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JOURNAL
of the
Bombay Natural History
Society
VoL 86, No. 1
April 1989
Rs. 90
r
BOARD OF EDITORS
Botany
Ik V. BOLE
M. R. ALMEIDA
Pisces, Marine Biology
B. F. CHHAPGAR
Herpetology
R. WHITAKER
Executive Editor
J. C DANIEL
Assistant Editor
A. VARADACHARY
Ornithology
H. ABDULALI
R. M. NAIK
Mammalogy
A. J. T. JOHNSINGH
Entomology
B. V. DAVID
J
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication
elsewhere should not be submitted.
2 All words to be printed in italics should be underlined.
3 . Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification
has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually col-
lected.
4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear* with good contrast. Prints
should be at least 8.20 x 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed
paper.
5. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on
Bristol board.
6. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabeti-
cally arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or
periodicals underlined (Italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman
type), thus :
Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal 7. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 55(2) : 243-268.
Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.
7. Each paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis,
normally not exceeding 200 words.
8. Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case
of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among
the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multi-
ples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is in-
formed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost
plus postage and packing.
9 . The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s
contribution earlier than a non-member’s.
Hombill House, Editors,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay
Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society
VOLUME 86(1): APRIL 1989
Date of Publication: 14-8-1989
CONTENTS
Page
THE BOSTAMI TURTLE, Trionyx nigricans ANDERSON: POPULATION STATUS, DISTRIBUTION, HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND AND LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP
By Md. Farid Ahsan and Md.Abu Saeed 1
NOTES ON THE STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF SOME BIRDS IN SRI LANKA AS LISTED IN S.D. RIPLEY (1982) “A
SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN TOGETHER WITH THOSE OF NEPAL, BHUTAN, BANGLADESH
AND SRI LANKA”
By Thilo W. Hoffmann 7
THE PITCHER PLANT {Nepenthes khasiana Hk.F.) SANCTUARY OF JAINTIA HILLS, MEGHALAYA: LESSONS FOR
CONSERVATION (With a text-figure)
By W.A Rodgers and Sangeeta Gupta 17
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE MARBLED TOAD, Bufo stomaticus LUTKEN
By S.K. Battish, Annu Agarwal and Paramjit Singh 22
MAHSEER CONSERVATION - PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
By Prakash Nautiyal 32
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF PUNJAB STATE, NORTH INDIA
By S.S. Bir and Charanpreet Singh 37
BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS-PART XII - Megaderma lyra lyra
(GEOFFROY) (MEGADERMATIDAE) AT DIFFERENT LATITUDES
By A.Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik 42
THE SNAKES OF BURMA - II REDISCOVERY OF THE TYPE SPECIMEN OF Oligodon mcdougalli WITH A DISCUSSION OF
ITS RELATIONSHIPS (With two text-figures)
By H.G. Dowling and J.V. Jenner 46
BIOECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON THREE FIG-LITTER DWELLING SPECIES OF RHYPAROCHROMINAE (INSECTA:
HEMIPTERA: LYGAEIDAE) (With six text-figures)
By Ananda Mukhopadhyay 50
DIET OF THE SMOOTH INDIAN OTTER (Lutra perspicillata) AND OF FISH-EATING BIRDS: A FIELD SURVEY (With six text-
figures)
By Christine Tiler, Megan Evans, Clare Heardman and Susan Houghton 65
NEW DESCRIPTIONS:
A NEW SPECIES OF HERMIT CRAB, Diogenes karwarensis (DECAPODA: ANOMURA) FROM THE WEST COAST OF INDIA
(With two text-figures)
By V.N. Nayak and B.Neelakantan 71
A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS Euphiloscia PACKARD (CRUSTACEA: ISOPODA: ONISCOIDEA) FROM WALTAIR, INDIA
(With eleven text-figures)
By C. Jalaja Kumari, K. Hanumantha Rao and K. Shyamasundari 77
A NEW SPECIES OF Theridion W ALCKENAER (ARANEAE: THERIDIIDAE) FROM INDIA (With three text-figures)
By Kanchan Monga and J.P. Singh 81
Page
A NEW Sonerila ROXB. (MELASTOMATACEAE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA (With nine text-figures)
By R. Gopalan and A.N. Henry 82
Utricular ia malabarica SP. NOV. (LENTIBULARIACEAE): A TERRESTRIAL BLADDERWORT FROM SOUTHERN INDIA
(With sixteen text-figures )
By M.K. Janarthanam and A.N. Henry 84
A NEW SPECIES OF Stixis LOUR. (CAPPARACEAE) FROM MANIPUR (With a text-figure )
By D.B. Deb and R.C. Rout ; . J 86
NEW TAX A OF DESMIDS FROM UTTARA KANNADA DISTRICT, KARNATAKA STATE (INDIA) (With four text-figures )
By G.R. Hegde and S.W. Isaacs 88
REVIEWS:
Nature Conservation: The role of remnants of native vegetation
(reviewed by W. A. Rodgers) 91
Tiger Moon
(reviewed by Pratap Saraiya) 91
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:
MAMMALS:
1. New Locality-Records for Myotis montivagus peytoni
Wroughton & Ryley, 1913, and Murina cyclotis cyclotis
Dobson, 1872 (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) in the Eas-
tern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, India
By M.K. Ghosh 93
2. Endangered Grizzled Giant Squirrel habitat
By K. Ramachandran 94
BIRDS:
3. Incident involving a snake and a Purple Heron
By Md. Nayerul Haque 95
4 . On the parental care of Wood Shrike ( Tephrodornis pondi-
cerianus)
By V. Sundararaman 95
5. Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala (Pennant) swallo-
wing a snake
By Abdul Jamil Urfi 96
6. Baer’s Pochard in Pakistan
By Haider Jang 96
7. An interesting colour phase of the Lesser Goldenbacked
Woodpecker (Dinopium benghalense )
By Lavkumar Khacher 97
8. Unusual feeding behaviour in the Adjutant Stork Leptop-
tilos dubius (Gmelin)
By P.Rao & S. Murlidharan 97
9. Crane migration through Baluchistan: A preliminary re-
port
By Afsar Mian 98
10. Unusual interactions for food
By Rishad Naoroji 100
1 1 . Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata: A rare record
from Kerala
By C. Sasikumar 101
12. On the occurrence and status of Ringed Plover Charadrius
hiaticula (Lowe) in Madras city (southern India)
By V. Santharam 101
13. An hitherto unrecorded nesting site of a Redvented Bulbul
Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus)
By C. Nanjappa 102
14. Redvented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer (Linne.) eating petals
of Magnolia
By J. Mangalraj Johnson 103
15. A note on Roseringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri feeding
on the leaves of Salvadora persica in the Point Calimere
Wildlife Sanctuary
By P. Balasubramanian 103
16. Some observations on the breeding of Paradise Flycatcher
Terpsiphone paradisi (Linnaeus) (Monarchinae)
By S.M.A. Rashid, Anisuzzaman Khan & Raguibuddin
Ahmed 103
17. Occurrence of the Whitecollared Kingfisher Sauropatis
chloris occipitalis (Blyth) in the Great Nicobar Island
By J.M. Dasgupta & Sipra Basuroy 105
REPTILES:
18. First record of a skin nematode on an Indian Mugger
Crocodile ( Crocodylus palustris)
By Romulus Whitaker & Harry Andrews 106
19. Mugger ( Crocodylus palustris) eating soft-shell turtle
By Ranjitsinh 107
20. The Ganges soft-shell turtle ( Trionyx gangeticus Cuvier)
from Vadodara city
By Raju Vyas 107
21. Some observations on growth of the Travancore Tortoise
(Geochelone travancorica)
By L.S. Sane & S.R. Sane 109
BOTANY:
22. Range extension of Chrysopelea ornata Shaw (Reptilia:
Colubridae) with comments on the distribution of some
snakes in north India
By D. Basu 1,10
23 . Melanistic form of the Royal Snake ( Spalerosphis diadema
Schlegel)
By Raju Vyas 112
INSECTS:
24. Record of Synegia sp. (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) infes-
ting Black Pepper ( Piper nigrum L.)
By T. Premkumar & S. Devasahayam 112
25. Erythmelus helopeltidis Gahan (Hymenoptera: Mymari-
dae) - A new egg parasite of Helopeltis antonii Signoret on
cashew
By S. Devasahayam 113
26. Studies on Coelophora bisellata Muls. (Coleoptera: Coc-
cinellidae). 1. Field recognition of different larval instars
and the traits of pupae and adults
By M. Rhamhalinghan 114
27. Hitherto unrecorded plant from Upper Gangetic plain with
its ethnobotanical uses
By D.C. Sami, S.K. Singh & Suresh Singh 118
28. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. - A new re-
cord for north-western Himalaya
By Y.P.S. Pangtey & S.S. Samant 119
29. A note on the synonymy of Hyptianthera Wt. & Am. and
Petunga DC. with Hypobathrum Bl. (Rubiaceae)
By D.B. Deb 121
30. An enumeration of fern-allies of Naini Tal (western Hi-
malaya)
By Y.P.S. Pangtey & S.S. Samant 121
EDITORIAL
The Journal of the BNHS begins its 86th year with a new look. A board of
editors, consisting of leading experts in their respective fields of interest, has
been constituted. This, we hope, will streamline the process of acceptance
(and modification where needed) of papers.
The method of production of the Journal, too, has been changed. We have
moved from the traditional letterpress printing to the offset process, which is
quicker and gives better results. Page composing will now be done in-house,
using computer software that can be upgraded, costs permitting, as and
when improved programme versions become available.
With these changes, we have been able to reduce the number of pages
(paper costs are rising sharply) without reducing the amount of text. This
issue contains roughly the same material as do earlier issues.
The need for conservation of wildlife and habitats has never been more
urgent. Our members have been generous with their support; and with their
continued help, we are sure the Society will continue to fight, on the basis of
well-researched information, for conservation in India.
J.C. Daniel
Executive Editor
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY
March 1989 Vol. 86 No. 1
THE BOSTAMI TURTLE, TRIONYX NIGRICANS ANDERSON:
POPULATION STATUS, DISTRIBUTION, HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND AND LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP1
Md. Farid Ahsan2 and Md. Abu Saeed3
A study was conducted on the population status, distribution, historical background and
length-weight relationship of Bostami turtle, Trionyx nigricans Anderson, between September
1984 and August 1986. Total population has been estimated as 320 individuals. A significant
length-weight relationship was obtained (P 0.001 ), where the values of ‘r’ were 0.959 for CL/CW,
0.921 for CL/TW and 0.965 for CW/TW.
Introduction
The freshwater turtle, Trionyx nigricans is
endemic to Bangladesh (Khan 1982a). Ander-
son (1875) first identified T. nigricans from a
couple of specimens at the Indian museum
which were collected from a “Tank of Chitta-
gong.” Annandale (1914) gave a common name
“Chittagong mud turtle” to this taxon. Howe-
ver, Khan (1980) suggested a new name, Bos-
tami turtle, as “this turtle does not have a com-
mon English name and is not found anywhere
other than in the Bayazid Bostami Pond.” In
'Accepted October 1987.
Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, University
of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh.
Scientific Officer, Prawn Hatchery and Research Centre,
Allah- Wala Limited, Majerghat, Cox, Bazar, Bangladesh.
4Locally pronounced Bostami.
the present work Khan’s name has been follo-
wed, though sometimes it is locally called ’Ga-
zari’ or ’Madari.’
In Bangladesh, scientific study of this turtle
has so far been very limited. Ahamed (1955),
Shafi and Quddus (1977), and Husain (1979)
reported some preliminary information regar-
ding turtles and tortoises of Bangladesh, but
none of them mentioned the Bostami turtle.
Since Annandale (1914), Khan’s works (1980,
1982a, b and 1987) have been the only studies
on the Bostami turtle. Recently, Haque (1985),
and Ahsan and Haque (1986) studied the bree-
ding ecology and ethology of the Bostami tur-
tle. Apparently the species has never existed in
the wild state, but a semi-captive colony has
become established in an enclosed pond of the
shrine of Hazrat Sultan Bayazid Bistami4 of
Chittagong. The shrine is about 6.5 km north-
2
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
west of Chittagong City.
The objectives of the present study were:
I. to assess the distribution and present
status; II. to determine the age-
composition and sex-ratio; III. to trace
out the historical background, and IV. to
find out the length-weight relationship of
Bostami turtle.
Study Area
The shrine of the famous saint Hazrat Sultan
Bayazid Bistami is situated on a hillock at Na-
sirabad, an industrial area of Chittagong City.
Formerly, it was an idyllic spot of scenic beau-
ty about 6.5 km to the north-west of Chittagong
City. It lies at c. 22° IF N and 99° 09’ E. The
Bostami pond is situated at the foot of a hill
about 50 metres in height, the top of which has
the ’astana’ and ’chilla’ of the shrine of Hazrat
Sultan Bayazid Bistami. The pond has been
excavated and expanded many times. Curren-
tly it is about 94.64 m by 61 .27 m and rectan-
gular in shape.
The water depth of the pond fluctuates in
different seasons. During the monsoon, it may
rise upto about 5 m or so which goes down to
about 2.5 m before the onset of the next mon-
soon. The source of water in the pond is mainly
rainfall. The water in the pond is more or less
clear except during the monsoon.
The concrete area wall surrounding the
pond supports mainly algae, mosses and some
plants like ferns, grasses, etc. The following
trees are mainly found on the bank: Kanthal
( Artocarpus heterophyllus ), Dab ( Cocos nuci-
fera ), Aam (Mangifera indica) and Jam ( Syzy -
gium cumini).
The study period extended between Sep-
tember 1984 and August 1986.
Methods
Census technique: The population status
was determined by directly counting the turtles
following capture, mark and release method
(modified from Joly 1965 and Plummer 1977).
Both the ’Dargah’ pond and adjacent ditches
were included in the study. The turtles have
been categorised into adult males, adult fe-
males, and young. Young were identified by
their comparatively smaller size. Generally,
adult males are larger than the adult females.
The male and female were distinguished except
in a few cases by the following characters.
1) The tail of the female is shorter than that of
male, and does not protrude outside the
carapace.
2) The carapace of the female is less oval than
that of the male.
3) The body of the female is thicker than that
of the male.
4) The distance between the two hind legs of
the female is greater than that in the male.
5) Adult males are much larger than females.
For counting, individual turtles were mar-
ked with a water- proof “Epoxy paint” after
cleaning and drying an area of the carapace.
Historical background: The history of the
turtles was traced by searching through litera-
ture, interviewing the local people and through
discussions with the historians of the Univer-
sity of Chittagong.
Length- weight relationship: A total of 100
(54 males and 46 females) specimens were ran-
domly selected and measured for this purpose.
Measurements of length, width and weight
were taken to the nearest cm and kg respecti-
vely.
The following measurements were taken for
each specimen.
a) Carapace-length : Carapace length was
measured from the point of dorsal anterior-
most edge of the carapace to the point of
dorsal posterior-most edge of the same. The
measurement invariably corresponded to
the vertical line.
b) Carapace-width : Carapace-width was mea-
sured from the points between both the dor-
sal side edges of the carapace where the
width was highest. The measurement point
invariably corresponded to about anterior
one- third of the carapace length.
c) Total wet-weight : Each live specimen was
lifted out of water and placed inside a gunny
bag and then weighed with the help of a
spring balance. The actual weight of each
specimen was determined by deducting the
weight of the gunny bag from the total wet-
weight.
THE BOSTAMI TURTLE , T. NIGRICANS
3
Results and Discussion
Population status: In all, 284 turtles were
counted in the Bostami pond and 16 in a separa-
te ditch. The counting was spread over a period
of five continuous days. As the turtles spend
some time lying buried under mud, it might be
possible that a few individuals were missed.
However, it is suggested that not more than 320
were available at that time. Of the counted
turtles, 162 (54%), 108 (36%) and 30(10%) were
male, female and young respectively. The ratio
of adult male-female was 1.5:1.
Khan estimated 150 to 200 turtles in 1980
and 200 in 1982a in the Bostami pond of which
30-40 were young, 60-90 juveniles, and 60-70
adult or old animals. However, his estimates
were merely assumptions. The East Pakistan,
District Gazetteers, Chittagong, Rizv 1970, re-
ported several hundred turtles in the Bostami
pond while Ali ( 1 964) reported the pond as a big
tank containing a huge number of turtles.
Plummer (1977) recorded the sex-ratio of T.
muticus as 6.8:1 adult male and female and
1.98: 1 all male and female (60 mm or larger in
size) which varied seasonally. In the present
study the adult male-female sex-ratio of T. ni-
gricans was 1.5:1. This variation might be due
to habitat and geographical distribution of the
species. T. muticus was studied in a river while
T. nigricans is from a pond.
Distribution: T. nigricans is an endemic spe-
cies of Bangladesh (Khan 1982a). Khan (1980,
1982 a & b) and Annandale (1914) reported that
T. nigricans was found only in a pond attached
to the shrine of Bayazid Bostami. We found
that besides the Bostami pond the turtles are
also present in the adjacent ditches which they
have possibly invaded from the Bostami pond.
The turtles in the ditches were mostly females.
The females wandered out for egg-laying and
could not return to the pond due to many rea-
sons. Probably the female turtles got into the
nearest water body after egg-laying, and then
lost their way and ultimately become separated
from the original stock by some barriers like
boundary walls, buildings etc.
Historical background: The Bostami turtle is
not only an endemic species in Bangladesh, it is
restricted, as far as is known, to the Bostami
area of Chittagong City. There exists a strong
religious belief about these turtles and their
attachment to the shrine of Saint Bayazid Bis-
tami. These two things interested us enough to
trace out its historical background. The Bos-
tami turtle has been named so, after the saint
Sultan al-Arefm Hazrat Bayazid Bistami.
Almost no information on the historical
background of T. nigricans is on record. There
is a tale that these turtles were brought into the
Bostami pond by the Saint himself. Locally, it
is also believed that these turtles were once
sinful men associated with the Saint who chan-
ged them into turtles as a punishment for their
wickedness. There is another belief that these
turtles were scared and ’djinns’ (evil spirits)
brought by the Saint himself. They were turned
into the present shape because they incurred
the wrath of the Saint.
However, the general belief is that the fa-
mous Iranian Sufi, Sultan al-Arefm Hazrat
Bayazid Bistami is buried in this shrine, and so,
the whole area has been named Bayazid Bos-
tami and the road in front is called Bayazid
Bostami Road after him. The influence of the
shrine ’dargah’ or ’mazar’ in the minds of the
local people may be gauged from this. Sultan
Bayazid Bistami is a historical figure. He was
born in 777 A.D. at Bistam in Iran and died in
874 A.D. (Ali 1964). His mazar is actually situa-
ted in Bistam (Arberry 1963). So, there is no
’mazar’ of the Saint in the shrine. It is an ’as-
tana’ and ’chilla’ associated with the name of
the great Saint. In the 15th century there was a
king in Bengal named Shihab al-din Bayazid
Shah. Possibly it is his grave and his name
might have been modified as Sultan Bayazid
Bistami by some followers. However, it is
known that Bayazid Bistami once came to sind
to meet his teacher Abu Ali Sindhi and then he
might have visited Chittagong (Huda 1985). If
so, he might have carried the turtles with him
here. So, the species might be present in Iran,
Sind or other places from where he collected it.
But there is no record of these turtles except
from Chittagong (Bayazid Bostami area). This
turtle ( T . nigricans ) may be a synonym of an
other species of the genus Trionyx or may be a
sub-species or variety of a species of Trionyx.
There is an assumption (Khan 1987) that the
4
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Bostami turtle has evolved from Trionyx gan-
geticus as a result of long isolation.
Length-weight relationship: In general, kno-
wledge about the length-weight relationship is
very useful in fisheries management and po-
pulation analysis.
A size frequency distribution data of 100
specimens are given in Table 1. The minimum
and maximum values respectively were 39 cm
and 78 cm. in case of carapace-length (CL)* 33
cm and 71 cm in case of carapace-width (CW)
and 07 kg and 54 kg in case of total body wet-
weight (TW) (Appendix). The mean of CL was
62 ± 10.16 cm, of CW was 53.27 ± 9.27 cm and
of TW was 28.92 ± 12.71 kg.
Mathematical relationships between cara-
pace-length, carapace- width and total wet bo-
dy-weight were determined from the data given
in Table 1 . The regression values were calcula-
ted (Table 2).
From the correlation co-efficient values (Ta-
ble 2) and scattered diagrams (Figs. 1 to 3) a
highly significant linear relationship became
evident between CL and CW, CL and TW, and
CW and TW.
Size frequency distribution (Table 1) sho-
wed that the males are generally larger than the
females. The male population showed that 64-
78 cm length group size was dominant and in
case of the female 39-53 cm length group size
was dominant.
During the present study it has been found
that turtles of the same length widely differed
in total body wet- weight. For instance, five
specimens with a carapace length of 73 cm had
17, 45, 38, 37 and 42 kg body wet- weight (Ap-
pendix).
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Mr. Muhammad Shah
Table 1
RELATIONSHIP OF CARAPACE-LENGTH AND TOTAL BODY-WET-WEIGHT (FOR OBSERVED AND CALCULATED
WEIGHT) IN 8 SIZE GROUPS IN T. nigricans (NO. OF MALE = 44, NO. OF FEMALE = 56)
Size
Sex
Mean carapace
Mean Total body
group
M-Male
length (CL)
wet-weight (TW)
in cm
F-Female
in cm
in kg
C-combined
*(TW)
**(TW)
39-43
M
F-5
41.6
8.4
8.4
C
44-48
M
F-7
46.43
11.57
11.56
C
49-53
M
F-14
49.86
14.28
14.26
C
54-58
M-3
57.67
19.67
19.67
F-6
54.83
18
17.99
C-9
55.78
18.55
18.54
59-63
M-6
62.25
30.25
30.24
F-2
60
23.5
23.5
C-8
61.5
28
28
64-68
M-18
66.28
34
34
F-6
66
33.33
33.31
C-24
66.21
33.5
33.4
69-73
M-26
70.88
39.27
39.27
F-3
70.33
39
39
C-29
70.83
39.24
39.23
74-78
M-5
76.2
48.4
48.3
F-l
74
50
49.99
C-6
75.83
48.67
48.67
*TW — observed value, **TW — Calculated value.
THE BOSTAMI TURTLE, T. NIGRICANS
5
Table 2
CALCULATED VALUES OF STANDARD DEVIATION, REGRESSION CO-EFFICIENTS, INTERCEPT AND CORRELA-
TION CO-EFFICIENT IN THE CL/CW, CL/TW AND CW/TW RELATIONSHIP IN BOSTAMI TURTLE T. nigricans
Relationship
between
Values
of
sd (x)
Values
of
sd (y)
Values
of reg-
ression
Values
of inte-
rcept
(a)
Values of
correlat-
ion co-
Ordi.
(x)
Abscl.
(y)
co-effi-
cient
(b)
efficient
(r)
CL
cw
± 9.27
± 10.16
0.87472
— 1.00264
0.959
(P< 0.001)
CL
TW
± 12.71
± 10.16
1.15279
— 42.55298
0.921
(P< 0.001)
cw
TW
± 12.71
± 9.27
1.323310
— 41.508613
0.965
(P< 0.001)
Alam, Chairman, Department of Zoology,
University of Chittagong for all possible de-
partmental facilities.
We wish to express our heartfelt regards to
Dr. Md. Ali Reza Khan, Curator, Al-Ain Zoo
& Aquarium, Abu-Dhabi, UAE for his kind
advice, inspiration and encouragement in
doing this research work.
We are highly grateful to the authorities of
Refer
Ahamed, N. (1955): On edible turtles and tortoises of
East Pakistan. Directorate of Fisheries, East Pakistan. 18
pp.
Ahsan, M.F. & Haque, M.N. (1986): Breeding ecology
, and etho- logy of Bostami turtle, Trionyx nigricans Ander-
son, 1875. 5th Nat. Zool. Conf.: 31 (Abstract).
All S. M. (1964): History of Chittagong. Standard Pu-
blishers Ltd., Dacca- 1. V +178 pp +xxxvnpp.
Anderson, J. (1875): Description of some new Asiatic
mammals and Chelonia. Ann. and Mag. N. Hist. 16 (4):
282-285.
Annandale, N. (1914): Relics of the worship of mud-
turtles (Trionychidae) in India and Burma. J. Asiatic Soc.
Bengal. 10(5): 131-134.
Arberry, A.J. (1963): Sufi-ism-an account of the Mys-
tics of Islam. George Allen and Unwin, London. 141 pp.
Haque, M.N. (1985): Breeding ecology and ethology tf
Bostami turtle. Trionyx nigricans Anderson, 1875. M.Sc.
Project, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. 41 pp.
Huda, S.M. (1985): The saints and shrines of Chitta-
gong. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh
275 + ix pp.
the Bayazid Bostami Dargah Committee for
permission and help in doing this work.
Our deepest appreciation is extended to Md.
Nurul Haque, Md. Jamal Uddin and Aru bindo
Paul for their helpful co-operation.
Finally our sincerest thanks to Dr. Abdul
Gafur Khan, Assistant Professor, Department
of Zoology, University of Chittagong for revie-
wing the draft of the paper.
E N C E S
Husain, K.Z. (1979): Bangladesher bonyajontu swam-
pad O tar Songrakhshan. (Bengali). Bangladesh Academy
Bijnan Patrika. 5(3): 29-31.
Jolly, G. M. (1965):Explicit estimates from capture
recapture data with both death and immigration - stochas-
tic model. Biometrika 52 : 225-247 (im Plummer, 1977).
Khan, M. A .R. (1980): A’holy' turtle of Bangladesh
Hornbill, 4:7-11.
(1982a): Chelonians ofBangladesh and ther
conservation. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(1) : 110-116.
(1982b): Wild-life of Bangladesh - a checklist
University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 173 pp.
(1987): BangladesherBanyapranii. (Bengali)
Bangla Academi, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 168 pp.
Plummer, M.V. (1977):Activity, habitat and popula
tion structure in the turtle. Trionyx muticus. Copeia. 3:
431-440.
Rizv, S.N. ed. (1970): The East Pakistan District Ga-
zetteers, Chittagong. East Pakistan Govt. Press, Dacca.
Shafi, M. &Quddus, M. M. A. (1977): Bangladesher
mothshya swampad. (Bengali). Bangla Academi Bijnan
Potrika, 3(2): 14-36.
6
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Appendix
CARAPACE-LENGTH, CARAPACE-WIDTH AND TOTAL WET-BODY WEIGHT OF 100 SPECIMENS OF T. nigricans
SI. No.
Carapace
Carapace
Total wet-body
Sex
SI. No.
Carapace
Carapace
Total wet-body
Sex
length (CL)
width (CW)
Weight (TW)
length (CL)
width (CW)
Weight (TW)
in cm
in cm
in kg.
in cm
in cm
in kg.
L
65
58
47
M
51.
67
58
31
M
2.
75
63
47
M
52.
70
61
43
M
3.
54
48
18
F
53.
57
47
19
M
4.
64
53
27
M
54.
73
61
38
M
5.
49
42
12
F
55.
49
41
13
F
6.
73
64
17
M
56.
57
49
20
F
7.
67
56
31
M
57.
71
60
40
F
8.
49
42
14
F
58.
67
60
34
M
9.
73
63
36
M
59.
70
62
37
M
10.
49
45
16
F
60.
41
37
09
F
11.
72
64
54
M
61.
45
39
12
F
12.
50
42
14
F
62.
73
62
37
M
13.
68
57
35
M
63.
70
58
42
M
14.
44
34
09
F
64.
73
65
42
M
15.
73
71
45
F
65.
50
42
13
F
16.
69
57
31
M
66.
65
54
31
M
17.
68
64
40
F
67.
69
59
36
M
18.
70
60
38
M
68.
66
56
33
M
19.
68
61
36
F
69.
67
56
34
M
20.
67
58
35
F
70.
61
50
25
M
21.
71
64
41
M
71.
47
41
15
F
22.
68
57
35
M
72.
58
47
22
M
23.
74
68
50
F
73.
43
39
09
F
24.
71
61
43
M
74.
71
60
38
M
25.
55
43
15
F
75.
78
62
49
M
26.
64
60
34
F
76.
70
62
42
M
27.
48
42
13
F
77.
68
57
33
M
28.
63
58
33
M
78.
76
66
46
M
29.
70
60
34
M
79.
47
42
09
F
30.
66
53
31
M
80.
50
45
16
F
31.
77
63
49
M
81.
71
61
40
M
32.
63
51
29
M
82.
49
39
14
F
33.
71
64
46
F
83.
49
41
13
F
34.
46
40
12
F
84.
52
47
15
F
35.
75
65
51
M
85.
70
60
39
M
36.
65
53
22
M
86.
71
60
40
M
37.
65
56
36
M
87.
49
42
16
F
38.
70
61
47
M
88.
69
61
37
M
39.
55
49
21
F
89.
72
61
41
M
40.
68
64
43
M
90.
54
47
16
F
41.
50
42
15
F
91.
67
56
32
M
42.
64
56
31
M
92.
69
59
35
M
43.
64
53
27
F
93.
53
44
16
F
44.
65
50
32
F
94.
50
42
13
F
45.
54
45
18
F
95.
62
56
34
M
46.
43
35
08
F
96.
42
35
09
F
47.
66
58
34
M
97.
58
49
18
M
48.
70
61
36
M
98.
60
50
23
F
49.
48
40
11
F
99.
60
49
24
F
50.
69
63
43
M
100.
39
33
07
F
7
NOTES ON THE STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF SOME BIRDS IN SRI LANKA
AS LISTED IN S. D, RIPLEY (1982) “A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND
PAKISTAN, TOGETHER WITH THOSE OF NEPAL, BHUTAN, BANGLADESH
AND SRI LANKA.
Thilo W. Hoffmann* 2
These notes refer to omissions, inaccuracies
and changes relating to the status and distribu-
tion of some birds in Sri Lanka as given not
only in Ripley’s synopsis, but also in the 10
volume HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PA-
KISTAN by Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley (1968-
74; also 2nd Edition Vols. 1 - 5). The list of
amendments is quite appreciable. In 1981,
when I first had occasion to look through Vol. 2
of the 2nd Edition of the handbook, I wrote to
Dr Salim Ali and the contents of that letter
were subsequently published in the JBNHS
(Hoffmann 1983). That note only dealt with
some waders, whereas the present paper has
taken account of the full range of species of
birds which are found in Sri Lanka. Charac-
teristically, waterbirds, especially waders,
provide by far the greatest number of new re-
cords and new information about distribution
and status.
I have edited the Ceylon Bird Club Notes
(CBCN) since 1971, and it is chiefly on the
basis of these monthly Notes that the present
paper was written, though much of the infor-
mation is founded on my own observations.
The monthly Ceylon Bird Club Notes (50-70
foolscap pages of stenciled material per annum
since 1944) are mailed to the Bombay Natural
History Society, and Dr. Dillon Ripley is a
subscriber. It is suggested that more attention
be paid to these Notes which come with an
annual Species Index.
In. the following text, the numbers given
against each species are identical with those in
the Synopsis and the Handbook. The relevant
statement in the Synopsis is quoted within in-
verted commas.
7. Whitefronted Shearwater ( Procellaria
leucomelaena).
“Accidental. A single specimen was
obtained off Sri Lanka in 1884”.
'Accepted June 1987.
229, Baur’s Building, Colombo 1, Sri Lanka.
A sight record off Talaimannar in Sep-
tember 1978 (van den Berg 1982).
13a. Jouanin’s Gadfly Petrel (Bulweria
fallax).
“May occur in Indian waters”
Sri Lanka not mentioned. One was
collected at Colombo in January 1978
(Kotagama 1980). New record.
14. Wilson’s Storm Petrel ( Oceanites
oceanic us oceanic us).
“....Sri Lanka, where it is apparently
common in summer (May-No vember,
Gulf of Mannar)”.
Considerable numbers of this petrel
accompany the annual north-south
post-breeding mass dispersal of
Brown-winged Terns ( Sterna anaethe-
tus) along the west coast of Sri Lanka,
first discovered and described by me
in September 1972 (CBCN 1972: 42,
1982: 55-57, see also van den Berg
1982).
25. Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster
plot us).
“... recorded off the Malabar and Sri
Lanka coasts in the north-east mon-
soon”.
A straggler to the Sri Lanka coasts;
seen in Colombo in February- April,
also east coast and as part of the an-
nual post-breeding dispersal of
Brown-winged Terns in August-
September.
50. Indian Reef Heron (Egretta gularis
schistacea).
“The seaboard of ...northwestern Sri
Lanka”.
The Reef Heron has in recent years
been seen on all coasts of Sri Lanka, in
Colombo, Bentota, the Hambantota
area in the south and the east coast.
8
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 86
59. Bittern ( Botaurus stellaris).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. A specimen
now in the Colombo Museum, was ob-
tained at Panadura on the west coast
on 14.10.1985 (CBCN 1985: 49). A
probable sight record in March 1987 at
Deniyaya. New record.
63. White Stork ( Ciconia ciconia).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. Rare winter
vagrant to Sri Lanka. Noted already in
last century (Legge) but several relia-
ble sight records in last 25 years in
different parts of the low country,
mostly in the south (CBCN).
66. Blacknecked Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus
asiaticus ).
“Resident ... Sri Lanka”.
This bird has become very rare in Sri
Lanka, only a few breeding pairs being
known from the Yala National Park
complex; the nest has never been
found. An endangered species in Sri
Lanka.
68. Lesser Adjutant ( Leptoptilos java-
nicus ).
“Resident ... Sri Lanka”.
Declining to the extent of becoming
endangered due to loss of undisturbed
breeding sites.
7 1 . Glossy Ibis ( Plegadis falcinellus falci-
nellus).
“A migrant to Sri Lanka”.
A breeding resident in the last century,
both in the North and South. Then it
disappeared and was not seen for
many years. In the last 3 decades the
species has been observed in increa-
sing numbers throughout the year and
may actually again be breeding in the
Kalametiya Sanctuafy (south coast
near Tangalle).
73. Flamingo ( Phoenicopterus roseus )
“Resident ... Sri Lanka”.
Formerly mainly a winter visitor in
varying but sometimes large numbers
from the Rann of Kachchh. Of late
recorded throughout the year but not
known to breed in Sri Lanka. Suitable
feeding sites more and more subject to
disturbance and conversion into sal-
terns or aquaculture projects (e.g.
Karagan Lewaya at Hambantota, sal-
terns at Elephant Pass).
103. Wigeon ( Anas penelope).
“Sparse and irregular in Sri Lanka”.
Till 1980 only 4 records, then in No-
vember several hundred were seen in
the Jaffna Peninsula (CBCN 1980: 56).
Over 10,000 were recorded in the Jaf-
fna Peninsula during the 1983 mid-
winter waterfowl count. In 1984 there
were over 12,000 in Jaffna and 6,000 in
the Mannar area. It would appear that
large numbers of this duck now re-
gularly visit the North of Sri Lanka
during the winter; very few, however,
penetrate to the south of the country,
in contrast to Pintail and Garganey.
111. Tufted Duck {Ay thy a fuligula).
“Migrant to Sri Lanka (one record)”
There are two records, the second
from Giant’s Tank near Mannar in
1962 (Phillips 1978).
126. Blyth’s Baza ( Aviceda jerdoni ); in Sri
Lanka called Legge’ s or Ceylon
Brown Baza.
“In evergreen biotope up to c.900 m”.
Most recent sightings of this raptor
were in well shaded tea areas, where
the bird also breeds, and montane
forest at altitudes between 1800 and
1900 m (Nuwara Eliya).
133. Pariah Kite {Milvus migrans govinda).
“Resident throughout the subconti-
nent and Sri Lanka”.
In Sri Lanka this species is confined to
the coastal areas of the north of the
island (Mannar, Jaffna) and very rare-
ly is a straggler reported from other
coastal points. Most birds seem to be
winter migrants from South India.
NOTES ON SOME BIRDS IN SRI LANKA
9
151. Besra Sparrow-Hawk ( Accipiter virga-
tus besra).
“In heavy evergreen and moist-
deciduous forest”.
In Sri Lanka this species is also found
in the Dry Zone monsoon forest (dry
deciduous forest).
153. Longlegged Buzzard ( Buteo rufinus).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. A first-year
bird of this species was closely obser-
ved in January 1988 at Horton Plains
(2100 m) by Ben King with James and
Robert Clements. A new record.
161. Crested Hawk-Eagle ( Spizaetus cir-
rhatus andamanensis).
“In deciduous and semi-evergreen
forest”.
This species is found in Sri Lanka in all
climatic zones .which include heavy
evergreen forests in the Wet and Hill
Zones.
187. Egyptian Vulture ( Neophron percnop-
terus ginginianus).
“Straggler to Sri Lanka”.
A single reliable record in 1874 (Phil-
lips 1978). Not seen since.
211. Shahin Falcon ( Falco peregrinus pere-
grinator).
“Resident ... Sri Lanka. Affects rug-
ged hills”.
This handsome and quite rare race of
the Peregrine Falcon has of late also
taken to towns; for instance indivi-
duals can be observed in Colombo for
months on end. Whether it also breeds
in towns is not known.
242. Painted Partridge ( Francolinus pictus
watsoni).
“Resident. Sri Lanka in the dry zone
of Uva Province, up to c. 1200 m”.
This endemic subspecies has become
very rare, as natural habitats in its for-
mer stronghold, the rolling grass hills
(patnas) of the Uva Plateau (average
elevation 1000 m), have all but disap-
peared since the war, due to heavy
settlement and intensive vegetable
cultivation on even the steepest slo-
pes. Still found in the small Gal Oya
National Park and west of it in the
eastern foothills. An endangered spe-
cies.
246. Grey Partridge ( Francolinus pondi-
cerianus pondicerianus) .
“Sri Lanka in the Jaffna Peninsula and
northwestern coastal islands”.
This partridge has extended its range
southward along the west coast as far
as about Chilaw, and in the east is
found as far as Mullaitivu. Like many
birds (e.g. ducks and waders) and
other wildlife, this species profits from
the ethnic trouble which currently pla-
gues Sri Lanka and virtually precludes
hunting.
279. Ceylon Spurfowl (Gallop erdix bical-
carata).
“Resident. Sri Lanka, in the Eastern
and Uva Provinces”.
This endemic species is found throu-
ghout the Wet Zone in the west and
south of the island wherever there is
any tall forest left (e.g. Labugama near
Colombo, Sinharaja, etc.), right up to
the highest hills (e.g. Horton Plains,
2100 m); it is also found in undisturbed
forest in the eastern foothills.
350. Coot (Fulica atra atra ).
“Resident and winter visitor, throu-
ghout the subcontinent and Sri
Lanka”.
In Sri Lanka this waterbird was first
noted in 1924 and has since then been
confined to the Giant’s Tank area near
Mannar. In recent years it has, howe-
ver, spread to tanks (reservoirs) in the
Anuradhapura area, and recently one
was seen in the extreme south. Bree-
ding not known to occur but several
pairs with young have been observed
on a tank near Thirukethiswaram
10
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Temple (Mannar District) in May and
July 1984, as well as in June 1985. Thus
this species is now a scarce breeding
resident in Sri Lanka.
370. Yellow- wattled Lapwing ( Vanellus
malabaricus).
“Sri' Lanka in the low-country dry
zone”
This species is not generally found in
the dry zone, but very localized in de-
fined coastal areas (e.g. Yala National
Park, Pomparippu plain in Wilpattu
National Park, open plains in the Man-
nar area).
376. Caspian Plover (Charadrius asiaticas
asiaticus ).
“Migrant. Recorded from the coast of
Bombay, Sri Lanka and Maidive Is.”.
Until recently there were only two re-
cords of this bird in Sri Lanka (Phillips
1978), but in 1985 several were seen in
Yala National Park and the Bundala
Sanctuary. 6 fcirds were observed in
the Bundala Sanctuary in 1986/87. In
winter plumage this species is difficult
to identify and is easily mistaken for
the Lesser Sand Plover ( Charadrius
mongolus atrifrons ), a common winter
visitor, and may thus be overlooked.
378. Ringed Plover ( Charadrius hiaticula
tundrae).
“Winter visitor or straggler. Only a
half-dozen records”.
Sri Lanka not mentioned. Like other
rare waders, this bird has been recor-
ded more frequently in the recent past.
Phillips (1978) mentions several sight
records, the first in 1944, the second in
1973. At least 4 were reliably reported
between January and April 1987, ^4 in
1986, 7 in 1985 and 4 in 1983. Obvious-
ly individuals of this species are also
overlooked.
389. Blacktailed Godwit ( Limosa limosa li-
mosa).
“Winter visitor to Pakistan and north-
western India... decreasing south-
wards to the southern peninsula and
Sri Lanka”.
Considered a migrant to Sri Lanka till
after the war. Numbers of regular win-
tering birds have increased so much in
recent years that it must now be regar-
ded as a common and plentiful winter
visitor to the coastal regions of the Dry
Zone both in the North and South;
roosts of up to 5000 have been obser-
ved. Today this bird can be seen in
winter at every suitable coastal loca-
tion; non-breeding birds loiter throu-
ghout the summer.
403 . Asian Dowitcher ( Limnodromus semi-
palmatus).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. In July 1982
one was seen at Hambantota (CBCN
1982: 28b). A new record.
411. Woodcock ( Scolopax rusticola rusti-
cola ).
“Scarce in Sri Lanka above c. 1500
m”.
Recently (December 1986) one was
obtained in a coastal garden at
Colombo (CBCN 1986: 56) and ano-
ther was seen in March 1987 in a marsh
near Colombo (CBCN 1987: 27).
412. Knot ( Calidris canutus canutus).
“Straggler : Sri Lanka”.
Not as rare as previously thought. In
recent years a few are recorded an-
nually, especially from the area
around Mannar but also the south
(CBCN).
413. Eastern (or Great) Knot ( Calidris te-
nuirostris).
“Isolated records from Assam, Cal-
cutta and Madras”.
Sri Lanka not mentioned. First sight
record of 4 birds by Ben King in March
1981 at Mannar (CBCN 1981: 24). Se-
veral in 1983, also at Mannar (CBCN
1983: 38). A new record.
NOTES ON SOME BIRDS IN SRI LANKA
11
423. Spoonbilled Sandpiper ( Eurynorhyn -
chus pygmeus).
“Straggler or very rare winter visitor
to the coast of Bangladesh and West
Bengal”.
Sri Lanka not mentioned. In March
1978 Ben King recorded a specimen of
this species in Bundala Sanctuary
(CBCN 1978: 7, 20), and another one
was seen in November at Bentota
(CBCN 1978: 66) in a small flock of
Sanderling, also in December 1979 at
Bundala (CBCN 1979: 46). New re-
cord.
425a. Buffbreasted Sandpiper ( Tryngites su-
bruficollis).
“Accidental. One specimen record, 5
August 1960 and a sight record, No-
vember 1974 from Sri Lanka”.
The specimen is from Kalametiya in
the South, and the sight record was
from Trincomalee. A further reliable
sight record in January 1985 from the
Bundala Sanctuary (CBCN 1985:2).
427. Rednecked Phalarope (Phalaropus lo-
batus).
“One record from Sri Lanka. Pelagic,
...., on passage, ponds and shallow
jheels”.
In recent years this species has been
regularly noted during winter, espe-
cially in the Bundala Sanctuary. The
birds (sometimes as many as 5 or 6
together in small flocks) stay in the
same area throughout.
432. Avocet ( Recurvirostra avosetta).
“Straggler to Sri Lanka”.
Has become a regular winter visitor in
small numbers not only in the North
around Mannar, but also in the South
(e.g. Bundala Sanctuary).
434. Crab Plover ( Dromas ardeola)
“Winter visitor to the coasts of Sri
Lanka”.
Phillips, in his 1978 Checklist, records
it as a scarce breeding resident and
states: “Undoubtedly breeds in Cey-
lon about end of May or earlier, but the
eggs have not yet been found”. The
writer saw a flock of 35 including 6
sub-adults in March 1978 at Devil’s
Point between Mannar and Jaffna.
Mostly observed in the north of Sri
Lanka, i.e. Adam’s Bridge area, Man-
nar and north-west coast, but occasio-
nally also in the south.
440. Indian Courser ( Cursorius coroman-
delicus).
“Sri Lanka in the low-country dry
zone”
Mostly confined to the arid area
around Mannar and coastal islands to
the north (e.g. Delft) where its biotope
is found.
447. Pomatorhine Skua ( Stercorarius po-
marinus).
“Straggler to Sri Lanka (one record)”.
There have been a number of sight
records of this species in recent years
since I discovered in 1972 that these
pelagic kleptoparasites accompany
the annual post-breeding dispersal of
Brown-winged Terns ( Sterna anae -
thetus) along the west coast of Sri
Lanka, which usually takes place in
August or September (CBCN 1972: 42
et subseq.).
455. Blackheaded Gull (Lams ridibundus
ridibundus).
“A sight record from Sri Lanka, No-
vember 1974”.
Further sight records in December
1976 (Phillips 1978), 1981 February 6
at Talaimannar (CBCN 1981: 17), in
March 1978 at Yala National Park
(CBCN 1978: 13).
456. Slenderbilled Gull (Larus genei).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. A single bird
was seen a few miles out of Talaiman-
nar on the ferry crossing in September
1978 (van den Berg 1982, CBCN 1978:
50, 59a, and 1982: 7). A new record.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
465. Common Tern {Sterna hirundo tibe-
tana).
“Winter visitor to the subcontinent . . .
and, irregularly, Sri Lanka”.
In recent years (last decade or so ) this
species has been observed every win-
ter along the coast of Colombo, every
winter, and also in the South. In 1980 1
discovered a breeding colony on a
small bare island of coral debris off the
east coast (documented by photo-
graphs of birds, nests and eggs, and
measurements of eggs) (CBCN 1980:
27-29, 31-32, 39-40, 43). This is the first
record of the breeding of this species
in the Eurasian tropics, the nearest
known sites being at the northern end
of the Persian Gulf and high-altitude
lakes in Tibet. May now be considered
a common and regular winter visitor,
probably a summer loiterer and possi-
bly a breeding resident. The race of the
breeding terns has not been determi-
ned, but could possibly be S. h. hi-
rundo.
466. Roseate Tern {Sterna dougallii
korustes).
“Breeds on islets off the coast of ... Sri
Lanka”.
This species is not present in Sri
Lanka during the winter months (ex-
cept for possible loiterers not noted so
far), and migrates to Sri Lanka for bre-
eding in April/May/June.
474. Sooty Tern {Sterna fuscata nubilosa).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. Occasional
straggler to all coasts, and stormblown
even far inland high in the hills. Some
also form part of the annual mass mi-
gration along the west coast of Brown-
winged Terns first reported by me in
1972, and regularly observed since.
479. Lesser Crested Tern {Sterna b eng ale n-
sis bengalensis).
“Occurs commonly along the sea-
board of Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka ...
practically throughout the year.
Keeps to offshore waters”.
Regularly seen in winter on rocks off
the seashore at Colombo (and else-
where), together with other species of
terns, December to March, when it
disappears after moulting into summer
plumage.
480. Sandwich Tern {Sterna sandvicensis
sandvicensis).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. Evidence of
this species in Sri Lanka was first ob-
tained in 1977 (CBCN 1978: 50). Since
then single birds have been noted in
winter almost every year till 1986
when 6 birds spent 2 months together
with other ferns on rocks on the coast
at Colombo, and 3 in 1987 (from mid-
January to beginning of April). This
tern may now be considered a regular
winter visitor (from the Caspian Sea)
in small numbers; most seem first-year
birds.
482. Whitecapped Noddy {Anous tenuiros-
tris).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. There are 3
specimens from Sri Lanka in the
Colombo Museum. A new record.
505. Ceylon Yellow-legged Green Pigeon
{Treron phoenicoptera phillipsi).
“Resident. Sri Lanka in the low-
country dry zone”.
Very restricted and localized, mostly
known from around Bibile and Nil-
gala, west of Gal Oya National Park in
the eastern foothills.
578. Cuckoo {Cuculus canorus canorus).
“The 2 records from Sri Lanka are
from October (one) and undated
(one)”.
Actually there are 6 records, all during
the winter period, the last two in De-
cember in the south of the island (Phil-
lips 1978).
NOTES ON SOME BIRDS IN SRI LANKA
13
599. Red-faced Malkoha ( Phaenicophaeus
pyrrho cephalus) .
“Resident. Southern Kerala, southern
Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka”.
This species is considered endemic to
Sri Lanka. There are 2 south Indian
sight records, one from Kerala, the
other from Tamil Nadu. Until a speci-
men is obtained from India, Sri Lan-
kan ornithologists including the late
W. W. A. Phillips, prefer to retain the
endemic status of this endangered spe-
cies.
604. Ceylon Coucal (Centropus chlo-
rorhynchus).
“Resident. Sri Lanka, in humid forest
of the SW country wet zone up to c.
750 m”.
This endemic species is rare, very lo-
cal and declining together with its ha-
bitat.
606. Barn Owl (Tyto alba stertens).
“Also Sri Lanka in the Jaffna and Ari-
po districts”
Recently several have been obtained
in Colombo and one in Kurunegala
(CBCN), probably as a result of the
extensive demolition of old buildings.
Obviously more widespread than
thought earlier, but still rare and en-
dangered.
638. Jungle Owlet ( Glaucidium radiatum
castanonotum).
“Sri Lanka in the low-country wet
zone and hills up to c. 1900 m. In moist
forest”.
There is evidence that this endemic
race, called the Chestnut-backed
Owlet, is not confined to the wet zone
with moist forest, but is found in the
dry zone as well, e.g. recent records
from Amparai, east coast, Wilpattu
National Park, Yala National Park
(CBCN 1987: 4). Some writers regard
it as a separate species.
727. Threetoed Kingfisher ( Ceyx erithacus
erithacus ).
“Affects shady jungle streamlets in
moist-deciduous and evergreen bio-
tope”.
In Sri Lanka now most often found in
village gardens, especially coffee gro-
ves very close to habitations even in
thickly populated areas, e.g. the wider
area of Ratnapura. Dashes across ro-
ads only a foot or so above ground,
resulting in casualties from motor
traffic.
739. Blackcapped Kingfisher ( Halcyon
pileata).
“Resident . . . Occasional inland . . . and
in Sri Lanka (a half-dozen records)”.
This Kingfisher is an irregular winter
visitor in small numbers to the coasts
of Sri Lanka and has been observed
more often in recent years. In some
winters it is quite numerous (e.g. 1984/
85), absent in others.
744. Chestnutheaded Bee-eater ( Merops
leschenaulti).
“Frequents the neighbourhood of stre-
ams in mixed deciduous forest ... in Sri
Lanka to 1200 m.”.
In Sri Lanka often found in tea planta-
tions up to 1400 m. and above.
760. Broadbilled Roller ( Eurystomus orien-
talis irisi).
“Resident, perhaps extinct, Sri Lanka
in the southern half. Known only from
a dozen records, the last in 1950”.
I would be inclined to doubt the exis-
tence of a Sri Lankan subspecies
which is based mainly on a slight dif-
ference in wing length in 6 South In-
dian and 5 Sri Lankan specimens. In
recent years the bird has been re-
discovered in its real habitat, the wet
evergreen forest of the south-western
foothills, e.g. Sinharaja, Kitulgala,
Gilimale, Hapugastenna, where it fa-
vours open clearings with standing
dead trees resulting from shifting culti-
2
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
vation. It is rare but certainly not ex-
tinct. There have been many sight re-
cords during the last decade. The re-
cords referred to in the SYNOPSIS
are mostly from an isolated population
in riverine habitat in the eastern dry
zone.
808. Little ScalybeIliedsGreen Woodpecker
( Picus myrmecophoneus) .
“Resident ... Sri Lanka. In semi-
evergreen, moist deciduous and sal
forest, in plains and foothills up to
1700 m”.
In Sri Lanka often frequents tea esta-
tes with shade trees in the eastern hill
zone; often descends to ground and
cover of tea. Not in wet zone.
817. Small Yellownaped Woodpecker ( Pi-
cus chlorolophus wellsi).
“Resident. Sri Lanka in the low-
country wet zone and foothills up to c.
1800 m”.
Also found in well-shaded tea estates
and forest in the Uva plateau (dry zone
hills around 1000 m).
822. Ceylon Goldenbacked Woodpecker
C Dinopium benghalense jaffnense).
“Resident. The Jaffna Peninsula and
northern Sri Lanka south to Trinco-
malee, Kekirawa and Puttalam (inter-
grading with psarodes)”.
823. Ceylon Redbacked Woodpecker ( Di-
nopium benghalense psarodes
“Resident. Sri Lanka from Puttalam,
Kekirawa and Trincomalee south-
wards, in low-country and hills up to
1700 m”.
The area of overlap between these two
endemic races has widened considera-
bly and the boundaries are no longer as
definite as the text indicates. Redbac-
ked Woodpeckers have regularly been
seen deep in Wilpattu, 30-50 miles fur-
ther north, and the Goldenbacked has
been observed as far south as Chilaw,
with hybrids at either extreme.
859. Biackbacked Woodpecker ( Chryso -
colaptes festivus t ant us).
“Resident. The northern half of Sri
Lanka and the Southern Province, in
the low-country dry zone”.
Very local in isolated coconut groves
and stands of large trees. Declining.
872. Singing Bush Lark ( Mirafra javanica
cantillans).
“Resident ... and Sri Lanka”.
This species is not known in Sri
Lanka.
910. Collared Sand Martin {Rip aria rip aria ,
probably diluta but ijimae also
possible).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. First noted
in January 1976 near Anuradhapura.
Since then increasingly seen, especial-
ly in the south around Hambantota.
Must now be regarded as a regular
winter visitor in small (but increasing
?) numbers (CBCN). A new record.
933. Grey Shrike {Lanius excubitor lah-
tora).
"... an unconfirmed sight record from
Sri Lanka”.
There have been several reliable sight
records in recent years during the win-
ter months, mostly from the northern
half of the country, but also from Yala
National Park, Horton Plains (2100 m)
and Colombo (CBCN). Appears to ha-
ve become a regular winter visitor to
all zones.
947. Rufousbacked Shrike {Lanius sc hack
caniceps).
“Resident ... Sri Lanka in the Jaffna
Peninsula”.
The restricted range of this Shrike
goes far beyond the Jaffna Peninsula
and includes a coastal strip extending
from about Chilaw through Mannar to
Jaffna and the western offshore is-
lands. Since 1966 it has also been re-
gularly observed at Anuradhapura,
well inland (CBCN).
NOTES ON SOME BIRDS IN SRI LANKA
15
949. Brown Shrike ( Lanius cristatus cris-
tatus).
“In dry deciduous and semi-evergreen
scrub”.
In Sri Lanka this winter visitor may be
seen in all parts of the country up to
altitudes of over 2000 m and habitats
which include tea estates, where it is
common.
953. Golden Oriole ( Oriolus oriolus
kundoo).
“Winter visitor throughout the penin-
sula ... also northern Sri Lanka”.
This scarce winter visitor may be seen
anywhere in the low-country of Sri
Lanka, right down to the extreme
south, at Colombo, Sigiriya, etc.
(CBCN).
988. Greyheaded Myna ( Sturnus malabari-
cus blythii).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. First tenta-
tive sight record June 1944 at Colombo
(‘Loris’ III (5): 191). First definite
sight record in Sri Lanka from Anura-
dhapura in January 1984 (CBCN 1984:
1). Small flocks regularly seen there
since then. Probably now breeding.
Recently also seen at Kalametiya in
the far south in the company of My-
nas, Rosy Pastors and Brahminy My-
nas (CBCN). A new record.
993. Ceylon Whiteheaded Starling ( Sturnus
senex).
“Affects tall forest edges and clea-
rings”.
This endemic species is mainly found
in undisturbed, wet evergreen forest,
in the upper canopy of tall trees (e.g.
Sinharaja); it is most easily seen at the
edges of such forest.
1 223 . Ceylon Rufousbellied ( White throated)
Babbler ( Dumetia hyperythra phil-
lipsi).
“In scrub and high grassland”.
In Sri Lanka also common in well sha-
ded tea estates.
1407. Brown Flycatcher (Muscicapa latiros-
tris).
“.... to c. 1500 m”.
This winter visitor can be found up to
2000 m as also the next species, the
Brownbreasted Flycatcher (M.
muttui).
1505. Franklin’s Wren- Warbler (Prinia
hodgsonii pectoralis).
“... up to 900 m”.
This Sri Lankan subspecies now as-
cends the hills in the eastern aspects
(Uva) to c. 1400 m.
1706. Isabelline Chat ( Oenanthe isabellina).
“Straggling to . . . and Sri Lanka, recor-
ded on passage Mannar 1970”.
Two sight records in 1970 and 1976,
both near Mannar (CBCN 1976: 12). It
is now believed that both these sigh-
tings were of the Pied Chat or Whea-
tear (Oenanthe pleschanka ) No. 1715
(Ceylon Bird Club Rarities Com-
mittee).
1710. Desert Wheatear (Oenanthe deserti).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. A reliable
sight record in February from Yala in
the extreme South (CBCN 1986: 22).
A new record.
1838. Yelvetfronted Nuthatch (Sitta fron-
talis frontalis).
“... and Sri Lanka ... shade trees in
coffee or cardamom plantations”.
In Sri Lanka also common on .shade
trees iirtea plantations and dense mon-
tane forest.
1852. Indian Tree Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni
hodgsoni).
Sri Lanka not mentioned. In January
1982 Robert Fleming, Jr. reported a
flock from Anuradhapura (CBCN
1982: 1). Sight record only. Two more
sightings since then in Wilpattu Natio-
nal Park (CBCN 1984: 17 and 1987:
30). A new record.
16
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
1885. White Wagtail ( Motacilla alba dukhu-
nensis).
"... occasional in Sri Lanka”. This bird
has become a regular winter visitor in
small numbers. There are sight re-
cords from many parts of the low-
country (CBCN).
1891. Large Pied Wagtail ( Motacilla ma-
deraspatensis).
“One old record from Sri Lanka”.
There have been 3 additional, very re-
liable sight records: Kandy (CBCN
1976: 77), Delft Island (CBCN) 1983:
4), Punkudutivu Island (CBCN 1984:
2).
Refer
Ali, S. & Ripley, S. Dillon (1968-74): Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of Bangla-
desh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Sri Lanka, 10 Vols. (also
Revised Edition Vols. 1 - 5). Oxford University Press,
Bombay.
Ceylon Bird Club Notes (CBCN) since 1944. Mon-
thly cyclosty led notes (50-70 pages per annum) on observa-
tions by members in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Bird Club, P. O.
Box 11, Colombo.
Fleming, Robert L. Jr. (1977): Comments on the En-
demic Birds of Sri Lanka. Colombo.
Hoffmann, T. W. (1983): Occurrence of certain wa-
ders in Sri Lanka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3): 668.
Hoffmann, T. W. (1984): National Red Data List of
Endangered and Rare Birds of Sri Lanka. Colombo.
(1985): The Status of the Broad-billed Roller
in Sri Lanka. Loris XVII(l): 4.
1893. Ceylon Thickbilled Flowerpecker (Di-
caeum agile zeylonense).
“Resident in Sri Lanka, in the nor-
thern forest tracts and in the hills to c.
1200 m”.
This Sri Lankan subspecies is most
plentiful in the eastern forest tracts
(e.g. Gal Oya National Park, Amparai)
and also the foothills of the central
range in the dry and intermediate
zone.
Acknowledgement
I thank D. P. Wijesinghe for reading the manus-
cript and for his useful suggestions.
:nces
(1987): The Sandwich Tern ( Sterna sandvi-
censis ) in Sri Lanka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(2):
440-442.
Kotagama, S. W. (1980): A further addition to the
Seabirds of Sri Lanka. Loris XV(3): 171.
Phillips, W. W. A. (1978): Annotated Checklist of the
Birds of Ceylon. Colombo.
Van Den Berg, Arnoud B. et al. (1982): Mass Move-
ment of Bridled Terns (Sterna anaethetus) and Wilson’s
Petrels (Oceanites oceanicus) off Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Ardea 70: 81.
(1 82): First Record of Slender-billed Gull
(Larus genei ) in Sri Lanka. Ardea 70: 82.
(1982): First Sight-Record of White-faced
Shearwater (Calonectris leucomelas ) in Sri Lanka. Ardea
70: 83.
Wijesinghe, D.P. (1986): Ceylon Bird Club Rarities
Committee Bulletin No. 1. Unpublished manuscript.
17
THE PITCHER PLANT (NEPENTHES KHASIANA HK.F.) SANCTUARY OF
JAINTIA HILLS, MEGHALAYA: LESSONS FOR CONSERVATION1
W. A. Rodgers and Sangeeta Gupta2
( With a text-figure)
Details of the biology and distribution of the pitcher plant Nepenthes khasiana Hk. f. are
described, and the conservation importance of the plant which is considered an endangered
endemic is discussed. The initiative of the Jaintia Hills District Council in setting up a pitcher
plant sanctuary at Jarain in 1974 is commended and the area and forest cover are briefly
described. The sanctuary has declined in conservation status over the past decade and it is
concluded that further inputs from State Government and Conservation Agencies will be required
to maintain a viable level of protection.
Introduction
Meghalaya has long been known to have an
extremely rich flora (e.g. Hooker 1896). Re-
cently increasing concern has been expressed
over problems of conserving this important but
endangered resource. For example, seven pa-
pers in a major symposium volume, “An As-
sessment of Threatened Plants of India” (Jain
& Rao 1983) deal with Meghalaya. In addition,
three recent floras of Meghalaya (Bala Krish-
nan 1981, Joseph 1982 and Haridasan & Rao
1985) all stress the increasing level of defores-
tation which endangers the rare and endemic
plant species of the region. Most authors men-
tion a particular species, Nepenthes khasiana
Hk. f. , the only Indian representative of a small
family of insect-digesting pitcher plants, the
Nepenthaceae, as an example of conservation
needs. The pitcher plant as a focus of concern
is attaining the same significance in botanical
circles as the tiger has through “Project Tiger’,
a major and successful ecosytem conservation
project in India.
Most authors discussing in-situ conserva-
tion of plant resources in Meghalaya are bota-
nists, and whilst their papers detail the pro-
blems and the species involved, rarely do they
discuss practical and definitive measures for
conservation. For conservation to succeed,
areas of land containing the species must be
protected. All too rarely are we given details of
“where” conservation should or could take
place.
'Accepted May 1987.
2Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun - 248006 (India).
Patterns of land ownership in Meghalaya do
not help established methods of conservation
in India, where selected forest reserves are
upgraded to sanctuaries and parks. In Megha-
laya only 3% of the land area is state controlled
forest, the remaining forest, over 34% of the
state, is controlled by the District Councils,
local villages and clans and by private indivi-
duals. True, the state can purchase such land,
as was done in January 1986 when the 220 sq
kms Balphakram National Parks was purcha-
sed for over four crore rupees ; this is a long and
expensive process.
It is thus of interest to report on a conserva-
tion measure taken by the initiative of a district
council, which specifically protects a major
population of the pitcher plant.
The Pitcher Plant: The family Nepentha-
ceae has two genera, Anurosperma of Seychel-
les, and Nepenthes with 67 species in Mada-
gascar, Sri Lanka, India, Burma, China,
Malaysia, Indo China to North Australia. N.
khasiana is the only representative in India,
and is found only in Meghalaya state.
N. khasiana is a perennial herb, which may
become partially lignified, it inhabits boggy
areas from 500-2000 m above sea level in the
southern half of Meghalaya. Plants may climb
on trees at forest edges to reach some 8 m in
height, or may remain as herbs in grassland
where they are frequently burnt by wild fires,
but regenerate rapidly from the root stock.
They prefer sunlight, and are rarely seen in
dense shade. Its recorded distribution is shown
in Fig. 1.
18
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
MAP OF INDIA
SHOWING MEGHALAYA
JARAIN ( 2 KM )
DAWKI
SKETCH MAP OF PITCHER
PLANT SANCTUARY JARAIN
DIAGRAM SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF N. KHASIANA AND
LOCATION OF THE PITCHER PLANT SANCTUARY.
The Pitcher Plant Sanctuary: In 1974, the
Jaintia Hills District Council declared some
2.45 ha of district council forest near Jarain to
be a ’pitcher plant sanctuary’. This was proba-
bly in response to the national mood of conser-
vation prevailing at that time (pers. comm.
Chief Forest Officer, Jaintia). The ’sanctuary’
which has been declared under District Coun-
cil rules is not a Wildlife Sanctuary under the
Indian Wildlife or Forest Acts; its precise legal
status remains obscure, but can be a planning
or management unit of the council forest re-
serve, a unit which will not be permitted to be
logged or exploited. There is another pitcher
plant sanctuary, Baghamara Wildlife Sanctua-
ry in Garo Hills, which is legally constituted
under the Wildlife Act, but it is a very small in
area, and has no permanent conservation input
PITCHER PLANT SANCTUAR Y IN MEGHALA YA
19
and is of uncertain viability. The Jarain sanc-
tuary is situated alongside the black top district
road to Dawki, some 2 km south of Jarain (see
Figs. 1 & 2). The area is a mosaic of frequently
burnt and grazed grassland with patches of
Quercus in subtropical wet hill forest [Cham-
pion and Seth (1968) category, 8B/C2]. The
forests of Jarain contain several other rare and
endemic species, e.g. Arundinaria mannii. Da-
phne shillongi, Pteracanthus nobilis, (Gupta
and Rodgers, unpublished information). The
sanctuary was fenced with multiple strand bar-
bed wire, to demarcate the area and keep out
cattle. A gate leads to a bricked raised path
which winds through the forest and grassland.
The area is elongated north to south and has a
small patch of wet grassland on the eastern
boundary, with several seepages along the
forest edge.
The present status indicates considerable
deterioration since the time of its establish-
ment in 1974. The fence is damaged in many
places and cattle do enter both the grassland
and the forest (no browse sign was seen on
Nepenthes). All the grassland has been burnt,
but this is typical of the region and may not
harm the pitcher population. The brickwork
was damaged and the signposts had gone. The-
re were frequent signs of small timber, pole and
firewood cutting in the forest. However, the
first author counted over 100 pitcher plants in a
two hour visit, and more were seen in neigh-
bouring forest patches.
As neither this sanctuary nor the forest type
has previously been described in the literature,
the opportunity is taken to do so briefly here,
based on rapid field surveys in early February
(W.A.R.) and June (S.G.) 1986 (A plant list is
given in Appendix 1).
1) The grassland is dominated by Cymbopo-
gon sp. up to 1.2 m, with Cy perns, Chryso-
pogon, J uncus and Themeda spp. Lycopo-
dium cernuum is common as is the colourful
woody shrub Melastoma normale. Nepen-
thes plants up to 0.7 m high, are scattered in
this grassland. The area is on gentle slopes,
with several boggy seepages.
2) The forest tree layer is to 10 m with a conti-
nuous evergreen dense crowned canopy.
No internal strata were recognizable. Lia-
nes and epiphytic orchids were present but
not common, epiphytic ferns were rare at
the times of our visits. The canopy is spe-
cies rich, and includes Castanopsis indie a,
Engelhardtia spicata, Eugenia sp., Exbuc-
klandia pOpulnea, Helicia erratica, Lindera
spp., Litsaea salcifolia, Machilus odoratis-
sima, Manglietia insignis, Quercus spicata
(abundant), Q. griffithii, Schefflera hy-
poleuca and Schima wallichii. Alseodaphne
petiolaris and Myrica esculenta were com-
mon on the forest edge.
3) The underwood and shrub layers have smal-
ler individuals of canopy species plus Al-
chornea sp., Ardisia undulata, Camellia
drupifera, Cinnamomum spp., Eurya spp.,
Goniothalamus sesquipedalis, Mahonia
pycnophylla, Randia spinosa and Symplo-
cos spp. Tangles of Rubus, Smilax and Em-
belia are common. Shrub cover is variable,
but often opened due to cutting.
4) The forest floor has a mat of Selaginella and
other species with occasional large woody
ferns, Blechnum orientate, up to 2 m. There
are small patches of Thysanolaena and a
bamboo. Small sedges and herbs fill gaps on
the floor.
The forest gives an overall impression of
floristic diversity, there being little apparent
dominance in any layer.
Discussion
It is apparent that an enthusiastic local Dis-
trict council conservation initiative has deteri-
orated due to lack of interest. The councils are
short of funds and staff, and have not been able
to maintain sacred status of the sanctuary.
They now wish the State Government to share
this responsibility (pers. comm. CFO, Jaintia).
Visitors have been few, response from State
and Central Government has been minimal,
and no positive feed back or encouragement
has reached either the Council or the local vil-
lagers. It is natural that conservation interest
wanes in such circumstances. Baghmara
W.L.S. and Balphakram National Park (which
also has a pitcher plant population) are both
low altitude tropical evergreen forest areas,
protecting very different communities from
20
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
those described here.
The pitcher plant population still survives,
and is probably robust enough to withstand
some more burning and cutting and grazing.
But the forest community itself is not so ro-
bust, wood cutting is causing damage, and the
forest will be losing its protective structure,
diversity and regneration. The sanctuary was
designed for one species, but does safeguard a
community not protected elsewhere in India.
There are no other sanctuaries in Jaintia and
the tiny sacred groves of Jaintia Hills, possibly
as many as 200 averaging less than 1 ha in size
(pers. comm. CFO, Jaintia), are not demarca-
ted and are being over-exploited (Rodgers, un-
published data). They cannot function as long
term conservation areas.
The pitcher plant sanctuary is important the-
refore, nationally as well as locally; the ques-
tion is how best to protect it . It is our hope that
there will be eventually a network of several
small protected areas in Meghalaya, specifical-
ly conserving rare plant values, e.g. proposals
under the Government of India Biogeography
Project, see Lahiri Choudhury (1986). This
sanctuary will be one of them. It is not possible
to visualise them all being protected by State
government employees. We would like to see
the State Government assist the district coun-
cil to manage the area, by provision of funds to
maintain structures and employ care-takers
from Jarain village. The State Forest Depart-
ment is assisting the District Council in this
Balakrishnan, N.P. (1981): Flora of Jowai and Vici-
nity. BSI, Howarh.
Champion, H.K. & Seth, S.K. (1968): A Revised Sur-
vey of the Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications,
Delhi.
Haridasan, K. & Rao, R.R. (1985): Forest Flora of
Meghalaya. Vol. 1. Bishen Singh, Dhera Dun.
Hooker, J.D. (1896): Flora of British India, 7 volumes.
regard from 1987 (pers. comm. Chief Wildlife
Warden, Shillong). The State Forest or Wildli-
fe wing could detail an officer to make regular
tours of inspection of this and other such areas.
Above all, the State government and conserva-
tion organisations should encourage such local
conservation efforts.
Appendix 1 gives a partial plant list for the
sanctuary. This is based on collections made at
the sanctuary and later identified in Dehra Dun
by Dr. P. K. Hajra of B.S.I. Dehra Dun , and
on plants identified at the site by B.S.I. Shil-
long. This list is NOT complete, but serves as
an indication of the floristics of this commu-
nity. Plants are listed in alphabetical order.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Wildlife Wing of the Forest
Department of Meghalaya for facilitating our
visits and Shri Wahlang, Chief Wildlife War-
den, Meghalaya, for commenting on an earlier
draft of this paper. The Botanical Survey of
India, Shillong discussed Jarain forests and
Shri Shankar Das acompanied us in the field.
Forest Range Office Jowai gave hospitality.
Dr. P.K. Hajra discussed plant identifications
at Dehra Dun. Shri Rajesh Thapa patiently
word processed the many drafts in various sta-
ges including the final one. Miss Asha Jain
drew diagrams. S.G acknowledges permission
of the Director of the Wildlife Institute of India
to publish this paper.
ENCES
Jain & Rao (1983): An Assessment of Threatened Plants
of India. BSI, Howarh.
Joseph, J. (1982): Flora of Nongpoh and its Vicinity.
Forest Department, Govt, of Meghalaya.
Lahiri Choudhury, D.K. (1986): Biogeography Pro-
ject : Report on Meghalya. Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehra Dun.
Willis, J.C. (1973): A Dictionary of the Flowering
Plants and Ferns. Cambridge University Press.
PITCHER PLANT SANCTUARY IN MEGHALAYA
21
APPENDIX I
PARTIAL PLANT LIST FOR JARAIN PITCHER PLANT SANCTUARY
Family
Genus, Species and Authority
ANNONACEAE
ARACEAE
ARALIACEAE
BEGONIACEAE
BERBERIDACEAE
DROSERACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
FAGACEAE
HAMAMELIDACEAE
JUGLANDIACEAE
JUNCACEAE
LAURACEAE
MAGNOLIACEAE
MELASTOMACEAE
MYRICACEAE
MYRSINACEAE
MYRTACEAE
PROTEACEAE
ROSACEAE
RUBIACEAE
SYMPLOCACEAE
TERNSTROEMACEAE
THEACEAE
CYPERACEAE
GRAMINEAE
LILIACEAE
ORCHIADACEA
Dicotyledons
Goniothalamus sesquipedalis Hk. f. and Th.*
Raphidophora sp.
Schefflera hypoleuca Kurz.
Begonia picta Sm.
Mahonia pycnophylla (Fedde)Takeda
Drosera peltata Smith
Alchornea sp.
Castanopsis indica A. DC.*
Quercus griffithii Hk.f. and Th.*
Q. spicata Smith
Exbucklandia populnea (Griff.) R.Br.*
Engelhardtia spicata Blume
J uncus sp.
Alseodaphne petiolaris Hk.f.
Cinnamomum sp.
Lindera melastomacea Benth.*
L. pulcherrima Benth.
Litsaea salicifolia Roxb.
Machilus odoratissima Nees
Manglietia insignis (Wall.) Blume*
Melastoma normale D.Don*
Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham.^
Ardisia undulata Clarke
Embelia floribunda Wall.
Eugenia sp.
Helicia erratica Hk.f.*
Rubus ellipticus Sm,
Mussaenda frondosa L.
Randia spinosa (Thunb.) Poir
Symplocos spicata Thunb.
Symplocos sp.
Cammelia drupifera Lour.*
Eurya acuminata DC.*
E. japonica Thunb.*
Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth.*
Monocotyledons
Cy perns spp.
Chrysopogon sp.
Cymbopogon sp.
Dendrocalamus sp.
Themeda sp.
Thysanolaena maxima Nees
Smilax aspera L.
Dendrobium amoenum Wall.*
Pholidota pallida Lindl.*
Pteridophyta
Blechnum orientate L.
Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underwood
( — Gleichenia linearis )
Lycopodium cernuum L.
Selaginella bisulcata Spring
22
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE MARBLED TOAD, BUFO STOMATICUS LUTKEN1
S.K. Battish, Annu Agarwal and Paramjit Singh2
The paper presents a detailed food spectrum of Bufo stomaticus, the commonest species of
toad in Punjab. The observations made on the gut contents of this animal from May to October
1985 revealed the presence of insects (70 families), spiders, centipedes, molluscs, plant materials,
debris, mud and stone pieces. It is concluded that the toad is primarily insectivorous.
Introduction
Bufo stomaticus though a common species
of Anura in Punjab has not yet been investiga-
ted for its food and feeding habits. In the pre-
sent paper the quality and quantity of the food
of this toad, based upon gut content analysis, is
presented.
Material and Methods
The stomach content analysis of Bufo sto-
maticus was carried out during May to Octo-
ber, 1985. The toads were collected during
dusk and before dawn when they leave their
hideouts. The toads were killed instantly after
collection by putting 20 ml of chloroform in the
plastic bucket with lid containing the animals,
and 6 ml of 5% formalin solution was injected in
the stomach of each so as to preserve the organ
and to stop the mixing of gastric juice with the
food. In the laboratory the stomach of each
specimen was removed and stored in 70% etha-
nol. For the investigations, stomach contents
were taken out in a petridish in alcohol after
incising the stomach longitudinally. The con-
tents were examined under a binocular dissec-
ting microscope (18, 8x). The contents were
separated into two groups (i) whole or almost
whole insects, insect fragments namely, head
capsules, dissociated legs, sclerites, wings,
elytra, ovipositors etc. (ii) other items namely,
fragments of spiders, centipedes, earthworms,
mollusca, pebbles and plant matter. Using
diagnostic taxonomic characters the food con-
tents of the first category were identified.
Results
The monthly distribution of the food items
recorded from the guts of Bufo stomaticus
‘Accepted August 1987.
department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana (India).
duiing May to October 1985 is shown in Table
1. It is seen that the toads primary food is
insects but other animals like spiders, centipe-
des, earthworms and molluscs are also eaten.
Some percentage of the food is comprised of
plant matter and even pebbles. The consump-
tion of insects per toad (Table 1) is high in the
months May to July (26-28) but declines in
August (16). The toad fed on a variety of in-
sects belonging to 70 families of 14 orders. The
most predominant insect orders were Coleop-
tera and Heteroptera which constitute the main
food in terms of varieties of insects captured by
Bufo stomaticus . The data (Table 1) further
indicates that except Hymenoptera, other pre-
dominant orders were phytophagous insect
pests, i.e. Coleoptara, Heteroptera, Lepidop-
tera, Homoptera and Orthoptera constituting
28, 10, 5, 5 and 4 families respectively.
The toad fed mainly on Hymenoptera (ants,
Myrmicinae and Formicinae), Diptera (mos-
quitoes) and Coleptera (beetles) during the
month of May. Phytophagous pests viz. An-
thocoridae (flower bugs), Lygaeidae (dusky
cotton bug), Elateridae (click beetles), Chryso-
melidae (red pumpkin beetles) and Noctuidae
(army worms and Heliothis larvae) were also
recovered from the stomachs of Bufo stomati-
cus during May, 1985.
During June- July 1985 (Table 1) the most
predominant food items of this animal were
Isoptera (termites) and Hymenoptera (ants,
Myrmicinae and Formicinae). Amongst the
phytophagous pests, Pyrrhocoridae (red cot-
ton bug), Cicadellidae (leaf hoppers particular-
ly cotton jassids and mango hoppers), Fulgori-
dae (plant hoppers mainly Pyrilla), Psyllidae
(jumping plant lice mainly Citrus psylla ), Cara-
bidae (ground beetles), Dermestidae (carpet
beetles), Elateridae (click beetles), Psepheni-
dae (water- penny beetles), Tenebrionidae
FOOD SPECTRUM OF MARBLED TOAD
23
(darkling beetles), Scarabaeidae (scarab bee-
tles), Chrysomelidae (mainly red pumpkin bee-
tles), Curculionidae (snout beetles), Noctuidae
(army worm and heliothis larvae) and Pyrausti-
dae (cotton leaf roller) were also fed on by Bufo
stomaticus, indicating that this toad may be
useful for control of phytophagous pests. Ho-
wever, during this period (June- July 1985) they
also fed on parasites and predators, namely
braconids, tri’chogrammatids, sphecids, chal-
cids and ichneumonids in tangible amounts.
Hymenoptera (ants, Myrmicinae and For-
micinae) were again the major food items of
Bufo stomaticus during August-September
1985 (Table 1). In addition, Cicadellidae (leaf
hoppers mainly cotton jassids and mango hop-
pers), Fulgoridae (plant hopper namely the
Pyrilla), Dytiscidae (predaceous diving bee-
tles), Telegeusidae (telegeusid beetles), Psela-
phidae (short- winged mould beetles), Dermes-
tidae (carpet beetles), Chrysomelidae (mainly
red pumpkin beetles), Pieridae (cabbage cat-
terpillar) and Diptera (mosquitoes) were pre-
sent in large numbers.
Table 1
PERCENT OF FOOD ITEMS RECOVERED FROM THE STOMACH OF Bufo Stomaticus DURING MAY TO
OCTOBER. 1985
May
June
July
August
September October
Total number of toads examined
27
51
46
30
21
16
Total number of prey eaten
689
1423
1263
467
368
152
Number of prey eaten per toad
26
28
27
16
18
10
Empty stomachs
3.70
9.80
0
13.33
0
25.0
Stomachs containing pebbles
3.70
25.49
19.57
16.66
19.05
12.50
Stomachs containing plant matter
37.0
29.41
34.78
26.66
33.33
31.25
Stomachs containing insects
96.29
90.19
100
86.66
100
75.0
Insect Order Family/Name of the
insect
1. Thysanura Machilidae
(Bristle tail
(arvae)
—
—
0.396
—
—
—
2. Diplura
—
0.070
—
—
—
—
3. Collembola (Spring tails)
0.145
0.70
—
—
—
—
4. Orthoptera i) Tridactylidae
(Pygmy mole-
cricket)
0.141
0.428
0.815
ii) Acrididae
(Shorthorned
grasshoppers)
0.145
0.070
0.158
0.214
—
—
iii) Tettigonidae
(Long horned
grasshoppers
and Katydids)
0.703
0.079
0.428
0.272
0.658
iv) Gryllidae
(Crickets)
—
—
0.428
0.079
0.815
1.316
5. Isoptera (Termites)
—
17.569
26.840
—
—
—
6. Dermaptera (Earwigs)
0.871
—
0.870
1.499
0.815
—
7. Mallophaga (Chewing lice)
—
0.070
0.079
—
—
—
24
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Insect Order
Family/Name of the
insect
May
June
July
August
September October
Thysanoptera (Thrips)
0.145
Hemiptera
a) Heteroptera
i) Corixidae
(Water boatman)
—
—
—
0.214
—
—
ii) Notonectidae
( Notonecta )
—
—
—
0.428
1.085
—
iii) Anthocoridae
(Flower bug)
1.306
—
—
—
—
—
iv) Ploiaridae
(Thread legged
bug)
0.214
v) Lygaeidae
(Dusky cotton
bugs)
0.871
0.141
0.857
0.658
vi) Pyrrhocoridae
(Red cotton bugs)
0.435
0.914
—
—
—
—
vii) Cimicidae
(Bed bugs)
0.145
—
—
—
—
—
viii) Coreidae
(Rice bugs)
0.145
—
0.238
0.214
0.543
—
ix) Podopidae
(Terrestrial
turtle bugs)
0.214
x) Pentatomidae
(Stink bugs)
—
—
0.158
0.428
0.272
1.316
xi) Others
0.290
—
—
—
—
—
b) Homoptera
i) Cicadidae
(Cicadas)
0.079
ii) Cicadellidae
(Leafhoppers)
0.290
0.141
2.059
2.998
0.543
1.974
iii) Fulgoridae
(Plant hoppers)
—
0.211
0.633
1.285
2.446
2.632
iv) Delphacidae
(Plant hoppers)
—
—
—
—
0.815
—
v) Psyllidae
—
—
—
—
0.815
—
(Jumping Plant
lice)
10. Coleoptera
i) Physodidae
(Wrinkled bark
beetles)
0.145
ii) Cicindelidae
(Tiger beetles)
0.290
—
0.238
—
—
—
iii) Carobidae
(Ground beetle)
0.290
0.281
2.375
—
—
—
iv) Gyrinidae
(Whirligig beetle)
—
0.141
—
0.214
—
—
FOOD SPECTR UM OF MARBLED TOAD
25
Insect Order
Family/Name of the
insect
May
June
July
August
September October
v) Dytiscidae
(Predaceous diving
beetle)
—
—
0.079
6.209
6.521
—
vi) Telegeusidae
(Telegeused
beetles)
11.413
2.632
vii) Histeridae
(Hister beetles)
—
0.703
—
—
—
—
viii) Scaphididae
(Shining fungus
beetles)
0.703
ix) Pselaphidae
(Short winged
mold beetles)
0.475
0.642
5.706
1.316
x) Cantharidae
(Soldier beetles)
—
—
—
0.214
—
—
xi) Dermestoidae
(Carpet beetles)
0.145
0.422
0.554
3.426
0.543
1.974
xii) Ostomidae
(Bark growing
beetles)
0.158
0.272
0.658
xiii) Cleridae
(Checkered beetle)
—
—
0.158
—
3.533
1.316
xiv) Sandalidae
(Sandalid beetles)
—
—
0.238
—
—
—
xv) Elasteridae
(Click beetles)
0.725
—
1.092
5.996
0.815
1.316
xvi) Psephenidae
(Water penny
beetles)
1.124
1.188
2.174
xvii) Lathridiidae
(Monoedid beetles)
0.290
—
—
—
—
—
xviii) Coccinellidae
(Spotted beetles)
0.290
0.351
0.079
1.713
—
—
xix) Tenebrionidae
(Darkling beetles)
0.145
1.757
1.029
0.857
—
—
xx) Psoidae
(Twig beetles)
—
—
—
—
0.543
0.658
xxi) Passalidae
0.290
—
—
—
—
—
xxii) Scarabaeidae
(Scarab beetles)
0.435
1.124
3.802
1.285
1.087
1.316
xxiii) Cerambycidae
(Wood boring
beetles)
0.145
0.396
xxiv) Chrysomelidae
(Red pumpking
beetles)
1.016
0.422
1.029
1.927
1.087
xxv) Bruchidae
—
—
0.079
—
0.272
—
(Seed beetles)
26
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Insect Order
Family/Name of the
insect
May
June
July
August
September October
xxvi) Circulionidae
(Snout beetles)
0.290
0.351
0.950
1.070
1.902
3.947
xxvii) Platypodidae
(Pinohole borers)
0.290
0.070
—
0.214
—
—
xxviii) Scolyidae
(Bark beetles)
0.145
—
—
0.642
0.272
—
Grubs
0.581
0.562
0.238
0.428
—
—
xxix) Others
3.193
0.351
2.059
6.423
1.630
0.289
11. Lepidoptera
i) Gelechiidae
(Pink wool worm
—
0.070
—
—
—
—
moth), other moth
—
0.70
0.158
—
—
1.316
ii) Noctuidae
(Army worm laraae,
Heliothis larvae)
1.306
"
0.475
0.428
0.543
1.316
iii) Arctoidae
(Hairy-caterpillar)
—
0.211
0.158
—
—
—
iv) Pyraustidae
(Cotton leaf
roller)
0.281
0.079
v) Pieridae
(Cabbage catter-
pillar)
1.285
vi) Other larvae
0.145
0.492
—
0.428
—
1.316
12. Diptera
(Flies)
(Mosquitoes)
0.435
3.193
0.070
2.108
1.070
0.428
7.384
0.272
1.316
(Maggots)
—
0.70
2.692
0.428
0.815
—
13. Hymenoptera
i) Braconidae
0.725
0.562
0.791
0.428
0.815
0.658
ii) Trichogrammalidae
1.016
0.984
0.317
0.428
1.630
2.632
iii) Sphecidae
1.457
8.451
L504
—
1.087
1.316
iv) Chalcididae
—
4.779
0.950
—
—
—
v) Ichneumonidae
—
0.422
0.238
0.642
—
—
vi) Formicidae
—
0.141
0.396
—
—
2.632
Subfam.
a) Formicinae
10.740
27.547
23.129
19.272
18.750
27.632
b) Ants
(Myrmicinae
small ants)
66.183
32.959
22.169
30.835
21.739
30.263
vii) Apidae
(Bees)
0.435
0.141
0.317
0.428
2.717
—
vii) Tanthridinidae
(Althalia larvae)
—
—
—
0.214
—
—
14. Dictyoptera
(Cockroaches)
—
0.422
0.633
1.285
0.272
—
Arachnida (Spiders)
0.871
0.632
0.238
0.428
1.630
3.289
Chilopoda (Centipedes)
—
0.070
—
0.428
1.630
3.289
Anneiida (Earthworms)
—
0.070
—
—
—
—
Mollusca
—
0.492
0.238
0.428
—
—
(Gastropid molluscans)
FOOD SPECTRUM OF MARBLED TOAD
27
In October 1985 (Table 1) the quantity of
food in the stomach was comparatively lower
than the earlier months and the predominant
insects identified from the guts of B stomati-
cus were again the Hymenoptera (ants). Other
major food items were Fulgoridae (plant hop-
per mainly the Pyrilla), Telegeusidae (telegeu-
sid beetles), Curculionidae (snout beetles
mainly the grey weevil), Hymenoptera (parasi-
tes mainly the trichogrammatids) and Arach-
nids (spiders).
Discussion
The present study has revealed that Bufo
stomaticus fed on insects belonging to 70 fa-
milies of 14 orders. The toad’s capture of these
insects was a chance factor. The representa-
tion of 28 families. of the order Coleoptera from
diverse habitats like agroecosystems, terres-
trial, aquatic and arboreal also showed the affi-
nity of this toad to such environments. Fur-
ther, it also indicates B. stomaticus to be pri-
marily insectivorous and no cannibalism was
reported during the study period. However,
Boulenger (1897) and Noble (1918) reported
frogs & toads to be carnivorous and cannibalis-
tic. The seasonal dietary requirements of the
toad varied (Table 1). The insect consumption
per toad was high (26-28) in the months of
May -July but low* (16) in August and lowest
(10) in October. The high consumption of food
in May- July was because of high reproductive
activity of the toad, as evident from the field
study, gonadal weight and gonado- somatic in-
dex (paper on breeding of Bufo stomaticus in
preparation). The feeding rate declined in Au-
gust and September; and in October, it was
Table 2
PERCENTAGE OF OCCURRENCE IN THE GUT
May
June
July
August
September
October
Thysanura (Bristle tail larvae)
2.17
Diplura
1.96
Collembola (Spring tail)
3.70
Orthoptera (Grasshoppers,
3.70
3.92
6.52
6.67
4.76
6.25
Crickets)
3.92
2.17
10.00
19.05
12.5
Isoptera (Termites)
11.76
28.26
Dermaptera (Earwigs)
11.11
10.87
10.0
9.52
Mallophaga (Chewing lice)
1.96
2.17
Thysanoptera (Thrips)
1.96
Heteroptera (Bugs)
29.62
17.64
10.87
23.33
28.57
18.75
Homoptera (Leaf/plant hoppers)
7.40
5.88
28.26
46.67
38.09
12.5
Coleoptera (Small grey weevil)
66.66
43.13
71.73
56.67
85.71
43.75
(Big grey weevil)
55.55
35.29
45.65
50.00
57.14
43.75
10.87
3.33
9.52
18.75
Lepidoptera (Larvae)
22.22
15.68
10.87
10.0
9.52
12.50
(Moths)
3.92
2.17
12.5
Diptera (Flies)
11.11
1.96
6.67
4.76
12.5
(Mosquitoes)
18.51
23.52
13.33
19.05
(Maggots)
1.96
4.34
6.67
9.52
Hymenoptera (Parasites)
29.52
33.33
13t04
10.0
19.05
12.50
(Bees and wasps)
18.52
15.68
10.87
10.0
19.05
6.25
(Myrmicinae)
85.19
66.66
45.65
46.67
52.38
62.5
(Formicinae)
62.96
52.94
50.0
56.67
57.14
68.75
Dictyoptera (Cockroaches)
5.88
13.04
13.33
4.76
Arachnida (Spiders)
14.81
13.72
4.34
6.67
23.81
25.0
Chilopoda
(Centipedes)
1.96
3.33
Annelida (Earthworms)
1.96
Mollusca (Gastropod molluscans)
11.76
2.17
28
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
very low because October marks the pre-
hibernation period of the toad.
In the present study, hymenopterous ants of
the sub-families Myrmicinae and Formicinae
were dominant in the diet both in the percen-
tage of prey eaten (Table 1) and the percentage
of occurrence in guts (Table 2). Weber (1938)
also reported the ants of family Formicidae to
be the main food item in B. marinus and Forge
and Barbault (1980) found ants and beetles to
be the predominant food of B. pejitoni.
The exact appreciation of the insect food
can, however, be worked out in terms of per-
centage of total biomass (Tables 2, 4) consu-
med. Berry and Bullock (1962) and Berry
(1965) measured the volume of the gut contents
but have not presented it as per insect. The
total biomass consumed per toad, calculated
by the weighing coefficients gives the real bio-
efficacy of anurans as control agents.
It may thus be inferred that the feeding po-
tential can be appreciated on the basis of
weight of insect rather than percentage total
number of prey as the number is not represen-
tative of the size of insects belonging to dif-
ferent orders.
Table 3
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL BIOMASS
Food items
May
June
July
August
September October
Thysanura (Bristle tail larvae)
—
—
0.02
—
—
—
Diplura
—
0.04
—
—
—
—
Collembola (Spring tail)
0.001
—
—
—
—
—
Orthoptera (Grasshoppers,
1.28
1.23
1.58
2.34
1.08
3.85
Crickets)
—
0.23
0.09
0.59
1,21
1.44
Isoptera (Termites)
—
15.94
18.45
—
—
—
Dermaptera (Earwigs)
4.13
—
3.09
2.92
1.73
—
Mallophaga (Chewing lice)
—
0.001
0.0008
—
—
—
Thysanoptera (Thrips)
—
0.001
—
—
—
—
Heteropters (Bugs)
15.17
4.96
1.41
3.77
4.04
6.19
Homoptera (Leaf/plant hoppers)
0.01
0.012
0.09
0.06
0.06
0.12
Coleoptera (Small grey weevil)
12.30
12.31
16.29
19.32
29.67
14.07
(Big grey weevil)
39.57
21.88
31.76
52.64
44.56
40.96
Lepidoptera
“
0.29
0.09
0.36
2.58
(Larvae)
8.51
5.71
3.14
5.17
1.42
5.09
(Moths)
Diptera
0.16
0.14
1.03
(Mosquitoes)
0.04
0.03
—
0.01
0.02
—
(Flies)
0.02
0.003
—
0.007
0.01
0.04
(Maggots)
—
0.02
0.056
0.05
0.10
—
Hymenoptera (Parasites)
0.28
0.66
0.28
0.03
0.12
0.41
(Bees and wasps)
2.30
2.66
1.51
1.68
5.02
1.38
(Myrmicinae)
3.93
1.94
0.99
0.75
0.58
1.19
(Formicinae)
11.73
29.79
18.95
8.66
9.15
19.91
Dictyoptera (Cockroaches)
—
0.99
1.14
1.26
0.29
—
Arachnida (Spiders)
0.70
0.51
0.14
0.14
0.59
1.75
Chilopoda (Centipede)
—
0.41
—
0.52
—
—
Annelida (Earthworm)
—
0.36
—
—
—
—
Mollusca (Gastropod molluscans)
—
0.16
0.06
—
—
—
FOOD SPECTRUM OF MARBLED TOAD
29
Coleoptera (although occurring in much less
number and frequency than ants and termites),
in terms of biomass, was the predominant in-
sect order (Tables 3 & 4). A similar observation
was made by Berry and Bullock (1962) in B.
melanostictus.
The maximum biomass (mg) consumed per
toad of Coleoptera was during the pre-
hibernation period in B. stomaticus. The chiti-
nous material of Coleoptera consumed during
this period probably served as a long lasting
source of energy and hence were preferred.
Furthermore, Coleoptera may be present in
more abundance than the other insect orders in
the habitat of this toad. The consumption of
large numbers Coleoptera by Rana tigerina
has been shown by Khan (1973) during the
pre-breeding period.
Bufo stomaticus was also observed to feed
substantially on mosquitoes and dystiscid bee-
tles during the rainy season in July- August
1985 (Table 1), when the toads were seen bree-
ding in water. Mosquitoes and dystiscid bee-
tles are abundantly in the water of flooded pad-
dy fields (Kadan and Patel 1960). As is clear
from the present study, B. stomaticus fed both
on terrestrial and aquatic fauna. However,
Berry and Bullock (1962) found B. melanostic-
tus feeding exclusively on terrestrial insects.
In the present study, bees and wasps were
also recorded from the guts in tangible
amounts. Noble (1924) showed that ants and
wasps were rejected by frogs and toads whe-
reas, Tyler (1958) and Khera (1975) recorded
their occurrence as prey items. Tyler (1958)
reported that the available insect prey was de-
Table 4
TOTAL BIOMASS CONSUMED (MG) PER TOAD
Thysanura (Bristle tail larvae)
—
—
0.11
—
—
—
Diplura
—
0.16
—
—
—
—
Collembola (Spring tail)
0.006
—
—
—
—
—
Orthoptera (Grasshoppers)
4.48
4.75
7.89
12.1
5.76
7.56
(Crickets)
—
0.89
0.49
3.03
6.48
2.84
Isoptera (Termites)
—
61.28
92.12
—
—
—
Dermaptera (Earwigs)
14.36
—
15.49
15.07
9.23
—
Mallophaga (Chewing lice)
—
0.004
0.004
—
—
—
Thysanoptera (Thrips)
—
0.004
—
—
—
—
Heteroptera (Bugs)
52.80
19.06
7.04
19.44
21.6
12.15
Homoptera (Leaf/plant hoppers)
0.04
0.05
0.46
0.32
0.32
0.24
Coleoptera (Small grey weevil)
42.82
47.33
81.73
99.73
158.67
27.63
(Big grey weevil)
137.07
84.12
158.54
271.70
238.33
80.44
—
—
1.47
0.45
1.93
5.06
Lepidoptera (Larvae)
29.63
21.96
15.65
26.67
7.62
10.00
(Moths)
—
0.63
0.70
—
—
2.01
Diptera (Flies)
0.07
0.012
—
0.04
0.0!
0.07
(Mosquitoes)
0.14
0.10
—
0.03
0.11
—
(Maggots)
—
0.08
2.81
0.25
0.54
—
Hymenoptera (Parasites)
0.96
2.55
1.39
0.13
0.62
0.81
(Bees and wasps)
8.04
10.21
7.55
8.68
26.87
2.71
(Myrmicinae)
13.68
7.45
4.93
3.89
3.09
2.33
(Formicinae)
40.84
114.53
94.58
44.70
48.96
39.11
Dictyoptera (Cockroaches)
—
3.84
5.67
6.52
1.55
—
Arachnida (Spiders)
2.44
1.94
0.72
0.73
3.14
3.44
Chilopoda (Centipede)
—
1.57
—
2.67
—
—
Annelida (Earthworm)
—
1.37
—
—
—
—
Mullusca (Gastropod molluscans)
—
0.62
0.29
—
—
—
3
30
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
pendent upon the type of vegetation in a parti-
cular habitat. According to Jensen and Klims-
tra (1966), Hedeen (1970) and Nigam (1979)
anurans are opportunistic feeders and con-
sume the most readily available food. The
more frequent occurrence of toads in plant nur-
series and orchards may be attributed to the
easy availability of prey. Also, there seems to
be a correlation between the abundance of
toads and the ground fauna. However, Sweet-
man (1944) and Brower and Brower (1962) sho-
wed that anurans were capable of developing
food preferences.
The seasonal variations in the diet of B. sto-
maticus in the present studies may be due to a
change in the availability of fauna in a parti-
cular season and is in agreement with the ob-
servations of Tyler (1958), Brooks (1959,
1964), Turner (1959), Berry (1965), Khan
(1973) and Knera (1975).
The present study reaffirms that toads are
useful as control agents for various insect pests
especially those belonging to the orders Cole-
optera, Isoptera, Hymenoptera, Dermaptera
and Diptera. Though toads appear to be oppor-
tunistic feeders, their feeding on many phyto-
phagous insect pests does support their useful-
ness as biocontrol agents. A number of earlier
workers like Gadow (1901). Pack (1922), Ka-
dan and Patel (1960), Stiles et al. (1969) and
Fellow (1969) also stressed the useful activity
of toads.
The presence of stones, leaves and debris
among the gut contents of B. stomaticus shows
that the above material might have been engul-
Refer
Berry, P.Y. (1965): The diet of some Singapore Anura.
J. Zool. London, 144: 163-174.
Berry, P.Y. & J. A, Bullock (1962): The food of Com-
mon Maly an toad, Bufo melanostictus Schneider. Copeia.
1962: 736-741.
Boulenger, G.A. (1897): The tailless batrachians of
Europe. Ray. Society. London.
Brooks, G.R. (1959): A survey of the food habits of
Rana catesbeiana from five different habitat. Virginia J.
Sci. 10: 263.
(1964): An analysis of the food habits of the bull
frog Rana catesbeiana by body size, sex, mouth and habi-
tat. Ibid. 15: 173-186.
Brower, L.P. & Brower, J. (1962): Investigations into
mimicry. Nat. Hist. 71: 8-19.
fed accidentally along with the prey (Table 1).
Vegetable matter occurred in many guts, but
the amount was quite small and may thus be
well explained as inadvertantly ingested with
food. The intake of pebbles and plant matter
may be important in providing roughage as well
as increased girinding capacity for the total
mass envelope. The presence of stones and
vegetable matter in the guts of anurans has also
been reported by earlier workers. Tyler (1958),
Berry and Bullock (1962), Berry (1965), Joshee
(1968) and Kramek (1972).
Bufo stomaticus was observed to capture
insects of all sizes ranging from 1 to 25 mm in
length and weighing from 0. 12 to 200 mg. Tyler
(1958) mentioned that the essential factor to be
observed when considering the diet of an
anuran species is the recognition that there is a
limit to the size of the food items that can be
ingested, varying according to the size of the
individual frog and the jaw span. The studies of
Brooks (1959, 1964) and Kramek (1972) also
showed that the food of R. catesbeiana and R.
septentrionalis varied with the body size, sex,
change of locality and season.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to I.C.A.R. and Head, De-
partment of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural Uni-
versity, Ludhiana for providing funds and fa-
cilities. We express our thanks to Dr. A.S.
Sohi, Entomologist of Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana for identifying the in-
sects.
E N C E S
Fellow, A.G. (1969): Toads and termites. Victorian
Nat. 86: 136.
Forge, P. & Barbault, R.(1980): Observations on the
diet of 2 sympatric amphibians from Sahel of Senegal: Bufo
pentond and Tomopterns. Bull. Int. London Afr. Noiri Ser.
A Sci. Nat. 40 (3): 674-684.
Gadow, H. (1901): The Cambridge Natural History,
Amphibians and Reptiles. Vol VIII.
Hedeen, S.E. (1970): The ecology and life history of
the mink frog, Rana septentrionalis Baird. Ph.D Thesis,
Univ. Minn. Minneapolis.
Jensen, T. A. & Klimstra, W.D. (1966): Food habits of
the green frog Rana clamitans in Southern Illinois Amer-
.Mid. Nat. 76: 169-182.
Joshee, A.K. (1968): Food habits of the bull frog, Rana
FOOD SPECTRUM OF MARBLED TOAD
31
tigerina. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 498-500.
Kadan, M.V.B. & Patel, G.A. (1960): Crop pests and
how to fight them. Diss. Pub. Govt. Maharashtra Bombay.
Khan, M.S. (1973): Food of tiger frog, Rana tigerina
Daudin Biologiay 19: 1-2.
Khera, K.L. (1975): Systematics and biology of
anurans of North India with special reference to biology of
Rana cyanophlyctis D. Phil, thesis Punjab Univ., Chandi-
garh.
Karamek, W.C. (1972): Food of the frog Rana septen-
trionalis in New York. Copeia 1972 (2): 390-392.
Nigam, H.C. (1979): Food and feeding habits of Rana
tigerina in paddy belts of U.P. India. Geobios 6.(6): 241-
244.
Noble, G.K. (1918): The amphibians collected by the
American Museum Expedition to Nicaragua in 1916. Bull.
Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 38: 311-347.
(1924): A contribution to herpetology of the
Belgium Congo based on the collection of American Mu-
seum Congo Expedition. Part III. Amphibia. Ibid 49: 147-
347.
Pack, H. L. (1922): Toads in regulation of insect out-
breaks. Copeia 1972: 46-47.
Stiles, K.A., Robert, W.H. & Boolotial, R.A.
(1969): College Zoology, Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi, 530 pp.
Sweetman, H.L. (1944): Food habits and molting of the
common tree frog. Amer. Mild. Nat. 32: 494-501.
Turner, F.B. (1959): An analysis of feeding habits of
Rana pretiosa in yellowstone Park, Wyoming. Am. Midi.
Nat. 67: 403- 413.
Tyler, M.J. (1958): On the diet and feeding habits of
the edible frog (Rana esculenta Linn.) Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond. 131: 582-592.
Wadekar, U.L. (1963). The diet of Indian Bull frog
Rana tigerina Daud. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 60: (1):
263-268.
Weber, N.A. (1938): The food of the Giant toad Bufo
marinus (L.) in Trinidad and British Guiana with special
references to the ants. Ann. ent. Soc. An. 31 (4): 334.
32
MAHSEER CONSERVATION — PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS1
Prakash Nautiyal2
INTRODUCTION
Mahseer, well known as an anglers’ delight,
has numerous adjectives to its credit; colour-
ful, fascinating, elegant, noble, aristrocratic
and prized being some of them. Besides its
status as an outstanding Game-Fish, it also
finds mention in the Vedas and Smriti, the two
epics of Hindu mythology. The Vedas consider
it as a privileged fish used by Brahmins to
propitiate the souls of their deceased ances-
tors. A fish so well known for the delicacy and
pleasure provided during sport, is now in trou-
ble .
No single cause can account for the current
situation, which is an impact of several factors
functioning together magnified at one or other
stage of its life-history. This paper describes
such factors which have been termed as ‘Cons-
traints’
Natural Constraints: In the case of the Garh-
wal Himalayan Mahseer {Tor putitora ), the
phenomenon of migration provides the neces-
sary link between nature’s food supply and
reproduction and is thus of adaptive signfi-
cance. The fish lays its spawn where the young
will have ample food, comparatively less dan-
ger of being predated upon and overall conge-
nial environment for the eggs and young to
survive. A tri-phased migration has been ob-
served in T. putitora attributed mainly to main-
tenance of food supply in nature (Nautiyal and
Lai 1984).
The first phase of the migration commences
during March - April when the semi adults
(which have not yet attained the size- at-first-
maturity) alongwith a few broodfish ascend
from their feeding grounds in the foothill stret-
ches into the snow-fed tributaries of the Ganga
namely the Alaknanda and the Bhagirathi. This
is in response to general rise in water tempera-
ture of the Ganga from 16°C during December
to 20°C during March - April, attributed to
'Accepted October W85.
department of Zoology, University of Garhwal,
Srinagar - 246174 (India).
melting of snow. The tributaries being com-
paratively cool during spring (14-16° C) pro-
vide congenial surroundings for overwintering.
As the ice cover continues to recede, a gradual
increase in the turbidity is registered which
may be considered as a stimulus for their go-
nads to mature.
The second phase is marked by movement
of the brood fish during July to the spawning
grounds. The third phase involves descending
migration of the pre-recruits alongwith the ju-
veniles and the immature adults (which had
ascended with the commencement of the first
phase) from their feeding grounds firstly into
the ‘snow-fed’ hillstreams and then into the
Ganga. The water temperature starts decrea-
sing during July and the streams get flooded
and turbid. Both turbidity and temperature acl
as stimulus for brooders. The temperature of
the spawning grounds ranged from21°-25°C-
Mahseer exhibits great diversity in food and
feeding habits. They have been reported to be
‘Herbivorous’ (Desai 1970), ‘Herbi- omni-
vorous’ (Das and Pathani 1978), ‘Carni-
omnivorous’ (Badolaand Singh 1980), ‘Insecti-
vorous’ (Khanna and Pant 1964) and ‘Carni-
vorous’ (Nautiyal and Lai 1984 a). They may
feed extensively on one type of food (mono-
phagic) throughout their life-history or may
feed on variety of food (steno - and euryphagic)
and exhibit transition from animal to plant mat-
ter or vice versa. Interestingly enough the fin-
gerlings of Kumaun Mahseer are zoophagus in
nature (Pathani and Joshi 1979) as compared to
their adults which switch over to more of a
herbivorous diet (Das and Pathani 1978). Con-
trary to its euryphagic nature the Garhwal Hi-
malayan Mahseer is monophagic, feeding ex-
clusively on insect diet as compared to their
fingerlings and fry which subsist on plant mat-
ter only. The versatile nature is in response to
food available at different times in same as well
as different environs. According to a review on
Mahseer Fishes of India (Sen and Jayaram
1982) T. tor juveniles feed on insects and the
adults switch over to herbivorous diet.
MAHSEER CONSERVATION
33
A glance at its feeding ecology reveals that
the water temperature and current considera-
bly influence the food habits and supply (Nau-
tiyal and Lai 1985). A temperature range of 12°
— 27 °C prevailing in the spring-fed streams,
supporting the juvenile stages, alongwith low
to moderate current (0.2426 - 1.4529 m/sec)
except monsoon, accounts for flourishing en-
tomofauna. These two factors also exert signi-
ficant influence on the feeding intensity. The
intensity was observed to be maximum when
water temperature and current were recorded
to be low, 12° - 14°C and 0.2426 - 0.2874
m/sec, respectively. These two alongwith high
turbidity act in a complex and thus become
inmical to feeding intensity which thereby re-
gisters a considerable decline. The fry and fin-
gerlings inspite of high turbidity feed vora-
ciously. Although, water current and tempera-
ture regulate the food-supply to a certain ex-
tent, turbidity plays a pivotal role in maintai-
ning the supply. The turbidity also governs the
feeding intensity and is hence a limiting factor.
These factors govern the food habits to a cer-
tain extent only.
The quality of food in essential quantity as
compared to quantity only has a greater impact
on the reproductive activity by significantly
influencing the growth rate. Consequently the
scarcity of quality food may retard the rate of
growth to the extent that it may effect a delay in
the attainment of sexual maturity, for in fishes,
the latter is associated to size rather than age of
the fish (Monastryskii 1940). Putitor Mahseer,
being a rheophilic species (in Garhwal Hi-
malaya), attains a large size and faces food
problems. In foothill stretches the ‘basic food’
gets scarce, not because of its density decrea-
sing, but owing to the size of the fish and the
volume of food consumed by it which naturally
falls short of the required diet. This assumption
is supported by the observation that the fee-
ding intensity declines in later stages of life as
compared to young stages which feed vora-
ciously (Nautiyal and Lai 1984 a). The impact
on the growth rate becomes quite evident from
Table 1. During first year the fish attains a
length of 162. 58 mm. As the fish grows in size
the rate records a decreasing trend from 110.74
to 108.71 mm in second and third years respec-
tively. The feeding intensity was observed to
decline after the fish- attained a length of 220
mm and age of 1 + (Table 2). the decrease in
growth rate is obviously due to decline in the
feeding intensity during the second year when
the fish is of about 235.5 mm in length.
The Mahseer populations in the various la-
kes too have suffered a set back due to ever
increasing pollution load. The latter naturally
hampers both, the feeding and breeding activi-
ties. The phenomenon of successful breeding
as already mentioned, most essential for the
survival, is affected by food habits of the fish
and like feeding habits differs in different en-
virons. It spawns once in a year in Garhwal
waters (Nautiyal 1984), twice in Himachal
(Sehgal et al. 1971), thrice in Punjab (Khan
1939) and even throughout the year intermit-
tently in certain reservoirs (Bhatnagar 1964).
Attainment of maturity is the threshold to
reproductive capacity and since it is directly
associated to attainment of a particular size,
Table 1
GROWTH RATES AS EVIDENCED BY BACK— CALCULATED LENGTHS AND EXPECTED WEIGHTS
1 +
2 +
3 +
4 +
Average
Observed length (mm)
175.50
235.50
355.50
535.50
Back— calculated
length (mm)
Annual
Increase
162.58
273.09
381.80
515.65
Length (mm)
81.21
110.74
108.71
133.85
Weight (gms)
234.15
321.10
315.21
359.70
34
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 2
VARIATIONS IN THE PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY IN THE
CONDITION OF FEED FOR DIFFERENT SIZE-GROUPS
Size-
groups
State of Intestinal Bulbs (%)
Age-
groups
Empty
Poor
1/4
1/2
3/4
Full
41—100
5.38
2.15
8.60
20.43
37.63
25.81
0 +
101—160
5.48
8.22
16.44
31.51
•17.81
20.55
0 +
161—220
2.94
17.65
20.59
55.88
20.59
11.77
0+, 1 +
221—280
—
50.0
—
30.00
20.00
—
1 + , 2 +
281—340
33.33
16.66
33.33
16.66
—
—
1 + , 2 +
341—400
—
66.66
33.33
—
—
—
2 + , 3 +
401 — 460
—
50.00
25.00
25.00
—
—
2 + , 3 +
the growth rate of the species matters much
which in turn is governed by the nourishment
available. The Kumaun Mahseer has been ob-
served to mature at* a size less than half to that
of the Garhwal Himalayan Mahseer (Nautiyal
1984). Apparently the size and nature of the
water body influences the biota which in turn
governs the growth rate and eventually the si-
ze-at-first maturity. Various species of Mah-
seer attain maturity at different lengths in dif-
ferent environs, the Narmada Mahseer at 360
mm (Desai 1973), the Garhwal Himalyan Mah-
seer at 700 mm (Nautiyal 1984), but none ma-
ture at a size smaller than the common carp or
other commercially important food fish.
The fecundity of Mahseer as compared to
the commercially exploited species, is very
low. While the fecundity of the Garhwal Hi-
malyan Mahseer of 780 mm is 26,977, the Nar-
mada, the Deccan and the Kumaun Mahseer
have 30,420, 20,000 and 7076 ova for speci-
mens measuring 625 mm, 620 mm and 390 mm
respectively (Desai 1973, Kulkarni and Ogale
1978, Pathani 1981). The Narmada Mahseer
has 6000 eggs/kg body weight as compared to
2.61.000 eggs/kg body weight of the rohu and
1 .33 .000 eggs/kg body weight for catla. Eviden-
tly the Mahseer have a low reproductive capa-
city which with the delayed maturity may have
impact as far as their survival is concerned.
After spawning the problem of fertilization
and survival of the larvae, arises. The Deccan
Mahseer has been reported to have a long hat-
ching period of 80 hours and a 6-day semi-
quiescent stage which proves to be very disas-
trous (Kulkarni and Ogale 1978).
Created Constraints: The constraints arising
out of the activities of man can be broadly
classified into (a) Indirect constraints and (b)
Direct constraints. The former category is re-
presented mainly by various hydroelectric pro-
jects whereby barriers in the form of weirs and
dams are erected across the river, thus bloc-
king the migration passage for ever, besides
isolating the population and effecting a change
in the riverine ecology which in turn disturbs
the food supply as well as the breeding pros-
pects. The fish is essentially a migrant, espe-
cially for spawning in warm shallow waters of
spring-fed streams and any sort of barrier
across the migratory passage will hamper the
breeding prospects thus enhancing the possi-
bilities of endangering the species. Use of ex-
plosives etc to exploit the fish population leads
to mass mortality, resulting in indiscriminate
overfishing, thus accounting for the created
constraints. The same is being practised in the
Indian uplands with great enthusiasm as they
have no fear of being punished. Preventive ru-
les, whatsoever, are non-existent in these parts
of the country and use of explosives, chemicals
etc. goes unchecked. The fishing stress on the
population commences from the very moment
fish attains an attractive size and that too, quite
before it matures sexually. The stress is heavy
on the brood fish.
MAHSEER CONSERVATION
35
To sum up, unsuccessful breeding is a biolo-
gical and thus a ‘Natural Constraint’ which is
further magnified by ‘created constraints’
mentioned above. This has resulted in endan-
gering the Mahseer.
Attempts to rehabilitate the Mahseer: In
1976 the National Commission of Agriculture
in its report on Fisheries had recommended
extensive survey and detailed ecological and
biological investigations to save Mahseer from
the adverse effects of indiscriminate fishing
and river valley projects. As a reaction a few
isolated attempts were made to breed the Mah-
seer, but with limited success (Tripathi 1978,
Pathani and Das 1979). So far the only rehabili-
tation measures on sizable scale have been un-
dertaken by the Tata Electric Companies, Lo-
navala (Maharashtra) in their Lakes (Kulkarni
& Ogale 1978) and by the Wild Life Association
of South India and Karnataka Fisheries De-
partment.
The plans to rehabilitate Mahseer can be
chalked out only after the factors responsible
for the decline are clearly distinguished. Sen
and Jayaram (1982) have attributed stock ’de-
pletion to;
1. Use of explosives. 2. Wanton Killing of
brood fish in the spawning season. 3.
Ecological changes in the riverine sys-
tems of the country and 4. continued
constructions of dams and reservoirs on
rivers and streams destroying their mi-
gratory routes.
These factors can be categorically included
under ‘Created Constraints’, but none except
Kulkarni and Ogale (1978) have mentioned
‘Natural Constraints’. Similarly the author be-
sides the factors mentioned above, has laid
stress on delayed maturity in the Garhwal Hi-
malayan Mahseer.
Conservation Measures: Having identified
the handicaps, proper measures to rehabilitate
the species have to be undertaken. Taking the
case of the Garhwal Himalayan Mahseer the
first hurdle to be overcome is the delay in the
attainment of sexual maturity. If the fish ma-
tures at an earlier stage the vulnerability to
human assault will be reduced consequently
enhancing the chances of successful reproduc-
tion.
From the studies conducted on the Kumaun
Mahseer (Pathani 1981a & b) it is obvious that
sexual maturity in Putitor Mahseer is attained
at an early stage in lentic environs i.e. at 300
mm as compared to 700 mm in case of Garhwal
Himalayan Mahseer existing in lotic environ-
ment. The difference in growth is likely to be
due to the lotic and lentic environment. Hence
if the fish has to be conserved it has to be
propagated in the lentic environment and these
water bodies have to be kept safe and human
encroachment avoided. Regular monitoring of
water quality is also essential.
The Garhwal Himalaya is full of such water
bodies which are still virgin and can serve the
purpose of conservation. These alongwith the
proposed new reservoirs of various hydroelec-
tric and irrigation projects can be conveniently
utilized for this purpose. Most important aspect
thereafter is the job of the fish culture experts
to breed the fish. The fish seed has then to be
transferred to various lentic and lotic sites dee-
med fit for stocking them. I speculate that this
target can be achieved within 5 years. Such
water bodies at a later stage may be thrown
open to enthusiastic anglers. Promoting recre-
ational fishing should be one of the means to
achieve success in conservation (Nautiyal and
Nautiyal 1982). It will also enable the fish to
retain its status of prized Game-Fish.
That a closed season must be promulgated
with immediate effect and other conservation
measures which can aid in checking the man
made problems have been discussed earlier by
numerous authors including the present author
(Nautiyal and Lai 1982, Nautiyal and Nautiyal
1982 and Nautiyal 1984a). The need for Fish
Sanctuaries is obvious.
The cause of Mahseer has to be fostered
urgently. It is under active consideration that
Mahseer should be declared as an endangered
species but declaration of good intention do not
solve the problem. Will conservationists help
the Mahseer?
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Prof. H R Singh, Depart-
ment of Zoology, University of Garhwal, Sri-
nager for useful suggestions and laboratory fa-
cilities and to Dr. M. S. Lai for guidance.
36
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
References
Badola, S.P. & Singh, H.R. (1980): Food and feeding
habits of fishes of the genera Tor, Puntius and Barilius.
Proc. Indian Nat. Sci. Acad. B 46: 58-62.
Bhatnagar, G.K. (1964): Spawning and fecundity of
Bhakra reservoir fishes. Indian J. Fish. 11: 485-502.
Das, S.M. & Pathani, S.S. (1978): Studies on the
biology of Kumaun Mahseer Tor putitora .( Hamilton):
Adaptation of the alimentary tract in relation to feeding
habits, body weight and body length. Indian J. Anim. Sci.
48: 461-465.
Desai, V.R. (1970): Studies on the fishery and biology
of Tor tor (Hamilton) from river Narbada. J. Ini. Fish. Soc.
India 2: 101-112.
(1973): Studies on fishery and biology of Tor tor
from river Narbada. Proc. Indian Natn. Sci. Acad. 39:
228- 248.
Khan, H. (1939): Study of the sex organs of Mahseer
{Barbus tor). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 653-656.
Khanna, S.S. & Pant, M.C. (1964): On the digestive
tract and feeding habits of some teleostean fishes. Agra
Univ. J. Research 13: 230-243.
Kulkarni, C.V. & Ogale, S.N. (1978): The present
status of Mahseer (Fish) and artificial propagation of Tor
khudree (Sykes). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 651-660.
Monastryskii, G.N. (1940): Methods of evaluating ro-
ach stocks of the North Capsian. Trudy VNIRO 11.
Nautiyal, P. (1984): Natural history of the Garhwal
Himalyan Mahseer Tor putitora (Hamilton) II. Breeding
biology. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 93: 97-106.
(1984 a): On the Game-Fishes of Garhwal
Himalaya and the scope of exploiting the potential. Bull.
Env. S. 1: 53- 55.
Nautiyal, P. & Lal, M.S. (1982): Recent records of
Garhwal Mahseer {Tor putitora) with a note on its present
status. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 79: 693-695.
(1984): Preliminary observations on the mi-
gratory behaviour of the Garhwal Himalayan Mahseer. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 204-208.
(1984 a): Food and feeding habits of finger-
lings and juveniles of Mahseer (Tor putitora Ham.) in
Nayar river, ibid. 81: 642-646.
(1985): Food and feeding habits of Garhwal
Himalayan Mahseer in relation to certain abiotic factors.
Matsya 11: 31-35.
Nautiyal, P. & Nautiyal, V. (1983): Angling in Garh-
wal Himalaya with a view to promote tourism and conserve
Mahseer - A two approach. J. Ton. Rec. Res. 8: 41.
Pathani, S.S. (1981a): Fecundity of Mahseer Torputi-
tors (Ham.). Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 90: 253-260.
Pathani, S.S. (1981b): Age and growth of Mahseer Tor
putitora (Ham.) as determined by scales and operculum.
Matsya 7: 41-46.
Pathani, S.S. & Das, S.M. (1979): On induced spaw-
ning of Mahseer Tor putitora (Ham.) by mammalian and
fish pitutary hormones injection. Sci. & Cult. 45: 209-210.
Pathani, S.S. & Joshi, M. (1979): On the food and
feeding habits of fingerlings of two Kumaun Mahseer fishes
Tor tor and Tor putitora (Ham.) Bioresearch 4: 43-46.
Sehgal, K.L. , Shukla, J.P. & Shah, K.L. (1971):
Observations on fisheries of Kangra valley and adjacent
areas with special reference to Mahseer and other fishes. J.
Ini. Fish. Soc. India 3: 63-71.
Sen, T.K. & Jayaram, K.C. (1982): The Mahseer
Fishes of India - A review. Rec. Zool. Sur. India Occ Paper
39: 1-38.
Tripathi, Y.R. (1978): Artificial breeding of Tor puti-
tora (Ham.). J. Ini. Fish. Soc. India 9: 161.
37
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF PUNJAB STATE, NORTH INDIA1
S.S. Bir and Charanpreet Singh2
Extensive surveys in Gurdaspur district of Punjab state have indicated that 69 species falling
under 56 genera are new records. These plants are mostly from hilly ranges falling in Pathankot
tehsil. Quite a number of plants are met with in Narot Jaimal Singh area across river Ravi
bordering Pakistan.
Introduction
During the years 1983-1986 we undertook
botanical excursions throughout the disrict of
Gurdaspur, Punjab state, North India under
the Botanical Survey of India’s ‘District Flora
Scheme’. Quite a good portion of the area of
the district is sub- mountainous tract falling in
Pathankot tehsil and is a part of the Shivalik
range, the hills attaining a maximum height of
960 m (Katori) near Punjab-Himachal Pradesh
border. A large part of the proposed Thein
Dam reservoir Tails in the hilly tract of Gurdas-
pur district and comes under the administrative
Dhar Kalan block. A large number of hill plants
found in the area, therefore constitute part of
Punjab Flora and those reported new to the
state have not earlier been recorded from the
state in the taxonomic works that deal with
either the whole or part of the area under study
(Steward 1869, Bamber 1916, Parker 1918,
Sabnis 1940-41, Stewart 1945, Nair & Nair
1963-66, Rau 1968, Singh 1971 and Nair 1978).
It is interesting to note that some plants which
occur in the Shivalik hills in the district are also
met with in the plains area of the district parti-
cularly near Narot Jaimal Singh bordering Pa-
kistan. The River Ravi demarcating India’s In-
ternational boundary flows mostly on the Nor-
th-Western side of the district except for Narot
Jaimal Singh which is across the river Ravi and
is easily accessible from Kathua in J K state.
Such hill species which are met within the
plains area of the district are marked with an
asterisk. Seeds or propagules of such species
are easily carried down to the plains by streams
and rivulets and these establish well under a
‘Accepted November 1986.
department of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala -
147002 (India).
suitable environment. Our scrutiny of the li-
terature and comparison at Botanical Survey
of India, Dehradun Herbarium (BSD) have in-
dicated that 69 species belonging to 56 genera
falling in 28 families have not been reported
previously from Punjab state and are enumera-
ted here. The voucher specimens have been
deposited in the herbarium of Punjabi Univer-
sity (PUN) and duplicates are at Herbarium of
the Botanical Survey of India, Dehradun
(BSD). The arrangement of families is the same
as in ‘Flora British India’ by Hooker (1872- 97).
Enumeration of Newly Recorded Taxa
RANUNCULACEAE
1. *Clematis gouriana Roxb. Climber, on all
types of trees and shrubs in hill tract.
FI. & Fr. August-December.
C.P. Singh 9728, Thein Dam, 2 October,
1983.
BRASSICACEAE
2. Lepidium perfoliatum Linn. Common on
higher slopes in shade.
FI. & Fr. January-March.
C.P. Singh 13209, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
POLYGALACEAE
3. Polygala abyssinica R.Br. On open hilly-
slopes.
FI. & Fr. September-March.
C.P. Singh 13216, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
HYPERICACEAE
4. Hypericum cemuum Roxb. Along slopes.
FI. & Fr. March-May. C.P. Singh 13623,
Katori, 10 March, 1986.
38
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
GERANIACEAE
5. * Geranium lucidum Linn. On roadsides
and hill slopes.
FI. & Fr. March-May.
C.P. Singh 13126, Thein Dam, 9 March,
1986.
6. *G. ocellatum Camb. Cool and shady
places.
FI. & Fr. February- April.
C.P. Singh 13172, Dunera, 10 March,
1986.
7. G. wailichianum Don ex Sweet. On slopes.
FI. & Fr. October- April.
C.P. Singh 13197, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
FABACEAE
8. Argyrolobium flaccidum Jaub. & Spach. In
Valleys.
FI. & Fr. May-July.
C.P. Singh 13630, Katori, 16 May, 1985.
9. Atylosia crassa Prain. Climbing on many
trees and shrubs particularly Carissa
opaca stapf.
FI. & Fr. December- April.
C.P. Singh 13184, Dunera, 10 March,
1986.
ROSACEAE
10. Crotalaria pusilla Heyne, Common along
slopes.
FI. & Fr. October-March.
C.P. Singh 13212. Katori, 10 March, 1986.
11. Desmodium podocarpum DC. Common
along roadsides.
FI. & Fr. July-September.
C.P. Singh 13624, Katori, 16 October,
1985.
12. Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.
Small, shade tree along hilly-slopes.
FI. & Fr. March- October.
C.P. Singh 9722, Dunera, 1 October, 1983.
13. Rosa brunonii Lindl. Forest undergrowth.
FI. & Fr. April- May.
C.P. Singh 13111, Dunera, 10 March,
1985.
14. Rubus biflorus Buch.-Ham. Roadside
shrub.
FI. & Fr. April-May.
C.P. Singh 13637, Katori, 18 May, 1985.
15. R. ellipticus Sm. Straggler Shrub, along
roadsides.
FI. & Fr. February-May.
C.P. Singh 13202, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
APIACEAE
16. Bupleurum hamiltonii Balak. Common on
grassy slopes of hills.
FI. & Fr. October-December.
C.P. Singh 13207, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
17. *Scandix pecten- veneris Linn. Along road-
sides and field edges.
FI. & Fr. January- April.
C.P. Singh 13151, Narot Jaimal Singh, 10
March, 1986.
18. *Torilis japonica (Houtt) DC. Along field
edges and roadsides.
FI. & Fr. February- April.
C.P. Singh 13152, Narot Jaimal Singh, 10
March 1986.
CAPR1FOLIACEAE
19. * Viburnum coriaceum Bl. Hill sides.
FI. & Fr. July-September.
C.P. Singh 10968, Thein Dam, 24 June,
1985.
20. *V. erubescens Wall. Small tree along hill
slopes.
FI. & Fr. April-October.
C.P. Singh 13263, Pathankot, 14 March,
1986.
RUBIACEAE
21. *Galium asperifolium Wall. Common
along slopes.
FI. & Fr. June-August.
C.P. Singh 9453, Kahanpur. 6 August,
1983.
22. G. histiflorum Req. Common along hill-
sides.
FI. & Fr. July-August.
C.P. Singh 13638, Katori, 15 August, 1985.
23. Plectronia neilgherrensis Bedd. var. char-
tacea Gamble. Small tree along rivers.
FI. & Fr. February- April.
C.P. Singh 13204, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
ASTERACEAE
24. Achillea millefolium Linn. Along terraced
fields.
FI. & Fr. May-August.
C.P. Singh 13113, Dunera, 10 August,
1985.
ADDITIONS TO FLORA OF PUNJAB
39
25. Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham.) Hand.-
Mazz. Along slopes.
FI. & Fr. July-October.
C.P. Singh 13183, Dunera, 10 August,
1985.
26. A. contorta Hook. f. Common along
slopes.
FI. & Fr. July-September.
C.P. Singh 13114, Dunera, 10 August
1985.
27. Carpesium trachefolium Less. As forest
undergrowth.
FI. & Fr. July-September.
C.P. Singh 13628, Katori, 15 August, 1985.
28 . Erigeron multicaulis DC . Along the slopes .
FI. & Fr. May-October.
C.P. Singh 13622, Katori, 16 October.
1985.
29. Myractis wallichii Less. Common along
slopes.
FI. & Fr. June-September.
C.P. Singh 13627, Katori, 16 October,
1985.
30. *Silybum marianum (Linn.) Gaertn. Com-
mon along roadsides in Pathankot tehsil.
FI. & Fr. February-May. C.P. Singh
13192, Shahpur Kandi, 9 March, 1986.
31. *Taraxacum officinale Webber. Along ro-
adsides and moist places.
FI. & Fr. December- April.
C.P: Singh 13162, Narot Jaimal Singh, 10
March, 1986.
LOBELIACEAE
32. *Lobelia heyniana Roem. & Schult. Com-
mon in shady, grassy places.
FI. & Fr. September-December.
C.P. Singh 9454, Sujanpur, 6 August,
1986.
PRIMULACEAE
33. Androsace umbellata (Lour.) Merr. Com-
mon in damp and exposed places.
FI. & Fr. February- April.
C.P. Singh 13156, Bhattwan, 10, March,
1986.
SYMPLOCACEAE
34. *Symplocos sumuntia Buch.-Ham. ex D.
Don. Large shrub, along roadsides.
FI. & Fr. September-November.
C.P. Singh 9717, Dunera. 1 October, 1983.
OLEACEAE
35. *Jasmimim humile Linn. Along hedges,
wild.
FI. & Fr. August-October, March- April.
C.P. Singh 13169, Narot Jaimal Singh, 10
March, 1986.
36. *J. multiflorum (Burm. f.) Andr. Along ro-
adside hedges, wild.
FI. & Fr. October-March.
C.P. Singh 13168, Narot JaimaPSingh, 10
March, 1986.
GENTIANACEAE
37. Centaurium centaurioides (Roxb.) comb,
nov. Along the canals and water channels.
FI. & Fr. March-June.
C.P. Singh 13282, Madhopur, 13 March,
1986.
38. Gentiana argentea (Royle ex D. Don) DC.
Along hill slopes. FI. & Fr. February-
March.
C.P. Singh 13187, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
39. Swertia purpurescens Wall. Common
along hilly slopes. FI. & Fr. August-
September.
C.P. Singh 13639, Katori, 16 September,
1985.
CONVOLVULACEAE
40. Ipomoea muricata (Linn.) Jacq. Climbing
on trees and shrubs in hedges.
FI. & Fr. September-November.
C.P. Singh 13625, Katori, 15 October,
1985.
4 1 . Ipomoea sindica Stapf . In cultivated fields .
FI. & Fr. August-October.
C.P. Singh 12225, Madhopur, 19 October,
1985.
SCROPHULARIACEAE
42. Limnophila connata (Buch.-Ham. ex Don)
Hand.-Mazz. In moist places.
FI. & Fr. September-October, February-
April.
C.P. Singh 13243, Madhopur, 13 March,
1986.
43. Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce. In moist
places.
FI. & Fr. October- April.
C.P. Singh 13244, Madhopur, 13 March,
1986.
40
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
44. Suiera dissecta (Del.) Walp. In moist
places.
FI. & Fr. February- April.
C.P. Singh 13241, Madhopur, 13 March,
1986.
ACANTHACEAE
45. Barleria buxifolia Linn. Along hedges.
FI. & Fr. July-April.
C.P. Singh 13185, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
46. *Rostellularia diffusa Nees. In moist
places.
FI. & Fr. September-February.
C.P. Singh 9740, Murgala (Dinanagar), 3
October, 1983.
47. *R. mollissima Nees. In waste and shady
places.
FI. & Fr. September-February.
C.P. Singh 9719, Dunera, 10 October,
1983.
LAMIACEAE
48. Ajuga parviflora Benth. Roadside herb of
hilly areas.
FI. & Fr. March-May.
C.P. Singh 13215, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
49. Nepeta graciliflora Benth. Along roadsides
in hilly areas. FI. & Fr. September-
November, March- April.
,C.P. Singh 13201, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
50. Plectranthus japonicus (Burm.f.) Koidz.
Along hill-slopes. FI. & Fr. October-
March.
C.P. Singh 13208, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
PLANTAGINACEAE
5 1 . Plantago lanceolata Linn. Along roadsides
in grassy localities.
FI. & Fr. March-May.
C.P. Singh 13203, Katori, 10 March, 1986.
POLYGONACEAE
52. Polygonum alatum Buch.-Ham. In damp
places.
FI. & Fr. January-November.
C.P. Singh 13620, Katori, 12 January,
1985.
53. P. amplexicaule Don. In moist places.
FI. & Fr. June-October,
C.P. Singh 13116, Katori, 13 August, 1985.
54. P. capitatum Buch.-Ham. Along roadside
rocks and walls in hilly tract.
Fi. & Fr. June-November.
C.P. Singh 13117, Katori, 13 August, 1985.
55. P. donii Meissn. In moist places.
FI. & Fr. July-October.
C.P. Singh 9460, Cantonment (Pathan-
kot), 7 October, 1983.
LORANTHACEAE
56. Loranthus pulverulentus Wall. Semi-
parasite on Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. and
other trees in hill-tract.
FI. & Fr. September^November; March-
April.
C.P. Singh 9714, Dunera, 1 October, 1983.
57. Scurrula cordifolius (Wall.) G. Don. On
many trees.
FI. & Fr. September-October; March-
April.
C.P. Singh 13182, Dunera, 10 March,
1986.
EUPHORBIACEAE
58. Flueggea virosa Roxb. ex Willd. Small tree
of slopes.
FI. & Fr. March-October.
C.P. Singh 13120, Dunera, 10 March,
1986.
ULMACEAE
59. *Trema orientalis Roxb. Small tree, along
roadsides.
FI. & Fr. July-October.
C.P. Singh 9416, Chakki Bridge (Pa-
thankot),
5 August, 1983.
LILIACEAE
60. Asparagus adscendens Roxb. Straggler of
hilly roadsides.
FI. & Fr. October-March.
C.P. Singh 13189, Niari, 10 March, 1986.
61 . Nothoscordum inodorum (Ait.) Nicholson.
Newly introduced herb into India. As or-
chard undergrowth.
FI. & Fr. January-March.
C.P. Singh 10948, Batala, 7 January, 1985.
62. Tulipa stellata Hook.f. Roadsides and
fields in hill-tracts. FI. & Fr. March- April.
C.P. Singh 13161, Bhamlada, 10 March,
1986.
ADDITIONS TO FLORA OF PUNJAB
41
JUNCACEAE
63. Juncus concinnus Don. Along higher
slopes.
FI. & Fr. July-September.
C.P. Singh 13631 , Katori, 15 August, 1985.
CYPERACEAE
64. Cyperus cyperoides (Linn.) O. Kuntze.
Along forest and field edges.
FI. & Fr. July-November.
C.P. Singh 9422, Chakki bridge (Pa-
thankot),
5 August, 1983.
POACEAE
6:1 Chrysopogon fuluus (Spreng.) Choiv.
Common on gravelly and rocky slopes in
hill-tract.
FI. & Fr. July-September.
C.P. Singh 13632, Katori, 16 August, 1985.
66. Eragrostis curvala Nees. Common in waste
places.
FI. & Fr. January- April.
R E F E ]
Bamber, C.J. (1916): Plants of the Punjab. Lahore.
Hooker, J.D. (1872-97): The flora of the British India.
Vols. 1-7. London.
Nair, N.C. (1978): Flora of the Punjab plains. Rec. Bot.
Surv. Ind. 2/(1): i-xx, 1-326.
Nair, N.C. & Nair, V.J. (1963-66): Some plants re-
cords for the Punjab Plain. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 5: 219-222;
6: 69-71:299- 300; 8 : 351-352.
Parkar, R. N. (1918): A Forest Flora for the Punjab
with Hazara and Delhi. Lahore.
Rau, M.A. (1968): Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain
C.P. Singh 13249, Dera Baba Nanak, 6
March, 1986.
67. Pennisetum flaccidum Griseb. Along hill-
slopes.
FI. & Fr. September-November.
C.P. Singh 13635, Katori, 15 August, 1985.
68. *Themeda villosa (Poir) d. Camus. In river
beds and field edges.
FI. & Fr. August-November.
C.P. Singh 13633, Katori, 16 October,
1985.
69. Tripogon filiformis Nees. Common along
hill-siopes.
FI. & Fr. September-November.
C.P. Singh 12220, Thein Dam, 10 Septem-
ber, 1985.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Botanical Survey of
India for financing the scheme and for the
award of fellowship to Charanpreet Singh.
E N C E S
and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Tracts.
Check list. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10 (Supplement No. 2):
1-87.
Sabnis, T.S. (940-41): A contribution to the Flora of the
Punjab Plains and the Associated Hill Regions. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 42: 124-149; 342-379; 533-586.
Singh, U. (1971): Additions to Duthie’s Flora of the
Upper Gangetic Plain, ibid. 68: 339-346.
Stewart, J.L. (1869): Punjab Plants. Lahore.
(1945): The Grasses of Northwest India. Brit-
tonia 5: 404-468.
42
BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN
BATS-PART XII - MEGADERMA LYRA LYRA (GEOFFROY) (MEGADERMATIDAE)
AT DIFFERENT LATITUDES1
A. Gopalakrishna2 and N. Badwaik3
The breeding habits of Megaderma lyra lyra have been studied from four localities in India,
namely, Srirangapattana, Aurangabad, Bhandara and Agra. This species breeds once a year and
has an autumn pattern of breeding. In spite of the varying latitudes the time of conception and the
time of delivery are nearly same in all the localities except that the onset of breeding is advanced
by a few days at lower latitudes.
Introduction
There are very few reports on the breeding
habits of the same species of bats at different
latitudes. The work of Dwyer (1963, 1966,
1968) and Richardson (1977) on two species of
Miniopterus at different southern latitudes and
of Ramakrishna and Rao (1977) on Rhinolo-
phus rouxi at different northern latitudes de-
monstrated that latitude and ecological condi-
tions play a significant role in influencing the
breeding biology of these bats although the
basic breeding behaviour is genetically con-
trolled. In Miniopterus in Australia the dura-
tion of delayed implantation of the blastocyst
becomes progessively protracted towards hi-
gher (southern) latitudes. The Indian Rhinolo-
phus rouxi , although having a basic ‘autumn’
pattern of breeding, exhibits a delay of blasto-
cyst implantation and retarded early embryo-
nic development at higher (northern) latitudes.
Ramakrishna and Rao (1977) contended that
the variations in the breeding habits of Rhi-
nolophus rouxi at different latitudes are adap-
tations to bring forth the young ones at the
most propitious period when insects are availa-
ble in abundance. Apart from the work on Rhi-
nolophus rouxi there is no report on the repro-
duction of any Indian species of bats at dif-
ferent parts of India, although India, which
extends from almost near the equator to the
deep sub-tropical region and has wide varia-
tions in climatic conditions, offers ideal condi-
'Accepted January 1987
:Emeritus Scientist, SCIR, Vijaya Nagar, Chaoni, Nagpur
- 440013 (India).
department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur -
440001 (India).
tions for studying the influence of latitude and
ecological factors on the reproductive habits of
at least those species, which have a wide distri-
bution and occur throughout the sub-
continent. One such species is Megaderma ly-
ra lyra . This paper presents observations on
this species from four localities, namely, Sri-
rangapattana (12° N, 76° 43’ E), Aurangabad
(19° 55’ N, 73° 23’ E), Bhandara (21° 9’ N, 79°
42’ E) and Agra (27° 10’ N, 78° 5’ E).
Ramakrishna (1949, 1951) and Ramaswamy
(1961) studied the reproductive habits of this
species in south India and at and near Agra
respectively. Bats from these places or locali-
ties close to these places have also been inclu-
ded in the present study with a view to filling up
the lacunae in earlier studies and to present a
comprehensive picture of the breeding beha-
viour of this bat from widely differnt localities
with varying climatic and ecological condi-
tions.
Material and Methods
Specimens of Megaderma lyra lyra were
collected from dungeons in the old fort at Sri-
rangapattana, from an underground tunnel
below Bibi-ka Mukbara at Aurangbad, from
old cow sheds and grain godowns at and
around Bhandara and from the dungeons in the
fort and from dilapidated old monuments at
and near Agra for two successive years from
each locality so that every calendar month is
represented by one collection or more. Table 1
gives monthwise details of the collections of
specimens from the different localities. The
specimens were killed by chloroform or by de-
capitation and their genitalia dissected out and
BREEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BATS
43
fixed in various ways after noting down the
details of the external characters of the repro-
ductive organs in the male and mammary
glands and pubic dugs in the females. The tis-
sues were transferred to 70% ethanol after fixa-
tion for 24 hours. The right testis was weighed
in all the males after separating it from the
epididymis. The tissues were processed by the
usual procedure and paraffin embedded tissues
were serially sectioned at 5 to 8 micron thick-
ness. For the present report a few sections
from each series were stained with Harris’ or
Ehrlich’s haematoxylin, counterstained with
eosin and mounted in DPX or Canada Balsam
after dehydrating by passing through graded
ethanol and clearing in xylol.
Observations and Discussions
General notes on the breeding habits: In all
the localities studied here the two sexes come
to sexual activity synchronously once a year.
All adult specimens in the colony copulate in a
sharply defined season and all adult females
conceive immediately after copulation. As a
rule only the left ovary releases a single ovum
during each cycle and the foetus is carried in
the left uterine cornu. The right side of the
genitalia is functional in very rare cases (only
four specimens among all examined from all
localities) and only a single case of twinning
was noticed. The young one is carried by the
mother constantly for 20 to 25 days, but lacta-
tion and suckling continues for 15 to 20 days
more. The testes and the accessory glands in
the males undergo regression within a short
time after copulation.
Breeding habits in different localities: In all
the localities breeding season for Megaderma
lyra lyra commences late in autumn or early in
winter. It must, however, be mentioned that
the terms ‘autumn’ and ‘winter’ do not connote
the same meanings in Indian circumstances as
they do in temperate regions. These terms are
employed here to denote the season approxi-
mating the months which fall under these sea-
sons in temperate regions of northern hemis-
phere. All adult females in the colony undergo
copulation within a period of 8 to 10 days and
likewise all deliveries in the colony occur wi-
thin 8 to 10 days after a gestation of 145 ± 5
Table 1
MONTHWISE COLLECTION DATA OF Megaderma lyra lyra FROM DIFFERENT LOCALITIES
Month
Srirangapattana
(1981 - 1983)
Aurangabad
(1963 - 1965)
Bhanaara
(1972 - 1974)
Agra
(1982 - 1984)
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
I
A
I
A
I
A
■
A
I
A
I
A
I
A
I
A
January
2
9
3
13
4
13
4
15
6
26
6
23
3
15
8
27
February
3
8
4
13
4
14
8
20
12
34
10
41
5
18
15
30
March
-
2
6
14
3
11
6
22
3
15
7
27
2
12
6
18
April
(2)
5
2(3)
12
5(6)
14
6(7)
34
4(3)
19
2(4)
26
3(5)
33
8(6)
34
May
(2)
2
3(3)
9
(6)
6
2(5)
17
KD
9
1(2)
15
1(4)
33
6(4)
18
June
6(6)
2
7(4)
17
3
6
5
13
7
16
6
20
3
20
6
14
July
7
4
6
8
1
5
2
6
4
11
2
11
2
6
1
5
August
5
2
2
5
2
7
1
5
-
5
3
7
3
13
9
21
September
5
14
7
15
4
12
5
16
7
15
6
18
5
20
7
20
October
2
7
3
8
5
21
6
23
11
29
15
32
3
24
8
33
November
3
5
4
9
3
15
6
17
6
19
6
28
4
17
8
27
December
2
11
5
17
12
41
11
65
7
21
12
35
4
22
9
28
Total
35(10)
71 52(10)
140 46(12)
165 62(12)
253
68(4)
219
76(6)
283
38(9)
23391(10)
275
Figures in brackets represent sucklings. I = Immature, A = Adult
44
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
days. Table 2 gives the earliest date on which a
pregnant female was captured and the earliest
date on which a newly delivered young one was
noticed in the different localities where the
study was carried out. A study of the table
brings out two facts. First, the earliest concep-
tions occur in November and the earliest deli-
veries in April in all the localities. However,
the date of conception and the date of delivery
are postponed by a few days progressively
from the lower to the higher latitudes. Regar-
dless of the above change the gestation period
is nearly the same in all the localities.
The breeding behaviour of the males has
been reported breifly elsewhere (Gopala-
krishna and Sapkal - in press). The commence-
ment and the peak stage of spermatogenetic
activity and the activity of the accessory glands
are postponed by a few days progessively from
the lower to the higher latitudes synchronizing
with the onset of heat and ovulation in the
female in the respective locality.
The four locations from which the speci-
mens have been studied vary considerably in
regard to external factors such as annual and
diurnal variations in the ambient temperature,
the duration of day light during different sea-
sons and the season and the amount of rainfall.
Yet the breeding season of Megaderma lyra
lyra is basically same in all the localities with
only a slight preogressive change from the lo-
wer to higher latitudes. Evidently, the sexual
periodicity of this species is essentially deter-
mined by its own internal rhythm, which is
genetically controlled, and the influence of ex-
ternal factors, if any, is only marginal. The
factor of food in influencing sexual periodicity
in this species can be ruled out since this is
common in all the localities; this species is
basically insectivorous supplemented by carni-
vorous diet as this species some times feed on
lizards and frogs.
A survey of literature on the breeding beha-
viour of bats reveals that autumn breeding is
the normal pattern in most species both in the
temperate and tropical regions. Only a few spe-
cies breed during other seasons. Perhaps, the
latter cases are adaptations to meet some spe-
cial environmental demands. Species such as
Rousettus leschenaulti (Gopalakrishna and
Choudhari 1977) and Cynopterus sphinx (Ra-
makrishna 1947, Sandhu and Gopalakrishna
1984, Sandhu 1984) combine both autumn and
spring breeding patterns since they breed twice
a year in quick succession.
An interesting outcome of these studies is
the variations in the sex ratio at different stages
of life. Table 3 gives these details. From the
table it is evident that whereas the sex ratio is
nearly even in the sucklings, it becomes pro-
gressively female dominant as age advances.
The ratio is approximately 40% males and 60%
females after weaning. Evidently, there ap-
pears to be a preferential mortality of the males
during this critical period resulting in female
dominant sex ratio in the adult stage. A similar
female dominant -sex ratio occurs in other bats
(Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1970) except in
Table 2
EARLIEST DATES ON WHICH CONCEPTION AND PARTURITION WERE
NOTICED IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES
Locality
Earliest
date of
conception
Earliest
date of
parturition
Gestation
period
in days
Srirangapattana
14th November
(free egg)
13th April
150
Aurangabad
18th November
(2 cell stage)
15th April
148
Bhandara
24th November
(4 cell stage)
17th April
148
Agra
26th November
(4 cell stage)
20th April
149
BREEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BATS
45
Taphozous melanopogon (Abdulali 1949, Sap-
kal and Khamre 1984). It must, however, be
mentioned that this species has been shown to
migrate during certain seasons of the year and
often only the females migrate to investigation
of several colonies during all the months of the
year will yield correct data regarding the actual
sex ratio of this species also. The precise rea-
son for the preferential mortality of the males
during a particular phase of the life of Mega-
derma lyra lyra is not known. This appears to
be the case in other bats too.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the C.S.I.R. New Delhi
for financial support for this research work.
Table 3
LOCALITYWISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPECIMENS
Locality Sucklings Free young Adult Total
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Srirangapattana
10
10
35
52
71
140
116
202
Aurangabad
12
12
46
62
165
253
223
327
Bhandara
4
6
68
76
219
283
291
365
Agra
9
10
38
91
233
275
280
376
Total
35
38
187
281
688
951
910
1270
Percentage
48
52
40
60
42
58
42
58
(Approximate)
References
Abdulali. H. (1949): Sex ratio in Indian bats. J. Bom-
buy Nat. Hist. Soc. 48 : 423-428.
D wyer, P.D. (1963): Breeding biology of Miniopterus
schreibersii blepotis (Temminck) (Chiroptera) in north-
eastern New South Wales. Aust. J. Zool. II : 219-240.
(1966): Observations on the eastern horse-
shoe bat in north-eastern New South Wales. Helicitite 4 :
73-82.
(1968): The biology, origin and adaptation of
Miniopterus australis (Chiroptera) in New South Wales.
Aust. J. Zool. 16 : 49-68.
Gopalakrishna, A. (1986): Migratory pattern of some
Indian bats. Myotis : 223-227.
& Choudhari, P.N. (1977): Breeding habits
and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part I-
Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest) - Megachiroptera. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74 : 1-16.
& Madhavan, A. (1970): Sex ratio in some
Indian bats. ibid. 67 : 171-175.
Ramakrishna, P.A. (1947): Post-partum oestrus in the
short- nosed fruit-bat, Cynopterus sphinx sphinx. Curr. Sci
16 : 186.
(1949): Gestation in the oriental vampires.
ibid. 18: 186.
(1951): Studies on the reproduction in bats - 1 -
Some aspects of the reproduction in the oriental vampires,
Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy) and Megaderma spasma
(Linn.). Half-yrly Jour. Mysore Univ. II : 107-118.
& Rao, K.V.B. (1977): Reproductive adapta-
tions in the Indian rhinolophid bat, Rhinolophus rouxi
(Temminck). Curr. Sci. 46 : 270-271.
Ramaswamy, K.R.(1961): Studies on the sex-cycle of
the Indian. vampire bat, Megaderma ( Lyroderma ) lyra lyra
(Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. 27 : 287-307.
Richardson, E. (1977): The biology and evolution of
the reproductive cycle of Miniopterus schreibersii and Mi-
niopterus australjs (Chiroptera : Vespertilionidae). J.
Zool. London. 183 : 353-375.
Sandhu, S. (1984): Breeding biology of the Indian
fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in the Central India. /.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 : 600-611.
— & Gopalakrishna, A. (1984): Some observa-
tions on the breeding biology of the Indian fruit bat, £ynop-
terus sphinx (Vahl) in Central India. Curr. Sci. 53 : 1189-
1192.
Sapkal, V.M. & Khamre, K.G. (1984): Breeding ha-
bits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats Part
VUl-Taphozous melanopogon (Temminck) - Emballonuri-
dae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 : 303-311.
4
46
THE SNAKES OF BURMA
II. REDISCOVERY OF THE TYPE SPECIMEN OF OLIGODON MCDOUGALLI
WITH A DISCUSSION OF ITS RELATIONSHIPS1
H.G. Dowling and J.V. Jenner2
{With two text-figures)
The unique type specimen of Oligodon mcdougalli Wall, 1905, long believed to have been lost
(Smith 1943), was found in the reptile collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. An
amplified description of the type is presented. Its features suggest that it is closely related to a
species group which includes O. catenata and O. dorsalis.
The Arakan Kukri snake Oligodon mcdou-
galli was described early in this century by
Wall (1905). Later, however, Smith (1943: 234)
reported that, “the type and only known speci-
men cannot now be found.” It was to our sur-
prise, therefore, that we found “Oligodon
mcdougalli listed in the catalogue of the rep-
tile collection of the Bombay Natural History
Society (BNHS 963), and the corresponding
specimen in a labeled jar. Thus, although the
specimen was not marked as a type, it apparen-
tly was “lost” only to Smith.
In spite of some slight inconsistencies in
data, there appears to be no reason to doubt
that this specimen is the type. It was collected
by E. McDougall at “Sandarang” (later correc-
ted to Sandoway [Rakhine State, 18° 28’ N, 94°
22’ E], Burma. The date given in the catalo-
gue (31 December 1907) is believed to be the
accession date, rather than the date of collec-
tion. In as much as Wall gave only a brief
description of the unique type, and because the
specimen does not appear to have been exami-
ned since its description, we give here an am-
plified description.
We can confirm Wall’s tentative identifica-
tion of the specimen as a male. It is stiff and
somewhat faded, but reasonably well-
preserved for its age. We measure it at 337 mm
total length, with the tail 45 mm. Wall’s mea-
surements were 13 3/4 and 1 7/8 inches, a little
'Accepted January 1987. This is the second in a series of
papers on the “Snakes of Burma”. The first is a checklist of
the species, published in Smithsonian Herpetological
Information Service, No.76, 1988.
department of Biology, New York University,
N.Y. - 10003 (U.S.A).
longer than ours, but this is explicable as shrin-
kage over the years. As he indicated, the body
is cylindrical, with little distinction between
the head and the body. The tail is abruptly
pointed.
His description of the colour pattern is pre-
cise and more complete than can now be ascer-
tained:
“Colour dusky-black laterally * with a ru-
fous brown vertebral stripe from nape to
tip of tail involving the vertebral and half
the adjacent row; this stripe is edged by a
series of linear black spots, most evident
anteriorly. A linear black line on the con-
fines of the 2nd and 3rd rows above the
ventrals, interrupted anteriorly, and en-
ding at vent. A supra-anal black bar and
another subterminal, caudal, black bar.
Head blackish. Rostral rufous* yellow.
Blotched black below. Labials mottled
black and rufous-yelow. A rufous collar
incomplete vertebrally. Chin, and throat
rufous-yellow, mottled black in the su-
tures. Belly black, mottled fawn. [Darker
posteriorly.] Beneath tail black laterally,
crimson centrally, the colour of a ripe
yew-berry, and reminding one of the tail
of Simotes cruentatus.”
The “dusky-black” has faded to dark brown
and the yellows and reds are now a dirty cream
colour, but otherwise the description matches
the specimen precisely.
We count 199 ventrals and 40 subcaudals
(vs. Wall’s 200 and 39). Otherwise the counts
match exactly. The head scutes are as shown in
his drawings (redrawn here as Fig. 1): the inter-
nasals are separated from the prefrontals, the
SNAKES OF BURMA
47
nasal is single, the loreal is absent, oculars are 1
+ 1, and the temporals, 1+2. There are 7-7
supralabials, with the third and fourth entering
the orbit, and 7-7 infralabials. There are two
pairs of genials, the posterior pair about 2/3 the
size of the anterior and in contact throughout
their length. The dorsal scales are smooth and
without apical pits. They are arranged in 13 +
13 + 13 rows.
Fig. 1. Head scutellation of Oligodon mcdougalli.
Redrawn from Wall (1905). The drawings were
compared with the type specimen (BNHS 1963)
and found correct.
The maxillary is edentulous anteriorly. The-
re are six maxillary teeth, the last three much
enlarged and blade-like, but without a diastema
separating them from the anterior series.
[Thus, the dental formula is 0 + 6.]
Paired hemipenes are present, but are very
fragile and difficult to observe. The organs ap-
pear to extend to subcaudal (SC) 15 as entire
(undivided) structures, but any distal ornamen-
tation, if present, cannot be determined. Spi-
nose calyculae (joined into flounces?) can be
seen to SC 7 and spinules appear to extend to
SC 10. Little beyond that can be determined
without complete destruction of the hemipe-
nis. [The right organ was left intact.]
Relationships
The genus Oligodon ranges from the Tanim-
bar islands east of Timor through the East In-
dies and the Philippines to the Malayan Penin-
sula, and then northward to southern China
and westward, south of the Himalayas, to Pa-
kistan. It is made up of more than 60 currently
recognized species (and more than double this
number that have been placed in synonymy).
All are small snakes (less than a meter in
length) with an enlarged rostral scute and three
or four enlarged teeth at the rear of the
maxilla. All have the same basic head patterns
and are similar in major structural features.
The bewildering number of species has been
described on the bases of minor differences in
scutellation and various patterns of coloration.
Probably not half of the currently recognized
species are valid.
Nevertheless, until the degree of variation
within populations is determined and until fea-
tures of dentition, osteology, and soft anatomy
are better described, little can be done to iden-
tify the valid species and species groups within
this genus. Unquestionably, some of the cur-
rent species names are based upon interpo-
pulational variations in scutellation or pattern.
Ultimately it will take population analyses
from geographic, structural, and biochemical
standpoints to resolve the systematic pro-
blems. Unfortunately, knowledge of the hemi-
penial structure of these snakes, which Wall
(1923) suggested might have some potential in
48
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
resolving some of the taxonomic problems, has
progressed very little in the last 45 years.
The 12 species reported from Burma appear
to fail into two distinct groups on the basis of
dentition (Table 1). One group has a maxilla
that is edentulous anteriorly, and bears only six
to eight teeth. The other group lacks the eden-
tulous anterior end and has nine or more teeth.
It is clear that Oligodon mcdougalli belongs
with the first group and that it differs from the
other members in relatively minor ways. The
fusion of internasals or loreal with the prefron-
tals is a commonly-observed feature in snakes
(especially burrowing snakes) that possess a
short maxilla (A. Downs, 1967), and probably
has been over-emphasized as a species charac-
ter in Oligodon. It is especially notable that all
of the members of the first group are allopatric
except O. hamptoni, which lies between O.
dorsalis and O. catenata , both geographically
and morphologically (Fig. 2). It seems possible
that the five named forms are actually no more
than members of a single variable species.
No other species of Oligodon appears to
have been recorded from this region of south-
western Burma, however, and none of the spe-
cies described by Taylor (1965) from Thailand
is similar. O. mcdougalli resembles the sou-
thern Burmese species O. planiceps (Boulen-
ger, 1888) in dorsal scale formula, but differs
widely in maxillary tooth count as well as in the -
numbers of labials, ventrals, and subcaudals. It
differs also in polour pattern.
It agrees with the northern Burmese species
O. catenata (Blyth, 1854) in most respects,
including the colour pattern, dorsal scale row
count, and ventral and subcaudal counts. It
differs mainly in the presence of separate inter-
nasals, an additional supralabial, and one less
maxillary tooth.
A species based upon a single specimen is
always questionable and there are as yet no
studies that would offer information on the
amount of intraspecific variation that might be
anticipated in the head scutes of Oligodon. Un-
til it can be shown that the presence or absence
of separate internasal scutes is an individual
variation, therefore, it appears best to recog-
nize O. mcdougalli as a valid species related to
the more northern O. catenata and its adjacent
forms.
Table 1
MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF SPECIES OF Oligodon FROM BURMA AND
ADJACENT REGIONS. SPECIES ARE ARRANGED BY MAXILLARY TOOTH COUNT
MX
0 + 6
13 + 13 + 13
199.
2
40
2
1
0
j
1
7
O. mcdougalli
B
0 + 6-7
15+15 + 13
162-188
2
27-51
2
1
1
1-2
1
7
O. dorsalis
H.B,E
0 + 7
15
160-175
2
30-32
0
1
0-1
1
1
5
O. hamptoni
B
0 + 7
13 + 13+13
186-208
2
37-40
0
1
0
1
1
6
O. catenata
B
0 + 7-8
15 + 15+13
154
2
46
V
1
0
2
1
7
erythrorhachis
H
9-10
17 + 17+15
to
21+21 + 17
165-195
1
37-58
2
2
1
2
1-2
7-8
O. cyclurus
H-IC
10
13 + 13 + 13
132-142
2
22-27
2
1
0
2
1
4-5
O. planiceps
B
10-11
21+21 + 17
169-193
1
35-47
4
2
1
2
2
8
O. splendidus
B
10-12
15
162-178
2
25-33 +
0
1
0
2
1
5
O.lacroixi
IC
10-12
15+15 + 13? 157-185
to
17+17+15
1
29-42
2
2
1
2
1
8
O. cinereus
B-IC
10-12
19+19+15
162-208
1
53-68
2
2
1
2
1
7
O. juglandifer
H
10-12
19+19+15
to
21+21 + 15
177-208
1
47-69
2
2
1
2
1
7
O. albocinctus
H
14-16
17+17+15
148-173
2
27-40
2
2
0-1
2
1
8
O. cruentatus
B
15-16
15 + 15 + 13
144-159
2
26-34
2
1
1
2
1
7
O. torquatus
B
15-16
17+17+15
164-180
2
30-42
2
2
1
2
1
8
O. theohaldi
H-B
SNAKES OF BURMA
49
Fig. 2. Map of Burma, indicating: (M) the type locality of
Oligodon mcdougalli , and the approximate known
ranges of geographically adjacent and possibly re-
lated species, (C) O. catenata, (D) O. dorsalis , (E)
O. erythrorhachis, (H) O. hamptoni , (P) O. plani-
ceps.
Acknowledgements
These observations were made during our
examination of Burmese specimens in Indian
museums. We thank the officers and members
of the Bombay Natural History Society for
allowing us to examine their collection. We
especially thank Mr. J.C. Daniel, Curator, and
A. Gnanasekar, Research Assistant, for their
kind assistance. The friendly reception by Mr.
Humayun Abdulali, who showed us something
of the natural history of the Bombay region,
made our visit more enjoyable, and we greatly
appreciate it.
We also wish to thank the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, Washington, D.C., and especially Ms.
Francine Berkowitz, for their support of our
travel in India and Burma through a Special
Foreign Currency grant for our research on
“The Snakes of Burma.”
References
Downs, F.L. (1967): Intrageneric relationships among
colubrid snakes of the genus Geophis Wagler. Misc. Publ.
Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan (131).
Smith, M.A. (1943): The fauna of British India, inclu-
ding Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. III.
Serpentes. Taylor and Francis, London.
Taylor, E.H. (1965): The Serpents of Thailand and
Adjacent Waters. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 45(9): 609-1096.
Wall, F. (1905): Description of a new snake from
Burma. Oligodon mcdougalli. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
16: 251-252.
(1923): A review of the Indian species of the
genus Oligodon supressing the genus Simotes (Ophidia).
Rec. Indian Mus. 25: 305-334.
50
BIOECOLOGICAL STUDIES ON THREE FIG-LITTER DWELLING SPECIES OF
RHYPAROCHROMINAE (INSECTA: HEMIPTERA: LYGAEIDAE)1
Ananda Mukhopadhyay2
{With six text-figures )
Some biological and ecological aspects like occurrence, feeding and reproductive beha-
viour, post-embryonic development with nymphal descriptions of three fig-litter dwelling rhy-
parochromine bugs, Rhyparothesus bengalensis (Distant), Rhyparothesus sparsus (Distant), and
Metochus uniguttatus (Thunberg) are presented in this paper.
Introduction
Members of rhyparochrominae, the largest
lygaeid subfamily, are in majority cryptic litter-
dwellers and have therefore, attracted little at-
tention of the naturalists. However, some re-
cent contributions on the ecology and biology
of these bugs from different parts of the globe
are that of, Sweet (1964), Slater (1972 & 1975),
Eyles (1963, 1964 & 1973), Malipatil (1975 &
1979), May (1965), Thomas (1955), Thompson
and Simond (1964) and Putshkova (1956).
Bioecological information on Oriental rhy-
parochromines are scanty and fragmentary ex-
cepting some reports by Thangavelu (1978a)
from southern India. Amongst the three fig-
litter dwelling species studied here, Rhyparo-
thesus bengalensis (Distant) and Rhyparothe-
sus sparsus (Distant) are known only from In-
dian subregion, as compared to a wider distri-
bution of Metochus uniguttatus (Thunberg)
throughout the Orient. Maxwell-Lefroy (1909)
reported Rh. bengalensis to abound in fallen
leaves and debris at the base of the trunks of big
trees like Pipal (Hindi) (Peepul, Ficus religio -
sa) associated with other rhyparochromines li-
ke Elasmolomus sordidus (Fabr.) and Rh. ori-
entals (Dist). Further he reported M. unigut-
tatus to frequent in fallen leaves and grass in
India. However, Chatteijee (1937) reported the
species from healthy sandal ( Santalum alba).
Except for the original description of Rh. spar-
sus and its report from India by Distant (1904)
nothing is known about the binomics of the
bug. So an attempt is made here to present
some ecological and biological information of
'Accepted July 1985.
2Lecturer in Zoology, University of North Bengal,
Rajarammohanpur, Dist. Daijeeling, West Bengal - 734430
three of these commonly occurring rhyparo-
chromine species of fig-litters in eastern India.
The study is meant for better understanding of
the life-style of these little known cryptic bugs
and their beneficial role in nature.
Material and Methods
(i) Field collection: All the three species of
rhyparochromines were collected by using as-
pirator with interchangable vials and some ti-
mes using the inlet tubes of different diameters
depending on the size of the bug. Slight distur-
bance created in the litter- habitat triggered
escaping movement of the cryptically coloured
bugs and thereby helping in their location. For
fast running large species, like M. uniguttatus ,
hand picking gave better result.
(ii) Laboratory rearing: Of the two culture
methods, ‘dirty’ and ‘clean’ often recommen-
ded for lygaeids, the latter was preferable for
studying the biology of the three rhyparochro-
mine species in question. Small jars (10.5 cm x
9 cm) were chosen for studying the oviposition
and fecundity of separate pairs of bugs while
for mass rearing and studying some behaviou-
ral aspects larger jars (22 cm x 13 cm) were
used. The mouths of the jars were covered with
cloth. Nymphs were reared in separate vials
(10 cm x 3 cm) for recording the nymphal stadia
(by detecting exuvae). All the jars and vials
were supplied inside with water siphons. The
eggs studied for incubation period and hatching
success were kept in separate small vials plug-
ged with moistened cotton to provide adequate
humidity.
Observations and Results
Habitats and food habits: The three species
BIOECOLOGICAI. STUDIES OF RHYPAROCHROMINAE
51
of rhyparochromines were often found to share
the same litter habitat of huge peepul trees
C Ficus religiosa L.), but in different propor-
tions. Rh. spars us also occurred in litters of
other figs, like F. benghalensis L. (Banyan)
and F. infectoria Roxb. (pakur). Although
adult and nymphs of M. uniguttatus were ob-
served in litters of F. religiosa and F. bengha-
lensis, their nymphs were also found associa-
ted with litter of F. hispida Linn. f. The long-
legged adults and 5th instar nymphs of this bug
were good runners, and therefore, often esca-
ped from litter-habitat to surrounding mea-
dows and vegetations and could be collected
under grass or small weeds. In some places of
southern West Bengal and in particular Sagar
Island this bug was found to infest unripe pods
of gingelly ( Sesamum indie um DC.). M. uni-
guttatus was also recorded from the litter of
Artocarpus chapalasha Roxb. (Moraceae) and
Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers (Lythraceae)
from northeastern states of India. From the
same region Rh. spars us is recorded from litter
of Duabanga sonneratioides Ham. (Lythra-
ceae).
From spring to autumn the peepul and ba-
nyan trees kept irregularly fruiting, thereby,
keeping the bug-population flourishing in the
litter of different fig trees. Nevertheless in the
litter of non-fruiting trees at times some adults
and late instar nymphs occurred. On rare occa-
sions even in winter, if a peepul or banyan tree
bore fruits or had enough dry seeds in the litter,
adults and nymphs of all the three species with
a number of other lygaeid bugs appeared. In
general the colder part of winter (10° . 12°C)
was tied over by all the three species in adult
form.
The fig fruits and seeds present in the litter
were the main source of food. The fruits drop-
ped with ripening but their shedding was much
enhanced by the feeding activity of a number of
vertebrate commensals, such as bats, birds,
and squirrels (Appendix 1). Seed remnants pre-
sent in the droppings (faeces) of these agents
were also appropriated by the bugs.
