an old tamarind tree (Plate
4 i) growing at the edge of the premises. Some
of the herons also nested on a few huge
Tamarind (Tamarind us indica) and Peepul
growing on the roadside within the town. The
birds nesting within the quadrangle of the
Mamlatdar’s office premises were largely pro-
tected against human interference, but those
nesting in the town often lost their eggs and
chicks because of the predation and inter-
ference by the town boys. The nesting trees
were used by the reef herons for roosting
throughout the year. Within less than half a
kilometre flying distance from the colony, the
extensive mudflats on the sea shore exposed
during the low tides and the tidal creeks, were
the feeding grounds of the herons. During the
high tides, the herons often visited the nearby
fresh water ponds to feed and rest.

The New Port colony where we found the
biggest concentration of the nesting reef
herons, is located in the port area which is
fenced around and human entry to it is seve-
rely restricted. The area includes docks, ware-
houses, administrative and office buildings (but,
no residential quarters). The birds nested on
Peepul, Peeper, Tamarind, Casuarina, Mes-
quites ( Prosopis juliflora) and Portia trees
( Thespesia popuinea ) growing on the road-
sides close to administrative and office build-

ings and warehouses, (Plate 5 l&m), within
an area of about half a square kilometre. Out
of the 70 to 80 nesting trees, a majority were
the Portia trees which were short and stunted,
none of them being more than 6 m high. A
few heron pairs also nested on mangroves
(Avicennia sp.) close to the seaward side of
the port. Though most of the heron’s nests
were low and the port area was buzzing with
activities during certain hours, the herons
remained apparently undisturbed, so that they
were relatively easy to watch and photograph
(Plate 6 n&o). The birds would readily
come down from the nesting tree to the ground
to pick up nest material. They were actively
protected by the dock workers and no one
would dare to molest them. The dock workers
had even nursed a large number of herons
that were stunned by shock and cold during
the cyclone which hit Saurashtra in November
1982. Occasional predation of the heron’s eggs
and chicks by the domestic cat and the House
Crow occurred; a few House Crow pairs even
nested in the port area from May to July.
Among the Pond Heron and White Ibis which
nested with the reef heron, the White Ibis was a
serious competitor of the heron for the nesting
sites. The ibis came into breeding condition later
than the herons and occupied the heron nests
after ejecting the nest contents. The ibis, how-
ever, preferred to nest on top of the tall trees,
so that the heron nests built lower in the same
trees, and also those on short trees, were not
affected. Another reason for the success of
the New Port colony is that the nesting birds
had rich and extensive feeding grounds avail-
able close to the colony. During the low tide,
the mudflats except the channel dredged for
an approach of ships to dock, became exposed
almost up to the horizon, and birds avidly
fed on the mudskippers and other fishes from
the mudflats and tidal pools. When the coast
was covered with water, the herons often visit-

356

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84

Naik & Parasharya: Egretta gularis

Plate 1

Feeding and nesting sites of the reef heron, (a) A part of the Pirotanisland and adjoining intertidal
zone, (b) A tidal creek near Chhaya plot, Porbandar. (c) A nesting tree of the cattle egret and reef
heron in a hospital compound, Porbandar.

{Photos: Author)

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84

Naik & Parasharya: Egretta gularis

(d & e) General views of the Gadhula village, (f) Nesting trees of the reef herons in a sacred grove
in Gadhula.

(Photos: Author)

(g) Nesting trees of the reef heron in a Pithalpur farm, (h) A close-up view of the Coconut fruits
smeared with the herons’ droppings.

J. BOMBAY NAT UlST. SOC. 84
Naik & Parasharya: Egretta gularis

Plate 3

{Photos: Author)

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84
Naik & Parasharya: Egret ta gu laris

Plate 4

The Gogha heronry in the Mamlatdar Office compound, (i) A Tamarind tree used for nesting by
the painted stork and reef heron, (j) A Peepul with the reef heron nests, (k) Two grey phase nestl-
ings (right) and a white phase adult (left) on a nesting tree.

(Photos: Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84

Naik & Parasharya: Egretta gularis

Plate 5

(1 & m) Two views of the New Port heronry.

(Photos: Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84

Naik & Parasharya: Egrett.a gu/aris

Plate 6

The reef herons in the New Port heronry, (n) A grey-white pair in courtship display, (o) A grey
phase heron shading its young in the nest.

( Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84
Naik & Parasharya: Egretta gularis

Plate 7

mM

The Surat heronry, (p) An aerial view, (q) A view from the street level

( Photos : Author)

NESTING DISTRIBUTION OF EGRETTA GULARIS IN W. INDIA

ed the salt pans to feed.

The Bhavnagar colony is located in an
urban setting. The reef heron breeds here
chiefly on Peepul in the thickly populated Old
City area, though some pairs also nested on
a wide variety of trees in a public garden and
the suburban areas. The other colonial nesters
nesting in the colony were the Indian Pond
Heron, Cattle Egret, Large Egret, Night Heron,
Painted Stork, White Ibis and Spoonbill. The
herons of this colony fed on the mudflats and
tidal pools in estuary and tidal creeks, salt
pans and fresh water reservoirs near the city,
and the citizens did not permit deliberate
molestation of the nesting birds. A more de-
tailed and illustrated account of the Bhavnagar
colony is given by Parasharya and Naik (1983).

One of us (R.M.N.) visited the Bharuch
colony on the western coast of Gulf of
Khambhat only once in April 1983. The nest-
ing had just started and there were about 20
nests on the roadside Neem and Peepul, close
to a large fresh water reservoir, within an
old and thickly populated part of the city. The
birds fed on the tidal estuaries of the Narmada
river and also on the banks of freshwater
reservoir. A few pairs of Large Egret were
also nesting with the reef herons.

One, or both, of us visited Surat and its
vicinity several times. We found one
colony in Surat. We also surveyed both
the banks of Tapi river downstream from
Surat to the sea coast (Fig. 5), and found
only one more colony at Bhimpore, east of
the point where the river meets the sea.

The Surat colony is located in Nanpura, a
suburban locality on the eastern bank of the
Tapi river (Plate 7 p&q). There are several
large old nesting trees in the compound of
Judges’ colony, on the roadsides around the
District Court building, in the compounds of
several bungalows and in the Dutch garden
which is open to the public. The nesting trees

were mainly Neem, Peepul and Casuarina but
a few of them were on Coconut trees and a
Date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera) . The birds
fed on the mudskippers from the muddy banks
of the river exposed during the low tide. The
birds often fed close to the nesting colony, but
they also foraged in the tidal estuaries farther
from the colony. The Large Egrets, Night
Herons and Cattle Egrets nested with the reef
heron. The birds were not usually molested by
the people, though occasionally those living in
the nearby hutments killed the birds.

Bhimpore (Fig. 5), where the other heron
colony in the Surat area is located, is a small
coastal village inhabited by fishermen and
sailors. Boys from this village had no com-
punction in killing the herons or other birds
for food. Correlated with this, there was only
one tree with a few reef heron nests, standing
beside a road right in the village. This was
despite the fact that there were extensive mud-
flats exposed during low tide close to the
village, and we saw a large number of reef
herons and Large Egrets feeding there.

Summarizing the status of reef herons of
the Gulf of Khambhat, there are extensive
feeding habitats available, but, there is an
overall scarcity of safe habitats for nesting
away from the human settlements. In the
coastal villages and towns, the safe nesting
trees are relatively few, so that the birds tend
to move to the coastal cities, or alternatively
to the cities or croplands further inland, for
nesting.

The rest of south Gujarat

We have personally not surveyed any area
south of Surat. However, there are reliable
records of the reef heron nesting in small
numbers in Panar village (R. M. Desai, Per-
sonal Communication) and Billimora City
(Raju Vyas, Personal Communication). Appa-
rently, the reef herons in the rest of south

357

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

Gujarat, as those in the Surat area, turn inland
to nest in villages, towns and cities on the
river banks.

Discussion

The preferred habitats of the Indian Reef
Heron on the coast of Gujarat State are the
tidal mudflats, mangrove swamps, estuaries and
tidal creeks. Freshwater reservoirs are also
frequented, but, the birds are very scarce on
pure rocky, sandy or sandy-rocky shore. The
reef heron on a sea shore with golden sand
and a rocky outcrop as picturized in a paint-
ing by R. Gillmor in the book by Hancock
and Elliot (1978) is certainly a very rare
sight in Saurashtra, Gujarat. In the shallow
waters of the Gulf of Kachchh, we have seen
the reef heron feeding on the reef but it was
outnumbered by the Large Egret and Grey
Heron; the reef herons were most numerous
wherever the shore had muddy and sandy-
muddy substratum.

Our investigations on the food and feeding
habits of the reef heron in Gulf of Khambhat
have revealed that the adult and nestling food
was mainly mudskippers picked up from the
mudflats, and also small fishes and shrimps
picked up from the shallow waters during flood
or ebb-tide and from the tidal pools (Para-
sharya and Naik, unpublished).

The proximity of preferred feeding habitat
is a chief requirement for the location of a
bird’s breeding colony. The reef heron’s pre-
ferred habitats are extensive in Gulfs of
Khambhat and Kachchh. Gulf of Kachchh
receives a large quantity of silt with the mon-
soon floods in numerous desert rivers opening
into it and also by the coastal erosion; the
silty beds of mangrove swamps, creeks and
bays create the type of feeding habitat pre-
ferred by the heron. Gulf of Khambhat has its
coastline dotted with extensive estuaries which

provide ample food to the herons. The southern
shore of Saurashtra is rocky and sandy and
not preferred by the herons. However, where-
ver the rivers and creeks open on this stretch
of Saurashtra coast to create estuaries and
bays, such as, near Harshad Mata, Porbandar
and Jafarabad, the heron’s preferred feeding
habitat is most likely to occur. Similarly,
mouths of several small but perennial rivers
on the Gujarat coast south of Gulf of Kham-
bhat provide suitable feeding habitat pockets.

In all the places with suitable habitat des-
cribed above, the reef herons occur, but,
whether they breed anywhere near there,
depends on the availability of safe nesting
sites. An extensive growth of mangroves which
occurred at one time almost all along the
coastal regions, provided ample safe nesting
sites for the coastal birds. Such conditions
exist today only in the Gulf of Kachchh,
whereas at other places the mangrove forests
have been completely cut down or degraded.
In Saurashtra and Kachchh which are largely
arid and semi-arid, there is a general scarcity
of trees and it is acute particularly along the
coastal belt, where large trees exist only in
villages, towns and cities.

The heron’s traditional nesting sites in the
mangroves, being still available, continue to be
used in Gulf of Kachchh, and the birds do not
seem to associate with the human settlements
for nesting on the gulf coast. Elsewhere, the
herons have taken to nesting in cities, towns
and villages. Here, the nesting of herons is
intimately linked with the regional differences
in the cultural environment of human settle-
ments. In the small coastal settlements, such
as in villages and small towns, the fishing and
seafaring communities are dominant and ani-
mal food predominates in their diet. In such
a settlement, whereas the adults go for fishing
the children roam around the village and
countryside snaring birds and other animals

358

NESTING DISTRIBUTION OF EGRETTA GULARIS IN W. INDIA

to supplement the family larder; the colonial
nesting of birds, being conspicuous, would
rarely succeed here. The situation is illustrated
in the case study of the Bhimpore colony.
Though the rich and extensive feeding grounds
near Bhimpore were being exploited by the
herons in large numbers, very few of them
attempted nesting in the village because it was
unsafe to do so. Even in such settlements,
occasionally a refuge for the nesting birds may
come about under certain conditions; the exam-
ples in our case studies were the Gadhula,
Gopnath and Gogha colonies. In the Gadhula
village, the nesting colony in a grove of old
trees had some degree of protection from
active human interference by virtue of its pro-
ximity to a temple. The Gopnath colony also
derived similar protection. Killing or molesting
animals other than the sacrificial ones, near
a place of worship is a taboo observed by
most of the communities. In the Gogha town,
the nesting herons derive protection in a
slightly different way, from their proximity to
a seat of authority; the core area of the
colony was within the quadrangle of Mamlat-
dar’s office patrolled day and night by armed
guards, whose mere sight was a deterrent to
the town boys intending to appropriate eggs
and chicks from the colony.

The Gadhula-Gogha type protection to nest-
ing birds is limited only to a small number of
trees per place and does not happen at many
villages in coastal areas, so that the birds turn
to a large city if there is any around. A city,
whether coastal or inland, has many localities
which offer safe nesting sites to tree-nesting
colonial birds; the only serious limiting factor
for the urban nesting seems to be scarcity of
the nest-building materials. The heron colonies
at Porbandar, Jafarabad and Bhavnagar were
relatively safe from human interference and
at the same time close to the feeding areas.
In absence of suitable safe nesting sites on

the coast, the birds of the Surat colony (and
probably also of the Bharuch colony) had
selected a city on a large river but away from
the coast; the birds did not get all their food
close to the colony and had to go long dis-
tance for foraging, but it was a compromise
for securing safe nesting sites.

Compromising the foraging distance for a
safe nesting site was nowhere more apparent
than at the Pithalpur colony (and probably
also at the Khandhera colony) located inland
in croplands. Unlike the coastal fishing com-
munities, most of the inland farming and
pastoral communities in our study area are
strict vegetarian in their dietary habits and
abhor killing of and cruelty to animals. Their
compassion for animals is sometime stretched
to such an extent as to include animals that
would be labelled as ‘pests’. The herons nest-
ing or roosting on the coconut trees on a
farm near Pithalpur, were positively destruc-
tive to the coconut crop and it would have
been possible to scare them off the farm, but
the farmer did not do so.

The New Port colony had the most ideal
setting among the colonies observed by us
on the dryland. A factor limiting the number
of birds nesting there was the number of nest-
ing trees. Our case study of this colony had
clearly illustrated that a human work-area could
give a better protection to the nesting birds than
a residential area.

The reef heron feeds in suitable habitats all
along the coast when it is not breeding. At
this time; it roosts communally on the safe
sites close to the feeding grounds. These roosts
are essentially transitory and may be changed
from time to time, though some of them may
be used also for nesting. As in most Ciconii-
form birds, the suitable nesting sites of the
reef heron are far less than the suitable night
roosts, so that the birds are forced to move

359

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

locally in search of the nesting colonies for
breeding.

Acknowledgements

One of us (B. M. P.) thank to the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
New Delhi, for an award of Junior Research
Fellowship. We acknowledge the kind hospi-
tality and co-operation extended to us by the
Port Officer, New Port, Bhavnagar, Mamlatdar

of Gogha and farmers of Pithalpur. Our sin-
cere thanks are due to Messrs Lavkumar
Khacher, R. M. Desai, P. C. Malli, Raju Vyas
and B. B. Vaidya who kindly provided us with
the information regarding the location of the
reef heron colonies observed by them. Our
thanks are due to Dr. James Kushlan and
Mr. Lavkumar Khacher who read the earlier
drafts of this paper and made several
suggestions.

References

Ali, S. (1954) : The Birds of Gujarat I. /. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 (2&3) : 374-458.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Hancock, J. & Elliot, H. (1978) : The Herons
of the World. London Editions Ltd., London.

Naik, R. M., Parasharya, B. M., Patel, B. H. &
Mansuri, A. P. (1981) : The timing of breeding
season and interbreeding between the phases in the
Indian Reef Heron, Egret ta gularis (Bose.) J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 : 494-497.

Naik, R. M. & Parasharya, B. M. (1983):
vSequence of plumage changes and polymorphism in

the Indian Reef Heron,, Egretta gularis. Sandgrouse
5: 75-83.

Parasharya, B. M. & Naiic, R. M. (1983) : Cico-
niiform birds breeding in Bhavnagar city, Gujarat:
A study on their nesting and plea for their con-
servation. Accepted for publication in the Proceed-
ings of the Bombay nat. Hist. Society’s Centenary
Seminar on Conservation in Developing Countries.
6-10 Dec. 1983.

Ripley, S. D. (1982) : A synopsis of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. 2nd edition. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay.

Shrivastava, P. S. & John, V. C. (1977) : Current
regime in the Gulf of Kutch. Indian J. Mar. Sci,
6: 39-48.

360

MATING BEHAVIOUR AND MATE CHOICE BY WILD
AXIS DEER IN SRI LANKA1

Cyrille Barrette2
( With five plates)

During 20 months of field work in Wilpattu National Park (8°30'N, 80°1'E)
in Sri Lanka I observed 24 complete sequences of mating in Axis deer {Cervus axis).
I present here a description of 11 behavior patterns that constitute the sexual reper-
toire of the species. This I think will assist observers interested in all aspects of
mating success and sexual selection in that polygynous species. I particularly make
a distinction between mounting and inseminating, the latter being evident from the
conspicuous thrust performed by the male. I also extend and confirm what others
have shown, namely that most copulations (23 out of 24 in this study, and 61 ouit
of 68, 90%, overall) are performed by the males in the largest antler-size class (about
75 cm or longer), even though they represent only some 30% of the adult males.
Finally, I present some observations that strongly suggest that females can show an

active preference for some males as mating
Introduction

Among the repertoire of social behaviors
of a species, mating behavior, i.e. courtship
and copulation, is seldom fully and accurately
described. This is certainly the case for wild
mammals. In his excellent review of the sub-
ject, Dewsbury (1972) did stress the lack of
extensive information on courtship and copu-
lation of wild mammals in nature. Although
the situation has improved since the publica-
tion of his seminal paper, only a few mammals,
apart from primates, are adequately known
(e.g. among wild ungulates: Geist 1971, 1981;
Struhsaker 1967, Buechner & Schloeth 1965,
Butzler 1974, Kurt 1968, Dubost 1971, Dubost
& Feer 198 L Wemmer et al. 1983, Bergerud
1974, Bromley & Kitchen 1974, Lent 1974,
Leuthold 1977, Walther 1984, Moss 1983).

Because they are rather stereotyped, court-
ship and copulatory behaviors are at once in-

1 Accepted April 1985.

2 Biology Department, Laval University, Quebec,
Canada G1K 7P4.

partners.

dicative of phylogeny (see Brown 1975), are
very important for the reproductive isolation
of species (an important theme in Mayr 1963)
and may play an important role in female mate
choice (see Bateson 1983). In addition, for
the naturalist working under difficult field con-
ditions, it may be of great use to know the
full repertoire of courtship and mating. One
can then infer with confidence from the in-
complete observations often imposed by viewing
distances or by forest habitats for instance,
whether animals have actually mated. In the
same way, once one knows the full sequence
of events leading to copulation one can pre-
dict whether a courting pair that happens to
get out of sight before copulation, will mate
in that particular instance of courtship. In the
case of forest animals this is particularly im-
portant. For instance, Markgren (1969), an
authority on Moose ( Alces alces) has written:
“Successful mountings and completed coitus
have rarely been observed. I have not seen
one myself in seven years of field studies. This
is unfortunate as this would be one way to
determine the oestrus time of the cows ...”

361

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

(Markgren 1969: 160) It is the main purpose
of this paper to provide such necessary in-
formation on the Axis deer, or Chital ( Cervus
axis) living under natural conditions. Although
Axis are locally numerous, and gregarious,
thus relatively easy to observe, their mating
behavior has only seldom been observed in
their natural habitat, e.g. Schaller (1967) in his
14 month thorough and very inspiring study
at Kanha in central India recorded only 2
copulations. In addition to describing the sexual
behavior of Axis, I will use that information
to discuss the intriguing subject of female
mate choice, i.e. do larger males have privi-
leged access to females only because they win
in the intermale competition, or are they also
preferred by the females as mating partners
(see Bateson 1983 for a recent discussion of
this important distinction initially fnade by
Darwin 1871).

Study area and Method

I studied Axis in Wilpattu National Park
(1300 km2) in Sri Lanka (8°30'N, 80°1'E)
from September 1972 to October 1973, then
again from April to October 1983, for a total
of 20 months. Axis are numerous in the park,
there were a minimum of 1000 of them (actual
count on September 8, 1983) in the central
part of the park where most observations were
made. That study area is a 25 km2 track of
forest, interspersed with 12 rather permanent
water holes (villus), each in the middle of a
clearing whose diameter varies from about
200 m to 1 km (see Eisenberg & Lockhart
1972, for a description of the ecology of
Wilpattu).

All observations were made from a vehicle
that acted as a very efficient and convenient
blind. Axis seemed to ignore the presence of
the vehicle and they could thus be observed
at close range without disturbance. Binoculars

and a 20X telescope were used whenever neces-
sary. The deer could be observed at almost
any hour but were most active in the open
from sunrise (around 0600) to about 1000, and
from 1600 to sunset (around 1830). Observa-
tions were dictated to a field assistant who
wrote down in coded form the behaviors as
they occurred.

Results and Discussion

I have observed 24 full sequences of mat-
ing, 16 in 1973 and 8 in 1983. These include
only cases where an ejaculatory thrust (see
later) was actually seen. Courtship behavior
was observed almost daily, in any month, with
no obvious seasonal pattern. This is consistent
with the fact that in Sri Lanka, Axis fawns
can be born in any month (Phillips 1935,
Eisenberg & Lockhart 1972, Barrette in prep.).
In most instances of courtship, males per-
formed only the first 3 or 4 patterns described
here. The frequency of production of sexual
behavior patterns by males of various antler-
size classes in Wilpattu is very similar to what
Schaller (1967) has reported for Kanha in
central India. I therefore will not deal with
that here. I will only give a description of the
11 patterns (10 illustrated with photographs)
that constitute a complete sequence of court-
ship and mating. Some of them have been
described by Schaller (1967) and Fuchs
(1977). Many of these patterns are of course
common to most Artiodactyls as well, as can
be seen in the references cited in the introduc-
tion (e.g. Walther 1984).

1. Low stretch. This is an unambiguous
sexual approach (Plate I, Fig. 1). The male’s
nose is pointed forward and his neck is held
at or near the horizontal. Thus his antlers are
laid back; i.e. relatively hidden from the
female. The male usually flicks his tongue

362

WILD AXIS DEER IN SRI LANKA

rapidly as if licking in vacuo, and his penis is
unsheated and pulsating more or less vigo-
rously in the sagittal plane, both up and down,
and in and out. The rythmic movement is thus
not passively produced by the walking move-
ments of the male. That action of the penis
is very common in courting males, and is
usually present at the merest approach toward
a female, whether in the low stretch posture
or not. It is so conspicuous that it may be
a visual display. This is very different from the
erection seen in violent fights. In the latter
situation the penis is rigid and tucked against
the animal’s abdomen. The usual reaction of
the female to a low stretch is to withdraw
before being touched by the male, and she
usually voids a few drops of urine while with-
drawing (see Geist’s 1981 discussion of that).

2. Lipcurl (Flehmen) . After the female has
withdrawn a few steps the male sniffs and/or
licks the urine she left on the ground. Then
raising his head in a posture very similar to
the low stretch, the male stays motionless,
except for an occasional slow and shallow
vertical oscillation of the head. His upper lip
is curled backward, his nares pinched almost
completely, and his eyes partly or fully closed.
The male stays in that transe-like posture for
some 10 to 20 seconds, his muzzle pulsating
as he breathes. He then lowers his head and
actively licks his muzzle. Lipcurl apparently
allows a male to assess the sexual receptivity
of a female by sensing sexual hormones in
her urine with the vomeronasal (or Jakobson)
organ located above the roof of the mouth and
connected to it through the incisive ducts
(Dagg & Taub 1970, Estes 1972, Reinhardt
1983). As Geist (1981) has very aptly said,
one of the primary purpose of courtship in
Ungulates is to obtain urine from the female,
in order to evaluate her degree of receptivity.
In Chital, females lipcurl very seldom (I have

seen it only once), fawns do it on occasion,
like they playfully mount each other or adult
females; velvet antlered males do it seldom,
but hard antlered males lipcurl often. The
performance of one lipcurl to the urine of a
given female is usually a turning point in the
courtship activity of a pair. In the vast majo-
rity of cases, lipcurl signals the end of court-
ship; a male presumably loses interest in a
female once he has found out that she is not
fully receptive (i.e. near oestrus). After such
a lipcurl, a male ignores that given female and
either approaches another one or grazes.

In addition to lipcurls performed during a
social interaction, males are often seen to
lipcurl by themselves, presumably to urine
found on the ground.

3. Guarding. This is a very conspicuous
behavior (Plate I, Fig. 2). The head is held
high, the neck is stiff, the tail is stiff and
strongly arched over the back, not merely
vertical as in alarm behavior. Also the male
marches in a stiff and exagerated manner, lift-
ing his feet high and stamping them forcefully
on the ground. The front feet are also occa-
sionally stamped in place, as in alarm behavior.
The male’s penis is never visible during guard-
ing. The male never grazes during a guarding
episode, and never faces the female; he usually
stays a few steps ahead of her, either parallel
to her (Fig. 2), or blocking her way, he moves
when she moves and stops when she stops.
Whenever she drips urine, he picks it up and
lipcurls, then resumes guarding. The best in-
terpretation I can find for guarding is that
the female is very close to oestrus, but not
quite ready to be mated. This is supported
by the fact that of all the instances of guard-
ing I have seen (around 100), I have seen
only twice a male mate with the female he
was guarding. Thus guarding clearly indicates
an intense interest in a female, but usually

363

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

does not immediately precede mating. Guard-
ing is usually performed by the larger hard-
antlered males (called big hards, i.e. males
with antlers about 75 cm long or more). But
guarding is not seen in all instances of court-
ship or mating, and it does not seem to be
only a matter of the female’s receptivity (see
later in the section on mate choice). A guard-
ing male is usually very persistent, and can
guard non-stop for more than an hour. Occa-
sionally however, a male seems to' become
impatient and will chase the female at a full
run over hundreds of metres. Some of the
chases are triggered by the female first trotting
away from the male, but usually it is the male
that does the first move, rushing one or two
steps at the female with antlers pointing for-
ward, and stamping both fore feet at once on
the ground, the female then rushes off and
the male chases her. As soon as she stops,
he shops and resumes guarding. I do not agree
with Schaller (1967:84) and Fuchs (1977:39)
who call this posture a dominance or aggres-
sive display. Although the guarding behavior
is reminiscent of the “head-up display” of
Schaller (1967:72), it is different in many
aspects (the tail, the ears, the high stepping),
and I never saw it performed among males.
In addition, very often a male will perform
his guarding in the absence of any other males,
leaving no possibility of interpreting guarding
as a form of inter-male aggressive display.
Finally, a guarding male does not seem to
attempt to herd a female either away from
rivals, or back into the herd as some territo-
rial bovids (Walther 1984), or harem form-
ing cervids (Struhsaker 1967, Clutton-Brock
et al. 1982) do. It seems that all that a male
Chital tries to achieve is to advertize his
presence and his persistence, by constantly
monitoring, following and/or controlling the
female’s moves. If another male approaches
however, a guarding male will occasionally

lunge a few steps in his direction to have him
withdraw.

4. Licking vulva. The first, and the most
common, physical contact that a female Chital
allows a courting male to do, is vulva licking
(Plate II, Fig. 3). The female may move ahead
at the instant of contact, or stand for many
seconds and urinate (as on Fig. 3) while the
male actively licks her vulva and drinks the
urine. Either before, or immediately after, the
female has moved ahead, the male usually
lipcurls.

5. Chin on rump. If the female does not
walk ahead during vulva licking, the male will
eventually place his chin on her rump, flicking
his tongue all the while, thus licking the
female’s rump. In the case illustrated (Plate II,
Fig. 4), the female is standing, and holding
her tail to the side. The male is about to
rear (as evidenced by his lifted right fore leg)
and mount. Almost all mounts (see later) are
preceded by chin on rump, but in most cases,
the female responds by moving ahead, with
the male trailing her in low stretch, tongue
flicking, licking vulva, chin on rump, and so
on. This tending can go on for one hour or
more before the female allows the male to
mount, and in most observations, the animals
get out of sight before it happens. When they
do stay in sight for a long time, it very often
happens that they do not mate at all even
after a long tending period, the male eventually
giving up, and grazing or resting. Thus chin
on rump and the rest of tending are not
reliable signs that mating is about to take place.
Also, chin on rump is of course not a direct
way for a male to restrain a female in order
to mount her. It is more like a signal announc-
ing the male’s intention to mount. It is the
female’s response to that signal, i.e. walking
or standing, that will result in the male mount-

364

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84 PLATE I

Barrette: Axis Deer

Above: Fig. 1.
Below: Fig. 2.

Low stretch. Note the difference in the tails, the female is probably dripping
urine.

Guarding. A female that constantly holds her tail like here, has likely been bred
not long ago.

(Photos: Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate II

Barrette: Axis Deer

Above: Fig. 3. Vulva licking. The female’s arched back, raised tail and spread hind legs indicate
that she is urinating. (Figures 3 to 10 incl. are from a single mating sequence).
Below: Fig. 4. Chin on rump. The female’s tail is not wagging but held stiff and sideways.

( Photos : Author)

, >, <9

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84
Barrette: Axis Deer

Plate III

Above: Fig. 5. Chest licking. The male’s tongue is visible. See how contorted he must be in
order to lick the female’s chest.

Below: Fig. 6. Attempted mount. The female is in the process of turning, just prior to stepping
forward.

( Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate IV

Barrette: Axis Deer

Above: Fig. 7. Mount. The male is as far forward on the female as is possible.

below: Fig. 8. Mount leading to intromission.

(. Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84
Barrette: Axis Deer

Plate V

~

Above: Fig. 9. Ejaculatory thrust. Note that the male’s hind feet have moved adhead of the
femal’s, as compared to Figure 7. The female has fallen on her wrist joints. (This
is taken from a colour slide).

Below: Fig. 10. Post copulatory postures.

( Photos : Author)

WILD AXIS DEER IN SRI LANKA

ing or not. Even though chin on rump cannot
physically restrain the female, it may however
function in a reflex manner as in suids, in-
ducing a female to stop and stand firm
(Signoret et al. 1975).

6. Licking of the chest. Chest licking is,
as far as I could see, as sure a sign as any that
mating is imminent. In this behavior, the male
is beside the female and, twisting his head,
he licks the ventral side of the lower neck,
the chest, or even the inside of the fore leg
on the opposite side (Plate III, Fig. 5). When-
ever the female allows that form of contact,
mating will take place within a few minutes.
The male eventually stops licking, moves
around the female, who stays put, places his
chin on her rump and mounts. Out of 24
copulations I have seen in Wilpattu, chest lick-
ing occurred in 12 cases. I have seen chest
licking only once without witnessing the sub-
sequent copulation, and that was one case
where the male was not a big hard (he was
a medium hard; i.e. antlers between about 50
and 75 cm long), and where the pair entered
the jungle while still courting. Chest licking
never occurs at other times. This shows that
a female that allows to be licked on the chest
signals, to the male as well as to the observer,
that she is ready to be mated now, and here.

It is worth noting that in Chital, mutual
licking among adults is very rare. It occurs
only during courtship. This is very different
from some other cervids, most notably the
muntjacs ( Muntiacus sp.), where licking among
adults is extremely common (Dubost 1971,
Barrette 1977). In addition to vulva, rump,
and chest licking by the male, female Chital
occasionally lick a courting male’s abdomen.
This occurs only during an episode of mating,
and it may be seen as a form of courtship on
the part of a female.

7. Attempted mount. Rather often during
a courtship sequence a female allows a male
to go through the motion of mounting, only to
slip forward before he can rest on her back
(Plate III, Fig. 6). It often happens in such
attempts that the two animals are not perfectly
alligned (as on Fig. 6), this being usually a
result of the female turning while the male
rears behind her. It is usually as a result of the
female stepping forward that a male dismounts.
It does happen however that a male dismounts
on his own from a female standing still, but
only to immediately lick her vulva and mount
again. A male usually does not walk in an
attempt to remain upon a walking female, at
the most he makes one or two steps before
slipping down.

8. Mount. When the female stands per-
fectly still and the male is well in line behind
her, he mounts by sliding his chin from her
rump to her wither, flicking his tongue all the
while (on Figure 7 his tongue is barely visi-
ble). This is different from an attempted
mount, the male is far forward on the female,
note the difference in the angle that the neck
makes with the back compared to Figure 6.
In Plate IV, Figure 7, it is a mount with
attempted intromission. In any complete
sequence of mating, a male mounts many
times (mean and S.D. of 20 sequences accu-
rately counted: 5.4±3.1, range 2 to 16),
ejaculating only once, on the last of those
mounts (see later). The duration of mounts
does not vary much, it is usually between 5
and 10 seconds, then the female either walks,
more seldom, the male dismounts on his own
(or ejaculates). The observation of mounting
is not sufficient to conclude that mating is
taking place. For one thing, yearling males
with spike antlers occasionally mount females
in a rather playful manner, and this has noth-
ing to do with mating. Also, a male may go

365

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

so rapidly from “chin on rump” to mounting
that a female seems to be mounted by surprise,
only to strongly resist any subsequent attempts
by the male. Finally, it does happen that after
over an hour of intense courtship, including
even some mounts, a male gives up and does
not mate (I observed that 4 times), or even
is displaced by another male who does breed
the female (see later).

9. Mount with intromission. As far as I
could see, there seems to be only one mount
with intromission per mating sequence.
Although I did not measure it/ there is a slight
difference in the action of the male compared
to other mounts. In this mount the male gets
faster on the female, and immediately moves
far forward (Plate IV, Fig. 8), his muzzle
almost touching the female’s neck, and his hind
legs clasping the female in front of her
haunches. The female often seems to lower her
wither and tilt backward to press against the
male (see her forelegs on Fig. 8).

10. Ejaculatory thrust. This is what termi-
nates the last mount in a sequence of mating.
From the time the male has achieved the
posture seen on Fig 7, to the single forward
thrust seen in Plate V, Fig. 9, there is no more
than 4 or 5 seconds. It is not really a pelvic
thrust that the male performs, but a forward
hop: his hind hooves leave the ground and
land in front of the female’s hind hooves (see
Fig. 9 compared to Fig. 7). The female is
pushed forward, and can even fall on her
“knees” (i.e. carpal joints) as shown on Fig. 9.
On occasion, the male rears so high that he
can flip over on his back. This unmistakable
behavior pattern is considered by all authors
to be the moment of ejaculation in Ungulates
(e.g. Clutton-Brock et al. 1982, Butzler 1974,
Barrette 1977, Geist 1981, Buechner & Schloeth
1965). Thus in the latter, this is the only abso-

lutely certain behavioral criterion that mating
(i.e. insemination, but not necessarilly fertili-
zation) has taken place. Mounting is not a
sufficient criterion. There is only one ejacula-
tory thrust per sequence of mating, it always
ends courtship activity for a rather long inter-
val. I could time the inter-ejaculation interval
in a given pair on only four occasions. It
lasted an average of 53 minutes (14, 36, 77
and 86). Also, on ten occasions where I
observed a mated pair until it went out of
sight, they spent on average a minimum of
51 minutes (S.D. = 45, range 7 to 170) with-
out mating again.

11. Post-copulatory postures and behaviors.
After the ejaculation both partners usually (21
of 24 cases) remain motionless for a while
(Plate V, Fig. 10). The male usually moves
first, after about 15 seconds. The mean (=±=S.D.)
duration of the female’s immobility is much
longer (61 ± 28 seconds, range 20 to 120,
n = 9). During that time the female shows
strong abdominal contractions, about once
every 20 seconds at which time she seems to
strain a lot, her head being lowered and her
tail raised at each contraction (the female on
Fig. 10 was contracting at that instant).
Fluid (presumably semen) often flows out of
her vulva during such contractions. Subse-
quently she walks and resumes grazing or rest-
ing. Her tail does not come down in its usual
relaxed posture for at least one hour. I con-
sidered that a reliable sign that a female has
very recently been bred because I know of
no other circumstance (except labor maybe)
where a female holds her tail stiff, at or near
the horizontal for any extended period. The
first move that a male performs after ejaculat-
ing usually is licking his penis (18 out of 24
cases). The male turns around and takes his
penis in his mouth and actively licks it for many
seconds (up to 40 seconds in one case). I have
seen that repeated up to 3 times in the 4

366

WILD AXIS DEER IN SRI LANKA

minutes following ejaculation, but the male
usually does it only once. Quite often, right
after that, the male yawns. This is believed to
be related to lipcurl in bovids (Haider &
Schenkel 1972). Afterwards, the male either
grazes or rests, and does not resume courtship
for many minutes.

Who mates, and is there mate choice
by females?

As is usually the case with mammals all
female Chital are bred whenever they are in
oestrus, from the time they reach sexual matu-
rity and for their whole life. This is simply
because a male can inseminate a large number
of females in a short time, thus breeding males
are never in short supply (see Trivers 1972).
The situation is very different with males.
Although all males that live long enough will
eventually mate, at a given time, it is only a
small proportion of the males that do most
of the insemination. Thus, at any time, most
of the males are denied access to females.
This is clearly the case with Chital. The sim-
plest way to recognize classes of males in
Chital is on the basis of antler length. I have
used the same classes as Schaffer (1967) and
Fuchs (1977), and I will talk only about hard
antlered males here since I never saw velvet
antlered males take part in reproduction at all.
The first class is that of the yearling males,
with short, unbranched antlers called spikes.
Branched antlers are worn by adult males, i.e.
animals who produce spermatozoa and are
thus capable of inseminating females (Fuchs
1977, Graf & Nichols 1966). I recognize three
simple classes: small-hards, i.e. the 25 to 50
cm class of Schaffer (1967) and Fuchs (1977),
medium-hards, i.e. 50 to 75 cm long, and the
big-hards, i.e. antlers being 75 cm long or
more. Such classes are of course partly arbi-
trary, but they have some biological signifi-

cance as well. For one thing they correspond
to the animals’ age. Small-hards are probably
wearing their second and third sets of antlers,
i.e. are about 1.5 to 3 years old, medium-
hards are animals with their fourth and fifth
sets, i.e. 3.5 to 5 years old, and big-hards
have probably at least their sixth set of antlers,
i.e. are 5.5 years old or older (this is assum-
ing a 12 months antler cycle, and using Graf
& Nichols’ (1966) observations of known-age
Chital; and these age-classes are consistent
with those of Fuchs (1977)). Also there is
little room for confusion among classes since
antler length increases stepwise from year to
year, thus most big-hards for instance have
noticeably longer antlers than most medium-
hards.

Schaffer (1967) and Fuchs (1977) have
clearly shown that these seemingly arbitrary
classes are indeed very different in terms of
the frequency with which they perform sexual
behaviors. This is certainly true for mating.
Of the 24 copulations. I have recorded in
Wilpattu, 23 were done by big-hards (see the
Figures). I could find reports of 44 copula-
tions by Chital in the literature, these include
only cases where authors have related sexual
behavior to antler length, and have explicitly
distinguished mounting from ejaculatory thrust
(Schaffer 1967 : 2 copulations, Miura 1981: 3
copulations, Fuchs 1977: 39 copulations).

Overall 61 (90%) of the 68 copulations were
done by big-hards, 4 by medium-hards, and
3 by small-hards. I have observed one of
those copulations by a small-hard, in May 1983
in Wilpattu, and it was an unambiguous copu-
lation, i.e. patterns 6, 9, 10 and 11 were all
observed. It differed from all other cases in an
important way, however, the male was very
aggressive toward the female, repeatedly hitt-
ing her on the sides and shoulders with his
antlers, something I never saw a big-hard do.

These results show at least two things: small

367

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

antlered males can and do inseminate females,
but big antlered males, even though they
constitute about 30% of the adult males
(Schaller 1967, Fuchs 1977, personal obser-
vation), do 90% of the copulations. This
raises the question of female mate choice.
This is a matter best investigated through an
experimental approach (see Bateson 1983)/ but
I will report some observations here showing
that, in Chital, both inter-male aggression and,
to a lesser extent, female preference for some
males, explain the disproportionate contribu-
tion of big-hards to inseminations.

Inter male aggression is common in Chital.
Violent fights, although relatively rare compar-
ed to the rather friendly sparring matches
witnessed daily, do occur. I have seen 10 such
fights in 6 months in 1983, and Fuchs (1977)
has recorded 74 instances. Males with antlers
broken while hard are not rare (Barrette 1985,
Fuchs 1977) and these are certainly the
result of male-male fights. In addition to being
injured in such fights, males can also be killed.
I have recorded one such unambiguous case
in Wilpattu. Although such observations are
rare, over the entire life time of a given male,
injuries caused by fights probably do make a
difference in its longevity and vigour, and death
through such fights is a distinct possibility (see
Clutton-Brock 1982 and Geist 1986).

Contrary to some other species of Ungulates,
Axis deer do not fight to defend a territory,
nor do they fight to have access to food
resources since the latter are abundant and
distributed in a rather uniform way, thus
making it unnecessary to fight for them (see
Jarman 1974). It is therefore commonly stated
that in such a situation males fight in order to
gain access to females. But what one usually
sees is only that some do more copulations
than others, actual observations of males fight-
ing over an oestrus female are very rare. I have
witnessed 4 unambiguous cases where a court-

ed female was actually taken away from a
male by another one. In two of them it was
done without aggression, the courting male
simply moving away from the female at the
rivals’ approach, and letting him do the court-
ship in his turn. In the other two cases the
males fought and the newcomer left with the
female. In all four cases I did not see the
animals mate after the takeover and there was
no evidence that mating was imminent. There-
fore, the simplest interpretation of what
happened is that the male took the female,
not that the female chose one male over the
other.

Here is the description of one such case
that happened at Timbiri villu (about 400 m
across) on August 7, 1983 between 09h46 and
1 Oh 1 1 . “On this side of the villu, 40 deer were
grazing and resting. Among them were 7 large
males (# 5 and 15 who have recently cast
their antlers, and the big-hards # 1, 11, 12,
45 and 48). Number 12, 45 and 48 were active-
ly courting females. From the other side of
the villu a group of 15 Axis came out of the
forest. Among them was big-hard #41. At the
edge of the forest 41 bellowed once, then left
his group and approached the group of 40.
From about 50 m, 41 started a fast walk
toward big-hard 48 who was courting and
guarding a female at that instant. When 41
was at some 10 m, 48 turned to face him, they
clashed head-on and fought violently for about
15 s. During the fight, big-hard, 11, who, up to
now had been ignoring the courtship activity
going on in the group, walked to the female
48 was courting, and herded her away from
the group, licking her vulva. Male 41 won the
fight against 48, and chased him over a short
distance, only to return to his female right
away. From about 50 m, 41 started a fast walk
again toward 11 and the female. Male 11
stopped licking the female and looked over his
shoulder at 41 coming. When the latter was

368

WILD AXIS DEER IN SRI LANKA

about 10 m away, male 11 quickly lowered
his head, turned and walked a short distance
away from the female. Male 41 stopped and,
looking around, he horned the ground a little
and walked with head low, sniffing the ground
about 20 m from the female. In the meantime,
male 11 had returned to the female and was
licking her vulva. Male 41 started a fast walk
toward the pair, male 11 turned, faced male
41, they clashed, and fought for about 10 s.
Male 11 slipped backward, 41 kept pushing
hard, 11 veered and ran off, 41 pursued him
over a short distance. Then 41 returned to the
female, licking her vulva, he trailed her con-
stantly as she was walking away from him,
once he hit her rump with his forehard, herd-
ing her away from the group. She stopped a
few s to drink, 41 standing behind her. Then
41 kept trailing her toward the forest where
they entered, alone. Both males 11 and 48
remained in the open, grazing within the
group”.

That 25-minute event shows only that male
Axis do fight over females, and that winning
such a fight gives at least a momentary prio-
rity of access to the contested female. A male
that consistently won such fights could thus
considerably improve his reproductive success
(see Clutton-Brock et al. 1982). The second
example I want to describe shows the same
thing, but here, in addition, the female seems
to prefer one male. It happened on July 31st
1983 at Maha Patessa (about 600 m across).
Big-hard 40 had been actively guarding and
courting a female in and around a group of
16 deer. He constantly attempted to approach
her and succeeded only occasionally to touch
her vulva with his muzzle, everytime she lung-
ed ahead to resume grazing, while the male
stopped, either did a lipcurl, or instantly jerked
back to attention in the guarding posture. On
three occasions male 40 rushed at the female
who then ran off with the male in hot pursuit

behind her all the way across the villu. Every-
time that she stopped, so did he, guarding her
some more. This went on non-stop for 45
minutes. At that time, big hard 11 came out
of the forest on the far side of the villu, about
300 m from the pair and the group. This
males antlers are noticeably longer and spread
wider than those of male 40. He walked slowly
straight toward the pair, walking in a seem-
ingly relaxed manner, never showing any kind
of display. When he got at about 30 m from
the pair, male 40 seemed to notice him for
the first time, he looked at him, still approach-
ing slowly in an absolutely neutral posture,
the female was grazing. When male 11 got at
about 10 m from them, male 40, in the very
appropriate wordings of Krishnan (1972:
493), showed “a sudden preoccupation with
grazing”! He seemed to instantly loose all
interest in the female, and started grazing
actively, walking away from the female. Male
11 walked straight to the female, immediately
licked her vulva, then her chest and face and
belly; the female walked a few steps, not away,
but around male 11; the latter mounted her,
she walked ahead, he mounted her 4 more
times, ejaculating on the last mount.”

At least three things presumably happened
here: male 40 immediately recognized male 11
as a rival he should yield to, even when not
threatened by him; male IT also recognized
male 40 as a rival that there was not even any
point threatenning; and, most importantly
the female clearly seemed to prefer
male 11 to male 40. How else could one ex-
plain that she would so totally resist to male
40’s intense and constant courtship, only to
copulate with male 11 after the most abreviat-
ed sequence of courtship I ever saw? I can
see only two alternatives: either the female
suddenly became receptive at the exact minute
that male 11 arrived; or male 40 did all the,
lets imagine, necessary, foreplay, only to have

369

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

to relinquish the indifferent female to the large
male. These are two alternatives that seem
much more unlikely than mate preference on
the part of the female.

Conclusion

Female mate choice is not easy to observe
in nature (see Bateson 1983), let alone study
it quantitatively. Clutton-Brock (1982) doubts
that it occurs in red deer ( Cervus elaphus),
but Moss (1983) has shown it to occur in
the African elephant ( Loxodonta africana).
Mate choice by a female clearly seems the
most likely interpretation in the case above.
In all I saw three such cases. In absolute
terms this may seem a very small number of
observations. But it must be remembered that
in 20 months of field work in an area where
over 200 (and up to 1000) Axis could be seen
on most days, I recorded only 24 copulations.
In that context, 3 cases does not seem such
a rare event. This indicates I think, that female
mate choice may be an important phenomenon
in Axis deer. Such discrimination by females
may make an important contribution to the
fact that small-hards and medium-hards do a
very small proportion of the matings. What-
ever the case may be, it is through careful
and repeated observations of freely interacting
animals that a phenomenon as important and
subtle as mate choice may come to be demon -

Refei

Barrette, C. (1977) : The social behaviour of
captive Muntjacs, Muntiacus reevesi (Ogilby 1839).
Z. Tierpsychol. 43: 188-213.

— (1985) : Antler eating and antler

growth in wild Axis deer. Mammalia 49: 491-499.

Bateson, P. (ed.). (1983): Mate choice. Cam-
bridge University Press. Cambridge.

Bergerud, A. T. (1974) : Rutting behaviour of
Newfoundland Caribou. In: The behaviour of Un-
gulates and its relation to management (V. Geist &
F. Walther, eds.) I.U.C.N. publications, new series.
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strated and understood (see Cox 1981). And
of course the minimum basis of such obser-
vations is an adequate knowledge of the sexual
repertoire of a species. It is particularly neces-
sary to discriminate unambiguously mating
from attempted mating, and to recognize mat-
ing on the basis of the imperfect observations
often unavoidable in the field. This is my
purpose in presenting such information on the
Axis deer, a polygynous mammal where in-
termale competition for access to females can
be intense, and where female mate choice is
likely.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to S. D. Saparamadu and
L. De Alvis former directors of the Depart-
ment of Wildlife conservation of Sri Lanka for
allowing me to live and work in Wilpattu in
1973 and 1983 respectively. The data presented
here could never have been collected without
the help from the two superb field assistants
I had the chance to work with: L. Brochu in
1973 and A. Nadaraja in 1983. In addition,
the latter made our life in Wilpattu more
enjoyable and much easier than it could other-
wise have been. Financial support was provid-
ed by a grant from NSERC Canada, to V.
Geist in 1973, and to C. B. in 1983. The work
in 1983 was done while I was on a sabbatical
year awarded by 1’Universite Laval.

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371

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR— 8

P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida

[Continued from Vol. 83(3): 602]

POACEAE (= GrAMINAE)

(All keys have been adopted from N. L. Bor, Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan, 1960)
1 . Shrubs or trees with woody, often tall, persistant culms; leaflets with a petiole like base which is

articulated with the sheath . . ~ 2

2. Pericarp thin, adnate to the seed 3

3. Filaments free Bambusct

3. Filaments adnate or connate 4

4. Stamens 3 ,. .. Arundinaria

4. Stamens 6 Oxytenanthera

2. Pericarp fleshy or crustaceous; seeds free Dendrocalamus

1. Annual or perrenial herbs; leaf-blade not articulated with the sheath 5

5. Spikelets 2-flowered, falling entire at maturity, usually with the upper floret hermaphrodite and the
lower male or barren and if the latter, then often reduced to the lemma or rarely the lemma entirely
absent . . . 6

6. Spikelets all hermaphrodite, or with male or barren and hermaphrodite spikelets mixed in the
same inflorescence and so arranged that a male or barren spikelet, or if unisexual then the lemma
of the fertile floret indurated 7

7. Spikelets often paired with one sessile and other pedicelled, rarely solitary, all alike; glumes
as long as the spikelet and enclosing the florets, more or less rigid and firmer than the
lemmas, which are both hyaline of membranaceous; upper lemma usually awned 8

8. Spikelets solitary Dimeria

8. Spikelets in pairs or in threes 9

9. Spikelets in each pair similar 10

10. Spikelets in simple racemes Eulalia

10. Spikelets in panicles or in compound racemes 11

1 1 . Spikelets unawned Saccharum

11. Spikelets awned Spodiopogon

9. Spikelets in each pair dissimilar 12

12. Joints of the rhachis and pedicel of pedicelled spikelet swollen or much reduced,

3-angled, rounded or flattened 13

13. Sessile spikelet with a male and hermaphrodite floret; upper lemma awned 14

14. Racemes many noded, not covered in sheath 15

15. Raceme solitary Sehima (p.p.)

15. Racemes two to many Ischaemum

14. Raceme one noded, enclosed in a sheath Apluda

13. Sessile spikelets with only hermophrodite floret or occasionally a male floret

below, upper lemma unawned 16

16. Sessile spikelet spherical Hackelochloa

16. Sessile spikelets not spherical 17

372

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR—S

17. Sessile spikelet winged; glumes perforated or sculptured .. . Manisuri’s

17. Sessile spikelet not winged; glume not perforated or sculptured

Ophiuros

12. Joints of the rhachis and pedicels narrow, seldom thickened upwards, occasionally with a transluscent
groove; sessile spikelet usually awned 18

18. Inflorescence a terminal simple raceme Sehima (p.p.)

18. Inflorescence a panicle or compound racemes 19

19. Spikelets in racemes which are not interrupted by spathes 20

20. Lower glume tuberculate; spikelets in whorls Vetiveria

20. Lower glume not tuberculate; spikelets not in whorls Chrysopogon

19. Spikelets in panicles of racemes which are interrupted by spathes, or espaithate racemes digi-
tate 21

21 . Upper lemma of the sessile spikelet with a basal awn Arthraxon

21 . Upper lemma of the sessile spikelet with awn from the tip or from the cleft or reduced

to the hyaline base of the awn 22

22. Awn glabrous 23

23. Racemes surrounded at the base by an involucre of spikelets 24

24. Involucral spikelets pedicellate, deciduous Iseilema

24. Involucral spikelets sessile, not deciduous Themeda

23. Racemes without an involucre 25

25. Racemes straight or slightly curved; lower glume of sessile spikelets hairy
Pseudodichanthium

25. Racemes markedly curved; lower glume of sessile spikelets glabrous

Pseudodichanthium

22. Awn hairy 26

26. Upper lemma of the sessile spikelets not cleft 27

27. Spikelets at the tips of the capillary branches Capillipedium

27. Spikelets not at the tip of the capillary branches . . 28

28. Joints and pedicels with a transluscent longitudinal furrow

Bothriochloa

28. Joints and pedicels not with transluscent furrow 29

29. All pairs of spikelets heterogamous; upper lemma of the sessile

spikelet bifid Pseudosorghum

29. Lower 1-3 spikelets homogamous; upper lemma of the sessile spike-
let reduced to the transluscent base of the awn 30

30. Lower 1-3 spikelets homomorphous Indochloa

30. All spikelets alike Dichanthium

26. Upper lemma of the sessile spikelet 2-lobed or two cleft Cymbopogon

7. Spikelets solitary or paired, similar, the lower glume is smaller than the upper or rarely suppressed;

upper lemma usually awnless 31

31. Spikelets mucronate or awned Rhynchelytrum

31. Spikelets unawned 32

32. Spikelets falling singly, not subtended by bristles (or if so, then the bristles persisting after

the spikelets have fallen) 33

33. Spikelets arranged in more or less open panicles or with the panicles contracted and

spike-like 34

34. Bristles subtended or replaced by one to many bristles like branchlets which remain

after the spikelets have fallen Setaria (p.p.)

34. Spikelets not subtended by bristle-like branches 35

35. Spikelets usually arranged in cylindrical spike-like panicles; upper glume inflated
or not Sacciolepis

373

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

35. Spikelets arranged in open or contracted panicles 36

36. Spikelets not or only slightly gibbose Panicum

36. Spikelets distinctly gibbose and laterally compressed Cyrtococcum

33. Spikelets arranged in one sided spikes or spike-like racemes, digitate or scattered 37

37. Lemma of the upper floret thinly cartilaginous, usually with flat hyaline margin Digitaria

37. Lemma of the upper floret more or less crustaceous or coriaceous, usually with narrow inroled

margins 38

38. Spikelets adaxial Brachiaria

38. Spikelets abaxial 39

39. Lower glume usually absent; spikelets plano-convex Paspalum

39. Lower glume present 40

40. Leaf-blade linear; racemes dense; culms erect or suberect Echinochloa

40. Leaf-blades lanceolate or ovate; racemes loose or moderately dense; culms creeping

and ascending Oplismenus

32. Spikelets with an involucre of bristles or subtended by a solitary bristle and falling with or

without the bristles at maturity 41

41. Upper lemma smooth; bristles caducous Pennisetum

41. Upper lemma transversly rugose; bristles persistant Setaria (p.p.)

6. Male and female spikelets in separate inflorescence or in different parts of the same inflorescence
and of different appearance; lemmas hyaline or membranaceous and thinner than the glumes ... 42

42. Female spikelets not enclosed in a false involucral sheath 43

43. Female spikelets not crowded; axis thin 43A

43A. Lower glume of female spikelet 3-lobed, central lobe larger Trilobachne

43A. Lower glume of female spikelet not 3-lobed, central lobe not larger . . Chionachne

43. Female spikelets in crowded longitudinal rows on a very thin axis Zea

42. Female spikelets completely enclosed in a false involucral sheath Coix

5. Spikelets one to many flowered, breaking at maturity above the more or less persistent glumes, or
if falling entire then not two flowered, with lower floret male or barren and the upper floret herma-
phrodite 44

44. Spikelets usually with two or more fertile florets (if with one fertile floret then sterile reduced

floret above it) 45

45. Glumes usually as long as or longer than the lowest floret Avena

45. Glumes usually shorter than the lowest floret 46

46. Spikelets in terminal, solitary secund spike Tripogon

46. Spikelets not in solitary spikes 47

47. Inflorescence of panicles 48

48. Spikelets in digitate or subdigitate panicles Eleusine

48. Spikelets in open, contracted or spike-like panicles 49

49. Stamens 2; ligule membranaceous Eragrostis

49. Stamens 3; ligule ciliate Chloris (p.p.)

47. Inflorescence of racemes or panicles of racemes, the spikelets secund 50

50. Imperfect florets absent Cynodon

50. Imperfect florets present Chloris (p.p.)

44. Spikelet with one fertile floret 51

51. Glumes minute or suppressed; fertile lemmas and paleas similar Oryza

51. Glumes developed; fertile lemmas and paleas dissimilar 52

52. Spikelets with 3-florets Phalaris

52. Spikelets with 1-2 florets 53

53. Spikelets with 2-florets 54

54. Lower floret without palea Thysanolaena

54. Lower floret with palea 55

55. Glumes equal in size 56

374

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 8

56. Upper lemma becoming indurated; glumes finally deciduous . . . Isachne

56. Upper lemma remaining membranaceous; glumes persistent . . Caelachne

55. Glumes unequal in size 57

57 . Lemma of the upper floret bearded on the dorsal surface .... Jansenella

57. Lemma of the upper floret scabrid Arundinella

53. Spikelets with one fertile floret 58

58. Base of the glume bearded Garnotia

58. Base of the glume not bearded 59

59. Spikelets solitary at each node of the spike axis Triticum

59. Spikelets more than one at each node of the spike axis Hordeum

Apluda Linn.

1. Apluda mutica Linn. Sp. PI. 82, 1753; Bor,

Grasses, Burma, Ceylon, India & Pakistan, 93,

1960.

A aristata Linn. Cent. PI. 2: 71, 1756; Birdwood.

31.

A. varia var. aristata Hack, in DC. Mon. Phan.

6: 196, 1889; Blatter & McCann, Bombay Grasses
29, t. 20, 1934.

A. varia Hack. Mon. Andropog. in DC. Mon. 6:

196, 1889; Cooke, 2: 956 (3:474).

A variable monsoon species found in semi-
shaded places and along hedges, where it
sometimes assumes a climbing habit.

distribution : Lingmala, Fitzgerald Ghat,
Chinaman’s falls.

flowers : October-December.

vern. names: Bangrat, Ghagra.

Arthraxon P. Beauv.

1. Spikelets long awned; awn 15-25 cm long A. jubatus

1. Spikelets short awned, less than 2.5 cm long 2

2. Lower glume of sessile spikelet densely villous; keels with narrow densely ciliate wings

A. villosus

2. Lower glume of sessile spikelets at most puberulous 3

3. Spikelets laterally compressed; lower glume of sessile spikelets not keeled 4

4. Pedicelled spikelets at least in the upper part of the raceme developed .... A. lancifolius

4. Pedicelled spikelets not developed 5

5. Stamens 2 A. hispidus

5. Stamens 3 6

6. Pedicals absent or microscopic A. inermis

6. Pedicals upto 2 mm. long, slender A. nudus

3. Spikelets not laterally compressed 7

7. Keels of the upper glume with penicellate tubercles upwards A. meeboldii

7. Keels of the upper glume without penicillate tubercles 8

8. Root-stock and sheath not tomentose A. echinatus

8. Root-stock and sheath covered with silky cataphylls A. lanceolatus

1. Arthraxon echinatus (Nees) Hochst. in
Flora, 39: 188, 1856; Birdwood, 30; Bor 99.

Bathratherum echinatum Nees, in Edinb. New
Phil. J. 18: 181 1835.

Arthraxon spathaceus Hook. f. FI. Brit. India. 7 :
145, 1896.

This species mentioned here on authority of
Birdwood. We have not seen authentic speci-
men of this species from Mahabaleshwar.

2. Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino, in
Bot. Mag. Tokyo, 26: 214, 1912; Bor, 99.

375

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 84

Phalaris hispicla Thunb. FI. Japan, 44, 1784.

A. ciliaris Beauv. Agros. Ill, t. 11, f. 6, 1812;
Cooke 2: 970 (3: 489).

A common grass on embankments and on
old walls.

flowers: October.

3. Arthraxon inennis Hook, f., in FI. Brit.
India, 7: 145, 1896; Cooke, FI. Bombay 2:
968 (3: 487); Blatter & McCann. 74, t. 45;
Puri & Mahajan, 135; Bor, 100.

A quite common grass in semi-shaded forest
areas.

flowers: October.

vern. name: Vanguarin (T. Cooke).

4. Arthraxon jubatus Hack, in DC., Monogr.
Phan. 6: 358, 1889; Cooke: 2: 970 (3: 489);
Blatter & McCann, 79, t. 50; Bor, 100.

This species is very common along water
courses and by the sides of water-falls, all over
Fitzgerald ghat. It is one of the prominent
species with long curved awns.

flowers: October.

5. Arthraxon lanceolatus (Roxb.) Hochst. in
Flora 39: 188, 1856; Birdwood, 30, Cooke,
2: 968 (3: 487); Bor 100.

Andropogon lanceolatus Roxb. FI. Ind. 1 : 262,
1820.

A tall species reaching upto 3 ft in height.
We have not seen this grass in Mahabaleshwar
or in any of the herbaria visited. It is included
here on the authority of Birdwood.

flowers: October.

vern. names: Harjala, Govinder.

6. Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst. in
Flora 39: 188, 1856; Blatter & McCann, 77, t.
48; Bor, 100.

Bathratherum molle Nees et Am. in Edinb. New
Phil, J. 18: 181, 1835.

Andropogon lancifolius Trin. in Mem. Acad. Sci.
Petersb. Ser. 6, 2, 271, 1832.

A. mode Balf. in Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 31: 315,
1888; Birdwood, 30.

Very common species found on old walls,
eroded surfaces and on waste lands.

We have not seen a specimen belonging to
this species in any herbaria. Included here
on the authority of Birdwood.
flowers: September.

7. Arthraxon meeboldii Stapf in Kew Bull.
449, 1908; Cooke, 2: 969 (3: 488); Blatter
& McCann, 76, t. 47; Puri & Mahajan, 136;
Bor, 101.

A very common and abundant grass on
higher elevations, (600-1500 m.).
flowers: September.

8. Arthraxon nudus (Steud.) Hochst. in Flora
39: 188, 1856; Bor, 101.

Bathratherum nudum Nees ex Steud., Syn. PI.
Glum. 1: 383, 1854.

A rare grass along margins of forest in par-
tially shaded places.

distribution: Chinaman’s falls, Lodwick
point.

flowers : September-October.

9. Arthraxon villosus C.E.C. Fisher, in Kew
Bull. 1933; 350, 1933; Bor, 103.

Rare grass at Lodwick point, known from a
single collection from Mahabaleshwar.
flowers: October.

Arundirtaria Michx.

1. Arundinaria wightiana Nees in Linnaea 9:
482, 1834; Lisboa, 224.

This species is reported here on authority
of Lisboa.

vern. name: Chivari.

376

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR—%

Arundinella Raddi

1 . Upper floral glume with 3 awns 2

2. Inflorescence densely spicate .... A. spicata

2. Inflorescence not spicate, either paniculate or

racemose 3

3. Upper lemma with 2 setae, one on either

side of the awn A. setosa

3. Upper lemma without setae 4

4. Spikelets less than 2 mm long; leaf-
blades elliptic-acuminate .... A. pumila

4. Spikelets over 2 mm long; leaf-blades

not elliptic-acuminate 5

5. Spikelets glabrous or with a few
short hairs on the keels of the

glumes 6

6. Perennial grasses . . A. nepalensis

6. Annual grasses A. metzii

5. Spikelets very bristly from tubercu-

late base hairs on the nerves of the
glumes and/or on the interspaces or
atleast the bases of the bristles re-
maining 7

7. Panicles very effuse and drooping;

glumes unequal A. metzii

7. Panicles usually compact; rather

effuse then glumes more or less

equal A. ciliata

1 . Upper floral glume awnless A. leptochloa

1. Arundinella ciliata (Roxb.) Nees ex Miq.
in Vesh. Konink, Nederl. Inst. 3(4): 30, 1851;
Puri & Mahajan, 136; Bor. 421.

Holcus ciliatus Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 321, 1820.

We have not seen this species from Maha-
baleshwar. Blatter & McCann have not reported
it in Bombay Grasses from Mahabaleshwar.
We include it here on authority of Puri &
Mahajan.

2. Arundinella leptochloa (Nees ex Steud.)
Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 76, 1896; Bor, 423.

Panicum leptochloa Nees ex Steud. Syn. PI. Glum.
1: 62, 1854.

Arundinella gigantea Dalz. in Dalz. & Gibs. Bom-
bay FI. 293, 1861; Cooke, 2: 1005 (3: 525).

Common grass along the margins of the
forests. Very variable species.

flowers: October.

3. Arundinella metzii Hochst. ex Miq. in
Verh. Konink. Noderl. Inst. 3(4) 31, 1851;
Cooke, 2: 1003 (3 523); Bor, 423.

A. lawii Hook. f. in Trin. Hand. FI. Ceylon 5:
180, 1900; Cooke, 2: 1003 (3: 523).

Quite common species on embankments
along forest paths and on road-sides.
flowers : October-November.

4. Arundinella nepalensis Trin. Gram. Panic.
62, 1826; Bor, 423.

A. brasiliensis Hook. f. in FBI 7: 73, 1896 (non
Raddi 1823); Cooke 2: 1003 (3: 524); Puri &
Mahajan, 1 36.

A. hispida Blatter & McCann, Bombay Grasses,
195, 1934 (non O. Kuntze, 1891); Puri & Mahajan,
136.

A variable grass usually found along the
sides and in beds of streams and rivers.

flowers : October-November.

5. Arundinella pumila (Hochst.) Steud. Syn.
PI. Glum. 1: 114, 1854; Cooke, 652; Bor 423.

A. tenella Nees ex Steud. Syn. PI. Glum. 1: 115,
1854; Dalz. & Gibs. 292; Cooke 2: 1001 (3: 522);
Blatter & McCann, 193, t. 127; Puri & Mahajan,
136.

Acratherum pumilum Hochst. ex A. Rich., Tent.
FI. Abyss. 2: 414, t. 100, 1851.

Common monsoon grass along the forest
borders and in semi-shaded forests. Usually
occurs on old walls or on rocks.

distribution: Lingmala, Chinaman’s point,
Lodwick point.

flowers : September-November.

6. Arundinella setosa Trin. Gram. Panic. 63,
1826; Bor, 424-5.

A. stricta Hook. Kew Joum. Bot. 2: 102, 1850;
Dalz. & Gibs. 293; Cooke, 1001 (3: 521); Birdwood,
30.

377

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

This species is reported on authority of
Birdwood and Cooke. We have not seen a
specimen of this species from Mahabaleshwar;
not reported by Blatter & McCann also.
vern. name: Kotir (Turdia?).

7. Arundinella spicata Dalz. in Dalz. & Gibs.
Bombay FI. 293, 1861; Cooke, 652 & 2: 1004
(3: 525); Birdwood, 30; Puri & Mahajan, 136;
Bor, 425.

A common and abundant grass in latter part
of monsoon, in open grass-lands. In appearance
it very much resembles Setaria spp.
distribution: Yenna Banks, Lodwick point.
flowers : October-November.
vern. names: Benel, Kotir.

Avena Linn.

1. Avena sativa Linn. Sp. PI. 79, 1753; Bird-
wood, 31; Cooke, 2: 1051 (3: 574); Bor, 434.

We have not seen reliable specimen from
Mahabaleshwar. It is included here on the
authority of Birdwood.
vern. name: Jao.

Bambusa Schreb.

1. Bambusa arundinacea Willd. Sp. PI. 2:
245, 1799; Cooke, 2: 1046 (3: 569); Birdwood,
31; Holttum, Taxon 5: 67, 1956.

Bambusa bambos (Linn.) Voss, in Vilm. Blumeng.
1: 189, 1896.

Bambusa arundo Klein et Nees, in Linnaea 9:
471, 1834; Dalz. & Gibs. 299; Birdwood, 31.

Arundo bambos Linn. Sp. PI. 81, 1753; (non conf.
see Holtt. Taxon 5: 67, 1956).

Common tree grass in ghat area and at Ling-

mala.

vern. name: Kalak.

2. Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. in Wendl. Col-
lect. 2: 26, t. 47, 1810; Cooke, 2: 1047 (3:
57); Birdwood, 31.

Common bamboo cultivated in private com-
pounds.

Bothrichloa O. Kuntze

1. Lower racemes longer than the rhachis

B. concanensis

1 . Lower racemes shorter than the rhachis

B. odorata

1. Bothriochloa concanensis (Hook, f.) Hen-
rard, in Blumea 3: 457, 1940; Bor, 106.

Andropogon concanensis Hook. f. in FBI 174,
1896; Cooke, 2: 980 (3: 499).

Amphilophis concanensis (Hook, f.) Blatter &
McCann in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32 : 422,
1928.

Occasional in wet ground, water logged fields
and along water courses.
flowers: November.

2. Bothriochloa odorata (Lisboa) A. Camus,
Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon 1930, n.s. 76: 165, 1931;
Bor, 109.

Andropogon odoratus Donna Lisboa, Joum. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 4: 123, 1889; Cooke, 2: 981
(3: 500).

Rare species with aromatic oil. It is report-
ed here on the authority of Lisboa. We have
not seen any specimen from Mahabaleshwar.

Brachiaria Griseb.

1 . Spikelets less than 2 mm long; panicles not
linear; lower glume upto \ as long as spikelet

B. reptans

1. Spikelets more than 3 mm long; panicles linear;

lower glume a minute (0.3 mm) scale

B. cruciforme

1. Brachiaria cruciforme (J. E. Sm.) Griseb.
in Ledeb., FI Ross. 4: 469, 1853; Bor, 283.

Panicum cruciforme J. E. Sm. in Siebth. et J.E.
Sm. FI. Graeca 1: 44, t. 59, 1806; Birdwood, 30.

P. isachne Roth. Nov. PI. Sp. 54, 1821; Cooke
2: 931 (3: 448).

378

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR— %

This species is reported here on authority of
Birdwood. We have not seen any authentic
specimen from Mahabaleshwar.
vern. names: Shimpi, Wag-hast (Birdwood).

2. Brachiaria reptans (Linn.) Gard. et C. E.
Hubb. in Hook. Icon. PI. sub. 3363, 1938; Bor,
285.

Panicum reptans Linn. Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 870,
1759.

p. prostratum Lamk. Tab. Encycl. Meth. Bot.
1: 171, 1791; Cooke, 652 & 932 ( 3 : 448); Birdwood,
30.

This species also reported from Mahabalesh-
war by Birdwood. We have not seen any
authentic specimen from Mahabaleshwar.

Capillipedium Stapf

1 . Culms weak, decumbent and (trailing, much geni-

culately branched C. filiculme

1 . Culms erect, robust, simple or branched 2

2. Nodes glabrous or shortly hairy; callus shortly

bearded; panicles often somewhat open

C. assimile

2. Nodes densely bearded; callus villosely
bearded; panicles contracted C. hugellii

1. Capillipedium assimile (Steud.) A. Camus
in Lemonte, FI. Gen. de lTndo-Cine 7: 314/
1922; Bor 110.

Andropogon assimilis Steud. in Zll. Syst. Verz. 58,
1854; Cooke, 2: 981 (3: 501).

Common and gregarious woody grass on
hill-slopes along road-sides.

distribution: Pratapgadh Road.
flowers: November.

2. Capillipedium filiculme (Hook, f.) Stapf, in
Hook. Icon. PI. Sub. tab. 3085, 1922; Blatter
& McCann, 821; Bor, 111.

Andropogon fiticulmis Hook, f., FBI 7: 181, 1896;
Cooke, 2: 982 (3: 502).

Weak trailing grass usually found among the
bushes, producing long stilt roots from nodes.
flowers: November.

3. Capillipedium hugellii (Hach.) A. Camus,
Rev. Bot. Appl. 1(4): 306, 1921; Blatter &
McCann, 81, t. 52; Bor, 111.

Andropogon hugellii Hack, in DC. Mon. 6: 492,
1889; Cooke, 2: 892 (3: 501).

A. foetidus Donna Lisboa ex Lisboa, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 6: 205, 1891.

Common grass on hill slopes and along the
margins of forests all over. Inflorescence when
crushed emits strong smell very often inducing
headache.

flowers: July-October.

4. Capillipedium parviflorus (R. Br.) Stapf in
Prain, FI. Trop. Africa 9: 169, 1917; Bor, 112.

Holcus parviflorus R. Br. Prodr. 199, 1810.
There is one specimen of this species in
Blatter Herbarium collected by L. J. Sedgwick
from Mahabaleshwar except which it is con-
fined to Northern India only.

Chionachne R. Br.

1. Chionachne koenigii (Spreng.) Thw. Enum.
PI. Zeyl. 357, 1864; Bor, 262.

Coix koenigii Spreng. Syst. 1: 239, 1825.

This species is known from a single collec-
tion from Fitzgerald ghat collected by Charles
McCann (3599).
flowers : September-October.

Chloris Sw.

1. Chloris barbata Sw. FI. Ind. Occ. 1: 200,
1797; Birdwood, 31; Cooke 2 : 2: 1035 (3:
557); Bor, 465.

This species is reported here on authority
of Birdwood. We have not seen any specimen
of this species, from Mahabaleshwar.
vern. name: Goshya (Birdwood).

Chrysopogon Trin.

1 . Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin., Fund.
Agrost. 188, 1820; Bor, 115.

379

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

. Andropogon aciculatus Retz., Obs. Bot. 5 : 22,
1789; Cooke 2: 984 (3: 504).

Common grass in pastures in plains. Known
from only one collection from Mahabaleshwar.
flowers: October.

Coelachne R. Br.

1 . Plants less than 10 cm tall, erect C. minuta

1. Plants more than 20 cm tall, spreading

... . . C. simpliciuscula

1. Coelachne minuta Bor, in Journ. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 1317, 1961.

Rare species in moist water-logged places,
which is described from Mahabaleshwar as its
type locality.

flowers: August-November.

2. Coelachne simpliciuscula (Wt. et Arn.)
Munro ex Benth. in J. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 19:
93, 1881; Bor, 576.

Panicum simpliciusculum Wt. et Arn. ex Steud.
Syn. PI. Glum. 1: 96, 1854.

C. putchella Hook. f. FI. Brit. India, 7: 270,
1896 (non R. Br. 1810).

A very variable species growing in marshy
places. It is quite common in open grasslands
during monsoon when water is abundant.
flowers: December- January.

Coix Linn.

1. Coix lachryma-jobi Linn. Sp. PI. 972, 1753;
FBI 7: 100; Cooke 2: 997 (3: 517); Blatter
& McCann 3, t. 1; Bor, 264.

C. lachryma Linn. Syst. (ed. 10) 1261, 1759; Bird-
wood, 30.

This species is included here on authority of
Birdwood.

vern. names: Kasai, Ran-maka (Birdwood).
Cymbopogon Spreng.

L Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats, in
Atkins, Gaze. N.W. Prov. India, 392 1882;

Blatter & McCann, 104; Bor, 129.

Andropogon martinii Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 280, 1820.
A. shoenanthus Birdwood, Catalogue PI. Matheran
and Mahabaleshwar, 30, 1897 (non Linn. 1753);
Cooke, 2: 991 (3: 511).

Common grass in open grass-lands. The
grass contains geraniol and has strong odour.
Oil expressed from this grass is known as
Palmarosa oil.

flowers : October-December.

Cynodon Rich.

1. Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. Syn. PI. 1:
85, 1805; Cooke, 652 (3: 554); Birdwood, 31;
Blatter & McCann, 250, t. 166; Bor, 469, f. 52.

Panicum dactylon Linn. Sp. PI. 58, 1753; Graham,
236.

Common and abundant grass all over which
forms the natural lawns in open grass-lands. It
is a sacred grass for local people and used in
worship of deities.
flowers: Throughout the year.
vern. names: Hariyali, Darb, Durva.

Cyrtococcum Stapf

J

1. Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Steud.) Stapf, in
Hook., Ic. PI. sub tab. 3096, 1922; Bor, 291.

Panicum oxyphyllum Steud., Syb. PI. Glum. 1 :
65, 1854.

A rare grass in damp shady places in forests
among the undergrowth.
flowers: October.

Dendrocalamus Nees

1. Dendrocalamus strictus Nees, in Linnaea,
9: 476, 1834; Cooke 2: 1049 (3: 570); Bird-
wood, 31.

Rarely cultivated bamboo with solid culms.

Diandrochloa de Winter
1. Diandrochloa japonica (Thunb.) Henry, in
Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 9 (1-4): 290, 1967.
Poa japonica Thunb. FI. Jap. 51, 1784.

380

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 8

Eragrostis interrupla Cooke FI. Bombay Pres. 2:
1024 (3: 546), 1908; Blatter & McCann, Bombay
Grasses, 233, 1935 (non Beauv. 1812).

E. japonica (Thunb.) Trin. in Mem. Acad. Sci.
Petusb. Ser. 6, 1: 405, 1831; Bor, 509.

Rare grass in grass-lands.
flowers: August.

Dichanthium Willemet

1. Dichanthium caricosum (Linn.) A. Camus,
in Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 27: 549, 1921;
Bor, 134.

Andropogon caricosum Linn. Sp. PI. ed 2, 1480,
1763; Cooke 2 : 987 ( 3 : 507).

Gregarious plant in grass-lands and along
road-sides.

flowers : October-November.

Digitaria Heist, ex Fabr.

1 . Hairs on the spikelets verrucose . . D. longi flora

1 . Hairs on the spikelets not verrucose 2

2 . Hairs on the spikelets clavate or absent .... 3

3 . Spikelets less than 1 . 25 mm long

D. strict a

3. Spikelets more than 2.25 mm long

D. ternata

2. Hairs on the spikelets not clavate . . D. ciliaris

1. Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel. Desr. Gram.
Gatha et Germania 27, 1802.

Panicum ciliare Retz. Obz. 4: 16, 1786.

P. adscendens H.B.K. Nov. Gen. et Sp. PI. 1 : 97,
1816.

D. adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr. in Blumea 1 ; 92,
1934.

D. marginata var. fimbriata (Link.) Stapf, FI. Trop.
Africa, 9: 440, 1919; Blatter & McCann, 125, t 78.

D. sanguinalis var. ciliaris Prain, Beng. PI. 1181,
1903; Cooke, 2: 940 (3: 457).

An ascending grass common and abundant
all over.

flowers : September-November.

2. Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers., Syn.
Plant. 1: 85, 1805; Cooke, 2: 941 (3: 458);
Blatter & McCann, 127, t. 81; Bor, 302.

Paspalum longiflorum Retz. Obs. Bot. 4: 15, 1786.
Rare grass on rocky grounds near Wilson
point.

flowers: August.

3. Digitaria stricta Roth ex Roem. et Schult.,
Syst. Veg. 2: 474, 1817; Bor, 305.

Agrostis pilosa Retz., obs Bot. 6: 22, 1791 (non
Digitaria pilosa Pieri in Ionios Anthol 2 : 464, 1834).

D. royleana (Nees) Prain, Beng. PI. 1181, 1903;
Cooke, 2: 942 (3: 459); Blatter & McCann, 127,
t. 82.

Paspalum royleana Nees ex Thum. Enum. PI. Zeyl.
358, 1864. (non. nud) ex Hook, f., in FI. Brit. India
7: 18, 1869.

Quite common grass in moist places and
along water course.
flowers : November-December.

4. Digitaria ternata (A. Rich.) Stapf ex Dyer,
FI. Cap. 7: 376, 1898; Cooke, 2: 940 (3: 457);
Bor, 306.

Cynodon ternatus A. Rich. Tent. FI. Abyse. 2:
405, 1851.

A rare species near Lingmala.
flowers: September.

Dimeria R. Br.

1. Spikelets 1.5-2. 5 mm. long; anthers 0.5 mm.

long D. ornithopoda

1. Spikelets 2.5-3 mm long; anthers 1.5 mm long
D. ornithopoda var. megalentha

1. Dimeria ornithopoda Trin., Fund. Agrost.
167, t. 14, 1820; Cooke 2: 945 (3: 462); Blatter
& McCann, 8, t. 4; Puri & Mahajan, 135; Bor
144.

D. filiformis (Roxb.) Hochst. ex Miq. in Verh.
Noderl Inst. 3(4): 35, 1851.

Andropogon filiformis Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 260, 1820
(non Pers. 1805).

Psilostachys filiformis Dalz. et Gibs. Bombay FI.
305, 1861.

Common grass in drying rice-fields. Dr. Bor
(l.c.) has interchanged the distribution of var.
khasiana and the typical variety.
flowers : October-December.

381

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

2. Dimeria omithopoda var. megalentha Bor,
in Kew Bull. 1952: 576, 1952; Bor, 144.

D. omithopoda var. tenera Birdwood, Cat. PI.
Matheran and Mahabaleshwar, 30, 1897 (nomen).

Common grass in drying rice-fields and in
partially wet ground.

flowers : October-November.

Echinochloa P. Beauv.

1. Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link, Hort.
Berol. 2: 209, 1833; Blatter & McCann, 148,
t. 94; Bor, 308, f. 34.

Panicum colonum Linn. Syst. Nat. ed 10, 2 : 870,
1759; Birdwood, 30; Cooke, 2: 931 (3: 477).

Very common and abundant species in wet-
lands, along margins of water-courses and in
rice-fields.

flowers: July-October.

vern names: Rovar, Savank, Harund.

Eleusine Gaertn.

1. Eleusine coracana (Linn.) Gaertn., Fruct.
1: 8, t. 1, f. 11, 1789; Graham, 235; Dalzell
& Gibson, suppl. 97; Birdwood, 31; Cooke,
2: 1039 (3: 561); Blatter & McCann, 260, t.
173; Bor, 492.

Cynosurus coracana Linn. Syst. Nat. ed 10, 2: 875,
1759.

Quite commonly cultivated on sloping
grounds. Very often shifting farming method
is used for this species and large forest areas
are destroyed for creating space for cultiva-
tion of crop.
flowers: October.
vern. names: Nachni, Nagli, Ragi.

Eragrostis P. Beauv.

1 . Rhachis fragile; spikelets breaking up from above

downwards E. ciliaris

1 . Rhachis tough; spikelets breaking up from below

upwards 2

2. Annuals E. unioloides

2. Perennials 3

3. Spikelets fascicled or shortly pedicellate in

narrow racemes E. chariis

3 . Spikelets not fascicled; long pedicellate . .
E. tenuifolia

1. Eragrostis chariis (Schult.) Hitch, in Lin-
goan Sci. J. 7: 193, 1931.

Poa chariis Schult. Mant. 2: 314, 1824.

E. gangetica Cooke, 2: 1025 (3: 547); Blatter &
McCann, 236 (non Steud. 1854).

E. nutans (Retz.) Nees ex Steud., Norn. Bot. ed

2, 563, 1840; Bor, Grass. India, Burma Ceylone, 511,
1960. (non Nees ex Wight 1833); Bor, 511.

Poa nutans Retz. Obs. Bot. 4: 19, 1786.

A common species on wet ground and on
margins of tanks and streams.
flowers: November.

2. Eragrostis ciliaris (Linn.) R. Br., in Tuckey,
Narr. Exp. Congo, App. 478, 1818; Cooke
2: 1022 (3: 545); Birdwood, 31; Bor, 506.

Poa ciliaris Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 10, 2: 875, 1759.
This species is included here on the autho-
rity of Birdwood.
vern. name: Undir Punjo.

3. Eragrostis tenuifolia Hochst. ex Steud. Syn.
PI. Glum. 1: 268, 1854; Cooke, 2: 1027 (3:
549); Bor, 514.

Poa tenuifolia A. Rich.. Tent. FI. Abyss. 2 : 425,

1851.

Rare species, collected from Bhilar Estate.
flowers: October.

4. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.
Syn. PI. Glume 1: 264, 1854; Cooke, 264,
1885; Birdwood, 31; Blatter & McCann, 235,
t. 156; Bor, 515.

Poa unioloides Retz. Obs. Bot. 5: 19, 1789; Gra-
ham, 230.

E. amabilis Wt. & Am. ex Nees in Hook. & Arn.
Bot. Beech Voy. 251, 1830-41; Cooke, 2: 1025 (3:
546).

Very common grass all over Mahabaleshwar.
distribution: Chinaman’s Falls, Lodwick
point, Fitzgerald Ghat, Bhilar.
flowers : September-November.

382

FLORA OF M A HA BALESHW A R—$

Eulalia Kunth

1 . Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henr. in Blumea
3: 453, 1940; Bor, 157.

Andropogon trispicatus Schult., Syst. Veg. 2: Mant.
452, 1824.

A. tristachyus Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 261, 1820 (non

H. B.K., 1816).

E. argentea Brongn. in Duperr., Voy. Coquille Bot.
2(2): 92, 1830.

Pallinia argentea Trin. Bull. Sc. Acad. Petursb.
1: 71, 1836; Cooke, 2: 950 (3: 467).

Common grass in open grass-lands.
flowers : October-December.

Gar not ia Brongn.

I. Gamotia arborum Stapf ex Cooke, FI.
Bombay Pres. 2: 1013, 1908; Blatter & Mc-
Cann, 206, t. 135; Bor, 567.

This species is found epiphytic on trees or
lithophytic on rocks and also seen growing on
embankments and on roof-tiles.
flowers : September-October.

Hackelochloa O. Kuntze

1. Hackelochloa granularis (Linn.) O Kuntze,
Rev. Gen. PI. 776, 1891; Bor, 159.

Manisuris granularis Linn. f. Nov. Gram. Gen.
40, 1779; Birdwood, 30; Cooke, 2: 955 (3: 473).

Cenchrus granularis Linn. Mant. 2 (Append.) :
575, 1771.

Rare species in open grass-lands.
flowers : September-October.
vern. name: Kanjani (Birdwood).

Heteropogon Pers.

1. Margins of the lower glume of pedicellate spike-
lets equally winged, the keels studded with long
yellow bristles; ligule of several narrow mem-
branous segments; annual 77. ritchiei

1. Margins of the lower glume of pedicellate spike-
lets unequally winged, the keels not studded with
bristles; ligule truncate, ciliolate; perennial ....

77. contortus

1. Heteropogon contortus (Linn.) P. Beauv.
ex Roem. et Schult. Syst. Veg. 2: 836, 1817;

Birdwood, 30; Blatter & McCann, 109, t. 71;
Bor, 163, f. 6.

Andropogon contortus Linn. Sp. PI. 1043, 1753;
Cooke, 2: 990 (3: 510).

Common grass all over in open grass-lands.
The sharp twisted awns of this grass stick in
the garments and sometimes in the flesh of
people as well as animals causing serious
trouble.

flowers : September-October.
vern. names: Kusal, Pandhri Sukal.

2. Heteropogon ritchiei (Hook, f.) Blatter &
McCann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
32: 623, 1928 & Bombay Grass, 108, t. 70;
Bor, 165.

Andropogon ritchiei Hook, f., in FI. Brit. India,
7: 201, 1896; Cooke, 2: 990 (3: 509).

Rare grass in grass-lands.
flowers: October.

Hordeum Linn.

1. Hordeum hexastichon Linn. Sp. PI. 85,
1753; Graham, 234; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 96.

77. vulgare var. hexastichon Aitch. Cat. Pb. &
Sind, PI. 171, 1869; Cooke, 2: 1052 (3: 575).
Rarely cultivated in fields for grains.
local name: Satu, Jau.

Indochloa Bor

1 . Culms glabrous below the inflorescence; pedicell-
ed and neuter spikelets reddish-brown when dry

7. clarkei

1 . Culms pilose below the inflorescence; pedicelled

and neuter spikelets usually greenish

7. oligantha

1. Indochloa clarkei (Hack.) Bor, in Kew
Bull. 1954; 76, 1954 & 171; Hemadri, in Indian
Forester, 94: 811, 1968.

Andropogon clarkei Hack, in Ost. Bot. z 41, 49,
1891.

Rare grass along Fitzgerald ghat and on
Lingmala Plateau.
flowers: October.

383

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoJ. 84

2. Indochloa oligantha (Hochst.) Bor, in Kew
Bull. 1954; 79, 1954 & 171.

Andropogon oliganthus Hochst. ex Steud., Syn. PL
Glume 1: 368, 1854.

Heteropogon oliganthus (Hochst.) Blatter & Mc-
Cann, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 623, 1928.

Rare, very aromatic grass on Lodwick point.
Scent of the plant is due to very volatile com-
ponent of the constituents of the plant because
the dry herbarium specimens are completely
odourless.

flowers: October.

Isachne R. Br.

1 . Spikelets less than 1 . 5 mm long 7. gracilis

1 . Spikelets more than 1 . 5 mm long 2

2. Florets equal in size and of same texture ... 3

3. Glumes setosely hirsute all over

I. lisboae

3 . Glumes glabrous, at least in lower half . . 4

4. Plants erect; culms slender; florets

hemispherical I. elegans

4. Plants wiry climbers; culms woody;
florets barge shaped 7. anglandei

2. Florets unequal in size and of different texture

5

5. Lower and upper lemmas obtuse 6

6. Panicle lax 7. globosa

6. Panicles dense 7. dispar

5. Lower and upper lemmas apiculate or at
least acute 7. miliacea

1. Isachne anglandei C.E.C. Fisher, in Kew
Bull. 1932: 323, 1932; Bor, 579.

Rare grass on moist ground.
flowers: November.

2. Isachne dispar Trin., Sp. Gram. 1: t. 86,
1828; Bor, 580.

Rare, but gregarious species found in swampy
places.

flowers : September-October.

3. Isachne elegans Dalzell, in Dalz. & Gibs.
Bombay FI. 291, 1861; Cooke, 2: 923 (3:
439); Blatter & McCann, 187, t. 121; Bor, 580.

Quite common grass in wet rice-fields and
along the margins of water-courses. According
to Dr. Bor, Woodrow’s specimens quoted as
this species belong to I. globosa and /. miliacea.
flowers: September.
vern. name: Dunda.

4. Isachne globosa (Thunb.) O. Ktze., Rev.
Gen. PI. 2: 778, 1891; Bor, 580.

Milium globosum Thunb. FI. Jap. 49, 1784.

7. australis R. Br. Prodr. 196, 1810; Cooke, 2:
923 (3: 439); Puri & Mahajan, 135.

Common and abundant grass in rice-fields
and along water-courses. It is a troublesome
weed in rice-fields.
flowers: October.
vern. name: Daura.

5. Isachne gracilis C. E. Flubbard, in Kew
Bull. 1927: 77, 1927; Bor, 581.

Rare species along forest margins with thin
membranaceous leaves growing in shady places.
flowers : October-Deeember.

6. Isachne lisboae Hook, f., in FI. Brit. India,
7: 22, 1896; Birdwood, 30; Cooke, 2: 922 (3:
438); Blatter & McCann, 187; Puri & Maha-
jan, 135; Bor, 581.

Common stoloniferous grass in swampy
places and along water-courses.

distribution: Wilson point, Lodwick point,
Lingmala, Yenna lake.

flowers : September-October.

7. Isachne miliacea Roth, Nov. PI. Sp. 58,
1821; Cooke, 2: 923 (3: 439); Bor, 382.

Common along water courses and in stag-
nant swampy places.
flowers: October.

Ischaemum Linn.

1 . Margins of the lower glume of the sessile spike-
lets expanded below the middle 2

384

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR—S

2. Keel of the upper glume of the sessile spikelet

winged above the middle 7. indicum

2. Keel of the upper glume of sessile spikelet not
winged above the middle 7. timorense

1 . Margins of the lower glume of sessile spikelets
narrowly and evenly inturned from base to apex

' 3

3. Base of the lower leaves acute, rounded or

shallowly cordate, without a petiole 4

4. Pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet more
than one third the length of the sessile
spikelet 7. diplopogon

4. Pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet less than

one-third of the length of the sessile spike-
let 7. imbricatum

3. Base of the lower leaves sagittate or deeply
cordate, with distinct petiole 5

5. Pedicels of the pedicelled spikelets longer

than one third of the length of the sessile
spikelets 7. impressum

5 . Pedicels of the pedicelled spikelets less than

one-third of the sessile spikelets

7. semisagittatum

1. Ischaemum diplopogon Hook, f., FI. Brit.
India, 7: 129, 1896; Cooke, 2: 960 (3: 478);
Blatter & McCann 14, t. 8; Puri & Mahajan,^
135; Bor, 178.

Common and abundant grass along water-
courses, especially near water-falls, growing on
wet rocks.

distribution: Fitzgerald Ghat, Bhilar.
flowers : October-December.

2. Ischaemum impressum Hack., in DC.
Monogr. 6: 210, 1889; Blatter & McCann 17;
Puri & Mahajan, 135; Bor, 180.

Quite comon grass in open grass-lands and
along the forest paths.

distribution: Bhilar, Dhobi’s falls, Wilson
point.

flowers : September-November.

3. Ischaemum imbricatum (Hack.) Stapf, ex
Ridley, FI. Malay Pen. 5: 200, 1925.

7. goebelii Hack, in Ost. Bot. z. 51: 149, 1901;
Bor, 179.

Meoschicon imbricatum Munro ex Hack. DC.,
Monogr. Phan. 6: 203, 1889.

Rare grass at Mahabaleshwar. Only known
from a single collection (W. A. Talbot — 4534).
flowers: October.

4. Ischaemum indicum (Houtt.) Merrill, in J,
Arb. Arbor. 19: 320, 1930; Bor, 180.

Phleum indicum Houtt. Nat. Hist. II, 13: 198, t.
90, f. 2, 1782.

7. aristatum auct. (non Linn. 1753); Cooke, FI.
Bombay Press. 2: 958, 1908.

Common and abundant grass all over in
open grass-lands.
flowers : September-November.

5. Ischaemum semisagittatum Roxb. FI. Ind.
1: 322, 1820; Cooke, 2: 961 (3: 479); Blatter
& McCann, 15; Bor, 185.

7. cenjugatum Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 323, 1820; Bird-
wood, 30.

Common and abundant gregarious grass
generally found in shady places.

flowers: November.

6. Ischaemum timorense Kunth. Rev. Gram.
1: 369, t. 98, 1830; Blatter & McCann, 19;
Bor, 185.

A common grass generally found in shades
of small bushy shrubs. It assumes scandent
habit and flowering spikes protrude above the
host plant.

flowers : October-November.

Iseilema Anders.

1. Iseilema laxum Hack., in DC. Monogr.
Phan. 6: 682, 1889; Blatter & McCann, 113;
Bor, 188.

Quite common scandent grass in shady
places.

flowers: November.

Jansenella Bor

1. Jansenella griththiana (C. Muell.) Bor, in
Kew Bull. 1955: 98, 195; Bor, 426.

385

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

Dantheonia griff ithiana C. Muell. in Bot. Z. 14:
347, 1856.

Arundineila avenacea Mimro ex Thw., Enum. PI.
Zeyl. 362, 1864; Birdwood, 30; Cooke, 2: 1000 (3:
520); Blatter & McCann, 191, t. 124; Puri & Maha-
jan, 1 36.

A. campbelliana Lisboa in J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 5 : 346, 1891.

A common grass in moist places as well as
in rocky situations all over Mahabaleshwar.
Also found in open grasslands.

distribution: Dhobi’s falls, Chinaman’s

falls. Petite Road, Lodwick point and Bhilar.

Manisuris L.

1. Lower glume of sessile spikelet not awned

„ M. clarkei

1. Lower glume of sessile spikelet awned 2

2. Awns long; lower glume decorated with trans-
verse rows of exaggerated tubercles or hooks,
the latter sometimes bearded at the tips ....

M. forficulata

2. Awns short, not much longer than the wings;
surface of the lov/er glume without tubercles
or hooks, softly hirsute with white hairs ....

M. forficulata

var. hirsuta

1. Manisuris clarkei (Hack.) Bor apud Santa -
pau in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16(1): 357, 1953;
FI. Khandala (ed. 3) 316, 1967.

Rottboellia clarkei Hack, in Oest. Bot. Z. 41 : 8,
1891; FBI 7: 156; Cooke, 2: 954 (3: 472).

Coelorhachis clarkei Blatt. & McCann in Joum.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 33, 1927 & Bombay
Grass. 41, t. 29.

Rare grass in open grass-lands.
flowers: October.

2. Manisuris forficulata Fisher in Kew Bull.
1933: 355, 1933; Bor 192; Santapau, FI. Khand.
(ed. 3) 316, 1967.

Glyphochloa forficulata (Fisher) Clayton in Kew
Bull. 35(4): 815, 1981.

Rottboellia divergens Lisboa, Bombay Grasis. 57,
1896; Birdwood, 30; Cooke. 2 : 952 ( 3 : 470) (non
Hack. 1889).

Peltophorus divergens Blatter & McCann, Grass.
34, t. 23, 1935 (non A. Camus, 1921); Puri & Maha-
jan 30.

Common and abundant grass in open grass-
lands, especially in hard rocky grounds.
distribution: Lodwick point, Wilson point.
flowers: October.

3. Manisuris forficulata var. hirsuta C.E.C.
Fisher, in Kew Bull. 1933: 357, 1933; Bor,
192.

There is only one specimen of this variety
in Blatter Herbarium from Mahabaleshwar.
The specimen is mounted on same sheet as
that M. forficulata and has same external
appearance. But on close examination it was
found that it is not the typical variety. Dr. S.
K. Jain has transferred var. hirsuta C.E.C.
Fisher to M. divergens Hack, we feel sure on
the bases of the above mentioned specimen
that the variety is more allied to M. forficulata
Fisher than Ml. divergens Hack.

Ophiurus Gaertn. f.

1. Ophiurus corymhosus Gaertn. f., Fruct. 3:

4, t. 181, 1805; Birdwood, 30; Cooke 2: 951
(3: 468).

Rottboellia exaltata (auct. non Linn, f.) Bor,
Grasses Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan, 206, 1960.

This species is reported by Birdwood from
Mahabaleshwar.

Oplismenus P. Beauv.

1. Oplismenus compositus (Linn.) P. Beauv.,
Ess. Agrest. 54 168-9, 1812; Birdwood, 30;
Cooke, 2: 917 (3: 442); Blatter & McCann,
152, t. 96; Bor, 317.

Panicum compositus Linn. Sp. PI. 57, 1753.
Common and gregarious among the under-
growths along the margins of the forests as
well as in deeply shaded forests.
distribution: Fitzgerald Ghat.
flowers: October.

Oryza Linn.

1. Oryza sativa Linn. Sp. PI. 333, 1753; Bird-

386

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR—^

wood, 30; Cooke, 2: 1043 (3: 565); Santapau,
312, 1953; Bor, 605.

Oryza rufipogon Griff, Netul. 3: 5, 1851; Bor, 605.

Quite common near rice-fields in abandoned
plots and on sides of marshy land. Cultivated
rice crop or paddy. Major food of inhabitants
of Mahabaleshwar.

flowers : August-September.

Oxytenanthera Munro

1 . Spikelets 1-flowered O. ritcheyi

1 . Spikelets 2-flowered O. stocksii

1. Oxytenanthera ritcheyi (Munro) Blatter &
McCann in Joum. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

33: 773, 1929 & Bombay grasses, 284.

Bambusa ritcheyi Munro, in Trans. Linn. Soc. 26:
113, 1868.

Oxytenathera monostigma Bedd. For. Man. in
For. Sylvat. 233, 1873, et Icon PI. Ind. Or. 56, t.
234, 1874; Cooke 2: 1048 (3: 571); Puri & Maha-
jan, 136.

Common small size bamboo on hill slopes
along road-sides. Not seen in flower.

2. Oxytenanthera stocksii Munro, in Trans.
Linn. Soc. 26: 130, 1868; Cooke 2: 1048 (3:
571); Birdwood, 31.

This species is included on the authority of
Birdwood. We have not seen any reliable speci-
men of this species from Mahabaleshwar.

Panicum Linn.

1 . Spikelets greenish P. psilopodium

2. Spikelets purple P. psilopodium

var. coloratum

1. Panicum psilopodium Trin. Gram. Panic.
217, 1826; Blatter & McCann, 158; Bor, 329.

Common and abundant grass in wet ground
and along the margins of rice-fields and along
the sides of streams.

flowers : September-October.
vern. name: Saga.

2. Panicum psilopodium var. coloratum Hook,
f., FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 47, 1896; Bor, 330.

Quite common grass in wet places along
with its typical variety.

flowers : September-October.

Paspalum Linn.

1. Spikelets small, less than 1.25 mm long 2

2. Margins of the upper glume glabrous

P. canarae

var. canarae

2. Margins of the upper glume fimbriate

P. canarae

var. fimbriatum

1. Spikelets more than 2.5 mm long

P. scrobiculatum

1. Paspalum canarae (Steud.) Veldkamp,
Blumea 21(1): 72, 1973.

Panicum canarae Steud. Syn. PI. gram. 1: 58, 1854.
Paspalum compactum auct (non — Roth. 1821);
Cooke, 2: 943 (3: 460); Blatter & McCann, 138, t.
88; Puri & Mahajan, 135; Bor, 336.

P. costatum Hochst. in Herb. Hohenck. (nomen
nudum); Birdwood, 30.

Quite common grass in wet places and near
water-courses.

flowers : August-September.

2. Paspalum canarae (Steud.) Veldkamp var.
fimbriatum (Bor) Vedlk. in Blumea 21: 72,
1973.

P. compactum var. fimbriatum Bor, in Grasses
Ind., Burm., Ceylon 336, 1960.

Quite frequent grass in wet places and in
marshy land. It differs from the typical variety
due to its hairy nature.

distribution : Lodwick point, Fitzgerald

ghat.

flowers : August-September.

3. Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn. Mant. PI.
1: 29, 1767; Cooke 2: 943 (3: 460); Birdwood,
30; Bor, 340.

387

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 84

Rare grass found in waste-lands and in aban-
doned rice-fields. Very often cultivated on small
scales for its grains.
flowers : August-September.

Pennisetum Rich.

1 . Anther-cells bearded at the apex

P. americanum

1 . Anther-cells not bearded at the apex

P. hohenackeri

1. Pennisetum americanum (Linn.) K. Schum.
in Engl. Planzens. Ost. Afr. B. 51, C. t. 4, A.
B. 1895.

Holcus spicatus Linn. Syst. ed. 10, 1305, 1759;
Graham, 238; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 99.

Panicum americanum Linn. Sp. PI. 56, 1753.

P. typhoideum Rich, in Pers. Syn. 1: 72, 1805;
Birdwood, 30; Cooke, 2: 917 (3: 432).

Quite commonly cultivated along with Zea
mays Linn.

vern. name: Bajri (Birdwood).

English name: Pearl millet.

2. Pennisetum hohenackeri Hochst. ex Steud.,
Syn. PI. Glum., 1; 103, 1854; Bor 344. P.
aureum Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 294, 1861.

P. aureum Link., Hort. Berol. 1: 215, 1827?.

P. alopecuros Steud., loc. cit. 102 (non Jacq. 1813);
Cooke, 2: 414 (3: 430).

Gymnothrix cenchroides Roem. et Schultz., Syst.
Veg. 2: 499, 1817 (non Pennisetum cenchroides
Rich.)

flowers: October.
vern. name: Mohl.

Phalaris Linn.

1. Phalaris minor Retz. Obs. Bot. 3: 8, 1783;
Bor 616.

There is only one specimen of this species
in Blatter Herbarium which is collected from
waste lands near market.
flowers: March.

Pseudodichant hium Bor

1. Pseudodichanthium cookei (Stapf ex
Cooke) Almeida comb. nov.

Pseudodichanthium serrafalcoides (Cooke at Stapf)
Bor, in Ind. For. 66: 272, 1940; Bor, 204.

Andropogon serrafalcoides Cooke et Stapf., in Kew
Bull. 1908: 450, 1910.

A. cookei Stapf ex Woodrow, in J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 13: 438, 1898, nom nudum et Cooke, 2:
986, 1908.

Dichanthium serrafalcoides Blatter & McCann, J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 426, 1928; Bombay
Grass, 95, t. 63.

Common grass on hill-slopes among other
grasses.

flowers : September-October.

Pseudosorghum A. Camus

1. Pseudosorghum fasciculare (Roxb.) A.
Camus, in Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 26: 662,
1920; Bor. 205.

Andropogon fascicularis Roxb. FI. Ind. 1 : 269,
1820 (non Thwaites 1864).

Rare grass at Mahabaleshwar. This is the
first report of this species from Maharashtra.
There is only one specimen collected from
Lingmala. (P. V. Bole 370).
flowers: October.

Rhynchelytrum Nees

1. Rhynchelytrum villosum (Pari.) Chiv. in
Ann. 1st Bot. Roma 8: 310, 1908; Bor, 355.

Monochyron villosum Pari, in Hook., Niger FI.
191, 1849.

Tricholaena wightii Am. et Nees, in Linnaea 16:
218, 1842 (nomen nudum); Birdwood, 30; Cooke,
2: 925 (3: 441); Blatter & McCann 176-7, t. 112.

This species is included here on the autho-
rity of Puri & Mahajan. We have not seen
any specimen from Mahabaleshwar.
flowers: September.
vern. name: Chota Kagli.

Saccharum Linn.

1. Saccharum officinarum Linn. Sp. PI. 54,

388

FLORA OF MAH A BA LESH W A R — 8

1753; Cooke 2: 948 (3: 4 66); Birdwood, 30;
Bor, 212.

Very rare in cultivation at Mahabaleshwar
on sides of Yenna river.
local name: Uns.

English name: Sugar-cane.

Sacciolepis Nash.

1. Sacciolepis indica (Linn.) A. Chase, in
Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 21: 8, 1908; Bor, 357.
Air a spicata Linn. Sp. PI. 1: 63, 1753.

A. indica Linn. Sp. PI. Errata, 1753 (Linnaeus
changed original name because of other.

A. spicata on page 64 of Species Plantamm.
Quite common weed in rice-fields and in wet
places.

flowers: October.

Sehima Forsk.

1. Sehima nervosum (Rottl.) Stapf, in Prain
FI. Trop. Africa, 9: 36, 1917; Blatter & Mc-
Cann, 21, t. 14; Bor, 218.

Andropogon nervosum Rottl. Apud. Willd. in Verh.
Ges. Naturf. Freund. Berlin, Newe Schr. 4: 218,
1806.

Ischaemum laxum R. Br. Prodr. 205, 1810; Bird-
wood, 30; Cooke, 2: 964 (3: 482).

This grass is included here on the authority
of Birdwood, who reports it from Maha-
baleshwar.

Setaria P. Beauv.

1 . Inflorescence a cylindric and dense or sometimes
lobed spiciform panicle; lobes folded or flat .... 2

2. Upper glume as long as upper lemma; upper

lemma smooth or minutely rugulose

S. itaiica

2. Upper glume shorter than upper lemma; upper

lemma rugose 3

3. Upper lemma coarsely rugose, slightly
keeled upwards S. glauca

3. Upper lemma finely rugose, not keeled . .

S. pallide-fusca

1 . Inflorescence dense or rather loose, narrow or
widely spreading panicle; leaves folded in fan-

fashion between the longitudinal nerves

S. plicata

1. Setaria glauca (Linn.) P. Beauv. Ess.
Agrost. 51: 169, 178, 1812; Dalz. & Gibs. 293;
Cooke, 652, 1885 & 920 (3: 435); Birdwood,
30; Puri & Mahajan, 134; Bor, 360.

Panicum glaucum Linn. Sp. PI. 56, 1753.

Rare grass at Mahabaleshwar. Very often
confused with S. pallide-fusca (Schumch.) Stapf,
but could be separated easily due to its
coarsely rugose upper lemma.
flowers : October.
vern. name: Kolara.

2. Setaria itaiica (Linn.) P. Beauv., Ess.
Agrost. 51: 170, 178, 1812; Cooke, 2: 921
(3: 437); Birdwood, 30; Bor, 362.

Panicum italicum Linn. Sp. PI. 56, 1753; Graham,
237; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 98.

Widely cultivated species of millet. Gene-
rally grown on hard forest lands which are
cleared for the purpose of cultivation just
before the monsoon.
vern. name: Rala.

3. Setaria pallide-fusca (Schumach.) Stapf et
C. E. Hubb., in Kew Bull. 1930: 259, 1930.
Bor, 363.

Panicum pallide-fuscum Schmach., Besker. Guin
PI. 58, 1827.

Common grass in open grasslands. Most of
the specimen of this species in Blatter Herba-
rium were identified as S. glauca (L.) P. Beau,
which have been corrected by N. L. Bor.
flowers: September.

4. Setaria plicata (Lamk.) T. Cooke, FI. Bom-
bay Pres. 2: 919, 1908 & Reprint (3: 434);
Bor, 364.

Panicum plicalaum Lamk. Encycl. Meth. Bot. 4:
736, 1797.

Rare grass at Mahabaleshwar.
flowers: November.

389

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Spodiopogon Trin.

1. Spodiopogon rhizophorus (Steud.) Pilger,
in Engler & Prantl, Naturl. Pflanzenf. Aufl. 2,
14e: 119, 1940.

Andropogcm rhizophorus Steud. Syn. PI. Glum. 1 :
381, 1855.

S. albidus Benth. in J. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 19: 66,
1881; Cooke, 2: 947 (3: 464); Blatter & McCann,
51, t. 34; Puri & Mahajan, 135.

Quite common grass along margins of forests
and along road-side in partially shaded places.
It is very prominent grass due to its long
petiole, and hanging leaf-blades.

distribution: Pratapsingh Garden, Dhobi’s
falls, Lingmala, Fitzgerald Ghat.
flowers : September-October.

Themeda Forsk.

1 . Pairs of the involucral spikelets inserted at diffe-
rent levels 2

2. Racemes less than 1.5 cm long

T. triandra (p.p.)

2. Racemes much longer than 1.5 cm

T. tremula

1 . Pairs of the involucral spikelets inserted at the
same level 3

3. Involucral spikelets over 6 mm long; awns

upto 6 cm long T. triandra (p.p.)

3. Involucral spikelets less than 6 mm long; awns
less than 6 cm long T. quadrivalvis

1. Themeda quadrivalvis (Linn.) O. K., Rev.
Gen. PI. 2: 794, 1891; Puri & Mahajan, 136;
Bor, 252.

Anthistiria ciliata Linn. f. suppl. 113, 1781; Bird-
wood, 30; Cooke, 2: 994 (3: 564).

Quite robust grass, common in open grass-
lands. Very favourite grass of grazing animals
when young.

distribution: Bhilar, Lodwick point.
flowers : October-November.

2. Themeda tremula (Nees ex Steud.) Hack.,
DC. Monogr. Phan. 6: 667, 1889; Cooke 2:
995 (3: 515); Blatter & McCann, 119, t. 75;
Bor, 254.

Anthistiria tremula Nees ex Steud. Syn. PI. Glum.
1: 401, 1855.

Common and abundant grass in open Grass-
lands. Favourite grass of cattle.
flowers : October-November.

3. Themeda triandra Fosk., FI. Aegypt.-Arb.
123, 178, 1775; Blatter & McCann, 115, t. 74;
Bor, 254.

Anthistiria ciliata Nees in Linnaea, 7: 284, 1832
(non Linn. f. 17); Graham, 239; Dalz. & Gibs. 304.
A. imberbis Retz. Obs. 3: 11, 1783.

T. imberbis (Retz.) Cooke, FI. Bombay Pres. 2:
993, 1908 & Reprint (3: 513).

Common and abundant grass in open grass-
lands one of the favourite grasses of grazing
cattle.

flowers : October-December.

Thysanolaena Nees

1. Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) O. Kuntze,
Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 794, 1891; Bor, 650.

Agrostis maxima Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 319, 1820.

T. agrostis Nees, in Edinb. New Phil. I. 18: 180,
1835; Cooke 2: 1006 (3: 527).

A rare grass usually found near the vicinity
of water.

flowers: January-February.
local name: Barucha.

Triticum Linn.

1 . Spikelets tomentose T. pilosum

1 . Spikelets glabrous T. aestivum

1. Triticum aestivum Linn. Sp. PI. 1: 85,
1753; Graham, 234; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 97;
Bor, 679.

T. vulgar e Lamk. FI. Franc 3: 153, 1778; Vill. Hist.
PI. Dauph. 2: 153, 1787; Birdwood, 31.

Rare species in cultivation.
local name: Gahu.

English name: Wheat.

2. Triticum pilosum Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay
FI. suppl. 97, 1861; Woodrow, in Journ. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 441, 1901.

390

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 8

T. sativum Lam. var. pilosum Cooke FI. Pres.
Bombay 2: 1052 (3: 575), 1906.

Rarely cultivated for its grains.
local names: Bakshi, Kala-Kusli.

Trilobachne Schenck

1. Trilobachne cookei (Stapf) Schenck ex
Henrard, in Meded. Rij. Herb. No. 67, 4, 1931;
Bor, 268.

Polytoca cookei Stapf, in Hook., Ic. PL t. 2333,
1894. Birdwood, 30; Cooke, 2: 998 (3: 518); Blatter
& McCann, 5, t. 2.

Grows sporadically in grass-lands.
flowers : September-October.

Tripogon Roem et Schultz.

1. Lemmas cleft at the apex into two lobes, awned

in the cleft 2

2. Median awn as long as or longer than lemma

T. pauperculus

2. Median awn shorter than lemma or absent . . 3

3. Leaves and culms glaucous; leaves 5-20 cm

long ligule present T. jaquemontii

3. Leaves and culms green, not glaucous;
leaves 30-60 cm long; ligule absolute ....

T. lisboae

1. Lemmas cleft at the apex into 4 lobes or with
definite lobe between each lateral awn and the
median T. bromoides

1. Tripogon bromoides (Roem. et Schult.)
Roth. Nov. Sp. 49, 1821; Bor, 519.

Trianthera bromoides Roem. et Schult., Syst. Veg.
2: 600, 1817.

Common grass on rock faces in ghat areas
along road -sides. Rejuvenating perennial grass
which dries after the monsoon and re-appears
in leaves in the next monsoon.
flowers : September-November.

2. Tripogon jacquemontii Stapf, in Kew Bull.
1892: 85, 1892; Cooke, 2: 1037 (3: 559);
Blatter & McCann, 269, t. 181; Bor, 522.

Common and abundant gregarious rejuve-
nating grass on rock-faces in ghat areas. It is
an erect grass in monsoon but hang down after
monsoon is over.

flowers : October-November.

3. Tripogon lisboae Stapf, in Kew Bull. 1892:
84, 1892; Birdwood, 30; Cooke, 2: 1036 (3:
558); Blatter & McCann, 262, t. 180; Bor, 522.

Quite common rejuvenating grass in ghat
area.

flowers : October-November.

4. Tripogon pauperculus Stapf, in Hook. l.c.
PI. t. 2442, 1896; Cooke, 2: 1036 (3: 558);
Blatter & McCann, 266, t. 178; Bor, 522.

Indopoa paupercula (Stapf), Bor, Kew Bull. 1958:
255, 1958.

Common and abundant grass found on hard
rocky grounds and epiphytic on tree-trunks.
N. L. Bor had separated it as belonging
to a distinct genus, but later in his monograph
on Asiatic grasses again assigned it to the old
genus Tripogon.
flowers : October-November.

Vetiveria Lem.-Lisanc.

1. Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash., in
Small, FI. South East U.S. 67, 1903.

Phalaris zizanoides Linn. Mant. PI. 2: 183, 1771.
Andropogon squarrosus Linn. f. suppl. 433; 1781;
Cooke 2: 991 (3: 511).

A. muricatus Retz. Obs. Bof. 3: 43, 1783; Bird-
wood, 30.

Rare grass found on bunds and margins of
rice-field in large clumps. Roots of this grass
have pleasant aroma and wet roots are hung
in houses for producing fragrance in summer.
flowers : September-October.

Zea Linn.

1. Zea mays Linn. Sp. PI. 971, 1753; Bird-
wood, 30; Cooke 2: 991 (3: 574).

Very common in cultivation at Mahabalesh-
war. Cobs of various horticultural varieties are
sold to tourists near Yenna Lake, after frying
and applying salt, chili. and pepper powders.
local names: Maka, Bhutta.

(to be continued)

391

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF PYRAUSTINAE (PYRALIDAE:
LEPIDOPTERA) FROM INDIA1

H. S. Rose and Jagbir Singh Kirti2
{With five text-figures)

A new species bander dew aensis referable to the genus Arunamalaia gen. nov. is reported
from North-East India. The new genus is closely related to Anamalaia Munroe and
Mutuura, known from South India.

Introduction

During the surveys undertaken for the
collection of Pyraustin moth? from various
states of India, a sample of nineteen conspecific
individuals was collected from Banderdewa
(Arunachal Pradesh). Neither the specific
status of this phenon tallied with known
species nor it could be referred to any of the
known Pyraustin genera. Infact, owing to the
unique structures of the species, it requires a
new genus for its correct placement. Accord-
ingly, the genus Arunamalaia gen. nov. is pro-
posed for this new species, named after its
locality as banderdewaensis.

Observations

Genus Arunamalaia gen. nov.

(Gender: feminine)

Type-species: Arunamalaia banderdewaensis

sp. nov.

diagnosis :

Labial palpus porrect and straight, triangu-
larly scaled, exceeding head by twice the
length of latter; third segment hidden, with a
sharp triangular tuft in front. Maxillary palpus

1 Accepted December 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,
Pajtiala-147 002 (Punjab), India.

prominent, dilated with scales at extremity.
Frons flat and oblique, smoothly scaled.
Antenna simple, minutely ciliated in male. Fore
wing with costal margin lobed behind middle
in male, simple in female; termen oblique;
vein R4 arising from before anterior angle of
cell; R2 apposed to R3+4; stalk of R3+4 less
than one-third length of free parts of R3 and
R4; R5 thick, down-curved in male due to
costal lobe originating from middle of disco-
cellulars, normal in female, M4 from below
R5 and parallel to the latter; 3A not making
anal loop; veins M2, M3 and Cu4 arising from
posterior angle of cell; Cu2 from cell behind
two thirds. Hind wing with veins Rs and SC +
Ri anastomosing behind cell; Rs and M4 short-
ly stalked; M2 and M3 approximated for some
distance; Cut from well below M3; Cu2 from
cell behind two thirds. Metathoracic tibia with
outer spur of both pairs minute in male.

Male genitalia : Uncus triangular, rounded
at tip; setose with anteriorly directed setae on
lateral margins; gnathos absent; tuba analis
longer than uncus; subscaphium strongly scle-
rotized; tegumen broad at base, narrow to-
wards uncus; vinculum long, highly developed;
saccus short. Valva of equal width through-
out; costa narrow; sacculus with a triangular
setose lobe, partly covering basal lobe of harpe;
harpe with an oblique heavily setose lobe with
three scale like setae dorsally and with distal

392

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ventrally directed claw-like process, latter hav-
ing denticulate dorsal margin. Transtilla short
and flap-like; juxta strongly sclerotized and
bifurcated basally. Aedeagus rounded at tip,
with both of its walls equally sclerotized; vesica
with densely packed spine-like cornuti.

Female genitalia : Corpus bursae globular,
well sclerotized; signum conspicuous, marked
by a pair of quadrate and semi circular signa;
an accessory sac opens in corpus bursae; ductus
bursae moderately long, membranous for most
of its length but strongly sclerotized, with colli-
culum at distal end; ostium bursae surrounded
by a well sclerotized genital plate; anterior apo-
physes long, with triangular expansions near
bases; posterior apophyses short but well
sclerotized; ovipositor lobes short, setose with
dense arrays of setae.

Arunamalaia banderdewaensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,)

Head with vertex covered with pale brown
scales; frons flat, dressed with pale brown
scales in centre and white along margins.
Antenna shorter than fore wing, annulated
with brown scales. Eye brownish-black, with
a row of light yellow scales behind. Labial
palpus with first segment white, second and
third segments clad with pale and brown
scales. Maxillary palpus well developed, dilat-
ed with white scales. Proboscis short, furnished
with white scales. Under surface of head pure
white.

Thorax clothed with pale brown scales
dorsally and white ventrally. Fore wing with
costal margin slightly lobed behind middle;
posterior margin straight. Ground colour
brownish-grey; a large fovea on posterior
margin of cell in male; fringe brownish-grey.
Discal cell with posterior margin curved. Hind
wing with anterior margin weakly arched;

Fig. 1. Arunamalaia banderdewaensis sp. nov.
(Adult) holotype.

apex, termen and tornus rounded. Ground
colour brown, irrorated with grey and pale
scales; outer margin dark grey; basal half of
costa and tornus with pale scales. Discal cell
less than one-third length of wing; discocellular
curved inwards anteriorly, outwardly oblique
posteriorly. Legs uniformly dressed with white
scales; prothoracic leg with tarsi clad with
greyish brown scales.

Abdomen laden with pale-brownish and
white scales on dorsal side; undersurface
white.

Genitalia : As described for the genus.

Wing Expanse (Half): Male : 11mm.

Female: 12 mm.

Material Examined : Holotype: 1 Aruna-
chal Pradesh: Subansiri, Bander-dewa,

1 .v. 82 — Allotype: $ , same data as for holo-
type. Paratypes: 17 c? dL same locality date.
2-5. v. 82.

Repository : Zoology Department Museum,
Punjabi University, Patiala.

393

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 84

Figs. 2,3,4. Male genitalia of A. bander dew aensis sp. nov. (based on paratype).
Fig. 5. Female genitalia of A. banderdew aensis sp. nov. (based on allotype).

Abbreviations :

ACC. SC: Accessory Sac.; AED: Aedeagus; ANT. APO: Anterior apophyses; CLM:
Colliculum; CO: Costa; CRN: Comuti; CRP. BU: Corpus bursae; DU. BU: Ductus
bursae; G.P: Genital plate; HRP: Harpe; JX: Juxta; OB: Ostium bursae; OVP:
Ovipositor; PO. APO: Posterior apophyses; SA: Saccus; SIG: Signum; SL: Sacculus;
SSCA: Subscaphium; TG: Tegumen; TRAH: Half Transtilla; TU.A: Tuba analis;
UN: Uncus; YIN: Vinculum; VLV: Valva.

394

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Remarks

The species banderdewaensis sp. nov. belongs
to a group of genera, with rostriform labial
palpi and dilated maxillary palpi. The venation
of the wings and external genitalia of the
species are quite conspicuous in many respects.
The armature of the valva of the male geni-
talia and the ductus bursae of the female
genitalia are greatly modified. These striking
structures of the new species resulted in the
proposing of a new genus. The genus is known
by its type-species only.

The genus Arunamalaia is somewhat allied
to Anamalaia Munroe and Mutuura which has
been reported from Anamalai hills in south
India by Munroe and Mutuura (1969). In
both these genera, the structure of the uncus,
shape of the valva in the male genitalia and
the presence of a quadrate signum in the corpus
bursae of female genitalia are quite similar.

However, the labial palpus, tibial spurs, wing
venation, the divisions of the valva, presence
of an additional accessory arc-like signum in
the corpus bursae, the heavily seterolised colli-
culum and the genital plate are quite distinct
in Arunamalaia and thus are drastically diffe-
rent from Anamalaia.

Etymology :

The name of the new species pertains to the
locality Banderdewa from which all the indi-
viduals of the species were collected.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. E. G. Munroe
(retired) and Dr. Mutuura (Biosystematics
Research Institute, Department of Agriculture,
Ottawa, Canada) for making available the
relevant literature for the comparison of the
species.

Reference

Munroe, E. & Mutuura, A. (1969) : Contribu- Pyralidae) of Temperate East Asia. VIII. Can. Ent.
tions to a study of the Pyraustinae (Lepidoptera : 101 : 1239-1248.

A NEW SPECIES OF LATHROMEROMYIA OF THE SUBGENUS
LATHROMEROMIN A (HYMENOPTERA: TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE)
FROM THE EGGS OF CORYTHAUMA AYYARI
(HETEROPTERA: TINGIDAE)1

David Livingstone and Mohammed Yacoob2

(With seven text-figures)

The genus Lathromeromyia was first des-
cribed by Girault (1916) and the type L.
perminuta was recorded as the egg parasite of

1 Contribution No. 46 from the Division of Ento-
mology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. Accept-
ed December 1985.

2 Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore-641 046.

a sugarcane cicada. Subsequently, Doutt and
Viggiani (1968), Hayat (1981) and Lin (1981),
after having clarified the earlier description
of the genus, confirmed the generic characters
and added two more species (L. cercopicida
(Risbec) from Camaroons and L. dimorpha
Hayat from India). Later, Livingstone and
Yacoob (1983), after having considered the

395

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

characters of the genus (namely (1) convex
curvature of the marginal vein as stigmal vein,

(2) apically expanded wings, (3) a well de-
marcated hypopygium, and (4) absence of
funicle and presence of four segmented club)
described a new subgenus Lathromeromina as
having the following characters. (1) almost
bare thorax without any “characteristic”
trichation, (2) only one antellus to the antenna,

(3) hind wings with only one row of discal
ciliation, and (4) legs and wings not longer
than the body length.

On the basis of these characters the fourth
species namely Lathromeromyia ( Lathromero-
mina) tingiphaga, Livingstone and Yacoob was
added to the world list of species of Lathro-
meromyia. The present description is the
second species of the subgenus Lathromero-
mina.

Type-species : Lathromeromyia ( Lathrome-
romina) corythaumaii sp. nov.

Lathromeromyia (Lathromeromina) corythau-
maii sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-7)

female: Small, entire length 0.46 mm;
width across the thorax 0.17 mm; face, thorax
and abdomen dark brown; vertex; antennae
and legs pale brown; wings hyaline.

Head : Transversely elongate, subtriangular
when viewed frontally, eyes sanguineous, wide-
ly separated; ocelli three, closely set; antennae
more frontally inserted, very close to each
other, segmental formula 1, 1, 1, 4; one ring
segment, funicle absent, club four segmented;
scape with radical 2.5 times longer than broad;
pedicel 1.6 times longer than broad, 0.76
times as long as the scape; annellus single,
closely appressed; club elongate, 3.3 times
longer than its greatest width and twice as
long as the scape; club with 10-15 fine bristles.

each 0.3 times as long as its segment; mandi-
bles prominently tridentate; vertex with 6 short
fine bristles, outer most pair longest.