Seed defence habit was common to all the
three species. Seeds were normally carried at
the tip of rostrum to safe and secured places for
feeding. Cannibalism was observed in adults
and in late instars of Rh. spars us but such a
behaviour was uncommon for Rh. bengalensis
and M. uniguttatus. Rhyparothesus spars us
adults were found feeding on 5th instar, and the
latter again on the 4th instar of its own. Canni-
balism took place even in presence of good
supply of food and water but the propensity
increased with the dearth of food and water.
Advance nymphs of M. uniguttatus when han-
dled without care occasionally inflicted mild
bites.
Courtship and mating behaviour: The sexual
behaviour was found almost similar for all the
three species of rhyparochromine. The males
of Rh. spars us and Rh. bengalensis approa-
ched a receptive female with up and down mo-
vement of the antennae, whereas, the males of
M. uniguttatus generally approached with
their antennae straight and horizontal. When
close to a receptive female, which kept steady,
the male patted the female by stroking the an-
tennae on its back. On final agreement the male
mounted the motionless female often holding
her by last two pairs of legs. The courting pair
was found at times to be in a still state with the
male partially mounted on the female for long
periods. To a receptive female the male repea-
tedly leaned to one side to secure the attach-
ment. After attachment, the male descended
and turned in the opposite direction, so that the
individuals of a copula faced away from one
another. If a female refused to copulate, the
male tickled the female first by two legs and
antennal ends and then turned over her back
for investigation.
All the three species repeatedly mated in the
same season. In Rhyparothesus spp. a single
mating lasted normally from half to one hour,
whereas for M. uniguttatus it continued for
about a couple of hours in undisturbed condi-
tion. The individuals of a copula of Rh. spars us
were often found to move their antennae and to
continue feeding during the act. Gravid fe-
males of all the three species normally avoided
male company and rejected any attempt of fur-
ther mating. When kept in constant company
of male, the freshly emerged virgins of Rh.
sparsus started mating within a period of about
six days and Rh. bengalensis within three
days. Virgin M. uniguttatus laid a few unfertile
52
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
eggs without any male company.
Oviposition and fecundity: Rhyparothesus
spars us laid eggs scattered, feebly attached to
litter substrate and in small furrows made in
loose soil. In nature, Rh. bengalensis could not
be observed laying but their laying habits in
laboratory indicated their similarities with tho-
se of Rh. spars us. In laboratory both the spe-
cies preferred to attach their eggs to rough,
pilose surfaces of cotton cloth, cotton wool and
rough surfaces of fig fruits. Peculiar repetitive
up and down movements of ovipositor (valves)
and its scooping of loose soil particles were
observed in the bugs. Eggs were normally laid
scattered singly or in small groups of two or
three. The apparent sticky nature of the eggs
was due to minute warts on the chorion and a
fluid on the egg surface. Eggs of M. uniguttatus
were also difficult to locate in natural habitat.
In laboratory eggs were singly attached to the
covering cloth of the rearing jar, on rough sur-
face of the fig fruits and at times on smooth
glass surface, feebly glued, despite the pre-
sence of rough surfaces.
Both the species of Rhyparothesus laid on
an average larger number of eggs than M. uni-
guttatus. However, for Rh. spars us mean eggs
laid per female and the average eggs laid per
day per female was about double those of Rh.
bengalensis (Table 1), nonetheless on consi-
dering daily laying rhythms the latter at times
exceeded the former (Fig. 1).
Incubation: Although incubation periods
were overlapping for all the three rhyparochro-
mine species, yet eggs of M. uniguttatus hat-
ched more successfully than those of other two
Rhyparothesus species (Fig. 2). Successful
hatching was estimated based on the total eggs
collected for 12 consecutive days in early parts
of laying periods (Table 2).
The eclosion phenomenon was essentially
alike in all the three rhyparochromines. The
pulsation caused by the embryo from within
the egg resulted in a number of irregular cracks
within the circlet of the micropylar processes.
The cracks extended, making an opening for a
wriggling nymph that emerged normally en-
veloped in an amniotic membrane. For a suc-
cessful hatching the membrane either split-up
while the nymph was half inside the chorion or
when completely outside it, thereby freeing an
active nymph. At times nymphs could not free
themselves from the enveloping membrane
and as a result perished . Hatching from a batch
of egg was usually complete within three days
but some eggs did not hatch at all. By the end of
laying period a female often started laying fair
number of empty, sunken and unfertilized
eggs, this was more common for Rh. spars us
than the other two species.
Table 1
COMPARISON OF PREOVIPOSITION PERIOD, LONGEVITY AND FECUNDITY OF Rh. sparsus, Rh. bengalensis AND
M. Uniguttatus
(BASED ON FIVE OBSERVATIONS)
Preoviposition
period (Days)
Longevity
Female (Days)
Total eggs
laid / Female
Average eggs/
Female /diem
Mean 9.8
27.0
Rh. sparsus
23.0
11.31
Range (9-11)
(21-33)
(105-547)
(5-16.58)
S.D. 0.83
5.09
174.19
4.45
Mean 4.6
38.8
Rh. bengalensis
221.8
5.91
Range (4-5)
(26-52)
(177-262)
(4.15-7.42)
S.D. 0.54
9.33
38.8
1.33
Mean 10.6
22.8
M. uniguttatus
89.0
3.68
Range (9-12)
(17-29)
(19-171)
(1. 1-5.9)
S.D. 1.14
4.76
55.23
1.8
BIOECOLOGICAL STUDIES OE RHYPAROCHROM/NAE
53
DAYS
Rh. sparsus
Rh. bengalensis
M. uniguttatus
lul LLiJLLll
25 30
Fig. 1. Oviposition trends of three species of Rhyparochrominae.
1
III
HATCHING
SUCCESS
I Rh. sparsus
II Rh. bengalensis
III M.uniguttatus
84.6% 65.97%
81.25% 55.%
90% 71.62%
41.3%
32.61%
46.6%
Fig. 2. Hatching success of three species of Rhyparochrominae.
Post embryonic development: Of the two
species of Rhyparothesus, Rh. bengalensis in-
terestingly took rather a longer period for its
nymphal development than the other conge-
ner, Rh. sparsus (Table 3). The former, howe-
ver showed an overlapping range of post-
embryonic periods with M. uniguttatus (Fig. 3
A-E).
The maximum nymphal mortality of the rhy-
parochromines occurred in first and second
instars, and when kept isolated, the mortality
increased. Nymphs metamorphosed more suc-
cessfully when reared in numbers in the same
jar. Rough surfaces like fruit- rind, cotton-
plug, piece of cloth were often preferred for
casting the exuviae.
54
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 2
COMPARISON OF INCUBATION PERIODS AND
HATCHING SUCCESS OF
Rh. spars us, Rh. bengalensis AND M. uniguttatus
EGGS
(BASED ON OBSERVATIONS OF TWELVE
BATCHES OF EGGS)
Incubation period Successful
(Days) hatching (%)
Mean
Rh. sparsus
4.33
65.97
Range
(3-5)
(41.3-84.6)
S.D.
0.577
12.87
Mean
Rh. bengalensis
6.25
55.0
Range
(4-8)
(32.61-81.25)
S.D.
0.753
11.73
Moan
M. uniguttatus
5.85
71.62
Range
(5-6)
(46.6-90.0)
S.D.
1.354
17.48
The egg: Eggs of Rh. spars us and Rh. ben-
galensis are similar in general appearance.
Freshly laid eggs are shiny, cylindrically
ovoid, pale yellow (pearly), cephalic end sligh-
tly broader than the other. Maturing eggs turn
reddish, showing red colour of the embryo’s
eyes. Under high magnification, chorion ap-
pears rough with rows of spiny warts and cir-
clet of micropylar processes at the cephalic end
(Fig. 4 A). M. uniguttatus eggs are more cylin-
drical with both the ends bluntly rounded.
Freshly laid eggs were pale yellow but on ma-
turity turned pink or reddish yellow. Deep red
bands (impression of nymphal abdomen and
eyes) were visible through the translucent cho-
rion (Fig. 6 A).
Eggs of M. uniguttatus were greater in
length and diameter than the eggs of other two
Rhyparothesus spp. which showed overlap-
ping ranges of measurements (Table 4).
Description of the nymphal instars: (Mea-
surements in mm. are the means based on ten
specimens). Nymphs of Rh. bengalensis clo-
sely resemble those of Rh. spars us and are
morphologically difficult to distinguish (spe-
cially the early instars) excepting when mor-
phometries are taken into account. So the fol-
lowing descriptions up to fourth instar in ge-
neral hold good for both the species of Rhy-
parothesus.
1st nymphal instar: (Figs. 4B and 6B). Rh.
spars us and Rh. bengalensis: Head, pro-and
meso-notum pale yellow; anterior abdomen
and patch around dorsal abdominal scent-
gland openings reddish yellow; eyes ruby red;
pale yellow antennae with brown annular band
at proximal region of pilosed 3rd and 4th seg-
ments; first segment with a fuscous thin proxi-
Table 3
COMPARISON OF STADIA AND POST EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT PERIOD OF
Rh. sparsus, Rh. bengalensis, AND M. uniguttatus
(BASED ON TEN OBSERVATIONS)
(Days)
1st
Instar
2nd
Instar
3rd
Instar
4th
Instar
5th
Instar
Total
Rh. sparsus
Mean
4.5
4.4
3.3
3.0
5.4
20.6
Range
(4-5)
(3-5)
(2-5)
(2-5)
(4-7)
(17-24)
S.D.
0.527
0.699
0.823
1.247
0.966
2.17
Rh. bengalensis
Mean
7.9
8.0
3.9
4.2
7.8
31.8
Range
(7-9)
(5-13)
(2-5)
(3-6)
(5-12)
(26-41)
S.D.
0.875
2.538
0.994
1.135
2.616
4.442
M. uniguttatus
Mean
6.7
6.8
5.1
5.8
10.0
34.4
Range
(6-8)
(6-8)
(4-6)
(5-7)
(8-13)
(30-38)
S.D.
0.823
0.788
0.737
0.788
1.699
2.674
BIOECOLOGICAL STUDIES OF RHYPAROCHROMINAE
55
STADIUM I
STADIUM 4
STADIUM 5
Fig. 3. (A-E). Frequency distribution of duration of 1st to
5th instars of three species of Rhyparochrominae.
Abscissae, time in days; ordinates, number of ob-
servations.
Table 4
COMPARISON OF MICROPYLAR PROCESSES, LENGTH
AND BREADTH OF
Rh. spars us, Rh. bengalensis and M. uniguttatus EGGS
(BASED ON TEN OBSERVATIONS)
Micropylar Length Breadth
processes (mm) (mm)
Rh. spars us
Mean
6.0
0.89
0.43
Range
(5-7)
(0.85-0.9)
(0.4-0.45)
S.D.
1.0
0.02
0.02
Rh. bengalensis
Mean
5.6
0.92
0.41
Range
(5-7)
(0.89-0.%)
(0.36-0.48)
S.D.
0.894
0.112
0.192
M. uniguttatus
Mean
5.4
1.31
0.56
Range
(5-6)
(1.3-1.35)
(0.5-0. 6)
S.D.
0.547
0.02
0.04
mal band; labial segments pale except brow-
nish 1st and 4th segments; legs luteous, hind
femora blackish, fore femora with one small
spine located ventrolaterally at distal inner
end; pleural and other coxal area brownish.
M. uniguttatus : Head and thorax deep
brown; metathoracic region reddish membra-
nous with a pair of brown rectangular scleroti-
zation at metanotal region; eyes deep red; 1st
and 4th antennal segment partly and 3rd fully
fuscous; excepting 3rd, tip of 4th and 1st, 2nd
labial segments fuscous; abdomen bright red
with pale yellow colour between the red band
of anterior abdomen and black plate surroun-
ding scent glands on tergal segments 3rd- 4th,
4th-5th and 5th-6th; anal segment black; legs
luteous with tibia light ochraceous; labium rea-
ches 5th abdominal segment; 3 preorbital and 2
postorbital setae on head; 1st, 2nd antennal
segments pubescent; anal segment with a pair
of ventrolateral bristles; labial end with some
and each thorax with a pair of setae on each
side; mid ventral abdomen with sparse decum-
bent hair.
Rh. spars us
Rh. bengalensis M .uniguttatus
Body length
1.4
1.37
2.01
Head width
0.37
0.34
0.5
Max. pronotal
width
0.39
0.35
0.5
56
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
2nd mynsplsal instar: (Figs. 4C and 6C). Rh.
spars us and Rh. hengalensis : Brownish, clo-
sely resembles 1st instar excepting the follo-
wing changes of characters; mesonotal brown
colour reduced and confined to its anterior
part: anterior abdomen with deep brown band
(for yellow-red band of 1 st instar) sparsed with
pale small dots; dark brown patches present
between dorsal scent gland openings of abdo-
men; 1st antennal segment with deep blackish
annulation; pro- and mesonotum with lateral
ampliation; fore femora black with single pro-
minent spine; abdominal margins with brown
patches at 2nd-3rd and 3rd-4th terga; labium
reaches 3rd coxae.
M. uniguttatus: Dirty pale; head, thorax
deep brown; first four tergal segments of abdo-
men pale yellow, rest dull red; sternum and
abdomen ventrally pale; single seta present on
each side of pro- and mesonotum; one pair of
bristles on anal segment persists; some mor-
phological changes from the 1st instar are, dar-
ker pro- and mesonotum with ampliate lateral
margin; ‘Y’ suture present; labium reaching
3rd abdominal segment.
Rh.
sparsus
Rh. bengalensis
i M .uniguttatus
Body length
1.83
2.03
2.99
Head width
0.51
0.48
0.65
Max. pronotal
width
0.56
0.56
0.71
3rd nymptial instar: (Figs. 4D and 6D). Rh.
sparsus and Rh. bengalensis : Brownish, re-
sembling the 2nd instar nymph but larger and
glossy; a few changes are, light brown colour of
head and pronotum; well developed brownish
mesonotum sparsed with few pale-yellow dots;
tiny pale buds of meso-thoracic wing pads;
brown markings around dorsal adbominal
scent gland openings much dilute and sparse
with pale dots; labium just reaches 2nd coxae;
2nd fore femoral spine developing.
M. uniguttatus : Ant mimic; ‘Y’ suture very
prominent lined with dark stripes; 1st and 2nd
tergal segment dark brown, 3rd and 4th relati-
vely light and the rest light red; mesothorax
shows posterior extension of wing pads, co-
vering anterior part of metathorax; labium rea-
ches 3rd abdominal segment; older 3rd instar
nymphs are darker; setae on head, thorax and
anal segments and median pale line of thorax
obscure.
Rh.
sparsus
Rh. bengalensis
M. uniguttatus
Body length
2.76
2.94
4-. 13
Head width
0.69
0.68
0.85
Max. pronotal
width
0.83
0.86
0.86
4th nymphal instar: (Figs. 4E and 6E): Rh.
sparsus and Rh. bengalensis: General appea-
rance brown, mixed with pale yellow and abdo-
men with tint of red; perceptible changes over
3rd instar are the arborescent designs of brown
and pale markings on head, pro- and mesono-
tum; mesothoracic wing pads weli developed
which cover almost whole of the metanotum;
tibiae with rows of well developed bristles;
antennal and labial segments largely (mostly)
brown; fore femora with two prominent and
few budding spines; major part of femora, ti-
biae and distal tarsal joint brown.
M. uniguttatus: Ant mimic; back with red-
dish abdomen; head, pro- and mesonotum
black; 1st and 2nd abdominal segment blac-
kish; ‘Y’ suture prominently lined with white
stripe, dark patch between 2nd and 3rd scent
gland openings of abdomen; wing pads extend
up to 1st abdominal segment; small fine setae
on head, pro- and mesonotum; single spine in
anterior femora well developed and small spi-
nes present on tibiae; labium reaches posterior
coxae.
Rh.
sparsus
Rh. bengalensis
M. uniguttatus
Body length
3.64
4.07
5.91
Head width
0.92
0.9
1.13
Max. pronotal
width
1.25
1.27
1.23
5th nymphal instar: (Figs 4F and 6F). Rh.
sparsus and Rh. bengalensis: Pale brown dif-
fers from 4th instar in having triangular head
designed with brown markings on pale yellow;
trapezoidal pronotum with laminated amplia-
ted margins and variegated designs made of
yellow, brown and red patches; mesothoracic
wing pads underlined by metathoracic wing
pads extend beyond middle of 3rd abdominal
segment; scutellar impression present in bet-
BIOECOL OGICA L STUDIES OF RHYPAROCHROM/NAE
57
ween the wing pads; femora with black punc-
tures and six or more prominent spines.
5th instar nymphs of Rh. bengalensis differ
from that of Rh. spars us in the following cha-
racters; Trochanter of anterior leg pale as com-
pared to black; anterior and lateral part of me-
tapleuron with an obscure pale spot; overall
dorsal appearance paler; pair of blackish patch
in mid dorsal region of anterior and posterior
margin of pronotum obscured by suffused pale
small spots (dots) as compared to prominent
and broad black patches in the same position,
without any pale spot (Fig. 5).
M. uniguttatus : Ant mimic, older nymphs
black; 2nd and 3rd coxae, trochanter, proximal
femoral region pale; 1st and 4th rostral segment
black; 4th antennal segment with a white ring;
head, pro- and mesonotum, wing pads and first
three abdominal segments black; rest of the
abdomen with dirty pale spots; pro- and meso-
notum with setae; wing pads extend up to the
middle of the 3rd tergal segment; labium rea-
ches 4th abdominal segment; fore femur with
four prominent spines and all tibiae with spi-
nous setae.
Rh.
sparsus
Rh. bengalensis
M. uniguttatus
Body length
5.3
5.36
8.1
Head width
1.1
1.1
1.46
Max. pronotal
wfdth
1.76
1.73
1.84
Adults: (Figs. 4G and 6G). Morphology of
Rh. spars us is adequately described by Distant
(1904) and Rh. bengalensis by Distant (1910);
M. uniguttatus is described by Thunberg
(1822) and subsequently repeated by Distant
(1904) in Fauna of British India, Rhynchota.
So, the description of the adults are not unne-
cessarily repeated here. However, a compari-
son of their morphological measurements
(averages) is provided.
Rh.
sparsus
Rh. bengalensis
M. uniguttatus
Body length
6.89
5.95
12.40
Head width
1.25
1.14
1.76
Max. pronotal
width
2.23
2.05
2.91
Enemies and defence: Birds like Common
Myna [Acridotheres tristis (Linn.)], Magpie
Robin [Copsychus saularis (Linn.)], domestic
chicks, at times Fivestriped Squirrel ( Funam -
buius pennanti Wroughton) and also probably
skinks and toads picked Rh. spars us and Rh.
bengalensis from the litter. The enemies of M.
uniguttatus could not be properly observed.
Though a number of predators like spiders,
mantids, reduviids, anthocorids and geocori-
nes (predatory lygaeids) were little noticed yet
these invertebrates had an appreciable capa-
city to attack soft-bodied nymphs of Rhyparo-
thesus and Metochus species, and a few other
lygaeids like Botocudo and Appolonius of the
same litter habitat as well.
The defence mechanism of adults and ad-
vance nymphs of Rh. spars us and Rh. ben-
galensis seemed to be their sordid concealing
colour, that exactly matched the background
of dry leaves and fruits in the litter. So, in still
condition these were indistinguishable from
the substrate below. M. uniguttatus however,
tried to find cover to avoid enemy, in cracks,
crevices, under stones or litter particles. Ano-
ther mode of defence was by escaping, when
disturbed, by scattering at bewildering speed,
so that the enemy got too puzzled to concentra-
te on any one of them. After feeding, the Rhy-
parothesus spp. often took refuge in inaccessi-
ble crevices or inside leaf rolls to escape no-
tice. A special kind of defence mechanism was
by adopting mimicry. The shape and the colour
of the 1st and 2nd nymphs of Rhyparothesus
spp., especially their dirty yellow abdomen,
highly resembled and matched the mature fig
seeds, so that, when feeding on exposed fruits,
they were indistinguishable. Adults and advan-
ced nymphs of M. uniguttatus were observed
to have very close resemblance to different ant
species, mantid nymphs, and spiders (since the
latter also mimicked ants of the same habitat).
Variation in size and colour: The colour of
Rh. spars us and Rh. bengalensis seemed to
depend on the season and availability of food.
In drier seasons the bugs generally had a darker
shade and grew smaller in size. The variation of
size within the same population was more evi-
dent in Rh. bengalensis than in Rh. spars us or
M. uniguttatus. Nevertheless, in the latter spe-
cies sexual dimorphism was noticeable. Than-
gavelu (1978b) reported antennal oligomery in
58
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig. 4. (a-e ). Stages of life cycle of Rhyparothesus sparsus
(dorsal views).
a. Eggs showing warty chorion and cephalic end
with micropylar processes; b. 1st instar nymph;
c. 2nd instar nymph; d. 3rd instar nymph,
e. 4th instar nymph.
BIOECOLOGICAL STUDIES OF RHYPAROCHROM1NAE
59
Fig. 5. 5th instar nymph of Rhyparothesus bengalensis.
Rhyparothesus sparsus (dorsal view).
Fig. 4f. Fifth instar nymph; 4g. Adult.
‘This paper constitutes a part of the Ph D. thesis, entitled
“Taxonomy of lygaeid bugs (Heteroptera : Inseeta) from
West Bengal with aspects of bioecology of some
representative species” that was submitted to the
University of Calcutta with the subsequent award of the
degree in 1983. The project was financed by Dept, of
Science and Technology through Zoological Survey of
India fellowship during the period 1978 to 1981.
60
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
I mm
BIOECOLOGI CAL STUDIES OF RHYPAROCHROMINAE
61
Fig. 6. (a-S). Stages of life cycle of Metochus uniguttatus (dorsal view),
a. Eggs showing cylindrical structure and circlets of micropylar processes; b. First instar nymph; c. Second insta
nymph; d. Third instar nymph, e. Fourth instar nymph; f. Fifth instar nymph; g. Adult.
I mm
62
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo/. 56
populations of M. uniguttatus from south India
but no such variation was evident from West
Bengal. Only a few nymphs of Rh. spars us,
however, showed three segmented antennae.
Discussion
The two species of Rhyparochrominae,
Rhyparothesus bengalensis and Rh. spars us,.
that are chiefly confined to the fig litters and
litters of a few other plant families of the tro-
pics, have so far been found endemic to the
Indian subregion. The possibility of their pre-
sence in other tropical countries of the Orient,
where the typical host plants exist, is fair; due
to lack of extensive survey and intensive
search for these procryptic forms in the litter
habitats, particularly in the fruiting seasons,
the nature of their true distribution is unk-
nown. The more active and polyphagous rhy-
parochromine, Metochus uniguttatus, because
of its fast running and flying activities probably
has a wider distribution in the tropics and sub-
tropics, namely China, Philippines, Indochina
and Indonesia (Slater 1964).
The occurrence of all the three species in the
-fig litter habitat is principally governed by the
availability of food rather than ambient condi-
tion. The fig-litter though apparently gives the
impression of a permanent habitat is in reality a
temporary one. However, for breeding they
prefer moderate temperature of spring and au-
tumn synchronized with the availability of
food. So, these seasons suited laboratory rea-
ring ideally.
Slater ( 1972) while studying the fig trees and
the associated lygaeid fauna in South Africa
and West Indies observed that various species
of birds and monkeys regularly fed on the fig
fruits. Almost a parallel situation was observed
for the Ficus spp. in lower West Bengal. The
birds and mammals were greatly responsible
for preparing the temporary (subclimax) fig-
litter habitat congenial to feeding and breeding
activities of the lygaeids. The major associated
species of birds and mammals during their fee-
ding activity (list provided in appendix 1) was-
ted and dropped much of the fruits from syco-
nium. Even their droppings (faeces), contai-
ning undigested or semi-digested seeds, for-
med an important dietary item of the litter ly-
gaeids. So the commensalistic role of these
vertebrates was quite apparent.
As a member of pentatomorpha, lygaeid
eggs lack a true operculum and have an an-
terior ring of varying number of micropylar
processes (5-9) for sperm passage and air ex-
change (Sweet 1964). The micropylar proces-
ses of the three rhyparochromine species ran-
ged between 5 to 7 and, therefore, are in con-
formity with the above information.
Sweet (1964) observed for rhyparochromi-
nes that the embryonic cuticle in all cases were
shed after complete emergence from eggs. Ho-
wever in the present study the reason for rup-
ture of the embyonic membrane at different
stages, like when the nymph is well inside the
chorion, when half its way out, or after comple-
te emergence could not be properly unders-
tood. Another difference noticed was that the
successful hatching took place simultaneously
with nymphal mortality from the same batch of
eggs of the same female, the latter taking place
when the wriggling nymphs were unable to free
themselves of the embryonic membrane, pro-
bably due to stiffening of the membrane by
drying.
The egg-laying habit of Rh. spars us and Rh.
bengalensis agrees with Sweet’s observation
(1964) on litter dwelling New England rhyparo-
chromines. These bugs mostly preferred loose
soil for laying. In order to choose oviposition
site, as already described, the bugs stimulated
the sensory hairs of their ovipositors by repea-
ted probing and lifting the egg-laying organ in
the form of plough on the soil surface, which
was followed by oviposition. The egg-laying
trend of the three rhyparochromines showed a
general pattern, with a steady increase in the
number of eggs/day/ female in first half of the
oviposition period and a steady decline in the
second half (Fig. 1). However, M. uniguttatus
at the end of the oviposition period had a steep
decline in the rate of egg laying, which may be
due to the mortality of most females in laying
condition as these were reared on Ficus his -
pida fruits, probably a not much preferred host
plant or not an ideal one for stimulating ovipo-
sition.
Eyles (1963) indicated that the nymphs of
BIOECOLOG1CAL STUDIES OF RHYPAROCHROM1NAE
63
several species of Scolopostethus were not
distinguishable in the field and the larval body
measurements were similar in all the species
studied in the genus. Almost a parallel example
of this paradoxical situation are the immature
stages of the two species of Rhyparothesus,
Rh. spars us and Rh. bengalensis almost sha-
ring the same ecological niche. The first four
instars having very close similarities, even had
their morphometries overlapping.
Unlike Sweet’s (1964) observation of a lon-
ger development period for smaller bugs, An-
tellocoris , and shorter for the larger species of
Ligyrocoris, the overlapping ranges of the post
embryonic development period of the three
species suggests that the development rates
may be dependent on the adaptations to the
habitat, food, seasonal cycles, and surroun-
ding conditions, but not to the size of the rhy-
parochromine bugs.
As none of the three species showed any
preference for probing any particular site of a
seed, it is probable that they feed on the endos-
perm and the embryo indifferently, unlike one
that is found in Drymus sylvaticus that only
feeds on the embryo of seeds (Eyles 1964).
The extreme example of seed defence beha-
viour was where the bugs fight physically over
a seed, as observed by Sweet (1964) for Pachy-
brachius. This was found to be common among
the males of Rh. spars us and Rh. bengalensis ,
who sometimes fought even without a seed in
possession, thus indicating that such disputes
were not always over food directly but possibly
over territory of feeding and stored food sa-
fety.
The rhyparochromines in general show ma-
ting behaviour where the male vibrates the an-
tennae rapidly near the female and climbs upon
her deliberately (Sweet 1964). The two Rhy-
parothesus species showed no exception to
this habit, but because Af. uniguttatus produ-
ces a feeble sound by stridulating hind tarsi
against hemielytral surface (Thangavelu 1978a)
it is likely that the sound is involved neither in
offence nor defence but in courtship. So, ma-
ting behaviour of this rhyparochromine would
better fit a different category where the male
employs a forefemoral activity (stimulations)
and vibrating antennae, as has been suggested
for the long-legged Myodochini by Sweet
(1964).
While some ant mimicry of interest from
Indian subregion is reported by Thangavelu
(1978a) there seems to exist certain mimicry
complex in some of the fig-litter habitats as
observed in West Bengal. Ants, spiders,
nymphs of mantids, and adult and nymphal
lygaeids often coexisted with close mimicry.
All showed a convergent adaption, but it was
difficult to ascertain the model and the mimic in
such a situation. Conventionally, however,
ants might be taken as a model since most
nymphs of mantids Gonypeta sp., and most
adults and nymphs of lygaeids like Pachybra -
chius pallicornis, Metochus uniguttatus , Pseu-
dopachybrachius gut t us, and Appolonius spp.
resembled one or the other species of ants of
the same habitat. Gonypeta sp. which predated
on other insects might be thought to have ag-
gressive mimicry in resembling the ant Dia -
camma vagans ; such resemblance was also
found common in an ant-like spider of the same
habitat.
Colour and size variations observed in Rh.
spars us, and Rh. bengalensis seem partly due
to the change in the same habitat, and the state
of food and moisture available at different sea-
sons. The light and dark shades of the same bug
may be due to change in its physiology that
depends on its diet.
So, the study of the life styles of the three
commonly occurring rhyparochromine bugs of
the fig-litters reflect certain important ecologi-
cal aspects that also hold good for most other
seed-feeding bugs of the same habitat. Apart
from their untiring role as reducers and secon-
dary decomposers of litters to replenish the soil
nutrients, their noble involvement in seed dis-
persal because of their seed-defence behaviour
has to be appreciated in context with today’s
crying need for expansion of mixed type
forests to restore the environmental balance.
Acknowledgements
The guidance of Dr T. N. Ananthakrishnan,
former Director. Zoological Survey of India, is
gratefully acknowledged. Sincere thanks are
due to Dr K. Thangavelu, Jt. Director, Central
64
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 86
Silk Board, Assam, and to Dr B. Dutta, Su-
perintending Zoologist, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta, for their constant encourage-
ment and help during the course of this re-
search work. Thanks are due to Dr M. Malipa-
til, Museum, Darwin, Australia and Mr W R
Dolling, British Museum (Natural History),
London, for their help with literature and iden-
tification.
References
Chatterjee, N.C. (1937): Entomological investigation
on the spike disease of sandal (32) Lygaeidae (Hemiptera).
Indian Forest Rec. 5(4): 110-111.
Distant, W.L. (1904): ‘Fauna of British India, inclu-
ding Ceylon and Burma. Rhynchota’ Vol. II (Heteroptera).
(Taylor and Francis: London).
( 1 9 1 0) : ‘ Fauna of British India, including Cey-
lon and Burma. Rhynchota’ Voi. V (Heteroptera). (Taylor
and Francis: London).
Eyles, A.E. (1963): Life history of some Rhyparochro-
minae (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae). Trans. Soc. Brit. Ent. 15:
135-166.
(1964): Feeding habits of some Rhyparochro-
minae (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae) with particular reference
to the value of natural foods. Trans. R. Ent. Soc. Lond.
116(5): 89-114.
(1973): Monograph of the genus Dieuches
Dohm (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae) (Dunedin, New Zealand.)
Malipatil, M.B. (1975): Immature.stages of some New
Zealand Rhyparochrominae. N. Z. J. Zool. 2(4): 381-388.
— (1979): The biology of some Lygaeidae (He-
miptera: Heteroptera) of south-east Queensland. Aust. J.
Zool. 27: 231-249.
Maxwell-Lefroy, H. (1909): Indian Insect life. Agri-
cultural Research Institute, Pusa, Today and Tomorrow
Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, Reprint ed. (1971).
May, B.M. (1965): Bionomics and ecology of Dieuches
notatus
(Dallas 1853) (Heteroptera: Rhyparochrominae) an im-
migrant to New Zealand, N.Z. J. Sci. 8(2): 192-204.
Putshkova, V.G. (1956): Basic trophic groups of phy-
tophagous hemipterous insects and changes in the charac-
ter of their feeding during the processes of development.
Zool. Zh. 35: 32-44.
Slater, J.A. (1964): A catalogue of the Lygaeidae of
the world. University of Connecticut, Storrs, Conn. Vol.
II.
(1972): Lygaeid bugs (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae)
as seed predators of figs. Biotropica 4(3): 145-151.
— (1975): On the biology and zoogeography of
Australian Lygaeidae (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) with spe-
cial reference to the South-West fauna. J. Aust. Ent. Soc.
14: 47-64.
Sweet, M.H. (1964): The biology and ecology of Rhy-
parochrominae of New England (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae)
Entomologica am. 44: 1-210.
Thangavelu, K. (1978a): On the ethology of Lygaei-
dae of the scrub jungle of South India (Hemiptera: He-
teroptera). J. Nat. Hist. 12: 289-294.
(1978b): Antennal oligomery in three species
of Rhyparochromines (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae). Entomon
5(1): 123- 126.
Thomas, D.C. (1955): Notes on the biology of some
Hemiptera- Heteroptera IV - Lygaeidae. Entomologist 88:
145-152.
Thompson, W.R. & Simond, F.J. (1964): A catalogue of
the parasites and predators of the insect pests. Sect. I. part
3. Parasites of Hemiptera Commonwealth Agric. Bureau,
London, pp. 1- 113.
Thunberg, C.P. (1822): Dissertation entomologica de
Hemipteris Rostratis capensibus (Hand written copy in
U.S. N.M.) 4: 1-6.
Appendix 1
LIST OF HIGHER VERTEBRATES PARTICIPATING IN COMMENSALISM
Common Names
ScientificNames
Birds
Common Myna
Greyheaded Myna
Large Green Barbet
Coppersmith or the
C rimsonbreasted Barbet
Koel
Common Green Pigeon
Redvented Bulbul
Redwhiskered Bulbul
Grey Tit
Acridotheres ?mf/s(Linn.)
Sturnus malabaricus( Gemelin)
Megalima zey Ionic a( Gmelin)
Megalaimahaemacephala
Eudynamys scolopacea (Linn.)
Treron phoenicoptera( Latham)
Pycnonotus cafer( Linn.)
Pycnonotus jocosus( Linn.)
Parus major Linn.
Mammals
1 . Fivestriped
Palm squirrel
2. Fruit Bat
Funambulus pennanti Wroughton
Cynopterus sphinx Vahl
65
DIET OF THE SMOOTH INDIAN OTTER ( LUTRA PERSP1CILLATA ) AND OF FISH
EATING BIRDS; A FIELD SURVEY1
Christine Tiler, Megan Evans, Clare Heardman and Susan Houghton2
{ With six text-figures)
A five month field study of the smooth Indian otter (Lutra perspicillata) was carried out,
beginning mid October 1984. It took place within the Royal Chitwan National Park, which is
situated in the belt of subtropical jungle of the terai, Southern Nepal. The seventy-five kilometre
stretch of the Narayani River which runs within the Park was surveyed for otter spoor. A survey
of the fish population was also carried out in order to identify the fish species present and their
distribution. The results of the otter survey are reported here. A total of 172 spraints were
collected and the faecal components analysed. The remains of fish, frog, crab, insect and small
mammals were identified. The relative importance of the major dietary components was com-
pared along the length of the river. In the southernmost sections surveyed fish were much more
common in the diet, whereas further north frogs became increasingly more important.
By the comparison of distinctive fish re-
mains with a reference collection compiled
during the course of the fish survey, it was
possible to identify to species level the remains
of some fish. Of a total of seventy fish species
captured during the course of the study, twen-
ty-six were identified from pharyngeal teeth
and dorsal spines recovered in faeces. Fish
vertebrae were measured to give an index of
prey size.
The regurgitated pellets produced by fish-
eating birds were dissected to give an indica-
tion of fish species eaten and their size range,
and to enable comparison between birds and
otters. The data suggests birds predominantly
predate small, shoal-living fish.
Introduction
The smooth Indian otter is only found within
southern Asia. A survey by Wayre (1971) has
shown the species to be nearly extinct in Pakis-
tan, becoming rare in Thailand, and only abun-
dant in less populated areas of Malaysia. Its
status elsewhere in Southern Asia is unknown.
In Nepal, this species is known to exist in the
Royal Chitwan National Park, and in the Kar-
nali reserve in the West of Nepal (K.K.
Gurung, personal communication). Within its
'Accepted October 1986.
University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M
13 9PL (U.K.)
range the smooth Indian otter inhabits both
coastal and fresh waters, the latter being prefer-
red, and is said to require for its territory ap-
proximately eight to ten kilometre stretches of
river (Wayre 1974).
No detailed studies to date have been done
on the diet of the smooth Indian otter in its
natural habitat. Most dietary studies have been
on species belonging to the genus Lutra but
mainly on the common otter (Lutra lutra) and
sea otter (Enhydra lutras). Since otters are dif-
ficult to observe, most dietary studies have
been done indirectly by faecal analysis.
This paper reports on the survey of this spe-
cies distribution within the Royal Chitwan Na-
tional Park, and on the results of faecal
analysis.
Methods
Between mid October 1984 and the end of
February 1985 the seventy-five kilometre
stretch of the Narayani river within the Park
was surveyed to assess the distribution of the
smooth Indian otter. During the survey both
river banks were searched on foot for spoor.
The position of spraints was recorded as well
as their size and association with habitat fea-
tures. Subsequent to collection spraints were
washed in a fine sieve and left to dry in the sun.
They were then individually dissected and the
various components separated. In some cases
66
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
it was possible to identify from which fish spe-
cies pharyngeal teeth and dorsal spines origina-
ted by comparison with a reference collection
of identified, boned fish which was compiled
during the course of the study.
A similar technique was used to determine
the composition of regurgitated pellets left
along the river bank by fish eating birds. This
facilitated a comparison of the species taken by
each group of fish predator.
Fish vertebrae found in otter spraints and
bird pellets were measured along their anteri-
or-posterior axis to give an indication of the
size ranges of prey.
Results
Spoor Distribution: For the purpose of this
study the Narayani was divided into eight sec-
tions (figure 1). Otter spoor were found along
the entire length of the Narayani within the
Park with two exceptions:
(i) in November no signs were found in
regions one, two and three, but by Ja-
nuary they were plentiful in these re-
gions;
(ii) no signs were found in region eight.
Otter signs were found both on banks inside
and outside the Park boundary although no holt
or play sites were found in the cultivated area
outside the Park boundary. Spraints were col-
lected from one of two types of sprainting sites
which differed in a number of respects:
(i) single spraints. These were found al-
most exclusively on prominant rocks,
logs, or scraped up mounds. Single
spraints could be as close as one and a
half metres apart and tended to be situa-
r
Fig. 1. Narayani River within Chitwan, showing regions 1-8.
DIET OF SMOOTH INDIAN OTTER
67
single spraints
-til i n , . . n
multiple spraint sites
O' l
flrRr-
5 6
n n
7 8 9 10 • n 12 • 13 14 15 1 16 "
distance from waters edge > gf-S'/*
Fig. 2. Relationship between the two spraint types (single
and multiple spraint sites) and distance from the
river.
ted within three metres from the river’s
edge (figure 2).
(ii) multiple spraints . These were found on
dry sandy banks or sand and shingle
banks, sometimes marking river con-
fluences. Larger sites were found at le-
ast fifty metres apart and in general
were further from the water’s edge (fi-
gure 2).
The sprainting behaviour of the smooth In-
dian otter is similar to that of other members of
the genus Lutra , in particular to that of the
common otter (Lutra lutra) in Britain.
Spraint Analysis: Within each of the regions
one to eight the spraint data was summed and
represented by the pie graphs in figure 3.
Spraint components were fish, frog, shrimp,
crab, insect, snake and small mammal. The
proportions of the dietary components found in
the faeces varied between regions. In the sou-
thernmost regions, one and two the predomi-
nant remains found in spraints were from fish
(ninety-four per cent and seventy-six per cent
respectively). Progressing north of region two
frog bones were increasingly common in
spraints, comprising as much as fifty-eight per
cent in region seven. The remains of other prey
such as crabs, shrimps, snakes and insects
were also more common in spraints north of
region two.
Twenty-six of the commonest fish species
could be identified to species by examination
of pharyngeal teeth and distinctive spines.
Other workers have used various types of undi-
gested fish remains for identification purposes.
These include fish scales (Webb 1978), verte-
brae (Wise 1980) and pharyngeal teeth.
As well as being identified, teeth were mea-
sured. For any spraint, if two sets of teeth from
the same species were of the same size and
from opposite sides of the head then it was
assumed both originated from the same fish.
Thus an estimate of the minimum number of
fish occurring in a spraint was obtained.
Figure 4 shows the frequency with which
each fish species was identified from spraints,
and the minimum number of fish present ip
Fig. 3. Composition of the diet of the smooth Indian otter
in regions 1-7 (no samples from region 8).
68
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
each spraint. The results for all regions is
summed.
Comparison with fish-eating birds: The com-
position of regurgitated pellets deposited by
fish-eating birds was examined in an attempt to
assess which fish species were of most dietary
importance. The most common species of fish
eating birds in the Park are the large cormorant
(Phalacrocorax car bo), small pied kingfisher
(Ceryle rudis), Eurasian kingfisher (Alcedo at -
this), white breasted kingfisher (Halcyon smyr-
nensis), night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax),
pond heron (Ardeola grayii), intermediate
egret (Egretta alba) and little egret (Egretta
garzetta).
Figure 5 shows the frequency with which
teeth of each fish species were found in bird
pellets. There is considerable overlap in the
species taken by otters and birds, although the
predominance of teeth from Puntius sp., Bari -
lus sp., and Danio devario in bird pellets sug-
gests a prediliction for small, shoal- living spe-
cies.
To compare the size-ranges of fish captured
by the two groups of predator, vertebrae found
in spraints and pellets were measured along
their anterior-posterior axis. It has been repor-
ted that there is a direct relationship between
the size of the vertebrae and the size of the fish
species — >
Fig. 5. Frequency with which teeth from each fish species
were found in bird pellets.
Fig. 4. Frequency with which teeth from each fish species
were found in otter spraints.
DIET OF SMOOTH INDIAN OTTER
69
(Wise 1980). The size ranges of vertebrae
found in individual spraints and pellets are
plotted in figure 6. Vertebrae found in bird
pellets all lay within the range 0.25 - 2 mm,
whereas those found in otter spraints ranged
from 0.25 - 4.5 mm.
Discussion
Dietary analysis from faecal component
data is an indirect method. As such, the techni-
que is prone to bias, some prey items, notably
crustaceans, will have a higher proportion of
hard: soft parts and so will be over-represented
in the faeces.
Within the seventy-five kilometre stretch of
the Narayani under study there is considerable
variation in the composition of the otter’s diet.
In regions one and two the major constituent is
fish, further north other components, notably
fi
45i
40*
35
30
25
20-
5
I 10
05
0
30
15\
20
t«
I VO
051
0
Vertebrae from otter spraints
Vertebrae from bird pellets
Fig,
I „
samples-
frog, become more important. Dietary dif-
ferences could be attributable to a number of
factors. The river’s topography varies, and this
is likely to affect both the prey available and
the most effective foraging methods. In regions
one and two the river runs in a single channel
and in many places the banks descend steeply
into the water. North of region two the river is
braided into a number of channels by islands.
Here the river has sandy stretches where the
water is slow flowing, and faster flowing re-
gions with a stony river bed. Conditions in
regions one and two are favourable for fish
requiring a large, deep and slowly flowing body
of water. Further north, fish which prefer shal-
low, fast-flowing wafer or sandy pools will be
more common. Other potential prey species
inhabiting the sandy pools include shrimp and
freshwater crabs.
Human fishing activity is another factor li-
6. Size range of fish vertebrae found in
bird pellets and otter spraints (the
size range for each sample is represented
by a single line ) .
Fig. 6. Size range of fish vertebrae found in bird pellets and otter spraints (the size range for each sample is represented by
a single line).
70
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
kely to influence the availability of prey.
Fishing by local people occurs where the river
forms the Park’s boundary. This is the case
north of region two. The Park authorities
prohibit the use of methods particularly dama-
ging to the fish population such as fish traps
placed over small tributaries and the practice
of damming and draining short sections of the
river. However, both these methods which da-
mage fish stocks by removing large numbers of
immature fish are still in use in the Park.
Evidence both from local fishermen and our
own fish survey (Evans et al. 1985) suggests
that where there is human access to the river
north of region two, stocks are over-fished. By
comparison, stocks in regions one and two will
not be subjected to overfishing for two rea-
sons. Firstly, human access is restricted by the
fact this stretch of the river is bordered on both
sides by the National Park. Secondly, the fact
the river is broad and deep prevents the use of
fish traps and damming and draining methods.
Both the effects of the river’s topography
and of human fishing activity are consistent
with our data, and it is difficult to assess the
contribution of each. The considerable dietary
variation shown in this study suggests otters
are able to exploit a wide range of prey, a
valuable attribute where fish stocks are low.
However, other predators which rely more he-
avily on fish, for example the endangered spe-
cies of crocodile, the gharial (Gavialis gangeti-
cus) and the rare Gangetic dolphin (Plantasia
gangetica) may be more seriously be affected
by the results of overfishing.
The identification of fish remains to species
level provides precise dietary information on
Refer
Evans, M., Heardman, C,. Houghton, S. & Tiler,
C. (1985): An ecological survey of the Narayani River,
within the Royal Chitwan National Park - a study of the fish
distribution and their predators, in particular the smooth
Indian otter (Lutra perspicillata). Report of the University
of Edinburgh Expedition to Nepal.
Wayre,P. (1971): Report on the status of otters in West
Pakistan with suggestions for their conservation, Pakistan
Wildlife Appeal, Lahore and The Pheasant Trust, Nor-
wich.
prey items found in spraints. However, this
data cannot be used to make inferences about
species not positively identified in spraints.
There are various reasons why distinctive bone
fragments may not appear in the faeces. Parti-
cularly fragile teeth are more likely to break
during passage through the gut. Distinctive
fragments o£ fish which are not swallowed
whole may not appear, for example, the head
of Xenatodon cancila which is long, bony and
full of teeth may not be swallowed. Species
without distinctive skeletal features such as
Nemacheilus botia and Amblyceps mangois
will not be recognised in spraints.
The fish remains found in spraints suggest
the otter predates a wide size range of fish from
a variety of habitats. By comparison, bird pel-
lets contained remains from species of fish
which remain small throughout their life cycle.
Data obtained from the measurement of verte-
brae supported the conclusion that otters take
a much wider size range of fish species than do
fish- eating birds.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the sponsors who gave us
financial and material support to carry out the
study as part of the ‘University of Edinburgh
Expedition to Nepal, 1985’. We offer our
thanks to Dr Hemanta Mishra, of Nepal’s Na-
tional Parks Department for granting us per-
mission to work in the Park and establishing us
there. We are particularly grateful to many of
the Park staff their valuable guidance and prac-
tical help.
NCES
(1974): Otters in west Malaysia - with obser-
vations on their status, distribution and habits. Report for
I.U.C.N. and W.W.F., Malaysia.
(ed.) (1975): The Otter Trust Annnal Repbrt,
1975. Suffolk.
Webb, J.B. (1978): “Otter Spraint Analysis”. An occa-
sional publication of the Mammal Soceity.
Wise, M.H. (1980), The use of fish vertebrae in scats
for estimating prey size of otters and mink. J. Zool, London
192: 25-31.
71
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
A NEW SPECIES OF HERMIT CRAB, DIOGENES KAR W AREN SIS
(DECAPODA: ANOMURA) FROM THE WEST COAST OF INDIA1
V.N. Nayak2 and B. Neelakantan3
{With two text-figures)
A new species of hermit crab of the genus Diogenes from Karwar in the west coast of India is
described. The closely related Diogenes avarus Heller available in the same habitat is compared.
Introduction
The systematics of shallow water hermit
crabs have not been studied in detail from In-
dian waters, except by Henderson, 1893 and
Alcock, 1905. Hermit crab species of the genus
Diogenes are among the most common and
abundant components of the intertidal and es-
tuarine regions of Karwar area along the west
coast of India. While working on the systema-
tics of the intertidal Paguridae of Karwar area,
several specimens of an undescribed taxon re-
sembling Diogenes avarus Heller were col-
lected.
Material and Methods
Specimens used for the description were
collected from Baithkol area about 1 km south
of Karwar 14° 18’ N and 74° 9T E) and Kali
estuary, about 3 km north of Karwar. The holo-
type has been deposited in the Zoological Sur-
vey of India Museum (Reg. No. C 3519/2) along
with Diogenes avarus Heller (Reg. No. C 3520/
2), Calcutta and paratype in the Karnatak Uni-
versity Department of Marine Biology Mu-
seum (C A/1 6/82) and Government Arts and
Science College Department of Zoology Mu-
seum (ACAhc/16), Karwar. The terminologies
used for adult description follow Jackson
(1913) and McLaughlin (1974).
'Accepted October 1985.
Government Arts & Science College, Karmar - 581301
(India).
’Department of Marine Biology, Karnataka University,
Kodibag, Karwar - 581303 (India).
Results
Shell preference: This species occupies in
the collection localities, the gastropod shells
listed below in the order of preference.
1. Cerithidea cingulata (Gmelin); 2. Nas-
sarius stolata (Gmelin); 3. Umbonium vestia-
rium (Linnaeus); 4. Natica tigrina (Roeding);
5. Thais carinifera (Lamarck).
Diagnosis: Ocular peduncle short and stout,
approximately one-half the length of shield.
Antennular peduncle as long as antennal pe-
duncle, exceeding ocular peduncle in length.
Rostral scale simple and spine-like, never ex-
ceeding ocular acicles. Ocular acicles spinulo-
se distally. Antennal acicle short, reaching up
to distal margin of fourth segment, never ex-
ceeding. Left cheliped spinulose; propodus
with a short ridge proximally; carpus with 4
moderately long, conical spines on the distal
margin.
Description: (Figs. 1 & 2): Holotype herein
selected, male, shield length, 3.0 mm. Shield
width equalling length, occasionally slightly
longer than broad; anterolateral margin sloping
or slightly terraced; anterior margin between
rostrum and lateral margin slightly concave;
posterior margin truncate or roundly truncate;
dorsal surface smooth; dorsolateral margins
with 3 - 4 short, transverse rows of spinules and
tufts of short bristles; anterolateral angle very
slightly produced. Rostrum short, not excee-
ding lateral projections, broadly rounded. Ros-
tral scale moderately short, acutely pointed,
reaching upto the distal margin of ocular acicle
or slightly falling short, never exceeding ocular
72
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig. 1. Diogenes karwarensis sp. nov., adult
a. Cephalic shield; b. Antennule; c. Antenna; d. Mandible; e. First maxilla; f. Second maxilla; g. First maxilliped;
h. Second maxilliped; i. Third maxilliped; j. Pleopod (male) k. Pleopod (female). Scale: 1 mm.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
73
Fig. 2. Diogenes karwarensis sp. nov. adult
a. Left cheliped, dorsal view; b. Left cheliped, ventral view; c. Right cheliped; d. Second pereiopod; e. Fourth
pereiopod; f. Fifth pereiopod; g. Telson and uropod; h. Telson. Scale: 1 mm.
74
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
acicles. Lateral projections broadly triangular,
with or without a terminal spinule.
Ocular peduncle short and stout, one-half to
two-thirds the length of shield; very slightly
inflated basally; somewhat dilated in corneal
region; ventral face with a row of tufts of mo-
derately short, plumose setae; corneal portion
moderately long, approximately one-fifth the
length of peduncle. Ocular acicle triangular,
distal margin serrated, spines increasing to-
wards rostral scale, the one nearest being the
longest, conical, acute spine, exceeding the
distal extension of rostral scale; separated ba-
sally by approximately one-half the basal width
of one acicle.
Antennular peduncle moderately long, ex-
ceeding the length of ocular peduncle by two-
thirds to one-half the length of ultimate seg-
ment. Ultimate and penultimate segments with
very few minute setae; basal segment with a
spinule at ventral distal margin; lateral surface
and dorsolateral margins with tufts of short
setae, dorsolateral distal angle with a row of 3 -
4 spinules. Dorsal flagellum with about 12 seg-
ments and ventral with 5-6 segments.
Antennal peduncle moderately long, as long
as antennular peduncle; exceeding ocular pe-
duncle by three-fourths to entire length of ulti-
mate segment, with supernumerary segmenta-
tion. Fifth segment with a row of long, plumose
setae laterally and few scattered short setae all
over. Fourth segment with a short spine dorsal-
ly and very few short setae. Third segment with
ventromesial distal angle produced, termina-
ting in a subacute spine and tufts of short setae.
Second segment with an acute spine on dor-
solateral distal angle and tufts of setae. First
segment with a short, acute spine on dorsal
face distally. Antennal acicle simple, reaching
upto the base of ultimate segment or slightly
shorter, somewhat triangular, terminating in a
strong, simple or bifid spine; dorsal face with a
row of 3-4 strong, acute spines; lateral and
mesial margins with rows of moderately long
setae. Antennal flagellum long, reaching upto
the base of dactyl of large cheliped; articles
with long, plumose and short setae; flagellum
of about 17 segments.
Mandibles without distinctive characters;
palp 2-segmented, distal segment with short,
plumose bristles. First maxilla with proximal
endite subquadrate or ovately triangular; endo-
pod with a bristle terminally. Second maxilla
with endopod inflated basally, exceeding sca-
phognathite in distal extension. First maxilli-
ped with endopod approximately one-third the
length of exopod, reaching upto the distal end
of proximal segment; basal segment of exopod
somewhat triangular and slender. Second ma-
xilliped with basis-ischium fusion incomplete.
Third maxilliped with basis- ischium fusion
complete; crista dentata poorly developed with
3-5 short spines and a row of stiff bristles;
carpus with a spinule on dorsal distal margin.
Left cheliped considerably larger than the
right, approximately one and one-half the
length of carapace; overreaching pereiopods.
Dactyl moderately short, three-fourths the
length of palm; fixed finger deflated; overrea-
ching and overlapped by fixed finger, termina-
ting in a calcareous claw; cutting edges with
row of strong, calcareous teeth; dorsal surface
with a median row of spinules in the distal half
and granules scattered all over; dorsolateral
and dorsomesial faces with rows of spinules or
minute spines; mesial margin with a row of
moderately long, subacute spines and tufts of
moderately long setae; lateral face with a row
of subacute spines; ventromesial face with a
row of subacute spines and tufts of moderately
long setae; ventral surface with a row of short
spines reducing in size distally, very few scat-
tered granules spread in the proximal region.
Palm moderately long, as long as or one and
one-fifth the length of carpus; dorsal surface
convex with a median ridge proximally with
irregular rows of acute spines in the proximal
half, granules spread all over, more in the me-
dian line, forming spinules; lateral face with
rows of small spines; mesial face with rows of
short, subacute spines and short setae; ventral
surface with 2 rows of short spines, subacute
spines and granules scattered all over; ventral
distal margin with a prominent tubercle near
the movable finger. Carpus moderately short,
as long as merus; dorsal surface with unifor-
med scattered short, subacute and acute spi-
nes; dorsal distal margin with a row of short
spines; mesial margin with a row of prominent,
acute spines, increasing in size distalwards;
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
75
lateral face with rows of short subacute spines
or low tubercles; lateral distal angle with a
prominent tubercle; ventral surface with uni-
formely scattered, irregular rows of subacute
spines or low tubercles; ventral distal margin
concave with a row of minute spines. Merus
moderately long, subtriangular; dorsal surface
with irregularly scattered spinules and gra-
nules; dorsolateral margin with a row of short
spines distally and tufts of setae; dorsomesial
margin with a row of short spines increasing in
size distally and tufts of setae; mesial distal
margin with a row of short spines and tufts of
setae; mesial face with very few granules dis-
tally; ventral distal margin with 4 long, conical
acute spines; ventral surface with short spines
or spinules uniformly scattered and tufts of
setae; ventrolateral face with irregular rows of
small spines or spinules. Ischium moderately
short, ventral distal angle produced; lateral
face with a low tubercle and 2-3 spinules.
Coxa short, mesial margin with a low tubercle.
Right cheliped moderately short and slen-
der, reaching up to the base of palm of left
cheliped. Dactyl and palm with tufts of setae on
all faces. Dactyl moderately long, one and one-
third the length of palm; cutting edges with a
row of short tubercles; leaving a gap when
closed, ending in a calcareous claw; dorsal sur-
face with irregular rows of subacute spines or
low tubercles; lateral face with irregular rows
of spinules or low tubercles; mesial face with
rows of short spines or spinules; ventral sur-
face unarmed. Palm moderately short, as long
as carpus; dorsal surface with rows of short
spines; lateral face granulose; mesial face with
granules; ventral surface with spinules distally
and few granules proximally. Carpus three-
fourths the length of merus; dorsal surface with
irregular rows of spinules and few tufts of short
setae; dorsomesial margin with a row of acute
spines increasing in size distally and tufts of
setae; mesial face with very few granules; ven-
tral distal margin with a row of spinules; ven-
tral surface with tufts of short setae; lateral
face granulose. Merus moderately long, subtri-
angular; dorsal margin with minute granules
and tufts of setae. Mesial face even and unar-
med; lateral face even, unarmed except for
very few granules; ventral surface with few
granules and tufts of setae. Ischium short, ven-
tral distal angle produced; unarmed except for
tufts of setae. Coxa with very few granules
ventrally.
Second pereiopod falling short of left cheli-
ped, right slightly longer than the left. Dactylus
moderately long, one and one-fifth the length
of propodus; in lateral view turned ventrally; in
dorsal view straight; terminating in a short,
corneous claw; dorsal surface with moderately
short setae and a row of spinules only in the
distal half; mesial and lateral faces unarmed;
ventral surface with a row of short setae and
rarely a row of spinules. Propodus moderately
long, one and one-half the length of carpus;
dorsal surface with a row of spinules and a row
of short setae; lateral and mesial faces unar-
med; ventral surface concave, with a row of
short setae. Carpus moderately short, two-
thirds the length of merus; dorsal surface with a
row of spinules increasing to spines distally
and a row of moderately short setae; lateral and
mesial faces unarmed; ventral surface smooth.
Merus laterally compressed; dorsal margin
with very few spinules and tufts of moderately
short setae; lateral and mesial faces even and
unarmed; ventral margin with a row of tufts of
moderately short setae. Ischium moderately
short, one-third the length of merus; unarmed
except for tufts of short setae dorsally and ven-
trally. Coxa with few granules laterally and
mesially, 1 or 2 tufts of setae present ventrally
and dorsally.
Third pereiopod slightly longer than the se-
cond, reaching upto the tip of left cheliped.
Dactylus moderately long, one and one-fourth
the length of propodus; in lateral view turned
ventrally; in dorsal view straight; ending in a
short, corneous claw; dorsal and ventral mar-
gins with tufts of short setae; lateral and mesial
faces with very few setae. Propodus modera-
tely long, one and one-half the length of carpus;
dorsal surface with a row of spinules and tufts
of short setae; lateral and mesial faces unar-
med; ventral surface concave with very few
short setae. Carpus moderately short, as long
as c four-fifths the merus; dorsal distal angle
with a short spine; dorsal surface with a row of
spinules and tufts of short setae; mesial and
lateral faces unarmed; ventral surface with
76
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
very few minute setae. Merus laterally com-
pressed; dorsal and ventral margins with tufts
of short setae; lateral and mesial faces even and
unarmed. Ischium moderately long, one-half
the length of merus; dorsal surface with a row
of moderately short setae; ventral surface with
2-3 protuberances and tufts of short setae;
mesial and lateral faces unarmed. Coxa with 2 -
3 tufts of short setae over protuberances.
Fourth pereiopod with well developed pro-
podal rasp. Fifth pereiopod typical and minu-
tely chelate. Sternite of third pereiopod with a
prominent tooth proximally.
Pleopods of male 4 in number, unpaired,
uniramous; with long, plumose setae. Female
with first 3 unpaired, biramous, both rami well
developed with dense tufts of long setae; 4th as
in male. Uropods well developed, left one con-
siderably larger than the right.
Telson asymmetrical, left lobe larger than
the right; separated by a minute cleft; right
terminal margin with a row of spinules and tufts
of short setae or bristles; left terminal margin
with 4-5 acute spines and row of spinules and
tufts of bristles.
In female, left cheliped never exceeds perei-
opods in distal extension. Third pereiopod ex-
ceeds left cheliped by one-half the length of
dactylus. Carpus with a short ridge in the distal
margin corresponding to* the ridge on palm of
males, in addition to the ridge on palm as in
male.
Collection localities: Specimens were col-
lected from Kali estuary and Baithkol area in
Karwar, west coast of India.
Materials examined: About 100 specimens
comprising both males and females were exa-
mined. The shield length ranged from 2.0 tob.O
mm. Many of the females carried eggs.
The eggs were oval, dark brown to dirty
green in colour immediately after oviposition,
turning to pale and transparent when about to
hatch. The egg size ranged from 0.30 to 0.34 x
0.23 to 0.25 mm.
Habitat: This species shared the habitat with
Diogenes avarus and D. maclaughlinae at Bai-
thkol, which has an admixture of sand and
mud. In estuarine areas it was commonly found
in association with D. avarus and Clibanarius
padavensis occupying the lower part of the
intertidal zone.
Colour: Shield, light gray or light green or
pale. Ocular peduncle with a short longitudinal
band of dark gray to dark brown colour. Anten-
nular peduncle with a transverse gray band;
flagellum without chromatophores. Antennal
peduncle with few dark grey patches; flagellum
with alternating dark and pale transverse bands
between articles. Pereiopods with transverse
dark grey bands.
Remarks: This species is named Diogenes
karwar ensis , after the type locality, Karwar,
from where the specimens were discovered.
Table 1
Character
Diogenes avarus Heller
Diogenes karwar ensis»sp.no\ .
Ocular
peduncle
2/3 to 3/4 length of
shield.
1/2 to 2/3 length ofshield.
Antennular
Peduncle
exceeds ocular peduncle
by 1/3 to 2/5 length of
ultimate segment.
exceeds ocular peduncle by
1/2 to 2/3 length of
ultimate segment.
Left cheliped:
Palm
shorter than carpus;
dorsal surface granulose.
longer than carpus;
dorsal surface spinulose.
Carpus
longest of all segments;
ventral distal margin
unarmed.
moderately short, ventral
distal margin with a row
of short spines.
Merus
ventral distal margin
unarmed.
ventral distal margin
with 3-4 long, conical,
acute spines.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
77
Discussion
The species closely resembles Diogenes
avarus Heller in having similar habitat pre-
ference, general size and shell selection. Some
of the salient features by which these two spe-
cies could be distinguished are given in Table 1 .
Refer
Alcock, A. (1905): Anomura. Fasc. I. Paguridea - Ca-
talogue of the Indian decapod Crustacea in the collection of
the Indian Museum, 2 : i - xi 4- 1-197.
Henderson, J.R. (1893): A contribution to Indian Car-
cinology. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, (2) 5 : 325 - 426.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. P.A McLaughlin, Dr.
Janet Haig and Dr. K.N. Sankolli for their
valuable suggestions. Also, thanks are due to
the authorities of Karnatak University for pro-
viding laboratory facilities.
e n c e s
Jackson, H.G. (1913): Eupagurus. Liverpool mar.
biol. Comm. Mem., 21 : 1 - 79.
McLaughlin, P.A. (1974): The hermit crabs (Crusta-
cea, Decapoda, Paguridea) of Northwestern North Ameri-
ca. Zool. Verhandel, Leiden, 130 : 1-396.
A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS EUPHILOSCIA PACKARD (CRUSTACEA:
ISOPODA: ONISCOIDEA) FROM WALTAIR, INDIA1
C. Jalaja Kumari, K. Hanumantha Rao and K. Shyamasundari2
( With eleven text-figures )
A new oniscoid isopod Euphiloscia rishikondensis belonging to family Ligiidae is described.
Thirty male specimens were collected under rocks near the shore at Rishikonda, Waltair.
Euphiloscia rishikondensis sp. nov. is compared with E. elrodii Packard, 1873.
In the course of the study of the systematics
of isopods (1978-1981), a number of new spe-
cies belonging to the genus Euphiloscia Pac-
kard (1873) were collected from Waltair coast.
Isopods of the genus Euphiloscia have not
been reported from India so far. Significant
contributions to the knowledge of Indian onis-
coid isopods are those of Collinge (1914), Bar-
nard (1936), Joshi and Bal (1959) and Rama-
krishna (1971). The genus Euphiloscia is so far
represented by only one species, namely Eu-
philoscia elrodii (Packard 1873). The present
species is described here as a new species.
Euphiloscia rishikondensis sp. nov.
Male: Length 7 mm; breadth 3 mm.
Colour: Brown body with dark spots on the
mid-dorsal portion.
Body oblong-oval, somewhat longer and
slender, attains greatest breadth at pereonite 5,
| Accepted April 1987.
Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair
530003 (India).
dorsal surface slightly convex, studded with
granules in the centre. A large number of tuber-
cles arranged in two rows on each side of
pereon. Cephalon distinctly separated from
pereonite 1; twice as broad as long. Dorsal
surface of cephalon covered with numerous
large tubercles; frontal margin nearly truncate
and not produced into a lobe. Antero-lateral
angles of cephalon rounded and not produced
into lobes. Eyes large, oval and located at an-
tero-lateral angles of cephalon.
Antennule reduced in size, triarticulate,
with broad basal article, article 2 short and
terminal article longer than basal article.
Antenna very much longer, slender, almost
reaches the end of pereonite 3. Antenna with 5
peduncular articles, article 1 short, article 2, 3
subequal, article 4, roughly 1 1/2 times longer
than article 3, article 5 twice as long as article 4.
Antennal flagellum 15-articulate; all articles
covered with strong setae, terminal article pro-
vided with a pointed bristle.
Maxillule with 12 stout recurved spines on
6
78
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig. 1. Euphiloscia rishikondensis sp. nov.;
Fig. 2. Antennule; Fig. 4. Maxillule.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
79
exopod; as series of setae on endopod. Maxilla
uni-lobate, terminal part heavily setose. Man-
dible with 2-cuspate incisor process, followed
by six penicils arise from the lower margin.
Maxilliped with outer palp terminates into 3
Euphiloscia rishikondensis sp. nov.
Fig. 3. Maxilla; Fig. 5. Maxilliped; Fig. 6. Mandible.
setae; inner palp broad, apically trilobed; an-
terior margin of maxilliped covered with short
setae.
Pereonites 2-6 subequal, pereonite 1 longer
than other pereonites. Antero-lateral angles of
pereonite 1 surround the base of cephalon. Co-
xal plates not separated from pereonites. Pere-
onite 7 extends up to pleonite 2.
Pereopods 1-7 gradually increase in length
posteriorly, long and stout, all markedly se-
tose. Anterior pereopods prehensile and den-
sely covered with setae. Posterior pereopods
comparatively long and slender. First 5 articles
of all pereopods covered with thick short hairs.
Pleon much narrower and rounded not ma-
cronate, pleonites 1-5 distinct, pleonites 2-5
subequal except pleonite 1. Side plates of all
pleonites rather smooth and not projecting pos-
teriorly. Pleopod 1 small, both exopod and en-
dopod devoid of setae. Appendix masculina of
pleopod 2 arises from basis, exceeds with exo-
and endopods and terminally blunt. Exopod of
pleopod 2 covered with 7 plumose setae and 6
simple setae. Pleopods 3, 4 almost similar, exo-
pod of both pleopods covered with 3 plumose
setae. Endopods of all pleopods devoid of se-
tae. All pleopods provided with air-cavities.
Telson sub- triangular, posteriorly termina-
tes into a blunt and nearly round tip; uropod
longer and slender, articulates to the tip of
telson. Uropodal peduncle stout and broad.
Endopod of uropod short and narrow, just rea-
ches the basal part of exopod and terminates
into 2 long setae. Exopod of uropod long,
broad at the base and terminally provided with
3 long curved setae. Uropods also covered
with short, thick hairs.
Material Studied: Thirty male specimens
were collected under rocks near the shore at
Rishikonda, Waltair. Holotype male 1 and
paratypes male 4 are lodged in the Department
of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair. They
will be deposited in the collections of the Zoo-
logical Survey of India, Calcutta.
Discussion
The genus Euphiloscia differs from the ge-
nus Philoscia in having fifteen articulated fla-
gellae of the antenna. The second and third
80
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Euphiloscia rishikondensis sp. nov.
Fig. 7. Pereopod 7; Fig. 8. Pleopod 1; Fig. 9. Pleopod 3; Fig. 10. Pleopod 5; Fig. 11. Uropod.
joints are rather short, antenna very much lon-
ger. The abdomen is much longer and wider in
proportion to the rest of the body. Uropods are
much larger and slender than in Philoscia. The
body colour of the species is brown with dark
spots on the mid- dorsal portions. Euphiloscia
rishikondensis sp. nov. resembles Euphiloscia
elrodii in body colour, but differs in the shape
of cephalon, pereon and pleon and structure of
appendages.
The species name is derived from the collec-
tion locality Rishikonda.
Acknowledgements
One of us (CJK) is grateful to the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research for financial
assistance. We are thankful to authorities of
Andhra University for providing facilities.
References
Barnard, K.H. (1936): Isopods collected by the
R.I.M.S. ‘Investigator’ . Rec. Indian Mus. 37 : 279-319.
Collinge, W.E. (1914): Description of a new species of
terrestrial Isopoda from India. Ann. Maq. nat. Hist. 14 (8):
206-208.
Joshi, O.N. & Bal, D.V. (1959): Some of the littoral
species of Bombay isopods with detailed description of two
new species. J. Univ. Bombay 27 (5B) : 57-69.
Packard, A.S. (1873): On the cave fauna of Indiana.
5th Rep. Peabody Acad. Sci. 93-97.
Ramakrishna, G. (1971): Studies on the Indian Iso-
pods. Pt. 2. Notes on the oniscid collection from the Ka-
meng Division of NEFA. Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 63 (1-4):
181-184.
81
A NEW SPECIES OF THERIDION WALCKEN AER (ARANEAE : THERIDIIDAE)
FROM INDIA1
Kanchan Monga2 and J.P. Singh3
(With three text-figures)
Theridion Walckenaer, 1805.
Theridion Walckenaer, 1805. Tabl. Aran.:
1-88.
Anterior median eyes equal to or smaller
than posterior medians which are usually a lit-
tle wider apart, laterals contiguous. Chelicerae
usually weak. Sternum rounded behind, pro-
jecting between coxae IV. Legs long and thin;
tarsus IV with a row of 6-10 serrated bristles.
Abdomen globular in shape, usually bearing a
distinct pattern.
Theridion sadani sp nov. (Figs. 1-3)
Female cephalothorax : Carapace : length
wide, concave and yellow in colour. Cheli-
cerae: small, yellow without any teeth on any
margin. Maxillae: yellow, broader at base, nar-
rower towards anterior end, a few hairs present
at anterior margin. Labium : yellow, not re-
boardered. Sternum : yellow, longer than
broad, posterior end narrowed and extending
between coxae IV. Legs : yellow, long and
thin, tarsus IV with a row of 6 spines on ventral
side, tarsi with three claws and without any
claw tufts. Leg I thrice the length of body. All
legs provided with papillae. Length of legs
(mm):
Leg
Coxa
Trochanter
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Metatarsus
Tarsus
Total
I
0.50
0.30
3.40
0.73
3.00
3.00
1.03
11.96
II
0.33
0.27
2.27
0.67
1.60
1.66
0.77
7.57
III
0.37
0.20
1.37
0.59
0.87
1.07
0.53
5.00
IV
Pedi-
0.40
0.33
2.33
0.63
1.63
1.93
0.77
8.02
palp
—
—
0.43
0.10
0.27
—
0.50
1.30
1.68 mm; maximum breadth 1.44 mm; yellow
with cephalic region marked from thoracic re-
gion by light cephalic groove; thoracic region
marked with transverse thoracic fovea. Eyes
eight, encircled by black rims; anterior me-
dians darker than the rest of the eyes and equal
to posterior medians; arranged in two rows;
anterior row recurved while posterior row pro-
curved. Diameter of eyes (mm): A.M. = 0.12;
A.L. = 0.11; P.M. = 0.12 and P.L. = 0.09.
Mutual distances between the eyes (mm):
A.M. -A.M. = 0.16; A.M.-A.L. = 0.15; A.M. -
P.M. = 0.17; A.M. -P.L. = 0.20; P.M.-P.M. =
0.20; P.M.-P.L. = 0.19; P.L. -P.L. = 0.49 and
A.L. -A.L. — 0.47. Width of clypeus: 0.22 mm,
'Accepted August 1988.
‘Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar, Haryana
(India).
'Department of Zoology. Punjabi University, Patiala,
Punjab (India).
Figs. 1-3. Theridion sadani sp. nov.
1. Dorsal view of female; 2. Epigynum; 3. Chelicera.
0.64mm
82
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo/. 56
Abdomen: Length 2.40 mm; maximum bre-
adth 2.20 mm; oval but rounded behind. Dor-
sum grey, mottled with white that forms a pat-
tern with grey veins in the centre. Venter grey
with white markings, covered by papillae all
over. Spinnerets compact. Epigynum as in Fig.
3.
Total length : Female 4.08 mm.
Holotype Female, in spirit, INDIA: Jammu
and Kashmir; Shalimar Gardens, Srinagar,
25. v. 1977, G.L. Sadana.
This species slightly resembles Theridion ti-
kaderi Patel but can be separated from it as
follows (i) Absence of U-shaped mark on ce-
phalothorax, (ii) The abdomen is oval, grey,
mottled with white and forming a pattern with
grey veins in the centre, while in T. tikaderi,
abdomen is globular and dorsal and ventral
sides are with chalky white and chocolate pat-
ches, (iii) Epigynum is also structurally dif-
ferent.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. G. L. Sadana, Department of
Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University, Lu-
dhiana for providing the collection and Profes-
sor and Head, Department of Zoology, Punjabi
University, Patiala for providing the necessary
laboratory facilities.
A NEW SONERILA ROXB. (MELASTOMATACEAE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1
R. Gopalan and A.N. Henry2
{With nine text-figures )
Sonerila Kanniyakumariana sp. nov.
Herbae succulentae, 50-65 cm altae; caules
subrosei, erecti (nodi inferi rare decumbenti et
radicanti), minute alati, glabri. Folia 0.5 - 4.2 x
0.5 - 2.5 cm, superi subsessiles, inferi bre viter
petiolati, ovati ad deltoidi, succulenti, glabri,
ad apicem acuti, ad basim cordati vel subcor-
dati, 3-5-nervati; margines serrati, hyalini. Ra-
cemi terminates, scropioidei, floribus 3-5, flori
subrosei; pedunculi 5-7 mm longi, glabri, Caly-
cis tubi 5-8 mm longi, infundibuliformes, gla-
bri; calycis lobi 3, utrumque c. 3 x 2 mm, trian-
gulare. Petala 3, utrumque usque ad 1.5 cm
latum, ovato - orbiculare, apiculatum. Stamina
3; filamenta c. 5 mm longa, crassa, glabra; an-
therae lanceatae, usque ad 6 x 2 mm, rostratae.
Stylus 10-12 mm longus; stigma capitellatum.
Capsulae 8-10 x 4-5 mm, infundibuliformes,
glabrae; semina c. 1 mm longa, tuberculata.
Holotypus (Gopalan 77180, CAL) et isotypi
(Gopalan 77180, MH-num. acc. no. 139866 -
139874) in Upper Kodayar in ditione Kanniya-
kumari in statu Tamilnadensi, India, die
'Accepted November 1987.
2Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore (India).
20.3.1984 lecti. Paratypi (Henry 77001, MH-
num. acc. no. 139875 - 139883) in Upper Ko-
dayar, versus viam ad Muthukuzhivayal, die
16.2.1983 lecti.
Succulent herbs 50-65 cm tall; stems pin-
kish, erect (rarely decumbent and rooting at
lower nodes), minutely winged, glabrous. Lea-
ves 0.5 - 4.2 x 0.5 - 2.5 cm, upper subsessile,
lower shortly petioled, ovate to deltoid, fleshy,
glabrous, acute at apex, cordate or subcordate
at base, 3-5 nerved; margins serrate, hyaline.
Flowers pinkish, 3-5 in terminal scorpioid race-
mes; peduncles 5-7 mm long, glabrous. Calyx
tube 5-8 mm long, funnel- shaped, glabrous;
calyx lobes 3, each c. 3 x 2 mm, triangular.
Petals 3, each up to 1.5. cm across, ovate-
orbicular, apiculate. Stamens 3; filaments c. 5
mm long, thick, glabrous; anthers up to 6 x 2
mm, lanceate, beaked. Style 10 - 12 mm long;
stigma capitellate. Capsules 8 - 10x4-5 mm,
funnel-shaped, glabrous; seeds c. 1 mm long,
tuberculate. (Figs. 1-9).
Holotype (Gopalan 77180, CAL) and isoty-
pes (Gopalan 77180, MH-acc. no. 139866 -
139874) were collected at Upper Kodayar in
Kanniyakumari District, Tamilnadu on
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
83
Figs. 1-9. Sonerila kanniyakumariana sp. nov.
1. Portion of plant; 2. Leaf; 3. Flower; 4. Calyx; 5. Petal; 6 & 7. Stamen (2 views); 8 & 9. Seed (2 views).
20.3.1984. Paratypes (Henry 77001, MH-acc.
No. 139875 - 139883) were collected from Up-
per Kodayar on the way to Muthukuzhivayal
on 16.2.1983.
This species is perhaps allied to the Sri Lan-
kan Sonerila robust a Arn. but differs in: gla-
brous stem; leaves glabrous, serrate, some-
what crowded towards the apices of stems ; and
capsules funnel-shaped, glabrous.
Occurs on exposed rocky slopes and road-
cuttings in evergreen forests. Rare.
We are thankful to Dr. N.P Balakrishnan,
Scientist ‘SE’ for encouragement, and Dr. V.J.
Nair, Scientist ‘B’ for the Latin translation of
the description.
84
UTRIC U LARI A MALABARICA SP. NOV. (LENTIBULARIACEAE):
A TERRESTRIAL BLADDERWORT FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1
M.K. Janarthanam and A.N. Henry2
{With sixteen
Utricularia malabarica sp. nov.
(Figs. 1 - 16)
U . lazulina P. Taylor affmis, sed plantis par-
vissimis; calyce lobis equalibus et papillosis;
corolla margine labii superi glabra; labio infero
stigmatis piloso; pedicello fructificanti recur-
vato; semine ovoideo et testa laevigata differt.
Holotypus (M.K. Janarthanam 82924, CAL)
et isotypi (M.K. Janarthanam 82924, MH -
num. acc. no. 139935 - 139938) in Mulleriya in
ditione Kasaragod in statu keralensi India die
21.8.1985 lecti.
Small herbs. Rhizoids mostly absent, if pre-
sent up to 1 cm long, c 0.2 mm thick at base,
terete, glandular; branches few, up to 0.8 mm
long, papillose. Stolons up to 2 cm long, c 0.2
text-figures)
mm thick, capillary, terete, profusely bran-
ched; intemodes c 2 mm long. Leaves up to 4 x
1.5 mm, solitary at base of scape and at each
stolon node; petioles attenuate; lamina obo-
vate, 3-nerved, rounded at apex. Traps up to
1.5 mm across, few, on stolons and leaves,
globose; stalk short, often covered with glan-
dular hairs; mouth basal; appendages 2, su-
bulate, simple, glandular. Inflorescence 2-6.5
cm long, erect; peduncle c 0:6 mm thick, gla-
brous, angular, grooved on one side. Scales c
1.1 x 0.9 mm, 1- few, basifixed, ovate-deltoid.
Bracts c 1 .5 x 0.9 mm, ovate-deltoid, acumina-
te; bracteoles subulate, shorter than bract. Flo-
wers 1-4; pedicels 3-4 mm long, winged, erect
in anthesis and recurved in fruit. Calyx lobes
Figs. 1 - 7 Utricularia malabarica sp. nov.
1. Plant; 2a- 2c. Leaves; 3a. Trap -lateral view; 3b. Trap -front view; 4. T.S. of peduncle;
5. T.S. of pedicel; 6. Scale; 7. Bract and bracteoles;
'Accepted October 1987.
:Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore (India).
i
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
85
Figs. 8-16 Utricularici malabarica sp. nov.
8. Flower (front view); 9. Flowering calyx; 10. Fruiting calyx;
11. Corolla Upper lip; 12. Stamens; 13a. Pistil -adaxial view;
13b. Pistil - lateral view; 14. Capsule; 15. Placentum; 16a. Seed - front view; 16b. Seed - lateral view.
more or less equal, c 2x2 mm in anthesis, c 3 x
3 mm in fruit, ovate, 10-12 nerved, outer sur-
face and margin paillose, upper lobe acumi-
nate, lower lobe bidentate. Corolla 7-8 mm
long; upper lip c 2.5 x 1.5 mm, oblong, white
with blue tinge, truncate or emarginate at apex;
lower lip c 4 x 5 mm, more or less orbicular,
blue; base prominently bigibbous, white with
blue reticulations, apex emarginate; palate hai-
ry, spur c. 4.5 mm long, slender, blue to bluish
white, acute and yellow at apex, Stamens c. 1
mm long; filaments strap-shaped; antherthecae
distinct. Pistil c. 1 mm long; ovary ovoid; style
short; stigma bilabiate, lower lip oblong and
hairy, upper lip short and semiorbicular. Cap-
sules c 2.8 x 1 .8 mm, ovoid-subglobose, unifor-
mly membranous, dehiscing by a dorsal and a
ventral longitudinal slit; placentum c 1 mm
long, ovoid, stalked. Seeds c 0.25 mm long,
ovoid; hilum prominent, subterminal; testa re-
ticulate, smooth, cells more or less elongate.
Utricularia malabarica is allied to U. lazuli-
na P. Taylor, but differs in: plants much smal-
ler; calyx lobes equal and papillose; margin of
upper corolla lip glabrous; lower lip of stigma
hairy; fruiting pedicel recurved; seeds ovoid
and testa smooth.
Holotype M.K. J an art h an am 82924 (CAL)
and isotypes M.K. Janarthanam 82924 (MH
acc. no. 139935 - 139938) were collected from
Mulleriya, Kasaragod District, Kerala (Old
Malabar region), Southern India on 21.8. 1985.
An annual occurs on wet laterite rocks, in
association with Eriocaulon sp. and grasses;
flowering and fruiting in August.
Thanks to Dr. N.P. Balakrishnan, Scientist
‘D\ Botanical Survey of India, Southern Cir-
cle for providing facilities and for encourage-
ment, to Dr. V.J. Nair, Scientist ‘B\ Botanical
Survey of India, Southern Circle for the Latin
translation of the diagnosis, and to the Direc-
tor, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for
sanctioning research fellowship to one of us
(MKJ).
86
A NEW SPECIES OF STIXIS LOUR. (CAPPARACEAE) FROM MANIPUR1
D.B. Deb and R.C. Rout2
( With a text-figure )
A new species Stixis manipurensis (Capparaceae) recently collected from Manipur State is
described and illustrated.
Introduction
Deb explored the flora of Manipur State
during 1951-1955 (vide Bull. Bot. Surv. India 3:
115-133 & 253-350, 1963). His manuscript on
Pteridophytes was unfortunately lost and
could not be published. Subsequently he con-
ducted field studies for brief periods in 1978,
1982 and recently in July 1987 in different parts
of the state with a view to note the extent of
changes in the vegetation during the last three
decades or so, and for further addition to the
Flora.
In July 1987, he went up to the Burma border
and saw frequently along the National High
way from Tengnopoul to Morey a tall climber
mostly in fruit. He took it for Stixis suaveo-
lens, but on examination in herb. CAL it turned
out to be a new species.
The genus Stixis Lour. (Capparaceae)
known in the Indian Floras under the name
Roydsia Roxb. has been recently studied by
Jacob (vide Blumea 12:5-12, 1963) treating S.
suaveolens (Roxb.) Pierre as the type. The ge-
nus is represented by seven species distributed
in Nepal, Bhutan, Eastern India, South China,
Burma, Vietnam, Indochina, Hainan and Wes-
tern Malaysia.
Stixis manipurensis sp. nov. (Fig. 1)
Differt a S. suaveolens foliis parvioribus et
angustioribus, sepalis ovatis, androgynophoris
gynophorisque brevissimum inter alia; a S.
scandens bracteis ellipticis, sepalis ovatis, sta-
minibus numero majoribus, gynophoris brevio-
ribus, glabris inter alia; a S. ovata bracteis
brevioribus, sepalis ovatis, androgynophoris
gynophorisque bravioribus, ovariis stellato-
'Accepted December 1987.
2Botanical Survey of India, Howrah (India).
pilosis, stylis brevioribus, glabris inter alia.
Differs from S. suaveolens in smaller and
narrower leaves, ovate sepals and much shor-
ter androgynophore and gynophore, amongst
others; from S. scandens in elliptic bracts,
ovate sepals, larger number of stamens and
shorter glabrous gynophore; from S. ovata in
smaller bracts, ovate sepals, shorter androgy-
nophore and gynophore, larger number of sta-
mens, stellately hairy ovary and shorter gla-
brous style.
Climbing shrubs c. 15-20 m in height, profu-
sely branching above, unarmed; stem terete,
lenticellate. Leaves simple, alternate, conges-
ted on branchlets, 7.5-16.0 x 2. 5-5.0 cm, ellip-
tic-oblong, coriaceous, acute or shortly acumi-
nate at apex, acute or obtuse at base, entire,
glabrous, unicostate, reticulate; lamina profu-
sely pustulate with bacterial nodules; lateral
* nerves 7-10 on either side, alternate or subop-
posite, arching obliquely towards the margin;
midrib slightly sunken above, prominent, so-
metimes pustulate beneath. Flowers in axillary
panicle or raceme, yellowish, sweetly scented,
minutely pubescent; bracts caducous, c. 2.0 x
1.0 mm, elliptic, acute at apex, pubescent; pe-
dicel 1.0-1. 5 mm long, stout. Floral buds 4.0-
4.5 x 3. 0-4.0 mm, obovoid or spherical. Sepals
6 in two whorls, spreading, not reflexed at an-
thesis, imbricate, 3. 0-3. 5 x 2.5 mm, ovate,
acute at apex, fulvous tomentose on both si-
des. Petals absent. Androgynohore c. 0.2 mm
long, glabrous. Stamens more than 40; fila-
ments c. 2 mm long, glabrous; gynophore c. 0.2
mm long, glabrous. Ovary c. 1.2 x 1.0 mm,
ovoid, stellately hairy, 3 loculed, each bearing
2 ovules on axillary placenta; style c. 0.5 mm
long; stigma 3 lobed. Fruit 2.5-3. 1 x 1.2- 1.6 cm
ellipsoid, 3 angled; pericarp 2.5 mm thick, dis-
tinguished into thick epicarp, spongy meso-
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 1. Stixis manipurensis sp.nov.
A. Habit; B. Flower bud; C. Flower opened; D. Stamen; E. Gynoecium with androgynophore and gynophore.
F. Placentation; G. Fruiting panicle.
88
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
carp and thin endocarp. Seeds one, large, em-
bedded in the pulp with a thin testa; cotyledons
large, unequal, one enclosing the other.
Flowering: April- August; Fruiting: July - ?
Distribution: Tengnopoul to Morey, fre-
quently occurring along the trunk road, on
forest slopes.
Type: Manipur State, Tengnopoul, 1500 m,
30.7.87, D.B. Deb 3549A holotype & B a frui-
ting panicle (detached from the type) deposited
at CAL.
Note: Sundara Raghavan, R. has just pu-
blished a new species from Burma (vide Bull.
Bot. Sur. Ind. 28: 191, 1988), which is very
different from the one described here.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Shri Sh. Tomchou Singh,
I.F.S., Additional Chief Conservator of
Forests, Govt, of Manipur for providing trans-
port and other facilities to conduct the field
study, and to Shri Gopal Singh, I.F.S., Assis-
tant Conservator for assistance during the
tour.
NEW TAXA OF DESMIDS FROM UTTARA KANNADA DISTRICT
KARNATAKA STATE (INDIA)1
G. R. Hegde 2 and S. W. Isaacs3
(With four text-figures )
During 1978 in all 72 collections from freshwater permanent ponds and lakes of Uttarakan-
nada District of Karnataka State were made. These samples contained four new taxaof Desmids
which are described.
During an extensive survey of freshwater
algae of Uttar Kannada District of Karnataka
State, we came across four new taxa of Des-
mids. A total of 72 collections were made
during 1978 from permanent ponds and lakes.
All these samples are deposited in Department
of Botany, Kittel Collge, Dharwad under the
Accession No(s). : NK-1 to NK - 72.
Cosmarium cuneatum Josh. var. truncatum
var. nov. (Fig. 1).
Simile typo descripto a Forster 1972 (Tab.
18, Fig. 14, p. 549) e quo differt sinu inaperto in
latere interiore et leviter aperto ad latus ex-
terius; margines laterales magis convergentes
qui apicem truncatum formant; paries puncta-
tus solum ad regionem verrucarum media-
narum. Cellulis a vertice visis ellipticis, latera
rectiora convergentia ut forment polos paene
truncatos parietibus crassis. Cellulae 43-44 mi-
crons longae, 43-44 microns latae; Isthmus 7-8
'Accepted January 1988.
:A!gal Laboratory, P.G. Department of Botany, Karnatak
University, Dharwad - 580003 (India).
’Department of Botany, Kittel College, Dharwad - 580001
(India).
microns latus, 25-26 microns crassus.
Iconotypus : Fig. 1.
Distributio : NK-70, Kumta.
Similar to the type described by Forster
1972 (pi. 18, fig. 14, p. 549). Differs in having
the sinus closed on inner side and slightly open
towards exterior; lateral margins more conver-
gent and form a truncate apex; Wall punctate
only at the region of median verrucae. Vertical
view elliptic, sides more straight, converging
to form almost truncate and thick walled poles.
Cells 43-44 microns long; 43-44 microns broad;
Isthmus 7-8 microns broad; 25-26 microns
thick.
Iconotype : Fig. 1.
Distribution : NK-70; Kumta.
Cosmarium kanadense sp. nov. (Fig. 2)
Cellulae leviter longiores quam latiores; se-
micellulae late semicirculares; margines latera-
les undulati et dentati; anguli basales spinis
acutis crassisque praediti; sinus undulatus et
latior prope partem exteriorem. Semicellulae
annulum spinarum 12 subapicalium longiorum,
quae acutae crassaeque sunt, ferentes; oma-
mentum centrale granula quattuor habet, tria in
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
89
i
i
Fig. 1. Cosmarium cuneatum Josh. var. truncation var. nov.
Fig. 2. Cosmarium kanadense sp nov.
Fig. 3. Cosmarium vitiosum Scott et Gronbl. var. orientate Scott et Prescott fa. egranulatum fa. nov.
Fig. 4. Xanthidium tirthalliensis Bharati et Hegde fa. incrassatum fa. nov.
serie una deposita et unum infra depositum, cae; poli late rotundati, undulati spinis minori-
circumcincta a poris maioribus. Paries non bus praediti; latera granulis medianis praedita;
valde punctatus. Cellulae visae a vertice ellipti- spinae decern in annulo elliptico intramargi-
90
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo/.
naliterdepositae. Cellulae sine spinis 35-37 mi-
crons longae, cellulae spiniferae 38-40 microns
longae et 32-36 microns latae; Isthmus 5-7 mi-
crons latus, 20-22 microns crassus.
Iconotypus : Fig. 2.
Distributio : NK-37.
Cells slightly longer than broad; semi-cells
broadly semicircular; lateral margins undulate
with pointed teeth; basal angles possess poin-
ted stout spines; sinus undulate and more
broad towards exterior. Semicells bear a ring
of longer, pointed and stout 10 subapical spi-
nes; central ornamentation has four granules, 3
in a row and one below surrounded by bigger
pores. Wall faintly punctate. Vertical view el-
liptical, poles broadly rounded, undulate and
posses smaller spines; sides with median gra-
nules; intramarginally 10 spines are arranged in
an elliptical ring. Cells without spines 35-37
microns long, with spines 38-40 microns long;
with spines 32-36 microns broad; Isthmus 5-7
microns broad; 20-22 microns thick.
Iconotype : Fig. 2.
Distribution : NK-37.
Cosmarium vitiosum Scott et Gronbl. var.
orientale Scott et Prescott fa. egranulatum fa.
nov. (Fig. 3).
Similis typo forma (Scott et Prescott 1961;
Tab. 31, figs. 1 & 2, p. 73), sed differt amplitu-
dine minore (Cellulae typi 39-42 microns lon-
gae, 33-39 microns latae; Isthmus 10-12 mi-
crons latus, 20-23 microns crassus). Sunt ver-
rucae subapicales quattuor quarum duae cen-
trales comparate maiores sunt; differt a typo
granulis facialibus absentibus; spinae in mar-
gine laterali comparate breviores sunt. Pars
reliqua spinis brevibus obtecta. Cellulae 30-33
microns longae, 29-30 microns latae; Isthmus 6
microns longus, 17 microns crassus.
Iconotypus : Fig. 3.
Distributio : Nk-31, Banavasi (Sirsi).
Similar to the type (Scott and Prescott 1961 ;
pi. 31, figs. 1 & 2, p. 73) in shape, differs by its
smaller size (Type cells 39-42 microns long;
33-39 microns broad; Isthmus 10-12 microns
broad; 20-23 microns thick). Of the four suba-
pical verrucae, the central two are comparati-
vely bigger; unlike the type the facial granules
are absent; spines on lateral margins are com-
paratively shorter. Rest of the area covered
with short spines. Cells 30-33 microns long;
29-30 microns broad; Isthmus 6 microns broad;
17 microns thick.
Iconotype : Fig. 3.
Distribution : NK-31, Banavasi (Sirsi).
Xanthidium tirthalliensis Bharati et Hegde
fa. incrassatum fa. nov. (Fig. 4).
Planta similis typo (Bharati et Hegde 1982;
Fig. 2, p. 4-5) amplitudine formaque, sed differt
crassitudine subapicali luteola in quaque semi-
cellula. Margo apicalis leviter truncatus parie
incrassato interiore. Cellulae sine spinis 27-28
microns longae et 25-26 microns latae; cellulae
spiniferae 30-33 microns longae et 29-30 mi-
crons latae; Isthmus 5 microns latus.
Iconotypus : Fig. 4.
Distributio : NK-35, Janamane (Sirsi).
A plant similar to the type (Bharati and
Hegde 1982; Fig. 2, p. 4-5) in size and shape,
differs by having subapical pale yellow colou-
red incrassation on each semicell. Apical mar-
gin slightly truncate with thickened inner wall.
Cells without spines 27-28 microns long, with
spines 30-33 microns long; Without spines 25-
26 microns broad, with spines 29-30 microns
broad; Isthmus 5 microns broad.
Iconotype : Fig. 4.
Distribution : NK-35, Janamane (Sirsi).
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Mrs. Angela Shipman for
rendering the Latin diagnoses to the new taxa.
One of the authors (SWI) is grateful to the
Principal, Prof. S.J. Deodhar and the Manage-
ment of Kittel College, Dharwad for the facili-
ties and encouragement.
References
Bharati. S.G. & Hegde. G.R. (1982): A systematic Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika. Nova Heawigia, 23 :
survey of Desmids of Karnataka State and Goa. J. Kama- 515-644.
tak Univ. Sic., 27 : 1-6. Scott, A.M. & Prescott, G.W. (1961): Indonesian
Forster, K. (1972): Desmidieen aus dem Sudosten der Desmids. Hydrobiologia, 17 (1 & 2): 1-132.
91
REVIEWS
1. NATURE CONSERVATION: THE ROLE OF REMNANTS OF
NATIVE VEGETATION. Edited by D.A. Saunders, G.W. Arnold, A. A.
Burbidge and A.J.M. Hopkins, pp. xiii + 410 (30 x 21 cm), with 26 colour
plates and many illustrations. Chipping Norton, NSW, Australia, 1987.
Surrey Beatty & Sons, Pty
The book is based on material presented at a 1985
workshop and contains thirty full papers and twen-
ty-two reports and poster presentations. The papers
all deal with the biological and management pro-
blems of conserving small and fragmented (and
hence usually disturbed) patches of natural vegeta-
tion. This of course is an issue facing the conserva-
tion of forest resources in India today; the overall
topic is therefore of great concern to conservatio-
nists all over the tropics.
Papers are divided into four sections: ecological
studies, fragmentation & genetics, monitoring dyna-
mics, and management. Nearly all papers are from
Australia and New Zealand. I was unaware as to
their depth of interest and expertise in what is a
relatively narrow field! Contributions cover theore-
TIGER MOON by Fiona Sunquist
cm.) with many photographs and <
Press, 1988. P
Ltd. Price not mentioned.
tical and practical issues, and deal with plants, mam-
mals, birds and invertebrates. Fire Management,
edges & barriers, corridors, land use planning, and
replanting are management issues covered. I was
surprised to see no mention of traslocation of indivi-
duals as a means of maintaining genetic heterogenei-
ty in small populations.
The book is in large A4 format, beautifully prin-
ted on glossy paper with a wealth of diagrams and
plates. Papers are well referenced. It looks expen-
sive, I do not know the price. It is a book for major
ecological libraries, not individuals. Concerned bio-
logists should recommend it to their Librarians, and
read it!
W. A. RODGERS
and Mel Sunquist. pp 176 (15 x 23)
i relief map. University of Chicago
ice not stated.
The flat lowland, or terai region of Nepal has a
close-knit mix of habitats - swampy grasslands, ri-
verine and sub-tropical deciduous forests - which
provide ideal conditions for a rich and diverse fauna.
For over a hundred years upto 1950, the terai was
protected as a private hunting preserve of the Rana
regime. Chitwan, in particular, was considered to be
a naturalist’s paradise, “an area saturated with tigers
... where rhinos were a positive nuisance”.
Following economic pressures, a change of re-
gime and the eradication of malaria, the terai was
thrown open to af comers in 1960. This led to a mass
migration and two-thirds of Chitwan fell to the
plough. Hunting and poaching became rampant,
swamp deer and water buffalo were eliminated, and
the rhino population dwindled rapidly.
It was realised that urgent action was required if
this unique wilderness was to be saved, and in 1964
some 22,000 settlers had to be resettled elsewhere as
a prelude to the formation of the Royal Chitwan
National Park. The Park covered an area of 210
square miles, which was later extended to 416 squa-
re miles.
In 1972, “Operation Tiger” was launched by
WWF. As a part of the programme, the Smithsonian
Institute set up a long-term Tiger Ecology Project,
for which the Chitwan National Park was the site
selected. Mel Sunquist, a wildlife ecologist, and Fio-
na Sanquist, a wildlife writer and photographer,
worked on the Project for two years from 1974. Their
book, Tiger Moon, tells the story of Chitwan and the
pioneering studies carried out there.
It is a fascinating story that runs the gamut of the
experiences of the Sunquists and their Nepalese
colleagues. The reader shares with them the excite-
ment of discovery, the thrills of close encounters
with rhino and tiger, the ambience of the wilderness
during day and night, and the gradual unraveling of
the social organisation of the tigers of Chitwan.
The crux of the problem was to develop a method
of monitoring the movements of several tigers
during the day and at night over the duration of the
Project. This was tackled by the use of radio-
telemetry, a technique that had not been used till
then in Asia, or with tigers.
Radio-telemetry involved ‘capturing’ tigers and
fitting them with miniature transmitters embedded
in plastic collars. This hazardous operation is vividly
92
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
described in the book. After the tiger had killed a
buffalo bait, it was ‘driven’ to a selected spot using
three elephants and shot with a dart gun. The dart
syringe contained drugs which rendered the animal
unconscious for over five hours. During that time, it
was examined and fitted with a radio-collar. It was
also weighed, measured and photographed for fu-
ture identification, and watched closely till it was
able to get up and go away.
Each such transmitter emitted signals on a parti-
cular frequency, and these were monitored using a
portable receiver which had a directional antenna.
By taking compass bearings of two readings and
plotting them on a map, the tiger could be located
with fair precision. The receiver was carried into the
forests on an elephant, or, in the evenings and at
night, a vehicle was used on the Park roads.
On one memorable occasion, however, the trac-
king was done on foot. That was on a cold and foggy
night when the “Roaring Tigress” left her home
range near the camp and wandered away in search of
a mate. Eventually, her urgent calls evoked a res-
ponse from the Sauraha Tiger, and he was persuaded
to follow her all the way back into her range. Both
animals had radio-collars, but their vocal efforts
sometimes drowned the radio-signals!
The information gathered by radio-telemetry was
checked by examination of the sites for pug-marks,
territorial markings such as scent, and other signs of
tiger activity. To fill in the picture, the tiger’s prey -
four deer species - and leopards were also studied by
radio-telemetry.
Gradually, there emerged a pattern of the tiger’s
social behaviour that was aimed at maximising the
chances of biological success in an environment
with abundant prey, cover and water. Chitwan, in
fact, was found to have the highest tiger density
recorded anywhere in the world.
It was established that tigresses maintained rela-
tively small, exclusive home ranges for hunting and
rearing cubs. Most of the ranges were on the flood-
plains and covered six to eight square miles. On the
other hand, tigers had much larger home ranges
which overlapped the ranges of several females, but
there was little overlap with those of other males.
The objective of each sex was to leave as many
offspring as possible, but the strategies differed.
This tight social organisation in what was effecti-
vely an isolated population raised many questions
which are discussed by the authors. These include:
the limit to the tiger population, competition for
ranges and how they were maintained, the role of the
sal forests, dangers of inbreeding, infanticide, and
the emergence of man-eaters.
Another aspect, the interaction with human so-
ciety, is also given due weight, for the authors accept
that “learning about the tigers’ biology is only a tiny
part of what is required to save the species”. The
conflict of interests between wildlife and some fifty
thousand villagers who lived near the Park at that
time is discussed, and the authors assess the “practi-
cal low-budget methods” adopted by the authorities
to tackle the situation. The authors also give an
alarming picture of the deleterious effects of fast-
growing tourism on the habitats and wildlife.
Preservation of wildlife is perhaps not the key
issue. The major benefit of the Chitwan National
Park, as the authors demonstrate, is in soil and water
conservation. Human activity that upsets this “dy-
namic and rapidly changing ecosystem” has resulted
in floods, erosion and loss of fertility in the surroun-
ding areas.
“Tiger Moon” provides a great deal of informa-
tion about Chitwan and the terai. It is well written
and one is tempted to finish it in a single sitting. It
will be read with enjoyment by the biologist as well
as the lay person.
PRATAP SARAIYA
93
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. NEW LOCALITY-RECORDS FOR MYOTIS MONTIVAGUS PEYTONI
WROUGHTON & RYLEY, 1913, AND MU RINA CYCLOTIS CYCLOTIS
DOBSON, 1872 (CHIROPTERA: VESPERTILIONIDAE)
IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA.
In February-March 1985, Shri S.S. Saha, Assis-
tant Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, made a
small collection of bats from the Eastern Ghats of
Vishakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh. This col-
lection contains two species of montane Vespertilio-
nid bats which have so far not been reported from
this area. The two species are described below:
Myotis montivagus peytoni Wroughton & Ryley,
1913
Myotis peytoni Wroughton & Ryley, 1913. J.
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 22 : 13 [Gersoppa Falls
(Altitude 1,300 ft.), Kanara, S. India = Gersoppa
Falls (398 m), Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka,
southwestern India].
Material examined: Andhra Pradesh: Vishakha-
patnam district: 1 Male: Anantagiri (1052 m), 21 '
March 1985; 1 Female: Lankapakalu (884 m), 14
March 1985.
Measurements (in millimetres):
Male
Female
Forearm
43.4
42.5
Tail
46.5
48.2
Foot & Claw
7.8
9,6
Ear
15.6
14.2
Tragus
7.4
5.3
Tibia
19.0
18.6
Greatest length of skull
16.9
16.2
Condylobasal length
16.2
15.6
Condylocanine length
15.4
14.6
Maxillary tooth-row
6.7
6.7
Mastoid width
8.6
8.2
Cranial width
7.9
7.3
Zygomatic width
11.6
_
Least interorbital width
3.9
3.9
Canine width
4.5
4.7
Molar width
7.3
7.3
Mandibular length
12.9
12.2
Lower tooth-row
7.6
7.7
Remarks: Hill (1962) reported Myotis montiva-
gus for the first time from northern Burma, and
considered Myotis peytoni Wroughton & Ryley,
1913 (from western India1) and Myotis peytoni fe-
deratus Thomas, 1916 (from Malaya) as subspecies
‘Hill (1962) inadvertently sites Peshok, near Darjeeling, north-
eastern India, 3,500 feet, as the type-locality of Myotis peytoni
Wroughton & Ryley, 1913. The correct type- locality of this taxon
is, however, quite different, as given above.
of Myotis montivagus (Dobson 1874). Hill has trea-
ted the Burmese population as belonging to the no-
minate subspecies and the western Indian popula-
tion to Myotis montivagus peytoni. The latter subs-
pecies is distinctly larger than the nominate form
( vide measurements given by Hill 1962, Das 1987).
The present material from the Eastern Ghats,
though marginally smaller in some of the measure-
ments, is nevertheless referable to Myotis montiva-
gus peytoni. These specimens, therefore, would
constitute the basis for the first authentic record of
Myotis montivagus peytoni Wroughton & Ryley,
1913, from the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh.
Minina cyclotis cyclotis Dobson, 1872
Murina cyclotis Dobson, 1872. Proc. Asiat. Soc.
Beng. : 210 (Darjeeling = Darjiling, Darjiling dis-
trict, West Bengal, India).
Material examined: Andhra Pradesh: Vishakha-
patnam district: Wangasara
Female: 6 & 7 March 1985.
•c. 808 m. :
1 Male, 1
Measurements (in millimetres):
Male
Female
Forearm
31.6
34.5
Tail
37.0
36.8
Foot & Claw
8.4
7.8
Ear
14.6
15.5
Tragus
6.3
6.9
Tibia
16.6
17.6
Greatest length of the skull
15.9
16.6
Maxillary tooth-row
5.1
5.6
Mastoid width
7.9
7.8
Cranial width
7.5
7.5
Zygomatic width
9.3
-
Least interorbital width
4.0
4.1
Rostral width
3.9
4.4
Canine width
3.6
4.3
Molar width
5.4
5.5
Mandibular length
10.2
10.7
Lower tooth-row
5.46.0
Remarks: Murina cyclotis Dobson is known from
Sri Lanka, northeastern India, western and northern
Burma, southern China including Hainan Island,
Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, the Malayan Peninsula
and Philippines (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951,
Hill 1964, 1972; Lekagul and McNeely 1977, Corbet
and Hill 1980, Honacki et al. 1982, Nowak and Para-
diso 1983). Hill (1964) includes Borneo in the distri-
7
94
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
butional range of Murina cyclotis. However, no spe-
cimen of this species can be traced from that island.
Of the three subspecies of Murina cylotis recog-
nised by Hill (1964), Murina cyclotis eileenae Phil-
lips, 1932, is known from Sri Lanka, Murina cyclotis
peninsularis Hill, 1964, from the Malayan Peninsula
and southern Thailand while the nominate subspe-
cies is distributed over the remaining part of its
range.
So far as the Indian Union is concerned, Murina
cyclotis cyclotis is reported from Daijiling and some
other localities of Darjiling district, Sikkim and Jain-
tia Hills of Meghalaya (Hinton and Lindsay 1926)
only. On the basis of the present specimens, Murina
cyclotis cyclotis Dobson, is reported for the first
time from the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh.
Refer
Corbet, G.B. & Hill, J.E. (1980): A world list of
mammalian species. British Museum (Natural History),
London and Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
Das, P.K. (1987): On the number of specimens, reposi-
tory, and the heterogeneity of the type-series of Vespertilio
montivagus Dobson, 1874 (Mammalia : Chiroptera). Bull.
Zool. Surv. India 8 : 39-45.
Dobson, G.E. (1872) : Notes on some bats collected by
Captain W.G. Murray, in North-Western Himalaya, with
description of new species. Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng. : 208-
210.
(1874) : Descriptions of new species of Chi-
roptera from India and Yunan. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 43 (pt.
2) : 237-238.
Ellerman, J.R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1951) :
Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758-1946.
British Museum (Natural History), London.
Hill, J.E. (1962) : Notes on some insectivores and bats
from Upper Burma. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 139 : 119-137.
(1964) : Notes on some tube-nosed bats, ge-
nus Murina, from southeastern Asia, with descriptions of a
new species and a new subspecies. Fedn Mus. J. 8 : 48-59.
( 1972) : The Gunong Benom Expedition 1967.
4. New records of Malayan bats, with taxonomic notes and
the description of a new Pipistrellus. Bull. Br. Mus. Nat.
Hist. (Zool.) 23 : 21-42.
2. ENDANGERED GRIZZLED
The grizzled giant squirrel, Ratufa macroura, is
an endangered species which was reported to be
limited to a single population in India, in the Srivili-
puttur forests in Tamil Nadu. A recent census' con-
ducted during July 1988 in Chinnar Wildlife Sanctua-
ry in Kerala revealed a second habitat, about 100 km
'The census was conducted by Kerala Forest Department staff,
assisted by staff of Wildlife Biology Division, KFRI Peechi.
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, for providing facilities for this work. Shri S .
S. Saha, Assistant Zoologist, Zoological Survey of
India, very kindly allowed me to study the collection
of bats made by him in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra
Pradesh. I am grateful to him for this. My sincere
thanks are due to Shri P. K. Das, Scientist ’SD\
Zoological Survey of India, for improving the initial
draft of this note and for placing certain literature at
my disposal. I am also thankful to the Officer-in-
Charge, Mammal and Osteology Section, Zoological
Survey of India, for providing facilities for the pre-
sent work.
December 31, 1988. M.K. GHOSH
E N C E S
Hinton, M.A.C. & Lindsay, H.M. (1962) : Bombay
Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India,
Burma and Ceylon. Report No. 41. Assam and Mishmi
Hills. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 31 : 383-402.
Honacki, J.H., Kinman, K.E. & Koeppl, J.W. (Eds.).
(1982): Mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and
geographic reference. Allen Press, Inc. and The Assoca-
tion of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, Kansas,
U.S.A.
Lekagul, B. & McNeely, J.A. (1977): Mammals of
Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife;
Sahakarnbhat Co., Bangkok.
Nowak, R.M. & Paradiso, J.L. (1983) : Walker’s
Mammals of the World, 4th ed., 1. The Johns Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore and London.
Phillips, W.W.A. (1935) : Manual of the mammals of
Ceylon. Colombo Museum, Ceylon and Dulau & Co. Ltd..
London.
Thomas, O. (1916) : Scientific results from the Mammal
Survey. No. XIV. (A). A new bat of the genus Murina from
Darjiling. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24 : 639-640.
Wroughton, R.C. & Ryley, K.V. (1913) : Scientific
Results from the Mammal Survey. No. IIIA. - A new
species of Myotis from Kanara. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
22 : 13-14.
GIANT SQUIRREL HABITAT
north of the first. Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary lies in
the rain shadow region of the Western Ghats. It is
bordered in the north and east by Amaravathi re-
serve forests of Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary. The
extent of the Sanctuary is 90 sq.km. This is one of
the areas with least rainfall in Kerala, resulting in dry
deciduous forest.
The riparian zones on the sides of the Pambar
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
95
river and Atti odai (tributary of Pambar) were found
to be good habitat for grizzled giant squirrel. There is
no published record of the occurrence of this species
anywhere in Kerala. Sighting of six grizzled giant
squirrels and many dreys in the riparian trees of Atti
odai and Pambar river during the census gives hope
of its survival in these places. Calls of the squirrels
were heard from other parts of the sanctuary also.
All sightings were of solitary individuals. The animal
was seen feeding on seeds from the ripe fruits of
Thutta (local name of a small tree on the riverside).
A detailed survey of the Chinnar Wildlife Sanc-
tuary along with the adjacent Tamil Nadu forests
may be rewarding. Considering the extent of the
riparian zone, the number of dreys sighted in the
area and the spatial location of the calls heard from
different parts of the sanctuary, the population could
be in the order of 50-75 individuals in this area. In
addition to its importance as a grizzled giant squirrel
habitat, the sanctuary has a good number of spotted
deer, gaur, sambar, wildboar, elephant, panther,
human langur, bonnet macaque, peacock and a vari-
ety of birds of the dry deciduous region.
November 26, 1988. K. K. RAMACHANDRAN
3. INCIDENT INVOLVING A SNAKE AND A PURPLE HERON
On 7 October 1986, at about 4.00 P.M. as I was
watching the activity pattern of Sambar Cervus uni-
color in the marshes of Keoladeo National park,
Bharatpur, I noticed a Purple Heron ( Ardea pur-
purea) standing from the sambar about 1.7 m away
holding a snake in its bill. On closer examination
with my telescope I realised that it was Checkered
keelback of about 30- 35 cm.
The bird took about five minutes to handle its
prey. The snake struggled actively, coiling itself
around the bill of the heron. To kill the snake the bird
started beating it on a babul tree. Acacia nilotica, for
some time, then started devouring the entire snake
from head to tail.
Interestingly, the purple heron is recorded as
feeding on fishes, frogs, molluscs, aquatic insects,
small rodents and young birds (Ali, Salim and Ri-
pley, S.D. HANDBOOK Comp. Ed. 1983), but I do
not find any published record of its feeding on
snakes.
December 30, 1986. MD. NAYERUL HAQUE
4. ON THE PARENTAL CARE OF WOOD SHRIKE
( TEPHRODORNIS PONDICER1ANUS )
On 3rd April 1986, 1 spotted the nest of a common
wood shrike in a horizontal branch of a cassia tree
about 2-3 metres above the ground. There were 3
eggs and I decided to observe daily the activities,
especially the feeding of the hatchlings. The eggs
were hatched on April 14 and I could see three blind
and naked chicks well-protected by the parent from
the hot sun. I waited for a few more days before
taking photographs. I expected that feeding activity
would be limited in the easily stages, and would
increase as the chicks grew, and demanded more
food. On April 28th I saw that the chicks were fairly
big and overflowing from the small cup-shaped nest.
I also found that the lighting was ideal and tempera-
ture tolerable. I built a temporary hide, positioned
my camera and waited for the arrival of the parents.
The parents were suspicious for a while and finally
decided to feed the young ones. They were noisy and
I saw them sitting on a nearby acacia tree. One of
them had something in its beak. The first arrival was
the one without anything and it appeared to me that
this was an inspection visit, to see everything was
alright. Then the other parent followed with the
food. During my two hours’ observation I could see
the birds were mainly bringing praying mantis, gras-
shoppers and honey bees. It appeared to me that the
chicks accepted the food, large or small, depending
on how hungry they were. Initially all the three
accepted both large and small prey. But gradually I
saw them rejecting the big prey, like the praying
mantis. Soon, the temperature was rising and I was
feeling uncomfortable in the hide. The birds also
appeared to be bringing food with lesser frequency.
Then I saw one of the birds, after feeding the young
ones, stayed in the nest. It sat on the brim of the nest
and puffed up the breast feathers and soon the young
ones buried their heads in the feathers. This beha-
viour was definitely to protect the young ones from
the hot sun.
October 21, 1986. V. SUNDARARAMAN
96
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
5. PAINTED STORK MYCTERIA LEUCOCEPHALA (PENNANT) SWALLOWING
A SNAKE
Painted storks ( Mycteria leucoceptyila ) are quite
common in the environs of Delhi. These beautiful
and elegant birds flock annually to breed in the large,
natural heronries of the Delhi Zoological Park. Their
breeding season lies between September and March,
after which they fly away with the new brood and
disperse into the countryside, till the next year.
About their dietary habits it has been reported and
also observed personally that they catch fish, frogs,
insects etc. While feeding their young they regurgi-
tate the contents of their crop into the nest or direc-
tly into the gaping mouths of the nestlings.
I have been studying some aspects of population
dynamics of herons, and the Painted Storks, in the
zoo for the past three months. On 19 October 1986 1
noticed an adult stork in the nest, holding a peculiar
prey in its mandibles. I first suspected it was a fish,
but closer inspection through binoculars revealed
that the animal in the bill was slender, long, shaped
like a snooker stick' and did not have even the
slightest suggestion of a caudal fin. The only longish
fishes known to exist in the zoo ponds are some
species of Channa (murrel) and Mastacembelus
(spiny eels). It is unlikely that the bird was holding
any of these because no type of murrel can ever pass
for a snake in appearance and most spiny eels have a
prominent caudal fin or fin fold. However, waters-
nakes are quite common in these waters and every
trip to the zoo results in one or two sightings.
After 5-6 minutes of deliberate effort the stork
managed to swallow the snake in the head-on posi-
tion, while it was still alive and waving its tail feebly.
Thereafter, the bird bent down to feed the nestlings
which had been clamouring hungrily for food all the
while. However, the snake was not ejected imme-
diately. According to Ali and Ripley (1968), Painted
Storks may wait for considerable periods of time
before disgorging the food in their crops. According
to them ‘possibly the delay in delivery is due to the
necessity of predigesting the food for the young’.
February 13, 1987. ABDUL JAMIL URFI
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1968): Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan Vol. I. Oxford University Press,
Bombay.
6. BAER’S POCHARD IN PAKISTAN
I shot a Baer's Pochard ( Aythya nyroca baeri) in
district Gujrat (Punjab-Pakistan) near village Marala
on 30th January 1957. This Marala is not the Marala
of the upper Chenab Headworks but another place
near Chilianwala, a battle-field during the second
Sikh war.
The Marala marsh mardh covered more than 100
acres of a depression in an otherwise flat plain. It
was amongst the earliest water logged areas to ap-
pear as a result of the canal irrigation. The depth of
the water varied from a few inches to about 2 feet at
the deepest. Most of the area was covered by marsh
grasses and rushes, with perhaps about one fifth of
the area being clear water. The village buffalo herds
graze the marsh.
The spring migration of the wildfowl had started
and the numbers varied from day to day. A few days
earlier there had been fewer birds, but on that day a
new lot of birds, mostly common teal and Mallard,
seemed to have arrived. The previous night had been
a moonless night and the morning turned out to be
cloudy with gusts of high wind and hail. I do not
remember there being any abnormal spell of wea-
ther.
It was a lone bird and had got up from a small
patch of tall rushes. Picking it up, I found it was an
unknown type. I had not seen one like it before and
on consulting Finn’s little book “The water-fowl of
India and Asia”, I thought it came nearest to the
Baer’s white-eye, but it should not have been so far
west. There had been a small flight of the Common
White-eye a few days earlier, but I do not remember
seeing any on that day. It had fluttered among the
rushes when getting up but had risen straighter up
than a common white eye. It was a female on the
evidence of its ovary. It did not appear to be woun-
ded or sick.
I had to go away early next morning and so could
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
97
keep only the head, a wing and a foot, which I sent to
the Shooting Times, London, who forwarded them
to the British Museum (Natural History). Mr. R. W.
Sims of the Bird section wrote to me, ‘The bird
appears to be of the eastern race, Ay thy a nyroca
baeri; this is probably a first record from the Pun-
jab”. In reply to a further query by me, he replied,
“The words ‘the bird appears to be’ are used because
identification rests on only the head. It is therefore
remotely possible that, occasionally, birds of the
western race can be atypically pigmented. Personal-
ly I feel that there is little doubt that your bird is of
the eastern race”.
December 3, 1986. HAIDER JANG
7. AN INTERESTING COLOUR PHASE OF THE LESSER
GOLDENBACKED WOODPECKER (DINOPIUM BENGHALENSE)
On 29th September 1986, Vijay Shrimali spotted
a strange woodpecker and as happens regularly,
most of the staff of the Centre for Environment
Education, from the Director down were out in the
Centre’s garden looking at the new bird! It was a
Goldenbacked Woodpecker but with a difference:
the entire body, apart from a light golden back and a
crimson crest, was white with a light creamy tint.
The crimson crest indicated the bird was a male. The
bird was spectacularly beautiful and was not an al-
bino as proved by the golden back, crimson crest
and dark eyes. Later the unusual bird was shown to
Shree Shivrajkumar Khacher and he was able to
watch it at eye level on a tree trunk at a distance of
less than 3 meters!
October 4, 1986. LAVKUMAR KHACHER
8. UNUSUAL FEEDING BEHAVIOUR IN THE ADJUTANT STORK
LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS (GMELIN)
On the morning of 8th January 1986 at about 0800
hrs., we came across an Adjutant Stork swallowing
large pieces of vertebral column at a garbage dump
at Tezpur (Sonitpur district) in Assam.
The garbage dump being a major site for the
town’s waste matter disposal is regularly frequented
by 3 species of vultures ( Gyps benghalensis, Gyps
indicus, Gyps fulvus). Pariah Kite, ( Milvus migrans
govinda) and Adjutant Stork ( Leptoptilos dubius).
During one such observation on these birds we came
across an unusual feeding behaviour of the Adjutant
Stork. The stork was trying to swallow pieces of
vertebral column as also some offal. Initially the
stork picked up one of the pieces and tried swallo-
wing it. This piece measured not less than 30 cm in
length and belonged to a buffalo calf. This was con-
firmed by regular visits. Inspite of the size of the
vertebral column the stork successfully managed to
swallow the piece after a lot of effort. The whole
operation was repeated 5 minutes later by the same
bird when another piece (about the same size as the
first) was swallowed. About 10 minutes before this
incident the same adjutant stork was seen feeding on
a carcass along with 110 Whitebacked vultures, 4
Longbilled vultures, 4 Fulvous Griffon vultures and
7 Adjutant Storks.
Fishes, frogs, reptiles, crustaceans and carrion
form the major food of this stork (Ali and Ripley
1983). Panday (1974) has reported the swallowing of
maimed ducks by Adjutant Storks.
PRAKASH RAO
May 2, 1987. S. MURLIDHARAN
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds Panday, J.D. (1974): Storks preying on live birds. J.
of India and Pakistan, Compact Edition, Oxford Univer- Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (1): 141.
sity Press, Delhi, London, New York.
98
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 86
9. CRANE MIGRATION THROUGH BALUCHISTAN: A PRELIMINARY REPORT
(With a text-fig urey
Introduction
Three crane species, i.e., the Common Crane
(Grus grus lilfordi ), the Demoiselle Crane (Anthro-
poides virgo) and the Siberian Crane (Grus leuco-
geranus) are known to migrate through or over Pa-
kistan in spring and in fall en route to their wintering
grounds in India from their normal summering
grounds at higher latitudes in Soviet Russia (Roberts
and Landfried 1982), though scattered birds have
been reported to spend their winters in paddy fields
in the Punjab and in desert steppes of Sibi, Kachhi
and Nasirabad in Baluchistan. All the presently
available reports have placed emphasis on the Kur-
rum Valley in the N.W.F.P. (Ali and Ripley 1969)
and the valley of the River Zhob in the northwestern
part of Baluchistan (Landfried 1982, 1983; Roberts
1977), though Archibald (1979) suggested that the
records on the distribution and migration of the cra-
nes were very vague. The present paper presents
some very preliminary data on the overall migratory
pattern of the Common and the Demoiselle cranes
through Baluchistan.
Material and Methods
A tour of the different areas of Baluchistan, i.e.
Zhob, Chagai, Kharan, Khuzdar and Sibi was un-
dertaken in different parts of the wintering season,
i.e. October through March for the last three conse-
cutive years (1982 through 1984) in connection with
our study on the biology and ecology of the Houbara
Bustard. During this tour the crane migration was
physically observed in different areas. Excited by
the sighting of the migrating cranes in certain areas
we interviewed a number of local hunters, local
populace and the field staff of the Provincial Forest
Department so as to extract information regarding
Fig. 1 . Line sketch of Baluchistan, showing approximate location of the sighting of flocks of cranes and tentative
migratory routes. The point of the arrow ( A ) indicates the direction of the flying flock observed.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
99
their observations on cranes in their respective
areas. The data collected through the interviews was
corroborated with our personal observations and
was consolidated to evolve a tentative migratory
pattern.
Results and Discussion
The relevant information regarding sighting of six
different flocks of cranes in different areas of Balu-
chistan is presented in Table 1. Fig. 1 presents a
tentative localization of the places on the line
sketch. The flocks observed in late March or early
April in Dalbandine, Padak and Urmagai with a nor-
thward direction of the flight were probably on a
spring migration to their summering grounds, while
the flocks located in Nushki and Urmagai ia the
month of October, flying in a southward direction
were on their autumn migration towards their win-
tering grounds. The flock observed in Sibi in late
November suggested that these birds comprised a
part of a group which winters in the area. It was not
possible for us to differentiate between the Common
Cranes and the Demoiselle Cranes, but we presume
that most of these flocks represented the Demoiselle
Cranes. No Siberian Crane was, however, obser-
ved. The flock of about 150 cranes observed in Put
Chatao area of the Padak on 25th March 1984 had
probably passed the previous night in the area and it
suddenly took off at about 1 1 .00 A. M. and started its
northward migration after hovering over the area for
sometime. The nomadic camp-mate settled in the
area told us that there were many cranes in the area
the previous day and that most of these had probably
left the area in the morning.
Our interviews with the local populace suggested
that the cranes could be observed for a few days in
September-October and in March- April, in Nushki,
Padak, Dalbandine, Urmagai, Khuzdar, and Zhob,
but not at other times of the year. In Sibi, however,
Table 1
A SUMMARY OF THE DATA REGARDING SIGHTING OF
CRANES IN SOUTHWESTERN BALUCHISTAN
Date
Area
Approx.
Flock
Size
Direction
of
Flight
3 April 1982
Dalbandine
100
North
25 March 1984
Padak
150
North
27 March 1984
Urmagai
50
North
23 October 1984
Nushki
50
South
30 October 1984
Urmagai
50
South
23 November 1984
Sibi
50
East
cranes can be observed throughout the winter,
though now as a very scattered population, near the
paddy fields or near the marshes created by the
accumulation of the rain and/or irrigational water.
The local inhabitants of the area could not distin-
guish between the Common Cranes and the Demoi-
selle Cranes. They call the cranes 4 Kcirkcira in Zhob
(Pushto) and ‘ Khaakhur ' in Chagai and Kharan
(Baluchi). There was no report of seeing the Siberian
crane in the area in living memory. The cranes are
said to settle in the vicinity of ‘Hamuns’ (Hamun-i-
Lora, Hamun-i- Mashkhel) and ‘Kirks’ (both Ha-
muns and Kirks indicate the depressions where the
rain water of the area accumulates and forms a
marshy area after the drying up of the water, leaving
open flat ground) in Chagai and Kharan. They spend
2-3 days in the area, resting briefly in their long flight
from or to their wintering areas.
The present preliminary report is the first which
indicates that the cranes exploit a much more diffu-
sed migratory route than hitherto recognized. Most
of the previous reports tend to place emphasis on the
Indus River Valley as the main migratory route of all
the three species of cranes which happen to migrate
from the northern latitudes to pass their winters in
the Indian sub- continent (Ali and Ripley 1969, 1977;
Landfried 1982, 1983; Roberts and Landfried 1982),
though Landfried (1983) has confirmed the cranes’
migration through Valley of the River Zhob. Our
results suggest that the cranes probably have a much
diffused entry point into Baluchistan extending from
Zhob to the western flank of the Chagai. It seems
that the cranes generally avoid very high mountains
during their migration and hence select certain entry
points through the valleys. Thus, in western Balu-
chistan, the birds avoid the Chagai hills and the
Raskoh Range. They have not been observed very
often in the eastern Kharan, suggesting that the cra-
nes entering the Chagai through diffused routes
move into the Kharan mainly through its western
part, and probably pass into the Khuzdar area and
finally to Sibi, Kachhi, Nasirabad and the Rann of
Kutch. Further studies are needed to confirm the
exact route exploited for the migration in the area.
The population entering through Zhob probably
directly enter Dara Ghazi Khan and to other parts of
the country.
Though considerable trapping of the cranes is
done in the northern areas of Baluchistan, i.e. Zhob,
where cranes happen to pass through very defined
routes and through narrow valleys, no such regular
trapping has been reported in southwestern Balu-
chistan, except for some very sporadic shooting.
This is understandable as in this area, the migration
routes are very diffused, extending over 300 km.
100
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
making it hard to select points for organized trapping
parties for mass trapping. This may suggest that this
migratory route exploited by the cranes is rather safe
and may help in the survival of the species.
It is not possible on the basis of the presently
available information to decide whether the selec-
tion of this route is made at random by birds in the
different Russian breeding populations, or whether
some definite populations pass through this route,
leaving the other populations to use the migratory
route located in the north. Further ringing data may
yield interesting information regarding this aspect of
the biolgy of species of cranes. It may yield some
positive clue regarding the exploitation of this route
by the endangered Siberian Crane, if concentrated
efforts are taken to determine the extent of exploita-
Refer
Ali, S. Ripley, S.D. (1969): Handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Bombay,
London, New York, Vol. Ill pp. 137, 145 and 147.
Archibald, G. (1979): Unpublished book, pp. 374-375.
Landfried, S.E. (1982): Crane hunters in Pakistan.
The Brolga Bugle, Baraboo, WI. Spring, p. 1.
(1983): Saving the Siberian Crane: Another
step. World Wildlife Fund Pakistan Newsletter, Vol. 2,
No. 1: 2-7.
tion of this migration route by the Siberian Cranes,
which may be a considerably safer route for the few
individuals of the species now left for future genera-
tions.
Acknowledgements
I feel greatly indebted to Mr. K.M. Shams, Chief
Conservator and a number of workers of the Balu-
chistan Forest Department for their whole hearted
support during our tours of the area and to the World
Wildlife Fund, Pakistan, for providing partial finan-
cial support.
November 21, 1986. AFSAR MIAN
E N C E S
(1983): Unpublished paper, p. 4.
Roberts, T.J. (1977): Crane catchers of the Kurram
Valley. London.
Roberts, T.J. & Landfried, S.E. (1982): Hunting
pressures on crane migrations through Pakistan, pp. 1-9.
(unpublished typed script).
10. UNUSUAL INTERACTIONS FOR FOOD
While watching raptors in Keoladeo National
Park during the 1985-86 winter, an interesting beha-
viour among other birds was observed. Around the
end of January, painted stork ( Mycteria leucocep ha-
la) young, though fully fledged and out of their nests
were still dependent on adults for food. The young in
large groups on bare mounds would clamour noisily
to be fed on seeing any adult alighting nearby with a
begging display that involves deep bowing undula-
tions of the head with wings wide-spread. Egrets on
noticing this would hopefully alight nearby waiting
patiently ready to pirate or snatch a morsel with a
lightning dash during the actual regurgitating feeding
act should the opportunity arise. They would then
move position from one repleted young to another
that was being fed. This behaviour was consistently
observed as long as the young continued to be fed.
On other occasions egrets were observed to fly in
from neighbouring blocks solely on hearing painted
stork young begging for food. I have seen egrets
flying over from B block to L block, this behaviour
being activated on hearing the young’s begging vocal
display as they could not have witnessed the food
bringing arrivals of the adult painted storks, who
were observed to delay and sometimes even inter-
rupt feeding to drive off nearby egrets. This beha-
viour appears odd in the light that the egrets were
rarely successful in grabbing a beakfull. They were
almost totally dependent on their own hunting abili-
ty and yet persisted with this activity. As soon as
feeding was over they would promptly leave the
immediate area.
On another occasion a painted stork adult was
chased and driven up again into the air by a Black-
necked Stork (. Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) just as it
was approaching its young clicking its mandibles.
The blacknecked stork followed it persistently for
about 15 seconds till it disgorged a few small fish
meant for its young. The Blacknecked Stork was
then rejoined by its mate and as they flew across the
bund separating L. W. from B block they were deter-
minedly mobbed and chased by the pirated painted
stork.
October 29, 1986. RISHAD NAOROJI
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
101
ll.HOUBARA BUSTARD CHLAMYDOTIS UNDULATA: A RARE RECORD
FROM KERALA
(With a photograph )
Photo Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undulata)
from Kerala.
On 7th Nov. 1986, a local Malayalam newspaper
carried a report with a small photograph about the
capture of a rare bird at Kanhangad (c 12° 25' N; 75°
5' E) in Kasaragod District, the northernmost dis-
trict of Kerala. From the photograph, it was obvious
that the bird belonged to the Bustard family. A bird-
watcher from Cannanore, Mr. C. Jayakumar, went
to the place and investigated. The bird was found on
5th Nov. by one Mr. Bhaskaran, an agricultural
labourer, in a tobacco field near the seashore at
Chettukundu, a coastal village near Kanhangad
town. As it was being mobbed by crows, Mr. Bhas-
karan captured the bird and took it home, where it
attracted a lot of people including the local press,
and hence the report. The bird did not accept any
food, though water, boiled rice (!) etc. were offered.
On 8th Nov. 1986, the flight feathers of the bird were
clipped to prevent it from flying away. The bird,
which was alive and active till then, suddenly bled
from its notrils and died soon after. It was later
identified as a Houbara Bustard. Chlamydotis un-
dulata.
According to Ali & Ripley (1983) the Houbara
Bustard is a common winter visitor to Pakistan,
straggling east to Delhi. It is commonly seen in wes-
tern Rajasthan and Gujarat, especially Kutch. It has
never been reported from south India, and this is the
first record. As November is the migratory season, I
think the bird accidentally drifted away, got disori-
ented and landed up in Kerala. The bird was being
mobbed by crows it was easily picked up; this pro-
ves that it was injured and lost.
Acknowledgement
I wish to thank Dr Asad R. Rahmani of the BNHS
for commenting on the manuscript.
July 14, 1987. C. SASIKUMAR
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. (Compact edition). Oxford Univer-
sity Press, Bombay.
12. ON THE OCCURRENCE AND STATUS OF RINGED PLOVER CHARADRIUS
HIATICULA (LOWE) IN MADRAS CITY (SOUTHERN INDIA)
In the last eight years of active birdwatching in
Madras, I have observed and recorded the Ringed
Plover ( Charadrius hiaticula ) in Madras, at the
Adyar Estuary, on no less than 53 occassions.
This species closely resembles the Little Ringed
Plover ( Charadrius dubius), a more common and
widespread species, but hiaticula could always be
distinguished from the former by the following cha-
racteristics: the more robust appearance, the brigh-
ter (orange) leg colour, the orange-based black bill,
the presence of the white wing-bar seen in flight, the
facial pattern and by its distinctive call-notes. On
several occasions, both species were noticed side by
side and a comparison was possible. The Ringed
102
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Plover (hiaticula) was usually present on the mud-
flats of the river in small groups of 4 or 5 birds and
occasionally up to about a dozen or so.
It is very interesting to note from Table 1 that all
the sightings of this species have been in the four
months from January to April, although I have a
doubtful record of it on 2nd September 1984. The
earliest recorded date of the hiaticula in Madras was
on 2nd January (1983) and the last on 29th April (also
in 1983).
The water level of the Adyar river is quite high
between the months of May and October and the
sandbars and mudflats remain inundated during this
period, depriving the Ringed Plover of its favourite
habitat. I presume that this is perhaps the reason
why I have not been able to record hiaticula here
earlier in the season. The sandbar blocking the river
mouth is washed off during the course of the (Nor-
theast) monsoon that is normally active between
October and November. Thereafter the river comes
under tidal influence and mudflats and sandbars ap-
pear at low tide.
My observations indicate that the Ringed Plover
is not ail that uncommon as is suggested by Ali and
Ripley (1983) - to quote: “Straggler or very rare
winter visitor, possibly sometimes confused by ob-
servers with Little Ringed Plover, and in immature
plumage with Lesser Sand Plover. So far recorded
with specimens only from Gilgit (1881, GF9 : 359),
Sultanpur near Delhi (1879, SF 8 : 197) and Maidive
Islands (1958, JBNHS 60 : 571). Authentically sight-
Table 1
SUMMARY OF SIGHTINGS OF THE RINGED PLOVER AT
THE ADYAR ESTUARY, MADRAS CITY
Year
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
1979
1
1
1980
-
-
-
2
2
1981
-
-
3
3
6
1982
3
2
4
-
9
1983
3
2
4
7
16
1984
-
-
1
3
4
1985
1
3
-
1
5
1986
1
1
5
3
10
Total
53
recorded: Karachi Harbour (C.B. Ticehurst, Ibis
1923 : 655), Jaffna Peninsula, Ceylon (G.M. Henry
1944, Loris 3 : 132).” Abdulali and Hussain (1971)
have recorded this species in February 1970 at Mu-
thupet, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu. Subse-
quently, I understand that the Avifauna project has
also come across this species at Pt. Calimere. Howe-
ver, no further information could be elicited on these
records. It would be interesting to compare the dates
of arrival and frequency of sightings of the Ringed
Plover in the two areas.
December 20, 1986. V. SANTHARAM
References
Abdulali, Humayun & Hussain, S.A. (1971): Occur- Ali, Salim & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the
rence of Eastern Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula tun- Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford
drae (Lowe) in Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68: University Press, New Delhi.
450-51.
13. AN HITHERTO UNRECORDED NESTING SITE OF A REDVENTED BULBUL
PYCNONOTUS CAFER (LINNAEUS)
On 25th July 1986, 1 noticed a nest of a Redvented
Bulbul in an unusual habitat. It was placed on a dried
Acacia arabica twig which was lying on a thick mat
of floating water hyacinth (. Eichhornia eras sipes), in
the Manasarovar area of the Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur, and was well concealed by the
water hyacinth. The water hyacinth was about 72 cm
tall, and the nest, cup-shaped and made of dried
grass, was about 22 cm above the water level. The
acacia twig acted as a base of support to the nest,
around which it was wrapped. On the day it was
found it contained one egg. Another was added the
following day. But unfortunately on the 28th the
eggs were missing, probably predated.
Considering the fact that as a rule Redvented
Bulbuls build their nests in shrubs, hedges and on
slender branches of trees, normally at heights bet-
ween one and three metres, the present nesting site
appears unique.
September 26, 1986. C. NANJAPPA
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
103
14. REDVENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS CAFER (LINNE) EATING
PETALS OF MAGNOLIA
Redvented Bulbuls Pycnonotus cafer (3 pairs)
live in and around our cottage, breed in low bushes
and raise their young. We enjoy watching them.
Magnolia gradijlora is an introduced tree in the
gardens in Nilgiris. We have one medium-sized tree
in the compound. The tree is in flower during No-
vember, December, February and March. The Red-
vented Bulbuls feast on the petals, regularly, all day.
There are other birds, in and around our cottage, like
the spotted doves, sparrows, the Jungle Crows and
Black Bulbuls. But only the Redvented eats the
petals. At one sitting, one bird eats up the exposed
half or more, of one petal .The petals of Magnolia are
large: to give an idea of size, a - bulbul can be
wrapped up in one petal. Petal feeding of an exotic is
interesting adaptation.
December 10, 1986. J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON
15. A NOTE ON ROSERINGED PARAKEET PSITTACULA KRAMERI
FEEDING ON THE LEAVES OF SALVADORA PERSICA IN THE
POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY.
On 29th November 1986 at 0610 hrs, while obser-
ving birds visiting a Fluggea leucopyrus shrub in
fruit on the north side of Muniappan Eri, I saw five
Roseringed Parakeets suddenly land on a nearby
Salvadora persica tree with no flowers or fruits.
Two of the parakeets perched on a branch facing me
and the other three on another branch facing in a
different direction. The two parakeets (both fe-
males) started eating the fresh leaves of the plant. At
0616 hrs when I stood up to watch the three para-
keets on the other branch, all the five birds flew
away. Fruits, cereal, grain, seeds of all kinds, flower
petals and nectar of Salmalia malabarica, Erythrina
indica, Butea monosperma, Bassia latifolia have so
far been recorded as food items of Roseringed para-
keets (Ali & Ripley, handbook 1983). The lea-
ves of Salvadora persica now form an additional
food item of the Roseringed parakeet.
December 20, 1986. P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
References
Ali, Salim & Ripley, S.D. (1983) : Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition, p. 222.
Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
16. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF PARADISE FLYCATCHER,
TERPSIPHONE PARADISI (LINNAEUS) (MONARCHINAE)
The Paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi) is
very uncommon, though widely distributed, in Ban-
gladesh. It generally inhabits the cool, damp areas
shaded by bamboo groves, mango trees, tamarind
trees, etc. So far, we have recorded the occurrence
of this bird from Cox’s Bazar forest, Modhupur
forest, Sardah near Rajshahi, Rajshahi University
campus and Dhasara, Manikganj near Dhaka.
On 5th May 1986, during one of our field trips, we
found a breeding pair of Paradise flycatcher (brown
phase) at Dhasara, Manikganj about 63 km west of
the metropolitan capital, Dhaka. The nest was com-
plete and empty. It was built in the extreme fork of a
small branch of a mango tree (Mangifera indica)
about 4 m in height. The area was shaded by bamboo
groves, lofty Tamarind indica, Delonix regia, Arto-
carpus integrifolia, Cocos nucifera, Phoenix sylves-
tris, Boras sus flabellifer, mandar (local name), gua-
va, etc. The area also supported some climbers,
creepers, bushes, herbs, shrubs and epiphytes. The-
re was a nest of a Bronze-winged drongo (Dicrurus
aeneus) with four hatchlings, about 3 m away and 1 .5
m higher than the nest under observation. Also there
was a nest of a Pied myna ( Sturnus contra) about 5 m
away. Moreover, there was a nest of Toddy Cat
( Paradoxurus hermaphroditus bondar Desmarest)
with three young on top of a date-palm tree (Phoenix
sylvestris) at the height of about 7 m from the ground
and 5 m away from the Paradise flycatcher’s nest. A
busy village bridle-path went near the nest and all
104
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
through the day people were utilising it. A village
home was also located about 12 m away. The overall
picture of the area was that of the backyard of a
village.
The four eggs were laid over a six-day period in
May 1986. The measurements and weights of the
eggs and the dates on which they were laid, are given
in Table 1 . The colour of the eggs was a light pinkish
white with brown blotches. These irregular blotches
were more concentrated at the round end rather than
at the pointed end of the eggs.
The breeding Paradise flycatchers showed feeble
territorial behaviour. On several occasions they cha-
sed the jungle crow, magpie robin, tailor bird, jungle
myna, common myna, etc. which came near the
nest. In most of the cases the breeding pair used to
fly to the nearest high branch and gave alarm calls,
something like chen-n-nk, che-n-nk. The pair of D.
aeneus, which were nesting nearby would come to
their help and drive the intruder out of sight.... some
kind of symbiotic relationship.
Observations from 13th May to 28th May 1986
were not possible as we had to leave for the Sunder-
bans to survey the saltwater crocodiles there. So we
are unable to calculate the time spent by the bree-
ding birds to incubate the eggs.
We started observing them from 29th May. On
30th May, 1986 the first young was hatched at 1 105
hours (BST). At that time the male bird was at the
nest incubating the eggs. The male got up from the
eggs and observed them very minutely with neck
stretched and head inclined on the left side. Then it
pecked at one of the eggs, breaking the shell and we
saw the swaying neck and head emerge from the egg.
The male helped the young out of the shell. Then the
male flew away, taking with it the shell remnants to
dispose them off far away. He produced certain
sounds probably informing the female that he had
become a father. The nest was then visited by the
female, who too seemed to be excited as it surveyed
the nest very keenly and hopped around the nest
flickering and spreading the tail and wings. Then it
flew away. After some time the male visited the nest
with a very small, yellow coloured insect larvae at
the tip of his beak. The chick with closed eyes ins-
tinctively opened its mouth at the approaching calls
of the male. The male fed it - the first meal of the
chick. Both the parents incubated the remaining
eggs and fed the chick frequently. The feeding fre-
quency was 10 times per hour. Hatching dates are
shown in Table 2. Again there was a break in our
observation from 3rd-5th June, 1986.
We went to the nest site on the morning of 6th
June and were quite amazed to find only two chicks
in the nest. After some long, patient observation we
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS OF THE EGGS OF PARADISE
FLYCATCHER
Egg
No.
Laid on
Length
(cm)
Breadth
(cm)
Weight
(grm)
1
May 7, 1986
2.4
1.8
2.913
2
May 9, 1986
2.3
1.6
2.730
3
May 10, 1986
2.3
1.6
2.725
4
May 12, 1986
2.1
1.5
2.195
Average:
2.275
1.625
2.640
Table 2
INCUBATION PERIOD OF EGGS (IN DAYS)
Egg No.
Laid On
Hatched On
Incubation
Period
1
May 7 1986
May 30 1986
23 days
2
May 9 1986
May 31 1986
22 days
3
May 10 1986
May 31 1986
21 days
4
May 12 1986
June 2 1986
21 days
Average: 21.75 days
understood that the chicks were predated by the
jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchos). It was further
confirmed by the absence of the Bronzewinged
Drongo, which had left the nest along with its four
fledgelings and has made it easy for the jungle crow
to attack the Paradise flycatcher hatchlings. During
our observation from 1000-1600 hours (6th June) we
observed some attacks on the nest by jungle crows
but they were chased by the male. Most of the time
the male used to sit on a nearby branch giving fre-
quent alarm calls and the female remained busy in
feeding the hatchlings. This behaviour- has some
significance, where the male guards the nest by kee-
ping off the predators and the female feeds the hat-
chlings.
The following day (7th June) one more hatchling
was taken away by the jungle crow. The parent birds
tried their best to chase it away but all their cries and
pecks were in vain. Due to some unavoidable rea-
sons we left that place in the evening so we are
unable to inform about the fate of the last hatchling.
We can assume that it did not survive.
This work could have been done more satisfac-
torily had we been able to devote more time in the
field or had some student who could spend his time
observing and taking notes on these breeding birds
but it was not possible. We do expect that what we
have observed would be of use to somebody who
studies the Paradise flycatcher in detail in the future.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
105
Acknowledgements
for his help in making and fixing the hide-out.
We are grateful to Mrs. Fatema Khatun for her
cordial reception, hospitality and making our stay
comfortable. We also thank her grandson, Swapan
S. M. A. RASHID
ANISUZZAMAN KHAN
November 21, 1986. RAGUIBUDDIN AHMED
17. OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITECOLLARED KINGFISHER,
SAUROPATIS CHLORIS OCCIPITALIS (BLYTH), IN THE
GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND
There is some confusion regarding the occur-
rence of Sauropatis1 chloris occipitals (Blyth) in the
Great Nicobar Island. Hume found it on all the Nico-
bar Islands, and in his general account (1874 : 75)
mentions seeing it along with other birds at Galatea
Bay, Great Nicobar. Abdulali (1967 : 175) said, “We
did not notice it on Great Nicobar and I cannot trace
any specific record of its occurrence there, nor is
any specimen from Great or Little Nicobar listed in
Sharpe’s Catalogue (Sharpe 17 : 265). It is possible
that Hume has erred as in the case of the Cattle
Egret.” Ali & Ripley (1970 : 406) restricted its distri-
butional range to Camorta, Central Nicobar. Again,
he stated (1979 : 762), “We saw it too at Galatea Bay,
Great Nicobar Island”. Ripley (1982 : 210) maintai-
ned its occurrence in the Nicobar Islands.
While working out a recent collection of birds
from South Bay, 45 km post on NS Road, Great
Nicobar Island, made on 4 and 15 July 1984 by our
colleague, Shri S. S. Saha, we came across four
Table 1
Wing
Tail
Bill from
skull
Bill from
anterior
margin of
nostril
2 Females
105, 108
69, 72
49. 53
37, 39
2 Males
104, 109
68. 75
50, 55
37. 39
Refer
Abdulali, H. (1967) : The birds of the Nicobar Islands,
with notes on some Andaman birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc.64 ( 2) : 175-176.
(1971) : Narcondam Island and notes on some
birds from the Andaman Islands, ibid. 68(1) : 405-406.
(1979) : The birds of Great and Car Nicobars
with some notes on wildlife conservation in the islands.
ibid. 75 (3) : 762.
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1970) : Handbook of the birds
of India and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal, Sik-
1 Regarding the use of the Generic name Sauropatis in preference to
Halcyon , see Mukherjee and Dasgupta (1973).
examples of kingfishers which proved to be Sauro-
patis chloris occipitals (Blyth). All the specimens
which had non- breeding gonads, measure (in mm).
as shown in Table 1
Of these four, a male and a female bearing Z.S.I.
Reg. Nos. 35691 and 35692 appear to be young birds
having the feathers of the breast narrowly edged
with black; upperparts resemble those of the adult
but are not so brilliant in colour; lower parts are
more fulvous than in the adult.
These examples, therefore, serve as the first au-
thentic collection of the bird from the Great Nicobar
Island.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Sur-
vey of India, for giving us the opportunity to study
the material. We express our deep sense of gratitude
to Dr. B. Biswas, Joint Director (Retired), for criti-
cally going through the manuscript and suggesting
improvements. It is pleasure to thank Shri S. K. Sett
for typing the manuscript.
J. M. DASGUPTA
December 3, 1986. SIPRA BASUROY
N C E S
kim. Bhutan and Ceylon, 4 : 98. Oxford University Press,
Bombay.
Hume, A. O. (1874) : Contributions to the ornithology
of India : The islands of the Bay of Bengal. Str. Feath. 2 :
29-324.
Mukherjee, A.K. & Dasgupta, J.M. (1973) : On the
taxonomic status of the genus Sauropatis Cabinis and Hei-
ne (Family Alcedinidae). Bull. Br. Orn. Cl. 95(2) : 79-81.
Ripley, S.D. (1982) : A synopsis of the birds of India
and Pakistan. 203-210. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
Sharpe, R.B. (1892) : Catalogue of birds in the British
Museum. 17 : 265. British Museum, London.
106
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 86
18. FIRST RECORD OF A SKIN NEMATODE ON AN INDIAN MUGGER
CROCODILE
( CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS)
( With a text-figure)
Fig. 1. Skin nematode “tracks” on the ventral skin of a Crocodylus palustris at Madras Crocodile Bank.
The presence of “serpentine tunnels” on the belly
skin of crocodilians has been reported in literature
on the skin trade (King and Brazaitas 1971). More
recently Ashford and Muller (1978) described a new
genus and species of nematode (Paratrichosoma
crocodilus) found on skins of the New Guinea croco-
dile ( Crocodylus novaeguineae). In their paper they
describe their morphology and what little is known
of the habits of these nematodes and point out that
similar nematodes have been found in monkeys and
tree shrews.
While the worms may not cause any pathological
effects in crocodilians, their trails or tunnels can
damage the skin significantly in commercial terms
(see Figure 1 ). The first record of such a nematode in
India was made at the Madras Crocodile Bank in
1983 on the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palus-
tris), when one living animal was found to have
nematode trails on portions of its ventral scales as
shown in Figure 1 . No worms were collected, so it is
not certain which nematode we have here, but it is
planned to attempt to collect the parasite the next
time it is detected in one of our crocodiles.
Acknowledgement
We wish to thank Romaine Andrews for typing
the manuscript.
ROMULUS WHITAKER
April 23. 1988. HARRY ANDREWS
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
107
19. MUGGER (CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS) EATING SOFT-SHELL TURTLE
On 4 August 1988, as I sat watching crocodiles
from Jogimahal in the Ranthambhor National Park,
together with Shri V.D. Sharma, Chief Wildlife War-
den of Rajasthan and Shri J.S. Nathawat, Field
Director of the Park, I saw a large soft-shell turtle
floating upside down. Close by was the snout of a
fair sized mugger. The legs and the head of the turtle
jutted out in rigor mortis. The crocodile grabbed
these protuberances and pivoted around on the sur-
face of the water, rotating the large flat carapace of
the turtle also into a spin, amidst considerable
splashing. This, the crocodile did on a number of
occasions with respites in between and with the shell
coming to rest sometimes on its back with the under-
surface showing and sometimes with the carapace in
view. A powerful monocular lens showed that the
crocodile had been able to tear out certain portions
of the legs, which showed dark blood and torn pieces
of flesh. There was no attempt to crush the flat and
narrow though outsize soft-shell. It is possible that
the very large sized body of this soft- shell turtle had
resulted in its floating on the top and prevented the
crocodile from pulling it under water. Its actions had
aroused the interests of 8 other crocodiles, which
swam and watched it while floating on the water
from a distance of 2 to 20 metres. One crocodile,
almost as large as the one which was in possession of
the carcass, swam almost within touching distance
of the floating carcass, but did not actually grab it.
Its attentions prompted the crocodile-in-possession
to swim away with the carcass of the turtle into a bed
of reeds and thus out of view. It progressed with the
shell with the carapace upwards being held in the
jaws of the crocodile and being pushed from behind
as the crocodile swam.
While the distance prevented the precise identifi-
cation of the species of turtle, its flat, oval shape,
plain surface of the carapace on the back and the
yellow colour of the underside seemed to indicate
that it was a very large Indian Flapshell Turtle (Lis-
semys punctata punctata). It was most definitely a
soft-shell turtle.
August 27, 1988. RANJITSINH
20. THE GANGES SOFT-SHELL TURTLE ( TRIONYX GANGETICUS CUVIER)
FROM VADODARA CITY
Gujarat State has been affected by drought for the
last three years. Most of the rivers, lakes and ponds
have been going dry. I record here occurrence of a
species of turtles not reported previously from Va-
dodara city1.
The Ganges soft-shell turtle ( Trionyx gangeticus)
occurs in the River Tapi andR. Narmada (Das 1985),
River Mahi, R. Vishavamitri and in R. Sabarmati at
the confluence with River Vartak, Temple tank of
Daker (Panch Mahals) and lakes and ponds around
Vadodara city. Also reported from the Malegaon
forest of the Dangs district (Sharma 1982).
The Raja Rani talao ( = pond) near the Panigate
area of Vadodara city dried up during the month of
April 1988. The turtles were in a difficult situation as
only a small muddy puddle remained. During the day
the turtles moved in the puddle and the turtle’s head
was often seen coming out for breathing. They tried
to migrate from the talao at night and were seen on
the adjoining road, but there is no other water reser-
voir nearby.
‘A report that more than one hundred Indian roofed terrapin, Ka-
chuga tecta (Gray) were collected by Mr. Dev Raj Matang and Mr.
Jayanti Golaniya from the Sabarmati river near the Indroda village
& Koba village of the Gandhinagar district.
We removed 67 (Table 3) of the turtles from the
Raja Rani talao and after measurement (Tables 1 &
2) released them in the Sarasiya talao near the Vara-
siya area of Vadodara city. The turtle transfer opera-
tion was done by the zoo staff.
The carapace colour is dark olive-green above
with no markings on the shell. The head dark gree-
nish, with three to five oblique black streaks and a
black bar from the eye to the nape. These markings
are broken in most of the specimens and entirely lost
in old specimens, with carapace length above 85.0
cm. The plastron was pale yellow and some were
light pink- white. The callosities were not well de-
fined.
The shape of carapace was low humped and oval,
and in old specimens, well humped. A deep groove
on the middle line of the carapace and two tumbler-
shaped bones developed near the bridge of the cara-
pace and plastron on the marginal scute between
fore and hind feet, in some of the old specimens.
56 (84%) out of 67 turtles were excess of size
mentioned in the available literature (71.0 cm. cara-
pace length; Das 1985). During the operation smaller
turtle’s size, carapace length (CL) 35.0 cm.; cara-
pace width (CW) 30.5 cm., and plastron length (PL)
108
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 1
THE CARAPACE SIZE (IN CM) OF GANGES SOFTSHELL TURTLES
( Trionyx gangeticus)
;e
Width
No.
Carapace
Length
Width
70.0
39.
85.0
70.0
69.5
40.
77.0
67.0
64.0
41.
72.5
63.0
75.0
42.
79.0
64.0
62.0
43.
82.5
71.0
65.5
44.
86.0
72.0
76.0
45.
82.0
73.0
62.0
46.
77.0
64.0
64.0
47.
83.5
72.0
63.0
48.
77.0
66.0
67.0
49.
80.0
67.0
67.0
50.
82.0
69.0
68.0
51.
42.0
35.0
70.5
52.
49.0
41.0
65.0
53.
39.0
31.0
65.5
54.
35.0
30.0
75.0
55.
75.5
63.0
61.0
56.
36.5
32.0
72.0
57.
73.0
64.0
Table 3
Date of Collection
Number of Turtles
13th April, 1988
16
15th April, 1988
13
19th April, 1988
16
20th April, 1988
17
21st April. 1988
5
Total
67
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Carapace
Length
78.0
79.0
79.0
80.0
82.0
82.5
83.5
75.0
82.0
79.0
79.0
80.0
75.0
79.0
84.0
82.0
87.5
79.0
81.0
Width
62.0
64.0
68.0
66.0
73.0
66.0
72.0
60.0
70.0
67.0
64.0
70.0
67.0
67.0
78.0
67.5
75.0
67.0
70.5
Table 2
THE SHELL SIZE (IN CM) OF GANGES SOFTSHELL
TURTLES
( Trionyx gangeticus)
No.
Carapace size
Length Width
Plastrol size
Length Width
1.
87.5
75.0
59.0
62.0
2.
94.0
78.5
61.0
61.0
3.
88.0
73.5
61.0
61.0
4.
84.5
73.0
58.0
57.5
5.
86.0
76.0
59.0
59.0
6.
83.0
67.5
55.0
58.0
7.
86.0
72.0
58.0
57.0
8.
81.0
68.0
55.5
53.0
9.
77.0
63.5
52.5
55.0
10.
77.0
62.0
53.0
52.5
(Weight 67.0
kgs.)
25.0 cm; plastrol width (PW) 22.6 cm were also
collected. The largest turtle had a size CL 94.0 cm.,
CW 78.5 cm. , PL 61 .0 cm., and PW 61 .0 cm., and a
weight 67.0 kg.
I am thankful to the Curator and other staff of the
Sayaji Baug Zoo, Vadodara city.
July 14, 1988.
RAJU VYAS
References
Das, I. (1985): Indian Turtles Field Guide.
India- Eastern Region, p. 1-119.
W.W.F. Sharma, R.C. (1982): Taxonomic and Ecological Stu-
dies on the Reptiles of Gujarat. Rec. Zool. Surv. India 80:
85-106.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
109
21 SOME OBSERVATIONS ON GROWTH OF THE TRAVANCORE TORTOISE
(< GEOCHELONE TRAVANCORICA )
Since 1977 we have been keeping 2 males and 2
females of Geochelone travancorica in captivity.
They are housed in concrete floored cages along
with birds. They are fed on vegetable scraps,
spinach leaves and lucerine grass. The birds are fed
“bird seed" and soaked grarn and the tortoises were
seen eating soaked gram. They were also observed
eating a dead parrot, and thereafter they were also
fed minced meat.
The tortoises laid eggs on the concrete floor, and
these were never damaged. The eggs were collected
and placed in a dry terrarium with a tray of water.
The terrarium was kept indoors and did not receive
direct sunlight.
Eggs were laid for the first time in 1980. On 14
January 1981. three eggs, weighing 47 gm, 46 gm,
and 47 gm each were laid. One of these hatched on 1 1
June 1981. The young weighed 32 gm, but it died
soon after hatching. The hatchling looked abnormal,
its body being broader than long.
In late January 1983 three eggs were laid, out of
which one egg started pipping on 22 June 1983, 16.00
hrs. The hatchling was seen to be upside down.
When seen again at 20.00 hrs. the shell had broken,
and the tortoise was still upside down. Cockroaches
had started attacking the placental remains and
unabsorbed yolk sac, hence the hatchling was
removed and kept in a polythene bucket with moist
moss from the terrarium where the eggs had begi
kept for incubation. The hatchling was not very
active and remained partially within the shell. When
seen last on 23rd June at about 22.10 hrs., the yolk
sac was still protruding. On 24th June (07.00 hrs.) the
hatchling had moved out of the shell, and by evening
the yolk sac was absorbed but the suture was not
completely closed. When the tortoise had hatched,
its body was broader than long but it came to normal
shape by 24 June 1983, evening. The young did not
survive for more than a week.
In 1985 three eggs were laid on 18 January 1985,
and their weights were 47 gms each. The eggs were
candled every week. In the late 4th week one was
showing definite development. On 7th June 1985 the
OBSERVATION OF LENGTH, WIDTH AND WEIGHT OF
TFT HATCHLING
Date
Length
(cm)
Width
(cm)
Weight
(gm)
7 June 1985
5.5
6
35
14 June 1985
35
22 June 1985
6
6
35
29 June 1985
43.5
6 July 1985
6.3
6.3
43.5
13 July 1985
43.5
20 July 1985
6.5
6.3
55
27 July 1985
59
3 Aug. 1985
7.1
6.6
64
10 Aug. 1985
67
24 Aug. 1985
7.4
6.7
78
8 Sep. 1985
7.7
7
84
22 Sep. 1985
83
fertile egg started pipping, and next morning the
young had hatched. The young tortoise was 5.5 cm.
long and 6 cm. broad, weighed 35 gm. and the empty
shell 10 gm.
The hatchling was offered Farex mixed with
bread and milk several vegetables like tomato,
cabbage, lucerine and spinach leaves, cucumber and
minced meat in the 4th week. Out of this only Farex
mixed with bread and milk was taken regularly, and
ripe tomatoes and minced meat were taken
occasionally.
The only record of the smallest juvenile,
probably an hatchling, is by J. Vijaya (Hamadryad 8,
No. 3, page 13) of carapace length 60 mm.
A record was maintained of the weight and size of
the young from the day of hatching (7 June 1985).
It was observed that for the first two weeks there
was no increase in weight, and the weight increase
staned from the third week onwards. In the sixth
week there was a sudden increase in weight by 11.5
gm. From the sixth week onwards a continuous
increase in weight was observed.
LEENA S. SANE
July 20, 1988. S. R. SANE
References
Vijaya, J. (1983): The Travancore Tortoises
Geochelone travancorica. Hamadryad 8 (3) : 11-13.
8
110
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
22. RANGE EXTENSION OF CHRYSOPELEA ORNATA SHAW
(REPTILIA : COLUBRIDAE) WITH COMMENTS ON THE DISTRIBUTION
OF SOME SNAKES IN NORTH INDIA
Chrysopelea ornata Shaw, variously named Gol-
den Tree Snake (Smith 1943) and Ornate Flying
Snake (Whitaker 1978) has been recorded to range
over the whole of the Indo-Chinese region extending
in the northwest to Daijeeling district in Bengal,
Patna, Buxar in Bihar and Orissa (Smith 1943). It has
also been recorded from the Western Ghats south of
Goa (Whitaker 1978) and recently from the “Dangs”
(Rao 1987).
In a collection of snakes at the Gharial Rehabilita-
tion Centre, KatemiaGhat, District Bahraich, Uttar
Pradesh (long. c. 81° 1 5* E) collected by Ajay K.
Srivastava, a specimen unmistakably of Chryso-
pelea ornata was noticed. Since the specimen was
poorly preserved, some basic scale counts were
made and the pattern of cross-bars noted to confirm
the identification. Given below are some scale
counts in the specimen along with those reported by
Smith.
Katernia Ghat specimen
Smith
Ventrals
214
213-234
Caudals
115
120-138
Scale rows
18:16
17:17:15
The Katernia Ghat specimen had 70 cross-bars
on the body with an enlarged vertebral spot at the
position of the tetra- petalous spot in the live snakes.
In view of all these points of resemblance, there is
very little doubt that the specimen was one of Chry-
sopelea ornata. This is the first time that this species
has been reported from an area which lies some 350
km. in a westerly direction from Buxar, the western
extremity of its range in the Gangetic plains reported
so far.
Smith’s zoogeographic scheme for the herpeto-
fauna of North India assigns extant species to mainly
the Indian subregion of the Oriental region. This
sub-region has been further distinguished into areas
of different faunal characteristics, north and north-
central India being covered by five such areas, viz.
t-
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116
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
3. Pupa: Pale yellow to deep yellow and not pro-
tected by larval skin (Fig. 7). The anal end of the
pupa is covered by larval exuvium. Pronotum
with two large spots, mesonotum without any
spots. Metanotum with two large black spots
dorsally. The subhumeral and basal areas are
Fig. 3. The newly hatched I instar larvae, many of them clinging to the egg shells.
Fig. 4. II instar larva. Fig. 5. Ill instar larva. Fig. 6. IV instar larva.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
117
Fig. 7. Prepupae (PRP) and pupae (P).
Fig. 8. Adult beetles.
a. C. bisellata Mulsant nominate form. b. C. bisel-
lata Muls. var. nudipennis Sicard.
Fig. 9. The egg cluster.
pale and median area black. Dorsal abdominal
region with six large black spots. Pupae are
often seen attached to the undersurface of the
leaves, avoiding exposure to light and enemies.
The average maximum length and breadth of the
pupa are 5.80 ± 0.13 mm and 3.94 ± 0.21 mm
respectively.
4. Adult: The pronotum has four black spots, of
which the lateral ones are smaller. Each elytron
has six spots, of which two are sutural (Fig. 8).
The pronotal and elytral spots show intraspeci-
fic variations (Kapur 1959). In freshly emerged
beetle, the ground colour of elytra is pale yel-
low. With increasing age, it changes from pale
Refer
Kapur. A. P. (1959): Geographical variations in the
colour patterns of some Indian lady bettles. Part I. I All
India Congr. Zool. Pt. II. 479-492.
Miszczak, M. (1974): The key for the identification of
the different larval instars of ladybirds in the field. Pols.
yellow through deep yellow to orange. The no-
minate form with all the spots (Fig. 8a) is abun-
dant throughout the year and the variate nudi-
pennis Sic. , in which the elytral spots are altoge-
ther absent (Fig. 8b), occurs predominantly
during summer.
Acknowledgement
Thanks are due to Dr. T.G. Vazirani, of Com-
monwealth Institute of Entomology, London, for
the help in the identification of the beetle.
February 27, 1987 M. RHAMHALINGHAN
N C E S
pis. Entomol. 44 : 447-460.
Storch, R.H. (1970): Field recognition of the larvae of
native Coccinellidae, common to the potato fields of Aro-
ostook county. Univ. Maine Tech. Bull. 43 : 1-16.
18
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
27. HITHERTO UNRECORDED PLANT FROM UPPER GANGETIC PLAIN
WITH ITS ETHNOBOTANICAL USES
( With a text-figure )
During the survey of Flora of Basti district in res. In India, only two species were reported till the
Uttar Pradesh which is very close to Nepal territory middle of this century from the plains upto 1650 m in
with the geographical limits of 26° 30’ and 27° 30’ Himalaya (Hooker 1885). But Chatteijee (1960) and
North latitude, 82° 12’ and 83° 50’ East longitude, Maheshwari and Ghosh (1971) have added one more
the senior author collected an interesting plant from species which is indigenous to tropical America, i.e.
the area, which was later identified as Aeschyno- Aeschynomene americana L. from Hazaribagh and
mene americana L. Ranchi districts in Bihar. After a decade an additio-
The genus Aeschynomene L. is represented by 30 nal locality has been reported by Mohanan (1981)
species, distributed in tropics of both the hemisphe- from Quilon district of Kerala.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
119
Aeschynomene americana L. Sp. PI. 713. 1753;
Chatterjee, Sci. & Cult. 25 : 488-1960. A. mexicana
Birali ex Calla, Herb. Podem. 2 : 195. 1834. (Fig. 1).
An erect or decumbent, glandular-hispid to sub-
glabrous annual herb with purple flower, frequently
found in marshy places along ponds and lakes in
association with Aeschynomene aspera L., Cyperus
imbricatus Retz., Eleocharis palustris R. Br., Hy-
drolea zexlanica Vahl and Melochia chorchorifolia
L.
FIs. & Frts. : August - January; Sohratgarh (Nau-
garh); D.C. Saini, 5899.
Uses : The leaves and tender branches are coo-
ked and eaten as vegetable. The small pieces of stem
are used as fishing-floats.
R E FE
Chatterjee, D. (1960): Records of Aeschynomene
americana L. from India. Sci. & Cult. 25 : 488-489.
Hooker. J.D. (1872-1897): Flora of British India, 7
Vols. Reeve and Co. Ltd., England.
Maheshwari. J.K & Ghosh, T.K. (1971): New distri-
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. S.N. Mathur, Head, Botany De-
partment, Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, for
providing laboratory and library facilities during the
course of the study. Thanks are also to Dr. J.K.
Maheshwari, Deputy Director, National Botanical
Research Institute, Lucknow, for confirming the
identity of specimens.
D. C. SAINI
S. K. SINGH
July 7, 1988 SURESH SINGH
E N C E S
butional areas of Aeschynomene americana L. (Faba-
ceae). Torreya 98 (2) : 1 1 1-1 12.
Mohanan, C.N. (1981): A contribution to the Botany
of Quilon district, Kerala. Bull. bot. Surv . India 23 (1-4):
60-64.
28. ALTERNANTHERA PHILOXEROIDES (MART.) GRISEB. - A NEW RECORD FOR
NORTH-WESTERN HIMALAYA
(With a text-figure )
The genus Alternanthera Forsk. of the family
Amarantaoeae comprises of about 200 species in the
tropics and subtropics and is best developed in
America. Sorpe of the species have been introduced
in India, Burma, Australasia and Malaysia. The ge-
nus is represented by six species in India. * Alternan-
thera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb., a south Ameri-
can weed, probably Brazilian in origin, was introdu-
ced long ago in Malaysia and quite naturalized in
Java. Maheshwari (1984) reported this species for
the first time from India from lakes and waterpools
in the eastern parts of India mainly from West Ben-
gal and Bihar. Bennet (1979) recorded this species
from Howrah district (West bengal) commonly gro-
wing in marshy ditches, sides of ponds and along
water-courses, while Varma (1981) reported it from
Bhagalpur (Bihar) growing frequently in ponds and
ditches and Deb (1983) reported it from Agartala
(Tripura) growing in stagnant or slow moving shal-
low ditches forming large communities. Very recen-
tly, Gupta and Murty (1986) reported it as a new
record for Upper Gangetic Plain growing abundantly
along the Hindal and Jamuna river.
During the course of preparation of the flora of
Kumaun Himalaya, a few specimens were collected
from Champhawat in Pithoragarh district growing
commonly near stagnant or slow moving shallow
water, ditches and marshes. After a critical study, it
was identified as Alternanthera philoxeroides
(Mart.) Griseb. A critical study and herbaria and
published literatures indicate that this species has
not been reported so far from mountainous regions
of north-western Himalaya (Hooker 1885, Collett
1902, Duthie 1906, Gupta 1968, Singh and Kachroo
1976, Sharma and Kachroo 1981, Chowdhary and
Wadhwa 1984, and Naithani 1985). Therefore, the
collection of species from Kumaun is an important
addition to the flora of Kumaun Himalaya in parti-
cular and the flora of north-western Himalaya in
general.
The present paper provides a description of this
species with illustration to facilitate easy identifica-
tion. Field number along with collector’s name is
given in brackets. The voucher specimens are depo-
sited in the Herbarium, Department of Botany,
D.S.B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal.
Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.,
Abh. Ges. Wiss. Goett. 24: 36. 1879; Kunze, Rev.
Gen. PI. 2: 540. 1891; Schinz. in Engl, and Prantl,
Nat. Pfam. 3. la: 115. 1893; Backer in FI. Males.
120
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig. 1. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.
1. Flowering plant; 2. Flower.
Ser. 1. 4(2): 93. 1949; Maheshwari, Bull. Bot. Surv.
Ind. 6(2-4): 313. Figs. 1-9. 1964; Gupta & Murty,
Indian J. For. 9(3): 282. 1986. Bucholzia philoxeroi-
des Mart., Nova Acta Acad. Leop.- Carol. 13(1):
315. 1826. Telanthera philoxeroides Moquin-
Tandon in DC. Prodr. 13: 362. 1849 inch vars.
Achranthes philoxeroides (Mart.) Standi., Joum.
Wash. Acad. Sci. 5: 74. 1915.
Refer
Bennet, S.S.R. (1979) : Flora of Howrah District. New
Delhi.
Chowdhery, H.J. & Wadhwa, M.B. (1984): Flora of
Himachal Pradesh. Vol. 2. Howrah.
Collett, H. (1902) : Flora Simlensis. London.
Deb, D.B. (1983) : The Flora of Tripura State. Vol. 2.
New Delhi.
Duthie, J.F. (1906) : Catalogue of the plants of Ku-
maun and adjacent portions of Garhwal and Tibet, based
on the collections made by Strachey and Winterbottom
during the years 1846-1849. London.
Gupta, R.K. (1968) : Flora Nainitalensis. New Delhi.
Gupta, A.K. & Murty, Y.S. (1986) : New plant re-
cords for Upper Gangetic Plain. Indian J. For. 9 (3): 281-
282.
Perennial aquatic or marshy herbs, 50-100 cm
long, decumbent or ascending from a creeping and
floating base, often much- branched forming dense
masses. Stem simple or branched, fistular, longitu-
dinal striated, with longitudinal hairy grooves on
two opposite sides, otherwise glabrous. Leaves op-
posite, lanceolate, oblong to nearly obovate, acute
to rounded, submucronate, base cuneate, 4-10 x
0.5-2. 5 cm, entire, thin, glabrous and glabrate, with a
transverse row of white, smooth hairs in the axils.
Petiole 1-6 mm long. Inflorescence usually solitary
axillary, pedunculate, ovoid to globular-ellipsoid,
white heads, also terminal sessile, peduncles un-
branched, with a longitudinal hairy groove on the
adaxial side, otherwise glabrous. Flowers dense.
Bracts and bracteoles subequal, 1 -nerved, glabrous,
white, persistent. Perianth 5 tepals, subequal, 3-4
times as long as bracts, oblong, acute, mucronate,
1 -nerved. Stamens 5, united below into a tube. Pseu-
dostaminodia distinct, lacerate exceeding the sta-
mens. Ovary shortly stalked, turbinately globose,
compressed, rounded at the apex. Stigma globose,
capitate, glandular. Style short, cylindrical.
Flowering : May - Nov.
Common name : Alligator weed.
Ecology : Gregariously growing weed in stagnant
or slow- moving water, pools, ditches and marshes
at Champhawat around 1400 m in Pithoragarh dis-
trict.
Specimens examined : Pithoragarh district;
Champhawat (Samant 1613).
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the Head, Department of Bo-
tany, D.S.B. College, Kumaun University, Naini
Tal, for facilities and encouragements.
Y. P. S. PANGTEY
October 10, 1987. S. S. SAMANT
E N C E S
Hooker, J.D. (1885) : The Flora of British India. Vol. 4.
Ashford.
Maheshwari. J. K. ( 1984): Alternanthera philoxeroi-
des (Mart.) Griseb. - A new record for India. Bull. Bot
Surv. Ind. 6 (2-4): 313-314.
Naithani, B.D. (1985) : Flora of Chamoli. Vol. 2. Ho-
wrah.
Sharma, B.M. & Kachroo, P. (1981) : Flora of Jammu
and plants of neighbourhood. Vol. 1. Dehra Dun.
Singh, G. & Kachroo, P. (1976) : Forest Flora of
Srinagar and Plants of neighbourhood. New Delhi.
Varma, S.K. (1981) : Flora of Bhagalpur, Dicotyle-
dons. New Delhi.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
121
29. A NOTE ON THE SYNONYMY OF HYPTIANTHERA WT. & ARN.
AND PETUNGA DC. WITH HYPOBATHRUM BL. (RUBIACEAE)
Recently Robbrecht (1980) postulated the tribe
Hypobathreae near Gardenieae and coffeeae in the
subfamily Pavettoideae of the family Rubiaceae. He
placed in it several genera of which Hyptianthera
wt. & Arn., Petunga DC. and Morindopsis Hook.f.
occur in India. He treated Petunga DC. as synony-
mous with Hypobathrum Bl., as considered by Ba-
khuizen f. (1965).
The genera Petunga DC. (1830) and Hyptianthe-
ra Wt. & Arn. (1834) are treated as distinct by De
Candolle (1830), Hooker f. (1873, 1880), Schumann
(1891) and others. Workers on Indian regional floras
followed them. Hooker f. (1880) further introduced
the genus Hypobathrum Bl. in key to the genera of
Rubiaceae “because it most probably occurs in the
Malay Peninsula, though it is as yet unrecorded.”
On study of the genera Petunga DC. and Hyp-
tianthera Wt. & Arn. , the author of the present note
hesitated to recognize their generic distinction and
was inclined to treat them as the same genus. On
consulting literature, he was surprised to find that
Kurz (1877) had more than a century ago merged
Hyptianthera Wt. & Arn. with Hypobathrum Bl.
and that Hook.f. (1880) and Robbrecht (1980) proba-
bly overlooked this merger as they were silent about
such a treatment of the genera. Very recently Ba-
khuizenf. (1965) in Backer and Bakhuizen, FI. Java,
merged Petunga DC. with Hypobathrum Bl. This
treatment also appears to have been overlooked by
the recent Indian workers in their respective works.
The present worker fully agrees with Kurz (1877),
Bakhiuzen f. (1965) and Robbrecht (1980), and con-
siders that the merger of these three genera is taxo-
nomically justified. As they did not give a full syno-
nymy it is worthwhile to present it here.
Hypobathrum Bl. Bijdr. 107. 1826; DC. Prodr. 4:
459. 1830; Miq. FI. Ind. Bat. 2 ; 236. 1861 & in Ann.
Mus. Lugd. Bat. 4: 243. 1869; Kurz, For. FI. Brit.
Burma 2; 50. 1877; Hook.f. in Benth. & Hook.f.
Gen. PI. 2: 93. 1873 & FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 19. 1880 (in
key); Schumann in Eng. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzen-
fam. IV. 4: 80. 1891; Robbrecht in Bull. Jard. Bot.
Nat. Belg. 50: 75. 1980.
Petunga DC. Prodr. 4: 398. 1830; Walp. Ann. 2:
792. 1843; Miq. FI. Ind. Bat. 2: 200. 1861 & Ann.
Mus. Lugd. Bat. 4: 130 & 269. 1869; Hook.f. in
Benth. & Hook.f. Gen. PI. 2: 93. 1873 & FI. Brit.
Ind. 3: 120. 1880; Schumann in Eng. & Prantl., Nat.
Pflazenfam. IV. 4: 79. 1891.
Higinsia Bl. Bijdr. 988. 1826, non Pers.
Hyptianthera Wt. & Arn. Prodr. 399. 1834; Ho-
ok.f. in Benth. & Hook.f. Gen. PI. 2: 94. 1873 & FI.
Brit. Ind. 3: 121. 1880; Walp. Rep. 2: 518. 1843;
Schumann in Eng. & Prantl., Nat. Pflazenfam. iv. 4:
80. 1891 ; Robbrecht in Bull. Jard. Bot. Nat. Belg. 50:
75. 1980.
Type: H. frutescens Bl.
Distribution: About 10 species; India, Bangla-
desh to Phillippine Islands; 2 species in India.
Key to the Indian Species
Flowers in dense clusters; drupes berry-like, ses-
sile H. strict um
(Wt. & Arn.) Kurz. Flowers in spike like racemes;
drupes berry-like, stalked
H. racemosum (Roxb.) Kurz.
February 26, 1988. D. B. DEB
30. AN ENUMERATION OF FERN-ALLIES OF NAINI TAL (WESTERN
HIMALAYA)
Duthie (1906) was the first to catalogue the ferns
and fern- allies of Kumaun and adjacent portions of
Garhwal and Tibet based on the collections made by
Strachey and Winterbottom during the years 1846-
1849 covering a total area of 18,400 sq kms. From
this vast area, a total of 13 species belonging to 4
genera of fern- allies were recorded. Out of 13 spe-
cies of fern-allies, 3 species namely Selaqinella chry-
socaulos (Hook, et Grev.) Spring, S. pallidissima
Spring and Equisetum diffusum D.Don were repor-
ted from Naini Tal. Since then, no further work on
the fern-allies of Naini Tal has been carried out so
far.
Although the fern flora of Naini Tal is very well
explored by a number of workers none of them have
studied the fern-allies of Naini Tal. In order to fill up
this lacuna, the present study was initiated to collect
and study the fern-allies of Naini Tal and its adjacent
areas, covering an altitudinal range from 900- 261 1 m
during the last three years. In all, 3 genera and 7
species belonging to 3 families were collected from
Naini Tal and its adjacent portions. These species
122
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
were identified with the help of available literature
and later all the species of Selaginella P. Beauv.
were confirmed by Dr. R.D. Dixit, Regional Bota-
nist, Botanical Survey of India (Central Circle), Al-
lahabad.
The present paper enumerates the fern-allies of
Naini Tal along with other relevant information.
Field number of each species is given in brackets and
voucher specimens are deposited in the Herbarium,
Department of Botany, DSB College, Kumaun Uni-
versity, Naini Tal.
Enumeration
Family : Huperziaceae
Huperzia pulcherrima (Wall, ex Hook, et Grev.)
Sen et Sen, Fern Gaz. 11(6): 419.f. 2i-r. 1978; Dixit,
Census Indian Pterid. 8. 1984. Lycopodium pulcher-
rimum Wall, ex Hook, et Grev., Icon. Fil. t. 58.
1831. L. setaceum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don var. su-
bulifolium Wall, apud Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc.
Lond. 2(Bot.) 1: 590.1880. L. gramineum Spring,
Monog. Lycopod. 2: 19. 1848.
Ecology: Rare but locally frequent between
1,300-1,400 m and grows both lithophytically and
epiphytically in shady, moist ravines near Bajoon
(YPSP 105).
Distribution: North-west Himalayas, Eastern In-
dia, Nepal, Bhutan and China.
Family : Selaginellaceae
Selaginella chrysocaulos (Hook, et Grev.) Spring,
Bull Acad. Brux. 10 : 232. 1843. Duthie, Cat. PI.
Kumaun 232. 1906; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 12.
1984. Lycopodium chrysocaulos Hook, et Grev. in
Hook. Bot. Misc. 2: 401. 1831. Selaginella philip-
pina var. khasiensis Bak., Journ. Bot. 22 : 298. 1884.
Ecology: Very common throughout the area bet-
ween 900-2,500 m and grows in open as well as
moist-shady places (YPSP 415, 243).
Distribution: Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Sikkim, Arunanchal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Kerala, Nepal and Bhutan.
S. involvens (Sw.) Spring, Bull. Acad. brux. 10 :
136. 1843, emend. Hieron., Hedw. 50 : 2. 1911;
Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 14. 1984. Lycopodium
involvens Sw., Syn. Fil. 182. 1806. Selaginella cau-
lescens (Wall, ex Hook, et Grev.) Spring, Bull.
Acad. brux. 10 : 137. 1843; Duthie, Cat. PI. Kumaun
232. 1906.
Ecology: Frequent throughout the area between
900- 1 ,300 m and grows on moss-laiden wet and moist
rocks. The branches get involutely rolled up during
dry period (YPSP 73, 341, 558).
Distribution: Throughout India in mountainous
regions except in the northern part, Nepal, Bhutan,
Burma, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, Malaysian Islands.
S. pallidissima Spring, Bull. Acad. Brux. 10: 231 .
1943; Duthie, Cat. PI. Kumaun 232. 1906; Dixit, Cen-
sus Indian Pterid. 15. 1984.
S. integerrima sensu Strachey in Gaz. North-
West Prov. 66. 1882 (non Spring 1850)
Ecology: Quite frequent around Naini Tal above
2,000 m and grows on moss-laiden wet rocks, under
the shade of large boulders and even on man-made
cemented walls (YPSP 306).
Distribution: Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
and Arunachal Pradesh.
S. subdiaphana (Wall, ex Hook, et Grev.) Spring,
Bull. Acad. Brux. 10 : 232. 1843; Dixit, Census
Indian Pterid. 17. 1984. Lycopodium subdiaphanm
Wall, ex Hook, et Grev. in Hook. Bot. Misc. 2:401.
1831.
Ecology: Very common between 900-1,400 m
throughout the area and grows on wet rocks and
walls along roadsides and forest margins (YPSP
396).
Distribution: Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Nepal.
Family: Equisetaceae
Equisetum diffusum D. Don, prodr. FI. Nepal 19.
1825; Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2(Bot.) 1 :
594. 1880; Duthie, Cat. PI. Kumaun 246. 1906; Dixit,
Census Indian Pterid. 19. 1984.
Ecology: Quite common between 900-1,700 m
and grows luxuriantly near sandy situations along
the banks of streams, rivers and marshy localities
(YPSP 412, 455).
Distribution: Himachal Pradesh to Kumaun, Sik-
kim, Assam, Meghalaya, Nepal, Bhutan, Burma and
China.
E. ramosisimum Desf. subsp. debile (Roxb. ex
Vauch.) Hauke, Amer. Fern Journ. 52: 33. 1962;
Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 20. 1984. E. debile
Roxb. ex Vauch., Mon. Preles 387. 1821; Clarke,
Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2(Bot.) 1 : 594. 1880; Du-
thie, Cat. PI. Kumaun 246. 1906.
Ecology; Rare and grows gregariously on sandy
soils and marshy localities around 900 m near Bhujia
Ghat (YPSP 429, 430).
Distribution: India (throughout the mountainous
regions), Nepal, Burma, South-China, Formosa,
Hainan, Indo-China, Philippines, Indonesia, New
Guinea, New Hebrides, New Caledonia and Fiji.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. R.D. Dixit, Regional Bota-
nist, Botanical Survey of India (Central Circle), Al-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
123
lahabad, for confirming the identity of Selaginella
species and for the help in the preparation of this
paper. Thanks are due to Head, Department of Bo-
tany, D.S.B College, Kumaun University, Naini
Refer
Duthie, J.F. (1906): Catalogue of the plants of Kumaun
and adjacent portions of Garhwal and Tibet based on the
Tal, for facilities and encouragement.
Y. P. S. PANGTEY
June 10, 1987. S. S. SAMANT
E N C E S
collections made by Strachey and Winterbottom during the
years 1846-1849. London.
INDEX OF AUTHORS, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
PAGE
AHMED, RAGUIBUDDIN Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka - 2 (Bangladesh). 103
ANDREWS, HARRY Madras Crocodile Bank, Vadanemmeli Village, Perur Post, Mahabalipuram Road,
Madras - 603 104 (India). 106
BALASUBRAMANIAN, P. Junior Field Biologist, Avifauna Project, Point Calimere, Thanjavur (Dist.), Tamil
Nadu (India). 103
BASU, D. Gharial Rehabilitation Centre, Kukrail Picnic Spot, P.O. Indira Nagar, Lucknow -
226 016 (India). 110
BASUROY, SIPRA Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta - 700 016 (India). 105
DASGUPTA, J.M. Zoological Survey of India,Indian Museum, Calcutta - 700 016 (India). 105
DEB,D.B. Botanical Survey of India, Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah (India). 121
DEV AS AH A YAM, S. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal, Karnataka -
574 243 (India) 112,113
GHOSH, M.K. Zoological Survey of India, New Alipur Road, ‘M’Block, Calcutta - 700 053
(India). 93
HAQUE, MD. NAYERUL Junior Field Biologist, BNHS Ecological Research Centre, 331, Rajendra Nagar,
Bharatpur - 321 001 (India). 95
JANG, HAIDER C/o Hamid Sheikh & Sons, No. 2, Cheema Market, Railway Road, Faisalabad
(Pakistan). 96
JOHNSON, J.MANGALRAJ Wildlife Warden, Templeton Cottage, Vannarpet, Udhagamangalam (India). 103
KHACHER, LAVKUMAR Centre for Environment Education, Thaltej Tekra, Ahmedabad - 380 054 (India). 97
KHAN, ANISUZZAMAN Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka - 2 (Bangladesh). 103
MIAN, AFSAR Department of Zoology, University of Baluchistan, (Pakistan). 98
MURLIDHARAN, S. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay -
400 023 (India). 97
NANJAPPA, C. Biologist, BNHS Ecological Research Centre, 331, Rajendra Nagar,
Bharatpur-321 001 (India). 102
NAOROJI, RISHAD Belha Court, 24, Ramchandani Marg, Bombay - 400 039 (India). 100
PANGTEY, Y.P.S. Department of Botany, D.S.B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal - 263 002
(India). 119, 121
PREMKUMAR, T. National Research Centre for Spices, Marikunnu P.O., Calicut - 673 012 (India). 112
RAMACHANDRAN, K. Wildlife Biology Division, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi Kerala - 680 653
(India). 94
RANJIT SINH Joint Secretary (W), Ministry of Environment & Forests, Paryavaran Bhavan,
C.G.O. Complex, Lodi Road, New Delhi - 110 003 (India). 107
RAO, PRAKASH Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay -
400 023 (India). 97
RASHID, S.M.A. Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka - 2 (Bangladesh). 103
RHAMHALINGHAN, M. Department of Zoology, Government Arts College, Ooty, Tamil Nadu - 643 002
(India). 1 14
SAINI, D.C. Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow (India). 1 18
SAMANT, S.S. Department of Botany, D.S.B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal - 263 002
(India). 119. 121
SANE, LEENA S. Department of Zoology, Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College, Ghatkopar, Bombay -
400 086 (India). 109
SANE, S.R Sachetan, L 4/5, Sitaram Building, Palton Road, Bombay - 400 001 (India). 109
SANTHARAM. V. 68 (I Floor), Santhome High Road, Madras - 600 028 (India). 101
SASIKUMAR, C. 9, Subhash Nagar, Cannanore - 670 002 (India). 101
SINGH, S.K. Department of Botany. Gorakhpur University. Gorakhpur (India). 1 18
SINGH, SURESH National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (India). 118
SUNDARARAMAN, V. I.T.R.C. Gheru Campus, P.O. Box 80, Lucknow - 226 001 (India). 95
URFI, ABDUL JAMIL Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, New Delhi (India). 96
VYAS, RAJU Zoo Inspector, Sayaji Baug Zoo, Vadodara - 390 018 (India). 107. 1 12
WHITAKER, ROMULUS Madras Crocodile Bank, Vadanemmeli Village. Perur Post, Mahabalipuram Road.
Madras - 603 104 (India). 106
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CONTENTS
' PAGE
the bostami turtle. Trionyx nigricans anderson: population status,
DISTRIBUTION, HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND LENGTH-WEIGHT
RELATIONSHIP
By Md. Farid Ahsan and Md. Abu Saeed 1
NOTES ON THE STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF SOME BIRDS IN SRI LANKA
AS LISTED IN S.D. RIPLEY (1982) “A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA
AND PAKISTAN TOGETHER WITH THOSE OF NEPAL, BHUTAN, BANGLA-
DESH AND SRI LANKA”
By Thilo W. Hoffmann 7
the pitcher plant ( Nepenthes khasiana Hk. F.) sanctuary of jaintia
HILLS, MEGHALAYA: LESSONS FOR CONSERVATION
By W. A. Rodgers and Sangeeta Gupta 17
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE MARBLED TOAD, Bufo StOmatlCUS LUTKEN
By S. K. Battish, Annu Agarwal and Paramjit Singh 22
MAHSEER CONSERVATION — PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
By Prakash Nautiyal 32
ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF PUNJAB STATE, NORTH INDIA
By S. S. Bir and Charanpreet Singh 37
BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS —
part xii — Megaderma lyra lyra (geoffroy) ( megaderm atidae)
AT DIFFERENT LATITUDES
By A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik 42
THE SNAKES OF BURMA — II: REDISCOVERY OF THE TYPE SPECIMEN OF
OUgodon mcdougalli with a discussion of its relationships.
By H. G. Dowling and J. V. Jenner 46
bioecological studies of three fig-litter dwelling species of rhy-
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diet of the smooth Indian OTTER (Lutra perspicillata) and of fish-
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By Christine Tiler, Megan Evans, Clare Heardman & Susan Houghton 65
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 71
reviews ............ . . . . 91
miscellaneous notes 93
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VOLUME 86(2): AUGUST 1989
Date of Publication: 15-12-4989
CONTENTS
Page
THE USE OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN IDENTIFYING POTENTIAL WILDLIFE HABITAT
(With six plates)
By Sejal Worah, E.K. Bharacha and W.A. Rodgers .. 125
GROWTH, MATURATION, AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NILGIRI TAHR, Hemitragus hylocrius
(OGILBY) (With two plates Sc three text-figures )
By Clifford G. Rice 129
RECENT ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN (With a text figures )
By TJ. Roberts
135
STATUS OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodyhts porosus SCHNEIDER) IN THE BHITARKANIKA
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ORISSA, INDIA (Withfour text figures )
By S.K. Kar and H.R. Bustard 141
MONKEYS OF THE OLD CITY OF JAIPUR, INDIA (With two text figures )
By Reena Mathur, R. Manohar and A. Lobo 151
BIOLOGY OF THE PREDACEOUS BUG Rhinocoris marginatus FABRICIUS (INSECTA-HETEROPTERA
REDUVIIDAE) (With three text figures )
By Dunston P. Ambrose and David Livingstone . . 155
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA BUSTARD: 1983-84 POPULATION LEVELS IN
WESTERN BALUCHISTAN (With a text figure )
ByAfsarMian 161
BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE WILD GOAT AND THE URIAL AT A WATER POINT IN KIRTHAR
NATIONAL PARK, PAKISTAN (With two text figures )
By W. Daniel Edge, Sally L. Oison-Edge and Nasir Ghani 166
ON THE BASKING BEHAVIOUR OF THE MUGGER Crocodylus palustris LESSON (REPTILIA :
CROCODIUA) AT BKORSAINDA CROCODILE SANCTUARY, HARYANA STATE
(With two text- figures Sc a map )
By R.C. Gupta and P. Sri Hari 170
MATERIALS FOR FLORA OF MAHAB ALESWAR - 6A
By P.V. Bole and M.R. Almeida 175
TERRITORIALITY IN INDIAN BLACKBUCK Antilope cervicapra (LINNAEUS) (With a text figure )
By N.L.N.S. Prasad..... , 1 87
FIELD GUIDE TO THE AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA — PART 4 (With two plates Sc six text figures )
By J.C. Daniel and A.G. Sekar 194
APPLICATION OF SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY IN THE TAXONOMY OF CLADOCERA (With eight
plates containing forty-nine figures )
By K. Venkataraman and S. Krishnaswamy 203
IN DEFENCE OF THE MUCH-MALIGNED (ALPHA) TAXONOMY IN INDIA
By A.N. Henry and P. Daniel.... 206
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Page
Barilius nelsoni , A NEW CYPRINID FISH (PISCES : CYPRJNIDAE) FROM TRIPURA, NORTH-EASTERN
INDIA (With a text- figure )
By R.P. Barman 213
A NEW FROG OF THE GENUS Phil out us GISTEL, FROM THE PROPOSED NAMDAPHA BIOSPHERE
RESERVE, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA {With a text-figure )
By S.K. Chanda and A.K. Ghosh 215
A NEW SPECIES OF Pinnotheres LATREILLE (DECAPODA : BRACHYURA) FROM VISAKHAPATNAM
COAST OF BAY OF BENGAL, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA {With eight text-figures )
By K. Nirmala Devi and K. Shyamasundari 217
ON SOME RARE SPIDERS OF THE FAMILY ZODARUDAE (ARANEAE : ARACHNIDA) FROM COASTAL
ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA ( With two text-figures )
By B.H. Patel and T.S. Reddy 221
TWO NEW SPECIES OF Stdmmia (RUTACEAE) FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH JNDIA
{With two text-figures)
By Anil K. Goel andB.N. Mehrotra 226
Eria lohitensis, A NEW SPECIES OF ORCHID FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA {With a text-figure )
By A. Nageswara Rao, K. Haridasan and S.N. Hegde 229
REVIEW
Birds to watch: The ICBP World Checklist of Threatened Birds
Reviewed by Bharat Bhushan 232
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS:
1 . A preliminary note on the survival status of Hanuman
Langur Presbytis entellus in some villages of Nadia
District, West Bengal
By A.B . Das-Chaudhuri & B .N. Roy 233
2. An interesting way of a tiger treating its wound
By A.S. Parihar 235
3 . On a hunting pair of Snow Leopards in western Nepal
By Karan Bahadur Shah 236
4. Caracal Felis caracal Sohrober sighted in Panna
forests
By A.S. Parihar.. 237
5. Some interesting aspects of wolf Canis lupus Linn,
behaviour observed at Guda near Jodhpur (Rajas-
than).
By Erach Bharucha, Kiran Asher &
Rajeev Jugtawa 237
6 A note on the Pygmy Shrew S uncus etruscus
ByR.V. Ranade 238
BIRDS:
7 . Sight records of Storks and Ibis in Kerala
By D. Narayanakurup 239
8. A possible range extension of Horsfield’s Goshawk
Accipiter soloensis in India
By Vibhu Prakash & Asad R. Rahmani 240
9. Ringtailed Fishing Eagle feeding on wasp larvae
By C. Nanjappa 240
10. Range extension of Eurasian Griffon Vulture Gyps
fidvus
By Prakash Rao, Robert B. Grubh &
S . Muralidharan 240
1 1 . Occurrence of the Redbreasted Falconet Microhierax
caerulescens (Liime.) in the Simlipal Tiger Reserve,
Orissa
By Vibhu Prakash & Asad R. Rahmani 241
12 Mysterious death of Demoiselle Cranes
Anthropoides virgo at Veer Dam
By Sattyasheel N. Naik 241
13. Belly-soaking and nest wetting behaviour of Red-
wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus (Boddaert)
By V. Sundararaman 242
14. Swmhoe’s Snipe Gallinago megala: A new species
for Nepal
By S.C. Madge 243
1 5 . Accumulation of lead, zinc and cadmium in the nest
ling feathers of Hoopoe Upupa epops
By Sarbjit Kaur 244
16. Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti from Harike Lake,
Punjab
By Vibhu Prakash & Syed Asad Akhtar 245
17. Rubythroat Erithacus calliope (Pallas) sighted in
Udaipur, Rajasthan
By Raza Tehsin & Manoj Kulshreshtha 246
18. Streakeyed Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba ocularis
Sw inhoe from Harike Lake, Punjab
By Vibhu Prakash & Syed Asad Akhtar 246
19. House Sparrows Passer domesticus Linn, as
predators of army worm Mythimna separata
(Walker) infesting wheat at Ludhiana, Punjab
By J.S. Bhalla & G.S. Mann 247
20. Southern wintering range of some waterbirds
By C. Perennou 247
REPTILES:
21. Twinning abnormality in Gavialis gangeticus (Rep-
tilia, Crocodilia)
By L.N. Acharjyo & L.A.K. Singh 248
22. Observations on stranded Green Turtles Chelonia
my das in the Gulf of Kutch
By J. Frazier * 250
23 . Contribution to the morphometry of the Indian Rap-
shell Turtle Lissemys punctata andersoni
By S. Bhupathy 252
24. New locality record for the Indian Pinkringed Ter-
rapin
By Karmvir Bhatt 253
25. A peculiar food habit of the Garden Lizard Calotes
versicolor (Daudin)
By S. Devasahayam & Anita Devasahayam .. 253
26. New evidence of the occurrence of Water Monitor
Varanus salvator in Meghalaya
By Indraneil Das 253
27. Range extension of the Painted Bronzeback Tree
Snake Dendrelaphis pictus (Gmelin)
By Ravi Sankaran 255
AMPHIBIA
28. Some more species of Anurans from Dharwad, north
Karnataka
By J.C. Uttangi 256
FISHES
29. Occurrence of Anthias taeniatus (Pisces: Serranidae)
from Indian waters
By K. Sujatha 257
INSECTS
30. Eating of males by female H ierodula membranacea
Burmeister (Dictyoptera, Mantidae)
By E. Narayanan 259
3 1 . Redescription of the Whitefly Aleyrodes shizuoken-
sis Kuwana (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera)
By B.V. David & R.W.A. Jesudasan 260
32. Redescription of two Whitefly species (Aleyrodidae:
Homoptera) from Burma
By B .V. David & R.W.A. Jesudasan 261
33. A study of some little known Chalcid wasps
(Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea)
By T.C. Narendran, Thresiamma Vargheese &
Titus T. Jacob 263
34. Mating behaviour of land leeches in Western Ghats,
south India
By M. Gladstone 266
35. A first record of the araneid genus Poltys C.L. Koch
(Araneidae) from Pune, Maharashtra
By D. Bastawade 267
36. Flower-visitors and pollination of Adhatoda
zeylanica (Acanthaceae)
By C. SubbaReddi, B.R. Thatiparthi, S.N. Reddi
& A.H. Munshi 268
BOTANY
37 . A note on Acacia canescence complex
By R.P. Subhedar 271
38. Mezo neuron hymenocarpum Prain - A new distribu-
tional record to the Indian mainland
By K.N. Subram anian , B. Gurudev Singh &
K.R. Sasidharan 271
39. Synedrella vialis (Less.) A. Gray - A new record for
Uttar Pradesh, India
By H.B. Naithani & Sumer Chandra 272
40. Some new combinations in the subtribe Lactuceae
(Asteraceae)
By S.K. Mamgain & R.R. Rao 273
41 . Plants in relation to socio-culture of Ladakh
By G.M. Buth & I. A. Navchoo 273
42. On the occurrence of Dimeria acutipes Bor
(Gramineae) in Tamil Nadu
By S.J. Britto 273
43. Diodia Linn. (Rubiaceae) - A new generic report
from India
By N. Ravi, N. Anilkumar &
T.K. Balachandran.. 277
44. A note on the anomalous flowering behaviour in
Curcuma caesia (Zingiberaceae)
By VA. Amalraj, K.C. Velayudhan &
V.K. Muralidharan 278
45. Paspalum longifolium Roxb.- A grass new to Uttar
Pradesh, India
By Som Deva & H.B. Naithani 279
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY
August 1989 Vol 86 No. 2
THE USE OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
IN IDENTIFYING POTENTIAL WILDLIFE HABITAT
Sejal Worah1 2, E.K. Bkarucha3 and W.A. Rodgers4
( With 6 plates)
The possibilities of using a Geographic Information System and Systematic Reconnaissance Flight in
wildlife conservation is discussed. Potential habitats for four key wildlife species of the Dangs District have
been identified using these techniques. The model is based on five habitat parameters which were assessed
during the SRF. Analysis of this data was carried out using the GIS software ARC/INFO and results obtained
in the form of grid maps showing habitat suitability.
Introduction
This paper discusses how a Geographic Infor-
mation System (GIS) and Systematic Reconnaisr
sance Flight (SRF) can be used to predict locations
of potential habitat for wildlife. The technique can
be especially useful in large areas where it is not pos-
sible to carry out intensive field studies over the en-
tire area due to constraints of time or funds. In this
case, the study area is the Dangs District in South
Gujarat, an area of approximately 1800 sq.km
(Fig. 1). Potential habitats for four key species,
namely Tiger (Panthera tigris ), Spotted Deer (Axis
axis), Rustyspotted Cat (Felis rubiginosa) and Giant
Squirrel (Ratufa indica dealbatus) have been
mapped. Each of these species is extremely rare in
the Dangs and, in fact, the giant squirrel is known
only from past reports (Appendix I). The main pur-
pose of this paper, however, is not to identify actual
habitats of these species, but to demonstrate how
GIS and SRF can be used as tools in wildlife con-
servation.
1 Accepted September 1989.
2 Research Fellow, School of Environmental Science, University
of Poona, Pune 411 005.
3 Principal Investigator, Dang Ecological Project, "Saken",
Valentina Society, Koregaon Park, Pune 411 001.
4 Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. New Forest, Dehradun 248 006.
Geographic Information Systems
A GIS is usually a computer based system
used for storing, manipulating and analysing large
volumes of spatial data. The geographic database
can be stored in the form of thematic maps and re-
lated attributes such as site data, topographic data,
land use types and linear structures. These data can
then be retrieved as required, manipulated, overlaid
and presented in a map or table form for a specific
purpose.
One of the important functions of a GIS is to
allow the results of data processing for intensive test
areas to be transferred over the entire study area. In
this way, the characteristics of the entire study area
can be mapped in one form in one databank which
can be easily manipulated for later computer
modelling (Haber & Schaller 1988).
However, in this particular case, a different ap-
proach was used. Information on the habitat require-
ments of the target species was obtained both from
literature and from actual field surveys carried out
in the Dangs. The data obtained was used to prepare
models of the possible distribution of the Tiger,
Spotted Deer, Rustyspotted Cat and Giant Squirrel.
These models can later be checked in the field and
updated as required. The GIS thus provides some
basic guidelines on where the species are likely to
126
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
occur, and identifies areas where specific manage-
ment to protect their habitat is likely to provide max-
imum conservation gains.
Methodology
Th6 study was carried out in two main phases:
1 . An aerial survey was carried out over the entire
study area. Sixteen parallel north-south transects
were flown over the study area at an altitude of
300 m above the highest point on each transect.
(However, due to operational difficulties and the
hilly nature of the terrain, transects 6, 8 and 9 could
not be completed. These gaps in the information
can be filled in by ground checking). Visual obser-
vations on key habitat parameters were recorded
continuously along the length of each transect on a
proforma. These observations were divided into 30
second subunits. The information collected in this
manner was then transferred onto a series of grid
maps of the Dangs wherein each grid cell cor-
responded to one subunit. The size of the grid cells
was calculated based on the speed of the aircraft
and elapsed time. Each grid cell corresponds to ap-
proximately 4.5 sq.km. Since a relatively simple
and coarse grained system based on systematic grid
square sampling was used, it necessitated the use of
major habitat variables only. We used two physi-
cal variables: topography and degree of dissection;
two vegetation variables: vegetation type and cover
values, and the pattern and intensity of land use.
Water is not a limiting factor in the Dangs. We
believe these variables can present an adequate
overview of large mammal habitat.
2. The information from these maps was later
entered into a database file and models were built
to demonstrate habitat requirements for each of the
species. These models were based on the five
habitat variables that were recorded during the
flight. The habitat requirements were based on ac-
tual sightings of the species, reports from the area
and information obtained from literature.
The GIS software ARC/INFO (ESRI-Califor-
nia 1983) was used to process this data. First a grid
of the required size and structure was generated.
The information from the database file was then su-
perimposed onto this grid and coded to obtain a set
of maps showing the various habitat parameters.
The constraints for habitat requirements for each
species were entered in the required format and four
maps showing the potential habitats for each species
were generated. Finally, by overlaying these four
maps, a single map showing the combined habitat
requirements for all four species was obtained.
Results
Figs. 2-5 show the classification of the dif-
ferent habitat parameters as recorded during the
aerial survey. Fig. 2 shows topographical features
which are classified into five categories, namely,
ridge, slope, plain, valley and catena. (A feature was
classified as a catena when it consisted of a com-
bination of features which could not be classed into
any one category). Fig. 3 depicts the degree of slope
of each of these features and is classified into flat,
gentle, undulating, steep or precipitous slopes.
Fig. 4 shows the amount of vegetation cover and
is divided into three percentage classes, 1-30%,
31-70% and > 70%. Fig.5 shows vegetation type,
which has been simplified into five classes. These
are:
Forest: Most of the area covered by natural
Rarest or old plantation which cannot be differen-
tiated from a forest from the air.
Permanent (P) Field: Fields with regular, dis-
tinguishable boundaries and few lopped trees within
them.
Temporary (T) Field: Fields with no distin-
guishable boundaries and with several lopped trees
within them.
Forest/Agriculture: Part of the area under
forest cover and part of it under P. or T. Fields.
Plantation: Teak or bamboo or mixed planta-
tion, usually quite young.
Fig. 6 shows the intensity of agriculture, which
has been divided into four percentage classes, 0%,
1-30%, 31-60% and > 60%. The models for the
habitat requirements for the four species are based
on combinations of these 22 habitat variables and
are summarised in Table 1. A high and medium
quality combination is used for each species.
For instance, for the tiger, high quality habitat
must have the following characteristics: topography
can be either a ridge, slope, plain, valley or catena;
the slope should be flat, gentle or undulating; cover
should be > 70%; vegetation should be forest, and
agriculture 0% For medium quality tiger habitat, the
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Worah et ai. Geographic Information Systems
Plate 1
THE DANGS — showing locations of Purna Wildlife
Sanctuary & Bansda National Park.
TOPOGRAPHY
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Worah et al : Geographic Information Systems
Plate 2
SLOPE
VEGETATION COVER
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Worah et ah Geographic Information Systems
Plate 3
VEGETATION TYPE
INTENSITY OF AGR I CULTURE
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Worah et al : Geographic Information Systems
Plate 4
POTENTIAL HABITAT
P a n t h e r a t i g r i s
HABITAT QUALITY
HIGH
MED I UM
LOW
POTENTIAL HABITAT
Axis axis
HABITAT QUALITY
MEDIUM
LOW
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Worah et ah Geographic Information Systems
POTENTIAL HABITAT
Ratufa indica
Plate 5
POTENTIAL HABITAT
Felis rubiginosa
HABITAT QUALITY
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW
HABITAT QUALITY
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Worah et al: Geographic Information Systems
Plate 6
COMBINED POTENTIAL
HABITATS OF
KEY SPECIES:
P . t i g r i s
R . i n d i c a
F. rubiginosa
A . axis
USE OF GIS IN IDENTIFYING POTENTIAL WILDLIFE HABITAT
111
Table 1
POTENTIAL HABITAT REQUIREMENTS OF SPECIES BASED ON A COMBINATION OF HABITAT PARAMETERS
SPECIES
HABITAT
PARA
HAB.
QUALITY
TOPOGRAPHY
SLOPE
COVER
VEGETATION
AGRICl
JLTURE
o
vo o
i VO
rn A
RIDGE
SLOPE
PLAIN
VALLEY
CATENA
FLAT
GENTLE
UNDUL.
STEEP
PRECIP.
^ f f
o r- O
m • r-
i-ti m A
FOREST
P. FIELD
T. FIELD
for/agr.
| PLANT.
0%
1-30%
Tiger
HIGH
•
MED
•
e
•
•
•
•
Rusty-
spotted
Cat
HIGH
•
MED
•
•
Giant
Squirrel
HIGH
•
•
•
MED
•
•
•
•
Spotted
Deer
HIGH
•
•
•
c
•
•
•
•
•
•
MED
9
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
All combinations of marked cells correspond to high & medium quality habitat for the respective species; unmarked cells represent
unsuitable habitat.
topography and slope remain unchanged; cover can
be either 31-70% or > 70%; vegetation could be
either a forest or a plantation and agriculture could
be 0 or 1-30%. Unsuitable habitat would be areas
with steep and precipitous slopes, cover values of 1-
30%, P. fields, T. fields or forest/agriculture and
areas having 31-60% or > 60% of land under
agriculture.
These habitat requirements are depicted as
maps in Figures 7-10. Each shaded cell corresponds
to a combination of variables marked with an
asterisk in Table 1 for high and medium quality
habitat for each species. The unshaded cells repre-
sent unsuitable habitat.
Fig. 11 is obtained by combining the high and
medium quality habitats of all the four species to
give the combined potential habitat for these species
in the Dangs.
Discussion
It can be seen from the results that suitable
habitat for each of the species individually and for
all the four species combined is very patchily dis-
tributed. In most of the cases, the best habitat seems
to be concentrated in the northern and western part
of the Dangs, i.e. around the proposed Purna
Wildlife Sanctuary and the Bansda National Park.
The only species that seems to have a fair amount of
contiguous habitat is the rustyspotted cat. This is
supported by the fact that of the four species, this
was the one most frequently reported by local
people during our surveys. A possible reason for this
is that the cat uses steep, rocky, forested areas. From
the maps showing slope and vegetation, it can be
seen that a large amount of the forest cover is located
on the steeper slopes, creating a suitable habitat for
this species.
There is hardly any suitable habitat left for the
giant squirrel, a likely reason why this species has
not been reported for the last 40 years. There are very
few spotted deer left in the Dangs today, and this can
be attributed to excessive hunting and the fact that
most of the suitable habitat for this deer is now under
agriculture. The small and patchy distribution of the
suitable tiger habitat is obviously not enough to sup-
port a population of tigers and these reports need to
be confirmed. However, on combining all the
suitable habitats, a fairly large and contiguous block
of suitable habitat is obtained which, if given ade-
128
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
quate protection, might serve to conserve these
species in the Dangs. Another possibility which
must be explored is to connect different forest
patches by means of corridors.
In conclusion, it should be emphasised that
this is mainly a theoretical exercise to demonstrate
the potential use of GIS and SRF in wildlife con-
servation and management. These results as per-
taining to the Dangs are by no means claimed to be
completely accurate as both the recording of the
habitat variables as well as the modelling was rela-
tively subjective. Further ground work will be un-
dertaken in order to determine actual habitat
preferences of these and other wildlife species. We
hope to be able to modify and update the existing
maps and upgrade them from the present coarse grid
form to a finer scale of maps based on vectors.
However, two facts do emerge: the fragmenta-
tion of the habitat and the importance of the Puma
forest.
Acknowledgements
The aerial survey was funded by a grant from
the Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund of the
BNHS and the Seth Purshotamdas Thakurdas and
Divaliba Charitable Trust. We are grateful to Dr
Pratap Saraiya for his encouragement and help in
arranging for the latter grant.. The computer analysis
was made possible by a grant from Tata Steel. Dr.
Werner d’Oleire-Oltmanns and Dr. Walther Ber-
berich from the Berchtesgaden National Park, West
Germany, spent a lot of time and effort in
demonstrating the possibilities of analysing this data
using ARC/ info. Special thanks to Dr Anna Loy,
Dr. Fabio Corsi, and Piero Genovesi from the
Department of Animal Biology, University of
Rome for taking time off from a busy conference to
help with data analysis and for getting the maps
plotted in record time.
References
Clarke, R. (1986): The handbook of ecological monitor-
ing. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Corsi, F. (1989): GIS in wildlife management : is it worth
it? Paper presented at the Fifth International Theriological Con-
gress, Rome. August 1989.
Haber, W. & Schaller, J. (1988): Ecosystem research
Berchtesgaden - spatial relations among landscape elements
quantified by ecological balance methods. Paper presented at the
Third Annual European ESRI User Conference, Munich. Oc-
tober 1988.
Marble, D. F. (1987): GIS an overview in Ripple, W. J.
(Editor) GIS for resource management : a compendium,
American Soc. for Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing and
American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Virginia.
Prater, S. H. (1980) The book of Indian animals. Bom-
bay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Ripple, W. J. (1987): GIS for resource management: a
compendium. American Soc. for Photogrammetry & Remote
Sensing and American Cong, on Surveying and Mapping, Vir-
ginia.
Appendix I
NOTES ON FOUR ENDANGERED SPECIES OF THE DANGS
Rustyspotted cat (Felis rubiginosa ): A highly endangered
cat with a very restricted distribution in the Western Ghats and
Sri Lanka. It is a very small, nocturnal cat which favours dense
vegetation on broken ground. Atleast four specimens have been
collected from the Dangs in the past. It is still known to the local
people, but is very difficult to see. The Dangs must offer the best
chance for long term survival of this species, based on proper con-
servation inputs to Puma WLS and other localities.
Giant squirrel {Ratufa indices, dealbatus ): An endemic race
of the Indian giant squirrel with distinctive yellow colouring.
There have been no collections or confirmed sight records for the
past 41 years. It is known by the older local people, but no recent
reports were obtained. We have been unable to locate any nests
which were earlier concentrated in the Puma region. Loss of
habitat, including the felling of large trees for timber is a possible
reason for the decline of this species.
Tiger ( Panthera tigris ): Tigers have been reported from
the Dangs for several years, but no concrete evidence of their ex-
istence in this area has been obtained. A census conducted in
April 1989 reported the presence of about six tigers in this area.
Presence of tigers in this area in the past is reported by almost all
the local people. It is possible that a small population of tigers
does still exist in the Dangs, and these reports need to be con-
firmed.
Spotted deer ( Axis axis): This common species of deer has
been practically exterminated in the Dangs due to hunting and
loss of suitable habitat. The only remaining population is now
found in the Bansda National Park. With proper management in-
puts and adequate protection, reintroduction of this species could
be attempted in the Dangs.
(
GROWTH, MATURATION, AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
NILGIRI TAHR, HEMITRAGUS HYLOCRIUS (OGILBY)
Clifford G. Rice 1 2 *
(With, two plates & three text-figures)
Horn growth and changes in pelage patterns were monitored doling a 2-year study of Nilgiri tahr
( Hemitragus hylocrius ) in Eravikulam National Park, Kerala.. India. In Nilgiri tahr, mature males have longer
horns than do females. It was found that this was primarily because males maintained the high juvenile hom
growth rate about 1 year longer than females did.
The pelage of females changed little throughout their lives, but the coats of males gradually changed
from the grey coat with black carpal patches of subadults and adultfemales todeep brown legs, chest aijd flanks,
white carpal patches and silvery back saddle. Mature males also had striking facial markings and larger horns
than females of comparable age. On the basis of body and hom size and pelage colour, nine sex and age clas-
ses were differentiated
In considering the facets of Nilgiri tahr biology in the context of their environment, it was concluded
that in female Nilgiri tahr body configuration and pelage colour are determined primarily by selection incurred
by ecological factors. Body size in males has a strong component of sexual selection, and pelage colour in adult
males seems to be affected primarily by sexual selection.
Introduction
In sexually dimorphic ungulates, it is typical
for subadult males to have an appearance very
similar to that of adult females (e.g. Geist 1971). As
males mature, they gradually acquire distinctive
pelage patterns. As such maturational characters are
an indication of age, they can be useful in describ-
ing the age structure of a population.
Nilgiri tahr males have a distinctive pelage, the
most conspicuous feature being a light “saddle’4
across the back. Males showing this pelage are com
monly termed saddlebacks (Davidar 1971, Schaller
1971). Yet, because these maturational characters
develop gradually over a period of several years, the
potential exists for differing assessments as to what
characterizes a “mature” male, or saddleback. Thus
Davidar (1972, 1976) and myself (Rice 1984) es-
timated that saddlebacks made up 4 - 6% of the
populations we surveyed, whereas Schaller (1971)
reported 9-11% saddlebacks in the same popula-
tions (albeit in different years). Nevertheless, the
number of adult (age 2 years) males per adult
female in all counts was nearly constant, averaging
0.58 (maximum = 0.62, minimum 0.54), while the
number of saddlebacks per adult female showed
1 Accepted May 1987.
2 Present address: Caller, Box PPP 255, Saipan, MP 96950,
U.S.A.
substantial variation (0.27 and 0.33 for Schaller,
0.10-0.14 for Davidar and myself). It therefore
seems likely that Davidar (1972) was correct in at-
tributing these discrepancies to different standards
used in classifying males. Nevertheless, neither
Davidar nor Schaller gave more than minimal
descriptions of the characteristics they employed in
classifying male Nilgiri tahr. One objective of this
paper is to delineate specific characteristics which
can be used in sex and age classifications of Nilgiri
tahr.
As with any physical traits, the body size and
pelage of an animal are influenced by natural selec-
tion. The second objective of this paper is to inter-
pret the physical characteristics of Nilgiri tahr in
light of the social and physical environment in
which they live.
Study Area and Methods
The findings presented here are based on ob-
servations made in Eravikulam National Park,
Kerala, India, between August 1979 and September
1981. At Eravikulam, Nilgiri tahr inhabit the fringes
of a rolling grassy plateau. Adjacent cliffs are used
primarily as escape terrain and for giving birth. Nil-
giri tahr occurred in large groups (up to 150 in-
dividuals) and during the rut numerous males com-
peted for access to oestrous females.
During the course of the study one subpopula-
130
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
tion of about 120 animals was habituated to my close
proximity. To facilitate individual recognition, 51
colour coded collars were placed on adult females.
Adult males were recognized on the basis of natural
marks (broken and chipped horns, scars). The iden-
tities of individual young (less than 1 year old) tahr
were determined through interactions with their
mothers.
Initially, I followed Schaller’s (1971) outline
of sex and age classes, but as the study progressed I
refined this system, dividing the initial 6 classes into
9 by the end of the study (see below). Nilgiri tahr >2
years old could be aged on the basis of body size and
horn length. Individuals >2 years old were aged by
counting horn rings. Horn lengths of young were
visually estimated.
Results
Male Nilgiri tahr grow to about 1 10 cm at the
shoulder (Prater 1980), and weigh about 100 kg
(Wilson 1980), a stature they reach at about 6 years
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
AGE OF YOUNG (WEEKS)
STAGE = □ PRETAN eiTAN □ POSTTAN
Fig. 1. Observations of Nilgiri tahr young pelage stages.
of age. Measurements from photographs indicated
adult females were 75% the size of males, or about
80 cm at the shoulder. Females weigh about 50 kg
(Wilson 1980).
Nilgiri tahr were bom with an overall grey
coat (which I termed the pretan stage), with carpal
patches and facial markings absent or incon-
spicuous. At about 10-14 weeks of age they grew a
light a tan fluffy coat (tan stage), which was shed at
an age of about 20 weeks (post tan stage, Fig. 1).
The first records of tan young came 3 weeks later
for female young than for males; the mean age of
tan female young was 2.6 weeks greater than that for
male young (18.6 v. 16.0 respectively), and female
young were last recorded in tan phase 3 weeks later
than male young. Although the first female young
were recorded in post tan phase at the same age as
the first male young, the first peak in female young
post tan observations is 2 weeks after the first peak
in male young post tan observations. Overall, there
was an evident trend for females to pass through
these stage changes about 2 weeks later than males
did.
The post tan coat was the same as seen in
adult females and young males. The black patch on
the anterior of the forelegs, just above the carpal
joint, contrasted with the overall grey pelage. The
abdomen and centre of the chest were off-white, as
were the insides and backs of the legs. A narrow
mane of black hairs extended from the top of the
nape to the tail. An ill- defined stripe of light
coloured hairs dropped from just anterior to the eye
toward the mouth. Light brown hairs covered the tip
of the muzzle and the area around the eyes.
As females matured there was virtually no
change in this pelage pattern. Males, however, con-
tinued to change as they grew older. At about four
years of age (when they surpassed females in body
and horn size), the top of the black carpal patch
began to turn white. The proportion of white in the
patch increased until it was all white by about 5 years
of age. At the same time the fronts of all four legs
changed to a dark brown as did the lower flanks, the
ridge of the muzzle between the light stripes, and a
patch below the eyes. A saddle-shaped area of light
hair was also usually present, but was not con-
spicuous at this time. These changes then inten-
sified, as the fronts of the legs turned black (contrast-
ing markedly with the white carpal patch), the facial
MATURATION AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NILGIRI TAHR
131
pattern became more prominent, and the general
body pelage darkened to brown. The mane grew
longer along the neck and the light coloured saddle
stood out. In the final stage of development, reached
at an age of about 8 years, the black coloration ex-
tended onto the shoulders, chest, and neck, and the
saddle was a silvery colour. Males reached their ful-
lest development in these traits during the rut (mon-
soon), and regressed an equivalent of about half a
year’s maturation during the winter.
In both sexes horns were first visible in the
field as buds at the age of 3-4 weeks. Horn length
was first estimated at 1 cm about 8 weeks after birth.
Homs of females grew slower than those of males,
but this difference was not great during the first year.
A linear regression model fitted to estimated horn
length for male young under the age of 30 weeks
gave the equation: horn length = age ( in days) x
0.01940 - 0.09859. The comparable equation for
females was: horn length = age x 0.01843 - 0.25533.
Assuming continued growth at these rates, the horns
of males were 7.0 cm long at the age of 1 year, and
14.1 cm long at 2 years of age, while the horns of
females were 6.5 cm long at the age of 1 year, and
13.2 cm long at 2 years of age.
Horn rings were present, but the first was
usually indistinguishable, as is the case with
Himalayan tahr (Caughley 1965). It was sometimes
difficult to count the horn rings precisely in older
FEMALES ■----■MALES
Fig. 2. Annual growth of Nilgiri tahr horns. Growth for the first
year was estimated based on visual estimation of hom lengths
made during the first 30 weeks of life for 1981 young
(see text). Subsequent values are averages from both horns
from two individuals in each sex.
females, as the later rings were not always clearly
demarked. Measurements of intervals between hom
rings from skulls collected during the study gave an
indication of the growth of horns from the second
year onwards (Fig. 2), with growth during the first
year estimated on the basis of the above equations.
The rate of hom growth had decreased by the second
year in females, whereas in males the original rate
persisted until the second or third year. After the
sixth year the growth rate in males was only slight-
ly greater than that for females. In other words,
males grew longer horns than females primarily be-
cause they maintained the original growth rate about
1 year longer.
The small difference between the predicted
and measured lengths for 2 years of hom growth in-
dicated that hom rings were put down at about the
same time of year as births occurred, that is January
and February. The largest horns I measured were
32 cm long, considerably shorter than the 44 cm
maximum listed by Ward (1910).
The horns of males were also wider and deeper
than those of females. The horns of adult males
measured about 7. 2-7. 5 cm front to back. Those of
adult females measured 4. 6-5.0 cm.
Except for the last few centimetres, where the
hom is nearly straight, Nilgiri tahr horns show a con-
stant curve (Fig. 3), indicating a constant ratio
through time between growth rates for the front and
back of the hom. There is an anteriorly projecting
rib on the medial anterior comer of the hom. This is
first evident during the second year of growth, and
is fully developed sometime in the third year. Homs
are conical during the first year of growth, after
which they develop a flattened inner margin (Rice
1984, Schaller 1971). The horns do not curve out-
ward or flare, and can be laid on a flat surface with
the inner margin facing down. Relative to the skull,
the horns are rotated away from the longitudinal
plane so that the flattened surfaces form an angle of
about 20x, and the hom tips are further apart than
the bases of the horns.
Based on these maturational changes, the fol-
lowing sex and age classes were recognized. Ab-
breviations adopted during this study are given in
parenthesis.
Young ( Yg ). Age up to 1 year. Homs less than
7 cm. Overall pelage grey.
Yearling (Y l ). At the start of the birth season.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
10 cm
Fig. 3. Outline of Nilgiri tahr horns.
all Yg were advanced to Yl. Age usually 1-2 years.
Horn length usually 6-14 cm. Overall pelage grey.
Adult female (F, Plate 1 ). Age 2 + years. Stand-
ing about 80 cm at the shoulder. Homs upto 30 cm
long, and more slender than those of adult males.
Overall pelage grey.
Light brown male (Lbm). Age 2-4 years. About
the same size as adult females. Distinguished from
them by presence of scrotum and penis sheath or
(with experience and at close distances) by heavier
horns. Overall pelage grey with black carpal patch.
Large light brown male (Llbm, Plate 2 ). Age
c. 4 years. Slightly larger and stockier than F’s.
Homs slightly larger and heavier. At least half of car-
pal patch white. Overall pelage grey.
Dark brown male ( Dbm ). Age c. 5 years. Horn
and body size greater than in females. Carpal patch
white against dark brown lower forelegs. Facial
markings distinct. Overall pelage brown. Light sad-
dle may be present, but not distinct.
Saddleback (5, Plate 1 ). With three sub-
divisions:
1 (SI ): Age c. 6 years. Off-white or tan saddle
distinct. Black on legs but shoulders and neck dark
brown.
2 (Si -2 ): Age c. 7 years. Saddle may be sil-
very. Black extending onto shoulders but not to
withers.
3 (S2 ): Age 8+ years. Saddle silvery. Black ex-
tending to withers and neck.
Duringthe 1981 rut I aged all the males present
in the Vaguvarrai study area (Table 1). The distribu-
tion of ages by class showed that the male classes
were closely related to age.
Discussion and Conclusions
Body size and configuration can be viewed as
the combined results of selection for ecological fac-
tors and sexual selection (Selander 1965). In
polygynous species, both types of selection in-
fluence the traits of males, while the characteristics
of females are mostly the result of selection for
ecological factors (Clutton-Brock et al. 1982). In
Nilgiri tahr (and other Caprinae) sexual dimorphism
in body size can be explained a result of differences
in these selection pressures, particularly escape
ability (selection for ecological factors) and com-
petition between males over access to oestrous
females (sexual selection). In caprids, the impor-
tance of escape ability as a factor in natural selec-
tion is evidenced by the degree to which the
availability of escape terrain determines habitat use.
For instance, mixed groups of Nilgiri tahr confine
their activities to the steep cliffs and the grasslands
within 500 m of the cliffs despite the availability of
otherwise appropriate habitat at greater distances.
Size is an important factor affecting ability to
negotiate precipitous terrain, as was evident when
courted Nilgiri tahr females led hesitant males over
difficult ground. Males were apparently less physi-
cally fit in terms of using steep slopes as escape ter-
rain. This was overcome by increased reproductive
fitness through sexual selection for large males, as
size affects fighting ability and dominance, both of
which determine access to oestrous females, and
hence reproduction. Large size may have also in-
creased the ability of males to outrun or confront
predators on open ground and this may be one
reason why they were seen further towards the
Adult female (left) and saddleback (male) Nilgiri tahr. (Photo: Author)
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Rice: Hemi tragus hylocrius
Plate 2
Large light brown male Nilgiri tahr. The carpal patches are in the first stages of changing from
black to white, (, Photo : Author)
MATURATION AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NILGIRI TAHR
133
centre of the plateau than were mixed groups (Rice
1984).
The grey coats of female and subadult Nilgiri
tahr blended extremely well with the gneiss cliffs
which were escape terrain of the tahr. These animals
were surprisingly easy to overlook even on the open
grassy slopes, especially in the overcast and rainy
conditions common throughout much of the year.
Such cryptic coloration is widespread in the
Caprinae (Schalier 1977); the most obvious con-
clusion is that it serves to make detection by
predators less likely. Saddlebacks, in contrast, were
very conspicuous. Their deep brown coats and sil-
very saddles stood out at distances of 1 km or more.
Whereas male body size may be considered a com-
promise between the dictates of selection for
ecological factors and sexual selection in Nilgiri
tahr, selection for ecological factors seems to have
been overwhelmed by sexual selection in affecting
pelage coloration of mature males.
Male maturational changes are closely related
to age and hence size and fighting ability. They may,
therefore, be considered as a static (or continuous)
dominance display, making them analogous to the
horns of bighorn sheep ( O . canadensis, Geist 1971).
This was supported by the response of dominant
saddlebacks in mixed groups to the arrival of a new
saddleback, which consisted of staring, spraying
urine, and object aggression (such reactions were
not elicited by other animals). Maturational charac-
ters were also accentuated in another dominance dis-
play, the hunch (Rice 1984, 1988). The hunch was
given in broadside orientation,displaying the dark
flanks and contrasting saddle, and the erected mane
flipped back and forth with the steps of the display-
ing male.
Table 1
NUMBER OF MALES OF EACH AGE AND CLASS IN THE
VAGUVARRAI INTENSIVE STUDY AREA ON 20 JULY 1981
BASED ON HORN RING COUNTS. SEE TEXT FOR CLASS AB-
BREVIATIONS
Class
Age (years)
S2
Sl-2
SI
Dbm
libra
Lbm
2
-
-
-
-
-
2
3
-
-
_
_
2
3
4
-
-
-
1
6
_
5
_
_
_
5
_
_
6
—
—
3
_
_
_
7
-
2
-
-
-
-
8
1
—
—
—
—
—
Male Himalayan and Arabian tahr also have
maturational characters. These species have long
bushy growths of hairs, particularly on the shoulders
(Harrison 1968, Schalier 1977). Such a long, thick
covering would be a serious impediment when
saturated with rain, which may be why male Nilgiri
tahr lack such pelage.
Both sexes of Nilgiri tahr have distinct carpal
patches, those of each sex contrasting sharply with
the colour of the surrounding pelage. These patches
remain nearly constant throughout life (except in
males during the switch from black to white), so they
are not solely of maturational significance. Their
distinctiveness would seem to indicate some func-
tion, but they are not employed in any particular dis-
plays and their importance remains unknown. Con-
spicuous markings are present on the forelegs of
several Capra species and bharal ( Psuedois nayaur,
Schalier 1977), where it is prominently displayed as
these animals rear to clash - something Nilgiri tahr
rarely, if ever, do (Rice 1984, 1988).
The function of the tan coat Yg Nilgiri tahr
grow and shed at 3-6 months of age is also unclear.
The length and fluffiness of the coat suggest in-
creased insulation, but the advantages of such a coat
would be greatest during the first couple of months
of life when body size is smaller, minimum tempera-
tures are lower. It is probably significant that most
Yg shed their tan coats just before the monsoon, thus
avoiding the costs of thermal and energy losses
which would probably be incurred by carrying a
water-logged shaggy coat. The tan coat may be a so-
cial signal which serves to reduce aggression by
adults (Hrdy 1976), but there was no obvious indica-
tion of this in Nilgiri tahr. The tan coat of Nilgiri tahr
young differs significantly from the juvenile coats
of most mammals. Young mammals are typically
bom with their juvenile coloration and lose it as they
mature. The coats of neonate Nilgiri tahr are much
like those of adult females and they subsequently ac-
quire the tan coat.
Annual horn growth in Nilgiri tahr is nearly
asymptotic at about 1 cm/year for both males and
females (Fig. 2). This differs from Dali sheep (Bun-
nel 1978) where horn growth in males is greater than
that of ewes at all ages.
It is hoped that the sex and age classifications
oudined here will serve as a reference for further in-
134
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL IIIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
vestigations on this species.
Acknowledgements
The American Institute of Indian Studies, the
Caesar Kleberg Program in Wildlife Ecology, and
Wildlife Conservation International of the New
York Zoological Society provided funds for this
study. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service assisted
with essential logistical support. I gratefully ac-
knowledge the permission to work in Eravikulam
Refer
Bunnell, EL. (1978): Horn growth and population quality
in Dali sheep. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 775.
Caughley, G. (1965): Horn rings and tooth eruption as
criteria of age in the Himalayan tahr ( Hemitragus jemlahicus).
New Zealand J. Science 8: 333-351.
Clutton- brock, T.H., Guinness, RE. & Albon, S.D.
(1982): Red deer. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago.
Davidar, E.R.C. (1971): A note on the status of the Nil-
giri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius) on the Grass Hills in the Anamal-
lais. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 347-354.
(1972): Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius )
‘saddle backs’, ibid. 69: 173-174.
(1976); Census of the Nilgiri tahr in the Nilgiris,
Tamil Nadu. ibid. 73: 142-148.
Geist, V. (1971): Mountain sheep. Univ. Chicago Press,
Chicago.
Harrison, D.L. (1968): The mammals of Arabia. Vol. n.
Emt Benn. Ltd., London.
Hrdy, S.B. (1976): Care and exploitation of nonhuman
primate infants by conspecifics other than the mother, pp. 101-
158 In: J.S. Rosenblatt, R.A. Hinde, E. Shaw, and C. Beer (Eds).
National Park granted by the Government of India
and the Kerala State Government. Invaluable assis-
tance with daily logistical needs was provided by
members of the High Range Wildlife Preservation
Association.
V. Geist, M. Hutchins, F. Koontz, S. Lovari, J.
Stover, C. Wemmer, and an anonymous reviewer
provided valuable criticism of an earlier draft of this
report.
ENCES
Advances in the study of behaviour. Academic Press, New York.
Prater, S.H. (1980): The book of Indian Animals. 3rd. ed.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Rice, C.G. (1984): The behaviour and ecology of Nilgiri
tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838). Phd. diss. College Sta-
tion: Texas A&M University.
(1988): Agonistic and sexual behaviour of Nil-
giri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius). Ethology 87: 89-1 12.
Schaller, G.B. (1971): Observations on Nilgiri tahr
( Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
67: 365-389.
(1977): Mountain monarchs. Univ. Chicago
Press, Chicago.
Selander, R.K. (1965): On mating systems and sexual
selection. Amer. Nat. 99: 129-141.
Ward, R. (1910): Records of big game. Rowland Ward,
Ltd., London.
Wilson, C.G. (1980): The breeding and management of
Nilgiri tahr Hemitragus hylocrius at Memphis Zoo. Internat. Zoo
Yearb.20: 104-106.
RECENT ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN1
T.J. Roberts 2
(With a text-figure)
This note is complementary to previous con-
tributions to the Journal on the available informa-
tion about the distribution and status of certain bird
species from this region. Vide: Roberts 1984,
JBNHS Vol. 81 and Roberts et. al. 1985, JBNHS ,
Vol. 82.
Slavonian Grebe Podiceps auritus
In mid-January 1984, 1 carried out waterfowl
surveys around the two principal lakes in central
Baluchistan, which province covers the south-
western region of Pakistan. Due to good rains Zangi
Nawar Lake (29° IT N, 65° 47’ E) comprised an ex-
tensive series of lagoons which could only be sur-
veyed effectively from a boat, which in this instance
was an ill- designed bath-tub sized affair. While
returning on January 17th evening from an extended
afternoon in this craft, during which more than 200
Blacknecked Grebes (Podiceps nigricollis) had
been counted, a single bird, swimming by itself, at
once attracted attention by its seemingly more con-
trasting black and white plumage and more upright
neck carriage. It appeared to all intents to be a
Slavonian Grebe. Due to the precarious nature of the
boat, neither prolonged nor careful observation was
possible, and this, coupled with general fatigue, I am
ashamed to confess, made me decide to forget the
incident, knowing that the species had never before
been recorded from the subcontinent. However, on
January 20th a visit was made to the much smaller
Kushdil Khan lake in Pishin district, where it was
possible to conduct waterfowl counts from the
shore, using a tripod mounted telescope. Imagine
my delight, therefore, when in a secluded arm of the
lake I found a pair of Slavonian Grebes, which I was
able to sketch and to watch for over an hour.
My home, on the island of Anglesey (North
Wales), offers shelter each winter, around the coast,
to a number of Slavonian Grebes and Rednecked
Grebes (Podiceps grisegena). I was therefore well
1 Accepted April 1987.
2 Cac Gors, Rhoscefnhir, Near Pentracth, Anglesoy,
Gwgncold, LL75 BYU, UK.
aware of the extreme similarity in appearance be-
tween P. auritus and P. nigricollis from past ex-
perience. Indeed, juvenile birds might well be indis-
tinguishable in their first winter unless observed at
very close range. Some commentary on their distin-
guishing field marks may therefore be of interest to
the reader.
P. auritus has the same rather dumpy ap-
pearance and fluffy rear end as the Blackneck-
ed Grebe. It is smaller, shorter necked and looks
more black-and-white than the Rednecked Grebe
in winter plumage. It is only slightly larger than
P. nigricollis but tends to appear more straight
necked and larger in the head with a heavier bill.
This bill is straight or slightly recurved along the cul-
men, black in colour, with a pale, homy tip. The tip
is very small in area and difficult to see in the field.
In nigricollis the bill is more slender than that of
auritus and is slightly uptilted along the culmen
without any paler tip. The white wing bar in auritus
is considerably wider than in nigricollis ; but this is
generally not helpful unless the bird flies, as it is in-
visible in most swimming birds.
Perhaps the best distinguishing characters re-
late to the pattern of black on the crown and white
on the cheeks and foreneck. In auritus the white
area on the cheeks is much more extensive, especial-
ly extending towards the hindneck or auricular
region and extending up around the base of the eye.
In nigricollis the black of the crown tends to extend
to just below and around the eye and onto the
auricular region. It is significant that the dark
colour of the crown and hind neck in the Asiatic
population of P. auritus is less silvery grey and more
black than in the North American population, in
winter plumage. I have, however, seen juvenile
wintering specimens of auritus in Anglesey with
equally extensive amounts of grey-black on the hind
crown as in nigricollis. The view of auritus from the
back of its head and neck does, however, present a
very characteristic pattern when compared with
nigricollis , and to my mind, is the best distinguish-
ing field character. (Fig.l).
136
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig. 1. A-F: A: Podiceps auriius — winter plumage; B. Same, view from rear of head; C .Podiceps nigricollis — winter plumage;
D. Same, view from rear of head; E. Captive Bewick’s swan, copied from photograph presumed to be Jankowski’s Swan Cygnus
columbianus jankowskii ; F. Same, front view.
Due to other writing commitments, I failed to
submit any account of this (presumed) first record
for the species. In January 1987, Mr. Mark Mallaiieu
and Mr. Ashiq Ahmad, while conducting waterfowl
counts in the Punjab Salt Range lakes, encountered
a pair of Slavonian Grebes on Khabbaki lake (M.
Mallaiieu, pers. comm., February 1987) and this
new record has been submitted for publication.
Coincidentally, a single Slavonian Grebe was
captured on film in January 1986 by Mr. Naseer
Tareen, the distinguished wildlife photographer.
This bird was filmed on Kand lake, a very small
body of water close to the sea coast in Las Bela dis-
trict of Baluchistan, near the village known as Habb
Chowki. Mr. Tareen was unaware of the species he
was photographing until he showed his film to me
in February 1987. It was a close-up view and fol-
lowed earlier shots of a party of 7 or 8 Blacknecked
Grebes. This film clip was then shown to R.
Passburg,an ornithologist with considerable ex-
perience of P. auritus from its wintering grounds on
the Caspian sea, and he confirmed my identification.
This, therefore, constitutes the third reliable record
for this species within the past several years.
Normally the species spends the winter along
coastal areas and in the sea and for this reason has
probably not been recorded hitherto from the Indian
subcontinent. Now that some of its haunts have been
located, it may well turn out to be a regular, though
uncommon, winter visitor.
ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN
137
Alpheraky’s Swan or Jankowski’s Swan
Cygnus columbianus jankowskii
There is still some disagreement amongst
taxonomists and experts about the classification of
this eastern Siberian breeding population of
Bewick’s Swan. The Editors of Volume I, BIRDS OF
THE WESTERN PALE ARCTIC (S. Cramp et al 1977) do
not consider jankowskii to be a valid subspecies (p.
385), but it is listed separately as Jankowski’s Swan
in Ali andRipley ’s handbook (Vol. 1, 1968, p. 135).
The winter of 1984-85 was a swan year for the
region, with several local newspaper reports of
swans (not identified as to species) being sighted in
Baluchistan and Sind. Two were seen in January of
that year on a temporary lake near Turbat, in
southern Baluchistan, by Ashiq Ahmad, one of them
(regrettably) killed by a local hunter (A. Ahmad,
pers. comm, to author, 1986). A single swan was ob-
served and photographed by a number of keen bird,
watchers in January 1985, on Haleji Lake, a wildlife
sanctuary 72 km northeast of Karachi. It later flew
to the adjacent Hadiero lake, approximately 16 km
further east. Its relatively small size and short neck
suggested that it was a Bewick’s Swan rather than a
Whooper Swan (Rolf Passburg in litt. to author,
January 1985).
When I visited Pakistan in May 1985, 1 dis-
covered this same bird being exhibited in Karachi
zoo, having been trapped and sold to the zoo by local
professional fishermen who live on the shores of
Hadiero Lake. I took photographs of this captive
bird and sketches are presented herewith. Regrettab-
ly it succumbed during the hot weather of 1985.
Alpheraky’s Swan is not distinguishable from other
populations of the Bewick’s Swan by differences in
body size, but rather by the more extensive area of
yellow on the upper mandible (J. Delacour, water-
fowl of THE WORLD, Vol. I and Dementiev and
Gladkov, birds of the soviet union, Vol. 4,
1952). Based upon these published descriptions and
Peter Scott’s painting in Delacour ’s book, the swan
which visited lower Sind was from this eastern
Siberian breeding population, and could be
described as Jankowski’s, Bewicks, or Whistling
Swan.
Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus
In Ali and Ripley’s Handbook (Vol. 3, 1969,
p. 205) the distribution of this cuckoo implies that it
does not occur in the Himalayan foothill region of
Pakistan, but that it does occur in the less arid plains
portions of the country and in the foothills from
Kashmir eastwards. The author, during 34 years of
continuous residence in Pakistan, mostly in the Pun-
jab, never came across it, nor did Hugh Whistler in-
clude it in his published account of the birds of
Rawalpindi district and the Murree hills (Whistler,
Ibis , 1930, p. 252). In the late summer of 1984,
however, one did turn up around Islamabad and
haunted the wooded shores around Rawal Lake
during late June upto early August, where David
Corfield saw it and tape-recorded its calls. Playback
of its calls heard in August 1984, compared with my
own recordings made from Malaysia, revealed no
dialectical differences, the four- noted song being
identical in time sequence and pitch in both the
Rawal Lake and Malaysian birds. It would appear to
be a rare straggler this far west in the outer foothill
or Shiwaliks zone of the Himalayas.
Spotted Piculet Picumnus innominatus
In Ali and Ripley’s handbook, the distribu-
tion of this piculet is given as extending from about
Abbottabad in Hazara district and eastwards (Vol. 4,
1970, p. 172). In fact, around Abbottabad, there is
no suitable habitat as it is a relatively open, wide,
treeless valley with rice and tobacco cultivation in
the summer, and wheat crops predominant in
winter. It is known, however, as an occasional
wanderer into the outer foothill zone around the
Murree hill range with two definite sightings in
recent years in the Margalla hills (covered by dry
tropical deciduous scrub forest). This region has
been well surveyed by birdwatchers since the estab-
lishment of Islamabad as the capital city. A single
bird was seen in July 1977 by Kamal Islam (pers.
comm., 1977) and in April 1982 (again a single bird,
probably a female) by D. Corfield (pers . comm.,
1982). The author never encountered it in the Mar-
galla hills during over 15 years of intermittent ob-
servations at all months of the year and spanning
many hundreds of hours, nor did H. Whistler include
it in his account of the birds of the region (Whistler,
Ibis, 1930).
In April 1984 , Richard Grimmett and Craig
Robson, whilst conducting pheasant surveys in the
Kaghan valley (Hazara district), saw several
piculets in Malkandi forest (34° 41’N, 73° 35’E),
138
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
which is located at the bottom of the valley at about
1200 m elevation and 64 km northwest of Abbot-
tabad town. This patch of forest is atypical for the
region in having a preponderance of deciduous tree
species and a luxuriant undergrowth with bushes of
Sumac (Rhus cotinus ), many Sycamore ( Acer pen-
tapomicum) and Mountain Ash (Fraxinus xan-
thoxyloides) trees. Realising that this was a most ex-
citing discovery I made a visit to the same locality
in June 1984, and after staying two days in the forest
hut, was able to locate 3 or 4 pairs, which were again
seen in May 1985. Judging from calling males, there
might be a small colony at Malkandi comprising of
as many as 7 or 8 pairs and they undoubtedly occur
here as an isolated and disjunct population, as also
is the case in northeastern Afghanistan, where a
small population was discovered by Dr. Kulmann in
1963 near Pechtal, Nuristan. These were again lo-
cated in the same locality in Nuristan in 1965 by
Jochem Niethammer (Niethammer, J. Journ. Fur
Ornith :, 1967).
Grey Hypocolius Hypocolius ampelinus
This strange and little-known bird is a desert
adapted frugivore, endemic to the harshest regions
of the Middle East. It is believed to be quite nomadic
in its habits, according to local rainfall pattern and
food availability and there are hardly 3 or 4 records
for the whole subcontinent since it was first dis-
covered on 6 March 1875 by W.T. Blanford from a
wintering bird found in the Kirthar hill range on the
Sind/Baluchistan border (Blanford, Stray Feathers ,
1875, p.352).
In the winter of 1983-84 there must have been
an irruption of this species westwards across
Baluchistan, as it was regularly encountered on the
Sind/Baluchistan border in the Habb river valley by
the author during several visits to the area, from
early February up to mid-March. In a day’s search,
5 or 6 could always be located and on one occasion
with R. Passburg a flock of 17 birds were watched
feeding at close range. Their principal food was the
ripe berries of Zizyphus mauritiana , but the last
mentioned flock settled in a grove of Prosopis
spicigera trees where they were actually nipping off
and eating the leaf buds of this thorny Acacia.
In the winter of 1984-85, diligent search in the
same area failed to reveal any. During a visit to
Zangi Nawar lake in the Chaghai desert of western
Baluchistan in early May 1985, the author was
thrilled to encounter, at sunset, a flock numbering
between 30 and 40 of these birds, which came into
roost together in a patch of tamarisks and tall Phrag-
mites reeds. This area, some 644 km northwest of
the Habb valley, comprises an extensive sand-dune
desert tract, seeming to lack any suitable fruit bear-
ing bushes or trees such as would attract these birds.
They might have chosen the area for roosting be-
cause of the proximity of water and thick cover.
They are very strong flyers, preferring a fairly high
trajectory when moving from one feeding spot to
another, which does suggest that they are well able
to forage over a wide area, and that like all birds
adapted to exploit an abundant food source (such as
berries), once located, they probably find that
gregarious roosts outside the breeding season are ad-
vantageous. Unlike the relatively silent birds en-
countered in the Habb valley, these birds in May
were very noisy, the males singing persistently and
excitedly and individuals already consorting in pairs
as they went to roost. This suggested that they were
getting ready to breed soon.
Blackbrowed or Golden Spectacled Flycatcher
Warbler Seicercus burkii
Though Ali and Ripley’s HANDBOOK (Vol. 8,
1973, p. 182) gives the distribution of this species as
including Murree, I had never come across it in
Pakistan. Having consulted H. Whistler’s com-
prehensive manuscript notes, lodged in the Bombay
Natural History Society’s library, I knew that he had
come across no records or specimens from the Mur-
ree hills and considered that the western boundary
of its range was around Dharamsala in Himachal
Pradesh. Bates and Lowther did not. come across it
in Kashmir (BREEDING BIRDS OF KASHMIR, 1952)
and the only known record is the reported sighting
by Dickinson of a bird near Sonmarg, Kashmir (J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. 63, 1966, p. 204).
In late December 1982, D. Corfield came
across a single bird in a stream bed ravine just on the
borders of Islamabad city and at the foot of the Mar-
galla hills. It remained in this locality until the end
of March 1983 and was shown to the author. It was
seen alongside Seicercus xanthoschistos which is
common in the area, and it was interesting to note
that, whilst xanthoschistos foraged often in the
upper canopy of fairly tall trees, burkii had a
ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN
139
preference for the shadier forest understorey and
especially shrubs and tall weeds along the stream
bank. It was quite tame, allowing close observation,
and its continued occupancy over nearly 3 months
of this small area indicated that they maintain rela-
tively confined winter territories. In late March
1985, two years later, I saw another individual in one
of the side ravines of the Margalla hills some 1.5
km north of the previous bird.
Richard Grimmett and Craig Robson saw this
species during pheasant surveys in the Kaghan val-
ley. This was in late April 1984, just below the sum-
mit ridge of Kadir Gali at an elevation of slightly
under 3000 m. It is presumed that at such a high
elevation and late date, they would be approaching,
or near to, their intended nesting territory. I made
two subsequent camping trips to this spot (Kadir
Gali) but failed to locate any Seicercus burkii. It is
certainly very rare in Pakistan but probably a small
breeding population exists in Hazara district and
winters in the foothills around Rawalpindi. During a
visit to Pokhara in western Nepal, the author found
this species quite abundant in late March at lower
elevations.
Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa latirostris
This is a very widely distributed flycatcher in
southeast Asia, extending as a winter visitor down
to Sri Lanka, and eastwards to Taiwan, Thailand,
southern Burma and Malaysia (Ben King et a/.,
FIELD GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA,
1975). On the Indian subcontinent it occurs mostly
down the eastern parts, rarely extending into the
dryer northwestern region. In the HANDBOOK (Ali &
Ripley, Vol. 7, 1972, p. 146) its breeding range is
given as spreading across the Himalayan foothills
from Chamba in the west (Himachal Pradesh) to
Kulu. It occurs in the autumn on passage in the east-
ern Punjab parts of India, e.g. in Ludhiana and
Hoshiarpur (specimens in the Waite collection,
British Museum).
I first encountered it in the summer of 1983 on
the summit ridge of the extreme southern spur of the
Murree hill range, above Lehtrar. Here a single bird
was seen in a mature stand of sub-tropical ‘Chir’
pine ( Pinus roxburghii) at 1370 m elevation in mid-
May. Later a pair were found nesting near Samli
forest rest house on 3rd June, about 9 km from the
previous location. A pair were again watched on 23
May 1986 in the same locality (Samli Forest Rest
House) with Mark Mallalieu, who was able to take
very clear photographs.
This species is almost identical in size and ap-
pearance to the Sooty Flycatcher {Muscicapa
sibirica) with which it is quite sympatric in tropical
pine forest during the early summer, so that it was
only after repeated sightings that I was able to con-
vince myself that it was not sibirica. The best field
characters which distinguish latirostris are the clear,
bright yellow lower mandible which is dark and
homy in sibirica , coupled with the absence of dis-
tinctive dark greyish streaking along the flanks and
in the pectoral region, which can always be seen in
specimens of sibirica. Both species tend to show a
comparatively large dark eye with a paler whitish
eye ring.
The habits of M. sibirica in Pakistan are in-
triguing. It is typically a forest nesting flycatcher but
chooses the upper limit of the tree-line by
preference, normally being encountered between
2400 m right up to the sub-alpine birch forest zone
at 3500 m, where I have watched it nest building as
late as mid- June. But in early summer it can be en-
countered in the sub- tropici Chir pine zone up to
late May even though I have no evidence as yet that
it breeds at these lower altitudes. On the same day
(23rd May) that Mallalieu and I saw and
photographed the pair of Brown Flycatchers at 1200
m, we had watched a single Sooty Flycatcher lower
down the slope at 900 m. Their very gradual migra-
tion in summer to higher breeding areas may there-
fore somewhat parallel the habits of Carduelis
spinoidesy the Himalayan Greenfinch, which nests
both at low and high altitudes over an extended
breeding season.
Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos and
Carrion Crow Corvus corone orientalis
In May 1984 I managed to visit the Shingar
range in the extreme northern boundary of Baluchis-
tan province, in Zhob district. This fascinating range
of hills is clothed with a forest of the Edible Seed
Pine or Chilghoza {Pinus gerardiana ), and rises to
2600 m in height. It was here that A.F.P. Christison
encountered crows and found a nesting pair on the
summit ridge. He took these to be Carrion Crows,
even shooting a specimen (not preserved) for- iden-
tification (Christison, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
140
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Vol.43, 1942, p.478). This distribution range for
C. corone is also given in Ali and Ripley’s hand-
book (Vol. 5, 1972, p. 259). The Crows are still
there, but to the author’s surprise and even disap-
pointment, they were all Jungle Crows , at once dis-
tinguishable by their longer wedge shaped tails,
more heavy bills with distinctively recurved culmen
and especially by their repertoire of calls exactly
similar to familiar Himalayan birds.
Puzzled by this, I was later able to get in touch
with Sir Philip Christison (as he now is) who was
kind enough to invite me to his home in Scotland in
November 1985. After discussing the problem he
expressed the opinion that he was probably mistaken
in his identification and that they had in fact been
Jungle Crows. This southern extension of their range
is not so surprising as the Jungle Crow breeds com-
monly above 2400 m on the Safed Koh range fur-
Refer
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1968-72): Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan, Vol. I (1968), Vol. HI (1969), Vol. IV
(1970), Vol. V (1972), Vol. VII (1972). Oxford Univ. Press, Bom-
bay.
Bates, R.S.P. & Lowther, E.H.N. (1952): Breeding Birds
of Kashmir. Oxford University Press, Indian Branch.
Blanford, W.T. (1875): ‘Hypocolius ampelinus in Sind’
Stray Feathers, Vol. 3, Nov. 1875, pp. 358-361, Calcutta Central
Press.
Christison, A.F.P. (1942): Some Additional Notes on the
Distribution of the Avifauna of Northern Baluchistan. J. Bombay
not. Hist. Soc., 43 478-87.
Cramp, S. et al. (1977): Handbook of the Birds of Europe,
the Middle East and North Africa. Vol. I. Oxford University Press.
Delacour, J. (1954): The Waterfowl of the World, Vol. I.
Country Life Ltd., London.
ther north (Whitehead, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
Vol. 20, p. 177 and author obs.). The only places
where Carrion Crows breed in Pakistan are at the
upper end of the Kurram valley in the villages
around Parachinar at about 1770 m elevation. This
is at the bottom of the valley below the coniferous
forest level. Similarly, it nests in Baltistan (to the
west of Ladakh) around some of the villages in the
larger, wider valleys such as Shigar and Shyok
(Mathews, JBNHS , Vol. 42, p. 658)
In winter at Parachinar and in Baltistan in
the Indus valley, Carrion Crows and Jungle Crows
are sympatric, the latter frequenting valley bottoms
and the outskirts of villages, but in summer mac-
rorhynchos ascends to the forested slopes to nest
and the nest found on the Shingar by General Sir
Philip Christison was 9 m up in a Chilghoza Pine at
2600 m elevation.
n ce s
Dementiev, G.P., Gladkov, N.A., Isakov, Y. A., Kar-
tashev, N.N. et al ., (1952): Birds of the Soviet Union, Vol. 4,
Moscow.
Dickinson, E.C. (1966): Notes on some Birds seen in
Kashmir, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63 (1): 203-204.
Niethammer, Von G., Und J., (1967): ‘New Records of
Afghanistan’s Bird Fauna’ (In German). Journal fur Ornithology ,
Vol. 108, No. 1, Bonn, W. Germany.
Roberts, TJ. (1984): Recent Ornithological Records from
Pakistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 (3): 567-572.
Whistler, H. (1930): The Birds of the Rawalpindi Dis-
trict, N.W. India, The Ibis , Part I, pp. 67-119, January 1930. Part
n,pp. 247-279, April 1930.
Whitehead, C.H.T. (1910): On the Birds of Kohat and the
Kurram Valley, Northern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20 (1):
169-197.
STATUS OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE ( CROCODYLUS POROSUS
SCHNEIDER) IN THE BHITARKANIKA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ORISSA, INDIA
S.K. Kar2and H.R. Bustard3
( With four text-figures )
The status of the saltwater crocodile in the Bhitarkanika Sanctuary of Orissa was determined by com-
bined day and night counts. The adult population (29 individuals) was extremely low, and subadults numbered
only six, indicating very poor recruitment in recent years. However, the number of juveniles (61) was good,
indicating the likelihood of better recruitment in the years ahead. This enhanced survival of juveniles is a result
of management activities, particularly banning the use of nylon gill nets throughout the Sanctuary. A prelimi-
nary attempt was made to correlate crocodile numbers with features of the habitat. The mean density for all
non-hatchling size classes was 0.87 individual/km.
Introduction
The saltwater crocodile in India suffered a
dramatic decline in numbers as a result of a com-
bination of poaching and habitat loss (Bustard
1974). The mangrove ecosystem, to which this
species is tied in India, is one of the country’s most
threatened ecosystems. Once cleared and bunded,
the fertile alluvium built up by the mangroves
provides rich agricultural land. There was a long
tradition of bunding and farming on the landward
side, combined with rigid protection of the
mangrove forests themselves under the Raja of
Kanika in Orissa. The mangroves slowly reclaimed
land from the shallow waters of the Bay of Bengal
and protected the coastline from cyclonic damage.
The problem now is that population pressure on
good agricultural land combined with the need for
fuel wood has resulted in increasing destruction of
the mangrove forests.
The rarity of the saltwater crocodile in India
was apparent by the late 1960s (Daniel 1970). Bus-
tard and Choudhury (1981) pointed out that the
saltwater crocodile is now extinct in the South In-
dian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh, restricted to the Bhitarkanika Wildlife
Sanctuary in Orissa, and very rare in the Sundarbans
in West Bengal.
Bhitarkanika has been renowned for its
Accepted July 1986.
Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Orissa, 315-Kharaval
Nagar, Bhubaneswar-751001, Orissa, India.
^Ex-Chief Technical Advisor to Government of India. Present
Address: Airlie Brae, Alyth, Perthshire, Scotland, PH 11 8 AX
(UK).
saltwater crocodiles. Daniel and Hussain (1975),
based on field work during 1973, recorded the con-
tinued existence of the Bhitarkanika population of
the saltwater crocodile and pointed out the need to
stop all felling of mangroves if the habitat for the
crocodiles was not totally to disappear.
Bustard (1974) strongly recommended that
this area be declared a Sanctuary, and then managed
in the interests of the crocodile. Bustard also high-
lighted the need to protect the mangroves, recom-
mending a total ban on their felling. A similar recom-
mendation was also made by de Waard (1975). At
this time the State Forest Department was opening
coupes for working by the local people on a 5 year
rotation cycle. Such a short rotation cycle (the nor-
mal one is 20 years) was contributing to the destruc-
tion of the mangrove forests. Furthermore, Bustard
pointed out the necessity of stopping all fishing
within the area, especially a serious threat to recruit-
ment in the crocodile population, an observation
since confirmed (Kar 1981).
The State Government of Orissa accepted
these proposals. The area was gazetted a Sanctuary
on 22 April 1975; in the following month, fishing
was banned throughout the Sanctuary. In 1975, the
State Government of Orissa set up a Saltwater
Crocodile Research and Conservation Centre at
Dangmal in the heart of the Sanctuary with the pur-
pose of quickly multiplying the population using the
‘grow and release’ techniques for archaic reptiles as
recommended by Bustard (1974). An early account
of this work is given in Bustard (1975). In 1976, fol-
lowing consideration of the above reports, and ad-
vice from the Government of India, the State
Government of Orissa completely stopped all fell-
142
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 86
ing of mangroves.
The saltwater crocodile population was known
to have suffered heavy exploitation in the past but
no data were available as to its present status. The
present paper describes the results of a detailed cen-
sus carried out throughout the Sanctuary in the
period 1 December 1976 to 30 January 1977.
Surveys for saltwater crocodiles were reported
on by Bustard (1967, 1970) for Papua New Guinea
and Western Australia respectively. Survey methods
for C. porosus in Australia have been discussed by
Messel (1977) and Messel et al. (1978) as the basis
for extensive surveys of the saltwater crocodile
resource of Northern Australian river systems.
These methods were then used as a basis of at least
14 monographs now in print, in press, or in prepara-
tion, under a general title “Surveys of Tidal River
Systems in the Northern Territory of Australia and
their Crocodile Populations”, plus two monographs
referring to selected rivers in Western Australia
(Messel et al. 1977, Burbidge and Messel 1979).
Fig. 1. Map of India showing location of Orissa and the
Bhitarkanika Sanctuary (solid black circle).
The Sanctuary
The Sanctuary, comprising 176 sq.km of
Reserve and Protected forests, is located in the del-
taic region of the Bitarani-Brahmani rivers in Cut-
tack District, orissa (Fig. 1). The habitat consists of
deltaic mangrove swamps growing on rich al-
luvium. Some areas have been bunded for cultiva-
tion purposes, in all unbunded areas, however,
mangrove vegetation is dominant.
Annual rainfall averages 1670 mm/annum
with the main rainfall occurring during the monsoon
months of August and September. In summer the
temperature range is from the high 306C to high
20*C (day and night respectively) whereas during
the short winter it is upper 20°C to 15-20°C respec-
tively. The mangrove habitat is intersected by
numerous creeks and creeklets, the water flow in
which is influenced twice daily by the tide.
The main mangrove species are Avicennia
alba (a first coloniser), Avicennia officinalis ,
Rhizophora mucronata, Excoecaria agallocha,
Acanthus ilicifolius , Sonneratia apetala and
Heritiera minor. The palm Phoenix paludosa , the
fern Acrostichum aureum, and Hibiscus teliaceus
are widespread throughout the mangrove forests.
The human population of the Sanctuary and of
the villages in the area adjacent to the Sanctuary to-
tals 354,000, resulting in considerable encroach-
ment problems.
The mammalian fauna includes the leopard
(Pant her a pardus), striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena)
and the lesser cats (Felis chaus , F. bengalensis );
spotted deer (Cervus axis), sambar (Cervus
unicolor) and wildboar (Sus scrofa). Large troops of
rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatto) also occur in the
Sanctuary. Both deer species, wildboar and maca-
ques are taken by crocodiles (Kar and Bustard
1981). The larger reptiles include the Indian Python
(Python molurus) and the monitor lizards (V aranus
salvator , V. flavescens and V. bengalensis). The
avifauna is rich and varied (Kanungo 1976).
Methods
Winter was chosen for the survey as during the
short winter in coastal Orissa, extending from late
November to mid-February, the larger saltwater
crocodiles bask regularly, whereas at other times of
SALTWATER CROCODILE IN BHITARKANIKA SANCTUARY
143
the year basking by these large individuals is
reduced and sporadic (Kar 1981). Diurnal enumera-
tion during basking is the only reliable method of
censusing large crocodiles in the Sanctuary (see Dis-
cussion). Furthermore, during the winter, the
postcrepuscular activity is telescoped into two to
three hours following dusk allowing effective cen-
sus of juveniles and immature year classes. Exten-
sive field work in the Sanctuary has shown that night
spotting is the effective method of censusing
juveniles and subadult year classes (see Discussion).
Diurnal census was carried out during the
basking hours each morning (0800-1100 hrs.) and
night spotting between 1800 and 2100 hrs., at
which time the crocodiles are likely to be present at
the surface close to the bank in maximum numbers.
During the day, it was a straight-forward matter to
estimate the size of crocodiles sighted. Crocodiles
of under 0.6 m do not bask and individuals of be-
tween 0.6-1 m could be estimated within 0.5 m. At
night, using a powerful spotlight it is possible to ap-
proach light-blinded juveniles provided silence is
maintained and experienced people control the boat
and spotlight. However, only individuals of less than
2 m can be sighted at night with any regularity. Such
individuals can usually be approached to within
touching distance permitting at least as accurate size
estimation as during the day. Adult crocodiles are
very rarely seen during night spotting.
All census work here reported was carried out
by boat, no other method being practicable due to
the dense mangrove forest fringing the creeks. Local
country boats used in the normal protection patrols
within the Sanctuary were used for the census. These
vessels are eight metres overall and are crewed by
three boatman - two on the oars and one on the rud-
der. One of us (S.K.K.) operated the sealed beam,
pre-focused spotlight as used by the Indian Navy
and powered by a 12 volt car battery.
At night the tapetum of the crocodile’s eyes
reflect light enabling individuals floating at the
water’s surface (the normal alert posture after dark)
to be sighted at distances of over 0.5 km with a
powerful spot. The colour of the reflection enables
an experienced observer to make a preliminary es-
timate of the size. The reflection of small crocodiles
is pinkish in colour, becoming more reddish as the
crocodiles grow. Very large crocodiles reflect a very
dark red. However, all size estimates given in this
paper were confirmed by close approach.
Familiarity with the habitat will greatly en-
hance the accuracy of survey results. We have in-
timate knowledge of the river and creek systems of
the Sanctuary which are regularly patrolled using
the same ‘country boats’ used in the actual survey
work.
Survey in tidal rivers and creek systems, ir-
respective of whether they are conducted by day or
by night, are greatly affected by the state of the tide.
When the tide is high crocodiles will be missed:
(a) by day because the basking mudbanks will be
inundated and any crocodile which has
emerged will be within the vegetation zone
where they are likely to be missed.
(b) at night because smaller crocodiles (less than2
m) usually remain close to the creek-banks.
When the tide is high the reflection of their
eyes may be hidden by overhanging vegetation
and if the tide has flooded the bank these
crocodiles may be in the vegetation zone itself.
In either situation the eye reflections are like-
ly to be missed. Accordingly all surveys were car-
ried out when the tide was half tide or less, that is
when there was a drop of at least 1.6 m from the
fortnightly high tide level.
In night survey work it is important to carry out
the surveys during the darker phases of the moon.
Nights on which work can be completed prior to the
moon rising are best. When the moon is visible and
there is little or no cloud cover, good results cannot
be expected with a moon more than one-quarter full,
since the spotlight is less effective under such con-
ditions and the crocodiles are more likely to detect
the approaching vessel (and hence not permit close
approach).
Using the above techniques, it was readily pos-
sible to bring the dinghy to within 1 .5 m or less of
crocodiles of below three years of age (1.2- 1.4 m)
and to within 6 m or less of larger subadults.
There is no external sexual dimorphism in the
saltwater crocodile. However, there is a marked dif-
ference in size between the sexes. Females do not
exceed a total length of 4 m whereas males grow to
in excess of 7 m and the average size of males within
the Sanctuary is 5.5 m. All crocodiles in excess of 4
m were scored as males, and crocodiles in excess of
2.5 m but below 4 m scored as females. This method
gives a much more accurate separation of the
144
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
sexes Table 1
CROCODILE POPULATION IN RELATION TO HABITAT. RIVER DISTANCES (KM), SEX OF ADULTS BRACKETED (M, F).
Location
Habitat Ranking
Crocodiles Present
Number
Length River
Mangroves
Disturbance
Total
Adults Sub-adults
Juveniles
Total
1.
6.2
1
1
1
3
0
2
1
3
2.
12.4
3
3
3
9
2 (1M, IF)
0
3
5
3.
7.8
3
3
3
9
2 (1M, IF)
0
15
17
4.
7.5
3
3
3
9
4 (2M, 2F)
0
10
14
5.
8.7
2
2
2
6
1 (M)
2
16
19
6.
12.8
3
3
1
7
5 (3M, 2F)
0
2
7
7.
6.7
3
3
3
9
2 (1M, IF)
1
5
8
8.
10.0
2
1
1
4
3 (2M, IF)
0
2
5
9.
7.5
1
1
1
3
2 (1M, IF)
0
4
6
10.
8.0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
11.
1.5
2
0
1
3
1 (M)
0
1
2
12.
23.0
2
3
2
7
3 (2M, IF)
1
2
6
13.
11.0
2
1
0
3
1(F)
0
0
1
14.
7.5
2
2
1
5
3 (1M, 2F)
0
0
3
Total
130.6
-
-
-
-
29 (16M, 13F)
6
61
96
within the Sanctuary than might be anticipated,
since as a result of severe hunting in the past, al-
most all the present adults are older individuals
which have survived by becoming extremely wary.
In the case of males, this means that they have at-
tained a very large size.
Concurrent with the census, the major com-
ponents of the habitat were evaluated. For the
crocodiles, these are considered to constitute the
river, the fringing mangrove forests, on which
depends the creation of mudbanks for basking, as
well as the cover so essential for young crocodiles
and for nesting and the degree of human distur-
bance. These were scored 0-3. Where the river was
very poor, the mangrove cover had been complete-
ly lost, or human disturbance was maximum, a
score of 0 was given with an ascending score for
progressively better habitats.
Results
The Crocodile Population
Details of individuals recorded during the
survey are given in Table 1 which also sum-
marizes the results of the habitat evaluation dis-
cussed above. Although individuals between 0.8
and 2 m may represent six year classes, the
majority of juveniles in the Sanctuary are the
progeny of the 1974 and 1975 nesting seasons
which have survived as a result of Sanctuary
gazettement, especially the banning of set gill
nets. The individuals referred to as juveniles in
Table 1, totalled 61. Those in the 1.6 - 3 m size
class comprise six subadult individuals (size
range 1.6 - 2.1 m) together with individual con-
sidered to be a female. In the 3-4 m size class, it
is thought that all are females. As described
above, those in excess of 4 m are considered to
be males. The presence of 1 1 individuals between
5-7 m, all of which are undoubted males, should
be noted.
Table 1 indicates that adult males slightly
exceed adult females numerically, that subadult
(six) are very few in number, and that juveniles
(61) account for more than 63.5% of the popula-
tion, being more than twice as numerically abun-
dant as adults.
The distribution of the population
The numbers refer to habitat areas (Figs. 2-4).
Location 1: This area is considered unsuitable for
permanent residence by adults due to the excessive
water flow (the left hand portion was a man-made
cut dug to improve the water flow in the main river
system and for easier transportation of goods). The
mangroves are degraded on one bank.
Crocodiles present: Adult - 0, Subadults - 2,
Juveniles -1.
Location 2: This creek system provides good
habitat with good mangrove cover.
Crocodiles present: Adults -2 (one male and one
female), Subadults - 0, Juveniles - 3.
Location 3: Good habitat. Very low human distur-
bance. Good mangrove cover.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 2 (one male, one
female). Subadults - 0, Juveniles - 15.
SALTWATER CROCODILE IN BUTT ARK AN IK A SANCTUARY
145
Fig. 2. The creek systems in the heart of the Sanctuary.
Location numbers refer to the text. The lines bisecting the creeks indicate the limits of each numbered location.
Location 4: Very good habitat with excellent
mangrove cover. Low human disturbance.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 4 (two males, two
females). Subadults - 0, Juveniles - 10.
Location 5: Good habitat. Good mangrove cover,
especially on interior side. Some human distur-
bance.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 1 male , Subadults - 2,
Juveniles - 16.
Location 6: Excellent habitat, good mangrove
cover. Some human disturbance.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 5 (three males, two
females). Subadults - 0, Juveniles - 2.
Location 7: Very good habitat, good mangrove
cover. No human disturbances.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 2 (one male, one
female) Subadults - 1, Juveniles - 5.
Location 8: Habitat no longer good. Mangrove
cover totally absent on outer bank and on interior
bank is poor. Substantial human disturbances.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 3 (two males, one
female), subadults - 0, Juveniles - 2.
Location 9: Habitat now poor due to high level of
human disturbance. Mangrove cover becoming
degraded. At low tide water depth is very low.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 2 (one male, one
female). Subadults - 0, Juveniles - 4.
Location 10: Habitat poor since the river system is
dry at low tide. Mangrove vegetation absent on
outer bank and poor on interior. Much human dis-
turbance.
Crocodiles present: No crocodiles of any size class.
Location 11: This area no longer offers any good
habitat. Substantial human disturbances with cul-
tivation right to river bank.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 1 (Male), Subadults -
0, Juveniles - 1.
Location 12: River habitat good. Excellent
146
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
mangrove cover. Low human disturbance.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 3 (two males, one
female). Sub- adults - 1, Juveniles - 2.
Location 13: Good river habitat spoiled by maxi-
mum human disturbance and with poor mangrove
cover.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 1 (female), Subadults -
0, Juvenile - 0.
Location 14: Good river. Northern bank complete-
ly denuded of mangroves with much illicit felling
on the southern bank. The reserve forest of Kalib-
hanjadian has been subject to heavy illegal felling.
Human disturbance high, particularly on the north-
ern bank which has been developed into a fishing
port. Disturbance on Kalibhanjadian Island is much
less.
Crocodiles present: Adults - 3 (two females, one
male), Subadults - 0, Juveniles - 0.
The above information is summarized in
terms of habitat ranking of the river, mangroves and
degree of disturbance in Table 1. Table 2 gives the
density of the total crocodile population (num-
ber/km) in their fourteen areas of the Sanctuary. The
crocodile density varies from 0/km to 2.18/km
(mean 0.87). This is an extremely low figure (see
Discussion).
Discussion
The topics for discussion fall into four main
categories (1) survey techniques, (2) the crocodile
population, (3) the distribution of the population in
relation to habitat, and (4) implications of the above
three topics for/in management of this crocodile
Sanctuary.
1. Survey Techniques.
The techniques used here, are based on Bus-
tard^ 15 years1 * * 4 experience of C. porosus in the
Asian/Pacific region with suitable modifications for
local conditions. The survey was more intensive
than those reported previously by Bustard (1967 :
1970) or those of Messel et al. (see Introduction).
This was possible since the area studied is relative-
ly small and has been the subject of continuous
monitoring since 1975.
It was found that effective census of this
population of saltwater crocodile required a com-
bination of diurnal and night-spotting techniques.
Table 2
NUMBERS AND DENSITIES OF CROCODILES IN THE VARIOUS
HABITATS. DISTANCES (KM), DENSITY/KM.
Location
Crocodiles
Numbe
Length
Total Number
Density
1.
6.2
3
0.48
2.
12.4
5
0.40
3.
7.8
17
2.17
4.
7.5
14
1.86
5.
8.7
19
2.18
6.
12.8
7
0.54
7.
6.7
8
1.19
8.
10.0
5
0.50
9.
7.5
6
0.80
10.
8.0
0
0
11.
1.5
2
1.33
12.
23.0
6
0.26
13.
11.0
1
0.09
14.
7.5
3
0.40
Total
130.6
96
0.87
Either approach by itself did not give an ade-
quate census figure of both the adult and the
juvenile/subadult components of the population. In
Bhitarkanika, in the case of large crocodiles, the
eyes are not even observed at a distance during night
surveys. This is because adults have learned to sub-
merge immediately they hear the sounds of a boat or
see a light (even before the light strikes their eyes).
This reflects learning (Bustard 1968), as a result of
experience gained during previous human hunting
activities. So, although night-spotting gives a much
better guide to the number of immature
crocodiles present ( m) than during day-spotting, the
latter is the only way to census the adult cohort of
the population.
At night all large adults come into the “eyes
only” category of Messel et al. We feel that Messel’s
workers could get much more reliable data on large
animals - both on their numerical abundance and
their size (that is detailed clarification of the “eyes
only” category, which in some of their surveys form
an important part of the whole) - by using combined
data from day and night censuses as carried out here.
Furthermore, it is important to standardize not only
the methodology of the census but also the time of
the year of censusing, if subsequent recensuses are
to be compared with the original census data in any
meaningful way. We recommend carrying out the
censuses only during winter (as done here) at the
time of maximum basking by large adults and at a
time when evening activity is concentrated into a
SALTWATER CROCODILE IN BHITARKANIKA SANCTUARY
147
Fig. 3. Larger river systems towards the coastal side of the Sanctuary. Location numbers in the text.
148
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 86
narrow time span probably resulting in more total
coverage of the available population.
We also stress that increased population counts
could well result from intimate familiarity with the
habitat, and that phase of the moon per se (that is the
effect of moonlight as opposed to the moon‘s effect
on the tides) is important. Surveys should ideally be
carried out in the dark phase of the moon or when
the moon is less than full. We agree with Messel et
al that proper counts cannot be carried out at high
tide when the water has overflowed the bank and is
in the vegetation zone. We operate only when the
water is at least 1 .6 m below the fortnightly high tide
level whereas Messel et al do not commence sur-
vey until the water level has dropped 60 cm below
a hypothetical line demarcating vegetation for the
exposed mudbank. This hypothetical line is placed
so that approximately as much vegetation remains
below as mud is exposed above it.
Due to the intensive nature of the study being
conducted at Bhitarkanika we are able to check and
fully corroborate the survey data on the basis of
regular basking sightings, nesting female numbers
etc.
2. Crocodile Population.
The population is characterised by a numerical
excess of males over females (16 as compared to
13). Under natural conditions (a population without
a recent history of hunting) we would expect 16
adult males to be associated with at least 30 breed-
ing females. The paucity of females in Bhitarkanika
is thought to reflect differential human predation on
females as compared to males. Females are readily
killed at the nest (Bustard 1967, Bustard and Choud-
hury 1980, 1981). As mentioned above, at other
times the adults are very vary, making capture ex-
tremely difficult as hunting methods in this area
prior to its gazettement as a Sanctuary were by torch
at night.
The number of subadults (six) is extremely
low. This is considered to reflect very high loss
levels of 2-3 years old as a result of use of set gill
nets in this area until recently. This practice was
stopped at the time of Sanctuary declaration when a
total ban was placed on fishing within the Sanctuary
(May 1975, see below). The population of juvenile
porosus (mostly in their second and third years) has
increased many-fold as a result of good survival of
the 1974 and 1975 hatching year classes following
cessation of fishing (see Section 4 and Kar 1981).
This should result in greatly enhanced survival of
subadults in the future, particularly since the adult
population is numerically so depressed.
The overall abundance in the numbers of
C. porosus (other than hatchlings) in Bhitarkanika
at 0.87 individuals/km is of a similar order to the
data of Messel et al (see for instance Monographs
3, 4, 5 and 7). Since these figures are enhanced by
approximately 50% by better recruitment of
juveniles, the figures prior to commencement of
management of the Sanctuary must have been ap-
proximately 0.4 km. Messel, Gans, Wells &
Green (1979) gave comparable figures of respec-
tively 0.48 and 0.55/km for the Victoria and
Fitzmaurice rivers of the Northern Territory of
Australia.
3. Distribution of the population in relation
to the habitat.
If the three habitat criteria of the river, the
mangroves and disturbance are examined together
the correlation between the apparent ‘health’ of the
habitat and the density of crocodiles/km (total
figures for all size classes) is not well marked. There
was a good correlation between river characteristics
and density (Table 1), as would be expected. There
was also some correlation between the degree of dis-
turbance and crocodile population density. There
was no apparent correlation between crocodile den-
sity and mangrove cover.
Examining the number of adults in relation to
the habitat ranking, it was found that a low habitat
ranking was associated with a low number of
adults/habitat. However, when the habitat ranking
was high the number of adults/habitat could be
either high or low. One possible explanation for the
persistence of adults in poor habitat areas would be
that they took up their present home range when the
non-river components of the habitat were much dif-
ferent from what they are today. The habitat chan-
ges, as they affect the mangrove forests and degree
of disturbance have changed drastically in the last
two decades, which probably reflect a short time
span in the life of an adult saltwater crocodile. For
examination of the data for juveniles showed a close
agreement with that for adults which may be an-
ticipated since juveniles can only occur in the
SALTWATER CROCODILE IN BHITARKANIKA SANCTUARY
149
presence of adults and dispersal to more favourable
habitats had not occurred in this size class. Unfor-
tunately the extremely limited number of subadults
(six) precludes correlation analysis of their presence
with habitat factors. It should be noted, however,
that of the six subadults two occurred in location 1
in the absence of any adults and a further two in loca-
tion 5 in the absence of any adult females. The
remaining two occurred in separate habitats where
there were one male and one female and two males
and one female respectively. Thus their recruitment
may perhaps be enhanced in the absence of adults,
particularly females. However, due to the very low
number of subadults this can only be conjecture at
this stage.
4. Implications of the above three topics for
management of this crocodile Sanctuary.
The total crocodile population is very low. The
adult cohort of the population is miniscule. There are
virtually no subadults. The only hope for the popula-
tion lies in the survival of the present young
crocodiles and their recruitment to the breeding
population combined with the release of captive-
reared crocodiles back into the wild when they have
reached a size at which they are safe from most
potential predation in order to boost this recruitment.
Hence, if the crocodile population is to survive, let
alone recover, both the habitat and the crocodile will
require very rigid protection together with the
removal of all inimical factors (see Recommenda-
tions).
There is a sexual imbalance in the small
population of adult crocodiles, resulting in the need
to build up the female cohort of the population. This
is being done by releasing mostly young females
from the Dangmal Centre (Kar and Bustard, in
prepn.)
Survival prognosis for the immature
crocodiles, resulting from both natural recruitment
and release from captivity, is now good as a result
of the banning of nylon gill nets throughout the
Sanctuary. This is borne out by the sighting of no
less than 61 crocodiles in the 1-1.5 m size class
within the Sanctuary (Kar and Bustard, in prepn.).
These individuals represent the hatching
predominantly of the 1975 year class and to a lesser
extent 1974. The virtually complete loss of the pre-
vious year classes as a result of their capture in fish-
ing nets prior to banning of fishing throughout the
Sanctuary in April 1975 should be noted. Whereas
the six subadults represent at least six year classes
indicating a survival of the order of only one per
year, the 6 1 individuals represent only two year clas-
ses indicating a survival of about 30 individuals
/year, an increase of 30 times over the previous
figure when nylon gill nets were in use. The implica-
tions of this in management are obvious - it is essen-
tial to retain the legal ban on fishing in the Sanctuary
and to ensure that under the new management plan
this ban is effectively enforced throughout the
Sanctuary.
The habitat degradation which has taken place
may not yet be fully reflected in the numbers of adult
crocodiles present as there is likely to be a time lag
in that existing crocodiles continue to inhabit their
traditional home range however degraded. It may
not be possible, however, for new recruitment to
take place under such conditions. Hence the situa-
tion facing the saltwater crocodile population of the
Sanctuary may be even more critical than it appears.
Recommendations
1 . The ban on the use of set gill nets throughout the
Sanctuary should be maintained.
2. No further encroachment on the mangrove
habitat within the Sanctuary should be per-
mitted.
3 This Sanctuary, as a unique floral/faunal ecosys-
tem, should be declared as a Biosphere Reserve
by the Government of India.
Acknowledgements
We wish to express our thanks to the Orissa
Forest Department, the Government of India, F.A.O.
and U.N.D.P. for assistance.
References
Burbidge, A. A. & Messel, H. (1979): The status of the and Wildlife. Western Australia Report No. 34: 1-38.
saltwater crocodile in the Glenelg, Prince Regent and Ord River Bustard, H.R. (1967): Report on the Crocodile Skin Trade
System, Kimberley, Western Australia. Department of Fisheries in the Territory of Papua and New Guinea with Recommenda-
150
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
tions for the Future Development of the Industry. Unpublished
confidential report to Australian Minister of External Territories.
(1968): Rapid learning in wild crocodiles
( Crocodylus porosus). Herpetologica 24(2): 173-175.
(1970): Report on the current status of
crocodiles in Western Australia. Department of Fisheries and
Fauna. Government of Western Australia, Report No. 6: 1 -29 pp.
+ 5 Appendices.
(1974): A preliminary survey of the prospects
for crocodile farming (India). FO:IND/ 71/-033 October 1974.
FAO, Rome.
(1975): Gharial and crocodile conservation
management in Orissa (India), ibid. December 1 975. FAO, Rome.
Bustard, H.R. & Choudhury, B.C. (1981): Conservation
future of the saltwater crocodile (i Crocodylus porosus Schneider)
in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77(2): 201-214.
Choudhury, B.C. & Bustard, H.R. (1980): Predation on
natural nests of the saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus
Schneider) on North Andaman Island with notes on the crocodile
population, ibid. 76(2): 311-323.
Daniel, J.C. (1970): A review of the present status and
position of endangered species of Indian reptiles. In Proceedings
of the IUCN 11th Technical Meeting, New Delhi. IUCN Publica-
tions New Series No. 18: 75-76.
Daniel, J.C. & Hussain, S.A. (1975): A record (?)
saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus Schneider). J. Bombay
nat. Hist . Soc. 71 (2):309-3 12.
De Waard, J.N. (1975): Economic potential of gharilal
and saltwater crocodile schemes in Orissa (India) with notes on
the sea turtle industry. FO:IND/7 1/033. Project Working Docu-
ment. FAO, Rome.
Kanungo, B.C. (1976): An Integrated Scheme for Conser-
vation of Crocodiles in Orissa with Management Plan for Sat-
koshia Gorge and Bhitarkanika Sanctuaries. Forest Department,
Cuttack, Orissa.
Kar, S.K. (1981): Studies on the saltwater crocodile
(Crocodylus porosus Schneider). Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Utkal
University, Orissa, India.
Kar, S.K. & Bustard, H.R. (1981): Crocodile kills taken
as human food. British Journal of Herpetology. 6: 137.
Messel, H. (1977): The crocodile programme in Northern
Australia: population survey and numbers. In: AustralianAnimals
and their environment. Shakespear Head Press, Sydney.
Messel, H., Burbidge, A. A., Wells, A.G. & Green, W.J.
(1977): The status of the saltwater crocodile in some rivers sys-
tems of the north-west Kimberley, Western Australia. Department
of Fisheries and Wildlife, Western Australia Report No. 24: 1-50.
Messel, H., Wells, A.G. & Green, W.J. (1978):
Crocodylus porosus population studies. Survey techniques in
tidal river systems of Northern Australia. Presented at the 4th
Working Meeting IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group, held
at Madras, India. February 6-12.
Messel, H., Gans, C., Wells, A.G., Green, W.J., Vor-
licek, G.C. & Brennan, K.G. (1979): Surveys of tidal river sys-
tems in the Northern Territory of Australia and their crocodile
populations. Monograph No. 2. The Victoria and Fitzmaurice
river systems. Pergamon press (Australia) No. 2:1-52.
MONKEYS OF THE OLD CITY OF JAIPUR, INDIA1
Reena Mathur, R. Manor ar and A. Lobo2
{With two text-figures )
This report presents preliminary data on the density of Macaca mulatto and Presbytis entellus based
on road transects in the city of Jaipur, India. The sampled area covered 7.8% of the total area of the old city of
Jaipur. Transects were run during the morning hours of the winter season. The results indicate a much higher
density of Macaca mulatto than of Presbytis entellus (346.4 and 36.6 per sq. km respectively). The number of
rhesus groups in 7.26 sq. km is 21, while that of langurs is 5. The higher density of M. mulatto is attributed to
its omnivorous and terrestrial habits. P. entellus is folivorous and arboreal; its habitat requirements are best met
in the city’s outskirts. In the old city they are mainly found in the temple areas. This investigation suggests that
the monkeys in the inner old city should be managed by rehabilitation into the forest before they outstrip food
supply and living space, and before they are treated more and more as pests by city inhabitants.
Introduction
The present study is the outcome of a longfelt
desire to take up census survey of primates of a city
which has an abundance of two monkey species.
Monkeys are abdundant in Jaipur, but there are
very few reports on their population density and
structure (Prakash 1962, Wolfe and Mathur 1987).
The present investigation (October 1985 to February
1986) was initiated to provide preliminary infor-
mation on the density of M. mulatta and P. entellus
within the city.
Study Area
The city of Jaipur (26°55’N and 70°55’E) lies
within the semi-arid zone. The climate is sub-tropi-
cal and characterized by three distinct seasons, with
almost all rain falling from July to September, the
annual rainfall being 70 cm. The winter season ex-
tends from October to February with temperature
dropping to about 4°C. The summers are dry and hot,
and temperatures may reach as high as 45 6C. The
total city area (urban agglomeration) is 210.09
sq.km and has a human population of 1,015,160
(density 4832 per sq.km). The city is divisible into
an inner old city and a surrounding new city. Of par-
ticular interest in the present investigation is the old
city which encompasses an area of 7.26 sq. km and
has a high human density (33,480 per sq.km). This
Accepted April 1988.
department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan,
Jaipur 302 004.
area has markets, tourist spots and residences.
For this study, ten roads were selected as the
sample for density estimates in the old city (4 east-
west, 6 north-south; Fig. 1). These roads were
selected as transects because of the ease with which
the monkeys could be counted. Hence the sample is
not entirely random. Each transect was 1 km long
(total 10 km). All transects except the sixth had a
fixed width. Their widths were estimated by taking
into account (i) width of the road, (ii) width of the
pavements on both sides of the road, (iii) width of
the shops on both sides, and (iv) parts of houses seen
beyond the shops. Transect 6 was of the same length
as the others but on each trip the transect width was
determined by estimating the perpendicular distance
of the animal farthest from the road. The mean value
of all these widths provided the approximate width
of transect 6. The area of each transect was calcu-
lated by multiplying transect width by length. The
sampled area covered 7.83% of the total area of the
old city (7.26 sq km).
Methods
Each transect was run 20 times at a fixed time
of the day (0630 hrs.). The direction of movement
along each of the transects was the same during all
visits. On each survey the investigators drove along
these road transects on a two wheeler (monkeys here
are habituated to all urban noises) at slow speed (15
km/hour), stopping whenever there were monkeys
to count, individuals and groups of both species. All
precautions were taken not to count any individual
twice. The following sequence of transect censuses
was followed: transects 1, 5, 8, 2, 6, 9, 3, 7, 10, 4
152
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.86
OLD CITY OF JAIPUR
INDEX //V
Transect ggVery high density ^ Hi gh §gg Moderate £$ Low Very low
^Almost n,l Hshops £3 T*mpLM(.angur group ®Rhesus group
Fig. 1. Distribution and density of monkeys along the transects and its association with provisioning sites.
(Fig. 1). This sequence was established to avoid the
possibility of counting individuals twice and was
based on a consideration of the movement of
monkeys along the transects. Collectively, the tran-
sects covered a total area of 0.57 sq.km (56.94 ha).
This method provided a quick estimate of primate
density in the study area. The total survey time was
160 man hours; the cumulative transect length was
200 km, and the total survey area was 7.26 sq.km.
Driving a vehicle slowly on the road is probab-
ly the best way to census monkeys in the city.
Monkeys sometimes keep moving rather rapidly in
the same direction; if the transect is walked,
monkeys may pass the investigator and be counted
twice.
Long broad roads were chosen for the transects
because on narrow, congested lanes the houses are
very close and monkeys easily jump from one house
to another and even from one lane to another, thus
increasing the chances of counting the same monkey
twice. Morning hours during the winter months are
the best time to count monkeys in Jaipur because
most individuals are huddled together and sit bask-
ing on the rooftops.
Results
The total density of monkeys in the old city of
Jaipur is 383.0/sq.km. Langurs contribute a very
small fraction to this total, i.e. 36.6/sq.km. The
remaining 356.4 is constituted by rhesus monkeys
alone (relative density 0.12 and 0.88 respectively).
Twenty-one rhesus and five langur groups
were encountered and identified. Biomass calcula-
tions show that mean weight per sq.km for langurs
is 522 kg while for rhesus it is 3117.6 kg (X wts.
Prater 1980, Napier and Napier 1967). This suggests
that, within the inner city, food is much more util-
MONKEYS OF JAIPUR
153
ized by rhesus than by langur. Whether calculated
on the basis of number of individuals or biomass per
sq.km., rhesus are clearly dominant in the inner city.
The maximum mean number of rhesus and lan-
gurs (175.3 ± 14.3 and 34.6 ± 2.2 respectively) was
found in transect 6. Rhesus were seen in all 10 tran-
sects, whereas langurs were absent in transects 5, 7,
9 and 10 (Fig. 2).
Therefore, the frequency of sighting langurs is
as low as 0.6 and that of rhesus is L0. If transect 6
is excluded from die analysis, density estimates are
reduced from 383.0 to 278.5 monkey s/sq. km.
(262.1 rhesus/sq.km and 16.4 langurs/sq.km). Tran-
sect 6 is the only transect which includes a temple,
where people not only protect animals but also feed
them.
Discussion
The spatial distribution of M. mulatta and
P. entellus in the city of Jaipur is distinct. The old
city has a very high density of rhesus; though they
MEAN NUMBER OF MONKEYS IN EACH TRANSECT
are found all over the old city, their greatest con-
centration is in transect 6 because of the presence of
a temple and a tourist spot in that area. The con-
centration of rhesus in the old city is attributed to
their omnivorous, terrestrial feeding habits and
more aggressive nature. They raid shops and pilfer
goods from people. The distribution of langurs is
restricted mainly to transect 6 (temple-tourist area)
probably because more vegetation is found there (as
compared to the rest of the old city). In brief, both
species are most abdundant in temple-tourist area
because of protection generally offered to them. In
other areas of the old city the rhesus is found as men-
tioned earlier but sighting a langur group is rather
rare. The shop keepers and vendors keep chasing
monkeys away. The rhesus, which is more aggres-
sive, withstands this, while langurs flee.
The distribution and density of M. mulatta
along the road transects has a close association with
the wholesale fruit, vegetable, grain and jaggery
shops (Fig. 1; Table 1). M. mulatta would often be
found concentrated around these shops. The highest
concentration of Af. mulatta and P. entellus at tran-
sect 6 is probably due to the facts that (i) the tran-
sect passes through the area of a large temple where
provisioning is high, (ii) there are few residential
houses along this transect, so that monkeys are sel-
dom chased or otherwise harassed, and (iii) the area
has many trees to give refuge to both species and
provide food to langurs. Otherwise, langur groups
are generally seen on the city outskirts, probably due
to two reasons: (i) there is virtually no confrontation
with the more aggressive rhesus, and (ii) the out-
skirts provide more food (leaves, fruits etc) of the
type eaten by the langurs.
After talking to inhabitants of the old city and
completing the density study, the authors support
suggestions made by Southwick and Siddiqi (1983,
1984) that excess numbers of monkeys should be
translocated from areas of high human population.
This is necessary to protect both the monkeys and
the people from mutual harassment and reduce the
potential of disease transmission (Mohnot 1978,
Hall 1955) and also to reduce human influence on
monkeys (Neomi et al. 1981).
Acknowledgements
Pig. 2. Mean number of monkeys at each site.
We are thankful to Dr. Rudy Rudran, Research
154
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Associate, NZP Washington DC and Dr. Walter training and advice.
Auffenberg, University of Florida, Gainesville, for
Table 1
DISTRIBUTION AND CONCENTRATION OF Macaca mulatta AND Presbytis entellus ALONG THE TRANSECTS AND
ITS ASSOCIATION WITH PROVISIONING SITES
Transect
No.
Area
Habitat
Concentration
of rhesus and
langur
1.
0.048 sq.km
Chandpole to Choti Chopad
Jaggery, grain and vegetable
markets; temple
Moderate
2.
0.048 sq.km
Choti Chopad to Badi Chopad
Tourist area
High
3.
0.048 sq.km
Badi Chopad to Ramgunj
Jaggery, vegetable and
fruit markets
High
4.
0.048 sq.km
Ramgunj to Surajpole
No shops selling eatables
Very low
5.
0.044 sq.km
Choti Chopad to Brahampuri
No shops selling eatables
Low
6.
0.16 sq.km
City Palace to Govind Deoji
City Palace;
temple; high provisioning
Very High
7.
0.04 sq.km
Ramgunj to Char Darwaza
No shops selling eatables
Almost nil
8.
0.04 sq.km
Choti Chopad to Kishanpole
Few sweet shops
Very low
9.
0.04 sq.km
Badi Chopad to Johari Bazar
Vegetable and fruit markets
Moderate
10.
0.04 sq.km
Jaggery and grain markets
Low
Ramgunj Chopad to Ramgunj Bazar
References
Hull, T.G. (1955): Diseases transmitted from
animals to man. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, 111.
Mohnot, S.M. (1978): Conservation of primates in
India. pp. 47-53. In: D.J. Chivers and W. Lane Petter (eds)
Recent Advances in Primatology. Vol. II Conservation,
Academic Press.
Napier, J.R. & Napier, P. H. (1967): A Handbook
of Living Primates. Academic Press. New York.
Neomi, B., Blaffer, Hrdy, S., Jane, T. & Moore,
J. (1981): Measures of human influence in habitats of
south Asian monkeys. Int. J. of Primat. ID 2: 153-167.
Prakash, I. (1962): Group organization, sexual be-
haviour and breeding season of certain Indian monkeys.
Jap.J.ofEcol.12: 83-86.
Prater, S.H. (1980): The book of Indian Animals. Bom-
bay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Southwick, C.H. & Siddiqui, M.F. (1983): Status
and conservation of rhesus monkeys in India, pp. 227-
237. In: P.K. Seth (ed) Perspectives In Primate Biology.
Today-Tomorrow Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.
(1984): A proposal for conservation of
rhesus monkeys in agricultural habitats in northern
India. pp. 553-561. In: Roonwal, M.L., Mohnot, S.M. &
Rathore, N.S. (eds) Current Primate Researches, Depart-
ment of Zoology, University of Jodhpur, India.
Wolfe, L.D. & Mathur, R. (1987): Monkeys of
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3):
534-539.
BIOLOGY OF THE PREDACEOUS BUG RHINOCORIS MARGINATUS FABRICIUS
(INSECTA - HETEROPTERA - REDUVIIDAE)1
Dunston P. Ambrose2 and David Livingstone3
( With three text-figures )
Rhinocoris marginatus Fabricius lays pale yellow eggs in batches in an orderly sequence. Eggs are glued
to each other and to the substratum with cementing material. Sanguineous nymphs hatch from the eggs in 9 to
13 days. Stadial period from first instar to adult ranges from 68 to 115 days. Adult females live longer than
males. Observations on laboratory-raised bugs for four generations indicate that the sex ratio of R. marginatus
is not biased.
Introduction
Rhinocoris marginatus Fabr. is an alate, en-
tomosuceivorous, polyphagous, multivoltine,
crepuscular, brightly coloured assassin bug occur-
ring in the scrub jungles and semi-arid zones of
peninsular India. It is not found in the adjacent tropi-
cal rain forests or on hillocks. It manifests as three
different recorded morphs, namely niger, san-
guineous and nigrosanguineous, and a number of
ecotypes. The morphs are distinguished based on the
colours of the connexivum (Ambrose 1980). This
polyphagous bug is a predator on various insect
pests like Calocoris angustatus Leth., Cyrtacan-
thacris succincta Kirby, Dysdercus cingulatus Dis-
tant, Earias vitteia (Fb.), E. insulana Boisd.,
Heliothis armigera Hubn. and Mylabris pustulata
Lefroy both in the laboratory and in field conditions.
Bioecology of a few species of oriental
reduviids is known. They include Coranus spinis-
cutis Reuter (Bose 1949); Rhinocoris lapidicoia
Samuel and Joseph and R. nysiphagus Fabricius
(Joseph 1959); Lophocephala guerini Laporte
(Ambrose and Livingstone 1979); Acanthaspis
pedestris Stal (Livingstone and Ambrose 1978) and
A. quinquespinosa Fabricius (Ambrose 1983). The
biological details presented here are related to a
niger morph, collected from Kangayampalaya, a
semi-arid zone of Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu.
Accepted November 1985.
department of Zoology, St. Xavier’s College,
Palayamkottai - 627 002.
department of Zoology, Bharathiyar University,
Coimbatore - 641 041
Material and Methods
Adults of niger morph of R. marginatus were
collected from Kangayampalayam semi-arid zone
in Coimbatore District. They were reared in plastic
containers (12 cm x 6 cm x 4 cm) on house flies,
camponotine ants, carabid beetles and grasshop-
pers. The batches of eggs laid were reared separate-
ly in plastic containers with wet cotton swabs for
maintaining optimum humidity (85%). The cotton
swabs were changed periodically in order to prevent
fungal attack. Observations on oviposition, incuba-
tion and stadial periods, nymphal mortality, adult
longevity and sex ratio were recorded. Four genera-
tions were raised in the laboratory.
Results and Discussion
Microhabitat:
Adults and nymphs of R. marginatus are
found underneath stones and in crevices, but no
parental care has been observed, unlike in other as-
sassin bugs, viz. Rhinocoris albospiius Signoret
(Od hi am bo 1959) and Zeius sp. (Ralston 1977). Dif-
ferent species of Carabidae and Tenebrionidae, the
common yellow scorpion ( Buthus sp.), and on rare
occasions venomous reptiles, such as Echis
carinata , are also found in the same microhabitats.
Very rarely, R. marginatus is found in pairs but not
more than two adults are found at a time in the same
microhabitat, even though up to five nymphs are
found to congregate.
Oviposition pattern:
R. marginatus deposits its first batch of eggs
33.33 ± 2.87 days after imaginal moult. Eggs are laid
in batches, each attached to the other and glued
basally to the substratum with a gelatinous cement-
156
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vcl. 86
100©®©©]
O® 0 ©_© ©I
Fig. 1. Ovipositing R. marginaius
ing material. The eggs are pale yellow and cylindri-
cal, with an operculum which is white, comb-iike,
highly reticulate and completely enveloped by a
mantle of highly reticulate (hexagonal) collar that
develops abruptly from the mouth of the egg. It very
much resembles the egg of R. olfugus (Cobben
1968). The egg is 1.01 mm long, 0.463 mm wide,
the operculum being 0.409 mm long and 0.363 mm
wide. R. marginaius does not glue its eggs to flesh
excreta unlike Acanthaspis pedestris and A. siva
Distant (Ambrose 1980) and in A. quinquespiriosa
(Ambrose 1983). There is no seasonal influence on
oviposition behaviour as reported in Rhinocoris
albospilus (Odhiambo 1959) and Zelus sp.
(Ralston 1977).
R. marginaius lays eggs in an orderly se-
quence (Figs. 1 and 2) as reported by Odhiambo
(1959), Edwards (1962) and Swadener and Yonke
(1973) in other species. The female selects an area
free from foreign materials, and it remains at that
particular spot with legs wide apart, wings slightly
raised, pedicel and scape erect, with drooping flagel-
lar segments. The genital segments alone move ver-
tically up and down as the eggs are conveyed one
after another. The non-opercular end of the egg
comes out first with a little gelatinous cementing
material. The egg is placed gently on the substratum
with the tip of the genital segments one after the
Fig. 2. Pattern of oviposition in R. rnarginatus
other by touching the available place by its ab-
dominal tip nearer to the already deposited egg. In
one instance (Fig.2) it took 41 minutes to lay 48
eggs at a stretch without taking any rest, requiring
on an average 51.25 seconds for each egg. During
oviposition the only movement is the up and down
movement of the abdominal tip. The pattern of
oviposition indicates that with one tilting of ab-
domen three eggs are laid in a particular direction.
Tne entire oviposition pattern is somewhat zigzag
in nature.
Table 1 summarises the oviposition pattern
and hatchability rate of the bug. An index of oviposi-
tion days has been prepared by calculating the per-
centage of number of egg laying days during the
adults’ life-span. The unfertilized eggs are normal
when laid but shrink after some days as in Coranus
vitellinus Distant (Ambrose 1980). Neither the
males nor the females of R. marginaius guard the
eggs or show any parental care towards nymphal in-
stars as reported in Rhinocoris albospilus (Od-
hiambo 1959) and Zelus sp. (Ralston 1977).
Incubation and hatching:
Under laboratory conditions (32°C, RH 80-
85%, Photoperiod 11-13 hr) the eggs hatch in 9 to
13 days. Hatching usually takes place in the after-
noon and very seldom in the forenoon. The nymphs
do not probe the egg shell soon after eclosion as
BIOLOGY OF R. MARGXNATUS
157
Table 1
MEAN (18 ± SE) VALUES OF OVIPOSITION PATTERN AND VIABILITY IN R . marginatus
Range
Mean
1.
Adult female longevity in days
111 to 129
120 ± 10.63
2.
Age at which first batch of egg laid in days
30 to 54
33.33 ± 2.87
3.
Index of oviposition days
2.33 to 10.58
9.22 ± 3.08
4.
Total number of batches of eggs laid
4 to 15
7.33 ±2.47
5.
Minimum number of eggs per batch
1 to 14
9.80 ±4.74
6.
Maximum number of eggs per batch
37 to 52
43 ± 6.72
7.
Average number of eggs per batch
20 to 28
22.36 ± 2.17
8.
Total number of eggs laid
110 to 280
154.67 ±52.8
9.
Total number of nymphs hatched
78 to 114
88.33 ±23.64
10.
Hatching percentage
58 to 71
66.9 ± 5 7.48
MEAN INCUBATION AND
Table 2
STADIAL PERIODS IN R. marginatus
Genera-
tion
Incubation
period in
days
I-II
II--XII
Stadial period in
IXI-IV IV-V
days
V Male
V Female
I Adult
10.51 ±
22.83 ±
14.9 ±
14.08 ±
15.25 ±
24.22 ±
27.33 ±
93.83 ±
1.
0.19
0.67
0.13
0.62
0.68
1.03
0.17
3.52
(77)
(12)
(12)
(12)
(12)
(12)
(9)
(3)
8.74 ±
20.77 ±
16.62 ±
14.61 ±
19.15 ±
29.0 ±
31.1 ±
102.08 ±
2.
0.88
1.14
0.56
0.32
0.53
3.05
1.64
2.01
09)
(13)
(13)
(13)
(13)
(13)
(13)
(10)
9.80 ±
18.87 ±
13.00 ±
15.62 ±
21.07 ±
35.0 ±
36.2 ±
105.93 ±
3.
-0.3
0.65
0.18
0.57
0.09
0
1
1.02
(21)
(15)
(15)
(15)
(15)
(15)
(5)
(10)
9.19 ±
15.67 ±
12.42 ±
12.42 ±
18.1 ±
36.35 ±
33.92 ±
96.9 ±
4.
1.29
0.26
0.29
3.26
0.26
0.65
1.18
0.9
(65)
(59)
(59)
(59)
(59)
(59)
(28)
(31)
(Figures in parentheses indicate the number of observed individuals).
reported for Rhodnius prolixus Stal. (Ereecher
and Wiggles worth 1944).
Stadia! period:
It is interesting to report that both moulting
and adult emergence occur only in the afternoons,
corresponding to the eclosion periodicity. Table 2
summarises the stadia! periods . As in Coranus
vitellinus (Ambrose 1980), the stadial period of the
third instar is the shortest and that of the final instar
of the female the longest. The complete stadial
period from first instar to adult ranges from 68 to
115 days.
Description of the nympfaal instars:
Sanguineous; scape and pedical, dorsal surface of
abdomen, wing pads, median band and lateral mar-
gins beneath the abdomen, apical half of femur,
tibiae and tarsomeres black (Fig. 3).
Head finely pubescent with straight and
clubbed hairs; transverse impression in between
eyes; delimiting anteocular and postocular areas
both similar in extent; four-segmented filamentous
antenna, scape the longest, first flagellar segment
the shortest; rostrum three segmented, terminal seg-
ment the shortest, middle segment the longest.
Prothorax sanguineous and finely pubescent, width
greater than length, median longitudinal impres-
sion both in the prothorax and pterothorax
prominent; legs richly pilose and devoid of tibial
pads, mid-tibia the shortest and hind-tibia the
longest; abdomen longer than wide, 3 dorsal
median inter segmental scent gland orifices located
in between 3rd and 4th; 4th and 5th; and 5th and 6th
abdominal segments.
Nysnpfia! mortality:
The highest rate of mortality is recorded in the
first instar (43.58%) followed by the second
158
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig. 3. Nymphal instars of R. marginatus.
BIOLOGY OF R. MARGINATUS
159
Table 3
MEAN ADULT LONGEVITY AND SEX RATIO IN R. marginatus
Adult longevity in days
Sex ratio
Generation
Male
Female
Male
Female
1.
20.2 ± 8.2
120 ± 10.63
1
0.3
(9)
(3)
2
19.67 ±7.17
75.29 ± 8.82-
0.3
1
(3)
(10)
3.
18.6 ±5.15
43.43 ±12.84
0.5
1
(5)
(10)
4.
29.71 ±5.59
45 ±7.14
0.9
1
(28)
(31)
(Figures in parenthesis indicate the number of observed individuals).
34.09%) and the fifth (20%). Third and
fourinstars record 17.24% and 16.66% mortality
respectively. As in other Harpactorine species
(Ambrose 1980) the first instars fall easy prey to
other co- instars and thus record the highest rate of
mortality. Nymphal mortality is mainly due to the
pronounced cannibalistic tendency among nym-
phal instars. Abnormalities and natural hazards in
hatching, moulting, combat against powerful prey
etc. are a few other causes of nymphal mortality.
Adult longevity and sex ratio:
The life span of adult males is very short when
compared to that of females (Table 3). R. mar -
ginatusis multivoltine. Sex ratio of males and
females was 1:0.3, 0.33:1, 0.5:1 and 0.91:1 respec-
tively in the first, second, third and fourth genera-
tions raised in the laboratory.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the authorities of the Univer-
sity of Madras for facilities and encouragement. One
of us (DPA) thanks the Council of Scientific and In-
dustrial Research for financial assistance. Technical
assistance from Mr. P. Ramakrishnan and Mr. S.
John Vennison is gratefully acknowledged.
KEY TO NYMPHAL INSTARS:
1. First flagellar segment half as long as the pedicel, second
flagellar segment twice as long as the pedicel; basal segment of
rostrum less than twice the length of terminal segment; wing pads
notdeveloped (2)
First flagellar segment more than half the length of pedicel,
second terminal segment less than twice the length of pedicel;
basal segment of rostrum more than twice the length of terminal
segment; wing pads developed (3)
2. Both anteocular and postocular areas (independently) equal to
the width between eyes in length; diameter of eyes half of the
width between eyes; terminal segment of rostrum half as long as
its basal segment FIRST INSTAR
Both anteocular and postocular areas (independently) more than
width between eyes in length; diameter of eyes more than
two thirds of width between eyes; terminal segment of rostrum
two thirds of basal segment in length.. SECOND INSTAR1
3. Scape thrice the length of the first flagellar segment, wing pads
not reaching abominal segents THIRD INSTAR
Scape less than thrice the length of first flagellar segmenting
pads reaching abdominal segments (4)
4. Postocular area slightly longer than anteocular area, first flagel-
lar segment two thirds of pedical length, wing pads reaching first
abdominal segment, width of abdomen two thirds of its
length FQURTHINSTAR
Postocular area shorter than anteocular area, first flagellar seg-
ment almost equal to that of pedical, wing pads extending beyond
3rd abdominal segment, width of abdomen less than two thirds
of its length FIFTH INSTAR
References
Ambrose, D.P. (1980): Bioecology, ecophysiology (1983): Bioecology of an alate assassin
and ethology of Reduviids (Heteroptera) of the scrub bug Acanthaspis quinquespinosa (L.) Fabr. (Heteroptera:
jungles of Tamil Nadu. Ph.D thesis, Unversity of Madras. Reduviidae). Proc. Sym. Ins. Ecol & Resource Manage:
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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
107-115.
& Livingstone, D. (1979): On the
bioecology of Lophocephala guerini Laporte
(Reduviidae: Harpactorinae), a coprophagous reduviid
from the Palghat gap, India. J. nat. Hist. 13: 581-588.
Bose, B.A. (1949): On the biolgov of Coranus
spiniscutis Reuter an assassin bug (Fam.: Reduviidae).
Ind. J. ent. 11: 203- 208.
Breecher, G. & Wiggles worth, V.B. (1944): The
transmission of Actinomyces rhodnii Erikson in Rhodnbis
prolixusS tal. (Hemiptera) and its influence on the growth
of the host. Parasitol. 35: 220-224.
Cobben, R.H. (1968): Evolutionary trends in
Heteroptera, Part I. Eggs, architecture of shells, gross
embryology and ecolosion, Centre. Agri. Publ. Doc.
Wageningen. Annu. Rep.:\ - 465.
Edwards, J.S. (1962): Observations on the develop-
ment and predatory habits of two reduviids (Heteroptera)
Rhinocoris carmelita Stal. and Platymeris rhadamanthus
Gerst.TVoc. R. ent. Soc. London A 37: 89-98.
Joseph, M.T. (1959): Biology, Bionomics and
economic importance of some reduviids collected from
Delhi. Ind. J. ent. 27(1): 46-58.
Livingstone, D. & Ambrose, D.P. (1978): Bioecol-
ogy, Ecophysiology and Ethology of reduviids of the
scrub jungles of Palghat gap Part VII Bioecology of Acan-
thaspis pedestrisS tal. (Reduviidae: Acanthaspidinae) a
micropterous entomophagous species. J. Madras. Univ.
41 (3): 97-118.
Odhiambo.T.R. (1959): An account of parental care
in Rhinocoris albospilus Sign. (Hemiptera: Reduviidae)
with notes on its life history. Proc. R. Entornol. Soc. Lon-
don A 41: 21-24.
Ralston, J.S. (1977): Egg guarding by male assas-
sin bugs of the genus Zelus (Hemiptera: Reduviidae).
Psyche 84: 103-106.
Swadener, S.O. & Yonke, T.R. (1973): Immature
stages and biology of Zelus socius (Hemiptera:
Reduviidae). Can. ent. 105: 231-238.
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA BUSTARD:
1983- 84 POPULATION LEVELS IN WESTERN BALUCHISTAN1
Afsar Mian2
(With a text-figure )
The analysis of 6 quadrats in western, 2 in central, 6 in eastern Chagai and 13 in Kharan administrative
districts (Baluchistan, Pakistan) suggested that in the latter half of February 1984 the density of the Houbara
Bustard ( Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) was highest in western Kharan (1.1 125 birds/km2), followed by
eastern Chagai (0.4375), central Chagai (0.3438), eastern Kharan (0.1250) and lowest in western Chagai
(0.0208). The quadrat data suggests that there are still some 1 5,000 - 20,000 birds wintering in Baluchistan.
Introduction
The flat, open, desolate valleys of western
Baluchistan with loose sandy background and op-
timal sparse distribution of shrubs are known to har-
bour a good wintering population of the Asian race
of the Houbara Bustard, Chlamydotis undulata mac-
queenii (Ali and Ripley 1969, Anonymous 1972).
Our previous studies have tended to suggest that this
region harbours a comparatively rich population of
the bustards, as compared with various other known
populations of such a large bird (Mian and Surahio
1983, Mian and Rafique 1984, Mian and Dasti
1985). We did attempt to develop a map of the region
depicting the tentative relative concentration,
depending upon the hunting successes of the Arab
falconers (Mian 1984). However, no scientific sur-
vey of the population levels has been undertaken.
This paper attempts to report the results of a partial
and preliminary survey of this bustard species in cer-
tain favourable areas, which are known to hold a
sizeable population of this species, specially in
Chagai and Kharan districts.
Material and Methods
A survey of the favourable areas in Chagai, i.e
Nokkundi (28° 85’N, 62° 76’E), Yakmuch (28°
79*N, 63° 90’E), Padag (29° 03’N, 65° 14’E) and
Nushki (29° 56’N, 66° 06’E); andKharan, i.e., Jal-
war (28° 53’N, 64° 92 *E) and western Kharan (28°
33 *N, 65° 00’E), districts was undertaken in the lat-
1 Accepted July 1987.
department of Zoology, University of Baluchistan, Quetta,
Pakistan. Present address: Institute of Pure and Applied Biology,
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan.
ter part of February 1984. The quadrat method was
employed in all these areas in order to find the
population levels of the Houbara Bustard. A party of
three workers (the author along with two prominent
local hunters of the area) travelled in a jeep for a
predecided distance of 16 km, at a moderate speed
(15—25 km per hour), tending to maintain a straight
line. Each looked for the bird in a predecided direc-
tion, so that a maximum band was covered efficient-
ly. Whenever one of us spotted a Houbara Bustard,
it was almost immediately reported to the others.
Generally, on spotting the jeep in the vicinity of the
located bird, all the birds present around in an area
of 200 m would lake to their wings. These flying
birds were easily counted. It was believed that by
this technique, on an average, a band of some 500 m
could be covered efficiently. Thus, the calculations
regarding the density of the Houbara present in a
quadrat was based upon the assumption that each
quadrat covered an area of some 8 km2 (16 x 1/2
km). Different numbers of quadrats were studied in
different areas in accordance with the total area of
the favourable tract and the time at our disposal.
Each quadrat area was at a distance of half an hour *s
free drive from the finish point of the last quadrat
area. The overall density of the bird population, in
an area was calculated by pooling the data of all the
different quadrats in the specific area. Sokal and
Rohlf (1969) were followed for statistical analysis.
The observations on the three quadrats were
carried out starting soon after sunrise upto 1100 hrs.
and on two/three from 1600 hrs. till a little after sun-
set, with the assumption that during these compara-
tively cooler parts of the day, the birds would be out
of their roosting places, picking up food in the field,
thus providing a greater chance of seeing all the birds
present in the area.
162
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol .86
A selected number of the hunters, shepherds
and nomads in each of these areas were also inter-
viewed. They were questioned regarding the num-
ber of the birds seen during the last few days and the
approximate distance travelled for such an observa-
tion. It was believed that a casual observer could ob-
serve the presence of the bird in a band of some 200
m. The records were, however, maintained as a
check to our observations, and were never subjected
to a detailed analysis. Our quadrat data generally
agreed with the observations of the local populace.
Results
Table 1 presents the data regarding number of
birds observed, and the calculated population den-
sity, in each of the quadrats studied in Chagai and
Kharan districts. The table indicates that the
population density of the Houbara Bustard is very
low in otherwise quite favourable tracts of the
western region of Chagai, i.e., Nokkundi and Yak-
much. The overall density of the bird population,
calculated from six different quadrats examined in
the region, is worked out to be 0.0208 birds per km2.
These observations were corroborated by the fact
that, despite our best efforts, we could spot foot-
prints of the bird at only four places. Further, the in-
formation from the local hunters and shepherds also
indicated that they had hardly seen a bird in the area
since January 1984. The data obtained from the two
other quadrats, in the central Chagai, i.e., Padag, in-
dicated that there was an adequate population of the
Houbara, with a calculated density of 0.6875 birds
per km2.
The quadrat data seems to be rather an overes-
timation of the actual bird population density in the
area, as small plains with almost equal areas under
hilly terrain are alternately distributed in this region.
We could spot many foot-prints on the loose soil
present in almost all the dried water courses scat-
tered in the hilly terrain, and we are of the opinion
that almost all the birds move to the hilly terrain
during the hotter part of the day, coming out into the
plains for picking up food during the morning and
evening. Tims our quadrat data, collected in the eve-
ning session from the plain areas would include the
birds which are actually dispersed in both hilly and
plain areas. In the light of these facts, a reasonable
estimate of the population of this bird would be half
of the one obtained through our quadrat analysis.
Hence the overall population density of the bird in
this area comes to about 0.3438 birds per km2. The
favourable tract of the eastern Chagai, i.e. Nushki,
bears a reasonable population density and the pooled
data obtained from six different quadrats analysed
in the area suggest an overall density of 0.4375 birds
per km2. The major part of the population of the east-
ern Chagai is the migratory flock, which is at this
part of the year on a return migration towards their
summering grounds.
Table 2 presents a reasonable estimate of the
Houbara Bustard, expected to be present in different
areas of Chagai and Kharan. The presently available
information suggests that, towards the latter part of
February 1984, some 14,840 birds were present in
the area of Chagai and Kharan, permitting a
reasonable guess that some 15,000 birds are present
in these two districts and their adjacent areas.
Different quadrat areas are remarkably dif-
ferent from one another with regard to the topog-
raphy, background soil and the general vegetation.
Generally, all these areas bear loose background soil
with sandy or loose stony cover. All these areas are
flat, with different degrees of scattered sand dunes
or small hills. The vegetation of these plains can be
regarded as wasteland steppe, having scattered
shrubs of Haloxylon ammodendron, Anabasis sp.,
Pennisetum dichotomum, Calligonum c onto sum,
Koehleria phloeoidesmd Ephedras. p., which are
distributed to varying degrees in the different areas.
Persistent drought in the western Chagai had
stopped the sprouting of shrubs, annual herbs and
grasses. However, a moderate precipitation during
the winter months has caused a reasonable vegeta-
tion in the central and eastern Chagai as well as in
Kharan. It was believed that the Houbara was at-
tracted towards the wheat fields during the night and
we could confirm the presence of a single bird in
the wheat field at about 2100 hrs. However, it
T^ould not be confirmed whether the Houbara does
consume parts of the wheat plant or is attracted to
some associated vegetation or insects.
Discussion
The results of the quadrat data collected from
the different areas of Chagai and Kharan suggest
that towards the latter half of February 1984,
HOUBARA BUSTARD IN BALUCHISTAN
163
Table 1
OBSERVED NUMBERS AND CALCULATED DENSITY OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD IN DIFFERENT QUADRATS (8 KM2 )IN
CHAGAI AND KHARAN DISTRICTS (BALUCHISTAN, PAKISTAN), AS STUDIES IN FEBRUARY, 1984
General Area
Approximate
Location of
quadrat
Number
of birds observed
Calculated
density (bird s/km 2 )
Overall calculated
density in general
area (birds/km2+ s.e)
Nokkundi
Koh-i-Sultan
0.00
Yakmuch
Gut Game Reserve
—
0.00
(Western
Non Reserved area
___
0.00
0.0208 ±
Chagai)
Ghala Chah
1
0.125
0.0208
Gonnakoh
—
0.00
Dalbandin
—
0.00
Dalbandin
—
0.00
Padak
Masseti Railway
—
(Central
Land!
6
0.75
0.6876 ±
Chagai)
Pul Chotao Dak
5
0.625
0.0616
Nushki
Dak (Zanghi Nawar)
2
0.25
(Eastern
Chagai)
In am Bostan Dak
4
0.50
Jal Kilghi
5
0.625
0.4375 ±
Amir Dal
3
0.375
0.0089
Amir Dal
3
0.375
0.0089
Amir Dal
4
0.500
Amir Dal
3
0.375
Kharan
Kiss an Pat
7
0.875
(Western,
Bengalzai
9
1.125
high density
Garruk
8
1.000
area)
Tagab Dal
4
0.500
1.1125*
Tagab Dal
3
0.375
0.1692
Bedi
6
0.750
Chinie
10
1.250
Haji Chah
12
1.500
Kill Wafa
13
1.625
Shahugheri
17
2.125
Kharan
Tatagar
—
0.000
(Eastern,
Baz Pat
2
0.250
0. 125 ±
low density area
Shelli Pat
1
0.125
0.0510
Table 2
APPROXIMATE ESTIMATES OF THE POPULATION OF THE HOUBARA BUSTARD IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF CHAGAI
AND KHARAN DISTRICTS, IN FEBRUARY 1984
General Area
Approximate area*
with bustard
habitat (km2)
Density of**
Houbara
(bird/km2 )
Estimated
Population
Western Chagai
10,000
0.0208
208
Central Chagai
3,500
0.3438
1,193
Eastern Chagai
Kharan (Western,
1,700
0.4375
748
high density area)
12,.750
1.1125
12,515
Total
. . ...
27,950
14,664
^Excluding the areas under steep hills and about l/4th of the area rendered unfavourable by human settlements in the area.
From Table 1.
164
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol .86
Fig. 1. Line sketch of Baluchistan,
showing relative population density of the Hou’oara and approximate location of the areas mentioned in text.
l.Nokkundi 2. Yakmuch 3. Dalbandin 4. Padag 5. Nushki 6. Panjpai 7. Mashkhel 8. Plantak 9. Washuk
10. Shamshi ll.Tagab 12. ShelliPat 13. BazPat 14. Kharan 15. Tatagar 16. Jalwar 17. Garruk.
the density of the Houbara was highest in western
Kharan (1 . 1 125 birds per km2) followed by eastern
Chagai (0.4375)* central Chagai (0.3438) and east-
ern Kharan (0.125). Western Chagai had a very
scanty population with overall density of just
0.0208 birds per km2. The preliminary results allow
us to suggest a tentative distribution map of the
Houbara population in these two districts (Fig. 1).
The population density of the wintering Houbara in
central and eastern Chagai and western Kharan,
during February 1984, is thus higher than the one
estimated for the Punjab (Pakistan, 0.12 birds per
km2 in Cholistan; Goriup 1980) and the Sind
(Pakistan, 0.333 birds per km2; Surahio 1981,
1982). It would also suggest that the favourable
tracts of Chagai and Kharan harbour a very rich
population of this bustard species (overall density
of 0.5580 birds per km2). Thus this is the richest
population of the Houbara Bustard throughout the
world (Goriup 1980,1981).
The population of die bird seems to be the
highest in Kharan and the region suggests an over-
all density of 0.8846 birds per km2 (pooled for the
total area of Kharan). A band of very favourable bus-
tard tract extends over an extensive area running
from Garruk, in the southeastern Kharan, through
Sham si Lorha, Ahmad Shah, Zangi and Sabzab to
Siahkoh in northwestern Kharan (Mashkhel), and
Washuk and Planktak in southwestern Kharan. All
these areas have a very high bustard density, which
is estimated to be around 1. 1 125 birds per km2. Cer-
tain other areas around Kharan exhibited a compara-
tively low density of the bird population with 0.00,
0.125 and 0.250 birds per km2, in Tatagar, Shelli Pat
and Baz Pat respectively. The overall density in
these comparatively low bustard areas of Kharan is
calculated to be 0.125 birds per km2, and this low
density is attributed to human disturbances in the
HOUBARA BUSTARD IN BALUCHISTAN
165
area (Fig. 1).
Our results tend to suggest that some 15,000-
20,000 birds of this bustard species were present in
Chagai and Kharan districts and adjacent areas in
February 1984. These estimates provide a
reasonable idea regarding the total number of the
birds which spend the winter in southern and south-
western Baluchistan and the adjacent areas, because
the return migration of this bustard towards the
northern latitudes had already started. The birds of
the southern and western (comparatively hotter)
regions, like Punjgur, Mekran, Sibi, Kohlu, Mari
and Dera Bughti had already moved into the north-
ern areas of Kharan and Chagai. Our discussions
with the local hunters in the southern parts of
Kharan, i.e., Tagab Dal, indicated that whereas some
3-4 birds were seen in the two quadrats studied by
us, one could easily observe 15-20 birds during a
walk of some 20 km during the month of January.
Further, the declining population levels in the
southern areas like Washuk and Plantak might have
forced the visiting Arab falconry party to move to
the northern areas of Urmagai in northeastern
Kharan towards the end of February. Similarly, the
area around Nushki (eastern Chagai) is known to
have had a very meagre population of the bird till
January, but the present population density of the
bird was quite high (0.4375 birds per km2) in the
Refer
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.B. (1969): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Oxf. Uni. Press, Bombay, Lond., Vol. I: pp.
191-193,
Anonymous (1972): Houbara in Baluchistan. Outdoor-
man , 2: 15.
Goriup, P.D. (1980): Report to tire secretary, Sind Wildlife
Management Board on the Houbara Bustard (Chlamydotis un-
dulata) in Pakistan. (Unpublished working document).
(1981): The Houbara Bustard, Houbara conser-
vation and research in Pakistan. Western Tanager, Los Angeles
Audubon Soc., 48(4): 3-6.
Mian, A. (1984): A contribution to biology of Houbara:
1982- 83 wintering population. J. Bombay nat. His. Soc., 81(3):
537-545.
Mian, A. & Dasti, A. A. (1985): The Houbara and
Baluchistan: 1982-83: A preliminary review. Bustard Studies
(ICBP), No. 3. Proc. Int. Sym. Bustard, Peshawar, Pakistan, 4-6
October 1983: 45-49.
Mian, A. & Rafique, S. (1984): Conservational perspec-
region during this part of the year. The only other
area expected to hold a population of the Houbara
during this part of the year are towards Panjpai (29°
46’N, 66° 46’E), Patao Dal (30° 82’N, 68° 47’E, ap-
prox.) and Zhob, which are comparatively smaller
tracts with a capacity of holding not more than 400-
500 birds.
The present estimate regarding the total
population of the Houbara Bustard in Baluchistan
comes reasonably close to our previous density es-
timates regarding this population, which were main-
ly based upon the hunting successes of the Arab fal-
coners in the area (Mian 1984). Further, one cannot
expect the visiting hunters in the area to claim very
high bag sizes in a small population. These estimates
also fall close to the one suggested for a 250,000 km2
tract in the Kyzyl Kum province of the U.S.S.R.,
which is regarded as the main breeding grounds of
the bustard (one pair per 15-20 km2, giving a total
population of 28571 birds; Ponomareva 1979).
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to M/s K.M. Shams (Chief
Conservator), M. Shafiq (DFO, Wildlife), Arbab In-
ayat Uiiah (SDFO, Wildlife) and a number of
workers of the Provincial Forest Department, for
their kind help.
NCES
live of Houbara Bustard (Chlamydotis undvdata macquecnii) with
reference to Baluchistan. Pakistan (Peshawar), No. 10; 37-44.
Mian, a. & Surahio, M.I. (1983): Biology of Houbara
Bustard (Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii) with reference to
Baluchistan. J. Bombay nat. His. Soc., 80 (1): 111-118.
Ponomareva, T. (1979): The Houbara Bustard: present
status and conservation perspectives. Okhotai okhotnoch’s
khozyaistvo, 11:21 (original text in Russian, English translation
by M.G. Wilson, ICBP, Bustard studies. No. 3: 93-96).
Sokal, R. R. & Rohlf, F.J. (1969): Biometry. The Prin-
ciples and Practice of Statistics in Biological Research. W.H.
Freeman and Co., San Francisco, pp. 778.
Surahio, M.I. (1981): Houbara Bustard in Pakistan -
Research and Conservation: Project No. 855. Ann. Rep.
WWI7IUCN (Unpublished).
(1982): Houbara Bustard in Pakistan - Research
and Conservation: Project No. 855. Ann. Rep. WWF/IUCN (Un-
published).
BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE WILD GOAT AND THE URIAL
AT A WATER POINT INKIRTHAR NATIONAL PARK, PAKISTAN
W. Daniel Edge* 2, Sally L. Olson-Edge2and Nasir Ghani3
(With two text-figures)
The biology and behaviour of the wild goat (Capra aegargrus) and the urial (Ovis orientalis Gmelin) at
a water point in Kirthar National Park were studied from 21 March to 21 May 1986. The water point was ob-
served for a total of 4 16 hours during 32 days. Thirty-four wild goats and 8 urial were captured and marked for
individual identification. Average group sizes of wild goats and urial were 18.8 and 3.8 respectively. Only 49%
of the wild goat and 36% of the urial groups that approached water actually drank. The mean number of wild
goats visiting the water point per day increased from March through May. Wild goats showed no preference
for time of the day during which they visited the water point, but the majority of the urial visits occurred in the
late afternoon and early evening. The behaviour of both species as they approached the water pointis described.
The management implications of the results are discussed. Water points that are developed in arid regions to
benefit wild goats and sheep should have reservoirs which will provide sufficient water under drought condi-
tions. The security of the 2 species should be considered when locating water developments.
Introduction
Kirthar National Park was created in 1974 for
the preservation of wild goats and the urial, but it
had been a game reserve with restricted hunting
since 1930 (Stockley 1936). With the exception of
brief studies by Schaller (1977, 1979) and natural
history notes by Roberts (1967), little is known
about the ecology and biology of these two species
in Pakistan.
Kirthar National Park is an arid desert environ-
ment in which water is probably a limiting resource
for animal populations. The purpose of this paper is
to examine aspects of biology and behaviour of wild
goats and the urial around a water point in the Kar-
chat Hills of Kirthar National Park.
Study Area
Kirthar National Park is located in the south-
western portion of Sind Province, Pakistan, and is
150 km northeast of Karachi, between latitudes
25°10’N and 26°05’N and longitudes 67°10’E and
67°55’E. The western border is formed by the
Accepted August 1986.
2Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit and Department
of Zoology, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA.
Present address: Department of Fisheries & Wildlife, Oregon
State University, Corvallis, OR 92331-3803 (USA).
3Zoological Survey Department, Block 61, Pakistan Secretariat,
Sharah-e-Iraq, Saddar, Karachi..
Baluchistan provincial boundary and the eastern by
the Suijan, Sumbak, and Hothiano Game Reserves.
The mean maximum and mean minimum tempera-
tures from March through May were 27°C and 38°C
respectively. No weather station was maintained in
the park, but local residents reported that there had
been very little rainfall for two years. The 308,733
ha. area encompasses the Karchat Hills, of which
Schaller and Laurie (1974) give a detailed descrip-
tion. Janko water point is located in the southern por-
tion of the Karchat Hills. This natural permanent
spring occurs in a wooded dry wash, running north
to south, bounded by limestone cliffs on either side
which widen at the vicinity of the water point. Water
collects in a series of pools formed from natural
depressions in the limestone bedrock in combination
with concrete that was added to increase the capacity
of the pools.
Most of the water is held in 3 main pools, each
approximately 1 .5 m in diameter and 20-30 cm deep
when full, with an approximate capacity of 400
litres. These lie directly under the eastern cliff face,
which is 6-7 m high at that point. Water flows into
the upper two pools from fissures in the cliff base at
approximately 10 litres per hour. Seven metres to the
north of the pools is a seep area where a small
amount of water collects in shallow depressions in
the bedrock. One additional small pool lies 11m
north of the seep; it is about 60 cm in diameter and
10 cm deep, and holds about 30 litres when full. The
east cliff wall reaches a high point of 10 m just north
of this pool; this slopes gently to the east and
BEHAVIOUR OF WILD GOAT AND URIAL
167
provides a good overlook of the waterholes. We
refer to this as the staging area. A ridge runs paral-
lel to, and east of the wash. Seventy metres east of
the staging area, the ridge is topped by a distinctive
layer of rocks which we called the rimrock. A shaded
area referred to as the cave is found under the east
cliff where the wash makes a bend towards the west,
200 m north of the water point. Another ridge runs
parallel to the first, on the w'est side of the wash; a
permanent rock and a thatch machan is located near
the top and is 66 m southwest of the waterholes.
Methods
Wild goats and the urial were observed with
10 x binoculars or a 15-35 x spotting scope. Obser-
vations at the water point were made from the
machan. Systematic surveys were conducted at
weekly intervals throughout the southern third of the
Karchat Hills. Goats and urial were captured with a
remotely fired net-gun aimed at the upper waterhole,
or with two Aldridge leg-hold snares placed around
the lower waterholes. Sex and age of each captured
animal was determined, and plastic ear tags, num-
bered and colour- coded for individual identifica-
tion, were placed in each ear. The lead animal in a
group was the focal animal used for timed events.
Age classifications followed Schaller (1977). Dif-
ferences in sample means were determined by use
of T-test, and correlation analysis was used to test
the relationship between group size and time re-
quired to reach the water point.
Results
We watched the Janko water point for a total
of 416 hours, over 32 days of dawn to dusk obser-
vations, between 21 March and 21 May 1986.
During this period, we captured and marked 34 wild
goats (26 females and 8 males), 10 in snares, and 24
with a net- gun. Eight urial (4 males and 4 females)
were captured with the net-gun.
Wild Goats
One hundred and fifty-two groups of wild
goats approached the water point during our obser-
vations, but only 75 (49%) of these actually drank.
The adult female-young ratio in May was 100:27.
The mean size of the 152 groups was 18.8 (S.D. =
22.8) and was significantly larger {t = 3.38, P 0.01)
than the group size ( X =10.4, S.D. = 11.9) of wild
goats observed away from the water point. The mean
number of wild goats drinking from the water point
increased from March through May (Fig. 1). Wild
goats approached the waterhole throughout the day
(Fig. 2)with no apparent preference for any time
period.
Wild goats used three main routes when ap-
proaching the water point. The majority of groups
(79.9%) approached the water by moving from the
rimrock directly to the staging area and from there
down the cliff face to the water. The second route,
used 8.6% of the time, involved moving from the
rimrock down to the cave in the cliff face, then along
the top or bottom of the cliff to the staging area, and
then to the water. This route was used primarily
during midday, apparently because the cave and cliff
face provided shade. The third route was used 6.7%
of the time, mostly by male groups. This route began
at the far end of the east cliff; the goats walked along
the top of the cliff and either stopped at the cave, or
continued along the top of the cliff to the staging
area. Several other routes were used 4.8% of the
time, with animals approaching the water from
along the west cliff or down the wash.