Thorax: 0.18 mm long, almost as long as
the abdomen; scutellum short, transversely
elongate, almost bare; forewings hyaline,
broadly elongate, apically rounded; remigium
almost as long as the body, expanded apically;
marginal vein short and straight; stigmal vein
short, clubbed, darkly pigmented; other veins
such as R, RSi, RS2, r-m, M, Cu, Cu2 and A
prominently indicated by the arrangement of
ciliation; marginal fringes short, gradually in-
creasing in length apically, the longest being
0.4 times as long as the greatest width of the
wing; remigium with regularly arranged cilia-
tion; basal bifurcation not prominent but ex-
tending upto the level of stigmal vein; hind-
wings elongate, shorter than the forewings,
10.15 times longer than its greatest width; basal-
ly stalked, median single row of discal ciliation
at the anterior margin; marginal fringes elon-
gate, almost as long as those of the forewing
fringes; legs long, slender; hind legs relatively
longer than the preceding ones.

Abdomen: sessile, 1.2 times longer than
broad; ovipositor extending slightly beyond the
apex, occupying almost 2/3 the length of the
abdomen; hypopygium reaching the middle of
the ovipositor.

male : almost of the same size of the

female; male genital capsule 54 micra long,
0.8 times as long as the abdomen.

Type information:

Holotype: Female, reared from the egg of
Corythauma ayyari Drake, the jasmine tingid
from Nirmala College, Coimbatore, collected
on 21-1-1980.

Allotype: Male, also reared from the egg of
C. ayyari of the same locality.

Paratypes: same data as the holotype.

396

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-7. Lathromeromyia ( Lathromeromina ) Corythaumaii sp. nov.

1. Head, front view; 2. Antenna — female; 3. A mandible; 4. Forewing; 5. Hindwing;
6. Lateral view of the thorax and abdomen — female; 7. Male genital segment.

All types mounted on slides, deposited for
the present in the Division of Entomology,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, S. India.

Lathromeromyia ( Lathromeromina ) cory-
thaumaii closely resembles L. (L.) tingiphaga
in most of the morphological features. But it
can be readily recognized from the latter by
the shape, size (broad at the apex), definite
pattern of trichatian and by the distinct tracts

of R, RSi, RS2, r-m, M, Cu, Cu2 and A of
the forewings. The marginal fringes are dis-
tinctly shorter, the longest being not more than
0.4 times as long as the greatest width of the
wings. In L. tingiphaga the broadest region of
the remigium is only at the anterior 4/5 region,
trichiation irregular, the marginal fringe almost
as long as the greatest width of the wing.
The hind wing of the present type species is

397

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

relatively broader, its anterior margin fringed
with shorter cilia and its basal infuscation
lighter when compared with that of P. tingi-
phaga. The cephalic bristles are vertical, fine
and arranged in a more regular linear pattern
when compared with those of P. tingiphaga.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi for financial
support and the authorities of the University
of Madras and Bharathiar University for faci-
lities.

References

Girault, A. A. (1912): Notes on Hymenoptera
— Chalcidoidea. Ent. News 23: 297.

(1916) : A new genus of Ophio-

neurine Trichogrammatidae from Jawa. The Ento-
mologist XLIX (640): 119-120.

Boutt, R. L. & Viggiani, G. (1968): The classi-
fication of the Trichogrammatidae (Hymenoptera:
Chalcidoidea). Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. Ser. TV, 35
(20): 477-586.

Hayat, M. (1981) : The new genera Chaeto-
gramma and Lathromeromyia from India, with des-

criptions of two new species (Hymenoptera: Tricho-
grammatidae). Bull. Lab. Entomol. Agric. F. Silvestri
Portici 38: 73-79.

Lin, K. S. (1981) : Genera of the Trichogramma-
tidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) of Taiwan with
descriptions of new taxa. /. Agric. Res. China 30:
426-443.

Livingstone, D. & Yacoob, M. H. S. (1983) : A
new subgenus of Lathromeromyia (Hym. : Tricho-
grammatidae) an egg parasite of Tingidae (Het.)
from India. Entomophaga 25(3): 303-308.

HOMOEOGRYLLUS INDICES SP. NOV. (ORTHOPTERA:
PHALANGOPSIDAE) FROM MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA1

S. M. Agarwal2 and K. M. Sinha3

{With four text -figures)

A new cavemicolous Orthoptera Homoeogryllus indicus sp. nov. (Orthoptera:
Phalangopsidae) collected from Kacehuwa Pahar cave, Amadol (Botalda) : Kharsia
(District Raigarh), Madhya Pradesh, India, is described.

Introduction

Homoeogryllus indicus sp. nov. was collect-
ed from Kacehuwa Pahar cave, Amadol
(Botalda): Kharsia (District Raigarh), Madhya
Pradesh. The cave is at the peak. The interior
has no stalagmite and stalactite formations
but has a few small pools fed by seepage
water. The ideal conditions for this species
appears to be complete darkness and high
humidity.

1 Accepted November 1986.

2 Vice-Chancellor, Ravishankar University, Raipur
492 001, India.

3 Department of Zoology, Government P. G.
College, Ambikapur 497 001 (M.P.).

Homoeogryllus indicus sp. nov. is found on
the walls. They lie hidden in groups behind
projecting rocks and crevices.

Key to the species of Homoeogryllus

1 . Antennae whitish or brownish 2

Antennae yellowish 3

2. Antennae whitish with two first joints blackish,
size smaller (length with elytra 10.5-15 mm.)

japonicus (Haan)

Antennae brownish with white ring little beyond
the base, size large (length with elytra 19-24
mm.) indicus sp. nov.

3. Size rather large (length with elytra 15-18 mm.)

cincticornis (Walker)

Size smaller (length with elytra 9.5-12 mm).
fongicornis (Walker)

398

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-4. Homoeogryltus indicus sp. nov., $

1. Body in dorsal view; 2. Proximal end of Fore tibia showing tympanum; 3. Distal
end of Hind tibia (internal side); 4. Distal end of Hind tibia (external side).

399

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Homoeogryllus indicus sp. nov.

male: Large sized, brown, measures 19-20
mm. Head small, frontal rostrum shorter than
first joint of antennae. Antennae very large,
brown with whitish ring little beyond the base.
Pronotum broader than long, covered with
fine hairs, its anterior border is broader than
posterior, both borders straight. Mesonotum
whitish, shorter than metanotum. Legs long
and slender, femora and tibia brown, tarsus
yellowish. Anterior legs with tympanum (Fig.
2) on both the faces with a pair of spurs at
distal end. Middle legs similar to anterior
ones. Posterior femora rather strong, brownish
apex yellowish tibiae nearly^ equal to femora
in length with three spines on the posterior
end on both margins and six apical spurs;
external spurs much shorter than internal
spurs, inferior external spur very short, supe-
rior shorter than median spur (fig. 4), inferior
internal spur short superior internal spur much
longer, median spur longest (Fig. 3), tarsi
long, metatarsus longer with two strong apical
spurs, internal spur longer than external spurs.
Tarsi armed with numerous bristles.

Abdominal tergites transverse, cerci long.

Elytra extending up to the end of abdomen,
brown in colour, mirror prominent, divided
by three curved veins, six oblique veins, sub-
costa with seventeen branches, apical field
short. Wings absent.

Measurements : Length of body 19-20 mm,
length of pronotum 3-4 mm, post-femur 15-16
mm, post-tibia 15-16 mm, cerci 19-20 mm.

female: General appearance and colora-
tion as in male, with pair of elytra only.
Abdominal tergites transverse, ovipositor long,
second vulvulae small, concealed within third
vulvulae, cerci long.

Measurements'. Length of body 19-24 mm.
length of pronotum 3-4 mm, post-femur 16-18
mm, post-tibia ,7-19 mm, cerci 22-26 mm,
ovipositor 15 mm.

Homoeogryllus indicus sp. nov. differs from
other known species (Chopard 1942, 1969) in
the much larger size of the body; with no spots
on the occiput; frontal rostrum is shorter than
the first joint of the antennae, antennae very
large, brown, with a whitish ring little beyond
the base; both the borders of the pronotum
are straight. The second pair of wings are
absent.

Holotype Allotype $, India: M.P.:
Raigarh (District): Kharsia: Amadol

(Botalda) : Kacchuwa Pahar cave, coll. K. M.
Sinha, 15.x. 1978.

Paratype 1 cf , 1 9 , other data as for holo-
type.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

Grateful thanks are due to Dr. Daniel Otte,
Associate Curator of Entomology, Museum of
Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia,
U.S.A. for the determination of species of this
cavernicolous cricket. One of us (K.M.S.) is
also thankful to Prof. R. K. Khanna, and to
Shri R. C. Mandraha, for their help.

References

Chopard, L. (1942): Trois Gryllides cavernicoles (1969): The fauna of India and

noveaux du Congo beige. Rev. Fr. Ent. Mus. Hist. Adjacent Countries. Orthoptera, Grylloidea. Vol. 2,
Nat. 9: 51-54. Govt, of India publ., Delhi.

400

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS DACUS FABRICIUS (TEPHRITIDAE :
DIPTERA) FROM INDIA1

Premlata and Awtar Singh2

(With six text-figures)

Introduction

The genus Dacus was first erected by
Fabricius in 1805 for the type species Dacus
armatus. Since then many subgenera have
been described under genus Dacus, the sub-
genus Bactrocera ( -Strumeta Walker 1856)
being the largest group among them. It is
differentiated from the rest of the subgenera
by the presence of a row of cilia on each side
of 3rd tergum; a single pair of Scutellar
bristles; and by the 5th sternum of male with
a deep V-shaped concavity on the hind margin.
This note describes a new species, Dacus
( Bactrocera ) cocciniae sp. nov.

Dacus (Bactrocera) cocciniae sp. nov.
male:

Head : yellow except brown eyes; frons

yellow, slightly fulvous towards ocellar triangle,
2 pairs of inferior orbitals; ocellar triangle
brown, ocelli pale; antennae as long as the
face, 3rd antennal segment 3 to 4 x longer
than wide, arista bare; face yellow with 2
sublateral small black spots, proboscis long,
geniculate and hairy, palpi short and rufous.

Thorax : rufous with humeral calli, noto-
pleural calli, mesopleuron and scutellum yellow,
no post sutural yellow vittae, thoracic chaeto-
taxy much reduced with 4 scapulars, 2 noto-
pleurals, 1 mesopleurals, 2 posterior supra

1 Accepted February 1986.

2 Dept, of Zoology, Punjab University, Chandigarh
(India).

alars and 2 scutellars; anterior supra alar and
prescutellar bristles absent.

Legs yellow with brown tarsi.

Wings', hyaline with light fuscations along
costa and anal spine, vein R4+5 spinose till
the level with ‘m’ cross-vein; supernumerary
lobe distinct.

Abdomen : rufous yellow with 2 sublateral
black spots on 3rd tergite which also possess
a row of cilia on postero lateral border, 5th
sternum with a deep V-shaped concavity.

Male terminlia

Peri phallic organs : ninth tergite fulvous

almost rectangular above tapering below to
surstyli, covered with dense pale bristles;
surstyli broad at base ending in a small ante-
rior lobe and a slightly longer posterior lobe,
outer clasper well developed bearing 2 equal
prensisetae, 3 marginal and 5 submarginal bris-
tles; decastemum yelow, bristly and quadran-
gular in shape.

Phallic organs: genital ring simple,, fultella
andiron type, median rod bifid posteriorly,
vanes elongate, phallic apodeme short and
slender, phallobase ring like; aedeagus highly
sclerotized leaving the base, vesica and apical
tube non-sclerotized, phallotheca long and
looped, ejaculatory apodeme large, fan broad
with narrow base and long stem.
female :

Resembles the male but has the following
differences; supernumerary less developed;
pecten absent; abdomen longer and slender
than the male.

401

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

Dacus ( Bactrocera ) cocciniae sp. nov.

1. Head; 2. Thorax; 4. Ovipositor.

Abbreviations :

ANT, Antennae; AR, Arista; E, Eye; IM, Inversion membrane; IVT, Inner verticals;
IOR, Inferior orbitals; mpl, mesopleurals; npl, Notopleurals; OVP, Oviscape; OVT,
Outer vertical; P, Piercer; psa, Posterior supra alar; sc, Scutellar; scp, Scapular.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

5

' .

Dacus ( Bactrocera ) cocciniae sp. nov.

5. Male Terminalia.

Abbreviations :

A, Aedeagus; Ea, Ejaculatory epodema; FL, Fultella; GR, Genital ring; OCL,
Outer clasper; PHT. Phallotheca; PRST, Prensisetae; SUR, Surstylus; T9. Sinth tergite

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Dacus ( Bactrocera ) cocciniae sp. nov.
3. Wing; 6. Fifth sternum of male.

Ovipositor : long measuring 0.7 mm, ovi-
scape pubescent, inversion membrane as long
as oviscape, piercer long and pointed.

Material Examined : Holotype 3 Chandi-
garh, 21. xi. 1985, Coccinia indica, coll.
Premlata; Allotype $ same data, 6 Paratype,
2 3 3 , 4 $ $ same data as holotype. Types
in Entomology Section, Department of Zoo-
logy, Panjab University, Chandigarh.

Length of male 5.6 mm; Wing 4.3 mm.

Length of Female 5.2 mm; Wing 4.1 mm.

(excluding the ovipositor).

Remarks : The species is near to Dacus
( Bactrocera ) tillyardi Perkins in the absence
of yellow post-sutural vittae but can be diffe-
rentiated from it by the lack of anterior supra
alar bristles and prescutellar bristles and rufous
yellow body colour.

Acknowledgements

One of us (Premlata) thanks the CSIR for
granting her S.R.F. We thank the chairman.
Department of Zoology, Pan jab University,
Chandigarh for providing laboratory facilities.

References

Fabricius, J. C. (1805): System. Antliatorum Perkins, F. A. (1938): Studies in Oriental and
Secundum ordines, genera species. 373 pp. Brunsvigae. Australian Trypetidae. Part 2. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld.
Walker, F. (1856): Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. J: 33. 49 (11): 120-144.

404

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS LITHVRGUS LATREILLE,
(HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA: MEGACHILIDAE) , FROM INDIA1

Rajiv K. Gupta2 and V. K. Tewari3
(With five text-figures)

The genus Lithurgus Latreille, from India was represented by 5 species: atratus
Smith, dentipes Smith, australior Cockerell, taprobanae Cameron and lissopoda
(Cameron). A new species Lithurgus ( Lithurgopsis ) tiwarii has been described for
the first time from Pondicherry (India). It has some affinities with L. australior
Cockll.

The genus Lithurgus Latreille, from Indian
region was so far represented by 5 species
namely: Lithurgus ( Lithurge ) atratus Smith.
L. (L.) dentipes Smith, L. australior Cocke-
rell, L. taprobanae Cameron and L. lissopoda
(Cameron). The subgeneric placement of the
former two species has been done by Michener
(1965). Following are the characters which can
distinctly separate genus Lithurgus, from rest
of the megachiline genera:

‘jugal lobe in posterior wing about 3 /4th
as long as vannal lobe; vestibule reaching upto
mid-mesosomal segment; dorsally, hind tibiae
coarsely or finely spiculate and pygidial area
well developed in male, in female represented
by a short spine’.

The new species described here, falls under
subgenus Lithurgopsis Fox, on the basis of
the following characters:

Facial mid-line may or may not carinate
but never grooved; claws with well developed
pulvellus in males; abdominal (tergal and
sternal) apical fasceae may be lacking, widely
interrupted or feebly developed; only 6 sternal

1 Accepted March 1986.

2 Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012. Present
address: Dept, of Zoology, Government College,
Dholpur-328 001, Rajasthan, India.

3 Lecturer, Department of Zoology, Agra College,

Agra, India.

plates are exposed in males, 7th & 8th re-
tracted.

Lithurgus (Lithurgopsis) tiwarii4 sp. nov.

male:

Integument of head and thorax with rugose
appearance, abdomen shining; facial pubes-
cence golden yellow, rest of the body with
silky-white (plumose) hairs, last tergite with
thick black bristles; integument black.

Head wider than the median length; inner
eye margin convergent below and incurved at
median area, carina distinct and close to eye;
2/3rd of the clypeus base strongly convex,
margin feebly incurved; maximum width of
parocular area equal to the basal width of
clypeus; median line indistinct; vertex margin
slightly incurved and incarinate; genae narrow-
ed below and hypostomal area with dense pale
pubescence; mandible tridentate.

Pronotal ridge low and obscure; scutum
evenly convex; notauli not at all markable;
scutellar surface resembles scutum, posterior
margin broadly rounded; median length of
propodeal triangle is about twice that of
median groove below; wing colour clear hya-
line, veins brownish-black, both recurrent veins
reaches at the base and apex of the second

4 After the name of one of the authors.

405

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Figs. 1-5. Lithurgus ( Lithurgopsis ) tiwarii sp. now, $

1. adult full dorsal view; 2. head front view; 3. sternum 7th; 4. sternum 8th;

5. genitalia.

(Dots on figs. 1 & 2 indicate pubescence) .

406

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

cuboital cell. Apical margin of coxae shallow-
ly grooved and with a smooth tubercle at
trochanter base attachment; apical width of
trochanter lesser than its median length; fore
leg femora with a subdivided carinate ridge
at apex (dorsally), spur testaceous yellow,
bifurcated and with a fine fringe of hairs at
the apices.

Basal tergum with concavity margin incari-
nate but hairy, apical margin with rudimentary
fringe at lateral sides; in tergite 2-5: graduli
indistinct & apical fasceae absent at midline;
tergum 7th apical margin broadly rounded,
medially thick and in 8th sternum, median
invagination of apical lobe is quite deep with
both halves bearing dense fringes projecting
apically.

Gonocoxites protuberent upto medio-basal
area, broadly convex; stipites dorso-ventrally
flattened and with a broad apex, lobate; either
sides of the basal margin of gonobase are
produced to acuteness.

Measurements : (in mm.) Total length 8.5;
eyes: length 2.07, lateral width 1.0; clypeus:
median length 0.9, basal width 0.42, apical
width 1.5; antennae; length of scape 0.65, pedi-
cel 0.25, flagellar segments 1st -0.22, IInd-0.1,
XIth-0.23; labrum: median length 1.05, basal
& apical width 1.25 & 0.9; mandible: length
of lower & dentate margins 2.0 & 0.9; labial
palpi: length of segment 1st 2.0 & Ilnd 4.0;
scutum : median length 2 . 25 & maximum width
2.75; total length of fore wing 6.5; relative

median width of tergite X to VII: 2.5, 3.25,
4.0, 3.2, 2.75, 1.5, 0.5.

female: not known.

Material examined : Holotype: male, para-
type: 1 male both type specimens are at

I.A.R.I., New Delhi.

Collection : Holotype as well paratype were
collected from Mahatma Gandhi Park, Pondi-
cherry (m.s.l.) on 4 . vii . 1981 (Gupta).

Flower record : Solanum sp.

Remarks'. The new species is close to
australior Ckockll. with respect to the sub-
generic characters, detailed above ( australior
has also been placed under subgenus Lithur-
gopsis Fox), however, australior can be dis-
tinctly separated tiwarii sp. nov. by:

“clypeal protuberence limited upto half of the
basal region; facial pubescence white; fore
tibial dorso-apical projection absent; abdomen
comparatively much elongated, apical margin
of VXXth tergum with a prominent median
spine; lateral acute projections of gonobase
absent, stipites narrowed down gradually and
penis valve wide”.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. H. N. Baijal, Head of the
Zoology Department, Agra College, Agra, for
providing necessary facilities and to Drs. S. I.
Farooqui, S. L. Gupta both senior scientists
at Entomology Division, I.A.R.I., New Delhi,
who kindly reviewed the manuscript.

Reference

Michener, C. D. (1965) : A classification of the
bees of the Australian and South Pacific region.
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 130: 184-185.

407

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

SYZYGIUM PARAMESW ARANII (MYRTACEAE) — A NEW
SPECIES FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1

M. Mohanan and A. N. Henry2

(With six text -figures)

4 mm

-JO

2 mm

Accepted July 1986

Figs. 1-6. Syzygium parameswaranii sp. nov.

1. Twig; 2. Flower; 3. Sepal; 4. Petal; 5. L. S. of ovary; 6. Stamen.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003,

408

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

During systematic studies on the flora of
Trivandrum Dt., Kerala for a period of over
five years, several rare and interesting plants
were collected. A new species of Syzygium
Gaertn. (Myrtaceae) collected during the
above period is described with illustrations.

Syzygium parameswaranii sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-6)

Syzygium calophy lli folium Walp. afAinis, sed
floribus magnioribus pedicellatis (pedicellis
usque ad 3 mm), lobis calycum magnioribus
ovatis conspicus in gimm as imbricatis, foliis
magnioribus (usque ad 4.5 cm) ad superas
conspicue et arte nervatis differt.

Trees 4-6 m tall; ultimate branchlets tetra-
gonous. Leaves 2.5-3 x 2-3.5 cm, opposite,
sessile, coriaceous, ovate, obtuse or subacute
at apex, rounded at base; midrib prominent;
secondary lateral veins close, conspicuous;
margins recurved. Panicles c. 2 x 2 cm, gla-
brous, subsessile, condensed, many flowered.
Flowers c. 8 x 2.8 mm, funnel-shaped; pedi-
cels 3 mm long, slender, glabrous. Calyx tubes
c. 0.3 mm; lobes 4, each c. 1 x 1 mm, ovate,
obtuse at apex. Petals 4, each c. 3 x 2.5 mm,
suborbicular, obtuse at apex, gland-dotted
along the main nerve. Stamens 3 mm long;
filaments dilated at base. Ovary 2-loculed with

many ovules in each locule; style 3 mm long;
stigma simple.

Holotype M. Mohanan 66051 (CAL) and
isotypes M. Mohanan 66051 (MH acc. no.
136392-93), were collected from the western
slopes of Agastyamalai in Trivandrum Dt.,
Kerala (Alt. ± 1600 m) on 5.3.1980.

The new species is allied to S. calophyllifo-
lium Walp. but differs by the larger, pedicelled
flowers; larger ovate, conspicuous calyx lobes
imbricate in bud; and larger leaves with con-
spicuous veins close above .

This rare tree grows along grassy western
slopes of Agastyamalai in close association with
Pittosporum spp.

Flowering : Jan. -April.

We are thankful to Dr. V. J. Nair, Botani-
cal Survey of India, Coimbatore for rendering
the Latin translation.

We are pleased to dedicate this species to<
Dr. M. Parameswaran Nayar, Director, Bota-
nical Survey of India, Calcutta for his signifi-
cant contributions to the systematics and
phytogeography of Indian plants.

ON THE IDENTITY OF THREE NEW SPECIES OF URGINEA

(LILIACEAE)1

D. B. Deb and Syamali Dasgupta2

Deb and Dasgupta (1974, 1981) studied the
taxonomy of the genus Urginea Steinh. (Lilia-
ceae) in India. Jessop (1977) in his studies

1 Accepted June 1985.

2 Botanical Survey of India. Howrah.

on the bulbous Liliaceae in South Africa re-
duced Urginea to a synonym of Drimia.
Accordingly Ansari and Raghavan (1980)
changed the names of Indian Urginea to
Drimia, and Ansari (1981) described a new

409

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

species. Deb and Dasgupta (1983) reviewed
the generic status of Urginea in course of
which they upheld the distinction between
Urginea and Drimia, for which new combina-
tions proposed by Ansari and Raghavan (l.c.)
stand superfluous and illegitimate, and the new
species Drimia rajii Ansari (1981) deserves a
new combination.

Detailed investigation on taxonomic signifi-
cance of morphological characters and their
range of variation in altitudinal and geogra-
phical distribution reveals that U. coromande-
liana and U. wightiana are not distinguishable
from U. indica by any qualitative character.
Hooker f. (1892) distinguished U. coromande-
liana from U. indica for persistent bracts,
smaller bulbs and linear leaves, and (2) U.
wightiana for long pedicels, broad filaments
and narrow elongated style. Recent collections
close up the distinction. Specimens are extant
having bigger bulbs with linear leaves (Rama-
murthy 16028 MH); smaller bulbs with
broader leaves ( D . Drain s.n. CAL; Rukmini
Bai 134 BLAT); bigger bulbs with persistent
bracts (/. Joseph 12439 MH); and characters
intermediate between two extremes (Barnes
2179 K). On the other hand, there are speci-
mens with long pedicel, narrow filament, and
short style (S. Kurz s.n. CAL); long pedicel,
broad filaments, and short style ( Santapau
13702 BLAT), and short pedicel, narrow
filament and long style ( Fischer 3783 MH).
These evidently indicate that such variations
are of no taxonomic significance for which
these three are treated as conspecific (Deb and
Dasgupta, l.c.). Workers who are not familiar
with taxonomic significance of morphological
characters in a group may hesitate to accept
conspecificity on examination of some isolated
plants. But this is unavoidable for the sake of
taxonomy.

Urginea indica is distributed nearly through-

out India from Gujarat and Maharashtra ex-
tending to tropical Africa in the west, to Bihar,
Orissa and Burma in the east, Himalayan bor-
der of Uttar Pradesh and Nepal in the north
and down to Tamil Nadu in the south. It
grows from the sea level to 2600 m in alti-
tude, in dry habitats, such as sandy gravel,
sandstones and soils derived from garnetife-
rous gneiss and khondalite. It is found in the
Pine forest in the Western Himalayas and
Dipterocarpus forest in Burma.

The species is known as hysteranthus. But
Shaik Ismail 222 (CAL) collected from Akyab,
Burma, on 21.1. 1907 bears simultaneously
leaves, flowers and fruits, showing thereby,
that this is not strictly hysteranthus and that
this phenomenon is influenced by the ecolo-
gical condition prevailing on the locality in
which it grows.

Chromosome numbers of U. indica were
determined as 2n = 20 by Raghavan (1935,
1940) and Kishore (1957). Triploidy also was
observed in it by Raghavan (l.c.). Jha and
Sen (1985) observed diploid, triploid, tetra-
ploid and hexaploid races of 20 cytotypes in
different populations of U. indica distributed
in south Indian states. They further observed
a high degree of genotypic variability in natu-
ral populations. Their observation is in con-
formity with the taxonomic significance of
morphological variations in the genus as ex-
pounded by Deb and Dasgupta (l.c.).

U. govindappae Boraiah et Fatima (1970)
has been reduced to a synonym of U. indica
by Deb and Dasgupta (l.c.). Boraiah and
Fatima (1982) could not accept the reduction
of their species, for some variation in forms
of bulb and leaf as well as chromosome con-
figuration in their material and that the type
specimen was not examined at that time.

Deb and Dasgupta (1974) considered all

410

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

these points before reducing the species to a
synonym. They examined a specimen from the
type locality as determined by the authors of
the species since the holotype was not sent
to CAL by that time. In the mean time
they examined the type presented to CAL
and find that their views are correct. Forms of
the bulb and leaf are covered by the range of
variation of these parts in U. indica. Cytolo-
gical studies conducted by Jha and Sen (1985)
are in full agreement with the reduction of
that species so far as chromosomal differences
are concerned. Any difference in chromosomal
configuration if not followed by any qualita-
tive change in morphological characters can-
not be the basis for taxonomic distinction of
a species. Thus U. govindappae stands reduced
to a synonym of U. indica.

U. nagarjunae Hemadri et Swahari (1982)
has been described on the basis of bulbs
collected from Bhata village, Nellore district,
Andhra Pradesh and grown in the experi-
mental garden, Vijayawada. The authors dis-
tinguished the species by the stouter scape,
closer flowers, non reflexed perianth segments,
larger bulbs, broad leaves and bigger gynoe-
cium. They included in this species Fischer
3783 (MH) which was treated by Deb and
Dasgupta as U. indica with a note that it
shows gigantism.

Reflexed perianth segment is not of taxo-
nomic significance. In both the species
perianth segments are erect when young and
spreading when matured. Hemadri & Swahari
noted closer flowers in having 20-75 flowers in
15-28 cm long raceme. In Fischer 3783 (MH)
there are 18 flowers in 25 cm long raceme as
is the case with U. indica. As regards quanti-
tative characters bulb size in U. indica varies
from 2.5 to 10 cm in length which includes
the range given for U. nagarjunae. In size of
scape, breadth of leaves, length of gynoecium

etc., the upper limit in U. nagarjunae is higher
than that of U. indica, but there is continuity
in variation and Fischer 3783 (MH) is inter-
mediate in position. Another fact that needs
to be considered here is that their plant was
grown in nursery and it flowered under culti-
vated condition. It is well established that a
cultivated plant shows variations from the typi-
cal one in natural habitat.

In consideration of all these facts it is evi-
dent that U. nagarjunae is not taxonomically
distinct from U. indica and deserves to be
reduced to a synonym as follows:

U. indica (Roxb.) Kunth, Enum. PI. 4: 333.

1843; Deb et Dasgupta in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 16: 118. 1974 & Fascicles FI. India

7:17. 1981.

Scilla indica Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 148. 1832 (Type:
W. Roxburgh s.n.)

S. coromandeliana Roxb. (Type: W. Roxburgh
s.n.)

Urginea senegalensis Kunth, Enum. PI. 4: 334.
1843.

U. coromandeliana Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 347.
1892.

U. wightiana Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 347. 1892
(Type: Wight s.n.)

U. govindappae Boraiah et Fatima in Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 12: 128. 1970 (Type: Boraiah et Fatima
601! CAL).

Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop in Joum. S. Afr.
Bot. 43: 312. 1977.

U. nagarjunae Hemadri et Swahari in
Ancient Sci. Life 2: 105. 1982. (Type: Hemadri
3001 A! holo CAL; Hemadri 2925 A! para
CAL), synon. nov.

Drimia rajii Ansari (1981) is stated to have
the holotype and one of the isotypes deposited
with CAL, but these are not yet sent here for
which no specimen could be examined. How-
ever, it is quite evident from the description
and the illustrations that this is a distinct one

411

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

and deserves a new combination as follows:
Urginea rajii (Ansari) Deb et Dasgupta comb,
nov.

Drimia rajii Ansari in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 78: 572. 1981.

As a new species has been added to the
genus a revised key to the species is given:
Key to the species

la. Pedicels shorter than bracts; flowers few

U. polyphylla

lb. Pedicels longer than bracts; flowers many

2a. Pedicels 10-35 mm; racemes loose

U. indica

2a. Pedicels 4-8 mm; racemes dense

3a. Bracts persistent, not squrred

U. polyantha

3b. Bracts evanescent, spurred

4a. Capsule ovate-oblong; perianth 8-9

mm long U. rajii

4b. Capsule subglobose; perianth ± 5
mm long U. congesta

References

Ansari, M. Y. (1981) : Drimia rajii sp. nov. (Lilia-
ceae) from Maharashtra, India. /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 78: 572-574.

& Raghavan, R. S. (1980) :

Nomenclature of some bulbous Liliaceae of India.
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77': 172-173.

Boraiah, G. & Fatima, T. K. (1970) : Cytotaxo-
nomy of Urginea govindappae sp. nov. Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 12: 129-131.

(1982): On the

genus Urginea Steinh. (Liliaceae) in India. Indian
Forest. 108(4): 319.

Deb, D. B. & Dasgupta, Syamaei (1974): Taxo-
nomic revision of the genus Urginea Steinh. (Lilia-
ceae) in India. Bull. bot. Surv. India 16: 116-124.
(1981) : Liliaceae

— Tribe Scilleae. Fascicles of Flora of India no. 7.
Bot. Surv. India, Howrah.
(1983): Generic

status of Urginea Steinh. (Liliaceae). J. Econ. Tax.
Bot. 3: 819-825.

Hemadri, K. & Swahari, S. (1982) : Urginea

nagarjunae Hemadri et Swahari — a new species of

Liliaceae from India (a new plant discovery) .
Ancient Sc. Life 2: 105-110.

Hooker, J. D. (1892) : Liliaceae. Flora of British
India 6: 299-362. London.

Jessop, J. P. (1977) : Studies in the bulbous Lilia-
ceae in South Africa. 7. the taxonomy of Drimia
and certain allied genera. J. S. African bot. 43 : 265-
319.

Jha, Sumita & Sen, Sumitra (1985): Screening
for high yield of cardiac gycosides from Indian
Squill, Urginea indica Kunth. Fifth Intern. Soc.
Hort. Sc. Symp. Med. Arom. Spice plants, Darjee-
ling.

Kishore, H. (1957) : A note on the chromosome
numbers of some plants. Indian J. Genet. PI. Breed.
11(2): 217.

Raghavan, T. S. (1935): Observations on the
somatic chromosomes of Urginea indica Kunth. J.
Indian bot. Soc. 14: 151-158.

& Venkatasubran (1940) :

Studies in the Indian Scilleae. Cytologia 77(1-2):
55-92.

A NEW SPECIES OF LASIANTHUS (RUBIACEAE) FROM BURMA1
D. B. Deb and Mohan Gangopadhyay2
(With a text -figure)

Lasianthus meeboldii sp. nov.

Species haec ab L. curtisii King et Gamble
differt folio latiore, stipula breviore, inflores-

1 Accepted July 1986.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Indian Botanic Gar-
den, Howrah.

centia sessili, calyce dentibus minutibus, fructi-
busque pubescentibus.

Typus: Burma, Tenasserim, Yaundan,

March, 1911, A. Meebold 14790 holo. CAL;
Mergui, Sandawut reserve, 50', 31.1.1919, C.
G. Rogers 440 m para. CAL.

412

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A

Fig. 1. Lasianthus meeboldii sp. nov.
A, Habit; B. Fruit; C. Seed; E. Embryo.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Differs from L. curtisii King et Gamble in
broader leaves, sessile inflorescence, minute
calyx teeth, shorter stipules and pubescent fruit
amongst others.

Under shrubs 30-60 cm high; branchlets
ferruginous pubescent; younger ones compress-
ed, terete in age; raphides present. Leaves
petiolate, 5-8 x 3-4 cm, more or less oblong,
acuminate at apex, acute at base, slightly in-
curved at margin, subcoriaceous, glabrous
above, ferruginous pubescent beneath; midrib
conspicuous below; lateral nerves sub-oppo-
site, 5-6 on either side, arcuate, faint above;
nervules subparallel, forked, slender beneath;
petioles 4-6 mm long, slender, pubescent;
stipules deciduous, ±1x1 mm, triangular,
acute, pubescent. Inflorescence axillary, sessile.

fascicled, ebracteate. Calyx persistent; lobes 4
or 5, triangular, pubescent. Other parts of the
flower not seen. Fruits blue, 2-3 x 2-3 mm,
globose, ovoid, sessile, pubescent, crowned with
persistent calyx lobes, slightly ridged and
furrowed, without raphides; exocarp and meso-
carp thin; endocarp thick; pyrenes 5, dorsally
convex, ventrally angled. Seeds — 2.5 x 1.5
mm, plano-convex, ellipsoid, acute at apex,
smooth; albumen uniform; embryo ± 2 mm
long; axis ±1.7 mm long, semi-terete, shallow
grooved at base; cotyledons ±0.3 mm long,
ovate, obtuse at apex; funicle short.

Type : Burma, Tenasserim, Yaundan, March
1911, A. Meebold 14790 holo. CAL; Mergui,
Sandawut reserves, 50', 31.1.1919, C. G. Rogers
440 m para, CAL.

414

REVIEWS

1 . SHOREBIRDS IN AUSTRALIA. Text by Brett Lane, illustrations by
Jeff Davies, pp. 187 (29x21.5 cm), with 19 colour plates and many
black-and-white photographs, graphs & maps. Melbourne, 1987. Nelson
publishers. Price not mentioned.

This is the kind of book that one would
like to see about Indian birds. In addition to
the extensive shorelines there are in Australia
large inland areas which have become saline
lakes with gently sloping shores which pro-
vide the right conditions for the waders. Some
of the migrants are identical with those
occurring in India, while others are species
straying into Assam and Eastern India but
about which we know very little. Indian orni-
thology so far has been almost completely
divorced from information from further East
and more particularly from that from
Australia.

The migratory records both from within and
outside Australia are well presented and indi-
cate possibilities of further work in India. This
work is the compilation of the efforts of about

700 birdwatchers organised by the Royal
Ornithologists’ Union and a revelation of
what can be achieved by widespread collabo-
ration, a factor sadly missing in India.
Curiously one bird ringed in Australia and
recovered in India ( Calidris testacea CSIRO
Canberra, Australia 040-92431) is omitted in
those listed.

The whole text is excellently illustrated
both in black and white and colour and a
detailed and careful perusal particularly of
the portions relating to Feeding Behaviour,
Ecology, Migration and Internal Movements
together with a bibliography of 498 titles in-
dicate the value of the book together with
immediate possibilities of further work in India.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

2. INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY. By Paul E. Lutz. pp. xvii + 734
(24 x 19 cm), with many illustrations. U.S.A., 1985. Publishing Company.
Price not mentioned.

Of the approximately 1,100,000 animal
species known to us, almost 1,070,000 are in-
vertebrates; only 3.4% are backboned animals.
It is but natural that many books are devoted
to a study of the vast array of these apparently
unimpressive, but not insignificant, animals.
Lutz’s book is one of the latest to have been
published.

Unlike many of the college books on in-
vertebrates which we often come across, this
is not just a book which students use; it is

written for students. Careful attention has been
paid to reflect good pedagogy, and thus to
entice the student intellectually into a pro-
gressively engrossing study.

Forty phyla are covered in 17 chapters.
Each chapter begins with an overview, follow-
ed by a detailed section dealing with the over-
reaching principles, features and characteristics
common to the entire group. Inter-relationships
of the general morphological and physiologi-
cal features are given to denote adaptations to

415

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

the different environmental conditions. Then
comes a somewhat briefer treatment of the
principal diagnostic features of the main sub-
ordinate groups, and concludes with a thumb-
nail taxonomic resume of the most important
characteristics of each major group, usually
down to ordinal level. These themes are woven
into each chapter, viz. unity amid diversity,
evolution and ecology.

As is the current trend, the former Classes
of the phylum Protozoa are here described as
seven separate phyla. The earlier phylum
Bryozoa or Polyzoa is nowadays divided into
the two phyla Ectoprocta and Entoprocta;
these are called Bryozoa and Entoprocta by
Lutz. Of the minor phyla — so called because
each contains very few species, Gnathostomu-
lida is akin to Platyhelminthes and Nemertea,
Placozoa and Mesozoa are allied to Porifera,
while Pogonophora, Sipuncula, Onychophora
and Echiura are phylogenetically related to
Annelida. The remaining eight minor phyla,
viz. Priapulida, Tardigrada, Pentastomida,
Phoronida, Brachiopoda, Chaetognatha, Hemi-
chorda and the non-vertebrate Chordata are not
closely related to other larger phyla.

A few important bits of information for
some of these are worth repeating and would
not be amiss here.

The phylum Placozoa is represented by only
one known species, Trichoplax adhaerens,
which was discovered in 1883 but was mis-
taken as a larval stage of a coelenterate until
its rediscovery in 1969. It has been described
in 1971 by K. G. Grill in volume 24 of
Naturwissenschaftliche R undschau.

The phylum Mesozoa has some 50 species
— minute worm-like creatures from 0.1 to 9
mm in length.

The Class Remipeda of Crustacea, repre-
sented by a single known species, Speleonectes
lucayensis, was discovered in 1980 from a
submarine cave. It is described by J. Yager

in volume 1 of the Journal of Crustacean Bio-
logy (1983).

One species of the phylum Loricifera, viz.
Nanaloricus mysticus, was described by M.
Kristensen in Zeitsch. Zool. System. Evolut.-
forsch, volume 21 (1983). Other species have
since been collected from the interstices of
shelly marine gravel. They have a Higgins
larva.

Among the minor phyla, the Pentastomid
tongue worms live in the lungs and nasal
passages of lizards and other carnivorous
vertebrates (including man), while the micro-
scopic (10.3 to 10.5 mm) Tardigrada (water
bears) live in the watery film on terrestrial
mosses. The animals of all the other minor
phyla are marine and, with the exception of
the planktonic Chaetognatha, are benthic.

Lutz has not treated the new Class Con-
centricycloidea, which was discovered after his
book was published. It is represented by
Xyloplax medusi formes, sl minute (2 to 9 mm)
medusa-like animal attached to wood from
depths of 1035 metres. It lacks a mouth, anus
and arms, but has a pentamerous symmetry,
tube feet and a typical Echinoderm skeleton.
It was described by Alan Baker, Helen Clark
and Francis Rowe in No. 321, pages 862-864
of Nature of 26 June, 1986, and also in the
New Scientist of 3 July, 1986.

The author seems to be unduly fond of the
theme “unity amid diversity”, as this is re-
peated no less than six times — twice in the
preface, on page 1 of the introduction, then
twice on page 2, and again on page 13. It
may not be the author’s fault but, to Indian
readers who are bored to death with this
cliche phrase being said time and again by
our statesmen and politicians, it does leave a
jarring note.

The author, in his boundless enthusiasm,
has been carried away to the extent of using
a rather prosy opening gambit. It runs thus:

416

REVIEWS

“Welcome to the wonderful, incredible, fasci-
nating world of invertebrates. You are about
to embark on a study of the most enchanting,
remarkable, and diverse living things known,
and I certainly hope to generate in you some
unbridled enthusiasm for this captivating group
of beasts.” In the beginning I wondered
whether this mellifluous, verbose language
shielded a lot of pedantry but, as I went
through the book, I realized that it was written
by an erudite scholar.

The book is well edited; I could locate only
one error, on page 111 (line 31 in the right
column), where “mesogleal” is wrongly spelt
as “mesogeal”. A technical error has also
crept in on page 8, where the author defines
“compensation point” as the level “below
which no photosynthesis is possible”. (Actually,
“compensation depth” is that depth where the
amount of oxygen produced by photosynthe-
sis equals the oxygen consumed in respiration

by a plant.) Another, albeit insignificant, error
is that the author, in his preface, has given
Remipedia as a subclass, while elsewhere in
the book it is given the status of a class.

All the line drawings in the book are in-
variably of an excellent standard, but many
of the photographs leave much to be desired,
and could easily have been dropped, since
many of them are repetitions of drawings.
Examples: Fig. 5.12, hydroid colony; 6.16a,
fluke; 8.14b, Chaetopleura; 8.28b, Atrina; 9.9g,
Halosydna; 12.28a, Idothea; 12.30a, Penaeus;
13.34a, tree hopper; and 17. 3 Id, Stichopus.
Especially sticking out like a sore thumb is
Fig. 11.13f, depicting the web of Aranea.

These few detractions, however, do not deter
from the excellence of the book, which is a
“must” for college libraries and zoology
teachers.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

417

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

i. NEONATAL MORTALITY AMONG SOME CAPTIVE MAMMALS
AT NANDANKANAN ZOO

The purpose of this communication is to
highlight the importance of neonatal mortality
data for animals in captivity.

Data on neonatal mortality of 20 species
of animals belonging to 5 groups based on
postmortem examination and relevant history
were obtained from Nandankanan zoo, Orissa,
for the period 1967-1983. Most of the species
included in this study were of Indian origin
except lions which included lions of both
Indian and African subspecies. The neonatal
deaths were broadly divided into 4 types on
the basis of deaths occurring at different
periods of neonatal life. They were (1) still-
births — bom dead, (2) immediate hebdomadal
deaths — deaths occurring within 24 hours of
birth, (3) hebdomadal deaths — deaths occur-
ring in 2-7 days of birth, and (4) post hebdo-
madal deaths — deaths occurring in 8-28 days
of life.

Out of 722 deaths recorded in 20 species of
animals (Table 1) belonging to different age
groups. 242 (33.32%) deaths occurred during
neonatal period. Among the species studied
(Table 1) highest percentage of neonatal
deaths ranging from 40.74 to 67.86 per cent
occurred in members of felidae. Next in im-
portance was in wild ruminants which ranged
from 14.71 to 43.75 per cent. The results in
other species were inconclusive as the number
of observations were meagre. It was further
seen that majority of deaths occurred during

hebdomadal period in members of felidae and
ruminants.

The common causes of mortality in diffe-
rent groups have been given in the Table 2.
It was seen that still-births and debility were
common in most of the groups and cannibalism
and rejection by mother were frequently seen
among wild felids apart from pneumonia and
other miscellaneous conditions. It is possible
that the high incidence of still-births in this
study may be due to inbreeding as has been
suggested by Roychoudhury (1980) and Roy-
choudhury and Sankala (1979). Apart from
inbreeding, any disturbance during advanced
stage of pregnancy may result in still-births
and hebdomadal mortality. Therefore, to mini-
mise the incidence of still-births, it is neces-
sary to avoid inbreeding in captive animals by
introducing fresh blood frequently into the
existing livestock by exchange programme
with other zoos/sanctuaries. Further, any dis-
turbance to the pregnant/nursing mothers
should be avoided by keeping them away from
visitors.

According to Cooper (1942) and Schaffer
(1967), lioness in captivity occasionally eat
their young ones but in the present studies
cannibalism was observed in all 6 species of
felids under study but not in other species.
Street (?) stated that zoo mothers often refuse
to rear their offspring of the first litter though

418

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Neonatal deaths recorded among 20 species of captive wild mammals

SI.

No.

Species

Total

deaths

Neonatal deaths

Percentage

Still-birth

Immediate

hebdomadal

Hebdo-

madal

Post

Hebdomadal

Total

A.

felids

1.

Tiger

28

6

4

4

5

19

67.86

2,

Lion

22

1

5

3

2

11

50.00

3.

Leopard

61

3

10

9

14

36

59.02

4.

Leopard cat

27

-

-

1

10

11

40.74

5.

Golden cat

14

-

4

3

2

9

64.29

6.

Jungle cat

45

2

-

21

4

27

60.00

Total

197

12

23

41

37

113

(10.62%)

(20.35%)

(36.29%)

(32.74%)

(57.36%)

B.

WILD RUMINANTS

7.

Hog deer

16

6

-

-

1

7

43.75

8.

Mouse deer

15

-

3

-

1

4

26.67

9.

Spotted deer

113

8

5

6

7

26

23.01

10.

Sambar

67

4

6

7

9

26

38.82

11.

Barking deer

80

3

2

3

10

18

22.50

12.

Fourhomed

antelope

34

1

1

1

2

5

14.71

13.

Nilgai

17

3

2

-

-

5

29.41

14.

Blackbuck

83

5

2

9

4

20

24.10

15.

Indian Bison

6

-

-

-

2

2

33.33

Total

431

30

21

26

36

113

(26,55%)

(18.58%)

(23.01%)

(31.86%)

(26.22%)

C.

BEAR AND OTHER

16.

Sloth bear

27

1

-

-

3

4

14.82

17.

Common otter

9

2

-

-

1

3

33.33

Total

36

3

-

4

7

(42.86%)

(57.14%)

(19.44%)

D.

PRIMATES

18,

Rhesus

monkeys

20

1

1

1

-

3

15.00

19.

Slow loris

24

-

-

1

-

1

4,17

Total

44

1

1

2

_

4

(25.00%)

(25.00%)

(50%)

(9.09%)

E.

SQUIRREL

20.

Malayan giant

squirrel

14

-

2

3

-

5

35.71

(40%)

(60%)

Grand total

722

46

47

72

77

242

(33.52)

(19.01%)

(19.42%)

(29.75%)

(31.82%)

419

Table 2

Causes of neonatal deaths in 5 groups of captive wild mammals

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

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some mothers might rear their subsequent
litters. Deaths due to rejection by mother
tigresses in this study belonged to this cate-
gory.

The age specific mortality among captive
mammals during neonatal period in Indian
zoos is lacking. According to Pant and Dhari-
yal (1979), mortality of tiger cubs in Delhi
zoo was mainly due to either still-births or
due to neglect by mother after birth. Out of
193 tiger deaths, 32% occurred during the
first year of life. According to Saharia
(1979) the mortality of tigers was 39% in
0-1 year age group. In a nationwide survey
of causes of mortality among tigers, Rathore
and Khera (1979) recorded 42 cub deaths
(unspecified age) out of 62 tiger deaths which
included still-births, navel ill, malnutrition,
debility and infant mortality. Bhattacharya and
Chattopadhyaya (1979) while studying morta-
lity among blackbucks and spotted deer at
Ballavpur wildlife sanctuary stated that the
neonatal deaths accounted to 23-24% of the
total 34 deaths. Schaller (1967) reported a
fawn mortality of about 50% in spotted deer,
sambar and Indian bison at Kanha National
Park. This study revealed considerable loss
during neonatal period and in ruminants and
felids majority of deaths occurred during
hebdomadal period.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Dean, Faculty of Veterinary
Science and Animal Husbandry, Bhubanes-
war and Wildlife conservation officer, Orissa,
for providing facilities.

420

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Department of Pathology, L. N. ACHARJYO

Orissa Veterinary College,

Bhubaneswar-751 003.

Nandankanan Biological Park, A. T. RAO

Barang, Cuttack, Orissa,

September 15, 1987.

References

Bhattacharya, J. & Chattopadhyaya, B. N.
(1979) : Population status of Indian Blackbuck and
spotted deer in Ballavpur wildlife sanctuary. Cheetal
20(4): 39-49.

Cooper, J. (1942) : Cited by Schaller, G. B., 1967.

Pant, M. M. & Dhariyal, I. D. (1979): White
tiger progeny, its economic potentialities. Indian
Forester. Special issue on 1st International Sympo-
sium on tiger. New Delhi, 22nd-24th Feb. pp. 52-58.

Rathore, B. S. & Khera, S. S. (1979): Morta-
lity in tigers in India. Paper presented in 1st Inter-
national Symposium on tiger. New Delhi.

Roychoudhury, A. K. & Sankala, S. K. (1979) :
Inbreeding in white tigers. Proc. Indian Acad . Sci.
88B: 311-313.

Roychoudhury, A. K. (1980) : Is there any lethal
gene in the tiger of Rewa? Curr. Sci. 49: 518-520.

Saharia, V. B. (1979) : Population dynamics in
captive tigers. Wildlife News letter 7 : 36-40.

Schaller, G. B. (1967): The deer and the tiger.
The University of Chicago press, Chicago pp. 54-236.

Street, Philip ( ? ) : Animals in captivity.

Faber and Faber, London, pp. 78-218.

2. REACTION TOWARDS SICK ANIMALS BY CONSPECIFICS IN
THE COMMON GREY LANGUR ( PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS)

The intriguing sight of the attempted revi-
val of sick and wounded in the common
grey langur (P. entellus) was noticed on
four occasions. Two of the cases involved
road accidents while the other two were
caused by food poisoning and extreme low
temperatures. Attempts at revival were made
in only three of the four observed cases, all
the three sick individuals being adult females.
Two of the three adult females recovered
while the third which was fatally wounded
died.

The behavioural repertoire involved in the
revival of all three adult females was striking-
ly alike and involved the following sequence:

1) Fellow group members sit around the sick
animal;

2) partially lifting up, followed by vigorous

shaking of the prostrate sick/wounded in-
dividual by a resident conspecific adult
female;

3) jumping a few times (2-5) on the ventro-
thoracic and abdominal region of the sick/
wounded animal by a second adult female;

4) The second female seated herself atop the
body of the sick/wounded individual while
other group members sniffed at its face.

The fourth incident involved the resident
adult male of a unimale bisexual group.
Diagnosis established the causal factor of death
of the adult male as food poisoning. No
attempt, what so ever, was made by fellow
group members to reanimate the ailing adult
male.

Besides bringing to light the inborn capa-
bilities of langurs to attempt to revive their

421

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

sick, these four instances give us a deeper
insight into the social dynamics of the Hanu-
man langur. The attempt, by fellow group
members to revive only female conspecifics
and not the resident adult male possibly
relates to kinship that is prevalent among
females, who form the stable core of the
langur social organization. An adult male in
a unimale bisexual group enjoys only a

Department of Zoology,

University of Rajasthan,

Jaipur-302 004,

February 28, 1987.

3. HYENA PREDATING

i

On 19.11.1986 at about 6 a.m. while walk-
ing in an area near Chemmanatham Dam,
bordering Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, I
noticed a striped Hyena dragging a calf along
a footpath towards us. When it realised our
presence it disappeared behind the bushes. I
searched but could not locate the animal. In
about 20 minutes villagers came enquiring about
a Hyena which had carried away a calf. The
mother of the calf was tethered, in the village
when two Hyenas attacked the calf, which was
about 10 days old and was sickly and dragged

Wildlife Warden,

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,
Udhagamandalam 643 001,

Tamil Nadu,

December 18, 1986.

4. THE WOLF ( CANIS LUPUS) OF

Udaipur City is surrounded by the Aravali
Hills, East of Udaipur, beyond Debari gate
there is a vast plain interspersed by hillocks.
Before independence this plain teemed with
antilope and other game animals. Wolves were

“transistory adult male” status, i.e. he is re-
placed by another adult male at some point
in time. Further more the probability of rela-
tedness between the adult male and the per-
manent members of a bisexual group is most
probably low or nil. This could possibly
account for the absence of co-operation (in
this case attempt of revival) towards the
ailing male.

R. MATHUR
A. LOBO

ON A DOMESTIC CALF

it away, before they could reach the spot. It
is possible, they said that the calf was already
dead when the Hyena carried it away. We all
searched the area and saw 2 pups of the
hyena playing. When they saw us they dis-
appeared into a hole. Though I knew that
there were Hyena dens in the area, this was
the first times pups had been sighted. There
were fresh drag marks leading to and dis-
appearing into the hole. We quietly left the
place.

J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON

MEWAR REGION, RAJASTHAN

in fairly good number in the plains. In hilly
terrain where there were barren patches wolves
were often met with. Most of the hilly area
was dominated by the leopard Panthera
pardus ,

422

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Gradually the large herds of Blackbuck
( Antilope cervicapra) and other animals like
Chinkara ( Gazella gazelld). Blue Bull ( Bose -
laphus tragocamelus) , Wild Boar (Sus scrofa)
etc., disappeared from the plains. Most of the
cervids totally disappeared and the plains are
converted into agricultural fields. Hills are
also practically denuded of forest. The ideal
habitat of wolves has been claimed by man.
Slowly the wolves receded to barren hilly
tracts. Due to the absence of wild animals and
change of habitat marked change can be
observed in the habits of wolves of this region.

On 14.8.1978 1 submitted a report to the
then collector regarding the depredations of
wolves east of Udaipur. Two packs were ope-
rating. The beat of one containing 8 animals
was from Kurabar to Nawa village and the
other pack of 5 animals operated from
Ghorach to Shringrishi. Shringrishi is quite near
to Nawa village and some time these two
packs combined to form a big pack of 13
animals and wrought havoc in the area. To
the best of my calculation these two packs
in a year inflicted damage to the villagers of
their beat to the extent of about one lack
rupees. They used to kill goats, sheep and
some time calves also. They never stayed in
one locality for more than 24 hours.

The wolves around Udaipur used to breed
in mid summer and this period has gradually
shifted towards the rainy season. This year two
litters were dropped in late June and early
July. The reasons for this shift are lack of
bush cover and disturbances caused by graziers
to their breeding places. In the fifties the
average size of a litter was between 4 to 6
pups. The size of a litter is also gradually
declining. From 1970 to 1986 I got authentic
report of 33 litters out of which the number
of litter containing one pup was 11 and the
remaining twenty two contained 2 pups each.
Because of the shrinkage of habitat, it appears

that nature is controlling their breeding power,
a natural family planning! The villagers are
bitter enemies of this animal but they are
practically unable to control them so they
unleash their vengeance on small pups. When
ever they get the news of any litter they burn
these helpless brutes alive in their dens.

This year I observed a most interesting and
puzzling behaviour of the wolves. About
thirteen miles on Udaipur Nathadwara road
there is a village Delwara and a mile off from
here is a hamlet called Goodly, situated at
the base of a hill and right in front of it
there is a cave in a ravine. Previously these
hills were clothed with jungle and the cave
was a permanent maternity home for leopards.
As the Jungle as well as leopards disappeared
this cave was used by Hyenas ( Hyaena
hyaena) and Jackals ( Canis aureus) but they
too were wiped out for their pelts. Now this
cave is often used by wolves for littering. This
year on 23rd June, 1986. Two pups of wolf
were sighted outside the cave. The villagers
became excited and planned to burn then alive.

The news was conveyed to me by Mr.
Karan Singh Jhala ex-Jagirdar of the area
who saved these animals.

The pups often come out of the cave for
play and retreat back as soon as they sense
any danger. When they grew a little bigger
the responsibility of rearing was shared by
both the partners who used to feed the pups
with semi-digested food which they would
vomit on a flat rock near the cave. After some
time the pups were fed with raw meat by
their parents.

The most striking feature of this littering
was that as long as the wolves occupied the
cave the dogs of the village remained silent,
even in the night they seldom barked. This
village lost on an average 12 to 16
thousand rupees worth of live stock annually.
As long as these pups were their not a single

423

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

animal from this village was touched by these
wolves though on several occasions they were
seen passing quite close to the grazing herds
of goats, and sheeps. On 6th August, in the
morning the pups went out of the cave with
their parents but returned back to the cave
after going for about a 100 yards. This was
repeated for three consecutive mornings on
the fourth morning they left the cave and the
parents killed a she goat of the Goodly village
very near to the cave to which they did not
return. In the afternoon the dogs of the village
became active and started barking and during
the whole night the dogs barked madly.

After a week the family returned back to
the cave in late evening and were greeted by
barking dogs. Next mofning they left the cave
for good and joined their pack. Nowadays a
pack of eight animals is operating in this
region. The pack consists of five adult and
three sub adult animals.

As the wolves of this region have to depend
upon domestic animals there is a marked
change in their mode of killing. They try to
disembowel the prey with amazing speed. After
that they tear the prey into pieces and run
away with the booty for atleast a distance
of 5 to 6 km. before settling to eat. The
tearing of their prey is so fast that it can not
be seen and the method requires to be filmed
for explaining the process. Attendents of the
herds shout and pelt them with stones and
chase them for long distances and if the prey
or part of the prey is dropped by the wolf they
pick it up for their own use.

An idea of the strength of these animals can

41, Panchwati,

Udaipur-313 001,

December 6, 1986.

be formed from the following instance. Near
Chandesra village we were standing at the
edge of a soap-stone quarry on the face of a
hill. At the base of the hill there was a meadow
fenced by Euphorbia with a mixed flock of
sheep and goat grazing peacefully. Suddenly
a wolf attacked a goat. There was great hulla-
baloo made by the graziers but the wolf carried
the goat in its mouth and cleared the fence
5 ft high and 3| feet broad cleanly with the
goat in its mouth. The men working in the
quarry ran after the wolf creating a great din.
Some right behind him and some took a short
cut to intercept him on his way. After more
than a Kilometre’s chase the wolf dropped the
prey and ran away. The dead goat was carried
back triumphantly to the quarry. It weighed 7
kgs. and was eaten by the workers of the
quarry.

I have not heard of any child lifting by
wolves during the last 35 yrs. around Udaipur.

Rabid wolves have been reported from
this region. Leopards are very few in this
region and they rarely prey upon goats and
sheep, depending upon ailing and useless
cows and bullocks which are left in the
jungles unattended. Villagers seldom bother
about such losses. The villagers are however
worried by the depredation of wolves and try
by every means in their power to destroy them
but at present the wolves seem to own a
charmed life. The villagers are searching for
means to counter the threat posed by the
wolves. If they succeed in turning the table
the small population of these beautiful, coura-
geous predator will be wiped out in a very
short period.

RAZA TEHSIN

424

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

5. ON A COLLECTION OF LONG-EARED BATS OF THE GENERA
OTONYCTERIS PETERS AND PLECOTUS GEOFFROY
(FAMILY: VESPERTILIONIDAE) FROM KASHMIR VALLEY

During the course of extensive collections
of bats made by me in Kashmir Valley during
the period 1976-1986, several specimens of
long-eared bats were collected from Hari
Parbat Hill, Shankaracharya Hill and adjacent
areas in Srinagar city. On examination these
were found to belong to the Vespertilionine
genera Plecotus Geoff r. and Otonycteris Peters.

Otonycteris kemprichi Peters (Hemprich’s
Long-eared bat) is a remarkable bat which
is an inhabitant of extremely barren and arid
regions, whose distribution ranges from
Kashmir and Russian Turkestan through Persia
and Asia Minor to the Arabian peninsula. In
North Africa it extends from Egypt through
Libya to Tunisia and Algeria. Very little detail
has been recorded of its habits in the region.
Cheesman (1920) noted that this bat has been
found in buildings but its natural habitat
seems to be narrow crevices under over-
hanging stones in the sides of steep magmatic
hills, as described earlier by Zahavi and
Wahrman (1957). These findings are in con-
formity with mine, as all the specimens collect-
ed by me came from the steep sides of
Shankaracharya Hill in Srinagar city.

Plecotus austriacus Fischer, the Grey Long-

Professor & Head,
Department of Zoology,
Islamia College of Science &
Commerce,

Srinagar (Kashmir), India,
August 19, 1986.

eared bat, is a cavern-dweller which inhabits
tunnels in the flanks of barren mountains in
Kashmir Valley. Specimens of this bat were
collected from Hari Parbat Fort area at
Srinagar. It has been previously recorded from
northern and southern Israel. Aharoni (1930)
noted it from the Dead Sea basin and Tristram
(1866) from the Sea of Galilee. The precise
range of the species has not been fully deter-
mined in relation to P. auritus Linn. It is
found in Europe including Portugal, Spain,
France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Holland, Ger-
many, Rumania, Austria, Yugoslavia, Corsica
and Corfu, the Ukraine and probably the
Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Armenia and Rus-
sian Turkestan, as well as Asia Minor. It is
also known to occur in Persia, Afghanistan and
the Arabian peninsula. It ranges to Egypt, N.
Sudan, Cyrenaiea, probably south to Eritrea
and Abyssinia and probably west to Tunisia,
Algeria and the Canaries. Forms may be refer-
able to this species extend eastwards to Siberia,
China and Japan, but a good deal of research
is needed before the specific affinities and dis-
tribution of the various described forms can
be elucidated. It was first recognised as being
present in England as recently as 1963 and
its range in Britain is confined to a small area
on the south coast of England (Burton 1982).

SURENDRA NATH

425

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

References

Aharon i, J. (1930) : Die Saugetiere Palestines.
Zeit. Saugetierk. Berlin, 5: 341.

Burton, John A. (1982): The Guinness Book
of Mammals. Guinness Superlatives Ltd., England.

Cheesman, R. E. (1920) : Report on the Mam-
mals of Mesopotamia, collected by members of the
Mesopotamian Expeditionary force, 1915-1919. /.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27 : 323-346.

Tristram, H. B. (1866) : Report on the Mammals
of Palestine. Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 84.

Zahavi, A. & Wahrman, J. (1957): The cyto-
taxonomy, ecology and evolution of the gerbils and
jirds of Israel (Rodentia: Gerbillinae) . Mammalia,
Paris, 21: 341-380.

6. UNUSUAL NEST SITE OF A THREE STRIPED PALM
SQUIRREL, FUNAMBULUS PALMARUM AT
POINT CALIMERE

On 28th November 1986, around 1410 hrs.
we saw a three striped Palm squirrel carrying
a young one in its mouth, under a Palmyra
tree near our office campus. It was followed
by another squirrel. The young one was held
by its back and was slowly carried towards
the Palmyra tree followed by the second adult.
The squirrel climbed the tree with the other
following when it reached the edge of the
crown it waited there, within a minute the
second squirrel climbed over the crown and
started looking beneath. The young one was
Biologists,

Avifauna Project,

Kodikicarai-614 807,

Thanjavur (Dist.),

Tamil Nadu,

January 7. 1987.

released and made to climb over the crown
and to a leaf-stalk followed by the parent and
both of them disappeared into the leaf fold.
After this event the adult which was waiting
below the crown rushed down to the ground
and disappeared. After a few minutes, with the
help of a local man who climbed the Palmyra
tree, we confirmed the presence of the young
one with one of its parents in the nest which
was located on the leaf fold. This nest site is
unusual and unrecorded before.

S. ALAGAR RAJ AN
S. BALACHANDRAN
P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

7. A NOTE ON THE POST-PARTUM REPRODUCTION IN THE
SHORT-TAILED BANDICOOT RAT ( NESOKIA INDICA)

The occurrence of pregnancy during lacta-
tion and a lactation-controlled delay in
blastocyst implantation in the rat and mouse
have frequently been documented (Lamming
1978). In this, the female experiences a period
of heat and even ovulates a few days after
the parturition. If there is a successful mating
during this period, the pregnancy may occur

even when it is lactating. We have observed a
few similar cases in the colony of the short-
tailed bandicoot rat, Nesokia indica.

The rats were collected from the fields and
were maintained in our animal house for
experimental purposes. They breed successfully
in captivity under natural photoperiod and
temperature conditions and show breeding

426

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

activity during winter and spring months
(Gariyali 1975). It was observed while breed-
ing these rats that the female, kept with a
male, delivered litters twice successively. With-
in the period of a single breeding season dur-
ing 1984-85, three such cases of pregnancy
were observed.

In first case, a single female rat was caged
with one male for mating purpose. On Dec-
ember 10, 1984, this female delivered 4 young
ones. On January 12, 1985, the same female
again gave birth to 2 young ones. The time
between the successive litters was 33 days. In
second case, one female rat, kept with a male,
littered 3 young ones on January 16, 1985.
After a gap of 34 days, i.e. on February 19,
1985, this female gave birth to another litter
of 2 young ones. And in third case, one female,
kept with a male, delivered 4 young ones on
March 19, 1985. On April 17, 1985, the same
female littered another batch of 4 young ones.
Twenty nine days intervened between these
successive litters. In all these cases, the male

was removed about 4-5 days after the first
littering.

The observed second time pregnancy and
then littering in the fore-mentioned cases may
well possibly be due to a fertile post-partum
mating within short time after the first partu-
rition, as stated earlier. In first two cases, the
time interval between the birth of the two
litters are 33 and 34 days respectively which
are more than the normal gestation period
(av. 28.5 days) for the bandicoot rats. It is
possible that the post-partum mating combined
with delayed implantation of the blastocysts
may account for these two cases. The inci-
dence and duration of delayed implantation
of blastocysts are known to be affected by the
length and intensity of lactation (Lamming
1978). In third case, since the time interval
between two litters is 29 days which is the
normal gestation period of this animal, it is
obvious that soon after the first littering a
fertile post-partum mating and normal im-
plantation of the blastocysts had occurred.

N. P. S. CHAUHAN

Department of Zoology,
University of Delhi,
Delhi - 110 007,

July 22, 1986.

References

Gariyali, V. (1975): Studies on the physiology Lamming, G. E. (1978): Reproduction during
and neuroendocrine control of reproduction in the lactation. In: D. B. Crighton, N. B. Haynes, G. R.

short-tailed bandicoot rat. Nesokia indica. Ph.D. Foxcroft and G. E. Lamming (eds.), Control of

thesis, University of Delhi. Delhi. India. Ovulation. Butterworths, London, pp. 335-353.

8. ALBINISM IN THE BLUE BULL OR NILGAI, BOSELAPHUS
TRAGOCAMELUS (PALLAS, 1766)

Albinism as a phenomenon of the lack of
pigmentation resulting from the inability to
synthetise melanin and caused by the absence
of dominating allel is frequently observed
among mammals of India, especially in such

species as Chital or Axis deer — Cervus axis
Erxleben, 1777, Blackbuck — Antilope cervi-
capra (Linnaeus, 1758), and Chinkara — Gazella
gazella bennetti (Sykes, 1831). In specimens
of these species bred in zoos of India —

427

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

chiefly in Ahmedabad — one can observe total
albinism with red-coloured eyes. Albinism may
be conditioned by the genes which at certain
stage can slow down the production of melanin
from tyrosine (Hutt 1972). Steinbacher (1951)
takes into account a complete loss of melanin
because of the genic split and he supposes that
probability of the occurrence of individuals
with albinism is increasing in the case when
a couple is formed of a brother and sister
because they are carriers of the recessive genes
received by them from one of their parents.
As a result of inbreeding white females of
American tapir, Tapirus terrestris (Linnaeus,
1758) have been born in Poznan zoo as a
result of the mating father and daughter
(Smielowski 1979). Albinism in animals fre-
quently occurs as a feaction of the organism
to certain illnesses and injuries (Steinbacher
1951), to aging (Sokolowski 1962), unsuita-
ble living conditions, overpopulation, and as
a symptom of degeneration of a population
(Ferens 1957). According to Hutt (1968)
spontaneous depigmentation is probably here-
ditary, however its genetic and physiological
basis are unknown. This phenomenon is simi-
lar to a premature greying of the hair in human
beings (Hutt 1968). Similarly to a sponta-
nous depigmentation the reasons if of a trau-
matic nature are also unknown. The effect of
traumatic depigmentation is often observed in
the birds whose heads have been pecked at
by other birds. Perhaps the white spots on
melanistic male of the black panther, Panthera
pardus (Linnaeus, 1758) bred in Plock zoo
from 24th August, 1969 to 7th February, 1984

Department of Zoology,

Academy of Agriculture in Poznan,

60-625 Poznan, Wajska Folskiego 71 c,
Poland,

September 18, 1986.

are the result of a traumatic depigmentation,
the same as observed in birds (Ptaszyk 1981).
However, none of its numerous offsprings
inherited depigmentation typical to their
father.

The loss of a proper colour of the hair in
mammals may result in hereditary changes, or
it may have the character of nonhereditary
acquired trait built as the result of disturb-
ances in metabolism processes. Perhaps this
brought about the disappearance of melanin
synthesis, or caused its deficiency observed in
a mature nilgai female, Boselaphus tragocame-
lus (Pallas, 1766) taken over from Amsterdam
on 19th November 1975 and bred in Plock
zoo since 21st April, 1979 (Smielowski 1980).
The female has great, white spots on the
neck and the trunk, particularly near the
shoulder, buttock and on both sides of her
body. Numerous, tiny white spots are also
visible on the facial part of the head as well
as on the upper parts of the hind and front
limbs. The pattern of these spots has remain-
ed unchanged, despite of annual moulting in
spring and in autumn. Since 1980 the female
has had her regular offsprings, always twins.
Despite her non-typical pigmentation she has
always been the dominant in the herd, and
also aggressive especially during the rearing
of her progeny. Her offsprings have always
normally coloured hair and part of them have
been taken over by other zoos in the country
(Lodz, Gdansk-Oliwa, Wroclaw). The young
of this female are under continuous observa-
tion.

J. SMIELOWSKI

428

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Ferens, B. (1957) : Ptaki miasta Krakowa, ich
ochrona i restytucja. Ochrona Przyrcdy, 24.

Hutt, F. B. (1968) : Genetyka drobiu. Warszawa.

(1972): Genetyka zwierzat. Warszawa.

Ptaszyk, J. (1981): Nietypowo ubarwienie u

ptakow. Notatki Ornitologiczne, XXII, 1-2: 37-46.

Smielowski, J. (1979): Births of the white Ame-
rican tapirs. International Zoo News, 26/3, 159:
10-15.

(1980): Rozmnazanie i przezywal-

nosc nilgau, Boselaphus tragocamelus (Pallas, 1766)
w warunkach Zoo. Roczniki AR w Poznaniu, 120:
135-145.

Sokolowski, J. (1962) : Badania nad zmiennoscia
indywidualna i biologia szczygla ( Carduelis r cardue-
lis L.) w Polsce. Acta. Omit hoi., 7: 34-67.

Steinbacher, G. (1951) : Albinismus. Ornithol.
Mitteilung., 3, 6: 129-131.

9. MICROSCOPIC IDENTIFICATION OF FEATHERS AIDING BIRD
HAZARD PREVENTION PROGRAMME IN INDIA

(With two plates)

The Bombay Natural History Society has
since 1966, been receiving for identification,
remnants of birds involved in bird-strike in-
cidents in the Indian Air Force. The bird
remnants sent are usually feathers picked up
from the site of impact. Whenever the bird
remnants were intact, such as a large com-
plete feather, head or a foot, the species was
conclusively identified while at other times,
such as when the feathers were fragmentary
or disfigured, the bird species could not be
identified. In the earlier years bird remnants
were identified at the BNHS by the then
Research Assistant D. N. Mathew, and later on
by Robert Grubh and others, to the extent
possible under the then existing constraints.

However, with the launching of the Project
“Ecological Study of Bird Hazards at Indian
Aerodromes”, funded by the Government of
India in 1980, the BNHS investigated the pos-
sibility of identifying bird species even from
a nondescript feather or a fragment. It was at
this stage that RBG came across Brom &
Buurma’s (1979) and Brom’s (1980) papers
on microscopic identification of feathers. Brom’s
(1980) work was the first major contribution
in this direction after the initial findings by
Hargrave (1965) and Day (1966).

In 1982 October RBG spent a day at the
Smithsonian Institution Natural History
Museum (Bird section) with Roxie LayboUrne
who gave a detailed practical demonstration
of the preparation of microscopic slides for
identification of feathers.

The BNHS has adopted Brom & Buurma’s
method for feather identification since 1981.
Using this method and the techniques (Ali and
Grubh 1984 and Grubh and Ali 1984) we are
able to narrow down the identification quite
often to family or even generic level, further
identification being effected by comparing with
feathers of all species belonging to this genus
or family from the BNHS reference collection.
The research staff associated with feather
identification since 1981 have been Lalitha
Kupuswamy, Saraswathi Unnithan, S. M.
Satheesan and the authors.

The Principle :

The microscopic structure of the feather
barbules, particularly from the basel end of the
vane, varies from one taxonomic group to
another. The structural variations of barbules
as explained by Brom (1984) are as follows:

1 . Barbules may possess prongs.

429

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

2. Barbules are clearly subdivided into nodes
and internodes (which are often pigmented).

3. Pigmented nodes can be heart-shaped,
round or elongated and may have prongs
of varying length.

4. Barbules show multiple nodes. The single
nodes become loose and slide along the
intemodes to join the adjacent nodes. This
process may be repeated till 8 to 10 nodes
accumulate at one point.

5. Barbules may possess heart-shaped or
round or elongated nodes only at the tips.

6. Nodes may decrease in size over a short
distance.

7. Bases of barbules may possess villi (out
growths).

8. The length of the barbules, the number of
nodes as well as the internodal distance
vary from group to group.

The photographs given here (see plates)
show that it is possible to distinguish bird
species from even a feather fragment (for
detailed classification of bird taxa using this
method see Brom (1980). So far the BNHS
has identified almost all of the 125 odd bird
remnants (having feather) sent to us for
identification by IAF and the Civil Aviation.
In all we have come across 46 bird species
from these remnants (see Table 1).

Before the BNHS started identifying bird-
strike remnants, one had to depend mostly on
visual identifications made on the spot by

Table 1

Bird species identified from bird strike
REMNANTS (N. 125)

Number of

Species Remnant

Samples

1. Pond Heron ( Ardeola grayii ) 1

2. Cattle Egret ( Bubulcus ibis ) 1

3. Blackwinged Kite ( Elanus caeruleus ) 1

Number of

Species Remnant

Samples

4. Pariah Kite ( Milvus migrans ) 6

5. Brahminy Kite ( Haliastur indus ) 1

6. Longbilled Vulture ( Gyps indicus ) 6

7. Whitebacked Vulture ( Gyps bengalensis ) 29

8. Vulture (Gyps sp.) 4

9. Scavenger Vulture ( Neophron

perenopterus ) 1

10. Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus ) 1

11. Short-toed Eagle (Circaetus gallicus ) 2

12. Redheaded Merlin (Falco chicquera ) 1

13. Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus ) 1

14. Rain Quail (Coturnix coromandelica ) 2

15. Painted Bush Quail (Perdicula

erythrorhyncha ) 1

16. Common Peafowl (Pavo cristatus ) 3

17. Demoiselle Crane (Anthropoides virgo ) 1

18. Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus ) 1

19. Small Indian Pratincole (Glareola lactea ) 1

20. Redwattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus ) 6

21 . Yellow- wattled Lapwing (Vanellus

malabctricus ) 3

22. Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata ) 1

23. Indian Sandgrouse (Pterocles exustus ) 1

24. Blue Rock Pigeon (Columba livia ) 10

25. Indian Ring Dove (Streptopelia decaocto ) 2

26. Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis ) 2

27. Little Brown Dove (Streptopelia

senegalensis) 1

28. Roseringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri ) 1

29. Parakeet (Psittacula sp.) 1

30. Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea) 1

31 . Swiftlet (Colloealia sp.) 1

32. House Swift (A pus affinis ) 9

33. Palm Swift (Cypsiurus parvus) 4

34. Short-toed Lark (Calandrella cinerea) 2

35. Crested Lark (Galerida cristata) 1

36. House Swallow (Hirundo tahitica) 1

37. Indian Cliff Swallow (Hirundo fluvicola) 1

38. Redrumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica) 1

39. Rufousbacked Shrike (Lanius schach) 1

40. Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) .1

41 . Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis) 1

42. House Crow (Corvus splendens) 4

43. Jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) 1

44. House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) 1

45. Bat (Non bird) (Pipistrellus mimus) 2

46. Bat (Non bird) (Taphozous sp.) 1

430

J. Bombay nat. Hjst. Soc. 84 Plate 1

Rosalind & Grubh: Feathers

The following pictures are magnifications (1 x c. 300) of loose barbules from the base of the
feather form different species.

1. A complete feather.

2. Psittacula krameri ; 3. Otus scops ; 4. Acridotheres tristis.

The following pictures are magnifications (1 x c. 300) of loose barbules from the base of the
feather from different species.

5. Passer domesticus; 6. Streptopelia oriental is \ 7. Columba livia ; 8. Mi/vus migrans.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84
Rosalind & Grubh: Feathers

PLATE 2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

pilots and other aviation officials. As a result
the bird species supposed to have been in-
volved in bird strikes were mostly restricted
to very common birds and that too subject
often to vague generalizations such as when
names of ‘eagles’, ‘vultures’ and ‘kites’ were
freely interchanged.

Correct identification of the bird species in-
volved in a bird-strike incidents is essential
for bird hazard prevention programmes using
ecological methods. The most authentic way
to recognise the bird species involved is to
have the bird remnants positively identified by
experts. Yet the extent of reporting of bird-

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay - 400 023,

February 21, 1986.

strike incidents along with bird remnants, by
civil aviation personnel in India, has been
extremely unsatisfactory. The Indian Air Force,
on the contrary is very keen to co-operate
with us in our bird-hazard prevention pro-
gramme. In fact over 90% of the bird-strike
remnants we have received so far have been
sent to us by the IAF.

Acknowledgement

The study was undertaken as a part of the
Project Ecological study of Bird hazards at
Indian Aerodromes, funded by ARDB Ministry
of Defence, Government of India.

LIMA ROSALIND
ROBERT B. GRUBH

Refe

Ali, Salim & Grubh, Robert B. (1984) : Ecolo-
gical Study of bird hazards at Indian Aerodromes.
Phase II, First annual report (1982-83). Bombay
Natural History Society.

Brom, T. G. (1980) : Microscopic identification
of feather remains after collusions between birds and
aircraft. 89 pp. Amsterdam.

Brom, T. G. & Buurma, L. S. (1979) : The quality
of identification: a microscopic key to the deter-
mination of feather remains. 14th Meeting of Bird
Strike Committee. Europe Wp, 196 pp.

10. GREAT CRESTED

Nagpur, city of oranges situated in the
eastern tip of Maharashtra is surrounded by
some of the most beautiful forests of our
state. Outside Nagpur one of the lakes feeding
the water supply to the city is the Ambhajhari
lake. This lake is the residence of atleast two

ENCES

Day, M. G. (1966) : Identification of hair and
feathers remains in the gut and faeces of stoats and
Weasels. /. Zool. 148 : 201-217. (Not consulted in
original).

Grubh, Robert B. & Ali, Salim (1984): Poten-
tial problem birds at Indian aerodromes. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.

Hargrave, L. L. (1965): Identification of feather
fragments by microstudies. American Antiquity 31
(2): 202-205. (Not consulted in original).

GREBE SIGHTING

to three thousand Ducks and other waterfowl
such as Coots, Teals, Pochards in winter. On
Friday 13th December 1985 myself and fellow
bird watchers Shri J. B. Kewate and Shri A.
B. Gandhe saw two pairs of the Great Crested
Grebe ( Podiceps cristatus). They were also

431

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

sighted two days earlier. Their white facial
and neck parts with prominent black top were
carefully observed through binoculars by all
three of us. They repeatedly dived for food.
I believe this species is rare in our area and

hence we would like to record its occurrence.

The same day and time we also observed a
single Pied Harrier which was with us till
almost 5.45 p.m.

AMRUT DHANWATAY

World Wildlife Fund-India,
108, Ramdaspeth,
Nagpur-440 010,

December 24, 1985.

11. ON THE CAPTURE OF WILSON’S STORM PETREL OCEAN ITES
OCEANICUS OCEANICUS (KHUL) FROM THE SOUTH
EAST COAST OF INDIA

During the fifth cruise on board FORV
Sugar Sam pad a from Madras to Cochin in
July, 1985 I caught two Wilson’s Storm Petrels
when they landed on the deck at dusk,
probably attracted to the ship by the deck
lights. When caught they did not make any
attempt to escape due to failing light. They
were active and pecked when the hand was
taken near them.

The birds were of bulbul size with long
slender legs with distinct yellow webbed toes.
Colour of the birds was sooty black with a
conspicuous white patch above the tail and
pale wing bar. The beak was somewhat sharp
with a small fleshy projection over it at the
base.

According to Salim Ali and Ripley (1981)

it is one of the most numerous bird species
in the world. It breeds in Antarctic and Sub-
antarctic Islands wandering north in the
Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans in summer,
to Europe, Arabia, India, New Guinea, Japan,
California etc. Not uncommon along the coast
of the Persian Gulf, Makaran and Sind. It
is also recorded from the Konkan coast and
also from Bombay. Curiously enough it is
not recorded from the northern parts of Bay
of Bengal. It is now recorded from the South
East Coast of India. They must have come
from the Sri Lankan coast for they are known
to visit Sri Lanka chiefly during the monsoon
season.

I am most grateful to Dr. Salim All for
kindly identifying the bird.

D. B. JAMES

Madras Research Centre
of CMFRI, Madras - 600 105,

December 28, 1985.

Reference

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1981): Handbook
of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1. Oxford
University Press. 384 pp.

432

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

12. FIRST REPORT OF MASKED BOOBY, SULA DACTYLATRA
FROM THE SHORES OF COASTAL KARNATAKA

( With a photograph)

On a quiet morning on July 1, 1985 at
Katapadi, near Udupi (c. 13°23'N., 74°45'E),
after a heavy rainfall the previous evening, the
barking of dogs drew the attention of the
local people to a strange bird. The bird was
a rare one to our coast, a masked booby ( Sula
dactylatra) .

Masked boobies are common throughout
tropical oceans. Records show that there are
colonies breeding in Cocos-Keeling, Barbados,
Mauritius, Aldabra and in Maidive. They
do not go far off from the oceanic land
habitats, and hence are rarely to be seen
on the coasts of mainland. Infact in India,

Photo. 1. Masked Booby ( Sula dactylatra ) caught at Mattu near Udupi
on 1st July, 1985. {Photo: K. S. Harshvardhan Bhat).

433

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

it is said that there are hardly 4-5 reports so
far on the occurrence of masked boobies on
the west coast.

Ever since the report of the booby’s arrival
on July 1, 1985 appeared in newspapers, four
more such boobies were spotted in different
parts of coastal Karnataka within a range of
70 km. On July 3, a second booby was spotted
at Trasi, 40 km north of Udupi but it was
dead within two days of its arrival. At Panam-
bur, about 35 km south of Udupi two more
masked boobies were spotted during the second
week of July, 1985, but could not be observed
in detail as one had already disappeared (!)
and the other was dead the very next day.
On July 16, 1985, the fifth masked booby was
found at Saligrama, 15 km north of Udupi.
It was active but was too weak. The man
who brought the bird said that a sum of rupees
one hundred was offered for this bird for its
exotic nature and delicacy. His refusal to sell
it for money is appreciated.

Masked booby spotted at Katapadi was
maintained for about two months by a fisher-
man, feeding it regularly with freshly caught
fish. Mr S. A. Hussain of the Bombay Natural
History Society helped us to ring this bird
(ring No. K-421) and advised some flight

POORNAPRAJNA COLLEGE,

Udupi 576 101,

December 27, 1985.

exercises. In about two months the bird became
healthy and active. In the meantime, the bird
caught at Saligrama was also kept with the
previous one and was also ringed (K-422).

Both the boobies were let off from Coconut
Island, the northernmost island in the group
of islands known as St. Mary’s Islands, during
October 1985. The birds took to wing happily
and went out of sight. However, the bird
carrying ring K-422 was found on the shore of
Malpe near Udupi, and in a couple of days
it died.

The unusual appearance of the boobies along
the 70 km of west coast of Karnataka, almost
simultaneously, posed a number of questions.
Was there a large flock of boobies that moved
along the west coast during July this year? If
so, what prompted them to do so? Interest-
ingly, all the birds that were spotted, were too
weak and could not take to wing on their own.
This might mean that only the exhausted and
weak ones must have stayed while the rest
must have moved away. But where? Or, was
there any cyclonic or other turbulence in the
Indian ocean or the Arabian Sea which drove
some of these birds ashore? Could it also mean
that some of them had lost their way and
landed on our shore?

N. A. MADHYASTHA

13. THE GOSHAWK, ACCIP1TER GENTILIS (LINNE) IN POONA,

MAHARASHTRA

Southwest of Poona city is the National
Defence Academy at Khadakwasala. The
approach road to this passes over moderately
sloping hills covered with bushes and trees.
Close to the establishment, the vegetation turns

into a dry deciduous type of forest that is
protected as a sanctuary.

On October 18, 1981, we saw a large hawk
dive steeply and land on a leafless tree on the
top of a hill some distance away from the

434

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

road. Keeping under cover we cautiously
approached the bird and were able to get a
very clear view of it. A white supercilium stood
out well against the grey head. The underparts
were barred dark grey while the back was
grey and the tail being fairly long had dark
bars on it. The bird was identified as an adult
Goshawk, Accipiter gentilis and judging from
the size it was a female. As we edged forward
to get a closer look, the bird flew off fast.
Some days later, on November 4, 1981 we saw
a single bird in the same area again.

On October 22, 1981 we saw one bird again
in the Baner area west of Poona. As the dis-
tance between the three sightings is only a

12 Varshananda Society,

Anandnagar, Hingne-Khurd,

Poona -411 051.

Research Fellow,

Department of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University,

Rajkot - 360 005.

IB Abhimanshree Housing Society,

Poona - 411 008,

December 8, 1985.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K. S. (1955): Birds of
Saurashtra. Times of India Press, Bombay.

Ripley, S. D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds

14. ON THE IDENTIFICATION
Introduction

Identification of museum specimens of the
genus Buteo can be a rather complicated issue,
because of the great individual and geographic
variation: in the plumage coloration (the birds
occur in reddish, brownish and blackish colours

few kilometres, it seems possible that the same
individual was seen each time.

The Goshawk is a rare winter visitor to the
lower Himalayas and has been recorded in
Sind, Bahawalpur and Saurashtra (Ripley
1982). Dharmakumarsinhji (1955) describes
the bird being seen once in the winter of 1948
in the Gir forest and the capture of an imma-
ture female in the month of December in
Bhavnagar, Gujarat. He records it once from
Mt. Abu in Rajasthan. Our sightings consti-
tute a record of this species for Maharashtra
and an extension of its known range south
of Gujarat.

SHRIKANT INGALHALIKAR

TAEJ MUNDKUR

TEJAS GOLE

ENCES

of India and Pakistan, Second Edition. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.

OF SOME INDIAN BUZZARDS

in varying degrees of lightness), and in mor-
phometric measurements (bill, wings, tarsus
and tail), which shows proportional as well
as dimensional differences.

Interspecific variation occurs in both plum-
age-coloration and morphometric characters.
Intraspecific variation expresses itself in size

435

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

differences between sexes (female larger than
males), in differences between age groups
(younger individuals are lighter than older
ones), and in differences between individuals
from different geographic areas.

As Indian Buzzards never have been in-
vestigated with this in mind, one can have
some difficulties in identifying the different
species and subspecies from each other. There-
fore, H. Abdulali, during his reidentification
of the specimens in the collection of Bombay
Museum of Natural History, sent me some
“difficult” Buzzards for identification, and ask-
ed if I was willing to write a note of how to
identify Indian Buzzards.

I have chosen only to treat the four species
and subspecies which cause great confusion
namely: Buteo rufinus, Buteo hemilasius,

Buteo buteo vulpinus and Buteo buteo japoni-
cus.From those handbooks and original papers,
which were available to me (see the refer-
ences), I have collected data, and to this in-
formation I have added measurements from
the rather few specimens from Zoological
Museum in Copenhagen, and from Bombay.

This note does not deal with the general
biology, but these can referred to in the hand-
books and original papers (some are quoted
under the references).

The Tables

The tables are structured so that they can
be used as a kind of “identification key”, and
for each table, the taxa are arranged accord-
ing to increasing size.

According to the wing measurements (Table

1), there can be some problems in separating
the two subspecies B. b. vulpinus and B. b.
japonicus from each other. B. b. vulpinus is
slightly smaller than B. b. japonicus, — and in
this case one can relatively safely rely on the
fact, that the plumage of B. b. vulpinus appears

more reddish than that of B. b. japonicus.
Separated on wing measurements B. rufinus and
B. hemilasius can hardly be confused.

Information on bill measurements (Table

2) is very scattered. Besides, in the case where
the authors have mentioned how they have
measured the bills, it was in two different
ways: some have included the cere, and some
have excluded the cere.

Concerning the tarsus measurements (Table

3 ) , one must be aware of the general difficulties
in measuring this character accurately on
museum specimens. Apparently only B. hemi-
lasius can be identified with certainty, while
the others are very similar in size according
to this character.

The four species and subspecies are easily
separated, when one uses the tail measure-
ments (Table 4).

Comments on the tables

From handbooks and original papers con-
cerning Indian Buzzard’s plumage coloration, I
cannot point out one particular description,
which is especially good and exact, — but for
subjective descriptions I can refer to the lite-
rature quoted here. In order to obtain an
objective determination of the colour variation
spectrophotometry is recommended (Dyck
1966). Patterns and coloration in the plumage
of the Buzzards are therefore not referred to
in detail in this note. Concerning the infor-
mation obtained from handbooks, the median
and ranges given, suggest that some of the
authors have used identical sources. Therefore,
the actual number of specimens investigated
for each of the four taxons may be smaller
than that given in the tables.

Moreover, in some instances sample sizes
are not given. If there exist any kind of clinal
variation, it is not taken into account, because

436

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Wing measurements of Buteo buteo vulpinus, Buteo buteo japonicus, Buteo rufinus and Buteo hemilasius.

5

$

Sex unknown

Species

n.

Range

Average

n.

Range

Average

n. Range

Average

Author

B. b. vulpinus

. —

350-385

367.5

—

350-390

370

23

—

350-377

363.5

—

378-392

385

5

—

350-385

367.5

— :

350-390

370

4

82

342-372

357

77

360-386

373

12

27

341-387

364

21

352-400

376

10

21

343-370

356.5

13

358-383

370.5

20

1

367

3 359-380

369.5

Bombay

B. b. japonicus

—

374-379

376.5

—

389-454

421.5

5

1

348

2

2

367-371

369

1

422

1

400

3

—

374-379

376.5

—

389-454

421.5

4

14

365-388

376.5

20

378-426

402

12

13

362-400

381

11

370-408

389

20

B. rufinus

—

415-431

423

—

428-458

443

5

1

438

3

—

415-431

423

—

428-458

443

4

24

405-438

421.5

24

442-475

458.5

12

19

425-459

442

18

448-496

472

10

1

408

1

432

Bombay

7

432-449

440.5

10

434-485

459.5

1

434

ZM.

B. hemilasius

480-501

490.5

5

— 480-501

490.5

4

2

465-475

470

Bombay

1

454

ZM.

ZM.: Zoological Museum,

Copenhagen.

... . ,

. ... .... _

Table 2

Bill measurements

of Buteo buteo vulpinus, Buteo rufinus,

Buteo buteo japonicus and

Buteo hemilasius.

$

$

Sex unknown

Species

n.

Range

Average

n.

Range

Average

n. Range

Average

Author

B. b. vulpinus

—

20-23*

21.5

23

—

20-23*

21.5

4

27

18.8-22***

20.4

21

19.2-24.1*** 21.65

10

B. rufinus

—

32-34**

33

4

20

23.6-29.2*** 26.4

20

25. 9-31. 9* !

** 28.9

10

6

23.7-29.9*

26.7

10

25.1-30.1*

27.6

1

24.9*

ZM.

B. b. japonicus

1

30***

2

—

29***

—

29-36**

32.5

4

B. hemilasius

34—36**

35

4

1

26.4*

ZM.

* : Bill measurements excl. cere, **: Bill measurements inch cere.

***: Not mentioned how the bill is measured.

ZM.: Zoological Museum, Copenhagen.

437

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 3

Tarsus measurements of Buteo buteo vulpinus, Buteo buteo japonicus, Buteo rufinus and Buteo hemilasius

$

$

Sex unknown

Species

n.

Range

Average

n.

Range

Average

n. Range Average Author

B. b. vulpinus

—

65-75

70

23

—

68-72

70

—

68-73

70.5

5

—

65-75

70

4

14

70-75

72.5

13

71-79

75

10

1

57

3 44-64.5 54.25 Bombay

B. b. japonicus

—

63-65

64

—

69-74

71.5

5

1

75

2

—

63-65

64

—

69-74

71.5

4

B. rufinus

—

56-82

69

—

60-77

63.5

5

—

56-82

69

—

60-77

63.5

4

22

85-93

89

23

87-94

90.5

10

1

80

1 67 Bombay

B. hemilasius

—

81-90

85.5

5

—

81-90

85.5

4

2

/ 74-83

78.5

Bombay

Tail measurements

Table 4

of Buteo buteo vulpinus, Buteo buteo

japonicus,

Buteo rufinus and Buteo hemilasius.

$

$

Sex unknown

Species

n.

Range

Average

n.

Range

Average

n. Range Average Author

B. b. vulpinus

—

175-195

185

23

—

180-191

185.5

—

182-201

191.5

5

—

175-195

185

4

28

174-207

190.5

19

178-210

194

10

1

198

2 192-207 199.5 Bombay

B. b. japonicus

_

198-209

203.5

. . — — .

225-248

236.5

5

—

198-209

203.5

—

225-248

236.5

4

1

188.5

2

B. rufinus

228-250

239

230-257

243.5

5

1

242

3

—

228-250

239

—

230-257

243.5

4

20

207-244

225.5

20

223-262

242.5

10

1

232

1

225

Bombay

B. hemilasius

—

255-282

270

5

— 255-282 270 4

2

235-240

237.5

Bombay

438

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the exact nature of such dines is not known
for Buzzards from this area.

According to these four tables it is obvious,
that it is not enough only to use one character
in the identification process. Primarily, because
of the heterogenity of the data in the tables,
— and secondly because of the size differences
(e.g. female larger than males; B. hemilasius

Mordrupvej 56,

3060 Espergaerde,

Denmark,

August 9, 1985.

larger than B. b. vulpinus), and the propor-
tional differences (e.g. B. rufinus with relatively
small bill in relation to wing, tarsus, bill and
tail measurements). But if one uses at least
these four characters in combination , it should
be relatively safe to identify specimens belong-
ing to the four species and subspecies in
question.

HANNE SECHER

References

1. Ali, S. (1945) : The Birds of Kutch. Oxford Uni-
versity Press.

2. (1953): The Birds of Travancore &

Cochin. Oxford University Press.

3. (1962): The Birds of Sikkim. Oxford

University Press.

4. Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1. Oxford Uni-
versity Press.

5. Baker, E. C. S. (1928): The Fauna of British
India, including Ceylon and Burma. Birds, Vol. 5
(sec. ed.). Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court.
Fleet street, London.

6. Bates, R. S. P. & Lowther, E. H. N. (1952):
Breeding Birds of Kashmir. Oxford University
Press.

7. Beesley, J. S. S. et at. (1976) : New Distribu-
tional data: 7. Ostrich 47 (4) : 214-222.

8. Busse, H. (1975) : Der Adlerbussard. Falke 22
(11): 394-395.

9. Brown, L. & Amadon, D. (1968): Eagles, Hawks
and Falcons of the World. Vol. 2. Balding and
Mansell Limited, Wisbech, Camds, Great Britain.

10. Cramp, S. (ed.) et al. (1980) : Handbook of the
Birds of Europe the Middle East and Sorth Africa.
The birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2. Oxford
University Press.

11. Davidson, I. (1976): Long-legged Buzzard (Buteo
rufinus). Bokmakiere 28(3): 74.

12. Dementiev, G. P. et al. (1951) : Birds of Soviet
Union. Vol. 1. Moscow.

13. Dharmakumarsinhji, R. S.: Birds of Saura-
shtra, India. Bombay.

14. Dyck, J. (1965): Determination of Plumage
Colours, Feather-Pigments and structure by means
of Reflection spectrophometry. DOFT. 60 : 49-76.

15. Gole, P. (1978) : A Buzzard nest in Ladakh. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(1) : 213-14.

16. Koning, F. J. (1976) : Notes on the Birds of
Prey in the Indus Valley, ibid. 73 (3) : 448-455.

17. Pan’kin, N. S. (1975): Buteo Hemilasius in the
upper Amur Territory. Zoologicheskii Zh. 54(2) :
315.

18. Sabelin, W. I. (1966) : Der Tibetische Adlerbus-
sard in der Tuwinischen ASSR. Falke 13: 384-85.

19. Sterbetz, I. (1961) : Zur Feldornithologischen
Bestimmung des Adlerbussards (Buteo rufinus). Orn.
Mitt. 13: 175.

20. Vaurie, C. (1961): Systematic notes on Palearcitc
Birds. No. 47. Accipitridea : the genus Buteo. Am.
Mus. Nov. 2042: 1-14.

21. Vcous, K. H. & Bijleveld, M.F.I.J. (1964): A
note on Himalayan Buzzards Buteo buteo (Aves).
Beaufortia 11 : 31-43.

22. Whistler, H. (1949) : Popular Handbook of In-
dian Birds. Gurney and Jackson, London.

23. Witherby, H. F. et al. (1939) : The Handbook og
British Birds. Vol. 3. H. F. and G. Witherby Ltd.,
London.

439

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

15. THE SANDWICH TERN (STERNA SANDVICENSIS)
IN SRI LANKA

During almost 6 weeks, from the 16th
February to the 28th of March, 1986, I was
able to observe every day several Sandwich
Terns, varying in number from 1 to 6. These
birds were resting throughout most of the day
on two rocks in the sea about 200 yards off
the coast at Colombo, south of the Lighthouse.
These rocks are habitually used during the
late North-East Monsoon and the intermon-
soonal season up to about May by various
species of Terns, notably Large Crested Terns
( Sterna bergii). Lesser Crested Terns ( Sterna
bengalensis) , always few in number. Whisker-
ed Terns ( Chlldonias hybrida). Common
Terns ( Sterna hirundo ) in varying numbers,
intermittently by Little Terns ( Sterna albi-
frons), and occasionally White-winged Black
Terns (Chlidonias leucopterus). As I live
nearby on top of a 5-storey building, I have
excellent opportunities of watching these birds
through binoculars and by means of an Opto-
lyth 30 x 75 telescope. I have indulged in
this pastime over a number of years and have,
for instance, been able to show that the Com-
mon Tern is by no means as rare or irregular
a visitor to the Colombo coast as had been
assumed; most of the Common Terns seen
here are first and second year birds. Inci-
dentally, I also discovered a breeding colony
of this Tern on a small island composed
entirely of coral debris about a mile off the
east coast near Mankerni in May 1980 (see
Ceylon Bird Club Notes, May 1980, p. 27-29,
June, p. 31-32, July, p. 39-40, and August,
p. 43).

Except for one, the up to 6 Sandwich Terns
which I observed at Colombo were first or
second year birds. Their identity was establish-
ed beyond any doubt on the basis of the
clearly visible yellow tip of the bill as well

as other characteristic features. Their beha-
viour on the rock was very much the same
as that of the other Terns. During the first
half of the day from about 9 a.m. onwards,
they would sit and preen themselves, occa-
sionally jostling for position, taking off and
coming back when disturbed by House Crows
( Corvus splendens ), rarely feeding on nearby
shoals of sardines. All the Terns are easily
put to flight by the approach of a single Crow;
Crows make it a habit to do this at frequent
intervals and even chase some Terns, appa-
rently for sheer mischief. I have even noted
the Terns to take to the air with the approach
of a White-breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon
smyrnensis) and when a Brahminy Kite
( Haliastur indus) soared high above. They all
are very timid birds despite the formidable
looking bills and never resist the intruders
into their domain. In the afternoons the Terns
just sit, always looking in the direction of the
wind, often with beaks open. The one Sand-
wich Tern noticed on 21st February was in
Summer plumage, with fully developed black
cap, whereas the others showed the black and
white speckled sides of the crown, typical of
immatures throughout the period they were
here. I have not seen any Sandwich Terns
since the 28th of March and assume that
they would have started on their return migra-
tion, presumably to the Black Sea area. The
Common and Lesser Crested Terns disappeared
soon afterwards.

According to the handbook (Vol. 3, p. 70)
the Sandwich Tern is a winter visitor in fair
numbers to West Pakistan, but there is only
one sight record in India from Gujarat in
1958. In the latest issue of the Journal of the
BNHS (Vol. 82, No. 2, August 1985, p. 410)
there is a note of a record of a ring recovery

440

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

from the Ernakulam District in Kerala in
March 1976. The bird had been ringed as a
juvenile the year before (on 26.6.75) at the
Krasnovodsk Reserve, Krasnovodsk Gulf, Cas-
pian Sea, Turkmenian SSR. It is noted that
the publication came 9 years after the reco-
very ! The author states that no specimen has
so far been collected in India and that there
are no recent sight records of this species.

In December 1977 a ring from a Sandwich
Tern was recovered at Kalpitiya, Sri Lanka.
This bird had been ringed on 27.7.77 as a
juvenile in the Astrakhan Reserve, which is a
small island in the Northern part of the
Caspian Sea, USSR. This was the first record
and evidence of the presence of the Sandwich
Tern in Sri Lanka, which was followed by
sight records as below:

1 at Talaimannar .. 21.9.78

2 at Negombo .. 4.11.78

10 at Talaimannar .. 5.10.79

1 at Talaimannar .. 3.2.80

1 at Colombo 10.2.80

1 at Point Pedro 23.2.81

The present observation of up to 6 Sand-
wich Terns for a period of nearly 6 weeks at
Colombo is the first record of the presence
in Sri Lanka of this species for a period of
time and clearly indicates that it is in the
process of extending its winter range very
substantially and in some numbers. It is possi-
ble, even probable, that the birds were in Sri
Lanka, if not at Colombo, throughout the
winter; they were not noted by me earlier as
my observations of the rock were quite spora-
dic till then. The presence of an adult bird
in Summer plumage on 21.2 on only that
day indicates that the wintering birds are

moving around along the Sri Lankan coasts,
but most seem to be immatures.

Amongst the other Terns the Sandwich Tern
is easy to distinguish (yellow tip of bill) with
good binoculars if one is close enough, or
with a telescope, as in my case, but obviously
not if these amenities are lacking. In size the
Sandwich Tern is between the Large Crested
and the Lesser Crested, but it is distinguished
from both by being much whiter, which is
particularly noticeable in flight. Once I had
become aware of the presence of the Sand-
wich Terns, I could pick them out sitting
amongst the others with the naked eye from a
distance of over 500 metres merely on the
basis of the characteristics of size and white-
ness. I cannot see how the Sandwich Tern
can be confused with the Gull-billed Tern
( Gelochelidon nilotica) although both are of
similar size and coloration, but apart from
this they are different in shape and particu-
larly in the size and form of the bill which is
much more pointed and much longer in the
Sandwich Tern; even the small crest is notice-
able in the silhouette which is much more
like that of a Crested Tern than that of a Gull-
billed Tern. I have never seen the latter on
the Colombo coast, though they are plentiful
inland during the winter season.

From about December or January to May
Terns of the species listed above can be
seen on these particular rocks at Colombo
which affords excellent opportunities for study-
ing moulting patterns and changes in the
coloration of the bill, feet, etc., because
during this period all the species change over
to Summer plumage. At the moment all the
Large Crested and most of the Whiskered and
Little Terns are in breeding plumage. In
earlier years before the onset of the SW
Monsoon when they all disappear. I have

441

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

often observed prenuptial display by Large
Crested Terns, with ritualised offering of small
fish to females (e.g. Ceylon Bird Club Notes,

P. O. Box 11,

Colombo, Sri Lanka,

May 7, 1986.

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969): Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. III. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Ambedkar, V. C. (1982): Occurrence of the

Sandwich Tern ( Sterna sandvicensis ) in India — A
ring recovery. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 410.

Ceylon Bird Club Notes (monthly) (1980):
May, June, July and August.

Phillips, W. W. A. ^ (1978) : Annotated Checklist
of the Birds of Ceylon. Sri Lanka, p. 25.

April 1978, p. 25). On 20.4.86 I noted 2 in-
stances of mating and one offering of a small
fish which was accepted.

THILO W. HOFFMANN

P.S. : “Since writing the above (or foregoing) I

have naturally been on the lookout for Sandwich
Terns this season as well. The first bird appeared
on 18th January amongst 60 large Crested Terns
and about 20 Lesser Crested Terns. Subsequently
the number increased to 3, which I continue to
observe daily. I except them to leave around mid-
March like last year”. (27-2-1987).

16. KASHMIR ROLLER ( CORACIAS GARRULUS LINNAEUS) IN
RANEBENNUR, KARNATAKA

On 30 September 1984, we were returning
to the Forest Rest House at Ranebennur
(14°37'N, 75°32'E) at about 0945 hrs, after
sighting a male Great Indian Bustard ( Chorio -
tis nigriceps ) close to the Hullati Block of the
Ranebennur Blackbuck Sanctuary in Karna-
taka. We had walked across the undulating
grassy and gravelly terrain that stretched for
over 1 km from the Hullati Block and were
approaching a vast field of jowar ( Sorghum
bicolor) when we sighted a Kashmir Roller
( Coracias garrulus Linnaeus) perched on a
high branch projecting from a 2m tall Prosopis
juliflora hedge that bordered the jowar field.

The pale bluish-green head, neck, breast and
rest of the underparts and the pale chestnut
upperparts drew our attention to it. The bird
was not shy and permitted a close approach.
One of us (RV), could get to within 4 m of

the bird. Twice we put the bird to flight and
it returned to a perch within 6 m from the
previous perch. In flight its wings clearly lack-
ed the contrasting dark and light blue bands,
and the rufous-brown breast of the Indian
Roller (C. benghalensis) which was very com-
mon in the dry environs of Ranebennur.

The Kashmir Roller is known to breed in
the N. W. Frontier of Pakistan, the Gilgit and
in Kashmir. It migrates to Arabia and pre-
sumably to Africa in the autumn, commonly
passing through Sind, Rajasthan and Northern
Gujarat (Kutch and Saurashtra) (Ali and
Ripley, 1970: 114). Stragglers are recorded as
far east as Seoni District in Madhya Pradesh
(Lakhnadon, 79°30'E) and south through
Maharashtra (Dhulia, Khandala and Bombay)
(Ali and Ripley, 1970: 114). Davidson (1898)

442

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

shot a single specimen of this species in Nov-
ember 1893, at Majali, five miles north of
Karwar (14°50'N) and since then, the species
has never been recorded anywhere in Kama-

Department of Entomology,

University of Agricultural Sciences,
Hebbal,

Bangalore - 560 024,

September 11, 1985.

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1970): Handbook of
the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 4, Oxford
University Press. Bombay, xvi -f- 265 pp.

taka. In view of the above, our present sight-
ing of this bird in Karnataka after a gap of
over nine decades happens to be the recent
and the southernmost record for the species.

S. SUBRAMANYA,
N. N. GOPALAKRISHNA
R. VASUDEV
VINA YAK KAPATRAL

ENCES

Davidson, J. (1898) : The birds of North Kanara:
Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: A'S-ll.

17. AN INTERESTING FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE
WHITECHEEKED NUTHATCH (SITTA LEUCOPSIS)

In May-June 1985 I stayed in Overa Wild-
life sanctuary near Pahalgam, Kashmir, to
study the genus Phylloscopus (leaf warblers)
with Dr. T. D. Price. On 16th May I visited
Kanjkut, an open meadow surrounded by
coniferous forest. At this place coniferous
forest ends and gives way to silver birch. Here
I found 3 pairs of the Whitecheeked Nuthatch
(Sitta leucopsis), frequenting dry and bare
coniferous tres. The birds were very noisy
calling with their distinctive, loud nasal
calls. I spent an hour watching them and to
my surprise they all fed by flycatching, in the
manner of the Sooty flycatcher ( Miuscicapa
sibirica), fluttering out to hawk insects. The
birds were flying clumsily, straight towards
the insect sometimes as far as 60 ft and return-
ing to almost the same perch. The birds called
loudly while in flight and also when at rest.

3 Rocky Hill,

Malabar Hill,

Bombay - 400 006,

My 10, 1985.

Courtship feeding was observed twice. The
nuthatch predominatly fed in the fly-catcher
manner, and their normal method of
creeping amongst the branches was rarely
noticed. All the birds frequently perched cross-
wise on the branches.

Later, in the first week of June, we moved
our camp in this locality, and then also I
observed this behaviour often. The common
factors in all these observations were; strong
sunlight and dry coniferous trees in the open.
The nuthatches were also common in forest
at lower elevations but I never noticed this
behaviour there.

This flycatcher-like feeding habit does not
seem to have been recorded for the White-
cheeked nuthatch and possibly not for any
other species of nuthatch within Indian limits,
and is worth placing on record.

NITIN JAMDAR

443

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

18. MUNIAS AS FACULTATIVE NEST PARASITES

Common silverbill or whitethroated munia
( Lonchura malabarica) habitually utilises old
nests of the baya ( Ploceus philippinus) for
laying eggs (handbook Vol. 10 — All and
Ripley). I have been watching whitethroated
munia along with other munias since 1981 at
Tatar Pur (27°47'N, 76°31'E), Alwar Dis-
trict, Rajasthan utilizing the old nests of baya
as a facultative nest parasite. I have frequently
seen whitethroated munia utilizing old nests of
Ploceus benghalensis also.

In addition I have seen 3 pairs of spotted
munia ( Lonchura punctulata) utilizing the old
nests of Ploceus philippinus for breeding on

Forest Range Officer (T),

Southern Forest Rangers College,
Coimbatore - 641 002,

Tamil Nadu,

August 9, 1985.

dense ( Acacia tortilis) trees in Panchayat
Land Plantations at Tatar Pur in August 1983
and September 1984.

During August 1984 when I was going to
inspect a Ploceus philippinus colony in Tatar
Pur Mixed Plantation, I saw a Red Munia
(Estrilda amandava ) sitting on the chinstrap
inside a half built baya nest. This year, on
16th July 1985 I again saw a Red Munia
hovering around a completed nest of Ploceus
philippinus in the same locality. Though 1
have seen red munia twice inside or around
baya nests, I have so far not come across the
bird actually nesting within.

SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

19. ADDITIONS TO THE HERPETOFAUNA OF CHILKA LAGOON,

ORISSA

No research is reported on the herpetofauna
of the Chilka lagoon, Orissa since the pioneer-
ing investigations by Annandale (1915) pro-
bably because Indian herpetologists have thus
far paid little attention to the estuaries. How-
ever, the on-going multidisciplinary project
taken up by the Estuarine Biological Station
of the Zoological Survey of India located at
Berhampore has generated an upsurge of in-
terest in the herpetofauna of the lake’s Islands,
hills, and shores with the result that quite a
few lizards and snakes are recorded as addi-
tions to the faunal list of the area under study.

In the course of the third expedition to the
lake conducted during December 1986 the
authors were pleasantly surprised to find a

colony of the Dwarf Rock-Lizard Psammo-
philus blanfordanus in the Ghantasila Hill and
on the Bird Island situated not far from
Rambha. Some of the individuals which we
saw were adults (195 mm) in breeding colour,
with swollen and scarlet-red cheeks. We were
equally surprised to find the presence of the
Beaked Sea Snake Enhydrina schistosa, a
juvenile (750 mm) and an adult (1093 mm)
of which were picked up from the fishing nets
operated in the midwaters of the lake off
Rambha and Barkul. Although Malcolm Smith
(1943) made no mention of the likelihood of
the occurrence of this species in estuaries and
Annandale (loc. cit.) failed to record it from
the Chilka lake, the fact that the Beaked Sea

444

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Snake frequents the estuaries is established
beyond doubt (Murthy 1977). Local fisher-
men call the Beaked Sea Snake ‘Dushta Sarp’
which in Oriya means a very bad snake, in-
dicating the fear for the snake’s deadly venom
and its toxicity. Another noteworthy record
made in the same trip is that of the Smooth
Water Snake Enhydris enhydris, a juvenile
(450 mm) of which was picked up from the
shallow waters of the lake at Ghodedowda
village.

Southern Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

100 Santhome High Road,

Madras - 600 028.

Estuarine Biological Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

Hillpatna, Berhampore 760 005,

January 16, 1987.

Refe:

Annandale, N. (1915) : Fauna of the Chilka
Lake Reptiles and Batrachia. Mem. Ind. Mus. 5:
167-174.

Murthy, T. S. N. (1977): On sea snakes occur-
ring in Madras waters. J. mar. biol. Ass. India 19

It may therefore be concluded that the speci-
mens of the Dwarf Rock-Lizard, the Beaked
Sea Snake, and the Smooth Water Snake are
not only additions but also the first document-
ed records from the Chilka lagoon.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. B. S. Lamba, Joint
Director-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India
for encouragement.

T. S. N. MURTHY

KAZA V. RAMA RAO

EN CES

(1): 68-72.

Smith, M. A. (1943): Fauna of British India,
Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol III-
Serpentes. Taylor and Francis. London, pp. 449-450.

20. RETENTION OF EGGS BY THE EMYDINE TURTLES
KACHUGA TECTUM TECTUM AND KACHUGA SMITHI

Turtles are known to have a tendency to
retain eggs either in the oviduct, cloacal bursa
or in the abdominal cavity (Risley 1933,
Cagle 1944, Cagle and Tihen 1948, Duda and
Gupta 1978). The retention has been attri-
buted to unfavourable weather conditions or
lack of proper facilities for egg laying during
laying season.

On 22.4.1977, a specimen of Kachuga
tectum tectum was noted to have a shelled
egg inside its highly distended right cloacal

bursa. The ovary looked spent and showed the
presence of 11 ruptured follicles, 7 in the right
and 4 in the left, all of which were at nearly
the same stage of differentiation into corpora
lutea. The oviducts were fully developed but,
did not show any eggs within. In weight and
measurements and external and internal fea-
tures, the turtle looked a healthy normal
female.

Judged from the number of the ruptured
follicles in the two ovaries, the turtle had

445

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

obviously ovulated 11 eggs but laid only 10,
the odd one having pushed its way into the
cloacal bursa and got stranded here. The egg
was 38 mm in its longest axis and 21 mm in
its maximum girth, which compared favour-
ably with normal eggs of the species. Addi-
tionally, a lot of intestinal debris had filled the
cloacal bursa containing the egg. The left side
cloacal bursa was, however, in a collapsed
state and did not contain any filling material.

The finding of an egg inside the right
cloacal bursa, in Kachuga tectum tectum, is
almost identical to Dobie’s (1968) finding of
eggs in the urinary bladder in turtle, Macro-
clemys temmincki. He attributed such abnormal
position of eggs in his turtle to some carapa-
ceal deformity and consequent crowding of
reproductive structure. In the Kachuga tectum
tectum, on the contrary, carapace, orientation
and spacing of internal viscera was normal
and, therefore, could not have contributed to
the wrong channelling of the egg into the
cloacal bursa, nor could it be attributed to
unusual simultaneous movement of two eggs
from opposite oviducts into the cloaca lead-
ing to overcrowding. It appears that the pre-
sence of shelled eggs in any unorthodox
situation is just a matter of accident.

While in a mature female of Kachuga
smithi, a shelled egg (37 x 22 mm) was found
present in the right oviduct, collected on April
4, 1978. No Corpora lutea, fresh or old were
to be found in its ovaries.

Divisional Rural Technology,

Regional Research Laboratory,

(C.S.I.R.),

Canal Road, Jammu Tawi 180 001,

April 2, 1987.

Retention of a single egg in the oviduct of
Kachuga smithi in the month of April, speaks
for unseasonal presence and irregular depo-
sition, because in this species the normal
months of laying are from late August to the
middle of November and clutch size ranges
from 3 to 11 (Gupta 1979). Irregular depo-
sition of eggs in turtles is already in record
(Miller 1932) who reported about a gopher
turtle that deposited egg on October 4, another
on 7th, 2 on 8th, and 5th on the 30th of
October. He contributed this irregular depo-
sition to the unsatisfactory condition for laying.
Additionally the retention of a soliary egg in
the oviduct without any trace of corpora lutea
in the ovaries may also indicate that the re-
tained egg is a laggard which has failed to get
deposited alongwith other members of its
clutch. The last clutch has apparently ovi-
posited quite sometime back sufficiently early
to let all the corpora lutea to heal up. This
odd observation may turn out to be an im-
portant one, because it tends to conflict with
functional relationship between the Corpus
luteum and the maintenance of eggs inside
the oviduct.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. P. L. Duba, Professor of Zoo-
logy, Department of Biosciences, University of
Jammu, for the constant guidance, and to
C.S.I.R. for financial assistance during the
course of this investigation.

V. K. GUPTA

446

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Cagle, F. R. (1944) : Sexual maturity of the
female turtle, Pseudemys elegans (Wiod). Amer.
Nat. 71: 481-487.

& Tihen, J. (1948): Retention of

eggs by the turtle, Deirochelys reticularis. Copeia,
1948 \ 66.

Dobie, J. L. (1968): Shelled eggs in the bladder
of an aligator snapping turtle, Macroclemys tem-
mincki. Herpetologica 24(4) : 328-330.

Duda, P. L. & Gupta, V. K. (1978): Intra-
abdominal retention of eggs by the soft-shelled turtle
Lissemys punctata punctata (Bonnaterre). Herp.

Review. 9(2) : 46.

Gupta, V. K. (1979): Studies on the female
reproductive organs of some fresh-water chelones
from Jammu. Ph.D. Thesis. Jammu Univ. 352.

Miller, L. (1932) : Notes on the desert tortoise
( Testudo agassizii). Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat.
Hist. 7: 187-208.

Risley, P. L. (1933) : Observations on the natu-
ral history of 'the common musk turtle, Sternothe-
rus odoratus (Latreille). Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Art.
Lett. 17: 685-711.

21. TURTLES USING DOMESTIC BUFFALOES AS BASKING RAFTS

(With a photograph)

buffaloes being driven into the water.

As soon as they had submerged themselves
I noticed a turtle clamber onto a buffalo’s
back! No sooner had I taken a picture of this
curious relationship, I saw another two clamber
onto the back of another buffalo.

While on a trip to Zainabad to see the
Wild Ass last summer I was staying with Shri
Shabir Malik. In front of his home there is a
small tank that is used for washing clothes,
buffaloes and cattle.

On the first day while photographing sand-
grouse that frequent the tank, I saw a herd of

Photo. 1. Turtle basking on buffalo back.

447

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

I observed this association between buffalo
and turtle on all the three days that I was at
Zainabad. On one visit I counted nine turtles
basking on their huge mobile islands. I do not

“Saken”, Valantina Society,

North Main Road,

Koregaon Park,

Pune -411 001,

June 6, 1987.

recall seeing a single turtle basking on the edge
of the tank throughout my visit. The turtles
seemed to be waiting for their basking steeds
to arrive, so that they could bask undisturbed.

ERACH BHARUCHA

22. A NOTE ON THE BREEDING OF ESTUARINE CROCODILE
(CROCODYLUS POROSUS, SCHNEIDER) AT NANDANKANAN
BIOLOGICAL PARK, ORISSA

A lone female estuarine crocodile ( Croco -
dylus porosus) which has been laying infertile
eggs since 1975 at Nandankanan Biological
Park, Orissa (Acharjyo and Mishra 1981) was
paired with an adult male of the same species
procured from Crocodile Research Centre,
Kukrail (Uttar Pradesh) from April 1, 1983.
Both of them were put together in a specially
built breeding pool having a capacity of hold-
ing approximately 8,26,000 litres of water and
with a depth of 2 metres. The land area of
the pool complex is about 1500 square metres.
There is a compound wall of 2.1 metres high
all around except over a length of 23 metres
on the viewer’s side. There is provision of
filling this pool with fresh water and wetting
the surrounding land area at regular intervals.
The pool complex has been suitably planted
with some local and mangrove vegetation. The
details of egg laying from 1975 to 1986 are
given in Table 1.

The eggs were laid during the three month
period, April- June and the clutch size varied
from 16 to 35 eggs (mean 28.67). Though the
egg laying was an annual feature from 1975
to 1978 and again from 1984 to 1986, the egg
laying was on alternate years from 1979 to
1983.

Table 1

Year

Date of
egg laying

Number of
eggs laid

Remarks

1975

30 May 1975

29

Infertile eggs

1976

4 June 1976

34

Infertile eggs

1977

2 June 1977

35

Infertile eggs

1978

22 May 1978

34

Infertile eggs

1979

No eggs were laid

1980

16 June 1980

34

Infertile eggs

1981

No eggs were laid

1982

15 June 1982

33

Infertile eggs

1983

No eggs were laid

1984

26 April 1984

22

Infertile eggs

1985

15 April 1985

16

Fertile eggs

1986

18 April 1986

21

Fertile eggs

The

eggs were laid

inside a

mound nest

consisting of dried leaves, twigs, sticks, soil
etc. collected from inside the pool complex.
The nests of 1985 and 1986 measured 125 x
135 cm., height 45 cm and 145 x 155 cm,
structed underneath a tree at a distance of
height 50 cm respectively. The nests were con-
about 10 metres from the edge of the pool.
The eggs were white and hard shelled. Five
infertile eggs of 1985 measured 7. 1-7.8 x 4.1-
4.6 cm. The mother used to zealously guard
the nest from a dug out wallow near the nest

448

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

as described earlier by Acharjyo and Mishra
(1981).

The details of hatching of eggs laid during
1985 and 1986 are given in Table 2.

Table 2

Date of

egg

laying

Num-
ber of
eggs
laid

Dates of
hatching

Num-

ber

hatch-

ed

Incuba-
tion
period
in days

Per-
cent-
age of
hatch-
ing

15 April

16

5&6 July

11

82-83

68,75

1985

1985

18 April

21

30 June

9

74-75

42.86

1986

& 1 July

1986

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P. O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack,

Orissa - 754 005,

Director,

Nandankanan Biological Park,
145-Sahidnagar, Bhubaneswar-751 007,
March 18, 1987.

Refer

Acharjyo, L. N. & Mishra, Ch. G. (1981) : Egg-
laying and Nest-guarding Behaviour of Estuarine
Crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) in Cap-
tivity. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(2) : 387-390.

Bustard, H. R. (1980): Captive Breeding of
Crocodiles. In : The care and breeding of captive
Reptiles. The British Herpetological Society, Lon-
don. pp. 1-20.

Choudhury, B. C. & Bustard, H. R. (1979):
Predation on Natural Nests of the Salt-water croco-
dile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) on North Anda-
man Island with Notes on the Crocodile Population.

/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 311-323.

Daniel, J. C. (1983): The Book of Indian Rep-
tiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,
pp. 13-14.

Eight newly hatched hatchlings of 1985
measured 28.5-30 cm (mean 29.01 cm) and
weighed 55-75 grams (mean 69.63 gm).

This species has been bred in captivity at
Higashi Izu zoo, Japan; Singapore zoo and
Djakarta zoo (Bustard 1980), at Melbourne
zoo (Dunn 1981) and at Madras crocodile
Bank (Whitaker, pers. comm.). Earlier workers
(Acharjyo and Mishra 1981, Choudhury and
Bustard 1979, Daniel 1983, Dunn 1981, Groom-
bridge 1982, Smith 1931, Webb et at. 1977,
Yangprapakoran 1971) have reported on diffe-
rent aspects of reproductive behaviour of this
species both in captivity and free living state.

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. K. PATNAIK

ENCES

Dunn, R. W. (1981): Breeding the Estuarine
Crocodile, Crocodylus porosus at Melbourne zoo.
Int. Zoo Yb. 21: 79.

Groom bridge, B. (1982) : The IUCN Amphibia-
Reptilia Red Data Book, Part 1. IUCN Conserva-
tion Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, pp. 371-390.

Smith, M. A. (1931) : The Fauna of British India.
Reptilia and Amphibia, I. Taylor and Francis, Lon-
don. pp. 42-44.

Webb, G. J. W., Messel, H. & Magnusson, W.
(1977) : The Nesting of Crocodylus porosus in

Arnhem Land, Northern Australia. Copeia 1977 (2) :
238-250.

Yangprapakoran, U. (1971): Captive Breeding
of Crocodiles in Thailand. Crocodiles I. IUCN
Pubis. N. S. Suppl. pap. No. 32: 98-191.