Regardless of the route, wild goats approached
the water cautiously and remained alert throughout
their approach. The average time from when they
were first seen until they reached the water was 58
minutes (S.D. = 43.7), and was not related to group
size (r = 0.20, P 0.1). Goats would stand or bed
down at various places along each route, and often
30 minutes or more was spent at the staging area
above the water. Lactating females and young were
usually the First to drink. However, once 1 or 2
animals reached the water, the majority of the group
would rapidly follow. Once at the water, wild goats
drank quickly, rarely spending more than two
minutes drinking. Based upon the number of goats
that drank from a basin of known volume, adult
females consumed approximately 5.5 litre of water.
This represents 17% of the average weight of an
adult female (n = 20). Once an animal finished
drinking, it moved away from the water point at a
steady pace, usually towards and over the rimrock,
and out of sight to the east.
Eighteen marked goats were observed ap-
proaching the water point 117 times. Individual
marked goats returned to the water point every 1.7
days. Because the number of consecutive days we
168
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
0900 1200 1500 1800 Dusk
MONTH
Time of Day (tours)
Fig. 1. Mean number of wild goats drinking water per day at
Janko waterpoint, by month.
watched the water point rarely exceeded 5 days, this
estimate is probably biased on the low side. Every 3
days is probably a more realistic estimate.
Urial
Twenty-eight groups of urial approached the
water point during our observations, but only 36%
of these drank. Average size of urial groups at the
water point (X = 3.8, S.D. = 2.88) did not differ (/ =
0.945, P 0.1) from 14 groups observed away from
the water point ( X = 4.7, S.D. = 2.9). In May, the
adult female-young ratio was 100:53.
Urial approached the water point from several
different routes, but 70% of all approaches were
directly down the wash. The average time from first
observation until drinking was 50 minutes (S.D =
52.6). This value is not directly comparable to the
average approach time for wild goats because the
route, down the wash, taken by the majority of urial,
kept them out of view until they were 30 m from the
water. It was our impression that urial were much
more wary than the wild goats when approaching
the water point. Urial approached the water primari-
ly in the late afternoon and early evening.
Interspecific Behaviour
Interspecific behaviour was noted on seven oc-
casions during our observations. These resulted in
physical contact twice. A class IV male goat butted
a class IV male urial in the ribs, pushing him down
from a 3 m cliff. The urial ran rapidly off, but ap-
parently was not injured. The second physical con-
Fig. 2. Time of day of visits by wild goat groups to Janko
waterpoint, March through May 1986.
tact between the two species occurred when an adult
female goat threatened a young urial with a head-
down display. An adult female urial immediately
turned and butted heads with the goat, after which
they both walked away. The other five interactions
resulted in the urial being displaced by either head-
down threats or stiff- legged approaches by goats. In
one case, a class IV adult male urial was displaced
by an adult female goat.
Discussion
The importance of water to wild goats and urial
in the desert habitat of Kirthar National Park cannot
be overstated. Water was especially important to
wild goats during our study because the Janko water
point was the only permanent water available within
the herd’s home range after two years of drought.
The urial were probably just as dependent upon free
water, but our observations do not bear this out be-
cause other sources of water were available to
urial. A small water point 400 m south of the Janko
water point was used by urial, but not by wild goats,
apparently because of the lack of steep escape
topography. The urial in this area were also reported
by local game watchers to use a small stream on the
plains, 5 km west of the Janko water point, but we
were unable to verify that claim.
Individual wild goats visited the Janko water
point every 2 to 3 days, and lactating females and
young appeared to be the most dependent upon free
water. Herd productivity may be directly related to
BEHAVIOUR OF WILD GOAT AND URIAL
169
the availability of water. Roberts (1967) and
Schaller and Laurie (1974) both reported that
natality was highest during years following a rut
which occurred after abundant rainfall. Schaller
(1979) also suspected that survival of young may be
low during years of drought because of poor nutri-
tion. We believe that survival of young may also be
dependent upon the availability of free water. The
low adult female-young ratio (100:27) observed by
us was probably directly related to drought condi-
tions. The higher female-young ratio (100:53) for
urial may reflect a better adaptation to drought con-
ditions. Population size of desert bighorn sheep in
the United States is limited by the distribution of
water (Welles and Welles 1961, Russo 1956, and
Hansen 1965). Leslie and Douglas (1979) reported
that desert bighorn ewes in the River Mountains of
Nevada restricted their movements and showed a
high degree of fidelity to water sources.
During drought years the demand for free
water may exceed the supply; mortality would
therefore be expected to increase. Based upon our
rate of flow estimates for the springs at Janko water
point, the average number of wild goats drinking per
day, and our estimated consumption of water per
animal, by May the demand for water exceeded the
rate of flow. During May, the reservoir of water in
the pools dropped noticeably and was severely-
depleted on several occasions. This condition
demonstrates the need for construction of reservoirs
whose capacity exceeds demands under the most
severe drought conditions. Use of these sites by
domestic livestock should be discouraged.
Both the urial and wild goats approach the
Janko water point very cautiously. This behaviour is
Refer
Hansen, C.G. (1965): Management units and bighorn
sheep herds on the Desert Game Range, Nevada. Desert Bighorn
Council Trans. 9 : 11-14.
(1980): Habitat. Pages 64-79 in G. Monson
and L. Sumner, eds.. The desert bighorn: Its life histoiy, ecology,
and management. Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson. 370 pp.
Leslie, JR., D.M. & Douglas, C.L. (1979): Desert
bighorn sheep of the River Mountains, Nevada. Wildl. Monogr.
66: 56 pp.
Roberts, TJ, (1967): A note on Capra hircus hlythi Hume,
1875. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64: 358-365.
Russo, J.P. (1956): The desert bighorn sheep in Arizona.
Ariz. Game and Pish Dept. Wildl. Bull. No. 1. 153 pp.
normal and probably reflects a relatively high poten-
tial for predation when animals are concentrated
around a water point. During our observations, wild
goats and urial were scared away from the water
point 8 times by jackals ( Canis aureus ) and twice by
domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). On one occasion
a jackal killed a young wild goat. Thus, when con-
structing future water catchments for wild goats and
urial, the animals’ security must be considered.
However, what is considered safe by one species-
may not be by the other. The cliffs surrounding the
Janko water point, which make the site attractive for
wild goats, may be a reason the water point is rare-
ly used by urial. Desert bighorn sheep in North
America prefer open space around water points to
enable them to spot potential danger (Hansen 1980).
The urial probably has a similar preference, but this
needs to be examined further.
The interspecific encounters we observed in-
dicate that urial almost always defer to wild goats.
This behaviour, especially at water points during
drought conditions, may give wild goats a competi-
tive advantage over urial. This again emphasizes the
need for water points of sufficient capacity to meet
the requirements of all wildlife species.
Acknowledgements
Funding for this study was provided by the
United Stales Fish and Wildlife Service’s Special
Foreign Currency Programme. Housing and
transportation were provided by the Sind Wildlife
Management Board. We wish to thank Shamus
Uddin for his assistance in animal capture, and the
staff at the Karchat Visitor Centre, Kirthar National
Park, for their logistic support.
ENCES
Schaller, G.B. (1977): Mountain monarchs: Wild sheep
and goats of the Himalaya. The Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
425
(1979): Ecology and behavior of high-altitude
mammals in South Asia. Natl. Geog. Soc. Res. Rep., 1979
Projects. 461-47S p.
Schaller, G.B. & Laurie, A. (1974): Courtship behavior
of the wild goat. Z. Saugetierkunde 39: 115-127.
Stockley, C.H. (1936): Stalking in the Himalayas and
Northern India. Herbert Jenkins Ltd., London.
Welles, R.E. & Welles, F.B. (1961): The bighorn of
Death Valley. U.S. Natl. Park Serv. Fauna Series No. 6.
Washington D.C. 242 pp.
ON THE BASKING BEHAVIOUR OF THE MUGGER
CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS LESSON (REPTILIA : CROCODILIA)
AT BHORSAINDA CROCODILE SANCTUARY, HARYANA STATE
R.C. Gupta and P. Sri hari1 2 *
(With two text-figures & a map)
Basking behaviour of Crocodylus palustris has been studied at Bhorsainda Crocodile Sanctuary in
Kurukshetra District, Haryana State. Basking was observed for one complete winter season (1985-86) at week-
ly intervals. The animals were observed continuously for 12 hours. Maximum basking takes place for 8 hours
in February and 7 hours in November. Minimum basking takes place for 1 hour in April and 2 hours in Oc-
tober. Basking patterns are of three kinds: (1) Individual basking which takes place in October and November,
(ii) Group basking which takes place in December and January, and (iii) Mating pair basking which takes place
in February and March.
Introduction
Dharmakumarsinhji (1947), Singh (1979,
1983), Whitaker and Whitaker (1976) and Yadav
(1979) studied various aspects of the behaviour of
the mugger (Crocodylus palustris).
However, there appear to be no studies on the
basking behaviour of these animals. The present
paper deals with the important aspects of basking
behaviour of Crocodylus palustris at Bhorsainda
Crocodile Sanctuary in Kurukshetra District,
Haryana State.
Basking is crucial for crocodiles during cold
months as it enables them to warm up, thus bypass-
ing the dormant stage so common in reptiles during
winter.
Description of study site: ( Fig. 1, Map 1).
The crocodile Sanctuary is situated on
Kurukshetra-Pehowa Road near Bhorsainda village
at a distance of 13 km west of Kurukshetra Univer-
sity Campus, Kurukshetra (29845*N, 76°44’E).
The total area of the sanctuary is 8 acres. The
main topographical features are: (i) circular water
body, (ii) mound of settled sand. The water body is
approximately 1.25 m deep in the center. It is artifi-
cially fed by a feeder originating from Bhakra-
Saraswati Canal. This water level is maintained
throughout the year. The flora consists of species of
Nilumhium , Ipomoea , Pistia and Eichhornia
1 Accepted August 1987.
2Department of Zoology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-
132 119, India.
species. The submerged weeds ar tValisneria,
Hydrilla , Char a and Potamogeton species. The nec-
tonic fauna comprises of fishes, mmn\yLabeo-sp.
and Channa sp. Birds like the Weaver bird (Ploceus
philippinus) and the Cattle Egret (Bub ulcus ibis)
nest on the nearby trees.
The mound is circular in shape, 243.60 m in
circumference and 5 m in height. The soil is settled
and has grassy patches. The circular canal is inter-
rupted at one place by a longitudinal stretch of earth,
which provides a passage to approach the mound.
The various tunnels scattered round the mound
are significant features of the sanctuary and have
been dug by the crocodiles. The distribution (direc-
tion and distance from water), use and disuse of
various tunnels at the Sanctuary complex is shown
in Table 2.
The main seasons are winter (October to
March), spring (April to May), monsoon (June to
August) and autumn (September). The maximum
and minimum temperatures recorded during these
seasons are:
Season
Maximum temperature
Minimum temperature
°C
°C
Winter
29
11
Spring
41
21
Monsoon
42
30
Autumn
38
29.5
Description of basking site:
The basking site chosen by the crocodiles of the
Sanctuary is unique as it provides them the safest un-
disturbed site, with maximum solar radiation and
BASKING BEHAVIOUR OF C. PALUSTRIS
171
172
JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 1
TIME DEVOTED FOR BASKING BY C. palustris FROM 13 OCT 1985 TO 26 MAR 1986 AT WEEKLY INTERVALS
SELECTED WEATHER PARAMETERS ALSO SHOWN
Sr. Date(s)
Time of
Time of
Time
Temperature Rainfall
Humidity (%)
No.
arrival
departure
spent for
Maximum Minimum
Wet Dry
on land
into water
basking
(hours)
CO CC)
1.
13 Oct 85
1500 hrs.
1630 hrs
1.5
35
32
7th, 8th & 9th
85
85
2.
20 Oct 85
1600 hrs.
1700 hrs.
1.0
29
24
Oct, rainfall
84
84
3.
27 Oct 85
1200 hrs.
1600 hrs.
4.0
29
24
was 4 mm, 7.1 mm
84
86
4.
4 Nov 85
1130 hrs.
1700 hrs.
5.5
27
25
& 23.1 mm.
84
85
5.
12 Nov 85
1130 hrs.
1630 hrs.
5.0
25
21
83
84
6.
18 Nov 85
1100 hrs.
1800 hrs.
7.0
24
21
83 ’
84
7.
24 Nov 85
1100 hrs.
1830 hrs.
7.5
24
21
10th & 11th Dec,
82
84
8.
30 Nov 85
1030 hrs.
1830 hrs.
8.0
22
18
rainfall was
82
83
9.
7 Dec. 85
1100 hrs.
1830 hrs.
7.5
21
16
10.5 mm & 1.2 mm.
82
83
10.
13 Dec 85
1000 hrs.
1700 hrs.
7.0
19
17
25th 8c 26th Dec,
82
82
11.
31 Dec 85
1130 hrs
1700 hrs.
5.5
15
12
rainfall was
82
82
12.
7 Ian 86
1100 hrs.
1600 hrs.
5.0
14
11
10.5 mm & 1 1.1 mm.
82
83
13.
14 Jan 86
1 100 hrs.
173G hrs.
6.5
17
13
78
82
14.
24 Jan 86
1000 hrs.
1730 hrs.
7.5
20
14
79
82
15.
1 Feb 86
0930 hrs
1800 hrs.
8.5
20
14
9th, 10th & 13th
79
83
16.
4 Feb 86
0830 hrs.
1700 hrs.
8.5
23
16
Feb, rainfall was
78
83
17.
14 Feb 86
0900 hrs.
1800 hrs.
9.0
19
16
18.2 mm, 9.8 mm
78
83
18.
24 Feb 86
1000 hrs.
1730 hrs.
7.0
21
15
& 2.2 mm.
78
83
19.
2 March 86
0800 to
1500 to
21st Feb, rainfall
1200 hrs.
1800 hrs.
7.0
24
19
was 3.8 mm.
83
84
20.
23 Mar 86
0730 to
Disconti-
11th, 14th & 18th Mar,
1000 hrs.
nuous
4.0
26
21
rainfall was 3.3 mm
83
85
0.6 mm & 13.6 mm.
21
27 Mar S6
Disconti-
Disconti-
nuous
nuous
4.00
31
27
83
86
'986 MONTHS O
Fig. 2. Time spent in tunnels by C. palustris at Bhorsainda
Crocodile Sanctuary (Sept. 1985-Aug. 1986).
minimum wind currents. The site is a sort of plat-
form situated in the west of the Sanctuary, where-
Eucalyptus plantations serve as wind breaks in the
cold season, thus enhancing the effect of solar
radiation on the crocodiles.
Results
Details of the time spent by the animals on land
for basking are given in Table 1 and Fig. 2. Details
of climatic parameters are also given in Table 1.
Discussion
Basking lasts for six months, beginning in the
second week of October and ending in the last week
of the following March (Table 1).
BASKING BEHAVIOUR OF C. PALUSTRIS
173
Table 2
DETAILS OF DISTRIBUTION, DIRECTION, DIAMETER AND UTILIZATION OF TUNNELS FROM 22.9. 1 985 AT
BHORSAINDA CROCODILE SANCTUARY
Tunnel
No.
Direction
Distance
from wat
level
1.
South
27.10 m
2.
South
27.80 m
3.
South
27.80 m
4.
West
3.50 m
5.
West
1.50 m
6.
West
14.50 m
7.
West
4.00 m
8.
West
16.40 m
9.
North
16.00 m
10.
North
17.50 m
11.
North
23.20 m
12.
North
23.20 m
13.
East
0.40 m
Periphery
of the
tunnel(s)
Abandoned months
3.80 m
Dec, Jan, Feb
2.60 m
Dec, Jan, Feb.
2.20 m
Dec, Jan, Feb.
3.00 m
Sept, March, April,
June, July, Aug.
3.50 m
Oct, March, April,
June, July.
2.10 m
Sept, Nov, Feb,
March, April, May,
June, July, Aug.
2.80 m
Oct, Nov, Dec,
Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr,
May, June.
2.40 m
Oct, Nov, Dec,
Jan, Feb, March,
April, May, June.
2.15 m
Sept, March, June,
July.
2.40 m
Oct, Nov, Dec, Jan,
Feb, March, April.
3.20 m
Oct, Nov, Dec, Jan,
Feb, March, April, May.
3.00 m
Dec, Jan, Feb, March,
May, June, July, Aug.
2.00 m
Oct, March, April, May,
June, July, Aug.
Utilized months
Sept, Oct, Nov, March,
April, May, June, July, Aug.
Sept, Oct, Nov, March, Apr, May,
July, Aug.
Sept, Oct, Nov, March,
Apr, May, June, July, Aug.
Oct, Nov, Dec, Jan, Feb,
May.
Sept, Nov, Dec, Jan, Feb,
May.
Oct, Dec, Jan.
Sept, May, June, July.
Sept, July, Aug.
Oct, Nov, Dec, Jan, Feb,
April, May, Aug.
Sept, May, June, July.
Sept, Oct, Nov, April.
Sept, Oct, Nov, April.
Sept, Nov, Dec, Jan, Feb.
The maximum time spent at the basking site
was in February followed by November (Table 1;
Fig. 2). The minimum time spent was in April.
However, the beginning of basking seems to be of
longer duration in October than in April (Fig. 2;
Table 1). The time devoted to basking by crocodiles
is also relatively high in January and December
(Table 1).
The basking patterns observed during the in-
vestigations are of three kinds: (i) Individual bask-
ing, (ii) Group basking, and (iii) Basking during
mating season.
Individual basking is prevalent during Oc-
tober. In this category, the animals prefer to bask
alone. Another salient feature of this period (Oc-
tober to November) is that crocodiles bask at dif-
ferent times at different places.
Group basking is prevalent in December and
January. The salient features of this kind of basking
are that the animals prefer to bask in a single group
at a time, and that basking takes place in a single
stretch of time at the basking site. The animals, after
arriving at the basking site,seldom leave for the
water again during December and January.
However, in sharp contrast to this pattern, during
October and November they may first come out on
174
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 86
land for basking, then return to the water for a short
span of time and finally come again to the basking
site to resume basking.
The basking pattern in February and March is
similar to that found in October and November, i.e
basking is interrupted. There are fourteen crocodiles
in this Sanctuary. During the mating season it was
found that crocodiles pair up (five pairs) at different
places during the basking time. It is considered that
this period was ‘mating basking period’. The other
four crocodiles remained unpaired, scattered at dif-
ferent places.
Conclusions
Basking takes place for six months (October to
March). Maximum basking takes place in February
followed by November. Minimum basking takes
Refer
Dharmakltmarsinhji, K.S. (1947): Mating and the paren-
tal instinct of the Marsh Crocodile (i Crocodylus palustris Les-
son). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47 (1): 174-176.
Singh, L.A.K. (1979): Sexual attraction of a wild mugger
{Crocodylus palustris Lesson) towards captive muggers, ibid. 76
{ 1 ): 167-172.
(1984): The Indian Mugger ^Crocodylus
palustris Lesson ( Reptilia , Crocodilia): Observation on the be-
place in April. Basking, therefore, is perhaps not
directly correlated with the lowest temperatures, as
it is more in February and November than in Decem-
ber and January. The findings suggest the possibility
of existence of a most favourable spectrum of low
temperatures in winter. The lowest temperatures evi-
dently serve as inhibitors for basking. Basking is of
three kinds: (i) individual basking, (ii) group bask-
ing, and (iii) mating pair basking.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the Vice-Chancellor of
Kurokshetra University and the Chairman of Zool-
ogy Department, for providing necessary facilities.
We are also grateful to the staff present at the
Sanctuary.
EN CE S
haviour of a female from nature, ibid. 80 (3):
Whitaker, R. & Whitaker, Z. (1976): Collection and
hatching of Marsh Crocodile (C. palustris ) eggs. ibid. 73 (2):
403-407.
Yadav. R.N. (1979): A further report on breeding the mug-
ger crocodile {Crocodylus palustris ) at Jaipur Zoo. Int. Zoo Year-
book. 19: 66-68.
MATERIALS FOR FLORA OF MAHAB ALESWAR - 6A
RV. Bole and M.R. Almeida
Plantaginaceae
1. PlantagomajorLinn.Sp.Pl. 112, 1753;FBI4:705;
Birdwood, 23; Cooke, T. 2:597 (2:560); Puri &
Mahajan, 130.
P. asiatica Linn. Sp. PI. 163, 1753; Wight,
I11.L177.
Rare herb along the banks of Yenna River.
flowers: September- February.
local name: Bartang.
Besides the species mentioned above, Lisboa
(p.220) has reported P. minus as being cultivated at
Mahabaleshwar. This may be P. ovata Forsk. (Isab-
gol), which is sometimes grown in Maharashtra for
its medicinal husks. However, we have not seen it in
cultivation at Mahabaleshwar in the recent past.
Nyctaginaceae
Bougainvillea Comm.
1. Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Sp. PI. 2:348,
1799; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 72; Cooke, T.
2:483(2:567).
Occasionally cultivated in gardens as an or-
namental plant.
flowers : April- May.
local name : Bogan Vel.
Amarantiiaceae
1. Leaves all opposite 2
2. Anthers 1 -celled Alternanthera
2. Anthers 2-celled Achyranthes
1 . Leaves not all opposite 3
3. Stamens with interposed staminodes Aerva
3. Staminodes absent 4
4. Ovary 1 -ovulate Amaranthus
4. Ovary 2-many ovulate Celosia
Achyranthes Linn.
1. Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. porphyrostachya
Hook.f., in FI. Brit. India 4:730, 1885; Birdwood,
23; Puri & Mahajan, 130; Santapau, 224.
A. aspera Cooke, T. in Bombay Gazet. 19:65 1 ,
1885 & FI. Bombay Pres. 2:495 (2:580). (Pro parte).
A. porphyrostachya Wall, ex Moq., in DC.
Prodr. 13 (2):316, 1849.
Common in partially shady places, along
hedges and along forest paths.
flowers, fruits: October— December.
local names: Aghada, S errata, Sarata.
Aerva Forsk. (nom. cons.)
1. Climbing undershrubs without terminal spikes
At. sanguinolenta
1 . Erect or diffuse herbs with terminal spikes A. lanata
1. Aerva Janata (Linn.) Juss., in Mus. Par. 2:131,
1803; Graham 168; Dalz. & Gibs. 217; FBI 4:728;
Lisboa, 221.
Achyranthes lanata Linn., Sp. PI. 204, 1753
A. floribunda Wightjcon. t. 1776 bis, f.A,
1852.
This species is reported here on authority of
Lisboa. We have not seen it at Mahabaleshwar;
neither have we seen any reliable herbarium
specimen.
2. Aerva sanguinolenta (Linn.) Blume, Bijdr. 547,
1825; Santapau, 223.
Achyranthes sanguinolenta Linn., Sp. PI. ed.
2, 294, 1762.
A. scandensRoxb. FI. Ind. 1:676. 1832.
Aerva scandens Wall Ex Moq., in DC. Prodr.
13(2):302, 1849; Dalz. & Gibs. 217; Wight, Icon. t.
724 (pro parte); FBI 4:727; Cooke, T. 2: 493(2:577).
Common herb on hill-slopes and on roadsides
along Fitzgerald Ghat.
flowers : December - January.
Alternanthera Forsk.
1. Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) R. Br. prodr. 417,
1810; Graham, 168; Dalz. & Gibs. 220; Wight,
Icon. t. 727; FBI 4:731; Birdwood, 23;San-
tapau,225.
A.triandra Lamk.Encycl.l:95.1783;Cooke, T.
2:499(3:584)
Gomphrena sessilis Linn. Sp. PI. 225, 1753.
Common and gregarious along the moist
grounds along the margins of the ponds and ditches
at Chinaman’s falls, Lodwick Point and near the bus-
stand.
flowers : Throughout the year.
176
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
local name : Kanchri, Jaljambha.
Amaranthus Linn.
1. Amaranthus tricolor Linn. Sp. PI. 989, 1753;
Merrill, Enum. 2:14, 1923; Baker, 77, t. 2, 1949;
Santapau, 222.
A. gangeticus Linn. Syst. ed 10, 1268, 1759;
FBI 4:719; Cooke, T. 2:489 (2:574).
A. oleraceus Wiild. Sp. PL 4:386, 1805 (non
Linn. 1753); Graham, 169; Wight, Icon. t. 715,
1844-5.
A . blitum var. oleraceus Hook.f., in FI. Brit.
Ind. 4:721, 1885; Puri & Mahajan, 131.
Occasional in wastelands along roadsides and
in cultivated fields.
flowers & fruits : December - March.
Celosia Linn.
1 . Celosia argentea Linn. Sp. PI. 205, 1753; Graham,
167; Dalz. & Gibs. 215; Wight, Icon. 1. 1767, 1852;
FBI 4:714; Cooke, T. 651 & 2: 485(2:570);
Bird wood, 23; Puri & Mahajan, 130.
Common in wastelands and along roadsides.
flowers & fruits: October— November.
LOCAL NAME : Kurdu.
Chenopodiaceae
1 . Flowers all similar, usually hermaphrodite, without bracts and
bracteoles Che nopodium
2. Flowers dimorphic; female flowers with persistent, enlarged
bracteoles. AJriplex
Chenopodium Linn.
1 . Stigmas 2 C. album
1 . Stigmas 5. C. ambrosioides
1. Chenopodium album Linn. Sp. PI. 219, 1753; FBI
5:3; Cooke, T.2:501(2;586); Ulrich . in Planzenfam .
ed. 2, 16c:487,t. 1- 2; Santapau, 226.
C. viride Linn. Sp. PL 219, 1753; Graham,
171.
Rare weed in wastelands.
FLOWERS: April.
local name Chakvat.
2. Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. Sp. PL 219,
1753; Dalz. & Gibs. Suppl. 73; Wight, Icon. 1. 1786,
1852; FBI 5:4; Birdwood, 23; Cooke, T.
2:502(2:587).
Airiplex ambrosioides Lisboa, As. Soc.
(Bombay) 15:220, 1883.
Fairly common and abundant weed in cul-
tivated fields, in gardens and in wastelands. A na-
tive of tropical America, it was introduced in India
as an ornamental aromatic herb.
flowers : December 19 - June.
Atriplex Linn.
1. Atriplex hotensis Linn. Sp. PL 1053, 1753; Dalz.
& Gibs suppl. 73; FBI 5:6; Cooke, T. 2:503(2:588).
A. heterantha Wight, Icon.t.1787, 1852.
Rare annual herb. Known from a single col-
lection from Chinaman’s falls.
FLOWERS: April.
POLYGONACEAE
1 . Stem green, with flattened phylioclades Homalocladium
1 . Stems not flattened, cylindrical 2
2. Stigma capitellate Polygonum
2. Stigma fimbridate. Rumex
Homalocladium (F.V. Muell.) Bailey
1. Homalocladium platycladum (Muell.) Bailey,
Man. Cult. PL 351, 1947.
Muehlenbeckea platy dados (Muell.) Meissn.,
in Bot. Zeit. 23:313, 1865; Cooke, T. 2:519(3:11).
Coccoloba platyclada F. V. Muell., in Bot.
Mag. 19:t. 5382, 1863.
Rare in cultivation in gardens.
flowers : Throughout the year.
common name : Centipede Plant.
Polygonum Linn.
1. Inflorescence axillary; flowers solitary
or in small clusters P. plebeium
1. Inflorescence terminal, racemose or
spicate or capitate 2
2. Inflorescence of branched spikes or
of spike-like racemes... 3
3. Racemes stout, compact 4
4. Nutlets orbicular or biconvex P . glabrum
4. Nutlets trigonous. ....P.barbatulumvar. gracile
3. Racemes slender, lax P.mite
2. Inflorescence of compressed spikes, capitate 5
5. Heads in the axils of involucral leaves....../’, alatum
5. Heads not in the axils of involucral leaves 6
6. climbing unarmed undershrub..... P. chinense
6. Erect herbs, with prickles on the
angles of stem P. strigoswn var. angustissima
1 . Polygonum alatum Buch.-Ham., in Don, Prodr. FI.
Nepal. 72, 1825; FBI 5:41; Birdwood, 23; Cooke,
FLORA OF MAHABALESWAR
177
T. 2:516(3:8); Puri & Mahajan, 131.
P, pactatum Buch-Ham. Lc. 1825 (non Ellioit,
nec Baffin, 1836).
P. nepalense Meissn., Monogr. 84, 1826;
Steward, in Contr. Gray Herb. 88:74, 1930; Wight,
Icon. t. 1804; Cooke, T. 651, 1885; Santapau, 401,
1962 & 305, 1963.
Common and gregarious anneal herb in moist
places.
flowers : August- February.
2. Polygonum barbatulum Linn. var. gracile
(Danser) Steward, in Contrib. Gray Herb. 88:55,
1930; Santapau, 227.
P. serrulatum auct. (non Lagascd, 1816);
Hook.f. in FI. BriL Ind. 5:38, 1886; Cooke, T.
2:515(3:7); Puri & Mahajan, 131.
P rivulare Graham, Cat. Bombay PL 172,
1839 (non Koenig. 1806); Dalz. & Gibs. 214;
Cooke, T. 651; Lisboa, 221.
P. barbatum Woodrow, in Journ Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc. 12:365, 1899 (non Li.nn. 1753); Puri &
Mahajan, 131.
P. flaccidum Roxb., FI. Ind. 2:291, 1832.
P. barbatum Linn. var. gracile Danser,
Polygon, Neinderland. Ostond. 146, f, 2. 1927,
A rare herb along watercourses near
Chinaman’s falls.
flowers: May.
local name: Dhakta Sheral.
3. Polygonum chinense Linn,, Sp. PL 863, 1753;
Graham, 172; Dalz. & Gibs. 214; Cooke, T. 651,
1885; Lisboa, 221; Birdwood, 23; Puri & Mahajan,
131; Santapau, 401, 1962 & 305, 1963; Steward, in
Contr. Gray Herb. 88:71, 1930.
P. chinense Linn. var. ovalifolia Meissn., in
Wall. PL As. Rar. 3:60, 1832; FBI 5:45; Cooke, T.
2:517(3:8).
Fairly common and abdundant among hedges
and along roadsides.
flowers: March - December.
local names: Narali, RarulL
4. Polygonum glabrum WilkL, Sp. PL 2:447, 1799;
Graham, 172; Dalz. & Gibs. 214; FBI 5:34; Wight,
Icon. 1. 1799, 1852; Birdwood, 23; Cooke, T. 651,
1885 & 2:514 (3:5); Lisboa, 221; Puri & Mahajan,
131; Steward, 43.
Common and abundant perennial herb along
watercourses, sometimes forming large clumps.
flowers: Throughout the year.
local names: Sheral, Rakta-roda.
5. Polygonum mite Schrank, FI. Baier. 1:668, 1789;
Cooke, T. 2:516(3:7); Puri & Mahajan, 131;
Clapham et a!., in FI. Brit. Isle, 697, 1952.
Very common and abdundant herb in water-
logged places. Very often the whole plant is found
submerged in water with only the inflorescence
visible above the water. A native of British Isles. Ac-
cording to Dr. T. Cooke, it might have been intro-
duced in India along with shipment of food-grains.
flowers: November - January.
6. Polygonum plebeium R. Br. Prodr. 420, 1810; FBI
5:27; Cooke, T. 2:512(3:4): Steward, 24.
P. plebeium R. Br. var. indica Hook.f., in FI.
Brit. India 5: 28, 1886; Cooke, T. 2:512(3:5); Puri &
Mahajan, 131.
P. indicum Heyne, in Roth. Nov. PI. Sp. 208,
1821; Wight, Icon. t. 1808, 1852.
P. elegans Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 214,
1861 (non Roxb., 1 832) ; Lisboa. 221; Cooke, T. 651,
1885.
P. plebeium var. elegans Birdwood, in Journ.
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. : 23, 1897.
P. plebeium var. brevifolia Hook. f. in FI. Brit.
India 5:28, 1886; Cooke, T. 2:514(3:5).
Very variable species. Common and abundant
diffuse herb in drying rice-fields and in wastelands
along watercourses. Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, in Khan-
dala Flora (ed. 3, p. 226) observes, "The varieties
and formas of this species vary depending on the
amount of moisture and shade". He keeps all
varieties and formas under P. plebeium R. Br.
without further classification. However, two
varieties of our Mahabaleshwar specimens could be
distinguished:
1 . Stipules and leaves covering intemodes var. brevifolia
1 . S tipules and leaves not covering intemodes var. indica
flowers: November- June.
7. Polygonum strigosumR. Br. prodr. 420, 1810. var.
angustissima (Hook.f.) comb. nov. P. pedun-
culare Wall. var. angustissima Hook.f.FL BriL Ind.
5:48, 1886; Birdwood, 23; Cooke, t. 2:517(3:9);
Puri & Mahajan, 131.
Rare herb, occasionally found at Lingmala
falls and near Bhilar.
flowers: November.
Steward (in Contrib. Gray Herb. 88:91, 1930)
has reduced P. pedunculare Wall, ex Meissn (in
178
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Wall. PL As. Rar. 3:58, 1832) to the varietal rank
under P. strigosum R. Br. Therefore, P. pedunculare
Wall. var. angustissima Hook.f. has to be treated as
another variety of that species.
Rumex Linn.
1. Rumex dentate Linn. Mant. 2:226, 1771; FBI
5:59; V.D. Vartak, in Joum. Univ. Poona, 10:11,
1959.
This species has been reported to have been
seen in cultivation at Mahabaleshwar, by V.D. Var-
tak.
PODOSTEMONACEAE
Griffithella (Tul.) Warm.
1. Griffithella hookeriana (Tul.) Warming, Fam.
PodosL Aflandal. 6:13, 1901; Cooke, T. 2:521
(3:13).
Mniopsis hookeriana Tul., in Ann. Sci. Nat.
Sen 3, 11:105, 1849; Wight, Icon. 1. 1918, f. 4, 1852;
Dalz. & Gibs. 245.
Podostemon hookerianusWodd., in DC. Prodr.
17:74, 1873; FBI 5:65.
Common, flat, thalloid water plant attached to
rocks in running waters. This species has been col-
lected from Koina River, below Mahabaleshwar. We
have not seen it on the plateau.
flowers: October- December.
local name: Khadak-Phul .
Aristolochiaceae
1 . Petioles less than 1 .5 cm long A. indica
1 . Petioles more than 4 cm long A . tagala
Aristolochia Linn.
1. Aristolochia indica Linn. Sp. PI. 960, 1753;
Graham, 178; Dalz. & Gibs. 224; FBI 5:75; Cooke,
T. 2:254 (3:16).
Rare species at Mahabaleshwar. Only known
from a single collection.
flowers: November.
local names: Sapsund, Sampsun.
2. Aristolochia tagala Cham., in Linnaea 7:207,
1832; Cooke, T. 2:255 (3:17).
A. roxburghiana Klotzch, in Monastb.-Berl.
Akad. 696, 1859; FBI 5:75.
A. acuminata Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 489, 1832 (non
Lamk., 1791; Graham, 178; Dalz. & gibs. 224;
Wight, Icon. t. 771, 1844-5.
Dalzell & Gibson have reported this species
from Par-Ghat, leading to Mahabaleshwar. We have
not seen this on the plateau.
flowers: October- November.
PlPERACEAE
Piper Linn.
1. Leaves haiiy beneath, membranaceous P.hookeri
1 . Leaves glabrous on both surfaces,
texture thick, leathery 2
2. Leaves rounded at the base; ripe fruits red P. nigrum
2. Leaves acute at the base;
ripe fruits yellow. P. Irichostachyon
1. Piper hookeri Miq., in Hook. Lond. Joum. BoL
4:437, 1845; FBI 5:88; Dalz. & Gibs. 315; Cooke,
T. 651, 1885; Birdwood, 23; Cooke, T. 2:527
(3:19); Puri & Mahajan, 131; Santapau, 399, 1962
& 305, 1963.
Common and abundant clinging climber in
forest areas.
flowers: April- September.
local name: Ran Mirvel.
2. Piper nigrum Linn., Sp. PL 28, 1753; graham, 198;
Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 84; FBI 5:90; Cooke, T.
2:527(3:19); Santapau 229.
P. triocum auct. (non Roxb., 1820) Graham,
Cat. Bombay Pl. 199, 1839; Wight, Icon. t. 1935,
1852 (non Lamk. 1791); Birdwood, 223.
Rare climber in forest areas. Rarely cultivated
in gardens for fruits.
flowers: July- September.
local name: Kala Miii, Mirvel
3. Piper trichostachyon (Miq.) C. DC. in DC. Prodr.
16(1):242, 1869; FBI 5:80; Cooke, T. 2:526 (3:19).
Mulder a trichostachyon Miq., in Hook. Lon-
don Joum. Bot. 5:556, 1846; Wight, Icon. t. 1944,
1852.
Common climber in forest areas.
flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: Ran Mirvel, Kankol.
Peperomiaceae
Piperomia Ruiz & Pav.
1. Plants succulent, terrestrial herbs P.pellucida
1. Plants non-succulent, epiphytic herbs.... P. portulacoides
1. Peperomia pellucida (Linn.) H.B.K., Nov. Gen.
FLORA OF MAHABALESWAR
179
Sp. 1:64, 1815; Cooke, T. 2:529(3:21); Santapau, 229.
Piper pellucidum Linn. Sp. PI. 30, 1753.
Common weed in wastelands near human in-
habitation and in cultivated fields. It is a native of S.
America.
flowers: August - October.
2. Peperomia portulacoides (Lamk.) A. Dietr., Sp.
PL 1:172, 1831 (nOn Miq., 1846); Birdwood, 23.
Piper portulacoides Lamk., Tab. 1:82, 1791.
Peperomia wiqhtiana Miq., in Hook. Lond.
Joum. Bot. 5:548, 1846; FBI 5:98; Cooke, T. 2:529
(3:21); Santapau, 229.
Small epiphytic herb rarely found in deeply
shaded forests.
flowers: May— October.
Laura ceae
1. Rowers hermaphrodite or polygamous 2
2. Anthers 2-celled.. Beilschmiedia
2. Anthers 4— celled 3
3. Perianth in fruits with persistent tube
and usually with deciduous segments Cinnamomum
3. Perianth in fruit with persistent
reflexed segments Machilus
1. Rowers dioecious 4
4. Rowers clustered in densely imbricating
bracts (not whorled) Actinodaphne
4. Rowers umbellate; the heads supported by
4-6 whorled bracts.. 5
5. Leaves penninerved Litsca
5. Leaves 3 -nerved from base Neolitsea
Actinodaphne Nees
1. Actinodaphne angustifolia Nees, in Wall. PI. As
Rar. 3:31, 1832; Wight, Icon. 1. 1841, 1852; Puri &
Mahajan, 131; Santapau, 399, 1962.
A. hookeri Meissn., in DC. Prodr. 15(1):218,
1864 (excl. var. longifolia and including vars. das -
sypoda and glabrata ); FBI 5:149;Cooke, T. 2:537
(3:31); Birdwood, 24.
A. lanceolata Dalz. & Gibs. FI. Bombay 312,
1861; Lisboa, 221.
Tetranthera lanceafolia Graham, Cat. Bombay
PI. 174; 1839 (non Roxb.). ,Litseafuscata Lee Bom-
bay Gazett. 19:645, 1885 (non Thwaites, BirdwOod,
24; Cooke, T. 648, 1885.
One of the commonest trees on the plateau.
rowers: December-January
fruits : January- May.
local name: Pisa.
Beilschmiedia Nees
1. Beilschmiedia Roxburghiana Nees, in Wall. PI.
As. Rar. 2: 69, 1832; FBI 5: 121; Dalz. & Gibs. 222.
B. roxburghiana var. dalzellii Haines, Bot.
Bihar & Orissa 798, 1924.
B. faqifolia var. dalzellii Meissn., in DC.
Prodr. 15(1): 64, 1864; FBI 5:122; Cooke, T. 2:534
(3:27).
B. dalzellii (Meissn.) Kosterm. in Reinwardtia
6:282, 1962.
Rare tree at Mahabaleshwar. Only known from
a single collection.
flowers: February - March.
LOCAL NAME: Kajllri.
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, accepts the name#, dal-
zellii (Meissn.) Kosterman for this species in FI.
Khandala, ed. 3, 230, 1967. Later (in Dist. Flower
PI. India, 22, 1973), he calls plants from the Western
Ghats a sB. roxburghiana Nees.
Cinnamomum Blume
1. Cinnamomum verum Presl. Priroz. Rostl. 2:36, L
7, 1825; Kosterman, in K.M. Manilal, Bot. Hist.
Hort. Malabar, 163, 1980.
C. zeylanicum Blume, Bijdr. 568, 1825; FBI
5:131; Wight, Icon. tt. 123, 134, 1844-5; Cooke,
2:525 (3:28).
C. aromaticum Graham, Cat. Bomb. PI. 173,
1839 (non Linn., 1753).
C. iners Graham, l.c. 173 (non Blume, 1826,
nec Wight, 1839).
Few trees are planted at Bhilar in a private gar-
den. Probably introduced from elsewhere.
2. Cinnamomum camphora T. Nees, & Eberm.
Hndb. Hed.-Pharm. Bot. 2:430, 1829.
Rarely cutlivated in gardens.
LOCAL NAME: KapOOr.
Litsea Lamk. (nom. cons.)
1. Stamens 18-20 /. deccanensis
1. Stamens 12 2
2. Filaments glabrous; leaves glaucous
beneath L. vertakii
2. Filaments hairy; leaves rusty-tomentose
beneath L.floribunda
1. Litsea deccanensis Gamble, FI. Madras, 1235,
1925; Santapau, 232.
180
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
L. tomentosa Heyne ex Meissn., in DC. Prodr.
15(1): 177, 1862 (non Blume, 1825); Birdwood, 24;
Cooke, T. 2: 539(3:32); Puri & Mahajan, 131.
Tetranthera apetala Graham, Cat. 174, 1839;
Dalz. & Gibs. 222 (non Roxb., 1832).
T. tomentosa Roxb., ex Wight, Icon. t. 1834,
1852.
L. tomentosa van glahrescens Cooke, T. Bom-
bay Gazett. 19:648, 1885.
This species has been reported from Rotunda
Ghat by Birdwood and T. Cooke. Talbot reports it
from Mahabaleshwar plateau. We have not seen the
plant on the plateau, nor have we seen any reliable
herbarium specimen.
flowers: October- January.
2. Litsea floribunda (Blume) Gamble, FI. Madras,
1234, 1925;) K.N. Gandhi, in fl. Hassan Dist. 48,
1966.
Calycodapkne floribunda Blume, Mus. Bot.
1:387,1857.
L. wightiana Hook, f., in Gen. PI. 3: 162, 1880;
FBI 5: 177 (p.p.); Birdwood, 24; Cooke, T. 2:540
(3:33); Puri & Mahajan, 131 (non C. wightiana
Nees, 1829).
Calycodapkne wightiana auct. (non Nees,
1829); Dalz. & Gibs. 222; Wight, Icon. t. 1883,
1852.
Tetranthera wightiana Wall, ex Bedd. Fl. Syl-
van t. 293, 1873 (non C. wightiana Nees, 1829).
This species has been reported by Birdwood
on authority of Simonds, from Bombay Point. Plants
labelled as this species in Blatter Herbarium have all
turned out to be L. stocfcsii Hook.f.
3. Litsea vartakii Almeida nom. nov.
Litsea stocksii Hook, f., in Fl. Brit. India 5: 176,
1886 (nom. illeg.); Birdwood 24; Cooke, T.
2:539(3:33); Puri & Mahajan, 131.
Actinodaphne lanceolata auct. (non Dalz. &
Gibs., 1861); Naime, PI. West. India, 279, 1894 (As
a synonym).
Very common tree all over Mahabaleshwar.
Leaves turn reddish on drying.
flowers: October- December.
In the original protologue of this species, J. D.
Hooker has cited Tetranthera lanceaefolia Graham
as one of the synonyms of the new species which is
nov/ synonymised with Actinodaphne angustifolia
Nees. Therefore L. stocksii Hk.f. becomes an il-
legitimate name. The new specific name is given
after Dr. V.D. Vartak for his interest in Mahabalesh-
war flora.
Besides the species mentioned above,
Birdwood has reported Litsea polyantha Juss. (Kala
Pisa), from Arthur’s Seat, leaves having Cin-
namomum smell and L. cookii Fairbank, from
Arthur’s Seat. We have not been able to confirm the
identity of these species.
Neolitsea (Benth.) Merrill
1. Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merrill, Gamble, in Fl.
Madras, 1:240, 1925.
Litsea zeylanica Nees, Cinnamomum. Disput.
58, 1823; Dalz. & Gibs. 223; Wight, Icon. tt. 132 &
1844; FBI 5:178; Birdwood, 24; Cooke, T. 2: 541
(3:34); Puri & Mahajan, 131.
L. foliosa Nees, Syst. Laurin. 622, 1839.
Common tree all over Mahabaleshwar, espe-
cially near Arthur’s Seat and Dhobi’s falls.
flowers: November- December.
local name: Kanvel, Chirchira.
Persea Miller
1 Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterman, Rein-
wardtia 6:193, 1962; Santapau, 231.
Machilus macrantha Nees, in Wall, PL As. Rar.
2:70, 1831; Dalz. & Gibs. 221; Wight, Icon. 1. 1824,
1852; Bed d., Fl. Sylvat. t. 264, 1872; Lisboa, 221;
Birdwood, 24; Cooke, T. 2:536 (3:29).
M. glaucescens Wight, Icon. t. 1825, 1852;
Dalz. & Gibs. 221.
Rare tree occasionally seen in forest areas near
culverts.
flowers: January.
LOCAL NAME: Gulum.
Proteaceae
Grevillea R. Br.
1 . Grevillea rcbusta Cunn., in R. Br Prodr. suppl. 24,
1830; Puri & Mahajan, 131 (in Laumceae); San-
tapau, 233.
Ornamental tree, occasionally cultivated in
gardens.
common name: Silver Oak
Thymelaeaceae
Gnidia Linn.
1. Gnidia glaeca (Fresen.) Gilg, Bot. Jahrb. SysL
19:265, 1894, in obs., CJ. Saldanha, in Fl. Hassan
FLORA OF MAHABALESWAR
181
DisL 275. 1977.
Lasio siphon glaucus Fresen., FI. 21:603,
1838.
L. eriocephalus Decne, in Jacq., Voy. Bot. 148,
1844; FBI 5:197; Cooke, T. 649 & 2:542(3:36) Lis-
boa 221; Birdwood, 24; Puri & Mahajan, 131; San-
tapau, 398, 1962 & 309, 1963.
Gnidia eriocephala Graham, Cat. Bombay PL
176, 1839; Wight Icon. 1. 1859, 1852.
L. speciosa Decne l.c, 147, 1. 150. 1844; Baiz.
& Gibs. 221; Markham, 385, 1880.
Fairly common in open forests and along the
forest borders in thick forests. The bark is used by
local people for stupefying fish.
flowers: November- January.
local name: Rametha, Rametta.
Elaeagnaceae
l.Elaeagnus confer ta Roxb., FI. Ind. 1:440,
1832; Graham, 178; Puri & Mahajan, 132; San-
tapau, 399, 1962 & 294, 1963.
E. latifolia auct. (non Linn., 1753); Wight
Icon. 1. 1856, 1850; FBI 5:202; Cooke, T. 649, 1885;
Birdwood, 24; Lisboa, 221 Cooke, 2:543(3:37).
E. koiaga Schletch., in DC. Prodr. 14:611,
1857; Dalz. & Gibs. 224; Markham, 385, 1885.
Common and abundant scandent or straggling
climber all over in forest areas. Ellipsoidal, silvery
berries are edible and are sold in local markets.
flowers: December-Fcbruary ;
fruits: March- April.
local name: Amgul, Nurgi.
LORANTHACEAE
1 . Flowers bisexual; leaves well developed
with prominent mid-rib....... ..2
2. Bracts cup-shaped, forming an involucre
enclosing inflorescence... Tolypanthes
2. Bracts not involucrate 3
3 . Each flower with 2-3 bracts Macrosolen
3. Each flower with a single bract 4
4. Petals free Helixanthera
4. Petals united 5
5. Flowers regular. Dendrophthoe
5. Flowers irregular. ....6
6. Leaves opposite Loranthus
6. Leaves alternate Taxillus
1. Flowers unisexual; leaves absent,
(when present without a mid-rib) Viscum
Dendrophthoe Martius
1. Dendrophthoe faScata (Linn.f.) Etting. in
Denkschr. Akad. Wissen, Math.-Natural. Cl. 32:52-
3, 58, 1 13, f. 14, 1872; Merrill, in Am. Arbor. 8:53,
1934; Santapau, 234.
Loranthus falcatus Linn. f. suppl. 211, 1781.
L. longiflorus Desr. in Lamk. Encycl. 3:598,
1789; Graham, 86; Dalz. & Gibs. 110; Wight, Icon,
t. 302, 1840; FBI 5:214; Cooke, T. 2:548 (3:42); Lis-
boa, 222.
L. amplexifolia DC. Prodr. 4:305, 1830;
Graham, 86.
L. longiflorus var. amplexifolia Thwaites,
Enum. 134, 1859; FBI 5:215.
Quite frequent parasite on Syzyqium cumini
Skeel (Jambul Tree).
flowers: July- January.
local name: bandguL Banda.
2. Dendrophthoe trigona (WL & Am.) Danser ex
Santapau, in Rec. BoL Surv. India 16(1): 263, 1953;
Santapau, 299, 1963. Loranthus trigonus Wight &
Am., Prodr. 386, 1834; FBI 5: 219; Cooke, T.
2:249(3:43).
Macrosolen trigonus Van Tiegh, Bull. Soc.
Bot. France 42:442, 1895.
Rare parasite on Xantolis tomentosa Rafin.
along Fitzgerald Ghat.
flowers : January- February;
FRUITS: April.
Helicanthes Dans.
1. Helicanthes elastics (Desr.) Danser, in Verhand.
K. Akad Western. Amsterd. Sect 2, 29(6):55, 1933;
Santapau, 299, 1963.
Loranthus elasticus Desr., in Lamk. Encycl.
3:599, 1789; Graham, 86; Dalz. & Gibs. 109; FBI
5:216; Wight, Icon, l 343; Cooke, X 649 & 2:547
(3:41); Birdwood., 24; Puri & Mahajan, 132.
Very common parasite on Flacourtia indica
Merrill and Syzyqium cumini Skeels.
flowers: October- December.
Helixanthera Lour.
i . Flowers more than 2 cm. long H. obtusata
1 . Flowers less than 1 cm long H. wallichiana
1. Helixanthera obtusa (Schult.) Danser, in Bull.
Jard. Bot. Buitens. Ser. 3, 10:317, 1929; Santapau,
300, 1963. Loranthus obtusatus Schult., Syst. 7(2):
1650, 1830; Graham, 86; Dalz. & Gibs. 109. 109;
Lee, 645; FBI 5:205; Cooke, T. 649 & 2:546 (3:39);
Lisboa, 222; Birdwood, 24.
182
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Common parasite on Memecylon umbellatum
Burm., Flacourtia indica Merrill and Syzygium
cumini Skeels.
flowers: May- June.
2. Elixanthera wallichiana(Schultes) Danser, Bull.
Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg Ser. 3, 10:317, 1929; TP.
Ramamoorthy, in FI. Hassan DisL 307. 1976.
Loranthus wallichiana Schultes Syst. 7:100,
1820; Wight, Icon. 1. 143, 1839; FBI 5:204; Cooke,
T. 545(3:40).
Phoenicantherum wallichiana Schultes Syst.
7:100, 1820; Wight, Icon.t. 143, 1839; FBI 5:204;
Cooke, T. 545(3:40).
Phoenicantherum wallichiana (Schult.)
Blume in Schult.f., Syst. 7:1729, 1828.
Rare parasite on Memecylon umbellatum
Burm.f.
Loranthus (nom. cons.)
1. Loranthus philippensis Cham. & Schultes, in
Linnaea 3:204, 1828; scurrula philippensis (Cham.
& Schult.) G. Don, Gen. Hist. 3:442, 1834; San-
tapau, 236.
L.scurrula Kurz., For. FI. 2:319, 1877; FBI
5:208 (p.p); Cooke, T. 2:546(3:40) p.p.; Birdwood,
24 (non Linn., 1753).
L. budleoides Desr., in Lamk. Encycl. 3:600,
1792; Graham, 86; Dalz. & Gibs. 110 (p.p) (non
Thwaites, 1859).
Scurrula parasitica Linn. Sp. PI. 110, 1753;
Wien, in Abeywick., FI. Ceylon 1:73, 1973 (non L.
parasitica Linn., 1753).
Rare species along Fitzgerald Ghat on
Bridelia squamosa (Lamk.) gerhn. trees.
flowers: December- April.
Macro so len Blume
1 . Corolla less than 3 cm long M. capitellatus
1 . Corolla more than 3.5 cm long M. parasitica
1. Macrosolen capitellatus (Wt. & Am.) Danser, in
Blumea4: 36, 1936; Santapau, 300, 1963.
Loranthus capitellatus Wight & Am., Prodr.
382, 1834; Wight, Icon. t. 304, 1840; Dalz. & Gibs.
109; FBI 5:221; Cooke, T. 2:550(3:44); Puri &
Mahajan, 132.
Common parasite on Actinodaphne hookeri
Meissn.
flowers: April-June.
Balanophoraceae
1. Balanophora elkinsii Blatter, in Joum. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 33:309-10, 1929; Santapau, 289,
1963.
B. indica auct. (non Wall, ex Griffith., 1846);
Hart, Joum. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 1:75, 1886;
Birdwood, 25; Cooke, T. 2:557(3:52).
Common root-parasite on Syzygium cumini
Skeels.
flowers: October- November.
Euphorbiaceae
1 . Flowers aggregate-monoecious in heads
resembling a single flowers Euphorbia
1 . Flowers dioecious or separate-monoecious 2
2. Cell of the ovary 2-ovuled 3
3. Petals present, small 4
4. Fruit a capsule; calyx imbricate Actephila
4. Fruit a drupe; calyx valvate Bridelia
3. Petals absent 5
5. Disc present 6
6. Disc central, orbicular or
combined with calyx lobes,
eglandular. 7
7. Stamens 4-many Drypetes
7. Stamens 3 in a column Breynia
6. Disc glandular. 8
8. Fruit a berry 9
9. Fruits of 3-6 hard cocci
in a fleshy epicarp Emblica
9. Fruits with 6-12 crusta-ceous
seeds Kirganelia
8. Fruit a dry capsule of 3 or
2-valved cocci 10
10. Stamens 3 Phyllanthus
10. Stamens 5 Securinega
5. Disc absent Glochidion
2. Cells of the ovary 1 -ovuled 1 1
1 1. Calyx in male flowers valvate 12
12. Filaments not branched 13
13. Anthers not vermiculiform or
linear. Mallotus
13. Anthers vermiculiform or linear
linear. Tragic
12. Filaments branched 14
14. Leaves entire, penninerved
Ricinus
14. Leaves palmatilobed,
palminerved Ricinus
11. Calyx in male flowers imbricate 15
15. Stamens 2-3 Sapium
15. Stamens numerous Jatropha
Actephila Blume
1. Actephila Excelsa (Dalz.) Muell.-Arg., in Linnaea
FLORA OF MAHABALESWAR
183
32: 78, 1863; FBI 5:282; Cooke, T. 2:575(3:71)
Anomospermum excelsum Dal z. in Kew Joum. BoL
3:228, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 233.
Actephila neilgherrensis Wight, Icon. t. 1910,
1852.
This species is known from a single collection
of Chibber. We have not seen this species at
Mahabaleshwar.
flowers: August - September.
Breynia Forster (nom. cons.)
1. Breynia Retusa (Dennst) Alston, Ann. Roy. BoL
Gard. (Peradenia) 11:204, 1929; T.P. Ramamoor-
thy, in FI, Hassan Dist. 333, 1976.
Phyllanthus retusus Dennst., Schluess, Hort.
Malab. 24, 1818.
Melanthesa retusa Kostel, Allg. Med.-Pharm.
Flora 5:1771, 1835.
M. turbinata (Koen. ex Roxb.) Wight, Icon.
5(2):26, 1. 1897, 1852; Dalz. & Gibs. 234; Santapau,
296, 1963.
M. obliqua Wight, Icon.t.1898, 1852.
P. turbinatus Koen. ex Roxb., FI. Ind. 3:666,
1832; Graham, 180.
B . patens Rolfe, in Joum. Bot. (N.S.) 11:359,
1852; FBI 5:329; Cooke, T. 2:583(3:79); Birdwood,
25.
Quite frequent along roadsides along Kelgar
Ghat.
flowers: June— July.
common English name: Cup-in-saucer plant.
Bridelia Willd.
1. Inflorescence axillary in clusters;
stipules long and broad. B squamosa
2. Inflorescence terminal and axillary spikes;
stipules short and narrow B. retusa
1. Bridelia retusa (L). Spreng., Syst. Veg. 3:48, 1826;
FBI 5:268.1887; Cooke 2:572-3(3:68); Puri &
Mahajan, 132. Cluytia retusa Linn. Sp. PI. 1042,
1753.
B. spinosa Willd. Sp. PL 4:949, 1805; Graham,
184.
B. montana Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 184,
1839 (non Willd., 1905); Dalz. & Gibs. 233.
This species is included here on authority of
Puri & Mahajan. In various herbaria, the specimens
identified as belonging to this species have been
now corrected as belonging to B. squamosa (Lamk.)
Gehrm. We have not seen any authentic specimen of
this species from Mahabaleshwar.
flowers: March- May.
2. Bridelia Squamosa (Lamk.) Gehrm., in Engl. BoL
Jahrb. 41: Beilb. 95, 1908; Santapau, FI. Khandala,
ed. 3,243, 1967.
Cluytia squamosa Lamk. Encycl. 5(2): 54,
1790.
Occasional tree found along Fitzerald ghat and
Kelgar ghat.
flowers: December- May.
Drypetes Vahl
1. Drypetes venusta (Wight) Pax & Hoffm., in
Pfireich. 81: 268, 1922; Santapau, FI. Khand. ed.
3,247, 1967.
Astylis venusta Thwaites in Kew J. Bot. 7:272,
1855; Dalz. & Gibs. 229, 1861; FBI 5: 339, 1887;
Cooke, 2:591(3:87).
A rare tree along Fitzgerald Ghat. There is only
one specimen of this species in Blatter Herbarium
from Mahabaleshwar area.
flowers: November.
Emblica Gaertner
1. Emblica officinalis Gaertner, FrucL, 2:122, 1791;
Dalz. & Gibs. 235; Wight, Icon. L 1896, 1852; Puri
& Mahajan, 132; Santapau, 295, 1963.
Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Sp. PI. 982, 1753;
Graham, 189; FBI 5:289; Cooke, T. 2:585 (3:81);
Lisboa, 223; Birdwood, 25.
One of the common trees all over Mahabalesh-
war in forest areas. Fruits used for pickles.
flowers: March- May.
local names: Aula, Amla.
Glochidion Forst.
1 . Glochidion hohenackeri Bedd., For. Man. in Flora
Sylvat. 193, 1873; FBI 5:514; Cooke, T. 2:579
(3:75); Puri & Mahajan, 132; Santapau, 399, 1962
& 295,6 1963.
G. lanceolarium Dalz. in Dalz. & Gibbs. Bom-
bay FI. 235, 1861 (non Voight, 1840).
Bridelia sinica Graham Cat. Bombay Pl. 184,
1839.
B. lanceolaria Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 697, 1832.
Phyllanthus lanceolarius Muell.-Arg. FI. 48,
1865; Cooke, T. 648, 1885; Puri & Mahajan, 132.
184
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
G. velutinum auct. (non Wight, 1834); San-
tapau, 295, 1963.
Common tree all over on the plateau.
flowers: December— March.
local names: Bhoma, Boma.
Euphorbia Linn.
1. Stems nddeveloped above ground;
leaves all radical. 2
2. Cyme single; bracts acute E.fixsiformis
2. Cymes numerous from each stem;
bracts rotund ous E. panckganensis
1 . Stems well developed above ground 3
3 Perennial shrubs E.neriifolia
3. Annual herbs. 4
4. Leaves exstipulate, at least
lower ones alternate E. rothiana
4. Leaves stipulate or the leaf attachment
connected by a transverse interpetiolar line,
leaves opposite 5
5. Floral leaves distichously imbricating 6
6. Seeds tubercuiate E. pycnostegia
6. Seeds smooth..... E.pycnosieg ia var. zornioides
5. Floral leaves not distichously imbricating
E. parvifiora
1. Euphorbia fusiform is Buch.-Ham. ex Don, FI.
Nepal. 62, 1825; FBI 5: 257; Birdwood, 26.
E. acaulis Roxb., PI. Ind. 2: 472, 1828;
Graham, 179; Dalz, & Gibs. 226; Cooke, T. 651 &
2:472 (3:57); Puri & Mahajan, 132.
Common deciduous perennial herb on ex-
posed rocky ground at Wilson Point.
flowers: April- May.
2. Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. Sp. PI. 45 1 , 1753; Dalz.
& Gibs. 226; Lisboa, 25; FBI 5:255; Saniapau, 295,
1963.
E. liqularia Roxb. FI. Ind. 2:465, 1832; Cooke,
T. 2:563 (3:58).
Occasionally used as a hedge plant.
FLOWERS: AugUSt- October.
local names: Thor, Dudli.
3. Euphorbia panchganensis Blatter & McCann,
Jouni. As. Soc. Bengal, N.S. 26:353, 1930; san-
tapau, 295, 1963.
Quite common in the same localities as the
preceeding species. This species is distinguished
from E. fusiformis Buch.-Ham. by its numerous
cymes on a single stem and its rotundous bracts. We
have observed that in the case of Mahabalesh war
plants these characters are very variable, giving all
intermediate forms. Bracts in Mahabalesh war plants
vary from sharply acute to obtuse as well as or-
bicular in shape. Cymes in Mahabaleshwar plants
vary from a single cyme to as many as ten. We have
not been able to isolate any reliable differentiating
character and feel that it is only a variable form of
the preceeding species. But before merging these
allied species or reducing them to varietal ranks as
suggested by Rev. H. Santapau, in Revision of genus
Euphorbia in Bombay (Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal, 8:3-
4, 1954), we feel that more field studies as well as
more data on anatomy, cytology, palynology, etc.
may be necessary to decide the status of these taxa.
4. Euphorbia parvifiora Linn. Syst. ed. 10, 2:1047,
1759; Graham, 179; Dalz. & Gibs. 227; Santapau,
243,
E. hypericifolia Linn. Sp. PL 454, 1753 (p.p.);
FBI 5:249 (p.p.); Birdwood, 25.
E. hypericifolia var. parvifiora Prain, Bengal
PI. 2:924, 1903; Cooke, T. 2:567(3:63).
Common among grasses on rocky ground.
flowers: August- September.
local name: Dudh- Mogra.
5. Euphorbia pycnostegia Boiss. Vent. Euphorb. 9,
1860; FBI 5:246; Cooke, T. 2:565(3:60);
Birdwood, 25 ; Santapau, 24 1 ; Puri & Mahajan, 132.
Quite a common herb among the grasses at
Lingmala.
flowers: September - December.
6. Euphorbia rothiana Spreng., SysL 3:796, 1826;
Dalz. & Gibs. 226; Wight, Icon. t. 1864, 1852;
Cooke, T. 651, 1885 & 2:565 (3:59-60); Lisboa,
222; Lee, 625; FBI 5:263; Birdwood, 25; Puri &
Mahajan, 132; Santapau, Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal, 8:
13, 1955.
Common and abundant herb along the edges
of forests.
flowers: September- October
fruits: October- April.
7. Euphorbia pycnostegia Boiss. var. zornioides
(Boiss.) Santa- pau, in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal, 8: 1 1,
1955.
E. zornioides Boiss., in DC. Prodr. 15(2): 19,
1862; FBI 5:246; Cooke, T. 2:265 (3:60); Birdwood*
25; Santapau, 295, 1963.
Quite a common herb among the grasses at
Lingmala.
flowers: August - November
FLORA OF MAHABALESWAR
185
Homonoia Lour.
1 . Homonoia riparia Lour., FI. Cochinch. 637, 1790;
FBI 5: 455; Cooke, T. 649 & 2:620 (3: 1 18); Lisboa,
22; Birdwocd, 25; Puri & Mahajan, 132.
Adelia neriifolia Roth., Nov. PI. Sp. 375,
1821; Graham, 185; Dalz. & Gibs. 231; Wight, Icon.
1. 1868, 1852.
Common shrub along sides of Yenna river.
flowers: January - April.
local name: Taniki.
Jatropha Linn.
1. JatrophacurcasLinn.Sp.pl. 1006, 1753; Graham,
183; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 77; FBI 5:383; Cooke, T.
2:598 (3:95); Lisboa, 222.
Rarely used as a hedge plant
flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: Mogli Erand, Jambhal Erandi.
Kirganelia Baill.
1. Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill. Etud. Gen.
Euphorb. 613, 1858; Santapau, 246.
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. in Lamk. Encycl.
5:298, 1804; FBI 5:288; Cooke, T. 2:585 (3:81).
Anisonema multiflora Wight, Icon. L 1899,
1852; Dalz. & Gibs. 234.
P. multiflora Willd. Sp. PI. 4:581, 1805;
Graham, 180.
Sarmentose shrub, rarely used as a hedge plant.
FLOWERS: April - October.
Macaranga Thouars
1. Macaranga peitata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg. in DC.
Prodr. 15(2): 1010, 1866; Santapau, 250.
Osyris peitata Roxb., FI. Ind. 3:855, 1832;
Graham, 177. Mappa peitata Wight, Icon, t 817,
1844.
Macaranga roxburghii Wight, Icon. 5(2): 23,
1852;FBI 5: 448; Dalz. & Gibs. 228; Bird wood, 26.
M. tomentosa Wight, Icon. 5(2): 23, 1832;
Cooke, T. 2:619 (3:117), 1906.
This species is reported on authority of San-
tapau. We have not seen an authentic specimen of
the species from Mahabaleshwar.
Mellotus Lour.
1. Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg. in
Linnea 34: 196, 1865; FBI 5:445; Cooke, T. 2:615
(3:113-4), 1906; Birdwood, 25; Puri & Mahajan, 132;
Santapau, 295, 1963.
Croton philippense Lamk., Encycl. 2:206,
1786.
Rottlera tinctoria Roxb., PL Cor. 2:36, 1. 167,
1798; Graham, 184; Dalz. & Gibs. 230.
Common tree on lower slopes of Fitzgerald
Ghat.
flowers: December- January
fruits: January- April.
local names: Rohen, Asli.
Phyllanthus Linn.
1. Annual herbs 2
2. Stipules peltate P. maderaspatensis
2. Stipules not peltate P. asperulatus
1 . Perennial shrubs P. lavAi
1. Phyllanthus asperulatus Hutchinson, in Kew
Bull. 1920: Webster, in Joum. Am. Arbor. 37:14,
1956; Santapau, 245. P. niruri auct. (non Linn.,
1753); Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 180, 1839; Dalz.
& Gibs. 234; Wight, Icon. L 1894, 1853; Cooke, T.
2: 587 (3:84).
P. fraternus Webster, in Contrib. Gray Herb.
176 :53, 1955.
Quite common weed in wastelands in town.
FLOWERS: AugUSt- October.
LOCAL NAME: Bhui- Auli.
2. Phyllanthus lawii Graham, Cat. Bombay PL 181,
1839; FBI 5: 290; Cooke, T. 2:586 (3:82).
P. polyphyllus Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 234,
1861 (non Willd, 1805); Lisboa, 223.
This species is reported here on authority of
Lisboa. We have not seen it on the plateau, although
it is found on the bed of Koyna river, below
Mahabaleshwar.
3. Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn. Sp. PL 982,
1753; Graham, 180; Dalz. & Gibs. 233; Wight,
Icon. 1 1895, f. 3, 1853; FBI 5:292; Birdwood, 25;
Cooke, T. 2:586, (3:82).
Rare weed in shady places in wastelands.
flowers: July- August.
Ricinus Linn.
1. Ricinus communis Linn. Sp. PL 1007, 1753; FBI
5:457; Graham, 183; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 78; Lis-
boa, 223; Cooke, T. 2:627 (3: 125); Puri & Mahajan,
132.
186
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Rare shrub, occasionally found growing as a
weed along roadsides near the bus-stand. Frequent-
ly cultivated in front of village houses.
flowers: July- September.
local name: Brandi.
Sapium R. Br.
1 . Sapium inssgne Benth. var. malabaricum (Wight)
Hook, f., in flora Bril India 5:472, 1885; Santapau,
296, 1963. Falconeria malabarica Wight, Icon. t.
1866, 1852. Sapium insigne Cooke, T. FI. Bombay
Pres. 2:622, 1906 (non Benth.).
Rare tree along Fitzgerald Ghat.
flowers: January- April
fruits: March- June.
LOCAL NAME: Sherod.
Securinega A. Juss.
1 . Unarmed shrubs; leaves upto 7 cm. long S. virosa
1 . Armed shrubs; leaves upto 3 cm long S. leucopyras
1. Securinega Seucopyrus (Willd.) MuelL- Arg., in
DC. Prodr. 15(2):451, 1866; Santapau, 296, 1963.
Fluggea leucopyrus Wild., Sp. PI. 4:757, 1805;
FBI 5:328: Wight, Icon. t. 1875, 1852; Cooke, T.
2:581 (3:77).
F. virosa Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 236, 1861
(non Bail!., 1858).
This species has been reported by Rev. Fr. H.
Santapau, from Mahabaieshwar. We have not seen
any authentic specimen from Mahabaieshwar.
2. Securinenga virosa (Roxb.) Pax & Hoffm., in
Plam. ed. 2, 19C:60, 1931; Santapau, 244.
Phyllanthus virosus Roxb., ex Willd. sp. PI.
4:578, 1805.
Flueggea microcrapa Blume, Bijdr. 580,
1825.
F. leucopyros Dalz. & gibs. Bombay FI. 236,
1861 (non Willd., 1805).
P. retusus Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 657, 1832;
Graham, 180.
Chorisandra pinnata Wight, Icon. t. 1944,
1853.
Fluggea virosa Baill., Etud. Gen. Euphorb.
593, 1858.
Rare shrub along Fitzgerald Ghat.
flowers: May- June.
local name: Pandharphali.
Tragia Linn.
1. Leaves simple T. muelleriana var. urucolor
1 . Leaves palmately 3 -partite T. cannabina
1. Tragia cannabina Linn.f. suppl. 415, 1781; Dalz.
& Gibs. 228.
T. involucrata var cannabina Muell.- Arg. in
DC. Prodr. 15 (2):944, 1866; FBI 5:465.
Rare climber along the edges of forests.
flowers: May- June.
2. Tragia muelleriana unicolor var. (Muell.-Arg.)
Pax & Hoffm. in Pfreich. 68:81, 1935; Santapau,
251.
T. nucheliana var. unicolor Muell— Arg., in
DC. Prodr. 15(2): 843, 1866.
T. involucrata Cooke, T. FI. Pres. Bombay
2:621, 1906; (Pro parte); Birdwood, 25; Puri &
Mahajan, 132.
Common stinging climber along the edges of
forests. Stinging hairs cause blisters and dermatitis.
flowers. September- December.
local names: Churki, Khajkolti.
Santalaceae
Osyris Linn.
1. Osyris guadripartita Dalz. ex Decne., Ann. Sci.
Nat ser. 2, 6:65, 1836; Hendrich, in FI. Europaea
1:70, 1964.
O. wightiana Wall, ex Graham, Cat. Bombay
PI. 177, 1839; Wight, Icon. t. 1853, 1852; Dalz. &
Gibs. 223; Markham, 385; Cooke, T. 649, 1885,
Santapau, 399, 1962.
O. arborea Wall, ex DC. Prodr. 14:633, 1857;
FBI 5:32; Cooke, T. 2: 555(3:501); Birdwood, 25;
Puri & Mahajan, 132.
Evergreen shrub, sometimes attaining height
of a small tree. Common along edges of the forests
in open places.
flowers: Throughout the year.
LOCAL NAMES: Lotal, Popli.
TERRITORIALITY IN INDIAN BLACKBUCK , ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA (LINNAEUS)1
N.L.N.S. Prasad2
(With a text-figure)
Territoriality in blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra, was investigated for 2 years in six individually-iden-
tified territorial bucks at Mudmal, Andhra Pradesh. A total of 12 territories were maintained by these bucks at
different times during the study period. Territory size varied from 3.33 ha to 16.65 ha with a mean size of 9. 19
ha. The minimum territorial period was 5 weeks while the maximum was 9.5 months. Some of the bucks shifted
their territories abruptly without changing to bachelor status in between. Territories were marked with urina-
tion-defecation and with preorbital glands. Interactions of territorial bucks with bachelors showed a higher per-
centage being directed against adults, due to apparent threat to the territory from them, than from other age
groups.
Introduction
Territorial behaviour by males is one of the
fundamental forms of social behaviour exhibited by
ungulates (Estes 1974). This social aspect has been
well investigated in the wild as well as in captivity
in many African antelopes. Studies in the wild on
Thomson’s Gazelle, Gazella thomsoni and Grant’s
Gazelle G. granti (Estes 1967, Walther 1972), Im-
pala, Aepyceros melampus (Jarman and Jarman
1974), Sable Antelope, Hippotragus niger (Estes
1964, 1969; Estes and Estes 1976); and Springbok,
Antidorcas marsupialis (Walther 1981) and captive
studies on Blackbuck .Antilope cervicapra (Hediger
1941, Walther 1959, Mungall 1979); Gerenuk,
Litocranius walleri (Leuthold 1978); Dorcas
Gazelle, Gazella dorcas (Walther 1968) and Dama
Gazelle, G. dama (Mungall 1980) are some of the
earlier studies. The species studied so far show some
common characteristics relating to territoriality,
namely: a) only adult males become territorial, but
not all of them, b) usually territorial periods alter-
nate with non-territorial periods during the life of
the same individual, c) owners aggressively ex-
clude other males from their territories or at least
dominate them within territorial boundaries, and
d) usually females only temporarily visit males in
their territories (Walther et ai 1983). There have
been few scientific studies in the wild on this be-
havioural phenomenon of the Blackbuck. These in-
clude studies in Kanha National Park (Schaller
Accepted September 1987.
^Department of Zoology, Osmania University,
Hyderabad -500 007.
1967) and Velavadar National Park (Ranjitsinh
1982) in India and studies in Texas, U.S.A. (Cary
1976, Mungall 1978, 1979). This paper presents the
territory size of six individually identified bucks in
the wild at Mudmal, Andhra Pradesh, and aspects re-
lated to territoriality.
Study Area and Methods
The 80 km2 study area (c.l6#24’N, 77°27’E)
was divided into 500 x 500 m grids on Survey of
India maps scaled 1:33000. Cultivated fields and
fallow lands occupied 81% of the area. The remain-
ing 19% area was occupied by 4 different habitat
types. These habitat types and utilization have al-
ready been described by Prasad and Ram ana Rao
(1984; in press). Features such as rocky elevations,
boulders, grassy patches, rainfed tanks and patches
of Phoenix sp. in the habitat served as landmarks for
identification of grids.
Blackbuck were observed from April 1978 to
February 1980. They could be easily approached
opto a distance of 100 m, and at times even less,
without being disturbed by the observer. By the end
of the 2-year study, 11 adult bucks were recognized
individually out of a population of 105 animals.
Details of the population structure have been given
by Prasad (1984). The shape of horns, the number
of spirals in horns and the intensity of black colour
on the coat were the criteria used in individual iden-
tification of bucks. Each buck was assigned an iden-
tification code such as PB I, PB II, LIMI, PPR I, etc.
Of these, eight were territorial at one time or other.
Data on bucks PPR II and PPR III was scanty and is
hence not dealt with here.
188
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 1
TERRITORY SIZE AND TERRITORIAL PERIOD OF BLACKBUCK AT MUDMAL
Territorial
buck
Total
sightings
No. of days
territorial
behaviour
seen
Location
on Fig. 1
Territorial period
(weeks)
Territory
size (ha)
PB I
265
13
A
11 Nov 1978-31 Jan 1979 (11)
7.8
9
B
2 Feb 1979-13 Apr 1979 (10)
13.0
PB n
336
18
C
12 Sep 1978-21 Mar 1979 (26)
12.28
34
D
25 May 1979-17 Feb 1980 (38)
16.65
PPR I
42
4
E
3 Feb 1979-2 May 1979 (14)
7.80
5
F
lOJun 197946 Jul 1979 (5)
8.53
LIMI
349
8
G
15 Sep 1978-31 Oct 1978 (7)
5.93
6
H
4 Nov 1978-27 Dec. 1978 ( 8)
11.86
20
I
4 Feb 1979-2 Oct 1979 (34)
10.92
LG III
92
12
J
12 July 1979 -27 Nov 1979 (20)
7.49
PM I
87
8
K
Nov 1978 - 25 Feb 1979 (13)
3.33
10
L
12 Mar 1979 - 18 May 1979 (10)
5.41
Combined average of all territories: 9.19 ha.
All observations were carried out on foot
during daytime and were aided by 8 x 30 and 8 x 40
binoculars. The places at which territorial behaviour
was expressed by bucks on different days were iden-
tified on gridded maps. The behaviour patterns used
for identifying territoriality were: expression of
dominance by a buck over conspecifics of the same
sex through fights and chases and attempts to drive
them from a specified area; vigorous attempts to
herd members of the opposite sex within this area;
marking the area with urine, faeces, and preorbital
gland secretion (Walther et at. 1983). The outermost
points where territorial behaviour occurred in the
study area during the observation period of in-
dividual bucks were joined by straight lines to form
the boundary of the territory. The area of the territory
was determined by tracing the boundary onto a
graph paper to appropriate scale.
Dung piles used exclusively by territorial
bucks PB I, LIMI, and LG III were identified in-
dividually. A paper tag was attached to a bush or a
plant near the dung pile. This enabled me to record
the visits of the bucks to the dung pile. The dung
piles were measured and represented on the map.
A total of 269 days were spent from April 1978
through February 1980 and over 780 hrs. of obser-
vations made on the activity patterns of different
animals. Observations on territorial bucks totalled
366 hrs. The number of hours of observations varied
from 1-10 hrs. per day. The method of data record-
ing was described in detail by Prasad (1985). X-test
was performed to find seasonal differences in the in-
teraction of territorial bucks with other members.
Results and Discussion
Territories
The territories of all six bucks were on fairly
elevated, open grassland. From these areas, the
bucks could have a visibility radius of at least 1 km.
This allowed them to see the activities of other
blackbuck nearby. Due to the presence of fresh and
palatable forage material in these areas and in ad-
jacent cultivated fields and fallow lands they formed
centres of blackbuck activity.
Territorial period
The minimum period a buck was observed
holding territory was five weeks (PPR I) while the
maximum was 9.5 months (PB II; Table 1). Except
for LG III, all other bucks changed the location of
the territory to a new place at least once. At the
beginning of the study, LG III was observed in a
bachelor herd and became territorial only during
July 1979. Most bucks appeared to shift territories
on their own and were not driven from them by
another male. LIMI maintained a territory in three
different locations at different times (Table 1). On
TERRITORIALITY IN INDIAN BLACKBUCK
189
Fig. 1. Distribution of territories of six territorial bucks in Mudmal. A-L: Location of territories at different times
(details in Table 1). Dot indicates dung pile location; plus indicates thrashing bushes/preorbital gland marking.
25 February 1979, during the ownership of ter-
ritory at location I, he was passing near the ter-
ritory K (PM I) and was seeing limping. He was
chased away by PM I while the females accompany-
ing LIMI strayed into territory K. In subsequent ob-
servations., LIMI was alone in an adjacent area
which was not occupied by any other buck. On 4
April 1979, and later on, LIMI exhibited courtship
behaviour within this area. Although he was seen
within this territory during November 1979,
courtship behaviour was not observed. On 30
December 1979, he joined a bachelor herd and was
seen in association with them till 20 February 1980.
PB II changed the location of his territory from
C to D on 25 May 1979 after the death of PB I. Part
of this newly acquired territory belonged to PB I
(Fig. 1). The change of place was mainly due to poor
forage quality in the area and a decrease in number
of females. On some occasions bucks were tem-
porarily forced out of their territories by cultivators.
Bucks returned as soon as the cultivators left the area
and defended the same boundaries.
Size and Shape
Territory size varied between 3.33 ha (PM I)
and 16.65 ha (PB II; Table 1). The combined average
of 12 territories (A-L; Fig. 1) of all bucks was 9.19
ha. PB I, PB II, LIMI and PPR I showed smaller size.
The territories were either elliptical or triangular in
shape. Boundaries of territories consisted of sheet
190
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
rocks, streams, hedges of cultivated fields and un-
cultivated fields with Phoenix trees. These
landmarks seem to limit the activity of bucks form-
ing a boundary, which possibly enables them to
recognize their territories.
Schaller (1967) reported a territory size of 8.09
ha in Kanha National Park, and Ranjitsinh (1982)
measured territories ranging from 28 x 24 m (0.07
ha) to 380 x 290 m (11.02 ha) at Velavadar Nation-
al Park, India. The size of 33 territories in Texas,
USA, ranged between 1.2 and 12.8 ha with an
average of 4.1 ha (Mungall 1979). Pasture size and
distribution of suitable tracts of open pastures were
found to determine the territory size. The largest
sizes were 12.8 ha and 11.3 ha in large and small
pastures respectively. Mungall (1979) also reported
territorial periods ranging between 2 weeks and 1 1
months with an average of 4 months, which is com-
parable with the territorial periods at Mudmal.
Behavioural patterns associated with
teritoriality
Marking certain areas by urination-defecation
and with preorbital glands had special significance
in the establishment of blackbuck territorial boun-
daries. These behaviour patterns, although ex-
pressed by any adult buck, were more pronounced
in the territorial bucks.
Bung pile
Each buck had at least one dung pile within its
territory. The dung piles were located eitlier central-
ly or near the boundary of the territory. When there
were more than two, the distance between them
varied from 20 to 100 m. Dung piles were also main-
tained by non-territorial bachelor bucks outside ter-
ritories. Dung piles were visited by bucks: 1) after
the completion of bedding activity, which is a
ritualised behaviour and may help the buck to assure
its ownership of the territory, 2) before and after in-
teraction with females and with adult bucks that
would try to intrude into the territory, 3) when they
were subjected to human disturbance, and 4) when-
ever they passed near the dung piles during other ac-
tivities such as feeding. While using a dung pile, the
buck approached it, perhaps sniffed, pawed it once
or twice with a foreleg, then stood with hind legs
stretched rearward and urinated. Later, he squatted
and defecated. The whole ceremony lasted between
20 and 38 sec. (X=30.7; n=84). After this the buck
usually lay down nearby. The distance from the
place of bedding to the nearest dung pile varied be-
tween 5 and 150 m. Ranjitsinh (1982) and Mungall
(1978), however, have documented many cases of
territorial bucks lying directly on the dung pile. At
Mudmal, the bucks were never observed to lie on the
dung pile itself.
The maximum frequency of visits to a dung
pile was two per day (LIMI). Some of the dung piles
were not visited for 2 weeks. Their use was restricted
to summer and winter. After the onset of monsoon
in June, bucks stopped using them. However, ter-
ritories were maintained by bucks during the rainy
season as well. The temporary suspension of dung
pile maintenance during the monsoon may be be-
cause rains wash off and negate the effect of the
scent of the dung piles. Bucks started using them
again during the last week of October, establishing
a new dung pile very near the old ones. In some
cases, however, the previously used ones were re-
established. A buck’s dung piles may be used by
another buck in the absence of the owner. Bucks
scraped the dung piles, though either one or both
urination and defecation were omitted on certain oc-
casions. This scraping resulted in shallow depres-
sions that were oval or round. The average maxi-
mum diameter was 86.5 cm when they were oval
(n=16). The mean diameter of dung piles ranged be-
tween 53.3 cm and 75.3 cm. (n=29; Table 2). The
maximum depth ranged from 8.5-15.0 cm. The
depth depends mainly upon the number of visits,
duration of use and the soil type in which it is lo-
cated.
For comparison, Nair (1975) observed dung
piles 80 cm long, 20 cm wide and 20 cm deep in
Point Calimere; Ranjitsinh (1982) measured piles
2.0 m long and 1.6 m wide; Mungall (1978)
reported an average diameter of 1 m (n=72), and
when oval a maximum length of 4.7 m (n-66) in
Texas, USA.
Marking with preorbital glands
Preorbital gland marking by the territorial
bucks was observed only on a few occasions (Fig.l).
During prcorbital gland marking, bucks thrashed
small bushes or tufts of grass vigorously while chas-
ing away the bachelors from their territories.
Thrashing of bushes was also observed outside the
TERRITORIALITY IN INDIAN D LACKS UCK
191
Table 2
DUNG PILE DATA OF TERRITORIAL BUCKS AT MUDMAL
Territorial
back
No. of
dung piles
Diameter (cm)
Maximum Average
Depth (cm)
Maximum
Average
PBI
6
74.0
59.6
13.0
12.0
pb n
4
84.0
57.33
8.5
8.2
PPRI
4
59.0
53.5
9.0
8.3
LEVH
8
86.5
75.3
15.0
12.0
PM I
4
61.2
52.4
11.0
8.6
lg in
3
76.0
60.5
10.0
9.2
territories. Marking with preorbital gland in these
areas of bushhoming have not been noticed. Such
activities, although less frequent, were also ex-
hibited by non-territorial bucks.
Interactions of territorial bucks with other
members
Serious fights between territorial males were
very rare. A territorial male would resort to fighting
with adults when his challenging threat displays did
not drive away the intruder. In most cases the owner
of the territory would succeed. A total of 1482 inter-
actions of various types between various sex and age
groups were recorded during the study period of
which 910 (61.4%) were by territorial males, 260
(17.5%) by adult males, 118 (7.9%) were by adult
and subadult females, 106 (7.2%) were by subadult
males and the rest by adolescent males and fawns
(Table 3). This reveals that territorial bucks are so-
cially more active than others.
Over 900 interactions were observed in which
territorial bucks addressed females and males of
various age groups (Table 4). Of these, 42.2% were
with adult and subadult females, involving pursuit
walk, head-up, nose-up displays and other courtship
activities. The proportion of interactions with
females in three seasons is significantly different
(X2 = 22.65; p <.05) with a peak in summer. This
could be because more females come into heat in
this season. Serious fights between territorial neigh-
bours were very few (3.85%). Territorial bucks ad-
dressed adult bucks more frequently (27.14%) than
bucks of other age groups, apparently due to an im-
mediate threat to their territory. This, however, is not
significantly different, nor are there seasonal dif-
ferences (X2 - 5.87; p >0.05). Interactions in which
a territorial buck was an addressee and an adult buck
an addresser were only 2.31 %. Territorial bucks ad-
dressed adolescent bucks more often (16.37%) than
subadult bucks (9.56%).
Conclusions
Blackbuck territories are reproductive ter-
ritories (Mungall 1978). For maximum reproductive
success, a territorial buck should occupy an area that
is more frequently used by females. The location of
territories in all the cases in the present study agrees
with this. Once a buck establishes a territory, he may
try to enlarge this area to the extent he can defend
the territory against the intrusion of nonspecific
males.
Bucks shift the location of a territory to a new
place when the area currently maintained attracts
fewer females due to deteriorating habitat condi-
tions.
A territorial buck faces threat mainly from
other adult bucks. Hence he resorts to more frequent
encounters with them than with younger males, to
keep them off his territory.
Acknowledgements
I thank: Prof. J.V. Ramana Rao for guidance
for my Ph.D. dissertation; the Head, Department of
Zoology, Osmania University, Hyderabad, for
providing facilities for my field work: the Andhra
Pradesh Forest Department, particularly Mr. Pushp
Kumar, I.F.S., and Mr. D.S. Ganga Khedkar,
A.I.F.C., for their personal interest in the study; Mr.
V.B. Deshmukh, Mr. S.B. Deshmukh and other local
people of Mudmal village and Dr. E.C. Mungall,
Texas, USA, for critical comments. Financial assis-
tance for the work was provided by the President,
F.R.I. & Colleges, Dehra Dun.
192
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 3
% INTERACTIONS INVOLVING HEAD-UP, NOSE-UP, BUTTING IN MALES AND FEMALES DURING 1978-80
ADDRESSEE
ADDRESSOR
Territorial
male
Adult
male
Subadult
male
Adolescent
male
Fawn
Adult &
sub-adult
female
TOTALS
Territorial
3.85
27.14
9.56
16.37
0.66
42.42
100
male
Adult
2.31
30.0
16.15.
13.08
7.69
30.77
(910)
100
male
Subadul
tO.O
0.0
59.43
24.53
4.72
11.32
(260)
100
male
Adolescent
0.0
0.0
25.93
59.26
14.81
0.0
(106)
100
male
Fawn
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.00
0.0
(54)
100
Adult &
0.0
0.0
0 0
0.0
39.83
60.17
(34)
100
subadult (118)
female
Total interactions are given in parenthesis
Table 4
% INTERACTION OF TERRITORIAL BUCKS WITH OTHER BLACKBUCK DURING 1978-80 AT MUDMAL
Season
Territorial
buck
Adult
bachelor
buck
Subadult
bachelor
buck
Adolescent
buck
Fawn
subadult
female
Adult &
Total
Summer
1.41
28.78
10.85
9.90
0.00
49.06
212
Monsoon
4.81
22.12
10.10
15.14
0.96
46.87
416
Winter
4.26
33.33
7.80
23.05
0.71
30.85
282
Whole year
3.85
27.14
9.56
16.37
0.66
42.42
910
References
Cary, E.R. (1976): Territorial and reproductive be-
haviour of the blackbuck antelope ( Antilope cervicapra).
Unpubl. Ph.D. dissertation. Texas A & M Univ. College
Station, Tex. 220 pp.
Estes, R.D. (1967): The comparative behaviour of
Grant’s and Thomson’s gazelles. J. Mammal . 48 (2): 189-
209.
-(1974): Social organization of the African
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gulates and its relation to management, ed. V. Geist and
F.R. Walther. IUCN Publ. No. 24. Merges: IUCN.
& Estes, R.K. (1976): Behaviour and ecol-
ogy of the Giant Sable. National Geogr. Soc. Res. Rep .
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Hediger, H. (1941): Biologische Gesetzmassig-
keiten im Verhalten Von Wirbettieren. Mitt. Naturf. Ges.
Bern. 37-55.
Jarman, P.J. & Jarman, M.V. (1974): Impala be-
haviour and its relevance to management. Paper No. 50,
871-881. In: The behaviour of ungulates and its relation
to management, ed. V. Geist and F.R. Walther IUCN Publ.
No. 24. Morges: IUCN.
Leuthold, W. (1978): On the ecology of gerenuk
Lithocranius walleri (Brooke 1878). J. Anim. Ecol. 47:
471-490.
Mungall, E.C. (1978): The Indian blackbuck an-
telope: A Texas view. College Station. Kleberg Studies in
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— (1979): Effect of space limitations on be-
haviour expressed by blackbuck antelope ( Antilope cer-
vicapra L. 1758). Environmental Awareness 2: 41-53.
(1989): Courtship and mating behaviour of
dama gazelle (Gazella dama Pallas 1766). D. Zoolog.
Garten 50:1-14.
Nair, S.S. (1975): A population survey and obser-
vations on the behaviour of the blackbuck in the Point
TERRITORIALITY IN INDIAN BLACKBUCK
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Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc . 73:304-310.
Prasad, N.L.N.S. (1984): Seasonal changes in the
herd structure of blackbuck. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80:
549-554
(1985): Activity-time budget in blackbuck.
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 94(1): 57-65.
& RAMANA RAO, J.V. (1984): Evaluation
of habitat structure of blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) in.
Andhra Pradesh with special reference to Mudmal and its
relevance to behaviour. Geobios: if (1): 17 -21.
(in press); Conservation of blackbuck in
cultivated areas of Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc.
Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1982): Territorial behaviour of
the Indian blackbuck ( Antilope cervicapra Linnaeus,
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nat. Hist. Soc. 79(2): 241-246.
Schaller, G.B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger.
The Univ. of Chicago Press. Chicago, 370 pp.
Walther, F.R. (1959): Beobachtungen zum sozial-
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(1968): Verhalten der Gazellen. Wilten-
berg- Lutherstadt: A Ziemsen.
— -(1972): Territorial behaviour in certain
homed ungulates, with special reference to the examples
of Thomson’s and Grant’s gazelles. Zool. Afric. 7(1): 303-
307.
(1981): Remarks on behaviour of
springbok, Antidorcas marsupialis Zimmerman 1790. D.
Zoolog. Garten. 5i:81-103.
Walther, F.R. Mungall, E.C. & Grau, G.A.
(1983): Gazelles and their relatives: A study in territorial
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HELD GUIDE TO THE AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA1
PART 4
J.C. Daniel and A.G. Sekar2
(Continued from Vol. 72 (2): 522)
(With six text-figures and two plates)
Part 3 of this serial described frogs of the sub-
genera Rana and Tomopterna of the genus Rana. In
this section we describe species of the subgenera
Discodeles and Hylorana of the Family Ranidae and
tree frogs of the family Rhacophoridae.
Subgenus Discodeles
Tips of fingers and toes dilated into discs. Ton-
gue with a large retractile papilla in the middle (Fig.
1 a.) In western Ghats six species are available and
those can be separated by the following key.
KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Rana (Discodeles)
IN WESTERN INDIA
1 . Toes 1/2 to 2/3 webbed (see fig. 2 c & d) 2
1 . Toes not more than 1/4 webbed (see fig. 2b) 3
2. First finger shorter than second; tympanum
2/3 diameter of the eye leilhii
2. First finger at least as long as second; tympanum
1/2 to 2/3 diameter of the eye beddomii
2. First finger longer than second;
tympanum as large as eye and close to it semipahnata
3 . Tympanum very distinct; loreal region very oblique; skin of head
smooth, of back with short longitudinal folds; no lumbar
spot leptodactyla
3. Tympanum distinct; loreal region feebly oblique; skin of head
smooth; of back with short longitudinal folds;
a black lumbar spot diplosticta
3 . Tympanum moderately distinct; head and back with large warts
phrynoderma
1 Accepted February 1989.
2Bcmbay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay -400 023.
3Abdulali, , H. & Daniel, J.C. (1954): Distribution of Rana
leithii Boulenger- A correction./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 635.
4Daniel, J.C. & Shull, E.M. (1964): A list of the Reptiles and
Amphibians of the Surat Dangs, South Gujarat. /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 60: 737-743.
5McCann,C. (1932): Notes on Indian Batrachians. ibid. 32: 152-
180
Rana leithii Boulenger, 1888: Leith’s Frog
Diagnosis: Small sized frogs; largest specimen in
the RNHS collection measured 38 mm. The bifid
tongue has a distinct papilla, Head moderate; snout
obtuse. Interorbital width a little narrower than the
upper eyelid; tympanum 2/3 the diameter of the
eye. First finger not extending quite as far as
second; toes 2/3 webbed. Tips of fingers and toes
dilated into small discs with circum -marginal
groove. Tibio tarsal articulation reaching between
the eye and the tip of the snout; inner metatarsal
tubercle oval; no tarsal fold. The heels overlap
when the limbs are folded at right angles to the
body.
Skin of back with small scattered longitudinal
warts; a strong fold from the eye to the shoulder.
Colour: Brown above with small dark spots; limbs
with dark tranverse bands, lower parts white; throat
mottled with brown. Specimens seen in Matheren
by Abdulali and Daniel (1954)3 showed variation
some being dark grey, blackish or paler and some
with golden patches.
Distribution: Occurs along the Western Ghats
from Surat Dangs, Gujarat in the north, southward
to Central Kerala.
Breeding: The breeding season coincides with SW
monsoon. Specimens collected in June from Math-
eran and Kanheri caves had well developed
gonads. Tadpoles were collected at hill-streams on
rocks wetted by spray. Very active and agile jump-
ing several centimetres on the slippery surfaces.
The coloration matches so well the dark grey of the
rocks that it is very difficult to distinguish them
(Daniel and Shull 1964)4. They attain 44.0 mm in
total length. Tail 2.5 times the length of body. Den-
tal formula is 1:3 +3/2+2: 2.
Habits: The species is found at moderate elevation
and lives under stones and among ground litter
during the day. Me Cann (1932)5 noted that the frog
was not uncommon in short grass and in ditches on
AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA
195
hill sides and appears to be diurnal, at least during
the rains. It was frequently seen hopping about in
the grass.
Rana beddomii (Gunther, 1875), Beddome’s
Frog
Diagnosis: Medium sized frogs, the largest
specimen in the BNHS collection has a snout to
vent length of 50 mm. This species closely
resembles Rana leithii but can be separated by the
following characters: Inter orbital space as broad as
the upper eyelid. Fingers moderate. First at least as
long as second. The tibio-tarsal articulation
reaches the tip of the snout or a little beyond. The
heels strongly overlap when the limbs are folded at
right angles to the body.
Skin of back with short longitudinal glandular
folds; a strong fold (supra tympanic fold) from the
eye to the shoulder.
Colour: Brown above with rather indistinct darker
spots rarely uniform pinkish; sometimes a light ver-
tebral band; a dark cross band between the eyes; a
black band along the canthus rostralis and a black
temporal spot; limbs more or less distinctly cross-
barred; lower parts uniform white.
Distribution: Specimens in BNHS collection
from North Kanara, Talewadi in Karnataka; Mun-
nar, Alwaye Ghat, Periyar lake. South Travancore
in Kerala; Palni Hills, Courtalum in Tamil Nadu.
Breeding: Males without vocal sacs with an en-
larged pad on the inner side of the first finger.
Specimens collected between December and June
have mature gonads. Tadpole remarkable for its
long tail, 3 times the length of the body (Boulenger,
1920)6 Tadpoles collected from rock faces made
short, skittering jumps across the rock faces when-
ever they were closely approached. The principal
function of this behaviour is to enable the tadpoles
to move from one tiny, shallow pool to another
6BouleNGER, G.A. (1920): A monograph of the South
Asian, Papuan, Melanesian and Australian frogs of the
genus Rana. Rec. Indian Mas. 20: 1-226.
7Inger, R.F., Shaffer, H.B., Koshy, M. & Bakde, R. (1984): A
report on a collection of Amphibians and Reptiles from the Pon-
mudi, Kerala, South India.. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 406-
427,551-570.
8Abdulali, H. & Daniel, J.C. (1954): Some notes on Rana bed-
domii Gunther with an extension of its range, ibid. 52:938.
across slightly drier surface irregularities of the
home rock face. Dental formula is 4 + 4/2 + 2:2
( Ing&tetal . 1984)7.
Habits: Little known. The species is extremely
common and lives under rocks in flowing streams,
many of which held a luxuriant growth of Ammania
floribunda. In the field it appears very like/?, leithii
(common at Panchgani, 1400 m), but/?, beddomii
keeps more to the wet rocks and flowing water than
leithii , which is often found in grass at the top of
hills or alongside hill streams. Frequently seen
during the day but more abundant at night (Abdulali
& Daniel 1954)8. Inger et al (op. cit.) collected the
specimens from different types of forest, banks of
permanent streams, dry stream beds, rocks, dead
leaves etc.
Rana semipalmata Boulenger, 1882
Diagnosis: Small sized frogs measuring upto 28
mm in snout to vent (BNPIS collection). Bifid
tongue with a papilla in the middle. Head moderate;
snout blunt. Inter orbital width as broad as the upper
eyelid or a little narrower. Tympanum equal to the
diameter of eye. First finger a little longer than the
second; Toes half webbed; Tips of fingers and toes
dilated into disks with circum-marginal groove.
Subarticular tubercles well developed; a single
small oval inner metatarsal tubercle; no tarsal fold.
Tibio-tarsal articulation reaching the tip of the
snout or between the eye and snout. The heels over-
lap when the limbs are folded at right angles to the
body.
Skin of back with short longitudinal glandular
folds; sides granulate with small warts, a strong
glandular fold from the eye to the shoulder; lower
parts smooth. Mature males have nuptial pads on the
first finger and enlarged glands covering the ventral
surface of the thighs.
Colour: Brown above, sides of body darker, loreal
and temporal regions blackish, limbs with dark
crossbars, lower parts white, throat and breast mot-
tled with brown.
Distribution: Malabar and Anamalai hills, Kerala,
South India. Specimens in BNHS collected from
Pulloorampara, Calicut in Kerala and Poombarai,
Kodaikanal in Tamil Nadu.
Breeding: Unknown.
Habits: This species is found in evergreen and
196
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
moist deciduous forest upto 360 m elevation;
specimens collected from small permanent streams,
dead leaves and rocks (Inger et al, 1984).
Rana leptodactyla Boulenger, 1882
Diagnosis: Small sized frogs; measuring upto 23
mm (male) in the BNHS collection. Tongue with
papilla. Head depressed snout blunt. Interorbital
width as broad as or little narrower than the upper
eyelid. Tympanum 2/3 diameter of the eye. First
finger shorter than second; toes 1/4 webbed. Tips
of fingers and toes dilated into discs. Tibio-tarsal
articulation reaching the tip of the snout or beyond.
Heels overlap when the limbs are folded at right
angles to the body.
Skin of the back with short longitudinal glan-
dular folds; a fold from the eye to the shoulder.
Colour: Olive or brownish above, white uniform
ventrally or spotted with brown, sometimes brown
dotted with white.
Distribution: Forests of Malabar,. Anamalais,
Travancore (Kerala); Kodaikanal, Palni hills
(Tamil Nadu) and Coorg (Karnataka).
Breeding: Specimens collected in April and May
in Kodaikanal had well developed testes. Annan-
dale (19 18)9 collected the tadpoles in a small pool
at the edge of a jungle stream in the hills in Septem-
ber. Tadpoles normal in shape. Total length was 31
mm. The mouth disc remarkably lacks horny teeth.
Habits: Unknown.
Rana diplosticta (Gunther, 1875)
Diagnosis: Closely resembles Rana leptodactyla ,
measures upto 25 mm (female). The canthus
rostralis is rather more angular and the loreal
region not quite so oblique. Toes less than 1/4
webbed; fingers and toes with large discs with
strong circum-margina! groove. Tympanum well
developed, about 1/2 of eye diameter. Males have
a series of 5 very large, black, sharp nuptial spines
on the medial surface of the first finger (Inger et al. ,
1984).
Skin with a series of interrupted, longitudinal,
glandular folds on the back. The head, sides and
9 Ann and ale, N. (1918): Some undescribed Tadpoles from the
hills of South India, Rec. Ind. Mus. 15: 19.
belly are smooth. A strong curved supratympanic
fold from eye to shoulder.
Colour: Reddish brown dorsally, with a black can-
thal and tympanic streak. Entire loreal region from
canthus rostralis to upper lip is dark brown. Dark
brown blotches may be present on the lateral sur-
faces. Ventrally light brown diffused with a fine
reticulated pattern of dark brown. A black spot
above the loin on each side. Limbs tan crossbarred
with dark brown.
Distribution: Malabar, Kerala and forest of Srivil-
liputtur in Tamil Nadu.
Breeding: Unknown.
Habits: Inger et al. (1984.) collected the specimens
at 950 m elevation, far from streams or ponds in
ever green forest and gallery forest, under dead
leaves, on bare soil and rock.
Rana phrynoderma Boulenger, 1882
This species occurs at Anamalai Hills
measured 30 mm. Not available in the BNHS col-
lection.
Subgenus Hylorana
Tips of toes or both fingers and toes dilated
into discs, with circum- marginal groove (Fig. lb).
Tongue without a papilla; outer metatarsals usually
separated by web to the base (Fig. 2e). Three species
are described from western India.
KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Rana ( Hylorana ) OCCURRING
IN WESTERN INDIA.
1. Discs of fingers, if present, without groove or the groove in-
distinct curtipes
1 . Discs of fingers bearing a groove separating the upper from the
lower surface 2
2. Tibio-tarsal articulation reaching between eye and the nostril
( Fig. 3a) aumntiaca
2. Tibio-tarsal articulation reaching nostril or tip of snout, or a lit-
tle beyond (Fig. 3b) temporalis
Rana curtipes' Jerdon, 1853, Bicoloured Frog
Diagnosis: Medium sized frog. Adult in the, BNHS
collection 74 mm (female) in snout to vent length.
Head depressed, snout obtusely pointed, canthus
rostralis distinct. Loreal region concave. Interorbi-
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Daniel & Sekar: Amphibians of Western India Plate 1
Rhacophorus malabaricus, Malabar Gliding Frog. (. Photo : I. Kehimkar)
Above : Polypedates maculatus, Common Tree Frog (Photo: A. G. Sekar)
Below: Rana leithi, Leith’s Frog (Photo: I. Kehimkar)
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Daniel & Sekar: Amphibians of Western India
Plate 2
AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA
197
tal width broader than upper eyelid. Tips of fingers
and toes swollen or dilated into discs with indis-
tinct circum-marginal groove. First finger longer
than second. Tibia-tarsal articulation reaches the
tympanum or eye. Heels meet when the limbs are
folded at right angles to the body; toes 3/4 or en-
tirely webbed; inner metatarsal tubercle small; no
tarsal fold. Males with internal vocal sacs with the
fore limb more robust and a small patch of grey vel-
vety rugosities on the inner metacarpal tubercle and
on the inner side of the first finger.
Skin smooth; narrow, moderately prominent
glandular dorsolateral fold; another fold behind the
tympanum down to the shoulder.
Colour: The coloration is distinctive: grey above
with or without black dots and black below. Both
colours are sharply separated.
Distribution: Hills of North Canara (Karnataka),
Malabar, and Travancore (Kerala). Specimens from
Papanasam, Tirunelveli Dist., Tamil Nadu also seen
in the BNHS collection.
Breeding: The frogs enter the water during the
breeding season, which begins with southwest
monsoon, Rao (19 14)10 has reported that the males,
which are smaller, are very lively and their call
notes may be denoted by the short syllables ‘Thrub,
Thrub’ quite characteristic of the species. The large
sized tadpoles which move in shoals are plentiful
in small jungle streams and occur in April, May &
June. The tadpoles are distinctive, being black with
a pinkish red well marked glandular patch behind
the eye. The maximum total length is 94.0 mm.
Dental formula is 2: 4 + 4/1 + 1:5. Enormous num-
bers of the metamorphosed young occur on the
banks of the many inlets of the Periyar Lake in the
summer months and are eaten by the Wild Boar (Sus
scrofa ) (V.S. Vijayan , pers. comm.)
Habits: It is not essentially aquatic; and is found
under stones and dry vegetation on damp soil along
streams. They are uncomfortable in water. Accord-
ing to Abdulali (1962)* 11 the adults are sluggish in
10Rao, C.R.N. (1914): Larva of Rana curtipes , Boul. Rec. Ind.
Mus. 10: 265
11 Abdulali, H. (1962): An account of a trip of the Barapede cave,
Talewadi, belgaura District Mysore state with some notes on Rep-
tiles and Amphibians. J. Bombay nat. hist. Soc. 59: 228-237.
12Abdulau, H. (1954): Extension of Range of Rana temporalis
Gunth. J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 636-637.
their movements.
Rana temporalis (Gunther, 1864), Bronzed
Frog
Diagnosis: Medium sized frog. Adult in the BNHS
collection measured 82 mm (female) in snout to
vent length. Head depressed; snout acute, project-
ing beyond the mouth; can thus rostralis angular;
loreal region strongly concave. Interorbital width
broader than upper eyelid. Tympanum very distinct
3/4 the diameter of the eye. Tips of fingers and toes
dilated into well developed discs with distinct cir-
cum-marginal groove. First finger longer than
second. Toes nearly entirely webbed; inner metatar-
sal tubercle small; no tarsal fold. Tibio-tarsal ar-
ticulation reaches nostril or tip of snout or a little
beyond.
The heels strongly overlap when the limbs are
folded at right angles to the body. Males with inter-
nal vocal sacs with the fore limb strong and a large
flat gland on the innerside of the arm; a strong pad
on the innerside of the first finger, covered during
the breeding season with a greyish brown velvet like
homy layer.
Skin smooth; a prominent glandular dorso-
lateral fold from above the tympanum to the hip.
Lower parts smooth.
Colour: Yellowish brown to dark bronze above;
limbs with dark brown cross bands; dorso-lateral
fold usually with a dark outer edge; a dark brown,
or black streak below the canthus rostralis con-
tinued on the temporal region, and some times on
theside of the body. Lower parts white, uniform or
spotted with brown on the throat and breast.
Distribution: Specimens in BNHS collection
from Mahabaleshwar, (Maharashtra); Kaller base
of Ponmudi Hill, Travancore (Kerala); Papanasam
and Nilgiris at c 2000 m (Tamil Nadu).
Breeding: Specimens collected between October
and December have well developed gonads. Ab-
dulali (1954) 12 reported that there is some variation
in the calls, but the commonest starts with a guttural
croak followed by a series of ‘tuk-tuk-tuks*. They
call both day and night and are quite active during
the day. He also observed the egg mass in a small
pool in the course of the rock- strewn stream. The
several masses of eggs were attached to the bottom
or sides, all a few centimetres below water. Total
198
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
length of the tadpole was 33.8 mm. Dental formula
is 1 : 1 + 1/1 + 1 :2. Head and body dark without dis-
tinct pattern dorsally and laterally; tail also dark,
with small scattered black spots (Inger et al , 1984).
Habits . The species is found on wet exposed rocks
in small hill streams shaded by bushes. It leaps for
a considerable distance into the water when dis-
turbed. Very common during the day at the water-
fall at Mahabaleshwar. A female frog contained 2
small frogs and a pebble in her stomach, while a
male contained a Rana limnocharis (Abdulali
1962)11.
Rana aurantiaca Boulenger, 1904 Golden Frog
Diagnosis: Small to medium sized frog; measuring
38 mm in snout to vent length. Slender. Snout long
and narrow canthus rostralis distinct; loreal region
vertical. Interorbital width very slightly broader
than the upper eyelid. Tympanum distinct; 1/2 or
2/3 the diameter of the eye. Tips of fingers and toes
dilated into discs with circum-marginal groove.
Toes 2/3 webbed; Subarticular tubercles moderate;
the outer matatarsal tubercle small and round
whereas the inner elongated. Tibio-tarsal articula-
tion reaches between eye and the nostril. Males
have a darkly pigmented humeral gland close to the
axilla and an internal vocal sac. A nuptial pad is
present on the 1st finger.
Skin smooth or coarsely shagreened with an ir-
regular scattering of conical tubercles. A distinct but
narrow dorsolateral glandular fold extends from be-
hind the eye to the region of the vent. Below this fold
is a broad chocolate brown band which runs from
the tip of the snout through the nostril eye and tym-
panum and fades on the flanks. Throat speckled and
the vent is immaculate.
Colour: Orange above without spots on the back or
bars on the limbs; a black band along each side of
the head and body; upper lip; canthus rostralis and
dorsolateral fold white; terminal discs of toes black,
lower parts white.
Distribution: Type collected at Trivandrum,
Kerala. Other specimen from Kadnjarkhana, South
Kanara, Karnataka.
_
Grandison, A.G.C. & Senanayake, F.R. (1966): Redescrip-
tion of Rana (Hylarana) aurantiaca Boulenger Amphibia:
Ranidae. The Ann. & mag. of Nat. Hist. 9: 419-421.
Breeding: Unknown, except the call.The frog calls
from the undergrowth at a height of 15-25 cm
from the ground, and the call is syllabilised as
‘chick-chick-chick’
Habits: Specimens have been collected from a
slow stream and in a pool surrounded by under-
growth in a very wet area of rain forest.The
descriptions and habits is based on Grandison and
Senanayake (1966)13
Family: Rhacophoridae Hoffman, 1932 (1859)
Tree Frogs
The family Rhacophoridae consists of small to
large sized frogs (20-100 mm in snout to vent
length) and is primarily of the Oriental region.
However, several members of this family have been
reported from Madagascar and a single genus
Chiromantis from Africa. In India, the family
Rhacophoridae comprises two subfamilies
( Rhacophorinae , Philautinae) and five genera
(Rhac.ophorus, Polypedates, Philautus, Chirixalus
and Theloderma). The members of the family are ar-
boreal frogs having sticky digital pads; usually in-
habit the dense forests of the Western Ghats and the
Eastern Himalayas. The genera Rhacophorus ,
Polypedates and Philautus occur in the Western
Ghats area.
Frogs of this family have horizontal pupil; free
and deeply notched tongue. In many species of
Rhacophorus elaborate dermal ornamentations such
as flap on fore arm and heel are present. Digit tips
are distinctly dilated into discs, with the digital pads
having a circum-marginal groove. Webbing of
fingers variable but generally extensive. Vocal sacs
present. An intercalary ossification between the
penultimate and distal phalanges.
KEY TO THE SUB-FAMILIES OF FAMILY RHACOPHORIDAE
Vomerine teeth present (Fig.4) Rhacophorinae
Vomerine teeth absent Philautinae
Sub-family: Rhacophorinae
Hoffman, 1932 (1859)
Four species grouped under two genera are
recorded from Western India.
KEY TO THE GENERA OF RHACOPHORINAE
CORRECTION
Key to the genera of Rhacophorinae : read as
follows :
KEY TO THE GENERA OF RHACOPHORINAE
Fingers with a slight rudiment of web (Fig. 6)
Polypedates
Fingers with a distinct web (Fig. 6)
Rhacophorus
AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA
199
Dermal fold along the forearm absent ,. Polypedates
Dermal fold along the forearm present (Fig. 5)..... Rhacophorus
Genus Polypedates Tschudi, 1838
Species of this genus are moderate to very
large in size, ranging from 50 to 100 mm in snout -
vent length. Skin of body and limbs smooth; in
many species skin of skull co-ossified to either fron-
to-parietal, nasal or squamosal bones. Dermal or-
namentations generally absent; digital discs large;
usually fingers only webbed at base, nuptial pads al-
ways present in males. Vomerine teeth always
present.
Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1834)
Common Tree Frog.
Diagnosis: A slender, medium sized frog. Adults
in ihcBNHS collection 50 mm male; 79 mm female
in snout- vent length. Vomerine teeth in two more or
less oblique series between the internal opening of
the nostrils. Skin of head free; a bony arch may be
present. Snout obtusely acuminate as long as the
diameter of the eye; canthus rostralis distinct; inter
orbital width broader than the upper eyelid; tym-
panum about 3/4 the diameter of the eye; first finger
as long as second; fingers with a rudiment of web
(Fig. 6a). Toes 3/4 webbed (Fig. 2f). Tips of fingers
and toes dilated into discs; discs of the third finger
1/2 or 1/2 the diameter of the eye. Subarticular
tubercles well developed. Inner metatarsal tubercle
prominent. Tibiotarsal articulation reaches the
nostrils. Heels strongly overlap when the legs are
folded at right angles to the body. Males with single
vocal sac.
Skin smooth above, granulate on the belly and
under the thighs a fold from the eye to the shoulder.
Colour: Brownish, yellowish, greyish or whitish
above with darker spots; and hour glass shaped
14Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. & Dutta, S.K. (1988): Life history
of the common Indian tree frog, Polypedates maculatus (Gray,
1834) Anura: Rhacophoridae) with nine text-figures). J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 85: 512-517.
15Sekar, A.G. (1986): Ecology of amphibia of Sanjay Gandhi
National Park, Borivli, Bombay with special reference to breed-
ing behaviour of adults and food habits of tadpoles. M.Sc. Thesis
submitted to University of Bombay.
figure on the back may present; hinder side of
thighs with round yellow spots which are usually
separated by a dark brown net work. The species
has the ability to change its colour to a certain ex-
tend to merge with its surroundings.
Distribution: Throughout India except Haryana,
Punjab and Rajasthan.
Breeding; The tree frog breeds in the monsoon
season. The activities begin just before the onset of
monsoon. They select a wide range of breeding
sites. Trees hanging over the water tanks or pools,
rocks, moist ground and grass clumps are used as
spawning sites. The call, generally, is heard after
sunset, but they call also during the day after heavy
showers. The call can be syllabilised as ‘tak-tak —
- tak-tak-tak’. This type of note is produced only
when the vocal sac is inflated to its full extend.
Another call note can be syllabilised as ‘dodo-
dodo- dodo’. This note is produced when the vocal
sac is partially inflated. Individual frogs can call
continuously for 15 to 22 seconds.
Amplexus is axillary; the male holds the
female at her armpit. The foam-nest is globular in
shape with a flat bottom attached to the substrate.
The fresh foam is pure white, becoming dirty white
or brown on the outer surface with age. The foam-
nest measures 65 to 92 mm in diameter. The eggs
are pure white and scattered in the foam nest singly
and some are exposed on the surface of the mass.
The eggs measure c 1.25 to 1.5 mm in diameter.
Tadpoles have been collected from rainfed
pools, cisterns and ponds. Total length of tadpoles
in hind limb stage average 50 mm. Dental formula
l:3+3/3. Beak is moderately black. According to
Mohanty-Hejmadi & Dutta (1988)14, the tadpoles
take 55 days for completing the metamorphosis. The
tadpoles mainly feed on Desmids, ( Scenedesmus ,
Closterium, ScCosmarium), Diatoms and filamen-
tous algae ( Oedogonium , Oscillatoria &
Scytonema) etc. (Sekar 1986) 15 .
Habits: A typical tree frog of moist deciduous
forest, which has become semi-urban especially in
cities with extensive gardens. Enters houses where
it finds the atmosphere of bath rooms congenial. In
the suburbs of Madras it has been known to occur
in numbers, and bears the common English name
of Chunam (= slaked lime used for whitewash) frog
from the pale general colouration. The Tamil name
is Therai and it is believed that if it lands on a child
200
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
the legs and hips of the child will become as slender
and presumably weak as that of the frogs. Though
able to swim well they never live in water and are
in fact very uncomfortable when forced to remain
in this element. When resting all four legs are
drawn up well under the body.
Genus Rhacophorus Kuhl and Van Hasselt, 1822
The generic characters are: small to very large
rhacophorid frogs (30-100 mm in snout- vent
length) with usually rounded snout; body usually
slender with narrow waist; skin of head never co-os-
sified to skull; dermal ornamentations such as flaps
on forearm, tarsus,heel, or above anus usually
present in most species; digital pad with complete
circum-marginal groove. In most species fingers
and toes fully webbed. Vomerine teeth usually
present. Terminal phalanges Y shaped.
KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS Rhacophorus
1 . Fingers more than half webbed 2
1 . Fingers less than half webbed (Fig 6b) pleurostictus
2. Upper surfaces Finely granulated; green above malabricus
2. Upper surfaces with small warts; light reddish brown
above calcadensis
Rhacophorus pleurostictus (Gunther, 1864)
Diagnosis: Medium sized frog. Adult male in
the BNHS collection measured 49 mm S V; Female
58 SV. Vomerine teeth present in twosmall groups;
snout rounded; canthus rostralis distinct; loreal
region concave; interorbital space as broad as the
upper eyelid or a little broader. Tympanum 1/2 the
diameter of the eye. Fingers with a very distinct web
at the base. First finger less than the second; toes al-
most fully webbed; tips of fingers and toes dilated
into discs with prominent circum-marginal groove;
disk of the third finger 1/2 or <1/2 the diameter of
eye. Subarticular tubercles moderate. Inner metatar-
sal tubercle prominent. Tibio-tarsal articulation
reaches the eye. Heels overlap when the legs are
folded at right angles to the body.
Skin smooth or finely granular; belly and
lower surface of thighs granular, a strong fold from
the eye to the shoulder.
Colour: Greenish above with large blotches with
dark edge; groin and sides of thighs purplish brown
with yellowish spots or marbling; limbs with dark
cross bands.
Distribution: Nilgiris and Anaimalai Hills.
Breeding & Habits: Unknown.
Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870.
Malabar Gliding Frog.
Diagnosis: Adult male measured 67 mm; female
78.5 mm in BNHS collection. Vomerine teeth in
two straight series snout subacuminate; canthus
rostralis obtuse; loreal region concave; nostril
nearer the end of the snout than the eye; inter orbi-
tal width broader than the upper eyelid; tympanum
2/3 the diameter of the eye. Fingers and toes
webbed to the discs which is equal the tympanum.
Subarticular tubercles well developed. Tibio-tarsal
articulation reaches the eye or nostril. Heels over-
lap when the legs are folded at right angle to the
body.
Skin finely granular above; more coarsely
beneath; granules under the thighs intermixed with
larger ones; outer border of forearm and tarsus with
a dermal fold; heel with a triangular dermal process.
Colour: Green above; often spekcled all over with
black and white. Lower parts whitish, web between
fingers and toes reddish.
Distribution: In Western Ghats from Ponmudi
Hills, Kerala to Goa.
Breeding: Breeding coincide with the SW mon-
soon. A large group of frogs were observed calling
in Goa forests all sitting on bamboo shoots. The call
can be syllabilised as ‘tak-tak-tarrik’. The
amplexus was axillary. The male holding the
female at her armpit. Foamnests were attached to
vegetation some metres above the pool. Tadpoles
olive brown in colour closely dotted with dark-
brown on the body and lighter on the tail; Length
of body 16 mm, length of tail 26 mm. Dental for-
mula is 2: 4 + 4/1 + 1:2. The toes are nearly entire-
ly webbed The tadpoles are carnivorous. (Ferguson
1904)16-
16Ferguson, H.S. (1904): A list of Travancore Batrachians. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 15: 499-509.
AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA
202
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig. 6. Hand of: a. Polypedaies maculatus ; b. Rhacophorus pleurosirictus ; c. Rhacophorus maiabaricus.
Habits: The Malabar Gliding Frogs, occur in
evergreen and moist deciduous forests of the
Western Ghats. They can glide slantingly from, a
tree over a distance of 10 m. When jumping/glid-
ing the webs of all four limbs are fully extended.
According to Nayar (193 1)17 the frogs naturally
likes humid surrounding but does not tolerate water.
In captivity during the day the frogs usually rested
on the leaves with their legs gathered together and
body flattened with the fore-feet folded underneath
17Nayar, K.K. (1931): A ‘Flying frog’ (with a plate), ibid 35:
220-225.
their body and pupils contracted to tiny slits. This
posture and their leaf green colour rendered them
almost invisible among the leaves. The frogs fed on
house flies at night in captivity (Abdulali & Sekar
1988)18'
Rhacophorus calcadensis Ahl, 1927
A medium sized frog measured 50 mm in snout
to vent length; Occurs in Kalakaddu forest, Tirunel-
veli Dist., Tamil Nadu. Not available in the BNHS
collection.
18Abdulali, H. & Sexar, A.G. (1988): On a small collection of
amphibians from Goa ibid.85: 202-205.
(to be continued)
APPLICATION OF SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
IN THE TAXONOMY OF CLADOCERA
K. Venkataraman1 2 and S. Krishnaswamy3
( With eight plates containing forty-nine figures)
Taxonomic diagnostic characters of the freshwater Cladocera were examined using Scanning Electron
Microscope. The species are characterised by external markings on the surface of the carapace, presence of
spines on the posteroventral comer of the shell, the number and arrangement of spines on the postabdomen,
number of pores on tire head shield, ornamentation in the ephippial eggs etc. Hie application of SEM to the
taxonomic studies of the freshwater Cladocera provides diagnostic capabilities not available with a light micro-
scope. It is desirable to develop a key, coupled with a reference atlas of Scanning Electron Micrographs, il-
lustrating diagnostic characters of freshwater Cladocera species.
Introduction
In taxonomic studies of the freshwater
Cladocera, morphological criteria have, in most in-
stances, provided the bulk of descriptive material
used in classification. Surprisingly, Scanning
Electron Microsocopy (SEM) has been utilised in
only a few instances in examination of diagnostic
characters of freshwater Cladocera (Amoros 1980,
Dumont 1981a, Dumont et al. 1981b, Frey 1982),
although it has been utilised extensively to study
other aspects of Cladocera biology (Guldner 1969,
Dumont & Van de Velde 1976, Schultz & Kennedy
1976, Schlecht 1977, Schlecht 1979, Seiman & Lar-
sen 1979,Zahid 1981, Crittenden 1981). The present
study presents a Scanning Electron Microscopic
study of the freshwater Cladocera from southern
Tamil Nadu.
Material and Methods
Plankton nets with 36 cm diameter and mesh
size 90 m were used to collect the different species
of Cladocera. The net was dragged through vegeta-
tion and close to the bottom of shallow waters in
marshes. Oblique hauls were taken to obtain
Cladocera from the shores of man-made reservoirs
and ponds. The samples collected from the field
were preserved in 5% and 10% formalin with sugar
or in 95% glycerine alcohol. The preserved samples
1 Accepted November 1984.
2School of Energy, Environment and Natural Resources, Madurai
Kamaraj University, Madurai-625 021 (India),
department of Environmental Biology, School of Biological
Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai-625 021.
were isolated and cleaned. The dust-free samples
were dehydrated with acetone and then air-dried.
The specimens were coated with silver in a Hitachi
vaccuum coaler HUS 5 GB. The important diagnos-
tic features were photographed using Scanning
Electron Microscope, Hitachi S 450.
Observation
The character that differentiates Pseudosida
bidentata and P. szalayi is a spine-like projection on
the distal margin of the postabdomen. Fig. 1
provides this diagnostic morphological character
not available with the light microscope.
Figs.2 - 6 show the morphology of sexual eggs
of Daphnia projecta , Simocephalus vetulus
elizabethae and Simocephalus acutiro stratus.
Under high magnification (Figs. 4 and 6; 1500 x)
the r xual eggs (ephippia) of S. vetulus elizabethae
and S . acutiro stratus show variation in their mor-
phology. But these eggs under the light microscope
appeared same except for the size.
Figs. 7 and 8 show the morphology of
Ceriodaphnia cornuta. The honeycomb-like ap-
pearance of the surface of C. cornuta is a very im-
portant morphological character to identify this
species.
Fig. 9 shows the hexagonal markings on the
surface of sexual egg of Moina micrura which dif-
ferentiates this species from M. weismanni , which
consists of raised knobs. Likewise, the number of
hooks on the tip of the male antennule is one of the
diagnostic features to differentiate M. micrura from
M. weismanni . Fig. 10 shows the presence of 4 well
developed hooks in the antennule of M. weismanni.
204
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
But in the case of M. micrura , there are three.
SEM Figs. 11 and 12 show the postabdomen
and the pectens in the claw of Ilyocryptus spinifer.
The number and arrangement of lateral denticles are
clearly seen in the micrograph.
SEM Figs. 13 and 14 show the morphology of
a chydorid cladoceran Dadaya macrops. The or-
namentation on the surface of the shell of this
species is unique and the SEM picture provides a
clear morphology which is not available with the
light microscope. Likewise, the pitted appearance in
the shell of Chydorus parvus and fine granular
structure of the shell of Ch. ventricosus and its
postabdomen are clearly seen in the micrographs
15-18. The presence of postero ventral comer spine
is a characteristic feature of a few species of
chydoeid cladocesan. This important diagnostic fea-
ture can be seen in the species Ch. barroisi, which
is not terminal; in Dunhevedia crassa , however, the
spine is terminal (Figs. 20 and 22). The surface of
the shell of Pseudo chydorus globossus has
hexagonal markings which are clear in SEM (Fig.
24). SEM Figs. 25 - 29 show the characteristic fea-
tures of Alona monacantha tridentata. The presence
of three connected head pores is one of the charac-
teristic features of this species and is an important
systematic tool to classify whether it belongs to the
subfamily Chydorinae, which has iwo main pores
plus two small pores in the head shield, or to the sub-
family Aloninae, which has three main pores as in
the case of Amonacantha tridentata. SEM Figs. 30
and 31 show the shell morphology of A. davidi and
its postabdomen. The lateral groups of denticles
and the claw pectens are clearly seen in SEM Fig.
3 1 . Grabtolebris testudinaria is one of the rare lit-
toral chydorid cladocera present in the marshes of
tropical regions. The SEM picture provides a
specific ornamentation confined to this species only.
The ornamentation appears to resemble a brick wall.
The presence of three posteroventral comer spines
is clearly shown in Fig. 34. Figs. 36 and 37 show the
ornamentation on the head shield and head pore.
Leydigia ciliata is a littoral chydorid cladoceran
present in reddish-brown turbid ponds of southern
Tamil Nadu. Figs. 38- 43 show the morphology of
the shell, postabdomen, pectens on the claw, shell
surface of the male, male postabdomen with vas-
deferens and the ornamentation on the sexual egg.
The presence of pectens on the claw is a diagnos-
tic feature which differentiates this species from
L. acanthocercoides , which has no pectens on the
claw (Smirnov 1971). Biapertura karura , a common
chydorid present in the marshes of tropical regions,
has three spines on the posteroventral comer and the
ornamentation on the shell (Figs. 44- 46) are impor-
tant morphological criteria which differentiate this
species from B. verrucosa , another species co-oc-
curring with B. karura. Euryalona orientalis is
found throughout the tropical region and has a sinua-
tion in the ventral margin and the ornamentation on
the surface of the shell is an important character to
differentiate this species from others. The size, num-
ber and arrangement of pectens on the claw of this
species is also unique (Figs. 47- 49).
Discussion
The distinguishing features of the species of
Cladocera are external markings on the surface of
carapace, presence of spines on the postero-ventral
comer of the shell, the number and arrangement of
spines on the postabdomen, number of pores on the
head shield, ornamentation in the ephippial eggs etc.
It is apparent that the application of SEM to
taxonomic studies of freshwater Cladocera can
provide a valuable tool to the investigator, par-
ticularly if micrographs of diagnostic criteria could
be gathered into a reference atlas. While mor-
phological criteria should not be relied upon to the
exclusion of other methods used in system atics (par-
ticularly in a group noted for ccomorphic variation),
the SEM provides a diagnostic advantage not
available with the light microscope.
Acknowledgements
We are deeply indebted to Dr. G. Kulain-
daivelu, Department of Plant Physiology, for his
help in taking Scanning Electron Micrographs. The
award of SRF from CSIR New Delhi to one of us
(K.V.) is acknowledged.
1. Pseudosida bidentata : female postabdomen; 2. Daphnia projecta: ephippia; 3. Simocephalus
vetulus elizabethae: ephippia; 4. Ephippia: surface; 5. Simocephalus acutiroslratus : ephippia;
6. Ephippia: surface.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Venkataraman & Krishnaswamy: Scanning Electron Microscopy
Plate 1
zmi&mt
Ventral view
Lateral denticle
J. Bomba? NAT. Hist. Soc. 55 Plate 2
Venkataraman & Krishnaswamy: Scanning Electron Microscopy
7. Ceriodaphnia cornuta : female ventral view; 8. Female lateral view; 9. Moina
micrura : ephippia; 10. Moina weismanni : male antennule; 11. Ilyocryptus
spinifer. female postabdomen; 12. Female: postabdomen enlarged.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 Plate 3
Venkataraman & Krishnaswamy: Scanning Electron Microscopy
13. Dadaya macrops : female lateral view; 14. Female: antennule; 15. Chydorus parvus: female lateral
view; 16. Chydorus ventricosus : female postabdomen; 17. Female: lateral view; 18. Female claw.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Venkataraman & Krishnaswamy: Scanning Electron Microscopy
Plate 4
Antero-ventral view
19. Chydorus sp. : female lateral view; 20. Posteroventral corner; 21 . Dunhevedia crassa: female lateral view;
22. Posteroventral corner; 23. Pseudochydorus globossus: female ventral view; 24. Lateral surface of carapace.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 Plate 5
Venkataraman & Krishnaswamy: Scanning Electron Microscopy
25. Alona monacantha tridentata : female lateral view; 26. Posteroventral corner spines;
27. Postabdomen; 28. Head shield; 29. Head pore; 30. Alona davidi : female lateral view;
31. Postabdomen.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Venkataraman & Krishnaswamy: Scanning Electron Microscopy
Plate 6
32. Grabtoleberis testudinaria : female lateral view; 33. Female dorsal view; 34. Posteroventral corner
spines; 35. Postabdomen; 36. Head shield; 37. Head pore
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Venkataraman & Krishnaswamy: Scanning Electron Microscopy
Plate 7
38. Leydigia ciliata : female lateral view; 39. Female postabdomen; 40. Female claw; 41. Male lateral view;
42. Male postabdomen; 43. Ephippia.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Venkataraman & Krishnaswamy: Scanning Electron Microscopy
Plate 8
IBs
I ^
I Ventral vigw '
HH-
44. Biapertura karua : female lateral view; 45. Posteroventral corner; 46. Postabdomen;
47. Eurualona orientalis : female lateral view; 48. Ventral view; 49. Postabdomen.
SEM IN CLADOCERA TAXONOMY
205
REFERENCES
Amoros, C. (1980): Observations morphologiques et
ecologiquds sur Baphnia ambigua Scourfield, 1946 (Cladocera),
espece nouvelle pour la France. Crustaceana 39 (3): 247 - 254.
Crittenden, R.N. (1981): Morphological characteristics
and dimensions of the filter structures from three species oi Daph-
nia, Cladocera. Crustacea 41 (3): 233 - 248.
Dumont, H.J. & Van De Velde, I. (1976): Some types of
head pores in the Cladocera as seen by Scanning Electron Micros-
copy and their possible functions. Biol. Jb. Dodonaeam44 : 135 -
142.
(1981a): Cladocera and free living copepoda
from the Founta Djalon and adjacent mountain in West Africa.
Hydrobiologia, 85:91 - 116.
Dumont, H.J., Pensaert, J. & Van De Velde, I. (1981b):
The crustacean zooplankton of Mali (West Africa) ibid. 80: 161 -
187.
Frey, D.G. (1982): The reticulated species of Chydorus
(Cladocera, Chydoridae) two new species with suggestions of
convergence, ibid. 93: 255 - 297.
Guldner, F.H. (1969): Electronmikroskopische Unter-
suchugen am Intestinaltrakt von Daphnia pulex. Diss. der Med.
Fak. der F.U. Berlin.
Schlecht, F. (1979): Electronmnoptische-
Untersuchungen des Darmtraktes und der peritrophischen
Membran von Cladoceren und Conchostracen (Phyllopoda, Crus-
tacea). Zoomorphologia 92: 161 - 181.
Schultz, T. W. (1977): Fine structure of the ephippium of
Daphnia pulex (Crustacea : Cladocera). Trans . Am. Microsc. Soc.
96: 313 -321.
Schultz, T.W. & Kennedy, J.R. (1976): The fine structure
of the digestive system of Daphnia pulex. Tissue and Cell 8: 475
490.
Seidman, L.A. & Larsen, J.H. (1979): Ultrastructure of
the envelopes of resistant and nonresistant Daphnia eggs. Can. J.
Zool. 57: 1773 - 1777.
Smirnov, N.N. (1971): Chydoridae fauna of the world.
Fauna of U.S.S.R. Crustacea. English Transl., Israel Program for
Scientific translations, Jerusalem, 1 (2), pp. 644.
Zahid, Z.R. (1981): A preliminary study on the structure
and ultrastructure of the compound eye of Simocephalus vetulus
Scholder (Cladocera). Crustaceana 40 (2): 127 - 131.
IN DEFENCE OF THE MUCH-MALIGNED (ALPHA) TAXONOMY IN INDIA1
A.N. Henry and P. Daniel2
The origins of botany are in medicine (Schul-
tes 1972). In fact they were inseparable for much of
man’s history. Medicinal gardens, (gardens of
simples, apothecaries’ gardens, physic gardens etc.),
forerunners of today’s botanic gardens, were estab-
lished in Europe in the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury for providing living specimens for the instruc-
tion of medical students and the supply of actual
drugs for medicine. A herbarium, which in the
modem sense is ‘a great filing system of informa-
tion about plants, both primary in the form of actual
specimens of the plants and secondary in the form
of published information, pictures and recorded
notes’, became an indispensable adjunct of such a
medicinal garden in due course.
With the unprecedented spurt in travelling and
voyages of discoveries, and the consequent vying
for empire-building in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries the holdings in such gardens
increased exponentially, and so did those in their
herbaria.' The ever increasing holdings made these
gardens play the vital role of introduction, cultiva-
tion and distribution of both native and alien crops
of potential value and promise. Such botanic gar-
dens established by the colonial powers in their
tropical colonies in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries too faithfully undertook such respon-
sibilities. Botanists/taxonomists who manned these
gardens were instrumental in the introduction of a
host of commercial crops including coffee, jute, rub-
ber and tea, and a number of medicinal plants includ-
ing Cinchona. And from their herbaria came a
treasure of information in the form of floras and
other publications by taxonomists (naturalists) who
manned them.
The scenario narrated was no different in the
Indian context. The Flora of British India was
published at the end of the last century. This gave
the impetus for the publication of some of the
regional floras. There is a feeling in certain quarters
that these publications marked the end of herbarium
Accepted April 1987.
2Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle,
Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu.
taxonomy or alpha taxonomy, more appropriately
called practical taxonomy, in India. That this feeling
is unwarranted is discussed elsewhere in this paper.
Taxonomic research in India was in .the doldrums
after the publication of the afore-mentioned floras.
It was the reorganization of the Botanical Survey of
India in 1954 which gave a fillip to this research.
Botany was synonymous with taxonomy till
the turn of this century. The scenario began to
change soon, with more branches of botany emerg-
ing from the increased knowledge of botany through
taxonomy. Constance (1964) opined that organisms
are viewed merely as relatively uninteresting con-
tainers within which interesting physico-chemical
processes are taking place, and only the latter are
worthy of serious study. In short, this trend toward
‘reductionalism’ has gone to such ridiculous ex-
tremes that we are probably about to witness the
swing of the pendulum of interest in some other and
as yet unperceived direction. This swing of the pen-
dulum visualised by Constance has already taken its
toll in the developed countries. With the feverish at-
tempts of Indian botanists, aping the West, and seek-
ing pre-eminence for their chosen more modem dis-
ciplines with more sophisticated gadgets, alpha
taxonomy, the once glorious and fundamental dis-
cipline of botany, has been pushed aside from the
mainstream in this country. Some of those who
believe that the days of alpha taxonomy are over,
and falsely so, have been advocating accent on
biosystematics.
Is alpha taxonomy irrelevant? Is the upstaging
of alpha taxonomy by biosystematics justified in the
current Indian situation? Two simple facts, viz., that
larger dicot genera such as Astragalus , Cousinia,
Ranunculus, Senccio and Solanum have never been
monographed since De Candolle’s Prodromus
(1824-1874) and the current frenetic flora writing
activity in the Neotropics would negate such a
proposition. The well- considered observation of
Parker (1978) that taxonomists are still far behind
with the production of the descriptive and clas-
sificatory work, and also with the distributional
studies that are necessary both to provide a basis for
phytochemical and agronomic surveys and to gain a
IN DEFENCE OF ( ALPHA ) TAXONOMY
207
sufficient knowledge of disappearing wild species
so that theories appertaining to their phylogenetic
relationships may be developed, might further high-
light the importance of the role of alpha taxonomy
today, particularly in a developing, tropical country
like ours. Perhaps in some of the western countries
whose not-all-that-rich temperate flora is well-
known the supersedure of alpha taxonomy by
biosystematics might be justified, but not in India.
Taxonomy is the practical result of the basic
human urge and necessity to make some kind of
comprehensive arrangement of the elements of the
environment. Man’s desire to classify lies at the root
of the acquisition and care of systematic collec-
tions. Afflicted with ataxophobia, to quote Smith
(1966), the taxonomist takes upon himself the ar-
duous task of putting some order in the tangle of the
plant world. One of the main purposes of taxonomy
is the ‘intricate, unspectacular, slowly proceeding,
meticulous business’ (Jacobs 1974) of piecing
together scattered bits of information derived from
the field, herbarium and literature into a highly for-
mulated schematic set of publications in the form of
floras, revisions, monographs, keys, handbooks etc.
which provide a means of identification, naming and
communication about plants for use by other
taxonomists and, more importantly, for non-
taxonomists of all sorts. Without such a system of
classification and nomenclature many other biologi-
cal and non-biological activities would be severely
hindered.
The service most required from
taxonomists/systematists by the general public is the
provision of the correct names for species. When an
alien species is noticed in one corner of the country
and spreads fast to other areas, soon causing public
concern as in the case of Fanhenium hysterophorus ,
it is the alpha taxonomist who is approached first
for its identity and nomenclature and not the biosys-
tematist. Ecologists, experts on eradication and
those who try to find alternative uses and others of
that genre step into the scene only thereafter. This
basic service of providing correct identification is
needed most by research v/orkers in other dis-
ciplines of botany/biology who more often than not
have a supercilious attitude towards the alpha
taxonomist It seems necessary to point out that re-
search work on plants, no matter how brilliant,
painstaking and accurate, is utterly worthless unless
the identity of the plant is fixed. It is not unknown
for a chromosome count to be published for a plant
whose identity has no greater validity than the name
on a seed packet and is not even substantiated by a
voucher specimen (Bor 1964).
In fact such a count would amount to only a
ghost count as it is not verifiable should another
worker doubt its authenticity at a later date. Even in
ecological studies it is absolutely necessary to get
the identity of the plants established and voucher
specimens deposited in an established herbarium,
failing which such studies will not be of much use.
Moore (1978) points out that during the first four
decades of this century chromosomal reports were
rarely related to particular voucher specimens in
herbaria, so that the identity of the plants could not
be verified. The situation in India does not seem to
have changed much even today. It is a pity that in
India many workers are either ignorant of the impor-
tance of voucher specimens or just do not bother to
deposit them in a herbarium.
Biosystematists are sometimes of the opinion
that alpha taxonomy is not a science worth the name
as the species concept the alpha taxonomist
employs is untenable. The concept of
‘morphospecies’ has been an object of derision for
the biosystematist. To quote Constance (1964),
speculation, imagination and intuition are precious
attributes of the human mind and must not be
proscribed. It may be pointed out that science is
primarily a method rather than a set of abstract
truths; that method involves not a fixed adherence
to some formal, universal rules, bu rather the judi-
cious balancing of such opposites as speculation
and observation, quantitative analysis and qualita-
tive consideration. Alpha taxonomists need a prac-
tical species concept because adequate experimen-
tal evidences and even field observations are fre-
quently lacking. Hence, they have to deal mostly
with morphospecies, as has been pointed out by
Davis (1978). Even when we have information on
crossability it is mainly useful in tipping the balance
in cases of uncertainty of treatment. It is needless to
stress that such information is of no use in the field.
In short, there should be an acceptable degree
of difference between closely related species.
Species, as they occur in nature, are the taxonomists’
building bricks to which binomials are applied for
convenience, whether they are potentially inter-
208
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL , HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
sterile or not (Davis 1978). We seldom know how
constantly exomorphic characters are correlated
with cy tological or genetic ones — in many cases an
assumed correlation breaks down when more
material is examined. In dealing with the flora of the
tropics, however, we seldom have any direct
evidence of internal breeding barriers. For the
majority of plants, binomi als must be applied to rep-
resentative populations that can be morphologically
distinguished from one another, allowing perhaps
for some degree of hybridization, especially in dis-
turbed habitats (Davis 1978). Furthermore, it is an
over-simplification to try to differentiate consistent-
ly between the phyletic and phylogenetic informa-
tion derived from the chromosomes, but it is also
too facile to give chromosome data an overriding
importance in taxonomy. Claims that different
chromosome numbers (n ) indicate specific differen-
ces while different basic chromosome numbers (x )
signal boundaries between genera (Love & Love
1974) cannot be uniformly justified or applied
(Moore 1978).
Heywood (1963) has argued that morphologi-
cal criteria alone should define species limits and
has rejected any definition based on reproductive
isolation, despite the fact that morphologically
defined species “will represent different kinds of
evolutionary situations and will be equivalent only
by designation”. This argument is based on the view
that species must be visually recognizable to have
any widespread practical application, and that in any
case our information is far too incomplete to apply
the cytogenetic criterion in all but a minute propor-
tion of cases (Stace 1978). Favouring the argument
of Heywood, Raven (1976) has opined that species
should not be redefined in cytogenetic terms. Hence
what is required in the present circumstances in a
developing, tropical country like India endowed
with a rich flora is good representative collections
with ample and accurate field data so that we can
strive for a flora that is better than that of the past
with additional/new information on various aspects
including the economic potential of our plants.
But then, where does taxonomy, the most
relevant discipline of botany stand today in India? It
is neither in its infancy nor senility. Perhaps we are
yet to complete the exploratory phase. Several areas
in the country particularly in the Himalayas, Eastern
India and the Western Ghats still remain either
under- explored or unexplored. Hence, suggesting
stepping into the consolidation phase at this stage
would amount to making a compromise and lead to
choosing the inevitable via media. Over 3400
species have been added since the publication of the
Flora of British India from the present Indian ter-
ritory. After the reorganisation of the Botanical Sur-
vey upwards of 250 new species have been dis-
covered from Peninsular India alone. These should
amply testify to how far we have moved from the
exploratory phase. Though a number of district
floras have begun to appear lately, inventories for
larger areas (excluding checklists) are not many. A
modest beginning was made by the Botanical Sur-
vey in the consolidation phase by bringing out the
flora'of India in the form of fascicles. Its publication
in the form of volumes is in the offing.
What has stymied the progress of alpha
taxonomy in India and prevented it from regaining
its respectable and legitimate status? A few major
factors deserve special emphasis. The lack of large,
representative collection has been a deterrent.
Europe houses about a third of the world’s herbaria
(c. 350) and more than half of the collections in
terms of number of specimens (90,000,000). Yet the
flora of Europe is some 12-13000 species
(Heywood 1980). In India, whose flora is estimated
to have 14-15000 species, we have less than two
dozen recognised herbaria with less than 2,000,000
specimens. Very few herbaria like CAL, DD and
MH have specimens in lakhs. Many herbaria of
recent origin in universities and colleges have very
small holdings (sometimes few thousands only) of
almost exclusively of local collections. That her-
baria have a vital role to play has been stressed by
Subramanyam and Sreemadhavan (1972). It is
necessary that more herbaria financed by public
funds are established in the various regions of the
country for local collections and the holdings in the
existing ones are augmented for a better assessment
of the country’s flora and help resource management
which is needed more than ever before in the present
environmental crisis.
A plant is described from a collection, made by
a collector, at a place, on a certain date. Yet no one
of these four elements in fact needs to be present,
and indeed, one to all of these bases have been miss-
ing now and then in the history of phytography.
Dozens of species in Species Flantarum carry no
IN DEFENCE OF (ALPHA ) TAXONOMY
209
locality or only an omnibus phrase that may hold a
continent. Pursh, Nuttal and many others of their
time published new species without fixing on a col-
lector, a collection taken at an exact place, and dates
were more often omitted than mentioned.
Rafinesque evidently produced his Florula
ludoviciana without benefit even of specimens
(Ewan 1969). And Rafinesque perhaps was no ex-
ception. Roxburgh, the trailblazer in Indian botany,
never knew that the confusion galore arising from
his indifference towards/ignorance of preserving the
plants on which he based his ne\^ descriptions would
take generations of European and Asian botanists to
undo. To establish the identity and nomenclature of
all such plants described after 1753, types and
protologues are absolutely essential. The non-
availability of type specimens and old taxonomic
literature as has been indicated by Santapau (1962)
has been a stumbling block for Indian taxonomy. It
has been pointed out by Prance (1977) that tropical
specimens are lying in herbaria of temperate
countries, for historical reasons. In a number of
cases we have not been able to even trace the types.
And authentic specimens are equally difficult to get.
Many plants do not have representative specimens
in any of the Indian herbaria.
Motivated by parochialism and jingoism (not
an accusation as it appears to be a basic human in-
stinct), explorers and naturalists of the colonial
powers never cared to leave a set of their collections
in the country to which they rightfully belonged (did
any so-called native bother about such rights at that
time, anyway?). Tracing the types becomes all the
more difficult when the same botanist donated sets
of his collections to different herbaria without
proper annotations or maintained more than one her-
barium at a time. The original set of the Royle her-
barium on which he based his Illustrations, thought
to be in the possession of Royle himself, was lost
until 1952, when it was rediscovered in the City of
Liverpool Museum by Stansfield. However, there
are type specimens in the Royle ’s collections at
Kew, British Museum and Dehra Dun (Lauener
1978).
In many instances plants that were described
in century old books which are no longer available
even for a fortune and equally old obscure and dis-
continued journals including nursery catalogues and
other such ephemera protologues are almost impos-
sible to get, a factor that has exacerbated the situa-
tion. Only in a couple of libraries attached to her-
baria in India is there a reasonable collection of old
literature. To those non-taxonomists for whom the
name change effected by European taxonomists on
Indian plants has always remained a riddle, the
answer should be obvious. The Botanical Survey is
making efforts to procure at least a set of
photographs of type specimens and other authentic
materials of Indian plants deposited in the Kew her-
barium. This should not lead to the mistaken notion
that all the type specimens of Indian plants are in
Kew. They are in herbaria spread over the whole of
Europe and perhaps elsewhere too. Steinberg (1977)
tells us that in the holdings of the Herbarium Webb
at the University of Florence, Italy, there are
specimens from the collections of many pioneer col-
lectors in India including Bentham, Falconer, Grif-
fith, Jack, Koenig, Persoon, Rottler, Wallich and
Wight to name a few. Since the aforesaid venture is
a long-term process fraught with difficulties, a
sudden change all that soon in this direction is un-
likely.
A little digression into nomenclature seems
necessary at this point The complaints from non-
taxonomists about the frequent and vexing name
changes in Indian plants and their disparaging the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature,
which tragically is recondite to many, are not infre-
quent. Name changes are brought about usually
either due to change in the concept of a taxon or dig-
ging through old literature and establishing priority.
We do not deny that there was a so-called muck
heap of synonyms in Indian taxonomy. But it should
be admitted that it has become reduced considerab-
ly of late. With numerous explorers and naturalists
sending specimens from India to various destina-
tions in Europe and most of the taxonomists of
temperate countries having no knowledge of the
variations in tropical plants and consequently mis-
taking each specimen for a distinct species a deluge
of synonyms was perhaps inevitable. Lack of com-
munication with workers spread over the whole of
Europe and Asia and the belated organized efforts
towards the standardization and legislation of
nomenclatural practices coming to fruition only at
the 1st International Botanical Congress in iWis in
1867, and the British taxonomists with their ascen-
dancy, by virtue of the vast empire the Britishers had
210
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
built, tragically refusing to cooperate with the rest
could not but add much to this muddle.
As pointed out earlier, the difficult-to-get old
literature, particularly obscure journals, nursery
catalogues and other such ephemera and the types
have fettered Indian taxonomists in their efforts to
clear much of this muck heap. And infraspecific
names are almost impossible to trace in many instan-
ces as there are no indices for them. However, they
have been doing their best with the available, limited
facilities along with those with ample facilities at
their disposal in Europe. That being the crux of the
matter, it is unwise to question the wisdom of the
founding fathers of the Code, the objective of which
is stabilization of names. Much of the confusion has
been already undone by adhering strictly to the
Code since 1950s. By some more striving and dig-
ging by Indian taxonomists the huge heap that once
it was, is likely to become a no-heap in the near fu-
ture.
The lack of adequate trained personnel in
taxonomy has been a hurdle in its progress. Regret-
tably, this has yet to receive the effective attention
of the competent authorities. There is no gainsaying
the observation s of Khoshoo (1980): there is a
dearth of qualified teachers in taxonomy; our
teaching methods are outdated, resulting in an aver-
sion on the part of students of taxonomic courses;
the teachers themselves feel hurt if they are ad-
dressed as taxonomists, and there is a total lack of
eagerness on the part of students for field botany. At
least a part of this stems from the fact that taxonomy
has already been pushed aside from the mainstream
in the country. There is a misconceived notion
among non-taxonomists that unlike other dis-
ciplines of botany, taxonomy is a discipline in which
no proper training is required for research. Perhaps
untrained and ill-trained persons are the cause for
the accumulation of bits and pieces of specimens
with no proper or misleading field notes occupying
much of the precious room in herbaria and confusion
in taxonomic literature.
We would like to dispel the opinion that
taxonomic research is the preserve of some of the
national institutes like the Botanical Survey. Were it
so, it would not have apportioned funds and offered
facilities to research workers in universities and col-
leges for about 60 District Flora Schemes in. the
country. It is heartening that a few centres of
taxonomy have come up of late in colleges and
universities particularly in Peninsular India. It is too
uphill a task for an organisation like the Botanical
Survey, with its limited staff, to complete the flora
of India, let alone within a specified time. That is
why it has sought the assistance and cooperation of
academic institutions wherever possible. Again, re-
search institutes like the Botanical Survey of India
who do not have a formal academic programme can-
not be expected to train taxonomists at the post-
graduate level. We suggest that the universities
come forward to willingly shoulder this respon-
sibility. And the Botanical Survey of India, in
which a training institute is being established with a
couple of staff to begin with, can perhaps assist the
universities in an in-service training. It is suggested
that the lost importance of taxonomy in the syilabii
in colleges and universities is restored before long.
In this regard the recommendations made by the
Seminar on Teaching and Research in Plant
Taxonomy held in Mysore in 1979 and the syllabus
devised by Subramanyam and Nayar (1973) with
the necessary modifications deserves serious con-
sideration and implementation without losing time.
The quality of research by a worker depends
upon the interest and devotion he has for his chosen
discipline. There is a feeling among certain
taxonomists that taxonomy has been thrust upon
them by circumstances and for that simple reason
they have to oblige taxonomy. Hence, it is neces-
sary to dispel such a misconceived notion while the
researcher is being trained, especially at the doc-
toral level. Creating opportunities for the well-
deserved, if not for all, to conduct research in floris-
tic and monographic work after training becomes a
corollary which would attract talent in future. And
the ones with a little more acuity, perseverance and
enterprise should be encouraged to take up research
in much neglected aspects in the Indian context such
as botanical history, involving much digging,
typification of Indian plants and determining the
validity of their names according to the Code, par-
ticularly in works like Hortus Bengalensis
Catalogues of Wallich and Wight and interpretation
of herbaria of the pioneer collectors in India. Letting
them languish for want of better opportunities would
definitely drive away talent to other disciplines.
We suggest that more career opportunities be
created in national institutes now engaged in
IN DEFENCE OF (ALPHA ) TAXONOMY
21
taxonomic research and that all post- graduate col-
leges and universities have a herbarium and a
trained taxonimist to man it, who can also have
teaching assignments so that his promotion is not
curtailed. It is a pity that even the oldest universities
like the Madras University do not have an herbarium
worth the name. The vital role of trained
taxonomists in some of the related establishments
may be impressed upon people, so that they can find
suitable placements in forestry, agriculture (par-
ticularly in exploring for wild allies of crop plants),
pharmaceutical and other related industries requir-
ing resource development. It is absolutely necessary
to insist upon employing taxonomists in environ-
mental assessment, and in the scientific manage-
ment of biosphere and other such nature reserves.
As has been pointed out by Hey wood (1982,
1985) there has recently been a major resurgence
of floristic taxonomy, partly stemming from the
recognition that such a work is an essential precur-
sor of conservation activities and partly from the
realisation of the massive scale on which plant
resources such as the tropical forests in developing
countries are being converted to other uses, con-
sumed or destroyed. This has drastically fore-
shortened the time-scale against which taxonomists
have to operate. The forest cover in the country is
far less than the stipulated ideal of 33.3%. It has
been estimated, a moderate estimate perhaps, that in
India over 850 species of flowering plants are
threatened due to habitat destruction and other inter-
linked factors (Jain & Sastry 1983).
Refer
Bor, N.L. (1964): Review. Fiflv Years of Science in India:
Progress of Botany. P. Maheshwari & R. N. Kapil, ed. Kew Bull
19: 353.
Constance, L. (1964): Systematic Botany - an unending
synthesis. Taxon 13: 257-273.
Davis, P.H. (1978): The moving staircase : a discussion on
taxonomic rank and affinity. Notes Roy. Bol. Gard. Edinburgh.
36: 325-340.
Ewan, I. (1969): Historical problems for the working
taxonomists. Taxon 18: 194-202.
Heywogd, V.H. (1963): The “species aggregate” in theory
and practice. Regnum Veg. 27: 26-37.
— (1980): Trends and priorities in plant taxonomy. In:
P.K.K. Nair ed. Glimpses in Plant Research. V. New Delhi. 9-18.
--(1982): Current topics in plant taxonomy - Intro-
The tenure of many of the plant species is
precarious. As a result, taxonomists are in an unen-
viable position of accumulating data on the plants
while it is available on priority basis. Vanishing
along with the forests are the cultures of some of the
tribal peoples. The interest in the cultures of these
people has done much to reveal their dependence
on die food and drug flora, which is closely inter-
woven with all the details of their daily lives. A
knowledge of this flora may continue to yield data
of great importance to the urban man. The future of
botanic gardens and taxonomy is again linked, this
time in the common goal of floristic inventory, con-
servation and resource studies (Hey wood 1985). In
the present environmental crisis taxonomists have to
work more closely with ecologists, plant-breeders,
conservationists, resource management personnel
and environment managers. And Indian taxonomists
are not unwilling to shoulder this new, additional
responsibility.
“Do not try to put two arrows on the string at
once - they will both miss. He that would load his
gun with two charges cannot expect to be success-
ful”. The moral is more than dear. We do not intend
to denigrate biosystematics — - or any other dis-
cipline of botany for that matter — nor are we op-
posed to biosystematics. Our aim is to stress that it
is ill-advised to give priority, nay equality, to biosys-
tematics over alpha taxonomy under the present cir-
cumstances in India. Such a priority would be lop-
sided and tantamount to putting the cart before the
horse.
N CE S
ductory review. In: V.H. Hey wood & D.M. Moore ed. Current
Topics in Plant Taxonomy. London.
(1985): Botanic gardens and taxonomy - their
economic role. Bull. Bol. Sun;. India 25: 134-147.
Jacobs, M. (1974): Botanical panorama of the Malesian
archipelago. Nat. Resour. Res. 12: 263-294.
Jain, S.K. & Sastry, A.R.K. (1983): Materials for a
Catalogue of Threatened Plants of India. Howrah.
Khoshoo, T.N. (1980): Symposium on modem trends in
plant taonomy - why this symposium? In P.K.K. Nair ed.
Glimpses in Plant Research. V. New Delhi. 1-4.
Lauener, L.A. (1978): The typification of Royle’s Ranun-
culaceae. Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 36: 127-137.
Love, A. & Love, D. (1974): Cytotaxonomical Atlas of the
Slovenian Flora. Koenigstem.
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Moore, D.M. (1978): The chromosomes and plant
taxonomy. In H.E. Street ed. Essays in Plant Taxonomy. Lon-
don. 39-56.
Parker, P.F. (1978): The classification of crop plants. In
H.E. Street ed. Essays in Plant Taxonomy. London. 97-124.
Prance, G.T. (1977): Holistic inventory in the tropics:
Where do we stand? Ann. Mossouri Bot. Gard 64: 659-684.
Raven, P.H. (1976): Systematics and plants population
biology. Syst. Bot. 1: 284-316.
Santapau, H. (1962): The present state of taxonomy and
floristics in India after independence. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 4:
209-216.
Schultes, R.E. (1972): The future of plants as sources of
new biodynamic compounds. /n.T. Swain ed. Plants in the
Development of Modem Medicine. Cambridge, Mass. 103-124.
Smith, A.C. (1966): Advice to administrators of sys-
tematic collections. Taxon 6: 201-205.
Stace, C.A. (1978): Breeding systems, variation pattern
and species delimitation. In H.E. Street ed. Essays in Plant
Taxonomy. London. 57-78.
Steinberg, C.H. (1977): The collectors and collections in
the Herbarium Webb. Webbia 32: 1-49.
Subramanyam, K. &Nayar,M.P. (1973): Plant taxonomy
- its past role and future lines of action in India. Bull. Bot. Surv.
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Subramanyam, K. & Sreemadhavan, C.P. (1972): The
paramount role of herbaria in modem taxonomic research. Bull.
Bot. Surv. India 12: 210-212.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
BARILIUS NELSONI , A NEW CYPRINID FISH (PISCES : jHYPRINIDAE)
FROM TRIPURA, NORTH-EASTERN INDIA
R.P. Barman* 2
( With a text-figure)
A new freshwater fish of the genus Barilius Hamilton collected from Tripura, North-eastern India is
described and illustrated under the name Barilius nelsoni. The new species is similar to Barilius evezardi Day
and Barilius radiolatus Gunther but can be easily separated from the former by the presence of barbels and
in having the dorsal fin exactly midway between the hind margin of the orbit and base of caudal fin. The new
species differs from the latter species in having fewer lateral line, predorsal and circumpeduncular scales.
Introduction
The fishes of the cyprinid genus Barilius
Hamilton are conspicuous in the fauna of the Indian
subcontinent, Thailand, China and Africa. These
fishes are, for the most part, inhabitants of hill or
mountain streams, although some species live in
low-land waters. Usually these fishes have dark
spots or bands on a silvery body. Day (1889)
recorded 14 species and Jayaram (1981) enumerated
16 species under the genus Barilius from the Indian
subcontinent. Recently, Barman (1985, 1986) dis-
covered two new species of this genus from
Arunachal pradesh (28°N, 95 °E) and West Bengal
(23°N, 87#E). Howes (1980) made a very valuable
contribution to the anatomy, phylogeny and clas-
sification of bariliine cyprinid fishes.
During the taxonomic studies on the fishes of
Tripura, nine specimens of a species were referable
to this genus which, when compared with the known
species of the genus Barilius , appeared to represent
a hitherto undescribed species. The present species
is being described as Barilius nelsoni. In the species
descriptions, the mean and, in parentheses, range are
given for proportions of body parts to either head
length or standard length.
Barilius nelsoni sp. nov.
Material : Holotype (Fig.l): 62 mm. SL.
Regd. No., FF2396 Zoological Survey of India,
Accepted July 1986.
2Zoological Survey of Lidia, 27 J L Nehru Road,
Calcutta 7 00 016.
Calcutta Locality: Gumti River, Udaypur sub-
division, South Tripura district. North- eastern
India. Collector : R.R Barman and party. Date of
collection : 15-8-1985.
Paratypes : 8 examples, 42-55 mm. SL. Regd.
No. FF2397 ZSI, Calcutta. Locality, collector and
date of collection same as in holotype.
Diagnosis
Dorsal fin origin exactly midway between the
hind edge of the orbit and caudal base. Head length
4.54-4.76 and body depth 4.33- 4.58 in standard
length. Eye diameter 3.25-3.66 in head length. Least
depth of caudal peduncle 1.66-1.85 in its length.
Lateral line scales 38-39, predorsal scales 14-16 and
circumpeduncular scales 12-14. Barbels 2 pairs.
Body with a darkish longitudinal band on its lateral
sides.
Description
Head length 4.65 (4.54-4.76) at the most dis-
tant point on the opercular membrane, body depth
at pelvic origin 4.46 (4.33-4.58), predorsal distance
1.76 (1.73-1.78), prepelvic distance 2.18 (2.16-
2.21), preanal distance 1.55 (1.52-1.57) and length
of the longest ray of the caudal fin from base 4.28
(4.00-4.76) in standard length. Depth of head 1.28
(1.22-1.33) at the occiput and width of head 2.10
(2.00-2.20) in head length. Eye diameter 3.49 (3.25-
3.66) in head length, 1.18 (1.12-1.33) in interorbital
width. Snout length 3.75 (3.66-4.00) in head length,
1.27 (1.16- 1.33) in interorbital width. Length of the
postorbital part of the head is slightly less than twice
214
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86.
the length of the preorbital part of head (or snout
length). Cleft of mouth wide, extending to below
middle of the orbit. Upper jaw conspicuously longer
than the lower jaw which is provided with a poorly
developed symphysia! knob. Barbels 2 pairs,
anterior or rostral pair slightly longer than the
posterior or maxillary pair. Both pairs of barbels
shorter than eye diameter. Least depth of caudal
peduncle 1.78 (1.66-1.85) in its length.
Scales: Lateral line abruptly descending, with
38-39 scales. Lateral transverse scales 12 from the
pelvic origin to the dorsum 3 1/2 rows of scales be-
tween the lateral line and base of pelvic fin. 14-16
predorsal scales and 12-14 circumpeduncular
scales
Fins: D.ii, 7; A. iii, 11-12; P. i, 12; V. 1,8; C. 19.
Dorsal fin originates exactly midway between the
posterior margin of the orbit and base of caudal fin.
Pelvic fin commences on a vertical considerably
anterior to the dorsal fin. Anal fin originates on a ver-
tical posterior to the dorsal fin. Length of the longest
dorsal ray 5.76 (5.55-6.11), length of the longest
anal ray 6.62 (6.25-6.88), pectoral length 5.21 (5.00-
5.50) and pelvic length 7.42 (7.14-7.85) in standard
length. Caudal fin forked with unequal lobes, lower
lobe longer than upper.
Colour in alcohol: Dorsal surface light grey
and sides silvery. A Sight darkish longitudinal band
extending from behind the head to the base of caudal
fin. All the fins are hyaline.
Distribution and Habitat : This species is
known only from the River Gumti at Udaypur sub-
division, South Tripura district, North-eastem India
(23°45’ N, 91°3Q’ E). The holotype and paratypes
were collected with cast net from clear, mud- bot-
tomed pools with moderate flow.
Etymology: For Dr. I.S. Nelson of the Univer-
sity of Alberta, Alberta, Canada in recognition of his
valuable contribution to the study of the fishes of the
world.
Discussion
Barilius nelsoni is similar to Bari lias evezar-
di Day and Barilius radiolatus Gunther in lacking
the vertical bars on the body and in almost same
head length and body depth. It is considered to be
most closely related to these species. The new
species can be easily separated from the former
species in the position of the dorsal fin which com-
mences midway between the hind margin of the
orbit and base of caudal fin (vs. hind edge of the orbit
and posterior end of the caudal fin), barbels present
(vs. absent), lower jaw conspicuously shorter than
Fig. 1. Lateral view of holotype of Barilius nelsoni sp. nov.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
215
the upper jaw (vs* lower jaw slightly longer), maxi-
lla extending below up to middle of the orbit (vs.
anterior margin of the orbit), caudal fin with upper
lobe shorter (vs. upper lobe longer). Further, B. net -
soni is provided with a darkish longitudinal lateral
band extending from behind the head to the base of
caudal fin which is lacking ia B. evezardi. The new
species can also be separated from B. radiolatus by
the fewer number of lateral line scales 38-39 (vs. 56-
62), predorsal scales 14-16 (vs. 24-25) and circum-
peduncular scales 12-14 (vs. 18).
The presence of symphysial knob on the lower
jaw and general appearance of this species with the
absence of the characteristic vertical bars so com-
mon in the genus Barilius , gives the species a close
resemblance to the fishes of the genus Rasbora
Bleeker, from which however it may be easily iden-
tified by the number of anal fin rays; while its dis-
tinctly rounded (not sharp edged) abdomen shows it
does not belong to Chela Hamilton.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the Director. Zoological Sur-
vey of India, Calcutta for laboratory facilities and to
Drs. K.C. Jayaram, Emeritus Scientist and P.K. Tal-
war. Scientist “SE’\ Zoological. Survey of India,
Calcutta for their encouragement. I am very thank-
ful to prof. (Dr.) J.S. Nelson of the University of Al-
berta, Alberta, Canada for critically going through
the manuscript and for his many valuable comments
on the' manuscript. Thanks are also due to Miss Ber-
nice Brewster and Dr. CJ. Howes of the British
Museum (Natural History), London for lending the
syntypes of Barilius radiolatus Gunther for this
study. I am also thankful to Mr. D. Pyne and Mr. P.
Biswas, departmental artists for making a drawing
of this fish.
References
Barman, R.P. (1985): On a new cyprinid fish of the genus
Barilius Hamilton (Pisces ; Cyprinidae) from Arunachal
Pradesh, India. J. Bombay mi. Hist. Soc. , 82 (1): 170-174.
— (1986): A new freshwater fish of the genus
Barilius Hamilton (Pisces:Cyprimdae) from West Bengal, India.
ibid. 83(1): 171-173.
Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including
Ceyiorrand Buraia. Fishes 1: i-xx, 1-584. Taylor and Francis.
London.
Howes, G.S. (1980): The anatomy, phylogeny, classifica-
tion of bariliine cyprinid fishes. Bull. Br. Musi. not. Hist. ( Zool.
) 37 (3): 129-198.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Freshwater Fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka - A handbook. Govt,
of India, i- xxii, 1-475. pis. XHI.
A NEW FROG OF THE GENUS PHILAUTUS GISTEL, FROM THE PROPOSED NAM-
DAPHA BIQSPPIERE RESERVE, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA
S.K. Chanda and A.K. Ghosh1 2
(With a text-figure)
During the study of a large collection from the
proposed Namdapha Biosphere Reserve, we came
across a new species of frog of the genus Philautus
Gistel (Family Rhacophoridae), which is described
here.
Philautus shyamrepus sp. nov. (Fig. 1)
Colour varying from grey to brown on the dor-
sum. A dorsolateral white band on either side, ex-
1 Accepted January 1988.
2Zoological Survey of India, 27 J L Nehru Road
Calcutta 700 016.
tending from posterior region of eyes and ending
posteriorly near the vent. Limbs dark brown to grey.
Eyes blackish; ventral surface dirty white. A dark,
narrow line originating from the interorbital region,
extends posteriorly to the hindmost part of the body.
Skin smooth above. Chest and belly smooth.
Ventral surface almost smooth.
Head as long as broad; snout obtusely
pointed, slightly longer than eyes; canthus ro
stralis distinct; nostrils closer to tip of snout
than eyes; intemaria! distance less than interorbi-
tal space which is equal to diameter of eyes; tym-
panum distinct, two-third of diameter of eyes;
216
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86.
Table 1
BODY MEASUREMENTS IN MM OF FIVE SPECIMENS OF Philaulus shyamrupus SP. NOV FROM NAMDAPHA
1
2
3
4
5
Length of head and body
25.0
22.0
22.0
19.5
19.5
Length of head
6.5
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
Width of head
6.5
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
Length of snout
4.5
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
Length of eye
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
Interorbital width
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
Diameter of tympanum
2.4
2.0
2.0
1.2
1.2
Length of forearm
16.5
16.0
16.0
14.0
14.0
Length of first finger
3.5
2.0
2.0
1.2
1.2
Length of second finger
4.0
3.5
3.5
2.5
2.5
Length of third finger
5.0
4.5
4.5
3.5
3.5
Hind limb
33.5
30.5
30.5
27.0
27.0
Length of tibia
12.5
11.0
11.0
9.4
9.3
Length of foot
9.0
7.5
7.5
6.0
6.0
Third toe
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
Fourth toe
4.5
4.0
4.0
3.0
3.0
Fifth toe
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
Fig. 1. Philaulus shyamrupus sp. nov.
A. dorsal view of the body; B. ventral view of the hand; C. ventral view of the foot
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
217
tongue free and deeply notched behind.
Forelimbs moderately long and slender;
fingers free with prominent rounded tips; first
finger shorter than second.
Hindi imbs fairly long; tibiotarsal articulation
reaching nostrils; heels just meeting when hind
limbs folded at right angles to body; tibia half the
length from tip of snout to vent and three to four
times as long as broad; fourth toe longest, longer
than snout and with prominent discs; discs of toes
broader than long; more than two-third webbed, two
distal phalanges of fourth toe free; subarticular
tubercles not prominent; both inner and outer
metatarsal tubercles absent.
Measurements : See table 1.
Holotype : Adult female, Regd. Z.S.I. (K.Z.
313) collected from Hombill, Namdapha Tiger
Reserve and proposed Biosphere Reserve,
Arunachal Pradesh; 13. xii. 1983, coll. S. Biswas.
Paratypes : Four adult males, Regd. Z.S.I.
(K.Z. 3 14-3 17), collected from Hombill, Namdapha
Tiger Reserve and proposed Biosphere Reserve,
Arunachal Pradesh, 13. xii. 1983, coll. S. Biswas.
The species is named after Dr. Shyamrup Bis-
was, who led the survey team to the area.
Comparisons: Eight species of the genus
Philautus Gistel, have been described from north-
east India, namely Philautus argus (Annandale),
P. annandalii (Boulenger), P. andersoni (Ahl), P.
cherrapunjiae (Roonwai & Kripalani), P. garo
(Boulenger), P. kempiae (Boulenger), P. nam-
daphaensis (Sarkar & Sanyal), and P. shiilongensis
Pillai & Chanda. Of these, the present species ap-
pears close to P. argus , but can be distinguished
from it in having toes that are not fully webbed;
(fully webbed in argus ); indistinct subarticular
tubercles (subarticular tubercles distinct in argus )
and head as long as broad (head longer than broad
in argus . Moreover, when compared with all the
species of the genus Philautus from the Indo-
Australian Archipelago, the present species revealed
some affinities with P. aurifasciatus (Schlegel),
described from Java, but can be distinguished from
it in having a much larger tympanum which is more
than half the diameter of eye (one-third to nearly half
in aurifasciatus ), nostrils much closer to tip of
snout than eyes (nostrils equidistant from eyes and
tip of snout in aurifasciatus ) and absence of inner
metatarsal tubercle (inner metatarsal tubercle
present in aurifasciatus ). A combination of four
characters, namely smooth skin, nearly fully
webbed toes, indistinct subarticular tubercles and
absence of both inner and outer metatarsal tubercles
distinguishes Philautus shyamrupus from both
Philautus argus and Philautus aurifasciatus .
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta for providing the necessary facilities
to work on the collections and the MAB -India Com-
mittee for financing the Namdapha Project.
A NEW SPECIES OF PINNOTHERES LATREILLE (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA)
FROM VISAKHAPATNAM COAST OF BAY OF BENGAL, ANDHRA PRADESH1
K. Nirmala Devi and K. Shyamasundari2
( With eight text-figures )
A new species of the genus Pinnotheres Latreille is descnbed from Visakhapatnam. The new species
Pinnotheres hanumantharaoi is related to P. pectinicola Burger. The differences between P. pectinicola
Burger and P. hanumantharaoi are also given.
Introduction
The diagnostic characters of the genus Pin-
Accepted January 1988.
department of Zoology, Andhra University,
Visakhapatnam 530 003.
notheres Latreille were given by Miers (1886) and
Acock (1900). Burger (1895) described about 30
new species of Pinnotheres and gave a key. Later
Rafnbun (1910) examined the Pinnotheres of the
Gulf of Siam and added 7 new species. Tesch (1918)
enumerated 65 Indo-Pacific species of Pinnotheres
inhabiting the mantle cavity of Lamellibranchs and
218
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 86.
also provided a key to the species. Homell & South-
well (1909) furnished a list of species of Pinnotheres
with their respective hosts and localities where they
occur. Description for a new species of Pinnotheres
placunae which lives in Placuna placenta from
Okha was furnished. Chhapgar (1957) described a
new species of Pinnotheres , P. vicajii collected
from the biyalve Paphia malabarica at Bombay.
Another new species of Pinnotheres , P. san-
guinolaria obtained from the mantle cavity of San-
guinolaria diphos inhabiting shallow waters of
Travancore was described by Krishna Pillai (1951).
Description
Tribe
Family
Subfamily
Genus
Catometopa
PINNOTHERE) AE
PlNNOTHERINAE
Pinnotheres Latreille
Pinnotheres hanumantharaoi sp. nov.
Type: Holotype , berried female 10 mm broad
and 9 mm long.
Walking legs: see Table 1.
Paratypes:
(1) female 14 mm broad, 13 mm long;
(2) berried female 9 mm broad, 8 mmlong;
(3) female 9 mm broad, 8 mm long;
(4) berried female 8 mm broad, 7 mm long;
(5) berried female 10 mm broad, 9 mm long.
Average measurement 9 mm broad and 8 mm long
Collected from offshore fishing station, Visak-
hapatnam, during 1979-80. They were obtained
from the mantle cavity of Pecten pleuronectes
Lamarck. 110 shells of Pecten pleuronectes were
opened and only 20 female Pinnotheres could be
collected. No males were ever found and it can be
presumed that they are free living. The holotype and
paratypes are now in the Zoology Msueum of
Andhra University, Waltair. They will be deposited
in the museum of Zoological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta.
Carapace brown, subcircular, convex especial-
ly towards the middle region, regions indistinct.
Carapace is smooth, completely naked without
sculpture and membranous. Front is 2/5 of the
breadth of the Carapace, slightly thickened and not
prominent (Figs. 1 & 2). Eyes are not visible from
above and are pale brown in colour. The external
maxillipeds are conspicuous but covered by the
seventh segment of abdomen. Merus-ischium of the
external maxilliped is broad and its outer border
much curved. Along the inner border of merus-is-
chium long hairs are implanted. The distal end of its
outer border also bears long hairs. Palp of the exter-
nal maxilliped is three-jointed. Carpus is shorter
than the propodus. The Dactylus is inserted on the
inner side of the propodus. Dactylus is narrow,
styliform, reaching a little beyond the rounded dis-
tal end of the propodus; it carries a few long hairs at
its tip. The outer border of carpus is curved and
also lined by hairs. Exopodite is conspicuous,
shorter than merus-ischium and the tip carries a
Pinnotheres hanumantharaoi sp. nov.
Fig. 1. Dorsal view; 2. Ventral view.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
219
1.o mm
Pinnotheres hanumanlharaoi sp. nov.
Fig. 3. Third maxilliped (right); 4. Right chelate leg; 5. Fingers of the right chelate leg; 6. Right fourth walking leg; 7. Dactylus of
right fourth walking leg; 8. Abdomen.
220
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 1
WALKING LEGS OF HOLOTYPE OF P. hanumantharaoi SP. NOV
Merus
Carpus
Propodus
Dactylus
Total
Right :
Length of Istleg
3
2
2
2
9mm
Length of 2nd leg
5
4
3
3
15 mm
Length of 3rd leg
3
2
2
2
9mm
Length of 4th leg
3
2
2
2
9mm
Chelate leg
Arm 3
Wrist 2
Hand 4
Fingers 2
11 mm
Lefv.
Length of 1st leg
3
2
2
2
9 mm
Length of 2nd leg
4
3
3
2
12 mm
Length of 3rd leg
3
2
2
2
9 mm
Length of 4th leg
3
2
2
2
9mm
Chelate leg
Arm 3
Wrist 2
Hand 4
Fingers 2
11 mm
few (6 to 8) long hairs (Fig. 3). Chelipeds stouter
than the walking legs. The arm, wrist and outer-
border of hand smooth and devoid of armature, the
hand twice as long as fingers; fingers thick, tip of
the movabale finger curved, posterior border of the
distal half of the hand and entire posterior border of
immovable finger bears hairs. The posterior two-
thirds border of movable finger also carries hairs, a
few hairs also near its tip (Figs. 4 & 5). Small teeth
are seen at the distal part of the immovable finger.
The walking legs slender, completely naked,
second pair of legs the longest, first, third and last
pair of legs equal in length, the dactyli of legs ex-
cept the second pair equal in length, the dactyli of
the first, third and last pairs of legs as long as their
propodites, the dactyli of last two pairs of legs as
broad as the propodites except the tips which are
narrow and incurved as hooks. The dactyli of first
and second pairs of legs more slender than their
propodites and curved like hooks, the dactyli of
second pair longer than the dactyli of remaining
walking legs (Figs. 6 & 7).
Abdomen seven-segmented, broad covering
the bases of the legs, light brown, and naked without
any armature (Fig. 8). Eggs numerous, brown in
colour, measuring 0.264 mm in diameter.
D i s cu s s i o N
resembles P. pectinicola Burger to some extent. In
the key given by Burger, P. pectinicola comes under
section I, group A which is characterised by the dac-
tylus of second gnathopod being inserted on the
inner comer of the propodus and extending slightly
beyond it, and a rectangular carapace. The differen-
ces between P. pectinicola Burger and the present
species are summarised here
The resemblances are (1) legs slender, naked,
(2) tips of the dactyli of legs curved inwards, (3) the
dactylus of third maxilliped extends beyond
propodus, (4) dactylus of third maxilliped inserted
on inner margin of propodus.
Nobili (1906) also gave a key to the species
of Pinnotheres and described P. pectinicola
Burger.
From the above points it is evident that it dif-
fers from P. pectinicola Burger and these differen-
ces are sufficient to separate it as a new species.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Masatsune Takeda, Nation-
al Science, Museum, Tokyo, Japan for his sugges-
tions and Mayadebi of Z.S.I., Calcutta for provid-
ing valuable literature. One of the authors (KND) is
grateful to the Department of Ocean Development,
Government of India for financial assistance.
Pinnotheres hanumantharaoi sp. nov.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
221
P. hanumantharaoi sp. nov.
P. Pectinicoia Burger
1. Host-Pecten pleuronectes.
2. Breadth and length of carapace 10 & 9 mm respectively
3. Carapace subcircular, convex
4. Eyes pale brown
5. Fingers of chelipeds half the length of hand
6. Second pair of walking legs longer than remaining pairs
7. All segments of walking not of equal length.
8. Hairs present along with inner border of merasischium
and outer border of carpus of third maxilliped.
Host-Pecten radula.
Breadth and length of carapace 8 & 7 mm respectively.
Carapace almost rectangular, more or less flat.
Eyes lade pigment.
Fingers of chelipeds as long as those of hand.
Middle two pairs of walking legs longer than others.
All segments of walking legs of equal length.
In the diagram given by Burger (1985), hairs are not seen
on inner border of me ms chi um and outer border of carpus.
References
Alcock, A. (1900): Materials for a carcinological Fauna
of India. No. 6. The Brachyura Catometopa, orGrapsoidea, Jour
As. Soc. Bengal , 19 , No. HI, pp. 279-456.
Burger, O. (1895): Ein Beitrag sur Kenntniss der Pin-
notherinen. Zool-Jahrb. Syst . 8: 361-390.
Chhapgar, B.F. (1957): Marine crabs of Bombay State.
J. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 54(3): 503-549.
Horne ll, James & Southwell, T. (1909): Description of
a new species of Pinnotheres from P lacuna placenta with a
note on the genus. Report on the Marine Zoology of Okhaman-
dal in Kattiawar, Ft. 1, pp. 99-103.
Miers, E.J. (1886): Report on the Brachyura collected by
H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-1876. Rep. Voy.
" Challenger " , Zool ., (17): 2:1- 362.
Nobili, G. (1906): “Fanne Carcinologique de la Mer
Rouge, Decapodes et Stomatopodes”. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. 4: 1-
347.
Pillai, N.K. (1951): Decapoda (Brachyura) from Travan-
core. Bull, central Research Institute, University of Travancore,
Trivandrum , ii. No. 1 Ser. C: 1 -46.
Rathbun, MJ. (1910): The Danish expedition to Siam
1899-1900. V. Brachyura. K. Darts ke. Vidensk. Selsk. Skrift. 5
(4): 30-368.
Tesch, J.J. (1918): Die Decapoda Brachyura Der Siboga-
Expedition. Goneplacidae and Pinnotheridae. Siboga Exped.
Rep. xxxixci: 149-295.
ON SOME RARE SPIDERS OF THE FAMILY ZODARIIDAE
(ARANEAE : ARACHNIDA) FROM COASTAL ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA1
B.H. Patel and T.S. Reddy2
( With two text-figures)
The family Zodariidae, genus Storena and 5. gujaratensis Tikader and Patel and S. indica Tikader
and Patel are recorded for the first time from Coastal Andhra Pradesh. Two new species S. arakuensis and S.
tikaderi are described and illustrated.
Introduction
The spiders of the family Zodariidae are very
little known from India. Simon (1893) first recorded
the family from Indian sub- continent. Later Pocock
(1901), Simon (1905, 1906), Gravely (1921) and
Reimoser (1934) described few more species of the
family from India. Recently Tikader and Patel
(1975) and Tikader and Malhotra (1976) described
some new species of the genera Storena and Lutica
Accepted October 1987.
department of Zoology, Sir P.P. Institute of Science,
Bhavnagar University, Bhavnagar 364 002, Gujarat, India.
from India. In all sixteen species belonging to seven
genera are known from our country.
While examining the spider collections from
Coastal Andhra Pradesh, we came across four
species of spiders of this family, out of which two
are the new species which are described in this
paper. The family, genus Storena and S. gujaraten-
sis and S. indica are all recorded for the first time
from Coastal Andhra Pradesh. These spiders are
found under stones or dead leaves on the ground.
All the type specimens will in due course be
deposited in the National Collections, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta.
222
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
0*5 m m
Fig. 1. Storena arakuensis sp. nov.
a. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; b. Sternum, labium and maxillae; c. Epigyne; d. Internal genitalia; e. Right male palp,
ventral view; f. Right male; palp inner view; g. Right male palp, outer view; h. Spinnerets.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
223
1. Storena gujaratcnsis Tikader and Patel 1975.
Storena gujaratensis Tikader and Patel, Bull.
Brit. Arach. Soc. , 3 (5): 138.
Specimens examined: 2 Males, Nellore, Dist.
Nellore, 13-9- 1986; 1 female, Simhachalam, 7-10-
1986, and 1 female Borraguhalu, 17-10-1986, Dist.
Visakhapatnam, Coll. T.S. Reddy.
Distribution: INDIA: Napad, Gujarat; Nel-
lore and Visakhapatnam Dists., Andhra Pradesh.
2. Storena indica Tikader and Patel 1975.
Storena indica Tikader and Patel , Buli. Brit.
Arach. Soc., 3 (5): 137-138.
Specimens examined: 1 Female, Draksharama,
Ramachandrapuram, Dist. East Godavari, 7-9-1986.
Coll. T.S. Reddy.
Distribution: INDIA: Pavagadh, Vallabh
Vidyanagar, Gujarat; East Godavari, Dist. Andhra
Pradesh.
3. Storena arakucnsis sp. nov. (Fig. 1)
General : Cephalo thorax reddish brown, legs
yellowish, abdomen brown. Total length 7.13 mm.
Carpace 3.63 mm long, 2.45 mm wide; abdomen
3.50 mm long, 2.45 mm wide.
Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, slightly
narrowing in front, anterior margin round and
smooth; middle of cephalothorax provided with a
conspicuous fovea. Eyes pearly white, in two rows;
both rows procurved but posterior row strongly
procurved with equal eyes. Anterior median eyes
larger than the others, lateral eyes nearly contiguous.
Posterior median eyes closer to each other than to
the laterals. Ocular quad longer than wide, slightly
wider behind than in front as in Fig. l.a. Sternum
heart shaped, pointed behind, clothed with fine
hairs, labium longer than wide. Maxillae provided
with a tuft of scopulae at the distal end. Sternum,
labium and maxillae as in Fig. 1 .b. Chelicerae strong
and stout, short, fang groove with a small tooth on
each of the two margins. Legs long and strong,
clothed with hairs and spines. Tibiae and metatarsus
of all legs with three pairs of ventral spines. Tarsal
claws three, the median one being very small. Leg
formula 4 12 3. Male is similar and practically of
the same size of female. Total length 6.66 mm. Male
palp as in Fig. 1. f and g.
Abdomen: Oval, longer than wide, pointed be-
hind, clothed with fine hairs. Anterior dorsal side of
abdomen provided with three pairs of conspicuous
white patches and posterior end with two incon-
spicuous white transverse markings and with three
corrugations on posterior lateral sides as in Fig. l.a.
Ventral side pale with two longitudinal brown mark-
ings. The anterior spinnerets are long and the other
two pairs are comparatively short as in Fig. l.h.
Epigyne and internal genitalia as in Fig. l.c and d.
Holotype: One female, paratype two females,
Allotype three males in spirit.
Type -locality: Araku valley, Araku, Dist.
Visakhapatnam, 28-9-1985. Coll. T.S. Reddy.
Diagnosis: This species resembles to Storena
indica Tikader and Patel but it is separated as fol-
lows: (i) Anterior dorsal side of abdomen provided
with three pairs of irregular and posteriorly two
median irregular conspicuous white patches but in
S. indica anterior dorsal side of abdomen with two
pairs of oblong and posteriorly three median con-
spicuous white patches present, (ii) Epigyne and in-
ternal genitalia are also structurally different, (iii)
The structure of male palp is differs.
4. Storena tikadcri sp. nov. (Fig. 2)
General: Cephalothorax and legs reddish
brown, abdomen dark brown. Total length 6.53 mm.
Carapace 2.72 mm long, 1.90 mm wide; abdomen
3.81 mm long, 2.45 mm wide.
Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, slightly
narrowing in front, anterior margin round and
smooth, practically without hairs except for a few
spine like hairs on the cephalic region. Middle of
cephalothorax provided with a conspicuous fovea.
Eyes pearly white, in two rows; both rows procurved
and with eyes equal in size. Anterior median eyes
larger than the others, laterals nearly contiguous.
Posterior median eyes closer to each other than to
the laterals. Ocular quad as long as wide, slightly
wider behind than in front as in Fig. 2.a. Sternum
heartshaped, pointed behind, clothed with hairs.
Labium longer than wide reddish, brown. Maxillae
roundish, distal end light yellow in colour. Sternum,
labium and maxillae as in Fig. 2.b. Chelicerae stout
and short, fang groove with a single small tooth on
each of the two margins. Legs long and clothed with
224
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86.
Fig. 2. Storena tikaderi sp. nov
a. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; b. Sternum, labium and maxillae; c. Epigyne; d. Internal genitalia;
e. Right male palp ventral view; f. Right male palp inner view; g. Right male palp outer view; h. Spinnerets
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
225
hairs and spines. Tibiae and metatarsus of legs I and
II with three pairs of ventral spines. Tarsal claws
three, the median one being very small. Leg formula
4 12 3. Male is similar but smiler than the female.
Total length 5.35 mm. Male palp as in Fig. 2. e, f and
g-
Abdomen : Oval, longer than wide, pointed be-
hind, clothed with fine hairs. Anterior dorsal side of
abdomen provided with three pairs of conspicuous
white patches and posterior end with more than two
pairs of inconspicuous white transverse markings
as in Fig. 2.a. Ventral side pale in colour with two
longitudinal deep brown markings. The anterior
spinnerets are long and the other two pairs are com-
paratively shorter as in Fig. 2.h. Epigyne and inter-
nal genitalia are as in Fig. 2.c and d.
Holotype : One Female, paratype six
Females, allotype one Male in spirit.
Type-locality : Araku valley, Araku, Dist.
Visakhapatnam, 18-10-1986. Coll. T.S. Reddy.
Distribution: 2 Females, 1 Ma!e,Tadikalapudi,
Dist. West Godavari, 1-9-1985; 1 Female,
Narasaraopeta, Dist. Guntur, 20-3- 1986 and 1
Refer
Comstock, J.H. (1965): The Spider Book. rev. W.J.
Gertsch: 336- 338.
Gravely, F.H. (1921): The spiders and scorpions of
Barkuda Island. Rec. Ind. Mus , 22 : 400-421.
Pocock, Ri. (1900): The Fauna of British India, Arach-
nida London, pp. 153-279.
(1901): Description of some new species of
spiders from British India. J. Bombay nal. Hist. Soc. , 13 : 498.
Simon, E. (1893): Histoire naturelie des Araignees, Paris.
1 (2): 408-439.
— (1893): Arachnides in Voyage de M. Simon aux
lies Philippines. Annls. Soc. ent. France 62 : 79.
— (1905): Voyage de M. Maurice Maindron dans
Female, Vellatur, Dist. Guntur, 24-3-1986; 1
Female, Borraguhalu, Dist. Visakhapatnam, 17-10-
1986.
Diagnosis : This species resembles to Storena
arakuensis sp. nov. but it is separated as follows: (i)
The posterior cephaiothorax is provided with radiat-
ing cephalic furrows but in Storena arakuensis sp.
nov. only the cephalic groove present, (ii) The
posterior dorsal side of abdomen is provided with ir-
regular white patch but in S. arakuensis sp. nov,
posterior dorsal side of abdomen is provided with
different type of irregular white patch and also with
three corrugations on posterior lateral sides, (iii) The
structures of epigyne and internal genitalia are dif-
ferent. (iv) Structure of male palp is also different.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Prof. K.B. Tipnis, Principal,
Sir P.P. Institute of Science, Bhavnagar for provid-
ing laboratory facilities and encouragements. One
of us (TSR) is also greatful to the Government of
Gujarat for financial assistance.
ENCES
Flnde Meridional, Arachnides. Annls. Soc. ent. Fr. , 74 : 160-
180.
(1906): Voyage de M. Maurice Maindron dans
I’lnde Meridional, arachnides. Annls. Soc. ent. Fr. , 75 : 279-
305.
Thorell, T. (1895): Spiders of Burma. London, pp. 75-76.
Tikader, B.K. & Patel, B.H. (1975): Studies on some
rare spiders of the family Zodariidae from India. Bull. Brit.
Arach. Soc. , 3 (5): 137-139.
— & Malhotra, M.S. (1976): A new species of
spider of the genus Luiica (Family Zodariidae) from India. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. , 72 (3): 794-796.
226
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
TWO NEW SPECIES OF SKIMMIA (RUTACEAE)
FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1
Anil k. Goel2 and B.N. Mehrotra3
(With two text-figures)
Two new species, Skimmia arunachalensis and S. kamengensis , from West Kameng district of
Arunachal Pradesh in the Eastern Himalayas are described. Their diagnostic characters with S. arborescens
are discussed and the key for the identification of five Indian Skimmias, is provided.
Introduction
Rutaceae are represented by 150 genera with
900 species. They are distributed in tropical and
warm temperate regions, particularly in South
Africa and Australia (Hey wood 1978). Skimmia
Thunb. has about 18 species, mainly from Japan,
China, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
Formosa, Burma, Thailand and the Philippines. So
far, three species, namely S. laureola (DC.) Sieb.
& Zucc., S. arborescens T. Anders, ex Gamble and
S. melanocarpa Rehder are known from the Indian
subcontinent (Gamble 1917, Hara 1965). S. laureola
is distributed in the whole Himalayan range and the
other two species are restricted to the Central and
Eastern Himalayas.
During the course of plant collection from
West Kameng district of Arunachal pradesh, under
the biological screening programme of the Central
Drug Research Institute, two interesting species
belonging to Skimmia , were collected. On critical
identification at CAL, DD, CDRI, Assam, LWG and
a scrutiny of the literature, they were found to be dis-
tinct from the known species of Skimmia. The two
species are described and illustrated here.
Skimmia arunachalensis sp. nov. (Fig. 1)
Skimmia arborescenti affinis, sed differt
petiolis 0.5- 1.0 cm longis, paniculis parvis, 0.6- 1.2
cm longis, petalis oblongis 3.0-4.0 mm longis, an-
theris majoribus, 2 mm longis, drupis majoribus, 9-
13 mm diam., subglobosis, rugosisque in pedicellis
^.D.R.I. Communication No. 4004. Accepted December 1987.
2Botanic Garden, National Botanical Research Institute, Luck-
now 226 001.
3Botany Division, Central Drug Research Institute,
Lucknow 226 001
Ilolotypus lectus a A.K. Goel sub numero 14216 A,
ad locum Bomdila, Kameng occ., alt. 2500 m, die
April 2, 1984,etIsotypiA.Ar. Goel 14216 B-D,positi
in herbario C.D.R.I. Lucknow.
Small glabrous, evergreen trees c. 3-4 m high.
Twigs bright green. Leaves alternate or crowded
towards the end of branches, simple, petiolate;
petioles 0.5- 1.0 cm long; lamina 4.5-14.0 x (1.0-)
2. 0-3. 5 cm, lanceolate or oblong lanceolate,
acuminate to caudate with cuneate, sometimes obli-
que base, thinly coriaceous, sparsely gland dotted on
both surfaces, nerves indistinct on both sides.
Panicles small, dense, terminal or axillary, 0.6-1. 2
cm long. Flowers yellowish white, polygamous,
subsessile or pedicellate. Pedicels 1.0- 1.5 mm long,
thick. Bracts and bracteoles 1. 5-2.5 x 1. 0-2.0 mm,
ovate, acuminate, with ciliate margins. Sepals 5, im-
bricate, 2.0-2.5 x 1.0- 1.5 mm, broadly ovate, with
ciliate margins, persistent in fruits. Petals 5, 3.0- 4.0
x 1.0- 1.5 mm, oblong, obtuse. Stamens 5; anthers
2.0 x 0.75 mm, yellowish, dorsifixed; filaments c.
1.25 mm long, white, stout, subulate. Ovary ovoid,
rudimentary in male flowers; styles divided at top in
3 short stigmatic branches, c. 0.5 x 0.5 mm, white;
female flowers; only 1-2 develop in subglobose
drupes. Pedicels enlarged in fruits, 5-10 mm long.
Drupes 9-13 x 7-13 mm, rugose with c. 1-2 mm
diam. stigmatic scar on top. Seeds ovoid 6-7 x 4-5
mm, whitish cartilagenous.
Flowers & Fruits: March -June.
Habitat : On open or shady slopes alongwith
Salix along forest edges.
This species is allied to Skimmia arborescens
T. Anders, ex Gamble but differs in having small,
0.5- 1.0 cm long petioles; 0.6- 1.2 cm long panicles;
petals oblong, 3. 0-4.0 mm long; anthers larger, 2
mm long; drupes large, 9-13 mm diam., subglobose,
rugose on c. 1.5 mm thick pedicels.
Type: INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh: Bomdila
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
227
Fig. 1. Skimmia arunachalensis sp. nov.
1 . Habit; 2. Rower, 3 & 4. Dorsal & ventral view of bract; 5 & 6. Dorsal & ventral view of sepal; 7 & 8. Dorsal & ventral view of
petal; 9 & 10. Stamens; 11. Fruit. (Anil K. Goel, 14216 — A, CDRI).
228
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.86.
(West Kameng Dist.) 2500 m, April 2, 1984, A.K.
Goel 14216 A (Holotype); AK. Goel 14216 B-D
(Isotypes) - CDRI; Bomdila Camp, April 13, 1957,
G. Panigrahi 6885 A-D (Paratypes) - CAL.
Skimmia kamengensis sp. nov. (Fig. 2)
A Skimmia arhorescenti facile distinguibilis
petiolis parvis, 0.8- 1.5 cm longis, foliis obovato-
oblongis, coriaceis, cum 10-20 nervis lateralibus
non arcuatis secus marginem; paniculis majoribus,
5.0- 8.0 cm, laxis, bracteis parvis, 1.0-1. 5 mm lon-
gis, sepalis 1.0- 1.5 mm longis, marginibus non
ciliatis, drupis atro-viridibus, parvioribus, 3. 0-6.0
mm diam., pyriformibus.
Holotypus lectus a BJN. Mehrotra sub numero
2446 A, ad locum Bomdila, Kameng occ., alt. 3048
m, die May 5, 1970, et Isotypi RJV. Mehrotra 2446
B-C, positi in herbario C.D.R.I. Lucknow.
Small trees. Leaves alternate or crowded at the
ends of branches, simple, petiolate; petioles 0.8-1. 5
cm long; lamina 7.0-14.0 x 2.5-4 .2 cm, obovate
oblong, acute to obtuse with cuneate base,
coriaceous, sparsely gland dotted below, thickly
gland dotted above; midrib thick, prominent on both
surfaces; lateral nerves indistinct. Panicles lax, ter-
minal, branched, hispid, 5.0-8.0 cm long, many
flowered. Rowers cream coloured. Pedicels 3-10
Fig. 2. Skimmia kamengensis sp. nov.
1. Habit; 2. Flower, 3. Bracts; 4. Sepal in dorsal & ventral view; 6. Stamen in dorsal & ventral view; 8. Gynoecium; 7 & 9. Fruits
(B.N. Mehrotra, 2446 — A, CDRI).
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
229
mm long, thick. Bracts and bracteoles 1.0- 1,5 x 1.0
mm, ovate, acute with ciliate margins. Sepals 5, im-
bricate, 1.0- 1.5 x 1.25 mm, broadly ovate, obtuse,
tomentose with ciliate margins, persistent in fruits.
Petals 5, 5.0-6.0 x 1. 0-2.0 mm, spathulate, thick, ob-
tuse. Stamens 5, excelled; anthers 2-lobed, 0.75-1.0
x 0.75-1.0 mm, yellowish, dorsifixed, opening lon-
gitudinally; filaments 4.0- 5.0 mm long, stout, sub-
ulate, white. Ovary small, fixed at 0.75 mm across
disc, 2 celled; style c. 2 mm long, stout; stigma
KEY FOR IDENTIFICATION OF FIVE SPECIES OF Skimmia
la. Low trees; leaves caudate, acuminate, thinly coriaceous:
2a Anthers larger, 2 mm long; fruits 9.0- 13.0mm diam.,
subglobose, rugose S. arunachalensis
2b. Anthers smaller, 0.5 mm long; fruits less than 9.0 mm
diam., globose, smooth 5 arbor esce ns
lb. Shrubs; leaves acute to obtuse, thickly coriaceous:
3a. Flowers in lax panicles; fruits
pyriform S. kamengensis
Flowers & Fruits: April - June.
Habitat: On shady slopes.
It can be readily distinguished from 5. ar-
borescens by small 0.8- 1.5 cm long petioles;
obovate oblong, coriaceous leaves with 10-20
lateral nerves, without arching along margins;
panicles larger, 5.0-8.0 cm, loose; bracts small, 1.0-
1.5 mm long; sepals 1.0- 1.5 mm long with ciliate
margins; drupes greenish black, smaller 3. 0-6.0
mm diam., pyriform. With the discovery of these two
new species, the total number of taxa described
under Skimmia rises to twenty; of these, S. laureola
is distributed over the whole Himalayan range and
S. arborescens , S. melanocarpa , S. arunachalensis
and S. karnengensis are reported from the Central
and Eastern Himalayan regions of the Indian sub-
continent. To facilitate the identification of the
above five species occurring in India, the following
key is provided:
3b. Flowers in dense panicles; fruits ovoid to globose:
4a. Leaves elliptic, smaller; drupes
black... S. melanocarpa
4b. Leaves oblong elliptic, larger; drapes dark
red S. laureola
single, capitate. Drupes pyriform, 3. 0-6.0 mm
across. Seed 1, cartilagenous.
Refer
Gamble, J.S. (1917): The Himalayan species of Skimmia.
Kew Bull. 40: 301-303.
Hara, H. (1965): New or noteworthy flowering plants
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Central Drug Research
Institute, Lucknow for facilities and Dr. N.C
Majumdar, Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of
India, Howrah, for help in the Latin diagnosis.
: n ce s
from Eastern Himalaya (4). J. Jap. Bot. 40: 98-99.
Heywood, V.H. (1978): Flowering plants of the world.
Oxford University, London, pp. 236.
ERIA LOHITENSIS — A NEW SPECIES OF ORCHID FROM ARUNACHAL
PRADESH, INDIA
A. Nageswara Rao2, K. Haridasan3 and S.N. Hegde2
( With a text-figure)
During a collection trip to Lohit district of
Arunacha! Pradesh, one of us (Haridasan) collected
an orchid belonging to the genus Eria Lindl. A criti-
cal study based on the regional herbarium specimens
of allied species and also literature on Asiatic
species of Eria has proved it to be quite distinct
from species so far known. Hence it is described
here as a new species.
The new species belongs to the section
Cylindrolobus Bl. of the genus Eria and can at once
be distinguished from the rest of the species of the
section by the presence of lip with ciliate midlobe.
Eria lohltcnsis sp. nov. (Fig.l)
Affinis E. cristata Rolfe, a qua imprimis dif-
fer! sepaiis acuminatis tiinervis, labelli lobis medio
oblongo ciliato. Holotypus: lectus ad locum
Mailang - Mithumna, alt. 1600 m, die 11-5-1985,
Haridasan 2185 (Arunachal Forest Herbarium).
Fig. 1. Eria lohitensis sp. nov.
1. Plant; 2. Flower, 3. Dorsal sepal; 4. Lateral sepal; 5. Petal; 6. Lip; 7. Ovary, column, column-foot and lip; 8. Anther cap.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
231
Epiphyte. Stems about 20 cm long and 8 mm
thick, clavate. Leaves upto 6, terminal, about 15x2
cm, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, shortly petioled.
Inflorescences many, arising laterally from the stem
at various intervals from middle on the stem to sub-
terminus. Inflorescence 2-flowered, about 3.5 cm
long. Rachis white pubescent, with two sterile bracts
at short intervals. Floral bract about 8x4 mm,
shorter than the pedicellate ovary, acute. Rowers
about 2 cm long, white. Dorsal sepal about 10 x 2
mm, lanceolate, acuminate, white pubescent out-
side, 3-nerved. Lateral sepals about 10x5 mm, obli-
quely ovate-triangular, acuminate, forming a men-
tum with the foot of column, white pubescent out-
side, 3 nerved. Petals about 8.0 x 1.5 mm, oblong —
lanceolate, acute to acuminate, 3-nerved. Lip about
7 mm long 3 mm broad across the lateral lobes,
shorter than the sepals and petals, 3-lobed; lateral
lobes 4 mm long, rounded, with 2 prominent paral-
lel vertical lamellae inbetween on the disc; midlobe
3 mm long, oblong, acute, ciliate at margins, with a
median vertical hairy ridge on the disc. Column
Refer
Hooker, J.D. (1890). The Flora of British India. Vol. 5. L.
Reev & Co., Ashford, Kent.
Joseph, J., Hegde, S.N. & Abbareddy, N.R. (1983).
Eria connata (Lindl.) Joseph, Hegde et Abbareddy — a new
species of orchid from Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh,
India. Bull. bot. Surv. India 24 (1-4). -114-116.
King, G. & Pantling, R. (1898): The Orchids of Sikkim
about 2 mm long, with a long foot which is in curved
at apex. Anther cap semiglobular, 4-celled. Ovary
with pedicel about 1 cm long, white pubescent.
Flowering: May.
Occurrence : Arunachal Pradesh, Lohit district,
Mailang - Mithumna (1600 m).
Distribution : Endemic.
Eria lohitensis is allied to E. cristata Rolfe
which is reported from Burma and Thailand but can
be easily distinguished from the latter by the
presence of acuminate, 3- nerved sepals instead of
acute, 5-nerved sepals and oblong ciliate midlobe of
lip instead of broadly ovate midlobe of lip which is
entire at margin.
Acknowledgements
Sincere thanks are due to the Chief Conser-
vator of Forests, Itanagar and the Conservator of
Forests, Banderdewa, Forest Department of
Arunachal Pradesh for facilities and encourage-
ment.
en ce s
Himalaya. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8. T-342.
Kranzlin, F. (1911): Orchidaceae — Monandrae —
Dendrobiinae. 2. In A. Engler (ed.) Das Pflenzenreich Hft 50: 1-
82.
Seidenfaden, G. (1982): Orchid General in Thailand X.
Trie kotos ia Bl. and Eria Lindl. Opera Bot. 62: 1- 157.
REVIEW
BIRDS TO WATCH: THE ICBP WORLD CHECKLIST OF THREATENED
BIRDS by NJ. Collar & R Andrew. ICBP Technical Publication No 8, pp. xvi +
303 + ii. Cambridge, England. 1988. £ 9.50 inclusive of packing and postage.
This publication is the latest in the ICBP’s new
series of regional bird Red Data books on threatened birds
and offers a concise but comprehensive collection of list-
ings, easy to cross-check within and between chapters,
coupled with short, precise notes. There are no illustrations
except on the front cover.
Some regions seem to be covered more thoroughly
than others. Species accounts have been listed according to
current literature available; at times, the authors have gone
beyond current literature. The senior author obtained
from this reviewer the latest information on the status of
the Jerdon’s or Double-banded Courser Rhinoptilus
bitorquatus. Thus, the correspondence also finds a place in
the listing.
Over 11% of the world’s nearly 9,000 avian species,
i.e. 1 .000 species are "to varying degrees at risk from global
extinction. When viewed on a global level, the presentation
is highly disturbing." The threat to avian species underlines
the threat to the habitat and the ecosystem. "Since the
destruction, modification and fragmentation of habitats are
by far the most common types of threat, there is no reason
to assume that other life forms — plants, insects and lower
animals — that share the habitats of these tlireatened birds
are any better off. The birds are in fact just the tip of the
iceberg, concealing thousands of other species we know lit-
tle or nothing about."
From the global scene to India: there are 69 avian
species listed as threatened, of which 15 are endemic to
India. Some of the paragraphs accompanying the listings
(related to the Indian region and the Indian Ocean area) are
very interesting and need to be recorded here.
Amsterdam Albatross Diomedea amsterdamensis is
confined as a breeding bird to Amsterdam Island (French
territory) in the southern Indian Ocean, where an average
of merely five pairs breed every year.
Mascarene Black Petrel Pterodroma aterrima is
known only from Reunion Island (French territory) by four
specimens collected in the nineteenth century and three
birdi found dead in the 1970s, and by subfossil remains on
Rodrigues Island (Mauritius) in the Indian Ocean.
Greater Adjutant Stork Leptoptilos dubius has suf-
fered catastrophic decline everywhere, probably no longer
occurring in Burma or Thailand, not recently recorded from
Vietnam, extinct in Bangladesh, and extremely rare in
India, where the only breeding records (and the only recent
ones anywhere) are from Assam.
Pinkheaded Duck Rhodonessa caryophyllacea is
regarded as extinct. Last sighted at Bihar in June 1935; the
possibility that a small population survives in a remote
region was raised, and dropped, but rumours persist.
Himalayan or Mountain Quail Ophrysia super-
ciliosa. The last specimen was in 1876 and the species is
presumed extinct, yet perhaps survives.
Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica is restricted as a
breeding bird to primary grassland patches. Its non-breed-
ing distribution in India is not primarily known.
Nicobar Pigeon Caloenas rdcobarica Its status is
hard to assess as its habitat is infrequently visited and it is
known to wander amongst groups of islands, but it is known
to have declined markedly in parts of its range.
Rothschild’s Parakeet Psittacula intermedia was
long based on seven skins of uncertain provenance but
recently one or two live specimens, reputed to have come
from the plains of Uttar Pradesh, have appeared each year
in bird markets in India.
Forest O^\o.t Athene blewitti is known from very few
specimens, the last of which was collected in 1914.
Rufousnecked WovribiAAceros nepalensis is probab-
ly extinct in Nepal, reportedly declining in India and
restricted to two forest reserves in southwest Thailand.
Narcondam Hombili Acer os narcondami is an en-
demic resident of Narcondam in the Andaman Islands
where the population is estimated to be about 400 in-
dividuals.
Rustythroated Wren-babbler Speiaeornis badeiqularis
is known only from the type-specimen, taken at 1 ,600 m in the
Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh.
The authors point out in the introductory chapter that
the Red Data Books published earlier received unwelcome
commentary like "the publication of Red Data Books may
be guilty of engendering a degree of complacency" ( Kukila
3 (1988):77). The authors add that there it took considerable
effort to make the analyses as thorough and truthful as pos-
sible given the urgency imposed by limited resources.
Feedback was time-consuming, "so later evaluations had
less time to benefit from written dialogue". The authors
admit that "in some cases the selection and rejection of
species became necessarily speculative, though certainly
never arbitrary ". Finally, the authors stress that "the 1,029
species listed here as threatened are all unquestionably
birds to watch, birds to seek out, survey, monitor and con-
serve".
BHARAT BHUSHAN
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
l.A PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE SURVIVAL STATUS OF HANUMAN LANGUR
C PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS ) IN SOME VILLAGES OF NADIA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL
Introduction Materials and Methods
The Hanuman Langur (. Presbytis entellus) is dis-
tributed from Kashmir to Kerala and from Kathiawar to
Assam. Sixteen subspecies are recognised (Pocock 1931,
Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951 and Napier and Napier
1967), of which fourteen are found in India. From its
habitation in various geographical areas of India, it ap-
pears that P. entellus is the most highly adaptive primate
species among the monkeys of the Cercopithecidae fami-
ly. Vogel (1977) has rightly mentioned that P. entellus
occupies a broader spectrum of habitats than other maca-
ques. The distribution and abundance of P. entellus is not
well investigated in West Bengal. Oppenheimer (1973)
made a study on village dwelling langurs in West Bengal
(Proceedings of the Indian Science Congress Association
(Abstract)). Surveys of villages in Hooghly, Howrah and
Purulia districts of West Bengal during 1972-1973
revealed the presence of P. entellus (Oppenheimer, Akon-
da and Hussain 1983). The distribution of P. entellus is
probably widespread in West Bengal; one of the authors
(A.B.) has observed it in the districts of Murshidabad,
Birbhum, Burdwan, Hooghly, Howrah, Midnapur and 24-
Parganas. We initiated a survey of P entellus in the state
of West Bengal in respect of its distribution and abun-
dance. The present communication is a part of the project
related to the field work in Nadia, a southern district of
West Bengal. Interestingly, we had first taken up this
particular district as one of us (B.R.) is a resident of one
of the villages where the field work was conducted. Ac-
cording to B .R. P. entellus has existed in villages for many
years; his grandfather used to see these animals during his
childhood. He is of the opinion that the number of these
village dwelling P. entellus is gradually decreasing. This
personal observation by B.R. kindled our interest to in-
vestigate the reasons for this gradual decrease in num-
bers..
Our area of field work consisted of four villages,
Gotepara, Nutan Gotepara, Mirzapur and Nakashipara in
the district of Nadia, West Bengal, 140 km. from the city
of Calcutta and 5 km from Bethuadahari railway station
on the Sealdah-Lalgola line. The villages are situated at
88.2° E longitude and 23.80° N latitude. National High-
way 34 passes only 7 km away to the north- east of the vil-
lages. The villages are, surrounded by paddy fields, and
each village has many gardens with mango, banana,
jackfruit, coconut trees etc. Some well-to-do villagers of
Nutan Gotepara and Mirzapur possess very big gardens
with the above- mentioned trees. Moreover, tall trees of
Ficus religiosa and Ficus bengalensis are found in all the
villages.
This communication is based on intensive collec-
tion of field data over 84 hours (approx.) of direct obser-
vation on free living P. entellus in these villages from 9 to
15 June 1987. On an average, 12 hours observation per
day, from 0600 to 1800 hrs.., was made by both of us on
the monkeys once they were located in the villages.
Results and Discussion
The size and composition of the groups identified
by us independently after repeated verification are shown
in Table 1.
The monkeys found in the villages Nutan Gotepara,
Mirzapur and Nakashipara; Gotepara and Nutan Gotepara
were termed as Group A, B and C respectively. Group A,
a unimale bisexual group, consisted of 32 individuals and
was the largest. Group B, a unimale bisexual group, con-
sisted of 1 1 individuals and Group C, an all male group
of 6 individuals. With an alpha male in Group A, all adult
females except one were seen to have infants varying in
age from 10 to 30 days (approx.). Group B, which is
Table 1
SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF GROUPS INHABITING VILLAGES
Group Location Adult Adult Juveniles Infants Total
males females
A Nutan Gotepara, 1 14 4 13 32
Mirzapur and
Nakashipara
B Gotepara 1 7 1 2 11
C Nutan Gotepara 6 - - 6
234
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY ,Vol. 86
smaller than A had an alpha male and only two females
with infants. Interestingly, Group C was an all male group
and the individual members were adult and strong. The
villagers called Group C by the traditional Bengali name
of Sanyasi Pal which means all of them, in a group, were
unmarried males like monks in human society. The diets
as found by direct observation are presented in Table 2.
Table 2
PLANTS AND PLANT PARTS OBSERVED BEING EATEN BY
Presbytis erUellus
Name of plant
Parts eaten
Artocarpus inlegrifolia
Ripe jack fruits
Mangifera indica
Ripe mangoes
Ficus religiosa
New green leaves
Ficus bengalensis
New green leaves
Saccharum cfficinarum
Matured stem of plant
Musa sapient wn
Ripe banana
Corchorus olitarious
New green leaves
Bombax sp.
Flower petals
Trewia nudiflora
Fruits
The daily rhythm of activities of Groups A and B
appears to be moie or less the same (Prater 1 965 and Krish-
nan 1972). Although P. erUellus is quite at home both in
trees and on the ground, our observations are in accord-
ance with Oppenheimer (1973), who found that in Bengal
villages they spend more time in trees. Group C was ob-
served at midday for two and half hours on two succes-
sive days on 13 and 14 June on a very high tree of Ficus
religiosus at N ; nn Gotepara. This group was not found
on any other day in the villages covered by our field study,
thereby indicating that they probably move to other near-
by villages. The movement of individuals of Group A is
restricted to the adjoining villages of Nutan Gotepara,
Mirzapur and Nakashipara whereas individuals of Group
B confine themselves to the village of Gotepara. Thus the
home range of Group C appears to be greater than that of
Groups A and B.
The abundance of food resources in the large gar-
dens having different types of trees (Table 2) may probab-
ly be one of the major reasons why the langur groups
studied chose these villages as their permanent settlement
over a considerable period of time. The villagers report
that with seasonal changes, especially in winter, these
animals change their diet by consuming varieties of
vegetables cultivated in the villages. During the field ob-
servations it was almost confirmed that Group A and
Group B limited their foraging to their respective villages.
Intragroup encounters were not observed during the short
period of field observations.
Besides B.R.’s personal experience mentioned
earlier, the older generation of villagers agreed that the
P. erUellus population had gradually decreased in the area.
In the causes for this decrease the following observations
appear to be relevant. During the 12 hours observation on
an average per day on either Group A or Group B, we
noticed that villagers tried to protect their gardens from
the foraging langurs. On an average the monkeys are
driven away 4 to 5 times in a day from the gardens of vil-
lages Nutan Gotepara, Mirzapur and Nakashipara. The
same is true in the case of Group B. It was noted that when
the monkeys of Group A were disturbed and driven away
from a garden in Nutan Gotepara, they moved to another
garden in the same village. If similarly threatened they
moved to the garden in the adjoining village Mirzapur and
when again driven away they move to the gardens of
Nakashipara. This kind of harassment of the monkeys of
Group A and B prevent them from foraging as noted during
our field work. The villagers do not wish to harm the lan-
gurs due to their sacred place in Hindu mythology, but are
forced to drive them away to protect their valuable gar-
den products such as mango, jackfruit, banana, coconut
etc. from which they earn the major part of their livelihood.
The monkeys occasionally destroy growing jute plants by
eating the green leaves, and naturally the poor farmers
desperately try to save their jute plants from the monkeys.
It was observed that the monkeys of Group B when
similarly threatened move from one garden to another in
the same village, Gotepara, which is comparatively larger
than Nutan Gotepara, Mirzapur and Nakashipara. As men-
tioned earlier, Group B, which is smaller in size than
Group A, has a single large village as its habitat. The vil-
lagers reported to us that P. erUellus at present sometimes
consumes food on moonlit nights. P. entellus is diurnal as
is suggested by the published literature. Feeding by night
is thus a very unusual habit caused probably by the fact
that the animals are disturbed so much by villagers when
foraging that they are compelled to consume food at night.
In all villages the monkeys were seen to eat fruits of Pituli
(Trewia nudiflora). According to the elders of the villages
this fruit has become an item of food in the very recent
past.
The villages under study can be traced back to the
days of the Apostle Sree Krishna Chaitanya of Nabadwip
and therefore the villages near the bank of the old river
bed of the Bhagirati are approximately five hundred years
old. In the past, the present Nadia district was covered with
vast forests. One of the positive evidences for this state-
ment is the 7 sq.km Bethuadahari Reserve Forest, which
is merely 5 km away from the villages of our study. It is
only after independence and the division of Bengal that
the Hindu refugees from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
settled in this district. Nadia is at present a border district
with Bangladesh. Gradually, a substantial portion of the
forests of the district has been converted into settlements
and cultivated by this migrant population. The population
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
235
pressure of the migrants was so acute in the past three or
four decades in the villages of our study that many large
gardens as (for example ‘Roybagh’) have totally vanished
and have been converted into cultivated land in Gotepara.
The gradual deforestation for cultivation and settlement
by man in this region has had a severe impact on the sur-
vival of the langurs. Threat to the survival of monkeys by
direct or indirect interference by man is reported in litera-
ture in the Indian context. Sugiyama and Parthasarathy
(1978) found a significant decrease in langur population
at Dharwar by comparing populations of the years 1961
and 1976. According to them this decrease was in cul-
tivated land (open land) due to increased human impact
Refe
Ellekman, J.R. & Morrisqm-Scqt, T.C.S. (1951): Check-
list of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals, 1758 to 1946. British
Museum, London.
KrishnAN, M. (1972): An ecological survey of the larger
mammals of peninsular India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. (Part I),
68: 503-555.
Napier, J. & Napier, P.H. (1967): A Handbook of Living
Primates. Academic Press, New York.
Qppenheimer, J.R. (1973): Effects of environmental fac-
tors on the activity of village-dwelling langurs (Primates) in West
Bengal. 68the Ind. Sci. Cong. Assoc. (Chandigarh), Abstracts, pp.
12-13.
Oppenkeimer, J.R., Akonda, A.W. & Husain, K.Z.
(1983): Rhesus monkeys: effect of habitat structure, human con-
tact and religious beliefs on population size. In ‘Perspectives in
Primate Biology (P.K. Seth, ed.) Today & Tomorrow’s Printers
and Publishers, New Delhi.
on langurs.
Southwick and Siddiqui (1983) suggested that
deforestation, increased agricultural development and
human population growth were responsible for decline of
rhesus populations in Uttar Pradesh.
We conclude that deforestation for cultivation and
human settlement in this part of Nadia district, along with
direct human interference, has had an adverse impact on
the village dwelling langurs, leading probably to decreas-
ing population.
A.B. DAS -CH AUDHURI
Aprils, 1988. B.N.ROY
,NCES
Pocock, R.I. (1931): The mammal survey of the Eastern
Ghats, reports on the monkeys. J. Bombay nat. . Hist. Soc., 35 (1):
51-59.
Southwick, C.H. & Siddiqui, M.F. (1983): Status and
conservation of rhesus monkeys in India. In ’Perspectives in
Primate Biology’ (P.K. Seth, ed.). Today & Tomorrow’s
Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.
Prater, S.H. (1965): The Book of India Animals. Bom-
bay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Sugiyama, Y. & Parthasarathy, M.D. (1978): Popula-
tion change of the Hanuman langur ( Presbytis entellus ) 1961-
1976, in Dharwar area, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75: 860-
867.
Vogel, C. (1977): Ecology and Sociology of Presbytis en-
tellus In ’Use of non-human Primates in Biomedical Research’
(M.R.N. Prasad and T.C.A., ed.). Indian National Science
Academy, New Delhi.
2. AN INTERESTING WAY OF A TIGER TREATING ITS WOUND
Injuries a tiger tries to heal can be classified into the
following three categories:
(a) Those which can be licked by the tongue,
(b) those which cannot be licked but can be reached
by front paws, and
(c) those where neither tongue nor paw can reach.
Application of saliva through the tongue cleans the
wounds and keeps away flies. This does not permit the
maggots to set in, and the wound gradually dries up. Such
wounds are licked many times in a day and each time the
duration of continuous licking is quite long. Body parts
where the tongue cannot reach are cleaned by licking a
front paw several times, and then wiping the wound with
the paw. The forehead is the region where this method is
applied. Carnivores face real trouble when the injured part
is out of reach of tongue or front paw. The shoulder region
around the spine is one such place.
A friend of mine with a good knowledge of wildlife
has told me that injured tigers sometimes eat soil. On 13
May 1987, while observing the mating behaviour of a pair
of tigers at Kanha National Park, I saw that the male tiger
had an injury above its left shoulder just below the ver-
tebral column. This tiger was seen scratching its wound
with its rear paw. This seemed to aggravate the wound.
For three days male and female were together around the
same spot. On the last day the tiger left the tigress and went
to a waterhole. I followed, and saw the tiger sitting flush
with the ground in a thicket of grass on a nala bed. From
elephant-back it looked as if he was eating something. The
tiger rolled over and got up after some time. A dark
coloured paste was visible on his lips. Since the tiger was
after a tigress in oestrous, I thought that he might have
licked the urine - spray of the tig: css from the ground. The
tiger then took some more water at a second waterhole,
climbed a little bit on open ground, again sat flush with
the ground, and started chewing the soil (clayey-loam).
236
JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 86
This process continued for about a minute. The s( n\ paste able wounds, not by eating soil, but by applying soil on
in the mouth was not put on the floor. Then the tif ;er crept the wound in form of a paste mixed with saliva,
forward, drifted a bit to the side and rolled over tl le ‘sput-
out’ paste of Soil in such a way that the paste was > applied
over the wound. It is likely that tigers treat their unreach- May 10, 1988 A.S. PARIHAR
3. ON A HUNTING PAIR OF SNOW LEOPARDS IN WESTERN NEPAL
Hunting attempts by snow leopard {Panther a imcia )
have been observed by several naturalists (D ang 1967,
Haughton 1913, Schaller 1972, Shah .1986, Stockley 1928
and Ward 1923). Among others, Dang (1967) reported
repeated sightings of pairs of snow leopands hunting and
feeding together. Other observers, however, neither sup-
port nor refute this viewpoint. Recently I observed a pair
of snow leopards hunting together in the Langu valley of
western Nepal.
On 10 May 1987, at 0750 hrs, I was monitoring the
daily activity pattern of a herd of 41 Himalayan tahr
( Hemitragus jemlahicus ) in the Langu valley of western
Nepal. The animals were feeding and moving 1 lorizontal-
ly on a steep (more than 40°) scrub slope at 3 300 m. At
0755 hrs I saw an adult snow leopard slowly c lescending
towards the feeding tahr. When the snow leopard was
about 20 m above the tahrs it started stalking. At 0756, I
saw another adult, but smaller, snow leopard c lescending
through the same route used by the previous on e. For con-
venience I will call the larger snow leopard as leopard A
and the smaller one as leopard B. When the sm aller snow
leopard neared the larger one, it moved to the right and,
without stalking, descended towards the feeding tahr.
When about 10 m, from the uppermost feeding tahr, it
made a sudden rush and chased them straight do wnwards.
Leopard B and the tahr ran about 120 m dowmvards and
once the snow leopard was as close as 3 m to one of the
large adult males. But it could not attack as i t was off
balance. At last the leopard halted on a small rock and
looked upwards. Then leopard A started chasing
downwards the tahr individuals which had mov ed to the
left when leopard B had given chase. The running tahrs
and leopard A passed around the waiting leopard B but
the latter could not attack the tahrs due to their high speed.
Leopard A could not catch the tahr either, andl finally
halted 20 m below leopard B. The entire chase s, A. (1923): Game animals of Kashmir and adjacent
hill province :s. J. Bombay nat. His t. Soc. 28: 334-344.
4. CARACAL ( FEUS CARACAL SOHROBER) SI GHTED IN PANNA FORESTS
I was searching for a man-eater with a search light
on the night of 16 March 1987, in Panna district, Madhya
Pradesh, when the gleam of a pair of eyes attracted my at-
tention. Initially, from a distance, I thought it was a jungle
cat (Felis chaus), which is common in the area. As I went
nearer, the animal stood up and gave me a frontal view;
then it turned to run away, allowing me to observe its tail
as well.
Its colour was sandy brown, with whitish underside;
the ears were large and tapered. I could not see the ear tuft.
The legs were long and the tail hung down almost to the
knee of the rear limbs. The tip of the tail (about 10 cm)
was darker than rest of the tail.
A few years earlier, H.S. Pabla, the then Director of
Panna National Park, was able to procure a skin of cara-
cal ( Felis caracal ) from the same area. There is no doubt
in my mind that the animal I saw was a caracal. Ajit
Sonakia , the then Director, Sanjay National Park, Sidhi,
had also two years earlier seen a caracal near Raisen, while
driving at night from Bhopal to Sagar.
A ccording to Prater (1948, THE book of INDIAN
ANIMAL S), the caracal is common in the north and
north w< :st of Cutch and in the drier pants of Punjab, Rajas-
than, TJi ttar Pradesh and Central India.
O n the basis of this evidence, it can now be said that,
conti nui ing from Rajasthan and Gujarat (Cutch), caracal
are four id upto Bhopal, Raisen, Sagar and Panna districts
of Madl iya Pradesh, and are confined to the Vindhya
mountai] ns in Madhya Pradesh. They have not been seen
in the Sa tpuda range on the southern side of the Narmada
Riv er.
May 10, 1 988. A.S. PARIHAR
5. SOME INTERESTING ASPECTS OF WOLF (CANIl S LUPUS LINN.) BEHAVIOUR
OBSERVED AT GUDA NEAR JODHPL JR (RAJASTHAN)
While on a survey to assess Blackbuck habitats in
Rajasthan we were told about a pack of wolves that in-
habited an area not far from Guda village. The village has
a Bishnoi settlement were the Blackbuck and chink ara
have been protected through local sentiments. The local
forest guards claimed that there were about 13 wolves in
the vicinity.
We sighted a wolf on 9 June 1987 at 0700 hrs near
a small waterbody frequented by Blackbuck. Its approach
was heralded by a scattering of the animals and birds that
were in and around the water. The wolf came out of the
area, which is overgrown with Prosopis juliflora, and
headed for the water. The animal was in good condition
and appheavier than the wolves one of us has observed in
Maharashtra. It loped quickly over about 45 m of open
space looking straight ahead, and had not noticed us sit-
ting motionless on the opposite bank. As it approached to
within 5 m of the water’s edge its gait changed, and in a
slow crouch! fig f ashion it entered the water and sat down.
At this point it either saw us, or heard the click of the
camera shuttei r. Jumping hastily out of the water it headed
back the way it had come, using a small watercourse as
cover.
The sig h ting made us want to leam more about the
wolves. On 1 4 June at 0600 hrs we headed for the area
with the local forest guard, a Bishnoi who was very well
versed with lo cal conditions and wildlife.
We four id 3 lair sites. They all had been dug in more
or less the san te way. Each lair consisted of 2 to 4 tunnels
dug into sand] r mounds around Prosopis bushes. One of
them had certa inly been used very recendy. The openings
appeared smal l when compared to the height of a wolf,
indicating that they enter and leave by crouching or creep-
ing. (This won Id be similar to the way the wolf we ob-
served on the p revious occasion creeping into the water.)
Wolf pugmark: ; of various sizes were seen entering and
238
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 86
leaving the holes. Thus we concluded that a family was
using the lair.
We located fresh pugmarks of a wolf moving
rapidly and followed the tracks around several Prosopis
bushes into a small clearing. Here there were marks of a
scuffle, in which the wolf’s paw marks were intermixed
with the hoofprints of a chinkara. There was very little
blood and no evidence of the kill being eaten on the spot.
The wolf, after making the kill, had dragged it off over
several sand dunes and dry watercourses for about a
kilometer in more or less a str aight line. On either side of
the pugmarks was a single line of hoof marks, indicating
that the wolf was strong enough to lift its prey and carry
it with 2 of its legs off the ground. We came across the dis-
membered head of an adult male chinkara. Only the skull
& horns were left. The dragmarks continued over another
100 m towards a raised area on the bank of a river bed.
Here the wolf was apparently joined by several others, as
indicated by tracks converging from different directions.
The hooves, legbones, and parts of the skin and tail of the
chinkara were all that was left. Every scrap of meat had
been cleaned off the bones.
Another interesting feature we came across was that
there were the remains of at least 5 or 6 (probably more)
old kills in the area. The wolves seemed to have used the
raised river bank frequently as an eating area. The other
kills were remains of a male chinkara, several females or
young male chinkara, and a peacock. Wolf faeces found
in die area also contained what appeared to be hair of hare.
A most unusual find, not far from the eating place,
was a small hole dug in the bed of the dry river. There were
wolf tracks all around it. At the bottom of the hole (which
was not as large as the lair burrows seen earlier), there was
a little water. The guard informed us that the wolves dug
such holes to get water from the river bed. I cannot recall
a reference to any animal apart from elephants digging for
water in dry river beds. The Forest Department personnel
who were with us have promised to look into this, to con-
firm if these are actually dug for water, or for some other
purpose.
The wolves at Guda feed more frequently on the
chinkaras. Adult Blackbuck are probably more difficult to
bring down. However, since wolves in other areas are
known to predate upon fawns of Blackbuck, one cannot
exclude this possibility at Guda. We found no remains of
Blackbuck during this brief visit.
The present population of wolves does not seem to
adversely affect the number of prey animals. Chinkara and
Blackbuck abound in the area, and are as plentiful as in
areas where there are no wolves.
The wolves at Guda prefer the heavily overgrown
Prosopis bush country to the more open areas. This gives
them adequate cover and an opportunity to dig lairs in the
sand dunes.
The sandy soil in the area makes tracking an easy
task, but the heavy bush cover decreases visibility. In all
probability the wolves had spotted us and either moved
off, or holed up, before we could see them again.
ERACH BHARUCHA
KIRAN ASHER
July 3, 1987. RAJEEV JUGTAWA
6. A NOTE ON THE PYGMY SHREW, SUNCUS ETRUSCUS
A Pygmy Shrew, S uncus etruscus , was rescued from
a small tank in an open field at village Narhe, about 1 0 km
from Pune, on 20 November 1987. It was swimming ac-
tively, and on lowering a long stick it immediately climbed
out and was taken to Pune.
It was reared in an empty aquarium, 30 cm x 60 cm
x 30 cm, already provided with a somewhat wet soil bed
and a small tubular tunnel (burrow) about 1.5 cm in
diameter, open at both ends, in one comer. The animal
lived for 15 days in captivity and died, apparently from
cold, on 5 December 1987.
Imediately after death, weight and measurements
were noted as follows:
Sex : Male, Weight : 1.4 g. Head and Body : 4 cm,
Tail : 3.3 cm, Height of the ear pinna : 0.4 cm.
Teeth full grown with transparent enamel revealing
a portion of the pulp. Colour black-brown dorsally,
whitish ash ventrally including tail. Furry coat covering
all the body but tail. Ear pinnae large, moveable, with
many folds and pockets. While on the move or alerted, ear
pinnae are stretched out. Side/musk/flank glands, though
present, were not found to produce the foul smell which
is so pronounced specially in males of the Common House
Shrew S uncus murinus. No sound was uttered by the
shrew even when disturbed or irked by soft whistling or
blowing air.
In captivity it was offered a variety of food: insects,
egg (raw/boiled), dry prawns etc. The shrew preferred in-
sects, mainly cockroaches. Egg was accepted with reluc-
tance, while the dry prawns were totally disregarded.
On becoming aware of the victim, possibly by
smell, ( as revealed by constant vibratile movements of
the snout), the shrew would leave the burrow, walk a lit-
tle distance, then quickly turn back. This was repeated
several times, each foray taking it further from the burrow
than the previous one. Finally it chased the victim, attack-
ing the head first, seized and killed it. The kill was usual-
ly carried into the burrow and then consumed. The Pygmy
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
239
Shrew seems to lack the ability to dig, since termites and
other insects normally found underground were left un-
consumed.
I am grateful to Dr. M.S. Pradhan, Mammologist
7. SIGHT RECORDS OF IBIS
During the latter part of 1986 and early 1987, there
were quite a number of sightings of .birds altogether new
to the checklist for Kerala. There were two records each
for the Black- Stork ( Ciconia nigra ) and White Ibis
(Treskionis aethiopica), and several for the White Stork
( Ciconia ciconia ) and the Openbill Stork ( Anastomus
oscitans ), though the latter two species, of course, are not
really new additions per se.
On 7 January 1987, I came across a solitary Black
Stork at Chamrav attorn, about 2 km upstream River
Bharathapuzha from its river mouth. Among others, many
Ringed Plovers, Lesser Sandplovers, Small Indian Pratin-
coles, Brahminy Kites and a plethora of Pariah Kites were
seen in the neighbourhood of the Black Stork, which was
standing by the edge of a small inundated pool in an other-
wise extensive mudflat of the riverbed.
On 24 February 1987, 1 was told about a new bird
at the boat- landing of the Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary. On
verification, it turned out to be yet another sight record of
the Black Stork. Three Whitenecked Stork (Ciconia epis-
copus) siblings, which had started flying about from their
nest in the neighbouring tree since about a month earlier
were seen to have been feeding side by side with the Black
Stork. The bird was first shown to me by an Amsterdam
tourist, Mr. Jan de Groot and I subsequently had the bird
photographed.
It was at Purathoor, near the Bharathapuzha estuary,
that the White Ibis was seen (20 March 1987). On the ex-
tensive sandbank beside the shallow waters of the wind-
ing river was a large flock of about 1 60 Blackheaded Gulls
(Laras ridibundus ), and standing nearby were the four
white Ibises.
Ferguson (/. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 16: 14) had
reported that he had come across the White Ibis only
during the cold weather at Sasthamcottah in 1904. Since
then there have been further sightings. When I communi-
cated the sighting of the White Ibis to Prof. K.K,
Neelakantan, the ornithologist, he said that he had seen the
bird only once at Palghat in the early 1950s, soon after the
Malampuzha Reservoir was filled for the first time. After
that, he had not seen any except on the other side of the
Zoological Survey of India, Pune, for confirming iden-
tification of the specimen.
July 17, 1988. R.V. RANADE
AND STORKS IN KERALA
Ashambu hills.
A few members of the Calicut Chapter of the Kerala
Natural History Society have been subsequently able to
see the White Ibis after repeated perambulation of the
Bharathapuzha estuary, when they finally spotted a group
of 8 White Ibises on 5 April 1987. They were said to have
been able to even photograph the birds! White Stork, a
very rare vagrant to Kerala* have been repeatedly met
with towards the latter part of 1 986, A solitary White Stork
was caught from a Minister’s residence at Trivandrum
City on 16 September 1986. On the 21st of the same
month 3 specimens were caught from a paddy field near
Neyyattinkara, out of which one was reportedly killed and
consumed by the local villagers, and the rest brought to
the Trivandrum Zoo.
About 27 White Ibises were found in a paddy field
near Iringalakkuda on 16 December 1986 (Pers. comm.,
VJ. Zach. arias) and from the zoo authorities at
Trivandrum, I gathered that they had procured a specimen
of the White Stork from Kesavadasapuram in Trivandrum
City three years earlier, in 1983.
In 1986 and 1987 there had been repeated sightings
of the Openbill Stork, (Anastomus oscitans ) both singly
and in flocks of as many as 38 individuals, from the
Kadalundy estuary and the neighbouring wetland habitats
(Pers. comm., Sri Namasivayan).
On 19 November 1986 the Trivandrum zoo
authorities went and collected a specimen of the Openbill
Stork caught by local villagers in Neyyattinkara Taluk of
Trivandrum District. According to Ferguson (1904, loc.cit
16:15) “The Openbill Stork is very common in Trav en-
core, where huge flocks may be met with on the marshy
borders of all the large tanks and fresh water lakes, shar-
ing the trees for roosting with flocks of darters". Since then
its status seems to have altered considerably. It is found
now only sparsely and in small numbers.
June 3,1987. D. NARAYANAKURUP
1A specimen of the White Stork was observed roosting on a
coconut tree in Suheli Valiyakara, when I made a one-day survey
of this uninhabited a toll of the Lakshadweep Group in 1985.
240
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
8.A POSSIBLE RANGE EXTENSION OF HORSFIELD’S GOSHAWK
ACCIPITER SOLQENSIS IN INDIA
A Horsfield’s Goshawk (Accipiter soloensis) was
sighted by us on 24 March 1987 in Simlipal Tiger Reserve,
Orissa. The bird was seen circling above the thick semi-
evergreen forest near the check-post of the core area near
the Chahala rest house. Three more individuals of the same
species were seen during the next four days in different
parts of the reserve. One of the birds was sighted near the
Chahala rest house on a dead tree and was probably hunt-
ing. Another bird was sighted near upper Barakamara rest
house, flying over a forest clearing. The third was sighted
about 40 km outside the tiger reserve near Jasmipur forest
rest house circling and constantly calling “ti- tui”, quite
like a shikra.
The bird was identified by its smaller- than -shikra
size, white underparts with pinkish tinge on the abdomen,
upper breast and underwing coverts. The underparts were
unbarred. The tip of the primaries were black. The sides
of the head and neck were very pale.
Horsfield’s Goshawk has not so far been recorded
from the Indian mainland. Ali and Ripley (1983)
described its range as “uncertain, common (winter?) on
Katchal Island and Great and Little Nicobar Is. (Abbott
and Boden Kloss). Andaman Is.”
Our sight record is probably the first proof that this
species occurs in mainland India also.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to Prof. Biswamoy Biswas of the
Zoological Survey of India and Mr. H. Abdulali of the
BNHS for going through the manuscript and making use-
ful suggestions
VLB HU PRAKASH
April 29, 1987. ASAD R. RAHMANI
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of Bombay.
India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press,
9. RINGTAILED FISHING EAGLE FEEDING ON WASP LARVAE
On 25 September 1986, in the Keoladeo Ghana Na-
tional Park, Bharatpur, I saw a Ringtailed Fishing Eagle
( Haliaeetus leucoryphus ) sitting on a Prosopis spicigera
tree-top near the aquatic area holding an unidentified ob-
ject in its claws. I moved closer without disturbing the bird
and saw that it was holding part of the nest of a paper wasp
( Polistes hebaeus , Family : Vespidae). It was holding the
nest firmly in its claws and feeding from the chambers.
The Ringtailed Fishing Eagle is known to feed on birds,
reptiles and fishes (Ali and Ripley 1983), and this obser-
vation of feeding on paper wasp larvae seems to be
noteworthy, as it has not been recorded in the past.
This unusual food may have had something to do
with the delayed arrival of migratory waterfowl as well as
the unsuccessful nesting in the heronry in 1986.
November 3, 1986. C. NANJAPPA
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): The Handbook of the Birds Press,
of India and Pakistan (Compact edition). Oxford University
10. RANGE EXTENSION OF EURASIAN GRIFFON VULTURE GYPS FULVUS
The northeastern distributional range of the Ful-
vous or Eurasian Griffon Vulture Gypsfulvus within India
has been given by Ali and Ripley (1978) as “straggling
east to Western Assam. Gauntlet (1985) records it in
Damodar Valley in West Bengal. Grubh (1986) mentions
it as occurring in northeastern India without giving details
of the location of the find.
However, we had an excellent opportunity to see
this bird repeatedly over a period of 2 months from
November to December 1985 in Tezpur (Assam) and
again between 14 and 17 January 1986 in Dibrugarh which
is almost the north-easternmost limit of Assam.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
241
We saw only upto three birds together at any time.
They were all in immature plumage, the ruff being brown,
and were seen in a mixed flock of G. indicus and G. ben-
galensis , actively feeding at cattle carcasses or sitting on
trees near the feeding sites.
PRAKASH RAO
ROBERT B. GRUBH
February 17, 1986. S. MURALIDHARAN
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1978): The Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan (2nd Ed.) Vol. I, pp. 301-310. Oxford
University Press.
Gauntlet, F.M. (1985): The Birds of Durgapur and the
Damodar Valley. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3): 501-539.
Grubh, R. (1986): A Comparative study of Ecology and
Distribution of Indian Whitebacked Vulture ( Gyps bengalensis )
and Longbilled Vulture (G. indicus ) in the Indian Region.
Proceedings of the 19th International Ornithological Congress ,
Symposium 50.
11. OCCURRENCE OF REDBREASTED FALCONET MICROHIERAX CAERULESCENS (LINNE)
IN THE SIMLIPAL TIGER RESERVE, ORISSA
A Redbreasted Falconet Microhierax caerulescens
(Linnaeus) was sighted by us in the Simlipal Tiger Reserve
in Orissa on 25 March 1987 at about 0700 hours. The bird
was seen perched about 12 m high on a dead branch of a
tree near a perennial stream close to the rest house in Upper
Barakamara. The bird was readily identified by its diminu-
tive size, broad white collar on the hind neck and a
prominent black band through the eye.
The Redbreasted Falconet is not recorded earlier
from Orissa. According to Ali and Ripley (1983) the
species is present in the Himalayan foothills and terai from
Kumaon in Uttar Pradesh to Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and
Assam. The westernmost record is from Nainital (79° 26’
E) and the southernmost record from Sultanpur (26° 15’
N). The Simlipal Tiger Reserve is quite south of the known
range of this species.
VLB HU PRAKASH
March 31, 1987 ASAD R. RAHMANI
Reference s
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): The Handbook of the Birds Press, Delhi,
of India and Pakistan. (Compact edition), Oxford University
12. MYSTERIOUS DEATH OF DEMOISELLE CRANES {ANTHROPOIDES VIRGO ) AT VEER DAM
I have been studying the Demoiselle Cranes
( Anthropoides Virgo ) for the last four years at Veer Dam
Lake, situated 65 km from Pune on the Satara Road. Since
1984 the Demoiselle Cranes have been very regular
visitors to this lake. The birds start arriving in small flocks
of a few hundreds from the middle of November and their
number is fairly large by January. They leave by the end
of March. Every year about 2000 cranes settle here; but
this year over 7000 arrived at Veer Dam. This sudden rise
in numbers could be due to drought and drying up of the
lakes in the north and more severe winters in the north.
The banks of the Veer Dam lake slope gradually
towards the water, and are submerged in the rainy season.
As the water level recedes the farmers from the neighbour-
ing village start cultivating crops within the area. The
cranes, on arrival at Veer, feed on the sprouting shoots of
maize, wheat and gram, which are the chief crops of this
area. Later, during February and March, the cranes feed
on seeds of jowar, wheat and gram.
The farmers use different methods in order to
protect their crops from the cranes, such as putting
scarecrows in the field, trying to drive away the flock by
shouting, throwing stones, waving towels and recently by
detonating firecrackers. Sometimes the cranes were shot
at but it was usually by outsiders, as the local people have
no guns. But all these methods of protecting the crops are
possible only during the day; since the cranes also feed in
the fields at night, the damage to crops continues.
The number of cranes this year was large; conse-
quently, so was the extent of crop damage. I was
astonished this year, during my visit on 5 March 1987, to
see ten dead Demoiselle Cranes. It was surprising that the
cranes had not been carried away and eaten by the vil-
lagers. Some cranes were in a half-eaten state, and in a
nearby area I found a dead kite and a dead Marsh Harrier.
I went to the neighbouring village and asked a few
people there as to what could be the cause of death of these
cranes. They said they did not know. However, there
were small boys, around the 12 to 14 years old, who said
that, during the last two days, a few cranes were seen with
froth coming from their beaks, and that the deaths were
due to ingestion of poison.
242
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Among the dead birds there were two male
specimens which were totally intact. It appeared that they
had died not more than a few hours earlier, as their bodies
had not shrunk, nor had they stiffened due to onset of
Rigor mortis.
I got post mortems performed on both birds. One
was an adult, the other a young bird. This proved that the
birds did not die due to age. The birds weighed about 5
kg each. This proved that neither was sick, as sick birds
are usually lighter in weight. The stomachs of both birds
contained surprisingly large amounts (more than 2 litres)
of water. This proved that the birds had become thirsty and
drank a lot of water prior to death. The gizzard and
stomach showed wheat grain and undifferentiated
vegetable matter.
No tests were done to detect any evidence of or-
ganophosphorus in the tissue of these birds.
If the cause of death is accidental or deliberate
poisoning from consumption of poisoned bait or crops
sprayed with organophosphorus, it will be necessary to
take steps to protect the cranes in the coming winter.
I would be interested in getting feedback on this
note, particularly from naturalists who have been study-
ing these cranes in the northern states. I would especially
like to know if they had noticed similar deaths of these
cranes after consuming crops sprayed with insecticides
and whether there are any methods to detect organophos-
phorus in the dead birds.
April 7, 1987. SATTYASHEEL N. NAIK
13. BELLY-SOAKING AND NEST WETTING BEHAVIOUR OF REDWATTLED LAPWING,
VANELLUS INDICUS (BODDAERT)
Belly-soaking is done mainly to transport water to
the nest with eggs or young ones, and has been observed
in the Charadriiformes (Maclean 1975), and I had
evidence (though without personal observation) that
nesting Redwattled Lapwing, Vanellus indie us. regular-
ly wetted their nests from the clay pellets formed by wet-
ting, I never had the chance to actually observe this be-
haviour till this year (1986). On 1 1 April 1986 1 saw a pair
sitting on the banks of a lake and drinking. Suddenly, one
of them started dipping its belly repeatedly into the water,
and then took off. I knew that the bird was nesting nearby
and taking water to the nest, but I could not follow the bird
as it flew out of view. On April 25th I discovered a nest
just on the banks of the lake. This gave me the opportunity
to study the belly- soaking behaviour. On April 28th I posi-
tioned my camera at a vantage point and walked towards
the nest to disturb the incubating bird. The bird quietly
moved away from the nest. I quickly retreated to my posi-
tion and waited for it to return. Soon the bird walked to
the water and started to drink, then soaked its belly 3-4
times before walking back to the nest. I quickly went to
the nest to examine the eggs; they were copiously
drenched with water. The belly-soaking behaviour was not
seen during the early hours of the day when the tempera-
ture was low. During the early hours the incubating bird
was not very anxious to return to the nest in a rush after
the intruder left; while during mid-day, when the tempera-
ture was high, it returned to the nest immediately. If the
intruder stayed longer the bird appeared visibly agitated
and walked towards the nest, pausing and retreating. This
behaviour was repeated with weak vocalization.
On May 10th I saw 3 other birds, which were ob-
viously nesting somewhere nearby, doing belly-soaking
before taking off from the lake. During that time of the
year this lake is the only source of water.
The incubating bird, once relieved by its partner,
goes to the water, drinks several times and starts preening
for a while (15- 30 minutes) and then drinks again
repeatedly. Just before taking off it does the belly-soaking
3-5 times. This observation was made several times on 4
birds.
On May 21st at about 1500 hrs I saw that two eggs
had hatched. The parent birds repeatedly flew towards me
noisily. As soon as I left the area one of them soaked its
belly 3-4 times and went to the nest. I could clearly see
through my binoculars the chicks drinking off the wet
belly feathers of the parent before the pat ent sat to brood
them.
Though belly-soaking has been reported by earlier
observers (Dharmakumarsinhji 1964, Jayakar & Spurway
1965) I think that this is the first time that it has been
photographed.
October 21, 1986. V. SUNDARARAMAN
References
DharamkumarsinhJ!, R.S. (1964): Some observations on tied lapwing, Vanellus rnalabaricus (Boddaert) a tropical dry
the small Indian Pratincole ( Glareola laclea Temmiek) and some season nester. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62 : 1-14.
other wader breeding in Bhavnagar, Gujarat. Pavo 2: 1-11 Maclean, G.L. (1975): Belly-soaking in the Charadril
Jayakar, S.D. & Spurway, H. (1965): The yellow-wat- formes, ibid. 72: 74-82
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
243
14 SWINHOE’S SNIPE GALUNAGO MEGALA: A NEW SPECIES FOR NEPAL
In the early morning of 6 March 1987, a party of
birdwatchers were working an area of damp rice fields be-
tween Biratnagar and Itahari in the lowlands of south-east-
ern Nepal with the intention of finding Pintail Snipe
Gallinago stenura. After finding numerous Common
Snipe G. gallinago we eventually flushed two or three Pin-
tail Snipe and were following them up to try and obtain
views of them on the ground, when a distinctly larger snipe
was silently flushed from relatively dry ground close to
some wet field edge.
At this point a number of snipe, chiefly Common,
but with at least two Pintail, rose and the unusual bird
joined the party which circled over us at a height of some
10 m or more. The flock did a couple of circuits of the im-
mediate vicinity, affording us as good a view as we could
have wished, giving us relatively brief, but quite adequate
comparative views of the three species in the air at the
same time.
It was obvious from the start that the bird could only
be Swinhoe’s Snipe, a species that I had previously en-
countered on numerous occasions whilst on its breeding
grounds in Siberia during five separate visits there.
The birds moved over a small river and dropped into
a more extensive area of wet fields, but we were unable to
follow them as a crossing point could not be found.
Field Description : By comparing the birds in the air
together, although only Common Snipe was actually
alongside the Swinhoe’s, it was apparent from all angles,
i.e. in profile when going around, when directly over head
and when tail-on going away, that it was distinctly larger
and bulkier than the Common Snipe in both the body depth
and width of the wing; the bill was roughly the same length
as that of the Common Snipe and was held almost horizon-
tal, but the plumage, i.e. wing pattern above and below,
was that of a Pintail Snipe. All the Pintail Snipe that we
had flushed looked distinctly smaller and shorter-billed
than the Common Snipe.
The body appeared rather long, although depth of
breast and belly gave it a chunky appearance. Only the
very tips of the toes, at most, projected a little beyond the
tip of the tail — a feature that I have observed in Siberia
with Swinhoe’s. I concentrated on this point as I was look-
ing out for the relatively extensive toe projection of Pin-
tail Snipe, which is considered to be a useful aid (Mar-
chant et al. 1986, Taylor 1980) for identifying Pintail
Snipe, a feature that I had overlooked in my paper con-
cerning the identification of this species (Madge 1977).
Sadly, none of my views in recent years of Pintail Snipe
have been quite at the right angle to see this and on this
occasion I gave up the opportunity to concentrate on the
Swinhoe’s.
Plumage details were admittedly sparse. It had the
typical snipe head pattern, the belly was unmarked and
whitish, similar in extent to that of Common Snipe, and
the breast was dull light brownish. The underwing was
densely and uniformly barred throughout on the coverts,
with no paler central areas visible as on Common Snipe.
Neither the underwing or the upper wing had a trace of
white trailing edge to the secondaries, which was visible
on the Common Snipe in the air with it. The upper wing,
seen as the bird was rising, was dull and light brown, rather
uniform and not as contrastingly marked as in Common
Snipe, with flight feathers not obviously darker. In short,
it looked less striped on the upperparts than Common
Snipe but looked very much like Pintail Snipe in pattern
and coloration both from above and below.
To summarise, the bird had the upper and under-
wing pattern of a Pintail Snipe but was obviously larger
and longer-billed. It was a little larger and bulkier than
Common Snipe, with rather longer and deeper body and
rather broader and slightly blunter primaries, but the bill
was roughly the same length as that of Common Snipe
flying alongside it. It was not as bulky as a Great Snipe
G. media which I have seen on two occasions previously,
and I consider that it was nowhere near large enough to
be a Solitary Snipe G. solitaria, although this is a species
that I have never seen. The toes projected only very slight-
ly beyond tip of the tail but no more so than in Common
Snipe, and not as extensively as is considered to be diag-
nostic of the Pintail. Presumably the toe projection would
have been visible in the good profile views obtained as the
bird circled us, especially as we were looking for this fea-
ture.
Although this is the first record for Nepal, it is not
unexpected, as this species is regular in the eastern part of
the Indian subcontinent in winter. The combination of fea-
tures observed clearly support its identification as
Swinhoe’s Snipe beyond reasonable doubt.
April 2, 1987. S. C. MADGE
References
Madge, S.C. (1977): Field Identification of Pintail Snipe. Beckenham: Croom Helm.
Dr. Birds 70: 146-52. Taylor, P.B. (1980): Field Identification of Pintail Snipe
March ant, J., Prater, A.J. & Hayman, P. (1986): and recent records in Kenya. Dutch Birding 6: 77-90.
Shorebirds: an identification guide to the waders of the world.
244
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
1 5 . ACCUMULATION OF LEAD, ZINC AND CADMIUM IN THE NESTLING FEATHERS OF
HOOPOE UPUPA EPOPS
Introduction
Accumulation of heavy metals in the body due to
metal pollutants in food, water or air has been considered
to be dangerous for the reproduction and survival of birds
(Leonizo et al. 1986).
Due to the growing industrial activity and motor
traffic, the environment is being contaminated by heavy
metals. The input of lead into the environment has in-
creased during the last two decades especially with the
development of lead-containing gasolins, the consump-
tion of storage batteries and the manufacture of lead com-
ponents. The major source of airborne cadmium pollution
are emissions from steel industries, waste incineration,
zinc production and some agricultural practices. Monitor-
ing of atmospheric pollution is of great importance. Bird
feathers and mammalian hair, because they accumulate
various metals from the environment and from food, have
attracted attention for the last decade as indicators of these
pollutants (Doi et al. 1986).
The Hoopoe {Upupa epops) has been declared the
Punjab state bird. I have observed personally that the num-
ber of Hoopoes has decreased in recent times. This study
on lead, zinc and cadmium load in the nestling feathers of
Hoopoes sheds light on one of the possible causes of the
decrease in population.
Material and Methods
Three natural nests of the Hoopoe in the farms of
Raipur Ray an village in Jullundur district, Punjab, were
kept under observation during May 1986. Feathers from
the chicks were taken for analysis when the chicks were
7, 21 and 35 days old. In this way, experiments were
repeated thrice.
The feathers collected were rinsed thoroughly in
distilled water and acetone and dried at 60°C. The feathers
of each bird were weighed separately and wet-ashed in a
mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid with a kjeldahl
apparatus. Approximately 40 ml of nitric acid and exact-
ly 1 ml of sulphuric acid were used for ashing a sample.
The ashed sample solution was diluted with distilled and
deionized water and adjusted to a volume of precisely 50
ml. Lead, zinc and cadmium levels were determined
directly from this sample by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry, and were calculated per gram of
feathers. Students Y test was employed to test the dif-
ferences in levels of these elements in the feathers from
different age groups of hoopoes.
Results and Discussion
The levels of lead, zinc and cadmium in the feathers
from 7, 21, and 35 day old chicks are shown in Table 1.
Concentrations of all three elements were observed to
have increased rapidly and progressively as the chicks
grew older.
Table 1
LEAD, ZINC AND CADMIUM IN THE NESTLING PLUMAGE OF
HOOPOE
Age of
Nestling
(days)
ppm/g feathers*
Lead Zinc
Cadmium
7
300.00*± 50
200.00 ± 20
100.00 ±20
21
1500.00 ± 100s*
600.00 ± 1003
400.00 ± 100*
35
Microphyla ornala
Naglavi
3.
Micrixalus opisthorhodus
Dharwad
4.
Micrixalus saxicola
Dharwad
5.
Uperodon systoma
Dharwad
6.
Rana tigerina
Widespread
7.
Rana leptodactyla
Dharwad
8.
Rana temporalis
Dharwad
9.
Rana Umnocharis *
Dharwad
10.
Tomopterna breviceps *
Dharwad
11.
Rana malabarica *
Yellapur
12.
Rana keralensis
Dandeli
13.
Philautus sp-*
Castlerock
14.
Rana cyanophlyctis
Widespread
II. List of frogs and toads studied during
1956-1959 (Lucy Lobo)
Host
Locality
1.
Bufo melanosticlus
Widespread
2.
Bufo beddomii
Castlerock
3.
Microhyla ornala *
Anmode
4.
Tomopterna breviceps *
Londa
5.
Rana keralensis
Dharwad
6.
Rana curtipes
Anmode
7.
Rana cyanophlyctis
Dharwad
8.
Rana Umnocharis
Dandeli
9.
Tomopterna rufescens
Castlerock
10
Rana malabarica
Londa
11.
Rana tigerina
Widespread
12
Philautus sp.
Castlerock
13.
Rhacophorus sp.
Castlerock
14.
Philautus sp.
Anmode
15.
Kaloula pulchra
Londa
* indicates presence of binucleated opalinid genera Protoopalina
and Zelleriella on the frog host.
For example, the occurrence of protoopalina group
H of Metcalf in both Discoglossid and Pelobatid toads sug-
gests their origin and spread as being somewhat parallel.
Both of them evolved in India (Himalayan highlands) at a
time when Australia had separated from Asia. The point
of interest is that the Discoglossid protoopalina group II
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
257
of Metcalf are still found in South India (Uttangi 1951
and 1961) although the Discoglossids themselves are
gone. The Discoglossids have not been in contact with
Zelleriella. The adoption of protoopalina (II) by the south
Indian frogs ( Microhyla and Tomopterna) from Dis-
coglossids through the Western Mediterranean land strips
is quite probable.
It is unfortunate that none of the Indian species
belonging to Pelobatidae have been examined so far for
their opalinas. If such examinations were done, the data
could well provide clinching evidence in support of their
dispersal and adoption of commensals in southern India,
which was once part of Lemuria. The most archaic
families of Anura bear the most archaic opalina. Each
Refer
Metcalf, M.M. (1940): Further studies on the opalinid
ciliate unfusorians and their hosts Proc. Un. St. Nat. Museum Vol.
87, No. 3077.
Uttangi, J.C. (1951): On some ciliate parasites of Frogs
and Toads of Karnataka, Bombay Presidency. Rec. of the Indian
Museum . Vol. XUX Part 2, pp. 139-156.
(1961): Some more Binucleated opalinid
29. OCCURRENCE OF ANTHIAS TAENIATUS
(With two t
new family group in the course of its evolution adopts
through tadpoles opalinas of its ancestors. From the
phylogeny of the opalina can thus be deduced the
phylogeny of the frog host that carries the opalina with it.
Further studies in this direction may provide significant
data in the reconstruction of the phylogeny of an animal
group that holds the status as the first land vertebrates.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Mr. J.C. Daniel of the BNHS, who,
in response to my letter on the subject, suggested prepar-
ing this note.
November 17, 1987. J.C. UTTANGI
ENCES
ciliates (Protozoa) from Indian Frogs. J. Bom. University Vol.
XXIX Parts 3 & 5, pp. 110-133.
Lobo, L. (1959): M.Sc. (Thesis) ciliate parasites of west
coast cf India (K. University).
Inger, R.F. & Dutta, S.K. (1987): An overview of the
Amphibian Fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 83
(Centenary supplement) pp. 135-146.
(PISCES :S ERR ANIDA.E) IN INDIAN WATERS
With improvements in traditional boats and equip-
ment, and with the introduction of modem methods of
fishing (especially trawling), many hitherto unrecorded
species and quite a few new species are being periodically
recorded from Indian waters. Katayama (1978), in record-
ing the species PseudarUhias taeniatus (Klunzinger) from
Hachizo Island and the coast of Izu, Japan, gave a full
description of the species.
In the course of taxonomic study on seiramd fishes,
I came across two specimens of Anihias from Vishakapat-
nam (17°44’ N, 83° 23’ E) which agree with Anihias
taeniatus Klunzinger of Heemstra (1973), and with the
description and the illustration of P. taeniatus of
Katayama (1978).
Only two specimens were found in the trawl catches
of Vishakapatnam in the month of April 1986. The two
specimens differ in the length of the second pelvic fin ray.
Descriptions, body measurements and meristic data are
given in Table 1 to allow comparison with specimens
described from other localities.
Description: A rather small, compressed Anthias
fish, dorsal profile slightly more convex than ventral, max-
imum depth at dorsal origin. Mouth oblique, lower jaw
anterior to upper, maxillary width equal to less than inter-
orbital width, reaching to below posterior border of eye.
Eye in middle of anterior half of head; interorbital slight-
ly convex, less than eye diameter. One slightly enlarged
caniniform tooth on each side of symphysis of either jaw;
lower jaw with patches of small canines extending inward-
ly from each of these enlarged canines and running
posteriorly in a narrow band on the dentaries. Another
large, retrorse canine at the middle of each dentary. Upper
jaw with an inner band of very small, depressible canine
teeth and an outer row of larger, fixed canines. A pointed
large canine exposed anteriorly on each side of upper jaw
and visible externally when the mouth is closed. Medial
to these two large outer canines is another pair of equally
large, inner teeth which are directed posteriorly, pointing
towards the vomers; there is a wide space between these
two large inner canines, an arrowhead-shaped band of
teeth on vomers; narrow band of teeth on palatines;
patches of minute teeth on pharyngeals. Preopercle with a
serrated vertical edge, two serrae along angle slightly
larger. Opercle with tliree spines, middle one acute and
closer to lower one. Head covered with ctenoid scales;
maxilla covered with scales.
Dorsal origin slightly anterior to that of pectorals,
whose origin is in front of that of pelvics; dorsal spines in-
creasing in length posteriorly; eighth, ninth and tenth
spines equal and longest. Fins naked, small scales at base
258
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
of soft dorsal and anal. Pectorals long. In female specimen,
pelvics reach the base of posterior end of anal base; in male
specimen it reaches the third anal spine. Third anal spine
longer and thinner than the second. Tip of soft dorsal and
soft anal fins acute, caudal emerginate, lobes produced.
Colour dark pink; sexual dimorphism and sexual
dichromatism observed in the present specimen as
described by Katayama (1978).
Jones & Kumaran (1980) recorded Anthias cichlops
from the Laccadive Islands. Smith (1961) synonymized
A. cichlops with A. taeniatus. This is the first report from
the continental shelf of mainland India.
I wish to express my thanks to the University Grants
Commission, New Delhi, for financial help. I thank Prof.
K.V.R. Murthy, Head of the Department of Marine Living
Resources, Andhra University, for providing facilities.
Fig. 1. Anthias taeniatus Male, 73 mm SL.
Fig. 2. Anthias taeniatus Female, 69 mm SL. '
Jones, S. & Kumaran, M. (1980): Fishes of the Laccadive
Archipelago. Nature Conservation and Aquatic Sciences Service,
Trivandrum, 760 pp.
Katayama, M. (1978): The Anthine fish, Pseudanthias
taeniatus, from Hachizo Island and the coast of Izu, Japan.
Table 1
MORPHOMETRIC AND MERISTIC CHARACTERS OF
Anthias taeniatus FROM VISHAKAPATNAM
Male
Female
Standard length (mm)
69
73
As percentage of standard length:
Total length
150.7
146.6
Body depth
31.9
34.3
Head length
34.8
34.3
Predorsal distance
31.9
30.1
Prepectoral distance
31.9
32.1
Prepelvic distance
36.2
34.3
Preanal distance
65.2
58.9
Dorsal base
65.2
61.6
Anal base
20.3
19.2
First dorsal spine height
5.8
6.8
Posteriormost spine of dorsal height
10.1
12.3
Soft dorsal height
20.3
24.7
Pectoral length
30.4
28.8
Pelvic length
36.2
49.3
Anal height
29.0
32.9
As percentage of head length:
Head depth
58.3
72.0
Head width
45.8
44.0
Preorbital
16.7
16.0
Postorbital
50.0
52.0
Upper jaw
41.7
40.0
Lower jaw
39.6
40.0
Eye diameter
25.0
24.0
Interorbital
20.8
24.0
Snout length
20.8
22.0
Maxillary width
20.8
20.0
Meristic characters:
Dorsal
X, 17
X, 17
Anal
m,7
m,7
Pectoral
19
19
Gillrakers 11+1+25=37
11+1+25=37
Lateral line scales
48
46
l.t r. 4+1+20
5+1+20
September 14, 1988. K. SUJATHA
NCES
Japanese J. Ichthyol. 25(3): 216-218.
Smith, J.L.B. (1961):Fishes of the family Anthiidae from
the Western Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Ichthy. Bull., 21: 359
- 369.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
259
30.EATING OF MALES BY FEMALE HIERODULA MEMBRANACEA BURMEISTER
(DICTYOPTERA: MANTIDAE)
Female praying mantids are known to bite off the
head of the male while mating, or even progressively eat
the mating male from head backwards, completely
devouring it after mating. Some workers maintain that this
behaviour is found only among undernourished females
in the laboratory, but not in nature. Others tend to believe
that the male is eaten because the female is unable to dis-
tinguish between the male (which is usually smaller than
she is) and a prey species. Because cannibalism of such
aggressive nature, unrelated to crowding, seems detrimen-
tal to species survival, reports of its occurrence are
generally disbelieved. From the following observations it
appears that the male-eating habit, rather than being
detrimental, might be an aid to the survival of the species.
A field-collected nymph of H. membranacea was
released into a laboratory cage and provided with a more
than adequate supply of live butterflies, moths, grasshop-
pers, dragonflies and other insects. This feeding continued
up to one week after it moulted into a female. A field-col-
lected male, similarly fed in the laboratory in a separate
cage, was then released into the cage of the female. The
male settled down about 5 cm ahead of the female, facing
the same direction. Both remained totally motionless for
about 3 minutes, the female concentrating its attention on
the male throughout. Then, suddenly, the female shot its
raptorial forelegs forwards towards the male. The male, as
if waiting for this move, half flew, half jumped onto the
back of the female, and landed on it facing the opposite
direction. It then slowly turned 180°, coming to rest after
gaining a firm hold, especially on the leading edge of the
female’s wings, with its forelegs. The pair remained in this
position for two days without making any positive attempt
to mate, at least not while under observation, which lasted
most of the day. Attempts to dislodge the male were un-
successful. On the third day, when the cage was examined,
only wings and bits and pieces of the limbs of the male
remained, the rest having been devoured by the female. A
week later the female laid eggs in a large ootheca, from
which nymphs emerged a month later, confirming that
mating had occurred before the male was eaten.
It could not be ascertained whether the head was bit-
ten off before the male was eaten. If it had been, mating
could have been hastened. The copulatory movement in
the male is controlled by the last abdominal ganglion, over
which the brain has inhibitory control. The removal of the
brain by cutting off of the head can hasten copulation
(Imms 1963). In fact, this method is employed by medi-
cal entomologists to induce mating in some anopheline
mosquitoes in the laboratory; these otherwise do not readi-
ly mate under artificial conditions.
The deliberate nature of premating behaviour of
both male and female H. membranacea in the cage shows
that they could recognise each other as members of the
same species. I have on another occasion noticed in the
field an adult female Gongylus gongylodes (Linnaeus)
(Empusidae) not attempting to grab a wasp even when the
latter hovered close to it, well within striking distance.
Slow-motion cinematographic studies of mantids attack-
ing other mantids in defence of territory have shown that
the striking mantid omits a dangerous part of the strike
movement when confronted by a member of its own
species. Mantids are also known to learn not to attack ob-
jects which are electrically connected to give a shock.
(Mathews and Mathews 1978). Mantids, therefore, do
have the ability to distinguish between their prey and
members of their own species, and also between prey and
other dangerous species of insects.
Even though the female H. membranacea was
provided with an abundance of food, it resorted to can-
nibalism after mating. There could be a logical explana-
tion for this. Since mantids have to lie in wait for their prey,
there is an element of uncertainty as to when their next
meal would come. Prolonged starvation by a mated female
could prevent it from laying a full quota of well developed
eggs. Eating the male therefore ensures an adequate
supply of nourishment to the female for production of
healthy offspring. In any case, leaving a beheaded male to
die would be a waste. In the final analysis, therefore, the
male- eating habit of the female mantid appears to support
survival instead of being detrimental to it.
I thank Dr. R. Sambasiva Rao, Head of the Depart-
ment of Microbiology, JIPMER, for facilities and Dr. J.
Marshall of CAB International Institute of Entomology,
London, for identifying the specimen.
September 24, 1987. E. NARAYANAN
References
Imms, A.D. (1963): A General Textbook of Entomology. Mathews, R.W. & Mathews, J.R. (1978): Insect Be-
Asia Publishing House, Bombay. haviour. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
260
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
31. REDESCRIPTION OF THE WHITEFLY ALEYRODES SHIZUOKENSIS KUWANA
(ALEYRODIDAE ; HOMOPTERA)
(With three text-figures )
Two slides labelled Aleyrodes shizuokensis
Kuwana, collected during April 1929 from Oxalis cor-
niculata , were obtained from the Aleyrodid collections of
the Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi, and studied in detail. As the earlier
descriptions of the species by Kuwana (1911), Singh
(1931) and Rao (1958) are inadequate, the species has
been redescribed and illustrated, depicting the dorsal and
ventral surfaces of the pupal case.
Aleyrodes shizuokensis Kuwana (Figs. 1-3)
Pupal case: Big, oval, 1.105 mm long and 0.798
mm wide; broadest across second abdominal segment
area.
Margin: Finely crenate, 18 crenations in 0.1 mm,
anterior and posterior marginal setae evident, measuring
15 and 32.5 microns long, respectively. Thoracic and
caudal tracheal pore regions not differentiated from mar-
gin.
Dorsal surface: Submarginal ridges evident, sub-
dorsal region with wax-secreting structures. Cephalic and
first abdominal setae, 12.5 microns long and eighth ab-
dominal setae 22.5 microns long. Caudal setae arising
from submargin 52.5 microns long. Longitudinal and
transverse moulting sutures thin, not reaching margin.
Aleyrodes shizuokensis Kuwana.
Fig. 1. Pupal case; 2. Margin; 3. Vasiform orifice.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
261
Thoracic and abdominal segment sutures faintly repre-
sented. Seventh abdominal segment suture reduced to
pockets. Abdominal segments 6, 7 and 8 almost of the
same length, 42.5-45 microns long.
Vasiform orifice cordate shaped, 65 microns long
and 60 microns wide; operculum subrectangular shaped,
wider than long, 27.5 microns long and 45 microns wide,
lingula tip exposed, 15 microns long, extruded out of oper-
culum.
Ventral surface: Paired ventral abdominal setae 15
microns long and 55 microns apart, legs visible. Antenna
not reaching beyond pro thoracic legs, 80 microns long.
Anterior and posterior abdominal spiracles, mouth parts
and caudal tracheal fold discernible.
Material examined: Pupal cases mounted on two
slides labelled “ Aleyrodcs schizuokensis Kuwana on
Oxalis sp., 4.4.1929, K.S.L., R/7467; Aleyrodes
chizuokensis Kuwana on Oxalis sp., 4.4.1929, K.S.L.,
R/7469".
Hosts: Oxalis corniculata (Kuwana 1911, Singh
1931); Oxalis sp. (Takahashi 1958); Phyllanthus
distinctus (Rao 1958); Sonchus oleracea (Takahashi
1935).
Distribution: Pusa (Bihar) (Singh 1931);
Hyderabad (Rao 1958); Japan (Kuwana 1911); Hawaii,
Taiwan (Takahashi 1951).
Acknowledgements
We thank the Head, Division of Entomology, and
Dr. (Miss) Swaraj Ghai. Systematic Entomologist, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, for the loan
of the Aleyrodid specimens and thank the ICAR for finan-
cial assistance.
B.V. DAVID
October 7, 1987. R.W. A. JESUDASAN
References
Kuwana, S.I. (1911): New species from Japan. Pomona J.
Ent., 3 (4): 620-627.
Rao, A.S. (1958): Notes on Indian Aleyrodidae with spe-
cial reference to Hyderabad. Proc. 10th int. Congr. Ent. (1956)
1: 331-336.
Singh, K. (1931): A contribution towards our knowledge
of the Aleyrodidae (whiteflies of India). Mem. Dept. Agric. India,
Ent. Ser., 12: 1-98.
Takahashi, R. (1935): Notes on the Aleyrodidae of Japan
(Homoptera) III (with Formosan species). Kontyu 9: 279-283.
(1951): Some species of Aleyrodidae (Homop-
tera) from Japan. Misc. Rep. Res. Inst. nat. Resour. Tokyo 19-21:
19- 25.
— (1958): Aleyrodes, Tuberaleyrodes and
Dialeurodes from Japan. Mushi 31: 63-68.
32. REDESCRIPTION OF TWO WHITEFLY SPECIES (ALEYRODIDAE: HOMOPTERA)
FROM BURMA
(With six text-figures)
Two slides of aleyrodids labelled Pealius kaiawi
Singh and Setaleyrodes takahashia Singh, collected by
Singh in 1933 respectively from Lauras sp. and Streblus
asper at Kalaw (Burma) were obtained from the collec-
tions of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, and
studied. These two species are illustrated and redescribed
in this paper as the earlier descriptions by Singh (1933)
are inadequate.
Pealius kaiawi Singh, 1933 (Figs. 1-3)
Pupal case: Elliptical, 0.612-0.857 mm long and
0.428-0.627 mm wide.
Margin: Regularly crenuiate, 18-19 crenulations in
0.1 mm; thoracic and caudal tracheal pore regions not dif-
ferentiated from margin.
Dorsal surface: Paired cephalic setae, minute, 7.9
microns long, paired eighth abdominal setae of the same
length and paired caudal setae 80 microns long. 12 pairs
of submarginal setae, 6 in the ccphalothorax and 6 in the
abdomen, 40-58.75 microns long. Submargin and subdor-
sum with sparsely distributed pores. Lateral depressions
present in the median area of abdominal segments, a pah-
each on transverse moulting suture, first to sixth ab-
dominal segment sutures and meso- and metathoracic su-
tures. Abdominal segment sutures distinct, except for first
abdominal segment suture. Second abdominal segment
suture more prominent than the other abdominal segment
sutures. Seventh abdominal segment suture runs
downwards and is reduced to pockets. Longitudinal and
transverse moulting sutures reaching margin.
Ccphalothorax 380 microns and abdomen 460 microns
long. Pores and granules evident on the submargin and
subdorsal regions. First abdominal segment longest, 57.5
microns, succeeded by eighth abdominal segment 50
microns long, third and fourth abdominal segments 48.75
microns long. Abdominal segment three of the same
length. Abdominal segments five, six and seven measur-
ing respectively 45, 42.4 and 7.5 microns long.
Vasiform orifice rectangular shaped, wider than
262
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
o.oi
Pealius kalawi Singh Setaleyrodes takahashia Singh
Fig. 1. Pupal case; 2. Margin; 3. Vasiform orifice. Fig- 4- Pupal case; 5. Margin; 6. Vasiform orifice.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
263
long, 27.5 microns long and 42.5 microns wide. Oper-
culum similarly shaped, 17.5 microns long and 25 microns
wide. Lingula ‘D’ shaped, extending beyond vasiform
orifice, setose. Caudal furrow tassellated, broad at base of
vasiform orifice which gets narrowed at posterior end,
88.75 microns long.
Ventral surface: Legs distinct, antennae nearly
reaching base of prothoracic legs, paired ventral ab-
dominal setae 17.5 microns long and 37.5 microns apart.
Spiracles and mouth parts contiguous.
Host: Lauras sp. (Singh 1933)
Material examined: 2 pupal cases on slide labelled
‘ Pealius kalawi Singh, on Laurus sp., Burma, K. Singh,
4598/H7’.
Setaleyrodes takahashia Singh, 1933 (Figs. 4-6)
Pupal case: White, elongate, measuring 0.800 mm
long and 0.200 mm wide.
Margin: Irregularly crenate with 8-9 crenations in
0.1 mm; anterior and posterior marginal setae not discern-
ible; thoracic pores, combs and teeth absent.
Dorsal surface: Submargin with seven pairs of setae
arising on tubercles — 3 in the cephalic region, 3 in the
caudal region and a pair laterad of fourth abdominal seg-
ment 92.5 - 120 microns long. Submargin and subdorsum
with intense granulations. Median tubercles evident on ab-
dominal segments 1-5. Pro-meso and meso-meta
thoracic sutures distinct. Abdominal segments with
rhachis. Dorsal setae not discernible. Longitudinal and
transverse moulting sutures reaching margin. Sixth,
seventh and eighth abdominal segments respectively 55,
35 and 10 microns long.
Vasiform orifice subquadrate shaped, longer than
wide, 50 microns long and 40 microns wide; operculum
similarly shaped, as long as wide, 25 microns long; lin-
gula setose and protruding beyond operculum. Caudal fur-
row 62.5 microns long with characteristic hexagonal
granules.
Ventral surface: Thoracic and caudal tracheal folds
absent; paired ventral abdominal setae on sixth abdominal
segment region, 22.5 microns long and 32.5 microns apart.
Antennae not discernible. Mouth parts and legs distinct.
Host: Streblus asper (Singh 1933)
Material examined: 1 pupal case on slide labelled
'Setaleyrodes takahashia on Streblus asper, 12.7.1930, K.
Singh, 4595/H7’
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, for loan of the aleyrodid specimens and to the
Indian Council for Agricultural Research for financial as-
sistance.
B.V. DAVID
October 8, 1987. R.W. A. JESUDASAN
References
Singh, Karam (1933): On four new Rhynchota of the family Aleyrodidae from Burma. Rec. Indian Mus. 35: 343-346.
33. A STUDY OF SOME LITTLE KNOWN CHALCID WASPS
(HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA)
(With six text-figures)
The species Brachymeria madagascariensis (Chal-
cididae) was originally described by Kieffcr (1904) as the
type- species of a new genus Holochalcis described by
him. One of us (T.C.N.) examined the homotype of this
species (obtained from the Museum National d’Histoire
Naturelle, Paris) and found that the genus Holochalcis
Kieffer is synonymous with the genus Brachymeria
Westwood (Narendran 1987). Since the available descrip-
tion of Brachymeria madagascariensis (Kieffer) is quite
inadequate for the recognition of the species, a redescrip-
tion is provided here.
Until recently, Philomidinae was placed under
Perilampidae. Boucek (1978) stated that ‘Philomidinae
seem to be placed best as a subfamily of Eucharitidae’.
Narendran (1985, 1986) therefore placed the
Philomidinae under Eucharitididae. Since Ayyar (1925)
recorded an undetermined species of Philomides Haliday
from India, no further report has been made of the genus
from the Indian subcontinent. In this paper we record for
the first time the species Philomides paphius Haliday from
the Indian subcontinent (from Bangalore). Since the ear-
lier descriptions of this species are not sufficient for easy
identification, a redescription of the species is provided.
The four little known genera of the family Chal-
cididae, namely Tainaniella Masi, Aspirhina Kirby,
Xyphorachidia Steffan and Trichoxenia Kirby share many
common features and therefore look very similar, espe-
cially in having the apex of the scutellum prolonged
posteriorly into a single stout structure. Students of Chal-
cididae who have not seen these genera may find difficul-
ty in separating these genera with the help of already
published information, which does not give any substan-
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
6
Brachymeria madagascariensis (Kieffer) Female.
Fig. 1. Head; 2. Scutellum; 3. Hind leg and gaster.
Philomides paphius Haliday Female.
Fig. 4. Head; 5. Antenna; 6. Forewing.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
265
tial points for separating these similar-looking genera.
Hence a comprehensive key for separating these four
genera is provided here. This key is based on a study of
primary types or homo types by one of us (T.C.N.) during
his period of study at the U.S. National Museum,
Washington D.C., and at the British Museum (Natural His-
tory), London. The genus Tainaniella was described by
Masi (1929) based on a species Tainaniella subulifera
Masi collected by C.F. Baker from the Philippines. The
genus Aspirhina was established by Kirby (1883) with the
type species Halticella dubitator Walker from Santarem,
South America (Walker 1862). Kirby (1883) also
described Trichoxenia based on the type-species Halticel-
la cineraria Walker from South Australia (Walker 1871).
Steffan (1951) described Xyphorachidia based on
Xyphorachidia dentata Steffan from West Africa.
Brachymeria (Brachymeria) *madagascariensis
(Kieffer) (Figs. 1-3)
Female: Length 5 mm. Black, with the following
parts otherwise : Pedicel, scape, gaster, apices of hind
coxae, hind femora (except apex) reddish brown. Hind
tibia brownish yellow at apex and a faint yellow spot sub-
fa as ally; hind tarsi immaculate yellow; fore and mid
femora yellowish brown with extreme apex of femora yel-
low; fore and mid coxae yellowish brown; bases and
apices of mid tibiae yellow with middle part yellowish
brown. Tegulae pape yellow; eyes greyish; wings hyaline.
Head: Preorbital and postorbital carinae absent;
scrobe hardly reaching front ocellus; scape never reach-
ing front ocellus, distinctly away from front ocellus.
Thorax: Pits on scutellum, axillae, scapulae widely
separated with interstices mostly smooth on scutellum,
with microsculptures on axillae, scapulae, mesoscutum
and pronotum. No coxal or inner basal femoral tooth
present.
Gaster: With close microsculptures on first tergite
on dorsal side. Ovipositor sheath not visible from dorsal
side.
Homotype Female, MADAGASCAR: Inerina;
Coll. P. Cassaboue and G. Grandi dier, 1902; Depository :
Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Philomides paphius Haliday (Figs. 4 - 6)
Female: Length 7.9 mm. Ochraceous yellow, with
the following parts otherwise: a patch near and in between
ocelli black; eyes black; small black patch on each side of
mesoscutum, a small black patch on middle of mesos-
cutum; a black patch on base of scutellum; apex of scutel-
lum black; black patches on ventral middle regions and
dorsal middle regions of gaster; scrobe with median black
colour. Pubescence golden yellow.
Head: Distinctly wider than thorax; relative
measurements of OOL : POL = 72 : 56; frontogenal sul-
cus distinct but not carinate; frons convex on anterior dor-
sal part; antennal scape not reaching front ocellus; anten-
na short and very much thickened.
Thorax: Extremely wide and convex, pronotum not
visible from above; mesonotum with parallel notaulices;
scutellum projecting posteriorly; punctures close and in-
terstices smooth on mesoscutum and carinate on scutel-
lum. Forewing with a slight brown infuscation near apical
region; relative measurements of veins : PM : M = 20 : 50;
stigmal 18. Hind femora a little more than five times its
maximum width, sparsely pitted, interstices smooth, pits
rather deep.
Gaster: Distinctly shorter than thorax (1 10 : 75), first
three tergites smooth, rest with microsculptures,
ovipositor sheath and epipygium not visible from dorsal
side.
Pleasiotype Female ; INDIA: Karnataka, Ban-
galore; 20 June 1976, coll. Unknown. Depository :
Department of Zoology, University of Calicut.
KEY FOR SEPARATING FOUR GENERA OF CIIALCIDIDAE
1 . Hind tibia with an extra external carina 2
Hind tibia without extra external carina 3
2. First gasteral tergite with several longitudinal carinae
Aspirhina Kirby
First gasteral tergite without carinae; much larger species
Trichoxenia Kirby
3. Hind femur with three lobes on outer ventral margin, preorbi-
tal carinae projecting characteristically in profile, basal gasteral
tergite with scattered microsculptures on dorsal
side. Xyphorachidia Steffan
Hind femur bilobed or at the most unilobed; never trilobed; preor-
bital carinae not as above; basal tergite smooth and
shiny Tainaniella Masi
Remarks: There are a few other species under dif-
ferent genera of this family (Chalcididae) which also have
projecting scutellum, but these are relatively much shorter
than those of the four genera mentioned above. Apart from
this, these few species such as Paraspirhina nitida
Cameron, Oxycoryphe edax (Waterston), Antrocephalus
lugubris Masi and Belaspidia obscura Masi do not
resemble the four above- mentioned four genera at all.
Acknowledgements
One of the authors (T.C.N.) is grateful to Dr. J. R.
Steffan of Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris,
for sending the homotype of Holochalcis madagascarien-
sis Kieffer for study. We thank the authorities of the
266
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
University of Calicut for providing research facilities.
T.C. NARENDRAN
THRESIAMMA VARGHEESE
February 2, 1988. TITUS T. JACOB
References
Ayyar, T.V.R. (1925): A checklist of Indoceylonese chal-
cid flies (Chalcidoidea). Spolia Zeylanica 13: 235-254.
Boucek, Z. (1978): A generic key to Perilampinae
(Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea), with a revision of Krombeinius n.
gen. and Euperilampas Walker. Eni. Scand. 9:299-307.
Kieffer, JJ. (1904): Neue Eucharinae und Chalcidinae.
Berl. Entom. Zeitsch. Band 49:240-265.
Kirby, W.F. (1883): On the genera of the subfamily Chal-
cidinae, with synonymic notes and descriptions of new species of
Leucospidmae and Chalcidinae. JLinn. Sco. (Zool) 17: 53- 78.
Masi, L. (1929): Contributo alia conoscenza dei Calcididi
Orientali della sottofamiglia Chalcidinae. Boll. Lab. Eni. Bolog-
na 2: 155-188.
Narendran, T.C. (1985): Family Eucharitidae. Oriental
Ins. 19: 186-187.
(1986): Family Eucharitidae. Oriental Ins. 20:
51-55.
- — (1987): Additions and corrections to the
catalogue of Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) of India and adjacent
countries. Oriental Ins. 21: 438-439.
Walker, F. (1862): Notes on Chalciditcs and characters
of undescribed species. Trans. Ent. Soc. London. 1: 345 - 397.
(1871): Notes on Chalcidae HI. Torymidae and
Chalddidae: 20 - 49.
34. MATING BEHAVIOUR OF LAND LEECHESIN WESTERN GHATS (SOUTH INDIA)
(With a text-figure)
Information on the mating behaviour of land leeches
is meagre except for the observations of Leslie (1951) and
Harrison (1953). Intensive investigations on land leeches
of the Western Ghats from 1967 to 1972, both in the field
as well as in the laboratory, revealed some interesting
aspects on the courting and mating behaviour of
Haemadipsa zeylanica zeylanica Moore, Haemadipsa
zeylanica cochiniana Moore and Haemadipsa montana
Moore. A clear-cut variation from the basic pattern of
mating behaviour as described by Harrison (1953) in
Haemadipsa zeylanica was observed in Haemadipsa
montana in 13 different localities of the Western Ghats,
from Asambugiri hills in the southern region to Mercara
in the northern region.
The basic pattern of embracing, called the ‘Hol-
lywood style’ (Harrison 1953), was observed to be
restricted only to Haemadipsa zeylanica zeylanica and
Haemadipsa zeylanica cochiniana in the Western Ghats.
On the other hand, in Haemadipsa montana the two mates
exhibited a characteristic ‘X ’ shaped posture instead of the
basic pattern as described by Harrison (1953). Following
characteristic tapping with their heads on the objects on
which they move (Leslie 1951), the two mates come op-
posite each other and stand erect on their posterior suck-
ers so as position their ventral surfaces in close contact at
their clitellar regions. Further, the region anterior to the
clitellum of each mate curls backwards and this results in
a characteristic ‘X’ shaped posture (Fig. lb). In this posi-
tion, the male and the female gonopores of the two mates,
situated on somites Xbs/b6 and XIbs/b6 are in direct con-
tact with each other. Moreover, during this process, each
mate pushes the other alternately back and forth to
facilitate successful mating. Unlike in Haemadipsa
zeylanica , where mating continues for several hours.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
267
mating in Haemadipsa montana is completed within
about 20 minutes.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the Council of Scientific and In-
Refe
Harrison, J.L. (1953): Sexual behaviour of land leeches.
/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 959-960.
dustrial Research, New Delhi, for the award of Junior Fel-
lowship from August 1976 to August 1979. 1 thank Dr P
J Sanjeeva Raj for his guidance. I thank the Principal,
Madras Christian College for all the facilities provided.
November 26, 1988. M. GLADSTONE
IN CES
Leslie, CJ. (1951): Mating behaviour of leeches. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 422-423.
35. A FIRST RECORD OF THE ARANEID GENUS POLTYS C.L.KOCH (ARANEIDAE)
FROM PUNE, MAHARASHTRA
(With a text-figure)
Only two species of the Araneid genus Poltys C.L.
Koch 1843 have been reported from the Indian subcon-
tinent, namely Poltys bhabanii (Tikader 1964) from Nay a
Bazar, Sikkim, and P. nagpurensis (Tikader & Bal 1982)
from Nagpur, Maharashtra. Obviously, only the second
species is available from Maharashtra and there are no
records of this genus/species from any other part of India.
While studying the nest-building activities and the habit
of collecting spiders as larval food by Scaliphron
violacewn (Dahib), it was observed that various species
of spiders are collected by these wasps. It seems, from my
study and the literature available on the subject, that the
wasps are specialized, collecting only spiders belonging
to particular families. The wasps in my study area col-
lected spiders of the family Araneidae, but not those of
other families. Additional collection details are given else-
Fig. 1. Dorsal view of carapace and abdomen of Poltys sp. recorded from Poona (legs omitted).
268
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
where and are outside the scope of this note.
During one such observations I saw a female of the
genus Poltys C.L. Koch being taken. This is very rare
genus in India and is being reported for the first time from
Pune.
The specimen collected by the wasp is an immature
female. The morphological characters of this specimen do
not tally with the known species either in description or in
the illustration referred to in FAUNA OF INDIA, spiders
(Araneae : Araneidae) 1982 pg. 166-179. Fig 1 shows the
morphological characters for the specimen in. This note
records the occurrence of the genus Poltys C.L. Koch in
Pune, Maharashtra, and extends its distribution to western
India.
January 3, 1989.
D. BASTAWADE
References
Tikader, B.K. & Bal, A. (1982): Fauna of India. Spiders, Araneae, Araneidae, Vol.2, Pt 1 : 1 -293.
36. FLOWER- VISITORS AND POLLINATION OF ADHATODA
ZEYLANICA (ACANTHACEAE)
( With a text-figure)
Plant-animal interactions, particularly at the flower
level, are related to the structure, organisation and con-
tinued functioning of the respective communities
(Heithaus 1974, Frankie 1976, Moldenke 1975, 1979).
The need to understand such interactions, especially in the
species-rich tropical ecosystems, is essential. This paper
describes the interaction of 13 insect species with the
flowers of Adhatoda zeylanica Medicus (Acanthaceae), a
large tropical shrub and an important medicinal plant.
The plants flower at Vishakapatnam (17°42’ N,
82° 18’ E) every year from mid January to early April.
Flowers are borne in the axils of leafy bracts on a pedun-
culate spike inflorescence 5-9 cm long. They are
zygomorphic, the corolla base forming a short tube
60
-50
U)
!l40h
in
30-
20-
10-
X x
X
+•*•+
AMEGILLA
BUTTERFLIES
PSEUDAPIS
CERATINA
X X
X X
X X
X x
X X
X X
m
X X
X X
X X
m
m
m
APIS CERANA INDICA
XYL0C0PA LATIPES
M. GYRANS
X. PUBESCENS
♦♦♦
I
X X
X X
X X
55?
X X
x X
X X
: :
♦ ♦♦
10 II 12 13 U
TIME OF DAY
15 16 17 18
19 h
Fig. 1. Diurnal periodicity in foraging activity of different flower - visitors on A. zeylanica.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
269
Table i
FLOWER- VISITORS OF A. zeylanica: FORAGE TYPE AND VISITATION RATES IN
Insect Species
Forage Type
Nectar Pollen
Initial (%)
27 Jan 86
Flowering Phase
Peak (%)
17 Feb 86
Final (%)
22 March 86
HYMENOPTERA
Bees
Apis cerana indica
+
+
445
(33)
654
(20)
443
(28)
Trigona sp.
—
+
65
(5)
78
(2)
74
(5)
Xylocopa pubescens
+
0
361
(ID
41
(3)
Xylocopa latipes
+
—
0
409
(13)
102
(6)
Pseudapis oxybeloides
—
+
138
(10)
182
(6)
156
(10)
Ceratina sp.
—
+
92
(7)
106
(3)
115
(7)
Amegilla sp.
+
+
600
(45)
788
(25)
564
(32)
Pithitis binghami
—
+
0
47
(1.5)
0
Wasps
Delta conedus
+
—
0
12
(0.5)
0
Scolia sp.
+
—
0
31
(1)
0
LEPIDOPTERA
Moths
Macroglassum gyrans
+
—
0
348
(11)
0
Butterflies
Euploea core
+
—
0
72
(2)
27
(2)
Pelopidas mathias
+
—
0
122
(4)
45
(3)
Total visits
1340
3210
1567
and the upper part becoming two-lipped and galeate. The
outer three petals are imbricate; the opposite two are
united, their facial margins forming a narrow groove
through which passes the filiform style with its linear stig-
ma. The two epipetalous stamens with the introrse anthers
are inserted in the corolla over the most part of their length
and are placed, together with the style, adjacent to and
covered by the upper hooded corolla lobe. The style
projects slightly beyond the stigma, thereby precluding
contact with anthers when they dehisce.
Daily anthesis of flowers takes place in the period
from 0730- 1830 hrs., a large number of flowers anthes-
ing before 1100 hrs. Anthers dehisce shortly after anthesis,
exposing the pollen, which is then visible to the naked eye
as a white powdery mass. Pollen grains are large in size
(65 x 45 microns), their number per anther averages
17800. Nectar secretion also begins with the anthesis, but
in traces, and continues till the flower drops off after 48
hrs. of anthesis. Hand refractometer readings showed that
the sugar concentration ranges from 17-22%. Paper
chromatographic analysis revealed the sugars sucrose,
glucose and fructose, the first dominating. Amino acids
and proteins are present, as indicated by Ninhydrine and
Bromo-phenol tests respectively.
In the flowering season of 1986, in all 13 insect
species, 10 belonging to hymenoptra and 3 to lepidoptera,
were found foraging at the flowers of A. zeylanica (Table
1). The visits of Amegilla sp.v Trigona sp., Ceratina sp.,
Pithitis sp., and Pseudapis sp., among the hymenoptera
were directed to pollen collection only. The other
hymenoptera and the lepidoptera confined their visits to
nectar foraging. The 13 species could only be recorded in
the peak flowering phase, while in the other phases some
of them did not appear. In all the three phases, Amegilla
and Apis c. indie a made a larger number of visits than
other species. At die peak phase of flowering, besides
these two species, Xylocopa and Macroglossum also
shared a sizeable proportion of the total visits. The absence
of Xylocopa in the initial phase could be understood be-
cause, in that period, it mostly concentrated on Gliricidia
sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. with a mass bloom.
All the 13 flower-visitors are diurnal in their ac-
tivity. They visited the flowers during 0630-1900 hrs. The
first to visit the flowers was M. gyrans. It foraged at the
flowers for 2 hours in the morning and also for 2 hours in
the evening, when other visitors were not that active. This
type of stratified foraging behaviour probably is a strategy
to avoid competition with other foragers. Amegilla and
270
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Apis were active all through from 0630-1900 hrs. The ac-
tivity of Pseudapis started late in the morning and ceased
early in the evening, as also that of Ceratina and but-
terflies. Both the species of Xylocopa began their activity
slightly later in the morning and finished it a little earlier
in the evening (Fig. 1).
It is not possible to relate the activity of the various
foragers to the weather parameters. It is assumed that the
availability of forage might determine the visitation rates.
Accordingly, in the period before 1100 hrs. there was a
tendency to greater activity because a larger number of
flowers open at that time. Although M. gyrans appeared
to confine its activity to a cooler part of the day, observa-
tions of its activity on other plant species in the same
biotope did not provide any support for such a behavioural
pattern.
Data regarding the number of flowers visited per
minute and the time spent on a flower by eight of the more
common visitors indicated that M. gyrans was more
mobile, covering on the average 57 flowers per minute and
spending on the average 2 seconds per flower; the cor-
responding figures for others are Trigona 13.5 and 4.5;
Pseudapis 12 and 4; A.c indica 7.5 and 8.5; Ceratina 11
and 5.5; Amegilla 8 and 8.5.; X. latipes 6 and 12;
X.pubescens 5 and 11.5.
Controlled experiments revealed the total absence
of apomixis and spontaneous or direct autogamy. The 20
flowers tested for indirect autogamy yielded 50% fruit set
with seeds set 100% and fecundity 50%. Those tested for
geitonogamy yielded 75% fruit set, 100% seed set and
75% fecundity. Those for xenogamy gave 90% fruit set,
100% seed set and 90% fecundity. A close examination of
the intrafloral behaviour of the 13 visitors revealed that
only the carpenter bees ( Xylocopa spp.) made meaningful
contacts with the essential flower parts while foraging
(Fig. 2), and vectored the pollen. The stamens and style,
being placed adjacent to the upper lobe, brushed against
the upper side of the visitor, thereby depositing or receiv-
ing pollen nototribically.
When the carpenter bee probes the flower for nec-
tar, its body size fits exactly into the gap between the two
corolla lobes. The zvgomorphic nature of the flowers with
the essential parts placed towards the upper lip is a precise
adaptation for nototribic pollination by such large-bodied
insects as Xylocopa (Proctor & Yeo 1972). The role of this
bee in vectoring pollen was verified by examining the stig-
mas for pollen after the flowers were visited by different
visitors. Only those stigmas visited by Xylocopa revealed
pollen, thereby confirming the exclusive role of Xylocopa
in pollination.
The pollinations that result from Xylocopa visita-
tion of A.zeylanica flowers might be either auto-, geitono-
or xeno-gamous. However, it was found that both the
species of Xylocopa visited a few flowers in a foray and
then flew away. This type of behaviour of the forager,
together with the behaviour of the plant producing a small
number of flowers per day and with minimal quantities of
nectar, promote xenogamy which is a superior mode of
reproduction in A. zeylanica (Faegri & Pijl 1979, Cruden
1976).
The visitors other than Xylocopa utilised the floral
resource, but did not render pollination service. However,
their interaction with the flowers assumes significance if
it is treated from the ecosystem point of view. The visitors
may be the essential pollinators of some other species in
the same bioiope which may bloom outside the season of
A. zeylanica. It is important that they be maintained in the
ecosystem until the right plants that require them for pol-
linatory service come into bloom (Baker et al. 1971).
C. SUBBAREDDI
B.R. THATIPARTHI
S.N. REDDI
May 25, 1988. A.H. MUNSHI
References
Baker, H.G., Cruden, R.W. & Baker, I. (1971): Minor
parasitism in pollination ecology and its community function:
The case of Ceiba acuminata. Bioscience 21: 1127-1129.
Cruden, R.W. (1976): Fecundity as a function of nectar
production and pollen - ovule ratios. In : Burley, J. & Styles, B.T.
(eds.) Tropical trees : Variation, breeding and conservation.
Academic Press, London - New York, pp 171-178.
Faegri, K. & Van Der Bul, L. (1979): The Principles of
Pollination Ecology. Pergamcn Press, Oxford.
Frankie, G.W. (1976): Pollination of widely dispersed
trees by animals in Central America, with an emphasis on bee pol-
lination systems. In: Burley, J. & Styles, B.T. (eds.) Tropical trees:
Variation, breeding and conservation. Academic Press, London -
New York, pp 151-159.
Heithaus, E.R. (1974): The role of plant pollinator inter-
actions in determining community structure. Ann. Missouri Bot.
Gard. 61: 675-691.
Modenke, A.R. (1975): Niche specialisation and species
diversity along a California transect. Oecologia 21: 219-242.
— — (1979): Pollination ecology as an assay for eco-
systematic organization: Convergent evolution in Chile and
California. Phytologia 42: 415-454.
Proctor, M. & Yeo, P. (1972): The Pollination of
Flowers. Taplinger, New York.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
271
37. A NOTE ON ACACIA CANESCENCE COMPLEX
Heyne collected a plant from East India which
was incorporated in Wallich’s Catalogue under number
5253 A and was labelled Acacia caesia Willd. Bentham
(1842), while studying the suborder Mimosoideae, con-
sidered it as a variety of Acacia permata (Linn.) Willd.
He called it variety ‘heyneana’. He gave the Latin diag-
nosis for the variety, citing Wallich Catalogue no. 5253 A.
He also cited Acacia canescence Grah. Wall. Cat. no.
5256. Thus, 5253 A and 5256 become the syn types for
the variety and it is proposed here to treat no. 5253 A as
the lectotype for the variety.
Later, Bentham in 1875 did not mention this variety.
He cited A. caesia Wall Cat. no. 5253 A and Acacia
canescence Grah. Wall Cat. no. 5256 as synonyms of
Acacia pennata (Linn.) Willd., thus merging his own
variety with the type species. However, Baker (1879)
treated Acacia canenscence Grah. Wall. Cat. 5256 as a
variety of A. pennata (Linn.) Willd. and called it variety
canescence B aker and cited no. 5253 A A. caesia Wall, as
a synonym. Thus, it is clear that Acacia pennata (Linn.)
Willd. var. canescence Baker (1879) is synonymous with
Acacia pennata (Linn.) Willd. var. heyneana Benth.
Cl 842).
Gamble (1919) considered A. canescence Grah. as
a good species and provided the description of the species.
Since then. Acacia canescence Grah. has been considered
a validly published species. The correct citation for the
species is as follows:
Acacia canescence Grah. ex Gamble FI. Pres.
Madras 1: 429, 1919 (Repr. ed. 1:304, 1957).
Britton (1936) described a species from Cun-
dinamarca, Columbia, and called it Poponax canescence
(Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sc. 35: 139, 193(>). G. Bare & F. Gon-
zales (1969) transferred this species to the genus Acacia
Mill, and called it Acacia canescence (Cat. PL Cun-
dinamarca 3: 19, 1969). This plant has stipulary spines
about 2 cm long. Hence it is different from Acacia
canescence Grah. ex Gamble. Thus, A. canescence (Brit-
ton) Bare & Gonzl. is a later homonym of the Indian A.
canescence Grah. ex Gamble (1919) in sense of Article
64 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature,
and should be rejected.
It is proposed here to name the Columbian plant as
Acacia cundinamarcensis Subhedar nom. nov. The
specific epithet is adopted from the locality from where
the plant was collected. Its correct name and its pertinent
synonymy as follows:
Acacia cundinamarcensis Subhedar Nom. Nov.
Acacia canescence (Britton) Bare. & Gonzl. in Cat. PI.
Cundinamarca 3:19, 1969; (non. Grah. ex Gamble);
Poponax canescence Britton in Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sc. 35:
139, 1936.
The correct name and its pertinent synonymy of the
Indian plant is as follows:
Acacia pennata (Linn.) Willd. var. heyneana
Benth. in Hooker’s London Jour. Bot. 4: 515-16, 1842. A.
caesia Wall. Cat. 5253 A, 1831-32 (nom.nud.) (non
Willd.). Acacia canescence Grah. in Wall. Cat. 5256,
1831-32 (Nom.nud.) Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1: 429,
1919 (Repr. ed. 1: 304, 1957). Acacia pennata (Linn.)
Willd. var. canescence Baker in Hooker’s FI. Brit. India
2: 298,1879.
Acknowledgements
I thank Prof. P. V. Bole, Head of the Botany Depart-
ment, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay (Retired) for en-
couragement and for carefully going through the
manuscript.
May 3, 1988. RAVINDRA P. SUBHEDAR
References
Baker (1879): Hooker’s Flora of British India Vol II.
Barcv G. etal. (1969): Catalogue of Plants of Cundinamar-
ca, Columbia.
Bentham (1842): Notes on Mimoseae. Hooker’s. London
Jour. Bot. 4.
(1875): Revision of sub order Mimosoideae.
Trans. Linn. Soc. Vol. XXX.
Britton (1936): Poponax canescence Britton - New
species from Cundinamarca. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sc.. XXXV.
Gamble (1919): Flora of Presidency Madras Vol. I (Repr.
ed. 1957).
38 .MEZONEURON HYMENOC ARPUM PRAIN: A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD
FOR THE INDIAN MAINLAND
The genus Mezoneuron Desf, consists of 10 species distributed in tropical Asia and confined to the old world.
272
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Out of the 4 species occurring in India, Mezoneuron
anch.man.icum Prain and M. hymenocarpum Prain are dis-
tributed in Andamans, M. enneaphyllum (Roxb.) Wight &
Am. ex Benth and M. cucullatum (Roxb.) Wight & Am.
in the Western Ghats and the Andamans. Mezoneuron
hymenocarpum Prain has been reported from the An-
daman Islands, but not from the Indian mainland. This is
the first report of the species from the Indian mainland,
and the discovery of its new distribution in the central part
of Kerala is phytogeographically interesting.
Some taxonomists (Hattink 1974) treat Mezoneuron
Desf. under Caesalpinia L. in a broad sense. But, taking
into consideration the prominent winged nature of the
fruits in indigenous Mezoneuron spp., we feel that the 4
Indian species should be treated under the genus
Mezoneuron Desf.
Mezoneuron hymenocarpum Prain, a prickly climb-
ing shrub, was collected from Panjanamkattu area of Vaz-
hachal Forest Division, Kerala. The flora of this division
is interesting; we found some rare and interesting plants
there, namely Glycosmis macrocarpa Wight, Rhynchosia
acutissima Thw. and Derr is canarensis (Dalz.) Baker. The
occurrence of many such plants show that there is need for
further exploration of the flora of this division. As this
ecosystem shelters many rare and valuable gene pools, it
should be conserved and protected.
Mezoneuron hymnocarpum Prain differs from the
common Indian species M. cucullatum (Roxb.) Wight &
Am. in having pubescent branchlets, small-sized leaflets,
shedding fruiting receptacles, broader wing of pods and a
larger number of seeds. A key for differentiating the 4 In-
dian species of Mezoneuron Desf. and a sketch of the fruit-
ing specimen of M. hymenocarpum Prain are provided for
easy identification in the field.
KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Mezoneuron DESF. IN INDIA
1. Leaflets 5-12 pairs per pinna, small, less than 2 cm long;
stalk of the leaflets 0.5 - 1 mm.
2. Pedicel of fruit 8-15 mm long; tip of fruit usually hooked
M. hymenocarpum
2. Pedicel of fmit 15-20 mm long; tip of fruit acute
M. enneaphyllum
1 . Leaflets 3-6 pairs per pinna, large, over 2 cm. long; stalk of
the leaflets 2—4 mm.
3. Leaflets acuminate at apex, coriaceous; seeds 1, rarely
2 per fruit M. cucullatum
3. Leaflets rounded or retuse at apex, membranous; seeds
3-4 per fruit M. andamanicum
The habitat of mezoneuron hymenocarpum Prain is
the evergreen forest. The important associates include
Canavalia ensiformis DC., Diospyros microphylla Bedd.,
Bauhinia vahlii Wt. & Am., Persea macrantha (Nees)
Kosterm., Ochlandra travancorica Gamble, Vuex altis-
sirruz L.f., Xanthophyllum flctvescens Roxb., Aporosa
lindleyana Baill., Glochidion ellipticum Wt., Olea dioica
Roxb., Calamus pseudotenuis Becc. and Hopea par-
vifloraBedd.
F ruiting - December.
Distribution - Sri Lanka, China, Burma, India, Indo-
China, Thailand, Malaysia, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands.
Specimens examined - FRC 10851, Panjanamkattu
(Vazhachal Forest Division, Kerala); MH 65813, Burma.
K.N. SUBRAMANIAN
B. GURUDEV SINGH
May 27, 1988. K.R. SASIDHARAN
References
Hattink, T.A. (1974): A Revision of Malesian Caesal - Reinwardtia 9(1): 1-69.
pinia including Mezoneuron (Leguminosae - Caesalpiniaceae).
39. SYNEDRELLA VTAUS (LESS.) A. GRAY: A NEW RECORD FOR UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA
Durmg botanical exploration in the Doon Valley we
collected a weed from New Forest, Dehra Dun. On check-
ing with literature it was identified as Synedrella vialis
(Asteraceae), a native of South America. From India this
species is so far reported from Poona, Maharashtra (Ahuja
& Pataskar 1969, Rao etal . 1988). It is now being reported
for the first time from North India.
Synedrella vialis (Less.) A. Gray in Proc. Am.
Acad. 17:217. 1882; Ahuja & Pataskar in Ind. For. 95:267.
Figs. 1-8. 1969; Rao era/., Fl.Ind.Enum. Astera.74. 1988.
Calyptocarpus vialis Less. Syn 221. 1832. et in Linnaea
269. 1834; DC. Prodr. 5:630. 1839.
Herbs. Annual, branching from the base, spreading
and rooting at nodes, more or less scabrid-hairy. Leaves
opposite, simple, petiolate, ovate-lanceolate, cuneate at
the base, acute at the apex, shortly hairy on both surfaces,
3-4 x 2-3.2 cm, serrate, 3- nerved from the base; petiole
ciliate. Heads axillary, usually solitary or sometimes two,
sessile; when two, one pedunculate; peduncle up to 3 cm
long; outer involucral bracts 4, herbaceous, ovoid or
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
273
oblong-lanceolate, shortly hairy, ciliate along margin,
each up to 7 x 4 mm; inner bracts linear- lanceolate,
paleaceous, 5x1 mm, merging into paleae of the recep-
tacle. Outer florets ligulate, 5-9, female, yellow, 2- 3-lobed
at the apex. Inner florets tubular, limb 4-fid, her-
maphrodite; stamens 4, epipetalous, syngenesious, an-
thers appendaged at the apex and tailed at the base. Style
of both the female and hermaphrodite florets bifid.
Achenes dimorphic; those of ray-florets dorsally com-
pressed, narrowly winged, crowned with 2 spines, those
of disc florets dorsally compressed and crowned with 2
spines or triquetrous and crowned with 3 spines, scabrid,
spines half as long as the achenes, shortly hairy.
Specimens Examined:
New Forest, Dehra Dun, 28 August 1988, Sumer
Chandra 150 (DD) and 30 August 1988, H.B. Naithani
1529 (DD).
H.B. NAITHANI
December 1, 1988. SUMER CHANDRA
40. SOME NEW COMBINATIONS IN THE SUBTRIBE LACTUCEAE (ASTERACEAE)
The members of the complex subtribe Lactuceae are
morphologically inter-related and show overlapping
characters. During the course of a critical study on the
taxonomic revision of the sub tribe Lactuceae, a few im-
portant characters to distinguish all the genera were recog-
nised. Members like Mulgedium , Cicerbita and Lactuca
are very closely allied but can be differentiated as follows:
In Cicerbita involucral bracts are in more than 3-
series, gradually passing into inner, and usually blackish
bristly hairy, whereas in Mulgedium and Lactuca in-
volucral bracts are usually 2-3 seriate, differentiated into
outer and inner bracts and usually glabrous or sparsely
hairy. Further, in Cicerbita involucres are usually broad,
and campanulate and achenes are ovate or elliptic, sub-
compressed with a small beak, whereas in Mulgedium and
Lactuca involucres are comparatively small or medium
sized, usually cylindric and achenes are oblanceolate or
lanceolate, finely compressed with a small or a long beak.
Subsequently Lactuca gracilis has been transferred
to the genus Ixeris , therefore variety khasiana automati-
cally deserves a new combination. Similarly, Picridium
tingitana has been transferred to the genus Reichardia,
therefore variety subintegra also deserves anew combina-
tion.
Keeping in view the above justifications we suggest
the following new combinations.
Cicerbita filicina (Duthie ex Stebbins) Mamgain & Rao,
comb. nov.
Basionym: Lactuca filicina Duthie ex Stebbins in Ind. For.
Rec. Bot. 1(6): 241:1939.
Cicerbita cyanea (D. Don) Beauverd var. paniculata
(Clarke) Mamgain & Rao, comb. nov. Basionym: Lactuca
hastata Wall, ex DC. var. paniculata Clarke, Comp. Ind.
268. 1876.
Cicerbita cyanea (D. Don) Beauverd var. khasiana
(Clarke) Mamgain & Rao, comb. nov.
Basionym: Lactuca hastata Wall, ex DC. var. khasiana
Clarke, Comp. Ind. 268. 1876.
Cicerbita lessertiana (Wall, ex DC.) Mamgain & Rao,
comb. nov.
Basionym: Mulgedium lessertianum Wall, ex DC. Prodr.
7:251.1838.
Cicerbita lessertiana subsp. dentata (DC.) Mamgain &
Rao, comb. nov. et stat. nov.
Basionym: Mulgedium lessertianum var. dentatum DC.
Prodr. 7.
Cicerbita lessertiana subsp. lyrata (Decne.) mamgain &
Rao, comb. nov. et stat. nov.
Basionym: Melanoseris lyrata Decne. in Jacqu, Voy. 4.
Bot. 101. 1. 109. 1844.
Ixeris gracilis (Wall, ex DC.) Stebbins var. khasiana
(Hook.f.) Mamgain & Rao, comb. nov.
Basionym: Lactuca gracilis Wall, ex DC. var. khasiana
Hook.f. FI. Brit. Ind. 411. 1881.
Reichardia tingitana (Linn.) Roth, var. subintegra
(Boisser) Mamgain & Rao, comb. nov. Basionym:
Picridium tingitanum (Linn.) Desf. var. subintegra
Boisser, FI. Ori. 3:828. 1875.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Calcutta, for facilities.
S.K. MAMGAIN
September 9, 1988 R.R. RAO
41. PLANTS IN RELATION TO SOCIO-CULTURE OF LADAKH
Folklore, mythological stories and the epics, as references to plants. Perhaps as a consequence of his de-
also innumerable religious practices in households and pendence on plants, man has incorporated them into his
temples, in festivals, births and deaths are all replete with religion, language, art, drama and recreation.
274
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
The social and cultural traditions of the Ladakh
region, Jammu and Kashmir, are markedly different from
those of any other part of India. Until recently the tradi-
tional way of life had seen little change over centuries.
However, Ladakh has become more and more exposed to
outside influences, which threaten its unique culture.
During the last few years we have been studying the
ethnobotany of Ladakh. Certain plants are intricately
linked with culture and traditions of the people.
Enumerated below are a few such plants. For each plant
is given name, citation, locality, collection number and
role; family name is given in parenthesis.
Arnebia guttata Bunge. Ind. Sem. Horti. Dorpat,
1840:7,1840. ' Deemok ’ Karoo (3400 m) IN 69.
(Boraginaceae)
Fresh roots on crushing yield a red dye. The dye is
used to decorate the idols of Buddha made from ash and
clay. Mandala or prashad made from saihu (fried wheat
flour) is also ornamented with red dye. The dye is also
used to paint interiors of private chapels by poorer Ladak-
his who cannot afford paints.
Descuriana sophia (Linn.) Webb. Berth. Pflanzafr
3(2): 192, 1891. ‘Deschamchsce Phiyang (3500 m) IN
176. (Brassocaceae).
A sacred plant of Ladakhi Buddhists. It is usually
planted along the borders of cultivated fields and around
houses. It is claimed to increase crop production and to
bring happiness to the household. Plants are kept near the
heap of harvested crops. Seeds are usually carried along
during journeys as protection against evil spirits.
Inula obtusifolia Kemer in Ber. Naturw. Verz. hi-
nsbruk I:
111,1870. ' Minchennakpo ’ Khardungla (5600 m)
IN 366. (Asteraceae)
Fresh flowers are usually spread on the corpse of the
deceased during recital from the holy books. After the rites
are completed these flowers are taken to the temple and
kept at the feet of the Buddha’s idol for 12 hours. Next
morning the flowers are thrown into the river. Flowers are
also spread on the corpse before laying it on the funeral
pyre.
Juglans regia Linn. Sp. PI. 997, 1753. 'Starga'
Panamick (3250 m) IN 3616. (Juglandaceae)
The wood is used for printing blocks for Buddhist
prayers. The prayers are engraved on the rectangular
blocks known as ' Genzenchema ' . Later, using black or red
dye, these prayers are printed on muslin cloth flags of 12”
x 12” or 12” x 9” dimensions.
Juniperus communis Linn. var. saxatilis Pall. FI.
Ross.
1, 2: 12t. 4, 1788. ' Shukpa ’ Gumri (3400 m) IN
1707. (CUPRESSACEAE)
Dried twigs are used as incense at all religious and
cultural ceremonies. During crop sowing or harvesting
shukpa fires are lit along the borders of crop fields under
vertically erected stones. When religious processions are
taken out, these fires are lit along the route of the proces-
sion and are also carried along in specially prepared metal-
lic pots.
Potentilla argyrophylla Wall, ex Lehm. Pugill 3:
36,1831.
‘Balchar’ Khardungla (5600 m). (Rosaceae)
Dried plant is burnt as incense with shukpa
(. Juniperus communis).
Waldhemia tomentosa (Dene.) Regel. I.C. 308,
1879.
'Palin' Khardungla (5600 m) IN 349.
(Asteraceae)
Dried plants are burnt as incense during all religious
and cultural ceremonies.
G.M. BUTH
November 1, 1988. IRSHAD A. NAVCHOO
42. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF DIMERIA ACUTIPES BOR (GR AMINE AE) IN TAMIL NADU
(With a text-figure )
Bor (1952) had described Dimer ia acutipes as en-
demic to Tamil Nadu, based on Bourne’s collection (35,
Type K) made in 1898 on the outskirts of Madras City.
Since then, this species has remained uncollected and con-
sequently little-known. There are no specimens at MH,
Coimbatore. Karthikeyan (1971) and Nayar & Ramamur-
thy (1973) have mentioned this species as an addition to
Flora of Madras and Flora of India respectively and quoted
distributional data from the protologue. Nair and Nair
(1981) listed this species as a rare one, known only from
type collection. They suggested that the species could pos-
sibly be extinct.
I have twice collected Dimer ia acutipes between
1984 and 1986, from Narthamalai in Pudukottai District.
The collections were made from fallow fields after the
monsoon. They generally grow in association with
Apocopis mangalorensis. These collections are thus a
rediscovery of the species after nearly 90 years. They have
been identified by T.A. Cope at Kew. A brief description
and illustrations are provide here to facilitate collection
and identification.
Dimeria acutipes: Bor inKew Bull. 7: 560. 1952 & Grass.
India 138. 1960.
lOvj
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Dimsria acuiipes Bor
1. Habit; 2. Liguler 3. Raceme; 4. Spikelet; 5. Rachis; 6. Lower glume; 7. Upper glume; 8. Lower lemma;
9. Upper lemma; 10. Upper palea; 11. Lodicules, stamens and pistil; 12. Caryopsis.
1. Habit; 2. Leaf base (underside); 3. Leaf apex (upper side); 4. Stipular sheath; 5. Mature flower bud; 6. Corolla opened; 7. An-
thers; 8. Stylar apex; 9. Fruit; 10 Split fruit; 11. Seeds
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
277
Annual. Culms 10-15 cm, slender, erect, glabrous,
densely hairy at nodes. Leaf-sheaths 1-2.5 cm long; ligule
membranous, apically ciliate; leaf-blades linear-lanceo-
late, 1-4.5 x 0.1-0.2 cm, sparsely tuberculate-pilose on
the upper surface. Raceme solitary, spiciform, to 3 cm,
somewhat flexuous; pedicels obliquely articulate with cal-
lus. Spikelets up to 6 mm (arista & awn excluded). Glumes
compressed, stiff-pilose from below the middle to the
apex, scabrid along keels. Lower floret empty; upper one
bisexual; awn of upper glume to 3.5 mm; upper lemma
3.5- 5.5 mm, cleft above, awn at sinus 0.8-1. 5 cm long.
Stamens 2. Caryopsis linear, to 2.5 mm, laterally com-
pressed. Common in fallow fields and sandy tracts, during
rainy season.
Specimens examined: Pudukottai Dist., Nar-
thamalai: S.J. Britto. RHT 29660, 30576, 30577, 30578
(RHT, K).
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr. T. A. Cope of Royal Botanic
Garden, Kew, for the determination of this species.
Thanks are also due to S. Karthikeyan, BSI, Pune for use-
ful suggestions.
August 27, 1988. S.J. BRITTO
References
Bor, N.L. (1952): Notes on Asiatic Grasses: XI. The
genus Dimeria R. Br. in India and Burma. Kew Bull. 7: 553-592.
(1960): Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and
Pakistan (excluding Bambuseae). Pergamon Press Oxford.
Karthikeyan, S. (1971): A contribution to the family
Gramineae of the “Flora of the Presidency of Madras". Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 13: 171.
Nair, V.J. & Nair, N.C. (1981): Studies on the Grass Flora
of Erstwhile Madras Presidency - A Review, ibid. 23: 79-81.
Nayar, M.P. & Ramamurthy, K. (1973); Third list of
species and Genera of Indian Phanerogams not included in J.D.
Hooker’s Flora of British India (excluding Bangladesh, Burma,
Ceylon, Malayan Peninsula and Pakistan), ibid. 15: 215.
43. DIODIA LINN. (RUBIACEAE): A NEW GENERIC REPORT FROM INDIA
(With a text -figure)
We collected specimens of a Rubiaceae species
from the Sree Narayana College Campus and adjacent
areas in Chathannoor, near the coastal town of Quilon in
Quilon District, Kerala, South India. Detailed study of the
vegetative and floral characters of the plant revealed its
distinctness from all the known Indian Rubiaceous genera.
Subsequently the plant was identified as Diodia teres Wal-
ter by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. As none of the In-
dian Floras, past or present, deal with any species of
Diodia L., the present paper is a new record for the genus
in India. According to Kew, D. teres is a New World
species, so far reported outside the New World only from
Angola, Senegal and Japan. This collection is thus a new
record to the Indian Flora.
Diodia L. is closely allied to Spermacoce L. (in the
broad sense) and Richardia L. in the general vegetative
and floral characters, but is distinct from both in the mode
of dehiscence of the fruit. While the fruit is a schizocarp
in both Diodia and Richardia- splitting into 2 cocci in the
former and into more than 2 cocci in the latter — the fruit
is a variously dehiscent septicidal capsule in Spermacoce.
As the taxon is new to Indian Flora, a description
and drawings made on the basis of study of fresh
specimens are presented here for the benefit of Indian
botanists.
Diodia teres Walter sensu lato (Steyermark in Mem.
New York Bot. Garden. 23: 799 (1972)).
Annual erect to diffuse herb. Stem 4-angled, to 30
cm long, hirsute-hairy. Leaves sessile, linear-elliptic to
lanceolate, upto 3.5 cm long and 1 cm broad with recurved
scabrous margins, acute to acuminate apex ending in a stiff
arista, broadly cuneate to round base, midrib prominently
impressed above and raised below, veins 4-5, obscure
above, slightly raised below, puberulous above and below,
prominently so on the raised veins below with strigose
hairs added on both sides and broad leaf base; Stipular
sheath more or less truncate at apex, strigose outside with
8 to 9 linear slender teeth upto 1 cm long, shortly hairy at
the base, glabrous otherwise, insterspersed with more or
less club-shaped glandular hairs. Flowers 1 to 4 per axil,
sessile. Sepals 4, short, subequal, triangular-acute,
scabrous on the margins, persistent. Corolla mauve, fun-
nel-form, tube 4 to 5 mm long with a ring of short hairs at
the base, glabrous otherwise on the inside, lobes 4, trian-
gular-ovate, acute-apiculate at apex, 2 to 3 mm long, as
broad as long or slightly less, puberulous on the outside
with a few bristly hairs towards the tip. Stamens 4, in-
serted at the mouth of the tube, anthers short, 2-celled, fila-
ment as long as or shorter than the anther. Ovary 2 mm
long, half as broad as long, shortly hairy towards the apex
and glabrous towards the base, 2 celled, each cell with a
278
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
single basal axile ovule; disc small and annular; style
slender, about 4.5 mm long, bluntly tuberculate towards
the apex; stigma capitate, 2-lobed, papillate. Fruit
obey ate to spherical with the persistent calyx teeth, 3.5 to
4 mm long, shortly hairy towards the apex, glabrous
towards the base, splitting into 2 indehiscent cocci and
falling at maturity from the leaf axil. Seeds flattened-
obovate, smooth, pale brown, concave on the ventral face
with a longitudinal ridge, apically incurved.
The herbarium specimen Ravi 2429 A, Chathan-
noor, 6-7-1988, has been deposited in the Kew Herbarium,
England, and its duplicates 2429 B, 2429 C and 2429 D
have been deposited in the CNH, Howrah, MH, Coim-
batore and Sree Narayana College Herbarium, Quilon,
respectively.
We thank the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, for identifying the taxon.
N. RAVI
N. ANILKUMAR
December 13, 1988. T.K. BALACHANDRAN
44. A NOTE ON THE ANOMALOUS FLOWERING BEHAVIOUR IN CURCUMA CAESIA
(ZINGIBERACEAE)
(With a text-figure)
Fig. 1. Curcuma caesia exhibiting bothy lateral (A) and central
(B) spikes within a short span of 2 weeks.
Flowering behaviour (flowering season and posi-
tion of inflorescence) is a key character in delimitation of
Curcuma species. Normally, those species that flower in
autumn (autumnal) possess central spikes arising from the
centre of the leafy tuft while those that flower in summer
(vernal) have lateral spikes arising from the lateral buds
of rhizome or sessile tubers, before leaf formation.
Normal flowering has been observed in C. longa,
C. dec ip ie ns, C. pseudomontana, C. peethapushpa (sec-
tion Mesantha) which exhibited autumnal flowering with
central spikes and in C. aromatic a, C. zeodaria. C. com-
osa, C. caesia (section Exantha) which exhibited vernal
flowering with lateral spikes. C. caesia (Black zeodary;
section Exantha), however, exhibited anomalous flower-
ing behaviour this year by producing both lateral and
central spikes within a short span of time during late sum-
mer (Fig. 1). Some plants of a population of C. caesia
grown at Vellanikkara produced lateral spikes initially and
a few other plants of the same population produced central
spikes after about two weeks.
San tap an (1953) recorded lateral spikes in summer
and later, central spike in monsoon from C. pseudomon-
tana plant. This type of anomaly has also been reported
from another Zingiberaceae plant. Zingiber officinale by
Velayudhan et al. (1983). Such anomalies in the genus
Curcuma have been a point of great controversy (Manilal
and Sivarajan 1982). Past reports on the genus by San-
tapau (1953 & 1958) and Chav an & Oza (1966) supported
the view of Roxburgh (1810) that the flowering spikes’
position in Curcuma was seasonal and its value as a basic
key for species delimitation was doubtful. Lately,
Saldhana and Nicolson (1976) had also expressed similar
views. However, as noted by Burtt (1972), before decid-
ing the validity of flowering behaviour as a key character
for identification, further observations on seasonal flower-
ing behaviour in other species of Cur cum are needed.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
279
ACKNOLWEDGEMENTS NBPGR, New Delhi, for encouragement and facilities ex-
tended
Grateful thanks are due to Dr R.K. Aror a. Director V.A. AMALRAJ
and Shri T.A. Thomas, Head of Evaluation K.C. VELAYUDHAN
Division, December 13, 1988 V.K. MURALIDHARAN
References
Burtt, B.L. (1972): Notes on Curcuma. Notes r.b.g. Edib.
31: 224.
Chavan & OZA (1966): Flora of Bawagadh. Bombay.
Manilal, K.S. & Sivarajan, V.V. (1982): Flora of Calicut.
B.S.M.R Singh, Dehra Dun.
Roxbhurgh, W. (1810): Asiat. Res. 11:33$
Saldhana, C.J. & Nicolson, D.H. (1976): Flora of Has-
san district, Karnataka, New Delhi.
Samtapau, H. (1953): On a common species of Curcuma
of Bombay and Salsette Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51:
135.
— (958): Flora of Purandhar. New Delhi.
VELAYUDHAN, K.C. MURALIDHARAN, V.K. & THOMAS, T.A.
(1983): Flowering and abnormalities in flowering in Ginger. Sci
& Cult. 49 .108.
45. PASPALUM LONGIFOLIUM ROXR.: A GRASS NEW TO UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA
Recently Mr. Pancham Singh of the Botany Depart-
ment, D.A.V. (P.G.) College, Dehra Dun, collected a grass
from Nakraunda, district. Delira Dun, which we could not
match with any species represented from Uttar Pradesh.
The grass was identified as Paspalaum longifolium,
whose home is principally in northeast India (Bor 1940 &
1960). It has also been reported to occur in Kerala (Fis-
cher 1934), Gujarat (Patil 1965), Madhya Pradesh
(Naithani & Raizada 1977) and even outside India. The
present paper records for the first time the occurrence of
this grass from Uttar Pradesh.
Paspalum longifolium Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 7. 1814,
nomen) FI. Ind. 1:283. 1820; Hsu, Taiwan Grass. 585. fig.
586. 1975.
A perennial grass. Culms 50-125 cm tall, leaves
35-80 cm X 4-6 mm. Inflorescence a panicle made up of
6-24 false spikes; spikelets 4-seriate; lower glume absent,
the upper obovate-oblong, 3 -nerved; lower floret barren;
lemtna 5 -nerved; palea like lemmas. Cary op sis broadly
ovate.
Specimen examined: Nakraunda, Dehra Dun, 26
Oct 1986, Pancham Singh ex Herb. SomDevaNo. 10690
(DD & BSD).
Distribution : India (northeast India, Kerala,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh), Nepal, Sri Lanka to Vietnam,
Taiwan, North Australia and Malaysia.
Ecology. Solitary or in groups in moist places, e.g.
along river banks, in swamps and pools, in floating grass
communities, growing in water upto 60 cm deep. A
common invader in wet and open, disturbed places. As-
sociated with Bothriochloa, Echinochloa, Eriocaulon,
Miscanthus , Oryza. On sandy, loamy clayey, alluvial soils,
upto 1700 m altitude (De Koning & Sosef 1985).
Chromosome number : 2n - 40 (Chen & Hsu 1961).
Uses: Some value as fodder grass for buffaloes (Bor
1960).
SOM DEVA
April 9, 1988. H.B. NAITHANI
References
Bor, N.L. (1940): Flora of Assam 5: 25-253.
(I960): Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India &
Pakistan. 334-341.
Chen, C.C. & IIasu, C. (1961): Cytological studies on
Taiwan Grasses I. tribe Paniceae. Bull. Bot. Acad. Sinica, n.s. 2:
102-110.
De koning, R. & Sosef, M.S.M. (1985): The Malesian
species of Paspalum L. (Gramineae). Blwnea 30: 297-299.
Fischer, C.E.C. (1934): Flora Presidency Madras. 3:
1689- 1864 (Gramineae)
Naithani, H.B. & Raizada, M.B. (1977): Note on the dis-
tribution records of grasses. Ind. For. 103: 513-524.
Patil, R.I. (1985): Grasses of Gujarat state. Ind. For.
91(5): 309-340
INDEX OF AUTHORS, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
PAGE
Acharjyo, L.N. Nandankanan Biological Park, P.O. Barang, DisL Cuttack - 754 005, Orissa. 248
Akhtar, Syed Asad Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagatsingh Road,
Bombay- 400 023 245,246
Amalraj, VA. NBPGR Regional Statiuon, Vellanikkara, Trichur, Kerala 278
Anilkumar, N. Sree Narayana College, Quilon - 691 001, Kerala 276
Asher, Kiran "Saken", Valentina Society, North Main Road, Koregaon Park, Pune - 411 001,
Maharashtra 237
Balachandran, T.K. Sree Narayana College, Chathannoor - 691 572, Kerala 276
Bastawade, D. Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, 933/A, S’nagar,
Pune -411 016. 267
Bhalla, J.S. Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana - 141 004,
Punjab 247
Bharucha, Erach "Saken”, Valentina Society, North Main Road, Koregaon Park, Pune - 41 1 001,
Maharashtra. 237
Bhatt, Karmvir Shree Apartment, Makai Pool, Surat, Gujarat 253
Bhupathy, S. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagatsingh Road,
Bombay -400 023 252
Britto, S.J. Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli - 620 002, Tamil Nadu 273
Buth, G.M. Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar - 190 006,
Jammu & Kashmir 273
Chandra, Sumer Wildlife Institute of India, New Forest, Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh. 272
Das, Indraneil 18/20, Ballygunge Place (East), Calcutta - 700 019, West Bengal 253
Das-Chaudhuri, A.B. Department of Anthropology, University of Calcutta 233
David, B.V. Fredrick Institute of Plant Protection and Toxicology Padappai - 601 301,
Tamil Nadu 260,261
Deva, Som 13, Balbir Avenue, Dehra Dun, Uttar Paradesh. 279
Devasahayam, Anita National Research Centre for Spices, PB 1701, Marikunnu P.O., Calicut - 673 012,
Kerala. 253
Devasahayam, S. National Research Centre for Spices, PB 1701, Marikunnu P.O., Calicut - 673 012,
Kerala. 253
Frazier, J. Pro grama Regional de Vida Silvestre, Universidad Nacional, Apartado 1350, Heredia,
Costa Rica 250
Gladstone, M. Prof & Head, Department of Zoology, Madras Christian College, Madras - 600 059,
Tamil Nadu 266
Grubh, R.B. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagatsingh Road,
Bombay -400 023 240
Jacob, Titus T. Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Calicut - 673 635,
Kerala. 263
Jesudasan, R.W.A. Madras Christian College, Madras - 600 059. 260, 261
Jugtawa, Rajiv "Saken", Valentina Society, North Main Road, Koregaon Park, Pune - 41 1 001,
Maharashtra. 237
Kaur, Sarbjit Asstt. Prof., Dept, of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana -141 004,
Punjab 244
Kulshreshtha, Manoj 13-B, Saheli Marg, Udaipur - 313 001, Rajasthan. 246
Madge, S.C. 2 Church Row, Sheviock, Torpoint, Cornwall PL 11 3EH, U.K 243
Mamgain, S.K. Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh 273
Mann, G.S. Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana - 141 004,
Punjab
247
Munshi, A.H. Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar - 190 006,
Jammu & Kashmir 268
Muralidharan, S. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagatsingh Road,
Bombay - 400 023 240
Muralidharan, V.K. NBPGR Regional Statiuon, Vellanikkara, Trichur, Kerala 278
Naik, Sattyasheel N. Naik Hospital, 78 1/782, Shukrawar Peth, Pune - 41 1 002, Maharashtra. 241
Naithani, H.B. Systematic Botany Branch, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh 279
Naithani, H.B. Wildlife Institute of Lidia, New Forest, Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh 272
Nanjappa, C. Field Biologist, BNHS Ecological Research Centre, Bharatpur 240
Narayanakurup, D. Wildlife Assistant, Wildlife Information Centre, Periyar Tiger Reserve,
Thekkady - 685 536, Kerala 239
Narayanan E. Entomologist, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research,
Pondicherry - 605 006 259
Narendran, T.C. Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Calicut - 673 635, Kerala 263
Navchoo, LA. Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar - 190 006,
Jammu & Kashmir 273
Parihar, A.S. Field Director, Project Tiger, Kanha National Park, Mandla - 481 661,
Madhya Pradesh 235, 237
Perennou, C. French Institute, PB 33, Pondicherry - 605 001 247
Prakash, Vibhu Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Bombay - 400 023 240, 241 , 245, 246
Rahmani, Asad R. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Bombay -400 023 240,241
Ranade, R.V. Head, Zoology Department, Garware College, Karve Road, Pune - 411 004 238
Rao, Prakash Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagatsingh Road,
Bombay -400 023 240
Rao, R.R. Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh 273
Ravi, N. Sree Narayana College, Quilon - 691 001 , Kerala. 276
Reddi, S.N. Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University,
Vishakapatnam - 530 003, Andhra Pradesh 268
Roy, B.N. Department of Anthropology, Bangabasi College, Calcutta 233
Sankaran, Ravi Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagatsingh Road,
Bombay -400 023 255
Sasidharan, K.S. Botany Division, Forest Research Centre, Coimbatore - 641 002, Tamil Nadu 271
Shah, Karan Bahadur Lecturer in Zoology, Natural History Museum, Kathmandu, Nepal 236
Singh, Gurudev B. Botany Division, Forest Research Centre, Coimbatore - 641 002,
Tamil Nadu 271
Singh, L.A.K. Crocodile Research Centre, Wildlife Institute of India, Hyderabad - 500 264,
Andhra Pradesh 248
Subba Reddi, C. Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Vishakapatnam - 530 003,
Andhra Pradesh 268
Subhedar, R.P. St Xavier’s College, Mahapalika Marg, Bombay - 400 001, Maharashtra 271
Subramanian, K.N. Botany Division, Forest Research Centre, Coimbatore - 641 002, Tamil Nadu 271
Sujatha, K. Department of Marine Living Resources, Andhra university,
Vishakapatnam - 530 003, Andhra Pradesh 257
Sundararaman, V. Industrial Toxicology Research Centre, P.O. Box 80, Lucknow - 226 001,
Uttar Pradesh 242
Tehsin, Raza 41, Panchwati, Udaipur - 313 001, Rajasthan 246
Thatiparthi, B.R. Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Vishakapatnam - 530 003,
Andhra Pradesh 268
Uttangi, J.C. 56/1 Mission Compound, Dharwad - 580 001, Karnataka 256
Vargheese, Thresiamma Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Calicut - 673 635, Kerala. 263
Velayudhan, K.C. NBPGR Regional Station, Vellanikkara, Trichur, Kerala. 278
ERRATA
BUTTERFLIES OF SIKKIM
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11 from above
Talbot 1934
Talbot 1939, 1947
275
Right
16 from below
Hypolimans
Hypolimnas
275
Right
16 from below
miss ip us
misippus
276
Left
13 from above
Premis
Precis
277
Left
13 from above
violaea
violae
280
Right
9 from above
(1939): Vol.2
(1947): Vol. 2
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
443
Title
monstrous Drury
monstrosus (Drury)
443
Left
3 from below
monstrous Drury
monstrosus (Drury)
445
Title
ALYRODIDAE
ALEURODIDAE o
ALEYRODIDAE
447
Title
TAPHRETIDAE
TEPHRITIDAE
VOLUME 86(1): APRIL 1989
NOTES ON THE STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF SOME BIRDS IN SRI LANKA
Page 9, Left column
For 161. Crested Hawk- Eagle ( Spizaetus cirrhaius andamanensis )
Read 161. Crested Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus cirrhatus cirrhaius)
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
17. OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITECOLLARED KINGFISHER
Page 105, Left column. Line 12,
For Ali & Ripley (1970:406) restricted its distributional range to Camorta, Central Nicobar.