449

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 84

23. FOOD OF THE COMMON SKINK MABUYA CAR1NATA

(SCHNEIDER)

On 22nd October 1986, while waching the
activities of the common house swift behind
the Baroda museum at 10.00 A.M. I saw a
large specimen of the Common Skink ( Mabuya
carinata) moving around a small bush, about
five feet from me. I think that the skink was
searching for insects. A juvenile Garden
Lizard ( Calotes versicolor) was basking on
a branch about 30 cm from the ground on the

Zoo Inspector,

Sayaji Baug Zoo,

Baroda 390 018,

April 15, 1987.

same bush. The SKink and the calotes, saw
each other. Suddenly the skink tried to climb
on to the branch of the bush, on which the
calotes was seated. The frightened calotes
jumped on a lower branch, and both calotes
and skink fell to the ground. In a second the
skink caught the calotes by the neck, and pulled
it under the bush and swallowed the whole
calotes in a few minutes.

RAJU VYAS

24. KILLING OF THE YELLOW MONITOR, VARANUS
FLAVESCENS (GRAY 1827) (SQUAMATA: SAURIA) IN SOME
VILLAGES OF BIRBHUM DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL, INDIA

(With a photograph)

The Yellow Monitor or the Yellow-headed
Monitor [Varanus flavescens (Gray 1827)],
though it had quite an extensive former range,
is now found only in the Indo-Gangetic plains,
south of the Himalayas from Pakistan, east
to Brahmaputra river, south to Kutch (Guja-
rat) in the west and northeastern Orissa in
the east (Auffenberg 1986). This species,
though apparently common in many places,
is but poorly represented in museums (Smith
1935). The Yellow Monitor is generally met
with along the marshy borders of small water
bodies such as j heels, shallow lakes, etc.
Unfortunately, the most favoured habitat of
the Yellow Monitor has been drastically modi-
fied during the last several decades through
agriculture, specially the paddy culture in the
southern Gangetic plain. This singular factor
appears to be the most important one for

causing major depletion in the population of
the Yellow Monitor in most pars of its range.
Mass killing for hide hunting might also be
the other contributing factor towards this
(Tikader 1983). For its conservation, this
species has been included in Schedule I of the
Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, as
amended up to 1980. Further, it has been
included in the Appendix I of CITES. By
these, the Yellow Monitor — live or dead
or part thereof is totally protected throughout
the country and any trade on it is totally
banned. The purpose of the present note is to
record the mass killing of the Yellow Monitor
in spite of legal restrains.

During an excursion on 23rd October,
1986, we were moving through a small patch
of grass jungle in Gonpur village, about 20
km. SW of Rampurhat, Birbhum district,

450

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Photo. 1. Showing the dead yellow monitors.

West Bengal. At about 17.00 hours, we met
with two tribals who were roasting some rats
for their consumption. At the same time we
also noticed as many as eleven freshly killed
Yellow Monitors with them (Photo 1). On
enquiry from them we came to know that
they had collected the rats and the Yellow
Monitors from burrows and from the
crevices of rocks along the canal of Gonput
during the day. They had collected the rats
for their consumption while the Yellow Moni-
tors would be sold to a ‘Hakim’ at the rate
of Rs. 2/- per animal. They believed that
the ‘Hakim’ would extract oil from the moni-
tors for some medicinal purpose. They could
not enlighten us about the fate of the valuable
skins. They could not find any eggs of the
monitors, which, according to their experi-
ence, could be seen only during May- June.
On further enquiry, it was revealed that due

to lack of jobs in the agricultural fields during
the month of October, many people took to
collection of the Yellow Monitors as their
means of subsistance. They were totally igno-
rant about the Wild Life Act. They gladly
allowed us to take a photograph of the day’s
‘Shikar’, they had made during the day.

The above experience clearly shows that the
formulation of acts alone will not be of much
help in the conservation of endangered
species. Public awareness, socio-economic deve-
lopment together with strict enforcement of
the various wildlife protection acts are
essential to save the already depleted popu-
lation of the Yellow Monitor, like any other
endangered species.

We are thankful to Shri P. K. Das, Scien-
tist ‘C\ Zoological Survey of India for sug-
gestions and reviewing the manuscript.

451

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Zoological Survey of India, S. CHAKRABORTY1

Calcutta - 700 016, R. CHAKRABORTY

References

Auffenberg, W. (1986): The Indian Monitor
Lizard. Sanctuary : Asia, 6: 326-333.

Smith, M. A. (1935) : The fauna of British
India including Ceylon and Burma. Vol. II. —

Sauria. Reprint 1974 by Today and Tomorrow’s
Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.

Tikader, B. K. (1983) : Threatened animals of
India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

1 Zoological Survey of India, ‘M’ Block, 535 New Alipur Road, Calcutta 700 053.

25. A NOTE ON PREDATION OF CATOPSILIA SP.
(LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE) BY BIRDS AND WASP

While recording observations on seasonal
abundance of Catopsilia, a leaf defoliator of
medicinal crop. Senna ( Cassia angustifolia) ,
it was found that despite high larval count
the pupal population was found to be very
low to almost zero. This extremely low pupal
population of the pest led us to investigate
into the causes of larval mortality. Close
observation revealed the predation of these
larvae by the house sparrows and predatory
wasps. To determine the efficiency of the
predators, 54 larvae were released initially in
an area of 3.5 m x 3.5 m at 0600 hrs on
4.10.1984. The number of larvae was reduced
to 3 within 12 hrs (i.e. at 1800 hrs). To get
confirmatory results, a regular study was made,
where 35 to 50 larvae were released in each
of the three plots of 3.5 m x 3.5 m plots
selected from Jth acre senna field and preda-
tion by the predators was closely observed
with the help of a binocular starting from
0600 to 1800 hrs. The birds were kept out
of one of the plots to determine the preda-
tion by birds in other two plots. The obser-
vations on the larval count were recorded at
every three hours. Such a study was made
3 times during October and November 1984

at the Agronomy Farm of the Gujarat Agri-
cultural University, Anand Campus, Anand.
The results obtained are presented in Table 1.
Data presented in Table 1 show clear cut
impact of the predation by birds and preda-
tory wasps. During the early part of
observations (10th October), it was the House
Sparrow, Passer domesticus which was found
actively searching for the Catopsilia larvae.
The sparrows were observed to carry the
larvae to the nests made around farm build-
ings, to feed their nestlings. This high acti-
vity of sparrows resulted in considerable re-
duction in larval count at the end of 1800 hrs
observation in the experimental plots. Since,
the birds were scared manually in the control
plot, it was not possible to have total check
on the birds entering from adjoining areas.
And since, the sparrows hop considerable
distance on ground in search of larvae, their
entry in control plot can not always be noticed.
This was reflected in our observations in con-
trol plot on October 16th, when 20 larvae were
seen missing at the end of the day. Very little
sparrow activity was however, observed on
10th Nov. This was because of the fact that

452

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Predation of Catopsilia by birds and predatory wasp on senna during 1984

Dates of
observation

Experiment plot
Control

No. of Catopsilia
larvae released

No. of Catopsilia larvae recorded after
0900 hrs 1200 hrs 1500 hrs 1800 hrs

16-10-84

Plot— 1

35

30

23

18

3

Plot — 2

35

26

9

3

2

Control

35

33

27

17

15

10-11-84

Plot — 1

35

28

26

26

10

Plot — 2

35

30

28

28

15

Control

35

35

35

33

29

17-11-84

Plot— 1

50

46

11

3

0

Plot — 2

50

40

11

4

0

Control

50

42

38

19

8

their breeding season was almost over. The
cessation of breeding of sparrow during
October has also been reported from Vadodara
by Naik and Mistry (1980). Besides the
House Sparrow, another two resident bird
species. Common Myna, Acridotheres tristis
and Redvented Bulbul, Pycnonotus cajer were
also occasionally found predating on Catop-
silia larvae. Despite low activity of sparrow
and occasional feeding on the Catopsilia larvae
by Common Myna and Redvented Bulbul,
reasonable reduction in the larval count in the
experimental plot was recorded in 10th Nov-
ember study. During this period, a few wasps
(Vespidae) were also observed carrying away
Catopsilia larvae to feed their larvae develop-
ing in the earthern nests made around the
farm buildings. Examination of such earthen
nests around the farm revealed the presence
of good number of Catopsilia larvae. The
number of wasp, however, increased on 17th
November. As many as 14 larvae were actually
seen picked up by the wasps. During the
same period three species of migratory birds,
Bluethroat, Erithacus svecicus, Collared Bush
Chat, Saxicola torquata and Plain Wren War-
bler, Prinia subflava were also seen feeding

on Catopsilia larvae. Their combined preda-
tion almost eliminated the larval population
from the experimental area. Although the birds
were kept out of the control plot, there was con-
siderable reduction in the larval population.
This reduction was largely due to the predatory
wasps, which were abundant and could not
kept out of the control plot.

Thus, from the above observations it is
evident that birds such as Passer domesticus,
Erithacus svecicus, Saxicola torquata, Prinia
subflava, Acridotheres tristis, Pycnonotus cafer
and the predatory wasp, play very important
role in reducing Catopsilia larvae in senna.
Such natural control agents, as far as possible
should be encouraged. Although, it is esta-
blished fact that sparrows are generally gra-
nivorous, during their breeding season they
collect a large number of insects to feed their
nestlings. In view of this, it would be worth-
while evaluating their beneficial role before
calling them as pests in other agricultural
crops.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Campus, Gujarat

453

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Agricultural Universiy, Anand Campus, Anand for providing necessary facilities.

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand Campus,

Anand 388 110,

Gujarat,

August 17, 1985.

Reference

H. M. PATEL
D. N. YADAV
B. M. PARASHARYA
R. C. PATEL

Naik, R. M. & Mistry, L. (1980): Breeding
season in a tropical population of the House
Sparrow. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 1118-1142.

26. RECORD OF NEW ALTERNATE HOST PLANTS OF SPINY
BOLLWORM EARIAS INSULANA BOISDUVAL

Spotted bollworms are considered to be the
most destructive pests of cotton and okra
under Indian conditions. Among them, Earias
vittella (F.) and E. insulana (Boisd.) cause
considerable damage to both these crops.
Besides cotton and okra, they are known to
attack many other malvaceous plants (Khan
et al. 1946 and Bilapate 1983). Since not
much is known as to how these two bollworms
survive during the off season in the Northern
cotton growing belt of the country, an inten-
sive survey was made during the off season,
i.e. from December, 1984 to April, 1985 in
various agricultural farms and farmer’s fields
around Hisar.

Among the various malvaceous plants sur-
veyed, Abutilon indicum (L.), Hibiscus rosa -
sinensis L., Althaea rosea L. Malope trifida
(Cav.), Dombeya spectabillis (Bojer) were
found to be alternate host plants of the spiny
bollworm in this region. Of these, M. trifida
and D. spectabillis were recorded to be the

Department of Entomology,

Haryana Agril. University,

Hisar, Haryana (India),

December 5, 1985.

most favoured alternate host plants of E.
insulana. On an average, 3 eggs and 3 larvae/
50 fruits of M. trifida were recorded during
February-March, 1985 from the field and fruit
damage on this host plant was recorded to
the extent of 8.0 per cent. Similarly, 8.0 eggs
and 2.6 larvae/50 fruits were noticed on D.
spectabillis and fruit damage on this tree was
upto the extent of 11.3 per cent. Eggs and
larvae brought to the laboratory from these
host plants were successfully reared on them
to the adult stage. It is, therefore, concluded
that M. trifida and D. spectabillis are the new
alternate host plants of E. insulana is this
region. Perusal of literature reveal that these
plants have been previously reported as the
host plants of the spiny bollworm.

Ack nowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. N. P. Chopra, Prof.
& Head, Department of Entomology for pro-
viding necessary facilities.

K. K. MRIG
RAM SINGH
J. P. CHAUDHARY

454

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Bilapate, G. G. (1983): Spotted bollworm,
Earias spp. on cotton in India. A Review. Agric.
Rev. 4(2) : 95-107.

Khan, H. M., Ladha Ram, Sharma, G. R. &
Shani, A. M. (1946) : Studies on Earias species

(The spotted bollworm of Cotton) in the Punjab,
IV. The host and host preference of Earias capreo-
viridis Wlk. E. fabia Stoll and E. insulana Boisd.
Indian J. agric. Sci. 15(5): 275-280.

27. FIRST RECORD OF COCCINELLIMERMIS RUBTZOV
(MERMITHIDAE) FROM INDIA

Though many species of Coccinellids are
parasitized by nematodes (Richerson 1970),
Cocci nella septempunctata L., an aphidopha-
gous species, has been found to harbour Para-
sitylenchus coccinellae (Iperti and Van Waere-
beke 1968), Merrrds coccinellae Dies and M.
nigrescens Duj (Richerson 1970). Information
on the parasites of C. septempunctata is rather
scant in India.

During the course of collection and rearing
of C. septempunctata in May to August 1981,
the lady bird beetles were noticed to be para-
sitised by nematodes. Nine nematodes emerged
from the abdominal region of C. septempun-
ctata as has been shown to occur in the case
of the larva of Perilitus coccinellae Schrank
(Hodek 1973). Four of them emerged through
the membranes between 2nd and 3rd, three
between 5th and 6th and two between 6th and
7th abdominal tergites. The time taken by the
worms to come out was between 12 and 29
minutes. The length and breadth of the nema-
todes ranged from 9.2 to 11.1 cm and 0.62
to 0.92 cm respectively, the average length
and breadth being 10.02 ± 0.57 cm and
0.71 zt 0.11 cm respectively. The weight of
the worms ranges from 3.8 to 8.6 mg, the

Department of Zoology,

Government Arts College,
Udhagamandalam - 643 002,

February 11, 1986.

average weight being 6.4 d= 1.71 mg.

The nematode worms were identified by
Prof. D. J. Hunt of Commonwealth Institute
of Parasitology as juveniles of Coccinellimer-
mis Rubtzov 1978. In a personal communi-
cation dated March 31, 1982, he wrote as
follows: “The nematodes are juvenile mermi-
thids of the genus Cocci nellimermis Rubtzov.
Adult stages are unknown. However, if you
find further specimens emerging from Cocci-
nellids, they can be placed in a tube contain-
ing damp sand and left for several weeks to
enable the nematodes to moult to the adult
stage before preservation. Coccinellimermis
belongs to the Mermithidae.”

Out of 634 beetles collected during the
months of May to August, 1981 only 10 show-
ed nematode infection, i.e., 1.57%. Prior to
the escape of the worms the lady bird beetles
show hyperactivity for about 30 to 50 minutes.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Prof. K. C. Pant, Direc-
tor of C.I.E. forwarding the material to Dr.
D. J. Hunt of C.I.P. for identification. I
am grateful to Dr. Hunt for kindly iden-
tifying the material and for his suggestions.

M. RHAMHALINGHAN

455

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 84

References

Hodek, I. (1973) : Biology of Coccinellidae. Dr.
W. Junk, N. V., The Hague. 260 pp.

Iperti, G. & Waerebeke, D. van (1968) : Des-
cription, Biologic et importance dime nouvelle espece
D’allantonematidae (Nematode) parasite des Cocci-

nelles aphidiphages : Parasitylenclius coccineltinae

n. sp. Entomophaga, 13: 107-119.

Richerson, J. V. (1970) : A world list of para-
sites of coccinellidae. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Columbia.
67: 33-48.

28. FIRST RECORDS OF PREDATORS OF COTTON PESTS IN

THE PUNJAB

During surveys of the cotton crop from
1980-82 in the main cotton belt of the state
(Ferozepur, Faridkot and Bhatinda districts)
and in Ludhiana, adults of a number of pre-
dators were observed feeding on the insect
pests of cotton for the first . time. Paedrus
fuscipes Curtis (Staphylinidae; Coleoptera),
Geocoris ochropterus Slater (Lygaeidae;
Hemiptera), Cor anus aegypticus Fabricius
(Reduviidae; Hemiptera), Coranus sp., Zelus
sp. (Reduviidae; Hemiptera) and Cerceris
sp. (Sphecidae: Hymenoptera) were feeding
on the nymphs of cotton jassid, Amrasca
bi gut tula bi gut tula (Ishida). All of these except
P. fuscipes sucked the body fluid of the pest.
Out of these G. ochropterus, Coranus spp. and
Zelus sp. predated upon the young larvae of
pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella
(Saunders), Earias insulana Boisduval and E.
vittella Fabricius larvae. Micraspis cardoni
(Weise) mainly predated upon the Aphis
gossypii Glover. High population of P. fuscipes

Dept, of Entomology,

Punjab Agril. University,

Ludhiana - 141 004,

June 7, 1986.

is usually found in Egyptian clover, winter
and fodder maize crops from where it migrates
to cotton during June. Population of the re-
maining predators appear on the crop mainly
during August and September which is the
peak period of boll formation and bollworm
attack. However, their population at farmer’s
fields remained quite low perhaps because of
insecticidal applications which needs further
investigations. P. fuscipes was earlier reported
from India attacking rice leaf hoppers in
Madhya Pradesh (Upadhyay and Diwaker
1983, Shukla et al. 1983).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Drs R. Madge, H. R.
Wilson, M. S. K. Ghauri, B. R. Subba Rao
and T. G. Vazirani of the Commonwealth
Institute of Entomology, London for identifi-
cation of the various insects reported in this
article.

JOGINDER SINGH
RAMESH ARORA
A. S. SIDHU

References

Shukla. B. C, Shrivastava, S. K., Prophaly, D.
J., Kaushik, U. K., Agarwal, R. K. & Gupta, R.
(1983): A new predaceous beetle of white backed
plant hopper in India. Intnl. Rice Res. Newslett. 8:

14.

Upadhyay, B. K. & Diwaker, M. C. (1983) :
Natural enemies of rice insect pests in Chhatisgarh
(M.P.), India. Intnl. Rice Res. Newslett. 8: 17-18.

456

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

29. THE HOUSE SPARROW PASSER DOMESTICUS (LINN.) AS
A PREDATOR OF THE PEACH LEAF CURL APHID
BRACHYCAUDUS HELICHRYSI (KALTENBACH)

Four peach (Prunus persica Batch cv.
Flordasun) trees planted during January 1978
were present in the compound of one of the
houses of the Aggar Nagar residential locality
of Ludhiana and were severely infested by
peach leaf curl aphid Brachycaudus helichrysi
(Kaltenbach) and peach mealy aphid,
Hy alopter us pruni (Geoffrey) every year. In
March 1984, house sparrows Passer domesti-
cus (Linn.) were seen pecking at the curled
leaves of peaches and it was seen that
they were feeding on the peach leaf curl aphid.
On March 12, 1984, 2, 3 and 3 sparrows were
found feeding on these aphids, when the trees
were observed at 10.00, 11.00 and 14.30 hrs
respectively and again on March 20, 8-10
sparrows were seen feeding on the aphids at
10.20 hr. On April 3, sparrows were again
observed to be feeding on the aphid.

In 1985, the curled leaves were observed on
February 13 and 2-3 house sparrows per tree
were observed on February 16, 1985, feeding
on the aphids from the curled leaves. The
number of sparrows feeding on this aphid
increased as the number of aphid infested
shoots increased. On February 28, 1985, mini-
mum 2-3 sparrows were seen feeding on the
aphids during the day, whenever the trees
were observed.

Department of Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana,

May 27, 1985.

Feeding behaviour of the sparrows :

The sparrows feed on the aphid colonies
sitting on the shoots and eating the aphid by
pecking them from the lower side of the leaf
about a | from top of the shoot or from the
curled parts. The sparrows also sit on the adjoin-
ing branches and ate the leaf curl aphid from
the infested shoots near the branches on
which, they sit. In some cases, they caught
the growing shoots with their claws and ate
the aphid present on the growing shoot.

In all these observations, house sparrows
had concentrated their activity in predating
the leaf curl aphid and the mealy aphid was
spared, this may be due to the more handy
location of the leaf-curl aphid (only shoots) as
compared to mealy aphid which preferred
the leaves of all ages.

In conclusion, house sparrows had a defi-
nite liking for peach leaf curl aphid atleast
in residential localities and its role in leaf curl
aphid regulation may be further investigated.

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. Harcharan Singh, Professor-
cum-Head, Department of Entomology, Pun-
jab Agricultural University, Ludhiana for
providing the facilities.

G. S. MANN

457

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

30. NEW TAX A OF THE GENUS LASIANTHUS (RUBIACEAE)

(With three text -figures)

In course of taxonomic study of the genus
Lasianthus (Rubiaceae) in Indian subconti-
nent the authors came across some specimens
which are distinct from the known taxa. Three
of these are described below with illustra-
tions as new varieties.

Lasianthus andamamcus Hook f.

var. ciliatus var. nov. (Fig. 1)
differt a varietate typica foliorum nervulis
tertiariis glabra tis vel glabriusculis; stipulis
calycum dentibusque longe ciliatis.

Differing from the typical variety in glabrous
or glabrescent tertiary nerves; stipules and
calyx teeth long ciliate.

Type : South Andaman, Beadnobad, ± 50 m,
30.11. 1973, N. E Balakrishnan 654 holo. CAL,
iso. E, PBL; Dhanikhari, ± 50 m, 31.1.1974,
N. G. Nair 840 para. L, PBL; Herbertabad, sea
level, 29.11.1975, N. G. Nair 3184 para. PBL;
Dhanikhari, 16.1.1978, P. Basu 6641 para.
PBL; Little Andaman, Hut Bay, sea level,
1.9.1976, N. Bhargava 4339 para. CAL; North
Nicobar, Mildera, ± 30 m, 4.5.1977, P.
Chakraborty 5600 para. CAL.

Shrubs small, 1-3 m high; branchlets hori-
zontally spreading, glabrous or pubescent,
chocolate coloured when dry. Leaves petiolate,
5.5-15 x 2.5-5 cm, elliptic, elliptic-oblong or
elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate at apex, acute at
base, slightly coriaceous, glabrous, glossy,
chocolate above when dry, pale beneath, hir-
sute or pubescent on midrib, secondary and
tertiary nerves; midrib shallow channelled
above; lateral nerves 6-10 on either side,
opposite or subopposite, subparallel, arched,
slightly raised above; nervules parallel, forked,
faint; petioles 5-12 mm long, pubescent or
hirsute; stipules 3-6 x 1-2 mm, lanceolate, long
ciliate above; colleters at base beneath. In-
florescence axillary sessile cymes, 2-4 flowered,

ebracteate; bracteoles absent or very minute,
± 1 mm long, triangular, pubescent. Flowers
sessile or subsessile, 4-10 mm long, tubular,
white; pedicels 0-0.5 mm long, pubescent.
Hypanthium ±0.5 mm long, oblong, pubes-
cent. Calyx ± 1 . 5 x 2 . 5 mm, cupular; teeth
4, triangular acute, ciliate above. Corolla tube
8-9 mm long, narrow, pubescent at upper part
on both surfaces; lobes 4, ± 3 mm long,
oblong, inflexed at apex, pubescent above.
Stamens 4, included; filaments minute, adnate
below the throat; anthers ± 2 mm long,
linear-oblong. Ovary ± 0.5 mm long, obo-
void, 4 celled; ovules solitary per locule, basal,
erect; style 8-9 mm long, slender, glabrous;
stigma ±0.5 mm long; 4 lobed, ovate, obtuse;
disk 1-1.5 mm across, annulur, smooth. Fruits
sessile, 5-6 x 3-4 mm, globose or ellipsoid,
crowned with persistent calyx teeth, 4 furrow-
ed, purple, blue or black; pericarp thin, pubes-
cent; pyrenes 4, dcrsally convex, with irre-
gularly shallow grooves ventrally angled, thick
walled, with few raphides. Seeds ± 3 mm long,
oblong, short stalked; embryo ± 2.5 mm
long; radicle inferior, broader at base, cotyle-
dons thin, ovate, acute.

Distribution : Andaman and Nicobar islands,
up to 50 m in altitude.

Lasianthus lucidus Bl.

var. caudisepalus var. nov. (Fig. 2)

differt a varietate typica bract eolis triangu-
laribus, calycum dentibus brevissimis, triangu-
laribus.

This differs from the typical variety in
having triangular bracteoles and calyx teeth
very short, triangular.

Type : Arunachal Pradesh, Subansiri dist.,
Apa Tani valley, Hapoli, 1590 m, 26.4.1965,
Cox & Hutchinson 499 holo. K, iso. E; Apa

458

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Lasianthus andamanicus Hook. f. var. ciliatus var. nov.

A. Habit; B. Flower; C. Opened flower; D. Fruit; E. Seed; F. Embryo.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 2. L. lucidus Bl. var. caudisepalus var. nov.

A. Habit; B. Bracteole; C. Flower; D. Opened flower; E. Fruit; F. Seed.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A

Fig. 3. L. wallichii Wt. var. glabriusculus var. nov.
A. Habit; B. Stipule.

13

461

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Tani valley, 1620 m, 22.4.1965, Cox & Hut-
chinson 476 para E; Hapoli, 30.9.1959, G.
Panigrahi 19813 para. ASSAM; Meghalaya,
Nonglan, 1350 m, 3.11.1873, C. B . Clarke
20049 para K.

Shrubs 1.8-3 m high; branchlets slender,
glabrescent or strigose. Leaves petiolate, 7.5-
13 x 2-4 cm, elliptic-oblong or oblanceolate,
caudate-acuminate at apex, acute at base, thin,
membranous, glossy; midrib flattened; sparsely
strigose; lateral nerves 5-6 on either side,
opposite or subopposite, slender, arched; ner-
vules subparallel, forked, inconspicuous above;
petioles 4-10 mm long, slender, strigose;
stipules 2-3 x 1.5-2 mm, ovate or triangular,
acuminate, strigose, few colleters at base
beneath. Inflorescence axillary subsessile
cymes, 2-5 flowered; peduncle ± 1 mm long,
strigose; bracteoles ± 1 mm long, triangular,
acute, sparsely strigose. Flowers subsessile,
short pedicelled, 14-16 mm long, tubular, white
or light lilac, deeper outside; pedicels up to
0.5 mm long, strigose. Hypanthium zfc 1 mm
long, obovoid, strigose. Calyx zb 1x2.5 mm,
cupular, strigose above; teeth 4 or 5, triangu-
lar, acute. Corolla tube 8-9 mm long, glabrous
above, villous beneath at throat; lobes 4, zb 4
mm long, ovate, sparsely puberulous above,
villous beneath. Stamens 4, included; filaments
minute, adnate below throat; anthers zb 1 mm
long, oblong. Ovary zb 0.5 mm long, obovoid,
4 celled; ovules one per locule, basal, erect;
style zb 10 mm long, puberulous above; stigma
zb 1 mm long, 3 lobed, ovate, obtuse, papi-
llose; disk 1-1.5 mm across, flattened, smooth.
Fruit sessile, 4-5 x 4-5 mm, globose, crowned
by calyx lobes, 5 angled, grooved; pericarp
thin, glabrous; pyrenes 5, obovoid. Seeds zb 2
mm long, obovoid, smooth.

Flowering : April- August; fruiting : Septem-

Rotanical Survey of India,

Howrah,

April 25, 1986.

ber-November.

Ecology : Grows in subtropical forest at 1590-
1620 m in altitude.

Distribution’. Arunachal and Meghalaya.

L. wallichii Wt.

var. glabriusculus var. nov. (Fig. 3)

differt a varietate typica foliis glabriusculis,
stipulisque latissimis ovatis.

Differs from the typical variety in having
almost glabrous leaves and broadly ovate
stipules.

Type: Burma, 1.3.1849, Falconer 885 holo.
& iso. CAL.

Shrubs ; branchlets compressed, glabrescent,
pubescent when young, warty in age. Leaves
petiolate, 5-9 x 2-3 cm, oblong, acuminate at
apex, slightly unequally obtuse at base, coria-
ceous, glabrous; pale green when dry; midrib
slender, slightly raised, channelled above, hir-
sute beneath; lateral nerves 10-12 on either
side, subopposite, subparallel, arched at mar-
gin, conspicuous beneath; nervules irregularly
forked, inconspicuous; petioles 2-4 mm long;
stipules ± 2 x3 mm broad, ovate, acute at
apex, pubescent beneath. Flowers and fruits
not seen.

Distribution'. Burma.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to the Directors and
Keepers of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, Rijksher-
barium, Leiden, Deputy Director, Eastern
circle, BSI Shillong and Regional Botanist,
Andaman and Nicobar circle. Port Blair for
loan of specimens. Thanks are also due to
Director, Botanical Survey of India and Deputy
Director, Central National Herbarium, How-
rah for necessary facilities.

D. B. DEB
MOHAN GANGOPADHYAY

462

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

31. MASSIVE OCCURRENCE OF ENHYDRA FLUCTUANS LOUR
(ENYDRA) IN CITY POND

(With a text-figure)

The Bandra pond and its vegetation attract-
ed our attention about 10 months ago when
a curious citizen brought a strange plant for
identification. Unfortunately, the plant was in
sterile condition at that time, and as it was
novel to Bombay and Maharashtra, it kept us
guessing about its identity, till very recently
when we were able to collect it in bloom and
ascertain its identity after critical study.

Bandra pond, which was famous for the
eye-catching Lotus flowers till few years ago,
now nourishes the growth of unwanted weeds
which has been a cause of concern to local
inhabitants and naturalists. With this point
in mind a study of vegetation of this pond
was undertaken as a project work for the
undergraduate students.

The critical study on the plant revealed that
it is a member of Compositae, Enhydra fluc-
tuate Lour. This species has been earlier re-
ported from West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
from Northern India. It is not included either
in Cooke’s Flora of Bombay Presidency or in
Flora of Madras Presidency by Gamble.
However, it has been reported from present
Maharashtra state by Karthikeyan et al in
Records Bot. Surv. India 21(2): 169. 1981,
without mentioning any precise locality. After
enquiring with Mr. Karthikeyan about the
occurrence of this species in Maharashtra, it
is revealed that he has reported this species
based on Paradkar-43, collected on 15-3-1963
from Nagpur College premises. Mr. Karthi-
keyan further states in his letter that before
publication of his paper, he saw the specimen
in the Herbarium of Botanical Survey of India,
Western Circle, Poona (BSI), but subsequent-

ly the specimen has been misplaced by some-
body, and he could get only the reference
card. From this information it appears that
this is a new report of this species from Maha-
rashtra. Since it is an addition to Cooke’s
Flora and Madras Flora and since there is no
figure available for this species, we give below
the full details of the plant with line drawings.

A decumbent, branched, fleshy, submerged
aquatic herb rooting at nodes. Roots long,
unbranched, stout and cylindric. Stem rounded,
cylindric with long internodes, fleshy, hollow
in the centre, purple at the nodes, with scatter-
ed white hairs when young. Leaves simple,
opposite, linear-oblong, fleshy, gland-dotted,
distantly short-toothed, acute at the apex,
sessile, with a prominent midrib, glabrous. In-
florescence terminal and axillary, sessile, round-
ed head surrounded by leafy, involucral bracts.
Bracts in 2 whorls, persistent; outer 2 bracts
ovate-oblong, 1-1.5 cm long, 0.6-0. 8 cm
broad, rounded at base, slightly narrowing and
acute at the apex, 4-6 veined, gland-dotted in
the upper half, glabrous. Inner bracts 2,
broadly ovate, 0.5 cm broad, green, 4-6 vein-
ed, rounded at base and apex, fleshy, glabrous.
Head heterogamous-rayed Florets arranged
centripetally on a fleshy, rounded to concave
receptacle. Ray florets (pistillate florets) at
the periphery, arranged in many series. Ovary
oblong, white, 0.4-0.45 cm long, 0. 1-0.2 cm
broad, white flat on upper surface, compressed
and 2 sided on the lower surface; ovule 0.1
cm long, erect, shining. Style slender, 0.2-0.3
cm long, linear; stigma deeply 2 fid, exserted,
curved inwards, slightly coloured. Palea long,
covering the ovary, hairy at the apex; hairs

463

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 1. Enhydra fluctuans Lour.

A. Habit; B. 1. Outer bract, 2. Inner bract; G. Disc floret; D. Pisitil; E. Anther;

F. Ray floret; G. Pollen.

464

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

few. Corolla ligulate, tube very short, green,
swollen and rounded at base, divided half-
way above into 3-4 lobes; lobes white with
purple tinge, 0.05-0.1 cm long. Disc florets
(bisexual floret) few in the centre of the
receptable, 0.8-1 cm long; palea sheathing, 0.4-
0 . 5 cm long, toothed at the apex. Corolla tube
swollen and rounded at base, linear in the
middle, broad at apex, divided into 5 ovate,
acute lobes. Stamens 5, epipetalous, syngene-
cious; anthers linear obtuse at base and apex,
pollen grains rounded and spiny; ovary oblong,
white, with one erect ovule, style stout, cylin-
dric, 0.5 cm long, shortly divided into 2 stout,
fleshy, stigma lobes; cypsela oblong, laterally
compressed.

An abundant aquatic weed, recently intro-
duced in the pond. For the last 10 months.

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay - 400 001,

April 25, 1986.

we have watched the plant and its growth.
It occupies almost half of the lake in pure
formations, partially submerged under water
with only the upper half remaining erect above
the water level. Birds of various types visit
the pond in different seasons from different
parts of the country, and feed upon the plants
of the pond.

This species is an aromatic or essential oil
yielding plant. Internal structure of the plant
is typical of a dicot plant having normal
secondary growth, adapted for aquatic life.

Flowering & Fruiting'. January-March. Loca-
lity: Bandra Pond. Exsiccata : SMA — 6001,
6010.

We are grateful to Mr. M. R. Almeida
and Mr. G. G. V. B. Rao for the help
rendered in preparing this article.

S. M. ALMEIDA
A. R. DARUWALLA

32. OCCURRENCE OF THREE INTERESTING PLANTS AT
NANDUR MADHMESHWAR, NASIK DISTRICT,
MAHARASHTRA

(With three text-figures)

Nandur Madhmeshwar reservoir, also known
as ‘Khandgaon Thadi’ is situated about 55 km
away from Nasik in Nasik District has three
large islands in the middle and an abundance
of aquatic vegetation. It has become a excel-
lent birdwatching area for waterfowl both
resident and migratory. There is a proposal
to declare the area as a ‘Bird-Sanctuary’ by
the Government of Maharashtra.

It was decided to work on the flora of this
interesting area as there is no data on its

plant life. A number of field trips were made
in different seasons and some interesting
features of the flora were noted.

This paper describes the occurrence of a
new plant for Maharashtra and two common
but less known species.

1. Cocculus pendulus (J. R. & G. Forst.)
Diels in Engl. & Prantl. 4. 94:237, fig. 78,
1910; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1: 29,

465

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

1915; Hutchinson & Dalziel, FI. W. Tr. Afr.

1: 79, 1927 (ed. 1) & 1: 76, 1954 (ed. 2);

G. Troupin, FI. E. Tr. Afr. Menisp. 10.

1956. (Fig. 1).

Epibaterium pendulum J. R. & G. Forst.
Ghae. Gen. 108, t. 54, 1776.

Menispermum leaba Del., FI. Egypt, 140, t.
51, fig. 2-3, 1813.

Cocculus leaeba (Del.) DC. Syst. 1: 529,
1818 and Prodr. 1: 99, 1824; Hook, f., FI.
Brit. Ind. 1: 102, 1872; T. Cooke, FI. Pres.
Bombay 1: 21 (23), 1901; Talbot. For. FI. 1:
42-43, 1909; Bamber, PI. of Punjab, 605, 1916.

A scandent climbing shrub.

The species has been reported from Karachi-
Sindh by T. Cooke; Valleys below Simla,
and Rawalpindi by Bamber; from Carnatic
by Hooker; from Madurai, Madras by Gamble;
from Porbunder by Woodrow; and from Kutch
and Saurashtra by Shah; Talbot has reported
it earlier from Nasik, Nagar & Pune but sub-
sequently there is no report of the species from
Maharashtra.

The species is very poorly represented in
various herbaria in Maharashtra. There are
only 4 specimens in Blatter Herbarium; of
which 3 are from Gujarat (H. Santapau:
Jamnagar — 7692, 7706; Irani: Julunder Bet,
Kutch — 5312 and the other from Karachi
(s.n., s.l., 1892).

Rare in the locality, a male plant growing
on Azadirachta indica west of Khandgaon
riverbed was collected on a Euphorbia hedge.

Our identification is based on the descrip-
tion given by Cooke and was confirmed by
matching the specimen with Blatter Herba-
rium specimens, which have been identified at
Kew.

Floweri ng : October- J anuary .

Exsiccata : RDS — 500, 669, 885; MRA —
s.n.

2. Vicia sativa Linn. Sp. PI. 736, 1753; Baker
in Hook. f. FBI 2: 178, 1876; Fyson FI.
of Nil. & Pul. Hills-tops, 1:117, 1915 &
2: t. 88, 1915; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras
1: 246, 1957; Ali in Bot. Notiser 120: 48,
1967 & FI. Pak. 100 (Pap): 269, fig. C,
1977 (only habit). (Fig. 2).

Annual herb, erect or climbing. Leaves pari-
pinnate. Rachis ending in twisted tendrils.

The species has been reported from South
Nilgiri hills by Fyson & Gamble; from Dehra
Dun by D. R. Babu and from Gujarat by
G. L. Shah. At BLAT there is only one speci-
men collected from Nilgiris by L. J. Sedgwick
1626, July 1916. There is no earlier record of
the species from any part of Maharashtra.

A rare species in this locality growing east
of the reservoir towards the Manjargaon in
the waste-lands and on the dry riverbed. Our
identification is based on the description given
in FI. Pak. by Ali and was confirmed by
comparing with the herbarium specimen of
Sedgwick — 1626; deposited at BLAT.

Flowering : December- January.

Exsiccata : RDS — 363, 934.

3. Pluchea tomentosa DC. in Wt. Contr. 16,
1834; DC. Prodr. 5: 450, 1836; C. B.
Clarke, in Comp, of Ind. 94, 1876; Hooker
f., FBI 3: 272, 1882; Woodrow in Journ.
BNHS, 11: 648, 1898; T. Cooke, FI. Pres,
of Bombay 1: 25 (2: 81), 1904; Gamble, FI.
Pres. Madras, 1: 690 (2: 485), 1915; Duthie,
FI. Upp. Gang. PI. 1: 418, 1960. (Fig. 3).

A shrub generally, 1-2.5 m tall, sometimes
growing up to 3 to 4 m in height with support
of other plants.

The species is poorly represented in Indian
herbaria. After referring to different herbaria,
we found that there are 9 specimens at Bota-

466

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Cocculus pendulus (J.R.&G. Forst.) Diels
A. Habit; B. Open flower; C. Inner sepal; D. Outer sepal; E. Inner petal;
F. Outer petal; G. Leaf; H. Stamens.

467

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 2. Vicia sativa L.

1. Calyx; 2, 3&4. Corolla (standard, Wing & Keel); 5. Staminal tube; 6. Gynoecium;

7. Stamens; 8. Pod and seed.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 3. Pluchea tomentosa DC.

1. Habit; 2. Outer involucral bract; 3. Inner involucral bract; 4. Outer $ flower;
5. Disc flower; 6. Open disc flower; 7. Pistil; 8. Stamens.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

nical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune
(BSI) herbarium, of which six were collected
by T. Cooke (no locality and field data is
mentioned); and one by D. Prain in 1902
(without any locality). There are six specimens
in Dehradun herbarium and three sheets in the
National herbarium, Calcutta, of which one is
from Sinhgad, Pune (1957). In Blatter herba-
rium, there are only two specimens from Dhar-
wad, collected by L. J. Sedgwick (2382 & 3454
in 1917).

T. Cooke in FI. Bombay Pres, has mention-
ed Konkan and Thalghat, as localities for this
species, but there is no representative speci-
mens from these localities in any of the her-
baria.

The plant is very common in Nandur
Madhmeshwar area. It grows well up to 4 m

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay - 400 001,

May 24, 1986.

tall with the support of other trees, and
occupies large area of water-logged marshy
land.

Our identification is based on description
given by T. Cooke and was confirmed by
matching the specimens collected by Sedgwick,
deposited at BLAT.

Flowering : December-February.

Exsiccata : RDS — 2, 85, 691; MR A — 20.

We are grateful to Rev. Fr. John Misquitta,
S. J., Principal, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay
to Mr. M. B. Almeida for guidance; to Mr.
V. K. Mohan, Forest Officer, for providing
facilities for staying at Khandgaon-irrigation
bungalow during field trips; to Mr. Debi Goenka
and Ms. Heta Pandit for the assistance and
help during the field trips and to Mr. Kevin
D’Cruz for drawings.

RAJENDRA SHINDE
S. M. ALMEIDA

33. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON EMBELIA ROBUST A AUCT.
MULT., NON ROXB. (MYRSINACEAE)

Almeida and Almeida (1984) proposed the
combination, Embelia acutipetalum (Lam. ex
Hassk.) Almeida and Almeida based on Basal
acutipetalum Lam. ex Hasskarl, Hort. Malab.
Rheed. Clavis: 40. 1867 for the species known
as “Vidingi” in Maharashtra, a species of great
medicinal value and for which Cooke (1904)
used the name, Embelia robusta Roxb., citing
both Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. et
Schult.) A. DC. and E. Basaal (Roem. et
Schult.) A. DC. in synonymy. But the former
is based on Ardisial tsjeriam-cottam Roem. et
Schult. (1819) and the latter on A. Basaal
Roem. et Schult. (1819). Both these basionyms
have not only priority over E. robusta Roxb.

(1820), but also both these names are now
accepted (cf. Gamble, 1921) as taxonomically
distinct from E. robusta Roxb.

Hasskarl (1867), in proposing the name
Basal acutipetalum Lam. ex Hassk., cited
Dauceria acuta Dennst.,; Steudel, Nom. 1: 485
(1840), ‘ Ardisial Basaal R. S. S. V. IV. 517
... E. Basaal A. DC.’, as direct synonyms.
Therefore, Basal acutipetalum Lam. ex Hassk.
must be treated as a superfluous illegitimate
name for E. basaal (Roem. et Schult.) A. DC.
(Art. 7. 11; Art. 63. 1). Further, in as much
as Dauceria acuta Dennst. ex Steudel (1840)
published without a description, is validated
by reference to ‘(Hort. mal. V. 12)’, albeit a

470

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Pre-Linnaean publication, (Art. 32.2, Ex. 3;
Art. 7. 13), its citation as a direct synonym
of Basal acutipetalum Lam. ex Hassk. (1867),
renders the latter doubly superfluous (Art. 7.
11; Art. 63. 1).

In this connection, we must emphasise that
Lamarck in ‘Enc. 1: 381. V did not establish
Basal acutipetalum, as attributed to Lamarck
by Hasskarl (1867); Lamarck in ‘Diet. Encycl.
de Bot. 1: 381. 1789’ referred to: 1. Basaal
or Basal, Rheed. Hort. Malab. 5: 23, t. 12:
2. Basal, T sjeriam-cottam Rheed. l.c.: 22, t.
11 and without suggesting any specific epithet
for either of them, gave detailed comments in
French.

Although Dauceria Dennst. (1818), an in-
valid name (Manitz, Taxon 17: 500. 1968),
was validated by Steudel (1840) by referring
to it ‘Pattara Adans.’ (1763), Dauceria Dennst.
ex Steudel (1840) must be rejected as a super-
fluous illegitimate name for Pattara Adans.
(Art. 7. 11; Art. 63. 1), despite the fact that
Pattara Adans. is nom. rej for Embelia N. L.
Burman (1768). All the same, Dauceria acuta
Dennst. ex Hassk. and D. obtusa Dennst. ex
Hassk., are not illegitimate (Art. 68. 1) merely
because Dauceria Dennst. ex Steud. (1840) is
illegitimate.

Embelia Basaal (Roem. et Schult.) A. DC.
is taxonomically distinct from E. tsjeriam-
cottam (Roem. et Schult.) A. DC. as is evident
from a reference to t. 12 vis-a-vis t. 11 in
Rheed. Hort. Malab. 5 (1685). The former
has oblong-rounded leaves with an acute apex,
cauliflorous inflorescences, the racemes bearing
two rows of flowers and fruits; the latter has
oblong rounded leaves with obtuse apex and
generally terminal racemes. A critical study of
specimens in CAL shows that E. Basaal is
characterised by oblong-rotund leaves with

acuminate apex, reddish-green in colour, fine
reticulations of the veins and veinlets, flaccid
in texture; cauliflorous inflorescences, pedicel-
late flowers and fruits, is the more commoner
of the two species and represents the ‘Vidingi
of the Ayurvedic literature. Unfortunately,
however, many sheets representing the true E.
Basaal have been identified as (E. tsjeriam-
cottani, presumably because these two species
were considered conspecific by many authors
(e.g. Clarke in FBI 3: 515. 1882; Cooke, FI.
Bomb. Presid. 2: 144. 1904). In fact, there
is just one specimen in CAL (Nilgiri Distr.
Maryland R. F. 10 Dec. 1957, K. M. Sebastine
4882) which is an exact match with Rheed.
Hort. Malab. 5. tab. 11 with regard to leaf-
shape etc. and represents E. t sjeriam-cottam
rather than E. Basaal as wrongly annotated.
While Wight, Icon. t. 1209 represents E. tsje-
riam-cottam, Wight, l.c. tab. 1210 is E. Basaal ;
tab. 1208 represents E. gerardiana Wight and
tab. 1591, Samara rheedi Wight; these two
species are taxonomically quite distinct from
E. Basaal — E. t sjeriam-cottam complex, as
also from E. villosa Wall. Gamble (l.c.) there-
fore was in error in citing E. viridiflora Scheff.
(as ‘Clarke’), Choripetalum aurantiacum A.
DC. and Samara rheedii Wight as conspecific
with and synonymous to E. Basaal (Roem. at
Schult.) A. DC. E. viridiflora represents a
climbing shrub with coriaceous elliptic-obovate
leaves narrowed at base, is very different from
Wight Icon. Tab. 1210 representing E. Basaal
and represents a species-group restricted to
South India. Sri Lanka and Malaya (cf.
Clarke, l.c.) and is absent from the mainland
of India. Indeed, it appears that E. tsjeriam-
cottam sensu Gamble, non (Roem. et Schult.)
A. DC. represents E. Basaal (Roem. et Schult.)
A. DC. More recently, Saldanha (1984) has
correctly interpreted E. Basaal although he was
unsure of the correct interpretation of E.
tsjeriam-cottam based on Rheed. Hort. Malab.

471

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

5: t. 11 (1685). One of us (S.M.) suspects
that the latter may not even belong to the
Myrsinaceae and expects to undertake a
thorough revision of this complex.

The nomenclatural set-up of Embelia Basaal
is as follows:

Embelia Basaal (Roem. et Schult.) A. DC. in
Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 131. 1837; Graham,
Cat. Bomb. PL: 104. 1839; Hasskarl in Flora
44 (Neus Beih. 19): 546. 1861; Saldanha,
FI. Karnataka 1 : 348, 1984.

Ardisial Basaal Roem. et Schult., Syst. Veg.
4: 517. 1819.

Type: “In Malabar et Cochinchina”, Rheed.
Hort. Malab. 5: t. 12, 1685.

Basaal Rheede, Hort. Malab. 5: 23, t. 12.
1685; Lamarck, Dist. Encycl. Bot. 1: 381.
1789 (as ‘Basal or Basaal).

Dauceria acuta Demisted, Schules Zum Hort.
Malab. 31. 1818, nom. invalid (cf. Manitz in
Taxon 17: 500. 1968).

D. acuta Dennst. ex Steudel, Nom. Bot. 1 :
485. 1840, nom. illeg. superfl.

Type: Same as for Ardisial Basaal Roem.
et Schult.

Basal acutipetalum Hassk., Horti Mai. Rhee-
deani Clavis: 40. 1867 (as ‘Lamk, Encycl. 1:
381.1'), nom. superfl. illeg. Type: Same as for
E. Basaal Roem. et Schult.

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah.

Embelia tsjeriam-cottam sensu Santapau, FI.
Khandala, ed. 3: 141. 1967, p.p. quoad syn,
E. Basaal ; Ramamoorthy in Saldanha and
Nicolson, (ed.) FI. Hassan: 202. 1976; sensu
Gamble, FI. Presid. Madras 2: 529, 1921; non
(Roem. et Schult.) A. DC. (1837).

E. robusta auct. plur., non Roxb. (1820);
e.g. Clarke in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 515.
1882, p.p. quoad E. Basaal pro syn.\ Cooke,
FI. Bombay Presid. 2: 144. 1904 (reprint.
1958) p.p. quoad E. Basaal pre syn.

E. acutipetalum S. M. Almeida and M. R.
Almeida, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. 81: 741.
1984 [as ‘(Lam. ex Hassk.), comb, nov.’] nom.
superfl. illeg.

Type: Same as for Ardisial Basaal Roem.
et Schult.

Distribution : India, Burma.

Summary

Embelia Basaal (Roem. et Schult.) A. DC.
is established as the correct name for the
widespread species, known as ‘ Vidingi ’ in
Ayurvedic literature and the involved nomen-
clatural problems in this species complex is
discussed and sorted out.

G. PANIGRAHI

Blatter Herbarium, S. M. ALMEIDA

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay - 400 001,

May 30, 1986.

Reference

Almeida, S. M. and Almeida, M. R. (1984): rashtra’, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 741-743.

‘Nomenclatural Notes on some Plants from Maha-

472

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

34. NEW TAXA OF ANABAENA BORY — THE BLUE GREEN
ALGAE FROM PADDY FIELDS OF KARNATAKA STATE

(INDIA)

(With three text-figures)

Introduction

Among a number of interesting algae re-
corded during our studies on the algal flora
of crop fields, those belonging to Anabaena
Bory of Nostocaceae: Nostocales: Cyano-

phyta (Desikachary 1959) are included in the
present communication. Algae recorded in
enrichment cultures of soil samples were further
studied by isolating in soil-water biphasic media
(Singh 1961).

1. Anabaena oscillatoroides Bory ex Born, et
Flah. var. attenuafa var. nov. (Fig. 1).

Thallus microscopic; trichomes short, slight-
ly attenuated at ends; cells 3. 0-3. 5 /im broad,
barrel shaped; end cell obtuse conical; hetero-
cysts subspherical to compressed, 5. 0-5. 5 /xm
broad; spores cylindrical with rounded ends,
8-9 /xm broad, 17-26 /xm long.

Habitat : Paddy field soil at Mutnal in Bel-
gaum district, Karnataka State.

Type specimen : Deposited (KUDB-76/42)
at the Algal Laboratory, Kamatak University,
Dharwad.

Anabaena oscillatoroides Bory ex Born, et

Flah. var. attenuata var. nov. (Fig. 1)

Thallus microscopicus; trichomata brevia, in
extremitatibus paululum attenuata; cellulae 3.0-
3.5 /xm lata, doliformes; cellula terminalis
obtuse conica; heterocystes subsphaericae ad
compressas, 5. 0-5. 5 /xm lata; sporae cylindri-
cae, extremitatibus rotundatis, 8-9 /xm lata, 17-
26 /xm long.

Habitatio : in soli ex agro Oryzae ad locum
Mutnal in Belgaum district of Karnataka State
dictum relata.

Typus speciminis: in laboratorio pro Algis,

Universitatis Karnatak, Dharwad (KUDB-76/
42) depositus.

Differs from the type in the heterocysts being
not oval and being smaller, and trichomes
attenuated at the ends and smaller (Geitler
1932, p. 886, fig. 567; Desikachary 1959, p.
417, pi. 71, fig. 7).

Anabaena rivularioktes sp. nov. (Fig. 2)

Thallus super superficiem soli patens; tricho-
mata perlonga, diverse flexa, 3. 5-4.0 /xm lata,
in vagina non inclusa; cellulae doliformes,
circa l\ plo longiores quam latae; proprie ad
locos incrementi in partes longas capillares
attenuatae et denique ad heterocystes se fra-
gentes; heterocystes intercalares ovales ad
ellipsoideas ad sub-quadratas, 6-7 /xm lata,
usque ad 10 /xm long., heterocystes terminales
subsphaericae ad sub-conicas, paulo minores
quam cellulae vegetativae; sporae ellipsoideae,
iuxta heterocystes intercalares et uno in latere,
5. 0-6. 5 /xm lata, 7-8 /xm long., epispora levis.

Habitatio : in soli ex agro Oryzae ad locum
Mutnal in Belgaum district of Karnataka State
dictum relata.

Typus speciminis : in laboratorio pro Algis,
Universitatis Karnatak, Dharwad (KUDB-76/
30) depositus.

2. Anabaena rivularioides sp. nov. (Fig. 2)

Thallus spreading on soil surface; trichomes
very long, variously bent, 3. 5-4.0 /xm broad,
not enclosed in a sheath; cells barrel shaped,
about l\ times longer than broad, characte-
ristically attenuated into long hair like portions
at growing points and finally breaking at hetero-
cysts; intercalary heterocysts oval to ellipsoidal
to sub-quadrate, 6-7 /xm broad, upto 10 /xm
long; terminal heterocysts subspherical to sub-
conical, slightly smaller than vegetative cells;

473

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 1. Anabaena oscillatoroides Bory ex Barn, et Flah. var. attenuata var. nov.
Fig. 2. A. rivularioides sp. nov.

Fig. 3. A. spiroides Klebahn var. epiphytica var. nov.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

spores ellipsoidal, next to and on one side of
intercalary heterocysts, 5. 0-6. 5 broad, 7-8
ju m long, epispore smooth.

Habitat : Paddy field soil at Mutnal in Bel-
gaum district of Karnataka State.

Type specimen : Deposited (KUDB-76/30)
at the Algal Laboratory, Karnatak University,
Dharwad.

The alga can be compared with Anabaena
aphanizomenoides Forti, in the shape and size
of vegetative cells and heterocysts (Geitler
1932, p. 875, fig. 556; Desikachary 1959, p.
405, pi. 71, fig. 4); but differs from in having
terminal unipored heterocysts, smaller size of
akinetes and in trichomes being occasionally
tapering and breaking adjacent to the inter-
calary heterocysts giving an appearance of the
filaments of Rivularia (Roth.) Ag. (!). In view
of these distinctive characters, the present form
is separated as a new species, the name being
suggestive of its resemblance to Rivularia.
Anabaena spiroides Klebahn. var. epiphytica
var. nov. (Fig. 3):

Trichomata 2-3 crescentia super vaginas
vacuas mucilaginasque probiliter Lyngbya Ag.,
regulariter torsiva maximam partem, et erecta
spatium breve in extremitate; spirae 15-20 jam
latae, 9-22 jam distantes; cellulae 3-6 latae,
cupiformes, usque ad 2-plo longiores quam
latiores; cellula terminalis obtusa; heterocystae
rarae, cylindricae depressaeque, 3. 0-3. 5 jam
latae, 5-6 jam longae; sporae (iuvenes?) rarae,
procul ab heterocystis, breves elhpsoideaeque,
4. 0-4. 5 jam latae, usque ad 5.5 jam longae,
episporium laeve.

Habit ado: in soli ex agro Oryzae, Halyal, in

Algal Laboratory,

Department of P. G. Studies
in Botany,

Karnatak University,

Dharwad - 580 003,

May 30, 1986.

regione Kanara septentrionali, Karnataka.

Typus sped minis: in laboratorio pro Algis,
Universitatis Karnatak, Dharwad (KUDB-76/
88) depositus.

3. Anabaena spiroides Klebahn. var. epiphy-
tica var. nov. (Fig. 3)

Trichomes 2 to 3 together growing over
empty mucilagenous sheaths probably of
Lyngbya Ag. regularly spirally coiled for the
major part and terminally errect for a short
distance, spirals 15-20 jam broad and 9-22 jam
distant; cells 3-6 ^am broad, short barrel shaped
to twice as long as broad; end cell obtuse;
heterocysts rare, compressed cylindrical, 3.0-
3.5 jam broad, 5-6 /mi long, spores (young?)
rarely found, away from the heterocysts, short
ellipsoidal, 4. 0-4. 5 jam broad, upto 5.5 jam
long, epispore smooth.

Habitat : Paddy field soil at Halyal in North
Kanara district, Karnataka State.

Type specimen : Deposited (KUDB-76/88)
at the Algal Laboratory, Karnatak University,
Dharwad.

Differs from the type in trichomes being not
single and free floating, spirals being more
compact, heterocysts being not sub-spherical
and spores not spherical (Geitler 1932, p. 881;
Desikachary 1959, p. 395, pi. 71, fig. 9).

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to the University Grants
Commission, New Delhi for financial assistance
and to the University authorities for facilities.
I am also thankful to Prof. (Mrs.) Hannah
Croasdale of Hanover, USA and to Mrs. Angela
Shipman of Exeter, USA for the latin diagnoses.

U. D. BONGALE

475

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

References

Desikachary, T. V. (1959): Cyanophyta, ICAR Singh, R. N. (1961): Role of blue green algae
New Delhi, 686 pp. in Nitrogen Economy of Indian Agriculture. ICAR

Geitler, L. (1932) : Cyanophyceae in Rabenhorst’s New Delhi, 175 pp.

Kryptogamenflora. Leipzig, 14: 1196 pp.

35. VARIABILITY IN BALANITES ROXBURGHII PL. IN THE

INDIAN DESERT

Introduction

Morphological variability in fruit and seed
has some adaptive value for plants in different
habitats. Polymorphism is an adaptive trait in
arid environment which is characterised by ex-
tremes of temperature, low erratic and variable
rainfall, high evaporation rates and different
soil types. Such variable stress conditions and
gene exchange through cross pollination have
generated more variability. This desert region
is also a centre of diversity/ origin of crops
like Vigna aconti folia, Cyamopsis tetragono-
loba, Zizyphus mauritiana and Carissa congesta
(Singh et al. 1963).

Balanites aegyptiaca Del. is thought to have
originated in Nile valley, but is now widely
distributed in Africa and Asia (Davis et al.
1983). The Indian plant B. roxburghii PI. has
a wide ecological amplitude and is common
all over western Rajasthan except in the ex-
treme north western part of the state where
the annual rainfall is below 200 mm. Its fruits
are a source of diosgenin, a precursor for the
synthesis of sex hormones, cortico-steroid
drugs, anabolic agents and anti-fertility com-
pounds. The seeds contain about 45% oil and
seed meal with high amount of protein. The
study of the ecological distribution of the plant
in western Rajasthan has led to the collection
and identification of 50 types from ten sites
located in four districts. The type was based
on the fruit shape and size. The leaves were

also collected to find if correlation exists bet-
ween shape/ size of fruit and leaf.

Material and Methods

An exhaustive survey was conducted in the
districts of Sirohi, Pah, Jodhpur, Barmer and
Jaisalmer, to collect fruit and leaf material from
Balanites trees. At least 20 fruits and leaves
were collected from each tree. Observations
were recorded on fruit weight, length, width,
circumference, volume, weight, length, width
of stone and seed (after removal of pulp and
endocarp) and leaflet length and breadth. The
mean, standard deviation and coefficient of
variation values were estimated for each charac-
ter observed. Correlation analysis was done
for length, breadth, size index and shape index
characters of fruit and leaflet. Length x breadth
gave size index while length divided by breadth
gave shape index.

Results and Discussion

Among an exhaustive collection of fruits
from several sites, at least fifty types have been
identified based on fruit characters. A
great amount of variability with respect to
fruit length, width, circumference, weight,
volume and diosgenin content existed (Table
1). The size and shape of the stone and seed
resembled to that of the fruit. The size and
shape of the leaflets of the fifty types also

476

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

exhibited variation. The estimation of
standard deviation and co -efficient variation
showed existence of considerable variation in
the observed characters. Volume followed by
weight of fruit revealed the highest coefficient
of variation and fruit width the lowest. In case
of leaffet, length exhibited a lower variation
coefficient compared to breadth (Table 2). A
particular type of fruit may occur in different
sites. For example, long fruits are seen to occur
in almost all locations. Dhola (Pali dt.) had
the maximum number of types (Table 2A)
Sucker-propagated trees bore the same type
of fruits of the parent tree. Hence, the exist-
ing variability is genotypic. The species is also

Table 1

Range of variation in fruit size and shape and

DIOSGENIN CONTENT IN FRUIT PULP

Parameter

Range

Length

2. 6-8. 2 cm

Width

2.2-6. 3 cm

Circumference

7.0-19.4 cm

Weight

6.0-80.0 g

Volume

5 -106 cc.

Diosgenin content

0. 1-5.6 %

Table 2

Variability analysis of fruit and leaf characters
OF THE 50 TYPES

Characters

Mean

SD

CY%

Weight (g)

27.53

12.27

44,56

Length (cm)

4.97

1.07

21.48

Width (cm)

3.72

0.67

18.03

Fruit

Size index

18.71

5.87

31.37

Shape index
Circumference

1.36

0.35

25.59

(cm)

11.78

2.07

17.58

Volume (cc)

34.46

18.64

54.09

Leaf

Length (cm)

3.45

0.65

18.93

Breadth (cm)

1.67

0.45

26.84

Table 2A

Locational source of the types described

Type code

Location

District

01-07

Devlia

Jodhpur

08-09

Luni

99

10-13

Pal

99

14-20

Osian

>9

21-24

Kailana

JJ

25-

Megalasiya

99

26-28

Balotra

Banner

29-37

Dhola

Pali

38-43

Sheoganj

Sirohi

44-50

Sirohi

99

cross pollinated, by insects. It is such genetic
variability that provides a rich assortment of
biotypes bringing more microsites into the eco-
logical amplitude of the species. Balanites is
distributed from a sub-humid area (Abu-
Kozra) in extreme south to arid areas (Balotra,
Osian).

In Citrullus colocynthis, Pareek and
Vashishtha (1980) reported a great amount of
variability in fruit volume, seed number per
fruit, per seed weight and oil content in this
region. Seed variability has been recorded in
Crotalaria medicaginea (Bohra and Sen 1974)
and diversity in size, weight and number of
seeds in Cucumis callosus (Bansal and Sen
1978).

Statistically, highly significant correlation has

Table 3

Correlation between leaf and fruit characters

Characters Correlation

(Leaf VS fruit) coefficient

1. Length 0.56**

2. Breadth 0.57**

3. Size Index 0.54**

4. Shape index 0.45**

(** highly significant at 1% level)

14

477

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 84

been established between leaf and fruit charac-
ters (Table 3). Correlation coefficient was
highest with respect to breadth and lowest in
case of shape index.

Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Jodhpur,

June 18, 1986.

Refer

Bansal, R. P. & Sen, D. N. (1978) : Contribu-
tion to the ecology and seed germination of Cucumis
callosus . Folia Geobot. Phytotax 13: 225-33.

Bohra, P. N. and Sen, D. N. (1974): Seed pat-
terns and germination behaviour in Crotalaria medi-
caginea growing in Indian Arid Zone: Curr. Sci. 43
(1974) 591- .

Davis, J. B., Kay, D. E. & Clark, V. (1983):
Plants tolerant of arid and semi arid condition with
non food constituents of potential use, p. 17. Tropi-

Acknowledgement

Grateful thanks are due to Dr. G. V. Rama-
krishna for his assistance in computing the
data statistically.

V. A. AMALRAJ1
K. A. SHANKARNARAYAN

EN CES

cal Research Institute, London.

Pareek, O. P. & Vashishtha, B. B. (1980) :
Variability in Citrutlus colocynthis in the Thar de-
sert. Ann. Arid Zone 19: 277-281.

Singh, S.. Krishnamurthy, S. & Katyajl, S. L.
(1963) : Fruit culture in India, I.C.A.R., New Delhi.

1 Present address : National Bureau of Plant Gene-
tic Resources, Regional Station, Vellanikkara, Trichur
680 654. Kerala.

36. ADDITIONAL REPORTS OF THE ASTERACEAE FOR

PUNJAB STATE

Nair (1978), in his most recent and com-
prehensive work dealing with the Punjab
plants, has recorded 62 wild and 6 cultivated
species of the Asteraceae. Subsequently, Daniel
(1982) reported Glossocardia hosvallea (Linn,
f.) DC. from Garhimanswal (Dist. Hoshiar-
pur). Based upon the plant explorations of
Punjab for seventeen years (1963-1979),
I enumerated another 16 wild (Sharma 1982a)
and 41 cultivated species (Sharma 1982b) of
the Compositae from Punjab State. Further
collections and observations for six years
(1980-1985) from the unexplored and under-
explored Shivaliks and submountainous zone
of this area have resulted in the recording of
another 8 species listed below alphabetically
with some relevant observations and annota-
tions. All the specimens cited here are depo-

sited in Herbarium Punjabi University, Patiala
(PUN).

1 . Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O. Kuntze,
Rev. Gen. PI. 1 : 304. 1891; Raizada, Suppl.
FI. Upp. Gang. Plain 100. 1976; Babu, Herb.
FI. Dehra Dun 237. 1977. Verbesina lavenia
Linn. Sp. PI. 902. 1753. Adenostemma visco-
sum J. G. Forst. Char. Gen. PI. 90. 1776; Hook,
f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 242. 1881, pro parte.

Occasionally met with in marshes on the
northern side of the State particularly towards
Shivaliks. This species is characterized by 1-1.5
mm long corolla, 5-6 mm long heads, 3-4 mm
long involucre and tuberculate achenes. Hooker
(loc. cit.) had described seven varieties under
A. viscosum. Plants from our area are refer-
able to var. parviflorum (Bl.) Hook. f. How-
ever, Hooker (loc. cit.) reduced A. micro-

478

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

phyllum (Bl.) DC. to the synonymy of this
variety. Priestly, A. microphyllum is treated
as a distinct species (Raizada, Babu loc cit.).
It has larger corolla (2.5-3 mm long), heads
(8-10 mm long), involucre (5-6 mm long) and
smooth achenes in contrast to those of A.
lavenia.

FI. & Fr. : September-November.

Specimens examined : Chamkaur Sahib

Ropar Headworks, Amritsar; M. Sharma
10433, 10487, 11740.

2. Bitlens hipinnata Linn. Sp. PI. 832.
1753; Sherff, Field. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bot. 16:
366. 1937; Dakshini & Singh, Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci. (PI. Sci.) 93: 175. 1984.

Common locally in shady waste lands to-
wards Shivaliks.

FI & Fr. : July-November.

Specimens examined : Morinda, Bela; M.
Sharma 10461, 10484.

3. Coreopsis basalts (A. Dietr.) Blake, Proc.
Amer. Acad. 2: 525. 1916; Bailey, Man. Cult.
PI. 1003. 1949. Calliopsis basalis A. Dietr. in
Otto & Dietr. Allgem. Gartenz. 3: 330. 1835

A native of North America. Commonly
cultivated, often found as an escape near
gardens.

FI. & Fr. : February-April.

Specimens examined : Univ. Campus, Patiala;
M. Sharma 819, 883.

4. Coreopsis lanceolata Linn. Sp. PI. 908.
1753; Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 1: 845. f. 1056.
1928; Man. Cult. PI. 1003. 1949; Vishnu
Swarup, Garden FI. 146. 1967.

A native of North America. Commonly
grown as a garden ornamental. Occasionally
also found as a self-sown near gardens.

FI. & Fr. : February-April.

Specimens examined : Univ. Campus, Patiala,
M. Sharma 11738.

5. Filago pyramidata Linn. Sp. PI. 1199.
1753; Stewart, in Nasir & Ali, FI. W. Pak.
747. 1972; Holub in Davis, FI. Turkey 5: 104.
1975; in Tutin et al. FI. Europ. 4: 122. 1976.
F. spathulata Presl, Delic. Prag. 99. 1822; Nair,
FI. Bashahr Himal. 152. 1977. F. germanica
auct. non Linn.; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 277.
1881.

Common in sandy areas along the foot-hill
zone of the State. In Indian taxonomic lite-
rature, this species has often been described
under the name F. germanica Linn, (correct
name F. vulgaris Lam.) which is characte-
rized by linear — lanceolate to lanceolate
leaves and heads in clusters of 20-40. In the
present taxon, the leaves are obovate-oblong
or spathulate and heads in clusters of 5-20.

FI & Fr. : March-May.

Specimens examined : Samana, Bhankarpur,
Ropar, Nangal, Nurpur Bedi; M. Sharma
3249. 3518. 5653, 8503, 10428.

6. Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn. Sp. PI. 900.
1753; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 303. 1881.

This species has been observed in the sub-
mountainous zone of the State and appears to
be a recent introduction from the hills where
it grows in W. Himalayas up to an altitude
of 1,800 m. The plant is recognized easily
because of its sticky, glandular involucral
bracts.

FI. & Fr. : August-November.

Specimens examined : Nangal, M. Sharma
10325.

7. Silybum marianum (Linn.) Gaertn. Fruct.
Sem. 2: 378. t. 168. 1791; Hook. f. FI. Brit.
Ind. 3: 365. 1881. Cardus marianus Linn. Sp.
PI. 823. 1753.

Common in and around Pathankot and else-
where in Dist. Gurdaspur in waste land. This
thistle-like herb is easily recognized because of

479

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

its crispy, spinescently dentate leaves with
broad pale midrib and 4-5 cm long heads sur-
rounded by prominently spine-tipped involu-
cral bracts.

FI. & Fr. : March-May.

Specimens examined : Pathankot, M. Sharma
13598.

8. Ursinia anethoides (DC.) N. E. Br. Gard.
Chron. 1: 670. 1887; Bailey, Man. Cult. PI.
1013. 1949; Vishnu Swarup, Garden FI. 133.
1967. Sphenogyne anethoides DC. Prodr. 5:
685. 1836.

A native of South Africa. Often grown in
gardens.

Department of Botany,

Punjabi University,

Patiala - 147 002,

June 18, 1*986.

Refer

Babu, C. R. (1977): Herbaceous flora of Dehra
Dun. CSIR, New Delhi.

Daniel, P. (1982) : Additions to the flora of
Punjab Plains. Indian J. For. 5: 120-123.

Hooker, J. D. (1881): Compositae. In: The flora
of British India. Vol. 3, pp. 219L419.

Nair, N. C. (1978) : Flora of the Punjab Plains.
Rec. Bot. Surv. India 27(1) : i-xx, 1-326.

FI. & Fr. : February- April.

Specimens examined : Univ. Campus Patiala,
M. Sharma 11737.

Acknowledgements

I am obliged to the former and present
Heads of Botany Department for help in vari-
ous ways and to the authorities of BSD and
DD for providing herbarium and library faci-
lities. Thanks are also due to Director, Kew
Botanic Gardens for getting some specimens
identified.

M. SHARMA

EN CES

Raizada, M. B. (1976): Supplement to Duthie’s
Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the adja-
cent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan tracts. Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Sharma, M. (1982a) : Supplement to the flora of
Punjab State (India). J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 3: 33-46.

(1982b) : Supplement to the flora of

Punjab State (India) — II. ibid. 3: 523-536.

37. LIMNOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION IN THE BACK-WATER
LAGOON OF GOPALPUR-ON-SEA

( With two text-figures)

I N TROD U CTIO N

Around 2 KmI 2 area of Gopalpur-on-Sea is
periodically flooded by sea water through a
back-water-lagoon. Since the sewage and muni-
nicipal canals are directed to this low-lying
back-water lagoon, it is often rich with various
nutrients that encourages growth of various

organisms. Although a limited amount of flori-
stic work dealing with algae had been made
in the past (Pattnaik et al. 1979) attention had
not been given to study the limnological aspects
of the habitat. The present investigation
was carried out to study the water quality,
variation in the quantity and quality of phyto-
plankton during different seasons and the

480

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

general vegetation type of the back-water
lagoon of Gopalpur-on-Sea.

The Experimental Site

The experimental site of around 2 Km2 area
was at Gopalpur-on-Sea (19°16'N, 84°55'E)
on the coastal belt of the Bay of Bengal (Fig.
1). The soil is characterized by high propor-
tion of sand and poor water retention. The
climate is monsoonal with three distinct
seasons: Summer (March-June), rains (July-
October) and winter (November-February).
The total rainfall for 1983 was 1200 mm of
which 70% fell in the wet season. The mean
monthly maximum and minimum temperatures
ranged from 28°C (January) to 33°C (May)
and 18°C (January) to 26°C (May) respec-
tively. The low lying back-water lagoon of
variable depths, rich with aquatic vegetation
only during certain period of year, was greatly
influenced by the municipal sewage and perio-
dic influx of sea water. The shallow region of
the low lying area generally dry up during late
winter and summer.

Methods

Limnological studies were made for the first
time in the back-water lagoon of Gopalpur-
on-Sea during three different seasons between
November, 1983 and September, 1984. Sam-
ples and field data were taken from three diffe-
rent stations in the area in each trip. Tempe-
rature was recorded on the spot with a mer-
cury thermometer graduated upto 100°C. The
hydrogen-ion-concentration was determined
using a digital pH meter. Water samples were
analysed for the presence of various chemi-
cals according to the methods described in the
standard methods for examination of water
and waste water (American Public Health As-
sociation 1971). Chlorophyll determination was

based on the method of Tailing & Driver
(1961). From each spot duplicate water sam-
ples of 500 ml. each were filtered through 47
mm Millipore H. A. filters with pore size of
0.45 /xm. The optical density was measured
using an Erma (Japan) spectrocolorimeter.
Samples of planktons were collected by filtering
known quantity of water taken from different
spots of the study site through a plankton
net made of standard bolting silk cloth (No.
21 with 77 meshes/sq. cm.). The concentrat-
ed plankton was preserved in 4% formalin
and determined qualitatively and quantitatively
by sedimentation and drop count method.
Various phytoplanktons were identified accord-
ing to Fritsch (1945) and Desikachary (1959).

Results and Discussion

Table 1 shows the different physico-chemical
parameters of the water from three different
spots of the low lying back-water lagoon of
Gopalpur-on-Sea in three different seasons of
a year. Fig. 2 shows the comparative size of
phytoplankton belonging to different groups of
algae during the above investigation period.
Phytoplankton count showed that the green
algae were dominant planktors followed by
blue-green, diatoms and euglenoid algal mem-
bers in almost all the seasons. However, the
total number of planktons were significantly
reduced during rainy season. This may be due
to constant influx of rain and sea water to the
lagoon which decreases the concentration of
most of the inorganic chemicals (Table 1).

During rainy season a number of Ectocar-
pus sp. commonly occur in the sea water
(Pattnaik et al 1979) found growing in the
back-water lagoon. However, during winter
and summer, Cladophora and Polysiphonia
species were found to be dominant attached
forms indicating that the algal flora of the
lagoon resembled that of lotic environment.

481

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

482

NO. OF PLANK TON /II TRE UN MILLIONS)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ICHLOROPHYCEAE QcYANOPHYCEAE
0BACILLARIOPHYCEAE iEUGLENOPHYCEAE

WINTER SUMMER RAINY

( 2 DEC.1983) (10 APR.1984) ( 5 AUG.1984)

Fig. 2. Histograms showing the comparative size of phytoplankton belonging to
different groups of algae occurring in the back-water lagoon of Gopalpur-on-Sea
during three different seasons of a year.

The various algal species occurring in different
sites of the study area are summerized in
Table 2.

In addition to the algal forms, a number of
aquatic angiosperms also occur in the back-
water lagoon. Mixed vegetation of Typha

domingensis Pers. (T. anustata Bory et Chaulo)
and Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.
(P. communis Trin.) was commonly noted in
the shallow areas of the lagoon during winter
and summer season. Ceratophyllum demersum
L. was the dominant submerged hydrophyte

483

Physico-chemical parameters of the back-water lagoon of Gopalpur-on-Sea at three different seasons

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

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484

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2

Occurrence of various algal members in the back-water lagoon of Gopalpur-on-Sea during three

DIFFERENT SEASONS

Organism

2.12.1983

(winter)

10.4.1984

(summer)

5.8.1984

(rainy)

1

Spot
II III

I

Spot

II

III

I

Spot

II

III

Cyanophyceae :

Microcystis protocytis Crow.

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Aphanothece bullosa Menegh.

+

++

+

+

++

+

+

++

++

Chroococcus minutus Kiitz. ex Nag.

_

+

+

+

++

_

+

++

_

Chroococcus turgidus Kiitz. ex Nag.

_

+

+

+

+

—

_

—

+

Gloeothece palea Kiitz. ex. Rabenhorst

_

+

+

_

_

Spirulina major Kiitz. ex Gomont

_

+

+

+

++

_

+

Oscillatoria annae Goor

+

+

_

_

+

_

_

_

+

Oscillatoria ornata Kiitz. ex Gomont

+

_

+

++

+

+

+

Oscillatoria rubescens DC. ex Gomont

_

+

+

+

+

+

_

_

+

Phormidium fragile Gomont

+

+

+

+

_

_

_

Gloeotrichia intermedia Lamm.

+

+

+

_

_

_

+

Scytonema schmidlei De. Toni.

+

+

_

_

_

__

Merismopedia minima Beck.

+

+

+

+4-

_

+

+

+

Chlorophyceae:

Chlorococcum humicola Nag. ex Rabenh.

+

+

+

Pediastrum simplex Meyen.

—

+

_

+

+

_

+

Tetrahedron muticum Hansg.

+

+

_

+

+

+

+

+

Draparnaldiopsis indica Singh

—

+

_

+

+

_

+

Cladophora rupestris (L.) Kiitz.

+

++

+

++

4+

+

+

++

++

Ulothrix flacca (Dillw.) Thur.

++

++

+

+

+

+

+

++

++

Ulva lactuca L.

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Enteromorpha clathrata (Roth.) Grev.

+

+

_

_

+

+

+

+

Cosmarium laeve Rabenhorst

+

++

+

_

+

+

+

Cosmarium granatum Brebisson

+

+

+

+

+

+

Euestrum spinulosum Delp.

+

+

+

_

Bacillariophyceae :
Fragilaria intermedia Gran.

+

+

+

Gomphonema constrictum Ehr.

+

+

_

+

_

+

Navicula mutica Kiitz.

+

++

++

+

+

++

+

Navicula radiosa Kiitz.

+

++

+

++

++

+

+

++

+

Pinnularia braunii Gran.

+

+

_

_

+

+

Nitzschia communis Rabenhorst

+

+

+

+ '

+

+

+

Euglenophyceae :
Euglena gracilis Klebs.

+

+

+

++

+

+

+

Astasia fritschii Fritsch.

+

+

+

+

+

Xanthophyceae :

Voucher ia compact a Coll ex Taylor

+

+

+

+

++

Phaeophyceae :

Ectocarpus siliculosus (Dillw.) Lyngb.

+

+

++

++

Fucus serratus L.

+

+

+

_

_

+

+

Rhodophyceae:

Polysiphonia elongata (Huds.) Spreng.

-

+

+

+

+

-

+

+» Present; ++, Occur abundently; absent.

485

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

of this area. In addition, a number of other
hydrophytes, viz. Cyperus spp., Vallisneria
spiralis L., Potamengeton orispus L., Utricu-
laria spp.. Ranunculus spp. and Polygonum
spp. also commonly occur around the study
area.

Dept, of Botany,

Dharanidhar College,

Keonjhar-758 001,

Orissa, India,

June 18, 1986.

Refer

American Public Health Association (1971) :
American water works association and water pollu*
tion control federation. Standard method for the
examination of water and waste water. APHA, Inc.
N.Y., USA.

Desikachary, T. V. (1959): Cyanophyta. i.C.A.R.
monograph on algae, New Delhi.

Fritsch, F. E. (1945): Structure and reproduc-
tion of algae. Vol. I & II, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the authorities of U.G.C.,
New Delhi for financial assistance and to Dr.
J. K. Sahu, Lecturer in Botany, Dharanidhar
College, Keonjhar for technical help.

SIBA P. ADHIKARY1

N CES

Pattnaik, H., Dixit, B. K. & Padhy, B. (1979) .
Study of marine and back-water lagoon algae of
Gopalpur-on-Sea. Abst. Int. Sym. Mar. Algae of
Ind. Ocean region. January, 1979, pp: 11.

Talling, J. F. & Driver, D. (1961) : Some pro-
blems of the estimation of Chlorophylla in phyto-
plankton. In : Primary productivity measurements.
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, TID-7512, pp. 175.

1 Present address : Dept, of Botany, Utkal Univer-
sity, Bhubaneswar 751 004, Orissa.

38. ADDITIONS TO THE PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA OF KUMAUN
AND NAINITAL (WESTERN HIMALAYA)

Duthie (1906) was the first to catalogue the
Pteridophytic flora of Kumaun upto to the
frontiers of Garhwal, Tibet and Western Nepal.
He recorded a total of 185 species of ferns
belonging to 30 genera and 15 species of fern
— allies spread over 6 genera based on the
collections made by Strachey and Winterbottom
during the year 1946-1849. Later, Loyal &
Verma (I960), Pande (1972), Verma &
Khullar (1980) and Pangtey et al (1982)
made significant contributions to the fern flora
of Kumaun Himalaya. Further, Dhir (1980)
made the most comprehensive study on the
fern flora of North-Western Himalaya from

Kumaun to Kashmir based on his collections
and earlier collections housed in different her-
baria of India.

During the course of explorations of Pterido-
phytic flora of Kumaun and Naini Tab 7
species of ferns and one species of fern allies
were found to be new to the Pteridophytic flora
of Kumaun. Among these 7 species, 4 species
of ferns, i.e. Polystichum prescottianum (Wall,
ex Mett.) Moore var. castaneum Clarke, P.
wilsonii Christ., Cystopteris dickieana R. Sim.
and Pronephrium penangianum (Hook.) Holtt.
are new records for Kumaun. While Selagi-
nella involvens (Swartz) Spring, Polystichum

486

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

mcmmeiense (Christ) Nakaike and P. piceo-
paleaceum Tagawa are new to the Pteridophytic
flora of Naini Tal as well as Kumaun and
three species of ferns, viz. Athyrium flabellu-
latum (Clarke) Tard-Blot, A. puncticaule (Bl.)
Moore and Dryopteris wallichiana (Spreng.)
Hyl. are new additions to the fern flora of
Naini Tal. A perusal of earlier published re-
cords and herbaria indicate that these species
have neither been collected nor reported so
far from Kumaun and Naini Tal. This note,
therefore, records the additions of these species
to the Pteridoyphytic flora of Kumaun and
Naini Tal with other relevant informations.
Voucher specimens are housed in the Herba-
rium, Botany Department, D.S.B. College,
Kumaun University, Naini Tal.

Selaginellaceae

1. Selaginella involvens (Swartz) Spring, Bull.

Sci. Brux. 10: 136. 1843.

Status : Occasional on moist-wet rocks.

Plants curl into a ball like mass during the
dry season.

Specimen examined: pithoragarh district:
near Thai and Tawaghat; naini tal district:
near Bajoon, Chanfi and Patuwadangar (YPSP
73, 341, 342, 464, 550, 558).

Aspidiaceae

2. Dryopteris wallichiana (Spreng.) Hyl., Blot.

Notis. 352. 1953.

Status : A high altitude species, commonly
growing in the valleys of Kumaun Himalayas
between 2,500-2,900 m under the shade of
large bushes with a basket like habit. How-
ever, this species has recently been collected
from Naini Tal, where it was found growing
on moist and dark shaded situations and is
extremely rare.

Specimens examined: naini tal: near Pan-
gote (YPSP 504).

3. Polystichum manmeiense (Christ.) Nakaike,
Mise. Publ. Nat. Sci. Mus. Tokyo 141. 1982

Status: Rather rare, usually grows in very
moist and wet rocks along the streamlets in
and around 1,800 m.

Specimens examined: naini tal district:
near Kilberry (Naini Tal), (YPSP 277 , 278,
494, 495).

4. P. piceo-paleaceum Tagawa, Acta Phyto-
tax. Geobot. 5: 255. 1936.

Status: Quite common around Naini Tal
between 1,800-1950 m in moist-shaded forest
floors, roadsides and rock crevices.

Specimens examined: naini tal district:
around Naini Tal, way to Kilberry, behind
snow view and near Pangote (YPSP 295, 299,
527, 529, 530, 533, 570).

5. P. prescottianum (Wall, ex Mett.) Moore
var. casta neuni Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc.
Lond. 2(Bot.) 1: 510. 1880.

Status: Frequent on open and exposed forest
floors between 2,800-3,300 m around timber
line.

Specimens examined: almora district: bet-
ween Dwali to Phurkia (YPSP 93, 95).

Note : This taxon differs from P. prescottianum
(Wall, ex Mett.) Moore, in having
darker coloured and more prominently
bicolourous scales on rachis and stipe
and lamina being usually narrower.

6. P. wilsonii Christ, Bot. Gaz. 51 : 353. 1911.
Status: Frequent among rocks and rocky

habitats between 2,900-3,300 m in and around
timber line.

Specimens examined: almora district: bet-
ween Dwali to Phurkia en route to Pindari
Glacier (YPSP 90, 101).

Athyriaceae

7. Athyrium flabellulatum (Clarke) Tard-

487

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Blot, Aspl. du Tonkin 81. t. 12. 1932.

Status : Extremely rare and grows on moist
and humus rich forest floors along water
courses between 1,600-1,800 m.

Specimens examined: naini tal: near Dhobi
Ghat (YPSP 537, 538, 539).

8. A. puncticaule (Bl.) Moore, Ind. Fil. 186.
1860.

Status: Rather rare but locally frequent near
Pangote and Dhobi Ghat. Usually grows on
moist and wet rocks near water courses in
deep-shady ravines around 1,600-1,800 m.

Specimens examined: naini tal: near Pan-
gote and Dhobi Ghat (YPSP 542, 543).

9. Cystopteris dickieana R. Sim., Gard.
Fram. Journ. ser. 2: 308. 1848.

Status: Infrequent between 2,000-3,300 m in
rock crevices and shady-moist places.

Botany Department, D. S. B. College,
Kumaun University,

Naini Tal - 263 002,

November 25, 1986.

R EFE

Dhir, K. K. (1980): Ferns of North-Western
Himalayas. Bibliotheca Pteridologia 1 : 1-158.

Duthie, J. F. (1906) : Catalogue of the plants of
Kumaun and adjacent portions of Garhwal and Tibet
based on the collections made by Strachey and
Winterbottom during the years 1846-1849, London.

Loyal, D. S. & Verma, S. C. (1960) : Ferns of
Naini Tal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 479-490.

Specimens examined: almora district: bet-
ween Dwali to Phurkia en route to Pindari
Glacier (YPSP 87).

Thelypteridaceae

10. Pronephrium penangianum (Hook.) Holtt.

Blumea 20: 110. 1972.

Status: Quite frequent near wet and open
places especially recently cut slopes in Ram-
ganga and Gori valleys upto 1,600 m.

Specimens examined: pithoragarh district:
Ramganga and Gori valleys (YPSP 68).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. S. P. Khullar, Reader,
Botany Department, Pan jab University, Chandi-
garh for his help in the identifications and
confirmation of these species and for his help
in the preparation of this paper. Thanks are
due to the Head, Botany Department, D.S.B.
College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal for
providing necessary facilities.

Y. P. S. PANGTEY
S. S. SAMANT

E N C E S

Pande, P. C. (1972) : Pteridophytic flora of Rani-
khet. Indian For. 99: 49-52.

Pangtey, Y. P. S., Kalakoti, B. S., Rawat, G. S.
& Pande, P. C. (1982) : Observations on the fern
flora of Pindari area. Him. Res. & Dev. 1: 156-160.

Verma, S. C. & Khullar, S. P. (1980): Ferns
of Naini Tal (Western Himalaya) : an updated list.
Fern Gaz. 12: 83-92.

488

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

39. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF FEW LITTLE KNOWN PLANT
SPECIES FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA

(With two text-figures)

The Himalayan region is enriched by seve-
ral rare and important plant species, from the
alpine meadows to the lower mountainous
parts. Since the time of Strachey and Winter-
bottom (1882) the floristics of this important
phytogeographic region has been worked out
by various workers, viz. Smythe (1938),
Ghildiyal (1957), Rau (1961), Naithani
(1984), Semwal and Gaur (1981), Sharma and
Gaur (1983), Negi et al (1985) and others,
specifying our knowledge of the plants from
different pockets of the Himalayas.

The present paper highlights the recent
occurrence and distribution of a few little
known plant species, collected from Dudhatoli
region of Garhwal Himalaya during 1983-1986.
The perusal of literature showed that the
species namely Galium cryptanthum Hemsl.
(Rubiaceae), Euphorbia peples Linn. (Euphor-
biaceae) and Glyceria tonglensis Clarke
(Poaceae) are new additions to the flora of
Garhwal. A brief description of the species,
figures of some parts, flowering-fruiting periods,
including recent distribution in the region
follows.

Galium cryptanthum Hemsl. Hook. Icon. PI.
t. 1469; 1883, Collet. FI. Sim. 236, Nair FI.
Bash. Him. 132, G. vernum Scop. Hook. f.
FBI. 3: 209; 1881. Perennial herb, stem slen-
der, 4 angled, weak, trailing, 15-30 cm, softly
hairy, hairs reflexed. Leaves in whorls of 4,
shortly stalked, ovate-lanceolate, 3 nerved from
the base, hairy on margins and nerves, 0.5-1. 6
cm by 0.3-0.6 cm, thin. Peduncles horizontal,
axillary, 1-1 .5 cm long. Bracteoles small, ovate,
0.5 by 0.3 cm. Pedicles very short. Flowers few,
pale-white, 0.15 cm in dia., petals short, lanceo-
late. Fruit black, ovoid, smooth, 0.1 cm long

Distribution : In open shaded places, Dudha-
toli area (on way to Kodiabagarh, 2700 m. Sept.
1985. GUH. 6501.

Flowering-Fruiting : August-September.

Glyceria tonglensis Clarke Journ. Linn. Soc.
15: 119; 1876, Hook. f. FBI. 7: 346; 1897,
G. caspica Griseb. Goett. Nachr. 76; 1868, Col-
let. FI. Sim. 628; 1902, Duthie. Cat. PI. Kum.
218; 1906. Annual herb, stem slender, 30-80
cm, ascending, basal portion decumbent, creep-
ing in wet places. Leaves 8-20 cm by 0.2-0.4
cm., flat, tip obtuse, sheeth glabrous. Ligule
membranous, short, blunt, erect at the base.
Panicles loose, variable insize. 10-15 cm long,
rachis slender, 3-6 cm long. Spikelets few
awnless, pale-green, glabrous, 1-1.5 cm., usual-
ly 4-5 flowered. Empty glumes 2, shorter than
flowering glumes, the lower one much smaller,
translucent, 0.1 cm long, the upper one 0.35
cm long. Fertile glumes 0.4-0. 5 cm long, stiff,
margins and tip hayline, ovate-oblong, promi-
nently 7 nerved. Stamens 3. Ovary glabrous style
bifid, very short, downwardly corved, glabrous.
Seeds 0.3 cm long, oblong with 3 long smooth
hairs at the base. (Fig. 1 A, B and C).

Distribution : In wet areas. Not common.
Dudhatoli-Binsar area (Daira vill.) 2300 m,
Sept. 1985. GUH. 6503.

Flowering-Fruiting : August-September.

Specimen examined : Himachal Pradesh,

BSD, Uniyal 46283. 1971.

Euphorbia peples Linn. Hook. FBI. 5: 266;
1888. Erect annual herb, stem simple, 15-30
cm long, glabrous, rounded faintly ribbed,
corymbosely branched in the upper part.
Leaves opposite, cordate-ovate, upper sessile,
lower shortly stalked, petiole 0.4-0. 5 cm, leaves

489

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 1. Gtyceria tcmglensis Clarke

A. Plant with fertile spikelets; B. Single grain with bifid style; C. Fertile glumes.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

0.5- 1.7 cm by 0.5 -0.8 cm, thin, glabrous, margins
entire. Flowers in dichotomous cymes, axillary
and terminal. Involucre bracts 2 leaf like,
0.3 -0.5 cm long. Teeth 4, surrounding the
glands with projecting horns. Style short. Cap-
sule smooth, slightly triangular, 0.2 cm long.
Seeds 3, 0.15 cm long, longitudinally pitted
in 5-6 rows. (Fig. 2 A and B).

Distribution : Common in open waste lands
and Oak-Cedrus forest undergrowth, Chopra

Plant Systematics Laboratory,

Dept, of Botany,

University of Garhwal,

Srinagar (Garhwal), U.P. 246 174,

June 21, 1986.

B

Cm

pcptes Linn.

Single pitted seed.

(Pauri) 1800-2000 m, April 1985. GUH. 6502.
Flowering-Fruiting : March-May.

ACK NOWLEDGEM E NTS

We are thankful to the Herbarium autho-
rities of DD and BSD Herbarium, Dehradun,
for providing literature and Herbarium faci-
lities and to the Department of Environment,
New Delhi, for financial assistance.

R. A. SILAS

R. D. GAUR

491

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

References

Ghildiyal, B. N. (1957) : A botanical trip to
valley of flowers. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54:
365-386.

Naithani, B. D. (1984): Flora of Chamoli. Vols.
1-2. Bot. Surv. India. Howrah.

Negi. K. S., Tiwari, J. K. & Gaur, R. D. (1985) :
A contribution to the flora of Dodital — A high
altitude lake in Himalaya (Uttarkashi) , U.P. J. Bom.
nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 258-270.

Rau, M. A. (1961) : Flowering plants and ferns
of North Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh. Bull. Bot. Surv.
India. 3 : 215-251.

Semwal, J. K. & Gaur, R. D. (1981): Alpine

flora of Tungnath in Garhwal Himalaya. J. Bombay
nat. Hist Soc . 78: 498-512.

Sharma, M. P. & Gaur, R. D. (1983): A con-
tribution to the flora of Pokhri Block (Chamoli
Garhwal), Western Himalaya. Ind. J. For. 6: 149-
157.

Smythe, F. S. (1938) : The valley of flowers.
London.

Strachey, R. & Winterboitom, J. E. (1882):
Catalogue of the plants of Kumaon and adjacent
portions of Garhwal and Tibet, (revised by Duthie,
1906).

40. CORRECT NAME FOR ANTIDESMA GHESAEMBILLA GAERTN.

Recently we have been engaged in solving
the nomenclatur&l problems involved in the
identification of Rheede’s figure in Hortus
Malabaricus namely — “Tsjeriam-Cottam”
(Vol. 5, page 21, plate 11). Our experience
in the field and study of herbarium materials
at Blatter Herbarium (BLAT) has led us to
conclude that Rheede’s figure is of the plant
correctly known in our Indian floras under the
name of Antidesma ghesaembilla Gaertn. How-
ever, one of the earlier names and its
new combination — Ardisia tsjeriam-cottam
R. & S. and Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (R. &S.)
A. DC. which are based on Rheede’s figures
are mis-applied to a Myrsinaceous species. The
nomenclature of the Myrsinaceous plant was
tried by us earlier and is discussed further by
G. Panigrahi and S. M. Almeida in a separate
communication. In this paper we wish to point
out some facts which we have discovered re-
garding the nomenclature of Antidesma
ghesaembilla Gaertn.

While trying to understand the generic con-
cepts of the genera Embelia Burm. f. and
Antidesma Linn, it was found that in recent
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature

the generic name Embelia Burm. f. is conserv-
ed against Ghesaembilla Adans. as well as
Pattara Adans. In the latest code (1983, ed.
by Voss et al.) on page 393 in Index Nomina
Genericum No. 6310 — Embelia N. L. Burm.
FI. Ind. 62, 1763 (type: E. ribes N. L. Burm.)
is equated as (=) Ghesaembilla Adanson, Fam.
PI. 2: 499, 1763 as well as (=) Pattara Adan-
son, Fam. PI. 2: 447, 588, 1763. (Type of this
genus as per new edition, is mentioned as
Rheede’s Hort. Mai. 5: t. 11- Tsjeriam-cottam).

On further scrutiny of original literature it
is found that Ghesaembilla Adanson is based
on Antidesma ghesaembilla Gaertn.

To make sure about the conspecificity of
Antidesma ghesaembilla Gaertn., with the
monotypic genus Embelia Burm. f. we exa-
mined the original protologues of Embelia
Burm. f. and Antidesma ghesaembilla Gaertn.
and discovered that most part of the proto-
logue is identical for both of them.

Therefore, under Article 63 of ICBN Anti-
desma ghesaembilla Gaertn. becomes an ille-
gitimate name and must be rejected. The
earliest legitimate name for the taxon under
study is Antidesma pubescens Roxb. PI. Corom.

492

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2: 35, t. 167, 1802; FI. Ind. 3: 770, 1832 and
it should be accepted. Initially, Roxburgh had
based his A. pubescens on his own material;
but later in “Flora Indica” he has equated his
material with the above mentioned Rheede’s
figure.

We thank Dr. D. H. Nicolson, Smithsonian
Institution, for his useful comments, though —

Alchemie Research Centre Pvt. Ltd.,
Thane-Belapur Road,

Thane 400 601, India,

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay - 400 001 , India,

August 8, 1986.

Refer

Adanson (1763): Fam. Plant. 2: 447, 561, 588,
589.

Burmann, J. (1737) : The Saurus Zeylanicus p.
112.

Burmann, N. L. (1766): Flora Indica, 62, t. 23.
Candolle, A. (1837) : De Trans. Linn. Soc. Lon-
don Vol. 17: 131.

Gaertner, J. (1788) : Fruct. Sem. Plant t. 39 (bis),
189.

not always in agreement with our conclusions,
and sending us all the necessary literature. We
also thank the Herbarium Curator, Royal
Botanical Garden, Kew; Dr. B. V. Shetty,
Laison Officer, Kew; Mr. H. B. Naithani,
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun and Dr.
(Mrs.) A. R. Daruwalla for help rendered in
preparing this article.

M. R. ALMEIDA

S. M. ALMEIDA

1NCES

Linnaeus, Carl, (1747): Flora Zeylanica p, 190,
191.

Rheede van (1685): Vol. 5.

Roem, J. J. & Schultes, J. A. (1819): Systema
Vegetabilium 4: 518.

Roxburgh, W. ( 1 802) : Plants of Coromandel 2 :
35 (1798).

Roxburgh, W. (1832): Flora Indica 3: 770.

Voss et at. (1983): International Code of Bota-
nical Nomenclature 393.

41. NEW RECORDS OF FRESHWATER ALGAE FROM
KARNATAKA STATE (INDIA)

( With two plates)

Introduction

Exploratory studies on freshwater algae in
Karnataka State are mainly from North Kanara
(Bharati 1965, 1966), Raichur (Bharati and
Bongale 1975), Hassan (Bharati and Hegde
1980), Davanagere (Bongale and Bharati
1980), Shimoga (Bharati and Hegde 1982),
Bijapur (Hegde and Bharati 1983), Mysore

(Gurudeva et al. 1983) and Dharwad (Hos-
mani and Bharati 1983) districts. Extensive
collections were made from freshwater ponds
and lakes in Shimoga District during the years
1978-1980. These samples included 24 algal
taxa which are new records to the algal flora
of Karnataka State. They also contained two
taxa with major variations. A detailed syste-
matic account of these taxa is given in the

493

15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

present paper. Classification given by Prescott,
1951 is followed for Blue-green and Euglenoid
members. Desmids are arranged after Sarnia
and Khan, 1980. The samples are preserved
in 4% formaldehyde solution and are depo-
sited in the Algal Laboratory, P. G. Depart-
ment of Botany, Kamatak University, Dharwad
under the Accession No.’s S. 46; V. 61 to S.
91; V. 157.

Systematic Account

(The abbreviations used in the text are:
L = Length; W = Width; I = Isthmus; T. =
Thickness and D = Diameter).

Division

Cyanophyta

Class

: Myxophyceae

Order

: kChroococcales

Family

: Chroococcaceae

Genus

Glaucocystis Itzigsohn 1866.

G. oocystiformis Prescott (PL 1; Fig. 11)
Prescott, 1951; pi. 108, fig. 3, p. 475.

L. 22-40 jam; W 16-24 jam.

Col. No. S. 78; V. 132.

Order Hormogoniales

Sub-order : Heterocystineae

Family : Nostocaceae

Genus Anabaena Bory 1922.

A. papillosa Hirano (PI. 1; Fig. 1)

Hirano 1969; pi. 1, figs. 6& 7, p. 12.

D cell 5 jam; D heterocyst 7 /xm; L akinete
25 jam; W akinete 12 jam.

Col. No. S. 69; V. 107.

Agrees with the type in shape and structure
of vegetative cells, heterocyst and akinete;
differs in having much smaller size (Type D
cell 7. 5-8. 8 jam; D heterocyst 10.5-11 /xm;
L akinete 35-55 jam; W akinete 15-16 jam).

Division Chlorophyta

Class Chlorophyceae

Order Ulotrichales

Sub-order : Ulotrichinineae

Family : Ulotrichaceae

Genus : Ulothrix Kuetzing 1833.

U. tenerrima Kiitz. (PI. 1; Fig. 2)

Prescott 1951; pi. 6, fig. 12, p. 96.

L cell 10 n m; W cell 9 /x m.

Col. No. S. 62; V. 92.

Order : Oedogoniales

Family : Oedogoniaceae

Genus : Oedogonium Link 1820.

O. cardiacaim (Hass.) Wittrock (PI. 1; Fig. 9)
Prescott 1951; pl. 29, figs. 7&8, p. 168.

L cell 70 /x m; W well 16 jam; D zygospore
30 /xm; D oogonium 45 /xm.

Col. No. S. 61; V. 90.

O. santurcesise Tiff. (PI. 1; Fig. 10)

Gonzalves 1981; fig. 9-215; p. 333.

D zygospore without spines 25 /xm; with spines
28 /im; D oogonium 32 jam.

Col. No. S. 83; V. 145.

Family : Oocystaceae

Genus : Oocystis Naegeli 1855.

O. pusilla Hansgirg (PI. 1; Fig. 8)

Prescott 1951; pl. 51, fig. 15, p. 246.

L cell 35 /xm; W cell 11 jam; L colony 53 /xm,
W colony 34 /xm.

Col. No. S. 46; V. 61.

Differs in being almost double the size of
the type (Type L cell 6-12 jam; W cell 3. 8-7. 5
/xm).

Genus : Schroederia Lemmermann

1898.

S. indica Philipose (Pl. 1; Fig. 7).

Philipose 1967; fig. 19, p. 90.

L without spines 22 /xm; With spines 46-50
/xm, W 4 /xm; L spine 12 /xm.

Col. No. S. 91; V. 157.

Differs in being smaller in dimension (Type
L without spines 28-44 jam; with spines 68-64
/xm); inner side is almost straight instead of
being concave as in the type.

494

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 1

Hegde & Karanth: Algae

Fig. 1. Anabaena papillosa Hirano; Fig. 2. Ulothrix tenerrima Kiitz; Fig. 3. Cruci-
genia crucifera (Wille) Collins; Fig. 4. Tetraedron gracile (Reinsch) Hansgirg;
Fig. 5. Scenedesmus arcuatus Lemm. var. capitatus G. M. Smith; Fig. 6. Tetraedron
regulare Kiitz. var. incus Toil.; Fig. 7. Schroederia indica Philipose; Fig. 8. Oocystis
pusilla Hansgirg; Fig. 9. Oedogonium cardiacum (Hass.) Wittrock; Fig. 10. O.
santurcense Tiff.; Fig. 11. Glaucocystis oocystiformis Prescott; Fig. 12. Euastrum
ceylanicum (W. et G. S. West) Krieg.; Fig. 13. Cosmarium obtusatum Schm. var.

unduiatum Fritsch et Rich.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 2

Hegde & Karanth: Algae

Fig. 14. Cosmarium diplosporum (Lund.) Liitkem.; Fig. 15. C. pseudoretusum
Ducel. var. africanum (Fritsch) Krieg.; Fig. 16. C. venustum (Breb.) Arch. var.
minus (Wille) Krieg. et Gerl.; 17. Euglena shrinagari (Bhatia) Huber-Pest;
Fig. 18. E. oblonga Schm.; Fig. 19. Trachelomonas dubia (Swir.) Deflandre;
Fig. 20, T. hexangulata Swir.; Fig. 21. Glenodinium penardiforme (Lind.) Schiller;
Fig. 22. Trachelomonas cylindrica Ehr.; Fig. 23. Peridinium gatunense Nygaard;
Fig. 24. Glenodinium pulvisculus (Ehr.) Stein; Fig. 25. Peridinium inconspicuum
Lemm.; Fig. 26. Trachelomonas superba (Swir.) Deflandre var. duplex Deflandre.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Genus : Tetraedron Kuetzing 1845.

T. gracile (Reinsch) Hansgirg (PI. 1; Fig. 4).
Philipose 1967; fig. 69b, p. 154.

D without arms 14 /xm; D with arms 48 /xm.
Col. No. S. 91; V. 157.

Differs in having a spiny outgrowth on the
inner side of each branch of second order in-
stead of a forked branch of third order.

P. regulare Kiitz. var. incus Teil. (PI. 1, Fig. 6).
Prescott 1951; pi. 61, fig. 13, p. 269.

L spine 20 /xm; D cell 20 /xm.

Col. No. S. 79; V. 133.

Family : Scenedesmaceae

Genus : Scenedesmus Meyen 1929

S. arcuatus Lemm. var. capita tus G. M. Smith
(PI. 1, Fig. 5).

Prescott 1951; pi. 62, fig. 3, p. 275.

L cell 17 /xm; W cell 6 /xm.

Col. No. S. 62; V. 92.

Differs from the type in having irregular
shaped cells. Wall is more thickened at the
poles of cells. In this respect it resembles

variety capitatus G. M. Smith described by
Therezein and Coute 1977; pi. 6, fig. 1, p. 45.

Genus : Crucigenia Morren 1830.

C. crucifera (Wille) Collins (PI. 1; Fig. 3).
Philipose 1967; fig. 149, p. 240.

L cell 7 /xm; W cell 4 /xm.

Col. No. S. 74; V. 120.

Class : Conjugatophyceae

Order : Conjugates

Family : Desmidiaceae

Genus : Euastrum Ehrenberg 1832.

E. ceylanicum (W. et G. S. West) Krieg.

(PI. 1; Fig. 12).

Scott and Prescott 1961; pi. 11, figs. 3-5, p. 24.
L 40 /xm; W 80 /xm; I 6 /xm.

Col. No. S. 87; V. 149.

Genus : Cosmarium Corda 1834.

C. diplosporum (Lund.) Lutkem. (PI. 2;

Fig. 14).

Hirano 1967; pi. 9, fig. 5, p. 47.

L 58 /xm; W 28 /xm; I 20 /xm.

Col. No. S. 88; V. 151.

C. ©btusatum Schm. var. undufatum Fritsch et
Rich (PI. 1; Fig. 13).

Gronblad and Croasdale 1971; pi. 6, fig. 80,

p. 16.

L 44 /xm; W 38 /xm; I 10 /xm; T 20 /xm.

Col. No. S. 78; V. 132.

C. pseudoretusum Ducel. var. africaimm
(Fritsch) Krieg. et Gerl. (PI. 2; Fig. 15).
Gronblad and Croasdale 1971; figs. 69-71; p. 17.
L 28 /xm; W 21 /xm; I 6 /xm.

Col. No. S. 82; V. 141.

C. venustum (Breb.) Arch. var. minus (Wille)
Krieg. et Gerl. (PI. 2; Fig. 16).

Gronblad and Croasdale 1971; pi. 6, fig. 82,
p. 19.

L 21 /xm; W 12 /xm; I 3 /xm; T 8-9 /xm.

Col. No. S. 91; V. 157.

Division

: Euglenophyta

Class

: Euglenophyceae

Order

: Euglenales

Family

: Euglenaceae

Genus

: Euglena Ehrenberg 1838.

E. obJonga Schm. (PI. 2, Fig. 18)

Philipose 1982; fig. 21, p. 591.

L 66 /xm; W 40 /xm.

Col. No. S. 87; V. 149.

E. shrinagari (Bhatia) Huber-Pest. (PL 2;
Fig. 17).

Philipose 1982; figs. 13 a-d, p. 577.

L 183 /xm; W 50 /xm.

Col. No. S. 55; V. 72.

Genus : T rachelomonas Ehrenberg

1835.

T. cylindrica Ehr. (PI. 2; Fig. 22)

Prescott 1951; pi. 83, fig. 11 and 20, p. 412.
L 17 /xm; W 7 /xm.

Col. No. S. 91; V. 157.

T. dubia (Swir.) Deflandre (PI. 2; Fig. 19).
Prescott 1951; pi. 85, fig. 9, p. 412.

L 24 /xm; W 12 /xm.

495

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Col. No. S. 81; V. 137.

T. hexangelata Swir. (PI. 2; Fig. 20).
Prescott 1951; pi. 85, fig. 11, p. 418.

L 17 /Ain; W 8 /xm.

Col. No. S. 67; V. 103.

Varies in being half the size of the type
(Type test L 30-36 /xm; W 14-16 /xm).

T. superba (Swir.) Deflandre var. duplex
Deflandre (PI. 2; Fig. 26).

Prescott 1951; pi. 84, fig. 11, p. 417.

L 30 /xm; W 18 /xm; W with spines 22 /xm.
Col. No. S. 91; V. 157.

Similar to the type in size, differs in shape
and ornamentation. Unlike the variety describ-
ed the test is elongate-ellipsoid, broadly round-
ed at both ends, spines are of uniform size.

Division

Pyrrhophyta

Class

: Dipophyceae

Order

: Peridiniales

Family

Glenodiniaceae

Genus

Glenodinium (Ehr.) Stein

1883.

G. pcnardiforme (Linde) Schiller — (PI. 2;

Fig. 21)

Prescott 1951; pi. 90, fig. 21. p. 429.

L 25 /xm; W 21 /xm.

Col. No. S. 55; V. 72.

G. pulvisculus (Ehr.) Stein — (PI. 2; Fig. 24)
Prescott 1951; pi. 90, figs. 17&18, p. 430.

Algal Laboratory,

P. G. Department of Botany,

Karnatak University,

Dharwad-580 003 (India),

November 7, 1985.

Refer

Bharati, S. G. (1965): A systematic survey of
the Desmids of the Bombay Karnatak Part I. J.
Karnatak Univ. Sci., 9: 1-8.

— (1966): A systematic survey of

the Desmids of the Bombay Karnatak Part II. J.
Karnatak Univ. Sci., 11: 174-182.

Bharati, S. G. & Bongale, U. D. (1975): System

L 26 /xm; W 28 /xm.

Col. No. S. 67; V. 103.

Family : Peridiniaceae

Genus : Peridinium Ehrenberg 1832.

P. gatunense Nygaard — (PI. 2; Fig. 23).
Prescott 1951; pi. 90, fig. 26, p. 433.

L 53 /xm; W 57 /xm.

Col. No. S. 55; V. 71.

P. mcaiispicuum Lemm. — (PI. 2; Fig. 25).
Prescott 1951; pi. 90, figs. 22-24; p. 433.

L 25 /xm; W 22 /xm.

Col. No. S. 61; V. 90.

Summary

Freshwater algal collections were made in
Shimoga District, Karnataka State, during the
year 1978-80. A systematic account of 24 algal
taxa, recorded for the first time from this State
and two taxa with major variations is given.
These taxa belong to the groups, Cyanophyceae
(2), Chlorophyceae (14), Euglenophyceae (6) and
Dinophyceae (4).

Acknowledgements

Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. S. G.
Bharati, Prof, and Plead, P. G. Department
of Botany, Karnatak University, Dharwad for
the facilities. Thanks are also due to UGC,
New Delhi, for the financial assistance in the
form of Major Research Project.

G. R. HEGDE
L. V. KARANTH

EN CES

matic account of freshwater algae of Raichur, Kar-
nataka State, India. J. Karnatak Univ. Sci., 20:
130-141.

Bharati, S. G. & Hegde, G. R. (1980) : A syste-
matic account of Chlorococcales of Hassan District,
Karnataka State, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
76: 545-547.

496

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

— * — (1982) : Desmids

of Karnataka State and Goa Part I. Phykos, 21:
143-149.

Bongale, U. D. & Bharati, S. G. (1980) : Fresh-
water algae of Davanagere and Raichur of Karna-
taka State, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 77:
6-11.

Gonzalves, E. A. (1981): Oedogoniales. ICAR,
New Delhi, pp. 757.

Gronblad, R. & Croasdale, H. (1971): Desmids
from Namibia (S. W. Africa). Acta Botanica Fen-
nica, 93 : 1-40.

Gurudeva, M. R., Govindappa, A. & Somashekar,
R. K. (1983) : Desmid flora of Savanadurga, Kar-
nataka. Phykos, 22: 48-56.

Hegde, G. R. & Bharati, S. G. (1983): Fresh-
water algae of Bijapur District, Karnataka State,
India. Phykos, 22: 167-170.

Hirano, M. (1967): Freshwater algae collected
by the joint Thai- Japanese Biological Expedition to
South East Asia. 1961-62. Nature and Life in South
East Asia, 5: 1-71.

(1969): Freshwater algae from Rang-

tang Himal, Nepal Himalaya. Contr. biol. Lab.
Kyoto Univ. 22: 1-42.

Hosmani, S. P. & Bharati, S. G. (1983): Eugle-
nineae of polluted and unpolluted waters. Phykos,
22: 130-135.

Philipose, M. T. (1967) : Chlorococcales. ICAR,
New Delhi, pp. 365.

(1982) : Contributions to our

knowledge of Indian algae-III. Euglenineae Part I.
The genus Euglena Ehr. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 91 :
551-599.

Prescott, G. W. (1951): Algae of the Western
Great Lakes Area (Exclusive of Desmids and Dia-
toms). Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Publ. pp. 946.

Sarma, Y. S. R. K. & Khan, M. (1980): Algal
Taxonomy in India. Botanical Records and Mono-
graphs-2. pp. 153.

Scott, A. M. & Prescott, G. W. (1961) : Indo-
nesian Desmids. Hydrobiologia, 17: 1-132.

Therezien, Y. & Coute, A. (1977) : Algues D’ean
Douce des lies Kerguelen et Crozet (a T exclusion
des Diatom’ees) . CNFRA, 43: 1-91.

42. LIMNOLOGY OF THE THERMAL SPRINGS OF ORISSA
{With two text -figures)

The physico-chemical characteristics and floristic life of the two thermal springs
of Orissa state — Taptapani in Ganjam dist. and Autri in Puri dist. had been
investigated for one year. The temperature of the thermal springs remained almost
constant during the period of investigation. The water of both the springs were
alkaline with a pH between 9.2 to 9.6. No carbon dioxide and only traces of nitrate,
nitrite and phosphate was detected. A number of blue-green algae and diatoms
and few zooplanktons were recorded in these hot water springs. The quantity of
plankton was maximal in the main tank of Taptapani and only in the overflows of
Autri. None of the organisms except the blue-green algae Mastigocladus laminosus
(Cohn) and Oscillatoria teribriformis (Ag.) and the diatoms: Navicula sp. and
Cyclotella sp. were found in the main tank of Autri at 55 °C.

Introduction

Extensive reports are available on the limno-
logy of several thermal springs of U.S.A.,
Europe, Japan, Israel and New Zealand
(Castenholz 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970; Brock &
Brock 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969; Peary 1964,
Stockner 1967, 1968; Emoto 1967, Kahan
1969). Most of the investigations aimed at

elucidating the upper temperature limit of life
and to report on the organisms that occur in
the hot springs. Though India has over three
hundred hot water springs (Oldham & Oldham
1882), our knowledge on the organisms in-
habiting high temperature habitats is very
meagre. Kirtikar (1886) was the first to
record a thermal alga from India.

497

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Drouet (1938) described a few thermal alga
during the Yale North Indian Expedition.
Prasad & Srivastava (1965) and Thomas &
Gonzalves (1965) have given an account of
blue-green algae vegetation on the thermal
springs of Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat and
Maharashtra. Vasistha (1968) studied exten-
sively the algal flora and the chemical
constituents of about a hundred thermal
stations distributed all over India. But the
psysico-chemical nature of the thermal water
and the organisms inhabiting the two ther-
mal springs of Orissa have not been investigat-
so far. The present investigation was aimed
at determining the physico-chemical characte-
ristics of the thermal water and the flora and
fauna of the hot water springs of Taptapani
(in Ganjam dist.) and Autri (in Puri dist.)
of Orissa state, Indi&.

Location and Description of the

STUDY SITES

1. Taptapani:

This hot spring is situated at a distance of
56 kilometres (south wards) from Berhampur
(19° 16' N, 84° 53' E) near a small village
called Taptapani. It has a main tank, octan-
gular in shape (constructed with bricks and
cement by the local people) from where the
mineral water and gases in the form of bubbles
continuously escape (Fig. 1). Each arm
of the tank is 104" in length and are 120"
apart from one another. It has a outlet through
which the water over flows. In the

main tank the water level varies at different
spots and its sandy bottom is full of rocks.
The overflows are cemented at the bottom and
are used for bathing purpose. The length,
breadth and water height of 1st and 2nd over
flows are 232" x 104" x 26" and 105" x 104" x
23" respectively. From the 2nd over flow water

flows to the out side. It is believed that the
water has therapeutic properties.

2. Autri:

This thermal spring is situated at a distance
of 43 kilometres (west wards) from Bhuba-
neswar (20° 12' N, 85° 22' E) near a small
village called Baghamari. It has a circular
main tank of 161" diameter and 168" depth
(artificially constructed) from where water and
gases escape from the bottom in the form of
bubbles (Fig. 2). Similar to Taptapani it has
a rocky bottom but the water depth is very
deep (139"). Just above the water level there
are two separate outlets through which water
flows to the two separate cemented bathing
tanks (overflows). The 1st and 2nd overflows
are placed at 77" and 334" distance from the
main tank with an area of 135" x 135" and
120"x 120" respectively. Both the overflow
tanks have around 40" of water height through-
out the year and from these tanks water flows
to the surrounding rice-fields.

Methods

Water samples with different algal mats
were collected from the main tank and the
overflows of Taptapani and Autri between
July 1981 and May 1982 at regular intervals.
Temperature was recorded on the spot with
a mercury thermometer graduated upto 100°C.
The hydrogen-ion-concentrations of the ther-
mal water was determined by using a digital
pH meter. Water samples collected during
February 1982 from both the thermal springs
were analysed for the presence of various
chemicals according to the standard methods
for the examination of water and waste water
(1965) and were indicated in parts per million.
Plankton samples were collected by filter-
ing known quantity of the water taken
from different spots of the main tank and the

498

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 . Diagramatic representation of the study site
of the hot water spring at Taptapani.

over flows of the thermal springs through a
plankton net made of standard bolting silk
cloth (No. 21 with 77 meshes/sq. cm.). The
concentrated plankton was preserved in four
percent formalin and quantitatively determined
by the sedimentation and drop count method.
The various phytoplanktons were identified
according to Desikachary (1954) and Fritsch
(1939).

Results and discussion

The physico-chemical characteristics of the
thermal water of the springs of Taptapani and

Fig. 2. Diagramatic representation of the study site
of the hot water spring at Autri.

Autri are presented in Table 1 and Table 2.
The investigation was carried out to see
whether the temperature and pH of both the
springs differ from one another and also to
find out whether there was any periodic
fluctuation of the temperature and pH of an
individual spring. From the results (Table 1)
the periodic fluctuation of the temperature of
both the springs was insignificant and the
minor variation may be due to the change of
climatic temperature of the regions during
different seasons. The local inhabitants
state that the temperature of these ther-

499

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 1

Physical condition of the water of Taptapani and Autri of Orissa1

Taptapani Autri

Temperature°C Temperature0 C

Date of pH — — pH

investigation

Main

tank

1st over
flow

2nd over
flow

Main

tank

1st over
flow

2nd over
flow

July 1981

44.5

43.5-44.5

40.0-42.0

9.1

56.5

46.5-48.0

46.0-48.0

9.6

Sept. 1981

44.0

43.0-44.0

40.0-41.0

9.2

55.5

45.0-48.0

45.0-48.0

9.7

Nov. 1981

44.0

42.0-43.5

40.0-41.0

9.2

55.0

45.0-48.0

45.0-47.0

9.7

Jan. 1982

44.0

42,0-44.0

40.0-41.0

9.2

55.0

46.0-48.0

46.0-48.0

9.7

March 1982

44.0

43.0-44.0

40.0-41.0

9.2

55.5

46.0-49.0

46.0-49.0

9.8

1 The water of both the hot springs were clear and produced the characteristic smell of sulphur.

mal springs has remained constant over the
past few decades 'and the location of the
fissures have also remained unchanged. There
were also reports that many hot springs were
constant in their thermal and hydrologic pro-
perties over a few hundred years (Brock &
Brock 1967, Stockner 1968, Castenholz 1969).
The slightly low pH of the water during July
may be due to the inflow of rain water from
the surrounding area. It has been analysed that
the water of both the hot springs were free
of C02. There were reports (Brock & Brock
1966) that light and C02 were not the limit-
ing factors for phytoplankton production in
alkaline hot springs. The water sample of both
the thermal springs investigated had traces of
nitrate, nitrite and phosphorus (Table 2).
However, chloride, carbonate and silicate were
present at various proportions which normally
is not found in fresh water pools. In addition
sulphurated hydrogen was present in the spring
water, which emit H2S gas smell. Total solids
and dissolved oxygen of the water of Tapta-
pani was more in comparison to the thermal
water of Autri (Table 2). These physico-
chemical characteristics of the hot water springs

were mainly responsible for the growth of
various organisms in the spring water.

Table 2

Chemical characteristic of the water from
Taptapani and Autri of Orissa

Constituents

Water from
the main
tank of
Taptapani (1)

Water from
the main
tank of
Autri (2)

Free C02

Nil

Nil

Total solids (ppm)

580

240

Total hardness

(Ca C03) (ppm)

9.8

14.0

Chloride (C1-) (ppm)

92.0

130.0

Nitrate (NQ3-) (ppm)

trace

trace

Nitrite (NCKy) (ppm)

trace

trace

Phosphate (P04-) (ppm)

trace

trace

Silicate (Si03‘) (ppm)

48.0

33.6

Dissolved 02 (ppm)

4.9

1.4

Sulphurated

hydrogen (as H2S)

Present

Present

(1) = Collected on 10.2.1982.

(2) = Collected on 12.2.1982.

500

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 3

Distribution of plankton in the main tank and over flows of Taptapani and Autri of Orissa

Taptapani

Autri

Main tank

1st over
flow

2nd over
flow

Main tank

1st over
flow

2nd over
flow

Total plankton/

1000 ml

438,080

322,650

150,470

650

290,200

248,560

Total zooplankton/

1000 ml

14,150

10,820

4,400

Nil

18,600

22,350

Zooplankton percentage

3.23

3.35

2.92

6.4

8.99

Total phytoplankton/

1000 ml

423,930

311,830

146,070

650

271,600

226,210

Phytoplankton percentage

96.76

96.64

97.07

100

93.59

91.0

Table 4

Occurrence of various

ORGANISMS

IN the main

TANK AND THE

OVER FLOWS OF

Taptapani

and Autri

of Orissa

Taptapani

Autri

Organism

Main

1st over

2nd over

Main

1st over

2nd over

tank

flow

flow

tank

flow

flow

Synechococcus lividus

(Copeland)

44

44

44

_

_

_

Synechococcus elongatus

(Nag)

44

44

44

_

_

_

Synechosystis

aquatilis (Sanv.)

+

4

4

_

_

Aphanothece sp.

4

+

4

_

_

Chroococcus minor

(Natz) Nag

44

+4

44

_

44

44

Osciliatoria

teri triform is ( Ag . )

44(4)

4-4

44

44(4)

44(4)

44(4)

Osciliatoria princeps (Vauch.) —

_

—

_

4

4

Osciliatoria tenuis (Ag.)

—

_

_

_

4

4

Phormidium

purpurascens (Kiitz) Gom. 4

+

4

4

4

Phormidium sp.

_

_

_

4

4

Lyngbya sp.

4

+

4

_

4

4

Spirulina sp.

44

+4

44

_

44

44

Anabaena sp.

4

4

4

_

4

4

Mastigocladus

laminosus (Cohn)

44(4)

44

44

44(4)

44(4)

44(4)

Cosmarium sp.

4

4

4

_

4

4

Scenedesmus sp.

—

_

_

4

4

Cyclotella sp.

44(4)

44

44

44(4)

44(4)

44(4)

Navicula sp.

44(4)

44

44

44(4)

44(4)

+K+)

Euglena sp.

4

4

4

_

4

4

Tobrilus sp.

4

4

4

_

_

Cyclops sp.

4

4

4

4

4

Lacane sp.

_

_

4

4

Nauplius larva

4

4

4

-

-

-

+ = Present; - = absent; 44 = Occur abundantly; (4) = Occur throughout the year.

501

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

The thermal water of Taptapani encouraged
the growth of a number of organisms mostly
phytoplanktons which imparts deep green
coloration to the spring. Quantitatively,
highest plankton population was observed in
the main tank of Taptapani. In its overflows
the plankton population was a little less and in
the 2nd over flow the number of planktons
was reduced. Since both the overflows are
normally used for bathing, the mats were
partially cleared by the tourists. The high tem-
perature of the clear water of Autri do not
encourage the growth of a large number of
plankton. The over flows, where the
temperature of the water was less there
was luxurious growth of various orga-
nisms. Zooplanktons were totally absent
in the main tdnk of Autri. This may be due
to the higher temperature of the spring.
However, abundance of phytoplankton and
zooplankton were noticed in both of its over
flows. Due to higher water depth of the over
flows of Autri, the tourists normally do not
enter the tanks for bathing, thus do not disturb
the growth of the plankton mats. The plank-
ton mats collected from various spots of the
main tank and over flows of both the thermal
springs composed of mostly members of cyano-
phyceae, diatoms and a few zooplankton
(Table 3). Similar gelatinous and calcareous
mats of various colours consisting of blue-
green algal cells have also been reported in
other hot springs of Europe and America
(Castenholz 1969, Stockner 1967). From these
results it seems that the temperature may be
the major factor in determining the qualita-
tive and quantitative distribution of planktonic

organisms. The differences in the floristic
pattern and the productivity of the hot springs
may be due to the difference in concentration
of the mineral elements of the spring water.