Read Ali & Ripley (1970:98) mentioned its occurrence on Car Nicobar, Camorta, Nancowry, Trinkut and
throughout the group. Abdulali (1971:406) restricted its distributional range to Camorta, Central Nicobar.
Page 105, Left column, in Table 1,
For 2 Females 105, 108
2 Males 104,109
Read 2 Males 105,108
2 Femalesl04, 109
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THE USE OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN IDENTIFYING POTEN-
TIAL wildlife habitat (With six plates)
By Sejal Worah, B. K. Bharucha and W. A. Rodgers 125
GROWTH, MATURATION AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NILGIRI TAHR.
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STATUS OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE CrOCOdyluS pOTOSUS SCHNEIDER
IN THE BHITARKANIKA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ORISSA, INDIA
(With four text-figures)
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MONKEYS OF THE OLD CITY OF JAIPUR, INDIA (With tWO text- figures)
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biology of the predaceous bug Rhinocoris marginatus fabricius
( I N secta- h eteroptera reduviidae) (With three text- figures)
By Dunston P. Ambrose and David Livingstone 155
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA BUSTARD: 1983-84 POPU-
lation levels in western Baluchistan (With a text-figure)
By Afsar Mian 161
BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE WILD GOAT AND THE URIAL AT A WATER
POINT IN KIRTHAR NATIONAL PARK, PAKISTAN (With tWO text-figures)
By W. Daniel Edge, Sally L. Olson-Edge and Nasir Ghani .... 166
ON THE BASKING BEHAVIOUR OF THE MUGGER CrOCOdyluS palustris
LESSON (REPTILIA: CROCODILIA) AT BHORSAINDA CROCODILE SANC-
TUARY, haryana state (With two text-figures Sc a map)
By R. C. Gupta and P. Sri Hari 170
MATERIALS FOR FLORA OF MAHABALESWAR — 6a
By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida 175
TERRITORIALITY IN INDIAN BLACKBUCK Arttilope cervicapra (LINNAEUS)
( With a text-figure)
By N.L.N.S. Prasad 187
FIELD GUIDE TO THE AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA — PART 4
( With two plates Sc six text-figures)
By J. C. Daniel and A. G. Sekar 194
APPLICATION OF SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY IN THE TAXONOMY OF
cladocera (With eight plates containing forty-nine figures)
By K. Venkataraman and S. Krishnaswamy , 203
IN DEFENCE OF THE MUCH-MALIGNED (ALPHA) TAXONOMY IN INDIA
By A. N. Henry and P. Daniel 206
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 213
REVIEW .......... 232
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 233
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Vol. 86, No. 3
December 1989
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Journal
VOLUME 86(3): DECEMBER 1989
Date of Publication :30-03-1990
CONTENTS
Page
HITHERTO UNREPORTED NEST SITE OF LESSER FLAMINGO Phoeniconaias minor IN THE LITTLE RANN
OF KUTCH, GUJARAT (With a plate and a text-figure )
By Taej Mundkur, Rishad Pravez, Shivrajkumar Khachar and R.M. Naik 281
A STUDY OF Varanus flavescens (HARDWICKE & GRAY) (SAURIA: VARANIDAE) (With ten text-figures )
By Walter Auffenberg, Hafizur Rahman, Fehmida Iffat and Zahida Perveen 286
INTRUSION OF A RHESUS Macaca mulatto PAIR INTO A LANGUR Presbytis entellus GROUP (With two
text-figures)
By Reena Mathur and A. Lobo 308
ANTHECOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY CONSIDERATIONS OF Leonotis nepetaefolia R. BR.
By AJ. Solomon Raju and C. Subba Reddi 313
SATPURA HYPOTHESIS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAUGHING THRUSHES Garrulax LESSON OF INDIA
(With two maps and a text-figure )
By Md. Anwarul Islam 318
ADVANTAGES OF COMMENSALISM IN Uloborusferokus BRADOO (ARANEAE: ULOBORIDAE) (With three
plates containing six figures)
By B .L. Bradoo 323
OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE PRAYING MANTIS Creobater urbana FABR. (ORTHOPTERA:
MANTIDAE)
By RJ. Ranjit Daniels, Malati Hegde and C. Vinutha 329
ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE HIMALAYAN NEWT Tylototriton verrucosus
(ANDERSON) WITH REFERENCE TO CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT (With two plates)
By Tej Kumar Shrestha 333
THE GREENBILLED OR CEYLON COUCAL Centropus chlororhynchus BLYTH-SRI LANKA’S RAREST
ENDEMIC SPECIES
By Thilo Hoffmann 339
FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY OF TOE POISON APPARATUS AND HISTOLOGY OF THE VENOM GLANDS
OF THREE INDIAN SPIDERS (With three plates and seven text-figures)
By Ridling Margaret Waller and G .J. Phanuel 344
FLOWERING PHENOLOGY OF THE MANGROVES FROM THE WEST COAST OF MAHARASHTRA
By N.G. Mulik and LJ. Bhosale 355
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE KING VULTURE Sarcogyps calvus (SCOPOLI) IN GUJARAT: RESULTS
OF A RECENT ENQUIRY (With a text-figure)
By Shivrajkumar Khachar and Taej Mundkur 360
SPAWNING IN THE FROG Microhyla ornata (DUM. & BIBR.) (With eight figures in two plates)
By A.D. Padhye and H.V. Ghate 363
ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD (With
two maps and a text-figure)
By Ranjit Manakadam and Asad Rafi Rahmani 369
STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND GENERAL ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN PYTHON Python molurus molurus
LINN. IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN (With a plate and two text-figures)
By S. Bhupathy and V.S. Vijayan 381
POPULATION DYNAMICS OF ASSASSIN BUGS FROM PENINSULAR INDIA (INSECTA-HETEROPTERA-
REDU VIIDAE) (With four text-figures)
By Dunston P. Ambrose and David Livingstone 388
FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE MALABAR WOODSHRIKE Tephrodornis virgatus sylvicola JERDON AT
THEKKADY, KERALA
By Lalitha Vijayan 396
MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAIIAB ALESHWAR - 8 (PTERIDOPHYTES)
By P.V. Bole and M.R. Almeida 400
1
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW RASBORINE FISH, Esomus manipurensis FROM MANIPUR, INDIA (With two
text-figures)
By Raj Tilak and Seema Jain 408
Indogrammodes GEN. NOV FOR Polygrammodes pectinicornalis (GUENEE) (PYRAUSTINAE: PYRALIDAE:
LEPIDOPTERA) (With four text-figures)
By Jagbir S. Kirti and H.S. Rose 411
Saccoloma chartaceum-A NEW SPECIES
By G. Bhadran Nair ..: 414
A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS Creightonella COCKERELL, (HYMENOPTERA \ APOIDEA: MEGACHILIDAE),
FROM CENTRAL INDIA (With seven text-figures)
By Rajiv K. Gupta 416
A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS Anthocopa LEPELETIER AND SERVILLE (HYMENOPTERA : APOIDEA :
MEGACHILIDAE), FROM ORISSA, INDIA (With six text-figures)
By Rajiv K. Gupta » 419
TWO NEW SPECIES OF HARPACTORARIA FROM SOUTHERN INDIA (HETEROPTERA: REDUVEDAE:HAR-
PACTORINAE
By David Livingstone and G. Ravichandran 422
A NEW SPECIES OF Coelogyne (ORCHIDACEAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA (With seven text-figures)
By T.K. Paul, S.K. Basu and M.C. Biswas 425
A NEW LEPIDOPTERAN Indocala GEN. NOV. FROM INDIA (OPHIDERINAE: NOCTUIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)
(With five text -figures)
By H.S. Rose and A. Srivastava 427
AN UNDESCRIBED SPECIES OF Mussaenda L. (RUBIACEAE) FROM EASTERN HIMALAYA
By S.K. Basu and T.K. Paul 430
REVIEWS
Snakeman
Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 433
Management of national parks and sanctuaries in India
Reviewed by Michael J.B. Green 433
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS:
1 . On the primates of Gumti Sanctuary, Tripura
By Ranjitsinh 435
2. Crab-eating Macaque Macaca fascicular is (Raffles)
feeding on House Sparrow Passer domesticus (Lin-
naeus)
By Ajay Kumar Mandal 435
3. Small Mongoose Harpestes auropunctatus feeding
on droppings of Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus
By Md. Nayerul Haque 435
4. On the distribution of Asian Horseshoe Bat
Rhinolophus yunanensis
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 436
5 . On the status of Madras Tree Shrew Ananthana ellioti
ellioti
By N.J. George .....436
6. Nectar feeding by Three-striped Palm Squirrel
Funambulus palmar um at Point Calimere Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
By P. B alasubr amanian 437
7. Grizzled Giant Squirrel Ratufa macroura - Distribu-
tion in Kudirayar
By Peter Davidar 437
8. Elephants living in harmony with people
By Shaju Thomas 438
9. Musk Deer Moschus chrysogaster : musk extraction
from live deer
By Mukti N. Shrestha 438
BIRDS:
10. Sight record of Rednecked Grebe Podiceps
griseigena near Rajkot, Gujarat
By Taej Mundkur & Rishad Pravez 440
11. Monthly variations in diet of Cattle Egret Bubulcus
ibis coromandus in and around Chandigarh
By Navjot S. Sodhi 440
12. Brown Booby Sula leucogaster (Boddaert) on the
western coast
By S.N. Varu & N.N. Bapat 443
13. Occurrence of Ciconia ciconia Gruidae and breeding
of Phoenicopteridae in Kutch, Gujarat
By M.K. Himmatsinhji 443
14. Reappearance of Anser indicus (Latham) andTadorna
tadorna (Linnaeus) in Kutch, Gujarat
By M.K. Himmatsinhji & N.N. Bapat ., 445
15. Pariah Kite Milvus migrans capturing Whitebreasted
Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis
By E. Narayanan 445
16. Sightings of Goshawk Accipiter genii Us in Hingol-
gadh, Gujarat
By Shivrajkumar Khachar & Taej Mundkur 446
17. Storage of food by Bonelli’s Hawk-eagle Hieraetus
fasciatus
By M. Watve, V. Joshi, N. Sant & S. Ranade ......446
18. Avocet Recurvirostra avocetta in Kerala
By L. Namassivayan & R. Venugopalan ...447
19. Breeding records of Creamcoloured Courser Cur-
sorius cursor cursor (Latham) from India
By Asad R. Rahmani & Ranjit Manakadan 447
20. On the taxonomic status of Psittacula intermedia
(Rothschild)
By Biswamoy Biswas... 448
21. Pied Crested Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus : the
harbringer of the monsoon
By Shivrajkumar Khachar 448
22. Feeding behaviour of Whitebreasted Kingfisher Hal-
cyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus)
By Raza Tehsin 449
23. Black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis nesting on electric
pole
By K.S.R. Krishna Raju & U.V. Bairagi Raju 449
24. Common Myna as a campfollower of Lesser Whis-
tling Teals
By E.K. Bharucha 450
25. Tool-using behaviour in Indian House Crow Corvus
splendens
By S. Alagar Rajan & P. Balasubramanian ..450
26. Range extension of Yellowbellied Wren-warbler
Prinia flaviventris
By Ravi Sankaran 451
27. On some willow warblers ( Phylloscopi ) in the collec-
tion of St. Xavier’s High School, Bombay
By A. Navarro & S. Unnithan 451
28. The Desert Wheatear ( Oenanthe deserti) in Madras
By V. Santharam 452
29. Treecreeper (Certhiidae) nesting in Western Nepal
By Jack H. Cox 452
30. Forest Wagtail Motacilla indica at Jasdan, Gujarat
By Satyajit Khachar 453
3 1 . Host plants used by Bay a Weaver Bird Ploceus philip -
pinus (L.) for nesting in Udaipur district, Rajasthan
By Satish Kumar S harm a 453
32. Host plants used by Blackthroated Weaver Bird
Ploceus benghalensis for nesting in some districts of
Rajasthan and Haryana
By Satish Kumar Sharma 455
33. Half-built nests of Blackthroated Weaver Bird
Ploceus benghalensis with double chin strips
By Satish Kumar Sharma ....456
34. Greynecked Bunting Emberiza buchanani Blyth
sighted near Udaipur, Rajasthan
By R. Tehsin, M. Kulshreshtha & R. Singh 456
35. Four additions to the birds of Kerala
By L. Namassivayan, P. K. Uthaman &
R. Venugopalan 458
36. Some observations of scarce birds in Kerala and
Tamil Nadu
By S.C. Harrap & N.J. Redman ....460
37. Additional record on mortality from hailstorm at
Jaipur
By B. Ram Manohar & M. Rajasekaran .........461
REPTILES:
38. Catterpillar in diet of House Gecko
By Arun M.K. Bharos ................462
39. Rediscovery of holotype of Tropidonotus striolatus
Blyth, 1868 (Serpentes: Colubridae) in the collection
of the Zoological Survey of India
By S.K. Talukdar, D.P. Sanyal &
B. Duttagupta ..462
FISHES:
40. On a small collection of fish from Mizoram, India
By R.P. Barman .......463
4 1 . A new distributional record for Iso natalensis (Regan,
1919) (Pisces: Isonidae) from the Bay of Bengal
By N.A.V. Prasad Reddy & C. Uma Devi. 467
INSECTS:
42. Key to genera and records of some species of Coc-
cinae (Homoptera: Coccidae) from India
By Rajendra Kumar Avasthi &
S. Adam Shafee 468
43. Anew type of mimicry in butterflies
By Peter Smetacek ...471
44. Oviposition behaviour and egg hatchability in Tasar
Uji fly Blepharipa zebina (Walker)
By G.M. Patil & C.J. Savanurmath 472
BOTANY:
45. A contribution to the flora of Ganganagar (Rajasthan)
By B.P. Singh & K.B.S. Dhillon 473
46. Pneumatopteris nudata (Roxb.) Punetha et Kholia
comb. nov.
By N. Punetha & B.S. Kholia
.475
47. Some rare endangered and threatened plant species
from Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra
By M.K. Mistry & S.M. Almedia 478
48. Cyrtomium hookerianum (Presl) C. Chr.
(Aspidiaceae)-a new record for Western Himalayas
By P.C. Pande & H.C. Pande 479
49. Caralluma nilagiriana Kumar i & Subba Rao
(Asclepiadaceae)-a new record from Karnataka
By V. Bhaskar & C.G. Kushalappa
50. Two new records of Asclepiadaceae from
By S.R. Yadav, C.B. Salunkhe & G.B. Dixit 480
5 1 . On the dispersal of Wild Lime Atalantia monop hylla
(L) Corn Serr. (Rutaceae) seeds by Shortnosed Fruit
Bat Cynopterus sphinx Vahl in Point Calimere
Wildlife Sanctuary, South India.
By P. Balasubramanian 482
480
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY
December 1989
Vol. 86
No. 3
HITHERTO UNREPORTED NEST SITE OF LESSER FLAMINGO
PHOENIC ONA1AS MINOR IN THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH, GUJARAT1
Taej Mundkur, Rishad Pravez, Shivrajkumar Khachar and R.M. Naik2
(With a plate and a text-figure )
Introduction
The known principal nesting grounds of the
Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor are the
soda lakes of Natron and Magadi in East Africa,
where the birds usually breed between August and
October (Brown et al. 1982). More recently, in
1978, the bird has been known to breed on the
Makgadikgadi salt pans in Botswana, southern
Africa (Robertson and Johnson 1980).
The only breeding site “Flamingo City” in
India was discovered in January 1 974 in the Great
Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, where a colony of
between 2000 and 5000 birds were found nesting
beside Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus (Ali
1 974). The main nesting colony in the Great Rann
has not been active since 1977; possible reasons
are discussed by Thakker (1982) and Kumar
(1986). Though there have been no further record
of the bird breeding in Gujarat, there have been
ample suggestions of its breeding somewhere
around. Non-flying juvenile birds were sighted
near Navlakhi by S.D. Jadeja, P. Prunes and C.
Briggs (pers. comm.) in February 1984. On 23
December 1984, when we saw more than 460
1 Accepted December 1987.
Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra Univeristy, Rajkot
360005, Gujarat (India).
Lesser Flamingo in a saltpan northwest of Jalan-
dar bet in the Little Rann of Kutch, there were 52
flying juveniles and 14 adults in one group. On 27
December 1985, we saw one non-flying juvenile
west of Navlakhi. The suspicion has been that the
main “Flamingo City” has been abandoned and
split up into smaller breeding groups in the Little
Rann, Great Rann and possibly elsewhere in the
area.
This study reports a hitherto unknown site in
Gujarat where the LesserFlamingo breeds.
Material and Methods
In connection with our numerous studies in the
Gulf of Kutch since September 1984, we often
visited Surajbari and Cherwari (Cherowari).
While interviewing fishermen there, we learnt
about possible nesting of the Lesser Flamingo in
a nearby area, which we specially visited on 20
March 1986, 10 June 1986, 19 June 1987, 19 July
1987, 22 June 1988 and 9 July 1988.
Study Area
The Little Rann of Kutch in Gujarat separates
the district of Kutch from Rajkot and
Surendranagar districts of the Saurashtra region.
National Highway 8B and the broad gauge rail-
way line from Saurashtra pass over two bridges
282
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
built over the mouth of the Little Rann near Suraj-
bari and Malia. Spread over both sides of the
railway bridge on the Kutch side, is a seasonal
fishing village called Cherwari (Fig. 1). A
majority of the fishermen living here are from the
nearby village of Surajbari. Cherwari has a land-
ing site for prawn and fish on the north bank of
the Hadakiya creek which joins the rann with the
Gulf of Kutch. The tidal waters come through the
main creek, flow under the bridges and past the
village to circulate through anastomosing chan-
nels extending 3-4 km into the rann throughout
the year. During the pre-monsoon (May and June)
and monsoon (July to September), the height of
the tidal water increases. Driven by winds, these
waters spread further east into the rann. This,
augmented by the rain water, fast turns the dry salt
encrusted mudflat into damp ground and finally
into a shallow marsh. During this period, Cher-
wari becomes a very important fishing village,
and the entire flooded rann is intensively fished
for prawns, especially Metapenaeus kutchensis
Fig. 1. Study area in Gujarat. Shaded area indicates Rann of Kutch. Inset shows map of India; rectangle indicates location
of study area.
NEST SITE OF LESSER FLAMINGO
283
and M. brevicornis that abound and grow rapidly
in the brackish water.
East of Cherwari, about 3 km into the rann, is
a location known as Purabcheria (23 11 ’N,
70 46 ’E; Fig. 1); “purab” meaning the direction
east, and “cheria” meaning mangrove vegeta-
tion, the latter possibly a reference to its past
occurrence. Purabcheria is built on a slightly
elevated area of silt. At present, the place has a
few minor, irregularly placed mounds of mud, up
to half a metre in height, overgrown with stands
of coarse grass and a few stunted bushes of
Tamarisk sp.; a little westward, there is a small
but prominent stand of grass Saccharum sp. Ac-
cording to a fisherman the mounds of Purabcheria
were originally produced by piles of mud that
were removed while dredging channels by fisher-
men to bagnet prawns.
Results
Fishermen of Cherwari revealed to us that at
least two generations of fishermen have witnessed
the nesting of Lesser Flamingo at Purabcheria.
They nest in large numbers, laying a single egg
per nest, the nest mound being called a “timbla”.
They also lay eggs directly on the grass mounds
called “tekras”. After the eggs are laid, oc-
casionally the water level may rise, inundating the
nesting colony. The eggs floating in water are
collected and eaten by fishermen. Eggs are also
collected from nests, and eaten in large numbers
but are not usually sold. Though the birds lay eggs
nearly every year, only one man claimed to have
seen young ones and eaten them. Fishermen in all
the nearby fishing villages from Surajbari to
Malia are aware of this colony and have eaten the
eggs. The fishermen also kill and eat adult birds
when possible, claiming that they walk up to them
slowly and then strike at a bird with a long stick.
Occasionally, persons from nearby villages,
armed with guns, also come here to hunt. How-
ever, for the last three years (1985-1987), they
have not seen any eggs though the birds have
continued to gather here in astounding numbers.
In June-July the birds disappear. It is claimed that
the birds depart at night.
Since 1986, we visited the study area six times
(Table 1). When we visited the area first on 20
March 1986, we saw no nest mounds in the
vicinity of the site described above. There was
only one Lesser Flamingo at the creekside and the
fishermen said that it was too early in the season
for the birds. During the visit on 10 June 1986
there were no birds and the fishermen said that the
birds had flown off only a few days earlier. On 19
June 1987 when we visited the site again, there
were 5 groups of 83 new nests. The total number
of nests during our next visit on 19 July 1987 was
288, scattered about in 14 sub-groups in an area
of 0.5 sq. km. Most of the groups were built on
the edges and banks of narrow (0.5-1. 0 m wide)
channels (Plate 1). There were no signs of eggs,
or remains of chicks in the nests to suggest that
egg laying had taken place.
During our June 1987 visit, there were about
16,000 Lesser Flamingo in the area, and there
Table 1
SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS AT THE BREEDING GROUNDS OF LESSER FLAMINGO AT PURABCHERIA
Date
No. of
No. of
Remarks
birds
nests
20 March 1986
1
0
Birds still to arrive.
10 June 1986
0
0
Birds migrated about 3 June 1986.
19 June 1987
16,000
83
No eggs laid.
19 July 1987
2,000
288
No eggs laid, 1 bird
on nest, groups attending empty nests.
22 June 1988
9,000
123
No eggs laid.
9 July 1988
7,000
183
Eggs collected by fishermen.
284
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
were more, seen as a pink hue beyond clear vision
on the horizon in the east. Most of the birds were
standing and resting, preening and a few sitting on
the ground. A few birds were engaged in feeding.
During the July visit, the rann was wet, Mudskip-
pers Periophthalmus sp. and crabs Amphiuca in-
versa sindensis were active in building their
burrows. Further east of the flamingo colony, the
land was covered with a sheet of water, this area
being very slightly low lying as compared to
Purabcheria. The number of Lesser Flamingo had
now decreased to about 2000. Flamingo were also
present in small numbers. When viewed from far
away, small groups of 10-20 birds were seen
standing and resting in and around the nests. One
bird was actually resting on a nest. On our ap-
proach, they walked away to a nearby creek and
rested there.
On 22 June 1988, when the site was visited,
there were a total of 123 nests but no eggs were
seen. The rains started in and around the Little
Rann in the first week of July. Thereafter there
were widespread rains in the area. Around 5 July,
laying started, but the local fishermen collected
the eggs immediately, so that on 9 July, except for
a single egg in the water, all the nests were empty.
One fisherman had a collection of 7 eggs, from
which three eggs were taken to the laboratory and
were blown. They measured on an average 78.7 x
49.7 mm.
On the last four visits, we saw flocks of birds,
upto about 25 in number, walking in a tight flock,
heads held up, necks taut and vertical. A few birds
would flip their heads down suddenly, so that their
bills would come in contact with the necks and
then the heads would be lifted up again. After a
few steps in one direction the whole group would
change direction and continue to shuffle along.
While a bird standing nearby would join the
group, another would leave it, in no discernible
order. This would continue for upto about 10
minutes and then the group would dissolve.
Brown (1959) describes a similar courtship be-
haviour for this bird in East Africa, though there
the birds would number a thousand or so in a
group and the act would continue for a much
longer period.
During our visits to Cherwari and the surround-
ing area, we saw flamingo flying in small and
large flocks to and fro between the rann and the
gulf side. They were also arriving from further
west. A majority of the birds that flew into the
rann landed along the creekside very close to the
jetty of Cherwari. They rested here and drank
water from the puddles along the creek. The birds
were not wary and a fisherman in a boat could
approach them fairly close.
Discussion
A large concentration of the Lesser Flamingo
builds up around Cherwari in June-July. At least
some of them make a nesting attempt at Purab-
cheria by building nests. In some years they even
lay eggs, but whether the nesting ever succeeds is
not clear. It is well known that flamingo desert
their colony if disturbed, as they would be by egg
collectors. This may be one reason why young
have not been seen at the colony. It also seems
possible that the chicks migrate en masse further
east into the shallows of the rann, and develop
there out of the view of human beings. In Africa,
the chicks are known to march upto 30- 50 km
across mudflats to lagoons of permanent water
(Brown et al. 1982). We feel that Purabcheria is
the westernmost limit of the nesting colony in the
rann. When the rann is flooded, a ground survey
is not possible. Therefore, activities of the birds
east of Purabcheria should be monitored by an
aerial survey early during the monsoon every
year.
After the monsoon breaks, the birds leave this
area in July if the rains are not adequate. In 1986,
just after the exodus of the flamingo from here,
we happened to be at the north end of the Kori
creek (Fig. 1). In the early hours of the morning
and then just before dawn on 21 June 1986, flocks
of Lesser Flamingo, some of them as many as 300
strong, were flying high and moving towards the
northwest direction leading to Pakistan. This is
also the general direction along the coast which
leads to the known nesting grounds of flamin-
gos— the soda lakes of East Africa. Nesting there
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Mundkur et al : Nest site of Lesser Flamingo
Plate 1
Nests of the Lesser Flamingo in the Little Rann of Kutch. (A) Overall view of a group of
nests. (B) Close-up of a few nests built on a channel. (C) A single nest; note the marks
(lower centre) of bill of the flamingo made during nest construction.
NEST SITE OF LESSER FLAMINGO
285
occurs mainly during August to October, extend-
ing upto December in certain conditions (Brown
etal. 1982).
The proximate factors for nesting in flamingos
are imperfectly understood. We feel that the
Lesser Flamingo nests in the Little Rann during
the early monsoon in years of normal rainfall. The
insufficient rainfall during 1985, 1986 and 1987
seasons was correlated with the failure of birds to
lay eggs at Purabcheria. Adequate rains increase
the supply of invertebrates, microscopic algae and
benthic diatoms, which may provide the flamingo
with additional energy required for egg formation.
Because of the drought in the coastal areas, an
increasing number of human beings visited
Purabcheria to cut grass to feed their domestic
livestock; we have observed as many as 20 people
from the Hangiasar village on the southern side of
the rann, coming here to cut grass. In East Africa,
the birds do not breed every year even when the
climatic conditions and state of the breeding site
seem suitable (Brown and Root 1971).
Refer
Ali, S .(1974): Breeding of the Lesser Flamingo in Kutch.
J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71: 141-144.
Brown, L.H. (1959): The Mystery of the Flamingos.
Country Life, London.
Brown, L.H. & Root, A. (1971): The breeding behaviour
of the Lesser Flaming oPhoeniconaias minor . Ibis 1 13 : 147- 172.
Brown, L.H., Urban, E. & Newman, K. (1982): The
Birds of Africa. Volume I. Academic Press, New York.
Kumar, R.A. (1986): Rise in global mean sea level: has
In India, there is no information on the nesting
season of the Lesser Flamingo as there was only
one record (Ali 1974) of it breeding here. From
observations at Purabcheria, it seems that the nest
building and egg laying occur with the onset of
the monsoon. However, Ali (1974) found nests
with eggs and chicks in January. It, therefore,
seems likely that the season here is variable
depending on the conditions of water; it begins in
June — July and extends up to January — February.
Considering that the young birds are known to fly
by the age of 70-75 days (Brown et al 1982), the
observations of non-flying young near Navlakhi
in February and December 1984 indicate that
around December 1983 and October 1984 (see
above), nesting had taken place somewhere in the
Rann of Kutch.
Acknowledgements
The work has been financed by a fellowship (to
T.M.) from the University Grants Commission,
New Delhi, and grants from WWF- India.
N C E S
it affected the Flamingo breeding grounds? J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 83: 433-435.
Robertson, H.G. & Johnson, P.G. (1980): As quoted in
“News from the region”. Flamingo Working Group-Old World
I.C.B.P. — I.W.R.B. Newsletter 1 :4.
Thakker, P.S. (1982): Why did the flamingoes shift their
breeding ground? I.S.R.O. (Ahmedabad), Technical Report pp.
108- 116.
A STUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS (HARDWICKE & GRAY)
(SAURIA: VARANIDAE)1
Walter Auffenberg2, Hafizur Rahman, Fehmida Iffat
and Zahida Per veen3
(With ten text-figures )
The present study documents several aspects of the biology of Varanus flavescens.
Adequate available material now makes possible a more detailed description of the morphological
features of this species than was previously possible. The annual reproductive and abdominal fat
cycles are outlined and the common prey organisms identified. The primary habitat is shown to
be mesic to hydric wet savannas and marshlands. The geographic range is defined and the
suggestion made that though the species is widely distributed in the Indo- Gangetic Plain, it tends
to be spotty. These and other factors lead the authors to consider this the most endangered of all
Asian mainland monitors.
Introduction
This study was undertaken because of all
varanid species of mainland Asia, Varanus flaves-
cens is one of the poorest known. It is, in addition,
surrounded with considerable controversy and
mis-information.
The following data were obtained from 1984
through most of 1987, in Bangladesh, India and
Pakistan. Additionally, important museum
specimens were examined in these countries as
well as in Europe and the United States. Total field
time was approximately 18 months (India 10,
Pakistan 7, Bangladesh 1). Data were obtained
from 185 specimens (134 in museums and 51 in
the field). All measurements of total length
(TOL), tail length (TL) and snout-vent length
(SVL) were made to the closest mm; all internal
measurements (testes, ova, etc.) were made to the
closest 0.1 mm; all weights to the closest 0.1 g.
Systematics
Synonomy: Because of the confusion on the
part of some biologists concerning the current
Accepted November 1987.
Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville,
3261 1, U.S.A.
All remaining authors Zoological Survey Dept., Block 61 ,
Pakistan Secretariat, Karachi 1, Pakistan.
valid name for this species, the following an-
notated synonymy of previous name combina-
tions used for this species is provided.
Varanus flavescens (Hardwicke & Gray)
1827: Monitor flavescens Hardwicke and Gray, p. 226,
type locality “India”. First species description.
1830: Varanus russellii Heyden (in Ruppell), p. 23, type
locality Bengal. First reference to any locality at the provincial
level.
1836: Varanus p icq uotii Dumeril and Bibron, p. 485, pi.
35, fig. 5, type locality Bengal.
1838: Empagusia flavescens Gray, p. 393. first use of
Empagusia (now used as a subgenus, Mertens 1942).
1844: Monitor exant hematic us indicus Schlegel (not
Tupinambis indicus Daudin 1802), p. X, type locality Bengal.
First association with the African species Varanus exan-
thematicus.
1847: Varanus flavescens Cantor, p. 634. First use of the
current valid name combination.
1942: Varanus ( Empagusia ) flavescens Mertens, p. 347,
pis. 1,16, figs. 4, 1 10. First use of Empagusia as a. subgenus.
For reasons given below the type locality is
here restricted to Calcutta, West Bengal, India, to
replace ‘ ‘India’ ’ as used by the original describers
Hardwicke and Gray (1827).
Phylogeny: Varanus flavescens is charac-
terized among other features by the fact that its
external nares are slit-like in shape, located closer
to the tip of the snout than to the eyes (Fig. 1 ), with
a skull that is high in proportion to its length (Fig.
1) and with body scales relatively large when
A STUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS
287
Fig. 1. Head shape and scalation in Varanus flavescens,
Dokri, Larkana District, Sind Province, Pakistan,
compared to those of most other monitors. This
combination of characters is found in the African
savanna monitor Varanus exanthematicus (Bose),
leading to Schegel’s conclusion that V. flavescens
(as Monitor indicus) was a subspecies of V. exan-
thematicus. This concept of probable close
relationship was furthered by Gray ’s placement of
both species in the genus Empagusia, erected
specially to receive these two species with similar
characterstics (though the nostril of V. exan-
thematicus is located much closer to the eye). In
1942 Mertens also concluded these two species
were closely related on the basis of skull and jaw
structure (particularly the form of the skull and the
length height index of the maxillary). He placed
both species in the subgenus Empagusia - one of
seven he established at that time. In 1959 he
redescribed the skull of V. flavescens on the basis
of better material then at hand, adding other char-
acters to those he formerly believed showed
relationship to V. exanthematicus (supratemporal
process of the parietal and the basipterygoid
process). He also noted several characters by
which these species differed from one another and
suggested that V. flavescens was the more primi-
tive type from which V. exanthematicus evolved.
The studies of Singh et al. (1970) introduced
new diagnostic characters for V. flavescens in
which chromosomal morphology played a major
role in defining relationships. However, the
limited number of species compared and the ab-
sence of details important in comparison of V.
flavescens with other varanid species (ill-defined
centromere location and poor resolution) limited
the usefulness of these new data in determining
the phyletic position of this species. King and
King (1975) improved the utility of such data by
employing both short-term leucocyte culturing
techniques on whole blood and better staining
procedures. This resulted in higher resolution and
precise centromere location. Their examination of
1 6 of the 32 congeners showed that these could be
placed in six distinct karyotype groups. Not all of
these corresponded to current taxonomic group-
ings. Among these differences were the species V.
exanthematicus and V. flavescens, which failed to
assort themselves into a single group. The former
was suggested as being more closely related to V.
niloticus (continental Africa) than to V. flaves-
cens, which was closer to its sympatric congener
V. bengalensis. These studies thus cast consider-
able doubt on the validity of the subgenus Em-
pagusia as currently recognized and suggested
that further work was needed before the phyletic
relationships of V. flavescens could be ascer-
tained. The studies by Holmes, et al (1975) on
comparative electrophoretic data tended to sub-
stantiate the groupings suggested by the work of
King and King on chromosomal morphology,
though V. flavescens was not included in their list
of species examined. However, the study
provided additional substantive data to the
developing notion that the Mertensian system of
varanid relationships may be somewhat incorrect.
Even more recently, Bohme (1982) and Branch
(1982) independently concluded that V. flaves-
cens and V. exanthematicus are only distantly
related on the basis of hemipenial morphology.
The penial morphology of V. flavescens was
shown to be more primitive than that of V. exan-
thematicus.
Collectively, the conclusions resulting from
this recent work are: 1) the earlier contention of
monophyly among living varanids is still valid, 2)
V. salvator possessed less derived (i.e. more
288
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. V0I.R6
Fig. 2. Hind feet of varanid lizards. A, V. bengalensis ; B, V. flavescens.
primitive) characters than all other species, 3)
interspecific relationships among the species in-
cluded in the genus are less clear than previously
believed, 4) while some subgeneric groupings are
easily diagnosed on the basis of chromosomes,
proteins and morphology, others are not, 5) V.
flavescens is not as closely related to V. exan-
thematicus as once thought, and that what charac-
ters are similar are probably due to convergence,
6) this species is a fairly primitive one, with
closest relationships to V. bengalensis, V. rudicol-
lis, V. salvator and (by extension, see Auffenberg
1987) V. olivaceous. However, the skull shape
and construction (which led Mertens to place it
close to V. exant hematicus to begin with), short,
stubby toes (Fig. 2, found only in V. griseus
among other mainland Asian species) and certain
parasitic relationships and behavioural traits (see
below) suggest that it should continue to receive
separate nomenclatorial status at the subgeneric
level. Thus we favour the retention of the sub-
generic concept as applied to V. flavescens, plac-
ing it (by priority) in Empagusia as its sole
member. It is very likely that additional study of
other characters will throw other light on its rela-
tions to other Varanus species and that a thorough
cladistic approach to the problem of varanid
phylogeny would yield new and important in-
sights into this matter.
Morphology
A description of the skull anatomy and scala-
tion of Varanus flavescens is provided by Mertens
(1942, 1959), though based on only 7 specimens,
of which only three are provided with locality data
(all West Bengal, India). Thus the many addition-
al specimens now available from several widely
scattered localities and which we have examined
during the course of this study suggest we address
the matter of potentially significant geographic,
sexual and ontogenetic variation in this species.
Of these, the most cogent pertain to scalation,
bodily proportions and colour pattern. Some of
the variation has been the basis for mis-identifica-
tion of V. bengalensis as V. flavescens in the past.
(Biswas and Kar have transposed the photographs
and legends for V. flavescens and V. salvator).
The following descriptions and discussion are
based on 185 specimens.
Size and Mass: Compared to other Asian
monitor species, Varanus flavescens is a rather
small species, (only V. griseus has a smalller
average adult size; W.A. notes). In spite of the fact
that we examined a large number of individuals
in the field and in museums, the specimen cited
by Boulenger (1885) is still the largest reported
(TOL 920 mm, SVL 410, TL 510). Visser (1985)
reports a newly hatched young with TOL 1 45 mm,
SVL 66, TL 79; those neonates examined by us in
the field (all from India) varied from TOL 143-
A STUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS
289
Fig. 3. Frequency of size classes in V. flavescens, all
localities combined.
188 mm, SVL 64-92, TL 78-96; means of all
hatchlings for which such data are available (N
18) are X TOL 163.3 mm, X SVL 77.6, X TL
85.7. Mean TOL for all nomhatchlings (N 167) is
699.5 mm, X SVL 315.1, X TL 384.4. There is
no significant difference between size of in-
dividuals in populations from the Ganges (N 50)
and Indus (N 117) river valleys. Tail length is
relatively short when compared to other monitor
species, varying from 1.2-1. 3 times the SVL (X
1.27), with the relationship being linear and ex-
pressed by the formula tail length = 1.27x SVL-
18.55 (R2 = 0.83). There is no significant change
in proportionate tail length with age, as in some
other monitor species (Mertens 1942, Auffenberg
1982). There is slight, but significant difference
in mean SVL (Fig. 3) of males (342.0 mm, N=55)
and females (332.2 mm, N = 47) (t = 2.88, DF 1 00,
p > 0.02). The small difference is rather unusual
in varanids, for in almost all species studied males
are significantly larger than females. This fact
must be of considerable importance in V. flaves-
cens reproductive behaviour, for in the courtship
of all other varanids studied (Auffenberg 1983,
1987), the larger males of those species tend to
completely dominate the smaller females. The
fact that both sexes of V. flavescens are similar in
size suggests that their reproductive behaviour
may be quite different from that reported for other
Varanus species. We assume that male dominant
behaviour is less marked in this species during
courtship. This may, in turn, be related to the
seasonal change in body coloration during the
reproductive season of adults (see below).
The weight of J83 adult individuals varied from
510 to 1040 g, X = 768.5 g ( SD± 154.6, V =
20. 1 ); no weights are yet available for hatchlings.
Proportions: That the tail length does not change
ontogenetically in length in proportion to the body
and head (SVL) has been shown above.
The slit-shaped nostril is placed closer to the
snout than to die eye (Fig. 1) with the ratio of
snout-nostril length/snout to ear (anterior edge)
length varying from 0.21 to 0.28, X = 0.25. We
find no significant geographic or ontogenetic
variation in nostril position.
The toes of particularly the hind feet of this
species are short and the claws relatively straight
(both mentioned by Mertens 1942) when com-
pared to congeners (except V. griseus) (Fig. 2). Its
short toes were noted as early as 1884 by Murray,
who called this species the “short-toed water
lizard”. The length of the hind foot along the
longest toe (number IV) is usually 14 percent of
the SVL in individuals of all sizes. Toe IV of the
congeneric V. bengalensis is much longer (Fig. 2).
Viscera: The absence of a caecum at the begin-
ning of the large intestine is a common feature of
faunivorous invertebrates (Hladik 1976). It is es-
sentially completely missing in the carnivorous V.
salvator( Auffenberg 1987), only very slightly
developed in the largely insectivorous V. ben-
galensis (Auffenberg MS) and very well
developed in the frugo-molluscovore V. olivaceus
(Auffenberg 1987). In other vertebrate animals a
caecum is often associated with herbivory. Thus
we were quite surprised to find a somewhat en-
larged area at the anterior end of the large intes-
tine, supplied with abundant blood vessels that
could be described as a developed caecal pouch.
Why this should occur in a completely
faunivorous varanid (see below) remains un-
known.
Calculation of the internal surface area (A = 2
pi rh) of the stomach, small and large intestine of
V. flavescens (following the techniques suggested
by Chivers and Hladik 1980) shows that the sur-
face area of the stomach is the greatest of the three
290
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
intestinal sections (7854.0 mm2), as expected in a
carnivore (Hladik 1976). The large intestine is the
next largest (6141.8 mm 2), and the small intestine
possesses the least surface area. The area of the
stomach surface and that of the large intestine
relative to the area of the small intestine provides
a quantitative index of gut differentiation (Coef.
Gut Diff. : stomach area + large intestine
area/small intestine area; see Chivers and Hladik
1980 for justification, etc.). In V. flavescens the
area index is 2.79. This value is higher than those
values obtained for the only other varanids studied
(Auffenberg 1987; values 2.24 and 2.42 for V.
olivaceus and V. salvator respectively). The larger
value in V. flavescens is primarily due to the
proportionately smaller small intestine. Since
most absorption takes place in this part of the gut
(on the basis of its rich blood vessel supply), we
assume that the food of this species must be
nutritionally rich and probably much more easily
digested than that of the other two species studied
previously, which have proportionately longer
small intestines.
The liver of 100 individuals was weighed and
this compared to total animal weight for different
months of the year. The results show that there is
no difference in liver weight in males and females,
but a significant seasonal change in which liver
weight is low in August and September, but high
in December through April. The latter months are
those of least activity on the part of the lizards and
the former are the months following courtship and
breeding and during the monsoon. During the
monsoon (mid-July through mid-September,
depending on locality), liver weight varies from
1.4 to 3.4 % of total body weight (N 31); during
the winter (December through March) liver
weight varies from 3.3 to 7.7 % (N 34). The mean
livei^weights for these periods (X = 2.6, SD 0.7,
and X = 4.6, SD 1 . 1 respectively) are significantly
different at the 0.001 % level (/ = 129.2, df 70).
As far as is known, liver function in reptiles is
probably identical to that in mammals. Its main
roles are concerned with protein, cholesterol and
bile salt synthesis, glycogen storage, and metabo-
lism of steroid hormones. From a dietary
standpoint, the liver is most important in fat
degradation and detoxification of a number of
proteinaceous substances. In general, larger livers
have been viewed to result from greater sys-
tematic levels of hepatotoxins and greater varia-
tion in chemicals being metabolized (see Freeland
and Janzen 1974, Swain 1976, for general
reviews). However, the pattern of seasonal liver
weight variation in V . flavescens suggests that
glycogen storage may also be a major factor in
liver size. During the monsoon, food is, in general,
the most abundant in the entire year, but this is
also the time of greatest activity; winter is the time
of least activity.
While seasonal differences in liver weight may
be due largely to glycogen storage, interspecies
weight differences may be related to dietary dif-
ferences. In V. flavescens , the liver is a large
organ, being on average 3.3 % of the total body
weight. This compares to only 1.9 % in V.
olivaceus and 2.6 % in V. salvator (Auffenberg
1987). Differences between these and V. flaves-
cens are significant at the 0.02 % level (df =271).
In V. bengalensis mean liver weight is 2.3 % of
total weight, and in V. griseus 2.9 %. Differences
between these species and V. flavescens are not
statistically significant (/ = 55.8, df 46; t = 38.6,
df 1 16 respectively. Thus the data gathered so far
on proportionate liver weight of varanids suggests
that the highly selective frugo-molluscovore V.
olivaceus is much less exposed to high toxin
levels than the generalist carnivore species such
as V. flavescens (see below).
One of the major distinguishing features of this
species is the oval nostril that is placed closer to
the tip of the snout than to the eye (in V. salvator
it is rounded, near the snout tip; in V. griseus it is
slit-like and very close to the eye, and in V. ben-
galensis it is slit-like and placed about midway
between the snout tip and die eye). The distance
between the snout tip and anterior edge of the
nostril in V. flavescens goes into the distance from
the snout tip to the anterior edge of the tympanum
opening from 3.50 to 5.49 times, with a mean of
4.35 (SD 0.41). Fig.l shows the normal shape of
the nostril and its position in respect to the various
A S'rUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS
291
parts of the head. The same illustration also shows
the characteristic shape of the head of this species
in side view. With the exception of V. exan-
thematicus, V.flavescens has die highest skull in
proportion to its length than any of its congeners.
In addition, the lower jaw is generally more robust
than in the other species.
Visceral Fat: In all lizards in which fat deposits
have been studied (see Fox 1977), accumulation
of fat in the tail is always indicative of high food
abundance. However, fat bodies in the visceral
area have been associated with both food supply
and reproduction. Volsoe (1944) suggested that
visceral fat served as a food reserve in the snake
Viper a berus. Presst (1971) and Bellairs (1970)
extended this to all snakes, pointing out that
seasonally small fat bodies were correlated with
food shortages. However, in lizards the correla-
tion between fat body size and food abundance is
less clear. Hahn and Tinkle (1965), plus several
other authors that have followed them, showed
that in at least some female iguanid lizards vis-
ceral fat is important in follicular development.
Bellairs (1970) and Burrage (1975) have sug-
gested that visceral fat may be used by the
developing embryos in some lizard species. To
complicate matters even more, Fox (1977)
demonstrated that seasonal breeders have fat
bodies, while year-round breeders do not. How-
ever, a study of ten sympatric skink species in
tropical evergreen forests of the Philippines sug-
gests a less definite association with annual breed-
ing pattern and a better correlation with seasonal
food abundance within the microhabitats of each
of the species studied (Auffenberg and Auffen-
berg 1 987). Not all female lizards possess visceral
fat bodies, and none of the current explanations
clarify the presence of such bodies in males, sug-
gesting that several factors may be responsible for
their presence, absence, or seasonal size in lizards.
Visceral fat bodies have been demonstrated in
several varanid species (see Auffenberg 1987 for
review), but extensively studied in only a few. The
general conclusion is that all varanids possess
such bodies. This study shows that adult Varanus
flavescens have them. However, they are very
small or absent in all individuals less than 200 mm
SVL (0- 0.2 % of total body weight). Thus, ex-
tensive body fat deposition (which varies
seasonally) is a characteristic of adults only (sug-
gesting a reproductive importance).
In adult V.flavescens these deposits may com-
prise as much as 16.9 % of the total body weight
during at least part of the year (OR 0.15-10.9 %).
The mean fat weight of all adult specimens ex-
amined (N = 70) is 3.8, SD 2.5 % of total weight.
This is a greater amount than has been
demonstrated for any varanid species studied so
far (Auffenberg 1987). V.flavescens also occurs
in the most seasonally variable environment of
any species studied so far (see below).
There is no clear relationship between adult
total weight and fat weight (R2 = 0.58), due largely
to the considerable variation of fat present. This
variation has both an individual and seasonal
component, though the latter is dominant. Fig.4
shows that the pattern of seasonal variation in fat
weight is identical in male and female adult in-
dividuals. The highest values (corrected for adult
weight) are found from about December through
March in both sexes (X = 5.97 % of total body
weight). From April to about June proportionate
fat weight is reduced. The Jowest levels occur
from July through October (X = 1 .08 %). During
November there is a dramatic increase in the
amount of visceral fat accumulated, leading to the
high winter levels.
The values for males and females are nearly
identical for almost all months. Thus the pattern
differs from that in V. olivaceus , in which males
have significantly more fat than females during
some months (Auffenberg 1987). Since an iden-
tical annual pattern with identical values occurs in
males as well as females, we assume that ab-
dominal fat deposition in V. flavescens is not
related to the yolking of ova (as in some iguanids
at least), but is probably related to seasonal food
abundance (as has been suggested in other
varanids; Auffenberg 1987). The period of low fat
weight in V. flavescens (Pakistan and northern
India populations) from July through October oc-
curs during the monsoon in this part of the species
292
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig. 4. Annual pattern of visceral fat in adult male and
female V. flavescens from Dokri, Pakistan.
range, when extensive flooding is an annual oc-
currence in the river flood plain marshlands where
this monitor species is most common (see below).
Fig. 5 shows the annual rainfall pattern near the
Dokri (Pakistan) V. flavescens population.
Scalation: Very few data are available on the
scale characters of this species. The availability of
a large number of specimens from throughout the
species range suggests we take this opportunity to
tabulate those scale characters in V. flavescens
which are known to be of importance in defining
this and other Asian monitor lizard species
Several earlier authors have drawn attention to the
much larger and heavily keeled scales of V. flaves-
cens when compared to those of the other species
of the Indian subcontinent. This is easily seen
particularly on the dorsal surface. Keeled scales
also occur on the dorsal surfaces of both hind and
front legs, extending to near the feet (Fig. 2).
Scales around the midbody vary from 84 to 104,
X 95.5 (SD 4.3). The ventral longitudinal scales
from the gular fold to the insertion of the hind limb
vary from 68 to 85, X (Pakistan) 75. 1 (SD 3.9). In
general, the head scales are rather small when
compared to most congeners. There are no en-
larged supraoculars as occur in V. bengalensis
from the eastern parts of its range (= V. b.
nebulosus). The number of scales from the angle
of the mouth on one side to the angle on the other
side range from 42 to _53, mean 48.5 (SD 2.8);
infralabials 23 to 31, X 25.5 (SD 2.5) and sub-
oculars three to four, usually the former. Head
Fig. 5. Monthly precipitation in Larkana District, Pakistan.
Estimated totals extrapolated from data provided by
Pakistan meteriological Dept.
xalation is shown in Fig. 1 .
Colour
As in most Varanus species, hatchling Varanus
flavescens are more vividly coloured than the
adults. In general, they are easily distinguished
from those of V. griseus by having transverse
rows of fused yellow spots on a dark background,
rather than a few dark bands on a distinctly light-
coloured background; V. salvator hatchlings have
transverse bands of separated yellow ocelli; and
those of V. bengalensis usually have transverse
bands of separated yellowish ocelli and small
black dots on a brownish background. Visser
(1985) provides a coloured photograph of a hatc-
hling V. flavescens.
Adult V. flavescens are often confused with
adult V. bengalensis. This is due largely to the
great variation in colour and pattern found in the
former. Even within a single population, there is
considerable variation among adults of more or
less equal size (Fig. 6). While the fused light
transverse bars on the body are always present,
they vary in transverse length (1-23 scales, X
5.57) and number between the front and hind legs
(5-10,1? ’7.38). The background colour and pat-
tern is even more variable. It may be uniformly
black (rare), or the black pigment may form a
reticulate pattern, often with a central dot, forming
large (often faint) ocelli over much of the body.
When little melanin is present the ground colour
may be dark to light brown, with only the
A STUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS
293
Fig. 6. Pattern variation in adult V. flavescens from Dokri Pakistan, based on transparencies. A, W.A. field no. 148/87; B
W.A. 51/87; C, W.A. 109/87; D, W.A. 114/87.
transverse bands of fused yellow spots edged in
black. Many individuals have a suffusion of
brownish red to deep red mid-dorsally between
the yellow transverse markings and the dark body
bands may be suffused with brick red to orange
(somewhat seasonal, see below). These lateral
dark bands continue onto the ventral surface,
though they never meet at the midline. The throat
is almost always provided with several black,
posteriorly directed V’s. In certain seasons the
throat may be suffused with yellow to orange. No
other Asian monitor lizards possess any orange to
red colour on the dorsal or ventral body surfaces.
d’Abreu (1932) reported that adult colour of
Varanus flavescens from B ihar changed seasonal -
ly, the darker body bands purportedly becoming
brick red during the monsoon season. Until this
study, no material representing appropriate
seasonal coverage was available to verify his
statements. We were able to examine a minimum
of five adult individuals each month during an
entire year from a single population at Dokri, Sind
Province, Pakistan. This enabled us to establish
the type and degree of seasonal colour change
^occurring in this species. Our conclusions are that
colour changes of the type described by d’Abreu
( 1 ) do occur, (2) in adults (only) of both sexes, and
(3) in populations (probably all) outside of Bihar,
India.
These results were based on defining each
specimen as possessing one of three categories of
orange-red suffusion on the body (0 none, 1 slight,
2 considerable). Analysis of these data show that
an intermediate category of orange-red colour
suffusion occurs in at least some individuals most
months of the year (range in character state 0.09-
1.86). The least suffusion is found in October
(0.09), following egg laying in females and testes
size decrease in September. During most of the
remainder of the year the suffusion remains near
the mean value of 0.75. However, concomitant
with increase in testes size and the beginning of
follicular ripening, there is a dramatic increase in
the pigment (both sexes) from April to May
2
294
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 1
SIZE (MM) AND WEIGHT (G) OF OVARIAN FOLLICLES AND OVARY (ONE ONLY)
IN Varanus Flavescens (DOKRI, PAKISTAN POPULATION)
XN ova
Follicle Dia. (mm)*
Ovary Wt. (g)
<4 mm
X
OR
X
OR
Jan.
0
None
None
0.6
0. 5-0.7
Feb.
0
None
None
0.9
0.6-1. 0
Mar.
0
None
None
0.7
0.5-1. 0
Apr.
0
None
None
0.7
0.5-0.9
May
6.1
4.7
<4. 0-6. 2
0.9
Jun.
15.0
4.8
<4. 0-6. 4
1.0
0.6-1. 3
Jul.
25.3
5.7
<4.0-10.8
2.1
3.0-6. 3
Aug.
18.2
9.5
<4.0-15.5
14.8
0.4-48.0
Sep.
22.6
9.2
<4.0-15.0
8.6
0.2-31.9
Oct.
10.3
8.9
<4.0-10.6
3.7
0.2-40.0
Nov.
13.1
5.6
<4.0-6. 1
0.7
0.1-1. 3
Dec.
6.3
None
None
0.6
0.6-0.6
1
Only follicles greater or equal to 4 mm diameter.
(1.86). This remains high through June and July
(1.80 for both months), thence dropping regularly
through August and September to the lowest
values of the year in October again. Individuals
that are not sexually mature lack this seasonal
colour change. Thus the suffusion is definitely
correlated with the development of seasonally
important reproductive tissues in mature in-
dividuals of both sexes and probably under hor-
monal control. Varanus flavescens is the only
species of monitor lizard in which a seasonal
colour change has been demonstrated.
Reproduction
Compared to that for many other lizard
families, information on varanid reproduction is
scanty. While none of the reproductive data
gathered for Varanus flavescens are considered
complete, the combination of field observations,
discussions with local commercial hunters and
dissection of a significant number of specimens
has provided an ample information base from at
which at least the broad outlines of this species
reproductive biology can be deduced.
Sexual Maturity: The testes weight, length,
diameter and volume (estimated from formula for
an ovoid) were determined for all individuals of
V. flavescens dissected. These data show that
males less than 260 mm SVL are rarely sexually
mature. Enlarged, eventually yolked ova, corpora
lutea and ovarian follicles greater than 5 mm
occur only in females with SVL over 250 mm and
a weight of about 300 g. Females in this reproduc-
tive stage represent 85 % of the total female
sample during the breeding season. The smallest
female that either laid eggs in captivity or had eggs
in the oviduct was 295 mm SVL. The minimum
SVL of females at maturity is 61 percent of the
greatest size recorded in the female sample. This
is more or less equivalent to the same statistic in
V.olivaceus (74 %), but considerably more than in
giant V. komodoensis (30 %) (data from Auffen-
berg 1981, 1987). This suggests that growth is
maintained for a shorter period of time after
sexual maturity in V. flavescens than for those few
varanid species for which such data are currently
available.
In vitro staining of the bones of six individuals
with tetracycline (see Hutton 1986 for technique
description) shows that both females and males of
V. flavescens become sexually mature during their
third year of life. Visser (1985) reports that hatch
A STUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS
295
lings raised in captivity under optimum feeding
conditions became sexually mature in three and a
half years. This compares favourably with data for
V. bengalensis in the same geographic area (Auf-
fenberg notes) and is intermediate between the
smallest varanid species (mature at end of first
year, King and Rhodes 1982), and the largest (V.
komodoensis , 5-6 years. Auffenberg 1981).
Female Reproductive Cycle: To date, the only
complete studies of the female reproductive cycle
of varanid lizards is that on Varanus bengalensis
in northern India by Jacob and Ramaswami
(1976) and on V. olivaceus in the Philippine Is-
lands (Auffenberg 1987). Both investigations
suggest that most females lay a single clutch of
eggs each year; the current study on V.flavescens
suggests the same.
Variation in mean monthly volume of female
reproductive tissues in V. flavescens (one ovary
only, Table 1) reflects the progress of follicular
development and ovulation. Ovarian tissue
volumes are least from November through May
(regressed, phase), followed by a dramatic in-
crease in June through July, due largely to yolk
deposition. Ovarian tissue volume remains high
during August, but drops in September, when
undeveloped follicles begin to deteriorate. This
volume is slightly increased November to Decem-
ber, when new follicles enlarge, beginning the
annual cycle of the following year. The ovarian
weight of females examined after completion of
vitellogenesis, but before oviposition, is about
eight times as great in those females that had
oviposited but not yet initiated growth of the next
follicle crop. Corpora lutea, formed in the ovary
after ovulation, are bright orange-yellow and flat-
tened, with a longitudinal groove on one side.
Early in the cycle, those follicles that develop into
yolked ova exhibit a colour change from trans-
lucent milky-white to pale yellow, becoming
more distinctly yellow as more yolk is accumu-
lated. Each ovum weighs about 5 g when ovulated
and has a diameter of about 20 mm. One female
was preserved just during ovulation, with 10 ova
still in the ovary, four already having been
received into the oviducts (2+2). The oviductal
Fig. 7. The annual pattern of changing ovary volume in
adult female V. flavescens from Dokri, Pakistan. Timing of
the other major phases of the reproductive cycle are also
shown.
infundibulae were greatly expanded to receive the
ova released from the ovaries, but we saw no
evidence that it had stretched over the ovary, as
has been claimed for some lizards.
The earliest and latest dates for shelled oviduc-
tal and oviposited eggs in our study (freshly
caught females) are 2 August and 7 October.
Visser (1985) reports oviposition in a captive
female in a European zoo on 21 July— very close
to the earliest date we record in the wild.
During the resting stage the oviductal chamber
is straight and parallel-sided. However, at the
height of the reproductive cycle it becomes thick-
walled, convoluted, and develops the enlarged
infundibulum mentioned above. The day follow-
ing oviposition the oviduct is distinctly stretched
in those areas where the shelled eggs were located
previously, and where the tissue remains much
deeper pink than adjacent oviductal tissues. Most
mature females retain evidence of stretched
oviductal regions until at least December.
The ovarian follicles of each female dissected
were measured. Monthly averages and ranges are
shown in Table 1. The trend obviously follows
that of ovarian volumes, for yolk deposition in the
ova is the greatest contributor to this weight.
Though yolking occurs in some ova as early as
March, the most significant increase in both num-
ber of follicles involved and percent of weight
gain occurs just before ovulation (usually July,
see Fig. 7), so that there is no clear separation
between the vitellogenic and ovulatory phases of
the reproductive cycle.
Fig.7 depicts the progress of vitellogenesis in
the Pakistani population examined. Because the
296
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 2
SEASONAL VARIATION IN SIZE (MM) AND WEIGHT (G) OF TESTES IN
Varanus flavescens (DOKRI, PAKISTAN POPULATION)
Diameter
Length
Weight
N
X
OR
X
OR
X
OR
Jan.
3
7.9
5.1-9.8
17.1
15.5-20.4
0.3
0.3-0.4
Feb.
1
6.8
15.1
0.4
Mar.
6
7.9
4.4-11.8
16.3
11.1-21.7
0.4
0.3-0.6
Apr.
4
7.6
5.5-9.8
18.7
15.1-21.5
0.3
0.2-0.4
May
5
14.0
13.0-15.9
25.7
19.1-J7.1
2.4
1. 9-3.0
Jun.
3
12.7
12.0-13.0
22.6
18.9-25.5
1.7
1.0-2. 1
Jul.
3
14.7
14.4-15.1
25.0
23.7-25.9
2.7
2.5-3.0
Aug.
4
11.6
8.2-13.6
21.4
18.7-24.1
1.3
0.5-2.0
Sep.
13
5.5
4.2-8. 2
12.9
9.3-17.7
0.4
0.2-0.6
Oct.
4
6.8
5. 6-8. 6
14.2
12.0-18.0
0.2
0.2-0.3
Nov.
12
7.2
6. 0-8. 4
17.8
16.0-18.4
0.3
0.1 -0.5
Dec.
3
8.7
7. 1-9.7
14.3
11.5-15.8
0.3
0.3-0.3
N
61
X 9.3
X 18.4
X0.9
climate is so similar throughout the rather limited
distribution of this species, we believe that this
summary reflects the reproductive cycle
throughout the entire range of this species.
All eggs oviposited by freshly caught in-
dividuals (3 clutches) were laid during the course
of a single day. Visser (1985) reports that in
captivity his female laid eggs at a rate of about one
per hour, but believes that the entire oviposition
behaviour of this female may have been abnor-
mal. We agree, for the rate at which our specimens
laid their eggs was much higher. Considered on
an annual basis, egg laying in V. flavescens occurs
during a relatively short period-*. three months
maximum. An analysis of the weight of ab-
Fig. 8. Annual pattern of mean testes volume in adult V.
flavescens from Dokri, Pakistan.
dominal fat bodies in this species also reflects a
single annual cycle. This is important in the con-
text of possible use of abdominal fat reserves
during the vitellogenic process.
Very few data are available on the size of the
annual reproductive female cohort in varanid
lizards. For Varanus olivaceus (Auffenberg 1987)
it is estimated that 90 percent of all mature females
lay eggs each year. For the Pakistan adult females
of V. flavescens we estimate this statistic as about
52 percent (though 100% of the small August
sample were gravid).
Male Reproductive Cycle
Few data are available regarding seasonal tes-
ticular changes in varanid lizards. Testes enlarge-
ment during the breeding season has been
reported for Varanus bengalensis (Upadhyay and
Gukaya 1972), V. griseus (Kehl and Combescot
1955) and V. olivaceus (Auffenberg 1987). The
same pattern is now demonstrable for V. flaves-
cens.
Average testicular volume is lowest from Sep-
tember through February (Fig. 8, Table 2). It
increases from March to the annual peak in June
and July. In August the weight drops rapidly to
A STUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS
297
Table 3
EGG MORPHOMETRICS OF Varanus Flavescens (ALL LOCALITIES COMBINED)
Clutch
No
X
Diameter (mm)
OR
X
Length (mm)
OR
X
Weight (g)
OR
No of
Eggs
1
19.0
18.1-21.3
39.5
34.8-43.2
10.7
0.2-11.6
18
2
22.0
20.5-22.5
36.0
34.4-37.0
11.1
0.4-11.9
14
3
21.8
20.5-22.5
37.1
36.4-37.8
10.4
0.0-11.4
6
4
21.2
20.3-23.0
37.3
35.2-38.1
10.8
0.2-11.8
6
5
21.5
20.5-22.5
35.7
34.4-37.0
10.5
0.1-11.5
4
X
21.0
37.1
10.7
SD
1.2
1.5
0.3
the lowest level of the entire year. Mean testicular
weight data show the same seasonal pattern, so
that testes mass and volume are largest during
June and July — the presumed courtship period.
This is the time of year when Visser (1985) noted
courtship and breeding in his captives in Europe
as well. Testes colour also changes seasonally.
The usually greyish white testes become distinctly
yellowish during the height of the reproductive
period.
Sex Ratio
Seasonal proportional representation of males
and females captured/examined was also
analyzed. This shows that the overall annual sex
ratio is slightly in favour of males (57%). This is
due to the fact that males are significantly mom
common than females from May through July (X
76.7% of the total monthly samples for these three
months). During the remaining nine months the
sex ratio is 1 : 1 (mean male proportion 51%). This
increase in number of males taken during the
courtship period and that immediately preceding
it has been demonstrated in several species of
skinks (Auffenberg and Auffenberg 1987) and is
particularly noted in Varanus bengalnesis (W.A.
notes). As in V. bengalensis , the mature females
of V .flavescens are predominant during the height
of the breeding period (July males of V. flaves-
cens, 43%).
Egg Morphometrics, Complement and Hatching
The eggs of all varanid species have a soft,
relatively smooth, leathery shell, without surface
omamdntal or crystalline material. While the eggs
of some species adhere to one another in one or
more masses, those of V. flavescens are always
separate.
Eighty eggs of Varanus flavescens were
measured and weighed (Table 3). Mean and over-
all range in length, diameter and weight are 37.1
mm (34.4-43.2), 21 mm (18.1-23.0) and 10.7 g
(10.0-1 1.8). The average total mass of the entire
complement is 282.6 g, or 42.2 % of the average
mature female total weight X = 768. 5g, N 86).
Based on the number of eggs laid in captivity
and the evidence from the oviductal chambers of
females that had already oviposited, the number
of eggs per clutch varies from four to thirty (X =
16.0, SD 10.2). This agrees fairly well with the
number of developed ovarian eggs ovulated an-
nually, as evidenced by the_number of corpora
lutea counted in the ovaries (X = 1 1.7, SD 6.45).
Though sample size is small, clutch size is probab-
ly positively related to female size, as has been
demonstrated for V. olivaceus (Auffenberg 1987).
No data are available on nest construction or
site selection in Varanus flavescens. Visser
(1985)* has shown that incubation time in this
species is 149-155 days at an incubation tempera-
ture of 30°C. The direct correlation between an-
nual rainfall pattern (i.e. the arrival of annual
monsoon rains) and the reproductive pattern of the
298
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
species (and V. griseus and V. bengalensis in the
same geographic range, W. A. notes) suggests that
this is the single most important factor in
reproductive cycling of V. flavescens. If the in-
cubation time reported in captive animals by
Visser also holds under field conditions (which is
likely, given a mean soil temperature of 28.3° C
during the developmental period; data from this
study), young would be injected into the local
ecosystem from December through February.
This is a cool period throughout the northern parts
of this species range, when adults are definitely
more or less inactive. Thus it is highly unlikely
that neonates of this species would be very active
either. In India, hatchlings were found in the field
from March to July, suggesting that while
development may be completed in five months,
emergence from the nest may be delayed by a
further one to four months. The March sightings
(West Bengal) come from the more eastern parts
of the species range, where monsoon rains come
early, and the July dates (Uttar Pradesh) from
areas where the monsoon arrives much later.
Delayed emergence (in the field), has been shown
to be dependant on local rainfall in other monitor
species (see Auffenberg 1987, for review).
Geographic Distribution
Because of the poor representation of this
species in museum collections, the several impor-
tant mis-identifications with Varanus bengalensis
in the past, and the new information gathered
during this study, we list all those localities from
which definitely identified V. flavescens are now
known. The list is based on specimens examined
in museums, collected or observed in the field
during the course of this study, figured in the
literature, or otherwise described in terms that
leave no doubt as to the correct identification.
Bangladesh: Dinajpur District, Parbatipur
(d’ Abreu 1932); Madhupur, Mymensingh Dist.
and Salna village, Dacca Dist. (Whitaker &
Hitada 1981). Faridpur District, Madaripur (this
study); Dhaka District, Narayanganj this study).
India: Assam: Gauhati Dist., Gauhati (Indian
Museum); Dhuburi Dist., Goalpara (=Golpara)
(Smith 1932).
West Bengal: Terai Dist., Shiliguri (=Silliguri,
Chicago Museum Natural History); Calcutta
Dist., Calcutta (Indian Museum and Vienna
Natural History Museum), Calcutta Botanical
Gardens (Indian Museum); Sagar Island, Pathar
Pratina (Indian Museum); Krishnagar Distr.,
Krishnagar (Indian Museum); 24 Parganas Dist.,
Pepouldo and Melanchar Thana (Chicago Natural
History Museum); Kakdwip (this study); Hoogley
Dist., Singui Thana (Chicago Natural History
Museum); Medinipur Dist., 20 km NW Kharag-
pur (Sights 1949), Medinipur (= Midnapur, Smith
1932);
Orissa: Balsor Dist., Serogatrth, 8 km E Nilgiri
(indian Museum, Biswas & Kar 1982, and this
study); Cuttack Dist., Nandan Kanan (Indian
Museum), Bhitarkanika, Dangmal (Biswas & Kar
1982); Barang Dist.,NE Nandan Kanan Biologi-
cal Park (Biswas & Kar 1982)
Bihar: Patna Dist., Patna (d’Abreau 1932 and
this sudy); Saran Dist. (Smith 19332), 4 km SW
Chhapra (this study); District ?, Gordon Hill
(locality not found) (Mertens 1959 b); Bettiah
Dist., 20 km NW Bettiah (this study); Pargani
Dist., Pakaur (= Pakur, Smoith 1932).
Uttar Pradesh: Gorakpur Dist., Gorakpur (In-
dian Museum); Fatehgarh Dist., 10 km SE Fateh-
garh (this study); Varanasi Dist., 21 km SE.
Varanasi (this study); Mirzapur Dist., 10 km W.
Mirzapur (this study); Agra Dist., Agra (Ander-
son, 1871, Indian Museum); 5 km N. Dayal Bagh
(this study); Gaziabad Dist., 23 km S. New Delhi
(sight record only, this study).
Haryana: Amballa Dist., Amballa (Smith
1932, reporting on specimen in Indian Museum,
confirmed during this study, see below).
Nepal: ‘Nepal’, no further data, reported first
by Canton 1849 and later by Boulenger 1885
(based on specimens [confirmed during this,
study] in the British Museum); Chitwan (Gurung
1983, US National Museum); Arun River vvalley,
Sagamatha National Park (R. Jackson, in litt.).
Pakistan: Sind Prov: “Sind” (Murray 1884);
Larkana Distr. , Dokri (Mertens 1 942, reporting on
specimens in Senckenberg Museum, confirmed in
A STUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS
299
this study, Florida State Museum, and Zoological
Survey Pakistan); Dadu Dist., Dadu (this study).
Northwest Frontier Prov .: Peshwar Dist.,
Sholgara Village, near Chars adda (Zoological
Survey Pakistan). ‘Dir and Swwat’, no definite
localities (McMahon 1901).
Punjab Prov.: (Jhelum Dist., near Dina
(Zoological Survey Pakistan); Sargodha Dist.,
near Laya (collections previously made by profes-
sional hunters, but not confirmed during this
study); and Lahore Dist. (?), near Pindi Bhatian
(same comment as previous record).
All of the definite localities listed above are
along, or near major rivers, of which the Brah-
maputra, Ganges, and Indus are the major ones.
In Orissa, India, they are also known from the
drainage systems of the Brahmani and Mahanadi
rivers. In these stream valleys V. flavescens ex-
tends along major tributaries to the foot of moun-
tainous regions-even the base of the Mt. Everest
complex-but not into the highlands above the
tropical zone. Thus the distributional pattern is
almost identical to that of Gavialis gangeticus and
other typical Indo-Gangetic Plain species (includ-
ing the Orissa river systems mentioned).
On the basis of geography and local environ-
ment, we expect that V. flavescens will eventually
be found in Arunachal Pradesh in India, along the
Dihang and Lohit river valleys. In Nepal the
species probably occurs mainly along the
southern border and posssibly restricted to the
floodplains of the Arun river in the southeast and
the Girwa river in the southwest, both or which
are tributaries of the Ganges, along which the
species is locally common.
The following localities are definitely in error,
most based on mis-identifications of V. bengalen-
sis (or V. dumerilii in a few cases) as V. flavescens,
or records from illogical environments or geog-
raphy on the basis of what is now known about
the species (see below for habitat details).
“Penang”, first reported by Cantor (1847),
and followed by Gunther (1864), Murray (1884),
Flower (1896, 1899) and Boulenger (1912). All
Malaysian records (listed here) were denied by
Smedley (1932), with which we agree.
“Malay Peninsula”, a generalized distribu-
tional statement, perhaps based on Cantor’s
“Penang” record (1847), first listed as Malay
Peninsula by Boulenger (1885) and followed by
Boulenger (1890), Flower (1896, 1899),
Boulenger (1912) and Flower (1929); see com-
ments above regarding “Penang”.
“Trang”, Thailand, mentioned only by
Boulenger (1912). V. flavescens does not occur in
this area on basis of field work by Auffenberg
(field notes, 1974).
“Concan and Deccan”, in south and central
India, reported by Murray (1884), on no valid
basis as far as we can determine. The species does
not occur there. (Auffenberg field work, 1979,
1984- 5).
“Baluchistan”, Pakistan, Murray (1884), un-
doubtedly based on misidentification with V. ben-
galensisfor V. flavescens does not occur there on
the basis of absence of appropriate habitat.
“Indochina”, first reported by Tirant (1885),
followed by Mocquard (1906), undoubtedly
based on misidentification with V. bengalensis.
No voucher specimens available anywhere.
“Pegu and Mergui”, Burma, mentioned as a
possibility on basis of material in hand by
Theobald (in Mason, 1882), and followed by Mur-
ray (1884), Boulenger (1885, 1890, 19 12), Flower
(1896, 1899, 1929), and Annandale (1905). No
voucher specimens available from Burma.
“Ceylon”, listed by Murray (1884), is un-
doubtedly based on misidentification with V. ben-
galensis.
“Nurpore (= Nurpur), Salt Range”, Punjab,
Pakistan, first reported by Hora and Chopra
(1923) and followed by Smith (1932). This record
is certainly based on a V. bengalensis , as most of
the environment is probably inappropriate for V.
flavescens though V. bengalensis is locally com-
mon.
“Padang, Sumatra” mentioned by Holtzinger
— Tenever is clearly incorrect, but interesting be-
cause of the importance of this locality in the
distributional pattern of V. bengalensis
“Kutch”, Gujarat Prov., India, (Murray 1884)
is possibly correct. Throughout its long history,
300
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
the Indus river has been notably vagrant, exhibit-
ing extraordinary wanderings and mutations of its
course in response to natural and man-induced
environmental changes. The major change in the
delta region is the westward drift of the major
distributaries. Not too many thousands of years
ago these emptied into what is now the Rann of
Kutch (see Holmes 1968, Flam 1986) — a broad,
level expanse of largely saline mudflats that tend
to become flooded each year due to monsoon
winds. While V.flavescens is not known to occur
in brackish water situations (see below), it has
been collected very close to the sea at Sagar
Island, West Bengal. Since some of the flooding
in the Rann is due to freshwater inundation from
Sind, Pakistan, and because appropriate habitats
for this species might occur along these seasonal
distributaries in the interior of the nearby country,
Murray’s old record of this species from Kutch
may be correct. However, V. bengalensis (with
which Murray clearly confused V. flavescens in
other instances) is common in the Rann of Katcch
area (W.A. field notes). Appropriate habitats for
V.flavescens occur in marshlands north of Bhav-
nagar, Gujrat, and along the lower reaches of the
Sabarmati river north of Ahmadabad, Gujarat
(W.A. field notes), which are both also part of the
ancient Indus river delta (Karpov and Nebolsine
1964). These may also be found to possess V.
flavescens.
Fig.9 shows all of the definite localities from
which Varanus flavescens is now known, as well
as the expected range. This distribution shows
quite clearly that the species is restricted to the
rivers of the Indo-gangetic Plain. Thus the species
is found in the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra
rivers and all of their tributaries, except those of
the Ganges that are considered “peninsular”
(Chambal, Betwa and Ken Rivers, see Mani
1974). Except for the lower deltaic parts of the
Ganges — Brahmaputra system, this monitor
species seems restricted to the Khadar alluvium
in the floodplains themselves. Where broad these
floodplains are characterized by dead arms,
deferred junctions and marshy jheels , often
several kilometres wide. Near the foothills of the
Himalaya, V . flavescens seems restricted to the
more level areas of finer soil, often covered with
marsh and swamp vegetation of the terai, rather
than the areas of coarser talus (bhabar and bhur).
In West Bengal and Bangladesh V.flavescens
is apparently more widely distributed than in the
rest of the Gangetic Plain, where it seems to occur
in isolated populations. In Pakistan the distribu-
tion is apparently even more spotty, though fur-
ther collecting may disclose additional localities
along major streams in appropriate habitats.
Habitat
Early in the accumulation of information
regarding this species, the notion was developed
that V. flavescens lived in dry grasslands. This
conclusion was undoubtedly fostered by two mis-
conceptions. First, that V.flavescens was closely
related to V. exant hematicus, the African savanna
monitor, which does live in xeric habitats.
Second, that not all specimens collected and iden-
tified as V. flavescens were, indeed that species.
Some of these were clearly V. bengalensis , which
is often found in dry habitats (though not op-
timum). Mertens (1942) had no reason to doubt
what had been stated about the habitat of V.flaves-
cens, but was puzzled by its flattened tail —
usually associated with aquatic species (i.e. V.
salvator). He concluded that the flattened tail in
the former was a retention of that condition, rather
than a specialization for the habitat in which it was
presumed to live. Rotter (1963) continued the
error in an important and the most recent synopsis
of the genus, in spite of the fact that Sights (1949)
published a good description of the generally wet
habitat of V. flavescens in West Bengal. In that
paper, Sights emphasised the mesic to hydric en-
vironment in which he found his specimens — a
heavily forested tract with many marshes and
brooks.
In 1979 Auffenberg studied the habitat of this
species in many places in the Gangetic Plain and
during 1986-7 he and the junior authors studied it
in several parts of the Indus river. These observa-
tions, plus notes available in the Chicago Natural
History and Indian Museums (associated with
A STUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS
Fig. 9. Confirmed locality records (dots) for V. flavescens, with all major rivers of the Indo-Gangetic plain shown.
Fig. 10. Probable distribution limits of V. flavescens (shaded), with possible extensions in Sind-Gujarat provinces shown.
302
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
specimens collected in Orissa and West Bengal),
made it clear that V. flavescens is primarily a
species of marshlands (jheels) in low-lying, sandy
areas bordering large rivers and subject to annual
flooding. This hydric habitat occurs in almost
every locality where the species was observed in
the wild The only exception is along canals as-
sociated with rice farming in low- lying areas. For
the most part, these rice growing areas were pre-
viously partly or completely located within the
boundaries of former natural marshlands.
In the meantime, Visser (1985) noted that heal-
thy captives kept under optimum conditions in
Europe spent much time in water. Combining
these observations with those of Sights (1949), he
correctly concluded that the species lived in moist
to wet, rather than dry habitats.
The following is a brief list of the major plants
found in optimum habitat of V. flavescens in
northern India; trees include mainly Dalbergia
sissoo, Albizzia procera, Acacia arabica and A.
catechu; dominant shrubs are Tamar ix dioca ,
Zizyphus jujuba, Ehretia laevis and Holoptelea
integrifolia grasses. Herbs include Saccharum
spontaneum, S. munja, Phragmites communis and
Typha elephantina (or T. angustata). In Assam,
Pistia aquatica and aldrovanda vesciculosa are
common aquatic plants. Closer to the coast in
Bangladesh, West Bengal and Orissa, the tree
Heritiera minor becomes very common. In Pakis-
tan typical trees in the local habitat include
Populus euphratica and/or Acacia nilotica ;
dominant shrubs are Tamarix dioica and
Zizyphus jujuba; dominant grasses and herbs are
Phragmites karka , P. communis , Typha augustata
and Nelumbium sp. Varanus flavescens is not
found close to the coast in Pakistan.
In addition, this monitor lizard is often found
in and near irrigated fields in both India and
Pakistan. Most of the time these are paddy fields,
as on Sagar Island, West Bengal, but they may
also be maize or mixed crops, as at Charsadda,
near Peshawar, Pakistan. In fact, much of the
original flood plain habitat throughout the range
of this species has been greatly modified by
agriculture. In some instances, entire local
populations of this lizard have been extirpated in
this way. The situation along the Yamuna river
near Agra is a good example. The species was first
reported from the area by Anderson in 1871.
However, no specimens have been found there
recently, in spite of the fact that the Agra area is
an important source for preserved biological
materials used by universities and colleges over
much of northern India. Some specimens from the
same locality had been deposited in the Indian
Museum some time ago (we have confirmed these
identifications).
In 1979, 1984, and 1985 the senior author had
opportunity to study monitor populations in the
Agra area — partly to determine the habitat from
which the V. flavescens might have originated.
Discussions with aged professional animal collec-
tors in the area made it clear that the species was
once found near Agra, but only in previously
annually inundated lowlands dominated by
Typha . It is still found (though rare) in similar
habitat north of Agra along the Yamuna river, as
well as eastward along the main floodplain and
tributaries of the Ganges river (common locally).
At Dayal bagh, a suburb of Agra, very small,
scattered Typha — filled lowland areas can still be
found, these are small remnants of much larger
jheels originally found in the area. Since acquisi-
tion of the land by the Rhadasomi community
many years ago, most of these jheels have been
converted into irrigated paddy fields and the small
local populations of V. flavescens once present
have long ago disappeared.
The same pattern of marshland conversion to
paddy has occurred on a massive scale throughout
much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the past and
is responsible for much reduction in range and
abundance of this species. This factor, plus the
natural long term trend of desertification of at
least the western half of the range of this species,
and the restriction of marshy areas to flood plains
to begin with, accounts for the very spotty dis-
tribution of the species at the present time. This
distributional pattern is additionally impacted in
some areas by a high hunting pressure for its skin.
Collectively, these factors lead us to consider
A STUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS
303
Varanus flavescens as the most endangered of all
monitor species on the Asian mainland. What
habitat remains is small, and is becoming smaller
all the time — particularly in the central to western
parts of its range.
In India (West Bengal and Assam only) and
Bangladesh, Varanus flavescens is sometimes
sympatric with both V. salvator and V. bengalen -
sis (sometimes all three species can be seen in the
same marsh). In Pakistan (all provinces in which
it occurs) it can be expected to be found in the
same habitat with V. bengalensis ; V. griseus is
only found in xeric, sandy habitats; it is never
syntopic with V. flavescens ecologically.
Food
Captive Varanus flavescens regularly feed
upon mice (Auffenberg captives in Florida and
Visser 1985) and prepared reptile food (Visser
1985). During this study, evidence of prey was
found in 32 individuals (all adult, stomach-
pumped in the field or dissected in the laboratory).
These remains included frogs, toads, amphibian
eggs, reptile eggs (turtles and squamates), birds
and their eggs, insects and mammals (all rodents).
Because of their advanced state of digestion,
species identification were usually not possible.
Forty percent of all prey were frogs (all Rana
sp.) Toads (all Bufo stomaticus) comprised nine
percent of the prey. Reptile eggs (turtle and
squamate eggs combined) totalled fifteen percent;
six percent was mammalian and the same for
insects. A few individuals had masses of frogs
eggs in the stomach. These were fertilized so that
it is clear the eggs had been found in the wild and
not the remains of a female frog eaten previously.
Feathers were found in only three percent of those
that contained prey; bird eggs the same. Thus
frogs comprise the most common prey, followed
by reptile eggs. Because no scales or other reptile
remains were found in the stomachs at the same
time we surmise that the eggs were taken from the
nests. Many species of monitors are known to feed
extensively on reptile eggs so that this is not
unexpected in V. flavescens.
However, what does seem unusual in the diet
reported here is the eating of amphibian eggs. This
has not been reported for any other varanid lizard
so far. What is also somewhat surprising is that no
land or water molluscs are apparently included in
the diet, though at least the aquatic viviparid.
Bellamya bengalensis (sensu latu) is common in
local shallow marshlands where they could easily
be foraged by the monitors. Some other monitor
species regularly feed on molluscs (see Auffen-
berg 1987 for review). Of possible significance is
that most of the amphibians found in the gut were
taken from individuals collected in September-
October; most reptile eggs in February; mammals
only in March- April.
Growth
No direct information is available on growth of
wild individuals. However, in vitro staining of
bone laminae in wild individuals and data from
captivity (Visser 1985) suggest that sexual
maturity occurs at about three years. Since mean
hatchling SVL is approximately 77 mm and
sexual maturity is attained at about 290 mm SVL,
the annual estimated SVL growth (if uniform,
which it is not) is about 60 mm/year. Because food
resources and activity level of the monitors is not
uniform throughout the year in view of the
seasonal climate of the regions inhabited by the
species, growth must be pulsed. The periodicity
of this growth pulse can be demonstrated by per-
cent individuals shedding each month.
No individuals were noted shedding their skins
from October through December (specimens ex-
amined 3 1 ). From January through April, seven to
twenty percent of all individuals examined (36)
were shedding their skins. Shedding becomes
much more common from May through Septem-
ber (37), when they represent 37 to 60 percent of
the monthly totals examined. Thus we conclude
that the least growth is experienced in the fall
post-monsoon season, and the highest growth rate
during the monsoon season.
Shedding is an indication of growth and as such
must occur during and (particularly) after the
period of greatest food abundance. If this is the
case, then the least food is obtained during the
304
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 86
summer monsoon, for the following period is the
one of least evidence of growth. That this is quite
probably the case is suggested by the seasonal
pattern of fat accumulation (Fig. 4), which shows
that the monsoon season is a period of high utiliza-
tion (degradation) of existing fat in the abdominal
cavity in both sexes, rather than a period of ac-
cumulation. The lack of growth is perhaps best
explained by the low density of food in the habitat,
caused by annual monsoonal flooding, this is also
reflected in the fact that very few food items were
found in the gut during this period. On the other
hand, both food contained in the stomach and fat
in the abdominal cavity were high during the dry
premonsoon period, when most food sources (par-
ticularly the most common prey, frogs) would be
concentrated in the few small pools of surface
water remaining in the habitat. This period of
rapid growth is reflected in the high shedding
levels noted during the following monsoon
period, due to the time lag between food abun-
dance and actual growth and eventual shedding.
The entire matter of seasonal growth (amount and
lag time) in relation to seasonal variation in food
availability deserves attention and would probab-
ly handsomely repay investigation in both the
laboratory and field.
Other Remarks
As part of a study of the external parasites of
all the varanid lizard species of Pakistan, we were
surprised to find that while Varanus bengalensis
adults were regularly and heavily infested with
ticks ( Aponoma gervaisi ), no recently caught
specimens of V.flavescens from India (Varanasi,
Fatehbad, Mirzapur) or Pakistan (Dokri, Charsad-
da, Dina) ever had any ticks, nor possessed any
evidence (tick scars) that they had ever been there.
This is particularly unusual in view of the fact that
in both countries both monitor species can often
be found in the same habitat (though local animal
catchers and hide hunters claim that they are never
found in the same burrows). The only time that
ticks were ever found on V.flavescens was when
the lizards had been kept in the same bag or pen
in which V. bengalensis had recently been kept.
At such times when ticks were found on V.flaves-
cens we noted that tick distribution on the host
was not typical of the pattern regularly found on
V. bengalensis (W. A. field notes, see Auffenberg
1987 for data on tick site attachment on other
varanid species hosts).
No studies have yet been completed on the
internal parasites of this species, though ap-
propriate material has been collected and is now
in the hands of specialists in such matters.
Nematode parasites are being investigated by
workers in Pakistan. Dr S. Telford, Florida State
Museum, is currently studying blood parasites of
V. flavescens caught near Dokri, Pakistan. This
material proves that this monitor is often infested
with a blood parasite (probably malarial) that is
not found in either Varanus griseus nor V. ben-
galensis in any part of their geographic ranges (Dr
Telford will report his results separately when his
studies are completed).
Thus what little is known about the parasites of
Varanus flavescens suggests a very different pic-
ture from that reported or known to exist in other
Indo-Pakistan monitors. These data further sub-
stantiate the presumably isolated phylogenetic
position of V.flavescens based on studies of blood
chemistry, penial morphology and karyotypes as
indicated above.
Compared to other varanids in which injuries
were studied (Auffenberg 1981, 1987), Varanus
flavescens shows remarkably few scars, even
when compared with V. bengalensis from the
same habitat in Pakistan. There is no consistently
scarred area(s) caused during combat, feeding, or
in shelters, as in the other species studied. Though
snipped-off tail tips are common in other species,
this occurred only once (a male) in 87 V. flaves-
cens examined for this character in Pakistan. Of
38 V. bengalensis from the same habitat in Pakis-
tan, 26% (7 males, 2 females) had the tail snipped
off. Tail injuries in V. komodoensis are usually
due to courtship by the males (Auffenberg 1981).
This may also be the case in V. bengalensis , since
more females than males have the tail tip snipped
off. The absence of such injuries on the tail of V.
flavescens suggests that the courtship pattern in
A STUDY OF VARANUS FLAVESCENS
305
this species does not involve much biting by the
males, or at least not on the tail.
A necrotic liver was noted in one adult from
India; an ovarian tumour in another individual
from Pakistan.
The pH of the empty stomach was tested in
three individuals; it ranged from 2.2-2.9, X = 2.5
d’Abreii (1932) states that during the dry
season this species takes refuge in large cracks in
the earth. While this may be an accurate descrip-
tion, the species also digs burrows in which it
spends the night and the cooler weather of the
winter months. It may also use such burrows for
aestivation during particularly dry periods. Pakis-
tani tribals very experienced with this animal
claim that, unlike V. bengalensis and V. griseus ,
it often closes the mouth of its burrow at night.
We were not, unfortunatley, able to verify this. If
true, it seems to be the only species of monitor
lizard that does so.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are extended to the following in-
dividuals for allowing the study of prepared
materials in their care (museum abbreviations in
parentheses where appropriate): Dr Farooq M.
Ahmed, Director, Zoological Survey Dept.,
Karachi, Pakistan (ZSD); Mr K.J. Baig, Pakistan
Museum Natural History, Islamabad; Mr J.C.
Daniel, Bombay Natural History Society
(BNHS); Mr S.M. Nair, Director, Museum
Natural History, New Delhi; Dr J. Eiselt, Vienna
Museum Natural History; Dr K. Klemmer,
Senckenberg Museum Natural History, Frankfurt,
West Germany; Dr W. Bohme, Alexander Koenig
Museum Natural History, Bonn, WestrGermany;
Dr G. Zug, United States National Museum,
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INTRUSION OF A RHESUS MACACA MULATTA PAIR INTO A
LANGUR PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS GROUP1
Reena Mathur and A. Lobo2
In the course of 3400 hours of field observation on free ranging langur Presbytis entellus
in Jaipur, India, during 1985 and 1986, six cases of rhesus Macaca mulatta associating (as
residents) with langur groups were observed in the thirty censused groups. One of these associa-
tions involved an adult rhesus pair and a unimale bisexual langur group which was extensively
studied at the Ambagarh reserve forest. This report presents data on their interaction during the
initial seven months of the rhesus residency in the langur group. Most of the interactions involved
langur adult females with infants and the male rhesus. The female rhesus seldom interacted with
the langur individuals. A possible fitness enhancing strategy is suspected behind the social
isolation of the rhesus from its conspecifics.
( With two text-figures )
Introduction
Polyspecific association in non-human
primates has been reported from a number of
study sites (Bernstein 1967, Gartlan & Struhsaker
1972, Freeland 1977,Rudran 1978, Das and Shar-
ma 1979, Waser 1 980). Most of these associations
are temporary and occur due to overlapping ac-
tivity ranges. However, a few cases of long term
intertaxa association have also been reported
(Bernstein 1967, Dolhinow 1972, Das and Shar-
ma 1980, Mohnot 1984).
This study examines the interaction between
rhesus and various age and sex classes of the
Hanuman langur Presbytis entellus after the for-
ceful intrusion of the former into a unimale
bisexual langur group designated as G-3. This
type of association between rhesus and langur has
been observed in as many as six groups (four
unimale, one multimale and one all male band)
out of the thirty censused langur groups in Jaipur.
Each of the groups excluding G-3, had an adult
rhesus male resident. The pair with G-3 gave birth
to an infant later. Association of one or more
langurs with rhesus groups was not encountered.
1 Accepted February 1988.
Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan,
Jaipur — 302 004, India.
Study Area and Methods
The study area was the Ambagarh reserve
forest situated on the eastern border of the city of
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. The vegetation is of dry
deciduous type dominated by Anogeissus pen-
dula, Maytenus emarginata, Holoptelea in-
tegrifolia and a number of Acacia species.
Rainfall averages 600 mm per annum and is
strongly seasonal, with almost all rain falling
during the month of July and August. Winter
(November to February) temperatures vary be-
tween 6°-15°C, while the summer (April to June)
temperatures may reach as high as 47 °C.
Seven groups (five bisexual, two all male) of
langurs inhabit this area . Extensive observations
were made on a unimale bisexual group (G-3),
which had a resident rhesus pair.
Data on interactions between the rhesus pair
and the langur group G-3 was collected sys-
tematically during the ten days of each month
while scan sampling G-3 for its activity pattern
and feeding ecology. Sampling all occurrences of
some behaviour was the method of choice
(Altman 1974) for recording interaction between
rhesus pair and langurs.
Results
Rhesus-langur infant interaction: The rhesus
RHESUS - LANGUR INTERACTION
309
pair was never observed in direct aggression or
any other form of interactive action towards lan-
gur infants. The infants who wandered away from
their mothers in the course of exploration hurried
back to them when the “rhesus got near while
passing by or while relocating himself or herself
within the group.
Rhesus-langur juvenile interaction: Small
juvenile langurs who had just been weaned,
avoided any form of interaction with the rhesus.
They never indulged in instigations or challenged
the dominant attitude of the intruders and readily
moved away from preferred areas on approach of
the rhesus. Avoidance in this case demonstrated a
condition of fear, and submission of the small
juveniles towards the aggressive rhesus.
All the langur juveniles in the study group were
females. Rhesus-langur juvenile interaction con-
stituted 19.5% of the total recorded interactions
Fig. 1. Percent interaction of various age-sex classes of
langurs with rhesus (December 1985 to June 1986). AFI:
adult female with infant; AF: adult female; SA: subadult
female (in this group there were no subadult males); LJ:
large juvenile; SJ: small juvenile; 1-2: infant 2(big infant)
1-1: infant 1 (small black coat infant).
(Fig. 1), with a mean frequency of 6.3 encounters
per day in December, followed by a significant
fall (2.1, 2.3, 1.0, 2.1 and 2.8 encounters per day
respectively; Fig. 2) in the following five months.
A second peak of 4.1 encounters per day was
recorded in June.
The behavioural repertoire of the large langur
juveniles during an encounter was attention at-
tracting: large juveniles would approach the
rhesus within 5-10 m and start squealing. The
duration of the squeal varied from as short as 2 sec
to about 20 sec. The rhesus male generally ignored
the squealers; however, if the squealing persisted
he would threaten or even chase the stentorian.
The female rhesus seemed less tolerant than the
rhesus male and was always observed to threaten
and even chase the large juveniles. The male and
female rhesus threats involved: (1) the tense
mouth face; (2) the startling open mouth face.
Chasing, which seldom occurred, varied over dis-
Fig. 2. Frequency of interactions (per day) between various
age-sex classes of langurs and rhesus (December 1985 to
June 1986). A: rhesus-langur large juvenile; B: rhesus-
langur subadult female; C: rhesus-langur adult female; D:
rhesus-langur adult female with infant.
3
310
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
tance of 5-50 m. Adult langur females would
intervene during a chase in an attempt to defend
the langur juveniles; intervention involved collec-
tive rushing by one or more individual at the
rhesus. This usually terminated the chase.
Rhesus-langur subadult interaction: Subadult
langur females were docile and unlike the
juveniles, did not incite the rhesus. Interaction
between the rhesus and langur sub-adults was
rare, constituting only 2.6% of the total recorded
data (Fig. 1 }. March and April were the only two
months when interactions were seen to occur.
Interactions are represented by 1.1 and 1.7 en-
counters per day respectively (Fig. 2). All interac-
tions between the two occurred when subadult
females tried soliciting extra-troop males or the
new resident male during and immediately after
male replacement (take over) in the unimale
bisexual group G-3. Interaction involved threats
and chase directed by the rhesus male towards the
langur sub-adults. The chase in this case occurred
over distances of 30 to 1 50 metres. Here too, adult
langur females came to the rescue of the subadults
in the same manner as described earlier. The
female rhesus was never observed interacting
with this class of langurs.
Rhesus-langur adult female interaction: The
behavioural pattern of adult females (AF) and
adult females with infants (AFI) towards the
rhesus was quite distinctive. AFI avoided the
presence of the rhesus pair. This was revealed by
their circumspect, albeit wary, attitude. This class
constituted the maximum number of the total
recorded interactions between the rhesus and the
langurs (61 .7%; Fig. 1). December and July show
a higher frequency of interaction. However, there
is no significant difference between the frequency
of encounters per day over the remaining seven
consecutive months (Fig. 2).
The behaviour during an interaction between
the rhesus male and AFI was characteristic and
involved the following sequence: AFI moved
towards the rhesus male, squealing, stopped a few
metres in front of him, turned the infant upside
down many times, nuzzled the infant, held its tail
in her mouth, and then took off squealing and
screaming. In some cases this act was performed
without any vocalization.
This formed the most predominant behavioural
activity of this class of langurs towards the rhesus
male. However, it would be wrong to generalize
this behaviour to all AFI. Factors such as the age
of the adult female and the age of the infant
seemed to play an important role in determining
the probability of interaction. Adult females with
new bom infants never approached the rhesus
male or rhesus female. The frequency of interac-
tion between the rhesus and AFI also depended on
the spatial distribution of the rhesus within the
langur group. The rhesus occupied strategic loca-
tions such as a preferred resting site (the rhesus
generally sat at the base of the tree or at the
junction between the trunk and the first whorl of
branches, thus preventing the langurs from
moving into and out of the tree), preferred feeding
site, a water hole, or remained seated in the path
of group progression. Interaction between the
rhesus and adult females without infants seldom
occurred and did not involve the complex be-
havioural pattern mentioned above. All interac-
tions which occurred did so over provisioned food
or when the rhesus got in close proximity of the
adult females. Interaction between the two in-
volved threat gestures, chase and even a total
indifference by the rhesus male towards the incit-
ing AF. Many times the langur females emitted an
Ahhh sound (produced by the forceful expulsion
of air from the throat with the mouth remaining
closed or partly open) directed towards the rhesus.
Rhesus-langur adult male interaction: Most
interactions between the rhesus and langur adult
males took place immediately after a take — over
(change of adult male in a unimale bisexual langur
group), with the rhesus male being the agressor in
all recorded cases. Individual idiosyncrasies of
the langur adult males played an important part in
ascertaining the nature and intensity of the aggres-
sion directed towards them by the rhesus male.
The degree of opposition faced by the aggressive
langur male, from the rhesus male, was commen-
surable to the aggression directed by them
towards G-3 individuals.
RHESUS -LANGUR INTERACTION
311
During and after a takeover the rhesus male
threatened and chased the usurper male whenever
he attacked or attempted to attack adult females
with infants. One langur male “MB”, who took
over group G-3 twice, did not direct aggression
towards AFT or infants. This male was readily
accepted by the rhesus and G-3 individuals. Male
4 ‘XT’ ’ was the most violent of the five males who
had taken over G-3 from 24 December 1985 to 1 6
May 1986. Male “XT”, unlike males “CZ”,
“SE”, “BF” and “Stumpy” did not face any
opposition from the rhesus male. Male “CZ”
who came next in the hierarchy of “New male-
AFI aggression” faced maximum aggression by
the rhesus male. Over a period of seven days, 24
instances of rhesus male-4 ‘CZ’ ’ interactions were
recorded. All recorded cases were agonistic en-
counters and in relation to “New male - AFT
aggression”. On all 24 occassions “CZ” yielded
to rhesus dominance with only three (12.2%)
cases of retaliation.
Unlike the rhesus male, the rhesus female did
not intervene during “New male - AFI
interactions” and very seldom interacted with the
langur male. All recorded interactions between
the two took place over provisioned food, with the
rhesus female being the agressor, but unable to
displace the adult langur male. During such inter-
actions the rhesus male was observed threatening
and even chasing the adult male langur.
Discussion
In the present investigation interaction be-
tween the rhesus and the langurs showed two
peaks (December 1985 and June 1986; Fig. 2).
The initial peak in December 1985 was due to the
recent entry of the rhesus pair into the study group.
The scarcity of trees with sufficient foliage to
provide shelter from the high temperature (42 °-
47 °C) during June, thus resulting in competition
for shelter sites, accounted for the sudden rise in
encounters during that month.
Polyspecific association in primates has usual-
ly been looked at from the point of functional
advantage to one or both species. One of the most
prominent of these advantages is antipredatory: an
animal increases the probability of detecting a
predator, and thus escapes (Gartland and Struh-
saker 1972, Rudran 1978).
The potential predators at the Ambagarh
reserve forest are hyaenas Hyaena hyaena, jackals
Canis aureus and feral dogs Canis familiar is.
Only one instance each of direct interaction with
hyaenas and jackals was observed during the
study period; but on a number of occasions poten-
tial predators were seen lurking within the activity
range of the langur group. Langur interactions
with known dogs were peaceful and the former
were often observed picking out ticks from the
latter, but with unknown dogs the interactions
were always aggressive. A peaceful type of as-
sociation between the dogs and the rhesus pair did
not exist. Apparently association among these two
species had no antipredatory advantage to the
individuals of G-3, who live in a very large group
of 117 individuals. The rhesus pair probably
benefited from an increased probability of detect-
ing predators in an area where hyaenas and jackals
live.
During a takeover in G-3 the rhesus male
chased langur females indulging in sexual
solicitation of extra — troop males. It would
probably be absurd to attribute this behaviour to
dominance exhibition by the rhesus male, but this
act most certainly had a detrimental effect on the
acceptance of the rhesus pair by G-3 individuals.
The behaviour of adult females with infants
towards the rhesus male was characteristic, and is
accountable if looked at from the point of female
anticipation of possible threat to the survival of
offspring due to the presence of unknown in-
truders. “Unknown”, in this case refers to the
unfamiliar and unknown intentions of the
strangers. This was substantiated by the non —
exhibition of this behaviour by AFT one year after
the intrusion.
The exhibition of aggression by the rhesus
male towards adult langur males attacking AFI
was perhaps an affectation, a strategy to inculcate
acceptance by the female langurs who form the
stable core of langur social organization.
Why the rhesus male left his group probably
312
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
has reasons. Leaving is a functional response to
increased population density; during splitting of
groups in Japanese macaques animals who leave
presumably gain advantages in terms of food
availability, decreased breeding disturbance and
reduced susceptibility to diseases (Furuya 1968,
1969, 1973). In some groups, individuals leave as
a result of aggression directed at them by
dominant male members of the group (Poirier
1969), to avoid inbreeding (Itani 1972), or to
prevent depression of fitness (Hill 1974). In the
present study the rhesus male left his natal group
with a female. It is assumed that the fitness of the
rhesus male must have been greatly reduced due
to prevention of access to receptive females by
dominant males. Hence, departure from con-
specifics and taking along an adult female could
possibly be a fitness enhancing strategy.
Refer
Altman, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour:
Sampling methods. Behaviour 48 .1-41 .
Barash, D.P. (1975): Ecology of paternal behaviour in
the Hoary marmot: an evolutionary interpretation, Journal of
Mammology 56: 612-615.
Bernstein, I.S. (1967): Intertaxa interactions in a
Malayan Primate community. Folia primate 7:198-207.
Das, S.M. & Sharma, B.D. (1980): Observation on a
remarkable association of the rhesus monkey ( Macaca mulatto
villosa ) with the Himalayan langur ( Presbytis entellus schis-
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124-125.
Dolhinow, P. (1972): The north Indian langur. In:
Primate patterns, ed. P. Dolhinow. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Freeland, W.J. (1977): Blood sucking flies and primate
polyspecific associations. Nature 269: 801-802.
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monkeys: 1. Five fissionr and social changes between 1955 and
1966 in Gagyusan troop. Primates 9:323-350.
(1969): On the fission of troops of
Japanese monkeys: 2. General view of troop fission of Japanese
monkeys ibid. 70:47-69.
(1973): Fissions in the Gagyusan colony
Reproductive advantage due to isolation has been
reported by Barash (1975) in Hoary Marmot
which exhibits two distinct social systems: iso-
lated family units and populous colonies. The
male in the isolated family need not fear encroach-
ment of competing males on his sexual preroga-
tives; social isolation is thus used as a fitness
enhancing strategy. To say anything with certain-
ty for rhesus regarding fitness enhancing strategy,
long term empirical evidences for comparison are
needed on the reproductive success of subordinate
rhesus male living in his natal group. If social
isolation could enhance the fitness of subordinate
rhesus individuals, then why is it not that most, if
not all, subordinate rhesus males leave their natal
group? Only further investigation of the subject
can answer this question.
NCES
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Press: New Jersey.
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associations and niche separation of rain forest anthropoids in
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between social organisation and incest avoidance in nonhuman
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position, structure, function and change. Folia primatologica, 10:
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Rudran, R. (1978): Sociobiology of the blue monkeys
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ANTHECOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY CONSIDERATIONS OF
LEONOTIS NEPETAEFOLIA R. BR.1
A.J. Solomon Raju and C. Subba Reddi2
Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. flowers with anthers dehiscing in bud stage produced inflores-
cence on the verticillaster every day. The flowers are capable of reproducing through autogamy,
geitonogamy and xenogamy, but autogamy is the predominant mode and is successful even in the
total absence of an extraneous agency. The animal visitors, avians - Nectarinia zeylanica , N.
asiatica, a bee Trigona sp. are the regular pollinators. Butterflies, which are occasional visitors,
seldom act as pollinators.
From the evolutionary point of view, the flowers of L. nepetaefolia with their scarlet colour,
degenerated lower corolla lip, predominant autogamy, higher pollen-ovule ratio and greater
amounts of nectar, are suggestive of the autogamous race now occurring in India as descended
from a xenogamous race.
Introduction
Cruden (1976) gave a brief account of the
evolution of the weed Leonotis nepetaefolia
R.Br., suggesting that the flower-form now oc-
curring in India, Southeast Asia, Indonesia,
Australia etc. has undoubtedly descended from a
xenogamous - bird pollinated race. Except for
this, the information on the flower biology and the
pollination dynamics of L. nepetaefolia is not
known. The purpose of the present study was to
provide information on the anthecology and detail
evolutionary considerations of L. nepetaefolia
R.Br.
Material and Methods
The herb Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. ( Phlomis
nepetaefolia L.) growing wild abundantly in
waste places, open forests, banks of irrigation
canals, and along roadsides at Turimella
(15°10’N, 81°45’E), Prakasam District, Andhra
Pradesh, India, was chosen for the study. The
blooming phenological events at inflorescence
and flower level were observed in detail. The
inflorescence flowering life span was obtained
after tagging ten randomly chosen inflorescences
1 Accepted April 1988.
Department of Environmental Sciences,
Andra University, Waltair 530 003, India.
about to initiate bloom and followed every day
until they ceased to flower. Concurrently, the
flower morphological characters were also ob-
served. Following the methods of Raju (1987),
Horbome (1973), Baker and Baker (1973), pollen
production per flower and pollen-ovule ratios,
pollen viability, stigma receptivity, recording the
flower life time, nectar monitoring and analysis
and breeding systems were investigated.
Representative specimens of the butterfly
visitors were caught, killed, preserved and iden-
tified with Wynter Blyth (1957) and Varshney
(1983); the insect species by a comparison with
the identified specimens (by CIE, London) and
the avian species by visual examination from
close quarters, and using binoculars, and iden-
tified with Salim Ali’s books. The activity period
of the foragers, type of forage, behaviour at
flower, share in the pollination play etc. was also
observed.
Results
Vegetative and Flowering phenology: Vegeta-
tive growth of L. nepetaefolia appears in Septem-
ber; flowering commences from mid — October
and continues up to December/mid — January;
thereafter the plants dry up.
The verticillaster inflorescence bears three ver-
ticils, each with an average of 162 flowers in the
basal whorl, 1 88 in the second and 1 37 in the third
314
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
whorl, producing over 63 days. The flowers are
produced every day but each verticil does not
flower successively.
Flower morphology: The floral parts show size
difference in the first and the last formed flowers.
The sessile flower is scarlet and gullet-shaped.
Calyx tubular, ten-ribbed, green and hairy. Corol-
la is 2-lipped, tubular - the seat for the nectar
produced at the base of ovary; upper lip is long,
concave with a villous crown and lower lip small,
3-lobed and is poorly developed and non-func-
tional. Stamens are 4, epipetalous, didynamous,
housed inside the upper corolla lip, filaments
hairy and hold the stamens together. Gynoecium
is bicarpellary, tetralocular, syncarpous superior
ovary with gynobasic style; stigma bifid — une-
qual lobes and situated below the stamen position.
Floral dynamics: Flower opening is ac-
complished every day over a short period during
2200 to 0200 hrs. The same schedule was evident
on different weather days. Anthers open 20-30
minutes ahead of anthesis. Pollen gradually drops
off from the anther onto the stigma geotropically
in small clumps. Pollen output per flower came to
be 1 04 1 2 (X); they are spheroidal, 44 mm, surface
smooth and cytoplasm granular, and are viable for
44 hours of anther dehiscence. Pollen-ovule ratio
is 2603 : 1 . Stigmas are receptive after anthesis and
remain so for 37 hours, then corolla with stamens
and stigma drops off. Calyx persists and shelters
the developing seeds in it. Nectar production
began two hours before anthesis and ended at
Table 1
Flower Visitors on Uonotis nepetaefolia; Forage
type and Body Parts of Pollen Deposit
Flower visitors species
Forage type
Pollen deposit
region
Hymenoptera
Apidae
Trigona sp.
Pollen
Ventral side,
Formicidae
Camponotus sericeus
Nectar
legs, head
-do-
Lepidoptera
Danaidae
Danaus chrysippus
-do-
Proboscis
Euploea core
-do-
-do-
Pieridae
Catopsilia crocale pomona
C. py rant he
-do-
-do-
Papilionidae
Polydorus aristolochiae
-do-
-do-
Nymphalidae
Hypolimnas misippus
-do-
-do-
Thysanoptera
Thripidae
Thrips hawaiiensis
-do-
Entire body
Nectariniidae
Nectarinia asiatica
-do-
Bill, Forehead
N. zeylanica
-do-
-do-
ANTHECOLOGY OF L. NEPET AEFOLI A
315
0800 hrs, the corolla tube gets filled; amount
produced was 6 ml/flower. Sugar concentration is
18% and composed of glucose, sucrose and fruc-
tose (Gsf); amino acids and proteins are also
found.
Breeding behaviour: Hand-pollination done to
test the various modes of reproduction showed
that apomixis is totally lacking, reproduction is by
autogamy (100%), geitonogamy (100%) and
xenogamy (48% fruit set; 62% seed set; 30%
fecundity). Open pollinations also yielded 100%
in fruit set and seed set as well as in fecundity.
Flqwer visitors’ activity: A total of ten species
was recorded at the flowers- two avian species of
Nectariniidae, two hymenopterans (bee and ant)
and six lepidopterans. Besides these, thrips are
also found in the flowers. All these are day — ac-
tive: sunbirds and ants during 0600-1800 hrs,
Trigona sp. during 1 100-1500 hrs, and the but-
terflies during 1000-1600 hrs.
Only avian species are consistent and frequent
visitors throughout the season. Sunbirds, ants and
butterflies visited the flowers for nectar. They
emptied the flower in a single visit. The stingless
bee Trigona sp. visited the flowers for pollen only
(Table 1). Trigona sits against the stamens and
moves onto the anthers and collects pollen; then
the stigma and stamens are forced out of the upper
corolla lip. Consequently, the pollen falls on the
stigma in small clumps and the ventral side of the
bee’s body brushes against the reproductive parts.
Camponotus sericeus do not disturb the flower
and take nectar from lateral side. The butterflies
approach the flower laterally and from the front,
to obtain nectar; the reproductive parts come into
contact with the proboscis when the butterfly ap-
proaches from the front. However, all the visits
are not successful.
The sunbirds behave at the flower in two ways:
a) they sit at the inflorescence axis, insert the bill
into the flower of the side of inflorescence from
the front; b) they sit at the inter — verticil region
of the inflorescence, and insert the bill into the
flower tube from above, through the corolla lip;
then the lip is ruptured vertically in the centre. In
either case, the stigma and stamens come out of
the hooded lip but without any damage to the
reproductive parts. The manner of pollen fall on
the stigma was the same as occurred when
Trigona sp. foraged. Two plant species
Anisomeles malabarica and A. indica compete
with Leonotis nepetaefolia for pollihator service,
especially from avian species.
Discussion
Pollination: The flowers are visited by the avian
Nectar inia sp., ‘he stingless bee Trigona sp., the
ant Camponotus sericeus and butterflies. The sun-
birds may reach the nectar either by inserting the
bill in the legitimate way (Fig. la) or by piercing
the upper corolla lip from above, making a vertical
slit in the mid — part of the corolla (Fig. lb).
Trigona sp. collects pollen stemotribically and the
butterflies suck the nectar and seldom effect pol-
lination. The ants forage on nectar and do not
establish contact with the stigma and pollen and
hence act as nectar robbers. Trigona sp. and but-
terflies are not regular visitors. The birds are
regular and consistent and their visits to the
flowers force the essential organs out of the upper
corolla lip and obtain nectar nototribically, while
it is stemotribic for Trigona sp. and is seen heavily
dusted with pollen upon visiting the flower. The
plants reproduce through autogamy, geitonogamy
and xenogamy -the first as superior. Controlled
pollinations of autogamy indicated 100% success
in fruit set and fecundity even in the total absence
of flower visitors. When visitors are absent, the
pollen, after getting dried, drops onto the stigma,
resulting in auto-pollination.
Structurally, the flowers are gullet-blossoms,
the stigma and anthers are hidden inside the wool-
ly upper corolla lip; anthers dehisce by lon-
gitudinal slits, nectar is abundant, dilute and is
well suited for the sunbirds to sip. The lower
corolla lip is not well developed and shrivels away
soon after anthesis. The sunbirds showed a
preference for scarlet L. nepetaefolia flowers,
when Anisomeles indica, A. malabarica (blue
flowers) were available at a place, thus suggesting
a preference for scarlet flowers. Evidently, L.
nepetaefolia does not rely on pollinator activity
316
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.86
for its reproduction, but certainly such activity
may contribute to xenogamy and the resultant
genetic variability.
Salim Ali (1932) has compiled a list of plant
species pollinated by sunbirds and by others,
where members of Lamiaceae such as Salvia
splendens and L. nepetaefolia are given as visited
by sunbirds. The present study adds Anisomeles
sp. to such a list. The Anisomeles sp. are not only
visited for nectar but are pollinated in their act of
foraging.
The sunbirds are known to exhibit site
specificity and it seems to be maintained over a
long period of time. In certain cases, they probe
the flowers in an illegitimate way and sip the
nectar (Salim Ali 1932). In the present study, the
sunbirds were seen occupying nests in the nearby
bushes of Euphorbia antiquorum or other plant
species and regularly paid visits to a particular
patch of Anisomeles or L. nepetaefolia. The pol-
lination by sunbirds at the study area was not
dense, hence there was no competition for floral
resource. The sunbirds approached the flowers of
Anisomeles sp. in the legitimate way, but they
usually punctured the corollas of Leonotis
nepetaefolia.
Nectar and pollen-ovule ratio: Heinrich (1975)
discussed that the flowers to be pollinated by large
bodied animals requiring high energy produce
significantly more nectar compared to the flowers
pollinated by small — bodied low energy requiring
organisms; and most of the outcrossed plants
produce relatively large amounts of nectar. Con-
trary to this, the autogamous L. nepetaefolia
produced more of diluted nectar similar to that of
bird-flowers. The pollen-ovule ratios are also
greater as in xenogamous flowers in contrast to
Refer
Ali, S. (1932): Flower — birds and Bird — flowers in
India, In: A Century of Natural History, Ed. J.C.Daniel, Bombay
Natural History Society, pp. 430-455.
Baker, H.G. & Baker, I. (1973): Some anthecological
aspects of the evolution of nectar producing flowers particularly
amino acid production in nectar. In: Taxonomy and Ecology. Ed.
V.H.Heywood. Academic Press, (London), pp. 243-281.
the prediction of Cruden (1977) that autogamous
species will have lower P/O’s than xenogamous
flowers. Presumably, the L. nepetaefolia
autogamous race occurring in India might have
descended from a xenogamous bird-pollinated
race as suggested by Cruden (1976), but the
degeneration of breeding system is not accom-
panied by a similar degeneration of other floral
characters as corolla colour, pollen-ovule ratio
and nectar production.
Cruden (1976) suggested the possible lines of
evolution of breeding system in Leonotis
nepetaefolia on the basis of his observations on
the populations in the New World. He found the
small flowered form as well as the large flowered
form and a third form occurring in eastern Africa
which has given rise to the weedy populations in
southeast Asia, Indonesia, Australia etc. The
small flowered form is facultatively xenogamous
and is pollinated by hummingbirds and small
bees. The large flowered form is xenogamous and
is pollinated in Kenya by sunbirds (Gill and Wolf
1975), but in the New World it is visited il-
legitimately by hummingbirds which take nectar
from the flowers by slitting the corolla or depress-
ing it from above. He further states that the large
flowered form is recently arrived in the New
World and that the evolution of an autogamous
race may be occurring. Therefore, it is likely that
the form now studied might have originated from
a xenogamous race.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. P.V. Bole and Prof. G. Got-
tsberger, Der Justus Liebig Universitat,
Deutchland, for going through the manuscript and
the UGC, New Delhi, for financial aid.
ENCES
Cruden, R.W. (1976): Fecundity as a function of nectar
production and pollen — ovule ratios. In: Tropical Trees : Varia-
tion, Breeding and Conservation. Eds. J. Burley and B.T. Styles.
Academic Press (London and New York), pp. 171-178.
(1977): Pollen — ovule ratios: A conserva-
tive indicator of breeding systems in flowering plants. Evolution
37:32-46.
ANTHECOLOGY OF L. NEPETAEFOLIA
317
Gill, F.B. & Wolf, L.L. (1975): Economics of feeding
territoriality in the golden-winged sunbird. Ecology 56: 333-
345.
Heinrich, B. (1975): Energetics of pollination. Annu.
Rev. Ecol. andSyst. 6: 139-170.
Horborne, J.B. (1973): Phytochemical Methods. Chap-
man and Hall, London.
Raju, AJ.S. (1987): The Pollination Ecology of Some
Lamiaceae. Ph.D. Thesis, Andhra University, Waltair.
Varshney, R.K. (1983): Index Rhopalocera Indica, Part
II. Common names of butterflies from India and neighbouring
countries; Records of the Zoological Survey of India. Occasional
Paper No. 47.
Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian
region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
SATPURA HYPOTHESIS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAUGHING THRUSHES
GARRULAX LESSON OF INDIA1
Md. Anwarul Islam2
(With two maps and a text-figure)
Several theories have been put forward to explain the discontinuous distribution of
Himalayan flora and fauna in the south Indian hills. Tbe present paper discusses one of these
theories in the light of an in-depth study of the ecology of Laughing Thrushes carried out between
1982 and 1984.
Introduction
The ecology of two south Indian endemic
laughing thrushes, namely the Nilgiri Laughing
Thrush Garrulax cachinnans and the
Whitebreasted Laughing Thrush G.jerdoni , in the
Nilgiri (1 1°12’ N to 1 1°40’ N and 76° 14’ E to IT
E) and Palni Hills (10°1 ’ N to 10°26’ N and77°14’
E to 77°52’ E) was studied from May 1982 to mid
March 1983 and July 1983 to August 1984. Three
and a half months (20 March to 8 July 1983) were
spent in the Nainital area, Uttar Pradesh, (29° 12’
N, 79° 29’ E) to learn the habitat, ecology and
behaviour of laughing thrushes in their strong
hold, i.e. the Himalayas, where most species of
the genus Garrulax occur, hi the Himalayas, four
species of laughing thrushes were studied, namely
the Streaked Laughing thrush G. lineatus ,
Whitethroated Laughing 'Fhrush G. albogularis,
Whitecrested Laughing Thrush G. leucolophus
and the Striated Laughing Thrush G. striatus.
Observations and Discussion
Besides India, laughing thrushes occur in
China, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh,
Burma, Thailand, Kampuchea, Malaysia and Sri
Lanka (Map 1 ). The genus Garrulax comprises 46
species (Zuoxin 1982), of which 28 occur in the
Indian subcontinent, mainly in the Himalayas.
Of these 28 species, two are endemic: G. cachin-
nans to the Nilgiris and G.jerdoni tothePalnis
Accepted October 1987.
institute of Life Sciences, Jahangimagar University,
Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
and Kerala hills. The only other laughing thrush
occurring in different south Indian hills is the
Wynaad laughing thrush, which is a subspecies of
the east Himalayan G. delesserti (Ali 1977). Only
one species, G. cinereifrons , occurs in Sri Lanka
as endemic, but it is closely related to G. delesserti
(Ali and Ripley 1972).
The significant occurrence in a few hills of
southern India of certain plant and animal forms
either identical to or possessing close affinities
with east Himalayan, Indochinese and Indo-
Malayan forms, has been commented on by ear-
lier biologists. Several theories have been put
forward to explain this wide-ranging discon-
tinuous distribution of life forms. Some of these
are:
(1) Himalayan glaciation theory, (2) Southern
route across the Indian ocean theory, (3) Deccan
trap theory, (4) Continuous range theory, and (5)
Satpura hypothesis.
The Satpura hypothesis was first postulated by
Hora (1937a, 1937b) to account for the presence
and distribution of torrential -river fishes of
Malayan affinity in the Indian peninsular region,
south of the Satpura- Vindhya-Assam Hills trend,
in contrast to their supposed absence in the west
Himalayan region. For more than 15 years his
numerous scientific contributions (Hora 1938,
1949a, 1949b, 1950, 1951, 1952a, 1952b, 1953,
1955; Hora and Mathur 1952, Hora and Menon
1952, 1953) developed the original concepts. He
synthesized geological, palaeobiogeographical,
palaeontological, palaeobotanical,
palaeoclimatological and meteorological
evidence for a comprehensive theory governing
SATPURA HYPOTHESIS AND DISTRIBUTION OF GARRULAX
319
60 70 80 90 100 110
30
20
10
Map 1. Distribution of genus Garrulax (shaded portion only, modified after Ali 1953).
tertiary palaeobiogeography, faunal and floral
migration and distribution.
Hora’s (1937a) first statement on the
hypothesis is paraphrased by Sahni (1982) as
follows: The rising Himalayas in the region of
western Assam and eastern Nepal disrupted the
eastward flow of the Indo-Brahm river in the late
Miocene which then acted as a barrier to a new
stock of hillstream fishes migrating from the east
towards India. Unable to cross the barrier, the
fishes were deflected southwestwards along the
Satpura — Vindhya trend which stretched across
India as a pronounced range from Gujarat to the
Assam Himalaya. The route followed by the fish
immigrants was westward along the Satpura-
Vindhya ranges, and thence southwards along the
Western Ghats towards the southern extremity of
the subcontinent (Fig. 1).
Ali (1949, 1977) supports Hora’s Satpura
Hypothesis and cites examples in the various
groups of animals - mammals, birds, reptiles and
amphibians. Ali mentions that many avian genera
and species of the eastern Himalayas show a dis-
continuous distribution similar to that of the
laughing thrush genus Garrulax , such as Fairy
Bluebird Irena puella , Great Pied Hornbill
Buceros bicornis , the two bazas or lizard hawks
Aviceda jerdoni and A. leuphotes and the Rufous-
bellied Hawk-Eagle Hieraaetus kienerii.
The most striking example among the avifauna
is provided by the laughing thrushes of the genus
Garrulax. Ali explains the origin of these relics,
on the assumption that in the geological past there
was a direct elevated land connection between the
Himalayas and the southern hills, providing the
requisite physiographical conditions for a con-
320
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig.l Sketch map of India illustrating Satpura Hypothesis
of Hora. Arrows indicate the supposed migration routes of
torrential river fishes (Source: Sahni 1982, modified after
Hora 1953).
tinuity in their distribution. Through the action of
geotectonic forces-subsidence and erosion-the
connecting land ‘bridge’ disappeared. The more
stable sections were cut off from the Himalayas
as ‘islands’ thus marooning the local populations
of plants and animals on them, including weak-
flying sedentary birds like the laughing thrushes,
in a sort of natural refugium.
However, Dey (1949) asserts that it is impos-
sible, on available evidence, to accept the idea of
a belt of hills across the Bengal (Rajmahal) gap,
Chota Nagpur etc. within the time — range of
living animal species. Auden (1949) is also not in
favour of the probability of the existence of the
continuous Satpura ranges.
If, as suggested by Dey (1949) and Auden
(1949), there was no continuous elevated land
connection between the Himalayas and the south
Indian hills, then the laughing thrushes could not
have migrated southward over the Satpura-
Vindhya mountains. On the other hand it would
Map 2. Locations of the hilly areas of the Western Ghats
(Source: Khan 1977).
seem more likely for them to have spread over the
continuous western Himalayas.
Moreover, the Satpura Hypothesis is unable to
account for the following three facts regarding the
present distribution and ecology of the southern
laughing thrushes.
1. G. cachinnans is restricted to the Nilgiris,
whereas G. jerdoni is found in the Brahmagiris,
north of the Nilgiris, and Palnis, High Wavy and
Ashambu hills, i.e. south of the Nilgiris. It is very
unlikely that G. jerdoni , which is found in the
Brahmagiris, completely by passed the Nilgiris on
its passage towards the Ashambu hills (Map 2). If
these birds had migrated through the Satpura-
Vindhya mountain trend, the two endemic laugh-
ing thrushes G. cachinnans and G. jerdoni would
have appeared together, at least in certain hills in
the Western Ghats, particularly in the Nilgiris.
An in-depth study of the south Indian endemic
laughing thrashes G. cachinnans and G. jerdoni
has shown that both species have almost identical
ecological requirements. Then the question arises
as to what factors prevented these two endemic
SATPURA HYPOTHESIS AND DISTRIBUTION OF GARRULAX
321
species from coexisting in any of the Western
Ghats hills in their range. Gause (1934) states that
two species cannot coexist unless they are oc-
cupying two different niches.
Let us assume that due to identical niche
preference these two species could not coexist.
However, Perrins and Birkhead (1983) remark
that closely related bird species often differ in one
or more niche dimensions within a community.
According to them the following might happen if
two species with identical niches arrived in the
same place: (1) They might coexist without
deleterious effects. This is a possibility only if the
resource is temporarily unlimited. (2) One or
other species may be more efficient at harvesting
a limited resource. In this case, either the less
efficient species will become extinct, or it will
change its niche. In cases where coexistence oc-
curs it is unlikely that one species would change
its niche completely and that the other would not
change at all. It is more likely that each will be
slightly more efficient than the other in different
parts of the niche. If so, what would happen is that
both species would alter their niches accordingly.
Mac Arthur (1972) points out that it is easier for
two similar species to coexist than for three or
more. This is because in the former situation each
species has the chance of shifting its niche away
from that of the other. With three or more species,
this may not be possible for the species occupying
the middle part of the resource. Furthermore,
either each species maintains its niche and there
is a considerable overlap between adjacent
species, or each species narrows its niche. Hence,
if the southern laughing thrushes had migrated
through the Satpura-Vindhya trend, the coexis-
tence of these two species would have appeared
in some of the south Indian hills they inhabit. In
the Himalayas several species of laughing
thrushes do coexist.
2. The south Indian laughing thrushes are
believed to be relict populations of Himalayan
forms. Previous workers found the Himalayan
species of the genus Garrulax to be chiefly
group — living or gregarious birds. However, the
present study reveals that the two endemic south
Indian laughing thrushes are chiefly pair — living.
If the south Indian populations are an offshoot of
their group — living Himalayan congeners
(author’s experience of the Himalayan species is
confined to the breeding season when G. lineatus
and G. striatus were found only in pairs), the
territorial strategy would have shown a different
picture of their survival. Gaston (1980) states that
an individual of a pair — territorial species can
switch to group — territoriality without loss of fit-
ness in terms of its pre — existing reproductive and
feeding behaviour, but an individual of a group —
territorial species which adopts a pair — territorial
strategy may suffer in adaptations to feeding,
predator detection and nest — site selection which
reduces its fitness in a pair — territoriality. How-
ever, the nesting success of the southern endemic
laughing thrushes appeared to be high which is an
indication of how well they are adapted in their
present distribution.
3. Furthermore, the complete absence of the Sri
Lankan endemic laughing thrush, G. ciner eifrons
in the Western Ghats is again puzzling as it too
would have migrated along the Satpura —
Vindhya mountain trend. Although Jacob (1949)
states that Sri Lanka remained geographically a
part of the Indian mainland until quite recent times
and supported Hora’s Satpura Hypothesis, he ad-
mits that he has no direct geological evidence in
support of the hypothesis to explain the existing
distribution of the flora and fauna. Moreover,
concerning the land connections between India
and Sri Lanka, the common belief is that the last
separation is as recent as c. 10,000 years ago, but
the real disappearance of the Gulf of Mannar
would, according to Blasco (1970), date from the
commencement of the Pleistocene; and there is
apparently nothing to prove that there was in its
place a high mountain.
These unexplained facts do not fully credit
Hora’s concept (supported by Ali) of a physical
corridor which enabled the southward migration
of the laughing thrushes.
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to my professor the late Dr Salim
322
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Ali for his guidance and keen interest at all stages
of this work. I thank Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator,
Bombay Natural History Society; Dr Ali Reza
Khan, Assistant Professor, Department of
Zoology, University of Dhaka; Dr Robert B.
Grubh and Mr S.A. Hussain of the Bombay
Refer
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highway. Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. India 75:379-386.
(1953): Birds of Kerala. Oxford Univ.
Press, Bombay.
(1977): The Nilgiri complex as a refugium
for Himalayan fauna and flora. Nilgiri Wildl. Assoc, centenary
publ. pp. 1-4.
& Ripley, S.D. (1972): Handbook of the birds
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Auden, J.B. (1949): A geographical discussion on the
Satpura Hypothesis and Garo-Rajmahal Gap. Proc. natn. Inst.
Sci. India 75:315-338.
Blasco, F. (1970): Aspects of the flora and ecology of
savannas of the south Indian hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
67: 522-534.
Dey, A.K. (1949): The age of the Bengal gap. Symp. on
Satpura Hypothesis of the distribution of Malayan fauna and flora
to peninsular India. Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. India 75:409-410.
Gaston, A.J. (1980): Pair territories and group territories.
Symp. on altruism in birds. Deutsche Ornithologen —
gesellschaft, Berlin.
Gause, G.F. (1934): The struggle forexistence. Williams
and Wilkins, Baltimore.
Hora, S.L. (1937a): Geographical distribution of Indian
freshwater fishes and its bearing on the probable land connections
between India and the adjacent countries. Curr. Sci. 5:351-356.
(1937b): Distribution of Himalayan fishes
and its bearing on certain paleogeographical problems. Rec.
Indian Mus. 39: 251-259.
(1938): On some fossil fish scales from the
Intertrappean Beds at Deothan and Kheri, Central provinces. Rec.
Geol. Surv. India 73:261-294.
— (1949a): Satpura Hypothesis of the dis-
tribution of the Malayan fauna and flora to peninsular India. Proc.
natn. Inst. Sci. India 75:361-364.
(1949b): Climates as affecting the Satpura
Hypothesis, ibid. 75:361-364.
(1950): Hora’s Satpura Hypothesis-an
aspect of Indian biogeography. Curr. Sci. 79:364-370.
Natural History Society, who gave valuable
advice during the course of this study. The
study was supported by a fellowship grant
from Salim Ali — Loke Wan Tho Ornithologi-
cal Research Fund of the Bombay Natural His-
tory Society.
N C E S
(1951): Some observations on the
paleogeography of the Garo — Rajmahal Gap as evidenced by the
distribution of Malayan fauna and flora to peninsular India. Proc.
natn. Inst. Sci. India, 16(6): 437-444.
(1952a): An ichthyologist looks at Indian
paleogeography. ibid. 77: 1-13.
(1952b): Recent advances in the fish geog-
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(1953): The Satpura Hypothesis. Science
Progress, London 41 (162 ):245-255.
(1955): The status of the Satpura
Hypothesis. Bull. natn. Inst. Sci. India 7: 264-268.
& Mathur, B.B.L. (1952): On certain
paleogeographical features of Rajasthan as evidenced by the
distribution of fishes, ibid. 7:32-36.
& Menon, A.G.K. (1952): Distribution of In-
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1. The extinct Dipnoan and ganoid fishes of India. Everyday
Science, Ambala 1(1):26-31.
(1953): Distribution of Indian fishes of the
past and their bearing on the geography of India 1 1 . The extinct
fresh water fishes of India, ibid. 7(2):105-113.
Jacob, K. (1949): Land connections between Ceylon and
peninsular India. Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. India 75:341-343.
Khan, M.A.R. (1977): Ecology and behaviour of the
black-and -orange flycatcher Muscicapa nigrorufa (Jerdon).
Ph.D. thesis (unpubl.). University of Bombay.
Macarthur, R.H. (1972): Geographical ecology. Harper
and Row Publ. Inc., New York.
Perrins, C.M. & Birkhead, T.R. (1983): Avian Ecology.
Blackie and Son Ltd. Glasgow and London.
Sahni, A. (1982): The current status of Hora’s Satpura
Hypothesis. In: K.S. Valdiya, S.B. Bhatia and V.K. Gaur (eds.).
Geology of Vindhyanchal. Hindustan Publ. Corp., Delhi.
ZuoxiN, Z. (1982): On the evolution of Garrulax
(Timaliinae), with comparative studies of the species found at the
centre and those in the periphery of the distributional range of the
genus. Acta Zool. Sinica 28(3): 205-210.
ADVANTAGES OF COMMENSALISM IN ULOBORUS FEROKUS BRADOO
(ARANEAE: ULOBORIDAE)1
B.L. BRADOO2
(With three plates containing six figures)
The paper gives an account of commensalism among spiders, and its advantage to a
non-poisonous spider Uloborus ferokus Bradoo (Araneae: Uloboridae), which lives as a
gregarious commensal on the web sheets of the social spider Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch
(Family Eresidae).
Introduction
The commensalistic association among spiders
has received very little attention. The information
available in the literature is based on some general
observations, giving records of the association of
one species with another. The actual biotic
relationship involved between the two species has
not been thoroughly investigated. The detailed
study on the life-history and biology of commen-
sal spiders forms an interesting and valuable field
of arachnid ecology.
The various aspects of the biology of Uloborus
ferokus , a gregarious commensal that lives on the
web sheets of the social spider Stegodyphus
sarasinorum have previously been described
(Bradoo 1972a, 1979, 1985; Patel & Bradoo
1981). Studies on the ecology and behaviour of its
host has also been reported earlier (Bradoo 1972b,
1975a, 1975b, 1980).
This paper gives an account of the various
benefits and advantages that U. ferokus derives
from commensalistic association with the social
spiders.
Methods of Study
The observations recorded here are based on
extensive field studies and laboratory observa-
tions on these spiders. Nests of S. sarasinorum
bearing these commensals were collected from
Accepted November 1985.
Department of Zoology, D.A.V. College, Sector — 10,
Chandigarh, India.
the field and installed near the laboratory, for
experimentation and observations. For detailed
techniques, previous publications by the author
should be consulted.
Commensalism among Spiders
Details and reviews on commensalism among
spiders are not available, except for a brief note
by Kaston (1965). Because of the insufficient
observations, some species of spiders have often
been recorded as parasites in a host web, and as
commensals in the webs of some other spiders.
Kullmann (1959) cites several authors like Com-
stock, Kukenthal and Vinson, who reported com-
mensalism among a few spiders. However, true
commensalistic association among spiders is rare,
and so far known from only three different
families, namely Oonopidae, Theridiidae and
Uloboridae.
Under the family Oonopidae, Bristowe (1958)
records that Oonops pulcher lives among the
retreat fibres of the large spiders like Amaurobius
ferox and Tegenaria atrica , and feeds on the
remains of its host’s meals.
Under the family Theridiidae, Simon (1894)
reported Theridion nodiferwn in commensalistic
association with the tropical psechrids. The best
known account of commensalism has been given
by Exline (1945) for the conopisthine spiders that
live on the webs of other spiders. She found 23
individuals of three different species of Argyrodes
in the webs of different species of Gastracantha.
Yaginuma (1956) reported Rhompheae sagana
and R. fictilium, in commensalistic association
324
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
with the webs of Linyphia, Araneaus and F on-
line lla, in Japan. Lamore (1957) found Conopis-
tha trigona as a commensal of Allepeira
lemniscata, in Maryland, U.S.A.
Legendre ( 1 960) reports that one or many com-
mensals may be found on the same host web, and
he found upto 50 individuals of Conopistha
zonatus in a single host web. Tembe and Thakur
(1960) found specimens of Argyrodes nephilae in
similar association with Nephila maculata , from
India. This commensal feeds on very minute in-
sects that do not attract the attention of the host
spider. Bradoo (1983) recorded A. progiles in
association with Stegodyphus sarasinorum, from
Kerala.
Exline and Levi (1962) reported that some,
perhaps all, the species of the genus Argyrodes
live as commensals in the webs of larger spiders
like Nephila , Gastracantha , Argiope , Latrodec-
tus , Agelenopsis and Allepiera. Often, many in-
dividuals of different species of Argyrodes live on
a single host web and feed on small insects that
get ensnared in the host web. Hence, these small
commensals may not construct any web of their
own, or may sometimes construct a typical
theridiid web consisting of only a few silk lines,
close to or on the host web itself. These commen-
sals hang in the host web upside down, with the
first pair of legs folded beneath the body. They are
usually inconspicuous, being smaller than the host
and resemble some seeds, bits of bark or some
plant matter attached to the host web. It is believed
that conopisthine spiders may live in any con-
venient web as commensals.
The commensalistic association and nature of
Conopistha has been questioned by Wiehle
(1928), Thomas (1953) and Kullmann ( 1 959) who
consider that Conopistha is an obligate parasite,
because it feeds on the prey that could be used by
the host spiders also. Kullmann (1959) further
points out that C. argyrodes steals wrapped prey
held in reserve in the web by the host spiders like
Zygiella x-notata and Cyrtophora citricola.
Kullmann (1960a, b) found that Theridion
tepidariorum lives as a parasite m the web of
Cyrtophora citricola. The observations of Dar-
chen (1965) are interesting in that he found that
Cyrtophora species in Gabon steal captured in-
sects from other orbs of larger spiders. Vollroth
(1979) describes the behaviour of the klep-
toparasitic spider Argyrodes elevatus from
Panama.
Kaston (1965) is of the opinion that the varia-
tion in the behaviour of conopisthine spiders is
possibly due to their non-host specificity, and
hence their behaviour seems to be so plastic and
variable that in one host, they behave as a com-
mensal, and in another they lead the life of a
parasite. These observations may, however, help
in understanding the origin of aggregations, com-
mensalism, kleptoparasitism and true parasitism
among spiders that are basically aggressive and
cannibalistic.
Under the family Uloboridae, Simon (1892)
reported Uloborus servulus, in commensalistic
association with a Cyrtophora sp. in Venezuela.
Gravely (1915, 1921) found a Uloborus species
(unidentified) in commensalistic association with
the social spiders, at Cochin, and recorded other
unnamed species of these spiders from the webs
of Cyrtophora cicatrosa , Gastracantha
bre\?espina and Nilus sp., from Barkuda Island,
and from the webs of C. citricola , from Burma.
Struhsaker (1969) reported U. mundior in as-
sociation with the larger spiders like Nephila
clavipes , in Panama. Opell (1979) reported
colonies of Philoponella tingena in the webs of
Achaearaneae, Scytodes and Nephila , in Panama
and Colombia. Bradoo (1979) reported U.
ferokus , a gregarious commensal that lives on the
web sheets of Stegodyphus sarasinorum , in
Kerala. This association serves many benefits and
advantages to the commensal, but not at the ex-
pense of the host spiders. The host spiders are not
at all harmed or affected in any way by the com-
mensals, which are of very small size.
Advantages of Commensalism
1. Support and protection: Uloborus ferokus is
a gregarious, non — poisonous, orb making spider.
Its orb webs are supported by the host web sheets
or are made between the host nest and the adjacent
Plate 1
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Bradoo: Commensalism in U. Jerokus
iliiSS
BH
ua
H S'
DHi
Above : An orb web of Uloborus ferokus, supported b> he host silk threads (HS)
Below : Orbs of the commensal as seen in the damaged reas of the host web.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Bradoo: Commensalism in U. ferokus
Plate 2
Above : The U. ferokus female with her cocoon.
Below : The nest and the damaged web sheet with a host spider.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 86
Bradoo: Commensalism iri U. ferokus
Plate 3
Left : Close-up of freshly made host web sheets showing sticky, zig-zag cribellar threads.
Right : A typical host nest with reduced web sheets during the breeding season of the host spiders. The nest shows inter-
connected tunnels inside.
COMMENSALISM IN ULOBORUS FEROKUS
325
web sheets (Plate 1). Usually, the commensals
make their orbs among the damaged web sheets
of the host (Plate 1). Even the newly hatched
.spiderlings of this commensal prefer to spin their
primary and tiny orbs in the vicinity of the host
nest, or they may stay close to the host nest
without spinning any orbs. The host nest and the
web sheets thus not only support a large number
of these commensals (maximum up to 54 in-
dividuals were observed in a single, large host
web), but also protect these commensals against
unfavourable weather conditions such as rain,
strong wind and sunlight.
2. Nourishment: Due to the weak and fragile
structure of their orbs, and secondly as a result of
active struggle of some prey, the tiny orbs of these
commensals get badly damaged. Although the
orbs are made daily in the morning, the damaged
orbs are not repaired, so that the commensals are
forced to live on the host web itself to obtain the
necessary nourishment from it. The host web not
only supplies nourishment, but also provides a
resting place and shelter for the webless commen-
sals. The gravid females and mature males of U.
ferokus do not spin any orb webs of their own but
prefer to stay close to the host nest, or on the web
sheets.
During maternal care, which may last up to ten
days, the mother stays with her cocoon (Plate 2)
and normally does not spin her orb web, par-
ticularly during the dry season. During this period
she gets her nourishment exclusively from the
host web.
U. ferokus commensals have a double ad-
vantage of getting their nourishment from two
sources: (a) from the host web, and (b) from their
own orbs when present. However, the host web is
the chief source of nourishment available in the
form of minute insects. These include
microhymenoptera, microdiptera, minute beetles,
Staphylinids and other insects like thrips, aphids
and a variety of small winged insects, that are
available throughout the day and night. Such
minute insects are insignificant for the nutritional
requirements of the host spiders that feed on larger
insects only (Bradoo 1980).
3. Activity: That the host web serves to supply the
necessary food at any time of the day and night,
keeps the commensals active all the time, unlike
other spiders, that may be either nocturnal or
diurnal in activity.
4. Economy in spinning activity: A continuous
supply of prey items from the host web does not
make it obligatory for the commensal to repeat
another orb on the same day, nor does it need to
repair its badly damaged orb, unlike other orb —
spinners that depend exclusively on their orb,
which needs care and regular repairs. The ex-
perimental individuals of U. ferokus that were
prevented from making any orb continued to live
on the host web till maturity. Thus the orb in this
spider seems to be a useful device to perceive the
vibrations coming from the host web. It serves as
a resting place from which it can monitor very
effectively the web vibrations that come from the
nearest area of the host web.
The orbs of U. ferokus do not withstand the
struggles of various active prey items, particularly
the Staphylinids, that manage to escape even
before the commensal is able to restrain and wrap
them (Bradoo 1 986). The escape potential of these
prey from the orb is further facilitated by the fact
that these commensals, being non-poisonous, do
not bite their prey to death, either before or after
the prey-wrapping is over. Therefore, it takes
much more time for the commensal to subdue and
restrain an active prey in the orb than in the host
web.
On the other hand, the host web is highly
sticky, elastic, and an efficient trap for all types of
insect prey, small or very large in size. Thus
minute prey get no chance to escape from the host
web. This nourishment is easily available and
procured by the commensals that have to exert
themselves very little in the host web.
5. Growth and life history duration: A con-
tinuous and abundant supply of food from the host
web accelerates the growth and the life histor> of
these commensals. Unlike most other orb —
weavers, that have an annual or a biennial life
history, the U. ferokus commensal completes its
life history in 54 to 79 days. This comparatively
4
326
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HINT. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
short duration is accountable in terms of the
benefits it derives from its association with the
social spiders.
Not only is the life history short, but there are
five to six generations each year, and these
generations overlap. The breeding throughout the
year is a unique feature of its biology. Hence, all
the stages from egg (cocoons) to adult spiders are
available on the host web all the year. However,
the number of commensals is directly related to
the life history of the host spiders and the size of
their web-sheets.
6. Reproductive success: The commensalistic
association also serves to keep mature males and
females together on the host web. Hence, it is
easier for males to locate mature females for
mating. The number of males is understandably
lower than the females, which is compensated by
their habit of staying on the host web, and second-
ly by the fact that males of this species practise
polygamy and get their mates easily during their
exploratory behaviour on the host web. Hence,
every female individual is positively impreg-
nated, and this helps to increase their reproductive
success.
7. Increased fecundity: The reproductive suc-
cess is also enhanced markedly by the increased
fecundity as a result of availability of more prey
from the host web. Each U. ferokus female makes
a total of up to four cocoons in the wet season, at
an interval of 5 to 17 days. Prey is more abundant
during the wet season. But in the dry season, just
one cocoon is made by each female on account of
the shortage of prey (Patel & Bradoo 1981).
8. Regulation of populations: The commensals
adjust their breeding activity with the life history
of the host spiders, that reproduce only once, in
summer. The number of host spiders is then low,
and a corresponding decrease is observed in the
commensals. The web sheets are very much
reduced and damaged (Plate 2). But with the
approach of the wet season, the host population
and the web sheets increase in size so that the
commensals also increase in number. The host
web size serves to regulate the population of the
commensals.
9. Dispersal: The dispersal of the commensal to
new host nests is brought about by the host web
(Plate 3) which joins several nests with each other.
Newly hatched U. ferokus spiderlings show a
geonegative behaviour. They move upwards over 1
the host web and reach new nests. This prevents
overcrowding of the commensals in a single host
nest.
10. Protection against egg-parasites: The host
nest (Plate 3) and web sheets help to reduce the
ovipositional activity of the egg — parasite Idris
sp., so that the cocoons are made closer to the host
nest, particularly during the dry season. This
prevents parasitism of the eggs and increases their
chances of survival. Most other free living
uloborids prefer to suspend their cocoons in the
orb web, exposing these to various predators and
parasites.
11. Safety to weaker individuals: U. ferokus
being gregarious, several individuals live on the
same host web. These individuals are of different
age groups. The commensalistic life is ad-
vantageous to those individuals that make no orb
of their own but manage to dislodge and replace
a weaker individual from its own orb by web— re-
placement. This behaviour is not uncommon in
these commensals. Those individuals that are
replaced, explore the host web and get shelter and
nourishment from it. Hence, web replacement
need not force a weaker individual to repeat the
laborious job of spinning a fresh orb for itself;
alternative accommodation on the host web can
be used. It is possible that this behaviour might
have given rise to gregarious commensalism in
this species.
12. Host’s helping behaviour: Those cocoons of
the commensal that remain unattended on the host
web may be collected by the host spiders during
their exploratory behaviour. Once they come
across an unattended cocoon of the commensal,
they transport it safely to their nest without
damaging or diopping it to the ground, which is
normally not done to other inanimate objects on
the host web. This interesting behaviour on the
part of the host unknowingly protects the eggs or
the young ones present in the cocoon. This be-
COMMENSALISM IN ULOBORUS FEROKUS
327
haviour can be explained by the fact that social
spiders are in the habit of removing and cutting
bundles of dry silk from their webs; these are
rolled into a ball and incorporated into the nest
structure.
For leading a commensalistic life on the host
web, these spiders are suitably adapted to move
easily on the host web. They do not get entangled
even when dropped on a freshly made smare.
They seem to show some innate familiarity with
the host web. They also help to keep the host web
clean by eating minute prey that is not required by
the host. Thus the commensals also act as ‘web —
cleaners’ for the host spiders. Their feeding ac-
tivity does not disturb the host spiders, as they cut
the web around the ensnared prey in the host web.
At the approach of any host spider, the commensal
stops all its movements and if necessary, can run
quickly to safety on the host web or via a dragline
to its own orb. Hence, U. ferokus behaves and
lives like a true commensal and its association is
not at all harmful to the host, nor does it live at the
expense of the host.
To summarize, therefore, Uloborus ferokus
lives in commensalistic association with the social
Refer
Bradoo, B.L. (1972a): Life history and bionomics of
Idris sp. an egg parasite of Uloborus , a commensal on the web of
Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch. Zool. Anz . Leipzig
188(112): 43-52.
( 1 972b): Some observations on the ecology
of social spider S. sarasinorum Karsch (Family Eresidae) from
India. Oriental Ins. 6(2): 193-204.
(1975a): Notes on the sexual biology and
morphology of the reproductive organs of S. sarasinorum. Ent.
Mont hi. Mag. Lond. 77:239-247.
(1975b): The cocoon spinning behaviour
and fecundity of S. sarasinorum (Araneae: Eresidae). J. Bombay
nat.Hist. Soc. 72 (2): 3 92-400.
(1979): Uloborus ferokus sp. nov.
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India. Bull. Br. arachnol. Soc. 4(8):353-355.
(1980): Feeding behaviour and recruitment
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Tijdsch. Ent. Nehterlands 123(4 ):89-104.
(1983): A new record of commensalism
spider Stegodyphus sarasinorum. The web sheets
of the host spider provide protection, support and
plenty of nourishment in the form of minute prey.
This increases the fecundity, longevity and
population of the commensals. The commensal
breeds throughout the year and the duration of life
history is short. There are several generations per
year and the generations overlap. Males, gravid
females and those that are replaced by stronger
individuals live on the host web, which enhances
the reproductive success of the commensal. The
host nest and the web sheets not only support the
orbs of these commensals and their cocoons, but
also prevent the ovipositional activity of the
egg — parasites. It also helps in the dispersal of the
commensal.
Acknowledgement
I am indebted to Prof. Dr B.H. Patel, Sir P, P.
Institute of Science, Bhavnagar University,
Gujarat, for going through the manuscript and for
some useful suggestions, and to Principal K.S.
Arya, D.A.V. College, Chandigarh, for facilities
and encouragement.
E N c E s
between Argyrodes progiles Tikader, and S. sarasinorum. Curr.
Sci. 52(5):217-218.
(1985): The primary orb web of Uloborus
ferokus (Araneae: Uloboridae). ibid. 54(12) .594-596.
(1986): Some observations on the fecundity
of Uloborus ferokus Bradoo. Ind. Zool. 2 17(1/2):! 5-8%.
(in press): Feeding behaviour of a non-
poisonous spider Uloborus ferokus (Araneae: Uloboridae). Zool.
Anz.
Bristowe, W.S. (1958): The World of Spiders. Collins,
London, 304 pp.
Darchen, R. (1965): Ethologie d’une Araignee sociale,
Agelena consociata Denis (Agelenidae). Biol. Gabon. 1(2):\ 17-
146.
Exline, H. (1945): Spiders of the genus Conpistha , from
North Western Peru and Equador. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 55:505-
528.
& Levi, H.W. (1962): American spiders of
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Zool. 127(2) .-75-204.
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Gravely, F.H. (1915): Notes on the habits of Indian
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Kaston, B.J. (1965): Some little known aspects of spider
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(1960a): Ueber parasitares Verhalten der
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(1960b): Beobachtungen an T.
tepidariorum alsa Mitbewohner von Cyrtophors netzen. Deut.
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Lamore, D. (1957): The spider Conopistha trigona Hentz
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Opell, B.D. (1979): Revision of the genera and tropical
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OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE PRAYING MANTIS CREOBATER
URBANA FABR. (ORTHOPTERA: MANTIDAE)1
R.J. Ranjit Daniels, Malati Hegde and C. Vinutha2
Observations on the biology of a species of Indian mantis, namely Creobater urbanaFabr.
have been discussed in the text The egg laying interval was predictable. The data shows a gradual
decrease in the number of young that hatched out irrespective of the size of the ootheca. The species
does not appear to be parthenogenetic. The life-history of the young has also been discussed. A
parasite on the ootheca of mantises was identified. Coexistence of ants with developing praying
mantis embryo inside the ootheca was also noticed.
Introduction
Praying mantises are known for their subtle
way of hunting and their total dependence on live
animal food. This quality has attracted attention
towards using them as insect predators. Creobater
urbana , one of the more than 1800 species of
mantises in the world, is a medium sized mantis
found commonly in Bangalore. Individuals are
seen on bushes and are often attracted by light.
However, not much is known about its biology. In
this paper we discuss observations made on its
food preference, egg laying behaviour and life —
history.
Food: An adult C. urbana female was brought
to the laboratory on 31 July 1983. It was main-
tained in a transparent polythene cage and readily
accepted most of the insects offered as food. Table
1 shows the variety of insects it either took or
rejected. It lived for 4 months and died on 30
November 1983. During the first month it was fed
every day with one or more of whatever kind of
insects were available. Later, due to difficulty in
getting insects, it was fed every alternate day. A
few like the Danaus, the common Aristolochia
butterflies and a species of wingless grasshopper,
were caught, tasted and rejected. The butterflies
are known to carry toxins in their bodies acquired
from the plants on which their larvae feed. The
grasshopper too was unacceptable.
Accepted September 1985.
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science.
Bangalore-560012.
Mantises are normally ambush hunters. This
was actually what we observed though at times,
when very hungry, our mantis used to search and
take the prey. This behaviour has been reported
by Inoile and Matsura (1983) as ‘active
searching’.
Egg-laying: On the third day after it was brought
to the laboratory, the female mantis produced an
ootheca (egg). More oothecae were produced at
predictable intervals (Table 2) and before it died
1 1 oothecae were produced. It preferred to lay on
wood and would not lay on the smooth sides of its
polythene cage. The interval between the second
and third ootheca was increased by a day as no
branch was provided. On providing a branch it
immediately got on to it and laid.
The normal pre-laying behaviour that we ob-
served was non-acceptance of food for at least a
day before the act. The mantis would be dull and
inactive. This was a clear indication of laying.
Often the branch was provided on seeing this
behaviour. The mantis always took an upside
down posture while laying, pushing the frothy
white egg mass upwards. The white frothy mass
dries into a creamy white hard ootheca. After the
process was completed, the branches were taken
out, the oothecae measured for length, labelled
and maintained in separate cages. The mantis
usually fed after laying.
The laying interval (Table 2) was 7 days ini-
tially. It then abruptly increased to 10 days and
gradually from 10 to 15 days before the mantis
died. The mean number of days 9.1± 1.9 was
calculated excluding the last interval of 15 days.
330
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 86
(Details of the last ootheca have not been included
in calculating means as by then the mantis was
worn out and had become very dull and inactive.)
The sudden change in the laying interval from 7
to 10 days can be related to the change in food
availability. When fed every day, the interval was
7 days (except between the second and third) and
when fed every alternate day it became 10 days.
Mastura and Morooka (1983) also claim that with
more food, the interval between ovipositions is
shortened. The egg size they say was nevertheless
fixed in the mantis Paratenodera angustipennis.
This tendency has been observed in the mantis C.
urbana too as the mean egg length was 31± 3.4
mm with a variation of only 10.9% compared to
the 20.8% variation in the laying interval. Ageing
may also have affected the interval, particularly
between the last 2 or 3 eggs.
All the eleven oothecae hatched. The mean
time taken was 33.5± 2.5 days (CV 7.4%, Table
2). The number of young was 45. 3± 12.2 per
ootheca with a variation of 26.9%. This variation
is much higher compared to the variation in
ootheca length (CV of 10.9%). The data shows a
gradual decrease in the number of young that
hatched out irrespective of the size of the ootheca.
This is not easy to explain. Nevertheless there is
a possibility of a reduction in the number of viable
Table 1
LIST OF INSECTS FED TO THE MANTIS Creobater urbana
Accepted
Rejected
Adults
Diptera
Wingless grasshopper
Mantis ( Humbertiella sp.)
Lymantrid moths (Lepidoptera)
(Orthoptera: Acrididae)
Geometrid moths (Lepidoptera)
(Lepidoptera: Danaidae)
Polytela gloriosae
Danaus sp.
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
(Lepidoptera:Papilionidae
ARCTIIDAE (Lepidoptera)
Tros aristolochia
Hypsa ficus (Lepidoptera: Hypsidae)
Polydorus hector
(Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)
Achoea janata
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae)
Katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigonidae)
Asura conferata (Lepidoptera: Lyman tridae)
Corcyra cephalonica (Lepiodoptera: Pyraustidae)
Crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)
Eurema hecabe (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)
Catopsila sp. (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)
Lycaenidae (Lepidoptera)
Nymphs
Bracon hebetor
Parellelia algira (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
(Hymenoptera: Braconidae)
Prenolepis longicornis
Drosophila melanogaster
Lycaenidae (Lepidoptera)
(Hymenoptera:Formicidae)
BIOLOGY OF THE PRAYING MANTIS
331
sperms stored in the spermatheca with increasing
age of the insect. Though parthenogenesis is
known in praying mantises (Mani 1968) we
believe that the female was inseminated before it
was brought to the laboratory. It refused to mate
in the laboratory and both the males introduced on
different occasions were killed. The number of
oothecae it produced before it came to the
laboratory is also not known. A preadult nymph
that moulted into an adult female in the laboratory
did lay eggs but none hatched. This insect surely
had not mated. This supports our view that the
species is not parthenogenetic.
Life history: Eggs hatched into brown, ant — like
young. They were very active, always carrying the
abdomen curled up. This persisted till they got
their wings. The first batch that hatched out did
not survive for more than two days. The other ten
were able to survive and a few became adults.
Most of the young were released due to difficulty
in maintaining them. The ones that we maintained
were observed carefully. They started feeding on
the third day. They readily caught and ate the tiny
hymenopteran parasite Bracon hebeior
(Braconidae). Later Drosophila, and gradually, as
they grew, moths of Corey ra cephalonica and
lycaenid butterflies were accepted (Table 1). The
first moult was observed 2 weeks after hatching
and subsequent moults had intervals of 9 to 20
days. In about 77 days a few became adults after
6 moults. Adults are green with a yellow eye —
spot on the wings. The change of colour from
brown to green took place after the second or third
moult. Mortality was generally high during
various stages of development. Cannibalism was
also observed. Adult longevity is not known.
A few other species of mantises kept in the
laboratory at the same time have yielded some
interesting information. Two large oothecae were
brought to the laboratory. These had been
colonised by small colonies of ants belonging to
the genus Crematogaster. The ants were fed and
maintained. Ten days later about a hundred pray-
ing mantises hatched out of one of the oothecae.
The ants started attacking them and had to be
separated. Many died at various stages of
development; only one nymph became an adult.
It moulted eight times and took 108 days. The
Table 2
EGG-LAYING, OOTHECA SIZE AND NUMBER OFNYMPHS HATCHED IN Creobater urbana
SI.
No.
Date of laying
Laying
interval
(days)
Length
of ootheca
(mm)
Date of
hatching
Time taken
to hatch
(days)
No. of
nymphs
hatched
1.
3 Aug 83
_
33
6 Sep 83
34
53
2.
10 Aug 83
7
30
12 Sep 83
33
54
3.
18 Aug 83
8
37
20 Sep 83
33
50
4.
25 Aug 83
7
29
28 Sep 83
34
53
5.
1 Sep 83
7
32
6 Oct 83
35
60
6.
11 Sep 83
10
31
14 Oct 83
33
42
7.
21 Sep 83
10
33
23 Oct 83
32
40
8.
1 Oct 83
10
27
30 Oct 83
29
43
9.
12 Oct 83
11
33
14 Nov 83
33
42
10.
24 Oct 83
12
25
2 Dec 83
39
16
11*.
8 Nov 83
15
14
20 Dec 83
42
10
Mean
9.1
31
33.5
45.3
SD
1.9
3.4
2.5
12.2
C V%
20.8
10.9
7.4
26.9
Has not been included in calculation of mean
332
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 86
adult was large and straw coloured. The identity
of this species has not been determined. Out of the
other oothecae more than twenty hymenopteran
parasites of the genus Podagrion (Chalcidae)
emerged, followed a few days later by praying
mantis nymphs. A few were raised and one be-
came an adult female after 7 moults (198 days). It
lived for 2 months and then died. The mantis has
been identified as Heirodula sp. H umber tiella sp.,
a bark — dwelling mantis. Eggs were laid, and
took 32 days to hatch; about 60 nymphs emerged
Refer
Lefroy, H.M. (1909): Indian Insect Life. Thacker, Spink
and Co., Calcutta.
Mani, M.S. (1968): General Entomology. Oxford and
IBH Publishing Co., Calcutta.
Matsura, T. & Morooka, K. (1983): Influences of Prey
Density on Fecundity in a Mantid Paratenodera angustipennis
from each ootheca.
It has been reported that mantises moult 3-12
times before they become adults (Mani 1968).
Our observations have shown a remarkable varia-
tion in the time taken to become adults in the three
species. The chalcid wasp is considered to be a
common parasite on the ootheca (Mani 1968).
The co — existence of Crematogaster ants with
the developing mantises inside the oothecae has
also been noted by Lefroy (1909).
N C E S
(S.) Oecologia 56(2-3): 306-312.
Inoile, T. & Matsura, T. (1983): Foraging Strategy of a
Mantid Paratenodera angustipennis (S.) Mechanism of switch-
ing tactis between ambush and active search. Oecologia 56(2-
J). •264-271.
ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE HIMALAYAN NEWT,
TYLOTOTRITON VERRUCOSUS( ANDERSON) WITHREFERENCE
TO CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT1
Tej Kumar Shrestha2
(with two plates )
The life — history of the Himalayan Newt Tylototriton verrucosus is described. Populations
of the newt living in far eastern Nepal were used for life — history studies. Newts appeared in rock
pool for courtship activities soon after the first rains during spring (February to March) and
remained there throughout the rainy season (June to September). As the water level receded from
rock pools during late October they abandoned the pools and migrated out to lead a terrestrial life.
From November to January they underwent hibernation. For hibernation dead tree trunks,
subterranean water and fissures in stream beds were used. It was observed that sustained rain
triggered mating activity and ovulation. The mating calls of breeding newts were also noted, which
were a low, distinct twak, twak. Courtship, mating and egg- laying activity was noticed in May,
varying annually. In many respects, the reproductive mode of T. verrucosus is like that of
Pleurodeles. Prescriptions for conservation and management of different life — history stages are
given and development of newt sanctuaries is suggested.
Introduction
The Himalayan Newt Tylototrion verrrucosus
(Anderson) occurs in the humid forests of eastern
Nepal. Larvae and transformed individuals occur
during September and January respectively in
small rock pools. Transformed individuals are
found tiding over the severe winter in small rock
pools, creeks and wallows made by buffaloes.
Favourite hiding places for the hibernating adult
are underground water courses in rock rubble of
creeks, fissures in streams, cracks in wet paddy
fields, and dead tree trunks near rock pools.
Anderson (1871) described the newt from
western Yunnan. Annandale (1908) reported on
their breeding habits. Smith ( 1 924) described tad-
poles of the newt from Darjeeling. Chaudhari
(1966) gave some information on their habits and
behaviour. Gyi (1969) reported the Himalayan
Newt from Burma and made interesting com-
ments on its biology. Soman (1966) reported it
from Nepal . Mansukhani, Julka and Sarkar (1976)
reported the occurrence of newts from Arunachal
Accepted January 1987
.^oyal Nepal Academy of Science & Technology
(RONAST), New Baneshore, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Pradesh and provided some interesting field notes
about their habitat. Ferrier (1974) studied
embryonic development of the Himalayan newt
in the laboratory. Shrestha (1984) gave a detailed
account of the distribution and habitat of the newt
in Nepal. The ecological aspects of the life — his-
tory of the Himalayan newt’s natural environment
in Nepal has not yet been described in detail by
earlier investigators. Therefore, an attempt is
made in the present paper to describe the life-his-
tory of the Himalayan Newt so as to throw more
light on the conservation and management of this
species in nature and in captivity.
Study Site
The first study site is located in Dhankuta (26°
59’ N, 87° 27’ E) in the Koshi Zone of western
Nepal. The common natural vegetation at this
elevation (1 160 m) is Quercus lamellosa, Q. semi-
carpifolia, Q.lineata, Q. glauca, Lindera,
Lithocarpus panchyphylla etc. In the highland
pastures near Hilae village of Dhankuta there are
varied species of Primula, Rhododendron,
Machilus. Among exotic weeds Eupatorium
glandulosum and Lantana camera are grown near
pastureland rock pools. Generally, Pinus roux-
burgii and P. wallichiana constitute the over-
334
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. 86
storey vegetation of the study area. The under-
storey vegetation is composed of Daphene
bholua, Arundinaria hookerina, A. falcata,
Diplopterigium volubilis , and Nephrolepis cor-
difolia. This area receives 604 mm precipitation
per year and has a mild, wet winter and warm, wet
summer. The maximum and minimum tempera-
ture in winter (January) were 16.6°C and 7.7 °C
respectively; and in summer (July), 29.6°C and
26.3°C.