Of the various thermophilic organisms, only
Chroococcus minor (Natz) Nag., Oscillatoria
teribriformis (Ag.), Spirulina sp., Mastigocla-
dus laminosus (Cohn), Cycloteila sp. and Navi-
cula sp. occur in both the hot water springs and
in addition Synechococcus lividus (Copeland)
and Synechococcus elongatus (Nag.) occur
abundantly in Taptapani. In addition a number
of blue-green algal forms, green algae, Euglena
and various zooplanktons were also observed
in the thermal water (Table 4). Certain ther-
mophilic organisms, viz. Oscillatoria teribrifor-
mis (Ag.), Mastigocladus laminosus (Cohn),
Cycloteila sp. and Navicula sp. occur abun-
dently in the thermal water even at 55 °C in
the hot water spring of Autri throughout the
year of investigation. There are records that
a large number of Spirulina sp., Chroococcus
sp., Aphanothece sp. Anabaena sp., Oscillato-
ria sp., Navicula sp. and Cycloteila sp. have
been collected from thermal springs with 26-
50°C temperature range (Gonzalves 1947,
Prasad & Srivastava 1965, Vasistha 1968).
There were also reports that Oscillatoria sp.
has the ability to grow at high temperature in
various thermal springs of India (Gonzalves
1947, Prasad & Srivastava 1965). The occur-
rence of a common thermophilic blue-green
alga Mastigocladus laminosus (Cohn) (Casten-
holz 1970) at temperatures upto 55°C in
the thermal water of Taptapani and Autri of
Orissa is a new record from Indian thermal
springs.

Department of Botany, S. P. ADHIKARY1

Dharanidhar College, JAY ANTI SAHU

Keonjhar 758 001, Orissa.

July 16, 1985.

1 Present address: Dept, of Botany, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar 751 004, Orissa.

502

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

American Public Health Association (1965) :
Standard method for the examination of water and
waste water. 12th. Ed. A.P.H.A., Inc. N.Y.

Brock, T. D. & Brock, M. L. (1966): Tempe-
rature optima for algal development in Yellowstone
and Iceland hot springs. Nature, 29: 733-734.

_ (1967): The hot

springs of Furnas Valley, Azores. Int. Revue. Ges.
Hydrobiol., 52: 545-558

(1968) : Measure-
ments of steady state growth rates of a thermo-
philic alga directly in nature. /. Bact., 95: 811-815.

(1969) : Effect of

light intensity on photosynthesis by thermal algae
adapted to natural and reduced sun light. Limnol.
Oceanogr., 14: 334-341.

Castenholz, R. W. (1967): Aggregation in ther-
mophilic Oscillatoria. Nature, 215: 1285-1286.

(1968) : The behaviour of

Oscillatoria teribriformis in the hot springs. J. Phycol.,
4: 132-139.

(1969): Thermophilic blue-

green algae and thermal environment. Bact. Rev., 33 :
476-504.

(1970) : Laboratory culture of

thermophilic cyanophytes. Schweiz Z. Hydrobiol.,
24: 1-24.

Desikachary, T. V. (1954): Cyanophyta. I.C.A.R.
monograph on algae, New Delhi.

Drouet, F. (1938) : Myxophyceae of the Yale
North Indian Expedition, collected by G. E. Hutchin-
son. Trans. Amm. Microbiol, soc., 57: 127-131.

Fritsch, F. E. (1939): Structure and reproduc-

tion of Algae, Vol. I & II, Cambridge University
Press, U.K.

Gonzalves, E. (1947) : The algal flora of the hot
springs of Vajreswari near Bombay. J. Univ. Bom-
bay., 16 : 22-27.

Kahan, D. (1969): The fauna of hot springs.
Verh. Internat. verein. Limnol., 17: 811-816.

Kirtikar, K. R. (1886): A new sp. of algae
Conferva thermal is birdwoodii. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., 1: 135-138.

Oldham, T. & Oldham, R. D. (1882) : The ther-
mal springs of India. Mem. Geol. Survey India., 19:
99-161.

Prasad, B. N. & Srivastava, P. N. (1965) : Ther-
mal algae from Himalayan hot springs. Proc. Nat.
Inst. Sci. India, 31B: 45-53.

Stockner, J. G. (1967): Observations of thermo-
philic algal communities in mount Rainer and Yellow
stone National parks. Limnol. Oceanogr., 12: 13-17.

(1968) : Algal growth and primary

productivity of a thermal spring. J. Fish Res. Bd.,
Canada, 25 : 2037-2058.

Thomas, J. & Gonzalves, E. A. (1965) : Ther-
mal algae from Western India. Hydrobiol., 26 :
21-65.

Vasistha, P. C. (1968): Thermal cyanophyceae
of India. Ph.D. thesis, University of Chandigarh,
India.

Fig. 1. Diagramatic representation of the study site
of the hot water spring at Taptapani.

Fig. 2. Diagramatic representation of the study site
of the hot water spring at Autri.

503

ERRATA

VOLUME 83 (Supplement): CENTENARY ISSUE 1886-1986
Phytochorology of Kodagu (C'oorg) District, Karnataka.

On page 48, Left column,

Among other important familities are the:

For

Read

Aoacardiaceae ( Holigarna , Mangifera, Meliosma) ,
Celastraceae (3 species of Elaeocarpus) ,
Euphorbiaceae ( Agrostistachys , Glochidion,
Mallotus . . . ) ,

Flacourtiaceae ( Casearia , Flacourtia, Hydnocarpus,
Scolopia ) ,

Myrsinaceae ( Ixora , Lasianthus, Psychotria. . ,

Staphyleaceae ( T urpinia ) ,

Symplocaceae (Symplocos).

Anacardiaceae ( Holigarna , Mangifera),

Celastraceae ( Bhesa , Celastrus, Euonymus) ,
Elaeocarpaceae (3 species of Elaeocarpus) ,

Euphorbiaceae ( Agrostistachys , Glochidion,

Mallotus ) ,

Flacourtiaceae ( Casearia , Flacourtia, Hydnocarpus,
Scolopia),

Rubiaceae (Ixora, Lasianthus, Psychotria) .

Sabiaceae (Meliosma) ,

Staphyleaceae ( T urpinia) ,

Symplocaceae (Symplocos).

Miscellaneous notes

Painted bats and nests of Baya Weaver bird.
On page 196, Right Column, Line 5,

For Lizyphus spp.

Read Zizyphus spp.

VOLUME 84 (1): APRIL 1987
Miscellaneous notes

23. A list of the snakes of the Bhavnagar District, Gujarat State.
On page 230, Table 2

For

>i ■ .

(5) Barred Wolf Snake

-(4)

-(7)

1(16)

2(24)

(6) Common Wolf Snake

10

15

5

6

(14) Common bronzeback Tree Snake

2

5(2)

3(2**

5(2)

(15) Common Cat Snake

6(1)

1

- icr

3d)

(16) Common Krait

2

1

-<&

1(2)

Read

(5) Barred Wolf Snake

- ,

-

i

1

(6) Common Wolf Snake

10(4)

15(7)

5(16)

6(24)

(14) Common bronzeback Tree Snake

2

1

-(2)

1(2)

(15) Common Cat Snake

6(1)

5(2)

3(2)

5(2)

(16) Common Krait

2

1

KD

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Record of two unique observations of the Indian Cheetah in Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri.
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Parasharya

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s .^Barrette

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NeW Descriptions

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VOLUME 84 (3) : DECEMBER 1987

Date of Publication : 25/5/88

CONTENTS

Page

Cetaceans (Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises) recorded off Sri Lanka, India,
from the Arabian Sea and Gulf, Gulf of Aden and from the Red Sea.

By P.H.D.H. de Silva. {With two plates and two text- figures) . . 505

Fishes of Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. By A.J.T. Johnsingh

and D. Viickram. {With eight plates and a text- figure) . . 526

Monkeys of Jaipur, Rajasthan, India {Macaca mulatto, Presbytis entellus). By

Linda D. Wolfe and Reena Mathur . . 534

Birds of the Visakhapatnam Ghats, Andhra Pradesh. By S. Dillon Ripley, Bruce

M. Beehler and K.S.R. Krishna Raju. {With three plates and three text-figures) 540

The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of southern India (Lepidoptera :

Rhopalocera) . By Torben B. Larsen .. 560

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF KhATLING GLACIER IN THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA

(District-Tehri) , U.P. By K. S. Negi, J. K. Tiwari and R. D. Gaur. {With a
text- figure) . . 585

Notes on Ecological relationship in basking and nesting site utilisation
among Kachuga spp. (Reptilia, Chelonia) and Gavialis gangeticus (Reptilia,
Crocodilia) in National Chambal Sanctuary. By R. J. Rao and L. A. K.

Singh. {With a text- figure) . . 599

Status of wildlife and habitat conservation in Andhra Pradesh. By K. S. R.

Krishna Raju, A. V. R. G. Krishna Murthy, C. Subba Reddy, N. A. V. Prasad
Reddy, R. Lokaranjan and K. J. N. G. Shankar. {With two plates and two
text-figures) . . 605

On the sex proportions and maturity trends in Cynoglossus semifasciatus Day

on the west coast during 1980-81. By G. Seshappa and B. K. Chakrapani 620

New Descriptions:

Taxonomic studies on the Marine ostracoda from the east coast of India
Family : Cytheruridae Muller, 1894, By. C. Annapurna and D. V. Rama Sarma.

{With three plates) . . 628

A new species of Parallelaptera (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) an egg parasitoid
of Tingidae from southern India. By David Livingstone and Mohamed
Yacoob. {With two photos and seven text-figures) . . 631

Description of two new species of genus Acroceratitis hendel (Diptera: Tephri-
tidae) from Chandigarh, India. By Premlata and Awtar Singh. {With two
text-figures) . . 634

On a new species of genus Strophosomoides Aslam from Kashmir (Tanyme-
cinae, Brachyderinae, Curculionidae, Coleoptera). By H. R. Pajni and S. S.

Gandhi. {With three text-figures) . . 639

Ischaemum agastyamalayanum — a new species of Poaceae from Kerala, India.

By P. V. Sreekumar, M. K. Janarthanam and A. N. Henry. {With a text-figure ) 643

A new species of Merremia Hall F. (Convolvulaceae) from India. By M. M.

Bhandari. {With a text- figure) . . 645

Isachne henryi — a new species of Poaceae from Kerala, (India). By S. R.

Srinivasan and P. V. Sreekumar. {With a text-figure) . . 647

A new species of Notothylas Sull. (Bryophyta) from Nepal. By D. K. Singh.

{With twenty eight text-figures) . . 649

A new species of Whitefly Mixaleyrodes indicus sp. nov. (Aleyrodidae: Homqp-

tera) from India. By B. V. David and S. Selvakumaran. {With three text-figures) 654

Obituaries :

Salim Ali (1896-1987) . . 657

Madhav Dattatraya Agharkar (1923-1988) . . 658

Reviews:

1. A Manual of Ethnobotany. (M. R. Almeida) 660

2. Review of the protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan Realm. (Samar Singh) 661

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Is Rhinopomd a Rhinolophoid Bat? {With four text-figures). By A. Gopala-
krishna and N. Badwaik (p. 664); 2. Some notes on the breeding season of Rufoustailed
Hare {Lepus nigricollis ruficuudotus) . By Md. Nayerul Haque (p. 670); 3. Dermal
shields of Himalayan Tahr {Hemitragus jemlahicus). {With d text-figure). By Cliffiord G.
Rice (p. 671); 4. A short note on a new found group of Tahr. By Mahesh Daniel (p. 673);

5. Blackbuck behaviour and horn size. By Erach Bharucha and K. Asher (p. 674);

6. An observation on the relationship between a Sambar and a Tree-Pie. By E. K.
Bharucha (p. 675).

Birds: 7. The Black Stork Ciconid nigrd (Linnaeus) in Kurnool district (Andhra Pradesh).
By Ranjit Manakadan (p. 675); 8. Sighting of Red-necked Grebes {Podiceps grisegend)

on the Pong Dam Lake, Himachal Pradesh. By A. J. Gaston and S. Pandey (p. 676);

9. Some aspects of behaviour observed in the Greater Flamingo at Bhigwan. By Erach
Bharucha (p. 677); 10. Occurrence of the Falcated Teal Anas falcata (Georgi) in Khijadia
Bird Sanctuary, Gujarat. By V. Natarajan and Asad Akthar (p. 678); 11. The Scaup Duck
( Aythya marila) in Madhya Pradesh. By V. Natarajan and R. Sugathan (p. 679);
12. Sighting of the Blackcrested Baza {Aviceda leuphotes) at Bhimashankar. By Ulhas
Rane and Renee Borges (p. 679); 13. Recent sightings of the Sandwich Tern {Sterna
sandvicensis) , with comments on its status in Gujarat. {With a text-figure). By Taej
Mundkur (p. 680); 14. A note on the first discovery of the nest and eggs of the Ashy-
Flycatcher Muscicapa superciliaris and Slaty Blue Flycatcher Muscicapa leucomelanura. By
Judy Banks and John Banks (p. 682); 15. Separation in the hand of Whitebrowed Blue
Flycatcher Muscicapa superciliaris and slaty Blue Flycatcher Muscicapa leucomelanura. By
Peter F. Burns (p. 684); 16. Further notes on Garhwal birds: Grey faced leaf warbler
{Phylloscopus maculipennis) . By Nitin Jamdar (p. 685); 17. Behaviour of Ploceus benghal-
ensis. By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 686); 18. Ploceus manyar (Horsfield) recorded in
Kutch. By Himmatsinhji (p. 686).

Reptiles: 19. Notes on the biology of Melanochelys (Reptilia, Testudines, Emydidae) in
the Terai of Nepal. By Eric Dinerstein, George R. Zug and Joseph C. Mitchell (p. 687);
20. Kachuga (Reptilia, Emydidae) in National Chambal Sanctuary: Observations on diurnal

nesting emergences and unsuccessful nesting crawls. {With a text-figure). By R. J. Rao
and L. A. K. Singh (p. 688) ; 21 . New locality record for the Indian Peacock softshell turtle
Trionyx hurum. By Indraneil Das (p. 691); 22. Vegetation in the food contents of Garden
Lizard (Girgit), Calotes versicolor (Baud.) (Reptilia: Agamidae). By Ujjal Singh Bhatti,
S. Kaur Bhatti and Surjeet Singh Bhatti (p. 692).

Fishes: 23. On the systematic status of Danio ( Danio ) menoni Barman (Pisces: Cypri-
nidae). By Raj Tilak and Seema Jain (p. 693).

Insects: 24. New record of Cryptotermes havilandi (Sjostedt) from Rajasthan, India
(Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) . By N. S. Rathore (p. 694); 25. Scientific versus popular names
of butterflies. By R. K. Varshney (p. 695); 26. Studies on the influence of temperature
and relative humidity on adult longevity, ovipositional period and fecundity of the Rice
moth, Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) (Lepidoptera : Galleriidae). By Parameshwar Hugar
and K. Jai Rao (p. 696); 27. Life history of Chalciope hyppasia (Cram.), a Bean defolia-
tor (Noctuidae). {With eleven text-figures). By Gajendra Pal Singh and S. C. Goel (p. 700);
28. Studies on the biology of Aspidomorpha miliaris F. (Cassididae: Coleoptera) on three
species of Ipomoea and leaf area consumption studies on Ipomoea angulata Lamk. By M.
Manjunatha, G. T. T. Raju, D. N. R. Reddy and S. K. Dutta (p. 704); 29. A study on the
effects of certain abiotic factors on the activity of Myllocerus laetivirens Nabl. (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae) . By Rohtash Chand, A. K. Thukral and H. L. Kundu (p. 708); 30. Deve-
lopmental behaviour of alate and apterous forms of Myzus persicae (Sulzer) on Rocket
Salad in Punjab. By Gurdip Singh and Gurvinderjit Singh (p. 711).

Botany: 31. Alpinia mutica Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) — A new record for peninsular India.
{With a text-figure). By K. Gopalakrishna Bhat and M. N. Venugopal (p. 714); 32. Utri-
culctria uliginosa Vahl — A new record for Andhra Pradesh. {With a text-figure). By T.
Pullaiah, N. Yesoda and R. R. V. Raju (p. 716); 33. Identity of Flacourtia occidentalis
Blatter. By M. R. Almeida and S. M. Almeida (p. 718); 34. Two little known flowering
plants from Maharashtra. {With a text-figure). By M. R. Almeida and S. M. Almeida
(p. 719); 35. A new variety of Rungia latior Nees (Acanthaceae) from South India.
{With two text-figures). By M. Chandrabose and V. Chandrasekaran (p. 722); 36. Helmin-
thostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. (Ophioglossaceae) — A new record for Western Himalaya.
By G. C. Joshi and P. C. Pande (p. 724); 37. On the occurrence of Lalldhwojia cooperi Ferille
(Apiaceae) in India. {With a text-figure). By G. S. Rawat (p. 725); 38. Is Egyptian Doum
Palm {Hyphaene thebaica Mart.) indigenous to India? {With a plate). By Suresh D. Bonde
(p. 727); 39. Varietal status of Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. By R. S. Parihar and S. N.
Zadoo (p. 729); 40. Spigelia anthelmia Linn. — A new record for India. {With a text-
figure). By M. Oommachan and J. L. Shrivastava (p. 730).

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year 1985-86 733

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society . . 742

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting . . 758

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1987 DECEMBER Vol. 84

No. 3

CETACEANS (WHALES, DOLPHINS AND PORPOISES)
RECORDED OFF SRI LANKA, INDIA, FROM THE
ARABIAN SEA AND GULF, GULF OF ADEN AND
FROM THE RED SEA1

P. H. D. H. de Silva2

(With two plates and two text -figures)

Introduction

Cetacea is a highly specialized oceanic group
of mammals with several of its species under-
taking long migrations, often exceeding
thousand miles during a single journey. During
these migrations from cold polar and subpolar
seas to warmer tropical and subtropical waters
and their return to polar seas in summer both
individual and mass strandings have very often
occurred in many parts of the world, including
Sri Lanka, India and the Arabian Gulf.

The Cetacean records dealt with in this
paper are of countries which lie at the extreme
southern margin of the vast land mass of Asia
with no land other than a few islands and
vast stretches of the Indian Ocean between

1 Accepted May 1987.

2 Retired Director of National Museums, Sri
Lanka. Present address : Department of Zoology, A1
Fateh University, Tripoli, Libya.

them and the Antarctica. Sri Lanka, in view
of her geographic position at the southern
extremity of this vast land mass (5° 55' and
9° 51' N latitude and 79° 41' and 81°54'E
longitude) has become a passing point in the
movement of oceanic species including the
larger whales. It has been suggested by Dera-
niyagala (1945, 1960b) that the movement of
larger species towards the tropics from the
southern temperate zone is partly associated
with the periodic influx of Antarctic water to-
ward the tropics. It is however, now fairly
established that several larger species such as
the Blue whale, the Fin whale and the Hump-
back whale show a regular migratory cycle.

The majority of strandings recorded in this
paper deal with individual strandings. Neverthe-
less there have been instances of both mass
stranding and of apparent suicidal behaviour.

This paper deals with 30 Cetacean species
from the region. Of these records, records from

505

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Sri Lanka total 23 species, from India 24
species, from Pakistan 17 species, from the
Gulf of Oman 10 species, from the Arabian
Gulf 9 species, from the Gulf of Aden 6 species
and from the Red Sea 7 species.

Reference is also made to a skull of Delphi -
nus tropicalis van Bree in the Colombo
Museum (Skull No. 15 B) which appears to be
its first record from Sri Lanka. Mention is
also made of a specimen of Neophocaena
phocaenoides (G. Cuvier) collected from the
Wadge Bank by the Smithsonian Carangid
Survey Team in March 1970 and of two in-
complete skeletons of Balaenoptera physalus
(Linne) (probably mother and calf) in the
Zoological Museum, King Saud University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. All these specimens
were identified by me.

It is evident from this study that our present
knowledge of the Cetacean fauna of the
Indian Ocean is far from complete and that
much could be accomplished by scientific in-
stitutions in the countries in the region by
deligently maintaining proper records of sight-
ings and strandings (with photographs) and
by undertaking joint study surveys. It is grati-
fying to note that Sri Lanka, in recent years
has been making much headway in this regard.
During the last few years the Tulip Expedition
led by Dr. Hal Whitehead has been studying
the larger whales, especially the larger whales
off the east coast and Dr. Stephen Leather-
wood Of Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute
(Marine Science), San Diego, California has
recently published (1985) a summary of avail-
able information on the Cetacea of the Indian
Ocean Cetacean Sanctuary on behalf of the
National Aquatic Resources Agency for Sri
Lanka. It is hoped that the present paper will
further stimulate interest among the scientific
institutions in the region and help to increase
our knowledge of a group of remarkable ani-

mals at least as far as the species which
inhabit and visit our seas.

A key to the identification of the species
recorded from the region is given in Appendix.

Cetacean species recorded

The Cetacean species recorded from the
region are given below:

I. Suborder ODONTOCETI — Toothed Whales

i. Superfamily platan istoidea — River
Dolphins

a. Family Platanistidae

1 . Platanista gangetica (Roxburgh,
1801)

2. Platanista minor Owen, 1853

ii. Superfamily physeteroidea — Sperm
Whales

b. Family Physeteridae

3. Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus,
1758

4. Kogia simus Owen, 1866

iii. Superfamily ziphioidea — Beaked Whales

c. Family Ziphiidae

5. Ziphius cavirostris G. Cuvier, 1823

6. Mesoplodon ginkgodens Nishiwaki
and Kamiya, 1958

iv. Superfamily delphinoidea — Dolphins

d. Family Stenidae

7. Steno bredanensis (Lesson, 1828)

8. Sousa chinensis (Osbeck, 1765)

e. Family Delphinidae

9. Tursiops truncatus (Montagu, 1821)

10. Delphinus del phis Linnaeus, 1758

11. Delphinus capensis Gray, 1828

12. Delphinus tropicalis van Bree, 1972

13. Stenella attenuata (Gray, 1846)

14. Stenella longirostris (Gray, 1828)

15. Stenella coeruleoalba (Meyen, 1833)

16. Grampus griseus (G. Cuvier, 1812)

17. Peponocephala electra (Gray, 1846)

18. Globicephala macrorhynchus Gray,
1846

19. Feresa attenuata Gray, 1874

20. Pseudorca crassidens (Owen, 1846)

21. Orcinus orca (Linnaeus, 1758)

22. Orcaella brevirostris (Gray, 1866)

f. Family Phocoenidae

23. Neophocaena phocaenoides
(G. Cuvier, 1829)

506

CETACEANS ( WHALES , DOLPHINS & PORPOISES ) RECORDS

II. Suborder MYSTICETI — Baleen Whales

g. Family Balaenidae

24. Eubalaena australis Desmoulins,

1822

h. Family Balaenopteridae

25. Balaenoptera musculus (Linnaeus',
1758)

26. Balaenoptera physahis (Linnaeus,
1758)

27. Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacepede,
1804

28. Balaenoptera borealis Lesson, 1828

29. Balaenoptera edeni Anderson, 1878

30. Megaptera novaeangfiae
(Borowski, 1781)

Sightings, strandings and other records of

THE SPECIES

1. Platanista gangetica (Roxburgh, 1801)

GANGES SUSU, GANGES DOLPHIN
Records :

India [Inhabits the Ganges, Brahmaputra
and Meghna river systems ranging from the
sea to the foot of the mountains. Though com-
mon in tidal waters it never enters the sea
(Blanford 1891, 591].

2. Platanista minor Owen, 1853
INDUS SUSU, INDUS DOLPHIN

Records :

Pakistan [Inhabits the Indus river system
in silt laden rivers. They do not enter the tidal
waters of the Indus].

3. Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758
SPERM WHALE, CACHALOT

Records :

sri lanka [Several sightings in Gulf of
Mannar, December 1840’s — Wray and Martin,
1980, off Sri Lanka from 13th February to 11th
March 1982 and Gulf of Mannar, February

and March 19 82- Ailing et cd., 1982; off north-
eastern coast, April 1982 to 16th April 1983 —
Leatherwood et cd., 1984; off coast of Dondra
(S.P.) on 7th May 1985 — Gunaratne and
Obeysekera, 1985; strandings from coast of
Mannar (N.P.) in September 1889, Bentota
(W.P.) in July 1904, Marawila (N.W.P.) on
11th March 1939, Kalpitiya (N.W.P.) in August
1946, Kathaluwa (S.P.) in 1946, Chilaw
(N.W.P.) in August 1946, Ambalangoda on
30th August 1960 and Kahawa, Ambalangoda
(S.P.) on 11th January 1966. Two specimens
caught on 7th September 1982 from Pitipana,
Negombo (W.P.) and another in drift net —
Joseph et al. 1983 and De Bruin, 1972].

India [Sightings — off Nicobar and Anda-
man Islands, March and April 1920 — Tow-
nsend, 1935, Madras in January 1890 observed
by Thurston — Blanford, 1891, 571; South of
India on 19th April 1983, 3 animals —
Leatherwood et al, 1984; strandings — Karwar
on 23rd June 1972 — Antony Raja and
Vasudev Pai, 1973, Manauli Island, a male in
July 1979 — James, 1983; Mahabalipuram,
near Madras on 12th April 1980 — James and
Manivasagam, 1980; Krusadai Island on 30th
April 1980, Pirthentburuth Island near Quilon
on 25th November 1980 and Pudupet near
Cuddalore on 8th June 1982 — James, 1983
and another from Pudupet, east coast — Kutha-
1 ingam et al, 1982].

Pakistan [Sind and Baluchistan coasts —
Ahmad and Ghalib, 1975].

gulf of oman [Sightings on 16th and 18th
January 1982 — Ailing, 1982 and Masirah,
Oman — Ross, 1981].

4. Kogia si m us Owen, 1866
DWARF SPERM WHALE, SMALL SPERM WHALE
Records :

sri lanka [Sightings — Trincomalee (E.P.)
in 1891 — Pearson, 1931; east coast on 11th

507

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

and 23rd April 1983 — Ailing, 1983; stand-
ings— right tympanum and periotic bones of
a skull from Trincomalee (E.P.) gifted by
Hugh Nevill to the British Museum (Natural
History), No. 1891.10.3.1; Moratuwa (W.P.)
on 3rd November 1915 — Pearson, 1921;
Gunapana (S.P.) on 9th August 1936 and at
Wadduwa (S.P.) on 14th August 1960 —
Deraniyagala, 1960, 1961; Pitipana, Negombo
(W.P.) caught 18th November 1982 — Joseph
et al and 18 animals caught off Trincomalee
(E.P.) from 9th February 1983 to April 1985
— Prematunga et al, in press and Beruwala
(S.P.) — Ailing, 1983].

India [Vizagapatam — Blanford, 1891; skull
from Madras of a female. No. 1866.2.5.6,
on 28th February 1853, gifted by Sir Walter
Elliot to the British Museum (Natural History)
and described as type of Physeter ( Euphysetes )
simus Owen, 1866; skull gifted by the Super-
intendent, Trivandrum Museum to the British
Museum (Natural History), No. 1952.8.28.2;
specimen beached at Trivandrum on Decem-
ber 19th (no year) with a nine inch foetus —
Hall and Kelson, 1959].

Pakistan [Mekran coast — Ahmad and
Ghalib, 1975 and generally common in Pakis-
tan waters — Roberts, 1977; one specimen
stranded at Phitti Creek on Sind coast on 17th
October 1981 — Mohd. Farooq Ahmad, 1982].

5. Ziphius cavirostris G. Cuvier, 1823

CUVIER’S BEAKED WHALE, GOOSE-BEAKED WHALE
Records:

sri lanka [Sightings — Trincomalee (E.P.)
on 15th March 1983 — Ailing, 1983 and 3
animals on 16th April 1983 — Leatherwood
et al, 1984; standings — Goiyapana (S.P.),
14 feet in length on 20th August 1936; Dodan-
duwa (S.P.) on 10th January 1939; Colombo
Harbour Break-water on 24th June 1939, off
Ratmalana (W.P.) taken in a seine net about

200 yards from shore on 30th July 1940 and
Telwatta near Hikkaduwa (S.P.) on 1st July
1963 — Deraniyagala, 1945, 1965b; a specimen
18 \ feet in length at Madihe, Matara (S.P.) in
June 1967].

India [Ellerman and Morrison-Scott, 1966]
1966].

Pakistan [Strandings observed on Pakistan
coast — Mohd. Farooq Ahmad, 1982].

6. Mesoplodon ginkgodens Nishiwaki and
Kamiya, 1958

Mesoplodon hotaula Deraniyagala, 1963
GINKGO-TOOTHED BEAKED WHALE

Records :

sri lanka [Stranding — single specimen,
female, 14 feet 7 inches at Ratmalana (W.P.)
on 26th January 1963 — Deraniyagala, 1963;
a specimen caught off Trincomalee (E.P.) sus-
pected to be of this species by Jim Mead —
Leatherwood, 1985].

7. Steno bredanensis (Lesson, 1828)
Delphinus rostratus Desmarest, 1817, 160
Steno frontatus Blyth, 1863, 91
Steno frontatus Blanford, 1891. 582

ROUGH -TOOTHED DOLPHIN

Records:

India [Nicobar Islands, Bay of Bengal —
Blanford, 1891].

Pakistan [Strandings observed on Pakistan
coast — Mohd. Farooq Ahmad, 1982].
gulf of aden [Hershkovitz, 1966, 15].

8. Sousa chinensis (Osbeck, 1765)

Steno plumbeus Blanford, 1891, 583
Sotalia fergusoni Lydekker, 1903. 411

INDO-PACIFIC HUMP-BACKED DOLPHIN

Records :

sri lanka [Arippu, Mannar (N.P.) from a

508

CETACEANS ( WHALES , DOLPHINS & PORPOISES) RECORDS

skull gifted by Mr. Holdsworth in the Museum
of the Royal College of Surgeons, U.K. —
Blanford, 1891; Egodauyana (W.P.), an adult
male on 3rd April 1934 taken in a seine net

— Deraniyagala, 1945].

India [Sightings — Malabar, 1837, van
Beneden and Gervais, 1868; off Visakhapat-
nam, Andhra Pradesh on 18th September 1854-
Owen, 1866; Calicut Harbour on 22nd Decem-
ber 1980, 4 animals — Harwood, 1980; north-
east of Andaman Island, April 1982 — Leather-
wood and Clarke, 1983; strandings — skull
in the British Museum (Natural History), No.
1866.2.8.2. from Vizagapatam, Madras coast
gifted by Sir Walter Elliot; Malabar coast —
Blanford — 1891; Waltair, Vizagapatam,

Madras (type locality) and Alibag, Bombay —
Blanford, 1891; Trivandrum beach and des-
cribed under Sotalia fergusoni — Lydekker,
1903; 2 skulls collected from Malabar coast
in 1827 by Dussumier and a mounted specimen
in Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Laboratoire
d’Anatomie Comparee, France; 2 skulls. Nos.
M5965-6 in the Bombay Natural History
Society — Pilleri and Gihr, 1973-74].

Pakistan [Sightings — observed in Sonmiani
as well as near Gwadur — Roberts, 1977;
strandings — Karachi — Blanford, 1891; 4
strandings in 1981 — at Rehri Creek on 20th
March, at Cape Monze on 14th October, at
Buleji coast on 15th October and at Korangi
Creek on 7th November — Mohd. Farooq
Ahmad, 1982].

gulf of oman [Sightings — west point and
south shore of Hormuz Island on 22nd and
30th January 1973 — 16 animals, 2 animals
one mile from Dorgahan on 29th January 1973

— Pilleri and Gihr, 1973].

Arabian gulf [Female caught on the coast
of Shuaikh Secondary School, Kuwait by fisher-
men in Spring 1962 and described as Sotalia
fergusoni and a male in a branch of Khor-Al
Zubair, Iraq waters by fishermen on 25th July

1967 — Al-Robbae, 1974; 1 skull. No. MC
47000 in Museum of Comparative Zoology,
U.S.A., collected by H. Field on 5th June 1950
from west of Torit, Quatar — Leatherwood,
1985; 4 skulls and mandibles collected by M.
D. Gallagher in British Museum (Natural His-
tory) — Pilleri and Gihr, 1972; one skull and
ramus collected by M. D. Gallagher from
Hower Island near Bahrain in January 1973 in
the British Museum (Natural History)].

gulf of aden [Skull No. 1962.7.19.1 in
British Museum (Natural History) from Kwad,
Abyan, west of Aden collected by C. A. Wright
and a skull of a female collected by Hinds
from Berbera, Somali Republic, No. 1954.9.
9.5 — Pilleri and Gihr; Cranial box. No.

1955.2.23.1. from Havta, 210 miles east of
Aden — Leatherwood, 1985].

red sea [Skull No. 1924.9.11.1, collected
by W. A. Macfadyen in the British Museum
(Natural History) on the east side of Great
Bitter Lake, Suez Canal — Pilleri and Gihr,
1972 and a skull without mandibles. No. 1962.

2.19.1. from the Red Sea in the British
Museum (Natural History) — Leatherwood,
1985],

9. Tursiops truncatus (Montagu, 1821)

Tur stops aduncus Roberts, 1977, 316
BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN

Records :

sri lanka [Sightings — Southwest Negombo
(W.P.), off Chilaw breakwater, west of Uda-
ppuwa, west of Puttalam and south of Talawila
(N.W.P.), southwest of Kudremalai Point, off
Adam’s Bridge (N.P.) — Leatherwood et al ,
1984; east coast — Ailing et al, 1983; Collec-
tions — 4 skulls in the British Museum
(Natural History), from the Gulf of Mannar
(N.P.) gifted by W.W.A. Phillips, from Kara-
tivu Island, Portugal Bay (N.W.P.) and from
50 miles north of Colombo and 5 miles from
shore gifted by G. C. Beaumont; 4 skulls in

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

the Colombo Museum; common inshore in
Negombo (W.P.) and Trincomalee (E.P.) —
Lantz and Gunasekera, 1956; one specimen
caught off Negombo — Joseph et al, 1983;
Beruwala (S.P.) — Ailing and E. R. Tranchell;
Trincolee (E.P.) — Ailing and Prematunga et
al, 1985].

India [Sightings — Travancore — Pillay,
1926; strandings — Trivandrum in March 1903
listed as Tursiops catalania — Leatherwood,
1985; Collections — skull from Vizagapatam,
Madras, type of Delphinus godamu (Owen,
1866) gifted by Sir Walter Elliot; skull No.
1883.11.20.3. from India in the British
Museum (Natural History) — Leatherwood,
1985; skeleton from Travancore collected in
February 1908, type of T. dawsoni in the
British Museum (Natural History); skull from
Bay of Bengal, type of D. eurynome (Gray,
1846), 4 skeletons from Trivandrum, all in
the British Museum (Natural History) —
Leatherwood and Clarke, 1983; stuffed skin,
type of Delphinus perniger in Museum of
Asiatic Society, Calcutta — Hershkovitz, 1966].

Pakistan [Karachi-Blanford, 1891 and Ross,
1977; generally common in Pakistan waters in
large herds — Pilleri, 1972 and Roberts, 1977;
one specimen stranded at Sandspit on Sind
coast on 22nd November 1981 — Mohd.
Farooq Ahmad, 1982; 2 skulls, tympanic and
periotic from Karachi in the British Museum
(Natural History) — Leatherwood, 1985;
skeletons from Point Monze and Clifton coast
- Pilleri and Gihr, 1973-74].

gulf of oman [Two strandings at Masirah
and Ras Al Hadd — Ross, 1981; calvarium
and mandible from Sur and calvarium from
between Sur and Ras Al Hadd collected in
1977 & 1979 by M. D. Gallagher, 1980 and cal-
varium from Masirah Island in the British
Museum (Natural History) — Leatherwood,
1985].

Arabian gulf [Stranding — one specimen
from Ras Al-Mataf on 15th January 1974 —
Al-Robbae, 1974; Collections — 2 skeletons
from Muscat collected by A.S.G. Jayakar —
Blanford, 1888 and 1891; 2 skulls from the
Arabian Gulf and a skull and calvarium col-
lected from the Trucial coast near Rasal
Khaiman by M. D. Gallagher in the British
Museum (Natural History); skeleton from
Hormuz in the Pilleri collection — Pilleri and
Gihr, 1973-74].

gulf of aden [skeleton of a male from
Djibouti collected by J. N. Rose in Museum
National d’Histoire Naturelle, Laboratoire
d’Anatomie Comparee, Paris — Leatherwood,
1985; Berbera, Somali Republic, 2 skulls gifted
by A. Fraser Brunner and 2 skulls collected
by V. T. Hinds in the British Museum (Natu-
ral History) — Leatherwood, 1985.

red sea [Belhoss Islands and type locality
of Delphinus abusalam Riippel and D. hama -
tus Weigmann, 1841; Mounted skin with skull
inside. Type — D. abusalam, collected in 1833
by E. Riippel and a skull collected in 1842 in
Senckenberg Naturmuseum — Leatherwood,
1985].

10. Delphinus delphis Linnaeus, 1758

Delphinus frithii Blyth, 1859, 492
Delphinus pomeegra Owen, 1866, 23

THE COMMON DOLPHIN
Records :

sri Lanka [Sightings — Kalpitiya (N.W.P.)
and Trincomalee (E.P.) — Nevill, 1887;
Batticaloa Lagoon (E.P.) — Nevill, 1887;
abundant especially around Negombo (W.P.)
and Trincomalee (E.P.) during the fishing
season — Lantz and Gunasekera, 1956; off
Sri Lanka — Ailing, 1983; 10 animals on 27th
November 1984 off Sri Lanka, Musee Oceano-
graphique — Leatherwood, 1985; 2 skulls in
the Colombo Museum].

510

CETACEANS ( WHALES , DOLPHINS & PORPOISES) RECORDS

maldive islands [Water worn skull with-
out lower jaw on Furadi Island — Deraniya-
gala, 1956].

India [Madras coast — Blanford, 1891;
skull in Calcutta Museum gifted by R.W.G.
Frith and described by Blyth under the name
of Delphinus frithii, skull in the British
Museum (Natural History) of a specimen from
the Madras coast collected by W. Elliot and
described by Owen, 1866 under the name,
Delphinus pomegra\ 6 males and 4 females
caught off Calangute, Goa — Thomas, 1983].

11. Delphinus capensis Gray, 1828

CAPE DOLPHIN
Records :

Pakistan [Sightings — off Cape Monze and
Karachi — Ahmad and Ghalib, 1975; schools
feed inshore — Roberts, 1977 and generally
observed in Pakistan coastal waters — Mohd.
Farooq Ahmad, 1982; stranding — one speci-
men stranded at Hawk’s Bay on Sind coast
on 15th October 1981 — Mohd. Farooq
Ahmad, 1982].

Remarks : The only differences to be

observed in Robert’s description of D.
capensis, separating it from D. delphis record-
ed from the Madras coast and from Sri Lanka
are the presence of 54 to 58 teeth in each
tooth row and longitudinal grey and yellow
bands on the flanks in D. capensis. D. delphis
is described to possess 40 to 55 teeth in each
tooth row and without the bands on the
flanks. However. Burton (1976) and Martin
(1977) have described D. delphis as having
grey and yellow and white undulating stripes
on the flanks. Roberts (1977) also states that
the Karachi specimens have been assigned by
Pilleri to the species tropicalis van Bree. This
puzzle can only be resolved by a study of
living tropicalis.

12. Delphinus tropicalis van Bree, 1972

Delphinus longirostris Cuvier, 1829
Delphinus dussimieri Blanford, 1891

dussumier’s dolphin, long-nosed dolphin
Records :

sri lanka [Skull, No. 15 B in the Colombo
Museum, exact locality unknown].

India [Malabar coast — G. Cuvier, 1829,
skull in the Museum National d’Histoire Natu-
relle, Laboratoire d’Anatomie Comparee, Paris;
2 skeletons in the Bombay Natural History
Society from Malabar coast — Pilleri and
Gihr, 1973-74],

Pakistan [Stranding — one stranding at
Buleji on Sind coast on 15 October 1981 —
Mohd. Farooq Ahmad, 1982].

gulf of oman [Skull from Ras A1 Hadd
in Zoological Museum, Amsterdam-Ross, 1981].

Arabian gulf [Skull from Muscat collected
by Petty Officer Wright, skull from Arabian
Gulf and another skull from Umm A1 Quau-
wain lagoon and skull from Ajman Creek near
Sharjan, collected by M. D. Gallagher and a
skull from Ras A1 Khaimah, United Arab
Emirates and all in the British Museum (Natu-
ral History)].

gulf of Aden [Skull of a specimen caught
off Berbera, Somali Republic on 16th Febru-
ary 1953 and a skull and postcranial skeleton
of a specimen caught on 18th February 1953
from the same locality in the British Museum-
van Bree, 1972; skull collected from Djibouti
by J. N. Ross in Museum National d’Histoire
Naturelle, Laboratoire d’Anatomie Comparee,
Paris — Leatherwood, 1985].

13. Stenella attenuata (Gray, 1846)

SPOTTED DOLPHIN
Records :

sri lanka [A specimen harpooned at sea
between Ceylon and the equator described

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

under Delphinus velox by Cuvier, 1829 and
Blanford, 1891; mounted specimen collected
by Dussumier in Museum National d’Histoire
Naturelle, Laboratoire d’Zoologie, France, type
of Delphinus velox ; sightings — Koddiyar Bay,
Trincomalee (E.P.) on 28th February 1983;
south end of Puttalam lagoon (N.W.P.) on
4th March 1983, 275 and 100 animals respec-
tively; off northern coast 250 to 350 animals
on 16th April 1983 — Leatherwood et al,
1984; east coast, 3 herds — Ailing et al, 1983
and caught between 9th February 1983 and
April 1985; 43 males and 39 females from off
Beruwala (S.P.) and Trincomalee (E.P.) —
Ailing and Prematunga et al, 1985; skull in
Colombo Museum and two skulls in NARA
Museum, Colombo].

India [Bay of Bengal — Gray, 1846 as
Steno attenuatus and by Beddard in 1900 as
Prodelphinus attenuatus ; Sundarban Islands,
Bay of Bengal as Delphinus malayanus —
Blanford, 1891; sighting — on 13th April 1983
in northern Bay of Bengal — Leatherwood
et al, 1984; skull collected by Mrs. Ince in
British Museum (Natural History)].

maldive islands [Sightings — 75 to 80
animals from 19th to 21st April 1983 —
Leatherwood, 1984].

gulf of oman [Calvarium and rostrum col-
lected by M. D. Gallagher from near Siham,
Batinia coast and from Sur].

red sea [Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983,
234].

14. Stenella longirostris (Gray, 1828)

Delphinus micro ps Gray, 1846
Delphinus alope Gray, 1846

LONG-SNOUTED SPINNER DOLPHIN
Records :

sri lanka [In British Museum (Natural
History) under Stenella microps (i) skull and
skeleton from Trincomalee (E.P.) gifted by

Hugh Nevill, (ii) skull and skeleton of a
female, twenty miles north of Colombo gifted
by G. C. Beaumont, (iii) skull and scapulae
of female from 50 miles north of Colombo
and (iv) skull of a female from the west coast
of Sri Lanka gifted by Dr. W. C. Osman-Hill;
sightings — frequents northwest coast of
Ceylon — Holdsworth 1872; southwest of
Yala on 3rd February 1970 — Leatherwood
and Clarke, 1983; Koddiyar Bay on 28th
February 1983, 100 animals on 15th April
1983 just north of Sri Lanka, approximately
200 animals on 16th April 1983 off Trinco-
malee (E.P.) — Leatherwood et al., 1984; east
coast of Sri Lanka — Ailing et al, 1983;
caught off Negombo and Colombo — Joseph
et al., 1983; Beruwela (S.P.) — Ailing and
E. R. Tranchell; Galle (S.P.) — Leatherwood,
1985; off Trincomalee (E.P.) — Ailing, Prema-
tunga et al., 1983; East coast — Tulip Expe-
dition; Collections — Skull from Arippu in
the Museum, College of Surgeons, Colombo
and 5 skulls from specimens off Trincomalee
gifted by E. C. Fernando in the Field Museum
of Natural History, Chicago.

India [Photograph of skull (illustration)
taken prior to 1827 from Malabar in U.S.
National Museum files — Leatherwood, 1985].

maldive islands [Sightings — Guadu,
Miladummadulla Atoll, south Male Atoll —
Leatherwood, 1984].

gulf of oman [Calvarium from Sur Oman
and skull between Sur and Ras Al Hadd col-
lected by M. D. Gallagher and skull from
Sur, Masirah Island collected by T. D. Rogers
in the British Museum (Natural History)].

gulf of aden [Skeleton in Museum National
d’Histoire Naturellae, Laboratoire d’ Anatomie
Comparee, Paris collected from Djibouti by
J. N. Rose — Leatherwood, 1985].

red sea [Skull in Field Museum of Natural
History, Chicago, U.S.A. collected by D.
Osborn on coast north of Mersa Alam, Egypt].

512

CETACEANS ( WHALES , DOLPHINS & PORPOISES ) RECORDS

15. Stenella coeruleoalba (Meyen, 1833)

STRIPED DOLPHIN
Records :

sri lanka [Sightings — off the east coast

— Ailing et al, 1983; caught off Negombo
(W.P.), 2 males on 18th November 1982 and
11th January 1983 — Joseph et al, 1983;
Beruwela (S.P.) on 9th May 1983 — Ailing
and E. R. Tranchell from 5th January to 25th
May 1985; 94 animals and 10 males and 13
females off Trincomalee from 15th March
1983 to April 1985 — Prematunga et al, in
press].

maldive islands [Sightings — northeast on
19th April 1983 — Leatherwood et al, 1984].

gulf of Oman [Calvarium collected from
Sawagq on 26th November 1977 by M. D.
Gallagher in the British Museum (Natural
History — Leatherwood, 1985].

16. Grampus griseus (G. Cuvier, 1812)
RISSO’S DOLPHIN

Records’.

sri lanka [Sightings — northeast coast
about 150 animals . on 16th April 1983 —
Leatherwood et al, 1984; off Sri Lanka —
Ailing et al, 1982 and east coast, 6 sightings —

— Ailing, 1983; caught off Negombo one male
specimen on 8th October 1982 — Joseph et
al, 1982; 67 animals from January 1983 to
March 1985 off Trincomalee — Ailing and
Prematunga et al, 1985; Beruwala (S.P.) from
9th May 1983 to 25th May 1985, 108 animals

— Ailing and E. R. Tranchell].

maldive ISLANDS [Off Male Atoll, 4 to 6
animals — Leatherwood, 1984],

GULF OF OMAN [Skull from Ra Sallin, Bati-
mah, a rib, vertebra and a mandible collected
from Qurm,ur Muscat by M. D. Gallagher and
two skeletons from Muscat collected by A.S.G.
Jayakar in the British Museum (Natural

History); skull from Ras Al Hadd in the
Zoological Museum, Amsterdam — Leather-
wood, 1985].

red sea [Calvarium collected by G. W.
Graham from coast — Leatherwood, 1985].

17. Peponocephala electra (Gray, 1846)

Delphinus fusiformis Owen, 1866
Lagenorhynchus electra True, 1889
Lagenorhynchus obscurum Blanford, 1891
Lagenorhynchus electra Roberts, 1977
Lagenorhynchus obscurus Phillips, 1980

MELON-HEADED WHALE

Records:

sri lanka [Skull from Palk Strait in
Calcutta Museum — Blanford, 1891].

India [Madras, type locality of Delphinus
( Lagenorhynchus ) fusiformis Owen, 1866 and
type skull collected by Sir Walter Elliot in the
British Museum (Natural History) from
Vizagapatam, Madras; Bierman and Slijper,
1947].

Pakistan [Sightings — seen regularly off
Mekran coast but usually after the end of the
monsoon and during the winter months when
the Mekran coastal waters provide a particu-
larly rich fishing ground — Dr. Ranjha and
generally common in Pakistan waters —
Roberts, 1977; strandings — 2 strandings, one
at Cape Monze on 14th October 1981 and
the other at Rehri Creek on 20th March 1982.

18. Globicephala macrorhyndms Gray, 1846

G[lobicephala\ indica Blyth, 1852
Globicephalus indicus Blanford, 1891
Globicephala sp. Deraniyagala, 1945

SHORT-FINNED PILOT WHALE

Records:

sri lanka [From a fossil vertebra collected
by Colonel S. D. Cleve of the Royal Engineers
when digging at Promontery known as Flag-

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

staff Battery, Colombo at a depth of 15 feet
and from 100 yards from shore — Deraniya-
gala, 1945].

India [2 specimens out of a shoal of seve-
ral dozens found stranded in Hooghly River,
near Serampore, West Bengal in July 1852;
dozens near Salt Lakes, Calcutta in 1950 —
Jones, 1953; salt or brackish water of the
Gangetic Delta — Blanford, 1891].

19. Feresa attenuate Gray, 1874

PYGMY KILLER WHALE
Records:

sri lanka [Sightings — Ailing, 1983; caught
off Trincomalee, 3 animals on 8th February
and 3rd April 1983 — Ailing; and Beruwala,
8 animals — E. R. Tranchell].

gulf of oman [Sighting close to Oman
coast — Harwood, 1980].

20. Pseudorca erassidens (Owen, 1846)
FALSE KILLER WHALE
Records :

sri lanka [Sightings — off northeast coast
in April 1982 — Leatherwood and Clarke,
1983; off the east coast on 16th April 1983
— Ailing et al. (1983); 25 to 30 animals on
northeast coast — Leatherwood et al, 1984;
caught off Moratuwa (W.P.) in December 1980,
complete skeleton in Colombo Museum and
167 specimens stranded at Kambanturai at
Kayts (N.P.) on 3rd August 1929 — Pearson,
1930; 97 specimens stranded at Mutur (E.P.)
on 10th November 1934, a single specimen at
Godavaya (S.P.) on 30th September 1939 and
another specimen at Chempianpattu (N.P.) on
28th January 1954 — Deraniyagala, I960].

India [South of India — Pearson, 1930;
Male and female stranded at Trivandrum in
February 1902 — Pillay, 1926; male and female
at Pozhikara, Cape Comorin, Trivandrum —

Silas and Pillay, 1960; Puthiappa, north of
Calicut on 28th July 1975 — Mohan et al
1984; from Port Blair, Andamans, caught on
27 July 1976 — James, 1984; specimen from
Gulf of Cambay, Maharashtra in August 1978
by V. M. Raval in Institute of Science, Nav-
sari; Rameswaram, Gulf of Mannar on 18th
October 1975 — Thiagarajan et al, 1984;
skeleton from Travancore in British Museum
(Natural History) — Leatherwood, 1985].

Pakistan [A specimen stranded at Phitti
Creek on Sind coast on 17th October 1981 —
Ahmad, 1982].

gulf of oman [Skull from Khasab, north
Oman collected by Royal Geographic Society
and part of a right ramus from Masirah Island
collected by M. D. Gallagher in British
Museum (Natural History) — Leatherwood,
1985].

Arabian gulf [One specimen at Dowha at
40 km, south of Kuwait in muddy area in
1964, skeleton in Kuwait Natural History
Museum — Al-Robbae, 1974].

21. Orcinus orca (Linnaeus, 1758)

KILLER WHALE
Records :

sri lanka [Sightings — west coast, April
1868 — Blanford, 1891; off Chilaw (N.W.P.)

— Holdsworth, 1872].

India [Sighting of one animal north of
Andamans on 12th April 1983 — Leatherwood
et al, 1984; stranding of specimen at Armada,
Baroda State in 1943 — S. T. Moses, 1948;
skull from Nicobar Island in Bombay Natural
History Society — Pilleri and Gihr, 1973-74].

Pakistan [Strandings recorded — Mohd.
Farooq Ahmad, 1982].

gulf of Aden [Large male off Rashafun
on 29th April 1982 by Jeremiah and Sullivan

— Leatherwood, 1985].

514

CETACEANS ( WHALES , DOLPHINS & PORPOISES) RECORDS

22. Orcaella brevirostris (Gray, 1866)

IRRAWADY DOLPHIN
Records :

India [Type locality, Vizagapatam, Madras,
Bay of Bengal, type skull collected by Sir
Walter Elliot in British Museum (Natural
History); Ganges river, 70 to 80 metres up-
stream, Bay of Bengal — Anderson, 1871;
ascending rivers as far as the tide extends —
Blanford, 1891; Bay of Bengal probably the
western extreme of its range — Leatherwood
and Reeves, 1983].

23. Neophocaena phocaenoides (G. Cuvier,
1829)

Delphinapterus molagen Owen, 1866
Neomeris kurrachiensis Murray, 1884
Neomeris phocaenoides Roberts, 1977

FINLESS PORPOISE
Records :

sri lanka [a specimen caught, 670 mm in
length, by Smithsonian Carangid Survey Team
on 20th March 1970 from the Wadge Bank,
alcohol specimen in Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Mass, U.S.A.].

India [Caught — a juvenile specimen in a
gill net in February 1973, 669 mm in length
from Calicut — Balan, 1976; 7 males and 10
females off Calangute, Goa between 4th Octo-
ber 1973 to 4th April 1978 — Thomas, 1983;
17 animals off south Canara coast and one
animal off Calicut — Dawson, 1957, 1959;
skulls and skeletons — skulls collected in 1827,
an incomplete skeleton and a mounted speci-
men collected by Dussumier from Malabar
coast in the Museum National d’Histoire
Naturelle, Laboratoire d’Anatomie Comparee
— Gray, 1846; Madras, type locality of Delphi-
napterus molagen Owen, 1866; skull from
Travancore collected by Ferguson in British
Museum (Natural History) and skull and
foetus from mouth of Bombay Harbour in
British Museum (Natural History) — Pilleri

and Gihr, 1972; skeleton from Trivandrum in
Trivandrum Museum — Lydekker, 1908; 3
skulls in Bombay Natural History Society
from Malabar coast].

Pakistan [7 skulls from Gadani, Sonmiani
Bay, 2 skulls from Milutu Camp, Sonmiani
Bay, skull from Gizri village, skull from Rehri
Creek, skull from Kudri Creek, skull from
Edrahym Hydari, 2 skulls from Dahm, Son-
miani Bay and skull from Sonmiani Bay in
Pilleri collection — Pilleri and Gihr, 1972;
stranding — one specimen at Korangi Creek
on Sind coast on 3rd November 1981 — Mohd.
Farooq Ahmad, 1982; Karachi — Murray,
1884 as Neomeris kurrachiensis ; sightings —
common on Pakistan coasts and in the Indus
mouth frequenting Kudi, Mull, Khai and Dubla
Creeks — Pilleri, 1972; common along the
Mekran coast from late September to April
frequenting the Mangrove creeks and inlets,
sighted around Sonmiani Hor in Les Belas
and in the estuary of the Hingol River in the
Mekran — Roberts, 1977; Sind and Baluchistan
coasts — Ahmad and Ghalib, 1975].

Arabian gulf [One dead male, 37 km south
of FAO in Iraq Territorial waters on 2nd
May 1974 and one female caught by fishing
trawler from FAO area on 15th April 1975 —
Al-Robbae, 1975].

24 Eubalaena australis Desmoulins, 1822

SOUTHERN RIGHT WHALE
Records:

India [One specimen stranded at Gajana,
Baroda State in 1944 — S. T. Moses, 1948].

25. Balaenoptera musculus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Balaenoptera ihdica Blyth, 1859
Sibbaldus musculus Deraniyagala, 1948

BLUE WHALE
Records :

sri lanka [Coasts of Ceylon — Blanford,
1891; sightings — a sixty foot female on 23rd

515

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

January 1946 in Trincomalee Harbour by Capt
Mount Haes; east of Trincomalee on 16th
October 1983, a small animal — White-
head, 1983; 16 animals at Koddiyar Bay,
Trincomalee on 28th February 1983 and an
adult with accompanying calf in May 1983 at
Foul Point near Trincomalee — Leatherwood
et al, 1984; on 7th May 1985 off Dondra (S.P.)
— Gunaratne, 1985; strandings — Ambalan-
goda (S.P.) in September 1894, 65 feet in
length — Haly, 1894 (skeleton in Colombo
Museum); a male on 26th May 1932 in Tam-
blegam Bay and another specimen in Koddiyar
Bay, Trincomalee on 30th June 1932, length
66 feet approx. — Pearson, 1932; Nirodumnai,
35 feet in length in 1932 — S. T. Moses, 1947;
Polhena, near Matara (S.P.) on 6th February
1934 (Plate 1) — Malpas; Dodanduwa (S.P.)
on 10th January 1939 — Deraniyagala, 1965;
Bambalapitiya (W.P.) on 8th April 1949 —
Deraniyagala, 1960; Kokkilai near Pulmoddai
(E.P.) on 14th April 1965, Wellawatte (W.P.)
on 3rd April 1965 and Galle Face, Colombo
(W.P.) in March 1976, carcases of a mother
and calf — P.H.D.H. de Silva; on 9th Febru-
ary 1984, Chilaw (N.W.P.), Fernando, 1981].

India [Jaw bone from off Sordip Bay, Bay
of Bengal of Balaenoptera indica — Blyth,
1859; skeleton in Madras Museum from
Mangalore collected in 1874 — S. T. Moses,
1947; Bay of Bengal and coast of Malabar —
Blanford, 1891; strandings — near Bombay,
Thana District on 11th April 1906, length 63
feet — Millard, 1907; a 61 feet blue whale
stranded at Viziadurg near Ratnagiri in August
1912, a whale over 80 feet near Charai, Cochin
in November 1927, between Suratkal and
Moolki in 1939 and at Mulvel, Okhamandel in
March 1939 — S. T. Mosses, 1947; Jambu-
dwip, Bengal coast in January or February
1934 — S. Jones, 1953; near Magdalla, Port
Surat, Gujarat, a whale 66 feet in length —
J. C. Daniel, 1963; On 7th December 1960

and on 1st December 1980 at Ganeshgram
village, Gujarat and a 11.26 m female at
Tuticorin on 2nd April 1969 — James, 1983;
Muloor village. South Kanara — Nagabhu-
ganam and Dhulked, 1964 and Calicut — Ven-
kataraman and Girija Vallabhan, 1968].

Pakistan [Sightings — shallow waters of
Mekran coast — Roberts, 1977; strandings —
Clifton Beach, 1879 — Murray, 1884 and seve-
ral strandings on the Sind coast — Blanford,
1891; parts of skeleton from Juddi near
Pasni, Mekran coast in 1965 and a
specimen of about 60 feet stranded about
5 miles west of Pasni, and a skeleton in the
Zoological Survey of Pakistan, 70 feet in
length — Siddiqi, 1967 and common on Balu-
chistan coast — Mohd. Farooq Ahmad, 1982].

Arabian gulf [Iraq — Nuri Mahdi and P.
V. Georg, 1969; Kuwait, a dead whale entangl-
ed in a submarine telegraph cable, skeleton
mounted in the Kuwait Natural History
Museum and at Kadguma on the Kuwait coast
in muddy area on 6th June 1963, skeleton in
Shuaikh Secondary School — Al-Robbae,
1974].

26. Balaenoptera phy sains (Linnaeus, 1758)

FIN WHALE
Records :

sri lanka [Strandings — Chilaw (N.W.P.)
in August 1910 — H.S. Fernando, 1912; Bam-
balapitiya, Colombo (W.P.) in February 1934,
Chilaw (N.W.P.) in August 1934, Bambalapi-
tiya (W.P.), one on 1st June 1934 and another
specimen at Ariyalai, Jaffna (N.P.) on 7 June
1949 — Deraniyagala, 1960; Uswetikeiyawa,
Colombo (W.P.) on 11th August 1971, 45
feet in length — P.H.D.H. de Silva, 1983].

India [5 vertebrae in the Medical College,
Calcutta under the name, Balaenoptera blythi
— Anderson, 1879; strandings — at Umargam,
100 miles from Bombay, 68 feet in length on

%

516

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• <L»

T3

Carcase of Balaenoptera musculus, the Blue Whale beached at Polhena, near Matara (S.P.), Sri Lanka, on 6th

February, 1934.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 2

de Silva: Cetaceans

Two photographs of Megaptera novaeang/iae, the humpback whale on Chilaw beach
(N.W.P.), Sri Lanka, on 22nd January 1981.

CETACEANS ( WHALES , DOLPHINS & PORPOISES) RECORDS

14th May 1951 — V. K. Chari, 1951 and
confirmed by J. C. Daniel, 1963; at Dhabool,
97 miles south of Bombay — Prater, 1913 as
B. indica\ off Arnala, west of Virar, 40 km
north of Bombay, about 48 feet and with 68
throat furrows on 6th August 1965 and a speci-
men stranded among rocks at Nepean Seaface,
Bombay, about 50 feet in length — Grubh
and Pereira, 1965].

Pakistan [Sightings — Baluchistan coast
— Ahmad and Ghalib, 1975; strandings observ-
ed — Roberts, 1977 and Mohd. Farooq
Ahmad, 1982; young specimen ensnared by
local fishermen in July 1969 in their nets near
Astola Island, length about 35 feet, and towed
back to Karachi but later released to the sea
by Dr. M. S. Siddiqi — Roberts, 1977].

Arabian gulf [Two incomplete skeletons in
the University Zoological Museum, King Saud
University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, probably of
mother and calf from Dhahran coast, around
1970 — P.H.D.H. de Silva].

27. Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacepede, 1804

Balaenoptera acutorostrata bonaerensis
Deraniyagala, 1960
Balaenoptera acutorostrata thalmaha
Deraniyagala. 1963

MINKE WHALE

Records :

sri lanka [Strandings — Mannar (N.P.)
on 19th May 1937, length 21 feet; Chempian-
pattu, Jaffna on 28th January 1954, male, 26
feet in length; 5 carcases off Jaffna (N.P.) at
Kayts, Analativu, Velani East and Delft west
from 3rd to 12th November 1962 measuring
28 feet, 35 feet, 30 feet, 30 feet and 30 feet
respectively, skeleton and scapula in Jaffna
Museum — Deraniyagala, 1948, 1954 and
1963].

India [Bay of Bengal — Ellerman and Mor-
rison-Scott, 1966].

red sea [Stranding of a specimen, 20 km
south of Jizan, Saudi Arabia in May 1969 —
Leatherwood, 1985].

28. Balaenoptera borealis Lesson, 1828

SEI WHALE

Records :

India [Naduvattum, Kerala, an individual 45
feet in length with 45 throat furrows — P. K.
Jacob and Devdas Menon, 1947 and confirmed
by J. C. Daniel, 1963; at Pullamadan, near
Mandapam Camp, a specimen about 50 feet —
Venkataraman, Dorairaj, Devaraj and Gana-
pathi, 1973].

29. Balaenoptera edeni Anderson, 1878
bryde’s whale

Records'.

sri lanka [Sightings — Known from sight-
ings recorded recently by Leatherwood and
Clarke, 1983, Leatherwood et al. , 1984 and
Gunaratne and Obeysekera, 1985 from north
of Trincomalee, 7 animals, near Koddiyar Bay,
2 animals, off south shore Talaimannar (N.P.)
and east of Adam’s Bridge (N.P.), Trinco-
malee Harbour and off Dondra (S.P.)].

india [Bay of Bengal — Blanford, 1891].

Pakistan [Strandings observed — Mohd.
Farooq Ahmad, 1982].

Arabian gulf [A specimen stranded in 1967
near Iraq port on island in front of Um Qasr,
male, 41 feet and also a possible stranding in
Kuwait — Nuri Mahdi, 1974 and a reference
by P. Neve, 1973, particulars not available to
author].

red sea [Near Tor, on the Sinai Peninsula
in 1893, skeleton in the British Museum (Natu-
ral History) — Nuri Mahdi, 1967 and common
— J. G. and P.R.G. Gasperetti, 1981].

517

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

30. Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski, 1781)

HUMPBACK WHALE
Records :

sri lanka [Sightings — off Colombo (W.P.)
in winter 1846 — Wray and Martin, 1980;
Colombo Harbour, mother and calf on 22nd
February 1949 — Deraniyagala, 1960; Gulf of
Mannar (N.P.) — Wray and Martin, 1980 and
Ailing et al., 1982; stranding of Chilaw (N.W.P.)
of a specimen after being entangled in fisher-
men’ nets on 22nd January 1981, length thirty-
nine and half feet (Plate 2) — P.H.D.H. de
Silva, 1983].

India [Stranding at Anjengo, Travancore on
23rd January 1943, entangled in seine net —
Mathew, 1947].

Pakistan [A specimen entangled in the
telegraph-cable and drowned off the Balu-
chistan coast in July 1873 and a sight record
off the mouth of Indus, probably of this species
— Blanford, 1891; strandings observed —
Mohd. Farooq Ahmad, 1982].

Arabian gulf [Gervais, 1883; skeleton and
calvarium from Bassore Bay in Museum
National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris; a vertebra
and rib probably of a specimen killed by a
Turkish gun boat in the Shatt — Al Arab in
Iraq Museum probably of this species — R.
Hatt, 1959 and referred to by Al-Robbae,
1974].

Discussion

In this paper a total of thirty Cetacean
species are described. Of these, records from
off Sri Lanka total 23 species, 24 species from
off India and 17 species from off Pakistan.
The remaining records include 10 species from
the Gulf of Oman, 9 species from the Arabian
Gulf, 6 species from the Gulf of Aden and
7 species from the Red Sea. These records are
based on sight records, strandings of indivi-
duals and mass stranding and skull and skeletal
material in Museums and institutions. There

are 3 instances of mass strandings namely,
(1) 167 individuals of Pseudorca crassidens
stranded near Kambanturai at Kayts, (2) 97
individuals stranded at Mutur, and (3) dozens
of the Indian Pilot whale, Globicephala
macrorhynchus stranded in the Salt Lakes,
Calcutta. Two instances of multiple strandings
are recorded which involve 5 specimens of
Balaenoptera acutorostrata off the north of
Sri Lanka and 2 individuals of Pseudorca
crassidens off Pozhikara, Cape Comorin, Tamil
Nadu.

In figures 1 and 2 strandings of large
whales where dates are available are shown.
For simplification the twelve months have been
separated in these figures to two half-yearly
periods referred to as Southern Winter and
Southern Summer. Figure 1 gives the monthly
strandings from April to March of the follow-
ing year of all strandings where dates are
available and Figure 2 shows the monthly
strandings in respect of 4 species, B. musculus,
B. physalus, Megaptera novaeangliae and
Physeter macrocephalus. There is no indica-
tion that there is a seasonal peak in the strand-
ings, though a peak is indicated for January.

It is generally considered that Balaenoptera
musculus, B. physalus and M. novaeangliae
show seasonal migratory pattern (Macintosh
1966, Dawbin 1966). Baker (1972) states that
B. borealis and B. edeni spend a shorter sum-
mer in the Antarctic waters and the rest of
the year in the tropics. The records of strand-
ings of both Megaptera novaeangliae and Phy-
seter macrocephalus are insufficient for any
statistical analysis but the available records for
B. musculus and B. physalus appear to indi-
cate the presence of such a seasonal pattern
for the greater number of their strandings have
occurred when they were in the tropics during
southern winter. There are also the instances
of the cow and calf of B. musculus being cast
ashore at Galle Face, Colombo and of a cow

518

CETACEANS ( WHALES , DOLPHINS & PORPOISES) RECORDS

Fig. 1. Histogram showing the monthly strandings (April to following March).

of the same species returning to Trincomalee
Harbour after it had been towed out to sea
to give birth to a calf, all these instances coin-
ciding with the period they normally spend in
the warm tropical and subtropical waters. The
data shown in figure 2 also indicates a lower
peak in stranding at least for B. musculus and
B . physalus from January to March, i.e. dur-
ing the southern summer. This appears to
suggest that a certain percentage of individuals

arriving in the warmer subtropical and tropi-
cal waters continue to linger after the majority
of their members have returned to the polar
and subpolar seas for feeding.

A research team consisting of Dr. Hal
Whitehead, Dr. Roger Page and Dr. Stephen
Slater, members of the Tulip Expedition have
been studying the larger whales, especially the
Blue and Sperm Whales off the east coast
of Sri Lanka under the auspices of the world

519

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5. :

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

B. MUSCULUS

P. MACROCEPHALUS

Shows the monthly strandings (April to following March) in the Region
;ct of Balaenopteras musculus, B. physalus, Megaptera novaeangliae and
r macrocephalus.

CETACEANS ( WHALES , DOLPHINS & PORPOISES ) RECORDS

Wild Life Fund during the past few years.
They have observed these whales off the east
coast, particularly off Trincomalee during most
parts of the year. Recently they have observed
a Sperm Whale, about 20 metres in length,
giving birth to a calf (“Ceylon Daily News”
of 6th December 1983). These scientists now
consider the east coast of Sri Lanka to be a
calving ground for the larger whales during
March to October during the year. Could it
be that individuals which linger without return-
ing to the polar and subpolar regions during
the southern summer account for the indivi-
duals seen by the Tulip Expedition or is there
a small breeding population of both Blue and
Sperm Whales as suggested by the Tulip
Expedition. It will be sometime before we will
be able to know the actual position.

According to Norman and Fraser (1948)
the Humpback Whale is “coast-loving in its
habits, frequenting bays and inlets and it may
be for this reason that so few get into diffi-
culties in shoal water.” The cow and calf seen
by Deraniyagala in the Colombo Harbour
eventually returned to the sea without mishap,
and the death of the specimen off Chilaw was
a result of entanglement in fishermen’s nets
and being dragged ashore by fishing vessels.

The data on Sri Lankan strandings discuss-
ed in this paper, meagre as these are, show
that while equal number of strandings have
occurred of the Blue Whale on both east and
west coasts all the strandings of the Fin Whale
and Sperm Whale have occurred on west and
southern coasts and none on the east coast.
This appears to suggest that while the east
coast appears to be favourable for their life
and movements the southern and west coasts
specially with their fringing reefs provide much
hazards to these two species. The strandings
of Blue Whale, however, cannot be explained
by unfavourable shore line configuration alone.

Several causes have been suggested to ex-

plain stranding in the Cetaceans but no single
explanation provides a satisfactory answer.
Several of the causes suggested are, (1) failure
of its echolocation system (Dudock van Heel
1966), (2) tempted to shallow water by food,
coastal migration or of offshore species staying
too close to shore (Geraci), (3) the presence
of an element of suicide (Geraci), (4) some
form of reproductive urge to move to coastal
water (Deraniyagala 1948), (5) harassed or
chased by a predator, (6) frightened by un-
familiar underwater sounds, (7) following an
ailing leader, (8) disoriented by disease with
loss of equilibrium (many cases of infestation
by trematodes in brain, around spinal cord,
lungs, head sinuses, ear etc.) — Geraci, Ridge-
way and Dailey 1972, Dailey and Walker 1978,
Dailey and Stroud 1978, (9) disturbance in
the social order (Geraci), (10) travelling an
ancient migratory route and (11) reverting to
some primitive social behaviour that led their
shore-living ancestors to retreat to land when
faced with a menacing sea (Keller Breland and
F. G. Wood 1961, Ridgeway and Dailey
1972).

It is therefore necessary to record not only
the species involved and data on strandings
but also look for evidence which could reveal
probable cause of strandings. It will be useful
to record the shore line configuration in each
instance and also to make a careful search for
internal parasites, especially trematodes in the
central nervous system, head sinuses and in
the ears.

The present records of species in the region
also reveal that some species such as Meso -
plodon ginkgodens and Eubalaena australis are
known from single records while several species
have not been recorded after their early records
more than fifty to seventy five years ago.

While accepting that the existence of several
Cetacean species could only be known through
strandings yet it should be the concern of

521

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

National Scientific Institutions in each country
of the region to undertake a Cetacean faunal
Survey off each country’s coasts (and seas)
and maintain up-to-date records of strandings
with dates, of information on internal para-
sites, gut contents and the coastline configu-
ration so that a clearer picture of both compo-
sition of species as well as of probable cause/s
of strandings will become available.

Ack nowledgements

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. P. E.
Purves of the Cetacea Division of the British
Museum (Natural History) for allowing me to
examine the records of skulls etc. of Cetacean
species received from Sri Lanka and skulls of
Tur slops truncatus (= ad uncus) from Sri Lanka
in the collection. I am also grateful to Dr. M. C.
Sheldrick of the Marine Mammals Division of

Refer

Ahmad, Farooq Mohammed (1982): Personal

Communication.

& Ghalib, S. A. (1975):

A Checklist of Mammals of Pakistan. Rec. zool.
Sur. Pak., VII (1&2), pp. 32-33.

Al-Robbae, K. (1974): Tursiops aduncus, Bottle-
nosed dolphin: A new record for the Arab Gulf;
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(1975) : Neophocaena phocaenoi-

des, Asiatic Black Finless Porpoise: A new record
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Balan, V. (1976) : A note on a juvenile Indian
Porpoise Neomeris phocaenoides (Cuvier) caught off
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Baker, Alan N. (1972) : New Zealand Whales
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ton, New Zealand.

Blanford, W. T. (1891) : The Fauna of British
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Chacko, P. I. & Mathew, M. J. (1954): Rorqual
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the British Museum (Natural History), to Dr.
J. C. Moore of the Field Museum of Natural
History, Chicago, to Dr. James Mead of the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, to Dr.
G.J.B. Ross, Port Elizabeth Museum, South
Africa for important publications and photo-
copies, to Dr. Mohammed Farooq Ahmad,
Director, Zoological Survey Department, Gov-
ernment of Pakistan for infromation on Ceta-
cean strandings off Pakistan, to Dr. Stephen
Leatherwood of Hubbs — Sea world Research
Institute (Marine Sciences), California for
several valuable publications including a copy
of his report on the Cetaceans of the Indian
Ocean Cetacean Sanctuary.

I wish also to thank the retired Taxidermist
of the Colombo Museum, Mr. K.L.E. Perera
who provided facilities for me to examine the
Cetacean skulls in the Museum and the records
during the time he was in service.

EN CES

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Parasites And Associated Pathology Observed In
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Daniel. J. C. (1963) : Stranding of a Blue Whale
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Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1945): Some Odontoceti
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(1948) : Some Mystacetids

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(1956): Zoological Col-
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(1960a) : Some Southern

Temperate Zone Fishes, a Bird and Whales that
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(1963): A New Beaked

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Mahdi, Nuri (1967) : First Record of Bryde’s
Whale, Balaenoptera edeni Anderson from Gulf, with
notes on earlier literature. Bull. Iraq nat. Mus., 3
(7) : 1-6, 1 text-figure.

& Georg. P. V. (1969): A Syste-
matic list of the Vertebrates of Iraq. Bulletin No.
26, pp. 72-73. University of Baghdad.

Moses, S. T. (1947) : Stranding of Whales on the
coasts of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Society, 47(2 ) :
377-78.

(1948): Notes on two whales

stranded in Baroda State, Orca at Armada in 1943
and Balaena at Gajana in 1944. Proc. Indian Sci.
Congr., 84th, 3, p. 188.

Neve, P. (1973) : Bryde’s whale beached. Journal
of Saudi Arabian Natural History Society, 7: 14.

Norman, J. R. & Fraser, F. C. Giant fishes,
Whales and Dolphins, pp. i-xxii, 1-376, 2nd edition,
Putnam, London.

Pearson, J. (1921) : A note on Kogia breviceps.
Spol. Zeylan., 11: 303-05.

(1930) : A Note on the False Killer

Whale, Pseudorca crassidens (Owen), Spol. Zeylan.,
16: 199-203.

Pilleri, G. (1972): Zoological-cetologische Expe-
dition nach Westpakistan und Reise nach Indien
Jahre 1971. Verlag Hirnanatomisches Institut Waldau-
Bern, pp. 16-18.

Prematunga, W. P., Alling, A. & Leatherwood,
J. S. (in press) : Species composition of small ceta-
cean bycatches in gillnets off Trincomalee, Sri Lanka,
January 1984 through April 1985. Rept. Int. Whal.
Comm.

Roberts, T. J. (1977) : The Mammals of Pakistan.
Ernest Benn. Ltd., London, pp. 306-335.

523

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

APPENDIX

Key to the identification of cetacean species

FROM THE REGION

1. Whalebone or baleen present 2

Only calcified teeth present 8

2. With very long baleen plates. No throat fur-
rows Eubalaena australis

Shorter baleen plates and with throat furrows . .
3

3. Extremely long, often white pectoral fins, with

knobs. Chins and jaws with tubercles

Megaptera novaeangliae

Much shorter pectoral fins, smooth. Chins and

jaws without tubercles 4

4. Body length exceeding 60 feet 5

Body length shorter 6

5. Both baleen plates and bristles black. Body

mottled bluish gray and dark underneath

Balaenoptera musculus

Baleen plates on right side white, on anterior
third. Remaining plates are bluish grey or
blackish. Bristles white or yellow. Back of body

dark. White underneath Balaenoptera

physalus

6. Body length up to 30 feet. Baleen and bristles

are uniformly yellowish white anteriorly, becom-
ing gray to brown-black posteriorly

Balaenoptera acutorostrata

Body length between 30 and 60 feet. Baleen
plates black or white anteriorly and black
posteriorly 7

7. Throat furrows extend between pectoral fins and
navel. Baleen bristles silky and curling. Tail
flukes gray on both sides. Head without ridges

anterior to blowhole Balaenoptera borealis

Throat furrows extend to the navel. Baleen
bristles coarse, stiff and thick. Tail flukes gray
above and white below. Three prominent ridges
on head anterior to blowhole

Balaenoptera edeni

8. Very long and narrow rostrum which is forceps-
like 9

Rostrum of variable length but never like
above 10

9. Nasals with prominent crests. Teeth 30-36 in

each tooth row Platanista minor

Nasals with less prominent crests. Teeth 28-29
in each tooth row Platanista gangeticus

10. Skull with high occipital crest. Functional teeth

on lower jaw only 11

Skull without high occipital crest. Teeth in both
upper and lower Jaws 14

11. Spermaceti organ present. Lower jaw with 8-30

teeth on each side 12

Without spermaceti organ. Never more than 4
teeth on each side on lower jaw 13

12. Body length 30-65 feet. Head huge, box-like.
With a dorsal hump two-thirds way back on

body and behind it several low humps

Physeter macrocephalus

Body length 74 to 13 feet. Without box-like head.
Dorsal fin erect and falcate, farther forward.
No humps behind Kogia simus

13. With 2 conical teeth at tip of lower jaw

Ziphius cavirostris

With 2 laterally compressed, pointed teeth locat-
ed near the middle of lower jaw

Mesoplodon ginkgodens

14. No dorsal fin. Teeth spade-like, laterally com-
pressed Neophocaena phocaenoides

With dorsal fin. Teeth generally conical 15

15. Mandibular symphysis greater than 30% of the
length of ramus. Atlas and axis vertebrae are

united, remainder free 16

Mandibular symphysis less than 20% of length
of ramus. Anterior 2 to 6 cervical vertebrae are
united 17

16. Beak not separated from forehead by crease.
Tooth surface roughened and furrowed. Body

with yellowish white blotches

Steno bredanensis

Beak separated from forehead by crease. Nearly
smooth tooth surface. Body with dark elongated

spots on the sides Sousa chinensis

17. Beak well defined sharply, set off from the fore-
head by crease 18

Beak very short or absent 24

18. 19-26 large teeth on each side of upper and

lower jaws Tursiops truncatus

30 or more small conical teeth on each side of
both jaws 19

19. Palatal border of maxillae grooved. Teeth 40-65

in each tooth row on both upper and lower

jaws 20

Palatal border of maxillae ungrooved. Teeth
34-60 in each tooth row on both upper and
lower jaws 22

20. Rostrum greatly elongate with 55-65 teeth in

each side of both upper and lower jaws

Delphinus tropicalis

Rostrum shorter with less than 58 teeth in each
side of both jaws 21

21. 54-58 teeth in each side of both jaws. With

grey and yellow longitudinal bandsi on the

524

CETACEANS ( WHALES , DOLPHINS & PORPOISES ) RECORDS

flanks Delphinus capensis

40-55 teeth in each side of both jaws. Without
grey and yellow longitudinal bands on the
flanks Delphinus del phis

22. Body usually spotted Stenella attenuata

Body unspotted 23

23. Beak shorter with 45-50 teeth in each tooth
row. With black lateral stripes from eye to

flipper and from eye to anus

Stenella coeruleoalba

Beak longer with 45 to 65 teeth in each tooth

row. Without black lateral stripes

Stenella longirostris

24. With bulbous forehead 25

Forehead not bulbous 27

25. Teeth only on lower jaw Grampus griseus

Teeth on both upper and lower jaws 26

26. Dorsal fin low with long base located in front
half of back. 7-9 peg-like teeth in each tooth
row. Body colour slaty-grey to black. Flippers

tapering Globicephala macrorhyncha

Dorsal fin low, placed slightly behind middle
of back. Teeth 12-19, in each tooth row, not
peg-like. Flippers spatulate. Body colour uniform
slaty-blue Orcaella brevirostris

27. Striking black and white colour pattern on body.

Dorsal fin tall Orcinus orca

Body colour uniform black or dark grey to
black, light grey underneath. Chin and lips often
white 28

28. Body uniformly black. Flippers with distinct

hump on leading edge of fin

Pseudorca crassidens

Body black or dark grey, light grey underneath.
Chins and lips often white. Flippers without
hump 29

29. 21-25 teeth in each side of upper and lower

jaws Peponocephala elect ra

8-13 teeth in each side of upper and lower
jaws Feresa attenuata

ABBREVIATIONS USED

E.P. — Eastern Province of Sri Lanka
N.P. — Northern Province of Sri Lanka
N.W.P. — North Western Province of Sri Lanka
S.P. — Southern Province of Sri Lanka
W.P. — Western Province of Sri Lanka.

525

FISHES OF MUNDANTHURAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

TAMIL NADU1

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH2 AND D. VlICKRAM3

{ With eight plates and a text-figure)

Thirty three species of fishes belonging to 22 genera and nine families were col-
lected and identified from Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. Local

names and note on their distribution in the
problems are identified and five suggestions
resources in the sanctuary are given.

Introduction

One of the major objectives of the various
Western Ghat development programmes should
be to improve the fishing potential of local
rivers and reservoirs (Gadgil 1984). Fishing
potential in many parts of Western Ghats can
be enhanced for sport fishing and local con-
sumption as it is done with remarkable success
by the Kerala Forest Department in Parambi-
kulam Wildlife Sanctuary. In Tamil Nadu such
a potential exists to a greater degree in Mun-
danthurai Wildlife Sanctuary and to a lesser
extent in Mudumalai, Anamalai and in the Nil-
giri tahr Sanctuary in Nilgiris. This photo-article
on fishes collected from Mundanthurai is pre-
sented with the hope that this paper would help
the Forest Department and the public at large
in understanding and improving the potential
of fishing resources of this enchanting sanctuary
of rivers and reservoirs.

Study Area

The Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary (572
km2, 8°30' to 8°53'N latitude and 77° 10' to
77°29'E longitude) is situated in Ambasamu-
dram taluk in Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu.

1 Accepted December 1985.

2 Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagatsingh Road, Bombay-400 023.

2&3 Present address : Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehra Dun 246 006, India.

sanctuary are given. Major conservation
for improving the potential of fishing

This sanctuary can aptly be called the ‘River
sanctuary’ of Tamil Nadu as many perennial
streams and rivers such as Kil Manimuthar,
Kandamparai, Tambiraparani, Pambar, Serva-
lar, Kadananadhi and Ramanadhi flow through
this Reserve. The perennial nature of these
rivers is largely due to the presence of ex-
cellent rain forests in the catchment areas
which experience both the South West and
North East monsoons.

This sanctuary has three reservoirs, viz.,
Manimuthar, Upper Papanasam or Hope Lake
and Lower Papanasam. Construction of one
more reservoir, Servalar, started in 1974 is
nearing completion now. The Manimuthar
reservoir was built solely for irrigation and the
other three for power generation.

The Fisheries Department was once regular-
ly stocking the Upper and Lower Papanasam
reservoirs with exotic carps. They have stopp-
ed this activity since 1980 when the Forest
Department introduced 20, one meter long
crocodiles in the Upper Papanasam reservoir.
The Fisheries Department, however, continues
to stock fish in Manimuthar reservoir. Four
to ten fishermen licensed by the Fisheries
Department periodically fish in the Upper and
Lower Papanasam reservoirs and in Tambira-
parani and Servalar rivers using gill nets.

The rivers originate in different parts of the
Sanctuary (Fig. 1). The Kil Manimuthar and

526

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate i

Johnsingh & Viickram: Fishes

. Glossogobius giuris ; 2. Mastacembelus arinatus; 3. Channa striatus; 4. Channa gachua.

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84 PLATE II

Johnsingh & Viickram: Fishes

. Etroplus maculatus ; 6. Etroplus suratensis; 7. Tilapia mossambica’, 8. Macrones vittatus.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate III

Johnsingh & Viickram: Fishes

9. Callichrous bimaculatus; 10. Saccobranchus fossil is ; 11. Be/one cancila; 12. Haplochilus rubrostigma;

13. Haplochilus Uneatus.

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.
Johnsingh & Viickram: Fishes

14. Homaloptera brucei; 15. Disco gn a thus ni odes 1 1 is ; 16. Cvprinus carpio conimunis; 17. Labeo fimbriatus.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84
Johnsingh & Viickram: Fishes

8. Labeo calbasu ; 19. Cirrhina mrigala ; 21. Barbus savana; 22. Barbus dubius.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate VI

Johnsingh & Viickram: Fishes

23. Barbus carnal icus; 24. Barbus malabaricus ; 25. Barbus amphibius ; 26. Barbus arulius.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84
Johnsingh & Viickram: Fishes

27. Barbus mahecola; 29. Rasbora daniconius\ 30. Danio aequipinnatus\ 31. Chela untrahi.

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84
Johnsingh & Viickram: Fishes

Plate VIII

32. Nemacheilus pule hell us ; 33. Anguilla bengalensis.

FISHES OF MUNDANTHURAI

Kandamparai rivers, infact, arise in the adja-
cent Kalakadu Wildlife Sanctuary and empty
into Manimuthar reservoir. The Tambiraparani
river springs from Agastyar malai (malai =
mountain, 6132') flows through Injikuzhi

valley, forms many rapids and falls before
ending in Upper Papanasam reservoir. The last
falls of this river, Bhanatheertham, is magnifi-
cent. The Servalar river drains the deep,
densely wooded Valayar valley and joins the

1. NETERI DAM

2. KIL MANIMUTHAR River

kandamparai river

MANIMUTHAR DAM
PAPANASAM UPPER DAM
TAMBIRAPARANI RIVER
PAMBAR
8- PAPANASAM LOWER DAM
SERVALAR RIVER
SERVALAR DAM

MUNDANTHURAI

RANfTI IADV

10

KERALA

kannyakumarK.

DISTRICT ^

KALAKADU SANCTUAR

1cm.; 2-5 km

Fig. 1. Rivers and reservoirs mentioned in the text.

527

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

river Tambiraparani one kilometer from the
Lower Papanasam reservoir. Our collections
were done in these rivers and reservoirs.

Methods

Fishes were collected in three ways. Some
were caught with hooks baited with worms,
grass hoppers and small fishes. In some in-
stances a long towel was used to dredge the
fish out of water. The rest were obtained from
the local fisherman. Fishes were photographed,
preserved in five percent formalin and iden-
tified with the assistance of experts.

Results

Thirty three species of fishes representing
22 genera and nine families were collected and
identified. As morphological particulars of
these species are already available (Chandy
1970, Day 1981, Munro 1982 and Jayaram
1981) we present only brief notes on their
status and distribution in the study area
(Table 1).

Conservation problems and suggestions

FOR IMPROVEMENT

Kanis (local tribals) above 60 years of age
speak of abundant fish in all the rivers espe-
cially in Kandamparai, Pambar, Tambiraparani
and Servalar below Kooduparai. According
to them this abundance once even supported
‘Cheenganm ( Crocodilus palustrisl ) in Tam-
biraparani and Servalar rivers. Thomas (1984)
even speaks of mahseer which was caught in
Tambiraparani river hundred years ago. Appa-
rently fishes in these rivers started to disappear
with the arrival of large number of workers
for the construction of the Upper and Lower
Papanasam dams who had an easy access to
dynamite. The prolonged construction period
of the Servalar dam has worsened this situa-
tion. The worst affected rivers are Pambar,
Tambiraparani and Servalar.

Two potent fish poison plants occur in
Mundanthurai hills. Milletia racemosa is a
native climber commonly seen along river
banks in moist and evergreen areas. The other
is Tephrosia Candida, an exotic, cultivated for
green manure, wind brakes, shade and for
nursing and mulching in the tea plantations
around Manjolai estate which is situated with-
in the sanctuary limits. Estate workers and
Electricity Department staff who go to record
rainfall data from Injikuzhi frequently use
these piscicide plants to indiscriminately kill fish
populations in Tambiraparani river above
Bhanatheertham falls and in Kadamparai river.
Ultimate sufferers of this nefarious activity are
the Kanis who depend on the fishes of these
rivers for their badly needed protein.

As mentioned earlier four to ten persons
periodically use gill nets with five centimetre
meshes which are much smaller than the pres-
cribed size of ten centimetres. This coupled
with the use of dynamite and pisicides have
decimated much of the fish populations in the
rivers and reservoirs.

Fortunately the situation is not beyond re-
covery as we still have the rivers and reservoirs
with enough fish which can bloom into a
healthy population within five years if there is
strict protection and little restocking. We
earnestly hope that the following suggestions
would be implemented by the Tamil Nadu
Forest Department immediately so as to im-
prove the status of the fishes in the sanctuary.

1. All types of fishing activities, excluding
fishing with hooks, which are largely done by
the locals, should be stopped at least for the
next five years in rivers and reservoirs except
Manimuthar reservoir.

2. Right to fish in the rivers and reservoirs
other than Manimuthar reservoir should be
under the direct control of the Forest Depart-
ment who should control dynamiting and mis-

528

FISHES COLLECTED FROM MUNDANTHURAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

FISHES OF MUNDANTHURAI

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down all along
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532

FISHES OF MUNDANTHURAI

use of gill nets. If necessary two or three
present licence holders using gill nets can be
appointed as fish guards.

3. Servalar reservoir and Neteri dam in
Kalakadu should be stocked with Barbus car -
naticus and B. malabaricus . Barbus carnaticus
as it takes spoons and flies will eventually
attract anglers to this sanctuary. Both these
fishes are native to this area, easily grow to
five Kilograms and therefore need special
attention. If Neteri dam is stocked eventually
the fishes can populate Kil Manimuthar river
which at present has no larger fishes but has
many excellent long and deep pools.

4. Mahseer could be introduced in Neteri
dam and should be reintroduced in Tambira-
parani in Injikuzhi valley and in Servalar
reservoir.

5. Periodically the rivers and reservoirs
should be restocked with the young of the eel
{Anguilla bengalensis) . Eel is much relished
by the local people and frequently caught.

Refe;

Chandy, M. J. C. (1970) : India — the land and
people, fishes. National Book Trust, New Delhi.

Day, F. (1981) : The fishes of India, Vol. I. Today
and tomorrow’s book agency, New Delhi. (Reprint).

Gadgil, M. (1984) : An approach to ecodevelop-
ment of Western Ghats, Discussion paper for the
workshop on ecodevelopment of Western Ghats,

Acknowledgements

We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Depart-
ment for having permitted us to work in
Mundanthurai. One of us (AJTJ) was able to
take part in this study when he was surveying
elephant habitat in Mundanthurai and Kala-
kadu Wildlife Sanctuaries supported by the
Endangered Species Project of the Bombay
Natural History Society which was financed by
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S. Dept,
of the Interior Grant No. 14-16-0009-84-959)
and sponsored by Dept, of Environment, Govt,
of India. Their assistance is gratefully acknow-
ledged.

The following helped us in the identification
of fishes: Mr. V. P. Ajit who has been study-
ing mahseer in Parambikulam, Drs. C. K. G.
Nair and O. T. Peter of Christ College,
Irinjalakuda, Kerala and Mr. M. Ramakrishnan
and Mr. M. Dharmalingam of Tamil Nadu
Fisheries Department, Manimuthar, Ajai Desai,
Ravi Chellam, Justus Joshua, Wesley Sunder-
raj and Sankaran helped us in many ways.
We thank all of them.

EN CES

Trivandrum May 11-13, 1984. Department of Envi-
ronment, Government of India.

Jayaram, K. C. (1981) : The Freshwater Fishes
of India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Munro, I. S. R. (1982) : The marine and fresh
water fishes of Ceylon. Periodical experts book
agency, Delhi.

Thomas, H. S. (1984) : The Rod in India. Natraj
Publishers, Dehra Dun.

3

533

MONKEYS OF JAIPUR, RAJASTHAN, INDIA:
(MAC AC A MULATTA, PRESBYT1S ENTELLUS Y
Linda D. Wolfe1 2 and Reena Mathur3
(With three text -figures)

This brief report presents information on the continuing presence of rhesus
(Macaca mulatto) and langur ( Presbytis entellus) monkeys in the city of Jaipur,

India, and documents the occurrence of the
rhesus female.

Introduction

The purpose of this research was to census
the rhesus and langur monkeys of Jaipur,
India, in order to contribute to attempts to
estimate the number of monkeys remaining
in India. Jaipur was chosen because prelimi-
nary observations by one of the authors (RM)
indicated that there were a large number of
rhesus and langur monkeys in and around the
city which have not previously been censused.
In general, Macaca mulatta is found in the
old part of Jaipur and Presbytis entellus is
located on the outskirts of Jaipur. It should
also be noted, however, that Jaipur is an ex-
cellent locale to study the interaction between
the two cercopithecoid species as they co-exist
in two places: at Galta (a hillock outside
Jaipur) and within Jaipur near Govindevji
Temple.

Materials and Methods

Jaipur is located 258 km south of Delhi
(26°50'N, 75°55'E) and has a semi-arid
climate. Jaipur can be divided into 2 sections:
A. the old walled city and B. a modern suburb
which surrounds the walled city (see figure

1 Accepted June 1985.

2 Department of Anthropology, University of
Florida, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A. 32611.

3 Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan,
Jaipur, Rajasthan, 302 004, India.

lobster claw deformity in a 2 year old

1). The walled city can be further divided
into 2 parts: 1. a congested business district
and 2. a more open tourist area which in-
cludes a temple dedicated to Krishna.

Macaca mulatta

The monkeys of Jaipur are most visible in
the early morning and late afternoon hours.
Each morning and afternoon of the census,
the areas that rhesus monkeys were known
to frequent were walked. When monkeys were
encountered they were observed, counted and
the data recorded. Attempts were made to
individually identify as many of the monkeys
in each troop as possible so that the number
of troops could be estimated. Whenever
langurs were observed during the censusing of
the rhesus, the presence of langurs was also
noted. The census was carried out between
September 16 and December 14, 1984, for a
total of 70 contact hours. The existence of
rhesus monkeys located in other areas around
Jaipur such as Gator, Sisodia Ranika Mahal
or Amber Fort (see Figure 2) was not in-
vestigated.

Presbytis entellus

Information on the langur population of
Jaipur and the surrounding areas was obtain-
ed (by RM) by 1. making enquires of local
inhabitants, 2. travelling the roads by scooter
looking for langurs and 3. remaining in one
place for observations. The open scrub and
moderate tree vegetation around Jaipur pro-

534

MONKEYS OF JAIPUR

Fig. 1. City of Jaipur.

A. Walled part of Jaipur. B. City Palace area.

vides excellent opportunities for observations.
These observations on the langurs have been
carried out over the last 2 years.

Results and Discussion
Macaca mulatta

The rhesus monkeys inhabit the old part of
Jaipur within a rectangular area of approxi-
mately 3 km by 2 km. There are also rhesus
monkeys at Galta, a hillock with temples and
a spring which is located 1 Km from Jaipur’s
Surajpole Gate (8 km by road, see Figure 2).

The monkeys that inhabit the city of Jaipur
can be divided into 2 groups — 1. those that
live in the tourist area (hereafter called the
City Palace area) which contains the City
Palace, Jantar Mantar (Observatory) and
Govindevji Temple and 2. those that live in
the city itself outside of the City Palace area.
In general, the monkeys which inhabit the
City Palace area seem to have easier access

Fig. 2. The old part of Jaipur.

535

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

to food than the monkeys outside of the City
Palace. Within the City Palace area there are
fig trees ( Ficus bengalensis) and imli trees
(Tamarindus indica) and three grassy areas
where the monkeys forage for grass and in-
sects. These areas are located 1. adjacent to
the temple, 2. within the fence which encloses
the Jantar Mantar and 3. near a City Palace
gate known as the Atish Bazaar. Moreover,
the monkeys in the City Palace area are fed
frequently — especially on Tuesdays and Satur-
days, the special days associated with the
monkey god Hanuman — by visitors to the
City Palace area in about the same places as
are located the grassy areas. Our observations
suggest that obtaining sufficient amounts of
water may represent more of a challenge than
finding sufficient food. Substantial rainfall
occurs only during the months of July, August
and September. Even during those months, the
average monthly accumulation is under 200
mm. The monkeys of the City Palace area
obtain water from artificial cement pools
which are located in the grassy areas and on
the roof tops of the public buildings that are
located within the City Palace area. The water
on roof tops is also stored there for various
purposes.

The monkeys which live outside the City
Palace area do not have a grassy area in which
to forage and they are less frequently pro-
vided food by people. The monkeys of the
city seem to subsist on day old chapatis (thin
Indian bread made from whole wheat flour)
given them by the inhabitants of the city and
on the food they steal from food vendors who
sell their fruits and vegetables on the side-
walks. The monkeys of the City Palace area
did, in fact, appear to be in better health than
the monkeys outside of the City Palace. The
monkeys of the city also face the hazard of be-
ing electrocuted from electrical wires located on
roof tops. Two incidents of rhesus monkeys

dying from electrocution were reported to me
by local residents during the time period of
the census.

The rhesus seem to have relatively small
core areas where they spend most of their
time. The location and size of troops are out-
lined in Table 1. Monkeys of all ages were
observed.

One limb deformity (see Figure 3) was
noted in the rhesus troop identified as Atish
Bazar 1 (Table 1). According to the limb
deformity identification scheme of Homma
(1980), the deformity in this Jaipur rhesus
seemed to be a 2-digit cleft deformity with
digits II, III and IV missing. The deformity

Fig. 3. Lobster Claw deformity in a juvenile Rhesus
Macaque of Atish.

536

MONKEYS OF JAIPUR

Table 1

Location and size of the rhesus troops of
Jaipur and Galta

City Palace Area

Number of Monkeys

Govindevji Temple area

70

Jantar Mantar

55

Atish Bazaar 1

40

Atish Bazaar 2

25

Groups Located Outside of the City Palace

Chaura Rasta

20

LMB Hotel area

40

Ramganj Bazaar

25

Johari Bazaar?

25

Galta

150

Total Population of Jaipur
and Galta

450

Amber Fort Area (10 Km from Jaipur)

Amber (Seth, Seth and Shukla 1983) 25 Monkeys

was present on all 4 limbs. No limb defor-
mities were noted in any other troops. The
monkeys of the Atish Bazaar drink the water
which flows into the streets from small iron
and paint manufacturing shops which exist
around the bazaar. We speculate, therefore,
that the limb deformity is the result of tera-
togenic agents in the drinking water of the
monkeys.

Presbytis entellus

Approximately 30 groups of langurs in and
around Jaipur have been identified through
verbal enquires and road surveys. However,
ten groups have been observed more inten-
sively and the results of those observations are
presented in Table 2. There are 388 indivi-
duals found in the 10 groups with a group
size average of 38.8. Three types of Langur

Table 2

Location and size of

THE LANGUR

groups of Jaipur and Galta

City Palace Area

Number of Monkeys

Jantar Mantar

28

Unimale Group

Govindevji Temple area

37

Resident Unimale Group

Govindevji Temple area

49

Transient Multimale Group

Jaipur Suburb Groups

Bani Park A

30

Unimale Group

Bani Park B

13

All Male Group

C-Scheme

27

Unimale Group

Galta

Galta A

50

Unimale Group

Galta B

54

Unimale Group

Galta C

60

Multimale Group

Amber Fort Area (10 Km from Jaipur)

Amber

40

Unimale Group

Total

388

537

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

groups have been observed: 1. unimale group,
2. multimale groups and 3. all male groups.
Both unimale and multimale groups were
observed within the City Palace area near the
Govindevji Temple and Jantar Mantar. While
occasional solitary langurs were observed with-
in the city of Jaipur, there are no groups which
seemed to live in the old walled city in the
manner of the rhesus. Rather, the langurs main-
ly inhabit the suburbs.

Mating Season

The mating season of the rhesus monkeys
begins in mid-October. Prakash (1962) report-
ed that the rhesus of Jaipur had 2 birth
seasons — one in March, April and May and
another in September and October. During
our observations, there were no infants born
in September or October. All infants appear-
ed to be about 6 months old during our census.

The langurs, on the other hand, seem to
lack a distinct breeding and birth season.
Neonates were observed in each month of the
census. Older Infants and juveniles appeared
to have been of ages which would suggest
that births occur throughout the year.

Galta

The situation at Galta was different than
the one in Jaipur in that the monkeys of Galta
inhabit an area which except for the entrance
from Jaipur lacks a residential area. The area
is a subarid zone with a natural spring at the
top of the hillock and a creek which flows
down the hill on the opposite side from Jaipur.
While people bring food to feed the monkeys
of Galta, they appear to do so less than what
we had observed in the City Palace area. How-
ever, people were observed buying gram seed
and peanuts from local vendors to feed the
monkeys. The priests associated with the
temples at Galta also fed the monkeys small
amounts of plant food. Much of the food of

the monkeys was natural food for which the
monkeys foraged. Monkeys were observed
foraging on the grasses and in the trees which
grow near the creek and shifting through the
sand and apparently finding something to eat
perhaps insects in the sand. The trees of Galta
are sparse and typically dry deciduous. Un-
fortunately, it was not possible to ascertain
where the monkeys slept.

There were 5 groups of rhesus at Galta,
1. on the hill just outside Jaipur near Suraj-
pole Gate, 2. on the top of the hill where the
temples are located, 3. at the bottom of the
hill where the food vendors are located, 4. at
the entrance to the temple area from the
road and 5. just outside the roadside entrance.
The largest group was the one located on the
hillside near Surajpole Gate. The relationship
between the 5 groups is unknown. Prakash
(1962) also reported the existence of 5 groups
of rhesus at Galta.

Langurs (Table 2) were observed living
near the Surajpole Gate entrance to the Galta
hillock. This group overlaps with the rhesus
monkeys. About 1 km. from Galta is a valley
known as monkey valley in which is located
a Hanuman Temple. There is a large multi-
male group of approximately 60 langurs living
around this temple. The priest of the temple
feed the monkeys daily. The area is very dry
and no rhesus were observed in this area.

Future

The future of the monkeys of Jaipur is
unclear. Other than the monkeys that live in
City Palace area, they are generally consider-
ed a nuisance. The monkeys are chased off
using sticks or by making sudden noises.
Occasionally monkeys have been poisoned. In
the suburbs, trees have been eliminated in order
to build more houses. The chasing of the mon-
keys and removal of trees has already had an

538

MONKEYS OF JAIPUR

impact on at least the langur population as
now the groups of Galta are larger than the
groups of the City Palace area and the resi-
dential districts. Conversations with local in-
habitants indicate that the monkeys are con-
sidered to be more of a nuisance than they
were in the past. Because there are no past
census data on the monkeys, it is not known if
the monkey population has increased or if the

Refer

Homma, Toshihiko (1980): Sequential Pattern
of Limb Anomalies in Japanese Monkeys on Awaji-
shima Island. Primates, 27(1): 20-30.

Prakash, Ishwar (1962) : Group Organization,
Sexual Behaviour and Breeding Season of Certain
Indian Monkeys. Japanese Journal of Ecology, 12
(3): 83-86.

Seth, P. K., Seth, S. & Shukla. A. K. (1983) :
Sociobiology of free ranging rhesus monkeys. In:
Perspectives in Primate Biology, ed. by P. K. Seth,
pp. 37-44.

increase in the human population has placed
more pressure on the monkeys. We support
those suggestions by Southwick and Siddiqui
(1983, 1984), that in order to prevent the futher
indiscrimate killing and human harassment of
the monkeys they should be moved to areas
away from human pressure and rehabilitated
in more suitable places.

ENCES

Southwick, C. H. & Siddiqui, M. F. (1983):
Status and conservation of rhesus monkeys in India.
In: Perspectives in Primate Biology, ed. by Seth,
P. K., pp 227-237. Today Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi.

■ ■ . (1984):

A proposal for conservation of rhesus monkeys in
agricultural habitats in northern India. In: Current
Primate Researches, eds. Roonwal, M. L., Mohnot, S.
M. and Rathore, N. S., pp 553-561. Department of
Zoology, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, India.

539

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS,
ANDHRA PRADESH1

S. Dillon Ripley,2 Bruce M. Beehler2 and K. S. R. Krishna Raju3
( With three plates & three text-figures)

We report the results of four field expeditions to the Visakhapatnam Ghats of
Andhra Pradesh conducted between 1975 and 1985. These field surveys recorded 160
species of birds, including 22 species new to this montane area, 11 of which are
first records for the Eastern Ghats. Important distributional records include the
first peninsular records of Malacocincla ( Trichastoma ) ahbotti and Anthreptes singhal-
ensis ; the first well-documented record of Dinopium shorii for the Peninsula; and
first Eastern Ghats records of Aviceda jerdoni, Dryocopus javensis, and Hemicircus
canente. Our findings support the contention that peninsular relicts are remnant humid
forest forms and that the montane distribution of most of these species depends on
the present availability of moist forest rather than a primary adaptation to upland
habitats. Our recent surveys of sites first examined by the Vemay Expedition in
1930 show a significant reduction in forest habitat and a concomitant increase in

developed and settled lands. It is suggested
threat to remaining populations of relictual

Introduction

The modern configuration of the Indian
Peninsula is defined by the western and eastern
coastal ranges that face the Arabian Sea and
Bay of Bengal, respectively, and which con-
verge in southernmost India. The Western
Ghats are higher, wetter and biotically richer
than the Eastern Ghats, and for these reasons
the Eastern Ghats have received relatively little
attention by biologists. Regardless of past lack
of attention, the Eastern Ghats figure promi-
nently in the biogeography of the Indian
Peninsula, and their study is necessary if we
are to understand fully the distributional eco-

1 Accepted November 1986.

2 NHB Room 336, Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington, DC. 20560, U.S.A.

3 Andhra Pradesh Natural History Society, King-
fisher House, Opp. A. U. Post Office, Visakhapatnam
530 003.

that forest fragmentation poses a serious
moist forest birds.

logy of birdlife of the Subcontinent. These
coastal mountains are important because of
their influence on peninsular climate and bio-
tic distributions, and, more recently, because
they support the last tracts of remnant humid
forest in the Peninsula and thus serve
as an environmental refuge for the ever-more
dissected populations of peninsular forest
vertebrates.

In this paper we focus on studies of a seg-
ment of the Eastern Ghats — known either
as the Visakhapatnam Ghats or the Northern
Circars. We report on the results of four visits
to this section of the ghats, conducted between
1975 and 1985. In addition, we discuss our
observations in light of past studies of the
region, to test the working hypothesis that
significant man-related changes in the physical
and biotic environment are affecting the dis-
tribution of the birdlife of the ghats.

540

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

Past Studies in the Visakhapatnam Ghats

The most important single effort to survey
the avifauna of the Eastern Ghats was conduct-
ed by the Vernay Expedition of the Bombay
Natural History Society, with V. S. LaPersonne
as chief field ornithologist. The team worked
in the Eastern Ghats from April 1929 to June
1930, and sequentially surveyed from south
(Salem District, presently Tamil Nadu) to
north (various sites as far north as Balasore,
Orissa).

The Visakhapatnam Ghats, the largest ex-
panse of high mountains in Andhra Pradesh,
were surveyed by LaPersonne between 4 Febru-
ary and 15 May 1930. That party worked at
Anantagiri (900 m) from 4-28 February, at
Sankrametta (1050 m) from 1 March-19 April,
and at Jeypore (900 m) from 20 April to 15
May, 1930. That research produced a number
of interesting discoveries including several sub-
species new to science ( Sitta castanea prateri,
Muscicapa poliogenys vernayi, and Rhipidura
albicollis vernayi) .

Subsequent to that initial study, the region
was visited by Abdulali (1945) in May 1944.
In this trip, he briefly observed at Anantagiri,
Sankrametta, and Lammasinghi (950 m), for
a total of six days in the hills. Abdulali (1953)
added additional records from the hills near
Jeypore and Koraput (Orissa), based on re-
cords submitted by G. Gowland and N. A.
Leslie. These two contributions by Abdulali
added considerably to the avian records for
the region, especially in documentation of the
presence of open-country, or “plains” avifauna.

In the 1970s K. S. R. Krishna Raju esta-
blished a bird-banding camp at Lammasinghi.
and studied the birdlife in several parts of the
Chintapalli plateau (Figure 1). Of greatest in-
terest was his discovery of the first peninsular
populations of the Tree Sparrow ( Passer mon-
tanus ; Krishna Raju & Price 1973), and the

first record in the Eastern Ghats of the Little
Spiderhunter ( Arachnothera longirostris)
(Krishna Raju & Selvin 1971).

Trevor Price (1979) spent a year (August
1976- August 1977) studying birds at the
village of Lammasinghi. He netted and banded
birds extensively, in order to study the effect
of migrants on resident populations of forest
birds. His study contributed a significant body
of knowledge of the birds of the Eastern Ghats,
and he made a number of “first records” for
the region.

Field Program

The present paper summarizes the results
of four field collecting expeditions to the
Visakhapatnam Ghats. A party headed by
Krishna Raju and other members of the Bom-
bay Natural History Society visited Lamma-
singhi, Valaspara, and Sapparla in early 1975.
The Ripleys, accompanied by Dr. Salim Ali
and Krishna Raju, visited the ghats briefly in
March 1981 [Lammasinghi, Milerulu (940m),
Raghavendra Nagar (1000 m), and Lankapa-
kalu (875 m)], making a small collection. Imme-
diately following this, three members of the
accompanying BNHS staff visited Bhadra-
chalam, on the southwestern edge of the Vizag
Ghats, verging on the plains of the Godavari
river, for the purpose of making a reconnais-
sance to search for Jerdon’s Courser ( Curso -
rius hitorquatus) . This elusive species, not
recorded by ornithologists since 1900, had been
recorded from sites in the vicinity of the Vizag
Ghats, Bhadrachalam being a locality where
the bird had been collected. The party failed
to find the courser there, but did make a small
but interesting collection of birds, which is
included here.

In 1983 Bruce Beehler and Shahid Ali,
joined briefly by K. S. R. Krishna Raju and
Dr. Salim Ali, worked in Wangasara (800 m),
Lammasinghi, Pedevalasa (1000 m), and

541

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 1. Map of the Visakhapatnam Ghats, showing our research sites (solid circles)
and sites visited by previous researchers (open circles). Some, but not all roads
between sites are indicated, schematically. The uplifted region is indicated by the
angled hatching, and the Bay of Bengal is indicated by the horizontal hatching in
the lower left. Inset shows approximate region depicted by map.

Lankapakalu from 22 September to 26 October
(see Figure 1).

Finally, between 19 February and 24 March
1984, the Ripleys and Beehler, accompanied
by S. S. Saha, and C. K. Misra of the Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, and P. B. Shekar of the
Bombay Natural History Society, worked in
the ghats at Jyothimamidi (450 m), Wanga-
sara, Lankapakalu, and Anantagiri. This last

field trip obtained more than 200 specimens
of about 100 species, most of which were pre-
served as study skins, some as skeletons, and
some as spirit specimens.

Methods

The goals of the fieldwork were twofold.
A primary aim was to continue to document
the distribution of birds through the ghats.

542

BIRDS OF THE V1SAKHAPATNAM GHATS

which to this day remain imperfectly known.
A second goal was to begin to sample bird
populations in differing habitats at different
sites, in order to determine the extent to which
large-scale habitat alteration through the ghats
region has affected the structure and compo-
sition of local bird communities.

To this end we relied primarily on mist-nets
for capturing and sampling birds. Large num-
bers of birds were captured, most of which
were marked and released. Small numbers were
preserved for taxonomic analysis and to serve
as vouchers to the distributional study. In

1975, 1981, and 1985, collecting was with shot-
guns supplemented the samples taken with
mist-net. This was particularly useful for canopy-
dwelling species rarely taken in the nets.

Results

We recorded 160 species of birds in the
Visakhapatnam Ghats during our four field
trips. This includes 22 species new to the
Visakhapatnam Ghats, 11 of which are first
records for the Eastern Ghats as a whole, and
2 of which are first records for the Peninsula
(Table 1). Considering that three groups

Table 1

Birds recorded for the first time in the Visakhapatnam Ghats

First Record For :

Species

Vizag Ghats

Andhra Pradesh

Eastern Ghats

Peninsula

Bub ulcus ibis

X

Aviceda jerdoni

X

X

X

Acci piter virgatus

X

X

X

Falco peregrinus

X

Co lum ba punicea

X

X

X

Cuculus sparvarioides

X

X

Bubo bubo

X

Ninox scutulata

X

Strix leptogrammica

X

Caprimulgus asiaticus

X

Alcedo meninting

X

X

X

Dinopium shorii

X

Dryocopus javensis

X

X

X

Hemicircus canente

X

X

X

Dicrurus paradiseus

X

Corvus splendens

X

Malacocincla abbotti

X

X

X

X

Muscicapa muttui

X

Prinia rufescens

.X

X .

X

Myiophonus horsfieldii

X

X

X

T urdus ruficollis

’ X

X

X

Anthreptes singhalensis

X

X

X

X

Total

22

12

11

2

543

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

(LaPersonne, Abdulali, and Price) had work-
ed the region previously, the fact that our
sporadic studies established so many distribu-
tional records is clear evidence of how little
we know of the avifauna. We would encourage
continued study of this interesting biota.

Relictual distributions

Of the 160 species recorded from the
Visakhapatnam Ghats, some 22 species can be
considered relictual — bird species whose
restricted populations in the Eastern Ghats’
show closest affinity to populations in the
Western Ghats, the Himalayan foothills, or

Burma and Southeast Asia (Table 2). By all
accounts this segment of the avifauna is the
most interesting, biologically, and the most
threatened by the encroachments of modem
civilization.

The Peninsular distribution of these relicts
is circumscribed, invariably confined to forest
habitat in the ghats (Figure 2). This sort of
distributional pattern is well-documented from
a number of vertebrate and invertebrate taxa
(Hora 1949, Ripley 1949, 1980, Ali 1969, Mani
1974), and defines a vicariance pattern that
presumably was brought about by far-reaching

Table 2

Relictual species in the Vizag Ghats — present geographic and altitudinal distribution1

Species

Western Ghats

N.E. Hills

Himalaya

Southeast Asia1 2

Lowest Altitude3

Aviceda jerdoni

yes

yes

yes

to Sulawesi

sea level

Accipiter trivirgatus

yes

yes

yes

to Philippines

sea level

Acci piter virgatus

yes

yes

yes

to Sulawesi

sea level

Columba punicea

—

yes

—

to Indochina

sea level

Rhopodytes tristis

—

yes

yes

to Sumatra

sea level

Alcedo meninting

yes

yes

yes

to Lombok

sea level

Nyctyornis athertoni

yes

yes

yes

to Hainan

sea level

Picumnus innominatus

yes

yes

yes

to Malaya

sea level

Picus flavinucha

—

yes

yes

to Hainan

sea level

Dinopium shorii

7

yes

yes

to Burma

sea level

Dryocopus javensis

yes

yes

yes

to Philippines

sea level

Hemicircus canente

yes

yes

—

to Malaya

sea level

Gracula religiosa

yes

yes

yes

to Malaya

sea level

Dendrocitta formosae

—

yes

yes

to Hainan

sea level

Tephrodornis virgatus

yes

yes

yes

to Malaya

sea level

Malacocincla abbotti

—

yes

yes

to Malaya

sea level

S tacky r is rufifrons

—

yes

yes

to Indochina

sea level

Macronous gularis

—

yes

yes

to Malaya

sea level

Muscicapa poliogenys

—

yes

yes

to Burma

above 3000'

Anthreptes singhalensis

—

yes

yes

to Malaya

sea level

Aethopyga si par a ja

yes

yes

yes

to Sulawesi

sea level

Arachnothera longirostris

yes

yes

yes

to Malaya

sea level

1 See text for full explanation of this table.

2 We note the easternmost extension of the bird’s range here.

3 Is the bird strictly montane or does it occur at sea level in S.E. Asia?

544

Above: Looking northward from the plains north of the Godavari, to the heavily forested ghat-
face of the Chintapalli plateau. Photo taken c. 15 km SE of Pedevalasa.

Below: Lankapakalu campsite at the edge of a permanent mountain stream. Most of the
desirable habitat has been cleared of all undergrowth and converted to coffee plantations
(see coffee in foreground and right portion of photograph). Aviceda jerdoni was collected
in the pass above this camp.

{Photos: Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84
Ripley et a/.: Visakhapatnam Ghats

Plate 1

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 2

Ripley et al Visakhapatnam Ghats

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33

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

Fig. 2. Distributions of two 'relict’ inhabiting the Vizag Ghats. Note the extent of
their distributions in southeast Asia (horizontal hatching).

paleoecological events influencing entire biotas
(cf. Cracraft 1982).

A major question concerning these relicts
centers on the ecological reason for their pre-
sent relictual distribution. S. L. Hora’s “Satpura
Hypothesis,” sought to explain the anomaly
of the northern forms in the far South by
postulating a formerly continuous range of
mountains higher than 6000 feet extending
from the eastern Himalayas across the Penin-
sula via the Satpura/Vindhya hills, and thence
to the Western Ghats. The assumption was
that these forms actively ‘dispersed’ from
southeast Asia, and the continuous chain of
mountains was hypothesized as a dispersal
pathway of a primarily montane fauna from
the Himalayas down into southern India. This
explained how mountain-loving forms were
able to bridge the Garo-Rajmahal Gap and
colonize what are now “islands” of montane
habitat in the south.

As soon as the Satpura Hypothesis was
published, Abdulali (1949) pointed out that
it entirely overlooked the Eastern Ghats as a

possible corridor of dispersal for Himalayan
forms. This is a minor but correct criticism
that highlights the long-overlooked importance
of the Eastern Ghats as a habitat suitable for
a relictual Himalayan biota. Mani (1974:
71 Off) has provided a valuable and detailed
critique of Hora’s theory, and yet he failed,
we believe, in presenting a cohesive alterna-
tive model for the distributional history of the
biota.

We have two criticisms of the traditional
explanations for the southern relicts. The first
relates to the ecology of the relictual biota. Is
the primary requirement of this relictual fauna
cool montane habitat or humid forest? Hora
studied “hill stream” fishes, and so his fauna
was necessarily montane in nature. He be-
lieved his hill stream fishes required a conti-
nuous montane range in order to “disperse”.
We believe there is no geological evidence to
prove a continuous range as postulated by
Hora, and, in addition, we believe such a range
is totally unnecessary to explain the present
distribution of most relictual forms, especially

545

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

the birds. Many, indeed, most of the relictual
forms that inhabit the mountains in South
India occupy lowland rainforest in Burma and
Southeast Asia.

As shown in Table 2, of the 22 peninsular
relicts recorded in the Visakhapatnam Ghats,
all but one occur in lowland forest in South-
east Asia, and many inhabit the Greater Sundas
and Philippines, Pleistocene land-bridge islands
that would have required colonization across
extensive expanses of flat lowland habitat dur-
ing periods when the sea-level was lower. The
obvious conclusion is that many of the forms
found to be relictual in the Indian Peninsula
are confined to montane habitats not because
of some ‘cool montane’ requirement, but be-
cause, at present, on the Indian Peninsula,
humid forest remnants occur only in associa-
tion with the mountains, which act to capture
rainfall from water-bearing air masses off the
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.

Since the species in question are not strictly
montane in nature, past distributions on the
Peninsula did not necessarily correlate with
mountain distributions, given the postulated
presence, during earlier periods, of extensive
tracts of humid forest on the plains (cf.
Randhawa 1945, Ripley 1949, 1980, Prakash
1972). Thus, we postulate that the habitat
favoured by the present-day relicts was, for
some period, widespread on the Peninsula.

Our second criticism of the traditional bio-
geographic model devolves from the point
made above. These hypotheses invoke the
active movement of “propagules” from South-
east Asia, following a montane corridor, to the
hills of South India, the last populations being
“stranded” when the mountain corridor was
broken by subsequent erosional events. We do
not believe the colonization process occurred
in this manner. Instead, following a “vicari-
ance” model (Figure 3) we envisage the

present relictual montane distributions being
produced by a series of environmental changes
in which a widespread, humid forest biota was
dissected, with numerous local extirpations
(cf. Cracraft 1982). We suppose that during
a period of uniformly wet climate in Asia
there was a “Humid South Asian” biota that
extended, unbroken, from Sundaland westward
through Southeast Asia to all India south of
the Himalayas. At this time the humid forest
fauna occurred throughout India, and the sub-
continent supported a larger fauna than pre-
sent today, one essentially identical to that in
Southeast Asia. At that time when the environ-
ment was most humid, we assume that in areas
of significant rain shadows there were dry
“refuges” that supported relictual dry-habitat
forms. Gradual dessication reversed the pic-
ture, and the humid forest forms withdrew into
the wetter refuges near moisture-capturing
mountain scarps, while the dry habitat forms
expanded their distributions to the dominant
state that they occupy today.

Empirical evidence is available which sup-
ports the vicariance model and contradicts
predictions of the traditional scenario. The
presence of a large relictual fauna on Sri Lanka
cannot be explained by a continuous montane
corridor (cf. Ripley 1949), but can easily be
explained by a Pleistocene land connection in
conjunction with the widespread humid envi-
ronment. Additionally, if one must presume
that all colonization followed the linear mon-
tane corridor, with a dispersal gradient from
northeast to southwest, one would expect a
“filtering effect” wherein many species dispers-
ed shorter distances and fewer species dispersed
longer distances. Such a filtering effect is not
evident in present distributions. Indeed, the
southern section of the Western Ghats sup-
ports the richest assemblage of Himalayan/
Northeastern Hill forms — a phenomenon

546

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84

Ripley et a/.: Visakhapatnam Ghats

Plate 3

Above: Sapparla Village. The road that passes this village is the main transport route across the
Chintapalli plateau. Regional development, including forest clearance has proceeded out-
ward from this heavily-used road.

Below : Sapparla summit (c. 1200 m). The Lammasinghi-Upper Sileru road climbs over this high
pass. Highest dome-like summits support large grassy expanses that are apparently
edaphic subclimax grasslands, associated with rich deposits of bauxite.

( Photos : Author)

BIRDS OF THE V1SAKHAPATNAM GHATS

Fig. 3. Hypothetical sequence of contraction of a proposed widespread ‘South Asian’
humid forest biota. A. Humid forest at its presumed ‘maximum’, probably in the
late Pleistocene. B.-C. Growing dessication and insularization of the biota. Present-
day peninsular forest ‘relicts’ were stranded in humid refuges associated with the
rain-capturing scarps of the coastal ranges. Note: coastal outlines are drawn based
on present conditions.

easily explained by a combination of vicariance
and island biogeographic theory. If the fauna
were widespread at the peak humid period,
during dessication the largest “islands” of
humid habitat would retain the largest assem-
blages of the relictual biota.

Note, finally, that 9 of the 22 cited northern
“relicts” to the Visakhapatnam Ghats are
absent from the Western Ghats. Our vicariance
hypothesis can explain this simply as a product
of chance extinction during the period of
dessication. Just as the Western Ghats retained
many relicts that (by chance) went extinct in
the Eastern Ghats, the Eastern Ghats retained,
by chance, some of the former humid forest
fauna that, by chance, was lost from the
Western mountains. How can Satpura explain
this phenomenon? Given the significant low-
land barriers isolating the Visakhapatnam
Ghats — the Mahanadi drainage to the north
and Krishna and Godavari to the south, it is
impossible to hypothesize a former continuous

montane link to any former source of coloni-
zation, whether it be the Western Ghats or the
Northeastern Hills.

We believe the processes that produced
vertebrate distributions in the past are conti-
nuing to operate today. Thus with the con-
tinuing dessication and opening of the Indian
forests from man-caused forest destruction, we
can see an inverse, or “mirror” process in the
expansion of the distributions of the dry-
country forms. This process is not directional
dispersal but instead a gradual growth of avian
ranges based on expansion of available habitat.
The presence of dry-country endemics in the
Indian subcontinent (e.g. Jerdon’s Courser or
the Yellowthroated Bulbul Pycnonotus xantho-
laemus) may be remnants of a dry-country
fauna that never recovered from the last humid
phase, when reduction of the dry refuges in
interior Deccan rain-shadows brought on the
effective “genetic deaths” of some of the dry
country species.

547

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Migrants through the Visakhapatnam Ghats
Price’s work at Lammasinghi has provided
an initial look at the movement of migrants
through the Eastern Ghats (Price 1979). Our
survey recorded eighteen northern migrant
species in the Vizag Ghats (Table 3). Of these,

Table 3

Northern migrants through the Eastern Ghats

RECORDED BY OUR SURVEY

Circus aeruginosus
Streptopelia orientalis meena
Cuculus sparvarioides
Muscicapa latirostris
Muscicapa parva
Muscicapa super ciliaris
Muscicapa rubeculoides
Muscicapa thalassina
Phylloscopus trochiloides Iudlowi
Phylloscopus occipitalis
Seicercus burkii
Erithacus calliope
Erithacus brunneus
Monticola cinclorhynchus
Zoothera dauma
Zoothera wardii
Motacilla indica
Motacilla cinerea

twelve are forest-dwelling forms, and pro-
bably depend on the Eastern Ghats as a habitat
corridor for seasonal movement. The conti-
nued clearing of forest poses a direct threat to
these forms either during passage or on their
winter quarters. Fifteen of the eighteen migrant
species are members of the family Muscica-
pidae, including the subfamilies Muscicapinae,
Sylviinae, and Turdinae.

The thrushes are the group that is probably
most sensitive to habitat destruction. One of
the species that requires good forest is the
Blue Chat Erithacus brunneus. Our many re-
cords of this species indicate that it probably
is a localized winter resident in the Eastern
Ghats, inhabiting humid nullah vegetation and
remnant patches of semi-evergreen forest.
Ghats populations of this and other thrush

species should be monitored in the future to
determine their status.

Bird Populations past and present

The Vernay expedition surveyed bird popu-
lations in the Visakhapatnam Ghats for more
than three months in 1930. How do their
findings compare with ours, recorded more than
fifty years later? It is difficult to directly com-
pare their findings with ours for several
reasons. First, The Vernay expedition publish-
ed records of only 106 species from the region,
fully 54 fewer than our list. At least with regard
to their northern segment of the Eastern Ghats,
the Vernay effort was not as thorough as ours.
This can, in part, be accounted for by diffe-
rences of method. We were able to deploy
large numbers of mist-nets, an effective tech-
nique unavailable to the LaPersonne party.
Mist-netting produced records of a number of
species overlooked by the Vernay expedition:
Malacocincla abbotti, Arachnothera longiros-
tris , T urdus ruficollis, and Alcedo meninting,
among others.

The Vernay survey recorded seventeen
species not noted by our survey. Of these
seventeen, all but perhaps one (T urdus uni-
color) are widespread, open-country forms,
not forest-dwellers. More than half of these
have been recently recorded in the region by
Price (1979). Thus the “raw data” offer no
indication of any serious, ghats-wide loss of
avifauna during the last 50 years. Of course,
this crude comparison potentially misses any
localized changes that, when added up, may
produce increased insularization of remnant
populations, which over the long run may
spell doom for a number of species in the
region.

In 1985 we visited Anantagiri, the type loca-
lity for Muscicapa poliogenys vernayi and
other endemic populations. Since the Vernay
survey worked there the region has been

548

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

heavily developed, with large tracts of coffee,
intensively grazed areas, and much land under
cultivation. Virtually no forest remains except
in tiny sinuous strips following deep ravines
that are relatively inaccessible. The area could
be characterized as “severely disturbed”, and
the destruction of the original habitat is nearly
total. We observed birds in the open habitats
and mist-netted in three remnant patches of
forest near watercourses. The remnant patches
continue to support some of the “relict” species
of greatest biological interest. But these popu-
lations were, without question, tiny, vulnerable,
and isolated from nearest sources of coloniza-
tion. The forest-dwelling birdlife in this region
appears severely threatened.

By contrast, the open-country species, most
of which have colonized this upland region
from the plains, are abundant in the Anantagiri
environs. The man-caused environmental dessi-
cation that we witnessed at Anantagiri and in
other sections of the Northern Circars is
causing a faunal transition, on a local scale,
similar to that which we invoked to explain
the present distribution of the northern “relict”
species. The habitat is opened, surface albedo
is raised, annual air temperature increases, and
available moisture is reduced. Humid forest
forms retreat into protected pockets, and the
open-country forms increase in distribution and
abundance. Anantagiri, formerly a large forest-
ed plateau supporting a distinct regional
avifauna has become a disturbed region that
environmentally is similar to the plains, with
an avifauna that is no longer regionally dis-
tinctive. Meteorological records based on in-
complete evidence indicate a mean increase
of more than 10°C in annual temperature range
along the eastern edge of the escarpment.

One apparent exception to the ongoing ex-
pansion of the “plains” or open country fauna
is Jerdon’s Courser, one of India’s least-known
birds. After the 1981 field trip, the senior

author and Dr. Salim Ali encouraged a small
BNHS contingent of the field party to spend
several days searching for the bird near
Bhadrachalam, on the southwestern flank of
the Vizag Ghats. While this and several sub-
sequent attempts failed, five years of effort
by the BNHS paid off when in early 1986 a
single Jerdon’s Courser was trapped near
Cuddapah, in southernmost Andhra Pradesh.
Many had considered the species extinct.
What efforts will now be made to ensure that
the courser does not become one of the “lost”
before this decade is out, remains to be deter-
mined. An all-out effort to learn the habits
and habitat-requirements of this apparently
crepuscular species should be mounted as soon
as possible.

Habitat destruction

The conversion of upland forest into open
land has been brought about by several forces.
Beginning before Independence, areas in the
Northern Circars had been developed by the
Department of Forests for plantations of coffee
and teak. This has continued and expanded,
although with greater planning in more recent
years. The forestry program also supports the
cropping of bamboo stands, as well as selective
timber-extraction from “miscellaneous forest”.
At the same time, the region has seen an
influx of tribal groups from Orissa. These
settlers, at odds with the attempts at control
by the government, have been politicized, and
often act at cross-purposes to the Forest
Department, the result being expanded des-
truction of habitat. Tribal groups, in an attempt
to circumvent the control of the land by
Forestry, clear-fell large areas, putting them
into cultivation in order to gain ownership of
the land by its visible development and occu-
pation.

The outcome of this political struggle is that
the Ghats are being increasingly threatened

549

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

with complete destruction. There are no un-
disturbed flat tracts of forest on the several
plateau expanses that constitute the Northern
Circars. The only remaining significant forest
is to be found on the ghat slopes and in the
rather remote foothills in the southwestern
reaches of the uplifted region (e.g. Jyothi-
mamidi). There is no certainty that even frag-
ments of these tracts will be set aside before
they are permanently altered. The future of
the forest avifauna in Vizag Ghats is thus in
real danger.

Annotated List

Following the sequence and nomenclature
of Ripley (1982) we present brief species
accounts of all birds recorded in our surveys.
All localities cited in the accounts are plotted
on the map in Figure 1. All linear measure-
ments are made in millimetres, all weights are
in grammes. Except where noted, culmen
measurement is from base of the skull, and
wing measurement is chord, as measured with
dividers from the bend in the wing to the tip
of the longest primary.

44. Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus).

CATTLE EGRET.

Observed in tight flocks near Chintapalli and
north of Pedevalasa, March 1979. Roosted in
low trees bordering large fields near villages.

124. Elanus caeraleus vociferus (Latham).

BLACKWINGED KITE.

Specimens : 1 male (imm.), Bhadrachalam,
12 March 1975.

Measurements : wing 273, culmen (damag-
ed), tail 127.

Notes : A single bird was observed over a
plowed field at Lankapakalu.

125. Aviceda jerdomi jerdoni (Blyth).

blyth’s baza.

Specimens : 1 female (ova very slightly

enlarged), Lankapakalu (909 m), 16 March
1985.

Measurements : wing 320, culmen (from

cere) 22, tail 218, weight 470.

Soft parts : iris golden yellow, legs dead
white, claws black, maxilla and cere black,
blue-grey basally, mandible basally blue-grey,
with a black tip and black splotch on tomium.

Taxonomy : agrees in size with the northern
race jerdoni. In plumage it appears identical
to specimens from southeast Asia.

Distribution', a first record for the Eastern
Ghats. S. S. Saha reported sighting this species
at Jyothimamidi in February 1985. Could this
individual represent a migrant?

Notes : shot from the canopy of a low tree
at the edge of a dirt track through a coffee
plantation. Specimen was a non-breeding
female; one ovum measured 4 mm.

129-130. Pemis ptiiorhyncus (Temminck).

HONEY BUZZARD.

Observed at Lammasinghi, 27 October 1983.
132-134. Milvus migrans (Boddaert).

PARIAH KITE.

Observed on several occasions on the Chinta-
palli plateau during March 1985. Taken at
Jeypore by the Vernay Expedition.

138. Accipiter badius dussumieri (Temminck).

INDIAN SHIKRA.

Specimen: 1 male (testes enlarged), Ananta-
giri, 20 March 1985.

Measurements : wing 179, culmen (from

cere) 12.5, tail 140, weight 118.

Soft parts: iris pinkish red, legs olive-yellow,
bill black with grey base, cere greenish grey.

Notes: Collected in roadside scrub.

144. Accipiter trivirgatus indicus (Hodgson).

NORTH INDIAN CRESTED GOSHAWK

Specimens: T male (t.e.), Jyothimamidi,
24 February 1985. 1 male (t.s.e.) Wangasara,
4 March 1985; Also mist-netted at Wangasara,
October 1983.

550

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

Measurements : (male) wing 223, 226, oil-
men (from cere) 18, 16.5, tail 177, 175, weight
293, 280. Unsexed (netted) weight 316, 322.

Soft parts : (male) iris orange, unsexed

(netted = $ ?) yellow, deep yellow, legs olive-
yellow, (netted unsexed) com yellow, cere dull
orange, gape and base of mandible yellow,
maxilla black with a blue-grey base.

149-152. Accipiter virgatus (Temminck).

BESRA SPARROW-HAWK

Specimens : 1 unsexed (mist-netted and re-
leased) Wangasara, 28 September 1983.

Measurements', wing (chord) 152, tail 122,
tarsus 50, bill (from cere) 11, (from feathers)
15.5, weight 114.

Soft parts: iris orange, cere yellowish green.

Notes : throat white with some fine dark
streaking. Sides of breast almost solid cinna-
mon grading into obscure barring on lower
breast, flanks and thighs. Wing, tail and body
moult was present.

172. Ictiuaetus malayanus (Temminck).

BLACK EAGLE.

Observed at Wangasara, October 1983, and
at Jyothimamidi, February 1985.

193. Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus).

MARSH HARRIER.

Observed at Lankapakalu, March 1985.

197. Spilomis cheela melanotis (Jerdon).

LESSER CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE.

Specimen : 1 male (t.n.e.) Wangasara, 12
Mar. 1985.

Measurements: wing 439, culmen 31.5, tail
265.

Soft parts: iris yellow, legs corn yellow, cere
and orbital skin yellow, bill blue-grey with a
black tip.

Notes: A pair was observed mating on the
ground on the roadside at Jyothimamidi, 24
February 1985.

221. Falco peregrimis peregrinator (Sundevall).
SHAHIN FALCON.

Observed at Lammasinghi, 27 October 1983.
275. Gailoperdix spadkea spadicea (Gmelin).

RED SPURFOWL.

Specimen: 1 female (ova enlarged) Valas-
para, near Sileru, 16 March 1975.

Measurements: wing 150, culmen 21, tail 111.
299. Gallus gallus (Linnaeus).

RED JUNGLEFOWL

Observed at Wangasara, October 1983;
Jyothimamidi, February 1985; Lankapakalu,
March 1985.

Notes: common in forest and coffee planta-
tions in most parts of the Chintapalli plateau.
311. Pa vo cristatus Linnaeus.

COMMON PEAFOWL.

Observed at Jyothimamidi, February 1985.
Notes: Common and vocal throughout the
forest at Jyothimamidi; extirpated from most
areas of the Chintapalli plateau.

314. Turnix tank! fanki Blyth.

INDIAN YELLOWLEGGED BUTTON QUAIL.
Specimens: 1 male, Valaspara, near Sileru,
16 March 1975; 1 female (o.n.e.) Lammasinghi,
24 February 1981.

Measurements: (male) wing 77, culmen 14,
tail 25.5; (immature female) wing 89, culmen
15, tail 35, weight 58.

Soft parts: (female) iris yellow, legs rich
yellow, maxilla dark brown, tomium yellow,
mandible yellow with a brown tip.

501. Treron bicincta bicincta (Jerdon).

INDIAN ORANGEBREASTED GREEN PIGEON.
Specimens: 1 female (o.s.e.), 1 male (testis
6x15 mm) Jyothimamidi, 27, 28 February
1985; 1 female (ova granular) Wangasara, 28
February 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 156, culmen

(base) 18.5, tail 91, weight 165; (females)
wing 155, 163, culmen (base) 19, 19.5, tail
85 (2), weight 138, 149.

551

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Soft parts : (male) iris inner blue, outer

pink, legs cherry to mauve pink, bill gene-
rally pale turquoise with blue supra-naral
patch and greyish ivory tip; (females) iris (a)
inner blue, outer ivory, (b) inner blue, outer
pinkish orange, legs (a) cherry with dirty white
pads of feet, (b) cherry, bill (a, b) tip pale
grey-white.

506-507. Ducula aenea sylvatica (Tickell)/

pusilla (Blyth).

GREEN IMPERIAL PIGEON.

Specimens : 1 female, Bhadrachalam, 12

March 1975.

Measurements', wing 223, culmen 28, tail 120.

Taxonomy : This specimen is small for typi-
cal sylvatica but large for typical pusilla. It
seems clear that these two peninsular races
are end-points on a cline and probably should
be united, as suggested by Abdulali (1971).

Notes: In 1985, one of us (SDR) observed
pigeons flying high over a clearing at Lanka-
pakalu that appeared to be of this species.

524. Columba punicea Blyth.

PURPLE WOOD PIGEON.

Specimens: 1 male (testis 17 x 6 mm), 1
female (oviduct swollen, ova forming) Jyothi-
mamidi, 24 February 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 225, culmen

(base) 28.5, tail 153, weight 367; (female)
wing 221, culmen (base) 27, tail 127, weight
320.

Soft parts: (male) iris red (outer), orange
(inner), legs with cherry red tarsal scutes, sides
dull purple, nails pale horn, bill vinaceous
purple base, grey-green tip; (female) iris red
(outer), orange (inner), legs with cherry red
tarsal scutes, bill as for male.

537-541. Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli).

SPOTTED DOVE.

Mist-netted at Wangasara, 27 September
1983.

Weights: (unsexed) 105, 110, 124.

Soft parts: (unsexed) iris (a) pink, (b)
orange-red, (c) pink.

Notes: netted birds showed no moult.

531. Streptopelia oriental is meena (Sykes).

WESTERN TURTLE-DOVE.

Specimen: 1 male (t.n.e.) Dumuku village,
nr. Anantagiri, 21 March 1985.

Measurements: wing 194, culmen 25.5, tail
116, weight 202.

Soft parts: iris orange, legs purplish cherry,
eye-ring and subocular patch mauve, bill dark
violet with a mauve tip.

Taxonomy: Presumably a winter visitor to
the region.

Notes: This bird was taken in disturbed
open country.

533. Streptopelia orientalis erythrocephala

(Bonaparte).

PENINSULAR TURTLE-DOVE.

Specimens: 1 (unsexed) Raghavendra Nagar,

1 March 1981; 1 male (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,

2 March 1985; 1 female (o.e.) Lankapakalu,
13 March 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 181, culmen

23.5, tail 115, weight 183; (female) wing 172,
culmen 24.5, tail 112, weight 195; (unsexed)
wing 178.5, culmen 25, tail 107, weight 198.

Soft parts: (male) iris dull orange, legs

dark cherry, orbital skin and base of bill pur-
plish cherry, tip of bill brownish horn; (female)
iris dark brown, legs dark cherry-red, eyelids
dark cherry, bill dark cherry shading to dark
greenish grey; (unsexed) iris orange, legs dull
rose, cere and eyelid pink.

Notes: voice is a raucous and grating coo
(Jyothimamidi, 2 March 1985). Closed forest.

542. Chalcophaps iitdica indica (Linnaeus).

INDIAN EMERALD DOVE.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
22 February 1985.

552

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

Measurements : wing 172, culmen 23.8, tail
71.5, weight 107.

Soft parts : iris dark brown, legs burgundy
red, bill brown basally and coral distally.

Notes : no moult. Mist-netted in forest. This
species was abundant at Jyothimamidi. We
netted more than 20 individuals.

558. Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala

(Linnaeus).

SOUTHERN BLOSSOMHEADED PARAKEET.

Specimens : 2 males (t.e., imm.), 1 ( un sex -
ed) Jyothimamidi, 25 February, 2 March 1985.

Measurements : (males) wing 135, 141.5,
culmen (cere) 18, 17.5, tail 189, 215, weight
62, 67; (unsexed) wing 124, culmen 16, tail
122, weight 55.

Soft parts : (males) iris pale tan, dark orange,
legs grey or greenish grey, maxilla orange (2),
mandible black (2); (unsexed) iris dark
yellow, legs dull greenish grey, maxilla
yellowish ivory, mandible horn-grey.

566. Loriculus vemalis (Sparrman).

INDIAN LORIKEET.

Specimens : 1 male (testis 2x3 mm) Jyothi-
mamidi, 25 February 1985; 1 male (t.s.e.),
Lankapakalu, 16 March 1985.

Measurements : (males) wing 83, 90, culmen
(from cere) 11, 11.8, tail 41.5, 37, weight 31,
35.

Soft parts : iris dark brown or pale whitish
cream, legs dull yellow-tan or dull yellowish
olive, bill orange or reddish orange.

572. Cuculus sparvarioides sparvarioides

Vigors.

LARGE HAWK -CUCKOO.

Specimens : 2 immature females (o.n.e.),
Jyothimamidi, 23, 25 February 1985.

Measurements', wing 228, 239, culmen 29,
30, tail 185, 186, weight 130, 145.

Soft parts : iris tan or dark brown, legs corn
yellow, maxilla black, mandible yellow or
yellow-green, black distally.

Notes : Both specimens were taken in dis-
turbed forest.

573. Cuculus varius varius Vahl

COMMON HAWK -CUCKOO.

Specimens : 1 immature male (t.n.e.), 1 male
(t.n.e.) Wangasara, 5, 9 March 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 201, culmen
(from base) 26.5, tail 153, weight 102; (imma-
ture) wing 189, culmen 27.5, tail 160, weight
84.

Soft parts: (male) iris orange, legs ivory
yellow, maxilla black, mandible greenish grey,
eye-ring yellow; (immature) iris pale tan, legs
orange yellow, bill dull green with a black tip,
eye-ring yellow.

582-583. Cacomantis sonneratii (Latham).

BAYBANDED CUCKOO.

Observed at Wangasara, October 1983 and
March 1985, Pedevalasa, October 1985.

588. Surniculus lugubris dicruroides (Hodgson).
INDIAN DRONGO-CUCKOO.

Observed at Wangasara, 4 October 1983.
Keys to identification were the barred tail
coverts and outer tail feathers, and white spots
on crown.

590. Eudynamys scolopacea scolopacca
(Linnaeus).

INDIAN KOEL.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), Lankapakalu,

15 March 1985.

Measurements: wing 197, culmen (base) 31,
tail 199, weight 160.

Soft parts: iris red, legs blue-grey, bill pale
greenish horn.

553

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

593. Rhopodytes tristis tristis (Lesson).

LARGE GREENBILLED MALKOHA
Specimens : 1 female (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
24 February 1985.

Measurements : wing 160, culmen (base) 35,
tail 345, weight 105.

Soft parts : iris reddish brown, legs dark
bluish gray-black- bill olive greyish green, eye-
patch carmine red to dull mauve on nares.

597. Taccocua ieschenaultii infuscata Blyth.

EASTERN SIRKEER CUCKOO

Specimens : 1 male, Bhadrachalam, 12 March
1975.

Measurements : wing 161, culmen 32, tail
187.

Notes : the Vemay Expedition took a speci-
men at Sankrametta.

602. Centropus sinensis parroti Stresemann.
SOUTHERN CROW-PHEASANT.

Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.), Anantagiri, 22
March 1985.

Measurements : wing 182, culmen (base) 41,
tail 245, weight 258.

Soft parts : iris red, legs black, bill black.

616, 617. ©tus scops sunia (Hodgson)/Otus
scops mfipennis (Sharpe).

NORTHERN SCOPS OWL/PENINSULAR SCOPS
OWL.

Specimens : 3 males (-, t.e., t.e.), 1 female
(o.e.), Jyothimamidi, 25 February, 1, 2 March
1985; 1 male (t.e.), Wangasara, 10 March
1985.

Measurements', (males) wing 130, 133.5,
134, 140, culmen (base) 19, 19.5 (2), 21, tail
52, 53, 53.5, 57, weight 58, 60 (2), 64;
(female) wing 137. culmen 19, tail 60, weight
75.

Soft parts : (male) iris lemon yellow or

yellow, legs pale brown or dirty greenish, pads
yellow ochre, nails dirty flesh, bill dark brown.

dark greenish, or dirty greenish yellow, tomia
horn; (female) iris lemon yellow, legs dirty
greenish brown, pads yellowish, bill greenish
horn with dull yellow tip.

Notes : This series keys out by wing formula
to sunia but by wing-length to either sunia or
rufipennis. Overall measurements generally refer
to rufipennis. This series shows remarkable
plumage polymorphism, with dorsal colour
ranging from grey, heavily streaked and
vermiculated, to rufous and streaked, to rufous
and virtually unstreaked. These differences are
reflected in ventral coloration, as well.

623. Otus bakkamoena bakkamoena Pennant.

CEYLON COLLARED SCOPS OWL.

Specimens: 1 male (t.s.e.), Lankapakalu, 14
March 1985.

Measurements: wing 164, culmen 22.5, tail
80.5, weight 128.

Soft parts: iris rich mahogany brown, legs
greyish brown, bill greyish ivory basally, man-
dible blue-grey ivory with paler tip, cere ivory
with blue-grey tinge.

Taxonomy: This specimen keys out in hand-
book to lettia. By distribution it should be
bakkamoena. Examination of the copious
USNM holdings provide no clues to the sub-
specific identity of our specimen. Abdulali
(1972: 108) reported a BNHS specimen from
Lammasinghi (wing 170, bill 23, tail 8). His
determination agrees with that of this paper
— in size conforming with lettia, but bakka-
moena by distribution.

625-627. Bubo bubo.

EAGLE-OWL.

Heard at Pedevalasa, 18 October 1983 (call:
buu bo): heard at Jyothimamidi, 22 February
1985.

Notes: Another (unidentified) species of
Bubo was recorded at Lammasinghi, 23 Sept-
ember 1983, at Pedevalasa, 15 October 1983,
and at Lankapakalu, 20 October 1983. The

554

BIRDS OF THE VIS AKHAPATN AM GHATS

call was a very low-pitched hoo — hoohoohoo,
each series given every 10 sec. In both in-
stances two birds were heard calling to each
other. This call may belong to the next species.

631. Bubo zeylonensis leschenault (Temminck)

BROWN FISH OWL.

Specimen : 1 male (t.n.e.), Lankapakalu, 17
March 1985.

Measurements : wing 402, culmen (base) 50,
tail 196, weight 1200 g.

Soft parts : iris orange-yellow, legs dull

blackish grey, pads of feet pinkish flesh, nails
bluish ivory to ivory, bill blue-grey, cere dark
grey-black.

636. Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell).

BARRED JUNGLE OWLET.

Specimens: 2 females (o.e., o.n.e.), Jyothi-
mamidi, 24, 28 February 1985.

Measurements: wing 121, 125, culmen (base)
18 (2), tail 58.3, 59, weight 83, 91.

Soft parts: iris pale yellow or chrome

yellow, legs dull yellowish brown or dirty
yellow with yellow pads, bill greyish ivory or
greenish yellow.

642-645. Ninox scutulata (Raffles).

BROWN HAWK -OWL.

Observed at Raghavendra Nagar in March
1981.

659. Strix leptogrammica indranee Sykes.

BROWN WOOD OWL.

Specimens: two feathers of this taxon were
taken from a mist-net at Lankapakalu in Octo-
ber 1983.

Notes: the species was observed at Pede-

valasa, 18 October 1983. It was attracted into

'

close view by an imitation of its distinctive
call, a vocalization typical of the genus: hooa
HooHooHoo A.

671. Caprimulgtis Indices Indices Latham.

INDIAN JUNGLE NIGHTJAR

Specimens: 1 male (o.n.e.) Jyothimamidi.

28 February 1985; 1 male (t.e.), Anantagiri,
20 March 1985; (tail feathers), Lankapakalu,
17 March 1985.

Measurements: (males) 186, 198, culmen
22, 25, tail 122.5, 123, weight 63, 68.

Soft parts: iris dark brown or brown, legs
brown with a greyish cast or greyish brown,
pads of feet dark or pale flesh, bill blackish
brown or dark brown.

675. Caprimulgus macrarus albonotatus Tickell

INDIAN LONGTAILED NIGHTJAR.

Specimens: 2 males (t.e.), Wangasara, 6, 8
March 1985.

Measurements: wing 212, 217, culmen 19,
21.5, tail 142, 162. weight 69, 79.

Soft parts: iris dark brown (2), legs pale
brown or brownish flesh, bill horn with a black
tip, dark brown.

Taxonomy: This and the following form
{atripennis) were taken at the same site and
both were in breeding condition. In full agree-
ment with the detailed arguments of Mees
(1985), Ripley & Reehler (1987) treat the
two forms as distinct species, vdth the
Wangasara specimens providing evidence for
this position. The Vernay Expedition took a
specimen of albonotatus from Anantagiri.

676. Caprimulgus atripennis Jerdon.

JERDON’S LONGTAILED NIGHTJAR.

Specimens: 1 male (t.e.), Wangasara, 6

March 1985.

Measurements: wing 182, culmen 26, tail 109,
weight 55.

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs maroon
grey, bill dark brown.

Taxonomy : This is a well-defined population
that is easily keyed out. Following Mees
(1985), we treat it as a full species (see pre-
ceding account).

555

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

680, 681. Caprimulgus asiaticus (Latham).

LITTLE NIGHTJAR.

A specimen was caught by hand and sub-
sequently released at Lankapakalu, October
1983.

694. Apus melba mibifuga Koelz.

INDIAN ALPINE SWIFT.

Specimens : 1 female, Bhadrachalam, 12

March 1975.

Measurements : wing 200, culmen 15.5, tail

69.5.

707-708. Cypsiurus parvus (Lichtenstein).

PALM SWIFT.

Observed at Wangasara in October 1983.
709. Hemiprocne longipennis coronata (Tickell)

CRESTED TREE SWIFT.

Specimens : 1 male (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
27 February 1985; 1 male (t.s.e.), Wangasara
6 March 1985.

Measurements', wing 149, 158, culmen (base)
damaged, 12.8, tail 114, 118, weight 27.5,

28.5.

Soft parts: iris brown or dark brown, legs
black or purplish grey, bill black (2).

711. Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus (Gould).

MALABAR TROGON.

Specimens: 1 female (o.n.e.), Lankapakalu,
23 October 1983; 1 female (o.n.e.), 1 male
(t.s.e.), Jyothimamidi, 23, 25 February 1985.
Measurements: (male) wing 129, culmen

19.5. tail 154, weight 65; (females) wing 123,
133, culmen 19.5, 21, tail 156, 163, weight
51, 57.

Soft parts: (all) iris dark brown, legs blue-
grey; (male) bill dark bluish, eye-ring blue;
(female) foot pads dirty-white, nails brown,
orbital skin dull blue or purplish blue, bill
purplish blue with a black tip.

723. Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin.

INDIAN SMALL BLUE KINGFISHER.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), Dumuku village,
nr. Anatagiri, 21 March 1985.

Measurements: wing 73.5, culmen 49, tail
35, weight 25.

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs brownish
orange, bill black, gape dull orange, in moult.

Taxonomy: This specimen conforms to

bengalensis by measurements and dorsal colo-
ration. This may be either a southern outpost
of this race in the peninsula, or else a wander-
ing individual.

725. Alcedo meninting coltarti Baker.

ASSAM BLUE-EARED KINGFISHER.

Specimens: 1 unsexed, 1 female (o.n.e.),
Lankapakalu, 23 October 1983, 13 March
1985; 1 female (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi, 25
February 1985.

Measurements: (males) wing 70, 71, culmen

45.5, 47.5, tail 30, 31.5, weight 27, 28; (un-
sexed) wing 72.5, culmen 47, tail 30, weight 26.

Soft parts: (males) dull orange or dark
brown, legs coral or cerise, maxilla dark
brown, suffused with deep coral on ramus, or
black, nares and gape dull red, mandible deep
coral, or basally black and dark red tip;
(unsexed) iris dark brown, legs coral red,
mandible coral red.

Notes: These represent first records for the
Eastern Ghats.

753. Nyctyornis athertoni athertoni (Jardine

and Selby).

BLUEBEARDED BEE-EATER.

Specimens: 1 male (o.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
2 March 1985.

Measurements: wing 137.5, culmen 50, tail
120, weight 92.

Soft parts: iris pale orange brown, legs
yellowish olive, maxilla blackish, base of to-
mium and mandible pearly grey.

556

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

763-765. Upupa epops (Linnaeus).

HOOPOE.

Observed at Pedevalasa, 16 October 1983.
774. Anthracoceros malabaricus (Gmelin).

PIED HORNBILL.

Commonly encountered in small flocks at
Jyothimamidi in late February 1985. A single
pair was found at Wangasara in October 1983,
but not seen on the return stay in March 1985.
This species has been extirpated from most
areas of the Visakhapatnam Ghats. Presumed
causes for this are hunting and forest
clearance.

Notes : The observation at Wangasara (800
m) may represent an altitudinal record.

780. Megalaima zeylaitica caniceps (Franklin).

NORTHERN GREEN BARBET.

Specimens : 1 female (o.n.e.) Pedevalasa, 20
October 1983; 1 male (t.s.e.), Wangasara, 9
March 1985.

Measurements : (male) wing 114, culmen

32, tail 72, weight 99.5, (female) wing 116,
culmen 34.5, tail 66.5, weight 96. Mist-netted
(unsexed) weight 120, 121.

Soft parts : (male) iris brown, legs dull

yellow, eye-patch orange-yellow, bill dull pin-
kish brown, gape whitish; (female) iris pale
grey-brown, legs straw yellow.

Notes : In late September and early October
numbers of these barbets foraged on the fruits
of Bursera serrata. Call was a soft-trilled
kd -d-d -d-d, repeated.

792. Megalaima haemacephala indica (Latham)

CRIMSONBREASTED BARBET.

Specimens : 1 female (o.n.e.), Wangasara, 8
March 1985.

Measurements', wing 80.5, culmen 17.8, tail
32.5, weight 33.5.

Soft parts : iris brown, legs dull orange-red,
bill black, base of mandible and gape grey.

799. Picummis innoininatus malayorum

Hartert.

SOUTHERN SPECKLED PICULET.

Specimens'. 1 female (ova. undev.), Lamma-
singhi, 26 October 1983; 1 female (o.s.e.),
Jyothimamidi, 1 March 1985; 1 male (t.e.),
Lankapakalu. 14 March 1985.

Measurements', (male) wing 60, culmen 12.2,
tail 31.5, weight 11; (females) wing 60, 61,
culmen 12.5 (2), tail 32.5, 34.5, weight — ,
10.8. Mist-netted birds: (males) weight 10.8,
11.9; (unsexed) 11, 11.4.

Soft parts', (all) iris dark brown, legs blue-
grey, bill black with blue-grey base to mandible.

803. Microptemis brachyurus phaioceps Blyth.

EASTERN RUFOUS WOODPECKER.

Specimens'. 2 males (t.n.e.), 1 female (o.e.)
Lankapakalu, 13, 14 March 1985.

Measurements’, (males) wing 123, 124.5,
culmen 31, 31.4, tail 58, 64, weight 90, 97;
(female) wing 128, culmen 31, tail 60.5, weight
90. Mist-netted (unsexed female-plumaged)
weight 81 g.

Soft parts: (males) iris reddish brown or
dark brown, legs brownish black, bill black,
nares, edge of gape, and center of edge of
mandible shaded and edged with olive-grey;
(female) iris reddish brown, legs and bill as
in male.

Taxonomy: The subspecies key in the

handbook is unsatisfactory. Throat pattern is
not reliable, as all of the specimens we examin-
ed showed a squamated, not streaked,
throat. The birds collected by the Vemay
Expedition at Anantagiri were identified as
phaioceps.

Notes: Our female taken in mid-March
carried two ova in the oviduct.

813. Picus flavinucha flavinucha Gould.

EASTERN LARGE YELLOWNAPED WOODPECKER.

Specimens: 1 male ( — ), Upper Sileru, 18
March 1975; 1 male (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,

557

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

27 February 1985; 1 female (o.s.e.), Lanka-
pakalu, 15 March 1985.

Measurements: (male) wing 168.5, culmen
45, tail 126, weight 150; (females) wing 162.5,
179, culmen 41, 41.5, tail 102, 104.

Soft parts: (male) iris brownish red, legs
grey-black, bill grey; (females) iris dark brown,
legs dull greenish grey, bill blue-grey.

Notes: Call is an explosive kchaer\ — like
a loud sneeze but somewhat musical and
guttural, lower-pitched than call of P. macei.

815. Picus chloroloplius chlorolophus Vieillot.

EAST HIMALAYAN SMALL YELLOWNAPED
WOODPECKER.

Specimens: 1 male (t.s.e.) Raghavendra

Nagar. 1 March 1981; 2 males (t.s.e.), Lanka-
pakalu, 17 March 1985.

Measurements: (males) 128, 130, 131, cul-
men 28, 29, 29.5, tail 79, 87 (2), weight 59.5,
68, 69.

Soft parts: (males) iris reddish brown, legs
dull greenish grey, blackish or blackish olive,
maxilla slaty black or black, mandible either
dull olive-yellow basally, and slaty-tipped, with
base of ramus dull yellow, or greenish grey
with a black tip.

Taxonomy: The Raghavendra Nagar male
lacks the red malar stripe. All three specimens
show the bronzy-red on the outer veins of the
inner primaries. Eastern Ghats material in the
collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society has been identified as the nominate
subspecies. Our three specimens show wing
length longer than chlorigaster and agree well
with Burmese material.

824. Dinopsum shorii shorii (Vigors)

HIMALAYAN GOLDENBACKED THREE-TOED
WOODPECKER.

Specimens: 1 female ( — ), Jyothimamidi, 2
March 1985.

Measurements: wing 155.5, culmen 38.5,
tail 96, weight 63.

Taxonomy: measurements accord with this

race.

Notes: Our specimen constitutes the first
fully documented specimen taken south of the
Himalayas. Abdulali and Hussain (1973) dis-
cussed three old records from the Peninsula
— from Kolatur North (near Madras), Russel-
konda (Gumsur), and the Nilgiris.

830. Dryocopus javensis hodgsonii (Jerdon).

INDIAN GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER.

A single adult was closely observed in selec-
tively-logged forest at Jyothimamidi. This is a
first record for Andhra Pradesh and the
E. Ghats.

845. Picoides macei macei (Vieillot).

INDIAN FULVOUSBREASTED WOODPECKER.

Specimens: 1 (male) Pedvalasa, 18 October
1983; 1 male, Lankapakalu, 24 October 1983;
1 (male), 1 female (o.n.e.) Wangasara, 9, 10
March 1985.

Measurements: (males) 100, 101.5, 104,

culmen 22, —, 23.5, tail 57.5, 59, 63, weight
34, 35, 39; (female) wing 104.5, culmen 24.5,
tail 61.5. weight 35.

Soft parts: (males) iris dark brown, legs
dark grey, bill blue-gray with a black tip;
(female) iris dark brown, legs dark olive
brown, bill black, gape grey.

Notes: The Pedevalasa male showed wing,
tail and body moult. This was the common
woodpecker of hilly forest.

847. Picoides mahrattensis mahrattensis

(Latham)

YELLOWFRONTED PIED WOODPECKER.
Specimens: 1 male (t.e.), Jyothimamidi, 1
March 1985.

Measurements: wing 101. culmen 22, tail
57. weight 33.

Soft parts: iris dark tan, legs black, scute
interstices washed white, orbital skin purplish
brown.

558

BIRDS OF THE VISAKHAPATNAM GHATS

Notes : Our specimen was collected from a
flowering Simul tree.

852. Picoides nanus hardwickii (Jerdon).

SOUTHERN BROWNCROWNED PYGMY
WOODPECKER.

Specimens : 2 females (o.n.e., o.s.e.) 24

October 1983, 8 March 1985.

Measurements : wing 80, 80.5, culmen 14.5,
16, tail 38, 40, 16 (2). Mist-netted: weights
[males] 15.5, 16, (female-plumaged) 15.8 (2),
17.5.

Soft parts: iris pale green or greenish ivory,
legs brownish black, ocular skin dull lavender,
maxilla black, mandible steely grey.

856. Hemicircus canente (Lesson).

HEARTSPOTTED WOODPECKER.

Specimens: 1 male (t.n.e.), Jyothimamidi,
28 February 1985.

Measurements: wing 99.5, culmen 22.5,
tail 31, weight 40.

Soft parts: iris dark brown, legs slaty-black,
foot pads grey, bill black.

Notes: Invariably observed in pairs; very

vocal in the early morning. New for the
Eastern Ghats.

861. Chrysocolaptes lucidus guttacristatus
(Tickell).

EASTERN LARGER GOLDENBACKED
WOODPECKER.

Specimens: 1 male (testis 13x9 mm), Pede-
valasa, 19 October 1983; 1 [male], 1 female,
1 unsexed, Jyothimamidi, 25, 28 February, 2
March 1985.

Measurements: (males) wing 163, 174, cul-
men 53, 55, tail 87.5, 92, weight — , 185;
(female) wing 173, culmen 49, tail 85, weight
125; (unsexed) wing 162, culmen 46, tail 82,
weight 163. Mist-netted: male weight 175,
[female] weight 182.

Soft parts: (male) iris brownish yellow, legs
dirty greyish black, bill black; (female) wing
iris cream-pink; (immature) iris dark greenish
butf, legs slaty grey, pads of feet yellowish,
maxilla black, mandible horn.

( to be continued )

559

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS
OF SOUTHERN INDIA (LEPIDOPTERA :
RHOPALOCERA)1

Torben B. Larsen2
[Continued from Vol 84(2) : 316]

Satyrinae

MELANITINI

151. Melanitis leda leda Drury

The common evening brown is one of the
few truly ubiquitous butterflies and it may be
found literally anywhere in the Nilgiris, albeit
in very fluctuating numbers. The two seasonal
forms are very different indeed (see Brake-
field & Larsen 1 984 for a discussion on seasonal
variation in this and other species). In a place
like Delhi with strong and temporally well-
defined dry and wet seasons, the wet season
form occurs during the wet season and is
immediately replaced by a large dry season
brood at the end of the monsoon. The camou-
flaged dry season form seems to carry the
entire population through the long dry and cold
winter and spring. Because of the great eco-
logical variation in the Nilgiris matters appear
less clear cut. From the time I arrived in April
till I left in October I nearly only saw dry
season specimens which appeared to be quies-
cent. As time went by they became fewer and
fewer as well as increasingly worn. During the
wet months of July to September very few
were seen and at no time was any mass wet
season brood in evidence, though occasional
wet season specimens were met with among
the few remaining, battered dry season ones.

1 Accepted January 1987.

2 Snoghoj alle 29C. 2770 Kastrup. Denmark.

Any hope that I had of a consistent pattern
was rudely dissipated, but long term records
on the seasonal forms of this butterfly from
anywhere in India are still highly desirable.
All the Evening Browns are fond of rotting
fruits, but they visit flowers only occasionally.

I have only once seen large numbers of this
species at Lantana during an early morning
in Delhi park. The range covers all of Africa,
southern Arabia, the Oriental region, the
Papuan subregion, and the Pacific as far as
the Bismarck Islands. Many remote ocean
islands have populations of this butterfly.

152. Melanitis zitenius gokala Moore
The great evening brown is larger than
the two other South Indian species, the costa
of the forewings is more rounded, and the
apical markings of the forewing upperside gene-
rally more luxuriant than in M. leda. Small
dry season specimens may be confused
on casual inspection, but hardly in set speci-
mens side by side. I have not found the species
at all common in the Nilgiris except on one
occasion on the Nadgani Ghat in September
1986, when I saw more than a dozen speci-
mens. Wynter-Blyth reports that it is some-
times common on the Coonoor Ghat and at
Kallar where I have not seen it, but his re-
cords are from December and January when
I was not in the area. The wet season form
never has the large underside eye-spots so
prominent in M. leda. The distribution covers

560

BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LG1RI MOUNTAINS

South India, then from Kumaon east to Indo-
China and the Greater Sunda Islands.

153. Melanitis phedima varaha Moore

The dark evening brown is much darker
than the other two, so much so that this is
enough to tell them apart. The apical eye
spots lack the orange of the two other species.
It is a somewhat scarce species of lowland
forest, there being records from Kallar, Mukkali
and various points on the Nadgani Ghat. My
field notes show a specimen from near Kotagiri
in 1958 but this is exceptional. It may occur
in the subtropical forests, and I found it quite
common in such a habitat on the Biligiriranga
Mountains in August, 1986, even occasionally
in moist-deciduous forest. It is very difficult
to catch since it usually frequents bamboo
thickets. Its habits do not differ much from
those of M. leda, though I have no records
of its coming to light. The distribution covers
Sri Lanka, South India, Pachmarhi (in a rather
special subspecies where the forewing apex is
broadly yellow), and from Jammu east to
the Philippines and Sumatra.

ELYMNIINI

154. Elymnias hypermnestra caudata Butler
The common palm fly is usually rather

scarce in the Nilgiris, though occasionally it
may be common in late September/October
in the plantations at Kallar where it feeds on
the coconut and areca palms that are among
the main crops. I have also taken it at Kallar
in June and small numbers on the Nadgani
Ghat at various times. The butterflies do not
fly much spontaneously and often have to be
beaten out of the palms. Sexual dimorphism
is very strong, the female being a very credible
mimic of the two common Danaids, Danaus
genutia and D. chrysippus. How credible
will only be apparent to those that have

actually seen it in nature since the likeness in
cabinet specimens is much less. The species
is found in Sri Lanka, in South India, then
from about Dehra Dun to the Philippines,
Borneo and the Lesser Sunda Islands. In the
Philippines, Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo the
female is not mimetic and looks like the male.

LETHINI

155. Lethe europa ragalva Fruhstorfer

The bamboo treebrown is not rare in the
Nilgiris though it is somewhat local and un-
predictable in occurrence. It is usually found
in lowland forest where bamboo abounds, but
it will colonise rice growing areas where
clumps of bamboo are left. Even when bamboo
is present it will not be found in the drier
formations such as the Masinagudi area. All
the Lethe are very wary and difficult to catch,
not least just when you want to be certain of
the identification of a given specimen. This is
a great nuisance since the three species are
not identifiable with absolute certainty in the
field. Their habits are somewhat skulking in
dense bamboo, but they will come to damp
patches, rotting fruit and fresh cowpats, though
they never lose their shyness. They can also
be trapped in traps baited with rotten crab,
perhaps the best way of obtaining a good
series. Occasionally they are attracted to lights
in the late evening. It is absent from Sri Lanka,
found in much of India and extending to most
of the Oriental region.

156. Lethe drypetis todara Moore

I have not found the Tamil treebrown
nearly as common as imputed by Wynter-Blyth,
having seen it chiefly in bamboo infested
moist-deciduous forest in the Wynaad. It
comes freely to foul substances and I have
caught five specimens at the same time on
fresh leopard droppings. When not engaged in

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such pursuits the species is very difficult to
get at, the flight being very erratic. I have
taken some also on the lower parts of the
Nadgani Ghat, and I found it common in
moist-deciduous forest in the Biligiriranga
Mountains. A specimen taken back to Kotagiri
for photography escaped and was immediately
snapped up and consumed by my resident
White Spotted Fantail Flycatcher ( Rhipidura
atbicollis). The species is endemic to Sri Lanka
and South India.

157. Lethe rohria neelgheriensis
Guerin-Meneville

The common treebrown is more of a hill
insect than the two other South Indian Lethe
and it is somewhat weaker on the wing. It
shares the habit of coming to various foul
substances and sugary material. During my
childhood we had a flourishing colony at Spring
Cottage in Kotagiri, but during 1986 I found
it only in the Biligiriranga Mountains, where it
was common in subtropical evergreen and
moist-deciduous forest near the Honametti
Estate. The range covers Sri Lanka, South
India, suitable spots on the Indian peninsula,
then east to China and Bali, for some odd
reason wholly bypassing Malaysia.

MYCALESINI
The genus Mycalesis

The Bushbrowns of the genus Mycalesis form
a large and difficult complex which is in need
of revision. Three of the Nilgiri species are
easily identified: M. anaxias with its promi-
nent white bar, M. adolphei with the thin red
ring about the forewing eye-spot, and the
little, ever happy looking, M. patnia. The re-
mainder are very similar species which can
be difficult to identify even with the help of
the male genitalia. I had hoped to be able to
give a fairly good account of their characte-

ristics and distribution, but in the event I
found them rather scarce and have insufficient
comparative material. The notes given under
each of the species refer to the wet season
forms. The dry season form have reduced
underside eye-spots and are more variable, thus
being even more difficult to identify. Females,
especially single specimens, are impossible to
be certain of. For the species numbered 159
to 164 it is also likely that the taxonomy will
need changing. It is based largely on Evans
(1932) and Wynter-Blyth (1944, 1957). I do,
however, believe that the number of species
is correct. Talbot, fauna of British India,
links the taxa orcha and subdita as subspecies
of M. visala. On both morphological and dis-
tributional grounds I do not find this an attrac-
tive solution.

158. Mycalesis anaxias anaxias Hewitson

The white bar bushbrown is one of the

few species that is especially linked to the
middle heights subtropical evergreen forests,
rarely being found in the tropical zone and
only occasionally in the montane forests. I
have not found it at all common and neither
did Hampson. Wynter-Blyth’s optimistic assess-
ment must be based on a few exceptionally
vigorous colonies in his immediate area. I have
only seen a few specimens on the upper
reaches of the Nadgani Ghat, near Devala, in
a bit of relict forest near Naduvattam, and at
Law’s Falls below Coonoor. The species hardly
ever emerges from dense forest. It is found
in South India and then recurs from Nepal to
Indo-China and Malaysia, generally as a mon-
tane or submontane species.

159. Mycalesis perseus typhlus Frubstorfer

The common bushbrown male can usually
be recognised by the brand on the underside
forewing tornus which is very small and black.
On the hindwing underside the eye-spot in

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILG1RI MOUNTAINS

space 3 is usually out of line with the others
tomal eye-spots, a condition slightly approach-
ed in some other species. It is one of the most
common Indian species, but I have not seen
many in the Nilgiris, having taken a few
certain specimens at Kallar and at Nadgani.
It shares its habits with the other species, flying
mostly in shady, grassy places in wooded
country. It may be frustratingly difficult to
capture since it often flies inside bushes. The
Mycalesis hardly ever visit flowers but they will
come to rotting fruit. The species is found in
Sri Lanka and most of India to at least
Malaysia.

160. Mycalesis milieus polydecta Cramer

The dark-brand bushbrown in South India

is readily recognisable by having a short under
forewing brand that is a much lighter brown
than the jet black of the preceding species.
The remaining four species all have long brands
extending to the white discal line. I have defi-
nite specimens from the wetter parts only, at
Nadgani and Mukkali, but elsewhere it is
quite common also in the drier zones. How-
ever, Wynter-Blyth also remarks that it seems
strangely scarce in the Nilgiris area. The range
covers Sri Lanka, most of India, then to the
Philippines, Taiwan, Sulawesi and Malaysia.

161. Mycalesis subdita Moore

The Tamil bushbrown is the first of the
long branded species and is generally not too
hard to distinguish from the others. It tends
to be quite large and well marked. It usually
has a well-developed ocellus also in space 1
of the forewing underside, connected with that
of space 2 as a double ocellus. Other species
may have such an ocellus, but it is rarely
strongly developed and only in extreme wet
season forms. I have found this species com-
mon at Kallar but otherwise did not see it.
It is endemic to peninsular India.

162. Mycalesis igilia Fruhstorfer

The SMALL LONG-BRAND BUSHBROWN is
usually easily identified because its under fore-
wing brand is very long, extending clearly
beyond the white discal line. As a result the
white discal line is often angled towards the
tornus at vein lb. It is often very common
indeed in the bamboo jungles of the Nilgiri
Wynaad but seems to be found nowhere else
in the area. It is a narrowly endemic species
to the Wynaad type vegetation in the Nilgiris,
Coorg and the area in between. This may indi-
cate that it is specially adapted to the moist-
deciduous forest types where monocotyledons
are much in evidence. Its specific status is
without doubt. M. mercea Evans from Pach-
marhi is possibly a subspecies of M. igilia.

163. Mycalesis visala visala Moore

The long-brand bushbrown has a long
brand, which goes beyond the discal line as
in the preceding species. It is otherwise very
like M. subdita above, though the ocellus in
space 1 is usually absent and never prominent.
Indeed the latter species is often listed as
subspecies of M. visala but both are South
Indian and my impression is that M. subdita
is a good species. However, I did not catch
the present species in the Nilgiris from where
it is recorded by previous authors. The two
do seem to be sympatric and not to represent
seasonal forms of the same species. M. visala
is found from South and Central India to
Indo-China and Malaysia.

164. Mycalesis khasia orcha Evans

The pale-brand bushbrown has a long
light yellow brand that is lighter than in the
otherwise similar M. subdita. The brand does
not go beyond the white discal line as in the
two preceding species. It is another species
that seems to be found mainly in the moist-
deciduous type of forest. I have not found it

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in the Nilgiris but found it plentiful in the
Biligiriranga Mountains. It is reputed to be
particularly common at the close of the mon-
soon in the Nilgiri Wynaad. The range covers
South India and Assam/ Burma, but the taxo-
nomy of the long-branded species of Mycalesis
needs further work. However, the presence of
four long-branded species in southern India
seems certain, whatever their ultimate taxono-
mic destinations.

165. Mycalesis adolphei Guerin-Meneville

The red eye bushbrown is restricted to

the higher levels of the Nilgiris and the area
around Coorg. It is rare at Coorg but common
in the Nilgiris above 1900 m in the typical
montane sholas. Seasonal variation is very
marked. The dry season form was very common
around Kotagiri in April 1986, gradually be-
coming scarcer. From late August onwards,
in a year of bad rains, the wet season form
started to appear. I suspect there are only two
annual broods as was also suggested by Hamp-
son, though Wynter-Blyth disagrees with this
view. Generally it is found only in dense ever-
green forest, sometimes playing along forest
paths but often fairly passive. South of the
Nilgiris the species is replaced by the Red
Disc Bushbrown Mycalesis oculus Marshall
which has the same habits. This situation
matches that of Ypthima chenui and Y. ypthi-
moides. These two pairs are the only examples
of vicariance north and south of the Palghat
Gap among butterflies.

166. Mycalesis patnia junonia Butler

The glad eye bushbrown is endemic to
South India and Sri Lanka where it is often
very common in the tropical and subtropical
evergreen forest, occasionally being found also
in heavy deciduous forests, but very rarely
colonising disturbed areas. The flight is low
and stumbling and much weaker than the

other members of the genus. The Mycalesis
rarely if ever visit flowers, but some are fond
of rotting fruit, and occasionally M. patnia
can be seen on fallen berries and fruits in large
numbers. In October 1986 I saw a specimen
passing through my Kotagiri garden at 1900 m
in a straight line following the main migration,
at the time towards the SW. The nearest loca-
lity where I have seen the species is miles
away and some 400 m lower, but could it
really have been migrant?

167. Orsotrioena medus man data Moore

The nigger is a fairly common butterfly in

the wetter low-level forests, occasionally being
found in drier conditions. In behaviour it is
very like the Mycalesis and it is, indeed, often
found with one or more of these. It differs
in having only three major eye spots on the
underside. Sometimes the species is abundant
at Kallar during the monsoon. The degree of
seasonal variation is so strong that I included
it in a review of this topic (Brakefield &
Larsen 1984). I have only seen wet season
forms in the Nilgiris, but Hampson mentions
the dry season form from the western slopes.
The genus is monobasic and the single species
is found from Sri Lanka to Australia.

168. Zipoetis saitis Hewitson

The Tamil catseye is a most interesting
butterfly, limited to the wettest lowland forests
of the Western Ghats system. Wynter-Blyth’s
record of a specimen from the lower parts
of the Coonoor Ghat is most unusual. Mostly
it is found on the western slopes where bamboo
is prevalent and most records are from the
Nadgani Ghat area. Even here the species is
quite rare though this is perhaps in part be-
cause of its retiring habits and unwillingness
to fly spontaneously. Despite the fact that its
unique colour pattern makes it highly conspi-
cuous when on the wing, I have only seen it

564

BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LGIRI MOUNTAINS

six or seven times, never more than two on
any given day. I have also seen it once at
Mukkali at the approaches to Silent Valley.
It comes to fallen fruit and probably syste-
matic ‘sugaring’ would be the best way of
getting a good series. I certainly know from
experience that chasing it through dense jungle
with a butterfly net is a very poor way of
procuring specimens. It is endemic to South
India.

YPTHIMINI

169. Ypthima asterope mahratta Moore
The common threering is decidedly rare

in the Nilgiri area though it is far from diffi-
cult to identify and often the only member of
the genus where found. It is limited to the
drier lowland habitats such as thorn forest, but
will be found also in the mixed deciduous
forest and agricultural land. I am very sur-
prised that Wynter-Blyth should have recorded
it from the Nadgani Ghat area and almost
certainly it would have been on cleared land.
Sometimes it flies with Ypthima ceylonica. It
is the only one of the genus to be Palaeotropi-
cal, occurring from Burma and India (not Sri
Lanka) through Arabia to the eastern Medi-
terranean and much of Africa. Specimens from
both Lebanon and Yemen have a haploid
chromosome number of n= 16 and it would be
very interesting to know whether it is the
same in India. The common northern species,
Y. inica is entirely absent.

170. Ypthima ceylonica Hewitson

The CEYLON fourring is endemic to South
India and Sri Lanka where it is often abundant.
In the Nilgiris it seems to be exclusively a
species of the southern slopes, mainly con-
fined to open forests at low levels, but pene-
trating the subtropical zone. In autumn of
1957 I found a thriving colony near my school

at Kotagiri (1900 m) which must be more
exceptional. It is a much more frequent visitor
to flowers than are most of the Ypthima. At
Kallar, where the species is usually very com-
mon, a small polygonaceous weed proved
particularly attractive in addition to the usual
Tridax. There is some confusion over the
specific status of Y. ceylonica and Y. huebneri,
the modern trend being towards considering
the latter to be a subspecies of the former.
I cannot agree with such a view. The two are
often sympatric on the southern slopes of the
Nilgiris without intermediates occurring. I
have seen them flying together on a perma-
nent basis at Glenburn, just above Kallar and
in several localities in the Biligiriranga Moun-
tains. The apical eye spot of Y. ceylonica is
consistently larger than that of Y. huebneri
which species also displays strong seasonal
variation that is almost absent in Y. ceylonica .
Shirozu & Shima (1979) also maintain the two
as distinct species.

171. Ypthima huebneri huebneri Kirby

The common fourring is common mainly
in the evergreen forests of the tropical and
subtropical zones, but it is also found in the
deciduous formations. It often flies with
Ypthima ceylonica and as argued under that
species I have no doubt that they are quite
distinct. Y. huebneri is much weaker on the
wing than Y. baldus, a species with which it
often shares its habitat. It only rarely visits
flowers and never comes to water, fallen fruit
or foul substances. It does not occur in Sri
Lanka but is found through most of India,
extending to Indo-China and Malaysia.

172. Ypthima avanta striata Hampson

The Nilgiri form of the jewel fourring
was described by Hampson as a distinct
species, later to be combined with Y. avanta.
It has also been recorded under the specific

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

name of Y. lisandra, but I follow Shirozu &
Shima (1979) in accepting the former as a
distinct species. The almost uniform dark
brown upperside with hardly a trace of apical
eye spots on the forewings will serve to dis-
tinguish it from the other South Indian mem-
bers of the genus. Hampson recorded it as
common on the southern slopes at 3000 ft in
August, December and January. Wynter-Blyth
failed to find it, and I have but a single male
from the Burnside Estate, 1400 m (29. vi). It
certainly does not seem to be common today.
The distribution covers Sri Lanka, South and
parts of peninsular India to Madhya Pradesh,
then from Jammu to Burma, with Y. lisandra
further east.

173. Ypthima baldus madrasa Evans

The common fivering is often abundant
in the wetter forests of the tropical and sub-
tropical zones, including parts of the mixed
deciduous forest. The flight is stronger than
that of most members of the genus. It is a
more frequent visitor to flowers than is Y.
huelmeri with which it often flies. It often
basks in the sun with the wings three-fourths
open. It is found through most of India and
then east to Japan and Sundaland. Its absence
from Sri Lanka is curious.

174. Ypthima chenui Guerin-Meneville

The nilgiri fourring is the largest South
Indian member of the genus and is characte-
rised by the presence of some marked chest-
nut bands on the hindwing underside, the
outer of which fully encompasses the marginal
eye spots. It endemic to the highest mountains
north of the Palghat gap, being replaced by
Y. ypthimoides to the south. Hampson records
that both are present in the Annamalai Hills
but I have not seen able to verify this. Wynter-
Blyth records the species as being common
in open country on the plateau proper from

February to April, while Hampson said it had
four broods on high, rocky brown. From my
childhood I remember that it was common at
various points near Kotagiri where I never saw
it during 1986. On 5.x I finally found it again
at Avalanche, mainly where rocks broke
through the verdant grass.

175. Ypthima philomela tabella Marshall &

de Niceville

The baby fivering is a small species which
in the Nilgiri area is wholly limited to the
Nilgiri Wynaad where it was reputed to be
common by earlier authors. I have entirely
failed to find during visits in May, June, July
and September. The species is also found in
North Burma, and according to Shirozu &
Shima (1979) it extends from there to Viet-
nam, Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Bali and
Sulawesi. Other authors would maintain that
the species should be split into several.

AMATHUSIINAE

176. Discophora lepida lepida Moore

The southern duffer is the only South
Indian representative of the subfamily Amathu-
siinae. It is found only in the wettest lowknd
evergreen forest where bamboo is present and
it is rare to very rare, though in part this
is due to very retiring habits. Additionally it
is only spontaneously on the wing during dawn
and dusk, except in the case of ovipositing
females. The best way of securing specimens
is through baiting with rotten fruit or ferment-
ing toddy. Hampson saw but one on the
western slopes, Wynter-Blyth took a few at
jaggery bait at Kallar, and I took a fine female
at the bottom of Nadgani Ghat which was
ovipositing on bamboo on a dull day. It is
worth recalling that a fine female was caught
about fifty years ago inside the cordite factory
at Aravankadu, 1000 m higher and a dozen

566

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

kilometres from the nearest suitable habitat.
A distinct subspecies flies in Sri Lanka and
other members of the genus are found from
the Himalaya east to most of the Oriental
region.

Nymphainae

Nymphalinae

177. Byblia ilithyia Drury

The joker is a dry zone butterfly of Afro-
tropical origin most likely to be found in
broken country and along hedgerows on the
plains surrounding the Nilgiris but even here it
appears to be local. Many years ago I collected
a good series somewhere between Gudalur and
Gundlupet. The species has some migratory
capacity and will sometimes be met with on
the plateau. Wynter-Blyth collected a specimen
at Ketti (24.ix.1942) and I have one from
Kotagiri from September 1955. They probably
follow the autumn migrations. The species is
found in Sri Lanka, in the drier parts of the
Deccan, but not in northwestern India. The
African population ranges throughout the drier
parts of Africa and in Southwest Arabia as
far east as Dhofar. There is no geographical
subspeciation within this vast range and a
Nilgiri specimen cannot be told from a Nige-
rian one. This is a classical Sudano-Deccanian
distribution pattern.

178. Ariadne ariadne indica Moore

The angled castor is not rare and may
be found anywhere in the Nilgiris though the
following species is usually the more common
of the two. It is migratory and this is doubt-
less one of the reasons for its wide distribution,
eclectic choice of habitat, and somewhat
unpredictable occurrence. It is often found
flying in and out about stands of the larval
food plants, especially Ricinus communis and

species of Tragia. Care must be taken with
the latter plant which has extremely unplea-
sant stinging properties. Flowers, sap exuda-
tions and sugary substances are also attractive.
The genus is found in both Africa and Asia;
the species is found practically throughout the
Oriental region.

179. Ariadne merione merione Cramer

The distribution, ecology and bionomics of
the common castor are almost identical with
those of Ariadne ariadne and the two are often
found together at the same time, sharing the
same food plant. It would be interesting to
study closely what, if any, mechanisms exist
to minimise direct competition between them.
Apart from Colotis danae and C. eucharis I
cannot offhand recollect any species pair that
are so similar in all respects. I have bred the
species on Ricinus in Delhi. The larvae are
very variable and the pupa is trimorphic in
green, brown and grey. The range of the
species covers most of the Oriental region.

ARGYNNINI

180. Cupha erymanthis maja Fruhstorfer

The rustic is a common butterfly in the
Nilgiris, being centred on the subtropical ever-
green forests and the upper regions of the
tropical zone. It is, however, not uncommon in
parts of the evergreen tropical zone, in mixed
deciduous forest and on the plateau, at least
at certain times of the year. The males fly
restlessly through the dense forests in search
of females. The latter fly deep inside the forest
investigating potential food plants with a degree
of patience that usually outlasted mine, though
I wanted to breed the species whose pupa is
reputed to be a thing of great beauty. The few
times I saw an egg laid it was on plants that
were very small and that I could not identify.
Both sexes come to flowers and the male very

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

occasionally to damp patches. It is found in
South India and Sri Lanka, recurring from
about Musoorie east to most of the Oriental
region.

181. Plialanta phalantha phalantha Drury

(Atella phalantha )

The leopard butterfly is fairly common
in the Nilgiris, but unpredictable in timing,
frequency and distribution, probably at least
in part because it is a strongly migratory
species. From time to time it may be met with
anywhere from the Bhavanisagar subdesert to
the Nadgani rainforests and from the foot of
the Ghats to the highest peaks. The species is
very fond of flowers and on 9.vi.l986 I saw
hundreds at damp patches along a small river
near Masinagudi. Relatively small numbers
participated in both the May and October
migrations of 1986. In the subtropical forests
around Glenbum the larval food plant was a
Salix that grew along river beds. The range
covers the whole of Africa, southwestern
Arabia and the entire Oriental region.

182. Cirrochroa thais thais Fabricius

The Tamil yeoman is endemic to South
India and Sri Lanka but is closely related to
a number of Oriental species in the genus. It
is a common butterfly in all types of evergreen
forest and on the plateau it is often seen
wandering across agricultural lands in a some-
what haphazard manner. My childhood field
notes from 1958 say that ‘it seems to be
migrating in spring’, but I did not see direc-
tional movements of the species in 1986. Often
large numbers are found flying in and out of
a low forest tree, presumably the larval food
plant, often settling on the underside of leaves.
Both sexes come readily to flowers, the males
occasionally to water. The wings are very
delicate and often break in the net which is
also the case in Cupha erymanthis.

183. Vindula erota saloma Swinhoe

{Cynthia erota)

The magnificent cruiser is not rare in
evergreen forests at low and middle levels.
The golden orange of the male and the copper
sheen of the female are both splendid in their
own way. Males often bask at a vantage point
from which they make brief sorties. At such
times the only way to catch them is with a
very long handled net. However, they often
visit Lantana in the early mornings and are
then easily netted. They visit damp patches
occasionally and may be caught on carnivore
droppings, especially those of the otter. Gordon
Thompson had one coming in a trap baited
with rotten crab at Nadgani, unusual, I think,
among the Argynnis group. The Cruiser occurs
in Sri Lanka and South India, then from Nepal
east to Malaysia, Borneo, Sulawesi and Sunda-
land. Other species of the genus occur in New
Guinea and the remainder of the Oriental
region, some overlapping with the present
species.

184. Argyreus hyperbius hybrida Evans

( Argynnis hyperbius)

The Indian fritillary is a Palaearctic
butterfly that has managed to colonise the
montane zones of Ethiopia, South India, Sri
Lanka, Malaysia, Sumatra, Sulawesi (Vane-
Wright, pers. comm.), and New Guinea. This
feat is quite unique in the butterfly world but
it is reminiscent of several genera of plants
(e.g. Jmpatiens). Possibly the wide range is
due to the migratory capacity of the species
which may breed on the plains of India during
winter. I have seen large numbers on the
Chambal river south of Agra in December
1986, several hundred kilometres from any per-
manent foothold. In the Nilgiris the species is
confined to the plateau proper mainly on
moist grassland and in clearings in sholas. It
is quite common and on the wing throughout

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

the year. The Nilgiri population is sedentary
to the extent that even strays from the plateau
are never met with at lower levels. It comes
freely to flowers and I have seen one male on
the excrement of a dog. In flight the female
is a very respectable mimic of Danaus genutia.
I saw many attacks on males at Longwood
Shola near Kotagiri by the Bulbul ( Pycnono -
tus jocosus), but whether it was by chance or
design that the female was not attacked can-
not be said for sure. Many severed male wings
were found in the area. Three caged females
in Kotagiri laid freely on the leaves of two
species of violet in contrast to the European
Argynnids which lay on nearby inanimate
objects. This difference is doubtless mediated
by the fact that A. hyperbius is continuous
brooded whereas the egg of European Argy-
nnids represents the hibernation stage. The
egg stages lasted nine days, the larval stage
forty days, and the pupal stage sixteen days.
Woodhouse (1952) reports quite similar data
from Sri Lanka. In all 45 males and 41 females
emerged successfully, indicating a normal sex
ratio. The males hatch on average three days
before the females, a very moderate level of
protandry.

HELICONIINI

185. Cethosia nietneri mahratta Felder
The Tamil lace wing is a lovely butterfly
of the wettest lowland forests of the Western
Ghats system where it may be quite common.
A darker subspecies occurs on Sri Lanka
which appears to be ecologically somewhat
more tolerant, a trait that is found in other
rainforest species as well. On the wing the
lacewing is virtually indistinguishable from the
toxic Danaus genutia. They appear to be in
a co-mimicry relationship, though I am not
certain that the Cethosia have yet conclusively
been proven toxic. However the larval food

plants of the Passifloraceae are exploited by
toxic Ithomiines in the Neotropics and by
Acraeines in Africa, and when handled Cetho-
sia feigns death, a trait usually associated with
protected species. Caged females at Kotagiri
refused to lay eggs on two different Passi-
floraceous plants.

NYMPHALINI

186. Jimonia hierta hierta Fabricius
( Precis hierta)

The yellow pansy is the first of a series
of common species with pretty colours which
are among the most widely distributed and
noticeable of all the Indian butterflies. The
Yellow Pansy is a common butterfly whose
main habitat is open scrubland and ill-kept
agricultural land, but it may also be found in
mountainous districts, and on occasion may be
taken practically anywhere in the Nilgiris.
Numbers fluctuate considerably. The males are
territorial and will select a small stone as a
vantage point from where they vigorously chase
off all comers. The species, like most of the
Pansies, is migratory. It is a Palaeotropical
species being found in Thailand, Burma, India
and Pakistan, recurring in the rather different
ssp. cebrene in southern Arabia and through-
out dry tropical Africa, with a weak incursion
into the eastern Mediterranean (Larsen 1986b).

187. Jimonia orithya swinhoei Butler
( Precis orithya)

The blue pansy is another common plains
butterfly that may be found in the Nilgiris in
fluctuating numbers, being least common in
densely forested areas. This species, too, is
migratory although only very small numbers
participated in the 1986 migrations in the
Nilgiris. T have rarely found it common except

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

in the thorn forests surrounding the mountains.
The distribution is Palaeotropical covering the
Papuan subregion, most of the Oriental re-
gion, Arabia and all of Africa, occasionally
being found as far north as Jordan (Larsen
1986b). It is notable that the species occurs
in fairly well-defined subspecies indicating that
migration takes place within and not between
the subspecific entities.

188. Junonia lemonias Linne
( Precis lemonias)

The lemon pansy is the most common of
the five Junonia in the Nilgiris, being found
practically anywhere in larger numbers than
the others, but like them being scarcer on the
plateau. It was the most numerous member
of the spring migration observed in May 1986
with more than one million specimens (Larsen
1987b), a third of the total number of migrants.
The species is a more frequent visitor to damp
patches than the others of the genus. The
seasonal forms are very marked, but I have
not seen any very pronounced dry season
forms in the Nilgiris. The species is centred
on the Indian subcontinent extending to
Malaysia in the east.

189. Junonia almana almana Linne
( Precis almana)

The peacock pansy is another common
butterfly found all over the plains with the
other Pansies, but it is rather scarce in the
Nilgiris. I have only seen the wet season form
in the area and the dry season form seems to
be very rare in Sri Lanka, even in the dry
northeast of the country. In Delhi the two
forms appear with the seasons like clockwork
and hardly overlap in time. It is often found
in clearings in the rainforest zone where the
Yellow and Blue Pansies do not occur, pos-
sibly because they use Mimosa pudica as a

larval food plant. The range covers most of
the Oriental region.

190. Junonia atlites aflites Linne
( Precis atlites)

The grey pansy is the scarcest of the genus,
being linked to more mesic habitats than the
others, and usually not common, though I
have sometimes seen fair numbers at the foot
of the Nadgani Ghat. It occurs occasionally
at Kallar. Some time in 1957 I saw a single
specimen following the main migration in
Kotagiri (1900 m), but this is exceptional and
it is essentially a low-land species. Most of
my specimens, contrary to the other Junonia,
have been dry season forms, wet season forms
at Nadgani appearing only by August. The
distribution covers the entire Oriental region
except for the driest parts.

191. Precis iphita pluvialis Fruhstorfer

The chocolate pansy is very common in
wooded country at low and medium heights,
becoming scarcer in the driest habitats and
the plateau, but nearly as eclectic as the four
common Junonia. It is an avid visitor to flowers
and occasionally to damp patches. This butter-
fly is a great nuisance to the collector since
on the wing it often looks like a better and
more interesting insect than it actually is. Like
the Junonia it is migratory. The distribution
covers practically the entire Oriental region.

192. Vanessa cardui cardui Linne

The painted lady is by any yardstick the
world’s most widely distributed butterfly and
probably among the best known. It is also one
of the most accomplished migrants, a migrant
stream from Mexico to the United States once
being estimated at three billion specimens. In
the Nilgiris it may be found anywhere, but
rarely in very large numbers, and not at any

570

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

time of the year, as is so often the case with
migrant species. Hampson considered it to be
limited to the plateau, but that is not so, and
I have seen it at both Mettupalayam and in
the Mudumalai sanctuary. Wynter-Blyth con-
sidered it to be common on the plateau, but
this is only occasionally so. The distribution is
practically speaking world wide, though it is
missing from the equatorial rainforests and
much of Latin America.

193. Vanessa indica pholoe Fruhstorfer

The Indian red admiral is a Palaearctic
element that maintains a toehold in the higher
mountains of South India. In the Nilgiris it is
essentially a plateau species, but occasionally
it descends to the subtropical zone. It is mainly
found on the edges of forest, but it may also
be found in garden areas. It is fairly common
but numbers have suffered from the extensive
tea planting which has reduced the amount of
nettles, its larval food plant. The larvae live
singly in little tents spun from the leaves of
the nettles, after the mid-rib has been bitten
half through. In this, and for that matter all
other traits, the species is very similar to the
European counterpart ( Vanessa atalanta
Linne). The range covers the Sri Lankan and
South Indian mountains, then from the Hima-
laya east to Japan and for some very odd
reason the Canary Islands.

194. Kaniska canace viridss Evans
(Vanessa canace)

The blue admiral is a handsome butterfly
that, at the moment at least, is relatively scarce
on the plateau of the Nilgiris and occasional
in the subtropical forests. I am quite certain
that the species was much more common dur-
ing my childhood (1954-1958) and that this
is not only because some of the natural habitat
has given way to tea. During my six months
in 1986 I have seen no more than three dozen

or so. It is essentially a butterfly of the clear-
ings and edges of typical sholas, but the larval
food plant, Smilax, was also common in ill-
tended plantations. Such habitats used to be
widespread but have now given way for tea.
Males are very territorial, occupying the same
perch for days on end, and continue battles
with any intruders even when they have reached
the point where they can hardly fly. The range
covers the mountains of Sri Lanka and southern
India, then from the Himalayas east through
temperate Asia, with isolated populations in
montane Malaysia and Sumatra.

195. Hypolimnas misippus Linne

The common or dan aid eggfly is generally
a common butterfly in India, but it is not
normally abundant in the Nilgiris. In fact, the
next species is usually the more common of
the two Eggflies. It represents one of the
classical cases of female limited mimicry with
the normal female form being an excellent
mimic of the toxic Danaus chrysippus. The
model has two additional female forms, both
of which are exceedingly rare in southern
India. In the Eggfly the female form inaria ,
which lacks the black and white apex to the
forewings, is seen very occasionally. I shot one
off a tall eucalyptus with an air-gun in 1957,
and I saw another at Kallar in June 1986. The
form with white hindwings, alcippoides, is even
scarcer and indeed I have never seen a fully
developed specimen from South India, though
doubtless they do occur. Pierre (1980) uses
the presence of these forms to dispute the entire
concept of mimicry since they are ‘inappro-
priate’ mimics, having no models. Their rarity
is therefore of great import, because it is rather
a powerful argument in favour of balanced
polymorphism where the monomorphic model
has ensured that selection has almost eliminat-
ed the expression of the two rarer forms, both
of which are common in Africa. The range

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

covers the entire new world tropics, with some
penetration of the Palaearctic. It has esta-
blished itself in the Caribbean and parts of
Latin America during the 18th and 19th cen-
turies.

196. Hyplolimnas bolina jacintha Drury

The GREAT eggfly is not rare at low and

middle heights in the Nilgiris and may be
found intermittently on the plateau. Like other
migratory species it is, however, both fluctuat-
ing in numbers and somewhat unpredictable.
For a period in September 1986 it was one
of the most common butterflies in the area
and it formed a fair proportion of the large
autumn migrations in October. In a reversal
of the normal situation this species is actually
more common in the Nilgiris than H. misippus.
The female is mimic of the Euploea-spQciQS
and though the mimicry does not look that
impressive in cabinet specimens it is sometimes
startlingly effective in nature. There is a long
history of all-female broods in this butterfly,
shown by Clarke & Sheppard (1975) to be
due to early male-limited mortality, and in
1961 this occurred in Delhi. During 1984-1986
in Delhi and during 1986 in the Nilgiris the
sex ratios were normal. The distribution covers
the entire Oriental region and many Pacific
islands, but contrary to H. misippus distinct
subspecies occur.

197. Doleschallia bisaltide malabarica

Fruhstorfer

The autumn leaf is closely related to the
Kallima and have much the same habits,
though linked to the wetter type of evergreen
formations. It is generally a rare butterfly in
Sri Lanka and South India and must rate as
very rare in the Nilgiris. Yates (1935) records
it on the basis of specimens collected by
Stokes Roberts, and Gordon Thompson feels
quite sure he has seen it on one or two occa-

sions in the Nadgani area. I am surprised to
learn that it has been found also in the Palnis
(Shembaganur), Rodericks &Ugarte (1960) but
the locality is probably more mesic than most
parts of that mountain range. The distribu-
tion covers Sri Lanka and South India, then
from Nepal east to practically the entire
Oriental region.

198. Kallima horsfieldi Kollar
(Kallima philarchus)

The south Indian blue oakleaf has often
been considered a subspecies of the Sri Lankan
Kallima philarchus Westwood, and which
approach to take is a finely balanced choice,
but, actually, not a matter of great conse-
quence. The beautiful leaf shape of the Kallima
is one of the celebrated examples of camouflage
and the South Indian species is as fine as
any other in this respect. When settling on
branches and tree trunks the Kallima inva-
riably settle head down. The species is rela-
tively rare in the Nilgiris and largely limited
to evergreen forest at the tropical and sub-
tropical levels, though it may also be met with
in the mixed deciduous forest and on occasion
in moist-deciduous forest in the Wynaad. In
1957 we saw a specimen at Kotagiri (1900 m)
for the first and only time. Despite the enthu-
siastic pursuit by nearly a dozen kids with
nets it managed to escape, and indeed it nearly
always does, except when collected at rotting
fruit. In nature the species lives a fairly retir-
ing life, only being spontaneously on the wing
for a brief period just after noon. Occasional
specimens may be seen basking in the early
morning sunshine. When disturbed they fly
fast but not usually for long, settling among
branches and leaf debris where their underside
pattern is to their best advantage. The species
is endemic to the Western Ghats system, but
very similar species are found in Sri Lanka,
and then from Sikkim to much of the Oriental

572

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILG1RI MOUNTAINS

region. I have collected K. spiridiva Grose
Smith in Sumatra and its characteristics and
behaviour in the field did not differ from the
South Indian species.

MARPESIINI

199. Cyrestis thyodamas indica Evans
The map butterfly is a delightful species
with its delicate markings on a semi-transparent
background, but it is not a common butterfly
in the Nilgiris. In my experience its head-
quarters is the evergreen forest of the sub-
tropical level, though it is also found in plateau
sholas and in the tropical evergreen forests.
It very rarely ventures into open country. The
slow flight with the wings held horizontal for
long periods is very characteristic, as is the
resting posture with the wings held flat against
the under surface of a large leaf. It is fond
of coming to water along running streams but
is less of a visitor to flowers. I did not come
across it often in the Nilgiris and then mainly
in the subtropical forests around Glenburn.
A few were seen on the Nadgani Ghat and
there was a small, but definitely resident, popu-
lation in the Longwood Shola at 2000 m near
Kotagiri. Holloway (1973) gives an interesting
review of this genus, with C. thyodamas being
found in suitable places on the Western Ghats,
but not in Sri Lanka, and then again from
Jammu east to Burma and Thailand. The
genus has a single Afrotropical representative
on the mainland as well as one on Madagascar.

LIMEN1TIDINI

200. Neptis jumbah jumbah Moore
Most details of the Neptis are taken from
the monograph on the Oriental species by Eliot
(1969). The chestnut streaked sailor is
endemic to peninsular India and Burma, as
well as Sri Lanka. The South Indian form

actually approaches that of Sri Lanka, ssp.
nalanda Fruhstorfer. It is the most common of
the South Indian Neptis after the ubiquitous
N. hylas and is generally not rare, and some-
times locally common. It is mainly limited to
low-level forest of the mixed deciduous and
evergreen types, but it will also penetrate much
of the subtropical zone. The flight is rather
higher and more powerful than that of Neptis
hylas, and the species is quite wary when des-
cending to feed on flowers or to seek damp
patches. It is rarely seen away from forest. The
range is curious inasmuch as it is not found
in the Himalaya west of Sikkim despite being
present many places in the Eastern Ghats and
Bengal.

201. Neptis hylas varmona Moore

The common sailor is almost ubiquitous in
the Nilgiris though it is missing in the driest
thorn forest formations. It is often common
and would probably be on a list of the twelve
butterflies most frequently encountered in the
area. It is quite variable in both size and mark-
ings and it is sometimes difficult to avoid the
impression that more than one specific taxon
is hidden within. It is a frequent visitor to
flowers and occasionally comes to water, but
does not participate in the larger joint mudd-
puddling exercises. The range covers most of
the Oriental region with the exception of the
Philippines and Sulawesi where very similar
species occur. It penetrates the Palaearctic re-
gion in East Asia.

202. Neptis clinia kallaura Moore
(not included in W-B)

While the two previous species are easily
identified the three following species are easily
confused. Their taxonomy and nomenclature
were worked out by Eliot (1969) who should
be consulted. This unfortunately means that
all old records of the three species N. clinia ,

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

N. nata and N. soma must be treated with
considerable caution. I have not seen certain
specimens from the Nilgiris but Eliot mentions
both Travancore and Coorg and it is certain
to occur. The range covers South India, then
from Nepal east to southern China and Sunda-
land, but not Sulawesi and the Philippines.

203. Neptis nata Iiampsoni Moore
( Neptis nandina)

The clear sailor is a large and rather scarce
species that is found in small numbers in all
of the evergreen forests including the plateau
sholas. I have taken it at Longwood Shola
near Kotagiri and on the Nadgani Ghat.
Wynter-Blyth found it only near the Runny-
mede railway station. It tends to fly higher
than N. hylas and is not always easily caught.
The range stretches from South India through
wooded parts of the peninsula to Madhya
Pradesh, then from Sikkim east to most of
the Oriental region.

204. Neptis soma palnica Eliot

The sullied sailor is characterised by the
very narrow white bands, more narrow than
those of any other South Indian Neptis, so
much so that older records of this species are
likely to be correct. It seems to be very rare
in the Nilgiris and I never came across
it although the few records are from the
Nadgani area. The range covers the wetter
parts of the Western Ghats, the Himalaya from
Jammu east to Indo-China, South China and
Malaysia, but not Sundaland proper.

205. Neptis viraja kanara Evans

The yellow j ack sailor looks very much
like the common Pantoporia hordonia but is
almost twice as large. On the wing it might
just be confused , with the yellow female of
Athyma nejte. It seems to be exceptionally

rare in the Nilgiris with three or four records
from the Nadgani Ghat and the western slopes.
I never came across it. It is reputed to be
stronger on the wing than the other Neptis.
Apart from in South India the species occurs
from Kumaon to Burma, Thailand, the Anda-
mans and Orissa.

206. Neptis columella nilgirica Moore

The short banded sailor is often placed
in its own genus, Phaedyma, but I prefer to
consider it a subgenus of the Neptis. It is
another scarce Nilgiri butterfly that I did not
come across. Hampson records it from the
western slopes, while Wynter-Blyth saw it near
Ketti and once on the Mettupalayam Ghat at
lower altitude. It seems to be linked to ever-
green forests. Apart from in the Western Ghats
the species may be found in suitable places
on the Indian peninsula, then from Kumaon
east to the Philippines and Lesser Sunda
Islands, but not Sulawesi. It is strange that only
two of the Neptis should be found on Sri
Lanka as well.

207. Pantoporia hordonia hordonia Stoll

( Neptis hordonia)

The common lascar is a common butterfly
in forest at low and middle heights, often
flying with Neptis hylas around thickets con-
taining Acacia horrida. The flight is quite
weak and the insect often comes to flowers,
but only occasionally to damp patches. There
is a slightly darker species with a more pro-
minent speculum on the upper hindwing costa
in the form of Pantoporia sandaka davidsoni
Eliot but I have not been able to trace any
certain Nilgiri records. The Common Lascar
is found in South India, then from Kumaon
east to practically throughout the Oriental
region.

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BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILG1RI MOUNTAINS

208. Athyma nefte Inara Doubleday
(Pantoporia nefte)

The colour sergeant is a powerful butter-
fly with a remarkable degree of sexual dimor-
phism. The male is black with a white band
and a few orange markings, while the female
is dark brown with a series of deep orange
bands, superficially resembling a large yellow
Neptis. It is not a common butterfly in South
India and seems to be limited to the low-land
evergreen forests with slight penetration of the
subtropical zone. Most Nilgiri records are from
the Nadgani Ghat area, where I have also
taken both sexes at Lantana. I have a female
also from Mukkali, near the Silent Valley
approach road. The males come to water
occasionally. The Western Ghats population is
isolated, the main range being from Nepal to
South China and Sundaland. All four South
Indian Athyma are absent from Sri Lanka.

209. Athyma selenophora kanara Evans
(Pantoporia selenophora)

The staff segeant male is very like that
of the preceding species but lacks white mark-
ings in the cell; the female looks like a giant
white Neptis. Like all the local Athyma they
both have the white saddle linking the light
band of the two hindwings across the thorax
and abdomen. It is very rare in the Nilgiris.
Wynter-Blyth found a small colony at Wenlock
Bridge and in 1957 I collected a single female
either at Kodanad or in the Longwood Shola
near Kotagiri, but the details escape me now.
I did not see it in the Nilgiris during 1986,
but I did get a fine female at the very summit
of the Biligiriranga Mountains above Hona-
metti Estate. It appears to be centred on the
subtropical evergreen zone with ability to
colonise also the upland sholas. In addition to
South India it is found in southern Bihar, and
then from Simla east to South China, Borneo
and Java. Generally the species is not common.

210. Athyma ranga karwara Fruhstorfer
(Pantoporia ranga)

In addition to being a distinctive species in
other respects the blackvein sergeant may
be immediately recognised through its white-
dotted abdomen. As with the other Athyma
it is a scarce butterfly in the Nilgiris. It is
strictly limited to well-developed evergreen
forest of the tropical and subtropical types.
Wynter-Blyth found it in one valley near
Runnymede several years running. I have taken
two at practically the same little damp patch
in the forests below Glenburn (5.v & 12. vi),
and Sid Imber saw one near Kunjapannai not
far from Glenburn (1.x. 1986). There are also
a number of records from the Nadgani Ghat
where I have twice taken it (21.vi & 4.vii).
Apart from in South India it is found from
Nepal east to Indo -China and Malaysia and
is nowhere common.

211. Athyma perius perius Linne
(Pantoporia perius)

The common sergeant is the most wide-
spread and numerous of the genus in the
Nilgiris, but it is far from common. There are
records from the western slopes, Nadgani,
Devala, Kallar, Ketti and Kotagiri. I bred a
specimen from an euphorbiaceous plant in the
late 1950ies in Kotagiri. The flight is powerful
but not normally as high as in the other three
Athyma. Flowers are visited and occasionally
also damp patches. It is found in southern and
peninsular India where conditions permit and
will be found under more open conditions
than the other three. The main range is from
Simla east to Taiwan and south to Sundaland.

212. Moduza procris raidifragus Fruhstorfer
(Limenitis procris)

The commander is not rare in the wettest
low-land forests and may occasionally be quite
numerous at the foot of the Nadgani Ghat.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Hampson considered it rare and Wynter-Blyth
did not meet with it, but during June to August
1986 we found many at Lantana in the Nadgani
Ghat area, especially before 11.30 in the
morning. Later in the day males would perch
and pounce on other passing butterflies high
up in the trees. Occasional specimens would
come to water. I have seen one or two also
in subtropical evergreen forest near Glenburn.
It is a most elegant and powerful butterfly,
wary when at rest, and it is quite unforgiving
towards a clumsy entomologist. In peninsular
India and on Sri Lanka it is reputed to occur
in various types of deciduous forest under
much more xeric conditions than any of the
Nilgiri localities. It is found from the level
of Dehra Dun in the Himalayas east to practi-
cally the entire Oriental region.

PARTHENINI

213. Parthenos sylvia virens Moore
The clipper is a large butterfly that is
among the most beautiful of all butterflies, the
beauty being topped off by a very graceful
behaviour. The powerful, gliding flight with
the wings held stiff just below horizontal is a
delight to watch. The habitat is almost exclu-
sively the wetter low-land evergreen forests of
the western slopes. Wynter-Blyth once saw a
specimen at Kallar, possibly originating from
the Attapadi/Silent Valley area where the
species is common. At the foot of the Nadgani
Ghat large numbers sometimes come to Lan-
tana in the mornings and they are then very
easy to catch, but they never seem to come
to damp patches or to malodorous substances.
When not attracted to flowers they usually
stay in the canopy, perching on a broad leaf
from where they make short sorties, but usually
staying quite out of reach. Damaged speci-
mens are very often met with. I have seen one
flying, awkwardly, with less than one tenth
of the right forewing remaining. The species

is found in Sri Lanka, South India, in parts
of the Eastern Ghats, and then again from
about Mussoorie east to the entire Oriental
region and New Guinea. There are many sub-
species, often quite distinctive.

EUTHALIINI

214. Tanaeda lepidea miyana Fruhstorfer
( Euthalia lepidea)

The grey count is a distinctive butterfly
that is generally rare in the Nilgiris, though
sometimes not rare in suitable localities in
Kanara. It is almost exclusively found in the
wettest low-land evergreen forests, though
occasional specimens have been seen at Kallar.
I have seen one or two on most of my visits
to the Nadgani Ghat. Specimens in good con-
dition are almost impossible to obtain except
on bait or naturally decomposing fruit. Flowers
are not visited, damp patches only rarely. The
butterfly is fond of sunning itself on a leaf
with the wings held flat, but under such cir-
cumstances it is very wary. It is found in
South India, locally on the Eastern Ghats and
more generally from Kumaon to Malaysia.

215. Euthalia teSchmia Menetries

The blue baron is not dissimilar to the
preceding species, but the wings are more angu-
lar and the marginal band of the male is blue
instead of grey. According to Wynter-Blyth
one South Indian specimen, from Coorg, is all
that is known, but according to Harish
Gaonkar ( pers . comm.) more have been seen.
Gordon Thompson described to me, in such
a way as to be quite certain that no mistake
could be involved, how he and his father in
the 1960ies had found a small colony of this
species in some swamp jungle on the Nilgiri
Wynaad. I am almost certain that I saw a
male on the Gersoppa Ghat in Kanara in
October 1986. It would be most interesting to
get a good series of this butterfly since there

576

BUTTERFLIES OF THE N1LG1RI MOUNTAINS

is a very good chance that it represents a dis-
tinct, unnamed subspecies. Apart from South
India the range covers the area between
Sikkim and Burma and the species is consi-
dered rare throughout its range.

216. Euthalia acoethea meridionalis

Fruhstorfer

( Euthalia garuda)

The common baron is the most widely
distributed and common of the Euthalia- group
in peninsular India, feeding on mango and
cashew as well as other plants. It is sometimes
very common in places like Bangalore and I
found it plentiful at Goa in October 1986. It
is therefore curious that it should be rare in
the Nilgiris where in the course of my seven
months I have seen less than a dozen in all
low-land types of habitat except for thorn
forest. This is despite the fact that mango and
cashew are extensively planted in the area. It
is very fond of fallen fruit and will occasionally
come to water, otherwise it is very difficult to
bag. The distribution stretches from Sri Lanka
and India east to Borneo and most of Sunda-
land.

217. Euthalia lubentina arasada Fruhstorfer

The gaudy baron is one of the true jewels

among the Nilgiri butterflies, but it is, unfor-
tunately, just as rare as the other members of
the genus. I have seen only about half a dozen
at Nadgani, Glenburn and Kallar, mainly in
evergreen forest, but occasionally in mixed
deciduous. During my childhood the species
was a genuine, though very infrequent, member
of the migratory stream (Larsen 1978). Its
habits are those of the genus except that it
moves about more freely in direct sunshine.
It is found in suitable localities throughout
Sri Lanka and peninsular India, extending east
to Malaysia. In the remainder of the Oriental

region it is replaced by a group of very similar
species.

218. Euthalia evelina laudabilis Swinhoe

The redspot duke is a lovely green butterfly

that may be found in evergreen forest at low
and medium heights. Some females are very
large. It is sometimes placed in a genus of its
own, Dophla. Though far from common it is
the member of the genus that is most fre-
quently met with. Yates, writing on Coorg,
said that he was reminded by it of ‘a green
thought in a green shade’. This green species
is, in fact, often met with basking on a green
leaf in a tight shaft of sunlight deep in the
shade of evergreen forest, and usually it is
much to cunning to let itself be captured. At
the risk of being anthropomorphic my im-
pression is that it has figured out a collector’s
strategy long before the collector can begin
carrying it out. It is very difficult to get a
specimen unless it comes to rotting fruit, and
even then it is very wary. The Sri Lankan
and South Indian populations are disjunct
from the main distribution area which covers
most of the Oriental region from Assam east.

219. Symphaedra nais Forster
{Euthalia nais )

The red baron is a most distinctive relative
of the Euthalia in which genus it is sometimes
included. The brick red ground colour, though,
is very different from the normal pattern of
that genus, and the behaviour is more like that
of the Junonia than the Euthalia. However,
the larva has the unmistakable form of the
Euthalia with the long filaments on each seg-
ment lying flat against the leaf. It seems sur-
prisingly scarce in the Nilgiris. Wynter-Blyth
saw a few at Kallar and I have seen it three
times at the same point on the Kotagiri Ghat
in bamboo jungle. During my childhood the

577

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

species was a regular, though rare, member
of the main migrations (Larsen 1978). The
species comes avidly to both fruit and water.
Its rarity in the Nilgiris is puzzling. It is some-
times very common on Chamundi Hill near
Mysore. I have seen it in large numbers near
Mhow, and in October 1986 it was very
common in the Gir Lion Reserve in Saurashtra.
The species is endemic to Sri Lanka and the
Indian subcontinent and seems to be found
mainly in various deciduous forest formations
that are much less mesic than the normal
habitat for Euthalia species.

Apaturinae

220. Rohana parisatis atacinus Fruhstorfer

( Apatura parisatis )

The black prince is one of two South
Indian representatives of the Apaturinae, a
subfamily that is best developed on the fron-
tiers between the Oriental and eastern
Palaearctic. The species is rather rare in the
Nilgiris, mainly found in the subtropical ever-
green forests. The female is very much like a
member of the genus Ariadne but the small
black male is unmistakable. My only Nilgiri
specimens are from 1957 when I collected a
pair at the edge of a shola at Kodanad while
on a scout camping trip. Hampson also con-
sidered it to be rare. The distribution covers
Sri Lanka and South India, then from Kumaon
east to Sundaland and the Philippines.

221. Euripus consimilis meridionalis

Wood-Mason

The painted courtesan is very rare in the
Nilgiris. Hampson took one on Lantana in
the NW comer of the Nilgiris, Wynter-Blyth
secured one at Kallar and saw one more, I
took one female in the forest below Glenbum
(12.vi). There are some other Nilgiri speci-

mens, including a pair from the Droog taken
by Meinertzhagen in 1890 now in the British
Museum (Natural History). I have also seen
a recent Nadgani specimen in a photograph
of a Japanese collection. The species would
thus appear to be limited to evergreen forest
of the tropical and subtropical types and to
be generally rare. It is, in fact, so rare that
it is difficult to understand how viable popu-
lations are maintained, since it is a large and
highly characteristic butterfly that comes to
rotting fruit and apparently to flowers, though
flowers are not visited by the European Apa-
turinae. The species in the genus are generally
considered to be mimetic, and some Malaysian
species are splendid mimics of Danaids. The
female of the South Indian species is a mimic
of the day flying Zygaenid moth Cyclosia
papilionaris australinda Hampson (kindly
determined by G. Tarmann of the Tiroler
Landesmuseum in Austria). The species is
found on the Western Ghats and then from
Garhwal east to Burma and Thailand.

Charaxinae

222. Poly ura athamas athamas Drury

{Eriboea athamas)

The common nawab is the most ecologi-
cally eclectic and widely distributed member
of the Oriental Charaxinae, and so it is in the
Nilgiris where the species can be caught
almost anywhere in the low-land and middle
levels. It is, though, not much at home away
from forest. In 1958 there was a resident
colony on one or two trees at 1900 m near
Kotagiri according to P. Tousgaard, but this
is exceptional. The males often perch on leaves
fairly high up at the edge of a bit of forest
from where they make furious sorties to in-
vestigate any passing butterflies, but otherwise
they are mainly seen when coming to malo-

578

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRI MOUNTAINS

dorous substances or to water. Sometimes a.
whole string of specimens can be caught at
the same little patch of otter droppings in the
course of a morning. The females are very
rarely met with. The species is found in Sri
Lanka, much of India, and most of the Orien-
tal region. The genus has recently been subject
of an excellent monograph by Smiles (1982).

223. Polyura agraria agraria Swinhoe
(not mentioned by W-B)

The anomalous common nawab (it does
not have a current english name) is a smaller
and paler butterfly with more acute forewings
and relatively broader light bands on the
forewings. When I first saw two specimens
from Kallar I was in no doubt that it was a
distinct species even though I knew nothing
of its taxonomic status — indeed I hoped it
might be new. The species has been the sub-
ject of much discussion and has usually been
considered a form of P. athamas, but I am
surprised that it was only finally raised to
specific rank by Smiles (1982). The species
seems to be very rare in the Nilgiris and I
have only three from Kallar where I have seen
well over a hundred of the Common Nawab.
From the rest of the Nilgiris I must have seen
specimens or pictures of an additional hundred
or more; none was the present species. Its
range covers most of the Oriental region and
in some localities the two species are more
difficult to tell apart than they are in the
Nilgiris. It is, however, absent from Sri Lanka
where P. athamas is common.

224. Polyura schreiber wardii Moore
( Eriboea schreiberi )

The blue nawab is a superb butterfly that
is much prized by collectors and which on the
whole is rare to very rare in the wettest parts
of the Western Ghats system, including the
western slopes of the Nilgiris. I have seen it

on two occasions at the foot of the Nadgani
Ghat. Specimens are very difficult to get at
except when they come to baits or traps. I
saw a perfect male on monkey droppings at
Sholayar in the Annamalai mountains. Usually
both sexes keep very high in the canopy,
occasionally swooping down in the most erratic
manner to identify the source of some odour,
and then usually zooming back up without
settling. In Kanara I have on one occasion
seen a female investigate potential food plants
some distance from the nearest forest, but this
was in a recently clear felled area and may
have been exceptional. The range covers South
India’s wettest parts, then from Assam to
Malaysia. It is everywhere considered rare.

225. Charaxes bernardus imiia Butler

{Char axes polyxena)

The tawny rajah is one of the most power-
ful and impressive insects in South India and
the sight of a large female flying at maximum
speed is a true delight. The top speed exceeds
sixty kilometres an hour. It is, unfortunately,
a rare species in the Nilgiris and even when
found is very difficult to catch unless at natu-
ral or artificial baits. Rotten organic matter,
especially crabs, will attract the male, both
sexes coming to fermenting fruit on occasion.
The male sometimes perches well out of reach,
attacking all passing butterflies, occasionally
coming within range of the net. I know of
Nilgiris specimens only from various points
on the Nadgani Ghat and at Kallar and it
seems to be limited to lowland evergreen
forests. In Sri Lanka it goes higher up the
hills and elwhere in India it is found under
less mesic conditions than in the Nilgiris. In
addition to Sri Lanka and South India it is
found from about Mussoorie to South China,
Sundaland, the Papuan subregion and the
Bismarcks. Some authors subdivide the taxon

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

bernardus into several closely related species,
giving imna specific status.

226. Charaxes solon solon Fabricius
{Charaxes fabius)

The black rajah is an unmistakable butter-
fly looking very much like some of the
Afrotropical Charaxes. The name fabius Fabri-
cius is older but preoccupied, but Fabricius
happened to have named it twice. It, too, is
scarce in the Nilgiris. Wynter-Blyth obtained
a single specimen at Kallar from where I
have two males (16.vi and 29. vi) both taken
on animal dung. Hampson fists it as ‘rare,
3000-4000 ft’. The rarity is difficult to under-
stand since the species may be common on
the South Indian plains, e.g. around Bangalore,
and one of the food plants is the tamarind
tree of which Kallar has a fine series of old
specimens. The species is found from Sri Lanka
practically throughout the Oriental region.

Acraeinae

227. Acraea terpsicore Linne
(Telchinia violae )

The tawny coster is the only South Indian
representative of a large subfamily and genus
that is strongly centred on the Afrotropical
region, but A. terpsicore is endemic to Sri
Lanka and the Indian subcontinent. It is most
closely related to the African and Arabian
A. neobule, and according to le Doux (1922)
the name terpsicore is the valid one (see dis-
cussion in Larsen 1983). In the Nilgiris the
butterfly is not rare and often common and
may be found practically anywhere at all levels
except inside the densest forests. The flight
is usually slow and not far from the ground.
Flowers are visited regularly, but not damp
patches.

Libytheinae

228. Libythea myrrha carma Fruhstorfer

The club beak is a fairly common butterfly

especially in the subtropical zone, but it may
also be found in the tropical evergreen forests
and occasionally breeds in sholas on the
plateau. It participates in the migrations, and
I must assume that is why I have seen a speci-
men in the driest possible habitat near Masi-
nagudi. Flowers are rarely if ever visited, but
at certain times of the year damp patches
hold great attraction. It is sometimes found
with the next species, L. lepita, which is usually
much the more numerous, though more finked
to the lower levels. The range covers Sri Lanka,
South India, then from Kulu east to southern
China and Sundaland.

229. Libythea lepita lepitoides Moore

The common beak is indeed more common
than the preceding species, but generally at
somewhat lower levels, especially in the denser
mixed deciduous forest formations. Here it is
sometimes very abundant just before the start
of the rains, while only occasional specimens
are met with during the rainy season. It is a
frequent visitor to damp patches, but does not
seem to visit flowers. It has been suggested
that species should be considered a form of
the European L. celtis Fuessly, but I have not
seen convincing evidence for this view. Cer-
tainly its habitat choice in southern India is
very different from that of the European
species which extends to at least Chitral. The
species is found in Sri Lanka, where it is very
rare, in South India, and from Jammu east
along the Himalayas to Thailand, South China
and Japan.

[Note on the Libytheinae. Mention must be
made of a recent paper by Shields (1985)
revising the genus. In this he accepts two
subspecies of L. myrrha in South India, in-

580

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRl MOUNTAINS

eluding the Sri Lankan ssp. rama as well as
carma and draws a dividing line between the
two that is not supported by his locality list.
Both subspecies are quoted from the Nilgiris
which does not make much biogeographical
sense. It would have been more logical to merge
the South Indian and the Sri Lankan sub-
species which are not well differentiated. He
considers L. lepita to be conspecific with the
European L. celtis in the combination L. celt is
lepita Moore and accepts the presence of the
latter in South India. The taxon lepitoides is
also accepted as South Indian, but now in the
combination L. laius lepitoides. This butterfly
is an East African one. All this is done with-
out reference to the genitalia (a few genitalia
have been copied from other books (such as
Eliot 1978) without giving a source) though
the genitalia clearly provide better phylogenetic
characters than the wing patterns. I would be
very surprised if there really are more than
two species in South India.]

HESPERIIDAE

COELIADINAE

230. Bibasis jaina fergusonii de Niceville

( Ismene jaina)

The orange striped awlet is very rare in
the Nilgiris and in most of its range. It will
always be found in the wetter lowland ever-
green forests. There is but a single record from
the area, a specimen seen in a local collection
by Wynter-Blyth, without data but apparently
without doubt from the Nilgiris. Its general
habits are probably like the rest of the Coelia-
dinae, including a tendency to fly chiefly at
dawn and dusk. The range covers the Western
Ghats, then from Mussoorie to Thailand, Indo-
china, Taiwan and Sulawesi, with very similar
species replacing it in Malaysia and the rest
of Sundaland. It is interesting that this species

is absent from Sri Lanka while B. oedipodea
ataphus Watson is present, though not repre-
sented in South India.

231. Bibasis sena sena Moore

The orange-tail awl seems generally to be
a rare butterfly in the Nilgiris. It was so con-
sidered by Llampson and Wynter-Blyth failed
to procure it. Gordon Thompson collected a
small series of worn specimens on the Nadgani
Ghat on one of our visits, and I saw one about
a week later, but these are the only observa-
tions we have of imagines. It was therefore
somewhat surprising that we found quite a
few larvae at Kallar in August and September,
beautiful creatures that are well described in
Woodhouse (1952). What purpose the bold
larval markings found in many Coeliadinae
serve is difficult to say considering that they
spend the entire day in a hide made from
rolled up leaves and only come out to feed
at night. They hatched readily in captivity,
though a week later in Kotagiri than in the
much warmer Metupalayam. When drying
their wings they hold the wings in a horizontal
position and fold the antennae back along the
thorax in a position wholly at odds with any
natural resting posture, but this appears to be
general for the Hesperiidae. The adults are
very tough, nearly as much so as Thaduka
multicaudata, and are almost impossible to
despatch with the customary pinch of the
thorax. This is not the case in Hasora or
Badamia. The adult is somewhat reminiscent
of the common Hasora chromus but the orange
hindwing cilia will tell them apart. The distri-
bution covers Sri Lanka and South India, then
from Simla east to the Philippines and Sunda-
land. It seems to be rare in most of its range.

232. Hasora chromus chromus Cramer
( Hasora alexis)

The common banded awl shares with
Badamia exclamationis the distinction of being

581

6

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

the only South Indian Coeliadinae to be tole-
rably common and to be found outside of the
wet lowland forest habitats. This is linked to
the fact that both of these species are migra-
tory. I have specimens from all types of
habitat between the foot of the mountain and
2000 m at Kodanad. Though normally not at
all common, it may occur in huge quantities.
At Kallar in the beginning of October 1986
masses of larvae were found on Pongamia
trees, many of which were defoliated so that
pupation took place more or less in the open.
The normal larval ground colour is a light
yellowish green, but larvae on very crowded
trees tended to be almost black. Such records
of complete defoliation are also found in older
literature. The adult butterflies visit both flowers
and damp patches but are generally very wary.
The distribution covers the whole of the
Oriental region as well as the Papuan sub-
region, Australia and the Bismarck Islands.

233. Hasora taminatus taminatus Hiibner

The white banded awl is more tied to

forest habitats than is the preceding species
and it appears not to be very common in the
Nilgiris. Though Hampson records it without
detail, Wynter-Blyth failed to find it, and I
have taken it on three occasions only in the
forests surrounding Glenburn. I have taken it
on both flowers and at water. It would appear
to be restricted to evergreen forests at low
and middle heights. It is found in Sri Lanka
and South India, then from Sikkim to Sunda-
land and the Moluccas.

234. Hasora badra badra Moore

The common awl never seems very common
anywhere and certainly not in the Nilgiris. The
first record in print is one by Wynter-Blyth in
a supplement to his main Nilgiri paper. I have
three females on three different dates on the
Nadgani Ghat, all coming to Lantana flowers

on dull, drizzly days. Even by the standards
of the genus its flight is rapid and I suspect
it is largely crepuscular. It is found in Sri
Lanka and South India, then again from Nepal
east to Sundaland and Sulawesi.

235. Badamia exdamationis Fabricius

The elongated forewings of the brown awl
render this large skipper quite unmistakable.
Occasional dry season specimens are very small,
lacking entirely in hyaline spots, being so dis-
similar from the usual that I initially thought
it was a distinct species. Generally the species
is not rare in evergreen forests at the lower
and middle levels and it may sometimes be-
come very common indeed. At such times it
will also tend to be met with in more open
country and on the plateau. Occasionally it
may migrate in considerable numbers and it
participated in the main migrations at 2000 m
during October 1986. The flight is extremely
rapid, but rarely sustained, and when the
butterflies settle under leaves as they usually
do, then they are easily caught as they trust
their concealment. When visiting flowers, as
they do freely, they are very wary, as they
are during their occasional visits to damp
patches. In 1986, co-incidental with the migra-
tions, we found large quantities of the very
attractive larvae at Kallar and they bred easily
in captivity. The range covers the entire
Oriental region, with extensions to New Guinea
and Australia, and into the Pacific at least to
Samoa.

236. Choaspes benjaminii benjamin! i

Guerin-Meneville

The Indian awlking is without discussion
the finest of the skippers known from the
Nilgiris, though Bibasis gomata Moore would
give it a good run for the money if it were to
turn up. The indigo-blue and shining green of
both sexes are quite different from any of the

582

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRl MOUNTAINS

other skippers. This is mainly a montane
butterfly that has been recorded as low as
Runnymede. by Wynter-Blyth. It is usually
considered to be not rare, but I did not come
across it in 1986. However, during the 1950ies
we would occasionally find large num-
bers on Lantana near Kotagiri on dull days.
The species is found in Sri Lanka and South
India, then from Kangra east to southern China,
Japan and Palawan.

Pyrginae

237. Celaenorrhinus leucocera Kollar

The common spotted flat is one of three
fairly similar species of almost identical habits,
though C. ruficornis appears to be ecologically
more or less separated from the two others.
The present species and C. ambareesa are
often found flying in the same spot. Both are
butterflies of rather shady forest, along roads
and in other places where they have sufficient
space for the furious early morning patrolling.
These patrols are male territorial and mate
locating flights covering a length of up to ten
metres and they are conducted with such
speed that the human eye can barely follow
it. At frequent intervals the butterfly will alight
on the underside of a leaf for rest, but it rarely
basks on the top of leaves or at vantage points
in the manner of Caprona and Tagiades.
Flowers are sometimes visited, damp patches
only very occasionally. It is mainly found in
the lowland evergreen and mixed deciduous
forests, but also penetrates the subtropical
evergreen. The range includes South India, the
Himalaya from Jammu east to Indo-China and
southern China, but not south to Sundaland
proper.

238. Celaenorrhinus ambareesa Moore

The malabar spotted flat is not rare on
road verges and clearings in evergreen and

mixed deciduous forest, but it is not found on
the plateau. Its habits are so much like those
of the preceding species that they cannot be
differentiated in nature. It is an Indian endemic
being found in suitably wooded areas of penin-
sular India south of the Indo-Gangetic plain.
It is interesting that all three South Indian
members of the genus should be lacking from
Sri Lanka, which in turn has its own distinc-
tive endemic species in the form of C. spilo-
thyrus Felder & Felder.

239. Celaenorrhinus ruficornis fusca Hampson
The Tamil spotted flat is rather rare in

the Nilgiris proper. Wynter-Blyth took but a
few at Nadgani and I only have it from the
Nilgiri Wynaad. I did, however, find it quite
common in moist-deciduous forest in the Bili-
giriranga Mountains. Hampson thought it
common and since he was living in the Wynaad
on the fringes of moist-deciduous forest I
suspect the species is specially adapted to this
type of habitat. In habits it does not differ
from the other members of the genus. The
nominate subspecies is from Java; another
subspecies occurs in Sulawesi, so the South
Indian population is strongly disjunct.

240. Tagiades japetus obscures Mabille

( Tagiades atticus & distans)

The common snow flat is almost identical
with the next species which, however, always
lacks the two hyaline discal spots of the upper
forewing in spaces 2 and 3. These are always
present in T. japetus though they may be
minute. The species is not rare in evergreen
forest formations except on the plateau and
may be found in mixed deciduous forest. The
flight is very rapid, looking like a series of
white flashes, but the butterfly is territorial
and often returns to a given perch. It is a
frequent visitor to flowers but only occasional
at damp patches, despite the fact the chosen
habitat is often along rivers and streams. The

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

range covers practically the entire Oriental
region and the genus is also represented in
Africa.

241. Tagiades gana siivia Evans
( Tagiades obscuros)

The immaculate snow flat in South India
is very much like the preceding species under
which the distinguishing characters are men-
tioned. I did not distinguish between the two
while in the field, but my recollections and

specimens in my collection indicate that the
two are so close in habits, habitat and local
distribution that nothing special can be said
about this butterfly except that it seems slightly
the rarer of the two. The name obcuros has
been applied to South Indian populations in
older literature. The range, again, covers most
of the Oriental region, but neither of two
species are found in Sri Lanka.

(to be continued)

584

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF KHATLING
GLACIER IN THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA
(DISTRICT - TEHRI), U.P.1

K. S. Negi, J. K. Tiwari and R. D. Gaur2
{With a text-figure)

Inspite of several attempts, by plant explorers in Garhwal Himalaya, many of
the alpine zones have practically remained untouched. Khatling Glacier, a botanically
little known alpine zone is the source of the Bhillangana river, a tributary to the
Ganges in Tehri District, U.P. The article briefly describes the angi os perms collected
from Khatling during the years 1984-85. The area under study lies between
30° 3T 75"-30° 47' 16" N and 78° 47'50"-78° 57' 2" E, covering an elevation range of
1500 m a.s.l. to 3800 m a.s.l. The dominant families of this zone are Ranunculaceae,
Fabaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Rosaceae, Saxifragaceae, Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, Astera-
ceae, Primulaceae, Polygonaceae, Orchidaceae, Poaceae. A total number of 464 specie#
and 286 genera represented by 87 families have been recorded.

Introduction

The Himalaya has received great attention
on various aspects of plant study. However,
several interesting zones, still provide signifi-
cant areas for investigations. Khatling has a
great variety of landscapes, climate, flora and
fauna with scores of snowy peaks, many of
which exceed 6000 m elevation and have their
own garlands of glaciers descending in diffe-
rent directions. The river Bhillangana, the main
tributary of the Ganges originates from this
glacial zone. Mythologically the famed peak
Khatling, associated with the name of Lord
Shiva, is considered sacred.

This zone of the Himalaya has received
comparatively less attention from early bota-
nists due to lack of transport facilities and the
presence of natural barriers, rivers and several
streamlets during the monsoon. The only note-
worthy contributions in the present century

1 Accepted September 1986.

2 Department of Botany, Post Box - 17. Garhwal
University, Srinagar - 246 174. U.P.

were those by Duthie (1906), Osmaston (1927),
Smythe (1932, 1938) and Ghildyal (1956). Dur-
ing the last three decades several collectors
have trekked through different pockets of
Garhwal Himalaya (Rau 1961, 1963, 1975;
Gupta 1955, 1957, 1962; Naithani 1967, 1982;
Dey et al. 1968; Bhattacharyya and Malhotra
1982; Bhattacharyya and Goel 1982; Gaur
and Semwal 1983; Semwal 1981, 1984; Kala
and Gaur 1982; Hajra and Jain 1983; Negi
et al. 1985). However, no special emphasis
has been given to the flora of this interesting
zone of the Khatling Glacier.

In order to fill up the lacuna, explorations
in many remote and virgin areas, which were
unapproachable in the past, were conducted.
Khatling zone as a whole has been undertaken
for the study by the Garhwal University in
1984-85 under the “All India Co-ordinated
Research Project on Ethnobiology”. Keeping
this in view, the information about the local
names has been gathered besides the floristic
study of the area.

585

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

Geography and Climate

The Khatling Glacier in Tehri District is
surrounded by snow peaks of the Jogin Group
(6466 m); Sphetic Brishtvon (6905 m); Kirti-
stambha (6402 m); Bartekanta and Meru (6579
m). It is situated at a height of 3658 m a.s.L and
lies in between 30°31'75" to 30°47'16" N and
78°47'50" to 78° 57 '2" E. It is also known for
the grandeur of natural beauty, including
wild flora and fauna, meadows, rivers and
panoramic scenes. The explored area
includes sub -tropical zones to alpine zone
ranging from 1500 m to 3800 m a.s.l. The
approach to the Khatling begins at Ghutoo, a
place connected to Rishikesh, Dehradun and
Srinagar. Ghutoo is the last bus terminus from
where one has to treck 45 Km. to the Khatling
Glacier. The route leads through Reeh and
Gangi. Gangi, enroute to Khatling Glacier, is
the last inhabited village. The 25 Km specta-
cular hill route runs through dense forest and
meadows like Deokhuri, Kalyani, Sonari,
Birodh, Paayara, Jalkala, Banglani, Henuri,
Tonyaroo, Soonaroo, Kharsoli, Pachari, Rai-
pharkot, Naumuthia, Bhelbagi, Bhumka, Tama-
kund, and Bajloo to reach the Khatling
Glacier. (Fig. 1). The area fascinates visitors
and travellers all round the year from all over
India and elsewhere.

The hilly topography with gradual slopes
has sub-tropical, temperate, alpine scrubs and
alpine meadows which serve as good grazing
pastures for sheep and goats.

Gangi (2500 m), has temperate and alpine
zones, and the climatic conditions include fog,
heavy hailstorms, extremely low temperature,
high light intensity, high wind velocity and
lower oxygen and carbon dioxide concentra-
tion. The upper reaches of Kharsoli and upper
mountainous limits of the area are covered
with snow for nearly 7-8 months in a year.

Vegetation and Floristic Composition

The vegetation of Khatling is characterised

by a comparatively lush flora represented by
sub-tropical, temperate and alpine species
in response to altitude. The sub-tropical
terraced fields at Dhoperdhar and Ghutoo are
spotted with shrubs of Rosa brunonii, Debre-
geasia salicifolia, Prinsepia udlis , Berberis
chitria, Desmodium laxiflorum, D. sambuense,
Zanthoxylum armatum mixed with Alnus
nepalensis, Lyonia ovalifolia, Rhus parviflora,
Ficus cunia, F. scandens and common sub-
tropical herbs like Dicrocephala integrifolia,
Urtica parviflora, Cirsium wallichii and seve-
ral others.

Ghutoo is a well known centre as a market,
where villagers bring many articles of food
(wild as well as cultivated), medicinal plants,
wool etc. and interchange them for articles for
their daily need.

Reeh is located at 10 km distance from
Ghutoo. Leaving the village, the track joins a
mule track through the Pine forest and leads
to Gangi. From Reeh to Gangi the distance
is about 10 km and Pinus roxburghii, Quercus
leucotrichophora, Eurya acuminata, Ilex dipy-
rena, Symplocos ramosissima, Juglans regia,
Myrica esculenta, Coriaria nepalensis. Coton -
easier affinis, var. bacillaris, Cinnamomum
tamala, Neolitsea umbrosa, Euonymus tingens,
and Viburnum cotinifolium form the mixed
forests. Some of the well represented under-
growth of these forests are Flemingia vestita,
Myriactis nepalensis, M. wallichii, Delphinium
roylei, Boenninghausenia albiflora, Galinsoga
parviflora, Veronica agrestis, Circaea imaicola,
Murdania diver gens, Mondo intermedium, Tra-
gopogon gracilis, Spiranthes sinensis, Goodyera
repens, Malaxis cylindrostachya, Gentiana capi-
tata, Sopubia trifida with climbers such as Hol-
boellia latifolia, Schisandra grandiflora, Cle-
matis connata, C. montana, Galium rotundi-
folium, Rubia cor difolia and Smitax glauco-
phylla.

586

FLORA OF KHATLING GLACIER

ROUTE MAP OF
KHATLINGGLACIER

- GARHWAL

SITUATION OF KHATLINGGLACIER

\ *
/KHATLING

l

Fig. 1. Map of Khatling Glacier.

Gangi, the last inhabited village on way to
Khatling, is well known for its Gangwal tribes,
of approximately 120 families living in their
own culture. The inhabitants of Gangi are
simple and by nature extremely hospitable to
visitors. They have deep sense of aesthetic

beauty which finds expression in their works
of household art.

There are a number of meadows after
Gangi which hold a lush flora and present a
beautiful sight.

The typical alpine grasslands or meadows

587

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

are composed mainly of the clumps of Dantho-
nia cachymeriana, Dactylis glomerata, Deyeuxia.
pulchella, D. scabrescens, Kobresia nitens,
and Phelum alpinum. Some characteristic alpine
herbs found within these clumps are Cory -
dalis cashemeriana, C. cornuta, C. govaniana,
C. meifolia, Saxifraga brunoniana , S. diver si-
folia, S. filicaule, Aconitum heterophyllum,
Orchis lati folia, Delphinium vestitum, Hera-
cleum candicans and Selinum vaginatum.

An interesting plant Carex rostrata Stocks
has been collected for the first time from
the area.

There are temporary settlements of tribal
population from April-Oct., of 4 or 5 families
in different meadows, i.e. Deokhuri, Sonari,
Kalyani and upto Birodh with their sheep,
goats, buffaloes and cows. In addition to the
cattle rearing, they cultivate Fagopyrum escu-
lent um, and Solanum tuberosum.

The higher elevation of Bhelbagi represents
temperate vegetation consisting of trees and
shrubs such as Quercus semecar pi folia, Abies
pindrow, Acer caesium, Caraegna brevsipina,
Betula utilis, Iconic era myrtillus, L. quinquelo-
cularis, Piptanthus nepalensis, Ribes alpestre,
R. glaciate, Sorbus cuspidata, Syringa emodi,
Sorbus foliolosa, S. aucuparia, Taxus walli-
chiana, and ground vegetation of species of
Aconitum, Aster, Fragaria, Gentiana, Morina,
Jurinea, Rumex, Rheum, Pleurospermum,
Potentilla, Selinum, and other.

Khatling can be clearly seen from a point,
Bhelbagi, 4 km after the meadow. The Khatling
massif is a tall straight rock having a broad
base and a narrow peak thus having a
pyramidal outline, which is always snow
covered. There are many peaks surrounding
the Khatling, such as, Rachotra, Chatangrya,
Patangrya,, Konagaroo while on the other side
Rutangaira, Lamdokhari, Khaameem, Mug-
lanya, Kunalaya can be seen encircling
either side of Khatling. Across the glacier a

route leads to Mahisartal or Masurtal. The
journey is rather difficult as the route is
through the glacier interspread with large
crevices and there is always the risk of losing
foothold or of being hit by falling boulders.

A big stone everhangs in the shape of a
cave at Bhumka, where usually trekkers
take rest even at night. Blackish granite
boulders flanked by snow begin at Bhelbagi
and provide a typical habitat for Meconopsis
aculeata, Saussurea obvallata, S. graminifolia,
S. simpsoniana, S. taraxacifolia, Leontopodium
alpinum, Sedum quadrifidum, S. linerifolium,
Achillea millefolium and several other species.

The last energetic and adventurous trek-
king is almost over the permanent snow line
and the glacier is visible, amidst the vast pano-
rama of the distant mountains of Chauki, Dan-
dakharak and Khatling proper.

A few and interesting species of the rocky
slopes are the peculiar woolly Saussurea obval-
lata, S. simpsoniana, Salix daphnoides, S. fur-
cata, and other herbs like Rheum emodi,
Allium stracheyi, Rumex acetosa and Mega -
carpaea polyandra.

In rocky areas grow herbs like Sagina sagi-
noides, Sedum linearifolium, S. quadrifidum,
Saxifraga filicaulis, Swertia cordata, Rhodiola
crenulata, Primula elliptica, P. floribunda,
Androsace sarmentosa, Pleurospermum angeli-
coides, Thermopsis barbata, Lysimachia alterni-
folia, L. pyramidalis, Filipendula vestita, Arabi-
dopsis himalayana, Nardostachys grandiflora,
Erigeron alpinus, Valeriana hardwickii,
Gentiana carinata.

Gentianella tenella, G. stipitata, and alpine
grasses are quite common. The route passes
through a wide boulder spread basin which
occupies a considerable area and terminates in
the Khatling Glaciers, a vast glacier and from
an ice cave in its snout emerges the Bhillingana
and flows down towards Tehri, where it meets
with Bhagirathi.

588

FLORA OF KH AT LING GLACIER

Enumeration of Species

Collections were made during the year 1984-
85. The specimens were compared with authen-
tic specimens at the Herbarium of Botanical
Survey of India, Northern Circle, Dehradun
(BSD). The local names of the plants, where
available, have been given after the botanical
names and localities with altitude have also
been mentioned. Field number of each speci-
men is given in bracket and the specimens are
preserved in the Herbarium of the Garhwal
University, Srinagar, U.P. (GUH). Bentham
and Hooker’s system is followed with slight
modification as proposed by Hutchinson (1973)
in the arrangement of families.

DICOTYLEDONS

Ranunculaceae

Aconitum atrox (Bruhl) Mukerjee (Loc.-
Meetha Bish)

Syn. A. balfourii Stapf
Large erect herb with blue flowers. Kharsoli,
2800 m. Sept. 1985 (5053).

A. heterophyllum Wall, ex Royle (Loc.-Atis)
Small herb, stem leaves sessile, not lobed
while lower leaves 3-5 lobed. Flowers dull blue
purple veined. Paachari, 2800 m. May 1984
(1053).

A. violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf (Loc.-Dudhiya
atees, Patees)

Syn. A. napellus var. multi fidum (Royle) Hk.
Erect small herb with blue flowers. Bhumka,
3200 m. Nov. 1985 (4536).

Actaea spicata Linn. var. acuminata (Wall, ex
Royle) Hara

Erect herb with white flowers and globose
fruits. Kharsoli, 2800 m. July 1984 (5608).
Anemone obtusiloba D. Don
Tufted herb with variable colour of flowers,
white, lemon yellow, deep blue or sometimes

white with purple veins. Bhelbagi, 3100 m.
May 1984 (4813).

Aquilegia pubiflora Wall, ex Royle
Large pubescent herb. Flowers drooping,
dark purple. Kalayani, 2600 m. June 1984
(1231).

Caltha palustris Linn.

Glabrous herb with bright yellow flowers.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. May 1984 (979).

Clematis connata DC.

Glabrous climber with cream white bell
shaped flowers. Gangi, 2500 m. July 1984
(1232, 3115).

C. montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC.

Large climber on Prunus spp. in Oak-
Rhododendron forest. Flowers white. Gangi,
2500 m. April 1984 (1229).

C. puberula Hook. f. et Thoms.

Syn. C. nutans Royle

Downy climber with pale yellow flowers.
Reeh, 2100 m. April 1984 (628).

Delphinium roylei Munz.

Large hoary herb with blue flowers. Gangi,
2500 m. May 1984 (1235).

D. vestitum Wall, ex Royle (Loc.-Nirbishi)
Large hairy herb with dull blue flowers.

Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1985 (1230).
Oxygraphis polypetala (Royle) Hook. f. et
Thoms.

Small tufted herb with bright yellow flowers.
Bhumka, 3200 m. June 1984 (1236).
Ranunculus hirtellus Royle ex D. Don
Hairy herb with yellow flowers. Bhelbagi,
3100 m. May 1984 (724).

R. diffusus DC.

Decumbent hairy herb with bright yellow
flowers. Reeh, 2100 m. June 1984 (808).

R. laetus Wall.

Herb with yellow flowers Reeh. 2100 m.
June 1984 (725).

Thalictrum alpinum Linn.

Small herb with yellowish green flowers.
Bajloo, 3500 m. June 1984 (1228).

589

.JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

T. cultratum Wall, subspp. platycarpum (Hook,
f. et Thoms.) Bruhl.

Syn. T. platycarpum Hook. f. et Thoms.
Glabrous herb with greenish-white flowers.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. June 1984 (1253).