The second study site is Mai Pokhari which lies
in Ham district of Mechi Zone (26°55’ N; 87°54’
E). The natural lake lies at the elevation of 1300
m and covers about 175 hectares. The margin of
the lake is forested with varieties of plants as
described above. The forest here is relatively un-
disturbed by man. In the Mai Pokhari area mean
annual precipitation is 1368 mm, most of which
falls in June and July. Snow fields often persist in
the upper hills in January. The maximum and
minimum temperatures in winter (January) were
15.6°C and 9.6°C, and in summer (July) 26.8°C
and 18.7°C.
Material and Methods
The Himalayan Newt is well distributed in
various localities of eastern Nepal. It is found in
abundance during May and June soon after sus-
tained monsoon rain. It breeds in rock pools where
aquatic vegetation grows in profusion. Breeding
starts during early May and lasts for about two
weeks. During the breeding season male and
female newts come to deposit eggs in rock pools.
40 to 90 eggs are laid by the individual newt. Eggs
are spherical and demersal. They are usually at-
tached to pond weeds, particularly Polygonum.
Samples of fertilized eggs were drawn from the
pond bottom and transferred to an aquarium con-
taining pond water and weeds. The morphological
changes in the fertilized egg and embryo were
sketched and for detailed study they were scanned
under a stereoscopic microscope. For the detailed
study batches of eggs were removed every hour
and treated with 5% acetic acid. After treatment
with acid, the egg membrane became quite clear
and facilitated proper sketching.
The early tadpoles were reared in pond water
and fed with zooplankton and phytoplankton from
natural ponds. The fully grown larvae were
transported to Kathmandu and fed yolk of eggs. I
examined 2000 eggs and 200 larvae from the
study areas, at various stages of their develop-
ment. Their morphological changes were noted in
situ. Snout to vent length (SVL) was measured
with dial callipers. All other measurements, in-
cluding egg diameter, were made with a dissect-
ing microscope fitted with an ocular micrometer.
Early and transformed larvae were collected
from the study areas. The larval newts were abun-
dant in shallow pools. They were often found
attached to vegetation. Maturity of the newt larvae
was confirmed in the case of males by micro-
scopic check for spermatozoa in seminal fluid
from vasa differentia. All females were checked
for the presence of gravid eggs.
Sexual dimorphism: Tylototriton verrucosus
does not show sexual dimorphism, but the female
can be easily recognized during the breeding
season by its highly distended belly. The male
expels milt if the abdomen of the animal is pressed
hard in the breeding period.
Courtship: Himlayan Newts enter the rain pools
with the first rains during early spring (March and
April). They perform an elaborate courtship dis-
play. No distinct courtship call except the low
twak, twak, twak was noted. The male exhibits
orange coloured underparts especially in the
caudal region to attract the female. Many females
congregate near the courting male. The male
selects a willing female and clasps her from
below, i.e. vent to vent. He holds her tightly with
his forelegs for about one hour. Most pairings take
place at night. As a result of the pressure of
clasping, the anal opening of the female is
projected. Soon after, ripe eggs ooze out gradually
and remain attached to the vent of the female due
to their sticky nature. At this time male release
spermatophores or sperms and fertilizes every
batches of freshly laid eggs. Some of the sper-
matophores that are released by the male are suck-
ed up by the female’s cloaca later and await
internal fertilization. The pairing newts move
LIFE-HISTORY OF THE HIMALAYAN NEWT
335
from one aquatic plant bed to another and thus
allow the sticky eggs to attach themselves firmly
onto leaf, stem or root. Some of the pairing
females get exhausted by repeated clasping of
males and die due to internal haemorrhage, while
others suffer from ventilation in muddy water and
die due to respiratory failure.
Age at maturity: The male Tylototriton ver-
rucosus attains maturity when it reaches 150 to
200 mm in length. The female reaches maturity
when it reaches 120 to 180 mm length. The
Himalayan Newt becomes sexually mature and
reaches the above size at the age of two years. No
evidence of neoteny was detected in 100
salamander larvae reared in captivity. In nature
also no such evidence was found.
Clutch size: More than fifty females from the
various areas mentioned above were examined.
The total number of oviducal eggs varied from 30
to 60. The average clutch size was 40. The in-
traovarian egg measured 6-8 mm in diameter.
Nearly all mature intraovarian eggs showed early
developmental stages which provided indirect
evidence that the spermatophores enter the cloaca
of the female and fertilization takes place internal-
iy-
The egg: (Plate 2) The egg is transparent, round
in shape and is enveloped by an outer layer of
loose jelly and an inner layer of fluid. Eggs are
laid in groups, and remain attached to the leaves
of submerged plants, particularly Polygonum spp.
Developing eggs are interspersed with soil par-
ticles and bottom debris. The freshly laid large
eggs measure 10 to 15 mm in diameter. The
diameter of internal eggs ranges from 8 to 12 mm.
The thickness of the egg envelope ranges from 2.0
to 2.5 mm.
Cleavage: About eight hours after fertilization, a
crecentric, narrow blastodisc appears over the
yolk mass. The first cleavage occurs one hour
after fertilization. The second cleavage follows
after 18 hours. A few hours later a third cleavage
starts. After 2 hours the egg reaches the 8-celled
stage. The fourth cleavage occurs after 40 hours
of fertilization, and as a result a 32-celled embryo
is formed. The developing germinal disc is held
in the centre and the whole mass appears loose,
pale yellowish and finally gets transformed into
an irregular mass.
Differentiation of embryo: (Plate 2) The blas-
toderm cells gradually spread over the yolk mass.
The yolk plug stage is reached at about 48 hours.
The yolk is now completely invaginated by blas-
toderm cells in the next 72 hours and embryonic
rudiments are formed as marginal, narrow and
thick bands. The elongation of the embryo starts
when it is 72 hours old. The blastosphere is
formed, which measures about 1.2 x 1.5 mm. In
92 hours the cephalic and caudal regions become
clearly discernible. At this stage the notochord is
differentiated. Over the next 144 hours all com-
ponents of cephalic caudal ends become differen-
tiated and are easily distinguishable from one
another. The three pairs of gills appear in this
stage.
The cephalic region becomes more prominent
when embryo is eight days (192 hours) old. At this
time the rudiments of the optic vesicle is formed.
Now the embryo has 8 to 12 well differentiated
my tomes. At about 200 hours a pair of balancers
is formed. And after 264 hours gills appear and
the heart is formed. Pulsation of the heart starts at
this stage. In 316 hours rarification of branchiae
starts and the pro-larva is fully formed.
Vulnerable stage during embryonic period:
Tylototriton verrucosus embryos hatch long
before the yolk is used and feeding becomes
necessary. The time of hatching was influenced
considerably by the amount of mechanical distur-
bance to the egg. It seems to make little difference
to the embryo whether it is within or outside the
egg membrane. The advantage of early hatching
or hatching at pre -feeding stage may be that it
allows dispersal from the nest site to escape desic-
cation or predation. Mortality is high during the
embryonic stage due to domestic pollution. Deter-
gents and agricultural pesticides washed from rice
fields by rain cause considerable mortality of
developing eggs.
Early larva: (Plate 2) An early larva of T. ver-
rucosus measures about 6 mm to 10 mm in total
length. The body of the larva appears to be
336
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 86
rounded owing to the large amount of the yolk
contained in the belly. At this stage the larval newt
closely resembles the sac-fry larva of a fish. The
larva is now small, round and semi — transparent,
with large eyes. The eyes are covered with a skin
fold and eyeballs are quite distinct. There are three
external gills on each side of the head, which are
set in graduated series from above downwards.
The mouth is relatively large and transverse and
open externally. The anus is still imperforate. The
abdomen is creamy white in colour but the dorsum
and tail are brownish black and usually shot with
melanophores. The larva shows interesting twist-
ing movements inside the egg capsule. It soon
breaks its transparent double layered envelope
and becomes free to feed and grow. This usually
happens during the last week of July or in the first
week of August.
Free swimming tadpole larva: (Plate 2) The
early, free swimming larva of T. verrucosus has
an elongated body with well developed external
gills. It has pairs of ‘ ‘ balancers ’ ’ , which originate
from a point behind the eye. The tail is lanceolate
and gradually shows a crested appearance. The
limbs are rudimentary. At this stage the larva
shows a photonegative response. It measures 5 to
40 mm in total length. Free swimming larvae
occur in great abundance from early August to the
last week of September.
Advanced tadpole larva: (Plate 2) The free
swimming tadpole larva of T. verrucosus gets
metamorphosed into advanced tadpole larva at the
end of October. The advanced larva is charac-
terised by well developed limbs. The limbs and
digits are quite complete. The so called balancer
of early stage disappears completely at this stage,
although vestiges remain in the form of small
tubercles at the point of their origin. At this stage,
larvae show photonegative and geopositive
response.
The advanced tadpole larva is yellowish
brown, with splashes of black and white on the
side of the body and back. The abdomen is
whitish. The head is longer than broad; eyes are
almost entirely lateral. The tail is well developed
with an obtusely pointed tip and upper and lower
crest. On the back or dorsum of the larva there is
a distinct dorsal crest which disappears at the neck
region. Further, a prominent ridge appears at the
side of the head as the larva matures further. The
opercular folds and gill lamellae are still develop-
ing. Finally, knob-like projections appear on the
lateral sides of the body adjacent to the plicated
skin fold, which develop into tubercular glands.
The mouth becomes wide and vomerine teeth
appear. Larvae feed actively on animal and
vegetable matter found in rock pools.
The newt larva at this stage measures 250 to
550 mm. The majority of larvae surface frequent-
ly to gulp atmospheric air. Some of them are also
seen breathing atmospheric air directly by extend-
ing nostrils out of the water.
Young newt at critical stage: (Plate 2) A fully
metamorphosed juvenile newt shows some dis-
tinctive changes. One such change is the absorp-
tion of. the dorsal crest. The absorption points are
indicated by scars. Another notable change is the
total absorption of gills. Aquatic respiration is
now replaced by lung respiration. In this tran-
sitory or critical stage between aerial and aquatic
respiration, mass mortality of larvae is noticed.
The examination of dead larvae shows inflamma-
tion in gills, gular pouch as well as in the lungs.
The sequence of morphological changes occur-
ring in juvenile newts is as follows:
1. Body colour of the larva changes from yel-
lowish brown to pitch black.
2. Head becomes triangular and V shaped and
ridges appear on its sides.
3. Opercular folds become fully absorbed.
4. Eyes become prominent and project out-
wards.
5. Skin texture appears more granular, original
slimy character is lost.
6. Gills shrivel off completely;their vestigesare
indicated by scars.
7. Young newts become photonegative and
geopositive.
8. Newts seek shelter in moist places and show
a tendency to hibernate.
Juvenile newts leave water after the absorption
of gills, and start a terrestrial life. They seek wet
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Shreshtha: Himalayan Newt
Plate 1
1. Himalayan newt eggs showing different stages of develop-
ment. Note fertilized egg with large nucleus, early spindle
shaped embryo and advanced fish like embryo. 2. Embryo as
seen after removing the jelly like egg envelope. This is the 92
hrs embryo with distinct cephalic and caudal regions. 3. An
embryo with well formed gill. At this stage the embryo rotates
on its axis and makes jerky movements. 4. Larva of newt with
fully developed gill. 5. Larv& of newt with stumpy gill. As the
pond dries up the gills get slowly absorbed and shrivel off.
6. Newt larva with gills fully absorbed. The young newt
scrambles over the edge of the pond and seeks shelter in moist
crevices to tide over the icy winter.
Plate 2
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Shreshtha: Himalayan Newt
Above : A typical rainwater rock pool in far eastern Nepal (Ilam)
Below. Adult newts about to enter the breeding pool for depositing eggs and spermatophores.
LIFE-HISTORY OF THE HIMALAYAN NEWT
337
and shady places for shelter. If such places are not
available, they hide themselves among leaf litter
and rock crevices. The growth of the juvenile newt
is quite slow throughout the winter. They are not
seen feeding actively during this period. At places
where lakes and rock pools freeze in winter,
young newt larvae with or without gills are seen
swimming beneath the layer of ice. Various
coloured paints were used to mark juvenile newts.
The marking showed that young newts migrate
from 0.5 to 1 km per day. High mortality is noticed
at the time when newts abandon rock pools. This
takes place generally during the dry period
(December to March). The water to land migra-
tion is an important phase in the life history. About
40% of juvenile newts die off in this stage. The
larval period in the Himalayan Newt lasts about
10-14 months. Study of the water requirements of
the juvenile newt in the land phase is necessary
for the conservation and management of the
species.
Adult newt: When the juvenile newt metamor-
phoses into the adult form, changes in head shape
take place. The widest point of the head lies at the
back of the eyes, where it appears slightly swol-
len. Beyond this point the head converges to
lateral extension of the gular pouch to a point,
making a fairly pointed snout. The eyes are
protruberant and their posterior angle is limited by
a short vertical fold. Gradually, gular folds show
greater development, which is marked by deep
sinuous grooves running from posterior angle of
eye to lateral extension of gular folds. The dorsal
crest totally disapears in this stage. Lateral
tubercles become more prominent, which vary
from 14 to 1 6. The tail becomes long and flattened
ventrally. The shape of the tongue also changes
from spherical to oval and its margin becomes thin
and smooth. The vomerine teeth also appear be-
hind the nares and curve inwards towards the
middle of the line. The parasphenoid teeth be-
come slender and club-shaped.
Discussion
The general categories of the life histories are
described in salamander species (Dunn 1923, Sal-
the 1969). Mode I describes species with
numerous small eggs which are deposited un-
protected in lentic waters, e.g. Ambystoma,
Trachia. Mode n characterises the species with
fewer, larger eggs deposited in hidden nest sites
in lotic waters and often guarded or attended by
one of the parents, usually the female, e.g.
Decamptodon . Mode III describes species with
well hidden terrestrial nest sites (larval stage is
compressed into embryonic stage) and almost
invariably attended by the female parent, e.g.
Plethodotines. Tylototriton verrucosus belongs to
the Mode n category, although it appears that
parental care is not a part of the life history. In this
respect it closely resembles the Olympic
Salamander Rhy cotriton olympicus (Nussbaum
1969).
Ferrier (1974) described embryonic develop-
ment of T. verrucosus in his laboratory. Accord-
ing to him the newt completes its embryonic
development in 1 10 hours after fertilization. The
present investigator records the fact that
embroynic development in the wild state takes
longer (240 hours) than was previously believed.
In the wild state temperatures fluctuate widely
from 12° to 24°C; the newts hence take more time
to develop.
Little is known about mating in T. verrucosus.
It appears that females frequently mate more than
once in a breeding season. The examination of the
ovary of breeding females show both developed
and developing eggs. The fully developed eggs
are fertilized and released in the first mating and
developing eggs are used as a reservoir for a
second or third mating. In this respect T. ver-
rucosus resembles Ensatina eschscholtzi (Steb-
bins 1954).
I estimated that larval periods for newts living
in eastern Nepal were 10 to 14 months. This
period is comparatively shorter than for R. olym-
picus (Nussbaum and Tait 1977; 24-^18 months)
and Decamptodon ensatus (Nussbaum and
Clothier 18 months). I detected a migratory ten-
dency in juvenile newts whose gills were fully
absorbed. Many of them were seen climbing over
the edge of rock pools and breathing through the
338
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
lungs. Some young newts were seen in an inactive
stage in the pool. A number of stream dwelling
newts exhibit the phenomenon of sight tenacity as
described by Nussbaum andTait (1977). No such
sight tenacity was witnessed in rock pool adapted
T. verrucosus.
Conservation and Management
Expanding human population and ensuing
habitat destruction have contributed to the en-
dangering of the newt in Nepal. All stages of the
life history of Himalayan newts are especially
vulnerable to pollution because most spend at
least part of their lives in water. One widespread
form of water pollution is the use of detergents
and pesticides. The eggs and larvae of newts will
die if acid levels are too high. Many newts breed
in small rock pools that result from spring rains
and melting snow. These pools tend to be espe-
cially acidic because humic acid has been ac-
Refer
Anderson, J. (1 87 1 ): Description of a new genus of newts
from western Yunan. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 7577:423-425.
Annandale, N. (1908): Breeding habits of Tylototriton
verrucosus. Rec. Indian. Museum 2 : 305-306.
Chaudhari, S.K. (1966): Studies on Tylototriton ver-
rucosus (Himalayan newt), found in Darjeeling. J . Beng. Nat.
Hist. Soc. 35: 32-36.
Dunn, E.R. (1923): The breeding habits of Salamanders
and their bearing on phytogeny. Copeia 7923:25-28.
Gyi, K.M. (1969): The occurrence of Tylototriton ver-
rucosus Anderson (1987) (Urodela: Salmandridae) at Taunggi,
Burm.t/mv. Burma J. Life. Sci. 2: 23-26.
Ferrier, V. (1974): Chronologie du development do L
amphibien Urode’le Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson
(Salamandridae). Annals D. Embrologie et de morphogenese
7:4:407-416.
Mansukhani, M.R., Julka, J.M. & Sarkar, A.K. (1976):
On occurrence of Himalayan Newt Tylototriton verrucosus
Anderson, from Arunachal Pradesh, India. Newsletter Zool. Sur-
vey. India .2(6) :243-245 .
cumulating over winter with each snow fall. Al-
though insignificant when compared to habitat
destruction and pollution, exploitation for folk
medicine is another threat. The larvae of the newt
also suffer from depredation by collectors, who
use lift nets to capture large numbers to sell them
to witch doctors. We can help ensure the survival
of newts by demanding strong legislation in sup-
port of anti-pollution regulations, habitat preser-
vation, protection endangered species and more
stringent control over the wildlife trade. Consider-
ing all these factors, there is an urgent need to
establish Himalayan newt sanctuary in highland
Nepal before the species becomes extinct.
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to Dr B.S. Chauhan, Member,
Planning Board, Bhopal, and Prof. D.K. Belsare,
Head Bioscience, Bhopal University, for their
suggestions and helps.
E N C E S
Nussbaum, R.A. (1969): A nest site of the Olympic
salamander Rhyacotriton olympicus (Gaige). Herpetologica.25:
277-278.
Nussbaum, R.A. & Tait, K.C. (1977): Aspects of the life
history of the Olympic salamander, Rhyacotriton olympicus
(Gaige). The American Midland Naturalist 98:(1) 176-199.
Salthe, S.N. (1969): Reproductive modes and the num-
ber and sizes of ova in the urodales. Am. Midi. Nat. 81 :461- 490.
Shrestha, T.K. (1984): On the distribution and habitat of
the Himalayan newt Tylotriton verrucosus Anderson in the east-
ern Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 485-487.
Soman, P.W. (1966): An addition to Amphibia of Nepal
and extension of the range of the Indian Newt Tylototriton
verrucosus. Sci. Cult. ( Calcutta ) 32: 427-428.
Smith, M. (1924): Tadpole of Tylototriton verrucosus.
Anderson. Rec. Ind. Mus. 26: 309-310.
Stebbins, R.C. (1954): Natural history of salamander of
Plethodontid genus Enastina. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 54 : 465-
484.
THE GREENBILLED OR CEYLON COUCAL CENTROPUS
CHLORORHYNCHUS BLYTH — SRI LANKA’S RAREST ENDEMIC SPECIES1
Thilo Hoffmann2
Observations are made on a pair of Ceylon Coucals and a call hitherto not recorded is
described. This endemic species is endangered.
On 29 January 1988, Ben King of the American
Museum of Natural History, together with James
and Robert Clements, observed a Greenbilled
Coucal Centropus chlororhynchus at Kitulgala,
where the species is known to exist. At that time
the coucals were calling very early in the morning
between 0600 and 0630 hrs, and Ben King
managed to record on tape a call which had hither-
to not been described, and which consists of a
series of double notes, hoo, hoo-hoo, hoo (‘oo’
short), two hoo' s in quick succession, then a
pause, followed by another two hoo' s, which may
be repeated twice or thrice, occasionally four
times. The sound is rather gentle and by no means
loud, though it carries far and can clearly be
discerned amongst the much louder calls of the
Brownheaded Barbel Megalaima zeylanica and
Yellowfronted Barbel Megalaima flavifrons in a
general babble of early morning bird song. When
Ben King gave me a copy of the tape, I decided to
try my luck and visited the area on 13 February
1988.
With my wife and a friend I arrived at Kitulgala
from Colombo shortly after 0500 hrs, and had to
wait till 0600 before daylight broke, and another
half hour before the ferryman from across the
river bothered to come with his outrigger dugout
to pick up the waiting passengers, of whom there
were quite a few. Just before 0600 hrs, when it
was still dark (the sky was overcast), I heard the
Common Coucal C. sinensis from across the river
and also what I thought was the same call Ben
King had recorded, but only briefly and not again.
In recent years birdwatchers have reported seeing
Accepted April 1988.
Vo Box 1 1 , Colombo, Sri Lanka.
and hearing Greenbilled Coucals in several low-
country wet zone locations (Labugama, Sin-
haraja, Kitulgala) and most refer to the deep,
booming call. I think Henry (1955, p.182) renders
it fairly well as hooo-poop, hooo-poo-poo, the
poop being lower pitched than the hooo, but those
who have not actually heard it may be unable to
mentally transfer the written letters into sound,
interpreting the treble and double o’s in Henry’s
description as long-drawn out booming sounds,
whereas King’s taped call consists of a short
double syllable which might be better trans-
literated as hu , hu (‘hu’ as in book). Contrary to
what Henry writes, the two syllables recorded by
King are identical and at the same pitch. Accord-
ing to Legge (1880) the call is a “long-drawn
hoo-whoop, w hooop ”. Compare with the Com-
mon Coucal: hooop, hooop, hooop, (Legge) and
hoop oop oop oop oop (Henry). I fear that the call
of the Common is often mistaken for that of the
Greenbilled.
When we reached the opposite bank it was
already well past 0630 hrs, and we went towards
the bottom of the valley through which runs from
the south a tributary of the Kelani Ganga, just
opposite the Kitulgala Restliouse. The area con-
sists of densely covered village gardens with scat-
tered houses and several paths, Coconut and
Areca palms (Areca catechu ), Jak trees ( Artocar -
pus Integra), Avari-nuga (Alstonia macrophylla ),
Sapu C Michelia champaca), and other planted
timber and fruit trees, groves of betel, yams, cof-
fee, and an occasional tiny paddy field as well as
ornamental shrubs and trees. Despite being in-
habited, this small area is thickly covered with
trees and vegetation. Due to the annual drought at
the time of the visit, the ground was parched and
with without herbage; many trees and shrubs were
340
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
shedding leaves. Near the last house on the path
to the valley, we observed a Coucal fleetingly in
a king coconut tree, from where it slunk down into
some coffee bushes. We waited and played Ben
King’s recording. Nothing happened, but after a
while a Common Coucal hopped out of the coffee
into the open under some coconut palms. It was
absolutely silent, hopping and strutting along the
open ground. It did not react in any way to the
taped call of the Greenbilled Coucal. We moved
further in the direction of the tributary, separated,
waited and watched.
I went down to the nearly dry riverbed with
many boulders and nice natural vegetation on
either bank. Suddenly a coucal flew from one
bank to the other, and it was indeed the Green-
billed, the bill being very clearly visible to the
naked eye at a distance of 7 to 10 m. The massive
bill of the bird is ivory coloured and very eye-
catching. The bird flew into a Lager stroemia tree
on the other bank which was heavily overgrown
with the thorny creeper Hinguru-wel {Acacia sp.).
It stayed there, partly hidden from view with the
bill rarely visible; from time to time it moved
stealthily from branch to branch in various direc-
tions. After a while a second bird of the same
species flew across the river into the same tree and
both then moved about or sat in the thicket, no
more than 10 m away from where we were in the
riverbed. The flight is a flapping, gliding progres-
sion.
From then on we watched the two birds for a
full 2 1/2 hours (and could have gone on, undoub-
tedly). As we played the tape, the birds would
cross and re -cross the river as if trying to pinpoint
the exact location of the sound. As time went by
they came closer and closer and sometimes sat in
the branches right above us. The birds very
noticeably reacted to the call recorded by Ben
King. Whenever it was played they turned their
heads as if listening, or began moving. The imme-
diate reaction to the sound could very clearly be
seen. Occasionally the birds would come out of
cover and become fully exposed to view on the
hanging stems of the H inguru- wel creeper or in an
opening of the leaf canopy. We could observe at
length every feather and every feature of the two
birds.
The most spectacular part is, of course, the bill,
ivory coloured, as already mentioned, somewhat
off-white, with a>barely perceptible tinge of green
or greenish. We watched the birds with the naked
eye and through excellent binoculars. The mas-
sive looking bill is relatively larger than that of the
Common Coucal. It is also more acutely down-
curved and more pointed, even more than shown
in Henry’s black and white sketch (p. 182). This
might indicate that the Greenbilled Coucal is more
specialized on particular sources of food (perhaps
snails) than its common cousin. Throughout the 2
1/2 hours that we observed the birds, they never
fed and not once came down to the ground or near
the ground, always moving within trees and thick-
ets, say 3 m or more above ground. The breast of
the Greenbilled Coucal shows individual feathers
or groups of feathers in a sculptured manner and
the sheen on the breast and throat, especially the
sides of the breast, is purplish. The chestnut of the
wings is darker than in the Common Coucal.
The description light green or pale apple green
as generally applied to the colour of the bill in the
literature is in my view quite misleading, and so
is the name by which the bird is commonly known
in Sri Lanka (Henry). Ali and Ripley call it the
Ceylon Coucal, and so do Wait and Fleming,
which seems more appropriate than Greenbilled.
Legge called it the Ceylonese Coucal. One could
well name it the Ivorybilled Coucal or the
Palebilled. Birdwatchers who have never seen this
coucal look for an apple green bill, and it has
happened that the Common Coucal carrying a
mantis or a grasshopper in its beak was mistaken
for the endemic species. The illustration of the
beak by John Henry Dick in Ali and Ripley’s
pictorial guide (1983)is far too green, and its
shape and size are not quite right either. The
illustration in Legge is superb, though the bill is
also rather too green. It is possible that in the hand
(or in dead specimens) the greenish tinge is more
noticeable than in the field.
During the entire period of observation we
never heard the hoo, hoo call of the tape, but after
CEYLON COUCAL CENTROPUS CHLORORHYNCHUS
341
about an hour, when both birds were in the same
tree right opposite us, one of them gave off a series
of gentle, low, single-syllable hoo's which
sounded like the call of the Ceylon Fish Owl
Ketupa zeylonensis , soft but sonorous, best emu-
lated with closed lips, with rather long spacings
between each call. The bird dipped its head with
each syllable, the sound being produced with the
beak shut. Thereafter we heard this same gentle,
mournful, mono-syllabic call a number of times
on either side of the river. It would appear to be a
communicating call between the pair. We did not
hear any other notes like Henry’s chewkk (court-
ing) or Legge’s loud dhjoonk (alarm).
The range of this pair of Greenbilled Coucals
seems pretty small and restricted, and it appears
to overlap with the range of one or several Com-
mon Coucals. Judging from the non-reaction of
the Common Coucal to the taped call of the
Greenbilled, the two species do not seem to inter-
act in any way and may have their separate niches
for food, roosting and nesting in a shared general
habitat. Henry says that pairs of the Common
Coucal, which appear to mate for life, are very
jealous of any encroachment of their territory by
other coucals, which does not appear to apply to
the other species; no Common Coucal turned up
during our observation. It would seem that the
Greenbilled Coucal is less terrestrial than its com-
mon cousin, as we did not see it on the ground,
whereas the Common spends a lot of time on the
ground.
Interestingly there is no bamboo anywhere in
this particular habitat, and Fleming’s speculation
that bamboo is an indispensable critical element
for the survival of this rare bird may not be
tenable. Except for a narrow strip on either side of
the river, the vegetation is mostly man-made or
strongly man- influenced. It is not at all the
climax-type, undisturbed rain forest presumed es-
sential for the Greenbilled Coucal, but a mixture
of typical wet zone village gardens with their high
and low tree and bush cover (Coffee, Coconut,
Areca), weeds, and patches of uncultivated land.
There is forest not far away up the valley, rain
forest which has been heavily logged some years
ago and in which are present a number of typical
wet zone forest birds, including many of the en-
demics. This forest does contain some bamboo
{Bata) as undergrowth, but the Greenbilled Cou-
cal has not been noted so far in this natural (though
logged) forest, where the Ceylon Magpie Cissa
ornata nests, where the White-headed Starling
Sturnus senex , the Redfaced Malkoha
Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus and the en-
demic babblers .are found.
So far the Greenbilled Coucal has only been
observed in the village area at the bottom of the
valley, in close proximity to human habitations
and much human goings on, with gardens and
cultivations, though all well covered with trees
and shrubs. Kitulgala, 100 km east of Colombo,
lies in a deep, rather narrow valley at the foot of
the central mountain massif near where the
various streams which form the Kelani Ganga,
one of the country’s major rivers, join together
after their descent from the hills. The elevation is
about 65 m above m.s.l. Just east of Kitulgala the
mountains begin to rise steeply. The place is em-
bedded in forest or plantation covered hills (rub-
ber and tea). It lies in the area of the highest
rainfall in Sri Lanka, around 5000 mm average per
annum. The natural forest is tropical rain forest.
There is a dry period in January/February each
year, otherwise precipitation is heavy throughout,
with high temperatures and high humidity.
According to Henry the breeding season of the
Greenbilled Coucal appears to be the first half of
the year (Legge: Probably April or May to July).
The domed nest, which is placed in thorny bushes
(e.g. Hinguru-wel) 1 to 1 .5 m from the ground, has
rarely been found. If the bird was calling
(“singing”, according to Ben King) intensively
at the end of January when Ben King heard and
taped it, and is now silent 2 weeks later, it might
be that the courting season is over and nesting
might have started. We saw no evidence of nest-
building or any activity connected with breeding,
though the two birds obviously were a pair. Ben
King saw only one bird. Greenbilled Coucals
were heard callling on 27 December 1989 in the
Morapitiya Forest Reserve (P.B. Karunaratne,
5
342
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
pers. comm.) and on 26 January 1989 at Sinharaja
(Dr P. Samara weera, pers. comm.), both times in
the early afternoon (CBCN).
The Greenbilled Coucal is almost certainly the
rarest of the Sri Lankan endemics, and thus one of
the rarest birds in the world. Only a few people
have recently seen it and then only fleetingly.
Even in Legge* s time, over 100 years ago, this
coucal was supposed to be very rare, probably
because of its wary and secretive habits, but Legge
found it in considerable numbers throughout a
large tract of the wet zone low-country from about
the Deduru Oya in the north right along the bottom
of the hills to Galle, and the coffee districts of the
Morawak Korale; he found it numerous in the
Ratnapura District and up into the Peak Wilder-
ness forests to about 800 m. He traced it mostly
by its call and says that it is seldom seen and
“almost defies all discovery”. In the meantime
the country in which the coucal was common
according to Legge has been developed to an
almost unimaginable extent and is the most den-
sely inhabited part of the Sri Lanka. Very few
natural jungles remain in the form of forest reser-
ves (including the Sinharaja MAB reserve), and
the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary. Henry (1955)
says about the Greenbilled Coucal: “Its range is
rapidly dwindling and as it shows no sign of being
able to adjust itself to new conditions, there can
be no doubt that its days will soon be numbered-
with those of several other endemic birds-unless
wise foresight reserves extensive forest
sanctuaries in the wet zone”. So far very little
“wise foresight” has prevailed, with most forest
reserves dwindling from year to year, the only
exception being parts of Sinharaja.
The question now arises as to what can be done
to ensure the survival of this rare, attractive and
probably highly specialized bird, which is unique
to Sri Lanka and which today may be present in
only a few hundred pairs in the locations from
which it is known. An obvious place for the
protection of its environment would be the Kitul-
gala site just described. Apart from the nearby
forest reserve, the actual habitat of the birds (and
I hope and assume that there is more than one pair
in the wider area) is private land. A few pairs may
be secure in the small Labugama Reservoir area
(drinking water for Colombo), access to which
has, however, been denied to ornithologists for a
number of years, ever since the National Water
Supply and Drainage Board made it almost im-
possible for genuine researchers and observers to
go there; it is now out of bounds for security
reasons. On the other hand this very Labugama
area is vulnerable to incursions, illicit felling and
poaching from nearby villages. Other areas where
the Greenbilled Coucal has been occasionally ob-
served in recent years are Sinharaja, notably the
course of the Koskulana Ganga near Kudawe
which forms part of the northern boundary of the
reserve, and the Runakanda-Morapitiya Forest
Reserve to the west of Sinharaja. Some of the
forest reserves in the south, such as Kottawa and
Kanneliya, should also harbour small populations
of this coucal. In all these cases the habitat is
disturbed rain forest. These are the only places
that I know of where in recent decades the Green-
billed Coucal has been seen or heard, and nowhere
can it be plentiful.
The best hope for the Greenbilled Coucal may
be the lower edge of the Peak Wilderness
Sanctuary, as already suggested by Reining. I
recently visited a section of this forest above
Deraniyagala-Maliboda at an elevation of be-
tween 450 and 800 m. There is thick bamboo
undergrowth in nearly undisturbed forest; I heard
a coucal at around noon, but am not sure which.
The tape playing did not help, and a long-time
resident told me that he had never heard the taped
call. As Legge found the bird numerous in the
Ratnapura District, it should still be found in the
Gilimale forest, for instance, where conditions for
its existence appear to be excellent, with good
forest and fine undergrowth, including bamboo;
the same can be said of the forests and village
gardens around and above Alupola, Hapugas-
tenne, Carney, and Eratne, along the southern
boundary of the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary, be-
tween 450 and 650 m, which I visited recently
without, however, finding a trace of the coucal.
It is high time that the survival of all of Sri
CEYLON COUCAL CENTROPUS CHLORORHYNCHUS
343
Lanka’s endemic birds should be purposefully
planned and the necessary habitat reserves fully
protected. For the last several years I have urged
that the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary with some
Refer
Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D.(1969): Handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan, together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal,
Sikkim, Bhutan and Sri Lanka, Volume 3. Bombay.
(1983): A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the
Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Ceylon Bird Club Notes (CBCN). Monthly. Colombo.
Fleming, Robert L. Jr. (1977): Comments on the En-
adjoining forest reserves should be upgraded into
a National Park which would provide total habitat
protection for all of Sri Lanka’s unique birds and
most of its endemic plants and animals.
N C E S
demic Birds of Sri Lanka. Colombo.
Henry, G.M. (1955): A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon.
London.
Hoffmann, T. W. (1984): National Red Data List of
Endangered and Rare Birds of Sri Lanka. Colombo.
Legge, W.V. (1880): A History of the Birds of Ceylon (3
Parts). London.
FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE POISON APPARATUS AND HISTOLOGY
OF THE VENOM GLANDS OF THREE INDIAN SPIDERS1
Ridling Margaret Waller2 and G J. Phanuel3
(With three plates and seven text-figures )
The morphology of the poison apparatus and the histology of the venom glands of three
large Indian spiders, representing two major suborders, are described. Data pertaining to the
morphometry of the poison apparatus of the three spiders are presented. Anatomically, the gland
structure is fairly uniform consisting of two principal layers. However, differences were observed
in the nature of the muscle layer and the venom secreting cells not only within the three species
studied but also within the same species at different stages of their venom secretion.
Introduction
As spiders are obligate suctorial carnivores the
study of the mouth parts, particularly the venom
injecting apparatus, has been a subject of great
interest to morphologists and physiologists, as
reviewed by Bristowe (1954).
As early as 1878, Lebert described the poison
glands of spiders as salivary glands situated in the
cephalothorax with a pair of ducts opening at the
tip of the “mandibulae falciformes”. Berland
(1922) made a comparative study of the anatomy
of the poison glands of spiders and suggested that
the glands might be concerned with digestion.
Millot (1931) studied the poison glands of spiders
from several points of view and explained their
relation to the large ganglionic mass in the
cephalothorax as having a certain taxonomic
value.
Since most research on venomous spiders has
been conducted by scientists working in the
Pacific area, in the present investigation an at-
tempt has been made to study the poison ap-
paratus, the nature of the venom-secreting cells
and venom of some Indian spiders.
Materials and Methods
The specimens used in the present investiga-
1 Accepted November 1986.
Zoology department, Women’s Christian College,
Madras-600 006
Deceased since completion of this work.
tion were collected periodically within the 363
acre scrub jungle of the Madras Christian College
and also from fields and deserted houses in the
neighbouring villages on the outskirts of Madras.
Plesiophirctus collinus Pocock 1899, the com-
mon ftmnel-web spider is a mygalomorph and
Heteropoda venator ia Linn. 1766, the common
house spider, and Lycosa indagastrix Walck
1837, the wolf-spider, are araneomorphs chosen
for the present study.
Morphometric studies were carried out by
measuring the different parts of the poison ap-
paratus using a fine pointed divider and an ocular
micrometer. The statistical methods employed in
the study include correlation coefficient (r),
Regression (y = a + hxy variation of Y (sd2), Y
regression, F. variance and F. regression.
For histological studies, live spiders were al-
lowed to bite a cockroach until the chelicerae were
completely inserted into the victim. The glands
from such spiders and from those that were not
fed were removed and fixed in 10% buffered
formalin, sectioned at 5 to 8 m thickness and
stained in Hematoxylin and Eosin for observa-
tions under the light microscope, to document the
nature of the secretory products and the mode of
secretion of venom.
Results and Discussion
Venom apparatus: The venom apparatus of
spiders consists of a pair of chelicerae and a pair
of venom glands. However, the position of the
venom glands differs between the araeneomorphs
VENOM GLANDS OF THREE INDIAN SPIDERS
345
or ‘True spiders’ and mygalomorphs or
‘Tarantulas’ as they are popularly known. Bertkau
(1891) noticed differences in the size and site of
the glands in several species of spiders, and
described the compound gland of Atypus , the mul-
tilobular glands of Filistata and the bilobular
glands of Scytodes. The position of the venom
glands of the spiders studied are given in Fig. 1.
In P. collinus the venom glands are situated dor-
sally in the basal article of the chelicerae, between
the adductor and abductor muscles. The glands
are carrot-like in form (Plate lc) with the broader
end towards the base of the fang and the narrower
posterior end inserted by an elastic fiber to the
posterior border of the basal segment. This muscle
fibre holds the gland firmly in its position.
The glands are white in colour, measuring
about 3.5 mm to 4.0 mm in length, and about 0.8
to 1 .0 mm in width, depending on the secretory
state of the gland. In the true spiders Heteropoda
venatoria and Lycosa indagastrix, the venom
glands are situated in the cephalothorax with the
adductor and abductor muscles holding them in
position. The glands are sac-like or cylindrical and
consist of two lobes (Plate la & b). Their length
varies from 4.5 to 6.0 mm in L. indagastrix and
are considerably smaller in H. venatoria measur-
ing 3.0 to 4.0 mm.
The excreting canal is a long white tube. Its
length in P. collinus corresponds to the length of
the fangs, while in Lycosa and Heteropoda it
corresponds to the length of both the articles of
chelicerae. In true spiders the canal bears a spheri-
cal ampule at the junction of the fangs and the
paturon. Its diameter varies from 0.35 mm to 0.45
mm in L. indagastrix and 0.10 to 0.15 mm in H.
venatoria. Although the ampule is absent in the
mygalomorph, the venom is ejected very effi-
ciently, as the channel is short.
Morphometry: The following measurements
were made to assess the growth rate of the poison
apparatus in the spiders: length and width of
(1) the cephalothorax
(2) the paturon
(3) the fang
(4) the gland, and
(5) the duct.
It was observed that the determination of the
growth rate of the venom apparatus and the com-
parison of the same in the three spiders based dn
allometric principle may reveal a better picture of
the trend in the growth rate rather than the raw
morphometric data. The allometric principle of
growth, first proposed by Dubois (1897) explains
the existence of a relation between the dimensions
of various organs on the one hand and the dimen-
sion of a particular reference organ (X) on the
other. The relationship is simplified by the for-
mula y = bx f. If <2>1, it indicates that the rate of
growth of a part is more than that of the reference
organ; a< 1 indicates a lower growth rate.
The data pertaining to the morphometric meas-
urements of the poison apparatus in the three
spiders are presented in Figures 2 to 7. In each
figure pertaining to a particular dimension the
following are indicated.
(1) The value of correlation co-efficient r
(2) regression coefficient and the significance
of regression (/ regression) of the three spiders.
The correlation coefficient was found to be
statistically significant at 0.001 in several charac-
teristics. The measure of association between the
two variables, i.e. cephalothorax length and gland
length was significantly higher in L. indagastrix
than in the other two spiders studied. The higher
b value further represents a faster growth rate.
Since the glands are situated only in the paturon
in P. collinus , but partly in the cephalothorax and
paturon in H. venatoria and L. indagastrix , the
degree of association of these characteristics with
that of the total legnth of the gland and duct were
analysed. A strong positive correlation was ob-
served and hence they were subjected to regres-
sion analysis. The regression slopes reveal
considerable significance between the
cephalothorax length and gland length, paturon
length and gland length, cephalothorax length and
total length of the gland and duct, fang length and
total length of the gland and duct in the two broad
divisions of the order Aranea, the ‘tarantulas’ and
‘true spiders’.
Histology of the venom glands:. Anatomically
346
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
VENOM GLANDS OF THREE INDIAN SPIDERS
347
Fig. 2. Morphometric relationship of cephalothorax length to gland length for the three spiders:
A: Heteropoda venatoria ; B: Lycosa indagastrix; C: Pleisiophirctus collinus.
348
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig. 3. Morphometric relationship of paturon length to gland length for the three spiders:
A: Heteropoda venatoria; B: Lycosa indagastrix ; C: Pleisiophirctus collinus.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Waller et al. Venom glands of spiders
Plate 1
Chelicerae and venom glands
True spiders L. indagastrix (left), H. venatoria (right).
r
Mygalo morph spider P. collinus
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Waller et al. Venom glands of spiders
Plate 2
A cross section of the poison gland of L. indagastrix (unfed) showing the muscle blocks (mb), basement membrane
(bm) and the secretory products — Venom (Sc & v) in the lumen (L).
j. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 Plate 3
Waller et al. Venom glands of spiders
a, b: A cross section of the poison gland of H. venatoria (unfed) showing the retention of the secretory products (sp)
in the lumen (1) of the gland and also the muscle layer (ml) and the basement membrane (bm).
c: A cross section of the poison gland of P. collinus showing the muscle blocks (mb), basement membrane (bm), the
basement processes extending into the lumen of the gland and the secretory products (sp).
VENOM GLANDS OF THREE INDIAN SPIDERS
349
Fig. 4. Morphometric relationship of cephalothorax length to gland and duct length for the three spiders:
A: Heteropoda venatoria ; B: Lycosa indagastrix ; C: Pleisiophirctus collinus.
350
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 86
Fig. 5. Morphometric relationship of paturon length to gland and duct length for the three spiders:
A: Heteropoda venatoria\ B: Lycosa indagastrix ; C: Pleisiophirctus collinus.
VENOM GLANDS OF THREE INDIAN SPIDERS
351
Fig. 6. Morphometric relationship of fang length to gland and duct length for the three spiders:
A: Heteropoda venatoria; B: Lycosa indagastrix ; C: Pleisiophirctus collinus .
352
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Fig. 7. Morphometric relationship of gland length to gland and duct length for the three spiders:
A: Heteropoda venatoria ; B: Lycosa indagastrix ; C: Pleisiophirctus collinus.
VENOM GLANDS OF THREE INDIAN SPIDERS
353
the gland consists of two principal layers namely
the outer muscular coat and the inner secreting
layer. Hematoxylin and Eosin stains bring out
very good differential staining of the glandular
cells, their nuclei and the phases of venom secre-
tion. In Lycos a, the muscles are arranged as dis-
tinct bundles and from space to space a small
dense nucleus is seen mostly near the cell boun-
daries. The inner longitudinal muscle fibres are
presumed to force out the venom by shortening
the gland on contraction.
The inner surface of the muscles is attached to
the basement membrane, which forms a con-
tinuous layer inside the muscularis. As observed
by Reese (1944), the basement membrane is al-
ways distinct though it varies considerably in
thickness during and after secretion. It seems to
be a non-cellular sheet of connective tissue, vary-
ing from I to 3 m in thickness. In L. indagastrix
the basement membrane bears several ‘processes’
penetrating into the central lumen and forming a
network of fibrils. The cells of the glandular
epithelium are attached to the basement
membrane and few cells are seen attached to the
fibrillar network of the basement membrane
(Plate 2 a). These findings are similar to those of
Brazil and Vellard (1925) for the glands of
PhoneutricL and Millot (1931), for the glands of
Latrodectus mactans, the most dreaded spider in
the U.S.A.
The venom secreting cells form a simple
epithelium in H. venatoria , where the cells are
attached only to the basement membrane since the
‘processes’ are lacking. In the gland sections of
unfed spiders the cells were filled with eosine
droplets, presumed to be venom secreted. With
the continuation of the secreting processes the
cells are broken off and their fluids run into the
central lumen. As illustrated in the light
photomicrograph the venom glands of unfed
spiders display a massive retention of large
secretory droplets of varying degrees of density
and size, virtually filling the entire lumen of the
gland (Plates 2 b, 3 a).
The venom gland structure in P. collinus is
similar to that of L. indagastrix in that the muscles
are arranged as distinct blocks and the basement
membrane is thrown into similar ‘processes’ for
attachment of the secretory cells (Plate 3 c). It is
hence presumed that in the large-sized and active-
ly hunting spiders like L. indagastrix and P. col-
linus where the need for obtaining more food is
always high, large amounts of venom should be
readily available for capturing the prey. Therefore
there are numerous basement processes extending
into the lumen of the gland, which increase the
surface area for accommodating numerous
secretory cells. This was not observed in the com-
paratively smaller house spider H. venatoria
(Plate 3 a).
As the secretory cells disappear after secretion
of venom, it was concluded that the venom glands
of the spiders studied are of the holocrine type, the
entire cells with the secretory material being ex-
truded and the cell dying ultimately. As the
secretory cells undergo degeneration the base-
ment membrane becomes thinner and acquires the
appearance of a straight homogenous layer (Plates
2 c, 3 b). Bordas (1905) and Ancona (1931)
described a similar holocrine secretory
mechanism in Latrodectus and Ctenus. However
Barth (1962) described a more complex and a
non-regenerative sequence of secretory events in
the venom glands of certain Latrodectus species.
While it is believed that Latrodectus is poten-
tially more dangerous, no significant difference in
gland structure Jias been observed.
It can therefore be concluded that though there
are differences in the nature of muscle fibres and
the secretory cells, in the glands of the spiders
studied the mode of secretion of venom is fairly
uniform, the venom glands being holocrine.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Dr P.J. Sanjeevaraj for his
valuable suggestions and for reading through the
manuscript.
354
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 86
References
Ancona, L. (1931): Anatomia a histologia del aparato
venenosode Latroaectus mactans, arano capulina. An. Inst. Biol.
2: 177.
Barth, R. (1962): Estudos histologicus sotreas glandulas
peconhentas da ‘Viuva negra’ Latrodectus mactans (Fabricus)
Mem Inst OSW Cruz. 60: 275.
Berland, L. (1922): Contribution a letude de la biologie
des Arachnides. Ann Soc. Entomol. France 9: 193-208.
Bertkau, P.H. (1891): Bau derGiftdrusen einheimscher
spinnen Verh. Nat. Ver. Bonn48. Korr. Bl., 59.
Bordas, L.M. (1905): Rechercher anatomiques, his-
tologiques etphysiologiques surler glands venimenses on glands
der cheliceres der Malnignattes. Ann. Sci. Nat. 9: 147.
Brazil & Vellard (1925): Estudo Histoligica da glan-
dula devenene da ctenus medieus. Mem. Do. Inst. But. 2: 24-73.
Bristowe, W.S. (1954): The chelicerae of spiders. En-
deavour I: 42-49.
Dubois, E. (1897): Sur le rapport du poids de l’enecephale
avec la grandeur du corps chezles Mammifere’s. Bull. Mem. Soc.
Anthropol Paris. 8: 337-355.
Lebert, H. (1878): Bau und Leben der spinnen Berlin, p.
321.
Millot, J. ( 1 93 1 ): Les glander venimenser der Araneides
Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. 14: 1 13-147.
Reese, A.M. (1944): The anatomy of the venom gland in
the Black widow spider Latrodectus mactans. Transact. Amer.
microscopical Soc. 63: 171-174.
FLOWERING PHENOLOGY OF THE MANGROVES FROM THE
WEST COAST OF MAHARASHTRA 1
N.G. Mulik and L .J. Bhosale2
Introduction
Mangrove ecosystems are under heavy pres-
sure as a result of increase in human activity. The
area under mangroves is getting reduced, and
some important species are becoming extinct.
Therefore, it is necessary to have a permanent
record of its phenology. This type of study is
almost nil along the coast of Maharashtra. The
study of phenology is essential, as it has many
applications such as in regeneration, afforesta-
tion, plant management, honey analysis, floral
biology and the estimation of reproductivity. This
study was based in Ratnagiri district, from where
sites were selected on the basis of earlier ecologi-
cal studies.
Material and Methods
Three sites were selected for this study:
Bandhkhind, Ganapatipule and Bhatye. At
Bandhkhind there were some pure stands (popula-
tions) of Sonneratia alba and Rhizophora
mucronata At Ganapatipule an important species,
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, was found. At Bhatye R.
apiculata, Avicennia marina and Kandelia candel
occurred. In all, twelve species of mangroves
were studied. They are: R. mucronata , Lamk.; R.
apiculata Blum.; B. gymnorrhiza Lamk.; K. can-
del (L.) Druce; Ceriops tagal (Perr); Aegiceras
corniculatum (Linn.) Blanco; Avicennia of-
ficinalis, Linn.; A . marina var. acutissima Stapf
and Moldenke; Sonneratia alba Sm.; Excoecaria
agallocha Linn.; Lumnitzera racemosa (Willd.);
Acanthus ilicifolius Linn. Phenophases were ob-
served every fortnight for each species and
Accepted October 1987.
department of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur-416
004.
monthly variations were recorded. Phenophases
like initiation, budding, blooming, fruiting and
seedling development were noted. Continuous
observations from April 1983 to May 1985 were
made to collect data.
Results and Discussion
In most of the mangrove species flowering
commences in the summer months (Jones 1971,
Graham et al. 1975, Byrnes et al. 1977 and
Saenger 1982). It was noted during our field ob-
servations that R. mucronata , flower primordia
develop on the young plant when it is about four
years old. Gill and Tomlinson (1969) reported a
similar period. However, they noted flowering in
R. mangle when it was one metre in height. Never-
theless, data on floral initiation in mangroves is
very scanty. In the present study initiation of
flowering was recorded during the month of
December for R. mucronata . It was maximum in
January and continued in February. There was a
slow increase in budding in the beginning, fol-
lowed by a sharp increase from April to May. R,
mucronata flowers heavily during September to
November but blooming actually starts in July and
then continues throughout the year. Mature
propagules were found hanging on the mother
plant in May-June in maximum numbers. The
whole cycle continues throughout the year.
The phenology of R. apiculata is interesting.
Initiation is observed in the beginning of May. It
continues for quite a long time, up to August and
even later. Budding stage is found very late, and
is recorded up to September. After such a slow
initial development of reproductive parts there is
a steep increase and maximum blooming was
noticed in October. All the phases in R. apiculata
overlap and throughout the year one or the other
stage is observed. The fruit, once formed, matures
within 2-3 months and then the vivipary starts
356
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
appearing. By the end of August all mature
propagules are shed. According to Christensen
and Wium- Anderson (1977) the period required
from primordia formation to propagule matura-
tion in R. apiculata is three years. In the present
study this has not been observed. If the propagular
development is a long process, the presence of
4 ‘germinated fruit” on the mother plant
throughout the year is essential.
In Bruguiera gymnorrhiza initiation is
recorded at the beginning of January and con-
tinues up to April. There is a slow increase in
flowering initially, followed by a sharp increase
from mid-January to February. There is a sharp
decline in flowering which almost ceases in the
beginning of February and shows a sudden in-
crease to a maximum in April-May, followed by
a steady decline. In December different develop-
mental stages are found. The propagules are
recorded from June to August. The observation
that the flowering in B. gymnoryhiza commences
in the summer months supports earlier reports
(Jones 1971, Graham et al 1975, Specht et al.
1977).
Kandelia candel flowers and fruits simul-
taneously, and mature propagules can be seen
when the plant starts flowering during the follow-
ing year. Initiation is recorded from December to
February, and is also seen in August-September
as a second phase. Flowering peak is recorded
during February-March. Thereafter there is a
sharp abatement, with decreasing yields of
reproductive material recorded until the end of
August. In K. candel the total development period
calculated according to our observations is nearly
10-12 months. The development period is similar
to that recorded by Nishihira and Urasaki (1976);
i.e. 12 months from flower buds to mature
propagule. The total developmental time from
bud to seedling stage is about six months as
reported by Wafar (1985). However, in the
present investigation the period observed is much
longer.
It is interesting to note the floral initiation in
two phases. When it starts in August-September,
the propagule matures within 10 months. How-
ever, when it takes place in December-February,
the time taken for development of the mature
propagule seems to be greater. It was not possible
to make any observation with this phase of
development. Looking at the other members of
Rhizophoraceae which take almost a year for
development of the mature propagule, it appears
that K. candel may not produce a fully developed
propagule within six months (December-June).
Further investigation is in progress.
In Ceriops tagal floral initiation was recorded
during April, and continued up to August. Simul-
taneously the next phase, budding, starts. Bud
formation was observed from May to September.
Blooming is found throughout the year. The max-
imum flowering was found in September and
October. From April to June, heavy fruiting was
observed. The mature propagules of Ceriops are
recorded from June to August. The time required
for the development from floral bud to mature
propagule is more than a year. This is similar to
the observations of Wium- Andersen, and Chris-
tensen (1978) who found that the development
from floral bud to fruit takes about 12-18 months.
It is evident from the data that in Ceriops also
budding, blooming and fruiting occur year round
and that phases, one after the other, continue the
cycle. It should be noted here that the propagules
shed from June to August are developed from the
fruits of the preceeding year.
Sonneratiaalba shows floral initiation as early
as December, continuing up to February. Again,
initiation is recorded during June-July (early
monsoon). Budding is recorded from January on-
wards till the end of August. Flowering appears in
January and continues up to October, with a first
peak in March and a second peak in June. It is
evident from the data that in Sonneratia also all
phenophases overlap and continue throughout the
year.
The floral buds in Sonneratia , after their ap-
pearance, open into flower within 1-1.5 months.
Rower to fruit development takes about 4 to 6
months, and the maturation of fruit takes nearly
two months. Thus the total period of mature seed
formation in Sonneratia is about 1 2 months. Only
FLOWERING PHENOLOGY OF MANGROVES
357
a few fruits are observed on the plant, and out of
all the flowers formed only a few develop into
fruits.
Avicennia officinalis and Avicennia marina
both showed different patterns in their phases. In
A. officinalis initiation is recorded from early
January up to the end of February. The
phenophase of A. officinalis reveals that the
flowering period is short when compared to other
genera. Budding appears during February and
extends up to May. Flowering begins in March
and extends up to July. The maximum number of
flowers occur during April-May and fruits from
June to early August. The developed seedling
inside the mature fruit is released and falls to the
ground from June to early August, when it starts
establishing itself. From September to December
there is a complete vegetative stage of the plant.
No other phenophases were observed during this
period at any of the sites under study.
In A. marina floral initiation is observed from
January to April and flowering begins in early
March, reaching a maximum in May. Fruit initia-
tion starts in early April and extends up to Sep-
tember, i.e. flowering and fruiting come to an end
towards late September. Seedlings are found on
the soil from August to early October. In A.
marina community, litter yields of leaves and
reproductive material an showed increase from
mid March to the end of April in South Africa
(Steinke and Charles 1984). Similar patterns of
flowering and fruiting phenophases are recorded
in the present study.
Excoecaria agallocha is dioecious, bears
flowers in catkins, possesses 2-celled pollen
grains, and is presumably wind pollinated. No
detailed information is available on the phenology
of mangroves. Flowering was recorded in Ex-
coecaria in a 2 year old plant. During the vegeta-
tive stage it is difficult to distinguish between
male and female plants. Floral initiation in male
plants of Excoecaria occurs during March and in
female plants in the month of November, then
again initiation stage is recorded during April and
May in both sexes simultaneously. Buds of female
flowers and young male catkins start appearing
during April-May and real blooming occurs
during May to June. Fruiting stage starts from
July, and continues up to end August. In Septem-
ber, different seed developing stages are seen.
Seeds start maturing from September. During
September to October very young seedlings were
observed on the soil.
The floral initiation in Lumnitzera racemosa
was observed between November and February.
Budding begins in January and culminates with a
decline in May, and is again seen between June
and September. Flowering occurs from March to
April and extends up to October. Simultaneously
fruiting is also recorded during the months of
February to December. Maximum fruiting is
recorded during July and August. The seeds of
different stages such as very young, as also ma-
ture, are seen during September to December. All
phenophases, except initiation, are seen in July
and August.
Aegiceras corniculatum is a much branched
shrub, which inhabits areas that are inundated by
normal high tides. Flowers of A. corniculatum are
scented and are an important source of honey. In
this species flowering was first observed at a
height of 0.27 m by Steinke and Ward (1973).
Initiation starts in early September and ends in
early November. Again in January and February
initiation is recorded in a few plants. Budding is
seen during November to February. Aegiceras
starts blooming in early December and ends in
early April. Fruiting stages are between late
December to July. Mature fruits (cryp-
toviviparous) are recorded from May to early
August. In general, the reproductive phase in
Aegiceras is restricted to a period of a few months.
Analysis of the data reveals that flowering and
fruiting comes to an end towards late summer.
The mature fruit contains a well developed see-
dling inside (cryptovivipary). From late June to
early August these fruits are shed. They can be
called as propagules.
Acanthus ilicifohus is a small shrub that grows
well in open mangrove areas. In Acanthus two
distinct phases are observed, the vegetative and
the reproductive. The vegetative phase takes three
6
358
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
months, September to November. Then there is
transition from vegetative to reproductive growth.
Initiation is restricted to December and January
only. Bud formation is found from January to
March. Maximum flowering is recorded towards
the end of March and April. Not all flowers open
at the same time. Therefore, the ‘Blooming’
period is recorded from January to May. Fruiting
is from April to July. During June-July different
fruit development stages are observed. Fruits with
mature seeds are found from June to July end. The
seeds are released by dehiscence of fruit on the
plant; after this beds of seedlings are found all
over the area. No seed can be seen on the plant
after the first week of August. Jagtap (1985) has
reported flowering in Acanthus during August. In
the investigation, in spite of several attempts no
seeds were observed during late August. Flower-
ing was found to be completed still earlier.
Phenological rhythms such as flowering or
fruiting vary from one species to another in a
given locality (Blasco 1984). Some species of
Avicennia flower at the end of the dry season
(March-April-May), whereas the flowers of
Bruguiera cylindrica are collected in September-
October (end of the rainy season) and those of
Lumnitzera mainly during November to January
(winter).
The twelve mangrove species analysed in the
present investigation have revealed different pat-
terns of phenophases. Different species of
mangroves have adapted differently. In
Rhizophoraceae members in all stages of
development can be found throughout the year.
Gill and Tomlinson (1969) have reported R.
mangle as flowering throughout the year.
Uptil now little information is available on the
initiation of flowering. The present data gives an
idea about the initiation phase among twelve
mangroves, which is important for further
ecological studies. The occurrence of propagules
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riodicity in climate and vegetation 219 pp. Springer-varlag, Ber-
lin, Heidelberg, New York.
Macmillan, C. (1980): Aquatic Bot. 8: 323-336. Cited
by K.K. Lakshmanan and Rajeshwari M. (1985). In: All India
Symp. on Marine plants. Goa, Nov. 1983.
Nishihera, M. & Urasaki, M. (1976): Production, settle-
ment and mortality of seedlings of a mangrove, Kandelia candel
(L.) Druce in Okinowa. Abstracts, Int. Symp. on the Ecology and
Management of some tropical shallow water communities.
Specht, R.L., SAlt, R.B. & Reynolds, S.T. (1977):
Vegetation in the vicinity of Weipa, North Queensland. Proc.
Royal Soc. of Queensland 88. '17-38.
Steinke, T.D. & Charles, L.M. (1984): Productivity and
phenology of Avicennia marina Forsk. Vierh and Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. in Mgeni Estaury, South Africa. Tivs 9:
25-36. (ed) H.J. Teas. Dr. W. June Publishers.
& Ward, C.D. (1973): Ceriops tagal (Perr.)
C.B. Pobison at Kosi Bay. J. South African Bot. 39: 245-7.
Wafar, S. (1985): Observations on the foliage production
in some mangrove species of Goa, Marine Plants. 245-252. (Ed.)
V. Krishnamurthy (Asso. Ed.) A.G. Untawale, Seaweed Research
and Utilization Association, Madras, p. 342.
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE KING VULTURE SARCOGYPS
CALVUS (SCOPOLI) IN GUJARAT: RESULTS OF A RECENT ENQUIRY1
Shivrajkumar Khachar2 and Taej Mundkur3
( With a text-figure )
The present distribution of the King Vulture Sarcogyps calvus in Gujarat state is mapped
on the basis of 50 sightings of the the bird made by 23 birdwatchers and naturalists during 1982
to 1987. The available information indicates that the bird’s range has shrunk considerably in recent
times and that it must be put on the list of endangered species in Gujarat.
Introduction
The King Vulture Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli)
is resident to the entire Indian subcontinent and is
found up to an altitude of about 2000 m in the
Himalayas. It is sparsely distributed and nowhere
very abundant (Ali and Ripley 1983). In Gujarat,
the bird was common in die Kutch region (Ali
1944) and the Saurashtra region (Dharmakumar-
sinhji 1955), and was seen in small numbers
throughout the state (Ali 1954). In the last decade
or so die number of sightings seemed to have
diminished sharply and nesting was rarely ob-
served. A survey was therefore undertaken to
study the present distribution and status of the
King Vulture in Gujarat.
Material and Methods
In 1982, alarmed by the absence of sightings of
the vulture in areas where it was frequently seen
in the past, one of us (S.K.) started an enquiry on
the status and distribution of this unmistakable
bird in Gujarat. A questionnaire soliciting infor-
mation was sent to known birdwatchers. A short
write-up with a picture for identification was
published in the local newspapers. Newsletter
of the Gujarat State Committee of WWF-
India, and Newsletter for Birdwatchers, request-
ing information. Records of sightings came from
Accepted November 1987.
Darbargadh, Jasdan, Gujarat-360 050. (Deceased)
Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University,
Rajkot-360005.
birdwatchers in various parts of the state, and
officials of the State Forest Department kept a
look out for the bird. The data thus collected were
carefully scrutinized and compiled to form the
basis of this report.
Results and Discussion
Fig.l summarizes the sightings of the King
Vulture recorded from 1982 to 1987. The sight-
ings have been mainly restricted to the semi-arid
to arid regions, namely the Kutch, Jamnagar, Raj-
kot, Junagadh, Bhavnagar, Surendranagar, and
Banaskantha districts of the state. The Gir Forest
in the Junagadh district registered the maximum
number of sightings. The second stronghold is in
Kutch, mainly around the Kaladungar on the
south of the Great Rann and along the edges of the
Little Rann. The sightings have been typically of
one or two birds, except for a single gathering of
6 birds recorded at Amrutvel in the Gir Forest on
31 March 1983. This supports the understanding
that the bird is solitary in habit, and is far outnum-
bered by the other common species of vultures
(Ali and Ripley 1983).
In the past, one of us (S.K.) has known the bird
to nest near Jasdan (Rajkot district) and in Bhav-
nagar (Bhavnagar district), and watched its spec-
tacular nuptial display and mating. The bird does
not nest there any more. As a matter of fact, there
are very few records of its nesting in Gujarat in
recent times; one active nest near Zainabad on the
eastern border of the Little Rann was recorded on
27 February 1987 (E. Foster, pers. comm.), and
two unconfirmed reports of nesting near the vil-
lage of Baid (Jamnagar district) on 4 December
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF KING VULTURE
361
Fig. I . Outline map of Gujarat State. Inset gives outline of India, with Gujarat state darkened. Stipled area shows the Great
& Little Rann of Kutch and low lying coastal marshes. The location and number of sightings of the King Vulture is
represented by closed circles as explained in the scale.
1985 (N.M. Mashru, (pers. comm.). One nest was
found in a tree on a cliffside at Mitiala (Bhavnagar
district) during 1975 — 1976 (S.K. Goyal, pers.
comm.).
This study does not reveal the size of the vul-
ture population in Gujarat, but it clearly shows
that the bird’s range has reduced drastically. From
the available information it does seem that this
vulture is endangered in this state. The scanty
records of nesting are of grave concern. The bird
is known to nest on trees, often short trees. There
has been a continued and rapid increase in the
human and domestic livestock populations, and
the livestock is often fed with branches of trees,
particularly Acacia , so that safe nest sites for the
vulture have become a scarce commodity. The
loss of nesting habitat in this region seems to be
the main cause for a decline in number of large —
sized tree nesting avian species in general, which
would include most of the raptors, storks, herons
and ibises.
It is just possible that the King Vulture may
also be using cliff edges on hills for nesting,
though such a nesting habit has not been recorded
so far. Concentration of birds observed around the
Kaladungar, the tallest hill in Kutch, and Gimar
hill in Junagadh district, indicates the possibility
that at present the bird may be using cliff ledges
more often than trees for nesting.
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to A. Babi, R.B. Balar,
A.K. Banerjee, M.T. Daswani, N. Dave, M.K.
Dharmakumarsinhji, E. Foster, S.K. Goyal, N.
362
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Jhala, K. Joshi, L. Khacher, D. Khant, H.K. Lalka,
Dr N.M. Mashru, A. Mashru, Dr B .M. Parasharya,
I.D. Sama, S. Sayyed, S. Shah, A.K. Sharma, S.P.
Sinha, R.M. Vadhavana, A. A. Vaidya and S.N.
V aru, who responded to our enquiry and made this
Refer
Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch. Oxford University
Press,- Bombay.
(1954): The birds of Gujarat. Part I. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 374-458.
— & Ripley, S. D. (1983): The Handbook of the
study possible. P. Pandya and N. Jhala from the
office ofWWF — India, Saurashtra branch, kindly
gave their help in organising this survey. We are
grateful to Dr R.M. Naik for critically comment-
ing on earlier drafts of the paper.
N C E S
birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University
Press, Delhi.
Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1955): Birds of Saurashtra.
Times of India Press, Bombay.
SPAWNING IN THE FROG MICROHYLA ORNATA (DUM. & BIBR.)1
A.D. Padhye and H.V. Ghate2
(With eight figures in two plates )
Spawning behaviour of the ornate microhylid frog, Microhyla ornata (Dum. & Bibr.) is
described for the first time. Observations regarding calling, amplexus and spawning are recorded.
Data on spawn appearance, spawn size and egg size is presented.
Introduction
Microhyla ornata , commonly known as ornate
microhylid, belongs to family Microhylidae. This
family includes narrow- mouthed frogs which
differ from the members of families Ranidae and
Rhacophoridae by the absence of teeth in the
upper jaw. In contrast with the members of
Bufonidae, these have more smooth skin, oval
tongue and circular or vertical pupil. According to
Daniel (1963) there are five genera representing
family Microhylidae in Western India, and the
genus Microhyla is represented by two species,
namely M. ornata , and M. rubra. Very little infor-
mation about the bioecology of this group of
amphibians is available. In the case of M. ornata ,
the observations of earlier workers (for example
Ferguson 1904; Rao 1917 and McCann 1940)
have also been discussed by Daniel (1963).
Mohanty-Hejmadi et al (1980) described in brief
the early development of this species. We are
reporting here some observations about the
spawning behaviour of this frog. Information
about the spawn proper is also given.
Material and Methods
A large number of stone quarries, semi-per-
manent ponds and temporary rainwater pools
were surveyed extensively during the years 1986
and 1987. During monsoon a large number of
observations were made on the spawns of
Microhyla at various places. Spawn charac-
teristics, egg characteristics, and physico-chemic
Accepted February 1988.
Vost-Graduate Research Centre, Department of Zoology,
Modem College, Pune— 41 1 005.
al parameters of the pond water were studied.
Climatological factors were also noted for various
days.
Several observations were made at night to
understand spawning behaviour of the frogs from
Kothrud area, Pune (Fig. 1). This area, situated in
the southwest of Pune, is as yet considerably free
from industrial activity as well as general human
interference. Further, the area still harbours a
good population of Microhyla ornata. There is
also an abundance of subterranean, wingless ter-
mites, which provide essential food to this fos-
sorial frog.
Results and Discussion
The frog is a seasonal breeder, breeding only
during the monsoon. Depending on the rainfall,
the breeding season extends from June to Septem-
ber. Naturally fertilized eggs were observed right
up to late September, during the 1986-87 survey.
The survey of different localities in and around
Pune showed that the majority of Microhyla breed
in temporary rainwater pools, while others breed
in disused stone quarries, which often have water
almost throughout the year due to natural streams.
In addition, these quarries are flooded with rain-
water during monsoon.
During the breeding season the adults were
frequently found very close to such water bodies,
usually one hour after sunset. The activity and
calling began late in the evening, around 2000 hrs.
Despite its small size, the male was found to have
a loud and distinct vocal call, as noted by some
workers (Daniel 1963). The sequence of events of
amplexus and spawning were as follows:
Loud chorus of frogs started at about 2030 hrs.
The males called from under bushes of Lantana
364
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
near the pond. While calling, the male looked like
a balloon, as the single, subgular vocal sac was
inflated to its full capacity (Fig. 2). In four cases
the calling male was recognized by nearby
females. The recognition must be only on the basis
of the call, as is true of many anurans, especially
when the species are nocturnal and are without
distinct colour patterns in males and females;
although olfactory and other cues may be impor-
tant as well (see the excellent discussion in
Duellman and Trueb 1986). As the female ap-
proached and came in contact, the male stopped
calling and the pair formed amplexus right by the
side of the pond, at about 2330 hrs (Fig. 3). The
male was above and was holding the female just
behind the pectoral girdle. The cloacal regions of
both were closely approximated (Fig. 4). When an
amplexed pair was collected from the bushes
around the pond, it was observed that they were
glued to each other and could not be easily
separated (Fig. 5). The amplexed pairs later
jumped into the water. Around 0230 hrs spawning
took place. The eggs were released in three or four
convulsions and while doing so the heads of the
pair dipped into the water. The process of spawn-
ing was over within 3 to 5 minutes and the pair
separated almost immediately. The release of
sperms could not be clearly observed; however,
the eggs were later observed in the laboratory and
found to be fertilized. Although the amplexing
pair separated immediately after the release of the
eggs, the amplexus itself lasted for about 3 hours.
Close observations under the hand lens revealed
that the male was firmly attached to the back of
the female. One such pair, collected prior to
spawning, did not separate even when chilled and
fixed in formalin.
This type of amplexus is described as axillary
and is known to be a common method in most
anurans (Duellman and Trueb 1986). Attachment
of the male frog to the back of the female has been
reported in other microhylids as well. For ex-
ample, in Breviceps , another microhylid,
amplexus is reported to last for three days (Wager
1965). This is because the male and female remain
glued to each other due to adhesive secretions of
some specialized cells of the skin in males, as
shown for the other microhylids by Conaway and
Metter (1967). Duellman and Trueb (1986) have
also pointed out similar cases where glandular
secretions may be playing a role in amplexus
formation. It remains to be seen what type of
glands are present in M. ornata.
In general, the chronological sequence of the
events associated with spawning was: Calling
started: 1930 to 2000 hrs; beginning of a loud
chorus: around 2030 hrs; continuous chorus up to
2300 hrs; chorus with intermittent periods of
silence indicating mate recognition leading to
amplexus formation: 2300 hrs onwards; amplexus
formed near the pond 2330 to 0100 hrs; amplexed
pairs found in water: around 0200 hrs; spawning
0200 to 0400 hrs.
The spawns were generally found at the
periphery of the pond, floating on the surface of
water, usually among the emergent vegetation
(Fig. 6). Each single spawn is a rounded,
transparent mass of eggs. The eggs are in a
monolayer (Fig. 7). Each fertilized egg is enclosed
in a vitelline membrane which is further covered
by a layer of jelly of variable thickness. The
individual eggs, due to their jelly mass, are further
attached to other eggs that surround them to form
a mat of uniform meshwork (Fig. 8).
The number of eggs per spawn was highly
variable but on an average the spawns collected
during 1986 and 1987 contained 511 eggs (Table
1 ). The eggs are generally brownish at the animal
pole and hence very well camouflaged in the
plankton-rich waters of the pond. The vegetal
pole is pale yellowish in colour. These charac-
teristics are typically that of any anuran spawn.
Sometimes colour variation was observed in the
eggs; absolutely pale coloured eggs were also
recorded twice during 1986.
The mean egg diameter, based on measure-
ments of about 50 to 75 eggs at late gastrula stage
from different spawns was: diameter without jelly
— 1.22 (0.08± ) mm and with jelly — 4.03
(0.75± ) mm. The mean egg diameter recorded by
Mohanty-Hejmadi et al. (1980) is 1.1 mm; while
Ferguson (1904) recorded the diameter to be 2.0
Plate 1
Bombay nat. Hist. So c.86
Padhye & Ghate: Spawning in Microhyla ornata
Fig. 3. Amplecting pair near the pond (A) and a pair floating in water (B).
Fig. 4. Close-up of an amplecting pair. Note that the pattern is axillary.
Fig. 5. Lateral view of the amplexus showing the male glued to the back of the female.
A typical habitat of the frog M. ornta, near Kothrud, Pune. Note shrubby vegetation in an
otherwise barren area. Temporary rainwater pools where the present work was carried out
are also seen.
The calling male with inflated vocal sac.
Fig. 2.
Bombay nat. Hist. So c.86
Padhye & Ghate: Spawning in Microhyla ornata Plate 2
Fig. 6. Several spawns floating on the surface of water. A closer spawn is pointed.
Fig. 8. Close-up of the spawn to show the attachment in between the individual eggs.
Fig. 7.
The spawn. Note that the eggs are in a monolayer.
SPAWNING IN MICROHYLA ORNATA
365
Table 1
NUMBER OF EGGS PER SPAWN IN A FEW RANDOMLY
COLLECTED SPAWNS DURING 1986 AND 1987
Date
Number of eggs
per spawn
Date
•
Number of eggs
per spawn
6 Aug 1986
179
14 Aug 1986
642
510
19 Aug 1986
917
7 Aug 1986
730
22 Aug 1986
567
947
23 Aug 1986
129
405
24 Sep 1986
152
1028
548
8 Aug 1986
765
17 Jun 1987
747
133
527
62
218
506
367
9 Aug 1986
1327
25 Jun 1987
463
599
388
65
26 Jun 1987
119
612
30 Jun 1987
247
723
8 Jul 1987
696
Mean 51 1 eggs per spawn, S.D. = 314.
mm. The record of Ferguson is ambiguous since
no mention is made whether the jelly cover was
included or not. Mohanty-Hejmadi et al. (1980)
have not given the estimates of spawn size. How-
ever McCann ( 1 940) recorded the number of eggs
per spawn to be approximately 200. We have
observed that the spawn size may be as small as
62 eggs or as large as 1327 eggs. We have also
observed that the spawns collected early in the
season are larger than those at the close of the
season. It is possible that the smaller spawns are
second or third spawns of the female. Although
no clearcut evidence is available, each mature
female probably lays eggs twice or thrice in one
season. Another observation in this regard con-
cerns the thickness of the jelly around the eggs.
Earlier spawns were found to have firmer and
thicker jelly while those of the later period showed
a very thin, loose layer of jelly. Multiple clutches
in a single season are reported in anuran am-
phibians (Wells 1976, Perrill 1983). In fact, it is
suggested that capacity to breed twice or more in
a single season may be one of the major ad-
vantages of a prolonged breeding season (Wells
1976).
The temporary rainwater pools (ponds) ob-
served during this survey were variable in size and
depth. On an average the depth of such ponds
never exceeded one metre. The surface area of the
pond was variable.
Peak spawning activity was noted seven times
during the survey. The number of spawns ob-
served on these days and the climatological
parameters recorded for the previous day of the
spawning are given in Table 2. It was interesting
to note that in a very small temporary rainwater
pool with a diameter of about 10 metres and water
depth of less than a metre, there were 113 spawns
on a single day. In general all these peak spawning
days were preceeded by a prolonged dry period of
366
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 2
PEAK SPAWNING ACTIVITY AND CLIMATOLOGICAL FACTORS
ON PREVIOUS DAY OF SPAWNING.
Date
No. of spawns
Pond 1 & Pond 2
Pond water
temperature
in Celsius
Temperature
Max. Min.
Relative
Humidity
Rain-fall
in mm
8 Aug 1986
14
21
25.0
25.5
21.8
90%
4.1
9 Aug 1986
27
45
22.0
24.8
1.5
92%
6.1
17 Jun 1987
62
42
23.0
31.3
22.8
86%
6.0
25 Jun 1987
38
26
22.5
32.3
24.3
84%
18.6
8 Jul 1987
113
45
23.0
26.6
21.8
82%
21.0
17 Aug 1987
104
16
21.5
29.0
22.6
93%
142.0
27 Sep 1987
50
22.5
31.1
21.6
92%
5.5
about 1 0 days. Further, spawning activity was also
observed at other times during the season, except
during prolonged dry period. Generally, when a
large number of temporary rainwater pools were
formed after a heavy rainfall, the spawning con-
tinued for a week or so even if there was no heavy
rain but the atmosphere remained cloudy and
humid. Rainfall during the night was not always
essential for the spawning to take place.
The other habitats in which fertilized eggs of
M. ornata were found consistently were old, dis-
used stone (basalt) quarries with natural streams.
Of such places, very few are now free from human
interference. Most of them are being used for a
variety of purposes such as for washing clothes
and utensils and are thus grossly polluted with
anthropogenic wastes. Some of them are almost
becoming eutrophic and contain a fair amount of
detergents, optical whiteners and related chemi-
cals. Even cattle are washed regularly in such
water bodies, adding organic matter that further
helps eutrophication. It is unlikely that such water
bodies would be of any use to the frogs and toads
in future, although a few spawns were found even
in grossly polluted waters. In this context it may
be pointed out that previous workers have noted
a decline in the population of local frogs and
attributed it to the destruction of habitat and
proper breeding sites (Paranjape andGhate 1986).
This is also the case elsewhere (see Duellman and
Trueb 1986).
Hatching success, under field as well as
laboratory conditions, was observed to be about
95%. The majority of the eggs are thus fertilized
eggs. High fertility is essential for the frogs which
produce fewer eggs per spawn. Other aspects of
the developmental ecology of this frog have also
been studied and will be presented separately.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr S.N. Navalgundkar, Prin-
cipal, Modern College, and to Dr S.Y. Paranjape,
Head, Department of Zoology, for encourage-
ment and for provision of facilities. Thanks are
due to Mr Chandrashekhar for his help in com-
puter operations and to Prof. M.R. Marathe, Head,
Physics Department, for making available the
computer. Mr. G.K. Wagh extended considerable
help during various surveys. We are grateful to Dr
T.S.N. Murthy, Zoological Survey of India,
Madras, for confirming our identification of the
species. Mr An and Padhye is thankful to U.G.C.
for the award of a Junior Research Fellowship.
References
Conaway, C.H. & Metter, D.E. (1967): Skin glands 1967(3): 672-673.
associated with breeding in Microhyla carolinensis. Copeia Daniel, J.C. (1963): Field guide to the amphibians of
SPAWNING IN MICROHYLA ORNATA
367
Western India, Part 2. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 690- 702.
Duellman, W.E. & Trueb, L. (1986): Biology of Am-
phibians. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Ferguson, H.S. (1904): A list of Travancore batrachians.
Proc. Zool. Soc. London 15 : 499-509 (cited from Daniel 1963).
Mccan, C. (1940): A reptile and amphibian miscellany.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42: 45-64 (cited from Daniel 1963).
Mohanty-hejmadl, P., Datta, S.K. & Khan, I. (1980):
Life history of Indian frogs. El. The ornate frog Microhyla
ornala. J. Zool. Soc. India 32: 43-48.
Paranjape, S.Y. & Ghate, H.V. (1986): Frogs and
froglegs: Socioeconomic and ecological perspective. Proceed-
ings of First World Conference on Trade in Froglegs vis-a-vis
EnvironmentalConsiderations ", held at Calcutta, April 1986, pp.
59-64.
Perrill, S.A. (1983): Multiple egg clutches inHyla regil-
la, H. cinerea and H. gratiosa. Copeia 1983 (2): 513-516.
Rao, C.R.N. (1917): On the occurrence of iridocytes in
the larva of Microhyla ornata (Boulenger). Rec. Indian Mus. 13:
281-292.
Wager, V.A. (1965): The Frogs of South Africa. Purnell
and Sons, Cape Town, South Africa.
Wells, K.D. (1976): Multiple egg clutches in green frog
(Rana clamitans). Herpetologica 32: 85-87.
ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS (VIGORS)1
Ranjit Manakadan and Asad Rafi Rahmani2
(With two maps and a text-figure)
Introduction
The Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary is the most
well-known place for the Great Indian Bustard
Ardeotis nigriceps (Vigors) in Andhra Pradesh.
The Sanctuary was established mainly due to the
recommendations of the Endangered Species
Project of the Bombay Natural History Society to
the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department. The
Society had a field station from September 1985
to May 1988 at Rollapadu. We give here an ac-
count of the Sanctuary, its flora, and fauna with
special reference to the bustard, in an effort to
provide baseline data for future researchers at
Rollapadu.
Location and Topography
Rollapadu is a small village (population 755,
vide 1981 census) 18 km south-east of Nandikot-
kur town (15° 52’N * 78° 18’E) in the plains
between the Nallamalai and Erramalai ranges of
the Eastern Ghats. The River Krishna flows
northwest of Nandikotkur. The rocks belong to
the Kurnool-Cuddapah formations. The soil is
gravelly with heavy clay content and low per-
meability. Black cotton soil, preferred for agricul-
ture, also occurs in the surrounding areas.
Climate
The first three months of the year are pleasant
with moderate winds from the southeast. The
summer heat starts at the end of March, and April
and May are the hottest months with temperatures
soaring to 42 ° C. Towards the end of April, Roll-
1 Accepted August 1988.
2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay-400 023.
apadu experiences dust storms accompanied by a
few showers, giving respite from the heat. Rain-
fall is received from the SW and NE monsoons,
with an average annual rainfall of 667.8 mm
which varies from year to year. Cyclonic storms
that hit the Andhra coast almost every year, espe-
cially during the NE monsoon period, result in
continuous downpours at Rollapadu. Winter is
mild and the coldest month is December (c. 18 ° C).
Conservation Measures
After the ‘rediscovery’ of the bustard in August
1982, the Forest Department stopped all trapping
activities. In 1983, on learning that the bustard
frequented areas were to come under a sheep
farming scheme, the Department took steps to
acquire these lands. In April 1988, the acquired
lands received the official designation of a
sanctuary. The staff consists of a Forester, a Guard
and seven watchmen. The Sanctuary is under the
jurisdiction of the Conservator of Forests,
Srisailam.
The area of the Sanctuary is 614 ha, divided
into three blocks or enclosures. These enclosures
are out-of-bounds for people and livestock and are
bordered by trench-cum-mound walls (TCM).
A system of roads, again bordered by TCM walls
were also laid out in the enclosure to regulate the
movement of people to their crop fields or vil-
lages-the right of way in the enclosure
(along the roads) had to be ceded to the villagers
as it was a traditional pathway and a route round
the enclosure would put them to much difficulty
and evoke antagonism for the Sanctuary. These
roads, besides minimizing disturbance to the bus-
tards, also act as fire breaks. A waterhole is
present to help the animals tide over the hot sum-
mer.
Map 1. Proposed Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary in Rollapadu
ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
369
To Atmakur-Guntur
370
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Vegetation
The vegetation of Rollapadu is of the Tropical
Thom Forest type (Champion & Seth 1968).
However, human and human-related pressures
have converted the landscape to one of crop fields,
grazing lands and very light scrub.
The vegetation in the enclosure may be
generally termed a grassland with a few scattered
shrubs and trees. The common grass species are
Aristida funiculata , Chrysopogon fulvus,
Eremopogon foveolatus , Heteropogon contortus
and Iseilema anthephoroides. During our stay
period we observed that H. contortus spreads to
more and more areas with each passing year. For
example, a favoured nesting site of the bustard
which was E. foveolatus dominant area in 1985
was overrun by H. contortus by 1987. Common
herbs are Alysicarpus scariosus , Boerhavia dif-
fusa., Cleome felina, Indigofera cordifolia, In-
digofera linifolia, Justicia procoumbens ,
Lepidagathis cristata, Polygala chinensis and
Rhynchosia minima. Shrubs and trees are repre-
sented by Butea monosperma, Cassia auriculata,
Cassia fistula, Canthium parviflorum , Diospyros
melanoxylon , Morinda tinctoria, Prosopis
spicigera , Randia dumetorum and Phoenix syl-
vestris.
Owing to the absence of grazing and wood
cutting, the vegetation in the enclosure has im-
proved and contrasts sharply with the surrounding
grazing lands. While the grass height in the
enclosure exceeds 50 cm with good ground cover,
the grazing lands exhibit the typical profile of the
overgrazed lands of our country with short grass
and much exposed bare ground. Another interest-
ing difference in the vegetation of the enclosure
to that of the grazing lands is with regard to the
grass Sehima nervosum. Not a single specimen of
S. nervosum has been recorded in the grazing
lands, while they have even formed pure stands in
some areas of the enclosure. Dabadghoa &
Shankamarayan (1973) classified the grasslands
of these parts under the Sehima/ Dichanthium
cover — if allowed to reach the climax stage by
factors like absence of grazing and fires. It will be
interesting to see the final climax vegetation cover
in the enclosure.
Most of the plants belong to what are termed
as ‘monsoon ephemerals’. Life for these plants
begins with the onset of the monsoon in June,
changing the bare brown/yellow landscape to lush
greenery. The plants grow, flower, fruit, seed, and
by the first week of December almost all the plants
have died.
Fauna
The Sanctuary, though established primarily to
protect the bustard, has benefited rest of the
wildlife in the area. Prior to its establishment, the
animals were persecuted by professional trappers
and hunters from nearby towns and villages.
These activities were checked with the posting of
Forest Department personnel. Poaching of the
bustard, florican and blackbuck (and all wildlife
that inhabit the enclosure) is almost nil, but hunt-
ing of other species especially quail, partridge,
sandgrouse, duck, barheaded geese, demoiselle
crane continues on the sly in the surrounding
areas.
Great Indian Bustard
The bustard was known to exist in the ‘dry
districts’ of Andhra Pradesh. Hume & Marshall
(1879) reported their presence in the “Nizam’s
territory”. Elliot (1880) gave an account of fal-
coners going in for the bustard and also stated that
bags were so poor that a successful falconer was
conferred with a village ‘Inam’ (or free tenure).
Tostems (1887) saw a few bustards in the cold
season in Kurnool district. Later Blanford (1898),
writing on the distribution of the bustard in the
Indian subcontinent, mentioned ‘Hyderabad
territories’. Burton (1953) gave more precise data
by stating that in the 1890s, he saw 17 birds (of
which 13 were in a flock) near Guntakal.
Till recently, little was known regarding the
present status of the bustard in Andhra Pradesh.
Pushp Kumar (1980), on the basis of information
gathered from hunters and Forest Department
Personnel, offered a rough estimate of 1 5 birds for
the whole state. Then in August 1982, their
ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
371
s X
presence was recorded when a few birds were
sighted at Rollapadu and Banganapalie in Kur-
nool district. In July 1984, the largest recorded
flock in recent times of 35 bustards was sighted at
Rollapadu (Ali & Rahmani 1982-84). The bustard
is now known to exist at Rollapadu, Ban-
ganapalle, Neliibanda, Peddapadu, Siruvella,
Palakurti and Malligeli in Kurnooi district;
Hanimireddy-palli in Anantapur district; Cheval-
la and Shamshabad in Rangareddy district; and
there are unconfirmed reports of their presence in
some parts of Mahboobnagar district (Manakadan
& Rahmani 1986).
Till the posting of watchmen at Rollapadu in
August 1982, the bustard was hunted regularly by
professional trappers. The shikaris put the number
of birds bagged each year at about a dozen. The
birds were were trapped by laying nooses at dis-
play sites, groundnut fields and waterholes-and
were sold at the Nandikotkur market. The shikaris
have no idea of the former population, except
saying that the birds were scattered then and traps
were laid when they noticed a few birds frequent-
ing an area, unlike now, where they congregate at
Rollapadu. The present population is in the range
of 60-100 birds, judging by daily counts done,
flock sizes seen and the number of nests located
each year. An exact population estimate is not
possible since the bustards move a lot and those
that frequent the enclosure are mainly breeding
birds.
Movement and Flock Composition: The move-
ment and flock composition of the bustard
depends much on the season and local weather
conditions. Sexes generally remain separate and
mixed flocks are rare and temporary (Rahmani &
Manakadan 1986a). With the onset of the SW
monsoon in early June, there is an influx and
congregation of bustards in the grasslands of Rol-
lapadu. June to August is the period when both
largest numbers and largest flock sizes are seen
(Tables 1 & 2). For example, in May 1986, mean
group size of the males was 1 , in June 4.4, in July
7.5 and 3.4 in August. Similar results were ob-
tained in 1987, i.e. largest flocks of males were
seen between June and August (except for
February, when a flock of 7 and another of 4 birds
were seen: but the sample size is very small (Table
1). The flocks were mainly unisexual, there being
a very clear segregation of the sexes; fixed flocks
are rare. For example, between June and August
1986, only one mixed flock of 3 birds (0.92%) out
of 108 flocks was seen. Similarly, during the same
period in 1987, only 5 (3.7%) of 132 flocks were
of both sexes.
By mid-August, the major breeding season
starts (Fig. 1) and soon the adult hens separate
from the flocks to commence nesting. Adult cocks
also form territories and become more and more
solitary. Between June to August, around 50% of
the sightings were of solitary birds, but from
September onwards (Tables 3 & 4), these sight-
ings increased to nearly 80%. In September 1986
(Table 3), 96.7% sightings were of solitary bus-
tards. Non- breeding hens and cocks frequent the
Rollapadu grasslands much less between Septem-
ber and December. For reasons still not clear,
rainy days result in an influx of birds, the birds
moving out again with the dry spell. The dominant
cocks seem less pugnacious during rainy days and
tolerate the presence of other males.
By the first week of December, the grasslands
become more and more dry and only the display-
ing cocks and hens with chicks are seen. By
January, only the territorial cocks and some late
nesters are left in the enclosure area. However,
bustards are seen in small droves of 2 to 7 in-
dividuals in the nearby areas. The months of
February, March and the first half of April may be
considered as the lull period for bustards as far as
the grasslands of Rollapadu are concerned, since
there is no breeding activity and the birds have
moved out into the surrounding areas. However,
in 1988, a few birds were present during this
period also possibly due to the delayed monsoon
of 1987.
By the third week of April, dust storms with
scattered rains and showers occur. This weather
heralds the onset of the ‘minor breeding season’,
which extends till late May or early June, a few
cocks and hens frequent the area and two or three
nests are located every year (Table 5). Most sight-
372
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 86
ings are of solitary birds. With the onset of the
monsoon at the end of June, the cycle repeats
itself.
Breeding: The most interesting aspect of the
breeding cycle is the existence of two breeding
seasons-a major and a minor-at Rollapadu, un-
like only one breeding season in the other areas
studied. At Nanaj in Solapur district,
Maharashtra, the bustard breeds during the mon-
soon period, while at Karera in Shivpuri district,
Madhya Pradesh, they breed during summer. At
Rollapadu, the major breeding season begins
around mid-August and eggs may be laid till
January. The minor breeding season begins with
the onset of drizzles or rains in the third week of
April and the season (judging from display ac-
tivity) lasts till late May or early June. The reason
for the existence of two breeding seasons at Rol-
lapadu remains unexplained as we were not al-
lowed to ring or band the birds for our studies. We
do not know whether different individuals come
to breed in the two seasons or birds which were
unsuccessful in one season come to breed in
another.
The courtship display activity is also interest-
ing. In the 1985 major breeding season and the
1986 minor season, only one male (Meeta Male
— see Map 2) displayed. A few other males also
displayed but only in the absence of the Meeta
Male or when he was less pugnacious as on rainy
days or for some inexplicable reasons. In the 1 986
major season, the Meeta Male fought with a few
other males that came to display in his territory,
after which there was little display activity that
season. In the following minor season of 1987,
only one male displayed at the same display site.
STUDY PERIOD
WEATHER
VEGETATION
87-
88-
87-
DISPLAY
NESTING
SIGHTING OF 87
BUSTARDS 86
85 4
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monsoon period
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green flowering/fruiting
ymmmmnmnnn urrrrrrrni
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M
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J A
Fig. 1 Phenology of Events (September 1 985-June 1 988) at Rollapadu
FLOCK SIZE IN DIFFERENT MONTHS IN 1986 AT ROLLAPADU
ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
373
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ASSASSIN BUGS FROM PENINSULAR INDIA
395
(Ambrose & Livingstone, 1978 a).
In the scrub jungles, when the camponotine
population was relatively very high the sex ratio
was found to be equal and Acanthaspis pedestris
has been found to be cannibalistic, often the
females predating upon the males, only when they
are subjected to starvation. It is also evident that
the predatory species migrate from place to place
in search of their prey, when the population of
latter is depleted in one particular period
(Ambrose & Livingstone 1978 b). This may be
the reason why the predators are totally absent
when the prey is absent.
Nicholson (1958) and Clark et al. (1978) have
considered the density of the prey population as
the primary factor in controlling the population
level of predators. Andrewartha and Birch (1969)
have noted that the dispersal of the predators is
correlated to the migration in search of prey.
Milne (1957 a, b) has proposed the theory that the
prey population is a density dependent factor for
a predator and the present study corroborates
Milne’s theory. Reduviid population in the scrub
jungle and semi-arid zones is dependent on cam-
ponotine ant population. Chitty (1960) maintains
that the population level in a habitat is kept con-
stant by the genetic factors of the species con-
cerned. Pimentel (1961) considers this as a
genetic feedback in the maintenance of population
Refer
Ambrose, D.P. & Livingstone, D. (1978 a): On the
mating behaviour of Eclomocoris tibialis Distant and Acan-
thaspis pedestris Stal, two reduviids of the scrub jungles of
Palghat gap, J. Madras, Univ. B.41 : 69-79.
— (1978 b): The population dynamics of three
species of reduviids of Peninsular India. Bull. Ent. 19: 201-203.
(1979): On the bioecology of Lophocephala
guerinii Lap. (Reduviidae: Harpactorinae) a cophrophagous
reduviid from the Palghat gap, India, J. Nat. Hist. 13: 581-588.
Andrewartha, H.G. & Birch, L.C, (1969): Some recent
contributions to the study of distribution and abundance of In-
sects. Ann. Rev. ent. 5: 219-249.
Chitty, D. (1960): Population process in the vole and
their relevance to general theory. Can. J. Zool. 38: 99-113.
Clark, L.R., Geir, P.W., Huges, R.D. & Morris, R.F.
level of a particular species. Population studies of
reduviids of different microhabitats indicate that
L. guerini is bivoltine whereas others are either
univoltine ( E . tibialis) or multivoltine (A.
pedestris ). Since their population dynamics is not
apparently regulated by climatic conditions, the
authors are tempted to favour the genetic factor in
population dynamics as a supplementary factor
operating as a regulatory mechanism proposed by
Chitty (1960) and Pimental (1961).
Goel (1978) from his lunar periodicity popula-
tion count mechanisms, reported a high catch of
hemipterans when there was high humidity and
low rainfall. He further reported maximum collec-
tion of reduviids in the month of July. In the
present investigations also, it was found that the
maximum catch of reduviids has been in July.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the PWD, Walayar forest,
for granting permission to conduct part of this
investigation and the authorities of the University
of Madras for facilitites provided. The senior
author expresses his gratitude to the CSIR for the
financial assistance for this work. Technical assis-
tance of Mr. P. Ramakrishnan and Mr S. John
Vennison is acknowledged.
N C E S
(1978): The ecology of Insect population in theory and practice.
ELBS Edition, Chapman and Hall. pp. 26-56.
Goel, S.C. (1978): Biological studies of two years cap-
ture of Hemiptera in Western Uttar Pradesh. Oriental Insects 12:
369-376.
Milne, A. (1957 a): The natural control of Insect popula-
tions Can. ent. 89: 193-213.
(1957 b): Theories of natural control of
insect populations. Cold spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. 22:
252-267.
Nicholson, AJ. (1958): Dynamics of Insect population.
Ann. Rev. ent. 3: 107-136.
Pimentel, D. (1961): On a genetic feed back mechanism
regulating populations of herbivores, parasities and predators.
Amr.Nat. 95 : 65-79.
FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE MALABAR WOODSHRIKE
TEPHRODORNIS VIRGATUS SYLVICOLA JERDON AT THEKKADY, KERALA1
Lalitha Vuayan2
Feeding behaviour of the Malabar Wood shrike Tephrodornis virgatus was studied at
Thekkady, South India, from March 1980 to February 1981. It is a regular member of mixed-
species feeding flocks (MFF). Monthly and seasonal variation in its participation in MFF is
dependent mainly on its breeding season and that of most of its close associates. 25 species of
birds show significant association with the Malabar Woodshrike in MFF and the probable reasons
are explained. The benefit this species achieves might mainly be protection from predators;
increased food acquisition by less vigilance, and increasing feeding time and efficiency is also
speculated. This species, being a gleaner, flushes out insects for the attending species and also
forms the leading and cohesive member of the mixed flocks.
Introduction
A description of the Malabar Woodshrike with
notes on its general biology has been given by Ali
(1969) and Ali and Ripley (1983). The present
study, though not a treatise on its ecology, deals
with some major aspects of its feeding biology.
The data were collected during 1980-81 while
conducting a study on drongos.
The study area was a patch of moist-
deciduous/semi-evergreen forest of about 150 ha.
at Thekkady in the Periyar Tiger Reserve (9° 15’
to 9 ° 40 ’ N, 76 ° 05 ’ to 77 ° 25 ’ E) in Kerala, south
India, at an elevation of 1050 m above mean sea
level. The forest patch was a raised portion with
low-lying grasslands on either side. The average
temperature varied from a minimum of 16° C to
a maximum of 35° C. The area receives both the
southwest and northeast monsoons; the average
annual rainfall during 1980 was 1440.9 mm and
for the five years (1977 to 1981), 1707.2 mm.
Methods
Feeding of the Malabar Woodshrike was
oberved along with the mixed-species feeding
flocks (MFF), which were followed continuous-
y and the composition recorded every 1 5 minutes,
Accepted February 1988.
2BNHS Ecological Research Centre, Bharatpur 321 001,
Rajasthan, India.
noting the number of individuals of each species;
each one of this forming one observation. The
occurrence of each species in MFF was computed
for each month and the relation of this species
with others was analysed in detail.
Results and Discussion
The Malabar Woodshrike is mainly insec-
tivorous, searching for insects and caterpillars on
the stems or leaves (gleaning) for most part of the
time or catching insects like a flycatcher
(flycatching or flycatcher-gleaning) as described
for the insectivorous passerines by Croxall
(1977). It is noted as taking part in the mixed
hunting parties of the forests Ali (1969) and Ali
and Ripley (1983) and as one of the regular mem-
bers in the mixed-species feeding flocks at Thek-
kady (Vijayan 1984).
Altogether, 2199 observations were made on
the MFF from March 1980 to February 1981. The
Malabar Woodshrike was noticed in 35% of the
observations. As its occurrence was above 25% it
is considered as a regular member, as done by
Croxall (1976). The number of individuals of this
species in MFF varied from two to 1 1 with an
average of four.
Seasonal variation in frequency of occurrence
in MFF: The frequency of occurrence of the
Malabar Woodshrike in MFF varied in different
seasons and months (T able 1 ), the minimum being
in summer and the maximum in spring as noticed
FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF MALABAR WOODSHRIKE
397
in other regular and occasional regular members
(Vijayan 1984, Vijayan and Joshi (in prep.).
Change in the participation of species in MFF
results in a change in the flock composition in
different seasons, as noticed in Brazil (Davis
1946), Japan (Ogasawara 1965) and Australia
(Bell 1980). At Thekkady most of the birds breed
in summer and have less flocking tendency as
reported elsewhere (Sedgwick 1949, Moynihan
1962, McLure 1967, Morse 1970 and Fairchild et
al 1977).
The Malabar Woods hr ike, though breeding
from January to May, has less occurrence in MFF
only during March and May. It might be because
of the low participation of the major active species
such as the Bronzed Drongo and the Scarlet Min-
ivet with which it has a significant association as
shown in Table 2, and also by the strong positive
correlation of its monthly occurrence with that of
the above species (r = 0.82, p<0.01 and r = 0.92,
p<0.00 1 respectively). Its low frequency of occur-
rence in MFF in October is also in accordance
with that of the Scarlet Minivet, which has a
second breeding season during this period.
The high occurrence of this species in MFF
during December- January-February is in relation
to the activity of many species. The complexity of
the flock with many species and more types of
mixed flocks were noticed before the beginning
of the breeding season in relation to the greater
breeding activity and energy requirement of most
of the species.
Association with other birds in MFF: The per-
centage of occurence of the Malabar Woodshrike
with every other species in the flocks was calcu-
lated and in order to test the significance of as-
sociation, the chi-square value was calculated.
Association with some species was not sig-
nificantly different from random as with that of
some regular members like Racket-tailed Drongo,
Yellowbrowed Bulbul and Goldfronted Chlorop-
sis. While it showed close association with many
species (Table 2), it had negative association with
Jungle B abbler and Hill Myna (the observed value
was less than the expected value, thereby showing
an avoidance or no preference for its company).
The probable factors affecting the association
of the Malabar Woodshrike with other species in
mixed flocks are the foraging zones, foraging
habits and the size of the species as explained for
drongos (Vijayan 1984). As the Malabar
Woodshrike usually foraged in the middle and
upper strata of the canopy, its association was also
with species foraging in these zones. The Jungle
Babbler, which mainly utilized the ground and
lower strata of the canopy, was negatively as-
sociated with this species. Similar association of
species with common foraging zone is reported
earlier by Bell (1980) in Australia and Waser
(1984) in East Africa. The preferred size of prey
is also supposed to be a common factor in this
relationship of almost similar sized birds in mixed
feeding flocks as found by Mac Donald and
Henderson (1977) in Kashmir.
Significance in MFF: The major benefit to the
Malabar Woodshrike in associating with MFF
appeared to be protection from predators. More
aggressive species like drongos, especially the
Racket- tailed Drongo, chased away predators
(Vijayan 1984). Shikra, Crested Serpent Eagle
Table 1
PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF MALABAR WOODSHRIKE IN MIXED- SPECIES
FEEDING FLOCKS AT THEKKADY DURING 1980-81
Month & Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Total
year 1980 1981
%Occurrence 5 29 4 47 29 35 29 13 30 48 53 45 35
No. of
obs. of flocks 42 59 45 110 306 226 260 257 142 245 243 264 2199
398
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 2
ASSOCIATION OF MALABAR WOODSHRIKE
WITH OTHER SPECIES
IN MIXED SPECIES FEEDING FLOCKS
ATTHEKKADY DRUING 1980-’ 81
Species
X2 Value
1.
Scarlet Minivet
179.70
2.
Velvetfronted Nuthatch
83.32
3.
Bronzed Drongo
195.50
4.
Grey Tit
86.01
5.
Goldenbacked Woodpecker
45.10
6.
Southern Tree Pie
20.16
7.
Jungle Babbler
-73.74
8.
Tree Pie
15.60
9.
Grey Drongo
31.30
10.
Small Minivet
38.22
11.
Small Green Barbet
9.621
12.
Flowerpeckers
6.721
13.
Pigmy Woodpecker
13.51
14.
Paradise Flycatcher
54.08
15.
Leaf warblers
26.05
16.
Threetoed Goldenbacked Woodpecker
59.50
17.
Heartspotted Woodpecker
55.93
18.
Yellownaped Woodpecker
6.941
19.
Golden Oriole
5.182
20.
Blackheaded Oriole
56.91
21.
Whiteheaded Blyth’s Myna
8.471
22.
Large Indian Cuckooshrike
18.39
23.
B lackheaded C uckoos hrike
13.52
24.
Drongo Cuckoo
18.10
-10-17 1
25.
Grackle or Hill Myna
Note:
2
1 shows level of significance of X P < 0.01
2 has P and all others have P < 0.001
and Brown Fish Owl marauded among the flocks,
the first one more frequently than others. In every
instance, though almost all the birds produced
alarm calls, the drongos and sometimes the Tree
Pies also went forward to chase the predators. No
successful attack on the flocks was observed. But
a few species like Shikra, Brahminy Kite, Grey
Hornbill and Tree Pie were observed capturing
solitarily feeding Small Green Barbet, Magpie
Robin and Malabar Lorikeet.
The alarm calls produced by various species
were continuous, with various imitation calls
which are considered to be a convergence
mechanism in mixed flocks for disguise, as ob-
served by Bernard (1979). This, along with the
tight bunching of individuals, makes it difficult
for the predator to single out an individual (Tin-
bergen 1951). Dekker (1980) has found that
solitary prey individuals were killed by Peregrine
Falcon more often than individuals in flocks. Thus
flocking is advantageous to all the members of the
flock as reported earlier by Moynihan (1962),
Morse (1970, 1973), Buskirk et al (1972), Bus-
kirk (1976), Gaddis (1980) and Greig-Smith
(1981).
Besides providing protection and increased
corporate vigilance by the members, flocking
might also increase the feeding time as observed
by Metcalfe (1984) and Monaghan and Metcalfe
(1985).
Whether the foraging efficiency of the Malabar
Woodshrike is increased owing to its association
with MFF is not clear; although Ogasawara
(1970), Kreba (1973), Fairchild et al (1977) and
Geigsmith (1978 a & b) maintain that though the
gleaners do not appear to benefit directly, their
feeding efficiency might be improved. As the
mixed flocks covered more areas feeding actively,
the members might be benefiting from not sear-
ching in areas already depleted by others.
The Malabar Woodshrike being mainly a
gleaner is followed by the attending species such
as drongos, which could procure food by spending
less energy by catching insects flushed out by the
gleaners.
The Malabar Woodshrike lead the MFF to new
areas, and were followed by other species; this has
been noticed in other areas of the Western Ghats
(V.S. Vijayan, pers. comm.). Its active move-
ments and loud and frequent calls might be attract-
ing species to the flocks, thus acting as a cohesive
force of the MFF.
Acknowledgements
This study was done along with the work on
drongos for my Ph.D. under Dr Salim Ali and
FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF MALABAR WOODSHRIKE
399
finanaced by the Salim Ali — Loke Wan Tho Fel-
lowship of the Bombay Natural History Society.
I thank Dr V.S. Vijayan for encouragement and
critically going through the manuscript. Drs.
Refer
Ali, S.(1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press,
Madras
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford Univ. Press, Delhi.
Bell, H.L. (1980): Composition and seasonality of
mixed- species flocks of insectivorous birds in the Australian
Capital Territory. Emu 80 (4). 227 -233.
Bernard, C.J. (1979): Predation and the evolution of
social mimicry in birds Am. Nat. 113(4): 613-618.
Buskirk, W.H. (1976): Social systems in a tropical forest
avifauna, ibid. 110 (972): 293-310.
Buskirk, W.H. et al. (1972): Interspecific bird flocks in
tropical highland Panama. Auk 89(3): 612-624.
Croxall, J.P. (1976): The composition and behaviour of
some mixed-species bird flocks in Sarawak. Ibis 118(3): 333-346.
(1977): Feeding behaviour and ecology of
New Guinea rain forest insectivorous passerines, ibid. 7 79(2):
113-146.
Davis, D.E. (1946): A seasonal analysis of mixed flocks
of birds in Brazil. Ecology 27: 168-181.
Dekker, D. (1980): Hunting success rates, foraging habits
and prey selection of peregrine falcons ( Falco peregrinus )
migrating through Central Alberta, Canada. Cand. Field Nat.
94(4): 371-382.
Fairchild, L. et al. (1977): Seasonal changes in the
feeding behaviour of flocks of seed-eaters and grassquits. ibid
119(1): 85-87.
Gaddis, P. (1980): Mixed flcks, Accipeters and an-
tipredator behaviour. Condor (3). -3 48 -3 50.
GREIG-SMITH, P.W. (1978a): The formation, structure and
function of mixed-species insectivorous bird flocks in West
African savanna woodland. Ibid 120(3 ):284-296.
(1978b): Imitative foraging in mixed-
species flocks of Seychelles brids. ibid. 120: 233-235.
(1981): The role or alarm responses in the
formation of mixed-species flocks of heathland birds. Behav.
Ecol. Sociobiol. 8(1): 7-11.
Krebs, J.R. (1973): Social learning and the significance
of mixed-species flocks of chickadees. (Parus sp.) Can. J. Zool.
51: 1275-1288.
Madhav Gadgil and N.V. Joshi of the Indian In-
stitute of Science helped me in the statistical
analysis of the data.
N C E S
Macdonald, D.W. & Henderson, D.G. (1977): Aspects
of the behaviour and ecology of mixed-species bird flocks in
Kashmir. Ibis 119(4): 481-493.
McClure, H.E. (1967): The composition of mixed-
species flocks in lowland and sub-montane forests of Malaya.
Wilson Bull. 79(2):\3\-153.
Metcalfe, N.B. (1984): The effects of mixed-species
flocking on the vigilance of shore birds: Who do they trust? Anim.
behav. 32(4): 986-993.
Monaghan, P. & Metcalfe, N.B. (1985): Group forag-
ing in wild brown hares: effects of resource distribution and social
status, ibid. 33(3): 993-999.
Morse, D.H. (1970): Ecological aspects of some mixed-
species foraging flocks of birds: Ecol. Monogr. 40(1 ):\ 19-168.
(1973): Interactions between tit flocks and
sparrowhawks, Accipiter nisus. Ibis 115: 591-593.
Mqynihan, M. (1962): The organization and probable
evolution of some mixed-species flocks of neotropical birds.
Smithsonian Misc. collections 143 , 7, End of Vol.
Ogasawara, K. (1965): The analysis of the mixed flock
of the family Paridae in the botanical garden of Toholu Univer-
sity, Sendai: 1 . Seasonal change of the flock formation. Sci, Rep.
Tohoku Univ. Ser.IVBio. 31(3): 167-180.
(1970): Analysis of mixed -flocks of tits in
the botanical garden of Tohoku University, Sandai: II. Foraging
layers by species and their interrelations within the mixed flock.
ID. Flock behaviour and inter-specific relations within the mixed
flock. Misc. Rep. Yamashina Inst. Ornothol. 6(1/2): 170-187.
Sedgwick, E.H. (1949): Mixed associations of small birds
in the southwest of Western Australia. Emu 49: 9-13.
Tinbergen, N. (1951): The Study of Instinct. Oxford
Univ. Press (Clarendon), London and New York.
Vuayan, L. (1984): Comparative biology of drongos
(Family Dicruridae, Class Aves) with special reference to
ecological isolation. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Bombay.
Waser, P.M. (1984): Chance and mixed-species associa-
tions. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiology 15 (3): 1 97-202.
Vuayan, L. & Joshi, N.V. (in prep.): Dynamics of the
Mixed species bird flocks at Thekkady, Periyar Tiger Reserve,
Kerala.
MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR - 8
PTERIDOPHYTES
P.V. Bole and M.R. Almeida
(Continued from Vol. 83(3): 594)
KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF PTERIDOPHYTA OF
MAHABALESHWAR
1 . Leaves simple, one nerved, close and small relatively to the
axis. Sporangia orbicular or semi-orbicular, compressed,
1 -celled, 2-valved, at the base of the sporophylis which are
grouped in a spike 2
2. Isosporous, leaves multifarious without ligule
; LYCOPODIACEAE
2. Heterosporous 3
3. Leaves often 4-farious and differing in shape and
size, with a microscopic ligule
, Selaginellaceae
3. Leaves multifarious with ligule Isoetaceae
I . Leaves large relatively to the axis, multinerved and usually
compound. Sporangia on the margins or on the back of the
leaves or on modified leaves or borne in sporocarps 4
4. Sporangia produced from plural sub-epidermal cells.
Sori without an annular ring Ophioglossaceae
4. Sporangia developed from a single epidermal cell. Sori
with an annular ring 5
5. Sori opening across the apex, furnished with a short
horizontal ring Osmund ace ae
5. Sori not opening across the apex 6
6. Sori two-valved, opening down the side, crowned
by a operculiform complete ring
SCHIZAEACEAE
6. Sori opening by bursting as a stroma, surrounded
by a jointed vertical and uncomplete elastic ring
7
7. Indusium usually present, true or false 8
8. Spores trilete 9
9. True indusium present
Denstadtiaceae
9. True indusium not present 10
10. Sori restricted more or less in the
centre of the frond
Gymnogrammaceae
10. Sori running along the margins
or covering entire lower surface
11
I I . Margins irregularly folded and very much curled
SlNOPTERIDACEAE
11. Margins entire or deeply cut, reflexed but not curled 12
12. Sori continuous, exposed at maturity
Pteridaceae
12. Sori broken at intervals, covered by reflexed margins
even at maturity Adiantaceae
8. Spores monolete 13
13. Sori pocket- shaped or flap-like, veins free
Davalliaceae
13. Sori circular, veins reticulate 14
14. Indusium linear or oblong or sometimes horse-shoe
shaped, opening towards the mid-rib, outer margins
attached to theveins 15
15. Scales clathrate; the two vascular bundles at
the base of the stipe uniting upwards in X-Shape
Aspleniaceae
15. Scales not clathrate; vascular bundles unite in
U -shape Athyriaceae
14. Indusium elliptical, sub-globose or reniform, fixed
to the lamina in the centre or at the sinus 16
16. Pinnules with reticulate veins
Aspidiaceae
1 6. Pinnules with parallel veins
Thelypteridaceae
7. Indusium absent Polypodlaceae
LYCOPODIACEAE
Lycopodium Linn.
1. Lycopodium hainiltonii Spreng. Syst. 5:
429, 1828; Mahabale, J. Univ. Bombay
6(5): 69,1938.
L. obtusifolium Hamilt. in Don, Prod. FI. Nepal. 18,
1828 (non Sw.).
L. alvifolium Wall, ex Hook, el Grev. Ic. t. 233, 1829 .
L. empelrifolium Dalzell, Hook., J. Bot. 4: 1 13, 1853.
L. obtusatum Fairbank, Sensu Birdwood, in J. Bombay
naL Hist. Soc. 10(3): 430, 1896.
This epiphytic Lycopodium is found near
Wada, on the way to Mahabaleshwar, especially
on tall mango trees. It grows erect or sub-erect on
the host plant in the monsoon, but is usually seen
dried and hanging soon after the rains stop. It is a
rare species and near Wada it is found at one or
two spots only.
Spores: September - December.
Specimen collected: M.R. Almeida - 247.
FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR
401
Selaginellaceae
Selaginella Pallisot de Beauvois (nom. cons.)
1 . Median leaves not aristate; plant 20 cm tall
S. delicatula
1. Median leaves aristate; plants less than 10 cm
S. proniflora
1 . Selaginella delicatula (Desv.) Alston,
J. Bot. 70: 282, 1932.
Lycopodium delicatulum Desv., Poir. Encycl. Suppl.
3: 584, 1814.
S. canaliculata Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 243, 1839.
This is a common species in shady places. It
grows on hill- slopes in abundance. It is an erect
species, occasionally producing a few adven-
titious stilt roots, from the lower parts of the stem.
SPECIMEN SEEN: M.B. Vasantha - S.N. (Sept.
1967).
2. Selaginella proniflora (Lamk.) Baker, J. Bot
22: 150, 1855. Lycopodium proniflora
Lamk. Encycl. 3: 652, 1791.
L. caespitosum Dalz., Hook. Kew Journ.
Bot. 4: 114, 1852 (non Blume 1828).
This species is found on rocks and on
bouldered soil in clusters. The plant is seen to be
slightly spreading in juvenile stage but assumes
an erect position later.
occurrence: August-November.
SPECIMEN: P.V. Bole-2306.
ISOETACEAE
Isoetes Linn.
1. Peripheral strands present; velum rudimentary
/. dixit ei
1 . Peripheral strands absent; velum almost complete
I. sahyadrica
1. Isoetes dixitei Shende, J. Univ. Bombay
14: 50, 1945.
Found in shallow pools of water on Wilson
Point, during the second half of monsoon.
OCCURRENCE: July.
SPECIMEN: M.R. Almeida— s.n. (BLAT).
2. Isoetes sahyadrica Mahabale, Curr. Sci. 7 :
61-2,1938.
This species is also described from similar
habitat as that of /. dixitei Shende. Unfortunately,
type materials are not preserved and presence of
peripheral strands on which/, dixitei is segregated
from it could not be verified in the absence of type
materials. Otherwise both have common charac-
ters. All specimens we have examined have
shown peripheral strands.
OPfflOGLOS S ACEAE
Ophioglossum Linn.
1. Ophioglossum reticulatum Linn. Sp. PI.
2: 1063, 1753; Gray in Gazett. Bombay
Pres. 25:377, 1886; Blatter, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 18(3): 612, 1908;
Mahabale, J. Univ. Bombay 6(5): 109,
1938.
Found under the shade of trees on hill —
slopes and among grasses in the plains in mon-
soon. It can be easily recognised from other
species due to its long fleshy and running roots.
occurrence: July-November.
specimen seen: M.R. Almeida-755.
OSMUNDACEAE
Osmunda Linn.
1. Osmunda regalis Linn. Sp. PL 2: 1065,
1753; Gray, Gazett. Bombay Press. 25:
377, 1886; Birdwood, J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 2(2): 126, 1887; Blatter &
d’Almeida, Ferns of Bombay, 192, 1922;
Eubank J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(1):
193, 1932.
The royal fern occurs mostly on the banks
of rivers and streams, usually its roots are sub-
merged in running water.
occurrence: Throughout the year.
specimen seen: M.R. Almeida-s.n.
SCfflZAEACEAE
Lygodium Sw.
1 . Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. in Schrad.
Journ. 1800/2; 106, 1801; Graham, Cat.
Bombay 242; Birdwood, in J. Bombay
402
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
nat. Hist. Soc. 1(4): 211, 1886; Gray, 377;
Blatter & d’Almeida, 195.
Ophioglossum flexuosum Linn. Sp. PI. 2: 1063, 1753.
A seasonal monsoon fem which starts grow-
ing at the beginning of the monsoon and lasts until
January.
Pteridaceae
P ter is Linn.
1 . Fronds simply pinnate 2
2. Pinnae more than 3 cm wide P. pellucida
2. Pinnae less than 1.5 cm wide P. vittata
1 . Fronds bipinnate 3
3. Lowest pinnae having more than one lobe (up to 5
lobes) on the abaxial side. P. quadriaurita (p.p.)
3. Lowest pinnae having only one lobe on abaxial
side 4
4. Copious stiff hairs on rachis and costae.
P. asperula
4. No stiff hairs on rachis and costae 5
5. Veinlets usually once forked and then free
P. quadriaurita (p.p.)
5. Lowest pairs of veinlets of the adjoining
veins unite in pairs into an arch P. biaurita
1 . Pteris asperula J. Sm. in Hook. J. Bot. 3:
405, 1841.
P. quadriaurita var. setigera Hook. Sp. Fil. 2: 181,
1858.
A common species in shady places. It can be
easily separated from its allies due to the presence
of prickly hairs on its costae.
SPECIMEN SEEN: M.R. Almeida-155.
2. Pteris biaurita Linn. Sp. PL 1076, 1753;
Eubank, J, Bombay nat. Hist. soc. 36: 191,
1932.
Campteria biaurita (Linn.) Hook. Gen. Fil. t. 75A,
1841.
P. quadriaurita forma biaurita (Linn.) Blatter & d’
Almeida, Ferns of Bombay, 89, 1922.
Very common all over Mahabaleshwar and
occurs in association with Pteris quadriaurita
Retz. from which it is very difficult to separate, in
sterile condition. In herbarium, however, it could
be easily separated due to its costular elongated
areoles.
specimens examined: S.V. Ranade-s.n.
3. Pteris pellucida Presl., Rel. Haenk. 1 :55,
1825; Gray, 376 Birdwood, 211; Blatter
& d’Almeida, 86.
Found in very thickly shaded places and
grows generally on black, humid and loose soil.
SPECIMEN EXAMINED: P.V. Bole-127.
4. Pteris quadriaurita Retz., Obs. 6: 38,
1791; Gray, 376; Birdwood, 211;
Eubank, 190; Blatter & d’Almeida, 88.
One of the common species all over
Mahabaleshwar. It is usually found on the sloping
grounds on yellowish loamy soil.
SPECIMEN SEEN: G.L. Shah-10659.
5. Pteris vittata Linn. Sp. PI. 2: 1074, 1753;
P. longifolia auct. (non Linn. 1753);
Hook., Sp. Fil. 2: 157, 1858; Bedd. F.S.I.
11, t. 33, 1863 & Handb. 106, f. 55, 1883;
Gray, 376; Birdwood, 431; Blatter &
d’Almeida, 83.
A common species found in crevices of
stone walls. It is also found on the ground but it
does not produce luxuriant growth on soil. It
grows more gregariously in winter than in mon-
soon.
specimen seen: E. Gonzalves-s.n.
SlNOPTERIDACEAE
Aleuritopteris Fee
1. Only stipes paleaceous A.farinosa
1 . Stipes as well as rachia paleaceous
A. albomarginata
1 . Aleuritopteris albomarginata (Clarke)
Ching, in Hong Kong Nat. 10: 1999, 1941.
Cheilanthes albomarginata C.B. Clarke, in Trans.
Linn. Soc. London 2 (Bot.): 456, t. 52, 1880; Bedd.
Handb. 94, 1883; Blatter & d’Almeida, 79, f. 6.
A quite common fern occurring mostly on
embankments.
SPECIMEN SEEN: B. Balamani-304.
2. Aleuritopteris farinosa (Forsk.) Fee, Gen.
Fil. 153, 1852.
Pteris farinosa Forsk. FI. Aegypt. Arab. 187, 1775;
Graham, Cat. Bombay Pres. 241, 1839.
FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR
403
Cheilanlhesfarinos (Forsk.) Kaulf. Enum. Fil. 202,
1824; Bedd. F.S.I. 65, t. 191, 1863 & handb. 92;
Bird wood, 211; Gray. 376; Blatter & d’Almeida 77,
t. 6, f. 31; Eubank, 194.
A common and abundant species on open
embankments. It is generally known as silver fern
due to powdery mildew present on the under
surface of leaves, it is a typical monsoon species
and starts withering and curling its leaves imme-
diately after the rains stop.
SPECIMEN SEEN: P.V. Bole-1219.
Gymnogrammaceae
Anno gramma
L Annogramma leptophylla (Linn.) Link.,
Fil. Sp. Cultae, 137, 1841.
Polyp odium leptophyllum Linn., Sp. PI. 2: 1092, 1753.
Gymnogramme leptophylla (Linn.) Desv., Berl. Mag.
5: 305, 1811; Bedd., F.S.I. 88, t. 270 & Handb. 382;
Gray, 376; Blatter & d’Almeida, 175.
Found on the sides of old walls, and on
tree-trunks during monsoon and in winter.
SPECIMEN COLLECTED: M.R. Almeida - 7 1 2.
Adiantaceae
Adiantum Linn.
1. Fronds simply pinnate 2
2. Pinnae petiolate, kidney-shaped, not deeply incised
A. philipp ensis
2. Pinnae sessile, fan-shaped, deeply incised
A. incisum
1 . Fronds tripinnate or decompound A . cuneatum.
1. Adiantum incisum Forsk. FI. Egypt. Arab.
187, 1775;
A. caudatum auct. (non Linn. 1753), quod, Bedd.
Ferns Brit. India, t. 2, 1868 & Handb. 82, 2.44;
Gray, 376; Blatter & d’Almeida, 61.
A rare species in shady places. It grows on
black soil, which is rich in humus due to the
decayed leaves.
SPECIMEN SEEN: M.S. Samant-s.n.
2. Adiantum cuneatum Langs, el. Fish., Ic.
Fil. 23, t. 26. 1810; Blatter & d’Almeida,
72, f. 28.
This, an introduced garden species some-
/ ,
times found growing wild, probably as an escape
from cultivation.
specimen collected: M.R. Almeida - 742.
3. Adiantum philippense Linn. Sp. PI. 2:
1094, 1753.
A. lunulatum Burm.f., FI. Ind. 235, 1768; Graham,
242; Beddome, Handb. ,115; Birdwood, 211; Gray,
376; Blatter & d! Almeida, 92, f. 35.
A common and abundant monsoon species
found all over in shady places. It grows luxuriant-
ly on embankments but it disappears immediately
after monsoon. Some times it is seen growing on
trees in crevices of branches but it is not an
epiphyte.
specimen collected: M.R. Almeida - 246.
Denstadtiaceae
Pteridium Scop
1. Pteridium aquilinum (Linn.) Kuhn, in V.
Deck. Reis. 3/3, Bot. 11, 1879.
Pteris aquilina Linn., Sp. PI. 2: 1075, 1753; Graham,
241; Bedd., F.S.I. 14, t. 42 & Handb. 1 15;
Birdwood, 211; Gray, 376; Blatter & d’Almeida, 92,
f. 35.
The commonest and dominant species of
plains of higher hills at Mahabaleshwar. It is the
first species to reappear after any forest clearing
is done. It is locally used for thatching the roofs
of huts.
specimen collected: M.R. Almeida - 155.
Davalliaceae
Leucostegia. Presl.
1 . Leucostegia immersa Presl, Tent. Pterid.
95, 1836; beddome, Handb. 51;
Birdwood, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
10(3): 431; Blatter & d’almeida, 42, f. 5A;
Eubank, 191.
Acrophorus immersa Moore, in Proc. Linn. Soc.
London 2: 286, 1839; Bedd., F.S.I. 4, t. 1 1, 1863;
Gray, 376.
Quite a common epiphytic or lithophytic
species at Mahabaleshwar. It is a common fem but
it lasts up to January end only.
404
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
specimen seen: M.R. Almeida - 735.
Thelypteridaceae
Christella Holttum
1 . Christella papilio (Hope) Holttum Apud
Nayar, Comp. Ferns Brit. India 208, 1974.
Nephrodium papilio Hope, J. Bombay naL Hist. Soc.
12:625, 1899.
Nep hr odium molle var. major Bedd., Handb. Suppl.
76, 1892 (p.p.).
Quite a common fern on sides of water-
courses and in moist shady forest under growths.
Aspleniaceae
Asplenium Linn.
1. Epiphytes; texture thick, leathery A. indicum
1 . Terrestrial; texture thin, membranaceous
A. inaquilalerale
1. Asplenium inaquilaterale Willd., Sp. PI.
(ed.4) 5: 322, 1810; Hieron, Hedwigia 61:
22, 1919.
A. trapeziforme (non Roxb., 1832) sensu Beddome,
F.S.I. 45, t. 134, 1863; Gray, 376.
A. lunulatum var. trapeziforme Beddome, Handb.
FBI 148, 1883; Birdwood, J. Bombay naL Hist. Soc.
2((2); 127, 1887; BlatL & McCann. 105 (p.p.
excluding synonym)
Found in white loamy soil and calciferous
deposits. It is a rare fern at Mahabaleshwar.
SPECIMEN SEEN: N.Y. Dalzell - s.n. (1878).
2. Asplenium indicum Sledge, in Bull. Brit.
Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Botany, 3(6): 264-5,
1965.
Asplenium laciniatum sensu Beddome, F.S.I. 49,
L 145, 1863 & Handb. 154, 1883 (non Don, 1825);
Birdwood, 211; Blatter & d’ Almeida, 108; Eubank,
193.
A. planicaule Wall, ex Metten., Asplen. 157, 1859;
Gray, 376; Birdwood, J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc.
1(4): 211 (non lows, 1858).
A common epiphytic fern growing mostly
on Eugenia and Memecylon species. But after wet
season it is found in dried condition and fronds are
seen hanging on host stems.
Athyriaceae
1 . Sori only one on the acroscopic sides of the veins;
annuals Athyrium
1 . Sori bothsides of the veins; perennials Diplazium
Athyrium Roth
1 . Frond simply pinnate, or sometimes lobed with much larger
acroscopic lobe to each pinna; pinnae sessile A.falcatum
1 . Fronds bipinnate or tripinnate; no large lobe to the
acroscopic side of the pinnae; at least lower pinnae
petiolate 2
2. Fronds up to 30 cm tall 3
3. Sori usually kidney-shaped A. anisopterum
3 . Sori ovate, running alongtheveins
A. hohenakerianum
2. Fronds above 40 cm tall 4
4. Fronds tripinnate A . spinulosum
4. Fronds bipinnate 5
5. Lobes ovate, margins and apex serrate
A.filix- foemina \ax.flabellata
5. Lobes delotoid, margins and apex fimbriate
A.filix-foemina var. pectinata
1 . Athyrium anisopteris Christ, in Bull. Herb.
Boiss. 6: 962, 1898; Sledge, in Bull. Brit.
Mus. Bot. 2(2): 289, 1962.
A. macrocarpum Bedd., F.S.I. 51, t. 152, 1863 &
Handb. F.B.I. 165, 1883 (p.p.) (non Aspidium
macrocarp w/wBlume); Blatter & d’Almeida, 112.
A rare species found near watercourses. It is
very much allied to A. hohenakerianum Moore,
but it differs from it in having kidney shaped sori.
occurrence: October.
SPECIMEN SEEN: M.R. Almeida - 71 1.
2. Athyrium falcatum Bedd., Ferns South
India, 51, t. 151, 1863 & Handb. F.B.I.
164; Gray, 376; Blatter & d’Almeida,
113; Eubank, 194.
A. drepanophyllum Baker, in Hook. & Baker, Syn.
Fil. (ed. 2) 226, 1868.
One of the common monsoon species found
all over Mahabaleshwar. It is generally found on
earthen embankments in semi-shaded places. It
has a fleshy succulent stem.
occurrence: July - October.
specimen collected: M.R. Almeida - 706.
FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR
405
3. Athyrium filix-foemina var. fiabellata
Wall, ex clarke, in Trans. Linn. Soc.
London, 2(bot. 1)493, t. 60, 1880;
Beddome, Handb. 170; Birdwood, 123;
Blatter & d’Almeida 115.
One of the common ferns at Mahabalesh-
war. It grows on shady earthen embankments. It
is usually seen with A. hohenakerianum Moore
and A. falcatum Bedd., and is very difficult to
separate from the former in dried herbarium
material but is easily recognisable in the field due
to its less succulent nature.
SPECIMEN SEEN: M.R. Almeida - 725a, 727.
4. Athyrium filix-foemina var. pectinata
Wall, ex Clarke, in Trans. Linn. Soc.
London, 2(bot. 1); 492, t. 57, 1880;
Blatter & d’Almeida, 1 14.
A. pectinatum Wall, ex Hope, in J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 14(2): 253, 1902 (non Bedd., 1863).
A. filix-foemina (non Linn. 1753) sensu Bedd. F.S.I.
51, t. 154, 1863.
This variety is also found very commonly
along with its allies. It generally grows on earthen
embankments in monsoon but it dries off soon
after the rains stop.
specimen SEEN: M.R. Almeida - 710.
5. Athyrium hohenakerianum (Kze.) Moore,
Index Fil. 126, 1857; Beddome, F.S.I.,
150 & Handb. 163; Blatter & d’Almeida,
lll.f. 9; Eubank, 194.
Allantodea hohenakerianum Kuntze, in Schk. Fil.
suppl. 2:63, t. 26, 1837.
The most succulent among the ferns. It is
found on earthen embankments during monsoon,
and is the first species to dry off immediately after
rains.
SPECIMEN SEEN: P.V. Bole - 1 1 16.
6. Athyrium spinulosum (Maxim) Milde,
Bot. Zeit. 376, 1866; Bedd., Handb. 161.
Cystopteris spinulosa Maxim., Mem. Acad. St.
Petersb. 9: 340, 1859.
There is one specimen of this species at
central National Herbarium, Calcutta identified
by its collector as .Athyriumfilix-foemina. On the
specimen there are remarks written in pencil.
“This is a remarkable cut and developed fern,
which I can not name”. On this sheet there is also
a mark of initials followed by date - 25/1/6, which
according to the staff of CNH, is the signature of
Sir George Watt. They are of the opinion that this
sheet is from King’s collection.
DiplaziumS w.
1. Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Swartz.,
Syn. Fil. 92 & 285, 1806.
Hemionitis esc ulenta Retz., Obs. Bot. 38, 1791.
Callipteris easculenta J. Sm. ex Moore et Houst.,
Gard. Mag. bot. 3: 265, 1851; Bedd., F.S.I. 54, L
164; Gray, 376.
Anisopteris esculentum (Retz.) Presl, Rel. Hoenk.
1(6): 45, 1836; Bedd., Handb. 192, f. 94; Blatter &
d’Almeida, 120; Eubank, 193.
A common fern on riverbanks. Sometimes
seen partially submerged in water It grows well
inland and is also grown in pots at several places.
specimen seen: T. Cooke - s.n.
Aspidiaceae
1. Veins anastomosing Teclaria
1. Veins free 2
2. Indusium hairy; whole plant covered with silky
unicellular hairs Hypodematiwn
2. Indusium glabrous; plants not covered with unicellular
hairs Dryopteris
Dryopteris Adartson
1 . Fronds ovate-lanceolate, dimorphic; dimorphic; fertile
pinnae almost half of the size of those of sterile
D. cochleata
1 . Fronds more or less triangular, fertile as well as sterile
pinnae similar in size and shape D. sparsa
1 . Dryopteris cochleata (D. Don) C. Chr.,
Index Fil. 258, 1905.
Nephrodium cochlealum D. Don, Prod. FI. Nepal. 6,
1825.
Lastrea cochleata (D. Don) Moore, Ind. Fil. 88, 1857;
Gray, 376.
L.filix-mass var. cochleata Bedd., F.S.I. 51, t. 115,
1863 & Hanb. 250; Birdwood, 128; Blatter &
D’Almeida 143; Eubank, 191.
9
406
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
A quite common fern in deeply shaded
forest areas, in humid black soil among decaying
leaf mould.
SPECIMEN SEEN: M.R. Almeida - 778.
2. Dryopteris sparsa (D. Don) O. Kuntze,
Rev. Gen. PI. 2:813,1891.
Nephrodium sparsum D. Don, Prod. FI. Nepal. 6,
1825.
Lastrea sparsa (D. Don) Moore, Index Fil. 87, 1858;
Bedd., F.S.L, 36, t. 103, Handb. 252; Gray, 376;
Birdwood, 432; Blatter & d’Almeida, 144.
Found near the waterfalls in shady places.
specimen SEEN: A. Dhanraj - 413.
3. Dryopteris odontoloma (Moore) C. Chr.,
ActaHort. Gothob. 1:59, 1924.
Lastrea odontoloma Moore, Ind. Fil. 90, 1858;
Beddome. Handb. F.B.I. 248, f. 128, 1883; Blatter &
d’ Almeida, 141.
This species has been reported from Kate’s
point, Mahabaleshwar, by Blatter & d’Almeida
(1922). We have not been able to locate it in the
field as well as in any herbarium.
Hypodematium Kunze
1. Hypodematium crenatum (Forsk.) Kuhn,
V. Deck. Reis. bot. 3(2): 37, 1879.
Polypodium crenatum Forsk., FI. Aegypt. Arab. 185,
1775.
Lastrea crenata (Forsk.) Bedd., Handb. F.S.I. 258,
1883; Blatter & d’Almeida, 147.
Found on old walls and on old earthen em-
bankments. It is also found lithophytic on rocky
surfaces in shady places.
Tectaria Cav.
1 . Margins almost entire or slightly crenate
I. macrophylla
1 . Margins serrately dentate. I. macrodonta
1 . Tectaria macrodonta (Fee) C. Chr. in
Index Fil. suppl. 3: 181,1934.
Saqenia macrodonta Fee, Gen. Fil. 213, t. 24A, f. 1,
1852.
Aspidium cicutarium (non Swartz, 1803) sensu Bedd.,
Handb. Ferns British India, 220, 1883; Birdwood,
211; Blatter & d’Almeida, 132, f. 12; Eubank, 193
(non Polypodium cicutarium Linn., 1764).
Saqenia coadunata Wall, ex Bedd., F.S.I., 28, L 81,
1863; Birdwood, 211; Gray, 376.
Aspidium coadunatum Hook, et Grev., Icon. Fil t. 202,
1831.
The commonest species found at
Mahabaleshwar in shady places, in loose, black
soils.
specimen SEEN: M.R. Almeida - 248.
2. Tectaria macrophylla (Sw.) Copel. in
Phillippine J. Sci. Bot. 2:413, 1907.
Aspidium macrophyllum Swartz, Syn. Fil. 43 & 239,
1806; Blatter & d’Almeida, 133.
Known from only one collection from
Mahabaleshwar.
specimen SEEN: N. Gunjathkar - 34 (Poona
Univ. Herb).
Polypodia ceae
1 . Sori acrostichold; fronds dimorphic Leptochilus
1 . Sori round; frond not dimorphic 2
2. Sori in a single row on either side of the midrib
Lepisorus
2. Sori scattered over entire frond Microsorium
Lepisorus Ching
1 . Lepisorus nudus (Hook.) Ching, in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 4: 83, 1933.
Pleopeltis nuda Hook. Exot. FI. 1: 63, 1823.
P. linearis Moore, Ind. Fil. 346, 1862 (non Kaulf,
1824); Bedd., Handb. 346; Birdwood, 128; Blatter &
d’Almeida, 170; Eubank, 191.
A common epiphytic fern all over
Mahabaleshwar. This species develops fronds in
monsoon which dry and curl after the rainy
season. The rhizome remains dormant during
summer. Common hosts for this epiphytic species
are Eugenia jambolana and Memecylon umbel-
latum.
specimen SEEN: M.R. Almeida - 726.
Leptochilus. Kaulf.
1 . Leptochilus lanceolata Fee, Arcost. 37, t.
47, f. 1, 1845.
Gymnopteris lanceolata Bedd., F.B.I. suppl.
26, 1876. G. variabilis var. lanceolata
FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR
407
Bedd., Handb. F.B.1. 429, 1883.
Birdwood, 127; Blatter & d’ Almeida, 186.
Found near watercourses attached to rocks.
specimen seen: T. Cooke - s.n.
1825.
Pleopeltis membranaceus (Don) Bedd., Handb. Ferns
Brit India, 357, 1883; Gray, 376; Birdwood, 128;
Blatter & d ’Almeida, 172; Eubank, 191.
The commonest and most abundant fem at
Microsorium Link Mahabaleshwar. Every Ficus racemosa tree in
Microsorium membranaceum (Don) Ching, Mahabaleshwar Bazar is covered with this species
in Bull. Fam. Mem. Inst. Biol. bot. 4: 295, in monsoon. It grows on rocks and on roofs of old
1933. houses.
Polypodium membranaceum Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal. 2, SPECIMEN SEEN: M.R. Almeida - 701 .
( Concluded )
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW RASBORINE FISH, ESOMUS MANIPURENSIS
FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1
Raj Tilak and Seema Jain2
( With two text-figures )
A new rasborine fish belonging to the genus Esomus Swainson, collected from a stream
near Imphal, Manipur is described and figure in this paper. The description of the new species
extends the range of distribution of the genus Esomus to Eastern India as far as Manipur. Till date
three species of genus Esomus are known from India.
Fig. 1. Lateral view of Esomus manipurensis, sp. nov.
Introduction
The recently collected material of the genus
Esomus , from a stream near Imphal, Manipur has
been studied and determined as a new taxon which
has been named Esomus manipurensis. The
species is described and figured. Two species of
this genus are known so far from India, E. dan-
ricus (Hamilton) and E. barbatus (Jerdon). The
present species is the third.
Accepted January 1988.
zoological Survey of India, Dehra Dun.
Description
Esomus manipurensis sp. nov.
(Figs. 1-2)
B. m, D. 8 (D/6), P. 13 (1/12), V. 7 (1/6), A.
8 (III/5), Lat. 1. 30-31, Lat. tr. 5/1, Barbels 4,
Predorsal scales 16.
Body oblong, slightly compressed. Mouth
opening small and directed upwards. Jaws highly
protrusible. Symphysial knob well- defined. Head
small and its length 5.6 1-5.63 times in total length
and 4.28-4.44 times in standard length. Snout
small, length of snout 4.44-4.50 times and postor-
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 2. Ventral aspect of head and anterior part of body of
Esomus manipurensis, sp. nov.
bital head length 2.00- 2.12 times in head length.
Diameter of eye 3.00-3.60 times in head length.
1.00-1.33 times in interorbital width and 0.67-
0.83 times in length of snout. Depth of body
4.77 -5.27 times in total length and 3.64-4.00 times
in standard length. Width of body 12.63-14.57
times in total length and 9.63- 1 1 .40 times in stand-
ard length.
Lateral line double, with a gap equal to half
width of scale between two lateral lines, incom-
plete, extending to the anal origin with one scale
between the 1st lateral line and base of ventral fin.
Barbels 4, rostral pair short and extending upto the
posterior margin of the eye, maxillary ones long
and extending beyond the ventral origin.
Dorsal fin commences beyond the ventral
fins and in advance of the anal fin origin. It is
nearer the base of caudal than the head, the last
undivided ray equal to or longer than the head and
its length 0.95-1.06 times in head length. Length
of dorsal fin base 2.40-2.66 times in head length.
While that of anal 2.25-2.35 times in the same
dimension. The length of longest anal ray 0.90-
409
1 .00 times in head length. The length of anal fin
base 0.88-0.94 times in length of dorsal fin base.
Longest ray of pectoral fin is much longer than the
head and extends far beyond the origin of ventral
fin, its length is 0.60-0.67 times in head length and
0.77-0.83 times in distance between the origin of
pectoral and ventral fins, length of ventral fin
0.90-0.95 times in head length and 0.90-1.05
times in distance between origin of pelvic and anal
fins. Caudal fin forked and comparatively longer.
Length of caudal fin 0.71-0.75 times in head
length, 4.14-4.33 times in total length and 3.14-
3.33 times in standard length. Least height of
caudal peduncle 1.60-2.00 times in its length.
Predorsal and postdorsal distances 1.92-
2.02 times and 3.75-4.12 times respectively ift
total length and 1.47-1.54 times and 2.85-3.14
times respectively in standard length. Preventral
and postventral distances 2.36-2.59 times and
2.63 - 3.00 times respectively in total length and
1.82-1.98 times and 2.00-2.29 times respectively
in standard length. Preanal and postanal distances
1 .73-1.82 times and 4.83-5.20 times respectively
in total length and 1.31-1.39 times and 3.67-4.40
times respectively in standard length.
Coloration: A black lateral stripe or streak,
fainting anteriorly.
Types: Holotype 1 ex., (58 mm in total
length) Reg. No. NRS/ZSI/F. 434 Zoological Sur-
vey of India,, Dehradun, Locality: stream near
Imphal, Manipur. Collector: Dr Raj Tilak. Date of
Collection: 25- 12-1986. Paratypes: 4 exs. (50.5-
52.5 mm in total length) Reg. No. NRS/ZSI/F.
435. Locality, collector and date of collection
same as in Holotype.
Remarks
Two species of Esomus, namely E.danricus
and E. barbatus are known from India (Hora and
Mukerji 1928); E. danricus is found in Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, Assam and South
India, and E. barbatus is only known from South
India. The newly described species, E.
manipurensis from Manipur differs from both
these species in characters given in Table 1.
The newly described species, Esomus
410
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 1
COMPARISON OF CHARACTERS OF 11 IE INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS Esomus
Characteristics
E. manipurensis sp. nov.
(Hamilton)
E. danricus
(Jerdon)
E. barbatus
1.
Head length in
total length
5.61-5.83
4.35-5.40
4.30-4.58
2.
Head length in
standard length
4.28-4.44
3.35-4.13
3.40-3.76
3.
Eye in head length
3.00-3.60
3.30-4.13
4.38-4.44
4.
Depth of body in
total length
4.77-5.27
4.93-5.92 (5.46)
(5.46)
6.25-6.61
5.
Depth of body in
standard length
3.64-4.00
3.71-4.57
5.23
6.
Snout in head legnth
4.44-4.50
3.40_4-57
4.25-4.40
7.
Eye in snout length
0.67-0.83
0.78-1.14
(0.96)
1.00
8.
Length of longest
dorsal ray in head
length
0.95-1.06
1.04-1.55
1.21-1.25
9.
Length of pectoral fin
in head length
0.60-0.67
0.67-0.89
0.89-1.00
10.
Length of pelvic fin
in head length
0.90-0.95
1.00-1.53
1.34-1.54
11.
Caudal in total length
4.14-4.33
3.80-5.00
(4.39)
4.77-5.70
12.
Lateral line
Double,
incomplete
extending
to origin
of anal
fin, 30-31
scales
Single,
incomplete
piercing
4-6 scales,
28-29
scales
Single,
complete
31-32 scales
13.
Lateral transverse
6(5/l/2+l/2)
8(5/3)
7(5/2)
14.
Predorsal scales
16
18
17
15.
Maxillary barbels
Cross
ventral
origin
may or
may not extend
to ventral
Cross pectoral
origin
16.
Number of branched
pectoral rays
12
10
11
17.
Number of branched
pelvic rays
6
7
8
18.
Coloration.
Lateral
black
streak,
fainting
anteriorly
base.
Lateral
band
extending
from eye
to caudal
No colour
band
NEW DESCRirriONS
411
manipurensis , remotely resembles E. meiallicus
described by Ahl (1923) from Siam but a detailed
comparison with this species can be made only
after the material of E. metallicus is available for
study.
The description of the new species extends
the range of distribution of the genus Esomus
to Manipur. So far no species of Esomus has been
reported from Manipur (Hora 1921 , Mcnon 1 950,
Refer
AHL, E. (1923): Ichthyologische Mitteilung. IV. Fine
Revision der Cypriniden Gattung Esomus. Milt. Zool. Mus.,
Berl.,11: 38-43.
HORA, S.L. (1921): Fish and Fisheries of Manipur with
some observations on those of the Naga Hills. Rec. Indian
Mus., 22: 165-214; pis. IX-XII.
HORA, S.L. & MUKERJI, D.D. (1928): Notes on fishes
Menon 1952).
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Director, Zoological Sur-
vey of India, Calcutta and Mr. Gonchandra Shar-
ma, Research Scholar, Department of Life
Sciences, Manipur University, Kanchipur, Im-
phal, for his help in collection of the material.
•NCES
in the Indian Museum. XVI. On the fishes of the genus Esomus
Swainson. Rec. Indian Mus., 30: 41-56.
MENON, A.G.K. (1950): Notes on fishes in the Indian
Museum, XLIV. Fishes of Kosi Himalayas, Nepal. Rec. In-
dian Mus., 47: 231-237.
(1952): On a small collection of
fish from Manipur, Assam. Rec. Indian Mus. 50: 265-270.
INDOGRAMMODES GEN. NOV. FOR POLYGRAMMODES PECTINICORNALIS
(GUENEE) (PYRAUSTINAE: PYRALIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)1
JAGB1R S. KlRTI AND H.S. ROSE2
{With four text-figures )
The species Polygrammodes pectinicornalis s (Guenee) known from certain Indian
localities is assigned to a new genus Indogrammodes. The generic characters of the new genus
are defined.
Introduction
During the course of studies on the
taxonomy of Indian species of the subfamily
Pyraustinae, four individuals of Polygrammodes
pectinicornalis (Guenee) were collected from
Jatinga (North Cachar Hills) and Kohima
(Nagaland). From the study of relevant literature,
as quoted under remarks, it is felt that the generic
assignment of this species has remained indeter-
1 Accepted March 1988.
department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala
147002, Punjab (India).
minate for the past many years. In order to stand-
ardize its status, a new genus Indogrammodes has
been proposed and the generic characters have
been defined.
Genus Indogrammodes gen. nov.
Type-species: Botys pectinicornalis Guenee
Pectinicornalis Guenee, Delt. & Pyral., p.
326 (1854) (Botys) (Zentr.-Indien). — Walker,
Cat. Lep. Het. Brit. Mus., 18, p. 647 (1859)
(Botys). — Lederer, Wien. Ent. Monatschr., 7, p.
391 (1963) (P achy nod). — Walker, Cat. Lep. Het.
Brit. Mus., 34, p. 1481 (1865) (Pachynoa). —
Swinhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 875 (1885).
412
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
(P achy nod). — Sw inhoe, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.,
p. 875 (1885). (Pachynoa). - Swinhoe & Cotes,
Cat. Moths India, 5, p. 641 (1888) Pachynoa). —
Hampson, Fauna Brit. India Moths, 4. p. 398
(1896) (Pachynoa), Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 197
(1899) ( Polygrammodes [Pachynoa]). — Swin-
hoe, Cat. Lep. Het. Oxford Mus., 2, p. 524 (1900)
(Pitacanda).
Labial palpus porrect and rostriform, ex-
ceeding head by the length of latter; second seg-
ment moderately scaled; third short, with a
pointed tuft of scales in front. Maxillary palpus
filiform. Antenna of male modified, flagellum
with 10-12 basal segments dilated, then pectinated
for most of its length and heavily ciliated at distal
end; simple in female. Fore wing with discal cell
excatly half the length of wing; vein R2 originat-
ing from slightly before anterior angle of cell,
apposed to R3+4; stalk of R3+4 as long as free parts
of R3 and R4; R5 strongly curved and ap-
proximated to R3+4; Mi from anterior angle of
cell, thick at base and slightly curved; M2, M3 and
Cui approximated basally; anal loop weak. Hind
wing with discal cell less than half the length of
wing; veins Rs and Mi shortly stalked; M2, M3
and Cui from posterior angle of cell, the former
two approximated at base. Tibiae with outer spurs
half the length of inner spurs.
Male genitalia: Uncus very long, curved,
dilated at tip, the later setose with hair-like setae;
gnathos absent; tuba analis half the length of
uncus; subscaphium strongly sclerotized;
tegumen broad; vinculum narrow, V-shaped; sac-
cus narrow. Valva short and broad; costa strongly
inflated; sacculus well defined; harpe prominent,
curved upwards and spine-like at tip. transtilla
triangular; juxta hammer-like. Aedeagus with one
of its walls sclerotized and the other membranous;
vesica armed with a strongly sclerotized rod-
shaped cornutus in middle.
Female genitalia: Corpus bursae bag-like,
more or less oval, well sclerotized; signum want-
ing; ductus bursae long, narrow posteriorly and
with a collar-like thickening at distal end; anterior
apophyses long and narrow, dilated near bases;
posterior apophyses short and thin; ovipositor
with densely setose lobes.
Indogrammodes pectinicornalis (Guenee) comb. nov.
(Figs 1,2, 3, 4)
Guenee, 1854, Delt. & Pyral., 1854: 326
(Botys).
Material Examined: Assam: North Cachar
hills, Jatinga, 3 Males, 12-4-1982. — Nagaland:
Kohima, 1 Female, 28-9-1983.
Distribution: Bombay, Poona and Bengal.
This species was described for the first time
under the genus Botys Latreille by Guenee (1854).
The same arrangement was also followed by
Walker (1859). Lederer (1863), however,
proposed a new combination for this species and
referred it under genus Pachynoa Lederer, an
arrangement followed by Walker (1865), Swin-
hoe (1884), Swinhoe and Cotes (1889) and
Hampson (1896). Hampson (1899) in a sub-
sequent publication placed this species under the
genus Polygrammodes Guenee and synonymised
the genus Pachynoa along with two other genera
Aphytoceras Meyrick and Pitacanda Moore. The
use of the name Polygrammodes along with the
synonymisation proposed by Hampson, did not
result in any change in the catalogue by Klima
(1939). Sevastopulo (1938) collected the species
under reference from Calcutta and described it
under genus Pachynoa , whereas Bradley and
Shaffer (1969), Mandal and Bhattacharya (1980)
thought it well to refer this species under
Polygrammodes.
A critical study of literature reveals that the
type-species of the genus Pachynoa (type-
species: thoosalis Walker not walkeri as con-
sidered by Whalley 1962) and Polygrammodes
(type-species: runicalis Guenee) are not con-
generic (Munroe 1958b). Besides this generic
name, the name Aphytoceras has already been
revived and used in various publications by Mun-
roe (1950, 1958a, 1958b, 1959, 1960, 1968,
1977), Munroe and Mutuura (1969) and Whalley
(1962). However, the genus Pitacanda Moore,
another synonym of Polygrammodes has been
considered a synonym of Pachynoa by Munroe
(1958b).
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
413
Figs. 1-4. Indogrammodes pectinocornalis (Ouenee). 1-3: male genitalia; 4: female genitalia.
Abbreviations: AED: Aedeagus, ANT.APO: Anterior apophyses, CO: Costa, CRN: Cornuti, CRP.BU: Corpus bursae
DU.BU: Ductus bursae, HRP: Harpe, JX: Juxta, OVP: Ovipositor, PO.APO: Posterior apophyses, SA: Saccus, SL: Sac
cuius, SSCA: Subscaphium, TG: Tegumen, TU.A.: Tuba analis, UN: Uncus, VIN: Vinculum, VLB: Valva.
The species under reference fails to go under
Polygrammodes and other allied genera, namely
Pseudopoly grammodes Munroe and Mutuura,
Polygrammopsis Munroe, Pachynoa Lederer and
Aphytoceras Meyrick and hence it requires a new
genus for its appropriate placement. Accordingly,
a new genus Indogrammodes is being proposed
for this particular species. The diagnosis of the
new genus is given in detail. The present genus is
close to Pachynoa but differs from it in the struc-
ture of labial palpi, antemiae, tibial spurs, venation
of forewing and valvae of male genitalia.
The reporting of the species pectinicornalis
from northeast India is a new record.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr B.K. Tikader, Direc-
tor, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, Mr Par-
tap Singh, Forest Entomologist, Forest Research
Institute, Dehradun, and Mr M. Shaffer, Pyralid
specialist, British Museum (Natural History),
London, for their help rendered during com-
parison of the species. The financial help provided
by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi
during the present studies is heartily acknow-
ledged.
414
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIM. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
References
Bradley, J.D. & Shaffer, M. (1969): Beitrage Zur
Kenntnis Der Fauna Afghanistans. ActaMusei Moraviae LIV :
415-430.
GUENEE, M.A. (1854): Histoire Naturelle des Insectes
Lepidopteres. Deltoides et Pyralites, 7: 1-448.
HAMPSON, G.F. (1896): Fauna of British India Moths,
4: 1-594. Taylor & Francis Ltd., London.
(1899): A revision of the moths of
subfamily Pyraustinae and family Pyralidae. Proc. Zool. Soc.
London, 1899: 172-291.
KLIMA, A. (1939): Lepidopterorum Catalogus
Pyralididae: Subfam. Pyraustinae. 89 & 94: 1-384. S-Graven-
hage.
LEDERER, J. (1863): Beitrage Zur JKenntniss der
Pyraliden. Wien. Ent.Monatschr., 7: 243-502.
MANDAL, D.K. & BHATTACHARYA, D.P. (1980): On
the Pyraustinae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) from the Andaman,
Nicobar and Great Nicobar Islands, Indian Oceans. Rec. Zool.
Surv. India, .77: 293-342.
MUNROE, E. (1950): The generic position of some
North American species commonly referred to Pyrausta
Schrank (Lep., Pyralidae). Can. Ent., 82: 217-231.
(1958a): Far Eastern Pyralidae
(Lepidoptera). ibid. 90: 249-254.
(1958b): some species of Polygram-
modes Guenee (Lep., Pyralidae). ibid 90: 257-274.
(1959): Pyralidae from collection of
California Academy of Sciences (Lepidoptera). ibid. 97:161-
167.
(1960): New species of Polygram-
modes and a related new genus (Lep., Pyralidae). ibid 92:
279-284.
(1968): New Pyralidae (Lepidoptera)
from the Papuan region. 2. ibid. 100: 394-401.
(1977): A new genus and two new spp.
of Neotropical Pyraustinae (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). ibid.
109(4): 481-485.
MUNROE, E. & MUTTURA, A. (1969): Contributions to
a study of the Pyraustinae (Lep., Pyralidae) of Temperate East
Asia, VI. ibid. 707: 897-906.
SEVASTOPULO, D.G. (1938): A supplementary list of
the Byrsffdae of Calcutta (Lepidoptera). J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., 40: 132-133.
SwiNHOE, C. (1884): On the Lepidoptera collected at
Kurrachee. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1884: 503-529.
SWINHOE, C. & COTES, E.C. (1889): A catalogue of
the moths of India (Indian Museum, Calcutta). Cat. Moths
India, Part 5. Pyrales, pp. 591-812.
WALKER, F. (1859): List of the specimens of the
Lepidopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum.
Pyralides. 77-79: 255-1038.
(1865): List of the specimens of the
Lepidopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum.
34: 323-1534.
WHALLEY, P.E.S. (1962): Pyraloidea from Rennell
and Bellona Islands (Lepidoptera). Nat. Hist. Rennell, Brit.
Solomon Is. Copenhague 4: 97-120.
SACCOLOMA CHARTACEUM - A NEW SPECIES1
G. Bhadran Nair
Georg Friedrich Kaulfuss (1820) described
the fern genus Saccoloma based on the species
elegans which Chamisso collected from Sello,
Brazil, on his voyage around the world. Later
some pteridologists added more species to this
Accepted March 1988.
^otanischer Garten der Universitat Zurich, Switzerland.
Present Address: Tropical Botanic Garden and Research
Institute, PB no. 2415, Trivandrum-695 0\1 1.
monotypic genus, while Copeland (1947)
segregated this into Saccoloma and Orthiopteris
and all species except elegans were included in
the new genus Orthiopteris. Tryon (1962), based
on morphological studies on species, referred to
Saccoloma and Orthiopteris, concluded that the
principal differences between the two genera, as
pointed out by Copeland, are not significant
enough for generic separation. He recognised
bleven species (with some reservation) under the
genus Saccoloma', Nair (1987) supported Tryon
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
415
in the generic circumscription of Saccoloma and
only recognised 8 species under it. A critical
examination of all herbarium sheets identified as
Saccoloma elegans shows that there exist two
morphologically distinct elements in the species
so referred by authors.
The species elegans Kaulf. is distinguished from
the “new element’’ as follows:
Rhizome decumbent, mature plants always less than 60
cm in height, petiole straw-yellow, without persistant scale
bases, pinnae base unequally obtuse, apex cordate acuminate,
lamina thin herbaceous, veins always forked once or twice, never
raised above the surface of the lamina; sorus submarginal,
broader than long, distant; spores striate S. elegans
Rhizome erect, mature plants always more than a metre
in height, petiole reddish-brown with spine-like persistent scale
bases; pinnae base cuneate with crenulate margin, apex narrowly
attenuated with deeply toothed margin, lamina chartaceous;
veins rarely forked, very prominent, raised well above the
surface of the lamina; sorus closer to the margin, separated by
prominent septum; spores ribbed S. chartaceum sp. nov.
Saccoloma chartaceum sp. nov.
Rhizome mostly short erect, decumbent
with age, 1 -4 cm in diameter, scaly at the growing
point, scales tufted, rarely remain attached at the
older parts of the rhizome; scales basifixed, sub-
peltate to peltate, linear lanceolate, ovate to ovate-
lanceolate, firm dark brown, marginal cells pale,
0.5 mm - 1 .2 cm long, 0.3 - 0.8 mm broad; petiole
close to densely clustered, 75-95 cm long, 0.9-1 .4
cm in diameter at the base, stout, abaxially
rounded, narrowly grooved above, margin of the
groove pale yellow, slightly raised, continuous,
the basal half of the petiole with dark spine-like,
firm persistant scale base, above glabrous, lamina
dark to pale- green, dark green on the dorsal side,
pale on the abaxial side, about 1 10 cm long, one
pinnate, ovate-oblong, thick chartaceous, apex al-
ways with confirm terminal pinnae, pinnae long
elliptical to oblong-elliptical, 35-40 cm long, 3-
3.5 cm broad, terminal pinna longer than the ad-
joining ones, pinnae base slightly unequal,
cuneate with crenulate margin, apex narrowly
attenuated with deeply toothed margin, 17-18 pin-
nae on one side, opposite, stalked, at the basal part,
sub-opposite to alternate above; veins free, paral-
lel rarely forked, very prominent below, reddish
brown at the base, pale-yellow above; sori ter-
minal on the veins, numerous, near the margin,
separated by prominent septum, broader than
long, indusium thin glabrous, fall short of margin,
lamina margin folds back over to the sorus, recep-
tacle flat, sporangia simultaneous numerous, long
stalked; spores trilete, ovate- tetrahedral, ribbed,
laesura thin, extends to the margin, spores 48-52
m in diameter.
Type: Mexia, Y. 8429 (MICH) Parroquia de
Concepcion, Playa Rica, Esmaraldas, Ecuador.
Rhizoma erectum, deinde decumbens, 1-4
cm in diam., ad apiceum aquamatum, partibus
veteribus rare squamis affixis. Squamae
caespitosae, basifixae, subpeltatae vel peltatae,
lineario-lanceolatae, ovatae vel ovato-lan-
ceolatae, solidae, atrobrunneae; cellulae margine
pallidae, 0.5-1. 2 x 0. 3-0.8 mm; petiolus ap-
proximates vel dense fasciculatus 75-95 cm lon-
gus, ad basim 0.9- 1.4 cm in diam. et crassus,
abaxiale rotundatus, insuper anguste sulcatus; sul-
cus ad marginem dilute luteus, leviter prominens,
continuus; petiolus dimidio inferiore basibus
squamis persistentibus firmis fuscatis spinifor-
mibus, supra glaber; lamina dorsale atroviridis,
abaxiale dilute viridis, c. 1 10 cm longa, chartacea,
1-pinnata, ovato-oblonga; pinnae longae ellip-
ticae vel oblongo-ellipticae, 35-40 x 3-3.8 cm, ad
basim leviter inequales, cuneatae, ad apicem an-
guste attenuatae, margines ad apicem profunde
dentati, ad basim crenulati, pinnae in quoque
latera 17-18, ad basim oppositae et stipitatae,
suprae suboppositae vel alternatae; pinna ter-
minalis ceteris longiore; venae librae, parallelae,
rare furcatae infra prominentissimae; venae
primariae infra rufobrunnaeae, supra dilute
luteae; venae secondariae dilute luteae; sori in
venis terminales, marginibus, numerosi; septa
prominenta, latiora quam longiora; indusium
tenue, glabrum, margini approximati, margine
super sorum plicato; receptaculum planum;
sporangia simultanea, numerosa, longe stipitata,
sporae triletae, ovatae, tetraedricae, costatae;
laesura tenuis, margini approximati; sporae 48-52
416
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
jll mindiam.
Geographical distribution: The species Sac-
coloma elegans Klf. has not been collected out-
side Brazil, while the morphologically closely
related S. chartaceum is reported as very wide
spread in the Americas. Interestingly this species
has not been collected from the areas of distribu-
tion of S. elegans. Saccoloma elegans , though
reported as common in Bahia and rare in other
places, has not been collected since 1939. The
species S. chartaceum is reported as very common
in Panama and Canal zone, Columbia, Venezuela,
Guianas, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, its distribu-
tion in Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Rep. of Dominica,
Trinidad, Brit. Honduras, Honduras, Guatemala,
Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Brazil, is reported as
4 ‘Scattered or not at all common”.
Acknowledgements
I thank to the Directors and Keepers of
herbaria (K, MICH, C, NY, U, B, BM and Z) for
their kind co-operation and to Professor Kramer
for providing assistance in the identification. I
would like to thank Dr V.J. Nair (Scientist,
Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore) for Latin
translation and Mr K.G. Ajithkumar and Mr K.P.
Vijayakumar for assistance.
References
Copeland, E.B. (1947): Genera Filicum, Waltham, Mass. study.
Chronica Botanica. Tryon, R.M. (1962): Taxonomic Fem notes IH Contr.
Kaulfuss, G.F. (1820): Jahrb. & Pham. 51. Gray. Hoeb. Harv. EXCI-100-107.
Nair (in press): The Fem Genus Saccoloma-z. taxonomic
A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS CREIGHTONELLA COCKERELL,
(HYMENOPTERA : APOIDEA : MEGACHILIDAE), FROM CENTRAL INDIA1
Rajiv K. Gupta2
(With seven text-figures )
The genus Creightonella Cockerell, from India, is represented by 3 species, namely:
Albifrons (Smith), bellula (Bingham) &fraterna (Smith), A new species Creightonella mitchelli
has been described for the first time from Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh). It has certain close affinities
with C. albifrons (Smith).
Genus Creightonella Cockerell, 1908 (type-
species Megachile mitimia Cockll.), was original-
ly proposed as a subgenus for some African
species of genus Megachile Latreille.
Michener (1962) upgraded it to generic rank and
later (1965), while working with old world
Megachilidae, the recategorised numerous speci-
1 Accepted February 1988.
lecturer. Department of Zoology, Government College,
Dholpur - 328 001. Present address: Raj-Rishi
Government College, Alwar 301 001 (Rajasthan).
es of Megachile to Creightonella.
C. albifrons (Smith), C. bellula (Bingham)
& C. fraterna (Smith) are the 3 representatives
which inhabit Indian territories. The following
combination of characters can distinctly separate
the genus Creightonella from the rest of the
megachiline genera:
Form large, parallel sided; integument black
with golden- yellow or snowy-white pubescence.
male: Mandible six toothed with small in-
complete cutting edges in second to fourth inter-
spaces; mid and hind basitarsi much shorter and
narrower than corresponding tibiae; claws simple;
Vlth tergum scarcely concave in profile, without
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
417
PL. 1
Figs. 1-7. Creightonella mitchelli sp. nov.
Male: 1. Head, front view; 2. mandible; 3. tergum Vlth; 4. tergum Vllth; 5. sternum Vlth; 6. sternum VUIth; 7. genitalia.
(Dots on Figs. 1 & 2 indicate pubescence).
418
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
projecting apex, lateral margins nearly straight
and surface with longer hairs; Vlth sternum with
scopal hairs over almost entire surface except
apical margin; sterna lacking in any apical fasceae
of pale hairs.
female: Mandible tridentate, lower margin
with only a median projection; front coxa with
blunt inner apical spine; front tarsi unmodified or
slightly broadened; carina of Vlth tergum broadly
expanded with a mediolongitudinal ride and mar-
gin of carina with strong lateral teeth; Vllth ter-
gum with prominent longitudinal median ridge,
margin strongly convex; six exposed sterna; Vth
and Vlth sterna without membranous zones
demarking medastemites; Vlllth sternum like a
transverse plate, apex hairy and long spiculum;
gonostyles of genitalia slender, apically not lobed.
3
Creightonella mitchelli sp. nov.
MALE: Integument black, ventral surface,
legs, tergal margins, with redness; pubescence
including on face & abdominal fasceae snowy
white, tarsi with golden and on tibiae black.
Head slightly wider than median length;
clypeal margin laterally angulate and medially
invaginated; mid-facial groove absent; eye mar-
gin with a fine but elevated carina; genal maxi-
mum width equal to the eye width in lateral view,
narrowed above, margin with slightly elevated
carina; mandible tridentate, with a prominent
median projection at lower margin.
Scutum broadly convex, pubescence white
with few black erect hairs inbetween; pronotal
carinate ridge produced anteriorly; first recurrent
vein at the base and second one slightly far from
the apex, of second cuboital cell of fore wing,
wing colour pale-hyaline and veins black to
brown piceous; second tarsus of fore leg much
broadened; length of basitarsi of mid and hind leg
more than half of the corresponding tibiae.