T. javanicum Blume (Loc.-Filijari)

Large herb with white flowers. Reeh, 2400 m.
June 1984 (817).

Paeoniaceae

Paeonia emodi Wall, ex Royle (Loc.-Tonkanya)
Large erect herb with white flowers in the
axils of upper leaves. Ghutoo, 1500 m. April
1984 (457).

SCHISANDRACEAE

Schisandra grandiflora (Wall.) Hook. f. (Loc -
Jogna)

Climber in Oak-Rhododendron forest with
white fragrant flowers. Gangi, 2500 m. May
1984 (4506).

Laridzabalaceae

Holboellia latifolia Wall var. angustifolia

Hook. f. (Loc.-Gomphala)

Large climber. Flowers dark-purple-brown
and fragrant flowers. Leaflets 7-9, narrow.
Gangi, 2500 m. June 1984 (4524).

H. latifolia Wall. var. latifolia Wall. (Loc.-
Gomphal)

Large climber with dark purple brown and
fragrant flowers. Leaflets 3-5, narrow. Gangi,
2500 m. June 1984 (4524).

Berberidaceae

Berberis aristata DC. (Loc.-Kingor)

Large shrub, yellow flowers with blue berries.
Pachari, 2800 m. June 1984 (4630).

B. jeschkeana Schneid. (Loc.-Kingore, Choter)
Dwarf shrub, yellow flowers with red ber-
ries. Paachari, 2800 m. June 1984 (1237).

B, lycium Royle (Loc.-Choter)

Large shrub. Yellow flowers with blue
berries. Birodh, 2700 m. June 1984 (4630).

PODOPHYLLACEAE

Podophyllum hexandrum Wall, ex Royle (Loc.-

Ban Kakri)

Syn. P. emodi Wall, ex Hook. f. et Thoms.
Large erect rhizomatous herb. Flowers
pinkish white and orange yellow fruit. Bhumka,
3200 m. June 1984 (4525).

Papaveraceae

Meconopsis aculeata Royle

Prickly herb with blue purple flowers. Tama-
kundo, 3400 m. June 1984 (4819).

Fumariaceae

Corydalis cashemeriana Duthie ex Prain
(Loc.-Mamiri)

Small herb. Flowers sky blue with dark blue
tips. Naumuthia, 2900 m. July 1984 (1240).

C. cornuta Royle

Small herb with bright yellow flowers.

Bhumka, 3200 m. July 1984 (1239).

C. govaniana Wall. (Loc.-Mamiri)

Erect herb with bright yellow flowers.

Bhumka, 3200 m. July 1984 (1239).

C. meifolia Wall.

Herb. Flowers yellow with purple tips.
Khatling, 3600 m. Aug. 1985 (1238).

Brassicaceae

Arabidopsis himalaica (Edgew.) O. E. Schulz.
Syn. Sisymbrium himalaicum Edgew.

Herb with white purple flowers. Bhumka,
3200 m. May 1984 (5731).

590

FLORA OF KHATLING GLACIER

Erysimum hieraciifolium Linn.

Erect herb with orange-yellow flowers.
Deokhuri, 2700 m. Oct. 1985 (1241).
Megacarpaea polyandra Benth.
(Loc.-Barmoola)

Large herb with light yellow flowers. Bhel-
bagi, 3100 m. June 1984 (5103).

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. ex DC.

Hairy decumbent with pink flowers. Sonari,
2600 m. Aug. 1984 (701).

VlOLACEAE

Viola betonicifolia subspp. nepalensis Backer
(Loc.-Dundibirali)

Syn. V. patrini var nepalensis DC.

Small herb with yellow flowers, lower petal
streaked black. Kharsoli, 2800 m. June 1984
(4567).

V. biflora Linn.

Decumbent herb with yellow flowers.
Paachari, 2800 m. June 1984 (2708).

V. canescens Wall, ex Roxb. (Loc.-Banfasha)
Stemless pubescent herb with white flowers.
Jalkala, 2700 m. May 1984 (820).

Caryophyllaceae

Gypsophylla cerastioides D. Don
Hairy herb with white flowers. Bajloo, 3500
m. May 1984 (4628).

Sagina saginoides (Linn.) Karsten
Syn. S. procumbens Edgew.

Small glabrous herb with white flowers on
rocks. Gangi, 2500 m. May 1984 (1014).

Silene inflata Smith (Loc.-Tumri)

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Naumu-
thia, 2900 m. July 1984 (4628).

Silene laxantha Majumdar
Syn. S. pilosa Edgew.

Hairy herb with purple flowers on rocks.
Saura, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (989).

S. thomsonii Majumdar (Loc.-Tumri)

Syn. S. indica Roxb. et Otth.

Lychnis nutans Benth.

Glandular herb with green, purple veined
flowers. Saura, Banglani, 2900 m. June 1984
(866).

Stellaria monosperma var. paniculata (Edgew.)
Majumdar

Syn. S. paniculata Edgew.

Pubescent herb with white flowers. Naumu-
thia, 2900 m. Aug. 1985 (741).

S. patens D. Don

Syn. S. longissima Wall.

Glabrous as well as hairy herb with white
flowers. Banglani, 2700 m. June 1984 (868).

Hypericaceae

Hypericum elodeoides Choisy
Herb with yellow flowers. Deokhuri, 2700
m. Aug. 1984 (787, 1744).

H. oblongifolium Choisy (Loc.-Phenuli,
Basanti)

Syn. H. cernuum Roxb.

Shrub with yellow fragrant flowers. Reeh,
2100 m. April 1984 (674).

Norisca urala (Hamilt. f.) Koch.

Syn. Hypericum patulum Thunb.

Evergreen shrub with yellow flowers in Oak-
Rhododendron forest. Reeh, 2100 m. Aug 1985
(975).

Ternstroemiaceae

Eurya acuminata DC.

Small tree with fragrant flowers and green
slender fruit in Oak-Rhododendron forest.
Gangi. 2500 m. Sept. 1985 (1242).

Malvaceae

Hibiscus pungens Roxb.

Erect herb. Flowers yellow with purple

591

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

centre. Ghutoo, 1500 m. Aug. 1984 (672).
Malva verticillata Linn.

Large erect herb with purplish flowers.
Gangi, 2500 m. Aug. 1984 (4568).

Tiliaceae

Trsiunfetta pilosa Roth.

Large herb with yellow flowers. Fruits
densely pubescent with hooked spines. Reeh,
2400 m. June 1984 (1220).

Lxnaceae

Linum mysorense Heyne

Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. Reeh,
2100 m. Aug. 1984 (789).

Geraniaceae

Geranium ocellatum Camb.

Hairy herb with pinkish white flowers.
Deokhuri, 2700 m. June 1984 (1043).

Balsaminaceae . .

Impatiens brachycentra Kar. & Kir.

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Raiphar-
kot, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (1243).

I. roylei Walp.

Herb with pale purple flowers. Pachari,
2800 m. Aug. 1984 (855).

I. scabrida DC. (Loc.-Chaul)

Pubescent herb. Flowers yellow spotted with
red. Reeh, 2100 m. Aug. 1985 (1103).

Rutaceae

Boenninghausenia albiflora Reich.
(Loc.-Pishukhaur)

Herb with white flowers. Gangi, 2800 m.
Aug. 1985 (1734, 1774).

Skimmia laureola Sieb. et Zucc. ex Walp.
(Loc.-Nairpati, Kedarpati)

Unarmed shrub. Leaves when crushed emit
orange fruit’s smell. Flowers greenish-white.
Banglaani, 2700 m. May 1984 (856).
Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. (Loc.-Timru)
Shrub or small tree with red or gland dotted
fruits. Reeh, 2100 m. July 1984 (1502).

Aquifoliaceae
Ilex dipyrena Wall.

Tree with scarlet fruits. Gangi, 2500 m.
June 1984 (5612).

Celastraceae

Euonymus echinatus Wall.

Evergreen shrub with greenish-yellow flowers
and echinate fruits. S6nari, 2600 m. July 1984
(5611).

E. liamiltonianus Wall.

Small deciduous tree with creamy white
flowers and four lobed fruits. Sonari 2600 m.
Oct. 1985 (5610).

E. tingens Wall. (Loc.-Konk, Bhanlai)

Evergreen tree with yellowish tinged flowers
marked with brown. Banglani, 2700 m. Oct.
1985 (4738).

Rhamnaceae

Rhamnus triquetra Wall, ex Roxb. (Loc.-
Halith, Phalith)

Unarmed small tree with greenish flowers.
Reeh, 2100 m. July 1984 (1244).

R. virgatus Roxb.

Thorny deciduous shrub with greenish,
yellow flowers and green ovoid fruits. Gangi,
2500 m. June 1984 (4157).

VlTACEAE

Parthenocissus semicordata var. semicordata

(Wall, ex Roxb.) Planch.

Big climber in Oak-Rhododendron forest

592

FLORA OF KHATL1NG GLACIFR

with green fruits. Sonari, 2600 m. July 1984
(1245).

Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch.

Climber with red spherical fruits. Reeh, 2100
m. July 1984 (4586).

Aceraceae (Sapindaceae)

Acer caesium Wall, ex Brand. (Loc.-Manik)
Deciduous tree with greenish flowers. Kal-
yani, 2600 m. July 1984 (703, 4703).

Hippocastanaceae

Aesculus indica Colebr. (Loc.-Paamal, Panger)
Large deciduous tree with white or purplish
tinged flowers. Tonyaroo, 2750 m. June 1984
(4888).

Anacardiaceae

Cotiuus coggyria Scop.

Syn. Rhus cotinus Linn.

Deciduous shrub with pale-purple flowers.
Reeh, 2100 m. April 1984 (1246).

Rhus javaniea Linn. (Loc.-Titmulya, Deshmela)
Syn. R. chinensis Miller
R. semicordata Murr.

Tree, with yellow flowers with red fruits.
Gangi, 2500 m. July 1984 (4562).

CORIARIACEAE

Coriaria nepalensis Wall. (Loc.-Masuri, Gan-
garoo)

Shrub with succulent black wrinkled fruits.
Gangi, 2500 m. April 1984 (4507).

Fabaceae

Aeschynomene indica Linn.

Glabrous herb, streaked with purple yellow
flowers. Reeh, 1600 m. Aug. 1984 (760).

Astragalus cashmiriensis Bunge (Loc.-Rudra-
vanti)

Herb with pink flowers. Bajloo, 3500 m. July
1984 (4817).

Caragana brevispina Royle (Loc.-Gughtai)
Erect shrub with yellow flowers. Panyara,
Birodh, 2750 m. May 1984 (1248).

Desmodium elegans DC.

Syn. D. tiliaefolium G. Don
Large shrub with pale-lilac flowers. Reeh,
2100 m. July 1984 (1251).

D. laxiflorum DC.

Erect shrub with hairy pink flowers. Ghutoo,
1500 m. July 1984 (656).

D. motorium (Houtt.) Merill.

Shrub with purple flowers. Reeh, 2000 m.
Aug. 1984 (776).

D. podocarpum DC.

Herb with pink flowers and two jointed
pods. Reeh, 2100 m. Sept. 1985 (652).

D. sambuense DC.

Syn. D. flouribundum Benth.

Shrub with pink or purple flowers. Ghutoo,
1500 m. Aug. 1984 (654).

Eriosema chinense Vogel (Loc.-Bhatya)
Bulbous herb with yellow flowers. Reeh,
2100 m. Aug. 1984 (4610).

Indigofera heterantha Wall, ex Brandis (Loc.-
Sakinya)

Syn. I. gerardiana Wall.

Silvery pubescent tomentose shrub with red
or purple flowers. Gangi, 2500 m. June 1984
(976, 821).

Lespedeza gerardiana Grab, ex Baker

Shrub with pale yellow flowers. Reeh, 2100
m. Aug. 1984 (790).

Lotus corniculatus Linn.

Glabrous herb. Flowers yellow streaked
crimson. Henuri, 2750 m. July 1984 (3063).
Parochetus communis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Prostrate hairy herb with deep violet flowers
Tonyaroo, 2750 m. June 1984 (5727).

593

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Piptanthus nepalensis (Hook.) D. Don (Loc.-
Fundanu, Phundanu)

Deciduous shrub with yellow flowers. Rai-
pharkot, 2800 m. May 1984 (1248).

Therm opsis barbata Royle
Herb with violet or deep purple flowers.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. June 1984 (3089).

Rosaceae

Aruncus dioicus subspp. triternata (Maxim.)
Hara

Syn. A. silvestris Kostel et Maxim.

Erect herb with white flowers. Banglani,
2700 m. July 1984 (1268).

Cotoneaster acuminatus Lindl. (Loc. -Cham -
ruins)

Erect deciduous shrub with pink or white
fragrant flowers. Gangi, 2500 m. May 1984
(1255).

C. affinis Lindl. var. bacillaris (Lindl.) Schneid.
(Loc.-Ruins)

Shrub or small tree with white flowers and
black fruits. Gangi, 2500 m. May 1984 (1269).
C. confusus Klotz.

Small tree with white flowers and blue fruits.
Jalkala, 2400 m. June 1984 (1266).

C. marginatus (Lindl.) Schld.

Shrub with white flowers are red fruits.
Gangi, 2500 m. June 1984 (1257)

C. microphyllus Wall, ex Lindl. (Loc.-Jheri)
Rigid much branched shrub with white
flowers and red globose fruits on rocks. Gangi,
2500 m. June 1984 (1254).

C. obtusa Wall, ex Lindl.

Glabrous shrub with white flowers. Bang-
lani, 2700 m. Aug. 1984 (1266).

C. rosea Edgew.

Small tree with white or pink flowers and
bright red fruits. Gangi, 2500 m. June 1984
(1265).

C. integrifolia (Roxb.) Klotz.

Shrub with white flowers. Kalayani, 2600 m.
June 1984 (1256).

Deutzia statu inea R. Br. ex Wall. (Loc.-
Ghugti)

Deciduous shrub with white-yellowish
flowers. Reeh, 2100 m. June 1984 (1262).
FiSipenduia vestita (Wall, ex G. Don) Maxim.
(Loc.-Ratanjpt)

Syn. Spiraea vestita Wall, ex G. Don
Erect shrub with yellow-white flowers on
rocks. Bhumka, 3200 m. Aug. 1984 (5717).
Fragaria vesca Linn. (Loc.-Gandkaphal)

Herb with white flowers and scarlet fruits.
Saura, 2800 m. July 1984 (981, 780).

Geum datum (Royle) Hook. f.

Herb with yellow flowers. Naumuthia, 2900
m. July 1984 (2720).

Potentilla bifurca Linn.

Small silky hairy herb with yellow flowers.
Bhumka, 3200 m. Aug. 1984 (1259).

P. fulgens Wall, ex Hook. (Loc.-Bajaradanti)
Herb with yellow flowers. Jalkala, 2700 m.
Sept. 1984 (720).

P. gerardiana Lindley ex Lehm.

Syn. P. jragarioides Linn.

Small hairy herb with light yellow flowers.

Banglani, 2700 m. July 1984 (1004).

P. leschenaultiana Ser.

Robust hairy herb with yellow flowers.
Kharsoli, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (1258).

P. nepalensis Hook.

Hairy herb with dark crimson flowers. Kal-
yani, 2600 m. Aug. 1984 (721, 800).

P. polyphylla Wall, ex Lehm.

Glabrous herb with pale flowers. Deokhuri,
2700 m. Aug. 1984 (1261).

Prunus cornuta (Royle) Steud. (Loc.-Jamnai)
Tree with white flowers. Kalayani, 2600 m.
May 1984 (4501).

Sorbus cuspidata (Spach.) Hedlund (Loc.-Moli)
Syn. Pyrus vestita Wall.

Deciduous small tree with white flowers and
greenish-yellow often tinged with red spots
fruits. Deokhuri, 2700 m. July 1984 (4507)

594

FLORA OF KH AT LING GLACIER

Rosa sericea Lindl. (Loc.-Rangel)

Shrub with white flowers. Gangi, 2500 m.
May 1984 (4509).

Rubus macilentus Cambes. (Loc.-Peelu Hissol)
Evergreen shrub with white flowers. Henuri,
2750 m. June 1984 (1043).

R. nutans Wall, ex Hook.

Creeping shrub with stiff brown hairs.
Flowers white, fruits dark red on rocks.
Pachari, 2800 m. Sept. 1984 (4513).

SibbaJdia cuneata Hornem. ex O. Kuntze
Syn. Potentilla sibbaldi Hook. f. non
Hallier f.

Shrub with pale yellow flowers. Tamakundo,
3400 m. June 1984 (1260).

Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder.

Deciduous tree with white flowers. Rimchura,
3000 m. June 1984 (4548).

Sorbus aucuparia Linn.

Small tree with pink flowers and red fruits.
Gangi, 2500 m. Aug. 1984 (1087).

S. lanafa (D. Don) S. Schaur. (Loc.-Moli,
Molya)

Syn. Pyrus lanata D. Don
Tree with pink flowers and red fruits. Bhel-
bagi, 3100 m. May 1984 (4511).

S. foliolosa (Wall.) Spach. (Loc.-Kyans).

Syn. Pyrus foliolosa Wall.

Small tree with white flowers and red fruits.
Rimchura, 3000 m. June 1984 (3706).

Spiraea bella Sims.

Shrub with pink flowers. Paachari, 2800 m.
April 1984 (1264).

S. canescens D. Don

Shrub with white flowers. Paachari, 2800 m.
May 1984 (5706).

S. gracilis Maxim.

Syn. S. parvi folia Bert.

Shrub with white flowers. Naumuthia, 2900
m. June 1984 (5717).

Saxifragaceae

Astilbe rivularis Hamilt.

Erect hairy herb with greenish flowers in

moist places. Naumuthia, 2400 m. Aug. 1984
(3083).

Bergenia stracheyi (Hook. f. et Thoms.) Engl.
(Loc.- Pashanbhed)

Herb with white flowers on rocks. Tama-
kundo, 3400 m. Aug. 1985 (5607).
Chrysoplenium tenellum Hook. f. et Thoms.

Procumbent glabrous herb with green, yellow
flowers in moist places. Bhelbagi, 3100 m.
June 1984 (1252).

Hydrangea heteromella D. Don
Syn. H. vestita Wall.

Small tree with yellow-green globose fruits.
Deokhuri, 2700 m. May 1984 (3085).

Parnassia laxmanni Pall, ex Schult.

Syn. P. ovata Ledeb.

Herb with white flowers. Tonyaroo, 2700 m.
April 1984 (4543).

P. nubicola Wall, ex Royle
Small glabrous herb with white flowers on
grassy slopes near stream banks. Saura, 2800
m. July 1984 (3161).

Saxifraga brunoniana Wall, ex Sternberg
Herb with yellow flowers. Tonyaroo, 2750
m. June 1984 (846).

S. diversifolia Wall, ex DC. var. parnassifolia
(D. Don) Engl.

Erect herb with yellow flowers. Henuri, 2750
m. July 1984 (3289).

S. filicaulis Wall, ex Ser.

Procumbent herb with yellow flowers on flat
mossy boulders. Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1984
(3080).

S. fimbriata Wall.

Herb with yellow flowers. Tamakundo, 3400
m. Aug. 1985 (845).

S. flagellaris Willd. ex Sternb.

Small hairy erect herb with yellow flowers.
Chauki, 3500 m. July 1984 (3081).

Gross ulariaceae
Ribes alpestre Decne. ex Jacq.

Syn. R. grossularia Clarke

Large prickly shrub with greenish flowers

595

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

and green fruits. Rimchura, 3000 m. May 1984
(4542).

R. glaciale Wall. (Loc.-Himoch, Kaladani)
Unarmed shrub with green or pink flowers

and fruits. Rimchura, 3000 m. May 1984
(4543).

Crassulaceae

Rhodiola crenulata (Hook. f. et Thoms.) Ohba
Syn. Sedum crenulatum Hook. f. et Thoms.
Herb with purple flowers. Chauki, 3500 m.
Aug. 1984 (3066).

Rosularia rosulata (Edgew.) Ohba
Syn. Sedum rosulatum Edgew.

Sarmentose fleshy herb with white flowers
on moist rocky places in Oak-Rhododendron
forest. Kalayani, 2700 m. April 1984 (3064).

Sedum crassipes Wall, ex Hook. f. et Thoms.
Syn. S. asiaticum Clarke in FBI non DC.
Succulent herb with yellow flowers on rocks.
Bangalani, 2700 m. Aug. 1984 (3065).

S. linearifolium Royle

Succulent herb with red tipped flowers on
rocks.

Tamakundo, 3400 m. Sept. 1985 (905).

S. quadrifkluin Pall.

Woody herb with short shoots, reddish leaves
and flowers. Tamakundo, 3400 m. Sept. 1985
(5313).

Sinocrassula indica (Decne.) Barger
Syn. Crassula indica Decne.

Erect succulent herb with yellow flowers.
Kharsoli, 2900 m. Sept. 1985 (2067).

Onagraceae

Circaea imaiecola (Asch. et Magn.) Hand.-
Manz.

Syn. C. alpina Clarke

Erect herb with white flowers on rocks.
Gangi, 2500 m. Aug. 1984 (466, 766).

Epilohium roseum (Schret.) Pers.
(Loc.-Aatrasu)

Erect herb with pink flowers. Sonari, 2650
m. Aug. 1984 (4560).

Oenothera rosea (Soland) W. Ait.

Erect herb with pink flowers. Reeh, 2100 m.
Aug. 1984 (1017).

CUCURBITACEAE

Gomphogyne cissiformis Griff.

Twinner with greenish yellow flowers. Rim-
chura, 2900 m. Aug. 1984 (1270, 1054).
Melothria heterophylla (Lour.) Cogn. (Loc.-
Bon kakri)

Glabrous climber with pale yellow flowers
and red fruits. Kalayani, 2650 m. June 1984
(4582).

Begoniaceae

Begonia picta Smith (Loc.-Pattharchata)
Succulent herb with pinkish-white flowers on
rocks. Deokhuri, 2700 m. Aug. 1984 (4644).

Apiaceae

Bupleurum candolii Wall, ex DC.

Erect herb with yellow flowers. Bhelbagi,
3100 m. July 1984 (4604).

B. falcatum Linn. var. marginatum Wall, ex
DC.

Erect herb with yellow flowers. Bhumka,
3200 m. Aug.’ 1984 (4603).

Chaerophyllum acuminatum Lindl.

Erect hairy herb with white flowers. Nau-
muthia, 2900 m. June 1984 (1276).

C. villosum Wall, ex DC.

Erect large hairy herb with white flowers.
Raipharkot, 2850 m. June 1984 (1272).
Heracleum candicans Wall.

Large hairy herb with pinkish white flowers.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. July 1984 (1273).

Ligusticum datum Clarke
Erect glabrous herb with white flowers.

596

FLORA OF KH AT LING GLACIER

Kharsoli, 2800 m. Aug. 1984 (1271).

L. marginatum Clarke
Tall herb with white flowers. Naumuthia,
2900 m. Aug. 1984 (1250).

Pimpinella acuminata CJarke
Erect herb with yellow green flowers. Khar-
soli, 2800 m. July 1984 (1273).

P. diversifolia DC.

Hairy erect herb with white flowers. Rai-
pharkot, 2850 m. June 1984 (1282).
Pleurospennum angelicoides (DC.) Clarke
(Loc. -Lesser)

Syn. Pterocyclus angelicoides (Wall.)
Klotzsch.

Robust herb with white flowers and oblong-
elliptic green fruits. Bajloo, 3500 m. Aug. 1984
(1280).

P. candolii (DC.) Benth.

Aromatic erect herb with purple flowers.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1985 (1277).

P. densiflorum (LindL) Clarke
Small tufted herb with greenish white flowers.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. Aug. 1985 (1275).

Selinum vaginatum Clarke (Loe.-Bhutkesh)
Large herb with white flowers. Kharsoli,
2800 m. Sept. 1985 (1281).

Caprifoliaceae

Leycesteria formosa Wall.

Erect glabrous shrub with ovoid red fruits
in clusters. Jalkala, 2700 m. Sept. 1985 (1288).
Lonicera angustifolia Wall, ex DC.
(Loc.-Gulnar)

Erect shrub with white flowers and red fruits.
Bhelbagi, 3100 m. May 1984 (791).

L. myrtillus Hook. f. et Thoms, var. depressa
Rehder

Syn. L. parvifolia Hook. f. et Thoms, non
Edgew.

Erect tufted shrub with white flowers and
red fruits. Naumuthia, 2900 m. June 1984
(1287).

L. quinquelocularis Hardw.

Large shrub with yellowish-white hairy
flowers. On rocks. Birodh, 2700 m. July 1984
(5738).

Sambucaceae

Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don
Large deciduous shrub with dark purple
flattened fruits. Gangi, 2500 m. July 1984
(4521).

V. cylindricum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
(Loc. -Kama)

Syn. V. coriaceum Bl.

Small tree with sweet scented flowers and
dark purple fruits. Reeh, 2200 m. July 1984
(1228).

V. mulJaha Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
(Loc.-Titmulya)

Syn. V. stellulatum Wall.

Large shrub with globose bright red fruits.
Sonari, 3700 m. Sept. 1985 (4518).

V. nervosum D. Don (Loc. -Tim ol. Titmulya)
Syn. V. foetens Decne.

Deciduous shrub with pale pink flowers and
purple fruits. Deokhuri, 2700 m. July 1984
(4519).

Boraginaceae
Borreria stricta Linn.

Small erect herb with white flowers. Reeh,
1700 m. June 1984 (883).

Hymnopogon parasiticus Wall.

Epiphytic shrub with white flowers. Gangi,
2500 m. June 1984 (874).

Galium acutum Edgew.

Scandent glabrous herb with whitish yellow
flowers and black when drying. Tamakundo,
3400 m. Sept. 1985 (3058).

G. mollugo Linn, subspp. asperifolium
(Wall, ex Roxb.) Kitamura
Trailing herb with white flowers. Henuri,
2700 m. Aug. 1984 (1292).

597

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

G. rotimdifolium Linn.

Trailing herb with white flowers, Gangi,
2500 m. July 1984 (888, 889).

Onosma emodi Wall.

Hairy herb with blue flowers. Tamakundo,
3400 m. Sept. 1985 (5739).

Rufoia cordifolia Linn. var. manjista Miguel.
(Loc.-Manjistha)

Syn. R. cordifolia Linn.

Climbing herb with white flowers. Reeh,
2100 m. July 1984 (1052).

Valerianaceae

Nardostachys grandiflora DC. (Loc.-Maansi)
Erect herb rooting in crevices of boulders
with yellowish or light blue flowers. Bajloo,
3500 m. Aug. 1984 (4823).

Valeriana hardwickii Wall.

Aromatic rhizomatous herb in crevices of
rocks with pinkish, white flowers. Bhumka,

3100 m. Aug. 1984 (873).

V. jatamansi Jones
Syn. V. wallichi DC.

Herb with white flowers. Henuri, 2700 m.
June 1984 (1293).

Dipsacaceae

Dipsacus mitis D. Don

Syn. D. inermis Wall.

Large hairy herb with white flowers. Kal-
yani, 2500 m. Aug. 1984 (687).

Morina longifolia Wall, ex DC. (Loc.-Somrus)
Large spiny herb with pale purple flowers.
Kalayani, 2600 m. Aug. 1984 (687).
Triplostegia glanduiiiera Wall, ex DC.

Glandular small herb with yellow flowers.
Saura, 2800 m. May 1984 (3086).

(to be continued)

598

NOTES ON ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIP IN BASKING
AND NESTING SITE UTILISATION AMONG KACHUGA
SPP. (REPTILIA, CHELONIA) AND G AVI A LIS
GANGETICUS (REPTILIA, CROCODILIA) IN
NATIONAL CHAMBAL SANCTUARY1

R. J. Rao2 and L. A. K. Singh3

(With a text -figure)

Availability, basking, nesting and nest losses in Kachuga tentoria circumdata, K.
kachuga and K. dhongoka are described. The extent of niche separation from
G. gangeticus are highlighted. Extension of
turtles is advocated.

Introduction

Gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus) are sympatric
with the freshwater turtle. Trionyx gangeticus
(Annandale 1912) and some of the Emydid
turtles of Kachuga spp. (pers. obs.). In the
present study observations have been record-
ed to show that although freshwater turtles
and gharial occupy the same habitat, their
ecological niche are neatly distinct, with little
overlap as regards the utilisation of basking
and nesting sites. The ecological advantage
experienced by the two groups because of
any little overlap in the niche are also high-
lighted. The management implications of the
study has been highlighted with the recom-
mendation that with minimum extension of the
measures already taken for gharial conserva-
tion (Singh et al . 1984), the hardshell turtles
can also be given a better lease of life in
National Chambal Sanctuary.

Methods

Observations were made from October 1983
to April 1985 along a stretch of 570 Km. of

1 Accepted January 1986.

2 Crocodile Research Centre of Wildlife Institute of
India, Bahadurpura Post, Hyderabad 500 264 (A.P.).

3 Present address : Simlipal Tiger Reserve, P.O.

Khairi-Jashipure. Orissa 757091.

measures for gharial management to the

the Chambal river, under National Chambal
Gharial Sanctuary (25°23'-26°52'N and 76° 28'-
79°01'E) (Fig. 1). Comparative observations
were recorded on the behaviour of the hard-
shelled turtles and Gharial in respect of selec-
tion of basking and nesting sites. These sites
were marked on field map sheets and the
similarities and differences were noted. Those
banks were considered ‘flat* where nests were
situated at a height of less than 1 m above
water and the bank forming an angle not less
than 172.5°. Nests which were on ‘gentle slopes’
and ‘steep slopes’ where the locations had a
height x distance x angle from water as 1 m
and above x more than 10 m x less than 172.5°,
and 1 m and above x 1-10 m x less than 172.5°,
respectively.

Results

Species :

Based on collection of shells and live speci-
mens three species of hardshell turtles were
identified, namely Kachuga tentoria circum-
data, K. dhongoka and K. kachuga. In a total
collection of 40 shells and 18 live turtles
caught in net and by hand, K. t. circumdata
represented 60% and 66.7%, K. dhongoka
10% and 11.1% and K. kachuga 30% and

599

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 1. National Chambal Sanctuary showing locations of gharial and turtle nesting
sites referred in Table 1. The sanctuary touches the states of Rajasthan (R), Madhya
Pradesh (MP) and Uttar Pradesh (UP).

22 . 2% respectively. On only one occasion
(13 April 1985) the shell of a Hardella
thurgii was collected. It measured 43.5 x 31.0 x
20.0 cm in straight-line carapace length x
width x shell height. K. kachuga, K. dhongoka
and K . t. circumdata were 56.0 x 42.5 x 22.0
cm, 48.0 x 35.0 x 17.5 cm and 26.5 x 19.5 x
12.5 cm respectively in their maximum dimen-
sion, length x width x height.

Basking behaviour :

Very often it was not possible to identify
the species of a turtle when basking. Turtles
above 30 cm straight-line carapace length were
rarely sighted during basking. Basking posture
of all the hardshelled turtles was found to be
similar i.e., head raised to about 45° and all
limbs stretched out when they had basked long

enough and were ‘relaxed’. Compared to
gharial, basking turtles were easily startled
when approached.

In a count of 102 instances, the hardshelled
turtles mainly basked on rock-outcrops
(78.43%) and rarely did they prefer to bask
on hard-soil (13.72%) and sand (7.85%).
However, in the case of gharial, a reverse con-
dition was found. A majority of the gharial
(98%) basked on flat mainland sand banks
or sand-bars. Occasionally they basked on rock
outcrops (2%) even where a sand bank was
adjacent. Usually turtles and gharial basked
together on sand bars and also on close-by
rock outcrops.

During winter months turtles were sighted
throughout the day from 0900 hrs. until 1730
hrs, beyond which basking was rare. On some-

600

NOTES ON RELATIONSHIP AMONG KACHUGA AND G. GANGETICUS

days although the air temperature was con-
siderably lower (12°C) than the water tempe-
rature (17°C) at 30 cm depth at 0930 hrs. the
turtles came out for basking under sunlight.
Similarly, basking continued until about an
hour past sunset when the ambient tempera-
ture was about 17.5°C.

During summer basking was less. From
April turtles were found basking even at 0530
hrs. when the air temperature was 27 °C and
water temperature 26°C. Most of the turtles
retreated into water by 1130 hrs. (air temp.
39°C and water temperature 28°C). Very few
turtles had hauled out a second time during
the hot mid-day. Usually basking resumed in
the afternoon after 1630 hrs. and they remain-
ed out beyond sunset. During the monsoon
early morning basking on a bright day was as

common as during the winter.

Nesting behaviour.

Nesting commenced on different dates in
the various species: K. t. circumdata 15 Octo-
ber, K. kachuga 13 December, K. dhongoka
17 December and Gharial 27 March. However,
the peak nesting season of the large turtles
( K . kachuga and K. dhongoka ) and the
Gharial was March-April, while embryo deve-
lopment in the early nesters commenced only
during March with the conclusion of the winter
months. There was a clear indication of pro-
gression of the nesting activity from the south
to north which in this instance was from
upstream to downstream.

Common nesting sites of gharial and turtles
along the Chambal river are shown in Table 1.
All nesting banks of the gharial were also
used by nesting females of all three turtle
species. Both turtles and gharial were commu-
nal hole nesters, preferring large sand banks.
The order of use of sand banks for nesting by
the gharial and turtles was as follows:

Gharial: Steep slope (83.7%) — Gentle
slope (16.3%) — Flat (0%).

Turtles: Flat (69.83%) — Gentle slope
(25%) — Steep slope (5.16%).

Nests of gharial were located 1 to 2 m above
the water level and upto 8 m away from water.
Turtle nests were located 0.5 to 2 m above
the water level and 3 to 60 m away from
water. However, two nests of K. dhongoka
were at only 0.2 m height x 1.0 m distance
and 5 m height x 200 m distance in relation
to water. Generally, nests of K. t. circumdata
were farther from water compared to K.
kachuga and K. dhongoka (unpublished
observ.).

Nest chambers of gharial and turtles were
similar in design but different in size. Mean
diameter & depth (cm) of the egg-clutch
surface below the ground were: Gharial: 28 x
40, K. kachuga : 15.0 x 34.6, K. dhongoka :
14.7 x 21.5 and K. t. circumdata: 7.8 x 16.1.
Similarly, although the shape of the eggs was
similar, the sizes were different. Mean length
(cm) x breadth (cm) x weight (g) of the eggs
were: Gharial: 8.7 x 5.9 x 176.0, K. kachuga :
7.0 x 4.1 x 57.4, K. dhongoka : 5.9 x 3.6 x
44.2 and K. t. circumdata : 4.7 x 2.7 x 21.4.
Nest loss:

Out of a total of 1296 nests on which in-
formation was collected only 13 nests were
of K. kachuga, 249 of K. dhongoka and the
rest 1034 were of K. t. circumdata. Predation
of turtle eggs was only on the main-land
where predators (jackals) can easily locate
the nests but nests on islands were safe except
occasional instances where storks (black-neck-
ed or white-necked) had opened and predated
K. tentoria nests. During 1-15 May, 1985 there
was an increase of 1.2 m of water due to
release from the Kota barrage which flooded
a number of island nests of large hardshelled
turtles (K. kachuga and K. dhongoka). Losses
of nests occurred due to flooding (1.92%)
and predation (88.1%). In the case of K.
kachuga flooding occurred in 7.7% and preda-

601

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

Table 1

Common nesting sites of gharial and hard-shell turtles in the chambal river

SI. Name
No.

Distance

Kms*

Description

Remarks

1. Baroli

57

Open sand bank (Madhya
Pradesh)

Heavy predation of turtle eggs. Protection to gharial
eggs provided by State Forest Department.

2. Bharrah

131

Small rocky island with
alluvial deposits

Only gharial nests on this Island. Turtle nests on
the sand bank on Madhya Pradesh side. Turtle eggs
heavily predated. No predation of gharial eggs on
the Island.

3. Tigri-Rithaiira 200

Small rocky Island with
alluvial deposits

No predation.

4. Pureini

229

Open sand bank
(Rajasthan)

Turtle eggs partly predated, flooded and exposed due
to agricultural practices. Gharial eggs protected.

5. Gyanpura

363

Open sand bank
(Madhya Pradesh)

Turtle eggs predated. Gharial eggs protected.

* In reference to Palighat (Parbati-Chambal confluence).

tion in 38.5%. In K. dhongoka and K. t.
circumdata the respective figures were 9.6%:
60.2% and 0%:95.4%. Prevention of preda-
tion of mainland nests (5%) was mostly due
to timely intervention by us or other manage-
ment authorities. Some predation had occurred
subsequent to exposure of the nests during
ploughing for agricultural purposes. One seri-
ous instance was the exposure of 6 out of 58
nests (10.3%) at Babu Singh Ka Gher and
Pureini during 1984-85.

Seven hundred and twenty (55.5%) of 1296
nests either overlapped or were within 1 . 5 km
of a major gharial nesting site in a total 570
km of river length.

Discussion

Studies in the recent past (Singh 1978,
Choudhury 1981) give fairly clear accounts on
the basking and nesting ecology of the gharial.
Similar information on the ecology of Indian

freshwater turtles (for e.g. see. Smith 1931,
Pritchard 1979 and Daniel 1983) is relatively
scant. Therefore, there is very little scope for
us to compare our observations and draw any
hard core conclusions. However, the indica-
tions that the gharial and the different
Kachuga spp. occupy different niches within
the same habitat, are worth discussions.

1. Basking sites : There is a clear indica-
tion in the reversal of preference order for the
basking sites in both turtles and gharial. This
may be due to the ‘camouflage’ required by
the animal in respect of its basking ground.
While a rocky background matches the turtles
to appear like another piece of rock or a
rocky-extension, gharial merges with the sandy
backdrop and may even appear like a piece
of drift-wood. Even when a gharial basks on
slopy flat rock, the colour matches the dark
background (Singh 1978).

Islands, sand bars and half-exposed rocks
are preferred for basking because the depth

602

NOTES ON RELATIONSHIP AMONG KACHUGA AND G. GANGETICUS

of water immediately underneath is suitable
for a quick retreat in response to potential
threats.

Sharing of a basking site by both turtles and
gharial is always advantageous to the gharial
because turtles are more wary and on the
advent of any danger ‘drop’ into water first
and thereby alert the gharial. The possible
advantage the turtles get from the gharial by
sharing the same stretch of river is perhaps by
scavenging the bits of food left when a gharial
chops and swallows a prey.

2. Nesting season and site : The same river
stretch may be used by all turtles and the
gharial for nesting, and even the nesting season
of the large turtles and gharial coincide yet
on the basis of our data there is evidence that
apparently no conflict exist in the habitat uti-
lisation. Inspite of a high nesting density in
certain areas we have no evidence that the
nest of one species was exhumed by another

a. The small turtles ( K . t. circumdata)
are capable of undertaking long-distance move-
ments (Rao and Singh 1984. Singh 1985).
Hence, early in the season they nest far away
from the water and leave the strip adjacent to
water for the more heavy and large turtles
( K . kachuga and K. dhongoka).

b. The preference of a high site for nest-
ing by gharial is well studied and related to
the advent of monsoon floods during or after
hatching (Singh 1978). In the turtles too one
would expect that the selection of the nesting
site is governed to increase the survival value of
the hatchlings. However, the height-preference
seem to have been overlooked as a majority
of the hard-shelled turtles are not only laying
the eggs on flat banks but also close to water.
However, if a majority of the eggs are laid
at least 60 cm or above the water level the
hatchlings are fairly safe from any natural rise
in water due to summer rain. In the recent

years, however, such ecological adaptations
have been upset due to untimely releases of
water through a series of three dams and
one barrage along the Chambal river. As noted
earlier, 1 . 92% of the nests are lost due to
flooding.

3. Extension of gharial conservation mea-
sures to turtles'. Rehabilitation schemes were
taken up in Rajasthan, M.P. and U.P. to pro-
tect the endangered gharial in the Chambal
river by collection of wild eggs, and hatching
and rearing the hatchlings to a certain size for
release in the wild habitat. However, this is
not in practice in case of turtle eggs. Although
there is a heavy loss of turtle eggs close to
sites where gharial eggs are well protected, it
has to be accepted that the management atti-
tude towards the former is more of indiffer-
ence. Through the present study there has
been a preliminary highlight on the ecological
niche separation among the gharial and the
freshwater chelonians in the Chambal. It is
hoped that this will stimulate effective pro-
tective measures for turtle management. These
measures should immediately be in the form
of shifting of eggs from the original nests to
a new well protected adjacent site. This, if
carried out with usual precautions, will ensure
prevention of loss due to predation, and ex-
posure due to ploughing and flooding, by
almost 100 per cent.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Wildlife Institute of
India and the Wildlife wings of the Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh Forest Depart-
ments for assistance and encouragement.
RJR received financial assistance from Coun-
cil of Scientific and Industrial Research, and
both are with the Crocodile Research Centre
of Wildlife Institute of India, Government of
India.

603

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 84

References

Annandale, N. (1912) : Zoological results of the
Abor expedition II. Reptilia. Rec. Indian Museum
VIII , pp. 38.

Choudhury, S. (1981): Some studies on the Bio-
logy and Ecology of Gavialis gangeticus, the Indian
Gharial (Crocodilia, Gavialidae). Ph.D. thesis. Uni-
versity of Lucknow, U.P.

Daniel, J. C. (1983): The Book of Indian Rep-
tiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Prichard, P. C. H. (1979) : Encyclopedia of
Turtles. T.F.H. Publications, Inc., Neptune, New
Jersey.

Rao. R. J. & Singh, L.A.K. (1984): Ecological
relationship among turtles in National Chambal
Sanctuary. Interim Study Report- 1, CRC/NCS/21-A,
August 1984. Field camp of the Crocodile Research
Centre, Morena. 43pp +11 tab.

Singh, L.A.K. (1985): Notes on tracking and
terrestrial activities of the freshwater turtle Kachuga
tentoria in River Mahanadi, Orissa. /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 82(2) : 414-7.

Singh, L.A.K. (1978): Ecological studies on the
gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) Reptilia, Croco-
dilia. Ph.D. thesis, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.

Singh, L.A.K., Kar, S. & Choudhury, B. C.
(1984) : Indian Crocodilians — A 10-Year review
of management. Paper presented at the 7th Working
Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Crocodile specialist
Group, Caracas, Venezuela, South America. Octo-
ber 21-28, 1984.

Smith, M. A. (1931): The fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia.
Vol. I. Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and Francis.
London.

604

STATUS OF WILDLIFE AND HABITAT CONSERVATION
IN ANDHRA PRADESH1

K. S. R. Krishna Raju2, A. V. R. G. Krishna Murthy3, C. Subba Reddi4,
N. A. V. Prasad Reddy5, R. Lokaranjan6 and K. J. N. G. Shankar7
(With two plates & two text-figures)

This paper describes certain major and
conspicuous faunal groups and habitats in the
State of Andhra Pradesh.

The State is endowed with diverse habitats
such as wetlands of Kolleru and Pulicat,
mangroves of Coringa, rich coastal lands, dry,
grass and arid lands of Deccan plateau, humid
moist deciduous forests of the northern
Eastern-ghats and dry deciduous forests of
Nallamalais. Consequently, rich diversity of
plants, and animals occurs. However, as every
where else in the country, the habitats such
as forests, wetlands and grass lands are fast
deteriorating and consequently, the fauna and
flora are highly threatened in most parts of
the State.

This report is based on travels and obser-
vations made over the last two decades and
gives a general picture of the situation and
is not claimed to be exhaustive and compre-
hensive. We hope that in the not too distant
future, other naturalists can take up a more

1 Accepted February 1987.

2&5 A. P. Natural History Society, 11-2-6 Dasa-
palla Hills, Visakhapatnam 530 003.

3 Additional Chief Conservator of Forests, A. P.
Government, Hyderabad 500 014.

4 Department of Environmental Sciences. Andhra

University, Waltair 530 003.

6 Society for Nature Conservation, 43-A Gagan
Mahal Colony. Hyderabad 500 029.

7 Society for Integrated Development through
Environmental Awakening (IDEA), Prasanthisai,
Alamanda R.S., Vizianagaram Dist, A.P.

elaborate and detailed status study, which is
urgently required for each of the districts in
the State.

Location, Physiography and Climate

Andhra Pradesh (12°37'-19°54' N lat. and
76°46'-84°46' E long.) is the fifth largest
State in the country in terms of land area,
with a spread of 27.5 million hectares. The
eastern boundary, facing the Ray of Bengal,
is a 970 km long coast line. The state can
be roughly divided into the following three dis-
tinct and major physiographic regions:

(1) Coastal plains, bordering the coast from
Srikakulam in the north to Nellore in the
south. The soils are rich coastal alluvial and
red. Two major river deltas, Krishna and
Godavari form the rich agricultural base.

(2) The Eastern-ghats region consists of a
series of broken hills and ridges of varying
elevations. They are roughly divided into
northern and southern sections separated by
a delta of about 130 km wide in the middle.
The ghats in the south are generally known
as the Sheshachalam ranges.

(3) Deccan plateau covers the entire Raya-
iaseema and Telangana region. The terrain is
generally rocky with several outcrops, with
red sandy or black cotton soils.

Climatically, the coastal belt is humid while
the Deccan plateau is semi-arid to arid. The
annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm in the

605

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

south-western parts of the State to 1400 mm
in the north-eastern areas like Srikakulam
district — with an average of 890 mm. Nearly
70% of the total rainfall is received during
south-west monsoon and 20% during north-
east monsoon.

Rice, sugarcane, groundnut, tobacco, chilli,
cotton, millets, maize and sorghum are the
principal agricultural crops. Mango, cashew-
nut and coconut are the major plantation

crops. There are good water sources, specially
in the coastal districts. They include three
major river systems: Godavari, Krishna and
Pennar. Large dams such as Nagarjunasagar,
Srisailam, Tungabhadra, with their network of
canals, besides several smaller reservoirs, lakes
and tanks provide irrigation water.

The total geo area of the State is 2,75,068
sq km, of which 63,771 sq km is under forests
(Fig. 1). The State has a total population of

Fig. 1. Map of Andhra Pradesh showing the present well forested areas (Approximate).

606

STATUS OF WILDLIFE & HABITAT IN A,P,

535 lakhs, of which 410 lakhs is urban and
125 is rural — with a density of 195 per sq km.
There are 27,221 villages and 255 towns and
cities in 23 districts. Per capita forest area is
0.12 ha as against per capita land area of
0.51 ha. Total livestock is 357.40 lakhs, of
which cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goat con-
stitute a total of 306.32 lakhs.

WILDLIFE s

Forest Wealth :

The predominent vegetation in about 70%
of the State forests is deciduous type; of
which 45% is tropical dry deciduous and 25%
moist deciduous and another 25% southern
tropical thorn forests. Littoral and mangrove
forests together constitute 5%. About 47 sq km
area is under sal ( Shorea robusta) and 9145
sq km is under teak ( Tectona grandis) with
the rest under mixed, miscellaneous tree
species (Table 1).

The major floristic components are Xylia —
Terminalia — Anogeissus — Dendrocalamus)
(Plate 1), with second storey of Chloro -
xylon — Pterospermum — Bridelia — Manil-
kara species in most of the areas. Few ever-
green species such as Diospyros perigrina, D.
sylvatica, Garcinia indica, Lit sea chinensis
mixed with other deciduous species appear
along the perennial streams in the deep valleys
at higher elevations. In the Deccan plateau
and other degraded forests of Telangana and
Rayalaseema region, thorny-scrub type of vege-
tation predominates. Prosopis, Acacia, Zizy-
phus, Gymnosporia, Borassus and Phoenix are
the major genera. In the mangroves Avicennia,
Excoecaria, Acanthus are common. In the
plains Pongamia, Dalbergia, Mangifera, Azadi-
rachta, Emblica, Ficus, Borassus, Phoenix,
Casuarina, Anacardium, Eucalyptus are promi-
nent. Rolla et al (1984), Krishna Murthy

(1984), Ellis (1984), give detailed accounts of
the flora and forests of the State.

Significance of Floral Resources

There are several commercially useful tree
species like Tectona, Shorea, Dendrocalamus,
Terminalia, Pterocarpus, Adina, Sterculia,
Acacia etc. which are well spread out. Red
sanders ( Pterocarpus santalinus) is endemic to
A.P. and occurs in Cuddapah and Chittoor
districts. The State is also endowed with some
scientific curiosities such as Drosera and
Utricularia among the insectivorous plants.
Polygala furcata, Prunus jenkinsi which are
interesting from phyto-geographic angle are
also recorded in the State.

Several plant species of the Eastern Hima-
layan region are found in the Eastern-ghats of
A.P., showing a discontinuous distribution.
Orchids like Vanilla wightiana, germ plasm
sources like Atylosia cajani folia are recorded
from the State. In the southern ghats of
Cuddapah and Chittoor districts several rare
plants like Cycas beddomei, Terminalia pallida
are reported.

Faunal Wealth :

Very little is known about the status and
distribution of amphibians and reptiles of the
region (Pillai & Murthy 1984). Rana tigerina,
R. hexadactyla, R. limnocharis and R. crassa
are some of the common amphibians. Bufo
hololius was recently collected from Nagarjuna-
sagar. Golden gecko Calodactylodes aureus
was recently discovered from Chittoor area
(Daniel & Bharat Bhushan 1986). Other
reptiles such as Hemidactylus brooki, H. gigan -
teus, Mabuya carinata, Calotes versicolor,
Varanus bengalensis are common. Among the
snakes cobra, king cobra, russell’s viper, green
pit viper, python, ratsnake, whip snake, keel-
back, and krait are common.

607

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

BIRDS :

The State is endowed with a wide variety
of avifauna which includes the great Indian
bustard, Jerdon’s Courser, lesser florican, grey
pelican, several species of water fowl, waders,
ducks and teals, raptors, flycatchers, warblers,
babblers, game birds, woodpeckers etc. (Salim
Ali 1931-32, Whistler & Kinnear 1930-37).
Subsequent contributions came from Abdulali

(1945, 1953), Krishna Raju (1971, 1973),
Ripley et al (1987), Beehler et al. (1987),
Price (1980) which give us a deeper insight
into the avifaunal resources of the State.
Krishna Raju (1985) listed 300 bird species
from Visakhapatnam region. Siraj Taher, from
Hyderabad is presently engaged in preparing
a checklist of birds of the entire State (Pers.
comm.).

Table 1

Statistical profile of A. P. forests

Land area
(Sq km)

Forest area
(Sq km)

% of Forest
area to land
area

A. REGIONAL:

Andhra (Coastal)

92,906

19,746

21.15

Rayalaseema

67,299

14,951

22.21

Telangana

1,14,863

29,074

25.31

Total

2,75,068

63,771

23.18

B. LEGAL STATUS:

Reserved

49,921

78.30

Protected

12,343

19.40

Unnotified

1,507

2.30

Total

63,771

100.00

C. COMPOSITION (Nonconiferous broad leaved)

Sal

47

0.07

Teak

9,145

14.34

Others

54,579

85.59

Total

63,771

100.00

D. FOREST TYPES:

Southern tropical thorn

16,110

25

Southern tropical moist deciduous

16,100

25

Tropical dry deciduous

28,388

45

Littoral forests

2,856

4

Mangroves

317

1

Total:

63,771

100

(SOURCE: A.P. Forests at a glance 1984-85).

608

STATUS OF WILDLIFE & HABITAT IN A.P.

Jerdon’s Courser, long considered extinct has
been rediscovered in 1986 near Siddavatam
in Cuddapah (Bharat Bhushan 1986). The
endangered great Indian bustard and lesser
florican occur in the State in the Deccan
plateau. The pink-headed duck, now consi-
dered extinct, was earlier recorded from the
State (Abdulali 1945). Kolleru at one time
was considered to be the largest breeding
colony of the grey pelican in the country.

The occurrence of some bird species in the
State is of Zoogeographical interest (Krishna
Raju 1976, 1984). Such species include tree
sparrow, Abbott’s babbler (Ripley & Beehler
1985) and little spider hunter, which have been
collected recently from Eastern ghats. Several
species found in the State are considered to
be relict fauna showing discontinuous distri-
bution and some species show very restricted
breeding range confined to the State. Several
migrant passerines, waterfowl and waders pass
through the State on migration.

MAMMALS :

The State has a wide variety of mammals
ranging from tree shrew (Anathema ellioti)
to tiger ( Panthera tigris) and dolphin ( Delphi -
nus delphis) to Dugong ( Dugong dugon )
(Table 2).

Among the primates, bonnet macaque
(Macaca radiata) and rhesus macaque
(Macaca mulatto) are common, the former
generally confined to the south, while
the latter to the north. Common langur ( Pres -
bytis entellus ) is seen in the northern
hilly areas. Slender loris ( Loris tardigradus)
seems to occur in the forests of Chittoor dis-
trict now forming part of Sri Venkateswara
sanctuary.

Among the cats, leopard ( Panthera pardus ),
tiger (Panthera tigris) and jungle cat (Felis
chaus) are present in most districts. The com-

mon mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) and
small Indian civet are seen generally in the
northern parts of the State.

The striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) is still
the common scavenger in the countryside.
Indian wolf (Canis lupus) is now confined to
deccan plateau (Anantapur, Karimnagar,
Mahaboobnagar areas) though there were re-
ports from Visakhapatnam including present
Vizianagaram district till 1970. These two ani-
mals created havoc by resorting to lifting of
children in 1980-81. The jackal (Canis aureus)
is still very common all over the State, while
the fox (Vulpes bengalensis) is relatively rare.

Indian wild dog (Cuon alpinus) is seen in
almost all the forest districts, particularly in
the Eastern-ghat ranges. Their numbers have
been relatively reduced over the years. Ratel
(Mellivora capensis) is found mostly in Visa-
khapatnam-Vizianagaram forests. The sloth
bear (Melursus ursinus) is very common in
the State. In the recent past, reports appeared
of their attack on humans in northern circar
districts — and at least 20-30 maulings occur
every year. Porcupine (Hystrix indica) occurs
in all districts in suitable habitats. The Indian
hare (Lepus nigricollis) is equally common,
though there has been great reduction in their
numbers.

Indian gaur (Bos gaurus) is distributed in
the well forested tracts of Visakhapatnam,
East Godavari, West Godavari, Khammam,
Warangal, Karimnagar and Adilabad districts.

The chinkara (Gazella gazella) is confined
to the north-western parts of the State mostly
to the districts of Khammam, Adilabad and
the surrounding areas. The blackbuck Anti-
lope cervicapra occurs mostly in the plains
of Deccan and North-western districts and on
some islands of the river Godavari. Chowsingha
(Tetracerus quadricornis) is common in the
forests of Visakhapatnam and Vizianagaram,
while nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) , in the

609

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 2

List of some common animals of Andhra Pradesh

SI. English Name

Latin Name

Vernacular Name

No.

(Telugu)

1 . Tree Shrew

2. Ratel

3 . Rhesus monkey

4. Bonnet monkey

5 . Common langur

6. Tiger

7 . Leopard

8 . Jungle cat

9. Hyena

10. Wolf

11. Jackal

12. Indian fox

13. Wild dog

14 . Sloth bear

15. Porcupine

16. Indian hare

17. Sambar

18. Indian gam-

19 . Spotted deer

20. Barking deer

21 . Chowsingha

22 . Chinkara

23. Nilgai

24. Slender loris

25. Small Indian civet

26. Black buck

27. Pangolin

Anathema ellioti
Mellivora capensis
Macaca mulatta
M. radiata
Presbytis entellus
Panthera tigris
P. pardus
Felis chaus
Hyaena hyaena
Canis lupus
C. aureus
Vulpes bengalensis
Cuon alpinus
Melursus ursinus
Hystrix indica
Lepus nigricollis
Cervus unicolor
Bos gaurus
Cervus axis
Muntiacus muntjak
Tetraceros quadricornis
Gazella gazella
Bosephalus tragocamelus
Loris tardigradus
Viverricula indica
Antilope cervicapra
Manis crassicaudata

Tirru Elugu

Kothi

Kothi

Anu pothu

Pedda puli

Sindhuvu

Bakuru billi

Dummula gondi

Pedda nakka

Nakka

Chinna nakka
Resu kukka
Elugu banti
Mulla pandi
Chevula pilli
Kanuju

Bison/ Anubothu
Duppi

Konda meka
Bayata meka
Burra jinka
Manu meka

Boothu billi/Manu billi
Krishna jinka
Alugu

forests of Khammam, Adilabad, Nalgonda and
in Nallamalais.

Among the deer, the sambar ( Cervus
unicolor), spotted deer ( Cervus axis) and
barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjak) are common
in forest habitats. Mouse deer ( Tragulus
meminna) is mostly seen in Vizianagaram
forests.

The wildboar ( Sus scrofa) is the commonest
wild animal in the entire State. Till 1960s
the wild buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis) roamed
in the forests of Sileru/Guntawada areas in
Visakhapatnam district, but has now retreated
to the Bastar forests of Madhya Pradesh.

A small herd of elephants ( Elephas maxi-
mus) appeared recently in the forests of Chit-

610

STATUS OF WILDLIFE & HABITAT IN A.P.

toor district, and a lone tusker strayed into
Srikakulam forests.

SANCTUARIES s

The State has 15 wildlife sanctuaries (Table
3) and 5 deer parks. Ten of these sanctuaries
are located along the Godavari river system
including the three in the Eastern-ghats region
(Papikonda, Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam and
Venkateswara), and four along the east coast

(Kolleru, Coringa, Nelapattu and Pulicat)
(Figure 2).

The sanctuaries constituted first in the
State were Pakhal and Pocharam in Warangal
and Medak districts in 1952 under the Hydera-
bad forest Act. Eturnagaram (Warangal dis-
trict), Kawal (Adilabad) were declared in
1965 under A.P. Forest Act. Kolleru was de-
clared in 1963. The Indian wildlife (Protec-
tion) Act, 1972 was extended to the State in
1973, under which the existing five sanctuaries

Table 3

List of wildlife sanctuaries and

MAJOR FAUNA

— IN A.P.

Name

District

Area
(Sq km)

in the year

Established Major animals

1.

Kawal Sanctuary

Adilabad

893

1965

Tiger, Leopard, Sambar, Spotted deer,
Indian Gaur, Nilgai.

2.

Pranahita Sanctuary

136

1980

Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer,
Blackbuck, Sloth bear.

3.

Lanjamadugu Sanctuary

„

36

1978

Largest Tiger reserve in India.

4.

Nagarjunasagar-
Srisailam Sanctuary

Guntur, Prakasam,
Kurnool, Mahaboob-
nagar, Nalgonda

3268

1978

Tiger, Leopard, Sloth Bear, Wildboar,
Spotted deer, Sambar, Nilgai,
Chowsingha, Jackal, Fox, Mugger.

5.

Manjira Sanctuary

Medak

20

1978

Marsh Crocodile

6.

Pulicat Sanctuary

Nellolr

600

— -

Pelican, Flamingo and migrant water
birds.

7.

Coringa Sanctuary

East Godavari

235

1978

Estuarine Oocodile, Otter, Jackals,
Sea turtle, Waders etc.

8.

Kinnerasani Sanctuary

Khammam

655

1977

Tiger, Leopard, Sambar, Spotted deer,
Wild-dog, Hyaena, Blackbuck.

9.

Eturnagaram

Warangal

800

1953

Tiger, Panther, Sloth bear, Gaur,
Nilgai, Chowsingha, Muntjac.

10.

Nelapattu Sanctuary

Nellor

—

Grey Pelican nests on 14-15
Barringtonia trees, Cormorants, White

U.

Kolleru Sanctuary

West Godavari

670

1963

Ibis etc.
Water birds.

12.

Pocharam Sanctuary

Medak/Nizamabad

130

1952

Panther, Sloth bear, Spotted deer.

13.

Sri Venkateswara
Wildlife Sanctuary

Cuddapah

Chittoor

506

1986

Panther, Jackal, Fox, Sloth bear,
Nilgai, Mouse deer.

14.

Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary

Warangal

860

1952

Tiger, Panther, Sloth bear, Gaur.

15.

Papikonda Wildlife Sanctuary West Godavari

590

1978

Tiger, Panther, Gaur, Fourhomed
antelope.

611

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 84

* a S T R A

ORISSA

eli Neelapuram
© Srlhdkulam

© !%

Cuddapah §//f

Nellore

(Q)^|apattu

_ ^Pul'icat

Sri-

« p Kq* » ,

KARNATAKA Vswor*®C!^

E. GHATS

WATER BODIES

WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES
( Important)

TAMIL NADU (

Fig. 2. Andhra Pradesh showing approximate location of the Eastern ghats, important
wildlife sanctuaries including those to be declared soon.

were covered under section 66 in 1976. Nela-
pattu and Pulicat sanctuaries (Nellore district)
were declared in 1977 along with Kinnerasani
sanctuary (Khammam district). Five more
sanctuaries: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam, Man-

jira, Papikonda, Lanjemadugu and Coringa
were constituted in 1978. In 1980 Pranahita
was declared. In 1986 Sri Venkateswara sanc-
tuary was declared in Chittoor district.

Population of Major Animals :

It is unfortunate that except for tiger,
there are no population estimates for any
major animal groups in the State. There are
reportedly 164 tigers in the State including
65 in Srisailam Tiger Project as per the Forest
Department Statistics. Subba Rao et al. (1984)
stated that a population of 66 Indian gaur
exists in and around Marripakala in Visakha-

612

STATUS OF WILDLIFE & HABITAT IN A.P.

patnam forest circle. A population of 30-40
Great Indian bustards is reported by the Forest
Department from Nandikotkur taluk in
Kurnool district. At the central Crocodile
rearing station, Hyderabad, 385 muggers, 20
salt water Crocodiles and 28 gharials have
been reared so far, of these 154 muggers have
been released back into the Krishna river
(Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam sanctuary), 15 in
Pakhal lake, 33 in Kinnerasani reservoir. Three
salt water Crocodiles were released in
Coringa sanctuary. The muggers released in
1977 at Ethipothala have reportedly bred
during 1981.

Habitat, conservation and

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
The Eastern ghats :

The Eastern-ghats in the state running almost
parallel to the coast as a broken chain of
mountains, are divisible into two distinct sub-
zones. The northern sub-zone consists of the
hills of Srikakulam down south to the Goda-
vari river along the districts of Vizianagaram,
Visakhapatnam, East and West Godavari dis-
tricts. After a gap of nearly 130 km the
southern sub-zone commences and includes the
hills of Nallamalais and Seshachalam. The
southern hills are better known as the Sesha-
chalam ranges. These together with the
Nallamalais, Velikondas, Palakondas, Yerra-
malais and Lankamalais form the Eastern-
ghats complex in southern Andhra Pradesh.
The southern sub-zone is generally of drier
formation with inferior dry-deciduous forests
and thorny scrub, while the northern sub-zone
is relatively richer with forests of dry and
moist deciduous types and with higher rainfall.

The forests of the Eastern-ghats account for
c. 50% of the total state forests. These are
being exploited incessantly and are getting
opened up day-by-day in the name of deve-

lopment, often illegally. Most of the hills and
once luxuriant valleys are stripped bare as in
the case of Chintapalli plateau and Ananta-
giri-Araku (Plate 2) valley during the
last quarter of the present century. Many vital
rivers and reservoirs are fast getting silted up
overgrazed and highly degraded with conse-
( Plate 1). Vast areas of forest land are
quent soil erosion in most of the areas. Illegal
encroachments for shifting cultivation are
widespread. All this naturally affects not only
the local faunal populations but also the tribals
and the total ecology of the region. Large
birds such as pea fowl, jungle fowl, partridges,
quails and hornbills, and mammals have either
disappeared from large areas or retreated to
few patches of sheltered forests.

In response to the appeals made by the
Andhra Pradesh Natural History Society and
thanks to the intervention of Dr. Salim Ali,
the Department of Environment, Government
of India organised a National Seminar on the
Resources, Development and Environment of
the Eastern-ghats, during March 1982 in the
Andhra University, Waltair, to take stock of
the situation. Coinciding with the seminar,
Andhra Pradesh Natural History Society
brought out a report (Krishna Raju 1982) on
the ecological survey of the Eastern ghats,
based on a study funded by the World Wild-
life Fund-India. This was the beginning of our
organised efforts to conserve the Eastern ghats.
The Seminar recognised that the ghats and
the adjoining wetlands are under severe envi-
ronmental stress and many natural resources
therein are not being managed on sound
ecological principles to ensure sustainable
yields. Several recommendations were made at
the Seminar stressing the need to arrest further
deterioration of the situation and to restore
the required ecological balance. However, so
far no serious attempts have been made by
the Government to launch a concrete conser-

613

8

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

vation action except sponsoring some research
projects. The need to generate additional data
base is no doubt unquestionable, but if the
efforts to safeguard the ghats are to begin
with studies on tectonics or water quality, one
has serious doubts on the wisdom of fixing
priorities. Based on the data available, an
action plan spelling out necessary executive
and legislative actions and restoration steps, is
to be chalked out and launched for implemen-
tation. Additional researches should of course
be initiated simultaneously and the resultant
answers used to modify and to better the
ongoing conservation plan. This approach
would be more useful and is urgently required
in the Eastern-ghats areas and it is hoped
that the Government would re-examine its
approach, keeping in mind the fact that
we are fighting a battle against time. The few
surviving pairs of Tree Sparrow or Indian gaur
may not last long.

Wet -Lands:

Among the wet-lands of Andhra Pradesh.
Kolleru lake is the largest fresh water lake in
the State, occupying parts of the East Godavari
and Krishna districts. It assumed significance
with the discovery of the largest breeding colony
of grey pelicans ( Pelecanus philippensis) in
the early 1960s (Neelakantan 1961).

The Indian Board for Wildlife recommended
the protection of pelicans at Kolleru and the
Andhra Pradesh Government had subsequent-
ly declared it as a bird sanctuary in 1963.
However, for various reasons the pelicans
have virtually disappeared now. Over exploi-
tation of fish resources, damage to the nesting
trees, lack of adequate and suitable nest
building material, heavy poaching, polluted
water among other things must have forced
the pelicans to abandon the area. However, the
lake still attracts a good number and variety
of migratory ducks and waders and other

breeding birds such as jacanas, moorhen. The
lake is getting silted up fast with consequent
loss of flood absorption capacity, which is
directly related to the loss of vegetative cover
in the catchment area. Vast areas of the lake
have been encroached upon for agriculture and
aquaculture and free flow of water is affected
in a major portion of the lake due to ill con-
ceived network of roads, creation of fish tanks,
etc., which are also affecting the lake and its
ecosystem. Added to these are the effluents
drained out into the lake by several industries
including a pesticide, a paper and a milk
processing factories.

We reckon that it is virtually impossible to
reattract the lost pelicans at Kolleru. Instead,
the existing breeding birds and visiting migrants
should at least be protected and the lake eco-
system safeguarded. Overexploitation of fishery
resources like Anabas and Heteropneustes
requires to be controlled and eutrophication
of the lake needs to be checked. The
developmental plans conceived by the State
Government and being implemented by the
Kolleru Lake Development Board should
therefore be directed to ensure a healthier
environment of the lake and to protect its
valuable birdlife, besides other things.

Another important wetland in northern
Andhra is Kondakarla lake near Anakapalli in
Visakhapatnam district. This is fed by a channel
from river Sarada. This 600 ha lake is famous
for its waterfowl. The only record of pink-
headed duck in the State was from this lake.
Though bereft of any standing vegetation, the
lake still attracts thousands of migrant ducks
and dozens of flamingoes every year. The State
Government plans to declare this a bird pre-
served and has appointed a watcher, but poach-
ing still continues.

Nelapattu sanctuary and Teli-Neelapuram
bird reserve attract some breeding grey peli-
cans (c. 500 pairs), cormorants, openbilled

614

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84

Krishna Raju et al. : Wildlife & Conservation in A.P.

Plate 1

Above: A view of dry deciduous forest Xylia — Adina — Anogeissus.

Below: Sileru river in the upper reaches near Araku showing denuded hills in the background.
The river bed is raising fast due to soil erosion.

( Photos : Author)

Above: A view of once luxurient Anantagiri — Araku Valley, looking bare. Vernay survey col-
lected several new-subspecies of birds from this region.

Below. A confiscated Grey jungle fowl from Khammam forests, one among the estimated
10-15,000 snared illegally for smuggling, every year.

( Photos : Author)

J. BOMBAY NAT. HlST. SOC. 84

Krishna Raju et al.: Wildlife & Conservation in A.P.

Plate 2

STATUS OF WILDLIFE & HABITAT IN A.P.

storks, painted storks etc. Pulicat is another
major lake system on the coast near Nellore
which attracts thousands of wintering ducks
and flamingoes. Bhimasinghi lake, Rolugunta
lake, Pakhal lake, Fox sagar, are some other
important wetlands in the State. However,
most of them are either polluted, drained too
much or reclaimed heavily, and have generally
lost their value as ideal bird refuges. Even for
the famous Kolleru bird sanctuary, no listing of
birds is done in a systematic manner and it is
essential to determine the bird population
dynamics for any meaningful management of
the sanctuary.

Sloth bear and other large animals used to
be common in the entire forested part of
Adilabad district are now confined to Bijjur
and Birsaipet forests. Spotted deer, four horned
antelope and leopard used to be common in
most of the forests of Visakhapatnam district
are now confined to deeper and relatively
sheltered parts in the ghats. This is the case
with all other districts in the State. Wildlife
of Mahaboobnagar district is mostly confined
to the interior Amarabad and Farhabad
forests. In Medak district the important faunal
areas now are around Narsapuram and Nara-
yamkhed. Mahadevipatnam and Tadicherla
blocks in Karimnagar districts, Seethampet
and Tekkali areas in Srikakulam district,
Parvathipuram in Vizianagaram district, Sri-
sailam — Nagarjunasagar areas in the central
Andhra Pradesh, Chittoor hills in the south,
Bhadrachalam, Perantanpalli, and Koonavaram
in the north are some other major faunal areas.
However, poaching from Jeep using search
lights and snaring by nomadic tribes did irre-
parable damage to the wildlife. Till 1983 at
least 10-15 thousand grey jungle fowl were
snared from Bhadrachalam, Manugur forests
for their neck feathers which used to be smug-
gled out through Madras Port every year
(Plate 2). Similarly, nomads operate snaring

parties to capture snakes, hare, jackals, par-
tridges, quails, etc. Their operations have slow-
ed down now, mainly due to relative dearth
of animals in the State.

The precarious position of the existing
wildlife calls for adoption of some drastic steps
by the Government. Firstly, the needed poli-
tical will and commitment that is lacking today
needs to be created, without which the officials
are helpless. For example, the Telugu Ganga
canal which is originally planned to run through
Cuddapah district may have to be slightly
realigned to save the Jerdon’s Courser habitat.
However, such attempts are bound to be view-
ed with suspicion by the politicians who are
yet to appreciate that no cost is too much to
save the Jerdon’s Courser. Telugu Ganga is
perhaps a vital scheme, but the total forest
area which is going to be submerged under the
Project will be about 9937.40 ha (6823.41 ha
under the reservoir in Kumool, Cuddapah and
Nellore districts, and 3113.99 ha under canals
in the forest divisions of Atmakur, Nandyal,
Proddatur, Nellore and Chittoor).

There are proposals for setting up an ex-
port oriented bauxite project in Chintapalli
area of the Visakhapatnam district. The
NALCO plans to exploit the bauxite found
at Jerrela near Chintapalli and the project
aims at having a mining complex at Jerrela,
township at Chintapalli, Wagon loading com-
plex at K. D. Peta. The ore is to be trans-
ported through a conveyor system to K. D.
Peta (a distance of about 37 km, which also
requires a corridor of 20 m wide and a main-
tenance road of 25 m wide, all along the
route) which is likely to pass through some
of the virgin and excellent forest areas of
Chintapalli plateau. These forests hold several
important bird species such as abbott’s
babbler, little spider hunter, and tree
sparrow. Large scale industrialisation of
the Chintapalli area and consequent settlements

615

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

and problems such as over burden disposal at
the mine head are therefore to be viewed with
great caution. The proposed network of roads
and conveyor corridor in the most important
ecosystem of the Eastern-ghats may cause
great damage to the ecology of the region.
Parts of the area also form part of the pro-
posed Gudem-Marripakala sanctuary, which
has been under the consideration of the Andhra
Pradesh Government for the last 10 years.
Indian gaur, spotted deer, sambar, barking deer
are still common in these areas, besides several
birds. A detailed environmental survey is need-
ed before clearing the project.

About 2200 ha of forest area is likely to
be submerged under Srisailam reservoir. Added
to these, the State Government has recently
declared that all the interior and remote tribal
areas will be connected by a network of roads
and electrified. We feel that such hasty deve-
lopmental planning without considering the
ecological implications may affect the regions
ecology and economy and prove harmful even
to the tribals.

Based on the data collected by the Satellite
imagery, NRSA (Anonymous 1983) conclud-
ed that the actual forest area in Andhra Pra-
desh is significantly lower than the estimations
made through conventional methods by earlier
workers and the deforestation during 1972-75
and 1980-82, with an interval of about 7 years,
was alarmingly high. The State has lost 3.11%
of forest area in approximately 7 years time.
“To allow such a high rate of deforestation
to continue is to invite ecological disaster on
a large scale ”, the report warned.

The general attitude of the State Government
and consequently the forest department is to
treat the forests as a source of revenue. Hence,
hitherto emphasis has been given for produc-
tion forestry, while conservation and protec-
tion forestry has been generally neglected.
This had resulted in large scale clear felling

of “least productive mixed natural forests” and
planting of economically more “useful” species
like teak and Eucalyptus, often, as monocul-
ture. As a result, bird and mammal life
suffered badly and with the shrinkage of natu-
ral forest cover most of them either disappear-
ed or retreated deep into the interior forests.
Teak offers virtually no useful environment
for birds and possibly mammals. However,
Coffee plantations in the Eastern-ghats involve
the use of remnant forest overstorey and most
of the existing plantations have been found
to be an integrated system that is structurally
and taxonomically complex. Such an artificial
habitat supports a relatively wide variety and
more numbers of faunal groups and is a better
alternative than mono-culture teak.

The Forest Department should spell out a
charter of specific objectives for each of the
sanctuaries in the State. For instance at Kolleru
sanctuary the objective now can be to pro-
tect the breeding and wintering birds and to
develop suitable habitat, for Nagarjunasagar-
Srisailam sanctuary the principal objective can
be to maintain optimum number of tigers
through developing a habitat conducive for
the growth of adequate herbivore population
etc. Once these are made, an integrated plan
of action needs to be initiated to serve the
primary goals. But, if plans are made to
increase deer population and large scale timber
extraction is also allowed simultaneously the
goals can never be met. In most of the sanc-
tuaries of the State, habitat development is
urgently required and a strong research base
has to be built up.

It is essential that the few remaining
stretches of undisturbed tracts of forest,
specially in and around Chintapalli, Jyothi-
mamidi. Gudem, Marripakala should be de-
clared natural reserves with complete protec-
tion from disturbance and future forestry
developmental activities. If developmental

616

STATUS OF WILDLIFE & HABITAT IN A.P.

plantations are to be attempted elsewhere, they
should preferably exclude teak monoculture,
except in badly eroded areas. Preferred deve-
lopment would feature coffee plantation under
maximum natural over storey, interspersed
with remnant forest tracts in the Chintapalli
plateau (Beehler et al. 1987).

In 1985 one of the authors (KSR) along
with the scientists of BNHS/ZSI/ and the
Smithsonian Institution visited Anantagiri —
the type locality for several birds. Since the
Vernay Survey, the region has been heavily
‘developed’ with large tracts of coffee, inten-
sively grazed areas and much cultivation.
Virtually no forest remains except in small
patches and the area could be characterised
as severely disturbed and the destruction of
the original habitat is nearly total. The rem-
nant patches continue to support some of the
‘relict’ species of great biological interest, but
the populations are small, vulnerable and
isolated. The forest dwelling birdlife in this
region appears highly threatened. By contrast,
the open country species, most of which have
colonized this upland region from the plains,
are abundant. “The man caused environmental
dessication at Anantagiri and in some other
sections is causing a faunal transition, on a
local scale. The future of the forest avifauna
in Visakhapatnam ghats remains in doubt”
(Ripley et al. 1987).

It is sadly true that the data presently
available in respect of wildlife resources are
very meagre, but this does not necessarily
mean that we should initiate bench mark
studies towards wildlife conservation. Few
threatened species and vulnerable areas which
are already identified need to be protected,
on priority basis. Rollapadu, Nandyal area
for Great Indian Bustard; Reddipalli and
Siddavatam along the banks of river Sagileru
for Jerdon‘s courser, Gudem-Marripakala area
for Indian gaur, Addatheegala-Jyothimamidi,

Maredumilli for tiger, are but few examples.
Investigations are also to be carried out on
the reasons why sloth bear population is dis-
turbed now in northern Andhra and why
sambar and wildboar from Koonavaram/
Perantapalli show dwarfism (Parakeratosis)
and why sambar and leopard are abundant
near Meliaputti/Seethampet in Srikakulam
scrub jungles, despite poor habitat and heavy
poaching.

Suggestions :

(1) The A. P. State should arrange to docu-
ment the ‘Status of the Environment' with
separate chapters on wildlife and conservation.

(2) Based on the data available, a conser-
vation strategy has to be formulated and
adopted with immediate effect. While the
essential principles can be rigidly framed and
followed, the operations can be kept flexible
for modifications — if additional data collected
in future warrant any changes.

(3) There are tremendous pressures on the
forest land and other wilderness areas —
which are to be very carefully evaluated and
the forest cover and quality need to be main-
tained if not improved.

(4) There is an urgent need to initiate field
studies in wildlife biology in the State and
status study in all the districts. We recommend
experimental wildlife farming to re-stock the
forests and countryside with such common
species like wildboar, hare, partridge and deer.

(5) The voluntary and non-Governmental
bodies have a definite and important role to
play in conservation efforts and they should
be taken into confidence by the State for
achieving the stated goals.

(6) Our major objectives should be to ini-
tiate a developmental strategy which will be
ecologically sound, sociologically acceptable
and economically viable.

617

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Acknowledgements

Our thanks are due to Andhra Pradesh
State Forest Department and specially Sri
Pushp Kumar, IFS, Chief Conservator of
Forests, for various facilities and courtesis ex-
tended over the years. We thank the A.P.
Natural History, and the Bombay Natural
History Society for supporting several of our
activities and studies in the past.

One of us (KSR) received valuable field
guidance and encouragement from Dr. Salim
Ali, Dr. S. Dillon Ripley and other Scientists
of the BNHS and the Smithsonian Institution

Refer

Abdulali, Humayun (1945) : Birds of Vizaga-
patnam District. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 45: 333-
47.

— (1953) : More about

Vizagapatnam birds, ibid. 51 : 746-47.

Ali, Salim (1931-32): The Hyderabad State

Ornithological Survey. 6 parts, ibid. Vols. 36, 37 &
40.

Anonymous (1983) : NRSA report on the chang-
ed forest cover in A.P. (not consulted in original).

Beehler, Bruce, Krishna Raju, K.S.R. & Ali,
Shahid (1987) : Avian use of man-disturbed forest
habitats in the Eastern ghats, India. Ibis 129 : 197-
21L

Bhushan. Bharat (1986): Rediscovery of the
Jerdon’s Courser, Cursorius bitorquatus (Blyth). J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 83: 1-4.

Daniel, J. C. & Bhushan, Bharat (1986) : Re-
discovery of the Golden Gecko, Calodactylodes
aureus (Bedd) in the Eastern ghats of Andhra
Pradesh, ibid. 52(1): 15-16.

Ellis, J. L. (1984) : Wildplant resources of

Nallamalaias on the Eastern ghats. Proc. Natl.
-Seminar on Eastern ghats. Andhra University,
Waltair, pp. 65-67.

Krishna Raju, K.S.R. & Selvin, J. P. (1971) :
Little Spiderhunter, Arachnothera longirostris
(Latham) in the Eastern ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 68: 454.

— & Price, T. D. (1973) :

Tree Sparrow, Passer montanus (L.) in the Eastern
ghats, ibid. 70: 557.

during the field studies in Andhra Pradesh and
elsewhere and wishes to record his deep sense
of gratitude to them.

We thank Mr. J. C. Daniel for his con-
structive criticism and improvements in the
draft and for his encouragement.

The views and opinions expressed above
belong personally to the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the official views of the
APNHS or the State Government or other
organisations to which they belong.

We thank Sri K. V. Lakshmana Rao for
his careful deciphering of the script and neat
typing.

E N CES

Krishna Raju, K.S.R. (1976): Fauna of the
Eastern ghats-Plea for a thorough study. Newsletter
for Bird Watchers 76(6) : 7-10.

(1982) : Report on the

Preliminary Ecological Survey of the Eastern ghats
— a WWF — India Project. Visakhapatnam. A. P.
Nat. Hist. Soc. pp. 1-87.

(1984) : Avifaunal signi-
ficances of the Eastern ghats. Proc. National Semi-
nar on the Resources, Development, Environment
of the Eastern ghats, Andhra University, Waltair.

(1985) : Checklist of the

birds of Visakhapatnam region. A. P. Nat. Hist.
Soc., Visakhapatnam, pp. 1-25.

Krishna Murthy, A.V.R.G. (1984): Forest re-
sources of the Eastern ghats with special reference
to the Andhra Pradesh. Proc. Natl. Seminar. Eastern
ghats, Andhra University, Waltair, pp. 47-64.

Neelkantan, K. K. (1961) : Report on Kolleru
Pelicanry, submitted to the A. P. State Government,
(not consulted in original).

Pillai, R. S. & Murthy, T.S.N. (1984) : Herpe-
tofauna of the Eastern ghats. Proceedings of the
Natl. Seminar on the Eastern ghats, Waltair.

Price, T. D. (1980) : The seasonality of birds in
the Eastern ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 76:
379-82.

Ripley, S. D. & Beehler, B. (1985): A new sub-
species of the Babbler, Malacocincla abbotti from
the Eastern ghats — India. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club.
105 : 66-67.

618

STATUS OF WILDLIFE & HABITAT IN A.P.

Ripley, S. D., Beehler, B. & Krishna Raju,
K.S.R. (1987) : Birds of Vizagapatnam Ghats,

Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3) :
540-557. (Part 1).

Rolla, S. Rao, Sudhakar, S., Harasriramulu, S.
Reddy, T. Appi, Venkaiah, M., Venkanna, P.
Seetharaman, P. & Rao, K. Prakash (1984): Wild
plant resources and the proposed biosphere reserves
of the Eastern ghats of North A.P. Proc. Nat. Semi-

nar on Eastern ghats, pp. 165-73. Waltair.

Subba Rao, M. V., Krishna Murty, D. & Kame-
swara Rao, K. (1984) : Present distribution of
Gaur, Bos gaurus gaums in Andhra Pradesh. Pro-
ceedings of the Natl. Seminar on the Eastern Ghats.
Waltair. pp. 95-97.

Whistler, H. & Kinnear, S. B. (1930-37): Ver-
ncy Ornithological Survey of the Eastern ghats. 16
parts. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vols. 34-39.

619

ON THE SEX PROPORTIONS AND MATURITY TRENDS
IN CYNOGLOSSUS SEMIFASCIATUS DAY ON THE
WEST COAST DURING 1 980-8 11
G. Seshappa2 and B. K. Chakrapani

Twenty-seven samples of C. semifctsciatus were analysed in all for sex and
maturity trends from Calicut, Cannanore, Mangalore and Malpe during the period
February 1980 to January 1981, the samples being preserved and transported to
Bangalore and worked out there. Two additional samples were also collected from
Cochin during January 1982 and examined similarly. The Cochin samples of January
1982 resembled the Calicut samples of January 1981 in the general maturity trends
of the females (only this sex being analysed for stages of maturity in this work);
only the early immature and the advanced spent as well as spent recovering stages
occurred in these samples, the intermediate stages (III to VI) being completely
absent.

In the pooled data of the other centres no immature juveniles in stage I occurred
in the first and second quarters of the year while they were dominant in the fourth
quarter; the latter occurrence indicated that the main spawning had taken place at
the last phase of the third quarter and early in the fourth quarter in the area, as
found in past at Calicut. Spawning and post-spawning stages (VI and recovering II)
were completely absent in the second quarter but occurred in the first and fourth
quarters. While stage VII was more frequent in the fourth quarter, stage II (recover-
ing) was more frequent in the first quarter.

Introduction

Some detailed work was done in the past on
the sex proportions and maturity trends in
Cynoglossus semifasciatus Day at Calicut
(Seshappa and Bhimachar 1955); some further
information is also available for some years
on these trends in a summary way for both
Calicut and Mangalore in the Annual Reports
of the Central Marine Fisheries Research
Institute published in the various volumes of
the Indian Journal of Fisheries. No detailed
information is available for Cannanore, but a
single sample studied from Moplah bay,

1 Paper read at the 70th session of ISCA at Tiru-
pathi in January 1983 (Zoology, Entomology &
Fisheries Section). Accepted April 1986.

2 706, 2nd C Cross Road, Basaveswara Nagar,
Bangalore 560 079.

620

Cannanore (Seshappa 1978) dealt with 28
individuals collected on 14-12-1968, these in-
cluding 14 females (9 of these being in stages
III and above and others in stages I and II).
Seshappa (1980) has given an account of the
sex proportions and maturity trends in C.
bilineatus (Lacepede) and C. macrolepidotus
(Bleeker) at Calicut.

27 samples of C. semifasciatus were collect-
ed and examined between February 1980 and
January 1981 (inclusive) from four selected
centres of the west coast for a study of the
population variations in the species in time
and space; along with the selected morpho-
metric and meristic characters that were studied
in these samples the sexes were determined
and maturity stages also recorded for all the
females. Malpe, Mangalore, Cannanore and
Calicut were the sampling centres; but the

SEX PROPORTIONS AND MATURITY TRENDS IN C. SEMIFASCIATUS

findings on two samples from Cochin harbour
available in January 1982 are also given at
the end.

While as many as 15 samples were avail-
able from Calicut, only six samples were
obtained from Mangalore, five from Canna-
nore and only one sample from Malpe.

Methods

The mode of collection, preservation and
transport of the samples to Bangalore has been
given elsewhere (Seshappa and Chakrapani,
in press). The sexes were determined in the
preserved specimens after cutting open the
abdomen and careful examination of the
gonads with the necessary microscopic exami-
nation (only the females being taken up for
determining the maturity stages). The key fol-
lowed for designating the various stages was
the one given by Seshappa and Bhimachar
(1955).

Results

The dates of collection of the samples at
the different places, the gears used and the
total numbers of the two sexes in each sample
are given in table 1. Table 2 shows the month-
wise frequency and percentages of the different
stages among the females of C. semifasciatus
examined during the period. The following are
the main features of the maturity trends
noticed :

(a) Malpe : There are 18 females in the
single sample examined; among these 77.78%
are in stage V and three are in still higher
stages of maturity while only one individual
is in stage I (i.e. below V). The very high
percentage of the pre-spawning advanced
maturity stages is not quite normal at Calicut
and they are not noticed here in April when
only 7.02% are found in stage V; but in

Mangalore 26.09% of the females are found
in stage V; while no samples are available
from Cannanore in March and April, 18.18%
of the females are in stage V there, in May.
Probably spawners occurred in good numbers
even upto the commencement of the southwest
monsoon all along the west coast in 1980; the
occurrence of large numbers of stage V fish
at Malpe is particularly noteworthy for March.

(b) Mangalore : Samples were available

from this centre only during February, March
and May. February showed all the maturity
stages from I to VII (and spent recovering
stage II also), this last bracketted stage being
dominant and forming 40.9% of the total
females (stage V with 22.73% being the second
dominant). Stages above V were absent in
March and May (except for one specimen in
March in stage VII). The dominant stages in
March and May were IV and III with 41.30%
and 50.70% of the total females respectively.
Stages II and V were the main maturity stages
seen in both the months.

(c) Cannanore : While five samples were
available from this centre, only the months of
May, October and December were represented;
stages III to V were seen in May with stage
III dominating (60.61%) while all the 13
females of October were in stage IV; in Dec-
ember stages IV to VI were absent and stage
VII (spent) was dominant with 40% of the
females in it, while stages I to III were also
present with stage I dominating the series
(22.5%); these represented the new recruits
that formed a distinct size group at the lower
end of the series, the older fish being repre-
sented by stages VII and II (spent recovering).

(d) Calicut : April and May represented the
premonsoon period in the samples of this
place; stages above V were absent in both
these months and the other stages ranged from
II to V. Stage IV was dominant in April
(59.65%) and stage V in May (53.49%).

621

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 1

Details of different samples of C. semifasciatus taken from different centres during 1980-81 along

WITH THE GEARS USED AND THE NUMBERS OF THE TWO SEXES (TWO SAMPLES FROM COCHIN TAKEN IN

January 1982 are also included in the table at the end)

Dates

Places

Total males

Total females

Gears used

23-2-1980

Mangalore

25

22

Trawl net

14-3-1980

* 5

45

19

??

15-3-1980

Malpe

28

18

55

28-3-1980

Mangalore

24

27

55

23-4-1980

Calicut

27

26

55

30-4-1980

,,

19

30

55

5-5-1980

Mangalore

29

25

Trawl net?

8-5-1980

Cannanore

39

14

Trawl net

10-5-1980

Calicut

33

22

55

15-5-1980

Mangalore

30

22

Trawl net?

22-5-1980

27

24

55

25-5-1980

Calicut

28

22

Trawl net?

28-5-1980

Cannanore

32

19

55

6-10-1980

near Cannanore

22

13

Not known

21-10-1980

Calicut

22

32

Gillnet ( ayilachalavala )

23-10-1980

,,

29

26

Seine net ( Pattenkollivala )

30-10-1980

19

32

55

31-10-1980

,,

27

24

Gillnet ( ayilachalavala )

28-11-1980

.22

28

Seine net ( Pattenkollivala )

1-12-1980

,,

34

18

Trawl net

13-12-1980

(i) Calicut

30

25

55

(ii) -

26

27

Seine net ( Pattenkollivala )

14-12-1980

Cannanore

33

19

Trawl net

28-12-1980

31

21

„

29-12-1980

Calicut

19

33

,,

15-1-1981

32

24

„

28-1-1981

30

23

Cochin samples of January 1982

8-1-1982

Cochin Harbour

28

37

Shrimp trawl?

13-1-1982

55

48

20

Shrimp trawl

The latter stage formed only 7.02% in April
while stage IV formed 18.6% in May and a
good proportion of the females had moved
over from IV to V in this interval. October
had unusually included a few juveniles of a
new brood in stage I (3.51%), the range of
other stages being mainly III to V with a single
specimen each in stage VII and stage II (re-
covering spent); the dominant stage in October

was IV (40.35%). The maturity stages of this
month indicate that not only had spawning
started already in the neighbourhood but also
a few juveniles had entered the catches un-
usually early in the season. In November there
was only one sample and all the fish in it
were juveniles in stages I and II with stage I
forming 82.14%. In December all stages were
represented with the minimum of one each in

622

SEX PROPORTIONS AND MATURITY TRENDS IN C. SEMIFASCIATUS

Table 2

Monthly total frequency and percentage distribution of different maturity stages in C. semi-
fasciatus, February 1980 to January 1981. (Figures in brackets are percentages)

Months

I

II

(Virgins)

Maturity

III

stages

VI

V

VI

VII

II

(Recovering)

Totals

I. MANGALORE

February

0

3

1

2

5

1

1

9

22

(13.64)

(4.55)

(9.09)

(22.73)

(4.55)

(4.55)

(40.91)

March

0

13

1

19

12

0

1

0

46

(28.26)

(2.17)

(41 . 30)

(26.09)

(2.17)

May

0

2

36

27

6

0

0

0

71

(2.82)

(50.70)

(38.03)

(8.45)

II. MALPE

March

0

1

0

0

14

2

1

0

18

(5.56)

(77.78)

(11.11)

'(5.56)

III. CANNANORE

May

0

0

20

7

6

0

0

0

33

(60.61)

(21.21)

(18.18)

October

0

0

0

13

0

0

0

0

13

(100%)

December

9

7

1

0

0

0

16

7

40

(22.50)

(17.50)

(2.50)

(40.00)

(17.50)

IV. CALICUT

April

0

8

11

34

4

0

0

0

57

(14.14)

(19.30)

(59.65)

(7.02)

May

0

1

11

8

23

0

0

0

43

(2.33)

(25.58)

(18.60)

(53.49)

October

4

0

23

46

39

0

1

1

114

(3.51)

(20.18)

(40.35)

(34.21)

(0.88)

(0.88)

November

23

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

28

(82.14)

(17.86)

December

40

34

8

3

1

1

9

7

103

(38.83)

(33.01)

(7.77)

(2.91)

(0.97)

(0.97)

(8.74)

(6.80)

January

3

4

0

0

0

0

10

31

48

1981

(6.25)

(8.33)

(21.83)

(64.58)

stages V and VI and a maximum of 38.83%
and 33.01% respectively in stages I and II;
the frequency of the different stages declined
after II and rose again (to 9% and 7% res-
pectively) in stages VII and recovering II. In
January, only stages I and II (6.25% and

8.33%), and VII and recovering II (21,83%
and 64.58%) occurred.

X2- Analysis (Table 4)

The degree of disparity or otherwise of the
monthly sex ratios for the different centres

623

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

were tested by means of the X2 -analysis
(Snedecor and Cochran 1968). For Calicut this
analysis for the different months and also for
the totals of the entire period showed non-
significant differences (X2 = 0.1161 to 1.2308
for different months and 0.0158 for the annual
totals, P being more than 0.05 and non-
significant).

For Cannanore, the May values showed a
X2-value of 7.2835 with P less than 0.01 and
significant, while in the other two months the
difference was non-significant. The year’s total
at Cannanore showed a X2-value of 10.3724
with P at about 0.001 and highly significant.

For Mangalore, the monthly distribution as
well as the total sex distribution showed X2-
values ranging from 0.0957 to 2.6348 with P
more than 0.05 and insignificant. For Malpe,
represented by a single sample, the X2-value
was low (= 1.0870) with P more than 0.05
and non-significant.

Thus, only the samples of Cannanore show-
ed an uneven distribution of the two sexes this
standing out in the May totals as well as the
annual totals. It is difficult to assign any reason
clearly for the significant departure noticed
here. But marked segregation of the sexes in
individual samples and local populations may
be noticed during October-November, but this
being uncommon later, and particularly as late
as May following (Seshappa and Bhimachar
1955). The disproportionate distribution of the
sexes is usually connected with the spawning
period, out-of-the-season spawning being also
sometimes noticed at Calicut during recent
years. It is just possible that some such pheno-
menon may have been responsible for the
above disparity at Cannanore; as samples
have been available only for the three months
of May, October and December, the totals of
the year only reflect the condition of the
dominant one of these months. While noth-
ing can be said on this definitely in the

absence of the samples for the June-September
period, it can still be said with some confi-
dence that there is perhaps no consistent
difference between or within the other centres
to indicate any clear possibilities of stock
differences.

Remarks

According to data published earlier for
Calicut (Seshappa and Bhimachar 1955) in
all the years of normal sole fishery, the shoal-
ing starts immediately after the southwest
monsoon is over, and the fish has the gonads
in an advanced condition of stages IV-V of
maturity by October; small juveniles of the
new brood join the catches within 2-3 weeks
of this and the December fishery usually con-
sists of a large percentage of juveniles of the
year (though these are usually discarded in
the sea by the fishermen); spawning goes on
continuously or intermittently right through the
fourth quarter of the Calendar year and through
the first quarter of the following year also.
The new recruits entering the grounds in in-
termittent batches vary in numbers from time
to time and are all immature, stage III of
maturity appearing only in the second quarter
of the year in the fish of the new brood. The
gonads grow further and reach advanced pre-
spawning stages by the following October-
November months (after the passage of the
fish through the southwest monsoon away from
the inshore grounds, with a scattered distri-
bution).

During the years before the introduction of
regular trawling in the inshore waters, the
phenomenon of “Manthayilakam” or massive
shoaling up of the fish in the surface waters
during September and October after the heavy
rains are over, used to be noticed regularly,
the fish moving away from the inshore grounds
for spawning after this. It has been reported

624

SEX PROPORTIONS AND MATURITY TRENDS IN C. SEMIFASCIATUS

(V. Balan, CMFR Institute, pers. commu-
nication) that this “Manthayilakam” is hardly
noticeable these days after the introduction of
trawling, the normal fishery of the October-
November period also being not steadily in-
tense (with some quantities being landed all
round the year except during the monsoon
months when the trawlers are also idle). Per-
haps as an adaptive adjustment to these con-
ditions the biological cycle seems to be getting
modified to some extent in that out-of-the-
season spawning is also noticed occasionally
in some years in the monsoon months. The
intensive and more or less continuous fishing
perhaps provides for better growth with reduc-
tion in population strength and early maturity
of the pre-monsoon populations of the fish; it
has been noticed frequently in recent years
that sizes larger than reported by Seshappa and
Bhimachar (1955) are seen in the pre-monsoon
samples of the Malabar sole at Calicut, these
being still members of the “O” year class only.

It is interesting to examine the pooled quar-
terly data of the present work (table 3) in the
light of the above observations. No samples
were available for the third quarter of the
year as usual, and it will be noticed that no
juveniles of stage I occurred in the first and
second quarters of the year though they form-
ed the dominant group (25.50%) in the
fourth quarter. This is a clear indication that
the main spawning has taken place as usual
either at the end of the third quarter or early
in the fourth quarter. Another interesting point
clearly noticed is that the spawning and post-
spawning stages (i.e. stage VI to recovering
stage II) are completely absent in the second
quarter, while they are present in the first
and fourth quarters; stage VII (spent) is more
frequent in the fourth quarter (8.72%) while
stage II (recovering spent) fish are more fre-
quent in the first quarter (10.47%).

Table 3

Pooled quarterly total frequency and percentage

DISTRIBUTION OF THE DIFFERENT MATURITY STAGES IN

female C. semifasciatus, during 1980.
(Figures in brackets are percentages)

Stages

Quarters

January-

March

April-

June

July-

September

October-

December

I

0

0

No data

76(25.50)

11

(Virgins)

17

i

(19.77)

11

(5.39)

»

46(15.44)

III

2

(2.33)

78

(38.24)

32(10.74)

IV

21

(24.42)

76

(37.25)

”

62(20.81)

V

31

(36.05)

39

(19.12)

40(13.42)

VI

3

(3.49)

0

”

1 (0.24)

VII

3

(3.49)

0

»*

26 (8.72)

II 9

(Recovering)

(10.47)

0

”

15 (5.03)

Totals :

86

204

Nil

298

TWO SAMPLES FROM COCHIN HARBOUR

Two samples of C. semifasciatus were
available during January 1982, one on 8-1-1982
and the other on 13-1-1982. These are being
treated separately from the rest as they were
collected one year after the other samples
treated above in this paper and hence consi-
dered unsuitable to be combined with those
samples. The following are sex proportions and
maturity trends noticed at Cochin in the
above mentioned material:

625

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Sample

dates

Total

males

Different
I II

(Virgin)

Maturity

III

stages among females
IV V VI

VII

11

(Rec.)

Total

Females

Jan. 8

37

2

11

0

0

0

0

1

14

28

(7.14%)

(30.29%)

(3.57%)

(50%)

Jan. 13

48

4

8

0

0

0

0

0

8

20

(20%)

(40%)

(40%)

Table 4

Monthly sex-distribution in C. semifasciatus at four centres during February 1980 to January 1981,

ALONG WITH X2-VALUES

Calicut

Cannanore

Mangalore

Malpe

Months

Males

Females

Males

Females

Males

Females

Males

Females

Feoruary

25

22

• -

March

—

69

46

28

18

April

46

56

—

May

60

44

71

33

86

71

October

97

114

22

13

November

22

28

—

December

109

103

64

40

January 1981

62

47

—

Totals:

396

392

157

86

180

139

28

18

X2:

0.0158

10. 3724

2.6348

1.0870

P:

>0.05

0.001

>0.05

>0.05

R:

NS

SS

NS

NS

Abbreviations:- X2 = Chi-square; P = Probability level; R = result i.e. whether significant or otherwise;
NS = non-significant; SS = highly significant.

In both the samples, the maturing and mature
(or ripe) females are completely absent and
only the spent recovering and immature fish
are noticed in the samples. A single specimen
in stage VII (spent) was found on 8-1-82, this
being absent on 13-1-82 when all the larger
females (equalling 40% of the total) were

recovering spent individuals. The dominant
maturity stages on both the occasions were
found to be II (virgin) and recovering II. This
situation is closely comparable to the same
occurring at Calicut in January 1981, the de-
tails of the latter being as follows:

Sample Total Different Maturity stages among females Total

dates males I II III IV V VI VII II Females

Jan. 15

32

3

(12.5%)

0

0

Jan. 28

30

0

4

(17.39%)

0

(Rec.)

0 0 0 9 12 24

(37.50%) (50.00%)

0 0 0 1 18 23

(4.35%) (78.26%)

626

SEX PROPORTIONS AND MATURITY TRENDS IN C. SEMIFASCIATUS

In the totals of January in the above centres
during the two different years, it is found that
the intermediate maturity stages III to VI are
completely absent and the only stages repre-
sented are I and II among the smaller sizes
and VII and recovering II among the larger
sizes of the fish; soles of the last mentioned
stage are most dominant at both the places
during the period relevant to them here.

Conclusion

The seasonal maturity trends among the
females of C. semifasciatus follow generally the
same pattern as described for the species at
Calicut (Seshappa and Bhimachar 1955) with
a few differences. The spawning season also
appears to have been roughly the same as at
Calicut in the earlier years. While individual
samples showed some apparent disparity now
and then between the numbers of the two
sexes, X2-analysis showed that the differences

are not statistically significant when studied
among monthly and annual totals except at
Cannanore where a significant difference is seen
during one particular month, this showing out
in the annual totals also.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are thankful to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research for grants under the
Emeritus Scientists’ Scheme. We are grateful
to the authorities of the Central Inland
Fisheries Research Institute and of its Banga-
lore Centre for the working facilities given
to us at Bangalore. We also thank Dr. R. S.
Lai Mohan, Shri M. H. Dhulkhed and Shri
K. V. Narayana Rao of the Central Marine
Fisheries Research Institute, and also Sarva
Shri P. K. Sukumaran and S. Ayyappan of
the Central Inland Fisheries Institute for help
in the collection, preservation and transport of
the fish samples from the west coast.

References

Seshappa, G. (1978): Report on a collection
of tongue soles ( Cynoglossus spp.) from Moplah
bay, Cannanore, with a description of C. lida
(Bleeker) . Indian J. Fish., 23 (1&2) : 160-173.

(1980) : Observations on sex pro-
portions and maturity trends in Cynoglossus bilinea-
tus (Lacepede) and C. macrolepidotus (Bleeker) at
Calicut during 1968-73. Indian J. Fish., 27 (1&2):
209-214.

Seshappa, G. & Bhimachar, B. S. (1955): Studies

on the fishery and biology of the Malabar sole,
Cynoglossus semifasciatus Day. Indian J. Fish., 2
(1): 180-230.

Seshappa, G. & Chakrapani, B. K. (in press): The
length-weight relationships in the Malabar sole
( Cynoglossus semi-fasciatus Day) from the Malabar
and South Kanara coasts of India. Indian J. Fish.

Snedecor, G. W. & Cochran, W. G. (1968):
Statistical Methods. Oxford and IBH Publ. Co. Ltd..
593pp.

627

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE MARINE OSTRACODA FROM
THE EAST COAST OF INDIA
FAMILY: CYTHERURIDAE MULLER, 18941

C. Annapurna and D. V. Rama Sarma2

(With three plates)

Introduction

While investigating the systematics and eco-
logy of benthic ostracods, 40 species belong-
ing to 27 genera and 14 families were identified
from the marginal marine/estuarine environ-
ments, namely Bimili backwaters (17°54'N,
83°28'E), Balacheruvu tidal stream (17°39'N,
83°15'E) and Vasistha Godavari estuary
(16°18'N, 81°42'E). (Annapurna 1978).

Among the members of the family Cytheru-
ridae Muller, 1894, Paijenborchellina cauda-
tum, P. reticulatum are new to science, Cythe -
ropteron alatum Sars, 1865 is recorded for the
first time from Indian waters.

Family: Cytheruridae Muller, 1894
Subfamily: Cytherurinae Muller, 1894
Genus: Paijenborchellina Kuznetsova, 1957

Key for identification of
species OF Paijenborchellina:

1 . Surface ornamented with longitudinal ridges,

closely spaced pits, scattered cross-bars lie bet-
ween the ridges Paijenborchellina sp? 1

2. Ornamented with reticulations, pits lie between

the reticulations 6

3. Four hollow tubercles present, pits arranged in

rows at posterior margin 5

4. Surface of the shell densely pitted, the inter-

1 Accepted December 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, Andhra University,
Waltair 530 003, (A.P.).

spaces bluntly spinose to rugose

Paijenborchellina sp.? 2

5 . Amphidont type of hingement, median hinge
element divided into short anteromedian and
longer posteromedian elements .... P. caudatum

6. Amphidont type of hingement, all elements

crenulated P. reticulatum

Paijenborchellina caudatum sp. nov.

(PI. 1, Fig. A; PI. 2, Figs. 1-7)

Shell sublanceolate in side view, highest near
anterior end. Dorsal and ventral margins
sinuous. Posterior margin caudate, pointed and
strongly extended medially, concave below.
Valves subequal, compressed. Surface of the
valve ornamented by narrow, somewhat sinu-
ous, longitudinal ridges that converge towards
ends, but do not occupy posterior caudal part
of shell, which is slightly compressed and
smooth. Longitudinal ridges well developed in
dorsal half of shell; numerous closely spaced
pits and scattered cross-bars lie between ridges.
Amphidont type of hingement. Median hinge
element divided into short anteromedian and
longer posteromedian elements. Inner lamella
moderately wide. Line of concrescence and
inner margin coincide throughout and run
subparallel to the outer margin. Marginal
pore canals few, straight, widely spaced,
numerous at anterior end and few at posterior
end.

Length 0.49 mm; height 0.25 mm.

Antennule 6- jointed; first four podomeres

628

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate l

Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda

A. Paijenborchel/ina caudatum — Exterior view of left valve.

B. P. reticulatam — Carapace seen from above.

C. Cytheropteron alalum — Exterior view of carapace.

0-1 MM

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 Plate 2

»

Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda

Paijenborchellina reticulatum sp. nov.

1. Antennule; 2. Antenna; 3. Mandible with palp; 4. Maxilla with vibratory plate;
5. First thoracic leg; 6. Second thoracic leg; 7. Part of third thoracic leg.

9

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84

Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda

Plate 3

1. Antennule; 2. Antenna; 3. Mandible with palp; 4. Vibratory plate; 5. Maxilla;
6. Third thoracic leg; 7, Second thoracic leg.

0-1 MM

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

long and broad, without any bristles. Penulti-
mate podomere shorter than remaining podo-
meres and bears single anterior seta. Ultimate
podomere ends with 2 claw-like setae and
single anterior seta. Antemia 4-jointed, first
podomere long and broad, second and third
podomeres nhrrow, each with single anterior
seta, ultimate podomere with two claw-like
terminal setae and one additional slender seta.
Mandible with 4 serrate teeth laterally placed
on cutting area. Mandibular palp 4-jointed.
First segment with 2 elongated setae, second
segment with one elongated seta. Penultimate
joint with 2 anterior and 2 posterior elongated
setae, the ultimate segment ends with 2 claw-
like setae and 2 bristles on either side.
Maxilla with 3 elongate masticatory lobes;
ends with group of setae. Vibratory plate bear-
ing 15 unfeathered rays. First thoracic leg
3 -jointed, ending in curved claws; distal end
of first podomere bearing 1 seta and of second
podomere longer than remaining ones. Second
thoracic leg 4-jointed, ending in curved claws.
First podomere longer and elongated than other
podomeres. Second podomere with single seta.
Third thoracic leg 3 -jointed ending in curved
claws. Distal ends of first and second podo-
meres bear seta. Paired eyes clearly visible in
living conditions. Male and female differentiat-
ed by the size and genital organs.

Remarks : In the general shape, arrangement
of radial pore canals and in the marginal
outline P. caudatum is similar to Paijenborche-
Ilina sp.? 1 and Paijenborchellina sp.? 2, as
illustrated by Reyment, 1959. It differs from the
above species in the presence of hollow tuber-
cles in the anterior two-thirds of the body.
Posterior marginal pits present in rows. But
in other species they are scattered. Pits un-
common on the extreme part of the body.
The species name is based on the pronounced
nature of caudal process at the posterior side.

Type-locality : Backwaters of Bimil i, East
coast of India.

Type-specimens : Holotype and two para-
types are deposited in the collections of Zoo-
logical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Occurrence : Backwaters of Bimili and Bala-
cheruvu tidal stream. East coast of India.

Paijenborchellina reticulatum sp. nov.

(PI. 1, Fig. B; PI. 3, Figs. 1-7)

In lateral view the carapace is ovate, wedge
shaped to pear shaped. Anterior margin
broadly rounded, posterior margin pointed.
Valves subequal, compressed. Surface of the
valves ornamented with reticulations. Pits
arranged in reticulations. Hinge amphidont
type, the median hinge element crenulated.
Inner lamella moderately wide. Marginal pore
canals few, straight, widely spaced, numerous
at anterior end, few at posterior. Length 0.61
mm; height 0.37 mm.

Antennule 6- jointed, first four podomeres
long and broad without any bristles, penulti-
mate podomere shorter than remaining podo-
meres and bears single anterior seta. Ultimate
podomere ends with 2 claw-like setae and
single anterior seta. Antenna 4-jointed, first
podomere long and broad, second and third
podomeres narrow and each podomere bears
a single anterior seta. Ultimate podomere with
two claw-like setae and one additional slender
seta. Mandible with 6 serrate teeth laterally
placed on cutting area. Mandibular palp 4-
jointed, first segment with 2 elongated setae,
second with one elongated seta. Penultimate
joint broad with two anterior and two poste-
rior elongated setae, the ultimate segment ends
with two claw-like setae and two bristles on
either side. Maxilla consists of two elongated

629

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

masticatory lobes and ends with group of
setae. Vibratory plate bears 15 unfeathered
rays. Thoracic legs 3 -jointed, ending in curved
claws. Three pairs of thoracic legs similar in
structure but varying in size.

Remarks : In the arrangement of radial pore
canals, and marginal area P. reticulatum is
similar to Paijenborchellina sp.? 1 and Paijen-
borchellina sp.?%2 and P. caudatum. It differs
from the above species in (1) ovate to wedge
shaped carapace, (2) surface of the carapace
ornamented with reticulations and (3) pits
arranged between reticulations.

This species name is based on the impor-
tant character of systematic importance, namely
carapace sculptured with reticulations.

Type-locality : Backwaters of Bimili. East
coast of India.

Type-specimens : Holotype and two para-
types are deposited in the collections of Zoo-
logical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Occurrence : Backwaters of Bimili and

Balacheruvu tidal stream. East coast of India.

Subfamily: Cytheropterinae Hanai, 1957
Genus: Cytheropteron Sars, 1865

Cytheropteron alatum Sars, 1866
(PI. 1, Fig. C)

Carapace smooth, thinly calcified, usually
fragmentary, never articulated. Ventral margin

gently undulatory, dorsal margin strongly
arched, terminating in a prominent mid-
posterior caudal process, anterior extremity
obliquely rounded; narrow duplicature forms
a crescent shaped anterior vestibule. Valves
ventrolaterally inflated in an alar expansion,
anterior edge of ala, a blade * like carina;
posterior edge of ala features 9 to 11 small
flattened denticles, ala terminated by a short
blunt spine. A mid-dorsal, dorso-median sulcus
typical. Hingement quite simple, not crenulate,
muscle scars not seen.

Length 0.70-0.73 mm; height 0.39-0.41 mm.

Cytheropteron alatum has been reported
previously from Scandinavia (Sars 1866, 1928;
Elofson 1941) off the British Isles (Brady &
Norman 1889), the north Atlantic (Tressler
1941) and the Mediterranean (Puri, Bonaduce
& Gervasio 1969).

Occurrence : Backwaters of Bimili, East

coast of India.

Distribution : World-wide.

Ack nowledgements

Thanks are due to Andhra University,
Waltair for the facilities provided; to Mr. M.
Ananda Rao, Department of Geology, Andhra
University for his help in the confirming the
identification of species. The first author (C.A.)
thanks the C.S.I.R., New Delhi for financial
assistance.

References

Annapurna, C. (1978): Systematics and ecology
of benthic ostracoda from selected marginal marine
environments, east coast of India. Ph.D. thesis sub-
mitted to the Andhra University, Waltair.

Brady, G. S. & Norman, A. M. (1889): A mono-

graph of the marine and freshwater Ostracoda of
the North Atlantic and of North-Western Europe.
Section 1. Podocooa. Sc. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc.,
4(2).

Elofson, O. (1941) : Zur kenntnis der marinen

630

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Ostracoden Schweden, mit besonderer Beriicksichti-
gung des Skagerraks. Uppsala Univ. Zool. Bidr. 19:
215-534.

Purl H. S.. Bonaduce, G. & Gervasio, A. M.
(1969): Distribution of Ostracoda in the Mediterra-
nean. In: Neale, J. W. (Ed.). The Taxonomy, Mor-
phology and Ecology of Recent Ostracoda. Edin-
burgh: Oliver & Boyd Ltd., 356-411.

Reyment, R. A. (1959): Die Ostracodengattung
Paijenborchell'ma im Unter Eozan Nigeriens. Stock-
holm Univ., Acta Contr. Geol. 3: 139-143.

Sars, G. O. (1866) : Oversigt of Norges marine
Ostracoder. Fork. Videnskselsk. Krist.

(1929) : An account of the Crustacea

of Norway. Ostracoda, Bergen Mus. (OSIO) 9:
1-277.

*Tressler, W. L. (1941) : Geology and biology
of North Atlantic deep sea cores between New-
foundland and Ireland. Part 4, Ostracoda. U. S.
Geol. Survey, Prof, paper. 196-C: 95-106.

* Not referred to in original.

A NEW SPECIES OF PARALLELAPTERA (HYMENOPTERA:
MYMARIDAE) AN EGG PARASITOID OF TINGIDAE,
FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1

David Livingstone and Mohamed Yacoob2

(With two photos & seven text-figures)

Introduction

The genus Parallelaptera was erected by
Enock (1909) with the type species Paralle-
laptera panis. The diagnostic features of the
genus were described as follows: antennae
eleven segmented in males and eight segment-
ed in females; tarsomers four, together much
longer than the tibia; thorax longer than the
sessile abdomen; wings without any surface
hairs but with long parallel marginal cilia;
hindwings almost as long as the forewing and
ovipositor projecting far beyond the apex of
the abdomen. Subsequently, Girault (1911)
tentatively described yet another related species
(Anthemiella rex) which was a year later
confirmed by him (Girault 1912) as Paralle-
laptera rex. These are the only two recorded
species of Parallelaptera so far known from
literature.

The present description of a new species is
based on specimens collected from the para-

1 Contribution No. 49. Accepted December 1985.

2 Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.

sitized eggs of the Ocimum tingid, Cochlochila
bullita. The only other species of mymarid
parasitoid on tingid eggs was reported to be
Erythmelus empoascae, reared from the eggs
of the Vitex giant tingid Ammianus ravanus
(Kirkaldy); the teak tingid, Pontanus puerilis
Drake and Poor and the Lantana tingid,
T eleonemia scrupulosa Stal (Livingstone et al.
1982 and Yacoob and Livingstone 1983). E.
empoascae was described first by Subba Rao
(1966) as egg parasite of jassids.

Parallelaptera polyphaga sp. nov.

(Photo. 1-2 & Figs. 1-7)

female: (Photo. 1) Minute; length entire
0.58 mm, width across the eggs 0.14 mm and
across the thorax 0.14 mm; generally dark
brown; body beneath and legs pale brown.

Head : triangular when viewed frontally; with
long stiff bristles at the base of each antenna;
a pair of long bristles at the posterior corner
of each eye directing backwards and another
pair outer to the ocelli; a pair of dorsal bristles

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

midway between eyes and another median
bristle on the clypeus directing anteriorly;
eyes sanguineous, widely separated; ocelli
three, pale brown; antennae long, slender, in-
serted frontally; antennomeres with sparsely
distributed minute stiff hairs; scape long with
small stumpy radical, 5.23 times longer than
its width; pedicel short, expanded, less than
half the length of the scape; funicle five seg-
mented, fifth segment expanded and almost
as long as the first four segments combined —
their lengths as follows — 1:1:0.77:1.3:3.6;
club with three elongately expanded sensoria,
4.4 times longer than its greatest width, 1.3,
times longer than the scape and 1 . 9 times

longer than the fifth funicular segment; man-
dibles small, subtriangular tridentate.

Thorax : elongate, 1.5 times longer than its
width, 1.75 times longer than the head and
1.2 times longer than the abdomen; pronotum
subtriangular, broadly ovate anteriorly; 2 pairs
of median long bristles present one behind
the other; mesonotum broad and mesophragma
very long, projecting upto the second abdo-
minal segment; meso and metascutum and
scutellum totally bare; forewings narrowly
elongate, uniformly broad, apically rounded,
almost equal to the body size, hyaline, basally
infuscated upto the stigmal level; four long

1,2,3.445

Figs. 1-7. Paralleloptera polyphaga sp. nov.

1. Head, front view; 2. Antenna — female; 3. Antenna — male; 4. Forewing; 5. Hind
wing; 6. Lateral view of thorax and abdomen — female; 7. Male genital segment.

632

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

stiff bristles present over the stigma, one bristle
more than double the length of the rest;
remigium with a row of costal and sub-costal
ciliation; cubitus with short cilia; the rest of
the remigium bare; marginal fringes very long,
gradually increasing in length from base to
apex, reaching a maximum of 0.18 mm;
stigmal vein short, straight, stumpy; hindwing
uniformly narrow, elongate, almost as long as
the forewing; marginal fringes gradually in-
creasing in length towards the apex but
slightly shorter when compared with the fringe
of the forewings; legs long, slender; fore and
hind coxae equal in length and twice as long
as the middle one; fore and hind femorae
slightly longer than the middle femora; fore-
tibia slightly swollen apically with long comb-
ed tibial spur, extending almost upto the
the middle of the first tarsomere; middle tibia
more elongate, 1 . 2 times as long as the fore-
tibia and 1 . 1 times as long as the hind tibia;
tarsomeres equal in length, together as long
as the tibia.

Abdomen : Sessile, truncate, longer than

broad, 0.84 times as long as the thorax; a
pair of bristles present dorsomedially on either
side; 8th and 9th terga dorsally with tufts of
slender hairs; ovipositor slightly extending
beyond the apex of the abdomen and occupy-
ing 3/4th entire length of the abdomen; hypo-
pygium. long, terminating subapically.

male: (Photo. 2) A little smaller than the
female, antennae (dimorphic) with 10 funi-
cular segments, second funicular segment not
more than half the length of any of the rest
of the segments; male genitalia 102 micra long
and 0.6 times as long as the abdomen.

Parallelaptera polyphaga is so named be-
cause this is the only mymarid tingid egg
parasitoid so far recorded that has the largest

Photos. 1-2. Parallelaptera polyphaga sp. nov.
1. Female; 2. Male.

number of host species. About 22 species
belonging to 16 genera of tingids recorded on
about 30 species belonging to 16 families of
host plants, are known to be attacked by this
species (Yacoob and Livingstone 1983).

Parallelaptera polyphaga sp. nov. differs
from P. panis and P. rex in its general colo-
ration and in the morphology of the antennae
and legs. It differs from P. panis in being light
brown with sanguineous eyes and totally lack
the golden yellow markings characteristically
reported in P. rex.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

The pedicel is short and more swollen than
the scape in P. polyphaga whereas the scape
in P. panis is reported to be slender. In type
species, the second funicular segment is almost
as long as the first and third segments com-
bined. In the males however, the second funi-
cular segment is almost half the length of the
rest of the segments. The tarsomeres collec-
tively do not exceed the length of the tibia.
The tibial spur of the foretibia is comb like.
Though the wings are generally regarded to
be free from ciliation in the other two species
described earlier, the costal and cubital cilia
are significantly developed in this species. The
ovipositor in the present species projects only
a little beyond the abdomen and the hypo-
pygium is prominently developed, reaching
almost upto the tip of the abdomen.

Refer

Enock, F. (1909) : New genera and British Myma-
ridae (Haliday) XI. Trans. Ent. Soc. London 4:
449-460.

Girault, A. A. (1911): Description of North
American Mymaridae with synonymic and other
notes on described genera and species. Amer. Ent.
Soc. Trans. 37: 253-324.

(1912): Notes on Hymenop-

tera: Chalcidoidea. Ent. News 23: 297.

Livingstone, D., Yacoob, M. H. S. & Jayanthi
Bai, S. (1982) : A report on Erythmelus empoascae, a

Holotype: Female, reared from the egg of
the tingid Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal, collect-
ed from Chamundi Hills, S. India on 8-1-1980.

Allotype : Male, also reared from the egg
of the same species of tingid from the same
locality.

Paratypes : the same data as the holotype.

Types mounted on slides and deposited for
the present in the Division of Entomology,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, S. India.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi for finan-
cial support and the authorities of the Univer-
sity of Madras and Bharathiar University for
facilities.

EN CES

mymarid egg parasite of the teak tingid Pontanus
puerilis Drake and Poor (Heteroptera : Tingidae).
J. Ind. Acad. Wood. Sci. 75(1): 27-29.

Subba Rao, B. R. (1966): Records of known and
new species of mymarid parasites of Empoasca de-
vast ans Dist. from India. Indian J. Ent. 28(2) :
187-196.

Yacoob, M. H. S. & Livingstone, D. (1983):
Resource potentials of the egg narasitoids of Tin-
gidae. Proc. Symp. Ins. Ecol. and Resource Manage:
247-252.

DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF GENUS
ACROCERAT1TIS HENDEL (DIPTERA: TEPHRITID AE )

FROM CHANDIGARH, INDIA1
Premlata & Awtar Singh2

(With two text -figures)

Introduction

The genus Acroceratitis (= Stictaspis Bezzi
1913) was first erected by Hendel 1913 for the

1 Accepted March 1986.

2 Dept, of Zoology, Punjab University, Chandi-
garh 160 014 (India).

type species Acroceratitis plumosa. This genus
is characterised by the third antennal segment
being pointed at the apex, long plumose arista
and a swollen scutellum, the latter yellow with
black markings or black with yellow markings.
Presently the genus has 19 Oriental and 5

634

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

African species (Hardy 1973). Two new
species are described in this paper.

Acroceratitis flava sp. nov.

Fig. 1 (A-D)

FEMALE :

Head : Oval, ratio of length, height and
width: 3: 4. 6: 6; frons pale with a brown
marking above the lunule, almost as broad
as long, 3 pairs of inferior and 2 pairs of
superior fronto orbitals; inner verticals 3 times
the outer verticals, post verticals and post ocel-
lars small; ocellar triangle grey, ocelli yellow,
ocellars as long as inner verticals; occiput
fulvous, occipitals well developed and black;
face white, proboscis pale with pale pubes-
cence, palpi large and pale with black bristles;
antennae yellow, 3rd segment fulvous and
pointed at apex, arista long plumose; eyes
black with red margin.

Thorax : mainly yellow, pubescent with three
light brown vittae on the scutum and two black
spots at the posterior corners of dorsum;
scutellum yellow with three shining black spots,
the median one large; dorsocentrals placed be-
hind the anterior supra alars; pleurae yellow;
thoracic chaetotaxy: scapulars 4, humeral 1,
presutural 1, notopleurals 2, mesopleural 1,
pteropleural 1, sternopleural 1, anterior supra -
lar 1, posterior supra alars 2, dorsocentrals 2,
prescutellars 2 and scutellars 4.

Legs : yellow with rows of black bristles on
femorae.

Wings mainly hyaline with three fusco-
fulvous bands, first two bands run parallel to
each other across the entire length of the wing,
the first one starts from stigma while second
and third bands start from the middle of 2nd
costal cell, third band goes upto the apex of

R5 along costa; r-m cross vein at the middle
of 2nd M2.

Abdomen : fulvous with pale pubescence,
third, fourth and fifth segment with 2 median
black spots each.

Ovipositor tawny, measures 1 . 1 mm, ovi-
scape large, equals the length of last three
abdominal segments, piercer red and pointed.

Length of body (excluding the ovipositor)
$ ; 4.8 mm; wing: 4.7 mm.

Material Examined : Holotype $ , Panjab
University, Chandigarh 10.xii.1984, coll.
Premlata. Type deposited with the museum,
Deptt. of Zoology, Pan jab University, Chandi-
garh.

Status and Relationship

A. plumosa

A. flava sp. nov.

1 . Two pairs of inferior

Three pairs of in-

fronto orbitals

ferior fronto orbitals.

2. Cross- vein r-m placed at

r-m placed at the

basal 1/3 of 1st M2

middle of 1st M2.

3. Mesonotal black snot

Mesonotal black spot

present

absent.

4. Abdominal spots

Abdominal spots

transverse & long

rounded.

From the above differences, it is evident
that Acroceratitis flava is a new species.

Acroceratitis maculata sp. nov.

Fig. 2 (a - f)

MALE.

Head : pale and broad, ratio of length, height
and width; 6:9:11; eyes oblong and dark
brown; frons pale white but yellow towards
antennae, 2 pairs each of superior and inferior

635

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Swm

Fig. 1. (A-D) : Acroceratitis flava sp. nov.
A. Head; B. Thorax; C. Wing; D. Ovipositor.

fronto orbitals; inner verticals 3 times the
outer verticals, post ocellars and post verticals
small; ocellar triangle brownish black, ocelli
golden, ocellar as long as inner verticals; occi-
pital setae 11, black and well developed; occiput
pale and pubescent on lower side; Junule
rufous; face pale and flat with a triangular
median black spot; proboscis small, labial
palpi thickly bristled; antennae situated with a

spine like point at the apex, arista long plumose.

Thorax : yellow, humeral callus white with
a black spot behind it, scutum with 5 shining
black vittae, the broader median running to
the entire length narrows anteriorly and with
two black spots located postero laterally which
further extends to the scutellum; scutellum
entirely black with 2 very small apical and two
basal yellow spots, dorsocentrals below in line

636

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

with the anterior supra-alars; pleurae yellow;
thoracic chaetotaxy; scapulars 4, humeral 1,
notopleurals 2, mesopleurals 2, pteropleural 1,
sternopleural 1, presutural 1, dorsocentrals 2,
prescutellars 2, anterior supra alar 1, posterior

supra alars 2, and scutellars 4, all bristles black
and well developed.

Legs : yellow, front femorae with five bristles
posteriorly, midtibia with a prominent spur.
Wings : hyaline with all the three fuscous

1 -9mm

Fig. 2 (a-d) : Acroceratitis maculata sp. nov.
a. Head; b. Thorax; c. Wing; d. Ovipositor.

637

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 2 (e-f) : Acroceratitis maculata sp. nov.
e. 5th Sternum of male; f. Male Genitalia.

bands separate, the preapical oblique band
becomes very faint before joining with costal
band, the band across ‘m’ cross vein com-
plete but does not join the costal band; r-m
cross vein situated at basal 1/3 of cell 1st M2
and cubital cell 2/3 as long as vein Cu2 + 1A,
vein R4 + 5 setose to a level almost opposite
the tip of vein M3+4.

Abdomen : mainly brown, second segment

yellow, third to sixth segment becoming
lighter in colour and bordered with bristles
posteriorly.

Male Genitalia yellow except the dark
brown sclerotized aedeagus and 9th tergite;
surstyli pointed at tip and ending in two lobes,
the posterior one slightly bigger; fultella andi-
ron type; ejaculatory apodeme small and fan
narrow; outer claspers well developed with two
equal prensisetae.

FEMALE

It resembles the male except in the follow-
ing: Abdomn tapering posteriorly, sixth

abdominal segment shorter than the fifth.

Ovipositor : Basal segment rufous but black
caudally, equals last 4 abdominal segments,
measures 2.6 mm, inversion membrane small
and telescopic; piercer yellow pointed at tip.

Length of body c? : 4.8 mm; wing: 4.6 mm.

Length of body (excluding the ovipositor)
$ : 4.7 mm; wing: 4.6 mm.

Material Examined: Holotype c? 3 1.x. 1985;
Bamboo shoots; Chandigarh, India: Coll.

Premlata.

Status and Relationship

The species superficially resembles A. tomen-
tosa Hardy but is distinct from it in the
following characters:

A. tomentosa

A. maculata sp. nov.

1. Face without any spot.

Face with a

triangular black spot.

2. Second and third bands

2nd and 3rd bands

of the wing joined at
costal margin.

separate.

3. R4+5 setose for the

R4+5 setose level with

entire length

tip of vein M3+4.

4. Cue cell lobe 1/3 of vein

Cu cell lobe 2/3 of

Cui+lst A-

vein Cu1+lst A.

5. Piercer with 5 pairs of

Piercer with 3 pairs

setae

of setae.

638

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

The above differences are sufficient to esta-
blish Acroceratitis maculata as a new species.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. H. S. Vasisht, Chairman, De-

partment of Zoology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh for the liberal facilities. They are
also thankful to Prof. D. E. Hardy of Ento-
mology Department, Honolulu, Hawaii for
sending the literature. The first author is also
thankful to CSIR for granting her a fellowship.

References

Bezz|, M. (1913): Indian Trupaneids in the col- and Bordering countries. Pacific Inst. Monogr. 31:
lections of Indian Museum, Calcutta. Mem. Ind. Mus. 1-353

3: 53-175 pis. VIII-X. Hendel, F. (1913): H. Sauter’s Formosa Aus-

Hardy, D. E. (1973): The fruitflies of Thailand beaute. Suppl. Ent. 2: 82.

ON A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS STROPHOSOMOIDES ASLAM
FROM KASHMIR (TANYMECINAE, BRACHYDERINAE,
CURCULIONIDAE, COLEOPTERA)1

H. R. Pajni and S. S. Gandhi2

{With three text-figures )

A new species Strophosomoides pahalgamensis is being described, raising the
number of species under this genus to nine. A key to the known species is also

provided.

Introduction

Out of 99 species of Indian Brachyderinae
studied by us during a 5-year US. PL-480
project on Indian Curculionidae, as many as
28 species were found to be new. One such
species belongs to genus Strophosomoides
Aslam which is described in the present com-
munication.

The genus Strophosomoides was raised by
Aslam (1966) to include 8 species from West-
ern Himalayas. Two of these species were
collected from Kashmir valley. The present
species has also been collected from Kashmir

1 Accepted September 1986.

2 Department of Zoology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh, 160 014, India.

valley, but is quite different from all the 8
recorded species. As the type species for the
genus has not been named by Aslam (1966),
S. gulmargensis Aslam is being designated as
type species of this genus. An enlarged key to
the 9 world species under this genus is also
being included. The characterization of genus
Strophosomoides has been revised by includ-
ing the structure of genitalia.

Genus Strophosomoides Aslam

Aslam Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1966, Ser. 13,
Vol. IX, p. 129

Head with frons produced laterally over eyes
and separated from vertex there. Eyes lateral
and sulcate above. Rostrum narrowed from
base to apex dorsally; scrobe deep, curved

639

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 84

either towards or away from eye; mandibular
scar prominent. Antenna with scape variable;
funicle with segment I slightly longer than 2,
others moniliform. Prothorax transverse or as
long as broad. Elytra without shoulders,
gradually sloping or abruptly so near base.
Legs with hind tibia not denticulate, corbels
open; claws connate. Male genitalia with apex
of aedeagus narrowly rounded; aedeagal apo-
demes longer than aedeagus; phaliobasic apo-
deme shorter than aedeagal apodemes; endo-
phallus with a sclerotized structure. Female
genitalia with coxites longer than broad; styli
longer than broad and beset with setae; spicu-
lum ventrale thick and short, densely setose.

Type species: Strophosomoides gulmargensis
Aslam.

Distribution : India: Pakistan.

Key to the species of Genus Strophosomoides
Aslam

1 . Upper margin of scrobe well defined and con-
tinued above eye. Frons and rostrum concave
2

— Upper margin of scrobe not well defined, in-

terrupted by a raised area between scrobe and
anterior margin of eye. Frons and rostrum not
concave (except in S. niger ) 3

2. Elytra roughly punctured and irregularly striate;

third, fifth and seventh intervals more strongly
raised than second, fourth and sixth; aedeagus
long and curved rugosus Aslam

— Elytra uniformly punctured and regularly striate;
dorsal intervals almost equally raised; aedeagus

short and less strongly curved

gulmargensis Aslam

3. Funicle with segment I not longer than 2

pahalgamensis sp. nov.

— Funicle with segment I longer than 2 4

4. Elytra impressed at base near suture, appearing

keel shaped; frons and rostrum concave

niger Aslam

— Elytra not impressed at base near suture; frons

and rostrum almost flat 5

5. Mentum with more than two setae; second

sternite of abdomen at sides as long as third
and fourth together; antenna with scape not
reaching posterior margin of eye 6

— Mentum with two setae; second sternite of ab-

domen at sides longer than third and fourth
together; antenna with scape reaching posterior
margin of eye 7

6. Aedeagus broad in middle, gradually narrowing
to apex and base; elytra strongly humped and

abruptly falling behind in female

championi Aslam

— Aedeagus not broad at middle, gradually taper-
ing from apex to base; elytra less humped and

gradually falling behind in female

kumaonensis Aslam

7. Elytra rounded at base and gradually sloping

down to mesonotum fastigatus Aslam

— Elytra abruptly not rounded, vertical at base

. * 8

8. Rostral furrow broad and not reaching vertex,

pronotum finely granulate; body narrow ....
kaghanensis Aslam

— Rostral furrow narrow and reaching vertex;

pronotum coarsely granulate; body robust ....
kohistani Aslam

Strophosomoides pahalgamensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

Flead with frons piceous, produced laterally
over eyes and separated from vertex there,
with a broad and shallow median furrow. Eyes
black, almost circular and moderately promi-
nent. Rostrum piceous, almost as long as
broad, abruptly narrows down to apex; upper
surface shallowly punctate, with a broad median
furrow; scrobe deep and curved at a distance
from eye; mandible scar conspicuous. Antennae
with scape gradually clavate, exceeding middle
of eye; funicle with joint 1 not longer than 2,
3-7 moniliform and subequal; club compact
and ovate.

Prothorax much broader than long, strongly
rounded laterally, broadest about middle, apex
narrower than base; upper surface granulate
dorsally and laterally, each granule with a seta,
with a broad and shallow median furrow;

640

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

pattern formed by pale brown scales and
setae. Scutellum indistinct.

Fig. 1. Strophosomoid.es pahaigamensis sp. nov.:
Adult.

Elytra piceous, subquadrate, shoulders not
distinct, broadest about middle, base jointly
and deeply sinuate and without margin, apices
broadly rounded; surface convex, finely
punctato-striate, intervals broad; pattern form-
ed by pale brown scales, short and depressed
setae in apical half, long and erect setae in
basal half. Legs with tibiae finely serrate,
corbels open; claws connate.

Abdomen with intercoxal process arcuate;
visible sternite 2 almost equal to 3 and 4 toge-
ther and separated from 1 by an angulated
shallow furrow.

Male genitalia with aedeagus moderately
sclerotized, with apex narrowly rounded;
aedeagal apodemes longer than aedeagus; phal-

Fig. 2. Strophosomoides pahaigamensis sp. nov. :
Male genitalia.

Abbreviations : ADA, Aedeagal apodeme; AED,

Aedeagus; ENDP, Endophallic plate; ENDR, Endo-
phallic rod; PHB, Phallobase; PHBA, Phallobasic
apodeme; PMR. Paramere.

641

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 3. Strophosomoides pahalgamensis sp. nov. :
Female genitalia.

Abbreviations : COL, Collum; COR, Cornu; COX,
Coxites; RAM, Ramus; SD, Spermathecal duct; ST,
Stylus; 8S, 8th sternum; SV, Spiculum ventrale.

lotreme subapical; phallobasic apodeme shorter
than aedeagal apodemes, parameres short;
endophallus with transparent mass having short
sclerotized rods. Female genitalia with coxites
moderately sclerotized, much longer than broad
(4.5:1) and sparsely setose; styli a little longer
than broad and beset with 2 setae at apex;
spiculum ventrale sclerotized and elongated,
much dilated at base, densely setose; sperma-
theca with cornu narrowly pointed; ramus
distinct at level with collum.

Measurements’. Length of body: d, 2. 8-3.0
mm.; $, 2.9-3. 1 mm.; Width of body: d,
1.5-1. 6 mm.; $, 1.4-1. 6 mm.; Length of
rostrum: d, 0.4-0. 5 mm.; $, 0.4-0. 5 mm.;
Width of rostrum: d, 0.3-0. 4 mm; $, 0.4-
0.5 mm.

Holotype : male: Kashmir, Srinagar, Zabor-
mon hill. Pari Mahal (understones), 25.5.1967,
Dr. Topal. Paratype: 1 male, 1 female:

Kashmir, Pahalgam (extracted grass clumps),
3.6.1967, Dr. G, Topal. (Types deposited in
FRI, Dehradun).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the ICAR and USDA
for financing a 5 year project on Indian
Curculionidae and for sanctioning funds for
the trip of the first author to various European
Museums for the study of type material. They
are also thankful to Dr. Z. Kaszab of Hunga-
rian Natural History Museum, Budapest, for
the loan of material. The research facilities
provided by the Chairman are also thankfully
acknowledged.

Referen ce

Aslam, N. A. (1966): A new Tanymecinae genus
from the Himalayas (Col..: Cure.). Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. (13), 9: 129-136.

642

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ISCHAEMUM AGASTYAMALAYANUM — A NEW SPECIES OF
POACEAE FROM KERALA, INDIA1

P. V. Sreekumar, M. K. Janarthanam and A. N. Henry2
(With a text-figure)

Ischaemum agastyamalayanum sp. nov.
(Fig. 1)

Ischaemum thomsonianum Stapf ex C.E.C.
Fischer affinis sed spiculis sessilibus dense hir-
sutis, brevioribus, distincte 3-angulosis, sulcatis;
racemis articulis non dentibus; glumis inferiori-
bus spiculam sessilium ad apices trilobatis et
non alatis; aristis glumarum superarum longio-
ribus (c. 3 mm) et spiculis pedicellatis dense
villosis diilert.

Perennials. Culms 20-80 cm long, stoloni-
ferous, trailing or geniculate, rarely erect; nodes
bearded or glabrous. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, 3-20 x 0.5-1
cm, acuminate, rounded or shallowly cordate
at base, covered with dense or sparse tubercle-
based hairs. Sheaths keeled. Ligules ovate,
acute, 2-4 mm long, membranous. Racemes 2,
rarely 3, each 3-5 cm long, densely hairy;
joints turbinate, 2-3 mm long, furrowed, dense-
ly hairy, hairs 0.5-3 mm long. Sessile spikelets
oblong- lanceolate, 5-8 mm long (excl. arista),
awned, densely villous; callus cuneate, densely
bearded, hairs 1-2 mm long; lower glume broad-
ly ovate-lanceolate, 5-6 x 2-3 mm, trilobed at
apex (or very rarely bicuspidate, then the lobes
divaricate), chartaceous, 11-13-nerved, densely
hairy, hairs 1-3 mm long; upper glume boat-
shaped or ovate-lanceolate when spread, 6-8 x
1-2 mm, acuminate with recurved tip shortly
bifid and aristate, chartaceous, faintly 3-5-
nerved, keeled on dorsal side, keel minutely
winged and sparsely ciliate at the middle or
towards apex, margins infolded, hyaline to-

1 Accepted October 1986.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, TNAU
Campus, Lawley Road P.O., Coimbatore 641 003.
Tamil Nadu.

wards apex, arista 2-3 mm long; lower floret
male; upper floret bisexual; first lemma ovate-
oblong, 4.5-5 x 2 mm, acute, delicate, faintly

3 - 5 -nerved, margins hyaline, ciliate towards
apex; palea elliptic-lanceolate, 4-4.5 x 1 mm,
chartaceous, 2-keeled, 2-nerved, margins in-
folded, delicate and hyaline; stamens 3, anthers

1- 2 mm long; second lemma notched, 4-5 x
1.5-2 mm, delicate, hyaline, 3-nerved, awned,
lobes acuminate, ciliolate towards apex; awn
12-15 mm long, column 5-6 mm long, brownish;
palea oblong-lanceolate, 4-4.5 x 0.5-1 mm,
delicate, hyaline, 2-nerved; stamens 3, anthers

2- 3 mm long; ovary oblong, c. 0.5 mm, styles
1-1.5 mm long, stigmas c. 2 mm long. Pedi-
celled spikelets lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate,

4- 7 mm long, awned, sometimes reduced;
pedicels 2-2.5 mm long, densely villous; lower
glume oblong-lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate,

5- 6 x 1.5-2 mm, slightly bifid, acuminate,
aristate, chartaceous, 9-11 -nerved, keeled and
densely villous on dorsal side; upper glume
and florets similar to those of the sessile
spikelets.

Holotype: India. Kerala. Trivandrum Dt.:
Western slopes of Agastyamalai, c. 1800 m, 6
October 1973, /. Joseph 44634 (CAL); Iso-
types in MH (acc. nos. 86157, 86158 &
136876-136878); Paratype : Idukki Dt.:

Lockhart gap, 13 December 1985, M. K.
Janarthanam 82967 (MH Acc. No. 136889-
136893).

Rare in the grassy hill slopes and in
higher altitude grasslands.

Note: This species is allied to Ischaemum
thomsonianum , but markedly differs from it
as shown in the Table 1.

643

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

2mm

•Fig. 1 (A-M) : lschaemum agastyamalayanum sp. nov.

A. Habit; B. Joint of raceme; C. Sessile spikelet; D. Lower glume of Sessile
spikelet; E. Upper glume; F. First lemma; G. Palea of the first lemma; H. Second
Lemma; I. Palea of the Second lemma; J. Stamen; K. Pistil; L. Pedicelled spikelet;
M. Lower glume of Pedicelled spikelet.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 1

Ischaemum thorns onianum

1 . Joints of racemes 3-4 mm long, densely cilia te
along one angle, with a tooth-like projection on
inner side

2. Lower glume of the sessile spikelets glabrous,
bicuspidate, lobes straight, narrowly winged at
apex

3. Arista on the upper glume 1-2 mm long

4. Pedicelled spikelets glabrous

Ischaemum agastyamalayanum sp. nov.

Joints 2-3 mm long, distinctly 3-angled, furrowed,
densely villous all along, flat and without a tooth-
like projection

Lower glume densely hairy, trilobed at apex, if bi-
cuspidate then the lobes divaricate, not winged at
apex.

Arista c. 3 mm long

Pedicelled spikelets densely villous

We thank Dr. T. A. Cope of the Royal Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for the
Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, for his valu- Latin diagnosis and Mrs. C. P. Malathi for
able opinion on the specimens; Dr. V. J. Nair, the habit sketch.

A NEW SPECIES OF MERREMIA HALL. F. (CONVOLVULACEAE)

FROM INDIA1

M. M. Bhandari2

(With a text -figure)

Merremia rajasthanensis sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Planta annua, glabra, caulis serpens vel
volubilis, valde trialatus alis 1-1.5 mm latis;
internodium 8-15 cm longum. Folia alterna;
petiolus 3-12 cm longus, adaxialiter sulcatus;
lamina pedata, fere ad basin divisa, quinque-
loba lobis inferioris iterum divisis, 1-2 — lobis;
lobi lanceolati, 2. 5-9.0 x 0.5-2. 3 cm, lobo
medio maximo apice acuminato basi angustata
et marginibus integris nonnihil undulatis, venis
abaxialiter prominentibus. Pendunculi 1-4-
flori, axillares, 1. 5-4.0 cm longi, quadriangu-
lati; pedicelli quinqueangulati sulcatique, 0.9-
1.3 cm longi, sursum sensim dilatati et ad
apicem c. 0.3 cm lati; bracteae lineares, c. 0.5
cm longae, basi valde glandulosae et cicatrici-
bus instructae. Flores aparti usque 2 cm lati.

1 Accepted February 1987.

2 Professor of Botany, University of Jodhpur.
Jodhpur 342 001.

Sepala quinque, subaequalia, c. 1.1 x 0.7 cm,
oblongo-ovata, mucronata, membranacea.
Corolla alba, infundibulariformis, usque 2 cm
longa; tubus 1.2-1. 5 cm longus; lobi quinque,
0.5 -0.7 cm longi, ad apicem rotundati, regione
media glabra. Stamina filamentis c. 1 cm longis
fere ad medium adnatis parte adnata dilatata
et glanduloso-pilosa, pollinis grana 3-zonicol-
pata, laevia. Ovarium super discum prominen-
tem quinquelobum insidens; stigma bilobum,
glabrum. Capsula c. 0.7 cm diam., bruneola,
subgloboso-pyramidalis, ad apicem stylo per-
sistenti instructa. Semina 3 (-4), hebetato-atra,
c. 0.5 x 0.4 cm, oblongo-ovoidea, trigona,
laevia, glabra.

This species is closely allied to Merremia
quinque folia (Linn.) Hall, f., but is easily
distinguished by its pedate leaves, winged and
glabrous stem and glabrous seeds. However,
it appears to be related to the African M.
palmata Hall. f. and M. verecunda Rendle.

645

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 1. Merremia rajasthanensis sp. nov.

1. Part of stem with inflorescence and fruits; 2. flower; 3. flower split open to
show androecium and gynoecium; 4-6. sepals, dorsal, lateral and ventral view;
7. mature fruit with persistent calyx; 8. T.S. of fruit; 9-10. seeds, ventral and

lateral view.

646

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

The stem of this species is typically winged
like that of African M. pterygocaulis (Choisy)
Hall. f.

Merremia rajasthanensis sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Glabrous annual. Stem trailing or twining,
conspicuously 3-winged, wings 1-1.5 mm wide;
intemodes 8-15 cm long. Leaves alternate;
petiole 3-12 cm long, adaxially grooved; leaf-
blade pedately divided nearly to the base, 5-
lobed, the lower lobes again sub-divided into
1 or 2 lobes; lobes lanceolate, 2. 5-9.0 x 0.5-
2.3 cm, middle lobe the largest, apex acumi-
nate, base narrowed, margins entire and very
slightly undulate, veins abaxially prominent.
Peduncles 1-4-fIowered, axillary, 1. 5-4.0 cm
long, 4-angled; pedicels 5- angled and grooved,
0.9- 1.3 cm long, gradually widening above,
c. 0.3 cm wide at apex; bracts linear, c. 0.5
cm long, conspicuously glandular and scarred
at the base. Flowers up to 2 cm across when
fully open. Sepals 5, sub-equal, c. 1.1 x 0.7
cm, oblong-ovate, mucronate, membranous.
Corolla white, funnel shaped, up to 2 cm long;
tube 1.2- 1.5 cm long; lobes 5, 0.5-0. 7 cm

long, rounded at apex, mid-petaline area
glabrous. Staminal filaments c. 1 cm long,
adnate nearly to the middle, the adnate portion
dilated and glandular hairy on the sides, pollen
3-zonicolpate, smooth. Ovary based on 5-lobed
prominent disk; stigma 2-lobed, globular.
Capsule c. 0.7 cm in diam., light brown sub-
globose-pyramidal, glabrous, surrounded by
persistent, spreading calyx, apex with persis-
tent style. Seeds 3 (-4), dull-black, c. 0.5 x 0.4
cm, oblong-ovoid, trigonous, smooth and
glabrous.

rajasthan desert: Jodhpur District:

Sardarsamand, near margin of lake on field
fences: Bhandari : 1976! date, 29.8.1975 (K,
holotype; JAC, Isotype); Jodhpur University
campus, twining on grasses: Bhandari 2185!
date, 14.9.1975. barmer district: Climbing
on shrubs and grasses on hillock behind Metaji’s
temple on rocks: Bhandari 2187! date, 8.9.
1976.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Dr. Melanie Wilmot-Dear
of Kew for Latin diagnosis.

ISACHNE HENRY l — A NEW SPECIE S OF POACEAE
FROM KERALA, INDIA1

S. R. Srinivasan and P. V. Sreekumar2

(With a text-figure)

Isachne henryi sp. nov.

(Fig 1)

Isachne miliacea Roth ex Roem. et Schult.
affinis, sed foliis longioribus (usque ad 8 cm),
lineario — lanceolatis; glumis 9-11-nervibus,
setosis; antheris longioribus (1.5-2 mm) et

1 Accepted April 1987.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003,
Tamil Nadu.

pedicellis longioribus (usque ad 8 mm) differt.

Annual. Culms 15-50 cm long, creeping or
geniculate, slender; nodes glabrous. Leaves
lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, 2-8 x 0.2-0. 5
cm, rounded or very shallowly cordate at base,
scabrid along the nerves. Ligule a row of long
hairs. Panicles 2-12 x 1-5 cm, widely spread-
ing, green to purplish; peduncles long, exserted,
branches 1-4 cm long, alternate. Spikelets
broadly ovate or orbicular, 1 . 5-2 mm long.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 84

Fig. 1. (A-H) : Isachne henry i sp. nov.

A. Habit; B. Spikelet; C. Lower glume (Ventral view); D. Upper glume (Dorsal
view); E. First lemma; F. Palea of the first lemma; G. Second lemma; H. Palea

of the second lemma.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

sparsely hairy or glabrous, green to purplish;
pedicels 1-8 mm long, slender, wavy, dilated at
apex; glumes broadly ovate or orbicular, sub-
equal, 1.75-2 x 1.5-2 mm, chartaceous, 9-11-
nerved, setose hairy. Lower floret male: lemma
broadly elliptic or ovate, 1.75-2 x 1-1.25 mm,
obtuse, chartaceous, faintly 5-7-nerved,
glabrous, margins inturned, hyaline; palea
broadly ovate, 1.5-1.75 x 1-1.25 mm, obtuse,
delicate, glabrous, margins 2-keeled, hyaline;
stamens 3, anthers 1.5-2 mm long, filaments
short. Upper floret bisexual: lemma orbicular,
1 .25-1 .5 x 1.25-1.5 mm, obtuse, coriaceous,
faintly 5-7-nerved, glabrous; palea orbicular,
1-1.5 x 1-1.25 mm, obtuse, coriaceous, 2-keel-
ed, glabrous, margins inturned, hyaline; stamens
3, anthers 0,75-1 mm long, filaments short;
ovary oblong, 0.1-0.25 mm long, styles c. 0.25
mm long, stigmas feathery, 0.25-0.5 mm long.

Holotype : kerala. Wynad District:

Poothumoola, Hiladale R. F., ± 700 m, 13th
November, 1981, 5. R. Srinivasan 72358 (CAL).
Isotypes in K, & MH (acc. Nos. 138695,
138696, 138697 & 138698).

Occasionally grows along the bunds of paddy
fields.

This species is allied to Isachne miliacea
Roth ex Roem. & Schult, but markedly differs
from it as shown in the table.

Table

Isachne miliacea

Isachne henryi sp. nov.

1 . Leaves ovate-lanceolate,

Leaves linear-lanceolate

up to 3 cm long

or lanceolate, up to 8 cm
long

2. Glumes 5-7-nerved,

Glumes 9-11 -nerved,

glabrous

setose^ hairy

3. Anthers of the lower

Anthers of the lower

floret 0.5-1 mm long

floret 1.5-2 mm long

4 . Pedicels up to 3 mm long

Pedicels up to 8 mm long.

The specific epithet is after Dr. A. N. Henry,
Scientist D, Botanical Survey of India, Coim-
batore in recognition of his significant con-
tributions to the taxonomy and nomenclature
of Indian plants.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. T. A. Cope of the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, England for his valua-
ble opinion on the specimens. Dr. N. P. Bala-
krishnan. Scientist D, Botanical Survey of
India for encouragement. Dr. V. J. Nair for
the latin diagnosis and Smt. C. P. Malathi for
the habit sketch.

A NEW SPECIE S OF NOTOTHYLAS SULL. (BRYOPHYTA)

FROM NEPAL1

D. K. Singh2

( With twenty ei

The genus Notothylas Sull, in the present
state of our knowledge, is represented in the
world by 17 species. Interestingly, the South-

1 Accepted May 1987.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle,
Shillong-793 003.

t text -figures )

East Asian countries and Japan together
account for the distribution of 14 species. Off
these 12 species are confined to this region
only whereas two species Notothylas breutelii
(Got.) Got. and N. dissecta St. exhibit dis-
continuous distribution between South-East

649

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Asia on one hand and the American land-mass
on the other (Singh 1979, Udar & Singh 1979).
Recently, during the course of a monographic
study on Indian Notothylaceae some interest-
ing specimens, belonging to the non-columel-
late section of the genus, represented in the
collections of British Museum expedition to
Central Nepal during 1949 and 1952 and partly
deposited in the hepatic herbarium of the
Lucknow University (LWU), were studied. A
critical morpho-taxonomic investigation show-
ed that they were distinct from hitherto known
species of the genus. Hence, it is described
in the present communication as Notothylas
nepalensis sp. nov. The only other species of
the genus, recorded from Nepal so far, is N.
levieri Schiffn. (Hattori 1966, Singh 1979, in
press).

Notothylas nepalensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-28)

Plantae dioeciae; thalli prostrati parvi, tenelli,
2-4 cellulis crassi, cellulis strati mediani majo-
ribus; plantae feminiae 2-4.5 mm longae, 0.7-
3.5 mm lati; involucra submarginalia, ultra
marginem thalli protrudentia; capsula cylin-
drica, involucrum leviter superans, longitudi-
naliter secus suturum dehiscens, cellulis
specialibus secus marginem valvae in serie una
dispositis, pariete capsulae nonstomatifera.
tristratosa; columella carens; sporae flavo-
brunneae, ovali-sphericae, 32.4-46 /im, super-
ficie glabra, signo triradiato distincte notata.

Typus positus in Herbario Hepatico, sec-
tionis botanices, Univ. Lucknow, Lucknow,
India. Numero 3125 pro parte (Ex Herbaria
Musei Britannici). Notothylas nepalensis
sp. nov., Anthoceros stephanii Khanna con-
sociata, Garhigaon prope Jumla (alt. 2879 m).
leg. O. Polunin, W. R. Sykes et J.H.J. Williams,
September 1952. det. D. K. Singh.

Plants prostrate, delicate, dichotomously

branched, usually not forming rosettes, caespi-
tose, linear — obcordate, small 2-4.5 mm long,
0.7-3. 5 mm broad, lobes ecostate, broad, dorsal
surface smooth, thalli compact, 3-4 cell layers
thick in the middle, 1-3 cells thick at the mar-
gins; dorsal epidermal cells nonprotuberant, sub-
quadrate — rectangulate, (24.3) 40.5-67.5 x
(21.6) 29.7-46 pm towards apex, with 1(2-3)
discoid to more or less ‘U’ shaped chloro-
plasts free from the inner cell walls, stroma
reticuloid, pyrenoid region lacking; cells from
the middle region of the thallus elongated
rectangulate, 45-97.5 x 32-51.5 jam, with 1(2)
discoid — ellipsoid chloroplasts free from
inner cell walls; cells from the posterior part
of the thallus rectangulate, (32-) 64.5-97.5 x
27-59.5 pm, with single chloroplast free from
the inner cell walls; cells of the hypodermal
layer much larger, often filled with mucilage,
usually devoid of chloroplasts; cells from the
lower epidermis subquadrate — rectangulate,
(40.5) 54-81 x 32-50 pm towards apex with

1- 3 discoid chloroplasts similar to those in
dorsal epidermis, cells from the middle region
of the thallus rectangulate, 43-86.5 x 18.5-43.5
pm with 1 (-2) large, discoid — ellipsoid chlo-
roplasts, cells from the posterior region of the
thallus highly elongated, 64.5-110.5 x (24-)
29.5-43.5 pm, with single discoid to elongated
chloroplast. Nostoc colonies not observed.

Rhizoids smooth walled, ventral scales and
tubers lacking. Dioecious (?) male plants not
seen. Involucres horizontally deflexed, submar-
ginal, single or geminate, situated at the
sinuses between the two lobes, usually not con-
cealed by the latter, anterior part projecting
well beyond the thallus margins, uniformly

2- cell layers thick towards base, 1-cell thick
towards apex, surface smooth; sporogonia
emergent, one in each involucre, 0.75-1.5 mm
long, differentiated into a large bulbous foot,
a subconspicuous meristematic zone and more
or less ellipsoidal, yellowish brown capsule with

650

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-28. Notothylas nepalensis sp. nov.

1-3. Habit sketches of plants in dorsal view; 4-6. Chloroplasts from the upper
epidermal cells (towards the anterior part of the thallus); 7. The same from the
middle region of the thallus; 8. Chloroplasts from the lower epidermal cells; 9-12.
Cross-section of the thallus; 13. Cross-section of the involucre; 14. A complete
sporogonium; 15-17. Epidermal cells of the capsule wall (figure 16 showing special
cells bordering the line of dehiscence); 18. Cross-section of the capsule wall;
19-20. Spores in proximal view; 21-23. Spores in the distal view. 24-28. Pseudoelaters.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

obtuse apex; capsule dehiscing longitudinally
from apex downwards, sutures 2-4 (-5), cells
thick, capsule wall nonstomatiferous, 3-4 cell
layers thick, cells of the epidermal layer
yellowish brown, subquadrate — rectangulate,
24-40.5 x 27-35.5 pm towards apex rectan-
gulate, 32-94.5 (-121.5) x 16-27 /xm towards
posterior part, with sheet-like thickenings pre-
sent on transverse and radial walls, radial wall
thickenings extending over outer tangential
walls also, special cells bordering the margin
of each valve in 1-2(3) rows, 18.5-32.5 x
18-35.5 /xm at apex, (27-40.5) 48.5-121.5 x
8-27 /xm towards base, thick walled, deeply
pigmented, cells of the inner layers thin walled,
hyaline, devoid of any thickening; columella
absent, spores tetrahedral (32-50 /.on in dia-
meter) — oval (40.5-50 x 36.5-40.5 /xm),
yellowish brown, with a conspicuous equatorial
crassitudo devoid of flange, exine surface
obscure, proximal surface with conspicuous
tortuous triradiate mark often continuous with
equatorial girdle; pseudoelaters scarcely pre-
sent, 1-3 celled, 45-69.5 x 16.5-47 /xm in size,
hyaline, devoid of thickening bands.

Type specimen represents the part of collec-
tions of British Museum Expedition to Cen-
tral Nepal. The duplicate deposited in the
Hepatic herbarium. Department of Botany,
University of Lucknow, Lucknow (LWU) No.
3125. Notothylas nepalensis sp. nov. growing
in fallowed field with Anthoceros stephanii
Khanna. Loc. Garhigaon, S.E. of Jumla (alt.
2879 m). leg. O. polunin, W. R. Sykes and
J.H.J. Williams, September 1952. det. D. K.
Singh.

Other specimen examined : No. 173. Ex
Herbario Musei Britannici. British Museum
Expedition to Central Nepal, 1949. The dupli-
cate deposited in the Hepatic herbarium.
Department of Botany, University of Lucknow,
Lucknow (LWU). Notothylas nepalensis sp.
nov. grows on walls in association with sterile.

tuber bearing, plants of Phaeoceros himalay-
ensis (Kash.) Prosk. Loc. Langtang village area
(alt. c. 3030 m). leg. O. Polunin, August 1949.
det. D. K. Singh.

Characteristics of the species : 1. Plants dioe-
cious; 2. Chloroplast stroma reticuloid, pyre-
noid region lacking; 3 . Involucres projecting
well beyond the thallus margin, surface smooth;
4. Columella absent; 5. Yellowish brown
spores with obscure exine surface and devoid
of flange; 6. Pseudoelaters scarce, devoid of
thickening bands.

Notothylas nepalensis, occurring at an alti-
tude of c. 2879-3030 m, is a truly temperate
species and is interesting in its vegetative as
well as sporophytic features. In a fairly large
number of specimens, from both the localities,
a tendency to form rosettes is lacking. The
plants are delicate and quite distinctive as the
thallus is usually only 3 -cell layers thick with
the middle layer comprising of enormously
large cells (Figs. 9-12) usually filled with
mucilage. It is also remarkable in its chloro-
plast structure which apparently consists of
numerous, discoid starch bodies (Figs. 4-8)
separated from each other by hyaline streak —
presumably ‘thylakoids’. Interestingly, in this
feature, the present species not only resembles
N. anaporata Udar & Singh, a columellate
species of the genus, but also shows a close
analogy with Megaceros tjihodensis Campb.
(Burr 1970, Kaja 1954, Udar & Singh 1981).
Furthermore, while it shows resemblance with
the genus Megaceros Campb. as well as certain
species of the genus Folioceros Bharad., in
the absence of a central pyrenoid complex
from the chloroplast, it differs widely from its
allied species (belonging to the noncolumellate
section of the genus Notothylas) in this feature
(Singh 1979. in press; Udar & Singh 1981).

N. nepalensis, in the complete absence of a
columella, differs not only from all the per-
sistently columellate species of the genus (e.g.

652

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

N. anaporata, N. dissecta, N. galapagensis
Howe, N. himalayensis Udar & Singh, N. indica
Kash., N. pandei Udar & Chandra) but also
from such species as N. breutelii, N. depressi-
spora J. Hasegawa, N. javanica (Sande Lac.)
Gott., N. orbicularis (Schw.) Sull., N. tempe-
rata J. Hasegawa) which may or may not have
columella in their fully matured capsules (see
Hasegawa 1979, Singh 1979, Udar & Singh
1981). Amongst its own group, while the pre-
sent species does not approach directly to any
of the taxa, it differs considerably from them
in most of the significant morphological details
(e.g. thallus anatomy, chloroplast structure,
sexuality, features of involucres, capsule wall
structure, spore morphology and the sporo-

derm pattern, and the pseudoelater characte-
ristics) having a direct bearing on the taxonomy
of the genus (Singh 1979, Udar & Singh 1981).

Ack no wledge me n ts

J am greatly indebted to late Prof. Ram
Udar, Department of Botany, University of
Lucknow, Lucknow, for facilitating the study
of the specimens of the British Museum of
Natural History from Nepal, deposited at LWU
and also for his valuable suggestions, and to
Dr Edith K. Cash, Binghamton, New York,
for Latin rendering of the diagnosis. I am also
grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Calcutta, for encouragement and faci-
lities.

References

Burr, F. A. (1970): Phylogenetic transition in
the chloroplasts of the Anthocerotales. I. The num-
ber and ultrastructure of the mature nlastids. Amer.
J. Bot. 57: 97-110.

Hasegawa, J. (1979): Taxonomical studies on
Asian Anthocerotae I. Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 30:
15-30.

Hattori. S. (1966): Anthocerotae and Hepaticae.
In: Flora of Eastern Himalayas (Ed. H. Hara) : 501-
536.

Kaja, H. (1954): Untersuchungen liber die Chro-
matophoren und Pyrenoide der Anthocerotales.
Protoplasma 44 : 1 36- 153.

Singh. D. K. (1979) : Studies in Indian Notothy-
laceae. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Lucknow,
Lucknow.

(in press) : Morphotaxonomic revision of

two well known Indian representatives of the genus
Nctothylas Sulk: N. indica Kash. and N. levieri
Schiffn. Proc. All India Bryol. Conf.

(in press) : A new Folioceros Bharad.

(Anthocerotaceae) from Arunachal Pradesh. India.
Bull. bot. Surv. India.

Udar, R. & Chandra, V. (1977): A new species
of Notothylas Sulk, N. pandei Udar et Chandra
from India, Geophytology 7: 142-146.

& Singh, D. K. (1979) : Notothylas dis-
secta, a hornwort new to India. The Bryologist 84:
625-628.

— — — (1981): Recent concepts

in the taxonomy of the genus Notothylas. In Con-
temporary trends in Plant Sciences (Ed. S. C.
Verma). New Delhi: 162-174.

653

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

A NEW SPECIES OF WHITEFLY MIXALEYRODES IND1CUS
SP. NOV. (ALEYRODIDAE: HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA1

B. V. David2 and S. Selvakumaran3
( With three text-figures)

Takahashi (1936) erected the genus Mixa-
leyrodes, the type-species being Mixaleyrodes
polystichi from Taiwan. In 1963 he added one
more species namely M. polypodicola from
Japan

A species of aleyrodid collected from Lit sea
travancorica (Lauraceae) at Idukki, Kerala
State during June 1986 by one of the authors
(S.S.) has been found to be new and very close
to the genus Mixaleyrodes. This species does
not readily fit into the generic characters of
Mixaleyrodes due to absence of thoracic and
tracheal pores or clefts and folds. However, at
present it is assigned to the g:nus Mixaleyrodes
Takahashi and as it is distinct from the two
known species it is described here as a new
species.

Mixaleyrodes indicus sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

Pupal case : Small, elliptic, translucent yellow
with wax secretion; 0.50-0.58 mm long, 0.29-
0.36 mm wide; found singly on the under-
surface of leaf.

Margin : Crenate with 26-29 rounded teeth
in 0.1 mm: folded inwards and gives appear-
ance of a submargin; thoracic and caudal
pores or clefts absent. Anterior and posterior
marginal setae present, 0.02 mm long.

1 Accepted May 1987.

2 Present address : Rhone-Poulenc Agrochemicals
(India) Limited, May Baker House, Worli, Bombay-
400025.

3 Fredrick Institute of Plant Protection and Toxi-
cology, Padappai 601 301. India.

Dorsal surface : Dorsal disc separated from
subdorsum by a distinct lateral longitudinal
fold. Five pairs of dorsal setae arising on
tubercles evident: a pair of cephalic setae 0.12-
0.17 mm long, a pair on each of meso- and
metathoracic segments 0.11-0.15 mm long, a
pair on eighth abdominal segment laterad of
vasiform orifice 0.07-0.09 mm long, and a
pair of caudal setae arising on submarginal
tubercle 0.08-0.10 mm long; setae on protho-
rax and first abdominal segment absent. Longi-
tudinal moulting suture extends to margin,
transverse moulting suture short. A distinct
pocket evident at base of cephalic and meso-
thoracic setae. First six abdominal segments
with a distinct tubercle on each. Subdorsum
with uniformly distributed tuberculate mark-
ings. Seventh abdominal segment shorter than
sixth and eighth.

Vasiform orifice : Elevated, roundly cordate
with thick lateral walls, measures 0.040-0.045
mm x 0.040-0.042 mm; operculum 0.025 x
0.022 mm. rounded; lingula tip exposed and

setose.

Ventral surface : Ventral abdominal setae
not discernible; anterior and posterior abdo-
minal spiracles evident; antenna short and does
not extend beyond base of foreleg.

Material examined : Holotype. Litsea

travancorica, Idukki (Kerala State), 13.6.1986,
Coll. S. Selvakumaran.

Paratypes : 7 pupal cases on slides bearing
same data as of holotype: 3 have been retain-

654

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1

Figs. 1-3. Mixaleyrod.es indicus sp. nov.

1. Papal case; 2. Margin; 3, Vasiform orifice.

655

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

ed in the collections of B.V. David and the
rest deposited in the collections of the Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, Calcutta, Division of
Entomology, IARI, New Delhi, Systematic
Entomology Laboratory, USDA, Washington,

Refer

Takahashi, R. (1936): Nates on the Aleyrodidae
of Japan. (Homoptera) IX. Kontyu 10: 150-151.

and the British Museum (Natural History),
London.

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NT

We thank the ICAR for financial assistance.

N CES

(1963) : Some species of Aleyro-
didae from Japan (Homoptera). Kontyu 31: 49-57

656

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84

Salim Ali
(1896-1987)
{Photo: G.C. Patel)

OBITUARIES

SALIM ALI
(1896-1987)

(With a plate)

Salim Ali says that I gave him the idea of
writing his life-story, which he entitled enigma-
tically the fall of a sparrow, and gave me
a copy with an affectionate inscription. It is
therefore after much hesitation that I agree
to the Editors’ invitation to attempt an
assessment for this Journal.

X am encouraged by the second Appendix
in Salim’s own book entitled ‘To See Ourselves
As Others See Us’ which reproduces very
unflattering passages from Richard Meinertzha-
gen’s diaries: “I am disappointed in Salim”
this was written in 1937, at the beginning
of an expedition to Afghanistan — “He is
quite useless at anything but collecting. He
cannot skin a bird, nor cook, nor do anything
connected with camp life, packing up or chop-
ping wood. He writes interminable notes
about something — perhaps me . . .’ Even
collecting he never does on his own initiative.
Like all Indians he is incredibly incompetent
at anything he does; if there is a wrong way
of doing things he will do it, and he is quite
incapable of thinking ahead.” Later Meinert-
zhagen and Salim, both stubborn men, became
close friends, and Salim was one of the few
intimates given access to the Diaries.

Salim’s own autobiography was published in
1985. It was widely read and appreciated in
India, and the Ibis notice in January 1987
begins: ‘For almost half a century Salim Ali
has dominated Indian ornithology. It is diffi-
cult to think of any fields in which he has not
made a significant impact, from education and
conservation, collecting and regional surveys,

papers on the ecology and ethology of Indian
birds and numerous books, ranging from the
popular to the authoritative handbook (written
jointly with S. Dillon Ripley) in over 60 years’
active association with the Bombay Natural

FXistory Society The autobiography

gives us privileged insight into his personality.
From its pages emerges a man of determina-
tion, almost ruthless in his pursuit of his
chosen career, overcoming financial difficulties
at a time when funds for field ornithology
were very limited, the hardships of arduous
field expeditions, and the obduracy of autho-
rity. . . . Although this is a book with a
strong background of ornithology, I found
some of the other aspects equally absorbing
.... Autobiography is a difficult medium;
clearly, it is restricted to those who have
achieved some fame and it is easy to step over
the boundary into self- adulation. Salim Ali
largely avoids this pitfall and the result is a
most readable book that can be thoroughly
recommended, not only for ornithological in-
terest, but also for the insight it gives into
Indian life and his shrewd comments on other
well-known people.’

As the publisher of many of his books I
was closely associated with Salim for many
years, and learnt much from him. He has
told how hesitant I was to undertake the long-
term project of the handbook, expected to be
completed in ten years. But S&lim was already
in the hands of various doctors, and Peters’
CHECK -LIST OF BIRDS OF THE WORLD, Started
in 1931, though more ambitious, made slow

657

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

progress, only nine volumes by 1965 and still
incomplete. But Salim was always confident,
and at his ninety-first birthday celebrations
looked forward to reaching 100.

The Ibis notice was quite right in drawing
attention to the non- ornithological aspects of
Salim's autobiography. Large parts of it rely
on notes made by his companions, Meinert-
zhagen, Loke Wan Tho, Dillon Ripley in

particular, and of course on his own accounts
in the Journal But in this place I must men-
tion some defects of his qualities. His supreme
self-reliance left little room for others, and in
the Society he was during the past decade
supreme: he could only accept help from his
friends. He inspired imitation and devotion and
accepted them without hesitation.

R. E. HAWKINS

MADHAV DATTATRAYA AGHARKAR
(1923-1988)

Madhav Dattatraya Agharkar was an effi-
cient police officer. That was my first and
most lasting impression about him. One Oct-
ober afternoon, four decades ago, sprightly
and sedate, Agharkar was the Station House
Sub-Inspector on duty at Paltan Road Police
Station, situated to the north of the sprawling
Victoria Terminus Railway Complex, when I
entered the Charge-Room as a trainee sub-
inspector. We trainees were being put through
a programme of familiarization of practical
police station working, before being posted out
as regular full-fledged sub-inspectors. Paltan
Road Police Station covered the area from
Crawford Market to Prince of Wales’ Museum,
between Flora Fountain and the Harbour. The
old Headquarters of the Bombay Natural
History Society at Apollo Street occupied a
significant spot in this area.

The flow of police work at Paltan Road
Police Station in those post-war and post-
partition years was the heaviest among the then
25 police stations in Greater Bombay. I came
to be posted there in December, 1948 and was
thus privileged to be a work-mate of Madhav
Agharkar, who was main-stay and the back-
bone of the police team which bore the brunt
of the onerous task. Agharkar had graduated

in law before joining the Bombay City Police
in 1 943 and had been exposed to various
hazards in Bombay Harbour and Docks in the
crucial war-years in his first tenure as a young
fledgling police sub-inspector at Yellowgate
Police Station. Because of his creditable per-
formance there, he was moved on his first
regular transfer to the adjoining Paltan Road
Police Station to tackle the arduous workload
typical of that police station. Unflappable
receptive attitude, immense patience, untiring
confident demeanour and unshakable faith in
one’s ability to cope with the worst of situa-
tions were the hall-marks of Agharkar’s way
of life. This brought him success particularly
against white-collar criminals. It was a valua-
ble education and rich experience for me to
follow, after working close with Agharkar for
longer than two years.

After a short spell in the Special Branch of
the C I D Agharkar opted for deputation to
a wider field for performance in the Special
Police Establishment of Government of India
in its Bombay Unit. In course of time, this
grew into the formidable Central Bureau of
Investigation and Agharkar went from success
to success. He earned quick promotions and
rewarding recognition. For a term, he was

658

OBITUARIES

transferred to Delhi and returned to Bombay
Office of the Central Bureau of Investigation
as a Deputy Superintendent of Police. He was
awarded Police Medal for meritorious service
and promoted as a Superintendent of Police.
He continued to display his investigative skill
in numerous cases and was therefore awarded
President’s Police Medal for distinguished
service.

M. D. Agharkar retired from police service
in 1981 after sterling performance spanning
38 years of a coveted career. He tried to go
back to law but found the narrow-minded
atmosphere prevailing at the bar stifling. He
discovered the munificent legacy on Indian
Natural History left behind by his uncle who
was an illustrious naturalist, an ardent student
of the flora and fauna of India. He returned
to where he should have much earlier, from
his police days of the late ‘forties at Paltan

Road Police Station — The Bombay Natural
History Society.

Through another coincidence in 1981, I be-
came a member of B.N.H.S. and we now came
together at a non-police forum to our mutual
delight. Agharkar soon earned a place of
pride in his own right in the management sector
of B.N.H.S. His approach to all proposals was
studious, methodical and meticulous, habits
cultivated during a long distinguished police
career.

In the evening of his life, he had moved
from bustling Bombay to the quite of Pune.
He was not known to be ailing or to have any
disease over his long healthy years of service.
And yet, suddenly, in mid-March this year, we
heard of Agharkar’s sudden death at Pune.
To this great and quiet personality, this is a
last homage. R.I.P.

A. G. PATWARDHAN

659

11

REVIEWS

1 . A MANUAL OF ETHNOBOTANY. Proceedings of the training course
and workshop on ethnobotany held at Lucknow, 10-15 March, 1986.
Edited by S. K. Jain. pp. i-vii + 1-228 (22 x 14.5 cm) with 4 Black-
and-white plates. Jodhpur, 1987. Scientific Publishers. Price Rs. 125.00.

The editor of this book Dr. S. K. Jain is
the Chairman of the international commission
on ethnobotany and has studied the subject
in its various aspects, both in the field as well
as in libraries. Most of the topics in the book
have been carefully selected by him giving
information on concepts, scope, methodology
and applications of ethnobotany.

Topics in the book have been handled by
experts in their fields. To highlight the con-
tents, I would like to enumerate the following
few topics:

1 . Ethnobotany — its scope and various sub-
disciplines by Dr. S. K. Jain (pp. 1-11).

2. Study of plants during ethnological re-
search among the tribals by Dr. S. P.
Gupta (pp. 12-22).

3 . Interdisciplinary approaches in ethno-
botany by Dr. J. K. Maheshwari (pp. 23-
32).

4. Methods of research in ethnobotany by
Dr. R. R. Rao and Dr. P. K. Hajra (pp.
33-41).

5. Ethnobotany and its role in domestication
and conservation of native plant genetic
resources, by R. K. Arora (pp. 94-109).

Workshop exercises deal with commendable
practical programme. Some important topics
are as follows:

1. Proformas for fieldwork (pp. 171-186).

2. Guidelines for project proposals (pp. 194-
195), and hints for evaluation of project
proposals (pp. 196-200).

3. Preparation of scientific papers (pp. 201-
225).

The book is recommended for all field
biologists. However, the price seems to be a
little on the higher side.

M. R. ALMEIDA

660

REVIEWS

2. REVIEW OF THE PROTECTED AREAS SYSTEM IN THE
INDO-MALAYAN REALM. (Prepared for the IUCN/UNEP). By
John and Kathy MacKinnon, pp. xii + 284 (29.5x21 cm), with many
illustrations and maps. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K., 1986.
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Price not mentioned.

In February 1985 a working session of
IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas (CNPPA) was held in the
Corbett National Park, Uttar Pradesh (India),
to focus attention on the protected areas of
the Indo-Malayan Realm. Park professionals
from 12 countries in the region met for the
first time to review the status of conservation
efforts being made in their respective coun-
tries. They recognised the need for an
overall assessment of the adequacy of the
protected areas system throughout the realm
and hence the preparation of a systems review
was included in the “Corbett Action Plan”
adopted at this meeting.

The task of conducting, preparing and dis-
seminating widely such a systems review, using
modern biogeographic concepts, was assigned
to the IUCN/CNPPA. The latter, in collabo-
ration with the United Nations Environment
Programme, engaged consultants John and
Kathy MacKinnon to undertake this impor-
tant work. The end-product, after more than

two years of intense work by the consultants,
is a two volumes review which has been just
published and can be obtained from the IUCN
Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 C, Hunt-
ingdon Road, Cambridge, CBS ODL, U.K.,

or the IUCN Publications Services, Avenue
du Mont Blanc, CH-1196, Gland, Switzerland.

The first volume is the narrative part run-
ning into 284 pages and divided into five
sections as follows:

Part One is the introduction, dealing with the
objectives and criteria of Protected Areas;
the aims and objects of the review under-
taken; the Biogeography Theory and the
Protected Areas System Designs; and the
methods and approach of the review.

Part Two is mainly concerned with explain-
ing the Indo-Malayan Realm: its physi-
cal limits, geological and biogeographical
history, geography and physiography,
climatic conditions, vegetation cover,
floral and faunal characteristics, human
history and man’s impact on the environ-
ment in the region, etc.

Part T hree deals with the protected area
coverage by biogeographic units in the
realm. For each of the distinct biounits,
an assessment has been made of the total
area protected and the extent of coverage
of the main natural vegetation types.
Particular attention has been paid to dis-
tinct habitats such as mangroves, swamp

661

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 84

forest, lowland rainforest, etc. The biolo-
gical richness and endemism of each unit
and the adequacy of protection of species
of special interest has also been attempted.
Further, major gaps in the protected areas
systems has been identified and proposals
made for extending and/or improving the
current situation.

Part Four relates to general conservation
issues of the realm like population pres-
sure, threats to forests and wetlands, pro-
tection of critical habitats, species con-
servation needs, wildlife trade, and species
coverage by reserves. This section is of
special interest as it considers problems
faced by both people and wildlife and
the conflicts between the two.

Part Five is entitled ‘Priorities for Country
Action’ and is thus of special importance.
It reviews national protected area net-
works, on a country by country basis, and
gives recommendations for extending and
improving national reserve systems. Other
conservation action has been recommend-
ed where appropriate and the responsible
agencies identified. The countries includ-
ed are: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei,

Burma, Southern China, Christmas Island
and Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Hongkong.
India, Indonesia, Japan (Southern Ryukyu
Archipelago) Kampuchea, Laos, Malaysia.
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines,
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan. Thailand,
and Vietnam.

The second volume contains detailed
maps depicting the original vegetation
types, the bio-geographical divisions, and
the remaining forest and protected areas
of the Indian, Indo-Chinese. Sundaic and
Wallacean Sub-Regions.

The short and simple explanation of the

whole exercise is that it seeks to examine the

effectiveness of the current coverage of pro-
tected areas in the Indo-Malayan Realm as
well as to identify the gaps and shortcomings
and to indicate the action required for ensuring
that samples of the Realm’s biological diversity
may be maintained for posterity.

The role of protected areas in maintaining
essential ecological processes and life-support
systems and preserving genetic diversity is well
recognised. This role assumes special signifi-
cance in the Indo-Malayan region, which pre-
sents one of the biggest paradoxes in
conservation: it is the home of well over half
of the world’s human population as well as
some of the richest and most distinctive eco-
systems on Earth.

In this background, the Review presented by
John and Kathy MacKinnon becomes specially
relevant and topical. In another sense, it is
work of a pioneering nature because this is
the first time such a comprehensive coverage
of the whole region has been attempted.
Having travelled widely in the region and with
their personal knowledge of the situation in
some parts of South and South-East Asia, the
MacKinnons have overall done a commenda-
ble job.

Here, however, two points need to be made.
First, it should be noted that the Review is
more or less confined to terrestrial protected
areas and does not deal with the marine habi-
tats of the realm. This does detract from the
comprehensive coverage of the subject. How-
ever, as mentioned by the authors, earlier
R. V. Salm and M. Halim had produced
studies on the marine and coastal resources
of the region. Secondly, the review has drawn
heavily on preliminary drafts of the directories
of protected areas of the realm under prepa-
ration, by the IUCN Conservation Monitoring
Centre and such other data or information
which has been made available in the last two
years by various individuals and organizations
from within and outside the region. Naturally,

662

REVIEWS

there has been no time for any ground truth
verification. Perhaps this is not even possible
considering the nature and scope of the whole
exercise. In any case, it is afterall an overview.
Nevertheless, it is well to bear in mind that
such an overview in bound to suffer from
over-generalizations and that it can not possibly
give equal and adequate treatment to every
biounit. It is for this reason that, as stated by
the IUCN President Dr. M. S. Swaminathan
in his Foreward, “IUCN hopes that this will
be viewed as a working document and that it
will stimulate action at the national level.
IUCN and UNEP indeed will promote national-
level reviews of protection areas which will
allow finer resolution and more detailed
assessments.”

As far as India is concerned, it is worthy

of note that the Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun, has already undertaken a much
more detailed review of the Indian protected
area system, also based on biogeographical
considerations. This project, initiated under
the Government of India’s National Wildlife
Action Plan adopted in 1983, has prepared a
biogeographical classification for India on the
basis of floral and faunal associations. Using
this classification, the project is currently re-
viewing the location, size, viability and quality
of management of all existing protected areas
in the country and identifying new areas for
protection status. A preliminary report shows
that as yet many States have not reached the
recommended goal of 5% land area proposed
as conservation areas.

SAMAR SINGH

663

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. IS RHINOPOMA A RHINOLOPHOID BAT?
( With four text-figures)

Current mammalian taxonomy, which is
based mostly on morphological and anatomi-
cal characters, does not always reflect the
phylogeny and interrelationships of the various
mammalian taxa, since, in many cases, these
characters are adaptive in nature. This is
especially true of bats which possess unique
morphological characters suited to a nocturnal
flying habit and an inverted resting posture.
In such cases only embryological characters
can be utilised for determining the relative
positions of the various familial and intra-
familial groups since other evidences such as
from palaeontology, cytology, genetics and
serology are not available at present. The im-
portance of embryological characters for deter-
mining interordinal and intraordinal relation-
ships of mammals was emphasised by Moss-
man (1937, 1953, 1971). More recently,

Gopalakrishna and Karim (1980) and Gopala-
krishna and Chari (1983) have shown that
embryological characters are of considerable
value in understanding the position and inter-
relationships of the various families of
Chiroptera.

Most authors have considered Rhinopomidae
as a primitive family and included it in the
superfamily Emballonuroidea along with the
family Emballonuridae (Dobson 1875, Simpson
1945, Koopman 1984, Hill and Smith 1985).
Gray (1866) had, however, included Rhino-
poma in rhinolophoids. Recently, Pierson
(1985) adduced biochemical evidence to in-
dicate that Rhinopoma is closer to Rhinolo-
phoidea than to Emballonuridae.

The present paper is based on the docu-
mented studies on the embryology of two
emballonurids, Taphozous longimanus (Gopa-
lakrishna 1958, Wimsatt and Gopalakrishna
1958, Bhide and Bhatia 1981) and T. melano-
pogon (Sandhu 1986), two rhinopomids, R.
microphyllum (R. kinneari) (Srivastava 1952,
Gopalakrishna 1958) and R. hardwickei
(Karim and Fazil 1986), one rhinolophid,
Rhinolophus rouxi (Gopalakrishna and Bhiv-
gade 1974, Bhivgade 1977), four hipposiderids,
H. bicolor pallidus (Gopalakrishna 1958,
Gopalakrishna and Moghe 1960), H. fulvus
fulvus (Gopalakrishna and Karim 1975), H.
speoris (Jeevaji 1982) and H. ater ater (Inam-
dar 1986) and one megadermatid, M. lyra lyra
(Gopalakrishna and Khaparde 1978).

Figures 1-4 are schematic diagrams to illus-
trate the arrangement of the foetal membranes
at full term of Taphozous (Emballonuridae),
Rhinopoma (Rhinopomidae), and Rhinolophus
(Rhinolophidae), Hipposideros (Hipposide-
ridae) and Megaderma (Megadermatidae)
respectively. The figures indicate that while in
Emballonuridae there is a well developed
haematoma on the mesometrial side of the
uterus (an haematoma has been reported only
in emballonurids among Chiroptera so far —
Wimsatt and Gopalakrishna 1958) and a
laterally located placental disc, in all the other
families the placental disc is mesometrially
located. In hipposiderid bats a central depres-
sion in the placenta gives it a bidiscoidal
appearance in sectional views. The yolk-sac
splanchnopleure in all the families except

664

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 . Schematic drawing to illustrate the disposition of the foetal membrane at
full term of Taphozous. Please see text for description.

Abbreviations

am, amnion; exo, exocoelom; h, haematoma; mes, mesometrium; pi. alanltoic placenta;
y-s. spl, yolk-sac splanchnopleure.

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 84

Rhinopoma

Rhinolophus

mes

Fig. 2. Schematic drawing to illustrate the disposition of the foetal membrane at
full term of Rhinopoma and Rhinolophus. Please see text for description.

A bbreviations

am, amnion; exo, exocoelom; mes, mesometrium; pi, allantoic placenta; y-s, spl.

yolk-sac splanchnopleure.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3 . Hipposideros

mes

Fig. 3. Schematic drawing to illustrate the disposition of the foetal membrane at
full term of Hipposideros. Please see text for description.

Abbreviations

am, amnion; exo, exocoelom; mes, mesometrium; pi, allantoic placenta; y-s. spl,

yolk-sac splanchnopleure.

667

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

4 • Meffoderma

Fig. 4. Schematic drawing to illustrate the disposition of the foetal membrane at
full term of Megaderma. Please see text for description.

Abbreviations

am, amnion; exo, exocoelom; mes, mesometrium; pi, allantoic placenta, tri. om:
trilaminar omphalopleure; y-s. spl, yolk-sac splanchnopleure.

668

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Megadermatidae lies freely in the exocoelom
and is thrown into numerous folds. In Mega-
derma the abembryonic part of the yolk-sac
splanchnopleure, however, retains its contact
with the uterine wall.

The histogenesis of the placenta has been
shown to occur in an unique manner in
emballonurid bats. Whereas in all other bats
the syncytiotrophoblastic mantle is formed by
the proliferation from the basal cytotropho-
blastic layer, in Taphozous a thick zone of
large multinucleate trophoblastic giant cells is
established after the blastocyst implants
(Bhide and Bhatia 1981, Sandhu 1986) and
the cells coalesce to form a syncytiotropho-
blastic zone. Remnants of the endodermal
allantois persist until full term in all the
bats under consideration.

Department of Zoology,

Institute of Science,

Nagpur-440 001, India,

December 23, 1986.

Refe

Bhide, S. A. & Bhatia, D. (1981): Giant cells
in the placenta of the Indian sheath-tailed bat,
Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). Curr. Sci. 50:
753-756.

Bhivgade, D. A. (1977): Development of the
foetal membranes in the Indian horse-shoe bat,
Rhinolophus rouxi (Temminck). Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci. 86: 61-72.

Dobson, G. E. (1875): Conspectus of the sub-
orders, families and genera of Chiroptera arranged
according to their affinities. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
16: 345-357.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1958): Foetal membranes in
some Indian Microchirootera. Jour. Morph. 102:
157-197.

& Bhivgade, D. A. (1974) :

Foetal membranes in the Indian horse-shoe bats,
Rhinolophus rouxi (Temminck). Curr. Sci. 43: 516-
517.

— & Chari, G. (1983): A re-

view of the taxonomic position of Miniopterus based

The above mentioned embryological details
indicate that it is more justifiable to include
Rhinopoma in Rhinolophoidea than in Embal-
lonuroidea since the rhinopomids present more
characters similar to the rhinolophoids than
to Emballonuridae. Biochemical evidence in
support of this contention is available through
the work of Pierson (1985), who, by an
immunological comparison of blood proteins,
mentioned “1) Rhinopoma is no closer to
emballonurids than are a number of other
taxa (e.g.; vespertilionids, megadermatids,
rhinolophids); 2) Rhinopoma associates with
the rhinolophid clade, and within that group
most likely with the megadermatids and
nycterids.”

We thank the C.S.I.R., New Delhi for finan-
cial assistance to carry out this work.

A. GOPALAKRISHNA
N. BADWAIK

EN CES

on embryological characters, ibid. 52: 1176-1180.

& Karim, K. B. (1975) : Deve-
lopment of the foetal membranes in the Indian leaf-
nosed bat, Hipposideros fulvus julvus (Gray) : II.
Morphogenesis of the foetal membranes and placen-
tation. Rev. Roum. Biol. 20: 257-267.

(1980) : Female

genital anatomy and the morphogenesi of foetal
membranes of Chiroptera and their bearing on the
phylogenetic relationships of the group. Nat. Acad.
Sci. India — Golden Jubilee Comm. vol. 1980: 379-
428.

— & Khaparde, M. S. (1978):

Development of the foetal membranes and placen-
tation in the Indian false vampire bat, Megaderma
lyra lyra (Geoff roy). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 87:
179-194.

& Moghe, M. A. (1960):

Development of the foetal membranes in the Indian
leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros bicolor pallidus. Zeitschr.
f. Anat. u. Entwickel ungs. 122: 137-149.

669

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Gray, J. E. (1866): A revision of the genera of
Rhinolophidae, or horse-shoe bats. Proc. Zool. Soc.
London : 81-83. (Quoted from Simpson, 1945).

Hill, J. E. & Smith. J. D. (1985): Bats — A
Natural History. Henry Ling Ltd. Dorchester, Dorset,
U.K.

Inamdar, S. M. (1986): Embryology of a bat,
Hipposideros ater ater (Templeton) — Unpublished
thesis, Nagpur University, Nagpur.

Jeevaji, I. H. (1982): Development of the foetal
membranes and placentation in the Indian leaf-nosed
bat, Hipposideros speoris (Schneider) — Hipposide-
ridae (Microchiroptera) . Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 52:
342-351.

Karim, K. B.. & Fazil, M. (1986): Post-implan-
tation development of the Indian rhinopomatid,
Rhinopoma hardwickei hardwickei (Gray). Myotis :
63-69.

Koopman, K. F. (1984): A synopsis of the fami-
lies of bats — Part VII. Bat Research News. 25:
25-27.

Mgssman, H. W. (1937) : Comparative morpho-
genesis of the fetal membranes and accessory uterine
structures. Contrib. Embryol., Carnegie Inst. Wash-
ington 26: 127-246.

(1953) : The genital system and

the fetal membranes as criteria for mammalian
phylogeny and taxonomy. J. Mammal. 34: 289-298.

(1971) : Orientation and site of

attachment of the blastocyst: A comparative study.
In: The Biology of the Blastocyst. The University
of Chicago Press: 52-58,

Pierson, E. D. (1985) : Rhinopoma is a Rhino-
lophid bat. Proc. VII Internatl. Bat Res. Conf.
(Abstract).

Sandhu, S. K. (1986): Studies on the embryo-
logy of some Indian Chiroptera. Unpublished Thesis.
Nagpur University. Nagpur.

Simpson, G. G. (1945): The principles of classi-
fication and a classification of mammals. Bull. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist. 85: 1-350.

Srivastava, S. C. (1952): Placentation in the
mouse-tailed bat, Rhinopoma kinneari. Proc. Zool.
Soc. Bengal 5: 105-131.

Wimsatt, W. A. & Gopalakrishna, a. (1958):
Occurrence of placental hematoma in the primitive
sheath-tailed bats. (Emballonuridae), with observa-
tions on its structure, development and histochemis-
try. Amer. J. Anat. 103 : 35-68.

2. SOME NOTES ON THE BREEDING SEASON OF RUFOUSTAILED
HARE ( LEPUS NIGRICOLLIS RUFICAUDATUS)

It appears that the breeding season of rufous-
tailed hare has not been recorded precisely.
Sabnis (1981) reports that the young may be
found throughout the year, while Humayun
Abdulali (pers. communication, quoted by
Sabnis) has records of seeing pregnant females
during December to March. Prater (1965) has
not recorded any particular breeding season
for rufoustailed hare.

In Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur it
appears the breeding season is mainly January
to February, closer to the observation of
Humayun Abdulali. Altogether four litters were

Field Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Centre,,

331, Rajendra Nagar,

Bharatpur - 321 001,

May 5, 1987.

seen, one each on 16 and 21 January, and 9
and 12 February 1987. No young was seen
during the rest of the year.

Litter size of rufoustailed hare has been
recorded as one to two (Prater 1965). One
out of the four litters recorded at Bharatpur
had three young, but the very next day of
my observation (10 February) I found one
young was missing, possibly preyed on as fur
was seen scattered on the ground.

My thanks to Dr. V. S. Vijayan for
encouragement.

MD. NAYERUL HAQUE

670

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References

Prater, S. H. (1965) : The Book of Indian Ani- Indian hare, Lepus wgricollis in Chatri forest, Amra-
mals, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. vati, Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(3) :
Sabnis. J. H. (1981): The food habits of the 513-518.

3. DERMAL SHIELDS OF HIMALAYAN TAHR ( HEMITRAGUS

JEMLAHICUS )

( With a text-figure)

Introduction

Recent field work on ungulate behavior and
social organization has shown that competing
males may injure their opponents in fights
which establish dominance and determine
access to females for breeding (e.g. Geist 1964,
Clutton-Brock et al. 1982, Berger 1986). Many
of these studies have also shown that such
injuries may have long term effects on the
competitive ability of males. Males should be
expected, therefore, to possess effective defen-
sive mechanisms as well as offensive ones.
Defensive behavior is readily evident in the
fighting behavior of many species. For in-
stance, the head-low posture of South African
oryx ( Oryx gazella, Walther 1980), the scar-
city of physical contact in mountain goats
(Oreamnos americanus, Geist 1964), and the
spinning around of Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus
hylocrius, Rice 1984), are all methods of
minimizing the damage that can be inflcted by
the opponent. Horns also have a defensive
function, as is shown most clearly by South
African oryx (Walther 1980). Dermal shields
are another defensive mechanism which pro-
tect the body against injury from the horns
or antlers of an opponent. Geist (1971) has
shown how the thickness of the skin in several
caprids is greatest in areas most likely to
receive horn blows. The area of thickening
is dependent on the method of fighting em-

ployed by a particular species (Geist 1971:
149). In addition, Jarman (1972) and Sokolov
and Danilkin (1979) have shown how dermal
shields are absent in hornless and anterless
females and poorly developed in young males
of impala ( Aepyceros malampus) and roe deer
(Capreolus eapreolus) respectively. This paper
describes the dermal shields of Himalayan tahr
( Hemitragus jemlahicus ) and suggests how
they are related to the methods of fighting
employed by this species.

Material and Methods

On 23 November 1986 a 5 year old male
in the collection of Himalayan tahr at the
New York Zoological Park lost a dominance
fight with a previously subordinate male. The
fight was not observed but the keeper in
charge of the tahr had reported other fights
during the few days previous. The male’s con-
dition deteriorated subsequently and he died
after 13 days. Prior to necropsy, sections of
skin were excised at several places and their
thickness measured against a millimeter scale.

Results

Examination of the body of the tahr showed
numerous long scrapes on the side of the
thorax, flank, and ventrum. Some of these had
bled, but not severely. These minor external

671

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

injuries contrasted markedly with the exten-
sive subdermal haemorrhages in these areas.
The thickness of the dermis at various loca-
tions is shown in Fig. 1.

Discussion

The location and orientation of these in-
juries are consistent with the method of fight-
ing in reverse parallel stance, in which the
contestants stand parallel to each other facing
opposite directions and delivering blows with
the horns up and sideways into the body of
the opponent. Dominance fights of wild Hima-
layan tahr have not been described in print,

but observations on captive groups have in-
cluded this type of fighting (Schaller 1978,
Hassenberg 1981). According to Hassenberg
(1981), the reverse parallel stance results when
males follow through from a glancing frontal
horn clash, after which the males hook back
and up with the horns. Male Nilgiri tahr also
fight in reverse parallel orientation (Rice 1984)
and combine the horn blows with pushing
shoulder to shoulder, a tactic which may be
employed by Himalayan tahr as well.

The skin of the male Himalayan tahr was
near maximum thickness on its ventrum and
along the side of its rib cage, areas where it
bore numerous scarpes, and where many of

Fig. 1 . Thickness (in mm) of 5 year old male Himalayan tahr skin at various locations.

672

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the blows would be expected to fall when
reverse parallel fighting. The lack of thickened
skin on the rump contrasts with the situation
in mountain goat which has its thickest skin
in this area (Geist 1967). This corresponds
to the fighting position of shoulder to shoulder
in tahr, compared to the head to tail orienta-
tion of mountain goats (Geist 1964). The

Department of Mammalogy,

New York Zoological Society,

Bronx, N.Y.,

10460 U.S.A.,

May 6, 1987.

thickness of the skin on the chest of the male
Himalayan tahr suggsts a need for protection
for that area of the body, but few blows
would likely be delivered there in reverse
parallel fighting. Perhaps quick hooks following
frontal clashing would, and further observa-
tions of dominance fights in Himalayan tahr
may bear this out.

CLIFORD G. RICE1

1 Present address : Star Route, Box 29, Bradford,
NH 03221, U.S.A.

References

Berger, J. (1986): Wild Horses of the Great
Basin. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago. 326 pp.

Clutton-Brock, T. H., Guinness, F. E. & Albon,
S. D. (1982): Red Deer. Univ. Chicago Press,

Chicago. 378 pp.

Geist, V. (1964): On the rutting behaviour of
the mountain goat. J. Mammal. 45: 551-568.

(1967): On fighting injuries and der-
mal shields of mountain goats. J. Wildl. Manage.
31: 192-194.

(1971) : Mountain Sheep. Univ. Chicago

Press, Chicago. 383 pp.

Hassenberg, L. (1981) : Verhaltensbeobachtungen
am Himalaja-Tahr, Hemitragus jemtahicus (H. Smith,
1826). in Gefangenschaft. Saugertierk. Mitt. 29: 1-45.

Jarman, P. J. (1972): The development of a
dermal shield in impala. J. Zool., Loud. 166: 349-356.

Rice, C. G. (1984) : The Behavior and Ecology
of Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838).
Unpbl. dissertation, Texas A&M Univ., College
Station. 254 pp.

Schaller, G. B. (1977) : Mountain Monarchs.
Univ. Chicago Press. 425 pp.

Sokolov. V. E. & Danilkin, A. A. (1979): A
skin shield in Siberian roe males (‘ Capreolus capreo-
lus pygargus' Pall.). Mammalia 43: 391-397.

Walther, F. R. (1980): Aggressive behaviour of
oryx antelope at water-holes in the Etosha National
Park. Modoqua 11: 271-302.

4. A SHORT NOTE ON A NEW FOUND GROUP OF TAHR

This is a report on an isolated pocket of
Nilgai Tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius ) in the
southernmost reaches of the Western Ghats
in the Veerapuli range of forests in the
district of Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu. The
Tahr is found in four adjacent hillocks, locally
called Varaiadu Mottai (Tamil for Tahr
Butte). These hills at 8° 26'N and 77° 22'E
reach an altitude of about 3,000 feet
(c. 1000 m). The area can be described as

montane grassy hill tops with riverine gallery
forests on its slope and base. The Nilgiri Tahr
inhabits mainly the steep cliffs that form part
of the topography of the area. The hills over-
look the Pechipara reservoir to the northwest
and Perunchani reservoir to the south. The
next nearest herd to these hills lives in the
Pechiparai cliffs and Kalamali hills more than
a distance of 20 km separates them.

In the last seven years I have made many

673

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

visits to this location for the purpose of photo-
graphing and observing Tahr. The total popu-
lation in all the four cliffs will be about 30
to 35 animals. At any single time I couldn’t
count them according to population composi-
tion of age and sex class. At each peak I
used to find a herd of about 10 or 11 females
with one saddleback in attendance during
the mating season, or groups of males in twos
and threes separately. I have observed their
feeding pattern to follow a schedule. The
animals actively graze till about 9 a.m. after
which they rest or retreat to the rocky cliffs
and also adjacent Shola forests and reappear
after 3 or 4 p.m. back at their grazing grounds.
Once I saw them deep inside the wooded area
taking shelter from buffeting wind during a
rainstorm. On three separate occasions I saw
three adult males bed down for the night in
rocky crevices with overhanging vegetation.
In fact one very old saddleback was killed
by a poacher in one of these crevices in the
night. Local poachers know of this habit and
go searching for them in such hide-outs. How-
ever, it is also known that Nilgiri Tahr grazes
along with village cattle that is driven up the
hills during summer months. They show hardly
any fright even when the cattle are accompanied
by man. The herd usually has a sentinel
female, which despite sighting me did not leave
its post, but had me in its sight for about 45
minutes, watchful of course, ready to sound

909, POONAMALLEE HIGH ROAD,

Madras 600 084.

May 19, 1987.

the alarm if the need arose. Rice (1986)
remarks that the Nilgiri Tahr does not have
twin births, but the female if it loses its kid
may mate again and have a second kid during
the same season. However in February 1986 I
observed two young kids of same size tagging
behind one female for more than an hour.
I realize this is a one-time observation.

In short, what I have observed is an isolated
population in one of the southernmost reaches
of the western ghats. They are cut off
from other herds of Tahr in many ways,
mainly by the effects of man, plantation, dams,
hydel projects and roads. It would be inte-
resting to study this small herd in more detail
to see the effects on their genetics through
breeding in isolation. I suggest that this herd
be protected from further ravages of man.
The loss of even one more herd, however, small
it may be, to dams and plantation, which have
disturbed them most in this area, will be a
grevious loss to the existing population. Poach-
ing is on the increase now. Very recently a
saddleback was shot dead.

Ack nowledgements

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. E. G.
Silas for helping me prepare this draft and
Mr. M. Krishnan for giving helpful hints on
photography and to both of them for all the
encouragement and guidance given.

MAHESH DANIEL

5. BLACKBUCK BEHAVIOUR AND HORN SIZE

Since July 1986 we have been looking into
the herd structure of the Blackbuck at
Rehakuri Sanctuary, Maharashtra. In the mixed
herd there was one large male with both its
horns broken. Though its horns were not more

than 6 to 10 inches long, it was indeed one
of the dominant males and seemed to com-
mand great respect despite the short stumpy
horns.

After the next rut he was seen along with

674

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the bachelor herd. However, he was still domi-
neering and quite a bully. He persistently
attacked any other male nearby. The other
bucks always gave way and allowed ‘Broken-
horns’ to chase them out of the area.

This went on for several months. However
in April 1987 ‘Broken-horns’ began to lose
ground. Apparently the other males had now
discovered that his aggressive approach to life
was a ruse which he was using to cover up his
inadequacy due to the short blunt horns.

‘SAKEN’ Valantina Society,

North Main Road,

Koregaon Park,

Pune 411001,

June 6, 1987.

By May 1987 ‘Broken-horns’ was being chased
by small males and even by young bucks with
small horns. The bully seemed to have come
on really hard times. He was being persecuted
by several animals in the male herd, and had
to run as hard as he could when chased. He
hardly ever made the effort to lock horns and
spar any longer. The route was completed
within a period of one year, and he is now
often seen all by himself.

ERACH BHARUCHA
K. ASHER

6. AN OBSERVATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A
SAMBAR AND A TREE - PIE

While on a trip to Sariska in November
1986 I saw a Sambar hind standing on 3 legs
in an awkward position. The rear leg on the
far side was lifted up and away from her body.
My first impression was that the animal was
wounded in some way. However, a moment
later a tree-pie flew out from under her groin
and settled on her back. At this the hind
lowered the leg and promptly lifted the rear

‘SAKEN’ Valantina Society,

North Main Road,

Koregaon Park,

Pune 411001,

June 6, 1987.

leg on the near side. The tree-pie instantly
flew under her and could be seen picking off
something from her skin. The tree-pie was
evidently feeding on parasites living in the fold
below her leg. The interesting part of the obser-
vation is that the ungulate was not a passive
partner, but had invited the bird to feed in
her ingiunal region by actually raising the leg.

E. K. BHARUCHA

7. THE BLACK STORK CICONIA NIGRA (LINNAEUS) IN
KURNOOL DISTRICT (ANDHRA PRADESH)

According to Ali & Ripley (1983), the c. 18°N latitude (i.e. Solapur district of Maha-
southernmost distribution of the Black Stork rashtra) and it has not been recorded from
Ciconia nigra in the Indian subcontinent is South India, and only once in Sri Lanka.

675

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

At Rollapadu, 20 km east of Nandikotkur
town (15°52'N & 78°18'E) in Kumool dis-
trict, where the BNHS has a field station under
the Endangered Species Project (Great Indian
Bustard), two Black Storks were first seen on

7th November 1985, and after that two to a
maximum of six birds were regularly seen till
December 1985. Enquiries from local shikaris
revealed that this stork is a regular winter
visitor every year in this part of the state.

Research Biologist, RANJIT MANAKADAN

Endangered Species Project,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

April 12, 1986.

Reference

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983) : Handbook of Oxford University Press, Delhi,
the Birds of India & Pakistan (compact edition).

8. SIGHTING OF RED-NECKED GREBES ( PODICEPS GR1SEGENA)
ON THE PONG DAM LAKE, HIMACHAL PRADESH

We visited the Pong Dam Lake on 2 Dec-
ember 1985 as part of a survey to assess the
potential of the lake for the creation of a
bird sanctuary. Our survey included a trip by
motor launch which covered the southwestern
end of the lake, adjacent to the dam. During
the course of this boat trip we observed two
Red-necked Grebes ( Podiceps grisegena) about
500 m from the shore and 1 km from the
dam, in an area where the water depth pro-
bably exceeds 50 m.

In shape and size the birds resembled Great
Crested Grebes (P. cristatus), with tall, slender
necks and long, tapering bills. They differed
from that species mainly in the coloration of
the breast and sides to the neck which were
dusky brown instead of white. The crown
was black and made a strong contrast with
the white cheeks, but at the minimum range
at which we observed them (80 m) we could

not discern the exact pattern of black and
white around the eye. However, the extent of
black on the face appeared greater than is seen
in a winter-plumage Great Crested Grebe. The
plumage of the two birds was similar.

Both birds took flight at the approach of
the launch, becoming airborne with great diffi-
culty after pattering along the surface for a
considerable distance. In flight they showed a
double pale bar on the wing. One of us (AJG)
is familiar with Red-necked Grebes on the
Pacific coast of Canada and was able to iden-
tify the birds immediately.

This record appears to be the first for Red-
necked Grebe in India. The second edition of
the handbook (Ali and Ripley 1979) includes
the species for the sub-continent on the basis
of a record from Nammal Lake, Pakistan, in
the Punjab Salt Range, a little over 300 km
west of the Pong Dam. Otherwise the species

676

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

breeds sparingly throughout most of the
northern Holarctic, wintering in temperate
latitudes, mainly in marine inshore waters. The
closest place where the species winters regu-
larly is the southern end of the Caspian Sea
(Cramp 1977).

The size of the Pong Dam Lake (about 7000
ha when full) and its situation in the extreme
northwest of lowland India, make it very suit-
able to intercept migrants entering the plains
from central Asia. In addition to the grebes
we saw about 10,000 ducks, mainly Mallard
{Anas platyrhynchos) , with some Pintail (A.
acuta), Gadwall (A. strepera). Teal (A. crecca )
and Pochard {Aythya ferina), and moderate
numbers of waders, particularly Temminck’s
Stint {Calidris temminckii), Redshank ( Tringa
totanus ), Greenshank (T. nebularia ) and Green

Canadian Wildlife Service,

Ottawa KIM 2A8,

Canada.

and Common Sandpipers (T. ochropus and T.
hypoleucos) . We also saw several Blackheaded
and Great Blackheaded Gulls {Larus ridibun-
dus and L. ichthyaetus) , species which are
otherwise rare in Himachal Pradesh. Further
observations, particularly during the migration
period, should yield many more species.

Any birdwatchers visiting the area are
encouraged to contact the Divisional Forest
Office at Dehra, at the western end of the lake,
for information. In due course the Himachal
Forest Department hope to provide facilities
for observing birds on the lake, including
access paths and observation towers.

We would like to thank the management of
the Pong Dam for putting their motor launch
at our disposal.

A. J. GASTON

D.F.O., Dehra, S. PANDEY

District Kangra,

Himachal Pradesh 177 101,

January 30, 1986.

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. Dillon (1979) : Handbook Cramp, S. (1977) : Handbook of the Birds of
of the Birds of India and Pakistan, 2nd edition, Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Volume
Volume 1. Oxford University Press: New Delhi. 1. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

9. SOME ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOUR OBSERVED IN THE
GREATER FLAMINGO AT BHIGWAN

On 27th June, 1985 I accompanied Mr.
Humayun Abdulali on a field trip to observe
the Greater Flamingos at Bhigwan on the
Pune-Sholapur road. I have been visiting the
area for several years, but what was note-
worthy throughout 1985 was the large number

of juveniles constituting a fair proportion of
some flocks.

This indicates that though the ‘Flamingo
City’ in the Great Rann is not where it used
to be, they are breeding at some other un-
known place. During this trip on several

677

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

occasions we saw the brownish young ones
approach adult birds with their heads dipped,
and bills open, while they croaked anxiously.
The adults then apparently fed them, but we
could not see what was being passed from
bill to bill.

On the 26th March, 1986, one of our mem-
bers Shri Digveerendrasinh Solanki and I
observed a fascinating aspect of Flamingo
behaviour.

On this visit there were approximately a
thousand birds scattered over the shallows.
Just after dawn there was a large aggregation
in an isolated creek in the distance. The acti-
vity appeared frantic. On carefully approaching
the birds it was observed that there were
several groups in the centre of the flock engaged
in picturesque corporate displays.

‘SAKEN’ Valanxina Society,

North Main Road,

Koregaon Park, Pune 411001,

April 12, 1986.

Seven or eight would come together wag-
ging heads and croaking loudly. They would
all bring their heads together, their bills nearly
touching, in a tight circle. As their calls be-
came louder they would erect the long feathers
on their backs like huge white and pink lotus
flowers.

The noisy activity would stop as suddenly
as it had begun, to be repeated either in an
adjacent group, or a few minutes later in the
same one.

This activity continued periodically between
bouts of feeding between 7 A.M. and 10 A.M.
when they moved off into another area nearby.

It remains to be seen if this heralds a
migration northwards to their breeding grounds
in Kutch, or the remote possibility of setting
up a colony at Bhigwan itself.

ERACH BHARUCHA

10. OCCURRENCE OF THE FALCATED TEAL ANAS FALCATA
(GEORGI) IN KHIJADIA BIRD SANCTUARY, GUJARAT

On 24th December 1984 around 4.30 p.m.
while walking along the Jheel bund which is
situated in front of the Khijadia salt works
pump house, we saw to our surprise six Falcat-
ed Teals ( Anas falcata) 3 males and 3 females
feeding together. The male can be easily identi-
fied by Bronze-green, purple head and the long
sickle shaped feathers falling over the closed
wing, whereas the female with dull brown
colour, has the speculum edged with white.
The Falcated Teal is a rare winter vagrant to

Avifauna Project,

Kodikkarai,

Thanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu,

March 22, 1986.

India, less rare in Burma and the Shan states
and common throughout the Indo-Chinese
countries (the birds of kutch p. 164). The
Maharao Vijayarajji of Kutch shot a bird on
7th February, 1932 in Kutch ( JBNHS 35, pp.
899). There is only one record of its occurrence
in the neighbouring province of Sind (ibid. 14,
p. 149). So this is the second sight record of
Falcated Teal in Gujarat after a gap of nearly
fifty two years.

V. NATARAJAN

ASAD AKTHAR

678

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

11. THE SCAUP DUCK ( AYTHYA MARI LA) IN MADHYA

PRADESH

The Scaup Duck ( Aythya marila ) is a rare
winter visitor to the Indian sub-continent,
though it has been sporadically recorded from
Kashmir, Kulu, Punjab, Delhi, Nepal, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Bangladesh,
Assam, Manipur and Maharashtra (handbook
p. 188). Recently during our ringing pro-
gramme at Karera Bustard Sanctuary, Shiv-

Avifauna Project,

Kodikkarai,

Thanjavur Dist.,

Tamil Nadu,

February 7, 1986.

puri district, Madhya Pradesh, one of us (VN)
had the opportunity of handling a Scaup
Duck caught by our trappers along with ducks
of different species. This particular bird was
identified as an adult male.

Wing — 221 mm; Bill — 43 mm; Tarsus —
37 mm; Tail — 55 mm; Wt. — 1080 g. All the
primaries had freshly moulted.

V. NATARAJAN
R. SUGATHAN

12. SIGHTING OF THE BLACKCRESTED BAZA ( AV1CEDA
LEUPHOTES ) AT BHIMASHANKAR

On the 1st January, 1986, at 1040 hrs.,
we sighted a blackcrested baza ( Aviceda
leuphotes) at Bhimashankar (District: Pune;
19°4'N, 73°32'E). The bird was soaring over
the canopy at Hanuman Tale, occasionally
flapping its wings between glides. At that dis-
tance we were unable to differentiate between
A. leuphotes leuphotes and the East Hima-
layan A. leuphotes syama.

If it was A. I leuphotes, then this sighting
is a new record for Maharashtra. It is supposed
to be resident in Kerala including Wynaad

Lax mi Narayan Bhuwan,

G. D. Ambedkar Marg,

Bhoiwada, Parel,

Mumbai - 400 012,

March 6, 1986.

and the Nilgiri Hills and may be resident in
Coorg and the Malnad area of Karnataka,
though it has yet to be recorded in the latter
area (Ali and Ripley 1978). If it was A. 1.
syama, then it was probably a passage migrant
to or from Sri Lanka. It is. however, surprising
that an East Himalayan bird should use a
western migratory route. As the status and
distribution of the two races is as yet unclear
(Ali and Ripley 1978), further information
would be of much interest.

ULHAS RANE
RENEE BORGES

Reference

Ali, S. A. & Ripley, S. Dillon (1978) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

679

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

13. RECENT SIGHTINGS OF THE SANDWICH TERN (, STERNA
SANDVICENSIS), WITH COMMENTS ON ITS STATUS
IN GUJARAT

( With a text -figure)

After Dharmakumarsinhji (1958) first re-
corded a Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis
in its winter plumage in May 1958, near
Veraval on the west coast of Gujarat, there
were no records of the bird from Indian waters
until an individual ringed in Russia was re-
covered from Kerala in March 1976 (Ambed-
kar 1985). Lai Mohan (1986) reports on
the collection of three birds, one from Rame-
shwaram island, Tamil Nadu, in September
1983 and two others from Man dap am, also in
Tamil Nadu, in June 1983 and November
1983 respectively. From Sri Lanka, a single
ring recovery has been recorded (Ali and
Ripley 1983). This tern is, however, known to

be a common winter visitor to coastal Pakistan
(Ali and Ripley 1983).

The Sandwich Tern is slightly larger than
the Gullbilled Tern Gelochelidon rulotica,
sleek in build, with a yellow tipped slender
black bill that is visible at a close range only.
In India, a majority of these birds have been
seen in their winter plumage, which consists
of a black nuchal tuft, white crown streaked
with black, grey wings and mantle, a white
underside and forked tail. When viewed casual-
ly, the Sandwich Tern can be mistaken for
the Gullbilled Tern, and Ambedkar (1985)
suggests this as a possible reason for the lack
of additional records from India.

Table 1

A SUMMARY

OF THE SIGHTINGS

of the Sandwich Tern in Gujarat

Location no.1 and place

Date

Habitat type

No. of birds

Observer2

1.

New Port, Jamnagar

1 . ii . 1986

tidal creek

1

T.M.

2.

Pirotan

-.xii.84

island

1

S.K. and L.K.
(pers. comm.)

3.

Ashapura

18.vii.84

saltpan

1

S.T. and T.M.

4.

Man merodi

00

-J

island

2

S.K., L.K. and T.M.

5.

Bet Dwarka

26.iii. 86

island

4

R.P. and T.M.

6.

Okha

15.x. 84

seacoast

3

S.K. and L.K.
(pers. comm.)

7.

Veraval

19.V.58

mouth of river

1

Dharmakumarsinhji

(1958)

8.

Vanakbara5

26.i.87

tidal creek

52

A.S. and T.M.

9.

Diu3

26 . i . 87

tidal creek

63

A.S, and T.M.

Diu3

6.vi.86

tidal creek

6

N.J. and T.M.

10.

Nayabunder

25 . i . 87

seacoast

43

A.S. and T.M.

11.

Simor3

25 . i . 87

seacoast

16

A.S. and T.M.

1 The locations are designated by the same numbers as in Figure 1.

2 A.S. — Anil Shetgaonkar, L.K. — Lavkumar Khacher, N. J. — Narendrasinh Jhala, R.P. — Rishad Pra-
vez, S.K. — Shivrajkumar Khachar, T.M. — Taej Mundkur.

3 These locations are in Diu district, which is under the jurisdiction of the Union territory of Goa,
Daman and Diu.

680

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES .

In the last few years, the Sandwich Tern
has . been sighted in a number of places on
the coast of Gujarat (Table 1 and Figure 1).
The most recent sightings were made on an

approximately 30 km coastline, covered on 25
and 26 January 1987 (Table 1), when flocks
of upto 63 birds were observed with other
birds, namely Gullbilled Tern, Caspian Tern

Fig . 1 . Sight records of the Sandwich Tern in the study area in Gujarat. Locations
are designated by location numbers as explained in Table 1.

(Inset gives the map of India with the study area shaded in black).

Arabian Sea

681

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Hydroprogne caspia, Lesser Crested Tern
Sterna bengalensis, Little Tern Sterna albi-
frons. Herring Gull Larus argentatus, Brown-
headed Gull Larus brunnicephalus and Black-
headed Gull Larus ridibundus, resting on sand
bars and rocks exposed during the low tides.
One of the Sandwich Terns had an alluminium
ring on its right tarsus.

The Sandwich Terns observed between May
and July (Table 1) were probably sub-adults
overwintering here. It is known for the Euro-
pean nesting population (Moller 1981) that
many first year, some second year and third
year birds spend the summer in their winter
quarters in Africa, the birds maturing and
breeding first only at the age of four years.

At Diu, when we observed the birds in
summer, they were among a few thousand
other terns, namely. Common Tern Sterna
hirundo, a majority of which were juveniles
and some adults in winter plumage, Caspian

Department of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University, . ,

Rajkot 360 005,

Gujarat,

February 20, 1987.

R E FE

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983) : Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition.
Oxford University Press. Delhi.

Ambedkar. V. C. (1985) : Occurrence of the Sand-
wich Tern ( Sterna sandvicensis ) in India — A ring
recovery. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 410.

Dharmaicumarsinhji, K. S. (1958): Sandwich

Tern, Whiskered Tern and Gullbilled Tern in
winter plumage and Little Tern in summer
plumage. This observation indicates that the
Diu creek may be important for overwintering
Laridae.

Repeated sighting of the Sandwich Tern in
Gujarat strengthens the view that the bird is
a more frequent visitor along the coast of
western India than what the earlier scant re-
cords indicate.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Mr. Shivrajkumar Khachar
and Mr. Lavkumar Khacher for their
unpublished sightings. Prof. R. M. Naik pro-
vided invaluable encouragement and critically
read the manuscript. I am grateful for funding
initially by the World Wildlife Fund-India and
subsequently a research fellow grant by the
University Grants Commission, New Delhi.

TAEJ MUNDKUR

ENCES

Tern in Saurashtra. ibid. 55 : 357.

Lal Mohan, R. S. (1986): Recovery of a ringed
Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis sandvicensis from
Rameshwaram island, Tamil Nadu. ibid. 83(3) : 664.

Mollers, A. P. (1981): The migration of Euro-
pean Sandwich Terns Sterna s. sandvicensis — I.
Die Vogelwarte. 31 : 74-94.

14. A NOTE ON THE FIRST DISCOVERY OF THE NEST AND
EGGS OF THE ASHY-HEADED BABBLER GARRULAX
CINEREIFRONS , AN ENDEMIC SPECIES OF SRI LANKA, IN 1984

According to a history of the birds of 1852, and it is recorded in “Annotated Check-
ceylon Legge (1880), Garrulax cinereL list of the Birds of Ceylon (Sri Lanka)”, Phillips
frons was first discovered by Dr. Kelaart in (1978) that its breeding was then still un-

682

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

known. A total of 132 years have therefore
elapsed between the discovery of the species
and the first authenticated discovery of its nest
and eggs in March /April 1984.

While observing birds in the Morapitiya
Forest Reserve, situated adjacent to the Sinha-
raja Forest, and about 40 miles south-east of
Colombo, we discovered the commencement
of nest building by Garrulax cinereifrons in
the undergrowth on a fairly steep hillside
carrying some quite tall trees. The discovery
was made at about 8.30 a.m. on the 25th
March, 1984. The first indication of possible
nest building was when one bird was seen to
pick up a large dead leaf from the ground
and fly away with it. By careful observation,
a succession of birds were found to be depo-
siting the leaves, and a few twigs, in a fork
of a small sapling, and about 15 ft from ground
level. The rapidity with which the birds
arrived to make a deposit suggested that, per-
haps, the whole flock might contribute towards
construction, and this was indicated when three
birds made a leaf deposit within a space of
less than 60 seconds.

The nest, commenced in the morning of
25th March, was probably completed by the
end of the month, and the first egg was pro-
bably laid on or about the 1st April because,
when we returned to the forest and looked
into the nest at 11.00 a.m. on the 3rd April,
using a mirror fastened to a long pole, and a
pair of binoculars, Mrs. Judy Banks obtained
a “first sight” of three turquoise blue eggs.
The colour and number of eggs were sub-
sequently confirmed by Dr. T. S. U. de Zylva
(at that time President of the Wildlife and
Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka) who
142/20, Pelhengoda Road,

Colombo 5,

Sri Lanka,

March 27, 1986.

1 Present address : Kathmuir, Rue de la Blanche
Islands (U.K.).

also later succeeded in measuring one egg at
25 x 18 mm. The blue eggs of this endemic
species probably places it in the Garrulax genus.

In the construction of the nest, the birds
had deposited an untidy mass of leaves and
twigs in the fork of the tree to form a base
the size of a football, and the nest cup was
set into the top of that mass. The inner dia-
meter of the cup was 3^ inches and it was
largely constructed of pliable twigs, rootlets
and horse-hair lichen with a few Cullinia
ceylonica leaves at the base — probably part
of the leafy foundations (which were not re-
covered when the nest was collected).

It was not possible to keep the nest under
constant observation due to other commit-
ments, but brooding appeared to commence in
the late evening of the 3rd April and when
the nest was next visited on the 19th April,
it was found to contain only one newly hatch-
ed chick. The other two eggs or chicks were
absent and are presumed to have been pre-
dated. The visit of 19th April was immediate-
ly followed by a period of heavy rains which
flooded and damaged approach roads, but a
Land Rover finally succeeded in getting through
to the nest site on the 24th April. The nest
was found to be empty and it can only be
assumed that the third chick had been predat-
ed. The nest was collected and has been lodged
at the National Museum, Colombo.

We acknowledge, with grateful thanks, the
information contributed by Dr. T.S.U. de Zylva,
and we also thank Dr. W. S. Kotagama for
assisting in the identification of the materials
used in the construction of the nest, and for
assistance in finalising these notes.

JUDY BANKS1
JOHN BANKS1

Pierre, Bel Royal, St. Lawrence, Jersey, Channel

683

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

References

Legge, W. V. (1880) : A History of the Birds of
Ceylon (2nd Edition 1983).

Phillips, W. W. A. (1978) : Annotated Checklist

of the Birds of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and personal
notes on the nests and eggs of the birds of Sri Lanka
(Ceylon) .

15. SEPARATION IN THE HAND OF WHITEBROWED BLUE
FLYCATCHER MUSCICAPA SUPERC1LIAR1S AND SLATY
BLUE FLYCATCHER MUSCICAPA LEUCOMELANURA

Familiarity with these two species allows
easy separation but until that familiarity is
acquired, the problem of identifying females
and first year birds can be a tricky one exa-
cerbated by two factors. The first is the lack
of illustrations of the birds except of breeding
plumage adults — for example Ali and Ripley
(1983), Ali, Ripley and Dick (1983) and
Fleming, Fleming and Bangdel (1979). The
second is that the key in Ali and Ripley
(1983) can be difficult or confusing to use.
For example, part of key suggests the third
primary equals the fourth in M. superciliaris
and that the third is shorter than the fourth
in M. leucomelanura. While ringing at Haigam
Rakh, Kashmir in September 1984, two first
year M. superciliaris were caught — one male
and one female. In both specimens the third
primary was 1 mm shorter than the fourth.

To confirm the identification and to look
for a sure way of separating the two species,
an examination was made of the skins in the
British Museum (Natural History), Tring,
England. A total of 47 M. superciliaris and
20 M. leucomelanura was examined. Birds
collected between June and September were
ignored because of the possibility of the pre-
sence of not quite fully grown primaries.

Comparison of the third and fourth primaries

produced the following.

M. superciliaris :

3rd primary == 4th primary: 34%

3rd primary shorter than 4th: 63.8%

3rd primary longer than 4th: 2.1%

M. leucomelanura

3rd primary shorter than 4th: 100%
The two species can however be separated
by wing point, i.e. the longest primary. Figures
in brackets refer to the number of birds.

M. superciliaris — wing point is between
3rd and 4th / 5th primaries as follows on the

skins examined:

wing point = 3rd primary (1)

3rd and 4th primaries (14)

3rd, 4th and 5th primaries (2)

4th primary (28)

4th and 5th primaries (2)

Thus 89.4% of the birds had a wing point
of either the 3rd and 4th primaries or the 4th
primary.

M. leucomelanura — wing point is either the
5th primary (15) or 5th and 6th (5).

When the 3rd primary is shorter than the
4th, the two species can still be separated by
measuring the difference.

M. superciliaris — range: 0.5-2. 5 mm.

mean: 0.82 mm.

M. leucomelanura — range: 2. 5-4.0 mm.

mean: 3.03 mm.

684

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

To summarise, M. super ciliaris and M. leuco-
melanura can be separated in the hand by
reference to the wing formula. In M. super -
ciliaris the wing point falls between the 3rd
and 4th/5th primaries — usually 3rd/4th or
4th. When the 3rd primary is shorter than
the 4th it is usually (90% of the birds) only
0.5 or 1.0 mm shorter. In M. leucomelanura
the wing point is always either the 5th pri-

1 Beech Crescent,

Surrey Hills Park,

Box Hill Road,

Tad worth,

Surrey,

England,

March 13, 1986.

Refe

Ali. S. & Ripley, S, D. (1983) : Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition.
Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Ali, S., Ripley, S. D. and Dick, J. H. (1983) :

mary or 5th /6th primaries. The 3rd primary
is always shorter than the 4th and by at least
2.5 mm.

Acknowledgement

Thanks are due to Derek Reed of the British
Museum (Natural History), Tring, England for
his help.

PETER F. BURNS

EN CES

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Sub-
continent. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Fleming, R. L. sr., Fleming, R. L. jr. & Bangdel,
L. S. (1979) : Birds of Nepal. Avalok Publishers.

16. FURTHER NOTES ON GARHWAL BIRDS: GREY FACED LEAF
WARBLER ( PHYLLOSCOPUS MACULIPENNIS)

Little is known about the breeding distri-
bution of western race of the Greyfaced Leaf
Warbler ( Phylloscopus maculipennis) . Accord-
ing to handbook (Vol. 8) it is found from
Kashmir to Kumaun but the altitudinal distri-
bution and habitat in summer have not been
recorded, and this race has only been describ-
ed from winter quarters.

While trekking from Dodital to Kedamath
on an expedition, partially sponsored by the
Society I had kept special lookout for the
species of Phylloscopus. On 7th June 1985, at

Belak (alt. 10,000') Tehri Garhwal District,
I came across one feeding in a medium sized
tree, 15 feet above me. I had excellent views
of the bird, in good light, and satisfactorily
identified it as Greyfaced Leaf Warbler
( Phylloscopus maculipennis). It can be con-
fused with Phylloscopus proregulus at a casual
glance, but the grey face and throat and the
bright yellow of the underparts were distinc-
tive. I found about 5-6 scattered birds, possibly
holding territories, in the Oak forest around
the village. They all seemed to prefer foliage
of the medium sized oak trees.

685

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Given the date it seems quite possible that this area. This sighting thus is worth placing
Phylloscopus maculipennis was breeding in on record.

3 Rocky Hill, NITIN JAMDAR

Malabar Hill,

Bombay 400 006,

July 20, 1985.

17. BEHAVIOUR OF PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS

During July 1984 I did a small experiment
to study the encroachment behaviour of nest
building cocks at village Tatar Pur (27°47'N,
76°3I'E) in Alwar District of Rajasthan. I
selected three colonies of Blackbreasted Baya
( Ploceus benghalensis) which were present on
Saccharum munja at three different patches in
same locality. I tied a few leaves of host plant
in the form of a bundle by tearing some strips

Forest Range Officer,

Udaipur (West) Range,

Gulab Bagh,

Udaipur-313 001 (Raj.),

January 28, 1986.

from the leaves of the same plant near the nest
of one of the male birds. After a few hours when
I examined the bundle of leaves, I was sur-
prised that it had been opened by the cock.
I did the same experiment with other two nest
building cocks and got the same results. This
observation clearly indicates that male Black-
breasted Baya cannot tolerate nest initiation
by other males within his territorial limits.

SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

18. PLOCEUS MANYAR (HORSFIELD) RECORDED IN KUTCH

Mr. Shantilal Varu and other members of
the Pelican Nature Club of Kutch reported
to me that they saw a Streaked Weaver in the
bed of Khari Nadi, a river couple of kilo-
metres west of Bhuj. When I went personally
to investigate this report, I saw 5 + of these
birds on May 17, 1985, in the riverbed and
two males were busy with a couple of nests in
the helmet stage woven in the leaves of the
reeds. T was informed that there were some

more of these weavers farther down the river.
This bird has not been recorded in Kutch.

The above-mentioned gentlemen also told
me that they saw a pair of Chestnut Bittern
and some Blackheaded Munia in the same
riverbank; but I did not see these. The latter
are obviously escapees from a cage, for this
part of the country is quite outside their area
of distribution.

Jubilee Ground, HIMMATSINHJI

Bhuj, Kutch,

March 13, 1986.

686

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

19. NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF MELANOCHELYS (REPTILIA,
TESTUDINES, EMYDIDAE) IN THE TERAI OF NEPAL

Two species of Melanochelys occur on the
Indian subcontinent, but their presence in
Nepal has remained unconfirmed. The black
turtle, M. trijuga, is common and widespread,
with scattered populations in the southern half
of India and others centred in the Bengal
area. The keeled hill turtle, M. tricarinata, is
much less common and confined to the Bengal-
Assam area (Smith 1931, Das 1985). Recent
investigations into the ecology of rhinoceros
and their forage species in the Terai of cen-
tral Nepal (Royal Chitwan National Park,
RCNP, vicinity of Sauraha) have revealed the
presence of Melanochelys in Nepal and several
aspects of its biology.

Occurrences and abundance

Recently, Moll and Vijaya (1986) reported
the occurrence of both Melanochelys tricari-
nata and M. trijuga from the northwestern
corner of the state of Bihar, India, adjacent
to the Chitwan area of Nepal. This close
proximity suggested that both species probably
also occur in RCNP, and Moll and Vijaya
saw photographs of a M. tricarinata supposed-
ly taken in RCNP. We can confirm that
Melanochelys does occur in RCNP, although
those observations with confirmed species iden-
tification are all M. trijuga. All sightings of
Melanochelys have been in grassland habitats
at the edge of rhino wallows, in short Shiru
(Imperata cylindrica ) grassland and in flood-
plain grassland (authors’ observations; J. Lehm-
kuhi and R. Shrestha, pers. comm.). In some
instances, the sighted turtle was within 30 m
or less of the forest edge, yet none have been
observed in the forest. This habitat preference
seems real, because examination of the forest
floor is easier than viewing the soil surface in

the grasslands. A M. trijuga (shell) was obtain-
ed in the Terai zone of western Nepal (Royal
Bardia Wildlife Reserve, vicinity of Thakur-
dara) as well.

Melanochelys has been observed most fre-
quently in October-November and once in
February. These data show that they are active
during the first half of the dry season. Activity
may be reduced during the last half of the
dry season, because the grasslands are heavily
burned and no turtles are visible after the
fires nor have any turtles been seen with fire-
scarred shells. All turtles observed have been
adults or large juveniles.

Melanochelys trijuga seems to be relatively
common in RCNP and vicinity, although we
can provide no estimate of relative abundance
or as yet confirm the presence of M. tricari-
nata. Our observations have been made secon-
darily to other field investigations and no in-
tense search has been made. Dinerstein has
begun to individually mark these turtles, so
estimates of abundance will be possible in the
future. Shells of Melanochelys and Indotestudo
elongata are found in refuse dumps, seemingly
common enough to serve as an occasional
food item for the local human population.

Reproduction

Incubating eggs of Melanochelys have been
found twice, each time buried in grassland
latrines of the greater one-horned rhinoceros
( Rhinoceros unicornis). The first clutch was
discovered in March, 1985 and consisted of
three oblong eggs (46.8 x 27.5 mm, 49.1 x
26.7 mm, 51.3 x 27.6 mm); the shells were
thin, firm and calcareous. Two eggs were open-
ed and no embryos were apparent. A second

687

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo 1. 84

clutch of six egg was found 15 November
1985. They are equal in size to the first clutch;
length — mean 47.4 ± 2.3 mm, range 44.6-
50.7 mm; diameter — 27.4 ± 0.6 mm, 26.7-
28.3 mm; weight — 21.6 ± 0.6 g., 20.6 - 22.3
g. None of these eggs contained embryos. This
clutch was buried in the latrine at a depth
of approximately 30 cm; the latrine was 3 m on
its longest axis and sat on a tail-grass clump
of Baruwa ( Saccharum benghalensis) . The
specific identity of these eggs is uncertain;
both species have similar-sized eggs but diffe-
rent clutch numbers, 1-3 eggs in M. tricarinata
and 3-8 eggs in M. trijuga (Das 1985, E. Moll,
pers. comm.).

Smithsonian-Nepal Terai Ecology Project,
National Zoological Park,

Conservation & Research Center,

Front Royal VA 22630, USA.

Department of Vertebrate Zoology,

Natl. Museum of Natural History,
Washington DC 20560, USA.

Department of Biology,

University of Richmond,

Richmond VA 23173, USA,

April 23, 1987.

Adult size and growth

The M. trijuga shell found in the Bardia
area was 114 mm carapace length (CL) and
110 mm plastron length (PL). A 1.2 kg adult
female M. trijuga from Chitwan was 215 mm
CL and 186 mm PL with a maximum cara-
pace width of 150 mm and a maximum height
of 83 mm. This female possessed seven
distinct scute layers in addition to the hatchling
scute on each plastral plate. This datum sug-
gests that she was at least seven years old, and
measurements of pectoral scute layers indicate
a 43 mm PL at hatching and an average
annual growth rate (PL) of 20.4 mm per
year.

ERIC DINERSTEIN

GEORGE R. ZUG

JOSEPH C. MITCHELL

References

Das, Indraneil (1985): Indian Turtles A Field
Guide. World Wildlife Fund-India, Calcutta. 119 pp.

Moll, Edward E. & Vijaya, J. (1986): Distri-
butional records for some Indian Turtles. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 53(1): 57-62.

Smith, Malcolm A. (1931) : The Fauna of

British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptiles
and Amphibia. Vol. I. — Loricata, Testudines. Taylor
& Francis Ltd., London. 185 pp.

20. KACHUGA (REPTILIA, EMYDIDAE) IN NATIONAL CHAMBAL
SANCTUARY: OBSERVATIONS ON DIURNAL NESTING
EMERGENCES AND UNSUCCESSFUL NESTING
CRAWLS

(With a text -figure)

Data presented here refer to the period undertook 120 whole-day trips to the field for
30 October 1983-5 July 1985 during which we ‘turtle-studies’.

688

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Diurnal nesting emergence :

Kachuga species in Chambal usually nest in
the night. Occasionally, nesting may be seen
upto 1000 Hrs. in the morning or at as early
as 1600 hrs. in the afternoon. Local villagers
normally notice those turtles which come out
for nesting at dawn or dusk. During 8 of our
120 field-days, we recorded lb turtles (Table
1) which had nested or had attempted to nest
during the day. K. tentoria were caught when
these were moving away from the water. K.
dhongoka were found inexplicably lying upside
down on the sand bank. Captures of K.
kachuga were possible because of our speed-
boat with which we approach the turtles
before these returned to deep water.

In all the above cases the conclusions were
made that the turtles had emerged for nesting
because of the following (ref. Table 1).

a) Located the nest with eggs SI. nos. 2, 7.

b) Found on a nesting bank. SI. nos. 1, 3,

Oviducal eggs collected and/ 4, 5, 8, 10.
or eggs ‘released’ by turtle

after capture

c) Found on or close to a SI. nos. 9

nesting bank during the and 11

nesting season. Adult fe-
males. Released after mark-
ing

The minimum temperature during diurnal
emergence in December ranged from 3.5° to
9.0°C while the maximum day-time shade
temperature was 28°-38°C. During the peak
nesting season of K. dhongoka and K. kachuga
when nocturnal nesting is the rule, the mini-
mum and maximum temperatures are 16.2°C-
36.9°C (March) and 21.6°-40.1°C (April)
(Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Diurnal nesting emergences (dots) in Kachuga tentoria ( K . t.) , Kachuga
dhongoka (K. d.) and Kachuga kachuga ( K . k.) shown against date and shade
temperature (small arrows). The curves show the fortnightly maximum (Max) and
minimum (Min) shade temperature recorded at the camp. The number ‘2’ against
a dot shows two emergences for the species on the same date.

689

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 84

Table 1

Data on turtles captured during diurnal nesting emergence. Temperatures refer to the time

OF CAPTURE

SI. Date Day/ Carapace
No. month/ length

year (mm)

Place

Distance
(Km) *

Time

(hrs.)

nesting/

capture

Temp°C

Air

(shade)

Water
(30 cm
deep)

Kachuga tentoria
1. 24.11.83 250

Rohu

113

0730

20.0

21.0

2. 24.11.83 230

Batesura

123

1600

24.0

21.0

3. 15.11.84 250

Baroli

57

1140

23.0

22.0

4. 13.12.84 185

Ranipura

307

1300

23.5

20.5

5. 15.12.84 205

Udi

352

1530

24.5

21.0

6. 17.12.84 235

Kenjra

296

1630 '

23.5

21.5

7. 27.12.84 224

Papripura

213

1400

23.0

20.0

Kachuga dhongoka
8. 17.12.84 415

Khera
Azab Singh

362

1130

23.0

20.0

9. 19.2.84 460

Barotha

79

1600

28.5

22.0

Kachuga kachuga
10. 13.12.84 560

Kenjra

296

)

1200

23.0

20.0

11. 20.2.84 540

Rohu

113

1500

29.5

23.5

* In reference to Palighat (Parbati-Chambal confluence) in the upstream.

690

Remarks

Unsuccessful nesting
attempt. Found 6 ovi-
ducal eggs.

Successfully nested.
Collected 7 eggs from
the nest.

Unsuccessful nesting,
attempt. Found 9 ovi-
ducal eggs.

Unsuccessful nesting
attempt. Found 5 ovi-
ducal eggs.

Unsuccessful nesting
attempt. Found 3 ovi-
ducal eggs.

Unsuccessful nesting
attempt. Found 8 ovi-
ducal eggs.

Successfully nested.
Collected 5 eggs from
the nest.

Found upside down on
a sand bank 10m away
from water. Turtle
dropped 17 eggs in the
tank to where it was
shifted. One egg in left
oviduct.

Found upside down on
a sand bank 18 m away
from water. Marked
and released.

Found very close to
water (0.5m). started
dropping eggs during
transit to pen, 100 km.
away. Total 17 eggs
(incl. 5 from left ovi-
duct) .

Found 4 m away from
water. Marked and re-
leased.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Unsuccessful nocturnal nesting crawls:

During our early morning check, we have
observed 31 night crawl marks of turtles
which led out of water (that could be only
for nesting) but returned without egg laying
(Table 2). Eighteen such crawl marks on a

Table 2

Unsuccessful nocturnal nesting emergences

Species Track No. of Probable reason for

instances not nesting

SMALL TURTLE

( K . tentorio )

3

Unsuitable Ground.

11

Pursued by jackal.

LARGE TURTLE

(K. dhongoka or

9

Unsuitable Ground.

K. kachuga )

1

Rain (a half-dug
nestpit located).

7

Pursued by jackal.

Total

31

potential nesting site were accompanied or
superimposed by jackal tracks. The tracks of
the jackal (egg-predator) were seen for the
entire length of return track of the turtle and
only a part of the onward track. Such in-
stances are viewed to be interference from
the predator due to which the turtles did not
nest.

National Chambal Sanctuary,

Post Box 11, Morena-476 001,

August 19, 1986.

21. NEW LOCALITY RECORD
SOFTSHELL TURTLE

Three species of softshell turtles (Family:
Trionychidae) in the genus Trionyx are known
to occur in India. These include the Indian
softshell turtle Trionyx gangeticus Cuvier from
the rivers and reservoirs of northern India and

Discussion

Although dusk to dawn is the time for
nesting by Kachuga species in Chambal, diurnal
nesting may also occur. Such diurnal nesting
may be related to the turtles’ temperature re-
quirement and/or a turtle’s past experience of
repeated harassment during nesting crawl by
an egg-predator. These aspects need further
study.

Jackals are the main predators of turtle eggs
in Chambal. The instances recorded in the
above regarding aborting a nesting attempt
due to interference by egg predator are rather
rare and raises questions like — ‘how is a
turtle’s nesting emergence related to predator
activity? When a predator is ‘busy’ in follow-
ing a turtle expected to nest, is it advantage-
ous to other nesting females? How can these
aspects be qualified?

Acknowledgement

We record our gratitude to the Wildlife In-
stitute of India, Government of India and the
Madhya Pradesh Forest Department for faci-
lities to work in the National Chambal Sanc-
tuary and to Dr. J. W. Gibbons and Dr. E. O.
Moll for their comments on the paper.

R. J. RAO
L. A. K. SINGH

FOR THE INDIAN PEACOCK
TRIONYX HURUM

the Leith’s softshell turtle Trionyx leithii Gray
from the southern Indian rivers and reservoirs.
The distribution of the third species, the
Indian peacock softshell turtle Trionyx hurum
Gray, is generally given as the lower reaches

691

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

of the Brahmaputra and Ganga (Pritchard
1979, Smith 1931). Mertens (1969), also quot-
ed by Khan and Mirza (1976), had recorded
the species from lower Sind, in Pakistan. Moll
and Vijaya (1986) reported it from the West
Champaran district of northwestern Bihar, near
the Nepal-Uttar Pradesh border. One speci-
men of T. hurum was collected by me from
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh and the material
deposited at the National Zoological Collec-
tion, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Trionyx hurum Gray

Material : 1 ex., collected from Lower Lake,
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. 2 December, 1986.
Coll. I. Das. ZSI Reg. No. 24408.

Measurements & Weight : Median straight

Department of Limnology,

Bhopal University,

Bhopal - 462 026,

October 6, 1987.

carapace length (bony shell & soft disc.) 138
mm, carapace width 112 mm, plastron length
106 mm, weight 234 gms.

Description'. Carapace olive-green with four
well defined ocelli. Head and forelimbs grey-
black with large yellow patches; one yellow
spot behind each eye, one across snout and
one on top of each corner of the upper jaw.
Numerous small yellow spots on the forehead
and on the dorsal surface of the forelimbs,
the undersurface of which has yellow patches.
Hindlimbs grey with cream spots. Plastron
cream. The present record suggests that Trionyx
hurum may be found in other isolated north
Indian freshwaters.

I thank Dr. John G. Frazier, Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C., for comments
on an earlier draft of the manuscript.

INDRANEIL DAS

References

Khan, M. S., & Mirza, M. R. (1976): An anno-
tated checklist and key to the reptiles of Pakistan.
Part I: Chelonia and Crocodilia. Biologia, Lahore
22(2): 211-219.

Mertens, R. (1969): Die amphibien und repti-
lien West-Pakistans. Stuttgarter Beitr. Naturk. (197) :
1-96.

Moll, E. O. & Vijaya, J. (1986): Distributional

records for some Indian turtles. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. S3 ( 1 ) : 57-62.

Pritchard, P.C.H. (1979): The encyclopedia of
turtles. T.F.H. Publications, New Jersey.

Smith, M. A. (1931) : The fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia.
Vol. I. Loricate, Testudines. Taylor and Francis,
London.

22. VEGETATION IN THE FOOD CONTENTS OF GARDEN
LIZARD (GIRGIT), CALOTES VERSICOLOR (DAUD.)
(REPTILIA: AGAMIDAE)

Calotes versicolor (Daud.) — the common
garden lizard (girgit), is predominantly an in-
sectivore (Bhatti et al. 1985). While assessing
the food preference of this lizard, undigested
or slightly digested pieces of small to fairly

large (0.001-15 mm) herbaceous plants were
observed in the stomach contents of more than
25 individuals of different age and size. The
vegetational components of stomach matter, on
comparison with the flora of the areas, showed

692

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

following plants: shisham ( Dalbergia sissoo ),
rose ( Rosa indica ), kikkar ( Acacia sp.),
cotton ( Gossypium sp.), munj ( Saccharum
munjo ), jawar (Sorghum), shahtoot ( Morus
alba), cyanodon ( Cyanodon sp.), kochia
(Kochia sp.), rat-ki-rani ( Sestrum nocturnum),
din-ka-raja ( S . alba), etc. In one of the sto-
mach of garden lizard minute bits of flower
parts of wild aak (Calotropis procera), mako
(Solannm nigrum), baigan ( Solanum melon-
gena), rose, Chinese rose ( Althea rosea), mal-
vestrum (Malvestrum sp.), gulmohar, bougain-
villaea, etc, were also noticed. In order to
know the digestibility of vegetation, Calotes
was fed in captivity, on the young and fresh

Zoology Department,

I. P. College,

Bulandshar, 203 001, India,

July 25, 1986.

leaves of above noted species (plants); the
lizards however showed neither orientation nor
feeding preference for them. The plant com-
ponents were apparently swallowed along with
the prey species being captured. This perhaps
occurs because of the peculiar habit of Calotes ,
especially the male, to sample all sorts of
strange objects that come across their path.

Our studies on the garden lizard, Calotes
versicolor (Daud.) revealed that individuals of
this species do not eat plants and are not
specialized for vegetative diet
The present study was conducted at Hansi
(Haryana) and Bulandshar (U.P.), during
May-June, 1983-84, and 1985 respectively.

UJJAL SINGH BHA1TI
S. KAUR BHATTI
SURJEET SINGH BHATTI

Reference

Bhatti, S. Kaur, Bhatti, U. S. & Saran. H. M. preference investigated through the stomach contents.
(1985): Behavioural aspects of garden-girgit Calotes Proc. 2nd N. E. Acad., Faizabad. 19-20.
versicolor (Daud.) (Agamidae: Reptilia). II. Food

23. ON THE SYSTEMATIC STATUS OF DANIO (DANIO) MENONI
BARMAN (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE)

Barman (1985) described a new cyprinid fish,
Danio (Danio) menoni, collected from a
stream near Mosampet village, Mahbubnagar
district, Andhra Pradesh, based on three speci-
mens (one holotype and two paratypes). He
gave a key to the identification of the species
of the genus Danio (Danio) and adjusted
Danio (Danio) menoni in the key. While re-
vising the fishes of the subfamily Rasborinae,
the description and figures of Danio (Danio)
menoni appeared peculiar to us and we were
doubtful whether this species was a represen-
tative of Rasborinae. In order to confirm the

systematic status of this species, type material
in the fish section of Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta was examined in detail; the
type material of this species was identified by
us as Chela (Chela) laubuca Hamilton be-
longing to the subfamily Cultrinae. The des-
cription and the figure of this species in the
published account agrees exactly with the type
material and also with Chela (Chela) laubuca
Hamilton. Barman (loc. cit.) was misled to
describe this material as a new species of the
genus Danio because of his wrong placement
of the material under another subfamily

693

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

(Rasborinae) and the genus ( Danio ), both of
which clearly differ from the subfamily Cultri-
nae and the genus Chela. The presence of a
keeled abdomen from the pelvic origin to the
anal aperture, the distinctive black shoulder
spot and elongated outer pelvic ray are charac-
teristic features of the genus Chela (subfamily
Cultrinae), and these features are present in
the type material of Danio menoni. Barman
(loc. cit.), however, overlooked the presence
of a keeled abdomen in his material. The des-

Zoological Survey of India,

218, Kaulagarh Road,

Dehra Dun,

May 12, 1987.

cription of Danio (Danio) menoni Barman is
a result of wrong identification at the subfamily
and generic levels and this species should fall
in the synonymy of Chela (Chela) laubuca
Hamilton.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Director, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta for encouragement.

RAJ TILAK
SEEMA JAIN

Reference

Barman, R. P. (1985) : A new cyprinid fish of from Andhra Pradesh, India. /. Bombay nat. Hist.

the genus Danio Hamilton (Pisces: Cyprinidae) Soc. 82(3) : 602-604.

24. NEW RECORD OF CRYPTOTERMES HAV1LANDI (SJOSTEDT)
FROM RAJASTHAN, INDIA (ISOPTERA: KALOTERMITIDAE)

Cryptotermes havilandi was originally des-
cribed from Fernando Po and Boma (Came-
roon s, Congo) by Sjostedt (1897) on the basis
of imago. Subsequently it has been found to
be a very widely distributed species recorded
from Oriental, Ethiopian, Neotropical and,
Malagasy regions. In the Indian subcontinent,
it has been recorded from Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka and India (Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam and
Andaman Island) (Chhotani 1970). This
species was collected on 29th August 1984 in
Southern Rajasthan at Tamatia village, c. 7,
km west of Banswara. The colony was attack-
ing the central dead portion of a giant uprooted
tree of Mohwa (Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel.).
With this record the range of this species ex-
tends to further west in Rajasthan.

Measurements (in mm.) (soldier): Total
body length with mandibles 5.0-5.20; Head
length to lateral base of mandibles 1.22-1.28;
Maximum length of head to frontal ridge 1 . 20-
1.36; Median length of head up to frontal
ridge 0.94-1.10; Maximum width of head
1.16-1.24; Maximum height of head 0.86-1 .02;
Maximum length of labrum 0.13-0.22; Maxi-
mum width of labrum 0.17-0.28; Length of
mandibles 0.64; Maximum length of prono-
tum 0.86-0.92; Maximum width of pronotum
1.15-1.20; Number of antennal segments 13-
14.

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta for encouragement
and facilities and Dr. R. K. Varshney,
Deputy Director, Desert Regional Station, Zoo-

694

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

logical Survey of India, Jodhpur for useful Roonwal, Ex-Director, Zoological Survey of
suggestions. I am also grateful to Dr. M. L. India for confirmation of identification.

Desert Regional Station, N. S. RATHORE

Zoological Survey of India,

Paota ‘B’ Road,

Jodhpur - 342 006,

February 13, 1986.

References

Chhotani, O. B. (1970): Taxonomy, zoogeogra- Memoirs Zool. surv. India, 75(1): 1-81.
phy and phylogeny of the genus Cryptotermes (Isop- Sjostedt, Y. (1897): Neue termiten aus Sierra
tera: Kalotermitidae) from the Oriental region. — Leone und Guinea. — Ent. Tidskr. 08{ 4) : 212.

25. SCIENTIFIC VERSUS POPULAR NAMES OF BUTTERFLIES

Sevastopulo (1986) has questioned the value
of the common or popular names of butter-
flies. He has apparently given two reasons —
that few butterflies are of economic import-
ance, and that in India learning of English
common names of butterflies is as difficult
as that of scientific names. Independently
Murphy & Ehrlich (1983) have also opined
against the use of common names by lepi-
dopterists. I humbly disagree. In the ‘Intro-
duction’ of my publication (Varshney 1983)
referred to by Sevastopulo, I have explained
in detail both pros and cons of the value of
common names. Without repeating, I may
briefly state that while the necessity and use-
fulness of zoological nomenclature of a species
stands undisputed, the practice of citing com-
mon English names for the mammals, birds,
butterflies and flowering plants etc. has also
served immensely useful purpose since a very
long time. Most of the natural history writings
are a proof of it. A number of responsible
bodies, e.g. The Entomological Society of
America, have desired and released approv-
ed list of common names. Regarding the eco-
nomically important groups it is only the

common or popular name of the pest that
matters. Not only are the latinized scientific
names hard to learn, the frequent changes in their
generic or species epithet are really bothersome.
In the case of many insects such changes
could be sustained only on account of their
well-known common names. I have cited exam-
ple of a species ‘The Common Rose’ for which
not less than 13 different scientific names have
been used during the last 80 years (Varshney,
l.c.).

Sevastopulo has further felt that I have
‘added considerably to the confusion’ in the
common names of butterflies. How can it be,
when out of 1,150 total entries, I have suggest-
ed 14 changes only? Besides, reasons were
given for each and every change. He states,
“Eggfly seems a meaningless name for the
two Indian species of Hypolimnas” . It is in-
correct, for I have mentioned two separate
names ‘Danaid Eggfly’ and ‘Great Eggfly’ for
H. misippus (Linnaeus) and H. bolina (Lin-
naeus) respectively (page 17). The late Wynter-
Blyth (1957) reported that the name ‘Admiral’
is a corruption of ‘Admirable’ the old English

695

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

traditional name (page 212 of his book). I feel that any name is good enough, whether

‘Tortoiseshell’ has been added in one case, common or scientific, if it helps recognition

to uniformly distinguish all Nymphalis species, and maintains uniqueness and stability.

Zoological Survey of India, R. K. VARSHNEY1

Gangetic Plains Regional Station,

B/ll P.C.C., Lohia Nagar,

Patna -800 020 (Bihar),

May 13, 1986.

1 Present address: Zoological Survey of India, 535, M-Block, P. O. New Alipur, Calcutta - 700 053.

References

Murphy, D. D. & Ehrlich, P. R. (1983) : Crows.
Bobs, Tits, Elfs and Pixies: The phoney “Common
Name” phenomenon. J. Res. Lepid. 22(2) : 154-158.

Sevastopulo, D. G. (1986) : Scientific versus popu-
lar names. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3) : 683-684
(1985).

Varshney, R. K. (1983) : Index Rhopalocera In-

dica — Part II. Common names of butterflies from
India and neighbouring countries. Rec. Zool. Surv.
India, Misc. Pub. Occ. Paper 47 : 1-49.

Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957) : Butterflies of the
Indian region. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay: 523 pp.

26. STUDIES ON THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND
RELATIVE HUMIDITY ON ADULT LONGEVITY, OVIPOSI-
TIONAL PERIOD AND FECUNDITY OF THE RICE MOTH,
CORCYRA CEPHALONICA (STAINTON)
(LEPIDOPTERA : GALLERIIDAE) 1

Introduction

The rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica (Stain-
ton) is a storage pest of oil seeds and cereals
with a wide distribution in subtropical and
tropical areas. This species is frequently im-
ported into temperate regions with produce
such as rice, rice bran, groundnuts and cocoa
beans originating from Southeast Asia and
West Africa and to a lesser extent from South
America (Freeman 1973). The development
of C. cephalonica on stored products has been
studied by several authors. Its life cycle in
United States was briefly reported by Chitten-
den (1919). Krishna Ayyar (1934) described
the adult and immature stages and gave an

1Part of the M.Sc. Thesis submitted by senior
Bangalore.

account of its biology and developmental
period on different foods under Indian condi-
tions. The rice moth has gained importance in
India in recent years mainly on account of its
use as laboratory host for rearing many insect
natural enemies which are being tried in
biological control of crop pests. Reports on
the effect of temperature and humidity on the
development of C. cephalonica are mainly due
to the studies made by Sheshagiri Rao (1954),
Kamel and Hassanein (1969) and Teotia and
Singh (1975). However, there is little informa-
tion available to date on the development of
this insect under controlled conditions on stor-
ed sorghum. It is important to know the be-
haviour of this insect under different combi-

author to the University of Agricultural Sciences,

696

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

nations of temperature and humidity so that the
same can be employed for effective mass multi-
plication under laboratory condition. An at-
tempt was therefore made to know the effect of
temperature and relative humidity on adult
longevity, ovipositional period and fecundity of
the rice moth at controlled temperature and
humidity conditions which are presented in this
contribution.

Material and Methods

Constant temperatures of 15°, 20°, 25°, 30°,
35° and 40°C were maintained during B.O.D.
incubators. At all these temperatures, relative
humidities varying from 30 per cent to 90 per
cent (with an increase of 15 per cent) with
saturated solutions of salts as per Winston
and Bates (1960) were provided. Freshly laid
eggs were collected and kept at different tem-
peratures and relative humidities. Insects were
reared from egg to adult stage and observa-
tions made in respect of adult longevity, ovi-
positional period and fecundity of the rice
moth, at an interval of six hours.

Eggs were incubated at various temperatures
and relative humidity conditions in groups of
ten in glass tubes (5x1.25 cm). Immediately
after hatching, larvae were released in plastic
containers (5x5 cm). Fresh food material was
supplemented as and when it was necessary.
The culture was maintained on broken
sorghum grains (CSH-1) in plastic containers
at a temperature of 28 °C and relative humi-
dity of 90 per cent. On emergence, the moths
were allowed to mate and a pair in copula
was collected for further studies on fecundity
and longevity. All the studies were made in
four replications and the data collected was
subjected to logit transformations as suggested
by Finney (1952), and statistically analysed
using the method of analysis of variance.

Results and Discussion

The results of the present experiment carried
out to determine the development of different
stages of the pest under various temperature
and humidity conditions have been presented in
Tables 1-4. The average longevity of adult
male and female together varied from 3.11
days at 35°C to 11.94 days at 15°C. The
average duration of full life is longest i.e.,
120.04 days at 15°C followed by 83.43 days
at 20°C, 53.22 days at 25°C, 38.64 days at
30°C and 35.57 days at 35°C (Table 4). The
average adult longevity significantly increased
with an increase in humidity and decreased
with increase in temperatures (Table 1).

There was no development of any stage of
the insect at 40°C.

Effect of temperature and relative humidity on
fecundity and ovipositional period

The results obtained on oviposition period
and fecundity under the set of experimental
conditions, as stated earlier have been pre-
sented in Tables 2 and 3. The oviposition period
was generally higher at higher humidities, for
each temperature except at 35°C. It was signi-
ficantly highest at 15°C and 90 per cent rela-
tive humidity (Table 2). So far as the fecundity
of the insect is concerned (Table 3), higher
values have generally been obtained at tempe-
ratures of 15° and 20°C with 90 per cent
relative humidity and also at 25° and 30°C
with a relative humidity ranging from 75 per
cent to 90 per cent, there being no difference
in fecundity between these two temperature
groups.

Among the temperature and humidity, the
former influences the development whereas
humidity affects the fecundity.

The present study has indicated very clearly
that fecundity is a major factor responsible
for rapid build up of population of the insect
under any set of temperature and humidity

697

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

conditions. In the present case, a temperature
between 25° and 30°C and relative humidity
between 75 per cent and 90 per cent have
been particularly found to be very much con-
genial for the multiplication of the insect.

The average complete life cycle of the
insect is completed in 38.64 days at 30°C

against 52.22 days at 25°C. This lesser deve-
lopmental period at 30°C, therefore, suggests
that there will be greater population increase
at 30°C than at 25 °C. At 30°C, population is
least affected by humidity since humidity of
75 per cent and above is equally favourable
for more egg laying at 30°C and 25 °C. Under

Table 1

Influence of different temperatures and relative humidity levels and their interactions on
adult longevity of Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton)

Per cent Temperature (°C)

relative Average

humidity

15°C CU)

20°C (T2)

25°C (T3)

30°C (T4)

35°C (T5)

30 (RH4)

9.50

5.22

4.32

3,16

2.18

4.88

45 (RH2)

10.48

6.60

4.85

3.71

3.36

5.80

60 (RH3)

10.65

7.32

5.30

4.25

2.86

6,07

75 (RH4)

10.77

9.17

5.49

5.17

3.00

6.72

90 (RH5)

18.32

11.66

6.50

6.33

4.14

9.33

Average

11.94

7.89

5.29

4.52

3.11

S. Em. (T)

± = 0.04

C.D. at 5% = 0.1139

S. Em. (H)

± = 0.04

C.D. at 5% = 0.1139

S. Em (Int)

± =0.089

C.D. at 5% = 0.2533

Table 2

Influence of different temperatures and relative humidity levels and their interactions on
oviposition period of Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton)

Relative Temperature (°C)

humidity Average

15°C (T4)

20° C (T2)

25°C (T8)

30°C (T4)

35°C (T5)

30 (RHj)

2.323

3.306

2.637

2.450

2.290

2.402

45 (HR.)

4.000

2.456

3,200

3,273

2.000

2.986

60 (RH~)

4.190

3.663

3.310

3.000

2.000

3.233

70 (RH4)

5.603

4.527

4.000

3.000

2.000

3.958

90 (RH5)

7.300

7.067

5.290

4.860

2.000

5.305

Average

4.684

4.004

4.687

3.449

2.058

S. Em (H) ± = 0.0230
S. Em (T) ± = 0.0230
S. Em (Int) ± = 0.0516

698

C.D. at 5% = 0.0657
CD. at 5% = 0.0657
C.D. at 5% = 0.1468

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 3

Influence of different temperatures and relative humidity levels and their interactions on

fecundity of Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton)

Relative

Temperature (°C)

Avpraop

percentage

15°C (T,)

20°C (T2)

25°C (To)

30 °C (T4)

35 °C (T5)

AVC1 dgv

30 (RHX)

190. 106

217.666

183.333

183.000

157.000

188.288

45 (RH0)

205.460

241.666

234.887

218.000

162. 334

210.469

60 (RH3)

210.000

226.000

260.667

149.667

171.667

223.000

75 (RH4)

228.334

226.667

268.000

346. 334

164.334

254.733

90 (RH5)

228.334

338.000

338.334

339.667

322.667

313.413

Average

212.447

256.000

257.057

267.400

195.600

S. Em (H) ±

= 3.514

C.D. at 5%

= 10.00

S. Em (T) ± :

= 3.514

C.D. at 5%

= 10.00

S. Em (Int) ±

= 7.857

C.D. at 5%

= 22.363

Table 4

Average duration of different stages and

life cycle (in days) of Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton)

AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE

Temperature (°C) Egg

Larva

Pupa

Adult

Full life period

15

11.227

66.379

30.495

11.947

120.048

20

6.008

56.564

12.862

7.998

83.432

25

4.193

34.744

8.988

4.297

53.222

30

3.046

24.464

6.605

4.526

38.641

35

2.324

24.638

5.502

3.113

35.577

30-45 per cent relative humidity, the number
of eggs laid are slightly less when compared
with the fecundity at 30°C. But quicker deve-

Department of Entomology,

College of Agriculture,

Dhar wad-580 005, Karnataka,

December 17, 1985.

lopment is observed at 30°C which leads to
better population build-up even under low
humidity conditions.

PARAMESHWAR HUGAR
K. JAI RAO

References

Chittenden, F. H. (1919): ‘The Rice Moth’.
U.S.D.A. Bulletin, No. 783, pp. 15.

Finney, D. J. (1952) : Logit transformations, in
Statistical Method for biological assay. Charles
Griffen & Co. London, pp. 668.

Freeman, J. A. (1973): Infestation and control
of pests of stored grain in International trade. In:
Sisha and Muir (Ed.). Grain Storage, part of a
system. 99-136, West port Connecticut: A VI Publ.
Kamel, A. H. & Hassanein, M. H. (1969) : In-

699

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

stars and Ecdysis in 2 larvae associated with stored
milled products (Lepidoptera : Phycitidae and

Galleriidae). Bulletin de la Entomologigue de’
Egypte. 52 : 8.

Krishna Ayyar, P. N. (1934): A very destruc-
tive pest of stored products in South India. Corcyra
cephalonica (St.). Bull. Ent. Res., 25: 155-164.

Seshagiri Rao, D. (1954): Notes on rice moth,

Corcyra cephalonica (St.) Galleriidae: Lepidoptera.
Indian J. Entomol., 15: 95-114.

Teotia, T.P.S. & Singh, Y. (1975) : Studies on
the growth of population of Corcyra cephalonica
(Stainton). Indian J. Entomol. 37: 277-285.

Winston, P. W. & Bates, D. H. (1960): Satu-
rated solutions for the control of humidity in biolo-
gical research. Ecology, 41 : 232-236.

27. LIFE HISTORY OF CHALCIOPE HYPPASIA (CRAM.), A BEAN
DEFOLIATOR (NOCTUIDAE)

(With eleven text-figures)

Introduction

The yellow semilooper caterpillars of Chal-
ciope hyppasia (Cram.) feed on leguminous
crops, namely moong, ured, soybean, groundnut,
mothbean, lentil, gram, pigeon pea, cowpea
and sem. This moth is often extremely abun-
dant on long grasses and is found almost round
the year. Beeson (1941) and Pruthi (1969)
reported the species as a pest of the forest
tree Sterculia villosa in north of India. Pre-
sently, the insect has assumed the status of a
regular pest of sem ( Hyacinth bean) and
cowpea ( Vigna sinensis) causing defoliation
of the respective crops from July to late Sept-
ember in western Uttar Pradesh. Considering
the importance of C. hyppasia to various
legumes, the present study on life history has
been carried out.

Materials and Methods

A laboratory culture of C. hyppasia was
maintained on bean leaves from field collected
caterpillars during July to September 1985. A
regular record of number of eggs laid, larval
instars, prepupal and pupal periods, adult lon-
gevity and mortality was made. Fifteen cater-
pillars from each instar preserved in KAAD
were used for morphometries. The average

maximum and minimum temperatures and rela-
tive humidity were respectively 29.36±0.170,
27.67±0.20°C and 77.77±0.95% during the
experiment.

Life history

C. hyppasia (Cram.) completes its life cycle
egg to adult in 33. 18 ±0.57 days during July
to September under laboratory conditions with
an incubation period of 4. 38 ±0.07 days, the
neonate caterpillars moulted five times in a
duration of 15.30 days to have six instars. The
first and sixth instars larvae have an average
life of 3 and 4. 30 ±1.1 8 days respectively
whereas the rest of the caterpillars (second to
fifth) have a duration of 2 days each. The
pupal period has been 6. 87 ±0.33 days
and adult longevity has been of similar dura-
tion.

eggs: Eggs are laid singly on leaves in
the fields and on muslin cloth in laboratory.
A female lays about 61 eggs during her life.
Each egg measures 0.628±0.33 mm
in diameter, greenish in colour, turns blackish
before hatching. It is spherical in shape with
smooth texture of the chorion. The micropylar
end is slightly depressed and lies glued with
the lower surface of the leaf at vegetal end.
During July to September the incubation

700

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

period of egg chorion with the help of occipital
region and hatches out with an hatchability of
96.72%.

caterpillars: The newly hatched semi-

loopers are brownish in general body appear-
ance with dark brown head region, possessing
3 pairs of thoracic legs, and 3 pairs of
abdominal prolegs of which two pairs articu-
lating laterally on either side of Ab V and
Ab VI and third pair on Ab X.

The first instar larva measured 5.40±0.29
mm in length and 0.27 ±0.024 mm in width
with head width 0.268 ±0.003 mm. On the
second day the caterpillar changes from brown
to greenish in colour with 3.39% mortality.
It feeds on soft chlorophyllus portions of ten-
der leaves making a round hole.

The second instar caterpillar is brownish and
measured 9.60± 0.291 mm in length and
0.71 ±0.296 mm in width. The larval head is
yellowish brown in colour having width
0.5 14 ±0.0094 mm without any mortality.

The third instar caterpillar is whitish brown
in colour and has yellowish prothoracic shield
and dark yellow head. It measured 15.00±
0.49mm in length and 1.10±0.040mm in
width with 0.950±0.027 mm head width.
There is hardly any mortality record at this
stage.

The fourth instar caterpillar is characterised
by four blackish stripes on head capsule and
prothoracic shield (Fig. 1). It fed freely on
leaves excepting the midrib. It measured
23. 60 ±0.66 mm in length and 2. 08 ±0.044
mm in width having a head width of 1.40±
0.28 mm and without any mortality record.

The fifth instar caterpillar is yellowish
brown in appearance characterised by having
two prominent dark longitudinal stripes extend-
ing from head to Ab X mid-dorsally and one
prominent stripe extending from head only
upto the Th III laterally on either side (Fig.
2). The caterpillars of this stage measured

30.20±0.66 mm in length, 2. 86 ±0.056 mm
in width with head width 1.79 ±0.030 mm
having a mortality rate of 1.75%.

The sixth instar is a long, cylindrical and
smooth full grown larva. It is greenish yellow
in colour having two pairs of dark longitudi-
nal stripes running from head to the Ab X,
two in the median dorsal position whereas
one each on the lateral sides (Fig. 3). The
semilooper also possessed two pairs of pro-
legs on Ab V and Ab VI and one pair of
anal prolegs on Ab X. It consumed the entire
leaf randomly and measured 49. 80 ±0.66 mm
in length, 3.70±0.25 mm in width having a
head width 2. 467 ±0.033 mm with 1.79%
mortality rate.

pre-pupa: The last instar larva stops feed-
ding and enters the pre-pupal stage enclosed
by the cocoon.

pupa: The pupa of C. hyppasia (Cram.)
is of obtect, adecticous type and spindle
shaped. The newly formed light brown pupa
turns darker later and the head, three seg-
mented thorax (PTH, MST & MTH) and ten
segmented abdomen (Ab I to Ab X) are
distinct. The prothorax is marked with pro-
thoracic spiracles (PS) (Fig. 4). The fronto-
clypeal (FC) sclerite is well developed and
characterised by the presence of a pair of
anterior tentorial pits (AT) (Fig. 6). The
vertex is absent. In either side of fronto-
clypeus, each eye is marked into reddish brown
sculptured eye piece (SE) different from the
glazed eye piece (GE). Proximally the fronto-
clypeus is heavily sclerotized to differentiate
into a labrum (LB.) The paired labial palpi
(LP) are bifid proximally whereas entire
basally and reach up to the 1/3 of the maxillae
(MX). The maxillae enclosing the labial
palpi run along the mid-ventral line
of the junction (MVL) up to Ab IV.
The prothoracic leg (TLO is distinct into
triangular sclerite and is 2/3 of the maxilla

701

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Figs. 1-11. Larva and pupa of Chalciope hyppasia (Cram.)

1. Fourth instar stage showing the starting of longitudinal stripes; 2. Fifth instar
stage showing the complete middorsal longitudinal stripes and lateral stripes upto
Th III; 3. Sixth instar stage showing complete mid and lateral stripes from head
to Ab X; 4. Pupa in dorsal view; 5. Pupa in lateral view; 6. Ventral view of
male pupa; 7. Ventral view showing the sex differentiation through antennal eleva-
tion; 8. Posteroventral end of female pupa; 9. Postero ventral end of male pupa;
10. Posterior view of caudal end showing the arrangement of cremastral setae;

1 1 . Cremastral seta (enlarged) .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

whereas the mesothoracic leg (TL2) is slightly
longer than the maxilla in both the sexes.
The metathoracic legs (TLS) are partly visible
caudad to the maxillae on Ab IV midven-
trally. A pair of antennae (AN) along with
(TL2) marks the margin of the wing pad. The
antennae are slightly larger than (TL2) in
male while shorter in female (Fig. 4). Meso-
thorax is larger than pro-and metathorax.
Prothorax and mesothorax are characterised
by a middorsal line of junction (MDL) (Fig,
4). The meta thorax sunken between mesotho
rax and abdomen laterally extends into the
metathoracic wing pad (MWP) reaching Ab
IV. The abdomen has paired spiracles (S)
from Ab II to Ab VIII. The abdominal seg-
ments VIII, IX and X are coupled into a single
unit and is the main site of sexing the pupae.
The genital opening (GO) on Ab IX lies bet-
ween two genital pads (GP) in the male (Fig.
9) whereas the female has two genital open-
ings the bursa copulatrix (BQ and oviposi-
tional opening (OO) (Fig. 8). The bursa
copulatrix lies on Ab VIII whereas oviposi-
tional opening lies on Ab IX ventromeson in
female. The intersegmental lines (TL) bet-
ween Ab VIII/IX and IX/X are continuous
in male but are stretched towards Ab VIII
alongwith the ovipositional opening in female.
The anal opening (AO) remained bifurcated
anteriorly on Ab X in both the sexes. On
either side of anal opening there are two
punctures in both male and female. Ab X

PG-Department of Zoology,

Sanatan Dharm College,

Muzaffarnagar-251 001,

December 9, 1986.

Refer

Beeson, C.F.C. (1941): The Ecology and Con-
trol of the Forest Insects of India, and the neigh-
bouring countries, Dehradun.

Lefroy, H. M. (1909) : Indian Insect Life. To-

is further characterised by having four pairs
of stout cremastral setae, two pairs on either
side of MVL and borne on somewhat bulged
and sculptured sclerite of the cremaster with
prominent stalked bases (Fig. 10). Each crema-
stral seta is hooked and pointed distally (Fig.
11). The cremastral setae are arranged in three
rows, two anterior, four middle and two
posterior.

adult: The adult or imago emerges out of
the pupa leaving the exuvia and meconium.
It rests for about two hours and starts flutter-
ing as soon as wings get dry. The male and
female moths are almost equal in size and
measured 35 mm across the wings. The cen-
trally placed triangular blackish scaly area
interrupted with whitish elongated stripe marks
the recognizable feature of the forewing. Hind-
wings are characterized by a faint dull brown
coloured broad stripe along the distal margin.
The female moth is darker in colour than
male. The sex ratio were 1:1.17 for male and
female moths respectively.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. S. L. Gupta, I.A.R.I., New
Delhi for identification. We thank the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
for an ad hoc sanction of a research scheme
(1-18/83 pp) to one of us (SCG), and the
Principal (Sanatan Dharm College) for faci-
lities and overall interest in the work.

GAJENDRA PAL SINGH
S. C. GOEL

E N CE S

day & Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers, New Delhi.
Reprinted in 1971.

Pruthi, H. S. (1969) : Text Book on Agricultu-
ral Entomology. I.C.A.R., New Delhi.

703

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

28. STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF ASPIDOMORPHA MILIARIS
F. (CASSIDIDAE: COLEOPTERA) ON THREE SPECIES
OF IPOMOEA AND LEAF AREA CONSUMPTION
STUDIES ON IPOMOEA ANGULATA LAMK.

Introduction

Aspidomorpha miliaris F. is an important
pest of sweet potato. Both adults and grubs
feed on the leaves. David and Muthaiah (1960)
and Reddy and Puttaswarny (1981) recorded
this species on a number of species of lpomoea.
Baltzar (1974) reported its biology from
Philippines and Gubbaih and Devaiah (1978)
have studied the biology of A. sanctacrucia
on lpomoea sp. The biology of this insect on
three different species of lpomoea and
the leaf area consumed by the different
instars and adults on /. angulata were studied
in the laboratory at Agricultural College,
Dharwad, Karnataka.

Material and Methods

Pupae of Aspidomorpha miliaris F. were
collected from the field during July 1984 and
were kept in 8" petri dishes for adult emer-
gence. After adult emergence five pairs of
male and females were kept in five different
8" petri dishes for observations on mating, pre-
oviposition and oviposition. The mated pairs
were used for egg laying. The first batch of
eggs (ootheca) laid by the mated pairs col-
lected from lpomoea angulata were kept sepa-
rately in a 4" petri dish until hatching. On
hatching the first instar grubs were transferred
singly to petridishes containing fresh leaves
of lpomoea angulata, lpomoea palmata Hort.
and lpomoea batata L. The experiment was
conducted during July and August 1985 and
replicated three times for biological studies
and five times for leaf area consumption
studies. Leaves of the food plants were renew-
ed daily. Observations on different instars of

grubs, prepupal stage, pupal stage and adult
stage were recorded daily. After emergence,
mating period, pre-oviposition, and oviposi-
tional period, number of ootheca laid by each
female, post-oviposition period and fecundity
were recorded. In case of leaf area consump-
tion studies, area consumed by each instar
grubs and adults were recorded by using
planimeter. The male and female were identi-
fied during pupal stage. As grubs were reared
singly, based on pupal stage identification,
male and female leaf area consumption have
been differentiated in grub stage itself.

Results and discussion
I. Observation on field collected Beetles

Five pairs of male and female beetles were
kept separately in 8" petri dishes containing
lpomoea angulata leaves after emergence from
field collected pupae. Duration of the mating
was found to be quite variable (13 min. to
48 min.). Mating and oviposition periods
overlapped in a particular case (The male
continued to mate with the female during the
oviposition period also). The highest number
of matings observed in a pair was six. Mating
period occupied an average of 2.20 days

(Table 1). At the beginning of mating the
male mounts the back of the female and
starts violent lateral shakings of the abdomen.
The female during copulation was often ob-
served to expand the elytra slightly from time
to time. Pre-oviposition, ovi-position and post
ovi-position periods of female were found to
be 1.25 days, 2.60 days and 7.60 days res-
pectively. Average number of batches
(ootheca) laid by a female was 2.60 with an

704

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Data on mating and oviposition of field
collected adults of A. miliar is

Observations

Mini-

mum

Maxi-

mum

Average

1.

Mating period (days)

1

4

2.20*

2.

Pre-oviposition period
(days)

1

2

1.25

3.

Oviposition period
(days)

2

5

2,60

4.

Number of ootheca laid
(number)

2

6

2.60

5.

Post-oviposition period
( (days)

4

10

7.60

6.

Fecundity
(number of eggs)

124

219

171.50

* Average of 5 copulating pairs.

average fecundity of 171.50 eggs (Table 1).
II. Observations on laboratory bred Beetles

Grubs : The grub is carabiform with well
developed, pigmented and dark brown colour-
ed head. Mouth parts hypognathus, colour
yellow except in the 1st instar, in which the
colour is creamy white. Head partially con-
cealed by the prothorax; Three pairs of 4
segmented thoracic legs with one claw pre-
sent; circular spiracles present dorsolaterally
(one pair on prothorax and 7 pairs on abdo-
minal segments 1 to 7); 8th abdominal seg-
ment possesses a pair of curved, stiff non-
segmented spines projecting dorsally; lateral
aspects of thorax and abdomen with transpe-
rant filaments (1st instars) or multisetiferous
scoli (II, III, IV and V instars); black spots
present on dorsal surface of thorax and abdo-
men in all instars except 1st instar.

First Instar : The first instar grub after
hatching emerges through the lower portion
of the ootheca by biting minute holes. Creamy
white in colour and without any spots on its
body.

Lateral aspects of thorax and abdomen
bears 20 transparent filaments. Grubs after
hatching, wander about on the leaf surface
for some time and then settle on the lower
leaf surface and feed by scraping the chloro-
phyllous tissue from the lower epidermis. In
the mass culture they were gregarious and
fed in groups with the head towards the centre
of the group. The first instar grub carries a
palate of excreta on the stiff pair of spines
on the 8th abdominal segment. The grub when
teased twist the tip of the abdomen upwards
and lower the spines with the excreta they
carry. In all the three species of Ipomoea
the duration of the first instar was found to
be 2 days (Table 2). The first instar grub
measured about 1 . 007 mm in length 0 . 434 mm
in breadth.

Second Instar : After the first moult, the
second instar grub carries the exuvium at the
tip of the stiff pair of spines on the 8th
abdominal segment. Colour of the second instar
grub is yellow. Tiny black spots appear on
the dorsal surface, thorax and abdomen.
Number of spots on different segments are
as follows. Prothorax-2 spots; mesothorax-4
big spots in first transverse row; abdomen with
5 spots on each of the segments from 1 to 7,
arranged in five longitudinal rows (spots on
the median line are very minute). Thirty two
scoli with transparent spines occur on the
lateral aspects of thorax and abdomen. In the
second instar the stiff pair of caudal spine
was more prominent with black tip and white
base. Spiracles were pale white and circular.
The grubs feed by scraping in the early part
of second instar but late second instar grubs
were also gregarious. Duration of the second
instar was less (3.33 days) in Ipomoea batata
in comparison to the other two species of
Ipomoea (Table 2). The second instar grub
measured 4.083 mm in length and 2.16 mm
in breadth.

705

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Table 2

Life history of A. milliaris on three species of Ipomoea in laboratory

Ipomoea angulata Ipomoea palmata Ipomoea batata

Mini-

mum

Maxi-

mum

Average

Mini-

mum

Maxi-

mum

Average

Mini-

mum

Maxi-

mum

Average

Incubation period

(days)

6

6

6.00

6

6

6.00

6

6

6

Larvae (days)

I Instar

2

2

2.00

2

2

2.00

2

2

2

II Instar

4

5

4.33

4

5

4.33

3

4

3. 33

III Instar

3

4

3.67

2

3

2.67

2

4

2.67

IV Instar

4

5

4.67

5

6

5.33

4

5

4.67

V Instar

5

7

6.33

7

7

8.00

6

7

6.33

Pre-pupal period (days)

2

2

2.00

1

2

1.33

1

1

1.00

Pupal period (days)

6

7

6.33

6

8

7.00

5

6

5.67

Adult longevity (days)

Male

22

26

24.33

30

33

32. 33

23

25

23.33

Female

30

34

31.66

36

39

38.67

28

31

29.66

Fecundity (number)

24

62

43.00

30

58

44.00

32

72

52.00

Third Instar : The third instar grub retain-
ed the exuvium of the first moult. The black
spots became more conspicuous. Numbers of
scoli were same as in the previous instar.
During the early part of the instar the grub
fed gregariously but later on they dispersed
and fed singly by biting holes in the leaf.
The grub had 12 black spots on the ventral
surface of the abdomen. They fed voraciously
on all the three species of Ipomoea . The third
instar grub measured about 6.33 mm in length
and 3.50 mm in breadth.

Fourth Instar : Exuvium of the third moult
was also retained by the fourth instar grub
just below the previous two exuviae. Grubs
usually fed singly and voraciously. Armature
and body coloration were same as in case
of the third instar. The fourth instar grub
measured about 10.58 mm in length and 5.41
mm in breadth.

Fifth Instar: Fifth instar grub retained the
exuvium of the fourth moult below the exu-
viae of the earlier moults. Grubs were very
voracious during this stage and fed singly. In

the mass culture, the grubs nibbled the petioles
also. Armature and body coloration were
same as that of 4th instar. The grubs shed all
the exuvium but still a little exuvium sticks to
the base of the stiff caudal spines ( Vrogamphi) .
The fifth instar measured about 13.842 mm
in length and 7.52 mm in breadth.

Pupa : A. miliaris pupates strictly on the
lower surface of the leaf in field but in the
laboratory they pupated on both the surfaces.
Pupa firmly adheres its abdominal tip to the
leaf surface. Freshly formed pupae were
shining yellow in colour and without spots.
Prothoracic shield was prominent and has four
transparent spines on the cephalic margin.
Each of the abdominal segments (1 to 5) bears
laterally a pair of transparent scale like plates
ending in a black spine. Black spots appear
gradually on the body, with the thoracic spots
appearing first and abdominal spots on pupae
and varied according to their maturity. Before
adult emergence, the number of spots on
pupae are on prothorax-5 spots, 1st abdominal
segment-4 spots (inner 2 spots bigger and

706

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

hexagonal) seventh abdominal segments-2
spots.

A part of the last exuvium may still remain
on the tip of the abdomen in pupa. The stiff
pair of caudal spines remains in the pupae in
exarate. Pupal period on different Ipomoea
species are presented in Table 2. Female
pupae were bigger in size than male pupae
with no difference in number of spots. The
male and female pupae measured 10.50 mm
and 11.25 mm in length and 8.00 mm and
9.12 mm in breadth respectively.

Adult : Freshly emerged adult beetles are
light pinkish in colour with transparent elytra
having faint spots. Gradually the spots be-
come darker. Colour of the elytra gradually
changes to yellow and then reddish yellow
after about 15 days of emergence. Males were
smaller than the females. Females were more
or less round in shape but the males were
somewhat elongate or oval in shape. Protho-
racic shield completely covers the head of the
adult beetle. Head hypognathus and antennae
capitate with black tip. Prothoracic shield has
one black spot in the middle. Two big irre-

gular margin black spots were present on the
transparent margin of each elytra. The distal
tip of each elytra also possesses a square
shaped black spot. Besides there were three
spots on the margin, each elytra possesses 12
more spots. In general each elytra possesses 15
spots. Adults feed by biting holes on both the
surfaces of leaves. The legs were yellow in
colour. The adult male and female measured
about 12.167 mm in length and 10.50 mm
in breadth and 14.167 mm in length and 11.91
in breadth respectively. The longevity of adult
male and female are presented in Table 2.

Fecundity : On all the three species of

Ipomoea the female laid 2 ootheca. Average
number of eggs laid in three different species
of Ipomoea were 43, 44 and 52 in L angulata,
I. palmata and /. batata respectively.

III. Leaf area consumption studies on
Ipomoea angulata :

The first, second, third, fourth and fifth
instar grubs and adults of males on an average
consumed 0.26dz0. 14, 0.46dz0.41, 0.68 ±0.37,
0.66dz0.49, 1.51+0.51 and 10.70dz0.67 sq.

Table 3

Leaf area consumed by different instars and adults of A. miliaris on I. angulata

Stages

Period

in days

Leaf

area consumed (sq. cm.)

Minimum

Maximum

Mean

Minimum

Maximum

Mean

First Instar

Male

2

2

2±0

0.22

0.31

0.26±0. 14

Female

2

2

2±0

0.15

0.25

0.20±0. 11

Second Instar

Male

2

3

2.60±0.86

0.30

0.60

0.46±0.41

Female

2

3

2.4 ±0.86

0.20

0.50

0. 36±0.43

Third Instar

Male

2

4

2.8 ±0.45

0.56

0.90

0. 68±0. 37

Female

2

4

3.0 ±0.50

0.30

0.80

0.75±0.48

Fourth Instar

Male

3

6

4.8 ±1.22

0.50

0.95

0. 66±0.49

Female

3

6

4.8 ±1.22

0.35

0.91

0.57±0.45

Fifth Instar

Male

6

7

6.4 ±0.86

1.30

1.90

1.51±0.51

Female

6

7

6.6 ±0.83

0.60

1.65

1 . 36 ±0.64

Adult

Male

20

24

22.60±1 . 17

10.35

11.35

10.70±0.67

Female

22

26

24.60±1 . 34

8.8

10.71

10.04±0. 77

707

14

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

cm leaf area respectively, whereas that of
female consumed 0.20+0.11, 0.36 ±0.43,

Research Asst. (Entomology),

Regional Research Station,

College of Agriculture,

Dharwad 580 005.

Associate Professor,

Dept, of Sericulture,

UAS, GKVK Campus, Bangalore 560 024.

Assistant Entomologist,

Regional Agricultural Research Station,
Shillongani,

Nowgong 782 001, Assam,

January 21, 1986.

0.75+0.48, 0.57+0.45, 1.36+0.64, 10.04±
0.77 sq. cm leaf area respectively.

M. MANJUNATHA
G. T. T. RAJU

D. N. R. REDDY

S. K. DUTTA

References

Baetazar, E. P. (1970): Biological study of Aspi-
domorpha miliaris (Fabricius) (Chrysomelidae :
Coleoptera) with a consideration of its host range
and natural enemies. Phillippines Entomologist. 1 :
365-377.

David, B. V. & Muthaih, M. (1960) : Aspido-
morpha miliaris F. as a new pest of Ipomoea cornea

Jacq. in South India. Madras agric. J. 47(4) : 178.

Gubbaiah & Devaiah, M. C. (1978) : Occurrence
and biology of Aspidomorpha sanctacrucis (F.) on
Ipomoea spp. Curr. Res., 7: 156-157.

Reddy, D.N.R. & Puttaswamy (1981): Record
of pests of Ipomoea, the ornamental creepers, Curr.
Res., 10: 136.

29. A STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF CERTAIN ABIOTIC FACTORS
ON THE ACTIVITY OF MYLLOCERUS LAET IV IRENS
NABL. (COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE)

Introduction

Myllocerus laetivirens is a very serious pest
of trees and plants. Its ecology has not been
studied so far. An attempt has been made here
to find out the correlation between the
yearly activity of this beetle with certain
abiotic factors at Pilani (Rajasthan).

Material and Methods

The beetle was caught with the help of
Pilani type light trap (Kundu et al. 1961)
operated daily for two years (1976-1977) from
dusk to dawn at Pilani (Pilani is on the North-
eastern side of Jhunjhunu District of Shekha-

wati region in semi-arid zone of Rajasthan,
India, Its geographic position is 28°20'N
latitude and 75°35'E longitude and 330 msl.)

The dependent factor, i.e. the yearly activity
of M. laetivirens has been correlated with the
various independent abiotic factors, i.e. 8.30
A.M. relative humidity, 5.30 P.M. relative
humidity, minimum temperature, maximum
temperature, mean temperature and rainfall.
In order to achieve this, regression analysis,
partial regression analysis, multiple regression
analysis and Beta coefficient analysis has been
conducted.

The numbers of all the captures of M.

708

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

laetivirens have been converted to log values
from which all mathematical calculations have
been done (Williams 1937). Five day
means of the log values of the capture have
been used for the purpose of calculations
(Chand 1979). Since the value of log of zero
is minus infinity, one has been added to all
catches before taking their log values (Williams
1939).

Results

The various regression equations obtained on
M. laetivirens due to the effect of eight various
abiotic factors for the period January to Dec-
ember [both years (1976-1977) taken together]
are given below:

i) Soil moisture Y = 0. 1736X + 0.0930:

(r - 0.7373, P<0.001)

ii) 8.30 A.M. rela-
tive humidity Y = 0.0260X - 1 .4572:

(r = 0.5575, P<0.001)

iii) 5.30 P.M. rela-
tive humidity Ygg 0 . 0230X - 0 . 5700 :

(r = 0.6192, PC0.001)

iv) Mean relative

humidity Y = 0.0261X - 1 .0821 :

(r - 0.6109, PC0.001)

v) Maximum
temperature

vi) Minimum
temperature

vii) Mean
temperature

viii) Rainfall

Y = j0.0166X-0.1181:
(r = 0.1312, P<0.01)

Y = 0.0507X- 0.4274:
(r = 0.5362, P< 0.001)

Y - 0.0427X -0.6286:
(r = 0.3784, P<0.001)

Y - 0.0984X + 0.2505:
(r = 0.5479, P<0.001)

is as below:

Soil moisture (%)

8.30 A.M. relative humidity

5.30 P.M. relative humidity
Mean relative humidity
Maximum temperature
Minimum temperature
Mean temperature
Rainfall

- 1.71%
= 11.57%

- 13.08%
= 11.53%
= 18. 13°C
= 5.93°C
= 7.04°C
= 3 . 05 mm

The values of partial correlation coefficients
of log catch on various climatic factors are
given in Table 1.

Multiple regression equation derived is given
below:

Y = 0.5547 + 0. 1366X, + 0.0060X2 + 0.0014X.
- 0.0638X4 + 0.0763X-; - 0.0550X6:
(r = 0.8466, P<0.001)

The Beta regression coefficient values due to

the various climatic factors are:

Soil moisture (%) =0.5713

8.30 A.M. relative humidity (%) = 0.1300

5.30 P.M. relative humidity (%) = 0.0396

Maximum temperature =-0.5038

Minimum temperature = 0.8068

Rainfall =-0.3066

Based upon the multiple regression analysis
technique, the level of increase required in a
particular parameter in order to double the
catch of this beetle, keeping all other para-
meters constant at that time are given below:

Soil moisture (%) = 2.20

8.30 A.M. relative humidity (%) = 50.16

5.30 P.M. relative humidity (%) = 215.00

Maximum temperature (°C) = -4.71

Minimum temperature (°C) = 3.94

Rainfall (mm) = -5.47

Discussion

The extent of increase or decrease in various
climatic factors required to double the catch

Based upon the values of simple correlation
coefficients, it is evident that the highest value
is obtained due to soil moisture (=0.7373)

709

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

followed by 5.30 P.M. relative humidity
(r = 0.6192), mean relative humidity (r =
0.6109), 8.30 A.M. relative humidity

(r- 0.5575); rainfall (r = 0.5479); minimum
temperature (r = 0.5362), mean temperature
(r = 0.3784) and maximum temperature (r =
0.1312). All, except maximum temperature,
are significant at P<0.001 level. Further the
most influential value of regression coefficient
is obtained on soil moisture (0.1736).

It is observed that the minimum level of
increase required in a certain parameter in
order to evoke a response in the log catch of
M. laetivirens to double itself, is found in case
of soil moisture (1.71%) followed by rainfall
(3.05 mm) and minimum temperature (5.93°C).
So, according to the results of simple regres-
sion analysis it seems that soil moisture, rain-
fall and minimum temperature are more
influential in that order. Also, the relative
humidity parameters exercise almost
equal influence role. However, minimum tem-
perature seems to play an insignificant role in
determining the log catch of M. laetivirens
(r = 0.1312, P<0.01).

The salient feature of partial regression
analysis is that soil moisture in fact, derives its
influence indirectly from rainfall and acts most
positively on the log catch (Table 1). On the
contrary, rainfall itself seems to acquire a
negative role individually; obviously soils get
water only if rains are there.

The coefficient of multiple correlation is
0.8466 which is significant at P< 0.001 level,
thus 75% variability in the log catch is asso-
ciated for by a linear combination of soil mois-
ture (Xi), 8.30 A.M. relative humidity X2,
5.30 P.M. relative humidity X3, minimum
temperature X4, maximum temperature X5 and
rainfall XG, according to the following regres-
sion:

Y = 0.5547 +0.1366Xi +0.0060X2 + 0.0014X*
- 0.6384X4 + 0.0763X5 - 0.0550XC

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710

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

which may be interpreted to mean that esti-
mated log catch increases or decreases by a
value equal to the net regression coefficients
of the respective climatic factors as shown in
the equation.

From the absolute values of Beta coefficients
it is apparent that the order of relative im-
portance of the different climatic factors is as
follows :

Soil moisture (0.5713), Minimum tempera-
ture (0.8068), 8.30 A.M. relative humidity,
5.30 P.M. relative humidity, and negative
values are obtained on maximum temperature

Zoology Department,

Kurukshetra University.

Kurukshetra.

Biology Department,

BITS, Pilani-337 031, India,

Moscow State University,

Moscow, USSR.

October 23, 1985.

Chand, Rohtash (1979) : Ecological studies on
certain photopositive Coleopterans around Pilani
(Rajasthan). Ph.D. Thesis, B.I.T.S., Pilani, India.

Kundu, H. L., Dattagupta, A. K. & Gupta, B.
B. (1961) : A study of abundance of certain insects
of Pilani with the help of a light trap. Proc. Raj.
Acad. Sciences, 8: 79-87.

(-0.5038) and rainfall (-0.3066).

From the above account it is clear that soil
moisture and minimum temperature are the
two most influential climatic factors in deter-
mining the log catch of M. laetivirehs, and
maximum temperature and rainfall tend to
play a negative role whereas the abiotic
factors considered are insignificant.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. C. R. Mitra, BITS,
Pilani. Thanks are also to U.G.C. for provid-
ing financial assistance to RC and AK.

ROHTASH CFIAND

A. K. THUKRAL

H. L. KUNDU

Williams, C. B. (1937) : The use of logarithms in
the interpretation of certain entomological problems.
Ann. appl. Biol., 34: 406-414.

(1939): An analysis of the

four years captures of insects in the light trap. Part
I. General Survey, Sex Proportion, Phenology and
times of flight. Trans. R. Ent. Soc. London., 89: 79-
131.

References

30. DEVELOPMENTAL BEHAVIOUR OF ALATE AND APTEROUS FORMS OF
MYZUS PERSICAE (SULZER) ON ROCKET SALAD IN PUNJAB1

Introduction

Myzus persicae (Sulzer) has been reported
to cause injury of economic significance on

1 A part of the Thesis of the junior author approv-
ed for M.Sc. (Entomology) degree of Punjab Agri-
cultural University, Ludhiana, in 1984.

rocket salad ( Eruca sativa Linn.) in Punjab
(Sandhu e tal. 1981). The pest is cosmopo-
litan in distribution (David 1957). In India
it has been reported from all the states (Ghosh
1974, Verma and Misra 1975, Verma 1977).
The insect is polyphagous in nature and has
been reported to feed on 221 different hosts

711

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

(Singh 1984). On rocket salad the insect is
active from the last week of November to
early April, but the crop sown in the end of
November harbours very high aphid popula-
tion. resulting in poor yield (Singh and Singh
1985). While working on the biology of this
insect at Ludhiana it was observed that both
the alate and apterous forms were available
in abundance during January- April on rocket
salad. Since no information on the relative
developmental behaviour of these forms is
available, it was considered desirable to collect
information on various biological parameters
of these two forms. The results are presented
in this paper.

Material and Methods

The developmental behaviour was studied in
respect of various parameters namely nymphal
duration, pre-reproductive, reproductive, post-
reproductive periods, fecundity, longevity and
period of generations. The observations for
various biological parameters were carried out
starting from last week of January to first week
of April, 1983. A single mother aphid of alate
or apterous form was released on 4 leaf stage
plant under a glass chimney with a camel-hair
brush. The food was changed as and when
needed. Twenty five such plants were kept for
each form. The young ones produced were
removed daily from these plants retaining only
the mother aphid. All the plants under study
were observed daily for recording the observa-
tions.

For working out the reproductive period, all
the young ones produced by a given aphid in
a day were dislodged with a camel-hair brush
daily. Reproduction per day was calculated
by dividing the fecundity of an aphid by its
reproductive period.

Results and Discussion

Observations on the various biological para-
meters of alate and apterous forms recorded

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

from 23.1.1983 to 1.4.1983 are discussed
below.

The total nymphal duration of alate form
was 19.0 days against 11.1 days of apterous
form (Table 1). But there was no difference
in the pre-reproductive period of this period,
being 1 day in case of alate and 1 . 1 days in
case of apterous form (Table 2).

The reproductive period of two forms also
varied greatly. It was 33 days in the alate form
against 19.1 days in the apterous form (Table
2). Toba (1964) reported the reproductive
period of alate to vary from 1-26 days in
Hawaii. However, Lai (1950) reported that
the reproductive period of alate M. persicae
varied from 10-17 days at Delhi during diffe-
rent months.

Data in Table 2 reveal that the post-repro-
ductive period of alate was zero against 6 . 1
days in that of apterous. Average daily rate
of reproduction of alate was 1 . 5 nymphs as
compared to almost double (3.1 nymphs)
in case of apterous. The average number of
nymphs laid by a single alate female in its
life was 48.0 and that of apterous 73.0. Lai
(1950) and Toba (1964) have also reported
Department of Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana,

August 17, 1985.

Refer

David, K. (1957): Notes on South Indian Aphi-
didae (contd.) Indian J. Ent. 79(4) : 291-92.

Ghosh, A. K. (1974): Aphids (Homoptera: In-
secta) of economic imnortance in India. Indian
Agric. 18(2): 81-214.

Lal, R. (1950): Biology and control of Myzus
persicae (Sulz.) as a pest of potato in Delhi. Indian

J. agric. Sci. 20: 87-99.

Sandhu, G. S., Singh, B., Bhalla, J. S. & Brar,

K. S. (1981): Insects, Mites and Birds associated
with Eruca sativa Mill infesting flower-buds in
India. Oilseeds J. 11: 3-5.

Singh, G. (1984): Biology of Myzus persicae
(Sulzer) on rocket salad ( Eruca sativa Linn.) in the
Punjab. M.Sc. Thesis (Unpublished), Punjab Agri-
cultural University, Ludhiana.

that the number of off-springs laid by alate
female are less than that of apterous. The
longevity of adult alate was 33.0 days against
25.2 days in apterous form. The greater lon-
gevity of alatae than that of apterae seems to
give the former more time for dispersal and
transmission of plant virus diseases. The period
of generation of alate form was 54.0 days
against 42.1 days of apterous. Lal (1950) also
observed that alate survived longer than the
apterous.

From the above observations, it can be
summarized that the total nymphal period, re-
productive period, longevity and period of
generation of alate M. persicae are compa-
ratively longer than those of apterous but
post-reproductive period and fecundity are less
than that of apterae.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. B. S. Chahal, the
then Professor-cum-Head, Department of
Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana for facilities and to Director,
Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, Lon-
don for arranging the identification.

GURDIP SINGH
GURVINDERJIT SINGH2

N CES

Singh, G. & Singh, G. (1985): Effect of dates
of sowing on the appearance and abundance of
Myzus persicae (Sulzer) and yield of tar amir a crop.
Indian J. agric. 55(4) : 287-89.

Toba, H. H. (1964) : Myzus persicae (Sulz.) in
Hawaii. /. econ. Ent. 57: 290-91.

Verma, K. D. (1977) : Aphids and their role in
potato cultivation. Recent technique in Potato Im-
provement and Production. Edited by B. B. Nagaich,
Director, CPRI, Simla, pp. 256-60.

Verma. K. D. & Misra, I. S. (1975): Be on the
watch for green peach aphid. Indian Fmg. 25(2):
7-8.

2 Agricultural Assistant, United Commercial Bank,
Bhogpur (Jalandhar).

713

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

31. ALPINIA MUTICA ROXB. (ZINGIBER ACEAE) — A NEW
RECORD FOR PENINSULAR INDIA

(With a text -figure)

While investigating the Zingiberaceae of
Karnataka, we came across a species of Alpinia
growing at Central Plantation Crops Research
Institute, Appangala which was originally col-
lected from Courtallam area of Tamil Nadu.
This plant appears to be restricted to the
Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
There are two previous collections of this
species at the herbaria of the Botanical Survey
of India. One specimen is at CAL collected
by J. J. Bourdillon from Travancore who
labelled it as “ Alpinia mutica Roxb.?”, but,
Fisher, while writing the account of Zingibera-
ceae in Gamble’s flora of madras presi-
dency, annotated it as A. allughas (Retz.)
Roscoe. Another collection at MH is of E.
Vajravelu from Palghat District. These plants
resemble A. mutica Roxb. in having small early
deciduous bracteoles and in the 1 — 3 -flowered
cincinni but differ from it in the presence of
subulate staminodes and larger leaves with
pubescent lower surface. As these differences
are not significant to make it a new species,
these plants perhaps constitute not more than
a variety of A. mutica. This species was des-
cribed by Roxburgh from plants cultivated at
Calcutta, introduced there from Penang. This
species was hitherto not known from Penin-
sular India and was recorded only from Malaya,
Borneo and Indo-China.

A brief description of the plant is given
below:

Alpinia mutica Roxb. in Asiat. Res. 11:
354. 1810; Baker in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 6:
254: 1892. Catimbium muticum (Roxb.) Holtt.
in Gard. Bull. Sing. 13: 150, fig. 17. 1950.
(Fig. 1).

A rhizomatous herb; rhizome c. 2.5 cm in
diameter, white or pale pink within. Leafy

stem robust, up to 2 m high with 9-11 leaves.
Leaves with up to 3 . 5 cm pubescent petioles;
lamina oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, up to
60x13 cm, glabrous above, densely pubescent
below; ligule c. 8 mm long, pubescent, entire;
sheaths pubescent. Inflorescence up to 16 cm
long, erect or occasionally slightly curved,
rachis pubescent, protected when young by 2
or 3 large early deciduous sheaths above the
uppermost leaf. Cincinni 2 — 3 -flowered or re-
duced to a single flower; stalk 0.5 — 1 cm long,
pubescent. Bracts absent. Bracteoles rudimen-
tary or absent at the base of the inflorescence,
minute bracteoles are seen at the upper part
of the inflorescence, the largest up to 6 mm
long, early deciduous. Calyx c. 1.8 cm long,
funnel-shaped, white, with 3 short hairy toothed
lobes, outer surface sparsely hairy, unilaterally
split. Corolla white, tube up to 1.3 cm long;
dorsal lobe c. 2 . 5 x 1 . 8 cm, margin shortly
ciliate; lateral lobes as long as the dorsal lobe
but narrower, margin shortly ciliate. Labellum
c. 3x3.5 cm, broadly ovate, yellow, variegat-
ed with red, the basal part concave, sides in-
curved, narrowing to an emarginate apex.
Lateral staminodes subulate. Filament 1 — 1.2
cm long. Anther as long as filament, connec-
tive not produced into a crest. Ovary 5 — 8 mm
long, pilose. Capsule globose, red, 3 — 3 . 5 x
2 — 2.5 cm, shortly pubescent. Seeds many,
angular, 6 — 7 mm long, black with white aril.

Specimens examined : kerala state: Tra-
vancore, 6 Oct. 1927, J. J. Bourdillon 115
(CAL); Palghat Dist., Melliampathy R. F., 900
m, 13 Feb. 1979, E. Vajravelu 60422 (MH).
karnataka state: Coorg Dist., Appangala,
8 km from Mercara, 1000 m, 30 March 1983,
M. N. Venugopal (BSI & C).

714

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 (A-L) : Alpinia mutica Roxb.

A. Flowering stem; B-D. Sheaths which surrounds the young inflorescence ;E. Flower;
F. Calyx; G. Dorsal lobe of corolla; H. Lateral lobe of corolla; I. Labellum;
J. Stamen; K. Ovary, cross-section; L. Fruit.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Miss R. M. Smith of
the Royal Botanical Gardens, Edinburgh, for
her valuable opinion on the identity of this
species; the authorities of Botanical Survey of

Department of Botany,

POORNAPRAJ NA COLLEGE,

Udipi 576 101, Karnataka.

C. P. C. R. I.,

Appangala,

Mercara 571 201, Karnataka,

August 22, 1986.

India for allowing the senior author to observe
the Zingiberaceae sheets at their herbaria;
Dr. M. A. Rau for going through the manus-
cript and the UGC, New Delhi, for financial
assistance.

K. GOPALAKRISHNA BHAT

M. N. VENUGOPAL

32. UTRICULARIA ULIGINOSA VAHL — A NEW RECORD FOR

ANDHRA PRADESH

(With a text-figure)

While discussing the distribution of the
genus Utricularia in Peninsular India, Subra-
manyam (1981) noted that U. uliginosa Vahl
occurs in Western ghats and in Kerala, Tamil-
nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and
Madhya Pradesh. We came across this species
in the valley of Erramalais, east of Ooruchin-
tala village at about 15° 2'N and 78° 8'E in
Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh. A
perusal of the herbarium specimens in diffe-
rent herbaria revealed that this species has also
been collected from Chittoor district by G. V.
Subba Rao.

As this is the first report of this species from
the state of Andhra Pradesh, a detailed descrip-
tion along with citation and illustration of the
species is given in this paper.

Utricularia uliginosa Vahl, Enum. 1: 203. 1804;

Gamble 981 (689). U. affinis Wt. in Hook.

J. Bot. Kew Gard. Misc. 1: 373. 1849; Wt.

Ic. t. 1580; FBI 4: 330. (Fig. 1).

Small glabrous erect unbranched terrestrial
herbs up to 1 5 cm tall. Leaves linear-oblong,
obtuse, 1-3 -nerved, traps small with basal
mouth, upper lip with simple appendages.
Scales linear up to 3 mm, bracts and brac-
teoles basifixed. Flowers bluish-purple, pedicels
up to 8 mm long, erect in fruit. Calyx lobes
subequal, minutely denticulate or entire, acute.
Corolla bluish purple, upper lip oblong, emar-
ginate, slightly exceeding upper calyx lobe,
lower lip obovate, crenulate at apex, 6-7 mm
long, palate not conspicuous, spur slightly
deflexed. Capsule depressed globose, up to 6
mm long. Seeds sub-globose, 0.3 x 0.2 mm
with sub-hexagonal scrobiculate areoles on the
testa.

Distribution : Widely distributed along the

716

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

fruiting calyx (enclosed & opened respectively); G. Seed.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Western ghats and in Karnataka, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashhtra, Tamilnadu,
Goa and Andhra Pradesh (Anantapur and
Chittoor districts).

Specimens examined : Garugudu kona

(Anantapur district), TP 952 & 953 (SKU,
MH) ; Chittoor district, GVS Rao 32023
(CAL, MH).

Subramanyam, K. (1981) : Distribution
Bot. Surv. India 23: 155-164.

Department of Botany,

Sri Krishnadevaraya University,
Anantapur - 515 003,

August 29, 1986.

Peninsular India, south of Vindhyas. Bull.

T. PULLAIAH
N. YESODA
R. R. V. RAJU

Reference
of Utricularia in

33. IDENTITY OF FLACOURTIA OCCIDENT ALIS BLATTER

Blatter (1927), in Journ. Bombay Natural
History Society 31(3): 912, 1927 raised the
variety of Flacourtia ramontchi L’Herit,
namely var. occidentals Hook. f. & Thoms.
(FI. Brit. India 1: 193, 1872) to the full rank
of species. Variety occidentals which was
maintained by Cooke, Talbot and others was
merged with Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.)
Merrill, by Sleumer (FI. Males. I, 5(1): 56,
f. 30 h-i, 1959), including its type species
Flacourtia ramontchi L. ’Herit.

Blatter has cited two herbarium specimens
(i.e. E. Blatter: Khandala 18189; E. Blatter &
C. McCann: Toranmal 27283), in support
of justification for raising the taxon to the
species rank. One of these two specimens
(18189) is deposited in Blatter Herbarium
(BLAT) and our examination of the specimen

Alchemie Research Centre,
Teiane-Belapur Road,

Thane - 400 601.

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay - 400 001,

October 22, 1986.

has revealed its identity as a spinous form of
Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Raf. (Syn. Side -
roxylon tomentosum Roxb.). As there is no
other authentic specimen of Blatter’s species at
Blatter Herbarium, we concluded that Blatter’s
name of Stat. nov. is erroneous since it is not
based on the original type materials of var.
occidentals of Hook. f. & Thoms. However,
in Cooke’s description, leaves of the variety
occidentalis are mentioned to be crenate or
serrate, whereas in Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.)
Raf. they are entire along the margins.

All the materials belonging to the genus
Flacourtia Commers. in Blatter Herbarium,
were checked up and annotated by Dr. Sleumer
and we follow him in merging the var. occi-
dentals Hook. f. with Flacourtia indica (Burm.
f.) Merrill.

j

M. R. ALMEIDA

S. M. ALMEIDA

718

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

34. TWO LITTLE KNOWN FLOWERING PLANTS FROM
MAHARASHTRA

(With a text -figure)

1. Cassia dimidiata (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.)

Collett (Fig. 1)

Roxburgh originally described Senna dimi-
diata Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. based on plants
raised in Botanical garden at Calcutta, from
the seeds sent to him by Buchanan-Hamilton
from Nepal.

existing literature, we confirmed its identity as
Cassia dimidiata (Roxb.) Collett.

It resembles Cassia mimosoides L. very
closely in having small, circular, sessile gland
between or just below the lowest pair of leaf-
lets, but differs from Cassia mimosoides Linn,
in the following characters —

Cassia dimidiata

Cassia mimosoides

Annual, erect, stems scarcely branched.

Perennial, stems several, spreading, procumbent or
ascending.

2.

Peduncle 1-1.2 mm long, densely hairy with
standing spreading long hairs.

Peduncle 2-2.2 mm long, with few very short
appressed hairs.

3.

Pedicel not easily distinguishable from the pedun-
cle, uniformly thickened throughout.

Pedicel distinguishable from the peduncle, pedicel
stouter and more hairy than the peduncle.

4.

Stamens 4, all of the same size, all fertile;
filament slender.

Stamens 10, alternating, long and short; filament
stout.

5.

Stigma very prominent, large, circular, raised,
pilose at the margin.

Stigma not very prominent, not pilose at the margin,
not raised.

This species is allied to Cassia mimosoides
Linn, and it was confused with that taxon in
Herbarium materials deposited in Blatter Her-
barium, as well as in some of the old literature.
It was merged with Cassia mimosoides L. as
variety dimidiata by J. G. Baker (in flora of
British India, Vol. 2, p. 266, 1878) and re-
stored to specific rank in its appropriate genus
Cassia by Henry Collett (in flora simlensis,
p. 149, 1902). Collett’s new combination has
come from indirect reference to Roxburgh’s
Senna dimidiata because he cites only Baker
in flora of British India. However, Baker’s
variety is based on Roxburgh’s species and
therefore we attribute the basionym to Rox-
burgh.

While going through Cassia mimosoides
complex in Blatter Herbarium, we could isolate
this taxon as a distinct material from the rest.
On dissection of floral parts and studying the

We give below complete description of the
species based on material available in Blatter
Herbarium.

An erect, scarcely branched herb, 40-80 cm
tall. Stem rounded, faintly striate, hairy. Leaves
pinnate, 8-15 cm long, stipulate and glandular.
Stipules 2, linear-lanceolate, 1-1.5 mm long,
acuminate, terminating in an erect black
spicule, 6-8 nerved from base, auricled and
clinging to the stem at base, hairy. Rachis
slender, 6-9 mm long, hairy all over. Common
petiole short, 1-1.2 mm long, hairy; gland
sessile, circular, one per leaf, just below the
lowest pair of leaflets. Pinnules 20-40 pairs,
opposite, sessile, oblong, 1-1.2 mm long, 0.2
mm broad, inequilateral, faintly serrate at
margin, shortly mucronate at apex, 4-5 veined
from base, with prominent mid vein. Flowers
supra-axillary, often solitary, bracteate and
pedicellate. Bracts 2-3, linear-lanceolate, 0.5-

719

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Fig. 1. Cassia dimidiata (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Collett
A. Habit; B. Single flower; C. Pinnule; D. Cluster of Stamens; E. Single stamen;

F. Pistil; G. Fruit.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

0 . 8 mm long, 0 . 1 mm broad at base, narrow-
ing to the apex, acuminate, ending in long
spicule, 4-5 veined from base, hairy. Peduncle
1-1.2 mm long, slender, hairy all over with
erect spreading hairs, arises from between the
centre of the 2 linear-lanceolate bracts. Pedicel
0 . 1 mm long, hairy, with 2 bracteoles one on
each side, lanceolate, 4-5 veined, acuminate,
hairy. Sepals 4, linear-lanceolate, 2 mm long,
acuminate, hairy outside. Petals 4, yellow,
broadly ovate, rounded at apex, 6-8 nerved,
narrowing to a short claw at the base, glabrous.
Stamens 4, equal, all fertile; anthers oblong,
stout, about 3 mm long, opening at the apex
through 2 large, circular pores; filament short,
slender, glabrous. Ovary flat, linear, 4-5 mm
long, 1 mm broad, velvety hairy when young,
thickened and hairy at both the sutures; style
stout, slightly curved, 1 . 5-2 mm long, glabrous;
stigma large, prominent, circular, raised, pilose
at the margin. Fruit brown when mature, flat,
compressed, not constricted, with faint com-
partments, thickened and hairy at both the
sutures and base, 15-16 seeded, dehiscing by
the sutures.

Specimens examined :

H. Santapau — 4870, 4871, 4872, 4873, 4875
(Khandala) (10-9-1944)
(BLAT).

„ — 7229 (Purandhar) (4-9-1948)

(BLAT).

„ — 11400, 11533 (Purandhar)

(9-10-1950) (BLAT).

Incidentally, this species has not so far been
reported from Maharashtra and constitutes a
new record for the state.

2. Clitoria annua Graham

This species was originally described by
John Graham in “Catalogue of the Plants
growing in Bombay and its Vicinity” (P. 47,
1839). In the original description Graham only
mentioned that it is a herbaceous annual
species — common on Malabar Hill during
the rains. Subsequent floristic works like Bom-
bay Flora by N. A. Dalzell and J. Gibson
(1861), J. D. Hooker’s flora of British
India Vol. 2 by J. G. Baker (1876) and flora
of presidency of Bombay by T. Cooke (1902)
do not mention the occurrence of this Plant.
It is obvious that there was no specimen of
this species at Kew for examination and there-
fore all these authors who have worked at the
Kew herbarium have not included it in their
respective works. However, they have includ-
ed Dalzell's later described species Clitoria
biflora Dalz. (Kew Jour. Bot. 2: 35, 1850),
which has been described as “Stems
suberect, angular, petioles very short, leaflets
5, flowers blue, 2-flowered, bracteoles large —
In the Concan — Dalzell, Stocks.

There is only one erect herbaceous species
of this genus found within the present boun-
daries of India and we are absolutely sure that
the taxon described by John Graham (1839)
and N. A. Dalzell (1861) is one and the same.

We have searched in the Malabar Hill area
and located the typical specimen of herbaceous
erect Clitoria. S. M. Almeida 5890 — (Malabar
Hill), (25th July 1986), (BLAT). There are
a number of herbarium specimens of this
species collected earlier from the National Park,
Borivli and deposited in BLAT which
have been named as Clitoria biflora Dalz.
(Herbert 2224-5, Tavakari — 1571-2).

We feel that John Graham’s binomial and
diagnostic description of the taxon are suffi-
cient for the identification of the species.

721

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

According to Article No. 32.2 of ICBN,
Dalzell’s Clitoria biflora should be a
synonym.

Alchemie Research Centre,

P. O. Box - 155,

Thane-Belapure Road,

Thane - 400 601.

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay - 400 001,

October 22, 1986.

For complete description of the species see
T. Cooke FLORA OF PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY

(Vol. 1: 406, 1958).

M. R. ALMEIDA

S. M. ALMEIDA

35. A NEW VARIETY OF RUNGIA LATIOR NEES
(ACANTHACEAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA

(With two text-figures)

Critical studies on Rungia latior Nees —
complex conducted both in the field and
herbaria revealed that two varieties could be
recognised in South India. Though there exists
variation in flower size and width of the
hyaline margin round the bracts in this
species, the specimens collected from Ana-
malai hill ranges of Western Ghats do not fit
within the circumscription of the typical Rungia
latior Nees. Hence they are accommodated in
a new variety. A key to the varieties, and
illustrations for the new variety and some
distinguishing characters of typical variety
have been provided for easy comparison and
identification.

Rungia latior Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 472. 1847.

Key to the varieties occurring in south India

Floral bracts 4.5-6 x 3-4 mm, orbicular-obovate,
rounded at apex, ciliate only along the margins;
bracteoles ± 5 x 3.5 mm, oblong-obovate, emar-
ginate, obcordate or truncate at apex. (Fig. 2a-b)
var. latior

Floral bracts 8-9 X 2-3 mm, oblanceolate, acute at
apex, ciliate without and along the margins; brac-
teoles ±7x3 mm, elliptic-oblong, acute at apex
var. anamalayana

Rungia latior Nees var. anamalayana Chandra-

bose & Chandrasekaran, var. nov.

(Fig. 1A-J)

Rungiae latiori Nees var. latiori affinis sed
bracteis floralibus oblanceolatis, apicibus et
bracteolis ellipticis — oblongis apicibus acutis
differt.

Holotypus Chandrabose 65859 (CAL) et
isotypi (5 exsic. MH) in silva conservata
Akkamalai in collis anamalayanis ditione Coim-
batore in statu Tamilnaduensi die 19 Feb.
1980 lecti sunt.

Allied to R. latior Nees var. latior but
differs in having floral bracts oblanceolate,
acute at apex; and bracteoles elliptic-oblong,
acute at apex.

Erect or ascending herbs 0.2-1 m tall, root-
ing at lower nodes; branchlets pubescent.
Leaves 1.5-11 x 0.7-4 cm, ovate, ovate-lanceo-

722

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

late, elliptic-lanceolate or lanceolate, entire or
subentire, lineolate, sparsely hispid, obtuse,
subacute or shortly acuminate at apex, cuneate
at base; lateral nerves 7-12 pairs, arcuate, pro-
minently reticulate; petioles up to 2.5 cm long,
pubescent. Flowers white with violet tinge,
crowded in terminal or axillary spikes 2-5 cm
long; peduncles 0.5-5 cm long. Barren bract
8-10 x 1-2 mm, linear-lanceolate, acuminate,
sparsely hirsute without, ciliate along the mar-

Fig. 1 (a-j) : Rungia latior Nees var. anamalayana
var. nov.

a. A twig; b. A flower subtended by bracts and
bracteoles; c. Barren bract; d. Floral bract; e.
Bracteole; f. Calyx split open; g. Stamen; h. Pistil;
i. Capsule; j. Dehisced capsule.

Fig. 2 (a-b) : Rangia latior Nees var. latior var. nov.
a. Floral bract; b. Bracteole.

Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore - 641 003, India.

December 3, 1986.

gins, 3 -nerved. Floral bract 8-9 x 2-3 mm,
oblanceolate, acute, mucrbnate, hirsute with-
out, hyaline and ciliate along the margins, 3-
ncrved. Bracteoles two, each dz 7x3 mm,
elliptic-oblong, acute, mucronate, hirsute with-
out along the mid-rib, hyaline and ciliate along
the margins. Calyx 5-partite to the base; seg-
ments zb 6x1 mm, linear-lanceolate, acumi-
nate, sparsely hirsute without. Corolla 1.6- 1.8
cm long, 2-lipped, scattered hairy without;
upper lip =b 7x6 mm, ovate, acuminate,
notched or bifid at apex; lower lip dz 10x 8
mm, oblong-obovate, 3-lobed, mid-lobe longer
than the lateral ones; tube zb 6 mm long.
Stamens 2; filaments zb 5 mm long, glabrous,
attached at the mouth of corolla; anthers 2-
celled, cells superposed, the lower with basal
appendage. Disc cupular. Ovary 1 - 1 . 5 x 0 . 6-
0.7 mm, ovoid, compressed, glabrous; style
7-8.5 mm long, filiform, glabrous; stigma notch-
ed or shortly bifid at apex. Capsules zb 5.5x3
mm, ovoid, compressed, acuminate with a short
beak, shortly pubescent at the tip, 4-seeded;
seeds zb 1.2 mm across, brown, suborbicular,
compressed, minutely tuberculate. (Figs. la-j).

The holotype Chandrabose 65859 (CAL)
and isotypes Chandrabose 65859 (5 herbarium
sheets, MH) were collected from Akkamalai
R.F., Anamalai hills, Coimbatore District,
Tamil Nadu on 19-2-1980.

Common along the slopes of the hills in
the evergreen forests at an altitude of about
1610 m.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Rev. Fr. Cecil J.
Saldanha, S.J., St. Joseph’s College, Bangalore
for rendering latin translation and to Dr. A.
N. Henry, Scientist-C, Botanical Survey of
India. Coimbatore for helpful suggestions.

* M. CHANDRABOSE

V. CHANDRASEKARAN

723

15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY ,' Vol. 84

36. HELMINTHOST ACHYS ZEYL AMIGA (L.) HOOK.
(OPHIOGLOSSACEAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR
WESTERN HIMALAYA

During a recent plant exploration in the
Ranbasa area of Kumaon Himalaya (W.
Himalaya), we came across an interesting fern
Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. A
perusal of earlier literature (Beddome 1883,
Panigrahi & Dixit 1969, Dhir 1980, Bir 1983)
revealed that this species was confined to the
east from Bengal plains to Assam, Eastern
Uttar Pradesh (Behraich and Gorakhpur), and
South India only. Its range of distribution is
extended to Western Himalaya, establishing a
new distribution record. The specimens are
lodged in the Herbarium, Department of
Botany, Kumaun University Campus, Almora.

Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. Gen.
Fil. t. 47, 1840; Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.
India 467, t. 292, 1883; Suppl. 109, 1892; and
in Ferns South India 23, t. 69, 1863; Panigrahi
& Dixit, Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 35(3): 245,
1969; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid., FI. India
Ser. 4: 20, 1984. Bas.: Osmunda zeylanica
Linn. Sp. PI. 1519, 1753. Syn.: Botrychium
zeylanicum (L.) Swartz, Schrad. Journ. fur di
Botanic. Ill, 1800. Helminthostachys dulcis
Kaulf. Flora 103, 1822. H. crenata Pr. Suppl.
Tent. Pterid. 103, 1845; H. integrifolia pr.
Suppl. Tent. Pterid. 60, 1845.

Plants green to pale yellow in colour, 15
to 35 cm high. Rhizome thick, glabrous,
fleshy, creeping and bearing many thick, fleshy,
glabrous, brittle roots. Stipe fleshy, glabrous,
pale yellow to purplish in colour, 12 to 15 cm

Department of Botany,

Kumaun University Campus,

Almora - 263 601,

December 23, 1986.

long. Sterile frond consisting of sessile palma-
tifid lamina; division of lamina oblong lanceo-
late in shape, acute 7-15 x 1-2.5 cm; margins
entire or irregularly toothed; midrib grooved
above and raised below; veins fine, once
forked. Fertile segment representing a terminal
and solitary spike arising from the base of
the barren segment, green to brown in colour;
stalk up to 7 cm long, glabrous, fleshy; spike
up to 10 cm long. Sporangia borne superficially
on the spike. Spores globose, dark, reticulate
exine.

Fertile : August to November.

Ecological notes : Rare, in moist and shady
forest floor of Sal forest and floor of Mango
orchards. We could not, however, locate the
specimens from the adjacent Teak and
Eucalyptus plantations.

Specimens examined : Western Himalaya,

District Nainital, near Tanakpur en route Puma-
giri 700 m, P. C. Pande 18001.

Distribution : India (Western Himalaya-

Khatima, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bengal Plains
to Assam, Meghalaya and South India); Sri
Lanka; Malay Peninsula; China; Japan; Philip-
pines; Solomon Islands; New Caledonia; New
Guinea; Australia.

Acknowledgement

We are indebted to Dr. R. D. Dixit, B S I,
Allahabad, for sending us the relevant litera-
ture.

G. C. JOSHI
P C. PANDE

724

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Beddome, R. H. (1883) : A handbook to the Ferns
of British India, Ceylon and Malay Peninsula.
Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta.

Bir, S. S., Satija, C. K., Vasudeva, S. M. &
Gqyal, Parmod (1983) : Pteridophytic Flora of

Garhwal Himalaya. Jugal Kishore & Co., Dehra Dun.

Dhir, K. K. (1980) : Ferns of North-Western
Himalayas. Bibliotheca Pteridologica 1 : 1-158.

37. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF LALLDHWOJ1A COOPER1 FARILLE

(APIACEAE) IN INDIA

( With a text-figure)

Dixit, R. D. (1984) : A census of the Indian
Pteridophytes. Flora of India Ser. IV Bat. Surv .
India, Howrah 1-iii, 1-177.

Panigrahi, G. & Dixit, R. D. (1969): Studies
in Indian Pteridophytes IV. The family. Ophioglos-
saceae in India. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India Ser. B
55(3): 230-266.

During plant exploration in the alpine region
of Chamoli district in Uttar Pradesh, I came
across an interesting plant of the Apiaceae
family, which on study turned out to be a
species of Lalldhwojia Farille. This genus was
recently established and described by M. A.
Ferille (1984) on the basis of its distinct fruits
with dorso-lateral mericarps, superficial vittae
and persistent calyx. Later, a specimen was
sent to Miss J. Lamond, Royal Botanic Garden,
Edinburgh, who identified it as Lalldhwojia
cooperi Farille. The plant was first collected
by R. E. Cooper on 01.03.1913 from the
Sikkim-Bhutan border. No further collec-
tion of this plant had been made so far from
other parts of India. The present collection
from Chamoli Garhwal is an extension of
its distribution to North-West Himalaya. Thus,
it can be assumed that this plant is a rare
endemic to the Himalayas and it is likely that
its specimens may be lying with various Indian
herbaria unidentified.

In the present communication, a detailed
description of this plant is being given along
with its original citation, habit diagram, eco-
logy, specimens examined and distribution.

Lalldhwojia cooperi Farille, Rev. Gen. Bot.

91: 31-34, 1984.

Slender herbs, 15-25 cm high. Root stocks
perennial, fleshy. Stems simple, glabrous and
grooved. Leaves radical and cauline, sparsely
pubescent. Petioles 4-6 cm long. Lamina tri-
foliate.Leafiets 1-2 x 1.5-2. 5 cm, mucronate-
dentate. Lateral petiolules 1 . 5 cm and terminal
1-3 cm long. Inflorescences on long axes,
umbels unequal. Flowers c. 1-2 mm in diam.,
purple. Pedicels elongate in fruits. Involucral
bracts absent. Sepals acute, petals obtuse.
Fruits ovate elliptic, 2-3 mm in length, costae
inconspicuous (Fig. 1).

My specimen ( Rawat 2211, Herbarium WII)
differs from the original description by Farille,
in having larger size (15-25 cm), larger radi-
cal leaves and petioles of lateral leaflets
c. 0.5-1 .5 cm long.

Habits : Rather scarce, near shady places
and rock shelters, mainly associated with
Acronema tenera, Saxifraga pallida, Parietaria
debilis etc. between elevations 3,000-3,500 m
a.s.l.

Flowers and fruits: July-September.

Specimens examined: Rawat s.n. (E), Rawat
2211 (Herbarium W.I.I.), Tungnath, Chamoli

725

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

2mm

3 mm

726

1. A female plant of Hyphaene thebaica Mart, growing on sea coast near Nagaon. 2. A
group of fruits of H. thebaica showing a two seeded fruit. 3. Single two seeded fruit of //.
thebaica Mart. 4. Vertical section of the above fruit. 5. Petiole of H. thebaica Mart, show-
ing spines on the edges. 6. Petiole of H. irtdica Bccc. showing spines on edges.

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 84
Bonde: Hyphaena thebaica

Plate

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

district, Himalaya, 31.07.1 986 at altitudes of
3200 and 3400 m.

Distribution : India: Eastern Himalaya

(Sikkim-Bhutan border). Western Himalaya
(Tungnath in Chamoli district).

Wildlife Institute of India,

P. O. New Forest, Dehra Dun - 248 006,
December 31, 1986.

Ack nowledgement

Thanks are due to Miss J. Lamond, Royal
Botanic Garden. Edinburgh for critically exa-
mining my specimens.

G. S. RAW AT

Reference

Farille, M. A. (1984): Apiaceae Himalayenses — 2. Rev. Gen. Bot. 91: 27-34.

38. IS EGYPTIAN DOUM PALM ( HYPHAENE THEBAIC A MART.)
INDIGENOUS TO INDIA ?

( With a plate )

The Doum palm, Hyphaene is the most
widely distributed genus of subfamily Boras-
soideae, having 63 species distributed in Africa,
Arabia, India and islands in the Indian ocean.
In India, Dalzell and Gibson (1861) were the
first to record its presence in Sewree cemetery
garden in Bombay. Carstensen (1891) noted
its occurrence in wild state in the coastal re-
gions at Oomrad near Surat and Mahua in
Bhavnagar district. According to him, the doum
palms growing in the Municipal Garden at
Baroda (now Vadodara) are cultivated from
the seedlings from Oomrad.

Beccari (1908) instituted the species
Hyphaene indica on the material sent to him
by Mr. G. A. Gammie from Bassein Fort in
Salsette islands and from Diu. Later Burkill
(1908) reported its fruit and recently Bonde
(in press) described its female inflorescence
and male flowers. Rao (1963. 1964) noted its
luxurient growth at a number of places between
18°-23° Lat. on the west coast of India. The
late Professor T. S. Mahabale (personal com-
munication) had also noted its occurrence at

Porbandar and Goa coasts. Rao also had exa-
mined the material from Municipal garden at
Baroda and found H. indica along with H.
thebaica.

While studying the palms of India, I noted
the occurrence of Egyptian Doum palm
( Hyphaene thebaica Mart.) on the coastal
region of Nagaon (Lat. 18°37'05"; Long.
73°55'23"), Dist. Raigad, Maharashtra along
with Indian Doum palm ( H . indica Becc.)
(Plate, Fig. 1). These two species differ from
each other in morphology of fruits, inflores-
cence as noted by Rao (1963, 1964) and
armature on the petiole. The spines in H.
thebaica are tan-black coloured, pointed with
broad base, the point of which is almost at
right angle to its base and are distantly placed;
whereas they are brown coloured, pointed with
much broad base, the point of which makes
acute angle with base and are closely placed in
H. indica (Plate, Figs. 5&6). I also collected
a number of two seeded fruits of H. thebaica .
These are developed from the fertilization of
two carpels instead of one (Plate, Figs. 2-4).

727

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 84

It was claimed that the Egyptian Doum
palm, Hyphaene thebaica Mart, was indigenous
to tropical Africa only. Now, that the occur-
rence of H. thebaica from Nagaon has come to
notice and since its occurrence in the wild
state has been known from Oomrad (Carsten-
sen, op. cit.), this species must also be
indigenous to India. Its occurrence in both
Africa and India suggests that it has evolved
independently in both the regions from com-
mon ancestry, existing on both the continents
before they separated and it may regarded as
a case of parallel evolution.

Hyphaene has a great antiquity as revealed
from its fossil representatives namely, Para -
palmocaulon hyphaeneoides (Shete and Kul-
karni) Bonde, a leaf; and Hyphae neocar pon

Department of Botany,

Maharashtra Association for

The Cultivation of Science

Research Institute,

Pune - 411 004,

February 27, 1987.

REFE!

Bande, M. B., Prakash, U. & Ambwani, K.
(1982): A fossil palm fruit Hyphaeneocarpon indi-
cium gen. et sp. nov. from the Deccan Intertrappean
beds of India. Palaeobotanist 30(3 ) : 303-309.

Beccari, O. (1908): Le Palme ‘Dum’ od

‘ Hyphaene ’ e Piu’ specialmente quelle dell’ Africa
Italiana. Agricolt. Colon. Anno. II, fasc. Ill, 137-183.
Firenze.

Bonde, S. D. (in press) : Parapalmocaulon suran-
gei gen. et sp. nov. from the Deccan Intertrappean
bed at Umaria, District Mandla, Madhya Pradesh.
Biovigyanam 13.

Bonde, S. D. (in press) : Inflorescence of

Hyphaene indica Becc. Biovigyanam 13.

Burkill. I. H. (1908) : The Indian doum

indicum Bande et at. a fruit from the Deccan
Intertrappean beds of India (Shete and
Kulkarni 1980, Bonde, in press and Bande
et al , 1982).

The presence of both H. indica and
H. thebaica intermixed with one another
in the Indian Botanic Garden at Calcutta in-
dicates that these plants might have been
cultivated from the seeds obtained from west
coast where both the species grow well. The
extensive survey of the doum palms along the
west coast from Porbandar to Goa and further
south will support the indigenousness of H.
thebaica Mart, along the west coast of India.

I thank Dr. S. H. Godbole and Dr. V. D.
Vartak for facilities and encouragement.

SURESH D. BONDE

E N CE S

(Hyphaene) Palm. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18:
929-930.

Carstensen, G. (1891) : Doum palms in India.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 6: 271-273.

Martius, C.F.P. von (1823-1850): Historia Satu-
ralis Palm arum. Munich III.

Rao, R. S. (1963) : Hyphaene indica Becc. along
the west coast of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
60(3): 761-763.

(1964) : The doum palms in India.

Principes. 8(2) : 49-54.

Shete, R. H. & Kulkarni, A. R. (1982): Palmo-
caulon hyphaeneoides sp. nov. from the Deccan
Intertrappean beds of Wardha district, Maharashtra,
India. Palaeontographica 172 B: 117-124.

728

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

39. VARIETAL STATUS OF SESBANIA SESBAN (L.) MERR.

Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. [Syn. S. aegyp -
tiaca (Poir) Pers., Aeschynomene sesban L.;
and S. punctata DC.)] is either a tall shrub or a
small-tree-like growing upto 6 m high, copi-
ously branched. Leaflets oblong, upto 3.5 cm
long, but usually smaller, pods acuminate
at apex, transversely divided, upto 15 cm long,
glabrous, twisted, distinctly torulose (Andrews
1952). The flowers are predominantly yellow
in colour. It is on the colour of vexillum alone
that three different varieties have been recog-
nized (Prain 1897, Baquar and Akhtar 1968,
Bir et al 1975, Sastry and Gupta 1977). The
varieties include (i) var. ‘sesban’ — yellow
vexillum, (ii) var. ‘picta’ — vexillum yellow
with purple dots on dorsal surface and (iii)
var. ‘bicolor’ — - dorsal surface of vexillum
completely dark purple/black.

During our cytogenetic studies on genus
Sesbania an interesting observation was made
in an individual plant in a population of S.
sesban var. 'picta . The plant was observed to
be chimeral for the colour pattern of vexillum.
Some inflorescences were observed to be with
yellow vexillum without any dots, typical of
S. sesban var. 'sesban . The chimeral nature of
the plant was evident, as different branches had
either type of flowers, both types of flowers on
the same branch, the same inflorescence
raceme, or even the same vexillum of a single
flower.

In our experimental studies the seeds of
S. sesban var. ‘picta’ were exposed to different
doses of gamma rays in the year 1982 to in-
duce some translocations. However, one plant
in Mi generation was observed to show a similar
chimeral pattern of vexillum colour as was
observed spontaneously in nature. Besides this,

Indian Grassland and Fodder

Research Institute,

Jhansi 284 003 (India),

March 12, 1987.

two plants showed increased pigmentation as
the number of purple dots was so thick that
the flowers looked like those of S. sesban var.
‘ bicolor . ’

Such colour changes in flowers have been
observed in Carnation (Sagawa and Mehlquist
1957), Poinsettia (Stewart 1960) and Canna
(Mukherjee and Khoshoo 1970). In Carnation
and Poinsettia such changes have been ascrib-
ed to periclinal chimeral nature of plants for
colour constitution, i.e. the spontaneous/induced
mutation being caused by destruction of epi-
dermal layers and exposure of internal layers
with different genetic make up. Such an ex-
planation cannot hold true for the present case
as the change, i.e. ‘bicolor’ <- ‘picta’ — > ‘sesban’
is bidirectional. This phenomenon is similar to
the one observed for the bract colour in
Bougainvillea (Zadoo et al. 1975) whereby
each cell contains colour constituents for both
purple and yellow pigments, and there being
a threshold value for each of them to express.
Such a threshold value is liable to change
through somatic segregation. In case of
S. sesban there may be some cell lineages with
only purple colour, others with both purple
and yellow colour and still others with yellow
colour only, each lineage giving rise to ‘bi-
color’, ‘picta’ or ‘reason’ type of flowers res-
pectively.

Keeping in view the spontaneous colour
changes in the floral colour, varietal status in
S. sesban which is based on the colour of
vexillum needs to be reviewed.

Acknowledgement

Thanks are due to Director, I.G.F.R.I.,
Jhansi for facilities.

R. S. PARIHAR
S. N. ZADOO

729

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

References

Andrews, F. W. (1952): The flowering plants
of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. T. Buncie & Co. Ltd.
Scotland, II, 2_32.

Baquar, S. R. & Akhtar, S. (1968): Cytological
studies of the genus Sesbania from W. Pakistan.
Cytologia 33 : 427-438.

Bir, S. S., Sidhu, M. & Talwar, K. (1975) : Cyto-
logical observations on genus Sesbania from the
Punjab plains (North India). New Botanist 2: 101-
108.

Mukherjee, I. & Khoshoo, T. N. (1970): Gene-
tic evolutionary studies on cultivated Cannas TV
Parallelism between natural and induced somatic
mutations. Radiation Botany. 10: 351-364.

Prain, D. (1897) : Noviciae Indicae XV. Some

Additional leguminosae. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 66:
347-513.

Sagawa, Y. & Mehlquist, G.A.L. (1957): The
mechanism responsible for some X-rays induced
changes in flower colour of the Carnation: Dianthus
caryophyllus. Amer. J. Bot. 44: 397-403.

Sastry, T. C. S. & Gupta, P. S. (1977): Sesbania
sesban (Linn.) Merrill var. picta comb. nov. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 387.

Stewart, R. N. (1960): Inheritance of bract
colour in Poinsettia, J. Hered. 51: 175-177.

Zadco, S. N., Roy, R. P. & Khoshoo, T. N.
(1975): Cytogenetics of cultivated Bougainvilleas.
Ill Bud sports. Z. Pflanzenzuchtg. 74: 223-239.

40. SPJGELIA ANTHELMIA LINN. — A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

(With a text -figure)

SpigeSia anthelmia L. Sp. PL 1(1753) 149; FI.

Malesiana 6(1962): 376-378. (Fig. 1).

Annual herb, 50-70 cm high, unbranched or
with few pairs of branches arising near the
base; stem erect, terete, cylindrical, green,
glabrous, with a few remote pairs of small
leaves and an apical pseudowhorl of four
larger leaves. Leaves with interpetiolar, broad-
ly triangular, blunt, glabrous stipules; petioles
0-0.5 cm; lamina ovate-oblong to ovate-
lanceolate. 3-10 by 1-3 cm, herbaceous,
scabrous above, glabrous beneath, cuneate and
often decurrent at the base, attenuate at the
apex; nerves 4-6 pairs, strongly ascending.
Inflorescences terminal in the axils of the
whorled upper leaves, up to 15 cm long, pedun-
cle very short, glabrous; bracts lanceolate,
1 . 4-2 mm long. Flowers spaced, sub-sessile.
Sepals 5, free, slightly unequal in length,
ovate-linear-lanceolate, 2-3 mm, acute, glabrous
to sparsely puberulous outside, pale green.
Corolla salver-shaped, 5-lobed, glabrous, white
to red or purplish; tube 6-10 mm. triangular.

Stamens 5, inserted slightly below the middle
of the tube, filaments filiform, 1 mm, anthers
attached slightly above the base, lanceolate,
1-1.5 mm, obtuse. Ovary glabrous, subglobose,
0.5-0.75 mm, style cylindrical, 0.75 mm;
stigma ovate-lanceolate, 1 . 5-2 mm, pubescent
near the tip, caducous. Capsule 4-5 by 5-6 mm,
squamulate-tuberculate. Seeds obliquely ellip-
soid or ovoid, 1.5-2 mm, dull-brown, tubercu-
late.

Distribution'. Native of South America,
naturalized in tropical West Africa and in
Malaysia.

Ecology : A rare weed of roadsides, waste
places in forest area in sandy soils during
rainy season. A self-pollinating plant; flowers
open only for a very short period in the after-
noon.

Ethnobotany : A poisonous plant, the deco-
ction of the roots is said to be used as an
effective vermifuge locally.

Special Note : Collected only from two

localities around Jabalpur (C.O.D. and Water
Works areas) during the survey of District

730

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Spigelia anthelmia L.

1. Habit; 2. Flower; 3. Calyx; 4. Corolla and Androecium; 5. Stamen; 6. Gynoe-
cium; 7. L. S. Flower; 8. C. S. Ovary; 9. Fruit.

731

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Flora (1983-1986). After careful study of the
plant we concluded it was a Loganiaceous
form but could not identify the species as we
could not get similar description or drawing in
the Indian Floras. Our efforts for its identifi-
cation in the B.S.I. Regional Herbaria at
Coimbatore, Pune, Allahabad and Dehra Dun
also failed. Then it was taken to Blatter Herba-
rium, Bombay from where it was referred to
Kew Herbarium where it was finally identified
as Spigelia anthelmia L. of Spigeliaceae. The
Keeper of Kew Herbarium at Kew confirmed

that they had no material of this plant from
India. Further review of available literature
confirmed it as a ‘New Record for India’.

Acknowledgements

Our thanks are due to Dr. G. LI Lucas,
Keeper of the Herbarium, Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, England and also to Dr. (Mrs.)
S. M. Almeida, Director, Blatter Herbarium,
St. Xavier’s College, Bombay for help in
identification.

M. OOMMACHAN
J. L. SFIRI VAST AVA

Dept, of Biological Sciences,

Rani Durgavati University,
Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India,
March 19, 1987.

732

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1985-86

Executive Committee
President

Dr. Salim AIL D Sc., F.N.A.

Vice-Presidents

Mr. D. J. Panday
Dr. C. V. Kulkami
Prof. P. V. Bole

Member

Director, Dept, of Science St Technology,
Government of India

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali
Mr. M. D. Agharkar
Mr. M. R. Almeida
Mr. H. K. Divekar
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Dr. Ashok Kothari
Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati
Mr. A. G. Newalkar
Mr. Ulhas Rane
Mr. Bittu Sahgal
Dr. O. Siddiqui
Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

Ex-Officio

Advisory Committee

Dr.

Madhav Gadgil

Bangalore

Mr.

Shivrajkumar Khachar

Jasdan

Mr.

Lavkumar Khacher

Rajkot

Prof. V. M. Meher-Homji

Pondicherry

Mrs.

Phillippa Mukherjee

Bombay

Dr.

Ishwar Prakash

Jodhpur

Mr.

S. P. Shahi

Ranchi

Dr.

E. G. Silas

Madras

Mr.

Shekhar Singh

New Delhi

Mr.

Romulus Whitaker

Madras

733

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1985

102nd Year

Membership

The membership data for the quinquennium
1981 to 1985 is tabulated below. You will
notice that the increase per annum of the
ordinary members, the mainstay of the Society,
has been more or less static in the last two
years. The number of new members elected
to the Society in 1985 was 321 and the mem-
bers who paid in 1984 but did not renew their
membership in 1985 was 325!

Your committee is considering methods to
make the membership of the Society appeal-
ing enough to attract more new members and
retain those already on the rolls.

It is also necessary at this point to record
that a marginal increase in membership fees
has to be considered to meet the increase in
administrative and other costs resulting from
the general inflationary pressures on the Indian
economy.

Patron :

We are pleased to advise members that the
Prime Minister, Shri Rajiv Gandhi has agreed
to be the Patron of the Society.

Ordinary members
Corporate members
Life members

Compound Corporate members
Student members
Honorary Members
Vice Patrons

Members elected in 1985, but not paid
Members paid for 1984, but not paid for 1985

Members’ Activities

Field activities for members organised by
the staff has been one of the main attractions
of the Society over the last few decades, com-
mencing as they did on a modest scale in
1972.

In 1985 these activities were in the form of
week-end nature outings, nature walks, nature
camps, meetings at the Society and support to
members for their field studies on matters of
natural history interest.

Day outings'.

Members were taken to the Kalwa Mahim
Beach on 6th January to study the littoral and
beach fauna; to Karnala bird Sanctuary on
7th April and on 12th May, for bird watching;
to Vajreshwari Hot springs on 19th May to
study the flora and fauna; to Kharbad Hill on
the Bombay-Ahmedabad highway on 26th
May to Birdwatch and study plants; to Chena
Creek on 23rd June for creek flora; to the
Vaitarna valley on 30th June and 4th August;
for birds and flora; to Meera-Dongar (Pen

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1044

1137

1533

1762

1764

176

162

158

132

152

349

407

484

562

639

37

52

102

107

108

165

126

182

192

161

3

3

3

3

3

3

4

4

6

6

1777

1891

2466

2764

2833

20

325

734

A.G.M. 1985-86— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

taluka) on 14th July for birds and flora; to
Kondgaon Lake in the Sudhagad Taluk on
8th Sept, for general flora and fauna; to Peth
Kothaligad, on 6th October for deciduous
forest flora and hill stream fauna; to Mulshi
Lake on 13th October for deciduous forest
flora and fauna.

We thank the following members and staff
who either helped by leading the groups or
made the arrangements:

Mr. Ulhas Rane, Dr. (Ms.) Meena Haribal,
Dr. B. R. Dave, Dr. B. F. Chhapgar, Mr.
Naresh Chaturvedi, Mr. P. B. Shekar, Mr. J.
S. Serrao, and Mr. Vasant Naik.

Week-end Camps :

Nandur-Madhmeshwar on 2nd and 3rd
February to study migratory birds. The area
has been named a bird sanctuary through the
active interest of the Society’s members; to
Bhandardara or Wilson Dam on 21 to 23rd
April for general Natural History; to Matheran
on 20-21 July. Matheran is particularly attrac-
tive during the monsoon months from the
natural history point of view; to Suriyamal,
North Thana on 27 to 28th July to study sun-
birds breeding in the area; to Malshej Ghat
on 24-27th August to study the peculiar
phenomena of birds being swept up from the
valley and either occurring in an exhausted
condition in the compound of the Rest-house
or killed by dashing against its wall; Maha-
baleshwar on 15-18 September the late mon-
soon season is the best time to see the richness
of the plateau’s flora; Magod in North Karna-
taka was the venue of an extended camp
from 23 to 27th November. A very rich wet
tropical forest rich in bird and plant life and
the study area on giant squirrels of one of
our members Ms. Renee Borges.

We are grateful to our members and staff
who organised these programmes, namely Mr.
Ulhas Rane, Mr. Naresh Chaturvedi, Mr. P. B.

Shekar, Mr. S. R. Nayak, Mr. Vasant Naik.

We would once again record our apprecia-
tion for the very generous donation of a bus
by TELCO which has brought within reach
areas of Natural History in the environs of
Bombay and has made possible week-end
camps to distant areas.

The Sanjay Gandhi National Park continued
to be one of the main field activity areas
of the Society where members carried out field
studies in various disciplines of natural history
and were trained in bird watching, plant iden-
tification, butterfly identification etc.

Lectures for members were arranged on such
varied subjects as corals (Mr. Suresh
Malkhani), conservation of elephants in
Africa (Dr. Douglas Hamilton), wildlife of
India (Mr. Robert D’Souza), Larger Cats
(Dr. Paul Joslin), Natural History of Cousin
Island, Seychelles (Dr. A. W. Diamond),
Hydrobiological Research at Bharatpur (Dr.
V. S. Vijayan), Natural History of Bhutan
(Mr. Sunjoy Monga), Wonderful World of
Fishes (Dr. B. F. Chhapgar), Use of Compu-
ter in Wildlife Research (Mr. Baljit Nagpal),
Birds of Sahyadri (Mr. Ulhas Rane), In
Search of the Bengal Florican (Mrs. Usha
Bhutia), Orchids and butterflies of Sikkim
(Mr. N. D. Mulla), How to be a fruit bat
(Dr. T. H. Fleming), In addition ‘Brains
Trust’ and film show programmes were also
organised for Bombay members.

Members’ Field Research Programmes

Bhutan Honey Guide Survey :

Mr. Sunjoy Monga studied the ecology of
the Himalayan Honey Guide and generally
collected data on the Avifauna of Bhutan. He
spent 4 months in Bhutan. Mr. Monga was
supported in the field by a grant from the
Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund.

735

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Malabar Civet Survey :

Mr. E.R.C. Davidar organised a survey to
rediscover the Malabar Civet which has not
been authentically reported since 1927. Preli-
minary contacts were established with know-
ledgeable persons in the known distribution of
the species by circulating an illustrated bro-
chure. The programme was funded by the
Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund.

Flowering of Strobilanthes :

The Karvi (Strobilanthes) flowered in the
Bombay environs in 1984 and the next mass
flowering season will be seven years hence in
1991. Prof. P. V. Bole arranged a programme
to prevent removal bf the Karvi Stems before

the seeds matured and assured contribution of
growth of the plant in the coming years.

Publications

Journal :

During the year the December issue for
1984, Vol. 81 (3) and the April and August
issues for 1985, Vol. 82 (1) & (2) were pub-
lished. The 656 pages of these journals held
176 articles and notes. We received from
members and others 360 articles and notes for
publication in the journal in 1985.

After many years the journal was published
on time in 1985.

Sales Statement

Sales

1984

in

1985

Compli-

mentary

copies

Balance

stock

31-12-85

The Book of Indian Birds

1469

1489

4

1571

The Book of Indian Animals

692

1213

—

2278

Some Beautiful Indian Trees

225

186

1094

Glimpses of Nature India Booklet

34

81

—

—

Snake Chart

37

38

—

244

Checklist of the Bird of Maharashtra
(2nd edition)

83

92

(Soiled

copies)

1457

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra &
Bharatpur

18

86

407

A Synopsis of the Birds of India
and Pakistan

68

31

1483

Grasses of Western India

66

38

219

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers & Shrubs

162

148

2060

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the
Indian Subcontinent

3811

2285*

3487

A Century of Natural History

269

88

3

2220

The Book of Indian Reptiles

725

460

3813

* including 2130 copies sold by OUP.

736

A.G.M. 1985-86— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Hornbill :

The ‘Hornbill’ continued to maintain its
popular appeal to members with articles on
such varied subjects as contributed by mem-
bers and staff. We continue to receive letters
of encouragement and appreciation from mem-
bers. The financial assistance from the Seth
Purshottamdas Thakurdas Bivaliba Charitable
Trust has been of great assistance. We are
grateful for this timely help.

No new publications were released during
the year. Members will note from the sales
statement given below that the book of
Indian birds continued to be the best
seller among the Society’s publications follow-
ed by the book of Indian animals.

Calendar & Greeting Cards :

The Nature Calendar for 1986 sold 12,060
copies. The Greeting Cards prepared and sold
for the specific purpose of generating funds
for supporting core scientific staff proved to
be a successful endeavour.

Madura Coats who had prepared a folio of
four reproductions from Gould’s ‘Birds of Asia’
in the Society donated sets for sale and addi-
tion to the Society’s funds. We are grateful
to them for this generous help.

We are particularly grateful to M/s Larsen
and Toubro Limited for the donation of
16,000 greeting cards.

Books under preparation :

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN NATURAL
HISTORY

Centenary Publication 1883-1983

Owing to various problems the Encyclopedia
is still pending publication. The major por-
tion of the work has been completed and we
hope to publish this volume in January, 1987.

THE BOOK OF INDIAN TREES

The preparation of the material for this
book by Prof. K. C. Sahni is in hand and
photographs/transparencies of the 150 common
trees in India which will be described are
being collected.

Conservation

The Society continues to be recognised by
the Central and State Governments in India
and by International Organisations abroad as
an authoritative source for information on con-
servation of wildlife and natural resources. The
recognition is expressed in the form of asso-
ciation of its officials with State and Central
Wildlife Advisory Boards and representation
on the specialist groups of the Species Survival
Commission of the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural resources.

University Department

Following students submitted their thesis during 1985 which were accepted by the University.

Student M.Sc. Guide Financial

support

Mr. S. C. Tewari Ecology of the Musk Shrew Suncus Mr. J. C. Daniel Nil

murinus with emphasis on breeding
biology. Food habits, home range and
territoriality.

737

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Student

M.Sc.

Guide

Financial

support

Mr. Ranjit Manakadan

The Ecology of the Great Indian
Bustard Choriotis nigriceps. Habitat.

Mr. J. C. Daniel Nil

Mr. Bharat Bhusan

The Food and Feeding Behaviour of
the Great Indian Bustard Choriotis

-do-

Nil

nigriceps.

Ph.D.

Mrs. Lalitha Vijayan
Mr. Anwar Islam

Comparative Biology of Drongos with
special reference to Ecological isola-
tion.

Ecology of Laughing Thrushes of
India with special reference to the
endemic species.

Dr. Salim Ali
-do-

Fellowship
from Salim
Ali/Loke
Wan Tho
Fund.

-do-

We have the following students registered forM.Sc. and Ph.D. at the Society.

M.Sc.

Mr. Aloysius
Gnanasekar

Ecology of Amphibia of Sanjay
Gandhi National Park.

Mr. J. C. Daniel

Nil

Mrs. Tara Gandhi

Bird communities of exotic tree species
with special reference to Casuarina

Dr. Salim Ali Fellowship
from Salim
Ali/Loke
Wan Tho
Fund.

Mr. Shahid Ali

Ecology and behaviour of the Grey
Partridge Francolinus pondicerianus

-do-

-do-

Mr. Alagar Rajan
Mr. Vibhu Prakash
Mr. Gurmeet Singh

Ecology of Spotted and Ring Doves
Biology of Raptors
Ecology of Bank Myna

Dr. R. B. Grubh
Dr. V. S. Vijayan
Dr. R. B. Grubh

Nil

Nil

Nil

Ph.D. in Field Zoology

Mr. U. Sridharan

Ecology of Resident Ducks in Keola-
deo National Park

Mr. J. C. Daniel

Nil

Mr. Goutam Narayan

Birds of Prey

-do-

Nil

Mr. Manek Mistry

Contributions to the Flora of Ratnagiri
District in Maharashtra.

Prof. P. V. Bole

Nil

M.Sc. in Plant Studies

Mr. H. B. Naithani

Contribution to the Taxonomic Studies
of Bamboos of North Eastern India.

Mr. M. R. Almeida

Nil

738

A.G.M. 1985-86— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Nature Education Scheme

At the beginning of the Academic year 500
schools in Bombay and Thane were contacted
through a circular letter explaining our Nature
Education activities.

Approximately 5,000 students, 180 trainee
teachers, and 102 principals and headmasters
took part in the Nature Education activities.

The Education wing of the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service invited the Nature Education
Organiser to attend a NAEE Conference and
to spend time with environmental education
experts of the International Crane Foundation
(Wisconsin), Tennessee Valley Association,
Knoxville (Tennessee) and others to study
modern methods in nature education. On her
way back from the U.S., the Nature Education
Organiser visited U.K. to familiarise herself with
various conservation education activities under-
taken by the RSPB, the Wildfowl Trust and
the International Centre for conservation edu-
cation.

As a part of the regular activities, 20 field
trips to Borivli National Park and elsewhere
namely Khandala, Karnala and Neral were
organised during the year. Among these 5 were
for municipal schools, 2 for trainee teachers
and 4 were for Jr. Colleges. 900 students from
8th to 11th standard benefited by these field
trips.

Two field trips were conducted specially for
the headmasters and headmistresses at the re-
quest of the Maharashtra Department of Edu-
cation. The objective of bringing Principals to
study nature in the field was to make them
aware of the resources available so that they
would encourage their biology teachers to take
advantage of these facilities.

Teaching through exhibits :

During the year 12 visits to Prince of Wales
Museum, 13 visits to Victoria Garden and 7

visits to the aquarium were arranged. These
visits were mainly arranged for the students
of 5th to 8th standards.

Talks illustrated with Slides and Film Show :

To make students and teachers interested in
the subject, talks illustrated with Slides were
delivered on birds, animals, insects and plants
at different schools, colleges and training
colleges for teachers.

General Remarks :

As a follow up of the Nature Education
Organiser’s visit to U.S. A. and U.K. an action
plan for improving Nature Education methods
was prepared.

The concentration should be on Nature
Orientation courses.

Donations :

The Nature Education Organiser received
several educational packages from different
Zoos and Institutions while touring U.S.A. and
U.K. The International Centre for Environ-
mental Education has kindly donated 10 audio-
visual programmes to the Scheme. Mr. Bittu
Sahgal, Hon Treasurer, BNHS has donated
7 packages of audiovisuals on different natural
history subjects prepared by the National
Geographic Society, U.S.A.

Donations

The Society is deeply grateful to the follow-
ing Institutions, Organisations and individuals
for substantial donations towards the activities
and welfare of the Society.

General donation :

Mr. I. R. Mehta 2000.00

Parashwanath Sami Digambar Jain
Mandir Trust 500.00

Shri T. Gangdeb 300.00

Less than Rs. 200/- 1972.35

739

16

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

Sir Dorabjee Tata Trust for
binding Library Books

10000.00

Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund

B.B.C. Enterprises

Anonymous

Mr. V. Nanjundiah

2469.60

3000.00

400.00

Charles McCann Fund :
Mr. S. Chaudhury

600.00

Plant Study Fund :

Mr. S. Joseph Wright
Others less than Rs. 50/-

586.87

100.00

For Hornbill Newsletter
Seth Purushottamdas Thakurdas
Divaliba Charitable Trust

25000.00

We are very grateful to Tata Engineering &
Locomotive Company for the donation of a
bus for our field and educational activities.

Grants

Air Conditioning of collection
rooms & Library :

On a representation being made on the
national status and importance of the collec-
tions and the specialist library of the Society,
the Government of India was pleased to make
a non-recurring grant of Rs. 9 lakhs towards the
cost of installing an airconditioning system for
the better maintenance of these assets.

Research

National Centre for Ornithology and
Environmental Conservation :

The Government of India, in recognition of
the Society’s pioneer efforts in the study of
ornithology and nature conservation has iden-
tified the Society as the agency to establish a
national centre of excellence in these fields. The
Centre will be fully funded by the Central
Government and organised and administered

by a Society to be set up by us with majority
membership in the Governing Council.

Studies on the movement and population
structure of Indian Avifauna :

Ringing of birds at Rharatpur was not pos-
sible in the absence of permission from the
State Forest Department.

However, ringing was continued at Point
Calimere where 8,284 birds were ringed. Point
Calimere personnel also ran subsidiary ringing
camps at Kokkarabellur in Karnataka, Thatta-
kad bird Sanctuary, and Mootpuzha in Kerala
and Mandapam-Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu.

Recaptures at Point Calimere indicate that
Pycnonotus luteolus is the dominant resident
species, followed by P. cafer and Aegithina
tiphia.

Interesting recoveries are of a Charadrius
mongolus bearing a Hongkong ring and two
Calidris testaceus with Moscow rings. All were
released with BNHS rings.

Plant phenology, land bird communities. In-
sect abundance. Climatic conditions continue
to be monitored.

An Ecological Study of Bird Hazards at
Indian Aerodromes Work at Aerodromes :
Examination of hazards at Dundigul,
Gorakhpur, Patna, Nagpur, Kalaikunda, Cal-
cutta, Tezpur, and Chalnawa commenced.
Over 3,000 copies of the booklet on birds
hazards to aircraft were distributed. The pro-
blems underlying the projects to band vulture
and to study them under captive conditions
were still unresolved.

Ecology of Certain Endangered Species of
Wildlife and Their Habitats :

Great Indian Bustard :

Recommendations for the conservation of
the Bustard in the Karera Sanctuary were pre-
pared as a technical report and circulated.

740

A.G.M. 1985-86— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

The Survey of the bustard in Gujarat was
completed and prepared as a technical report.

The Survey of the Jerdon’s Courser habitat
was published as a technical report.

The annual reports of the Bustard and
Florican studies were published during the
year.

Elephant :

The study of the elephant and its habitat
with the object of preparing a management
plan for the Mudumalai Sanctuary and gene-
rally prepare guidelines for elephant manage-
ment is in progress. The report for the year’s
activities was completed and published.

Hydrobiological ( Ecological ) Research Station
at Keoladeo Ghana National Park, Bharat pur :

The study of the Ecology of the Bharatpur
Avian habitat entered its 5th year. Considera-
ble data has been collected on all parameters
and the factors which influence the ecology of
the sanctuary are now becoming evident.

Reference Collection

During the year 134 specimens were regis-
tered into the collections.

Birds

55

Frogs & Toads

46

Lizards

25

Snakes

6

Mammals

2

134

Library

During the year 1985, 251 books were added
to the Society’s Library of which 163 were
donated, 32 were received as complimentary
copies and 12 for review. 35 books were
purchased for the library and 9 books were
purchased for the projects.

We are very grateful to Mrs. Sam Rerkeley-
Hill who donated to the Society the excellent
personal library of her late husband.

Revenue and Accounts

The financial situation of the Society con-
tinued to a cause for concern though the year’s
working showed a small surplus of
Rs. 21,514.96.

Staff

The Committee wishes to record its appre-
ciation of the willing co-operation of the staff
in the activities of the Society.

741

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

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FUNDS AND LIABILITIES I ASSETS

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A.G.M . 1985-86— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

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757

Bombay Natural History Society Bombay Natural History Society Chartered Accountants

THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY WAS HELD ON 'TUESDAY, THE 30TH DECEMBER 1986 AT 6.00 P.M.
AT HORNBILL HOUSE; WHEN THE FOLLOWING MEMBERS WERE PRESENT:

1.

Prof. D. N. Kulkarni

2.

Mr.

j. C. Daniel

3.

Mr.

M. R. Almeida

4.

Mr.

J. P. Irani

5.

Mr.

N. D. Mulla

6.

Dr.

Robert B. Grubh

7.

Mr.

M. A. Rashid

8.

Mr.

M. D. Agharkar

9.

Mr.

Kisan Mehta

10.

Dr.

R. Reuben

11 .

Mr.

S. D. Swatantra

12.

Dr.

E. K. Bharucha

13.

Mr.

H. Mukherjee

14.

Mr.

Sam J. Bhacka

15.

Mr.

Bittu Sahgal

16.

Mr. Cyrus Guzder

17.

Mr. Humayun Abdula! i

18.

Ms.

P. Mukherjee

19.

Dr.

C. V. Kulkarni (in the chair)

20.

Mr.

Ulhas Rane

21.

Mr.

S. R. Nayak

22.

Mr.

Nitin Jamdar

23.

Mr.

Debi Goenka

24.

Mr.

S. N. Mistry

25.

Mr.

M. K. Mistry

26.

Dr.

A. N. D. Nanavati

27.

Ms.

M. M. Haribal

28.

Mr.

S. A. Hussain

29.

Mr.

A. L. Hegde

30.

Mr.

N. P. Behramfram

31.

Ms.

Heta Pandit

32.

Mr.

K. N. Naoroji

33.

Mr.

V. James

34.

Mr.

H. C. Mistry

35.

Cdr. G.V.K. Unnithan

36.

Mr.

G. L. Kalro

37.

Mr.

R. A. Acharya

oo

CO

Mr.

Suresh G. Bhatkal

39.

Mr.

A. V. Ghangurde

In the absence of the President, the Hono-
rary Secretary, Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, request-
ed Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, the Senior Vice Presi-
dent present at the meeting to take the Chair.
Shri Bittu Sahgal supported the suggestion.

The Chairman welcomed the members and
later drew attention of the members present
to the recent death of Mr. G. V. Bedekar,
LC.S. (Retd.) a former Vice President of the
Society, and of Mr. R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji
who had served both on the Executive and
Advisory Committees of the Society for many
years. A two minutes’ silence was observed,
all standing, as a mark of respect to their
memory.

Agenda item 1 :

The Chairman advised that in accordance
with Resolution 5 of the adjourned A.G.M.
held on 31st January 1986, the draft of the
minutes of the last A.G.M. were to be con-
firmed in the following A.G.M. They were
also to be circulated among members present
at that meeting. After this was done, comments
from seven members were received and for-
warded to the Chairman of the meeting for
his consideration. The finalised minutes were
being placed before the meeting for confirma-
tion.

Mr. N. D. Mulla raised the objection that
note had not been taken of the comments he
had made on the draft minutes. The Chairman,
in reply, read out the letter of Prof. P. V.
Bole, the Vice President, who had presided
over the 1984 A.G.M. Prof. Bole had remark-
ed that it was not possible to produce verbatim
reports in the minutes. The comments made
by members on the draft, were considered and
that the minutes as drafted presented the
correct summary of the discussion.

758

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

There being no other queries on the minutes
circulated, they were confirmed.

The Chairman requested the Honorary
Secretary to present the report for the year
ending 1985. The annual report which had
been circulated among those present was taken
as read. The Honorary Secretary drew atten-
tion to the rediscovery of the Golden Gecko
in 1985, after an interval of 117 years after
its original description. The rediscovery had
been inadvertently omitted from the 1985
report.

The Honorary Secretary then made some
supplementary remarks on items of interest
that had occurred after the year of the report,
namely,

a) Progress made in the negotiations regard-
ing setting up of the Centre for Ornitho-
logy, the legal aspects of which are now
being worked out.

b) The rediscovery of Jerdon’s Courser in
Andhra Pradesh under the Society’s
Endangered Species Project.

c) The conferring of the Order of the Com-
mander of the Golden Ark on Dr Salim
Ali by Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands
for his work on Nature Conservation.

d) He further stated that the fear that
nuclear fall-out from Chernobyl might
have contaminated the migratory birds
which came to India, and that such
migrants could be a danger when they
arrive in India had been set at rest, as
migrant species collected at Bharatpur
had been got tested at the Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre, Bombay, and found
negative for radiation. They were later
ringed and released.

The Honorary Secretary thanked the donors
of major donations received during 1986. The
details would be presented in 1986 annual
report.

He also gave the welcome news that the

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History would
be released on 10th January 1987.

During the discussion on the report Mr.
Humayun Abdulali drew attention to the fact
that the Centre for Ornithology would not be
a part of the Bombay Natural History Society
as originally envisaged but would work inde-
pendently of it. The Honorary Secretary ex-
plained that it was the unanimous decision of
the Executive Committee of the Society that
as the proposed institute would be 100% fund-
ed by Government, it would have government
representatives on its Governing Board. The
Executive Committee felt that the Centre
should be separate from the Society to permit
the Society remain an independent non-
governmental body. However, the Society
would have the majority interest in the admi-
nistration of the Centre.

The Honorary Secretary’s report was then
adopted.

Agenda item 2:

The Chairman requested the Honorary
Treasurer to present the Balance Sheet and
the Statement of Accounts. Copies had been
handed over to those present, and the Hono-
rary Treasurer, Mr Bittu Sahgal, said he would
glad to answer any specific questions from
members present.

Mr. N. D. Mulla wished to know why when
asked for the grant for air-conditioning. Gov-
ernment was not asked for their views on the
recurring expenses involved in the running of
the air-conditioning plant, and whether to cut
down on such expenses, air-conditioning could
be restricted to priority sections of the Society.
He was told that it was impossible to go in for
further compactness in air-conditioning space.
Furthermore though the matter of recurring ex-
penses was taken up in 1983 and 1985 with
Government, and verbal assurances that the re-
curring expenses would be met had been

759

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84

received, it was only after paying the advance
of Rs. 2.96 lakhs to Voltas for installing the
machinery and Rs. 16,000/- to the Munici-
pality as deposit, that the matter of recurring
expenses was reopened with the Government.
The Government while still agreeing to meet
such expenses informed that their representa-
tion on the Society’s Executive Committee
would be necessary. The Honorary Treasurer
advised that there was a strong feeling that
such representation from Government on the
Society’s Executive Committee would be
counter productive for the independent exist-
ence of the Society, and therefore we have to
carefully consider the options before taking a
final decision.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali stated that the State
Government also wished to have representation
on the Society’s Executive Committee. He
questioned the delays in making provision for
these representatives. He also drew attention
to the Extraordinary General Meeting held in
1985 regarding changing of the Society’s rules
and regulations, and wondered why no action
has been taken in the matter.

The Honorary Secretary explained that for
accommodating the State Government the
rules of the Society have to be changed, and
the amendation of rules had to be held in
abeyance, until such time as final negotiations
with Govt, were completed. He also pointed
out that appointing of State Government re-
presentatives might need a referendum.

Mr. N. D. Mulla intervening at this stage
suggested that the referendum which is being

contemplated be used for dual purpose, namely
for inclusion or otherwise of Government
representatives, and also for amending rules
and regulations of the Society.

Mr. Kisan Mehta questioned the delay in
presentation of the accounts when the Govern-
ment Act requires the audited accounts of the
societies/charitable trusts registered under the
Act only approved by the AGM to be filed
with the office of Charity Commissioner within
six months of the closing of the year. Failure
to comply with this legal requirements exposes
the Society and the Executive Committee to
serious action by the government. The Chair-
man, Hon. Secretary and Hon. Treasurer tried
to explain the difficulties encountered in time-
ly completion, however, it was decided to get
the accounts duly audited and placed before
the AGM well in advance so that they can
be filed with the authorities in time. Hon.
Treasurer assured the compliance on time.

The accounts were accepted as presented.
Agenda item 3:

Messrs Habib & Co. were reappointed as
auditors of the Society for ensuing year, on
the same remuneration, with Mr. Kisan Mehta
supporting the suggestion of the Honorary
Treasurer.

Agenda item 4:

Mr. Nitin Jamdar drew attention to the
need to display a board on the Society’s
building giving its name as HORNBILL
HOUSE. This was agreed to.

The meeting terminated with a vote of
thanks.

760

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in
colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations.

(i Price to members Rs . 70)

The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett.

Rs. 10

The Book of Indian Birds, by S&lim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and
many monochrome plates. . {Price to members Rs, 75)

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by S&lim Ali & S.

Dillon Ripley (available to members @ Rs, 115.00)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-
date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. {Price to members Rs, 80)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 4
Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali &
J. D. Panday. Rs. 3.00

The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J. C. Daniel {Price to members Rs, 85)

Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 5
Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and
monochrome plates. 3rd edition (Reprint), {Price to members Rs, 35)
Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many
coloured and monochrome plates. 2nd edition, {Price to members Rs, 85)
Grasses of Western India, by Toby & Patricia Hodd. With 64 monochrome plates,

{Price to members Rs, 37,50)

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Edited by R. E. Hawkins

{Price to members Rs, 215)

A Century of Natural History, Edited by J. C. Daniel {Price to members Rs, 145)

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Kannada Rs, 0,65

2. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi

and Marathi. Rs, 0.80

3 . Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in Gujarati,

and Hindi. Rs. 1.25

TERM® OF MEMBERSHIP

Entrance Fees :

Ordinary and Life Members
Student Members , .

Subscription :

(a) Ordinary individual Members r.-« w

(b) Ordinary Corporate Members

(c) Ordinary Members resident outside India
Life Members

Life members resident outside India
Student Members (without Journal)

Annual subscription to Journal

Rs. 50
Rs. 10

Rs, 75
Rs. 250

•» »! ■* Rs. 350

Rs, mm

(Ra. 250 after 20 yeaas)

sm

'• ji 25

Members residing outside India should pay their subscription bv means ©I orders mu
their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society m Bombay <on the 1st
January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £ 15 should be paid simra&ly >
to the Society’s London Bankers— The Grindlays Bank Ltd., 13, St. James’s Sq,3 London;
SW1Y 4LF. Account No. 1101091,

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December
period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

*

; - *

CONTENTS

Cetaceans (Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises) recorded off Sri Lanka, India,
from the Arabian Sea and Gulf, Gulf of Aden and from the Red Sea.

By P. H. D. H. de Silva 505

Fishes of Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. By A.J.T. Johnsingh

and D. Viickram . . 526

Monkeys of Jaipur, Rajasthan, India ( Macaca mulatto., Presbytis entellus) . By

Linda D. Wolfe and Reena Matiiur — 534

Birds of the Visakhapatnam Ghats, Andhra Pradesh. By S. Dillon Ripley, Bruce

M. Beehler and K. S. R. Krishna Raju . « 540

The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of southern India (Lepidoptera :

Rhopalocera) . By Torben B. Larsen . . 560

A contribution to the Flora of Khatling glacier in the Garhwal Himalaya

(District-Tehri) , U.P. By K. S. Negi, J. K. Tiwari and R. D. Gaur . . 585

Notes on Ecological relationship in basking and nesting site utilisation
among Kachuga spp. (Reptilia, Chelonia) and Gavialis gangeticus (Reptilia,
Crocodilia) in National Chambal Sanctuary. By R. J. Rao and L. A. K.

Singh .. 599

Status of wildlife and habitat conservation in Andhra Pradesh. By K. S. R.

Krishna Raju, A. V. R. G. Krishna Murthy, C. Subba Reddy, N. A. V. Prasad
Reddy, R. Lokaranjan and K. J. N. G. Shankar . . 605

On the sex proportions and maturity trends in Cynoglossus semifasciatus Day

on the west coast during 1980-81. By G. Seshappa and B. K. Chakrapani 620

New Descriptions . . 628

Obituaries . . 657

Reviews . . 660

Miscellaneous Notes ' 664

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year 1985-86 733

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society .. 742

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting . . 758

RN 5685/57

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103
and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole, and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay
Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

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