Basal tergal concavity margin carinate; api-
cal fasceae of 1st to IVth terga confined to lateral
patches, on Vth onwards discal pubescence ap-
pear as ferruginous hairs; Vlth tergal carina not
angulated with rest of the dorsal surface, with 6
acute teeth, dorsal longitudinal ridge diminishes
quite before carina, either side of ridge shallowly
concave, tergal apical margin below - in-
vaginated, carinate and infasciate; VHth tergum
with a prominent longitudinal ridge from basal to
apical margin, medially; basal sternum much ex-
panded, margin shortly fringed and carinate, sur-
face hairy; density of discal pubescence go on
reducing from Ilnd to Vlth stemites; margin
broadly outcurved in Ilnd, straight in LUrd and
IVth and medially invaginated in Vth stemite;
marginal fasceae increases in length upto Vth but
lacking at the medial invagination of Vth sternum;
Vlth stemite: exposed, apical margin acutely out-
curved, infasciate, laterally confined gradulus
‘hairy’; VII th stemite: apical margin entirely
produced to broad apical lobe, rim with minute
but complete fringe as in Vlth; apical margin of
sternum VHIth broadly invaginated, fringed but
basal process prominently elongated.
Genital gonobase extremely narrow; gonos-
tyli slender, diverging; stipites of penis somewhat
parallel sided, exceeding gonoforceps in length;
genital aperture wide.
Measurements : (in mm.): Total length 1 2.5;
eye: length 2.01, lateral width 1.0; clypeus:
median length 0.8, basal and apical widths 0.92
and 1.7; antennae: length of scape 0.55, pedicel
0. 1 2, flagellar segments 1st 0.5, Ilnd 0.45, Vlth 0.5
and Xlth 0.51 and breadths of Vlth 0.2 and Xlth
0.3; labrum: median length 1.0, basal and apical
widths 0.9 and 0.5; labial palpi: length of segment
1st 0.75 and Ilnd 0.6; scutum: median length and
maximum width 1.6 and 2.7; total length of fore
wing 7.25 and of radial cell 1.75; relative median
widths of tergite 1st to Vlth 1.5, 2.75, 2.7, 2.5,
2.01,1.75.
female: not known.
Material Examined: Holotype Male, Nehru
Park, Jabalpur (M.P.), 400’ m.s.l., 23-5-1981.
Coll Raju Gupta; Paratype 2 males; same data as
for holotype (holotype at N.P.C., Division of En-
tomology. I.A.R.I., New Delhi, paratypes will be
placed at the same museum, shortly).
flower RECORD: Helianthus sp., Chrysan-
themum sp., Tegetes sp.
3After Late Dr T.B. Mitchell, Prof. Emeritus, Entomology,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, U.S.A.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
419
Remarks
The new species closely resembles
.Creightonella albifrons (Smith), however, al-
bifrons distinctly differs from mitchelli in : inter-
space in between 2nd and 3rd mandibular tooth
being wider, and the latter one being obtuse;
wings apical half dark fuscous and basal half
subhyaline; front tarsi simple and unmodified;
apical fasceae on tergite 1st to IVth complete and
continuous; carina of Vlth tergum broadly
rounded with 8 terminal obtuse teeth, medio-lon-
gitudinal ridge prominent up to the margin of
carina; apical margin of sternite Vth not in-
vaginated medially; in VUlth sternite apical lobe
rounded; gonostyli parallel sided and gonobase
prominent.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Dr. V.K. Tewari, Lecturer in
Zoology, Agra College, Agra, for providing
necessary facilities and to Drs. S.I. Farooqi and
S.L. Gupta both Senior Scientists at Division of
Entomology, I.A.R.I., New Delhi, for the ex-
tended cooperation, leading to the preparation of
this manuscript.
References
Cockerell, T.D.A. (1908): A new subgenus of African New YorkEntomol. Soc. LXX: 17-29.
bees. Entomologists XLI : 146-147. (1965): A classification of the bees of
Michener, C.D. (1962): Observations on the classifica- the Australian & South Pacific region. Bull. Amer. Mus. Natur.
tion of the bees commonly placed in the genus Megachile. Jour. Hist. 130: 204-205.
A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ANTHOCOPA LEPELETIER AND SERVILLE
(HYMENOPTERA : APOIDEA ; MEGACHILIDAE), FROM ORISSA, INDIA1
Rajiv k. Gupta2
(With six text -figures )
Anthocopa anonyma , A. calhena , A. indostana (all by Cameron) and A. matheranensis
Michener were earlier described from within Indian limits. A. auric ulata a new species, has been
described for the first time from Konark (Orissa). It has some close affinities to A. indostana.
The Genus Anthocopa Lepeletier and Ser-
ville in the strict sense of Michener (1941 , 1944),
was earlier represented by 4 species from India,
namely: anonyma, cathena, indostana (all by
Cameron 1904, described in genus Megachile
Latr., from Deesa, Sind) and Matheranensis
Michener (1966, from Pune). Before proceeding
to the description of the new species, I wish to en-
1 Accepted February 1988.
lecturer, Department of Zoology, Government College,
Dholapur-328 001 Present address: Raj-Rishi Government
College, A1 war-301 001 (Rajasthan)
After the golden pubescens of the body.
umerate the distinct characteristics of genus-An-
thocopa, which separate it from the closely related
genera Hoplitis Klug and Osmia Panzer.
“Small, robust, black bees with dense
pubescence cover on face, legs and mesosoma;
scutellum normal in profile or slightly above to
oblique (not so much as in Osmia), usually
metanotum moves upto the upper longitudinal
line of mesosoma; parapsidial lines linear and
distinct; anterior face of mesepisterna not
separated from the lateral one with a carina or
ridge; legs with distinct arolia; pregradular area of
second tergum broadly-shallowly concave
transversely; gradulus of second tergum may be-
420
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
0
012 mm
0 03 mm
Anthocopa auriculata sp. nov.
Male: 1. Head, front view; 2. mandible; 3. sternum Vlth; 4. sternum Vllth; 5. sternum VIHth; 6. genitalia. (Dots
Figs. 1 & 2 indicate pubescence).
NEW DESCRIPTION
421
subcarinate; seventh tergum of male with con-
spicuous posterolateral teeth”.
3
Anthocopa auriculata sp. nov.
MALE: Integument black, feebly shining,
legs brownish red, tegulae testaceous aple; eyes
black; punctures fine and uniformly close; pubes-
cence golden all over the body, face completely
covered with hairs.
Head wider than the median length; inner
eye margins strongly convergent below, straight
and with prominent carina; clypeal margin lateral-
ly acutely angulate, outcurved but medially with
a short concavity; vertex unevenly flat, ocellar
triangle not elevated, occipital margin incarinate;
maximum width of genae less than eye width in
lateral view, feebly narrowed above; mandible
tridentate, apical tooth much produced, lower
margin with a basal process.
Scutum surface broadly convex, fine punc-
tures inter- connected; pronotal ridge low &
obscure; scutellar surface resemble scutum,
posterior margin broadly rounded; tegulae with
dense pubescence; first recurrent vein far from the
base than the second one which is comparatively
close to the apex, of second cuboital cell of fore
wing; front coxae spinose, inner margins of all
coxae incarinate; legs in general are normal, finely
punctured but with remarkable long pubescence;
tarsi unmodified, claws bifurcated with an
arolium in between.
Basal tergal concavity margin semicarinate;
apical margins fasciate from first to fifth tergites;
carina of VI th tergum angulate from basal region,
with a pair of blunt median spines and another pair
at lateral extremities, acutely produced; apical
margin of Vllth tergum strongly recurved and
lyriate medially, spines are feebly markable at
lateral extremities only; basal sternum broadly
expended, fasciate, apical margin feebly in-
vaginated medially; margins of Ilnd to IVth ster-
nites slightly outcurved, all fasciate, but in Vth,
margin at midline deeply incurved and fasceae at
this incurve absent; stemite Vlth and onwards
eclipsed under Vth; margin of VTHth not fringed,
with very few setae on quadrate apical lobe.
Apices of gonocoxites divergent, setose and
strongly angulate; stipites of penis valve globulate
at apex.
Measurements: (in mm.): Total length 7.0;
eyes: length 1.8, lateral width 0.92; clypeus;
median length 0.52, basal and apical widths 0.52
and 1.3; antennal sockets; distance to clypeus, to
median ocellus, to eye and to each other 0.55,
0.55, 0.3, 0.55; antennae: length of scape 0.45,
pedicel 0.12, flagellar segments 1st 0.12, End
0. 1 8 , Vlth 0.3 and Xlth 0.32, breadths of Vlth 0. 1 8
and Xlth 0.18; labrum: median length 0.6, basal
and apical widths 0.6 and 0.5; labial palpi: lengths
of segments 1st 0.28 and Ilnd 0.28; scutum:
median length and maximum width 1.12 and 1 .92;
scutellum: median length of dorsal surface 0.5;
fore wing: length of radial cell 1.25 and total
length 4.9; relative widths of tergite 1st to Vlth
1.25,1.9,2.05, 2.12, 2.12 and 1.4.
female: not known.
Material examined: Holotype Male, Konark
(Orissa), m.s.l. 16. 8. 1981, Coll. Rajiv K. Gupta,
(on wing); Paratype 1 Male same data as for
holotype (holotype at N.P.C., Division of En-
tomology, I.A.R.I., New Delhi, Paratypes will be
placed at the same museum, soon).
Remarks
The new species is quite separate from
matheranensis (very long proboscis, reaching up
to hind coxae in repose), but indostana seems to
be a close relative of auriculata sp. nov. in respect
of the short proboscis, merely reaching upto front
coxae in repose and the much produced apical
tooth of tridentate mandible. Michener (1966) has
expressed the probability of anonyma and indos-
tana, being the same species on the basis of char-
acters of head and thorax, since the type specimen
of anonyma male lacks the abdomen. However,
indostana distinctly differs from auriculata in:
truncated clypeal margin; mandible without a
basal process at lower margin; tegulae smooth;
carina of Vlth tergum with a prominent median
projection and one on either sides feebly mark-
able; tergum Vllth with distinct short spines at
apical margin; stipites of genitalia not so broadly
10
422
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
globulate at apices and gonostyli not angulate
apically; body pubescence white and punctures on
whole body not so uniformly fine.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr. H.N. Baijal, Head
and Dr. V.K. Tewari, Lecturer, at Zoology
depth, Agra College, Agra, for providing neces-
sary facilities and to Dr. S.I. Farooqi, Scientist
S-3, Division of Entomology, I.A.R.I., New
Delhi, for guidance in the preparation of the
manuscript.
References
Michener, C.D. (1941): A generic revision of the
American Osmiinae, with descriptive notes on old world genera.
Amer. Midi. Naturalist 26: 147-167.
(1944): Comparative external mor-
phology, phylogeny and classification of the bees (Hymenop-
tera). Bull. Amer. Mus. Natur. Hist. 82(6): 263-264.
(1966): A new species of Anthocopa
from India. Entomologists June : 146-150.
TWO NEW SPECIES OF HARPACTORARIA FROM SOUTHERN INDIA
(HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAEiHARPACTORINAE1
David Livingstone and G. Ravichandran2
(with two text-figures )
Two new species of the genus Sphedanolestes Stal, namely Sphedanolestesnigrocephala
sp. nov. and Sphedanolestes bicolorous sp. nov. from Southern India have been described and
illustrated.
Introduction
The genus Sphedanolestes , under the
division Harpactoraria, includes species with
head as long as pronotum and posterior lobe of the
latter longitudinally impressed. Distant (1904 and
1910) recognised 19 species from the Oriental
region, mostly from northern India and Burma: S.
stigmatellus , S. signatus, S. variabilis , S . ater-
rimus and S.frater cuius are the five species so far
known from southern India, mostly from Nilgiri
Hills. At present three more species, namely 5.
dives , S. indicus and S. pulchriventris have been
recorded for the first time in Southern India.
Without any exception, all are alate, arboreal, and
endemic to the tropical rain forests of this region.
Now two more species have been added to the list
of Sphedanolestes of this region.
Accepted March 1988, Contribution no. 72.
division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore -641 046.
1. Sphedanolestes nigrocephala sp. nov. (Fig. 1)
female: Length 7.5 mm; width across the
abdomen 2 mm; macropterous; oblongly elon-
gate, golden yellow; antennae, tibiae, dorsal sur-
face of the postocular area in between and around
the ocelli, clypeus, antenniferous tubercles, scape,
posterior margin of the frons, eyes, dorsum of the
abdomen behind the fifth segment, ventral surface
of the genital segments, tibiae, tarsomeres and
membrane, piceous; stemites of the fifth to
seventh abdominal segments, canescent; head
elongately ovate, anteocular area a little shorter
than postocular area; ocelli raised, interocular sul-
cus deep and dark; collar short, cylindrical; first
rostral segment not passing the eyes and the
second joint longest, almost as long as postocular
area; scape almost as long as fore femora; anterior
lobe of pronotum globose, smooth, with a median
longitudinal narrow fissure not passing the
anterior margin of the posterior lobe; junction of
both lobes deeply constricted; antero-lateral ang-
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
423
les with acutely pointed, obliquely directed
tubercle; posterior lobe finely granulate; discal
prominence moderately formed; postero lateral
angles rounded; posterior margin slightly con-
cave; scutellum broadly triangular without any
trace of apical tubercle; fore and mid femora
slightly incrassated, obscurely nodulose;
membrane passing the abdomen, corium black
apically.
In the Courtallam ecotype, the entire an-
te ocular area and ocellar prominence remain
black in both sexes.
This species resembles the species of Cyd-
nocoris in its general appearance and closely
resembles Sphedanolestes trichrous Stal, in the
coloration of the head, antennae, abdomen and
membrane. But it can be readily recognised from
the latter by its bright golden yellow colour and
conspicuous development of tubercles at the
antero-lateral angles of the pronotum and non-
424
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
tuberculate condition of the broadly triangular
scutellum.
TYPE INFORMATION: Holotype : Female,
serial No. 121. Paratype one male, both pinned
specimens deposited for the present in the
reduviid collection of the Division of Entomol-
ogy, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, South
India. Both specimens are arboreal, fast fliers,
collected from underneath leaves.
collection information: Specimens were
collected from tropical Rain forest area near Ser-
valar, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, on 2 Oc-
tober 1983 at^ elevation 250 m above MSL,
temperature 33° C and humidity 52%.
2. Sphcdanolestes bicolorous sp. nov. (Fig. 2)
female: Length 9 mm; width across the
abdomen 4 mm; macropterous; ovate;
stramineous; head, eyes, antennae, scutellum
tibiae, thoracic stemites, spots on connexivum
piceous; fourth to last abdominal tergites black;
head ovate; anteocular and postocular areas sub-
equal, ocelli, wide apart and elevated; postocular
area globose with short cylindrical ochraceous
collar; scape almost as long as the fore femora;
first rostral segment reaching the eyes, second
segment almost passing the entire postocular area;
rostrum and maxillary lobes in front of eyes cas-
taneous brown; anterior lobe of pronotum
globose, much smaller than the posterior lobe;
smooth with a median longitudinal furrow, not
passing its posterior limit; tubercles of the
anterolateral angles short and curved backward;
posterior lobe griceous, finely granulate, lateral
angles moderately expanded, discal prominence
moderately developed, posterior margin slightly
concave; scutellum broadly triangular, apically
nontubercuiate; hemelytra bronzy brown, corium
tmasparent basally, opaque apically; membrane
passing the abdomen; fore femora slightly incras-
sated sub-apically; castaneous brown, apically
slightly constricted, black; mid and hind femora
similar but not incrassated; abdomen stramineous,
sternum with lateral longitudinal brown fascia;
connexivum dorsally and ventrally stramineous,
spotted black.
In some specimens, the anterior lobe and
discal areas of the posterior lobe of the pronotum
are piceous.
This species resembles the previous species
Sphedanolestes nigrocephala in the coloration of
the head, hemelytra and tibiae. But it can be
readily recognised by the nature of scutellum,
coloration of the pronotum, obscurely recurved
tubercles of the antero-lateral angles of the
pronotum and the femora being almost smooth
without having any nodulose, appearance.
TYPE INFORMATION: Holotype: Female,
serial No. 122. Paratype one male; both pinned
specimens deposited for the present in the
reduviid collection of the Division of Entomol-
ogy, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, South
India.
collection information: Specimens were
collected from Tropical Rain forest, Yelagire
Hills, North Arcot District, Tamil Nadu on 13
September 1948 at elevation of 1000 m above
MSL, temperature 23° C and humidity 70%.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the authorities of the
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, for providing
facilities and the department of Science and Tech-
nology, New Delhi, for financial support and en-
couragement, Thanks are due to Dr. S.K. Tandon,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for his as-
sistance in comparing these specimens with the
National Collection of Reduviidae.
References
Distant, W.L. (1904): Fauna of British India including (1910): Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma, Rhynchota, Vol. II, Heteroptera. Taylor and Ceylon and Burma, Rhynchota, Vol. V, Heteroptera. Appendix.
Francis, London, pp. 329-389. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 203-217.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
425
A NEW SPECIES OF COELOGYNE (ORCHIDACEAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1
T.K. Paul, S.K. Basu and M.C. Biswas2
(With seven text-figures)
During a recent floristic survey in the Im-
phal valley, Manipur, several interesting orchids
have been collected by Dr J. N. Ghatak of
Manipur University. A new species of Coelogyne
Lindl., collected during the exploration, is
described with illustrations.
Coelogyne ghatakii T.K. Paul, Basu et Biswas sp. nov.
Coelogyne griffithii Hook. f. affinis, sed
differt inflorescentiis brevioribus (12-14 cm),
floribus 6-8, parvioribus (1-1.5 cm diam.), viridi-
flavis, sepalis trinervis, labelli lobis lateralibus
ovato-ogy, oblongis, carinis 2, columnaque late
alata.
Coelogyne ghatakii sp. nov. (Fig. 1-7)
Epiphytic or sometimes lithophytic herb.
Pseudobulb 5.5 x 2 cm, ovoid-oblong, 4-angled
with 4 grooves, dark-green. Leaves 2, petioled;
petiole 2-3 cm long, glabrous, channeled; lamina
10-15 x 2.5-3.0 cm, elliptic-lanceolate, apex acute
to acuminate, entire, gradually tapering at base,
dark-green, coriaceous, 6-7 nerved. Inflorescence
c 12 cm long, erect; peduncle c. 6.5 cm long,
shorter than the leaves, slender, glabrous, green,
naked, raceme with 6 to 8 flowers, basal portion
covered with overlapping distichous brownish
glumes. Flowers open successively, pedicellate,
1-1.5 cm across, greenish yellow; pedicel 5-10
mm long, slender, erect. Sepals 3, spreading, sub-
equal, oblong-lanceolate, acute, entire, glabrous,
3 -nerved, 6-7 x 3 mm; petals 2, spreading, 6-7 x
0.5 mm, linear, entire, apex obtuse, glabrous, 1-
nerved. Labellum c. 7x5 mm, deeply 3-lobed,
glabrous, greenish yellow; lateral lobes 4 x 1.5
mm, ovate oblong, obtuse, entire with 2-3 brown-
accepted August 1988.
Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-71 1 103.
nish patches; midlobe 4.5 x 3.5 mm, sub-
quadrate, recurved, retuse, narrow at base, base
with a brown dot, entire, undulate, with 3-4 brown
dots; keels 2, prominent on epichile extending
near to the apex, yellowish, entire. Column c. 5
mm long, 1.5-2 mm across, wmged on the upper
part, wings serrate, light yellow; anther 1, c. 1.5
mm long and broad, light yellow; pollinia 4, c. 1
mm, oval, whitish yellow.
Type: India : Manipur, Imphal valley, 20th
April 1988, Ghatak 2213a (Holotype : CAL;
Isotypes: 2213b, c, d, Manipur Univ. Herb.).
FIs. & Frts. : April - June.
Ecology : This species grows on tall trees as
well as on moss-covered rocks in the Imphal
valley.
The new species has been recently collected
in a remote area of Imphal valley. The fresh
specimens were critically studied and it is found
that the flowers are small and open successively
in the inflorescence, i.e., only few at a time
whereas the rest are still in bud-condition. The
scape-base is naked but the base of the rachis has
a series of distichous glumes and these characters
are of the section Ancipiles Pfitz & Kranzle. of the
genus Coelogyne.
The new species is closely allied to
Coelogyne griffithii Hook. f. of the above-men-
tioned section but differs in the characters tabled
below: It is named in honour Prof. J.N. Ghatak of
Manipur University, a leading plant taxonomist in
India who collected this species.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, for all facilities. Thanks are due
to Dr. N.C. Majumdar, Scientist-SC, Botanical
Survey of India, for rendering the Latin transla-
tion and Mr. Saibal Bose for line-drawing of this
new taxa. Thanks are also due to Dr B.D. Sharma,
426
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
427
Scientist-SE, Central National Herbarium, B.S.L, for kindly going through the manuscript.
C. griffithii C. ghatakii
Leaf
: large (1 1.5-26.0 x 3-6 cm).
comparatively smaller
(10-15x2.5-3 cm)
Inflorescence
: longer
shorter (12-14 cm), 6-8
(15-34 cm), 6- 18- flowered.
flowered.
Rowers
: 1.5-2 cm across,
1-1.5 cm across, greenish-
light brownish.
yellow.
Sepals
: larger (1.0-1.3x03-0.6 cm),
smaller (0.6-0.7 x 3 cm),
5-nerved.
3 nerved.
Petals
: larger (10-13x1 mm).
smaller (6-7 x 0.5 mm)..
Lateral lobes of
Lateral lobes of labellum
labellum rounded,
keels 5.
ovate-oblong, keels 2.
Column
: narrowly winged.
broadly winged
A NEW LEPIDOPTERAN INDOCALA GEN. NOV. FROM INDIA
(OPHIDERINAE: NOCTUIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)1
H.S. Rose and A. Srivastava2
(With five text-figures)
Indocala gen. nov. has been proposed for the species punjabensis sp. nov. collected from
Punjab (India). A brief account of the genitalia has been given along with adult description.
Introduction
While considering the taxonomy of eighty
species of the subfamily Ophiderinae, collected
between August 1984 and September 1987, a
homogenous sample consisting of seven in-
dividuals of a species could not be identified from
the relevant literature (Hampson 1894, 1902,
1912, 1924, 1926). The species, in fact, belongs
to a group of genera such as Calyptra Ochsen-
heimer, Oraesia Guenee, Culasta Moore and
Hypocala Guenee. The examination of various
morphological characters, especially the wing ve-
1 Accepted August 1988.
Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,
Patiala-147 002, Punjab, India.
nation and genitalia, followed by their evaluation
and comparison with the known genera indicated
that the new species requires to be placed under a
new genus. Accordingly a new genus Indocala is
proposed for the new species punjabensis.
Genus Indocala n. gen. nov.
Type-species: Indocala punjabensis sp. nov.
Labial palpus porrect, triangularly scaled;
antenna simple, minutely ciliated. Forewing
without areole, discal cell more than half the
length of wing, R3 and R4 not stalked. Hindwing
with discal cell slightly more than one-third the
length, Rs and M 1 , and M3 and Cu 1 connate before
anterior and posterior angle respectively. Male
genitalia with uncus trifid, socii present, valva
with well developed saccular extension, harpe
428
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Figs. 1-5. Indocala punjabensis sp. nov.
1 & 2: Fore and hindwing; 3 & 4: Male genitalia; 5; Female genitalia.
Abbreviations: IA. First anal vein; 2A. Second anal vein; AED. Aedeagus; ANT.APO. Anterior apophyses; CRP.BU.
Corpus bursae; Qij. First cubital vein; Cu2. Second cubital vein; DU.BU. Ductus bursae; DU.EJ. Ductus ejaculatorius;
M,. First median vein; M2. Second median vein; M3. Third median vein; OB. Ostium bursae; PO.APO. Posterior
apophyses; Rv First radial vein; R2. Second radial vein; R3. Third radial vein; R4. Fourth radial vein; R5. Fifth radial vein;
RS. Radial sector; SL. Sacculus; SOC. Socii, TG. Tegumen; UN. Uncus; YIN. Vinculum.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
429
wanting. Female genitalia with ostium region well
developed, corpus bursae with a pair of signa
present.
Indocala punjabensis sp.'nov.
Adult: Head, thorax, tegula and patagium
greyish; labial palpus porrect, triangularly scaled,
brownish, third segment long, beak like; antenna
simple, minutely ciliated; eyes naked, large, dark
with rounded spots. Forewing with costal margin
somewhat straight, apex more or less acute, outer
margin uniform, cilia grey brown; inner margin
straight, ground colour grey brown, irrorated with
large number of dark spots; an indistinct double
submarginal outwardly waved lines represented
by dark specks; underside yellowish with pinkish
tinge, postmedial and submarginal bands dark.
Hindwing with costal margin straight, apex some-
what truncate, outer margin uniform, cilia yel-
lowish with pink tinge, anal margin furnished
with yellow-pinkish scales, ground colour dark
fuscous with slight pinkish tinge, a distinct post-
medial band, a pinkish elongate spot near anal
angle; underside yellow with pink shade, a dis-
tinct half post- medial line, medial line indistinct
represented by dark spots. Abdomen smoothly
scaled, grey with reddish tinge. Legs clothed with
reddish brown scales.
Venation: (Figs. 1 & 2). Forewing with discal cell
more than half the length, Ri from well before
middle of cell, R3 from just before anterior angle,
R4 and R5 from anterior angle, Mi from anterior
angle, M2 from a little above posterior angle, M3
from posterior angle, Cui from just before
posterior angle, Q12 from two-third of cell.
Hindwing with cell less than half the length of
wing, Rs and Mi connate before anterior angle,
M2 from just above posterior angle, M3 and Cui
connate, slightly before posterior angle, Cu2 from
three-fourth of cell.
Genitalia: (Male: Figs. 3,4). Uncus unique, trifid,
uniformly sclerotised throughout, setosed; socii
well developed, flap like, thin walled, finely
setosed; tegumen well developed, uniformly
sclerotised; vinculum narrow, V-shaped, sacculus
well developed, with curved saccular extension;
transtilla simple, membranous, juxta not
sclerotised, simple; aedeagus broad, rod-like,
uniformly sclerotised throughout the length,
vesica with dents, specific comuti wanting.
Female: (Fig. 5): Ovipositor lobes well
developed, sclerotised, setosed; posterior
apophysis broader and longer than anterior
apophysis; ostium bursae sclerotised, vorticella or
somewhat V- shaped; ductus bursae thin walled,
long, transparent tube like; corpus bursae
globular, thin walled; signum present (two rod-
like structures having attached to a large number
of spines).
Wing expanse (half): Male and female : 16
mm.
Collection studied : Holotype: Male, Pun-
jab: Punjabi University, Patiala, 24-7-1987. Al-
lotype: Female, same data as holotype,
24-7-1987. Paratype : 4 Males, 27-7-1987, 1
Female, 29- 7-1987, same data as above.
The species is distinct from other known
Ophiderines in the absence of an areole in the
forewing. The genitalia are also of different and
possess unique modifications in respect of certain
constituent parts. The uncus is exceptionally well
developed and is represented by three finger-like
processes besides a pair of flap-like socii. The
saccular part of the valva is conspicuous because
of the presence of a thumb-like saccular process.
In addition to this a pair of signae is also present
in the corpus bursae. The ostial region (ostium
bursae) looks like a pouch and is shaped more or
less like a vorticella. Hence, the new genus In-
docala has been proposed for the species which
has been named after Punjab state.
The new genus with its unique characters, is
somewhat allied to genera such as Hypocala
Guenee, Calyptra Ochsenheimer, Oraesia
Guenee and Culasta Moore, all having rostriform
type of labial palpi. However, Indocala gen. nov.
differs from its closest genus Hypocala on the
basis of the veins R3 and R4 of the forewing,
which are not stalked as in the former genus. Apart
from this, in the male genitalia the harpe is want-
ing and saccus greatly reduced, whereas, socii are
present in both the genera.
430
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Acknowledgement providing financial assistance during the tenure of
We wish to thank C.S.I.R., New Delhi, for the project on noctuid moths.
References
Hampson, G.F. (1894): The Fauna of British India, in-
cluding Ceylon and Burma, Moth 2: XXII + 609 pp. Taylor and
Francis Ltd,, London.
(1902): The Moths of South Africa (Part
II). Ann. South Afr. Mus., 2: 255-446.
— —(1912): The Moths of India, Supplemen-
tary paper to the Volumes in “The Fauna of British India” series
IV, Parts m-V.y. Bombay nal. Hist. Soc., 21 : 441-446, 878- 911,
1222-1272.
(1924): Description of two new genera
and two new species of Ophiderinae (Noctuidae). Entomologist,
London, 57; 182-184.
(1926): Description of new genera and
species of Lepidoptera, Phalaenae of the subfamily Noctuinae
(Noctuidae) in the British Museum, 641 pp. Trustees of the
British Museum (NH), London.
AN UNDESCRIBED SPECIES OF MUSSAENDA L. (RUB I ACE AE)
FROM EASTERN HIMALAYA1
S.K. Basu and T.K. Paul2
(with ten text-figures)
Mussaenda andersonii S.K. Basu et T.K. Paul typified by Anderson\63 from Sikkim is
established as a new species. The new species is described and illustrated.
While studying the material of Mussaenda
L. (Rubiaceae) in CAL we came across some
interesting specimens collected by Simons,
Anderson, King and others during 1862-1876.
These specimens are from Darjeeling, Sikkim
Himalaya and had been given a manuscript name
by King, but this name does not seem to have been
published. Again King remarked on two of these
specimens “Same as 6250G Wall. Cat.” Further
he also sought the opinion of C.B. Clarke on the
identity of these specimens and quoted on the
specimens “CBC says = M. wallichii G. Don”.
But M. wallichii G. Don as cited by J.D. Hooker
(1880) in R Brit. India is a plant with persistent
calyx. G. Watt ignored Clarke’s identification and
wrote on one of the fruiting specimens (C.B.
Clarke? 255), “FI. Br. Ind. remarks regarding
wallichii calyx teeth persistent ’ ’ . But he was silent
about the identity of that fruiting specimen, jaya-
1 Accepted September 1988.
Central National Herbarium, P.O. Botanic Garden,
Howrah-711 103.
weera (1963) revised the genus Mussaenda L. of
India and Sri Lanka but may not have examined
these specimens preserved in CAL.
Our studies reveal that these specimens
neither match with M. wallichii G. Don nor Wall.
Cat. 6250 G, i.e., M. glabrata (Hook.f.) Hutch, ex
Gamble, nor do they match with any other known
species of the genus Mussaenda L. and in fact
represent a hitherto unrecognised species. They
are therefore described here as a new taxon.
Mussaenda andersonii sp. nov.
M. frondosae L. affinis, sed differt foliis
spars im pilosis, stipulis intus glabris, calycis lobis
brevioribus (c. 3 mm longis), puberulisque,
sepalis petaloideis glabrescentibus, corollaeque
tubis brevioribus (1.9 cm longis).
Scandent shrub; young stem hirsute, older
stems glabrate, blackish brown. Leaves opposite,
elliptic, ovate to oblong, 4.6-1 1 .2 x 2. 1 -6 cm, apex
shortly acuminate or acute, base cuneate
or ounded, upper surface sparsely hairy, some-
times hairs only along the veins and veinlets;
primary lateral veins 6-8 pairs; petiole 0.5- 1.0 cm
Figs. 1-10. Mussaenda andersonii sp. nov.
1. Flowering twig; 2. Stipule; 3. Calyx lobes; 4. Longitudinal Section of short styled flower with tufted hairs at mouth and
stamens in throat of the corolla tube; 5. Longitudinal Section of long styled flower with tufted hairs at mouth and stamens
about half way on the corolla tube; 6. Dorsifixed anther; 7. Style of long styled flower; 8. Style of short styled flower;
9. Fruit; 10. Seed.
432
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 1
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS BETWEEN M.frondosa AND M. andersonii
M.frondosa
M. andersonii sp. nov.
Leaf
: Primary veins 6-10 pairs,
Primary veins 6-8 pairs
densely hairy
sparsely hairy.
Stipule
: Inner surface hairy
Inner surface glabrous
Calyx
: Calyx lobes longer
Calyx lobes shorter
(6.5-15 mm long), hairy
(c. 3 mm long), minutely pubescent,
petaloid sepals hairy
petaloid sepals glabrescent.
Corolla
: Corolla tube longer
Corolla tube shorter
(2-2.7 cm) long
(1.9 cm) long.
long, hairy; stipules 4 mm long, broadly trian-
gular, bifurcate 1/4 - 3/4 their length, lobes
straight, outer surface hairy, glabrous inside,
deciduous. Inflorescence terminal or from leaf
axils, dichotomously branched, pubescent, few
flowered cymes; bracts and bracteoles trifid.
Flowers hcterostylous on stout pedicel, pedicel
2-3 mm long, pubescent. Calyx lobes 5, linear, c.
3 mm long, deciduous, outer side pubescent, in-
side glabrous or with few hairs; petaloid sepal
creamy white, ovate or oblong-ovate, 2. 5-5. 5 x
1.3-3. 2 cm, apex acute to subacute, base long or
short attenuate orcuneate at base, glabrescent, 6-7
nerved, lower surface with few hairs on the ner-
ves, petiole 6-10 mm long. Corolla tube 1. 9-2.0
cm long, hairy on the outer surface, inner surface
densely hairy upto the base of the anthers. Corolla
lobes 4x2 mm, ovate, apiculate, outer surface
hairy, papillate within. Anthers 4 mm and fila-
ments 1 mm long in short styled form, in long
styled form anthers 4.5-5 mm and filament 1 .5
mm long, anthers linear, dorsifixed, bilobed at the
base. Ovary 1 - 1 .5 mm long, hairy, 2-locular; style
and stigma lobes 6 mm and 3 mm long respective-
ly in short styled form, 1 .4 cm and 4 mm long in
long styled form. Berry globose, c. 1 cm long and
broad, sparsely hirsute to glabrous; seeds
numerous, minute, c . 0.5 mm long and broad,
reticulate, not spiny, brownish in colour.
Holotype : India, Sikkim, Kolwong, 9-5-
1862, Anderson 163 (CAL).
FIs. & Frts. : May-Sept.
Distribution: Eastern Himalaya (Sikkim,
Darjeeling).
Specimens examined: INDIA: Sikkim :
Dungbo forest, 900-1200 m, 29-11-1875, King
s.n. (CAL); Tangbob, 600 m, 12-5-1874, si 514
(CAL); Sine , loc. exact. Simons s.n. (CAL). West
Bengal, Darjeeling dist., above Mongpoo, 1680
m, Sept. 1874, Clarke (?) 255 (CAL).
Mussaenda andersonii S.K. Basu et T.K.
Paul is allied to M. frondosa L. but differs as
shown in Table 1 . M. andersonii also differs from
M. laxa (Hook, f.) Hutch, ex Gamble in having
compact inflorescence.
The new taxon is named after T. Anderson,
the first collector of this new species.
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India for all facilities. Sincere thanks
and gratitude are also due to Dr D.B. Deb, ex-
Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India for his
encouragements; Dr N.C. Majumdar for render-
ing the Latin translation and to Dr. B.D. Sharma,
Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium, for
going through the manuscript.
References
Hooker, J.D. (1880): The Flora of British India 3: 88. saenda: The species of India and ceylon. Journ. Am. Arb. 44:
London. 232-267 .
Jayaweera, M.A. (1963): The Rubiaceous Genus Mus-
REVIEWS
SNAKEMAN by Zai Whitaker. The India Magazine Hooks, 1989. pp. 185,
Rs. 195.
I have, pasted on the glass door of my book cabinet, a
printed maxim that “Nothing is impossible to the person
who won’t listen to reason”.
Not many people make it safely on the slippery road
to success by balking convention. I know of only two in
the field of natural history who did so and still made it to
the top of the ladder, Salim Ali the noted Ornithologist,
and Romulus Whitaker, the Snakeman.
This biography records Whitaker’s rough road to suc-
cess. I had met him many years ago for a hike through the
forests of Kalakad Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu, a Sanctuary
much loved by both of us. As Rom, after a long day’s trek,
settled down in the Dak Bungalow by changing into a
Tungi’ and tying a string from window to window to hang
up his clothes and his towel, I knew that he was fully
assimilated and was, except for his unfortunate colour, as
good an Indian as any native of the country.
Now a naturalised Indian, Rom has been the single
major factor in the conservation of the reptiles of the
subcontinent. The snakes particularly have been to a cer-
tain extent freed from the web of fear and superstition and
from being exported abroad as dressed skins.
Rom’s Madras Snake Park was largely responsible for
this conservation movement. It is unfortunate that he was
winkled out of the management of the Park. A self taught
Herpetologist, he has very few peers in the field of ecology
of the reptiles of India. This biography leads us through
the early years of his snake collecting days in the USA to
his return to India where he had studied as a boy, and his
total involvement with the reptiles of the land and the
people, the tribal Irulas, whose livelihood are the snakes.
It is the fascinating story of goals achieved through sheer
determination in the face of fohnidable obstacles.
The book has been written by Zai Whitaker with
warmth and wry humour, and without any rancour for the
many vicissitudes created for Rom by obtuse officials and
others. The snakes, particularly the King Cobras, come
alive in the descriptions of Rom’s search in the subcon-
tinent and the Andamans for these beautiful and vibrant
animals. The book is pleasant reading throughout.
A book recommended not only for naturalists but also
for those interested in the unusual in the human psyche.
J.C. DANIEL
MANAGEMENT OF NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES IN
INDIA by A. Kothari, P. Pande, S. Singh and D. Variava. Indian Institute of
Public Administration, New Delhi, 1989. 289 pp. Rs 250/ US S 40 (hardcover),
Rs 150/ US $30 (soft cover)
The protection of nature is a very old tradition in India,
deep- rooted in its cultural history. Sacred groves were
established by hunter- gatherer societies several thousand
years ago and they remain widespread today. As early as
the 4th century BC, the establishment of forest reserves
and special sanctuaries for wild animals was advocated in
the Arthashastra, a manual of state- craft. Subsequently,
many rulers set up and maintained reserves for hunting
purposes. A number of these have remained largely intact
and provided the basis of the present network of national
parks and sanctuaries in India, which dates back to the
early part of this century. Several sanctuaries in Assam,
for example, were established in 1915 and subsequent
years, while the first national park, Hailey (later renamed
Corbett), was declared in 1936, The number of protected
areas has risen rapidly in recent decades, from a modest
65 national parks and sanctuaries in 1960 to 472 by the
end of 1989, extending over a total area of about 131,800
sq.km, or 4% of the country. In view of the numerous other
pressures on land, especially forested land, this achieve-
ment of the state and central governments is remarkable.
Establishing protected areas is, however, only the first
step: managing them in the face of mounting pressures is
becoming an increasingly formidable task, demanding the
reconciliation of wildlife interests with human needs and
aspirations. Aware of many of the deficiencies in the
existing network, the Government of India is to be con-
gratulated for sponsoring a survey of its protected areas,
the results of which are reported in ‘Management of
National Parks and Sanctuaries in India’. The survey,
using a questionnaire approach, was carried out by the
Environmental Studies Division, Indian Institute of Public
Administration, under the direction of Shekhar Singh.
Based on a sample of 249 protected areas, this study must
rank as among the first of its kind, and the dedication and
disciplined approach of the research team is evident in its
meticulous and exhaustive treatment of the data. The
report is divided into five sections, with chapters on legal
434
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
status, natural resources, human activities, management
and recommendations, supported by numerous tables of
statistics which fill over half the volume.
Perhaps the most startling finding is that only 40% of
national parks and 8% of sanctuaries sampled are legally
designated; the rest have been initially notified and await
completion of legal procedures. The boundaries of the
great majority of protected areas, therefore, are not final
— some may change during the settlement process. With
some 56% of national parks and 72% of sanctuaries in-
habited (at densities exceeding the national average of 2.5
persons per hectare in 10 sanctuaries), it is perhaps not
suprising that legal procedures take on average three years
and in some cases up to eight years to complete. Grazing,
habitation, religious and agricultural rights or leases are
among the most common issues requiring settlement.
Quite apart from the impact of fires, flooding, drought
and water pollution, all of which are quantified in the
report, protected areas are subjected to ever-increasing
pressures from exploitation, both legal and illegal. Graz-
ing of livestock, for example, is permitted in 39% of
national parks and 73% of sanctuaries, but the incidence
of illicit grazing is much higher in both cases. Similarly,
timber continues to be legitimately extracted from 1 6% of
national parks and 43% of sanctuaries. It would appear
from the results of the survey that, in general, management
is not equipped to deal with the scale of the problems that
threaten many of India’s protected areas. Only an es-
timated 50% of national parks and 31% of sanctuaries
have management plans. Most of these are never approved
by respective chief wildlife wardens, which means that
budgets are seldom met in full or on time. Such shortcom-
ings have previously been recognised. In 1985, for ex-
ample, the Indian Board of Wildlife recommended that
15% of state forest department budgets should be ear-
marked for wildlife management at a time when expendi-
ture on protected areas accounted for just over 2% of forest
department budgets.
These are among the salient facts emerging from this
study. Undoubtedly, it has its shortcomings and the
authors readily acknowledge the fact that responses to the
questionnaires have not been independently verified. This
is a long process but is being addressed, with each
protected area being visited as part of an ongoing project
to produce a series of state protected area directories. In
the meantime, the present report is warranted, enabling
remedial action to be taken by policy and decision makers
without unneccessary delay.
Overall presentation of the data is clear and concise,
although statistics summarising some of the geographical
and biological features of protected areas in Chapter 2
could have been presented in a more meaningful context.
Data showing the frequency distribution of forest types
within protected areas, for example, could have been
accompanied by statistics summarising the national
coverage of the different forest types, in order to identify
gaps in the network. In the annexed section on internation-
al conventions, it is unfortunate that no mention is made
of the World Heritage Convention, in which India is an
active participant, with five natural properties designated
under the Convention to date.
Such criticisms do not detract from the value of this
report. Not only does the study provide a wealth of useful
information on India’s protected areas for wildlife
managers, scientists and politicians alike, but it also serves
as a model which could be usefully adopted in other
countries.
MICHAEL J.B. GREEN
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
LON THE PRIMATES OF GUMTI SANCTUARY, TRIPURA
The Gumti Sanctuary in Tripura was notified in
December 1988. It extends over 389.54 sq. km, of which
approximately 70 sq. km has been inundated by a hydel
dam. The sanctuary contains the following 6 species of
primates — Hoolock Gibbon Hylobates hoolock ,
Phayre’s Leaf Monkey Presbytis phayrei, Capped Lan-
gur Presbytis pileatus. Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatto.
Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina and Stump-
tailed Macaque Macaca arctoides.
I do not know of any area of equal size in the world
where 6 distinct species of primates occur in one con-
tiguous forest.
In this regard, therefore, Gumti would be unique. It would
be interesting to get feedback as to whether there are any
such areas elsewhere, with such a diversity of primate
species. I am given to understand that in a small island of
about 20 hectares which has been formed due to the
reservoir being created in Gumti as a result of the hydel
project mentioned above, 3 species of primates now occur,
namely the Hoolock Gibbon, the Leaf Monkey and the
Stump-tailed Macaque. This must also be an unusual
occurrence.
April 4, 1989. RANJITSINH
2. CRAB-EATING MACAQUE MACACA FASCICULARIS (RAFFLES)
FEEDING ON HOUSE SPARROW PASSER DOMESTICUS (LINNAEUS)
On 21 August 1988, at 1430 hours in the Zoo at Alipur
in Calcutta, I saw a male Crab-eating Macaque Macaca
fascicular is (Raffles) run, jump and catch a House Spar-
row Passer domestic us (Linnaeus) within its spacious
enclosure. The monkey seized the bird with its left hand
and with its right hand began plucking the feathers from
the ventral side of the neck of the screaming bird. After
clearing the feathers, the monkey bit on the cleared portion
of the neck and tore off the skin and muscle of that region.
The monkey ate the bird except for the feathers, claws and
the intestine.
March 28, 1989 AIAY KUMAR MANDAL
3. SMALL MONGOOSE HARPESTES AUROPUNCTATUS
FEEDING ON DROPPINGS OF NILGAI BOSELAPHUS TRAGOCAMELUS
With reference to the note “The Small Mongoose
feeding on droppings of Nilgai” by S.K. Sharma in J.
Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 85 (3): 611,1 would like to add the
following comments. Similar observations have been
made at Keoladeo Ghana National Park, Bharatpur. How-
ever, further observations show that the Mongoose actual-
ly feeds on the pods of Acacia nilotica (Babul) present in
the droppings of Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus. Shar-
ma reports that the observation was made during the mo-
nth of April, which is the peak fruiting period of Acacia
nilotica. During this month. Nilgai are frequently seen
feeding on these pods. I am writing this note not to
contradict his observation but to clarify that the mon-
gooses actually feed on the Acacia pods present in the
droppings of the Nilgai. It has been observed that they also
feed on the pods present in the dung of cattle.
May 11, 1989.
MD. NAYERUL HAQUE
436
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
4. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ASIAN HORSESHOE BAT
RHINOLOPHUS YUNANENSIS
(With a text-figure )
This has reference to the article “A note on-
Rhinolophus pearsonii Hors field, 1851 and Rhinolophus
yunanensis Dobson, 1872 (Chiroptera; Rhinolophidae)’*
by J.E Hill in J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 83 (Suppl.). I did
not go through the article in detail, but some location errors
caught my attention
On page 15, col. 2, para 3, the name of the locality
“Tupai Mukh” should actually be “Tipaimukh”. It is
located in the Lushai Hills, which are presently in
Mizoram and not Meghalaya as mentioned. Mishmi Hills
are also not a part of Meghalaya, but are in Arunachal
Pradesh. Khasi and Jaintia Hills are, of course, part of
Meghalaya.
The errors are again repeated on pp. 16 and 17. The
map (Fig. 1) shows the relative location of Meghalaya,
Mishmi Hills and Tipaimukh. Moreover, onpp. 12 and 14
Meghalaya has been mentioned as being part of
Assam, which it was only till 1972. Garo, Khasi and Jaintia
Hills were part of Assam, but later became the separate
state of Meghalaya.
April 20, 1989. ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY
5. ON THE STATUS OF MADRAS TREE SHREW
ANANTHANA ELLIOT! ELUOTI
The Wynad plateau in south India is c. 700 m above
sea level and juts into the Malabar plains, ending rather
precipitously on the Western Ghats. Wynad receives an
average annual rainfall of c. 380 cm, mostly between May
and August. It is criss-crossed by streams and supports a
dense tropical forest, which until recently was nearly
impenetrable. Destruction of forests for establishing Tea,
Coffee and Cardamom plantations have now opened up
most regions for human interference.
At the invitation of Prof. B.K. Nayar, Head of the
Department of Botany, University of Calicut, I joined a
team that undertook a three day survey of Wynad, Kerala,
in February 1982 to assess the extent of possible destruc-
tion of the flora and fauna that could be caused by a
proposed hydro-electric project. The study was sponsored
and financed by the Kerala Electricity Board. The main
areas covered were Mananthodi, Pakranthalam, Periya
etc. On 15 February 1982, we were collecting plants and
observing animals and birds. I walked alone a distance of
about half a kilometre ahead of the team and reached a
tarred road near the Arboretum (Silviculture Research
Centre) of the Forest Department at about 0940 hrs.
At the side of the tarred road and adjoining this tree
garden, I saw one Madras Tree Shrew Ananthana ellioti
ellioti on the ground on and among the carpet of fallen dry
leaves, mainly of Teak Tectona grandis. Even at first
glance I could see that this animal was somewhat different
from a squirrel or rat, and identified it as Ananthana llioti
ellioti. I watched the animal for more than ten minutes and
it appeared to me that it was not very disturbed by my
presence at a very close quarters. Later on, when I picked
up a stone and made as if to throw it, the shrew ran and
climbed a Teak tree adjacent to a bamboo clump. I was
not able to photograph the animal as I did not have a
camera with me.
The mammal gallery in the Natural History section of
the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, where I worked
from 1969 to 1977, contains a single mounted and ex-hi-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
437
bited specimen of the Madras Tree Shrew. My familiarity
with this specimen aided me to a great extent in identifying
this animal in the field.
I think there is a lack of information on sightings or
distribution of the Madras Tree Shrew. In this context, I
feel that it would be worth reporting the sighting of this
animal at Periya, Wynad, Kerala.
February 22, 1989. N.J. GEORGE
6. NECTAR FEEDING BY THREE-STRIPED PALM SQUIRREL FUNAMBULUS
PALM ARUM AT POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU
The food of the Three-striped Palm Squirrel Funam-
bulus palmarum (Linnaeus) includes the nectar of flowers
(Prater 1980). In the Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary in
Tamil Nadu, I noticed these squirrels extensively visiting
Rivea hypocrateriformis flowers to drink the nectar. Rivea
hypocrateriformis (Desr.) Choisy (Convolvulaceae) is a
common vine forming mat-like thickets on shrubs and
small trees and is an endemic in the flora of peninsular
India. Its flowers are large, showy and fragrant, opening
at dusk and closing at sunrise; the corolla is white, 7 cm
across, salver-shaped; tube narrow, cylindical, 5 cm;
stamens 5 with spinulose pollen grains and the style 5.5
cm with bifid stigma (Mathew 1982). Its peak flowering
period in Point Calimere is December and January. They
bloom en masse and I found 25 to 100 flowers in a plan in
a day and one to many squirrels visiting every plant. They
visit a flower, hold the thalamus of the flower with a
forepaw and the corolla with the other forepaw, bite and
tear the tube at the base whee the tube meets the tips of
the calyx lobes, and lick the nectar that oozes out from
around the ovary. They are very swift in action and finish
this job within 30 seconds before moving on to another
flower, and likewise attend most of the flowers of a plant.
Out of 462 flowers from 10 plants I examined on 30
December 1988, 306 flowers were attended by these squir-
rels. Though they attended large number of flowers they
did not damage the flowers except in a few instances.
Occasionally they plucked the entire flower and dropped
it after drinking the nectar. They were feeding actively
from 0600 to 0830 hrs. At around 0900 hrs the feeding
activities ceased, as all the flowers had by then faded.
There is every likelihood that the squirrels, while moving
on the bush for feeding on the nectar, transfer pollen from
one flower to another. It is interesting to note that the
Three-striped Palm Squirrel extensively feeds on the nec-
tar of Rivea hypocrateriformis flowers and possibly also
plays a role in their pollination.
January 19, 1989. P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
References
Mathew, K.M. (1982): The flora of the Tamil Nadu Prater, S.H. (1980): The book of Indian Animals. Bom -
Camatic, Rapinat Herbarium Publications, Tiruchy. Part-2, bay Natural History Society, Bombay. 200-201.
1042.
7. GRIZZLED GIANT SQUIRREL RATUFA MACROURA — DISTRIBUTION IN KUDIRAYAR
The Grizzled Giant Squirrel Raiufa mac r our a probab-
ly has a wider distribution than is believed. I have observed
a few of these squirrels recently in the Kudirayar valley
(25 km from Palani in Anna district of Tamil Nadu), which
is situated on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
below the Palani (Kodaikanal) Hills. It is hoped that the
dam across Kudirayar stream, which is almost ready, will
help the species, which is now mostly confined to the
Kudirayar stream margin, to widen its base. There does
not appear to be any serious threat to the squirrel’s survival
here.
April 11, 1989. PETER DAVIDAR
11
438
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
8. ELEPHANTS LIVING IN HARMONY WITH PEOPLE
It is quite surprising to witness the way in which the
Elephants of Anakulam area interact with the local people.
This area is a part of the Pooyamkutty reserve forest
situated in Devikolam taluk of Idukki district, Kerala, and
will be completely denuded if the proposed Pooyamkutty
hydro — electric project becomes a reality.
The western border of the Anakulam river bears rich
forests that spread northwards, while the eastern border
extends up to Mankulam. Herds of elephants regularly
visit, drink and revel in the waters of the Anakulam river
at one spot, where bubbles are always emerging from the
river bed. This part of the river is directly opposite to
human habitation, and is easily fordable. But the elephants
never cross the river to enter cultivated land.
During daytime the local people bathe and wash their
clothes at the same spot. At the close of the day, when the
residents retreat, the same spot is taken over by the be-
hemoths, who in turn return to the dense forest by day-
break. The settlers are also very particular not to disturb
the elephants during their revelry. They have been wit-
nessing this for the last two to three decades.
One comes across numerous articles about elephants
destroying crops and killing people. But in this area such
a case is unheard of. During my visit to this area a few
months back, from 21*00 to 0500 hrs I observed twenty
elephants, including young ones, visiting this area. Such
harmonious coexistence between man and wild elephants
is an unusual phenomenon.
January 13, 1989. SHAJU THOMAS
9. MUSK DEER MOSCHUS CHRYSOGASTER : MUSK
EXTRACTION FROM LIVE DEER
( With a plate and a text-figure )
Introduction
The Himalayan Musk Deer Moschus chrysogaster , a
primitive ruminant, is commonly found in the Himalayan
region between 2400-4300 m in Nepal. The main tl^reat to
Musk Deer survival is habitat destruction and poaching to
procure musk pod from the males. But theuse of traps and
snares also kills females and young indiscriminately
(Blower 1974).
The musk sac is located between the reproductive
organs and the umbilicus. It opens to the exterior through
an orifice which lies anterior to that of the urethra. Tradi-
tionally, the musk pod is incised out ater killing the deer.
The musk can also be extracted by a simple operation, but
this method is time consuming and causes much stress in
the deer (Shrestha 1983).
Methods
An 18-month old male was physically restrained and
secured by three persons and placed on its side to expose
the umbilical region. A silver scoop ith one large and one
small groove at each end was sterilised and ubricated with
antibiotic cream. Holding the musk sac with left hand, the
scoop was inserted gently with a rotating movement. The
edge of the scoop is smooth and rounded to facilitate easv
insertion and to prevent injury to the musk gland. T
musk was collected by rotating the scoop and was scooped
out. Antibiotic cream was applied in the gland to prevent
possible infectionThe whole operation was completed
within 15 miutes. Because this technique was found most
suitable, scooping w’as repeated 6 times on the same
animal.
-J
Fig. 1 . °7o moisture content of musk yield at different ages.
Plate i
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc .86
Shresha: Musk Deer
Above : Musk Deer
Below : Extraction from musk gland, using a scoop.
hi
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
439
Table 1
EXTRACTION OF MUSK AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
Date of musk extraction
and age of Musk Deer
Musk yield in grams
Wet Dry Moisture
content
in %
Colour, consistency, scent
Remarks
1. 29 Dec 1981
1 year 6 months
2.000
0.325
83.75
Dark red brown, pasty,
urine smell
Extracted at beginning of
expected mating season
(December - January).
2. 23 Dec 1982
2 years 6 months
5.700
5.655
0.78
Dark red brown, granular,
strongly scented
-do-
3. 19 Jan 1984
3 years 7 rry nths
2.200
1.150
2.27
-do-
Extracted 26 days after previous
extraction.
4. 6 Dec 1984
4 years 5 months
-
—
-
Light brown, pasty,
slightly scented
Small amount extracted to check
colour and consistency 3 weeks
before First extraction.
5. 11 April 1985
4 years 9 months
-
-
-
Creamy white, pasty,
no remarkable scent
Small amount extracted to check
colour and consistency 5 months
after expected mating season.
6. 21 Dec 1985
5 years 6 months
3.000
2.380
20.66
Dark red brown, granular,
strongly scented
Extracted in expected mating
season.
7. 27 June 1987
7 years
—
—
—
Creamy white, pasty,
no remarkable scent
Small amout extracted to check
colour consistency and scent
6 months after mating season.
earlier. At the age of 7 years, a little musk was taken 6
months after the expected mating season. The musk was
immature i.e., creamy white in colour, pasty in appearance
and without any scent. A sharp decline of percentage
moisture content of musk yield was observed with age
(Fig. 1).
Discussion and Recommendations
Musk yields varied because of the diseased condition
of the deer and frequent extractions of musk in small
quantities to check the colour, consistency and scent of
musk before and after the mating season. The quality of
the musk was better when the musk was extracted between
3rd week of December and January. Musk extracted in the
months of November, April and June was immature.
The musk can also be extracted annually during the
rutting season by this method from adult males in the wild
Results
The length of the musk sac was 4.1 cm externally.
Width and depth were 3.3 and 4.6 cm respectively. At the
age of 1 .5 years, the extracted musk was not of the desired
quality, with a pasty appearance and pungent urine smell
(T able 1 ). Musk at the age of 2.5 years was of good quality.
The brown granular powder was strongly scented, and the
yield satisfactory. At 3.6 years the musk extracted 26 days
after the previous extraction was comparatively less in
yield (Table 1). At 4.4 years, 3 weeks prior to be expected
rut season, the musk was light brown, pasty and slightly
scented. At 4.8 years musk was extracted 4 months after
the expected rut season. The musk was creamy white,
pasty in appearance and without scent. At 5.5 years, the
musk extracted in the rut season was dark red brown,
granular and strongly scented. The reduction in the musk
yield this time could be due to removal of some musk
440
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 86
after capturing them with nets through a drive and releas-
ing them after harvesting the musk. If an arrangement
could be made at village level through local panchayats
on an annual basis for the benefit of a specific village
community, such a programme would generate a self —
supporting economy, which means concrete support for
Refer
Blower, J. (1974): Notes on trade in musk, Nepal. Report
to WWF/IUCN, Morges, Switzerland.
wildlife conservation at grassroots level. In addition to
this, the villagers would themselves become watchdogs
against poaching, ensuring the survival of the endangered
Musk Deer in Nepal.
December 12, 1988. MUKTI N. SHRESTHA
E N C E S
SHRESTHA, M. (1983): Moschus von Chinensis Chen
Farmen. TIER. W. Germany, Vol. (1).
10. SIGHT RECORD OF REDNECKED GREBE PODICEPS GRISEIGENA
NEAR RAJKOT, GUJARAT
On 11 December 1986 at the Nyari reservoir, south-
west of Rajkot city (22° 18’ N, 70 47’ E), Gujarat, we
observed two grebes diving under the water close to an
islet on which both species ofmigrant cranes, Demoiselle
Cran e Anthropoides virgo, and Common Crane Grus grus
were roosting.
The grebes were intermediate in size to our two com-
mon grebes, the Little Grebe Podiceps ruficollis and the
Great Crested Grebe P. cristatus. Both these species occur
regularly at this reservoir. These new arrivals were in their
winter plumage and had a distinctly visible yellow base to
the lower mandible, best illustrated by Peterson et al.
(1983). This confirmed their identity to be the Rednecked
Grebe P. griseigena. The same evening, we visited the
reservoir with Prof. R.M. Naik and saw the birds again.
This time they were further away and were resting in the
Refer
Ali, S. (1954): The birds of Gujarat — Part I J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 52:374-458.
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,
New Delhi.
Dharmakumarsinhjl K.S. (1955): Birds of Saurashtra.
Times of India Press, Bombay.
Holmes, J.R.S., Roberts. R.J. & Savage, C.D.W. (1967):
water. On later visits that winter the birds were not ob-
served.
So far there have been only two records of the bird from
the Indian subcontinent, on the basis of which Ali and
Ripley (1983) consider the bird to be a rare winter visitor.
These records are from Pakistan and were made by Hol-
mes et.al (1967) of one bird in winter plumage, on 14
January 1967, and by Savage (1968), of two birds, of
which one was in complete summer plumage, on 24
September 1967. There is no mention of this species
ffomGujarat, either in Ali (1954) or Dharmakumarsinhji
(1955) and so it is believed to be an addition to the list of
birds for the state.
TAEJ MUNDKUR
November 17, 1987. RISHAD PRAVEZ
E N C E S
Rednecked Grebe Podiceps griseigena (Boddaert) sighted in
west Pakistan-/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64: 555-557.
Peterson, R., Monfort, G. & Hollom, Pa.d. (1983): A
field guide to the birds of Britian and Europe. Collins, London.
Savage, C.D.W. (1968): Rednecked Grebe Podiceps
griseigena (Boddaert) again sighted in west Pakistan J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 773.
11. MONTHLY VARIATIONS IN DIET OF CATTLE EGRET
BUBULCUS IBIS COROMANDUS IN AND AROUND CHANDIGARH
Documentation on the feeding ecology of the Asiatic
subspecies of the Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis coromandus
(Boddaert) is meagre. Ikeda (1956), Kosugi (1960), Muk-
herjee (1971), and McKilligan (1984) studied the food
habits of this subspecies. Except for Mukherjee( 1971), all
other workers made observations only during the breeding
season. Accordingly, a study was conducted from
February 1984 to February 1986 to gather comprehensive
information on its feeding ecology. Some results of the
investigations have been reported elsewhere (Sodhi and
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
441
Khera 1984, Singh et al. mpressSodhi). The present paper
examines variations in the diet of the Cattle Egret during
different times of the year.
Material and Methods
45 Cattle Egrets were shot from Chandigarh (30°
42’N, 76° 54’ E) and surrounding areas between March
1984 and March 1985, each after at least one hour of
feeding, so as to obtain maximum information. No egrets
were shot during June, August, September or November.
The stomach contents were preserved in different percent-
ages of formaldehyde, depending on their nature. Contents
of each stomach were categorized into different prey
groups, namely Annelida, Odonata, etc., and counted.
To study the dominance of a particular prey group
during different months, Simpson’s dominance index
'L - s L Pi was calculated, following Ruiz (1985). Pi is
the number of prey in one stomach divided by the total
number of prey encountered in the same stomach.
Simpson’s dominance index is a measure of the expected
frequency of particular prey and offers an estimate of
dominance of a given prey group in the predator’s diet
(Ruiz 1985). Values less than 0.01 in preliminary calcula-
tions were discarded.
To estimate diversity in the diet, mean number of food
items and mean number of food objects were calculated
for different months. Food item, as referred here, is a
particular food group, e.g. Annelida, Odonata, etc., and
food object is the total of all food items. Further, foraging
index = mean number of food items/mean number of food
objects x 100 was calculated for each month to get an idea
of the quantities of food objects in terms of variety of food
items, following Siegfried (1972).
Results
Table 1 presents Simpson’s dominance index for each
prey group during different months. From the table it is
evident that Coleoptera (January), Diptera (February to
April), Lepidoptera (May and December), and Orthoptera
(July and October) were the most important prey groups.
Based on dominance index, Diptera, Orthoptera, and
Coleoptera were the three most important prey groups
(T able 2). T able 3 infers that Cattle Egrets consumed most
diverse food in February and least diverse food in Decem-
ber.
Discussion
From the analysis, it is evident that the Cattle Egret is
predominantly an insect forager. It is morphologically
adapted to feed on insects (Dubale and Mansuri 1969,
1972, Payne and Risley 1976).
The variations in their diet during different months
may be due to: (a) availability of a particular prey group
in nature during those months, (b) their ability to catch that
particular prey, or (c) prey selection being influenced by
Table 1
SIMPSON’S DOMINANCE INDEX OF DIFFERENT PREY GROUPS IN DIFFERENT MONTHS
Prey group
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jul.
Oct
Dec.
Annelida
_
0.01
_
_
+
0.32
_
_
Odonata
0.17
+
0.04
-
0.05
-
0.01
-
Orthoptera
3.34
2.43
2.68
0.22
0.09
5.29
1.36
1.18
Dermaptera
+
+
0.06
0.01
-
-
0.45
-
Dictyoptera
+
+
+
-
-
+
-
-
Hemiptera
-
+
+
-
0.06
-
-
-
Coleoptera
4.75
0.67
0.65
0.04
+
1.96
+
+
Diptera
1.02
7.18 20.97
2.49
0.04
1.61
+
0.01
Lepidoptera
0.75
1.58
1.76
1.82
1.51
0.03
+
2.04
Hymenoptera
+
0.02
0.05
-
-
0.09
-
-
Arachnida
0.28
0.09
2.68
0.02
+
0.27
0.02 0.03
Chilopoda
-
+
-
-
-
-
+
-
Amphibia
-
-
-
-
-
0.07
-
-
Reptilia
-
-
-
-
-
+
-
-
Mammalia
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
Sample size
7
7
11
4
3
7
2
3
+ = Values less than 0.01.
442
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 2
SIMPSON’S DOMINANCE INDEX OF DIFFERENT PREY
GROUPS. 11 IS
PERCENTAGE OF DOMINANCE INDEX VALUES
Prey group
1
U
Annelida
0.57
0.19
Odonata
1.06
0.36
Orthoptera
107.53
36.63
Dermaptera
0.77
0.26
Dictyoptera
+
-
Hemiptera
0.09
0.03
Coleoptera
29.92
10.19
Diptera
132.02
44.97
Lepidoptera
7.68
2.61
Hymenoptera
0.77
0.26
Arachnida
13.03
4.43
Chilopoda
+
-
Amphibia
0.07
0.02
Reptilia
+
+
Mammalia +
+ = Values less than 0.01
+
some physiological stimuli (Ruiz 1985).
The most important prey group during the present
study was Diptera. Earlier, Orthoptera was found to be the
most important prey group in Egypt, South Africa, Sun-
darban (India), North America, Australia, while Coleop-
tera and Amphibia were the most important in Japan and
Refer
Dubale, M.S. & Mansuri, A.P. (1969): A comparative
account of the bony elements of the feeding apparatus of certain
herons (Family: Ardeida e).Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. India 39: 226-
232.
(1972): Functional significance of quantita-
tive analysis of jaw -muscles in relation to feeding behaviour of
certain Indian herons and egrets (Family : Ardeidae). Pavo 10:
43-57.
Ikeda, S. (1956): On the food habits of the Indian Cattle
Egret Bubulcus ibis coromandus. Jap. J. appl. Tool. 21: 83- 86.
Jenni, D.A. (1973): Regional variation in the food of
nestling Cattle Egrets.A«* 90: 821-826.
Kadry-bey, I. (1942): The economic importance of the
Buff- backed Egret ( Ardea ibis L.) to Egyptian agriculture. Zool.
Soc. Egypt Bull. 4: 20-26.
Kosugi, A. (1960): On the food habits of some herons.
Table 3
MEAN NUMBER OF FOOD ITEMS CONSUMED AND FORAGING
INDEX
DURING DIFFERENT MONTHS
Month
food items
Mean no. of
index
Foraging
Jan.
4.14± 1.86
3.58
Feb.
6.85± 2.73
2.16
Mar.
6.1811.40
7.37
Apr.
5.251 0.95
8.03
May
5.001 0.0
25.50
Jul.
4.421 1.90
24.40
Oct.
6.501 0.70
26.00
Dec.
4.001 1.73
15.00
Spain (Kadry -Bey 1942, Siegfried 1966, Mukheijee 1971,
Jenni 1973, McKilligan 1984, Ikeda 1956, Ruiz 1985).
The dominance of a particular prey group in diet, in a
region, is perhaps due to abundance of that prey group in
that region (Sodhi 1985).
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the ICAR, New Delhi, for financing
this research. Thanks are due to Dr Navdeep Singh, Prof.
S . Khera and Mr Rajiv Singh for their help, and to Dr Lynn
W. Oliphant for making comments on this manuscript.
March 16, 1988. NAVJOT S. SODHI
N C E S
Miscel. Yamashina Inst. Orn. 15: 89-98.
Mckilligan, N.G. (1984): The food and feeding ecology
of the Cattle Egret, Ardeola ibis when nesting in southeast
Queenslandj4«jr. Wildl.Res. 11: 133-144.
Mukherjee, A.K. (1971): Food-habits of water birds of
the Sundarban, 24-Parganas District, West Bengal, India-IIIJ.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 691-716.
Payne, R.B. & Risley, CJ. (1976): Systematics and
evolutionary relationships among the herons (Ardeidae).Mhc.
Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan 150: 1-115.
Ruiz, X. (1985): An analysis of the diet of Cattle Egrets
in the Ebro delta, Spain Ardea 73: 49-60.
Siegfried, W.R. (1966): On the food of nestling Cattle
Egrcis.Ostrich 37: 219-220.
(1972): Aspects of feeding ecology of Cttle
Egret ( Ardeola ibis ) in South Africa J. Anim. Ecol. 41: 71-78.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
443
Singh, N., Sodhi, N.S. & Khera. S. (in press): Biology of
the Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert)./tec. Zool.
Surv. India, Occ. Paper.
Sodhi, N.S. (in press): Role of Cattle Egret in suppression
of insect pests .Geobios new Reports 6.
& Khera, S. (1984): Food, food require-
ment during growth, and feeding behaviour of nestling Bubulcus
ibis coromandus (Boddaert). Pavo22: 21-29.
12. BROWN BOOBY SULA LEUCOGASTER (BODDAERT) ON THE WESTERN COAST
( With a text-figure)
While bird witching at Mandvi in Kutch, Gujarat, on
22 August 1987, some distance short of the mouth of River
Rukmavati which joins the Arabian Sea, opposite the town
and port of Mandvi, a fisherman told us that he had seen
a sea bird which he said he had not come across before.
When we went to the spot pointed out by him we saw a
Brown Booby Sula leuco-gaster, sitting quietly. We ap-
proached it very close and even when we caught it, it
showed no signs of fright. We therefore felt it was either
injured (there was no external sign of injury) or ill. We
then had the bird photographed. On studying the literature
it appears that except for a specimen collected from the
Malabar coast, this is the only record for the western sea
board. M.K. Himmatsinhji, to whom we showed the photo
and who has confirmed our identification of the Brown
Booby, thinks it is an accidental occurrence, and that we
should try to collect it as specimen for the Society.
S.N. VARU
September 22, 1987. N.N. BAP AT
Fig. 1. Brown Booby Sula leucogaster.
13. OCCURRENCE OF CICONIA CICONIA GRUIDAE AND BREEDING
OF PHOENICOFIERIDAE IN KUTCH, GUJARAT
Apparently the White Stork was first recorded in
Kutch, Gujarat, by Capt. C.D. Lester during the last cen
ury; he saw a pair of them at Devisar tank (about 14 Km.
north of Bhuj) in August 1895. The Salim Ali survey in
1943-44, prior to the publication of ‘The Birds of Kutch’,
did not come across it. However, I am not aware whether
he himself or anyone else recorded Ciconia ciconia in
Kutch in subsequent years. I saw one in the Banni in
December 1954. Since then I have come across them in
ones and twos on several occasions, but during the last
decade or more an ever increasing number of these storks
have been seen. The number of C. ciconia mentioned by
A.A. Vaidya in his note in 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(2):
433, appears to me rather highly exaggerated. It is likely
he counted some birds in flight which also included flying
Pelicans Pelicanus onocrotalus which it is possible were
mistaken for White Stork. The ‘famous dhandh’ men-
tioned by Vaidya (the word ‘dhandh’ in Sindhi and
Kutchhi means a shallow collection of water) is known as
the ‘dhandh’ of Chhari, a village nearby, where the
Greylag Geese used to come in large numbers in the years
gone by. They no longer visit Kutch now. This lagoon is
situated almost where ‘mainland Kutch’ ends and a part
of the western Banni begins, about 30 Km. or so from
where the Great Rann of Kutch is situated. I call this
wetland ‘mini Nal Sarovar’. I have come across this bird
over the years as hereunder:
I counted 40 in the marshes on both sides of the Bhuj-
Pachham road in the Banni in 1979. On 10 February 1980
I saw 100+ White Storks in the marshes interspersing and
surrounding a large collection of water about 4 Km.
444
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
west — northwest of Bhirandiara village in the Banni. The
extent of water and marsh was so great that it was not
possible to approach the area from all sides, and so a full
and proper count could not be undertaken. These storks
were dotted about all over in big and small groups and also
singly as far as the eye could reach, and perhaps there were
many more of them beyond, which were not visible. The
Blacktailed Godwits were there too, in such vast numbers
that they defied an exact count.
During the 1978 rainy season pesticides were sprayed
on the hill feature known as ‘Kala Dungar’, overlooking
the Great Rann of Kutch, to destroy a swarm of the Desert
Locust which had settled there. Soon after this a heavy
shower of rain fell on the hill which washed down the
poisonous substances into the Rann, destroying all forms
of aquatic life. The flamingo did not breed either that year
or in subsequent years. In fact they abandoned the famous
‘flamingo city’. However, in recent years some juveniles
have been regularly sighted which belonged both to
Phoefftcopterus roseus and Phoeniconaias minor. In this
context the ‘Habhi Flamingos’ mentioned by A.A. Vaidya
in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(3): 661 were surely
juveniles, as very rightly remarked by the late Dr Salim
Ali at the foot of the note concerned. I may mention here
that the Kutchhi name for the flamingo is ‘hunj’, and that
the term ‘Habshi Flamingo’ (literally meaning ‘negroid
flamingo’) was coined by a person from the island of
Khadir a few years ago when he saw some juvenies for the
first time and thought they belonged to a different race of
this bird! Similarly the Banni is an alluvial grassland
which at present is ruined in parts by overgrazing.
Prosopis juliflora has grown and spread unchecked over
large parts of it, thus reducing the area available to the
Great Indian Bustard for breeding there during the mon-
soon months. The local people of Kutch have divided the
Banni into the eastern and western parts in common par-
lance; and there is no part of it that is locally known as
‘Nani — Banni’.
Coming back to sightings of juvenile flamingo, I saw
3 on 10 September 1978, a large number of them along
with juvenile Rosy Pelicans on 21 September 1980, in the
Banni, 30 adults with a few juvenile P. roseus at Laeja
Creek, Mandvi, on 10 October 1982. The largest number
of juveniles seen by me were those of the Lesser Flamingo
on 7 January 1984 in the western part of the Great Rann.
There were about 600+ young — • half of these appeared
to be larger from an earlier brood, while the rest were
smaller and darker coloured, seeming to have come from
a colony nearby . These were accompanied by 1 00+ adults ;
the total number of Lesser Flamingo present at that collec-
tion of water was approximately 800. Apart from this I
saw 1 juvenile Lesser Flamingo with an adult on the Laeja
creek on 12 January 1986. From this it would seem that
the flamingo have started to breed in the Great Rann, and
perhaps in and near the Little Rann as well in small
colonies. During the last three years there was paucity of
rain, and this year is a complete famine; so there is no
question of any breeding taking place. However, in a
normal year in future, when the Great Rann gets flooded
again, proper investigations need to be carried out to find
out where these birds breed. Phoeniconaias minor breeds
mostly in saline water, and so there is every likelihood of
finding their nesting colonies, big or small, in the tidal
creeks both to the east and west of the Great Rann of
Kutch, or even in the Little Rann itself .
Without meaning to contradict Vaidya’s reference to
Anthropoid.es virgo seen by him in Kutch and also to
record my own observations on cranes in Kutch, it is more
likely he saw Grus grus, which is always to be seen in the
Banni. The former is hardly seen in this part of Kutch; and
even normally, far fewer numbers of them than G. grus
visit us here. I have seen A. virgo only once in the Banni,
on 7 October 1967. 1 have never come across a congrega-
tion of the Common Crane exceeding 1000 birds at a time
at one location in Kutch. Besides, to the east, northeast,
north and northwest of the Dhandh of Chhari lies the vast
Banni, in which no cultivation is practiced; and to the
southeast, south and southwest there are hilly tracts where
the crops of either groundnuts or foodgrains are not suffi-
cient to support such a vast concourse of cranes, particular-
ly at the time of year Vaidya saw them. About the count
of cranes undertaken by the Gujarat Forest Department, I
may point out here, as I did to V aidy a soon after the count
was taken in Kutch, that this was done in the month of
February when the return migration of the birds starts; and
at that time many cranes pass through on their way to their
breeding grounds up north. Obviously, therefore, this kind
of census could not present the true picture of cranes
present in Kutch. The birds first arrive in their winter
quarters from about September onwards, and so the best
time to take the count would be any time between Novem-
ber and January.
During scarcity or famine years hardly any cranes
remain in Kutch during the cold weather. This year we are
in the grip of the worst famine in living memory, and there
are neither any crops or water in most of the tanks and
irrigation dams. Similar conditions prevail in many parts
of north Gujarat and some areas in Saurashtra, and so the
cranes along with ducks and other waterbirds would all go
further south. I heard the calls of Common Cranes in
September, but have not seen any birds so far.
October 29, 1987.
M.K. HIMMATSINHJI
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
445
14. REAPPEARANCE OF AN SER INDICUS (LATHAM) AND T ADORN A
TADORNA (LINNAEUS) IN KUTCH, GUJARAT
One of the authors of this note (NNB) saw three
Barheaded Geese on 6 November 1987 at the Rudramata
Dam, about 14 Km. north of Bhuj, Gujarat. When both of
us went there the next day and on the 8th along with the
other members of the Pelican Nature Club of Kutch, the
geese were still there. A riser indie us has always been a
very rare cold weather visitor to Kutch, Saurashtra and the
other parts of Gujarat. Even in earlier years, when A riser
anser used to come regularly (they stopped coming over
fifty years ago), the bar he ad hardly ever came this way
(Vijayarajji, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 21: 678). So it is
perhaps after over half a century that this goose has been
seen here.
After three years of scarcity of rain, this season we have
had a total failure of the monsoon rain. Consequently,
except for two or three irrigation dams which have some
water in them, all the other lakes, reservoirs and village
tanks are empty, or in the process of drying up. In the
Rudramata Dam itself the level of water is quite low. As
it recedes, part of the dam bed is ploughed, and Sorghum
Panicum sp. sown, which is at various stages of growth in
the wet silt that tends to remain moist for quite some time.
The geese do not fly anywhere to feed, as they usually do,
but just waddle over to any one of the cultivated plots of
their choice and start feeding!
On November 13th, NNB saw one Common Shelduck
at the dam. This duck is also rare in this part of the country.
The first record of its occurrence in Kutch was that of one
Col. C.B. Obrien in 1921. The second was by Maharao
Madansinhji, who saw two of these ducks in a small pool
of water in the coastal sand dunes about 10 Rm. west of
Mandvi on 4 December 1966. He collected one specimen
(sex not known). Thus the recent sighting of Tadorna
tadorna comes after an interval of 21 years.
As with Kutch, neighbouring areas of Sind (Pakistan)
to the north and some districts of Rajasthan to the northeast
are also experiencing drought conditions , as a result of
which these waterfowl seem to have strayed into Kutch.
The Common Shelduck, according to the ‘HANDBOOK’
(Ali & Ripley), is known to visit parts of Sind regularly
during recent years.
M.K. HIMMATSINHJI
December 8, 1987. N.N. BAP AT
15. PARIAH KITE MILVUS MIGRANS CAPTURING WHITEBREASTED
KINGFISHER HALCYON SMYRNENSIS
A commotion was created when a Pariah Kite Milvus
migrans captured a Whitebreasted Kingfisher Halcyon
smyrnensis in the JIPMER (Jawaharlal Institute of
Postgraduate Medical Education and Research) campus in
Pondicherry one June afternoon.
A number of Pariah Kites have taken up residence on
top of the three storey JIPMER building and adjoining
places, possibly attracted by the Central Animal House
nearby, where laboratory animals are being bred. On this
particular afternoon four kites were seen flying about
frantically, with a dozen or so noisy house crows in hot
pursuit. One of the kites flying overhead at a low level had
a Whitebreasted Kingfisher firmly in its talons. The
kingfisher’s cries of agony were clearly audible. The
R E F E
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press,
commotion died down after about 2 minutes, when the kite
managed to escape with its prey.
The kite had to face two problems after grabbing the
kingfisher: avoiding the crows excited by this act of
capture by the kite, and preventing the other kites from
forcibly taking possession of the kingfisher.
It is not known when, where and how the kite caught
the kingfisher. Whitebreasted Kingfishers are very com-
monly seen in this locality. Pariah Kites are known to lift
poultry, and have also been reported to capture bats (Ali
& Ripley 1983).
June 26, 1987. E. NARAYANAN
R E N C E
Delhi.
446
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
16. SIGHTINGS OF GOSHAWK ACCIPITER GENTIUS IN HINGOLGADH, GUJARAT
The Goshawk Accipiter gentilis is a rare winter visitor
to north India (Ali and Ripley 1983), though it has been
recorded as far south as Poona in Maharashtra (Ingal-
halikar et al. 1987). In Gujarat, there are only two earlier
records of the bird from Gir forest and Bhavnagar (Dhar-
makumarsinhji 1955).
For two consecutive winters now, a single bird was
observed at the Hingolgadh forest (Hingolgadh Nature
Educational Sanctuary). This forest is located 17 Km east
of the town of Jasdan. It is a small scrub forest, one of the
few forested areas now left in Saurashtra, and thus serves
as an important stopover point for a variety of migrant
passerine species, though it has come under increasing
human and cattle pressure in the last three years.
We saw a bird on 17 September 1985, and identified
it as a female Goshawk from its size and colour. She was
seen diving on flocks of Rosy Pastor Siurnus roseus . The
Rosy Pastors had just arrived; a majority of them were
juveniles, and foraging for the ripe berries of Rhus
mysurensis. A year later, on 5 October 1986, we again saw
a single female Goshawk in the same locality, engaged in
the same activity as in the previous year. In September —
October of 1987 we kept a look — out for the Goshawk,
Refer
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,
Delhi.
Cade, T.J. (1982): The Falcons of the World. Comstock,
Cornell University Press. Ithaca, New York.
Dementiev, G.P. (1957): On the Shaheen Falco
but the bird did not mm up. There was no mass flowering
and fruiting of most of the trees and bushes due to insuf-
ficient rains during the preceding monsoon and there were
very few Rosy Pastors in the forest.
It is documented for a number of avian raptor species
that during southward migration of passerines and other
birds, the raptors follow and prey off them. For example,
in northern Asia migratory Shaheen Falcon (Barbary Fal-
con )Falco peregrinus babylonicus follow Pintail
Sandgrouse Pterocles alchata and Pallas’s Sandgrouse
Syrrhaptes paradoxus (Dementiev 1957), while the Mer-
lin Falco columbaricus is believed to follow some pas-
serines during both autumn and spring migrations (Cade
1982). From our observations it appears that the Goshawk
follows and preys on Rosy Pastor during autumn migra-
tion.
PS: A pair of Goshawks were observed in the same
area on 1 6 October 1 988 in the company of Kestrels Falco
tinnunculus.
S HIVR AJKUMAR KHACHAR
November 12, 1987. TAEJ MUNDKUR
N C E S
peregrinus babylonicus. Ibis 99: 477-482.
Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1955): The birds of
Saurashtra. Times of India Press, Bombay.
Ingalhalikar, S., Mundkur, T. & Gole, T. (1987): The
Goshawk Accipiter gentilis (Linne) in Poona, Maharashtra. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 434-435.
17. FOOD STORAGE BY BONELLFS HAWK-EAGLE HIERAAETUS FASCIATUS
A pair of Bonelli ’s Hawk — Eagles nest on a Dalbergia
tree on a hill slope at Pashan near Pune, Maharashtra. The
same nest has been in use for the last four year s. During
the last season i.e. late in the winter of 1986 — 87, two
chicks were successfully reared. We observed and
recorded the nesting activities during this season.
Two eggs were laid by the female in the third week of
December. One hatched on 19 January 1987 and the other
one on the following day. We witnessed the hatching of
the second egg, which took place at 0845 hrs. The female
was present on the nest from dawn, covering the day old
chick and the second egg. She looked restless from about
0830 and repeatedly passed her bill under her chest where
she had placed the egg. At 0845 hrs she suddenly took off
with the eggshell in her bill. Perching on a tree about 300
m away she dropped the eggshell, preened for five minutes
and returned to the nest.
After about 15 minutes, were surprised to see her
feeding the chicks. At first we thought that she was picking
up the leftovers from the previous day’s meals, but soon
we realised that it was an entire kill untouched so far. It
had been inside the nest (we hadn’t noticed it until then)
and we guessed it was a bird the size of a dove. The bird
could not be identified at that time. It was obvious, how-
ever that it was killed on the previous day since the female
did not leave the nest (except to throw away the eggshell)
that morning and the male did not turn up.
We found that up to a period of four weeks after the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
447
chicks were bom, food was regularly stored, which served
as breakfast for the chicks. Prey could be identified several
times and consisted of more than 90% birds (mainly
mynas. Blue Rock Pigeons, quails, doves and domestic
pigeons), occasionally small mammals (species could not
be identified) and rarely lizards.
During the first 11 days the male hunted alone and
brought food for the female and the chicks. After 12 days
both parents started hunting together, leaving the chicks
in the nest. In either case hunting started only after 0930
or 1000 hrs. In the chill January mornings, apparently
thermals were not available till 0930 hrs. The chicks,
however, had their breakfast every morning before 0900
hrs. This was only possible due to stored food. We also
watched the eagles in the evening and saw that the last kill
of the day was neither eaten nor fed to the chicks.
After the fifth week food was not stored regularly. Both
chicks, with their growing appetites, finished practically
everything of the day’s kills and hardly anything remained
to be stored.
The food storage was thus deliberate, consistent and
followed a specific pattern. This habit may have served
the following purposes.
1 . Tenderizing meat: the storage time ranged from 12
to 20 hours, probably sufficient for softening of meat but
not enough for development of maggots. We also noted
that during the first three weeks the harder and rougher
portions like large bones and legs wre eaten by the female
and tender part fed to the chicks.
2. Eagles are known for their ability to stand
prolonged starvation as adults. However, young eagles
below four weeks naturally do not have this ability, and
they need food early in the morning. Since thermals were
not available during this time of the year, hunting was not
possible in the early hours, and storing food was
obligatory. Later in March, when the chicks were more
than five weeks old, and as the weather grew warmer, early
hunting was possible. The earliest successful kill was
noted at 0835 hrs on 22nd March.
We therefore think that storage of food is an indispen-
sable part of the nesting activities and is vital for the
survival of chicks during their younger days.
MILIND WATVE
VIJAY JOSHI
NIRANJAN SANT
July 2, 1987. SUNIL RANADE
18. AVOCET RECURVIROSTRA AVOCETTA IN KERALA
On 28 November 1986 at the Kadalundy Estuary,
about 20 Km. south of Calicut town, Kerala, where the
Kadalundy river discharges into the sea, extensive mud —
flats are exposed during low tide. From September 1985,
we have been making regular weekly observations at the
estuary. One of us (L.N.) spotted a single Avocet on the
mudflats standing among die many gulls and terns. The
bird was observed from 0900 to 1300 hrs.
This species is not included in Salim Ali’s Birds OF
Kerala (1969). The handbook Vol. 2 (Compact Edition,
1983, p. 178) says: “Not in Kerala, Andamans and
Nicobar Islands or in the Maldives”.
L. NAMASSIVAYAN
December 1, 1987. R. VENUGOPALAN
19. BREEDING RECORDS OF CREAMCOLOURED COURSER
CURSORIUS CURSOR CURSOR (LATHAM) FROM INDIA
About the breeding of the Creamcoloured Courser
Cursorius cursor cursor (Latham) in the Indian subcon-
tinent, Ali and Ripley (1983 ) write, “extralimital but some
suggestive circumstantial evidence of nesting, sporadical-
ly (?) in Bahawalpur and Kutch”. Recently, Sharma
(1986) in mid — February, found small chicks of this
species in the Diyatra region of Bikaner district On a trip
to Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, cn 27 July 1987, at about 1830
hrs, we saw two chicks and two adults of the Cream-
coloured Courser. The birds were seen in a barren area
near Nibha village, between Sam and Sudasari chowkis of
’the Desert National Park. The chicks were able to fly a
short distance. At a later date, we saw one more individual
of the courser in a different area of the Park. These two
recent breeding records prove that the Creamcoloured
Courser is not just a winter visitor to India, as opined by
Ali & Ripley (1983) but that it also breeds within our
limits.
ASAD R. RAHMANI
August 13, 1987. RAN JIT MANAKADAN
448
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
References
Ali, S. & Rdpley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of Sharma, V.D. (1986): Breeding of the Cream-coloured
India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, Courser in India. Sanctuary Vol. V7(l): 49-50.
Bombay.
20. TAXONOMIC STATUS OF PSITTACULA INTERMEDIA (ROTHSCHILD)
While commending the authors of the recent paper ‘On
the taxonomic status of Psittacula intermedia
(Rothschild)’ (Sane et al. 1987) for undertaking an inter-
esting study on biochemical characteristics of four species
of Indian parakeets to understand their taxonomic af-
finities, with special reference to the little — known
Rothschild’s Parakeet, I cannot refrain from commenting
on certain points presented in the paper.
1 . The presence or absence of the wing — patch has
been given too much importance in sex — distinction in
Psittacula intermedia , especially when it may be present
or absent or obsolete in one or both sexes in the allied
species. Thus, the authors conclude (p. 128, para 4), solely
on the basis of the absence of the wing — patch in two
captive adult male specimens, “that contrary to the as-
sumption of Biswas (1959), the 6 skins of adult P. inter-
media in the collection of AMNH are all females ”, inspite
of the fact that they all have plum — coloured heads! I
should be interested to know about the colour of the heads
of the two adult males of Sane’s collection, one skinned
and in BNHS collection and the other alive, and of the
subadult female, also alive.
2. The authors write in the same para: “It is not clear
to us as to how Biswas (loc.cit.) and others before him
identified the all — green seventh skin in AMNH as an
immature specimen of intermedia since it could as well be
that of himalayana' ’ . Compare this with what I had written
in my 1959 paper (p. 559): “... the seventh ... is an
immature specimen being green all over, ... Incidentally,
it may be added that this specimen has as long a wing as
that of the longest — winged male specimen, and it
matches well with immature examples of P . himalayana,
both in coloration and in size. I am thus led to consider it
as an immature specimen of P. himalayana ...”! I wish the
authors had read my paper a little more carefully.
3. In Table 1 (p. 128), the wing measurement 168
given for a paratype, should be 158 (Biswas 1959, p. 561,
Table 1). It is strange that the item no. 3 in the same Table
is given with wing — measurement of 153/151 and the bill,
21.5, although these figures when measured in the living
bird were 161 and 21 respectively.
4. It is also noted that the authors gave no importance
to certain other important characters such as the colours
of the crown, the under wing — coverts and the tips of
central rectrices.
November 17, 1987. BISWAMOY BISWAS
Refer
Biswas, B. (1959): On the parakeet Psittacula intermedia
(Rothschild) (Aves : Psittacidae)J. Bombay nal. Hist. Soc., 56:
558-562.
Sane, S.R. Kannan, P., Rajendran, C.G. Ingle, S.T. &
e n c e s
Bhagwat, A.M. (1987): On the taxonomic status of Psittacula
intermedia (Roths child)-/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 83 (Suppl.):
127-134.
21. PIED CRESTED CUCKOO CLAMATOR JACOBINUS —
THE HARBRINGER OF THE MONSOON
In the Kathiawad peninsula in Gujarat, everything
revolves around the success of failure of the monsoon. The
migratory Pied Crested Cuckoo is associated with the
advent of the monsoon in the region.
Very few birds migrate to India from Africa. The Pied
Crested Cuckoo is one of them. Coming with the monsoon
winds, it crosses the Arabian Sea with the favourable
southwest wind and returns to Africa with the northwest
winds in October — November. On both the ocean cross-
ings it thus takes full advantage of the prevailing
favourable winds. There are not many records from the
Oman and Mekran coasts, and the bird presumably flies
more directly over the Arabian Sea.
I have always looked forward to the arrival
of the season’s first Pied Crested Cuckoo, and have in-
varialy first heard the bird calling at night while flying
high overhead. For the last 7 years I have kept a record of
these dates, which are as follows:
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
449
18 June 1981
5 June 1982
7 June 1982
8 June 1982
9 June 1983
2 June 1984
3 June 1984
4 June 1986
4 June 1987
- First heard at Hingolgadli.
- Full moonlight. Heard calling at
2300 hrs
- Heard calling at 2300 hrs.
- Moonlight clear night. Heard calling
- and flying overhead west to east
- monsoon over Kerala and Madras.
- Heard calling and flying high
overhead at 0020 hrs.
- Heard calling early in the morning at
0315 hrs
Monsoon current over Kerala since
31 May 1984. Weak current.
- Heard calling and flying high
overhead at 2330 hrs.
- Heard calling and flying high overhead
early in the morning at 0330 hrs
- Calling and flying high overhead at
2310 hrs. Monsoon over Kerala and
Goa.
Every time I have heard the call, the cuckoo was flying
from west to east. This is the normal direction for it to
migrate from Africa into the Indian subcontinent. I have
never heard it calling and flying in any other direction in
all these years.
Since some years the numbers of Pied Crested Cuck-
oos in the Jasdan area have decreased. The scrub forest at
Hingolgadh is getting sparse. Grazing by cattle and goats
and cutting of grass as well as trees and bushes for fuel
have disturbed the bird life of the area. The Yellow Eyed
Babbler, a former breeding resident, has not been seen for
the last few years and the White Bellied Minivet is also on
the way out. The Acacia groves have thinned out and with
the loss of grass and bush cover the numbers of Common
Babblers — the main hosts of the parasitic Pied Crested
Cuckoo — have declined. Perhapse, the numbers of the
Pied Crested Cuckoo have gone down in the Jasdan area
due to these several factors.
June 16, 1987. SHIVRAJKUMAR KHACHAR
22. FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF WHITEBREASTED KINGFISHER
HALCYON SMYRNENSIS (LINNAEUS)
At 1 1 15 hrs on 1 January 1987, 1 saw a Whitebreasted
Kingfisher on the parapet of a nullah near my house in
Udaipur, Rajasthan. The bird had a frog in its beak. It
started beating the frog on the parapet, then flew to a tree
in the compound of our house and started beating the frog
on a branch. I tried to photograph it, but it was disturbed
and flew further up into dense foliage.
It beat the frog on the branch for half an hour. At 1 145
hrs it started swallowing the frog. It took 10 minutes to
swallow it and in the meanwhile it excreted four times.
While swallowing, it was breathing heavily and this state
remained for 15 minutes. When the legs of the frog disap-
peared into its gullet it remained in a stiff position.
Meanwhile some bird of prey flew overhead and many
birds either ducked or flew away, but the kingfisher
remained still.
To see the reaction of the bird I beat the trunk of the
tree and made noises, but it did not move. The bird
remained in this state for four minutes. Then it started
moving its head, and gradually its breathing became less
heavy. After 20 minutes of the swallowing of the frog the
kingfisher flew away.
January 20, 1987 RAZA TEHSIN
23. BLACK DRONGO DICRURUS ADSIMILIS NESTING ON ELECTRIC POLE
The Southern Black Dr on go Dicrurus adsimilis (Be-
chstein) is known to nest generally on trees (Ali & Ripley
1972, Shukkur & Joseph 1980). However, we found a pair
nesting on an electric pole in the Circuit house compound,
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, even though there were
a number of large sized suitable trees nearby.
The nest was located in a small space between the
horizontal and vertical sections of the cemented pole, just
below the lower power line. It was first observed on 21
July 1987 with an adult bird brooding in the nest. On 24th
July we noted two fledglings. We photographed the nest
and a fledgling on 29th July. They remained in the nest
till about 29th August. On 27th and 28th August, we noted
only one parent feeding the young till as late as 1905 hrs
(sunset that day was at 1 827 hrs) by bringing flying insects
attracted to the nearby light.
We cannot understand whether this rather unusual nest
site provides any special advantage to the bird, especially
when there are suitable trees nearby. Could it be that the
bird selected the location to take advantage of abundant
insects that were being attracted to the lights, so that it
could feed its young with relatively less effort?
K.S.R. KRISHNA RAJU
December 17, 1987. U.V. BAIRAGI RAJU
450
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
References
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1972): The handbook of the Birds ogy of the Black Drongo. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: (Suppl.)
of India & Pakistan — Vol. 5. Oxford University Press, Delhi. 1212-1226.
Shukkur, E.A.A. & Joseph, KJ. (1980): Breeding biol-
24. COMMON MYNA AS A CAMPFOLLOWER OF LESSER
WHISTLING TEALS
The Common Myna is known to follow domestic
cattle, horses and wild herbivora when they graze. The
grazing animals disturb insects which become easily ac-
cessible to the mynas.
One afternoon I saw a flock of 9 Lesser Whistling Teals
land on the banks of the Mula — Mutha bird sanctuary and
waddle into the grassy bank looking for food. A few
minutes later they were joined by a few Common Mynas.
Soon about 20 of them aggregated around the teals and
followed them persistently down thebank for about 50 m.
The next day the teals arrived at the same time, and were
immediately spotted by the mynas, who seemed to appear
from nowhere began following them much more closely.
In fact they seemed to pick up insects from just around the
feet of the teals. I saw the same pattern repeated again three
times during the next couple of days.
This shows how rapidly such a bond between different
species can be formed when food availability is a motivat-
ing factor.
June 6, 1987. E.K. BHARUCHA
25. TOOL- USING BEHAVIOUR IN INDIAN HOUSE CROW
CORVUS SPLENDENS
Tool-using behaviour in birds and other animals has
been described by many authors. The Woodpecker-finch
Cactospiza pallida and the Mangrov e-finch c. heliobates
of the Galapagos islands use Cactus spines, leaf petioles,
twigs, etc., for probing into holes and crevices during their
food search. Recently Orenstein (1972) recorded tool-use
in the New Caledonian Crow, Corvus moneduloides.
On 8 January 1987, we had an opportunity to observe
activity related to tool-use in the Indian House Crow
Corvus splendens. At 1248 hrs we saw a House Crow on
a Manilkara hexandra tree, just 2 m below the canopy (the
total tree height is c. 7 m) busily engaged in an intricate
behaviour. We were sitting about 10 m away from the tree.
The crow perched on a small branch, plucked a leaf and
immediately thrust it into a hole in one of the big branches
just opposite its perch. After thrusting in the leaf it waited
for about a minute, removed the leaf the hole and, holding
it under its feet, pecked at some prey from the leaf and ate.
It then dropped the leaf, plucked another leaf, thrust it into
the hole and repeated the operation. The bird repeated this
process dexterously till 1302 hrs. We recorded it perform-
ing this activity five times. Twice it dropped the leaf
without picking up anything; apparently there was no prey
attached to the leaf. During these observations we also
noticed the crow thrusting its beak alone deep into the hole
twice but without success.
When the crow left the perch, one of us immediately
climbed the tree and investigated the hole to determine the
food that the crow had obtained. We found a colony of
ants, Sima sp. deep inside the hole. The depth of the hole
was 12 cm. We collected nine Manilkara hexandra leaves
from under that branch on the ground where the crow had
sat. We had observed the crow using the leaf as a tool five
times but the number of dropped leaves collected on the
ground indicates that the process was on well before we
located the crow. This repeated use of leaves by the crow
to obtain prey is of a clear — cut evidence of tool— use by
the crow Corvus splendens.
S. ALAGAR RAJAN
June 17, 1987. P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
References
Orenstein, R.I. (1972): Tool— use by the New Van Lawide-goodall, J. (1970): Tool-using in primates
Caledonian Crow Corvus moneduloides. Auk 89: 674-676. and other vertebrates. Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 23: 717-720.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
451
26. RANGE EXTENSION OF YELLOWBELLIED WREN-WARBLER
PRINIA FLA VIVENTRIS
According to Ali & Ripley (1983), two races of the
Yellow bellied Wren-Warbler occur in India. Prinia
flaviventris sindiana is present in Punjab and Pakistan, in
the plains of the Indus river system, and south through
Sind. Its habitat has been given as riverine tamarisk,
sarkhan grass jungle or reed beds. The other subspecies,
P.t. flaviventris , occurs from Bengal eastwards through
Assam, Manipur and Nagaland in habitats of humid
grassland with bushes, elephant grass and reeds. There is
a single post-Hodgsonian record from Rapti Dun in
Nepal. However, Fleming et al (1976) mention it as resi-
dent and occasional in Nepal. There is a single specimen
from Meerut of uncertain subspecification in the Society’s
collection (Abdul ali 1986). The ranges of both subspecies
are disjunct and thus the species appears to be absent from
the Uttar Pradesh terai.
In May 1987, on a visit to Dudhwa National Park,
Lakhimpur- Kheri district, Uttar Pradesh to study the
Refer
Abdulali, H. (1986): A catalogue of the birds in the
collection of BNHS — Part 30 J. Bombay nal. Hist. Soc. 83:
130-163.
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
Bengal Florican I saw the Yellowbellied Wren-warbler
quite frequently. One pair that I was able to watch for a
while was seen building a nest. A few days later, the
repeated clamouring of the young and the frequent visits
of the parent birds with food to the nesting site announced
a successful hatching. While the lemon yellow lower belly
is a character that makes this Wren-warbler unmistakable,
photographs were also taken to confirm the identification.
Though the subspecies of the Yellowbellied Wren-
warbler seen at Dudhwa is uncertain, it is undoubtedly an
extension of the range of the species in India. However,
as it is present in the Nepal terai (Fleming et al 1976,
Inskipp & Inskipp 1985) the occurrence of the Yellowbel-
lied Wren-warbler in the Indian side of the terai should
have been expected.
October 8, 1987. RAVI SAN KARAN
N C E S
India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,
Bombay.
Fleming, R.L. SR., Fleming, R. JR & Bangdel, L.S.
(1976): Birds of Nepal. Avalok Publishers, Kathmandu.
27. ON SOME WILLOW WARBLERS ( PHYLLOSCOPf) IN THE COLLECTION
OF ST. XAVIER’S HIGH SCHOOL, BOMBAY
While cataloguing the Phylloscopi in the BNHS Col-
lection with Mr Humayun Abdulali, those at St. Xavier’s
High school, Bombay, Maharashtra, mostly collected by
Br. A. Navarro S.I. were also examined. There is nothing
of startling interest but several of them add a little to the
known distribution of some species and may be worth
recording . The first number corresponds to that in Ripley ’ s
SYNOPSIS (2nd edition 1982).
1575 Phylloscopus colly bita tristis (B lyth) :The earlier
Maharashtrian records supported by specimens in the
Bombay collection are 3 from Madhmesfowar, Nasik dis-
trict. The present specimens include 3 from Nasik col-
lected on 28 December 1967, 24 January 1966 and 27
January 1973 and one from Poona on 4 September 1966.
There are no records from the Konkan below the Ghats
though the birds have been noted further south from North
Kanara,
1591 Phylloscopus inornatus mandellii (Brooks):
Coll. No. 1675 from Barlowgunj, Mussoorie, obtained
on 22 October 1963 was marked Seicercus xant hose hist os
albosuperciliaris We make it Phylloscopus inornatus -
mandellii and this appears to extend the distribution about
10° west of Sikkim.
1592 Phylloscopus inornatus inornatus (Blyth): Male
Coll. No. 1887 obtained at West Khandesh on 30th
December 1961 is an addition to the list of birds recorded
from Maharashtra.
1601 Phylloscopus magnirostris from Kotagiri, Nil-
giris. Attention is drawn to this record because the species
has not been very often noted in the south.
1602 Phylloscopus trochiloides viridanus (Blyth):
Specimen obtained at Ambamath, Kalyan, Kolaba dist. is
dated 1 July 1962 and appears exceptionally early.
1606 Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth):
Specimen Coll. No. 1932-Funnel Hill (Kamala), Panvel
is dated 21 June 1965 which also appears very early but
may only be an indication of our lack of knowledge of the
movements of these birds.
December 2, 1986.
A. NAVARRO
S. UNNTTHAN
452
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
28. THE DESERT WHEATEAR OENANTHE DESERT! IN MADRAS
On the afternoon of 30 November 1986, while watch-
ing birds at the meadow on the northern banks of the
Adayar Estuary, I was caught in a sudden cloudburst. As
I stood still, waiting for the rain to subside, I noticed on a
bare branch of a Prosopis bush, a small bird, about the size
of a sparrow. I was close enough to get a brief but unmis-
takeable view of the bird to identify it as a male Desert
Wheatear Oenanthe deserti. The bird suddenly took off,
hovered like a flycatcher briefly, revealing its black and
white tail pattern before flying away.
On the afternoon of 6 December 1986, however, I
located the bird again, and observed it closely. There was
no doubt whatsoever as to its identity. The bird was pale
sandy buff on the crown, nape and back. The sides of the
head, chin and throat were black, slightly speckled with
white. The wings appeared to be black from a distance but
a closer look revealed that they were dark blackish-brown.
The upper tail coverts and basal half of the tail were white,
contrasting with the otherwise black tail. The underparts
were pale buff. A pale supercilium bordered the black over
the eyes and the dark wings also had a whitish border. The
bill and legs were dark.
The bird was seen mostly on the ground and at times,
perched on small stones or atop bare branches of Prosopis
or Calotropis bushes, invariably flicking its tail, flashing
the contrasting tail pattern. Most of the feeding was done
on the ground, although at times, the bird indulged in short
fly catching sorties. On the ground, it would run in short
spurts, sideways, at an angle. It would stop now and then,
stretch its neck and be on alert lookout, while the tail kept
flicking up and down in a manner reminiscent of a pipit
Refer
Ali, & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. (Compact Edition). Oxford University
or wagtail. Foraging was done in the sandy area or grassy
patches and mostly small insects were devoured.
The wheatear appeared to be a loner and there were no
signs of another of its species anywhere in the locality. I
have seen wagtails feeding close to the wheatear and
occassionally they chased each other. I also observed in
one instance, a Common Swallow Hirundo rustica pursu-
ing the wheatear. On 10 January 1987 I heard the bird
calling in a quiet and subdued manner and subsequently
these warblings were heard on a couple of occassions.
Apart from this, the bird did not call and was silent
throughout.
The bird appeared to be parochial, keeping to the same
portion of the meadow day after day. Only once did it shift
its territory to another part of the meadow. I was quite
surprised at the tameness of the bird. It allowed me to
approach it as close as 8-30 feet and I photographed it at
this distance.
The Desert Wheatear is mainly a winter visitor to
Pakistan and India and the southernmost records of this
species are from central Maharashtra (Poona, Ahmed-
nagar) and northern Andhra Pradesh (Nirmal) (Ali and
Ripley 1983). In view of this fact, the occurrence of this
species in Madras city, far from its usual winter range is
noteworthy. The bird was seen in Madras at the same
locality for over months and was last seen on 1 February
1987. Thereafter, the site was visited on 14 February 1987
and 15 February 1987 but the bird was not to be seen.
June 9, 1987. V. SANTHARAM
E N C E S
Press, Delhi.
29. TREECREEPER (CERTHIIDAE) NESTING IN WESTERN NEPAL
A late spring trek in 1985 afforded me the opportunity
to gather nesting data on birds in the remote and rugged
Lake Rara-Jumla area of western Nepal.
On 9 May 1985, 1 observed a pair of nesting Common
Treecreepers Certhia familiar is mandelli while travelling
northwest from the regional center of Jumla. This record
occurred at approximately 3250 m elevation, some 400 m
beyond the hamlet of Thahamari, and 15 m from the main
trail that traverses the north slope of Dori Lekh.
The nest was located at a height of 5 m in a trunk
crevice of a dead fir Abies spectabilis , which unfortunately
could not be closely examined. Nonetheless, it was evi-
dent that chicks were present, as both parents busily
foraged lepidopteran larvae and small insects. One parent
would remain on the nest, occasionally poking its head out
of the crevice, until the other returned with food,
whereupon the waiting parent would immediately dart off
in search of prey. I returned to this site on 20 and 21 May
1985 after completing a circuit to the north. There was no
further activity at the nest, but on 21 may a single
treecreeper, most likely C.f. mandelli although not posi-
tively identified was noted briefly in the vicinity high up
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
453
a conifer.
Habitat at this site is mixed montane forest of fir A.
spectabilis and birch Betula utilis with scattered maple
Acer sp., and a relatively open understorey of saplings,
shrubs and bamboo Ar undinar i. a spp.
C.f. mande lli ranges from the Kulu region of northwest
India across the Nepalese Himalaya to extreme western
Arunachal Pradesh (Tawang; Ali and Ripley 1973). Its
abundance has been variously reported as occasional
(Fleming etal. 1984), fairly common (Inskipp andlnskipp
1985), and common (Ah and Ripley 1973). However, few
breeding data exist for this treecreeper subspecies. Nest
building in an old fir stump at 3355 m was recorded by
Polunin on 19 April 1952 at Punga Lekh, Jumla district
(Inskipp and Inskipp 1985), Juveniles independent of
parents were collected at 3950 m and 4200 m in Khumbu,
East Nepal in June 1962 (Diesselhorst 1968). Thus, this
most recent breeding record is similar to those previously
noted with respect to nesting habitat, elevation, and tem-
poral activity.
Also on 9 May 1985, but further northwest of Dori
Lekh along the Khapar Khola, I noted nesting activity of
the Himalayan Treecreeper C. himalayana infuna near
Bumra village at about 2740 m. A single bird, presumably
Refer
Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1973): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Vol 9. Oxford University Press, Bombay and
London.
Diesselhorst, G. (1968): Beitrage zur Okologie der
Vogel Zentral-und-Ost-Nepals. Khumbu Himal .2: 1-417.
Fleming, R.L. SR., Fleming, R.L. JR., & Bangdal, L.S.
a female, was observed in an open riverside grove hitching
up a walnut Juglans regia tree with a beakful of short
yellow grass. A pursuing Sparrow Hawk Accipiter nisus
thrice attempted to grab her by clumsily manoeuvering
through the branches, but each time the treecreeper suc-
cessfully evaded the raptor by sidling around the walnut
trunk, until it flew off unnoticed.
The four certhiid species in Nepal all occur in the far
western region. However, the Brown-throated
Treecreeper C. discolor discolor and the Rusty-flanked
Treecreeper C. nepalensis are primarily eastern
Himalayan species, sparsely distributed at the western
limits of their ranges (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985). Niche
distinctions between the more common C.f. mandelli and
C. h. infima remain poorly understood, although the
former appears to favour higher altitude mixed conifer
forests where associated rhododendron Rhododendron
spp. is replaced with birch (Martens 1981, Inskipp and
Inskipp 1985). Clearly, further study of certhiid ecology
in western Nepal, especially breeding biology and factors
affecting competitive exclusion, is needed.
September 26, 1987. JACK H. COX
E N C E S
(1984): Birds of Nepal. Second edition. Avalok, Kathmandu.
Inskipp, C. & Inskipp, T. (1985): A Guide to the Birds of
Nepal. Croom Helm, London and Sydney.
Martens, J. (1981): Lautau Berungen der Baumlaufer
des Himalaya. Behaviour 77(4): 287-318.
30. FOREST WAGTAIL MOTACILLA INDICA
AT JASDAN, GUJARAT
On 19 November 1987 I saw a single Forest Wagtail This bird is a rare winter visitor to Gujarat.
Motacilla indica in my compound. The bird was seen
again on 21st and 22nd and I managed to catch it in a mist
net on 23 November 1987 and ring it (ring No. A. 39294). November 28, 1987. SATYAJIT KHACHAR
31. HOST PLANTS USED BY BAYA WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES (L.)
FOR NESTING IN UDAIPUR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN
During the breeding season of 1986, 1 surveyed some
parts of Udaipur District of Southern Rajasthan to study
the free preference of Ploceus philippinus for nesting. I
travelled on foot or cycle and sometimes by motorcycle
along the different roads in the district. I surveyed a 50 m
wide strip of land on either sides of the 200 km. long road
in different localities including some forest areas like the
Keora Ki Nall Reserve Forest and Banki Block of Udaipur
(south) Division and Jaisamand Wildlife Sanctuary. My
findings are as below (Tables 1 & 2).
12
454
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 1
DICOT HOST PLANTS USED FOR NESTING
Family of
Preferred
Number of
preferred plant
plant
plants used
for nesting
Capparidaceae
Capparis sepparia
l
Mellaceae
Azadirachta indica
2
Rhamnaceae
Zizyphus mauritiana
13
Leguminosae
Acacia nilotica var.
indica
98
Acacia leucophloea
39
Prosopis spicigera
6
Prosopis juliflora
2
Albizzia lebbek
1
Tamar indus indica
1
Butea monosperma
7
Bauhinia racemosa
2
Dichrostachys cinerea
2
Pithecolobium dulce
4
Ulmaceae
Holoptelia integrifolia
6
Moraceae
Ficus religiosa
1
Rutaceae
Aegle marmelos
1
Ebenaceae
Diosphyros cordifolia
2
Anacardiaceae
Lenia grandis.
2
Santalaceae
Santalum album
2
Anonaceae
Anona squamosa
1
SlMAROUBIACEAE
Ailanthus excelsa
2
Total: 12 families.
19 genera, 21 species.
195
Table 2
MONOCOT HOST PLANTS USED FOR NESTING
Family of
Preferred
Number of
preferred plant
plant
plants
used for nesting
Palmae
Phoenix silvestris
50
Gramineae
Dendrocalamus strictus
1
Total: 2 families.
2 genera,
2 species,
51 plants.
It can be seen from Table 1 that Acacia nilotica var.
of Forest, Udaipur (North) Division for his encourage-
indica is the most preferred plant for nesting followed by
ment. My thanks are also due to Mr Balvant Singh Kan-
Phoenix silvestris and Acacia leucophloea. It is also clear
thalia, Forester, and Mr.
Ajat Shatru Singh Bhatti,
from Tables 1 & 2 that a number of forest species can be
Forester, who have helped me in collection of some data.
selected for nesting.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Mr U.M. Sahai, I.F.S., Dy. Conservator
August 18, 1987.
SATIS HKUMAR SHARMA
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
455
32. HOST PLANTS USED BY BLACKTHROATED WEAVER BIRD
PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS FOR NESTING IN SOME DISTRICTS OF
RAJASTHAN AND HARYANA
Table 1
LIST OF AREAS STUDIED
State
District
Areas studied
Rajasthan Alwar
(i)
Alwar to Bharatpur border at
S.H. 14.
(ii)
120 ha. plantation area of
Forest Deptt. near village
Tatarpur (27 ° $47’N,76° $31’E)
(hi)
River Sabi from village Soda-
was to Sabi bridge.
Bharatpur
(i)
Alwar border to Bharatpur at
S.H. 14.
(h)
Halena to Bharatpur at N.H. 11.
(hi)
Some patches in Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur.
Sikar
(i)
Ringus to Sikar railway line.
Jaipur
(i)
Kotputli to Jaipur at N.H. 8.
Dungarpur
(i)
Almost whole district.
Haryana Mahendra Garh
(i)
Area of 200 m radius around
Station Mazri on Jaipur-
Delhi railway line.
(ii)
Rewari to Mahendra Garh railway
line.
Gurgaon
(NH = National Highway, SH = State Highway)
(i)
Rewari to Gurgaon railway line.
This note deals with a field study on the preferred
plants used by the Blackthroated Weaver Bird Ploceus
benghalensis for nesting. The preferred host plants were
surveyed in the many districts of Rajasthan namely Alwar,
Bharatpur, Sikar, Jaipur, Dungarpur, Chittor Garh,
Banswara and two districts of Haryana, Mahendra Garh
and Gurgaon.
Details of areas studied during the host plant survey
are given in Table 1 .
I concentrated my attention on 50 m wide strips of land
on either side of the roads, railway lines and main river
courses. A 50 m wide strip of land was also surveyed
around water bodies. My observations are as shown in
Table 2.
It is generally believed that Blackthroated Weaver
Birds use grasses and other grass like monocotyledons to
hang their non — pensile nests. But in cases of scarcity of
grasses and other grass-like monocots, Blackthroated
Weaver Birdshang their nests on 'dicots also as observed
near Rly. Station Mazri in Haryana. At this particular site
suitable tall grasses could not be traced. It is interesting to
note that at this particular site the birds hung their nests at
an average height of 1 m from ground level on dicot hosts,
similar to host grasses.
A detailed survey was conducted in district Chittor
Garh, Banswara and Udaipur in Rajasthan but no nesting
was observed.
July 30, 1987.
SATIS H KUMAR SHARMA
456
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Table 2
HOST PLANTS PREFERED FOR NESTING BY BLACKTHROATED WEAVER BIRD Ploceus benghalensis
Group of
Family
Preferred
No. of preferred plants/clumps used for nesting
plants
of
plant used for
in various districts in different breeding seasons
preferred plant
nesting
Alwar
Bharat-
Sikar Jaipur Dungarpur
Mahendra Gurgaon
pur
Garh
1982
1983
1987
1980
1987
1987 1987 1984
1987
1987
Monocots
Typhaceae
Typha ariguslata
1
3
6
.
.
.
..
Gramineae
Saccharum munja
85
91
61
74
76
96 4
-
40
65
S. sponlaneum
11
8
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
S. officinalis
-
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
Sorghum vulgare
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Penninsetum
typhoides
1
1
'
^ "
'
■
Dicots
Convoloulaeeae
Ipomoea fistula
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
Leguminosae
Acacia nilotica
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
Rhamnaceae
Zizypus jujuba
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
-■
Total:
5 families
7 genera, 9 species
98
104
61
81
76
96 4
7
40
65
33. HALF-BUILT NESTS OF BLACKTHROATED WEAVER BIRD
PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS WITH DOUBLE CHIN STRIPS
(with two text-figures)
Half built nests of Blackthroated Weaver Bird normal-
ly Ploceus benghalensis and other species of weaver birds
have only one chin strip, which creates two openings in
the half-built nest at helmet stage. During a survey in the
1983 breeding year in Alwar district of eastern Rajasthan.
I found 8 abnormal half-built nests of P. benghalensis in
clumps of Sac char um munja in different localities of this
district. Seven of these nests had double chin strips, while
the eighth was without a chin strip.
Each of the nests with double chin strips was observe
carefully. Each was formerly a normal nest with a single
chin strip, but perhaps due to rejection of the whole nest
or at least rejection of the egg - chamber (partial rejection)
by the female, former chin strips were darned by the cocks
with the ceiling of respective nests. Simultaneously they
prepared an additional chinstrip upwardly, parallel to the
original chin strip to create a new egg chamber within the
old nest. Once a nest is completed separate identity of
primary chin strip cannot be visualized.
August 18, 1987. SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
34. GREYNECKED BUNTING EMBERIZA BUCHAN ANI BLYTH SIGHTED NEAR
UDAIPUR, RAJASTHAN
On the outskirts of Udaipur city, Rajasthan, is a small
hill called ‘Neemach Mata’, which is surrounded by flat
land having open scrub. We were trekking in this area on
9 April 1987 and at about 1300 hrs, we noticed a bird of
House Sparrow size silently feeding on the ground under
the shade of an Acacia nilotica (Babul) tree. A few paces
away from the bird a male Crested Bunting Melophus
lathami was feeding on the ground. The distinct style of
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
457
PcLchin
strip
, Upwardly
extended part
the helmet
Egg chamber
Sec.chin
strip
New egg-
chambpr
Darned pri.chin
strip
-Old egg
chamber
Fig- 1: Half built nest of Ploceus benghalensis showing
formation of Secondary chin strip.
Fig. 2'Darnmg of first chin strip with selling of
nest is being looked in VS. view of haff
built nest of Ploceus benghalensis-
458
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
movement of the bird caught our attention from a distance
of about 50 m. On focussing our binoculars we were
surprised to find grey colour on the head and flanks of the
neck and a very distinct white ring around the eyes.
Moustachial streaks were also very prominent. The rest of
the body on ventral side was light brownish in colour. The
dorsal side was very much like that of a sparrow, but with
darker streaks on the folded wings meeting over the rump.
The tail was forked and during flight white coloration of
the outer retrices could be observed. Colour of the beak
brownish yellow and legs were almost brown. On 10 April
1 98,7 it was again seen at the same place feeding from 1 200
to 1 600 hrs. On intrusion it took refuge on the Babul tree.
We kept a watch over the bird’s activities and found it
feeding at the same place from 9 to 19 April 1987. There-
after it left the place. We consulted the HANDBOOK OF THE
BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (Compact Edition) (Ali &
Ripley) and concluded that the bird was a Greynecked
Bunting.
RAZATEHSIN
MANOJ KULSHRESHTHA
July 30, 1987. RAVINDER SINGH
35. FOUR ADDITIONS TO THE BIRDS OF KERALA
Out of the 300 and odd species of birds belonging to
the Order Charadriformes (waders, gulls, terns etc.), only
41 species are included in THE BIRDS OF KERALA by Salim
Ali (Oxford University Press, 1968). The status of some
among these 41 species is still quite uncertain. During a
study conducted in the Kadalundy estuary from Septem-
ber 1985 to June 1986, we discovered at least four species
hitherto unrecorded in Kerala. We have also earlier ob-
served 3 species recorded as very uncommon in Kerala
before.
Kadalundy is about 20 km south of Calicut,
(11° 05° N, 75° 51’E). Here the Kadalundy river
originating in the Karuvarakundu forests westof the Silent
Valley, joins the Arabian sea. The river mouth is blocked
in part by a coastal sandbar, thus forming a lagoon undis-
turbed by the turbulence of the sea. A railway line cuts
across the estuary. Our study was conducted mainly in the
60 acre wetland between the railway line and the sea.
During low tide, about 25 acres of mudflats become
exposed.
We paid about 45 visits to Kadalundy, jointly or
separately, between September 1985 and June 1986. We
observed in the study area more than 30 resident birds and
50 migrants. We did not attempt to identify several
warblers seen there. Of the birds not included in THE BIRDS
OF KERALA or reported later in J. Bombay nat. H ist. Soc.,
only those we could identify for certain are described in
this note.
Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis : Our most exciting
find in Kadalundy was the Sandwich Tern. There are only
two previous records of this bird in India. In 1958, Dhar-
makumarsinhji observed it near Varaval Coast in
Saurashtra {JBNHS 55: 35). In 1976, C.K. Krishnaprasad
of Cherai near Cochin shot a S andwich T em bearing a ring
put on it at Krasnovodsk Reserve, Krasnovodsk Gulf,
Caspian Sea, Turkmenian SSR, USSR.
The Sandwich Tern was first observed in Kadalundy
by one of us (LN) on 6 October. The bird was seen in fairly
large numbers during all our subsequent visits. From
January to March they were present in hundreds. On 10
March we estimated theirnumbers at 500. SandwichTems
were always seen along with Large Crested and other
terns, and sometimes in large mixed flocks of terns and
gulls. Never did we observe Sandwich Terns fishing in the
Kadalundy Estuary. It appeared that they went for fishing
to the open sea in the mornings and evenings and came to
the estuary to rest during the hot hours of the day. By about
0800 hrs one could see small parties of Sandwich Terns
coming from the west (the Arabian sea). By about 1600
hrs they flew back in the opposite direction. The black bill
with yellow tip and black legs were distinctly observed.
On 27 March there was a large number of Sandwich
Terns in Kadalundi. But they were absent on 5 and 19
April. Surprisingly, LN saw 4 SandwichTems on 1 June.
Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola : The Grey Plover has
not been recorded in Kerala and is not mentioned in THE
BIRDS OF KERALA. On 5 October, LN observed one Grey
Plover in Kadalundy. On 16 November there were 3, and
on 24 November, 10. Thereafter the Grey Plover was
regularly seen in Kadalundy in fairly large numbers. It was
last seen on 10 March. At times there were flocks of about
25 birds feeding or resting at the edge of the water,
sometimes even in water a few inches deep. Grey Plovers
always kept near the edge of the water, unlike Golden
Plovers, which were also seen in fairly large numbers, and
favoured the eastern half of the mudflats dotted with reeds
and a few emergent mangroves. We never observed any
interaction between these two plovers in Kadalundi.
PKU has taken pictures of Grey Plovers showing the
identification marks, black armpits and white rump, clear-
ly. We have also observed this bird in Calicut north and in
Badagara Sandbanks (40 km north of Calicut) and also in
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
459
the Azheekal estuary near Cannanore. Prof. K.K.
Neelakantan saw the Grey Plover near Trivandrum at
Perumathurai, a bird with vestiges of breeding plumage
on 6 October 1973 and a few at Poovar on 19 November
1978, 22 January 1979, and 28 January 1979 (Pers.
comm.). From these observations it can be safely deduced
that the Grey Plover is not an uncommon winter visitor to
the Kerala coast.
Dunlin Calidris alpina: Salim Ali says in THE BIRDS OF
KERALA, ‘ ‘No doubt the Dunlin Calidris alpina (Linnaeus)
also winters in Kerala with mixed flocks of small waders
on the sea coast, but has been overlooked.” From 7
November 1985 to 27 March 1986, the Dunlin was seen
regularly in Kadalundy. We have estimated 20-30 birds
feeding with other small waders like the Terek Sandpiper,
the Curlew Sandpiper, the Turnstone, the Lesser
Sandplover, the Kentish Plover, the Little Stint, and the
Temminck’s Stint. The Curlew Sandpiper and the Dunlin
were seen side by side and could easily distinguish them
by comparing the curvature of the bills. The bill of the
Dunlin is only slightly downcurved at its tip. This bird
used to feed all over the exposed mudflat. At least in
Kadalundy the Dunlin is a common winter visitor.
Bartailed Godwit Limosa lapponica: Neither the Black-
tailed nor the Bartailed Godwit has been recorded pre-
viously in Kerala. The Bartailed Godwit was first seen in
Kadalundy on 7 November. Its number was never high in
Kadalundy. On 15 November, 6 birds were observed, and
on 29 November LN saw 10. This was the largest number
ever seen. Usually Bartailed Godwits were seen resting
and preening among other waders, almost always near the
waterline and sometimes even in shallow water. On 8
December LN saw one Bartailed Godwit feeding in the
estuary. This species was not seen in Kadalundi after 23
December.
Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminkii: In THE BIRDS OF
KERALA, Salim Ali says: ‘ ‘Although the Temminck’s Stint
has not been recorded from Kerala, it is more than likely
that it occurs in winter along with the Little Stint”. The
occurrence of the Temminck’s Stint was recorded by Dr
A.J. Gaston from Cheruthuruthy, in Bharatapuzha
( JBNHS 2: 28). Even though we might have seen the
Temminck’s Stint earlier, we identified the bird first on 19
January. Along with the Little Stint was another bird of
the same size and with the same type of bill, but with
yellowish brown legs and brownish breast. We could also
note the white outer tail feathers.
As Temminck’s Stints always associated with Little
Stints, it was easy to estimate their approximate number,
which was definitely not very high. The Temminck’s Stint
was seen in Kadalundy till 5 April.
Oystercatcher Haemanlopus ostralegus : Even though
the Oystercatcher is included in THE BIRDS OF KERALA,
there are very few sight records of this bird in Kerala. It
was last reported by Jerdon from the Tellicherry coast. In
1 980 September LN saw a single Oystercatcher on Calicut
beach for a few days.
On 15 September 1985, all three of us were watching
birds in the Kadalundy es aiary. On that day, with the
migration at its peak, the estuary was teeming with waders,
including a number of curlews and Whimbrels. By about
1030 hrs two Oystercatchers appeared in the shallow
waters in the western part of the estuary. After staying
there for only a few minutes, the birds took to their wings,
presumably disturbed by passing country boats. Within
those few minutes during which we could observe them,
PKU took a few pictures of the Oystercatchers clear
enough for record purposes. Later in the season LN and
C. Sasikumar of Cannanore saw 5 Oystercatchers in the
Azheekal estuary near Cannanore, but they were not seen
at Kadalundy after 15 September. Sasikumar has since
regularly seen Oystercatchers in Azheekal. The largest
number seen by him was 14 (pers. comm.).
Lesser Blackbacked Gull Larus fuscus: According to
THE BIRDS OF KERALA, there is only one record of the
Lesser Blackbacked Gull from the Kerala coast.
Throughout the migration season, thousands of gulls occur
at Kadalundy estuary. On 12 January, in the midst of a
large flock of Brownheaded Gulls and Lesser Black-
headed Gulls, six large sized gulls with dark mantles were
seen. The Lesser Blackbacked Gull was seen again on 25
January and on 2 February. This gull is only an occasional
visitor to the Kadalundy estuary, like the Great Black-
headed Gull seen for a few days in March.
In variety and concentration of birds, especially of
waders and terns, the Kadalundi estuary surpasses any
similar area we have seen in Kerala. Surely it is a unique
bird habitat, and, as such, it has to be properly protected.
We persuaded the district administration to put up a notice
board prohibiting the shooting of birds in Kadalundy, but
a lot more remains to be done by was of research and
conservation action. We are grateful for the financial
assistance provided by the Dept, of Environment, Govt,
of India.
L. NAMASSIVAYAN
P.K. UTHAMAN
July 17, 1987. R. VENUGOPALAN
460
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
36. SOME OBSERVATIONS OF SCARCE BIRDS IN KERALA AND TAMIL NADU
In January and February 1985 we, together with N.
Simpson, visited southern India to watch birds. A variety
of habitats was visited and in particular our attention was
concentrated on the endemic avifauna (Harrap and Red-
man in prep.). Observations were also made of four
species which are scarce or previously unrecorded in
Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and these are documented below.
The opportunity has also been taken to include recent
related records by other observers (all records are the
authors’ unless otherwise indicated).
Red winged Crested Cuckoo Clamator coromandus :
One was seen 16 Km west of Munnar, Kerala, on 31
January 1985 near the Cochin road at about 1000 m on the
southern flanks of the High Range. It was moving slowly
through ground-storey vegetation in evergreen forest.
Its status in the peninsula is ‘very imperfectly known
or understood’ (Ali & Ripley 1983). For Kerala, Ali
(1969) gives a suite of records indicating that it is a scarce
but regular winter visitor throughout the state. Our sight-
ing fits well with this pattern.
Kashmir Redbreasted Flycatcher Muscicapa subrubra:
A male was seen by R. Grimmett and C. Robson at
Ootacamund (Ooty) in the Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Nadu, at
about 2250 m on the edge of a relict stand of montane
forest amidst pine and eucalyptus plantations on 4 and 5
February 1984, and a female was seen there on the latter-
date. Two males were observed by us at the same site on
8 February 1985, with another two males 3 km away on
the edge of scrub adjacent to the Avalanche road. Finally,
a male was observed at the original Ooty site by K.
Derbyshire and J. Eames on 10 December 1986.
The males were easily distinguished from Redbreasted
Flycatcher M. parva by extensive orange-red on the
throat, breast and upper belly, bordered by a black line
along the lower edge of the ear coverts and the sides of the
breast, extending diffusely onto the flanks. Notably, the
head and mantle were smoky blue-grey and the bill con-
spicuously pinkish-orange, only slightly darker along the
culmen, features not adequately covered by Ali & Ripley
(1983) where the male is described as dark grey-brown
above and the bill brown, with only the lower mandible
yellow. •
The Kashmir Redbreasted Flycatcher winters in Sri
Lanka above about 750 m in gardens, tea estates, borders
of forest etc., but is scarce on passage in the peninsula and
apparently not previously recorded in Tamil Nadu or
Kerala (Ali & Ripley 1983). The presence of birds at Ooty
in three different years indicates that the species
wintersregularly in the Nilgiris, and perhaps the whole of
the Western Ghats complex. Why it should have been
previously unrecorded is not clear, though S.C. Madge (in
litt.) notes that some males are poorly marked and easily
passed off as M. parva.
Tytler’s Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus tytleri : Two birds
were observed above Vagavurrai, 20 km northeast of
Munnar, Kerala on 2 February 1985 at about 2000 m on
the slopes bordering the Eravikulam Plateau. They were
feeding actively in the middle-storey on the edge of a
shola. Due to the difficulties of identifying Phylloscopus
warblers, their appearance will be discussed in detail.
Description: Size and shape similar to a Dull Green
Leaf Warbler P. trochiloides (i.e. about 10 cm). Crown,
mantle, rump and wing coverts dull olive-grey. A narrow
but well-defined whitish supercilium contrasted with the
dark eyestripe. Remiges and rectrices dark olive-brown,
on one individual fringed bright olive-green. Underparts
off-white lightly sullied with grey, and with a touch of
yellow in the centre of the breast and on the undertail
coverts. Bill not noticeably long, but slender, blackish and
with a very small pale base to the lower mandible. Legs
mid- to pale grey. Call a hoarse, squeaky huweest.
Discussion: In fresh plumage, Tytler’s Leaf Warbler is
greyish-olive above, remiges and rectrices dark brown
fringed with olive-green, underparts yellowish-white
streaked brighter yellow. In first winter plumage they are
greener above and yellower below. Worn birds are grey-
brown above and dirty white below (Ticehurst 1938,
Williamson 1967, Inskipp & Inskipp 1985). Particularly,
in worn plumage, confusion is possible with Largebilled
P. magnirostris , Dull Green P. trochiloides and Bright
Green Leaf Warblers P. (t.) nitidus , all of which are
common winter visitors to peninsular India. All three
species can be excluded by a combination of the following
characters:
1. Absence of wingbar. The three species show a
narrow pale wingbar on the tips of the greater coverts,
although in worn plumage this may be absent. The bright
green fringes to the remiges of one of the Vagavurrai birds
indicate that these feathers and their coverts were relative-
ly fresh and unabraded and that they did not therefore
show wingbars in fresh plumage.
2. Slender, all-dark bill. Inskipp & Inskipp (1985)
state that a more slender and all-darkish bill separates
Tytler’s from a worn Dull Green Leaf Warbler, and indeed
Dull Green (of the forms ludlowi and viridanus) and
Bright Green Leaf Warblers always show a prominent pale
base to the lower mandible. However, P. t. trochiloides ,
which is rare south of the Gangetic plain, can show a
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
461
predominantly dark lower mandible (pers. obs. and R.
Grimmett pers. comm.). Interestingly in this context,
Alexander (1955) gives details of Dull Green Leaf
Warblers seen at Ootacamund with all-darkish bills. The
Largebilled Leaf Warbler has a long and stout bill, the
lower mandible with a variable pale base, although usually
darker in the breeding season and dark in skins (Ticehurst
1938). Statements in the literature that Ty tier’s Leaf
Warbler has a very long bill appear to be erroneous; it is
only marginally, if at all, longer than that of the dull Green
Lei Warbler (12-14 mm for Tytler’s, 11.5-14.5 mm for
Dull Green (Ticehurst 1938, Williamson 1967). The
slender profile is, however, distinctive.
3. Call — all three species can be excluded by call.
The Largebilled Leaf Warbler has a very distinctive,
stereotyped call (Ali & Ripley 1983 and pers. obs.). Bright
and Dull Green Leaf Warblers share very similar, une-
quivocally disyllabic calls, achee — wee or tiss — yip (Dean
1985 and pers. obs.). Unfortunately we are unfamiliar with
the call of Tytler’s Leaf Warbler, which is usually
described as a single feeble note and a double y — it (In-
ski pp & Inskipp 1985).
The winter range of Tytler’s Leaf Warbler is poorly
known, but the few records include two from the Nilgiris
and it is generally believed to comprise the Western Ghats
complex (Ali & Ripley 1983). Our observations support
this hypothesis. The difficulty of identifying birds in their
winter quarters perhaps explains the dearth of records.
Refer
Alexander, H.G. (1955): Field -notes on some Asian leaf
warblers - 1 Brit. Brids 48: 293 - 99.
Ali, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Second Edition. Delhi.
& Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds
of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press,
Delhi.
Dean, A.R. (1985): Review of the British status and
Dark Thrush T urdus obscurus: One was seen on 4
February 1984 by C. Robson at Ootacamund at about 2250
m in a relict stand of montane forest amidst pine and
eucalyptus plantations. One was seen on 23 January 1985
by SCH at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu, in scrub immedi-
ately inland of the coast. The combination of a prominent
pale supercilium and variable buff or peachy flanks and
breast and distinguish this thrush.
The Dark Thrush is a common winter visitor to the
Indian subcontinent from Bangladesh eastwards. The
above records appear to be the first from Tamil Nadu but,
together with four recent winter records from Nepal (In-
skipp & Inskipp 1985) and a record from northwest Kar-
nataka (Ali & Ripley 1983), may indicate that the species
is a rare, but regular straggler to other parts of the subcon-
tinent.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank R. Grimmett and C. Robson
for their expert advice in planning our trip and provision
of their records. J. Eames also supplied us with details of
his observations and S.C. Madge kindly commented on a
draft of this note.
S.C. HARRAP
October 29, 1987. NJ. REDMAN
E N C E S
identification of Greenish Warbler. Brit. Birds 78: 437 - 451.
Inskipp, C, & Inskipp, T. (1985): A guide to the birds of
Nepal, London.
Ticehurst, C.B. (1938): A systematic review of the genus
Phylloscopus. London.
Williamson, K. (1967): Identification for ringers, 2. The
genus Phylloscopus. Revised Edition. Tring, U.K.
37. ADDITIONAL RECORD ON MORTALITY FROM HAILSTORM AT JAIPUR
On 8 May 1987, at around 1630 hrs, a heavy hailstorm
hit some parts of Jaipur city, Rajasthan. The effect of this
hailstorm, which lasted more than an hour, was very
severe inside the campus of Rajasthan University at
Jaipur. The weight of the hailstones Varied from 100 to
150 gm. Considerable damage was caused to the fauna and
flora of this area. A number of trees like Polyalthia lon-
gifolia, Delonix regia. Cassia fistula, Azardirachta indica
were damaged. The next morning we recorded dead
bodies of several species of common birds and some
mamals. They were Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus. Red
wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus. Common Myna-
Acridotheres tristis, Rosering ed Parakeet Psittacula
krameri. Ringdove Streptopelia decaocto. Blue Rock
Pigeon Columba livia. House Crow Corvus splendens.
House Sparrow Passer domesticus. Spotted Owlet Athene
bramma and Five-striped Palm Squirrel Funambuluspen-
nanti.
B. RAM MANOHAR
October 18, 1987. M. RAJASEKARAN
462
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 86
38. CATTERPILLAR IN DIET OF HOUSE GECKO
The food of the House Gecko Hemidactylus
flaviviridis consists mainly of insects. Smaller insects are
swallowed whole, whereas larger victims are battered to
death and then eaten (The Book OF INDIAN REPTILES, J.C.
Daniel, p. 36). The gecko has been observed catching
moths, butterflies and a variety of insects.
In the evening of 15 February 1988 a gecko was
hunting insects on a wall adjacent to a bed of chrysan-
themum flowers, when it noticed a black caterpillar with
yellow spots on one of the plants very close to the wall.
Without much difficulty it caught the caterpillar and swal-
lowed it. This is the first such instance noticed by me.
April 11, 1989. ARUNM.K. BHAROS
39. REDISCOVERY OF HOLOTYPE OF TROPIDONOTUS STRIOLATUS
BLYTH, 1868 (SERPENTES: COLUBRIDAE) IN THE COLLECTION OF THE
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA
(With a plate )
Tropidonotus striolatus was described by Blyth
(1868), based on a single well-preserved specimen of
colubrid snake from the Andaman Islands, collected by
Capt. Col. R.C. Tytler. Although currently considered a
synonym of Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider 1799),
Theobald (1868) in his “Catalogue of the Reptiles in the
Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal’ ’ considered the
species as distinct and gave a detailed description of the
species. Later Theobald (1876 : 175 — 176), in his
“Descriptive Catalogue of the Reptiles of British India’’
again supported the separate status of the species based on
this type.
Smith (1943), who examined the entire collection of
the Indian Museum, Calcutta, prior to this publication,
called attention to the fact that the type of Tropidonotus
striolatus later synonymised with Xenochrophis piscator
was lost. The purpose of this communication is to an-
nounce the rediscovery of the holotype of Tropidonotus
striolatusBlyth in the collection of the Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta.
The holotype was originally deposited in the collection
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (A.S.B. 46 a), which
became a part of the collections of the Indian Museum
(Calcutta) in 1 880 as I.M. 7402. The zoological accessions
in the Natural History section of the Indian Museum were
then transferred to the Zoological Survey of India, Calcut-
ta, in July 1916. The holotype is an adult male from the
Andaman Islands which was catalogued in volume II of
the Register of Presentations to the Indian Museum on 20
August 1880 with the registration No. 7402 (A.S.B. 46 a).
The standing of this specimen as the type of Tropidonotus
striolatus must now be examined. The evidence concern-
ing the type status of the specimen is as follows:
i) The registration register and the label afford the
biomen Tropidonotus striolatus , and the accession to the
Indian Museum collection of the specimen on 20 August
1880, is consistent with the date on which the species was
described (1868).
ii) There is a specific entry ‘Type’ in the registration
register against the accession number.
iii) The holotype agrees well with B ly th’ s original descrip-
tion of the species, and the data on the label and the
registration number are consistent.
iv) Further evidence of critical number is provided by
thefollowing statements in the Annual Report for 1910 —
1 1 ofthe Indian Museum (Annandale 1911):
“The following ‘Type’ specimens of new genera and
species, subspecies and varieties have been added to the
collection of the Indian Museum during the year:
Reptilia
Tropidonotus piscator type of Tropidonotus striolatus Blyth.
This type was deposited in the Indian Museum in the
spirit of the resolution adopted at a Conference as regards
Museums in India, held in Calcutta during December
1907, ‘that all zoological types in India shall be deposited
in the Indian Museum’ (Anonymous 1908)’’
In view of Smith’s categorical statement that the type
of Tropidonotus striolatus Blyth was lost, it was con-
sidered necessary to draw the attention of herpetologists
to the continued existence of the type.
The holotype of Tropidonotus striolatus , presently
known as Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider) from the
Andaman Islands, was described as having 19 rows of
keeled scales, 141 ventrals, 85 subcaudals, one pre — and
3 or 4 postoculars, 9 supralabials, one large and square
loreal; the anal is divided. The specimen (ZSIC 7402) in
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
463
our collection has the same pholidosis, clearly indicating
that this is the same Andaman specimen. It is still in a fairly
good state of preservation. Its current taxonomic status is:
Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider)
Hydrus piscator Schneider, 1799, Hist. Amph., 1 : 247
(East Indies; based on Russell’s “Neeli Koea”).
Tropidonotus striolatus Blyth, 1868, in Theobald’s
Cat. Rept. Mus. Asiat. Soc.: 55 (Andaman Islands), and
Rept. Brit. India, 1876: 175.
Natrix piscator piscator Smith, 1940, Rec. Indian
Mus., 42: 383.
Material examined: Holotype an adult male, 1020 mm
in standard (snout — vent) length, tail 300 mm; loc., An-
Refer
Anonymous (1908): Report of the Conference as regards
Museums in India, held in Calcutta from 27 to 3 1 December 1907.
Annandale, N. (1911): Indian Museum Annual
Report,42: 1-27.
Blyth, E. (1868):/n: W. Theobald, Catalogue of the
Reptiles in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal./. Asiat.
Soc. Beng., extra number, 1868: 55.
Theobald, W. (1868): Catalogue of the Reptiles in the
daman Islands (India); Coll. Capt. Col. R.C. Tytler;
Zoological Survey of India Regd. No. 7402 (46 a A.S.B.).
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta, for the laboratory facilities provided to
examine the type material, and to Dr Herndon G. Dowling,
Herpetologist and Professor of Biology, New York
University, for critically reviewing the manuscript and for
his valuable suggestions.
S.K. TALUKDAR
D.P. SANYAL
January 25, 1989. B. DUTTAGUPTA
N C E S
Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 88 + iii pp., pis. /. Asiat.
Soc. Beng., extra number, Calcutta.
(1876): Descriptive Catalogue of the
Reptiles of British India. Calcutta. 238 pp., Synopsis, pp. i-
xxxviii. Appendix, pp. i-xiii.
Smith, M.A. (1943): The fauha of British India including
Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia, III (Serpentes), xii +
583 pp., Taylor & Francis (London).
40. ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF FISH FROM MIZORAM, INDIA
The state of Mizoram is surrounded by Assam to the
north, Manipur and Burma to the east and south, Tripura
and Bangladesh to the west, whose fish fauna is fairly well
known. This note is based on the fish collected during the
faunistic survey of the Teirei river and its tributaries
undertaken by the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
under the leadership of Dr Shyamrup Biswas, Zoologist,
inFebruary-March 1984. A total of 17 species comprising
73 examples belonging to 14 genera, 8 families and 5
orders have been recorded.
The taxonomic account is arranged on the lines
adopted in Jayaram (1981). The distribution of the species
is given by Jayaram (loc. cit). Lengths of the species given
in the note are standard lengths.
TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT
Order CYPRINIFORMES
Family Cyprinidae
Genus Esomus Swainson
Esomusdanricus (Hamilton)
Cyprinus danrica Hamilton, 1822./7L/z. Ganges: 325,
390; pi. 16, fig. 88 (type-locality: ponds and ditches of
Bengal).
Nuria danrica Day 1889, Fauna Br. India, Fish. 1: 334.
Material:
(i) 2 exs., 35 mm, 46 mm; 26 February 1984.
(ii) 3 exs., 42 mm, 48 mm; 27 February 1984.
This larvicidal fish is provided with a lateral line which
pierces only 4-6 anterior scales. This fish is popularly
called “Flying Barb’’. It is also known from Malaya and
Thailand.
Genus Danio Hamilton
Danio (Danio) aequipinnatus (McClelland)
Perilampus aequipinnatus McClelland, 1839, Asiat. Res.
19(2): 393, pi. 60, fig. 1 (type — locality : Assam)
Danio (Danio) aequipinnatus Hora & Mukerji, 1934, Rec.
Indian Mus. 36(1): 133 (synoptic table to species of the subgenus
Danio).
464
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Material: 3 exs., 48 mm to 60 mm; 27 February 1984.
Hora & Mukerji (1934) gave a synopsis not only of the
Indian and Burmese species of Danio then known, but also
of Brachydanio. In this synopsis Danio aequipinnatus
(McClelland), Danio strigillifer Myers and D.
malabaricus Jerdon are shown as three distinct species.
Hora & Nair (1941) synonymised D. strigillifer and D.
malabaricus with D . aequipinnatus. Mukerji (1934) again
synonymised D. browni Regan withD. aequipinnatus.
This species has a preorbital spinous process directed
backwards at the anterior rim of the orbit derived from the
lachrymal bone.
Danio (Brachydanio) rerio (Hamilton)
Cyprinus rerio Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges: 323, 390
(type — locality : R. Kosi).
Danio (Brachydanio) rerio, Hora & Mukerji, 1934, Rec.
Indian Mus. 36(1) : 130, 131 (synoptic table to species of the
subgenus Brachydanio).
Material:
9 exs., 21 mm to 23 mm; 27 February 1984.
This species in this area entirely lacks the lateral line
and shows a tendency towards the reduction in number of
anal fin rays 12-15 v. the normal 15-16.
Genus Rasbora Bleeker
Rasbora daniconius daniconius (Hamilton)
Cyprinus daniconius Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges : 327, pi.
15, fig. 89 (type-locality : rivers of southern Bengal) Rasbora
daniconius Day, 1878 ,Fish. India: 584, pi. 146, fig. 2.
Material:
(i) 13 exs., 28 mm to 74 mm; 26 February 1984.
(ii) 5 exs., 43 mm to 65 mm; 27 February 1984.
Seven out of the 18 specimens of this species have an
incomplete lateral line extending either up to the base of
anal fin or between it and base of the caudal fin. The
specimens also show a marked increase in the number of
dorsal and anal fin rays. Dorsal fin rays 10 (ii, 8) v. the
normal 9 (ii, 7) and anal fin rays vary from 8 to 9 (ii-iii,
6) v. the normal 7 (ii, 5).
Genus Amblypharyngodon Bleeker
Amblypharyngodon mola (Hamilton)
Cyprinus mola Hamilton, 1822 ,Fish. Ganges: 334, 392, pi.
38, fig. 92 (type — locality : ponds and freshwater rivers in every
part of the Gangetic provinces).
Amblypharyngodon mola Day, 1889, Fauna Br. India, Fish
1: 291, fig. 101.
Material: 3 exs., 41 mm to 49 mm; 26 February 1984.
Lateral lines of these specimens pierce upto 14-15
anterior scales. Anal fins show a marked increase in the
number of rays 9-10 (iii, 6-7) v normal 7 (ii, 5) and dorsal
fin rays 9-10 (ii, 7-8) v. the normal 9 (ii, 7).
Genus Barilius Hamilton
Barilius barila (Hamilton)
Cyprinus barila Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges: 267 , 384
(type — locality : rivers of northern Bengal)
Barilius barila Day, 1878, Fish. India: 594, pi. 149, fig. 4.
Material:
2 exs., 91 mm, 105 mm; 27 February 1984.
Day (1878) described this species as having only one
pair of rostral barbels. It has two pairs of barbels — a
rostral pair equal to half of eye diameter and a maxillary
pair shorter than the rostral pair. Hora (1921) has already
recorded this species with two pairs of barbels from
Manipur.
Genus Puntius Hamilton
Puntius chola (Hamilton)
Cyprinus chola Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges: 312, 389
(type — locality: northeastern parts of Bengal).
Barbus chola Day, 1878, Fish. India: 571, pi. 142, fig. 4.
Material:
3 exs., 43 mm to 57 mm; 26 February 1984.
Chaudhury (191 1) recorded this species from Yunnan
Province, China. Generally a dark blotch is present be-
tween the 21st and 23rd scales on the lateral line besides
a dark mark at the base of anterior dorsal fin ray.
Puntius sophore (Hamilton)
Cyprinus sophore Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges: 310, 389
(type-locality: ponds of Bengal)
Barbus stigma Day, 1878, Fish. India: 579, pi. 141, fig. 5.
Material :
1 ex., 19 mm; 26 February 1984.
Chaudhury (1916) clarified the errors in Hamilton’s
original description of this species in respect of the barbels
and also the erroneous identification of Day (1878) of
material not referable to this species at all. P. sophore is
without barbels and is a common species throughout India,
there is no justification for retaining P. stigma without
barbels as a separate species. As the name sophore has
priority over stigma the latter is synonymised
The specimen has a dark blotch, more or less distinct
at the base of the caudal fin.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
465
Funtius ticto ticto (Hamilton) Mystus bleekeri (Day)
Cyprinus ticto Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges: 314, 389, pi.
8, fig. 87 (Type-locality: southern parts of Bengal) Barbus ticto
Day, 1889, Fauna Br. India, Fish 1: 325.
Material:
1 ex., 40 mm; 26 February 1984.
The specimen has an incomplete lateral line which is
perforated only up to the 7th anterior scale. A dark spot is
present on the third and fourth scales and a second dark
spot above the lateral line over the 18 — 20 scales.
Family Cobitidae
Genus Botia Gray
Botia (Botia) dario (Hamilton)
Cobitis dario Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges: 354, 394, pi.
29, fig. 95 (type — locality : northern nvers of Bengal).
Botia dario Day, 1878, Fish. India: 606, pi. 154, fig. 1.
Material:
1 ex., 52 mm; 1 March 1984.
Hamilton (1822) described this species along with
Botia geto from north Bengal. Gunther (1868 : 366)
regarded B. geto as a young form of B. dario. Hora (1932
: 573) considered B. geto as a juvenile form of B. dario.
Comparison of a large series of specimens of the two
species show that the different colour pattern of the two
species is very closely related with each other and hence
has no specific value. It is relevant to mention here that B.
geto of Day’s later works (1878, 1889) is a different
species and was described by Hora (1932) as Botia dayi.
The single specimen of this species in this collection
has seven vertical broad bands.
Genus Lepidocephalus Bleeker
Lerpidocephalus (Lepidocephalichthys) guntea (Hamilton)
Cobitis guntea Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges : 353, 394
(type — locality: ponds and freshwater rivers of Bengal)
Lepidocephalichthys guntea Day, 1878, Fish. India: 609, pi.
155, fig. 4
Material:
(i) 11 exs., 41 mm to 54 mm; 26 February 1984
(ii) 1 ex., 52 mm; 27 February 1984
Order siluriformes
Family Bagridae
Genus Mystus Scopoli
Bagrus keletius (nec. Valenciennes) Bleeker, 1846, Nat.
Geneesk Arch. Ned. Ind (2) 3: 135 (type — locality : Bengal)
Mystus bleekeri Day, 1878, Fish. India: 451, pi. 101, fig. 1
(new name ior Bagrus keletius Bleeker)
Material:
1 ex., 97 mm; 26 February 1984
Fainily Heteropneustidae
Genus Heteropneustes Muller
Heteropncustesfossilis (Bloch)
Silurus fossilis Bloch, 1794, Naturg. Ausland. Fische 8: 46,
pi. 370, fig. 2 (type — locality : Tranquebar)
Saccobranchus fossilis Day, 1889, Fauna Br. India, Fish 1:
125, fig. 53.
Material:
(i) 1 ex., 1 10 mm; 26 February 1984.
(ii) 1 ex., 127 mm; 27 February 1984.
Order ATHERINIFORMES
Family Cyprinodontidae
Genus Aplocheilus McClelland
Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton)
Esox panchax Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges: 211, 380, p. 3,
fig. 69 (type — locality : ditches and ponds of Bengal)
1 1 aplocheilus panchax Day, 1878 , Fish. India: 523, pi. 121,
fig. 3.
Material:
2 exs., 33 mm, 37 mm; 26 February 1984.
It is a widely distributed species of the Oriental region.
Order CHANNIFORMES
Family Cuannidae
Genus Channa Scopoli
Channa punctatus (Bloch)
Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch, 1793, Naturg. Ausland. Fis-
che 7: 139, pi. 358 (type — locality : Malabar coast)
Ophiocephalus punctatus Day, 1 878, Fish India: 367, pi. 78,
fig. 1.
Material:
3 exs., 95 mm to 1 10 mm; 27 February 1984.
Order PERCIFORMES
Family Nandldae
Genus Badis Bleeker
Badis badis (Hamilton)
Lambrus badis Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges: 70, 368, pi.
466
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
28, fig. 23 (type — locality: ponds and ditches throughout the
Gangetic provinces)
Badis huchanani Day, 1878, Fish. India: 128, pi. 31, fig. 6.
Material:
(i) 2 exs., 37 mm, 38 mm; 26 February 1984.
(ii) 1 ex., 50 mm; 1 March 1984.
Family Gobiidae
Genus Glossogobius Gill
Glossogobius giuris giuris (Hamilton)
Gobius giuris Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges: 51, 366, pi. 33,
fig. 15 (type — locality : ponds and freshwater rivers of Gangetic
Provinces)
Gobius giuris Day, 1878, Fish. India: 294, pi. 66, fig. 1.
Refer
CHAUDHURY, B.L. (1911): Contribution to the fauna of
Yunnan based on collections made by J. Coggin Brown, 1909-
1910. Part II, Fishes. Rec. Indian Mus. 6: 13-24.
(1913): Zoological results of the Abor
Expedition, 1911-12, Fish, ibid 8: 243-257.
(1916): Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Fish
(part 1 )Mem. Indian Mus. 5: 405-439.
Day, F. (1 878): The fishes of India; being a natural history
of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India,
Burma and ceylon. Text and atlas in 4 parts. London, xx + 778,
195 pis.
(1889): The Fauna of British India, in-
cluding Ceylon and Burma. Fishes. London 1: pp. i-xviii, 1-548,
164 figs.; 2: pp. i-xiv, 1-509, 177 figs.
Gunther, A. (1 868): Catalogue of the fishes in the British
Museum 7: pp. i-xx, 1-512. Taylor and Fracis, London.
Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in
the river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh and London, pp.
i-viii + 405, 39 pis.
Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with
some observations on those of the Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus.
22: 165-214.
(1924): Fish of the Siju cave, Garo Hills,
Assam, ibid 26: 27-31.
(1932): Notes on fishes in the Indian
Museum, xix. On a new loach of the genus Botia, with remarks
on B. dario (Ham.-Buch). ibid.J4: 571-573.
(1936): On further collection of fish from
the Naga Hills, ibid 38: 317-331.
Material:
3 exs., 60 mm, 74 mm; 26 February 1984.
It is one of the most widely distributed species of the
Oriental region.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr B .K. Tikader, Director and Dr Ashis
Ghosh, Deputy Director, Zoological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta, for giving me the opportunity of working the
material for taxonomic assessment. I am also thankful to
Dr K.C. Jayaram, Joint Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta, for his constant guidance.
August 17, 1984 R.P. BARMAN
E N C E S
& Mukerji, D.D. (1934): Notes on fishes
in the Indian Museum. XXII. On a collection of fish from the S.
Shan States and the Pegu Yomas, Burma, ibid 36: 123-138.
(1935): Fish and fisheries of the Naga
Hills, Assam, ibid. 37: 381-404.
&Nair, K.K. (1941): Fishes of the Satpura
Range, Hoshangabad district. Central provinces, ibid 43: 361-
373.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. A handbook. Govt,
of India, pp. t-xii + 1-475, pis. 13.
& Majumdar, N. (1964): On a collection
of fish from the Kameng Frontier Division, N.E.F.A. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 264-280.
Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish
fauna of Manipur state. Rec. Indian Mus. 52: 21-26.
Mukerji, D.D. (1934): Report on Burmese fishes col-
lected by Lt. Col. R.W. Burton from the tributary streams of the
Mali Hka river of the Myitkyina district (Upper Burma) J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(1): 38-80 (Part II).
Pillai, R.S. & Yazdani, G.M. (1977): Ichthyofauna of
Garo Hills, Meghalaya (India). Rec. Indian Mus. 72: 1-22.
Srivastava, C.B. (1966): On a collection of fishes from
Tirap Frontier Division, N.E.F.A., India. J. Tiool. Soc. India 18(1
& 2): 122-128.
Yazdani, G.M. (1976): Fishes of the Khasi Hills,
Meghalaya (India) with observations on their distributional pat-
tern. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 17-28.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
467
41. A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD FOR ISO NATALENSIS (REGAN, 1919)
(PISCES: ISONIDAE) FROM THE BAY OF BENGAL
During a study of rock-pool fishes at Visakhapatnam
on the east coast of India, we collected the fish Iso natalen-
sis, which has so far been recorded only from the south —
east coast of Africa. The fish conforms to the description
and figure given by Smith (1961: 324). The fishes of this
family are commonly called silver-sides.
Material examined : 49 (22.5-42 mm SL)
(a) 1 sp., 35 mm SL: 16 Nov 1978
(b) 6 sp., 22.5-29.5 mm SL: 30 Nov 1978
(c) 21 sp., 29.5-37 mm SL: 28 June 1979
(d) 21 sp., 31.5-42 mm SL: 10 July 1979
Description: D. ffl-VI; I 12-16; P 12-14; V I 5; AI
21-28; C 15; gill rakers 3-4 + 1-10-12(1 ray on each arm
sometimes rudimentary), lateral series of scales 45-50;
L.tr. 5/1/6-7.
As percentage of standard length: Total legnth 1 15.3—
127.9; body depth 22.0-28.6; head length 19.6-25.0;
snout length 5.4— 9.5; eye diameter 7.1-10.0; interorbital
7.9-10.9; pectoral length 13.5-18.8; ventral length 8.0-
11.7; distance to first dorsal 44.3°. 0; to second dorsal
63.3-71.9; pre-pectoral distance 23.0-28.6; pre-ventral
distance 33.3-39.6; pre-anal distance 52.4-60.0.
As percentage of head length: Snout 25.0-37.5; eye
diameter 30.0—42.9; inter-orbital distance 35.3-48.0;
post-orbital 3 1 .3-43 .8 .
Body elongate, compressed, deepest at pectoral origin.
Mouth small, slightly oblique, villiform teeth in both jaws
and on vomers and palatines; outer single row of teeth in
both jaws elongated and curved. Teeth on upper jaw are
visible even when the mouth is closed. Maxillary reaching
below anterior margin of pupil. Pre-opercular margins
and angle finely serrated, opercle smooth, post-opercular
margins and angle finely serrated, opercle smooth, post-
orbital less than half in head length; spines of fins weak.
Second spine of the first dorsal longest; second dorsal rays
longer than spines. Pectoral high up, reaching middle of
ventral. Ventrals short. Ventralmostrow of scales between
ventral and anal fins larger than those immediately above
them and the three scales of either side between vent and
anal fin are fused. Anal spine shorter than rays. Caudal
forked, lobes rounded. A minute, cartilaginous
protruberance beyond vent. Scales ctenoid, thin and high-
ly deciduous. Head, belly upto vent naked. Pre-dorsal
scales present.
Colour: A broad silvery band along the body from
pectoral base to slightly beyond middle of caudal
peduncle, with a silvery blotch at base of caudal fin. The
band is bordered above by a narrow grey-green stripe with
iridescence. Above and below the band, the body is trans-
lucent in life, becoming opaque after death. On dorsal side
Table 1
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN Iso natalensis AND I. flosindicus
S.No. Character Iso flosindicus Herre, 1944, Iso natalensis Smith, 1965 Iso natalensis, material
observed 1979
1.
Teeth on vomer
Not seen?
Few each side
Patch of teeth on each
side
2.
Teeth outside closed mouth
Yes
Upper front
On upper jaw
3.
Dorsals
III-IV - 1 13-15
IV-VI - 1 13-17
III- VI - 1 12—16
4.
Anal
121—24
121—27
I 21—28
5.
Pectoral
?
12—13
12—14
6.
Number of lateral
series of scales
40-44
About 60
45-52
7.
Gill rakers
3 + 10
3-4+1+10+12
3-4+1+10-12
8.
Body depth in standard length
3.3-3.53
3. 6-4.6
3.09-4.21
468
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
of head there is a violet blotch. From between the middle
of the eyes in the anterior half is an unpigmented spot
which later becomes conspicuous after preservation. Dor-
sal surface of snout dusky. Maxilla, cheeks and ventral
side of head silvery. Fins hyaline.
Discussion
The present specimens conform to the description
given by Smith (1965) for Iso natalensis in all respects
except for minor differences in the dorsal fin formula and
the number of lateral series of scales. Smith (op. cit.) gave
the number of first dorsal spines as IV-VI. In the present
specimens the number ranges from III — VI. The lateral
series of scales are found to be less in number (42-52) as
against 60 given by Smith. The presence of a smaller
number of scales may be correlated to the smaller size of
the specimens as observed by Smith.
R E F E I
Herre, A.W.C.T. (1944): Notes on fishes in the Zoologi-
cal Museum of Stanford University. XVII. New fishes from
Johore and India Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 57: 45-52.
Regan, C.T. (1919): Fishes from Durban. Ann. Durban
Mus.2: 200-201.
Smith, J.L.B. (1961): The sea fishes of Southern Africa.
Iso flosindicus Herre, 1944 has been recorded earlier
from Visakhapatnam. But the present specimens differ
from the above species in the number of dorsal spines, gill
rakers, anal fin rays and lateral series of scales (Table 1).
This fish is being recorded for the first time from India
from a rock — pool at Visakhapatnam on the east coast.
The authentic record so far is only from South Africa
(Smith 1961). According to Smith (1961) related species
recorded from Japan and Australia held to be distinct may
all eventually be found to be the same (species) (p. 324).
As Herre (1944) erected the species Iso flosindicus on the
basis of a single specimen, which was much spoiled, its
validity is doubtful. However, the type should be com-
pared before the name is synonymised.
N.A.V. PRASAD REDDY
April 19,1989 C. UMA DEVI
iNCES
S. Africa: Central News Agency, (4th Ed.; 480 pp.
(1965): Fishes of the family Atheiinidae of the Red Sea
and the Western Indian Ocean with a new freshwater genus and
species from Madagascar./cAz/iyo/. Bull. Rhodes Univ. 31: 602-
629.
42. KEY TO GENERA AND RECORDS OF SOME SPECIES OF COCCINAE
(HOMOPTERA : COCCIDAE) FROM INDIA
Subfamily Cocclnae Falien
Recently, V arshney (1985) listed 25 genera of Coc-
cidae from India under 3 subfamilies ; Filippiinae, Coc-
cinae and Ceroplastinae. In the present study only 2
subfamilies are recognized except Filippiinae, the genera
of which are considered here in Coccinae. The Indian
genera and species of Ceroplastinae are included by Avas-
thi & Shafee (1986). Therefore only the subfamily Coc-
cinae is treated here which is represented by 23 genera
from India. So far, no consolidated key for the identifica-
tion of Indian genera is available. The main object of this
paper is to present a key to the Indian genera of Coccinae.
Observations if any, and records of 6 species of Coc-
cinae are also given. The genus Chloropulyinaria
Borchsenius is not considered here as distinct from Pul-
vinaria Targ. — Tozzt. as we did not find any remarkable
difference between these two genera. The material studied
by us are deposited in the Zoological Museum, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh, India.
KEY TO INDIAN GENERA OF COCCINAE, BASED ON ADULT
FEMALES
1 . Marginal setae variously shaped, but never broadly
expanded and flattened 2
— Marginal setae broadly expanded and flattened
Paralecanium Cockerell
2. Cribiform plates or rounded chitinous areas present
on dorsum 3
— Cribiform plates absent on dorsum 5
3. Xegs and antennae absent or much reduced;
with more than 4 cribiform plates of
variable sizes 4
— Legs and antennae well developed; with only 4
quite large cribiform plates, all of about the same
size Hemilecanium Newstead.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
469
4. Legs and antennae rudimentary; derm around
anal plates unsclerotized. ...Cribrolecanium Green
— Legs and antennae absent; derm around anal plates
strongly sclerotized Akermes Cockerell
5. 8-shaped pores absent on dorsum, if present
sparse in distribution 6
— Large 8-shaped pores present along the
mid — dorsal line and around body margin
Cardiococcus Cockerell
6. Legs and antennae well developed; multilocular
pores mainly confined to abdominal venter;
spiracles not surrounded by sclerotic plate 7
— Legs and antennae much reduced or rudimentary;
numerous multilocular pores present along the
sides of body;
spiracles surrounded by a sclerotic plate
Lecanopsis T argioni — Tozzetti
7. Longitudinal series of conical spines absent on
dorsum 8
— 2 longitudinal series of short, thick conical spines
extend from rostrum to abdomen on dorsum
Metaceronema Takahashi.
8. Ventral tubular ducts numerous 9
— Ventral tubular ducts absent or very few in number
21
9. Stigmatic spines if present 1-6 only ..........10
— Stigmatic spines numerous, stout, bluntly rounded,
in the usual 4 groups, each accompanied by
sclerotic plate Ceronema Masked.
10. Stigmatic spines more or less resemble with
marginal spines or somewhat represented by 1-2
slightly longer setae 1 1
— Stigmatic spines 3, rarely 5-6, much distinct from
marginal setae 15
1 1 . Tubular ducts either absent on dorsum or very
infrequent, if numerous, sparsely distributed 12
— Tubular ducts very frequent on dorsum, arranged
in mid-longitudinal and marginal band
Dicyphococcus. Borchsenius
12. Marginal setae conical or slendrical 13
— Marginal setae spear — head shaped
Ceroplastodes Cockerell
13. Submarginal band, of tubular ducts absent on
venter 14
— Submarginal band of tubular ducts present on
venter Eulecanium Cockerell
14. Distinct mid — dorsal line of pores present;
multilocular pores confined to anal region and on
the abdomen; glossy test is divided longitudinally
into two halves Inglisia Maskell.
15. Mid-dorsal line of pores absent; multilocular pores
present throughout the median region of thorax and
abdomen; glossy test notdivided longitudinally into
two halves Ctenochiton Maskell
15. Anal cleft normal not extending to centre of body;
anal plates variable 16
— Anal cleft long extending to centre of body; anal
plates elongate, about 4 times longer than wide
Protop ulvinaria Cockerell
16. Submarginal band of tubular ducts present on
venter 17
— Submarginal band of tubular ducts absent on venter
19
17. Multilocular pores confined only to the abdominal
venter; median stigmatic spine much longer than
laterals 18
— Multilocular pores present ventrally on abdomen
and also present in groups behind base of each
coxae Parthenolecanium Sulc.
18. Dorsal setae cylindrical or slightly swollen apically;
anal plates without large discal seta; dorsum with
cellular pattern composed of distinct polygonal
areas Parasaissetia Takahashi
— Dorsal setae setose or spinose; anal plates with a
large discal seta; dorsum with cellular pattern
composed of much less distinct circular or oval
areas Saissetia Deplanche
19. Marginal setae of variable shapes, simple, bifid,
fimbriate or clubbed apically; stigmatic clefts
usually with 3 spines, anal plates with thin apical
setae 20
— Marginal setae thick, stout, more or less cylindrical,
mostly with bidentate apices; stigmatic clefts each
with 4-5 spines of variable lengths; anal plates
with a thick apical setae... Megap ulvinaria Young.
13
470
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 86
20. Ovisac is not strongly convex (Borchsenius,
1957) E up ulv inaria Borchsenius
Ovisac strongly convex (Borchsenius,
1957) Pulvinaria Targioni — Tozzetti
21 . Stigmatic spines 3, median longer than laterals,
located in the centre of the clefts; paraopercular
pores if present few, never extend upto head 22
— Stigmatic spines 2 of equal sizes on either end
of the sclerotized band; paraopercular pores
numerous, arranged in a band along the median
line of the body and extending as far as the head
Marsipococcus Cockerell & Bueker
22. Dorsum with large tessellation
Eucalymnatus Cockerell
— Dorsum without tessellation Coccus Linnaeus
Ceroplastodes cajani (Maskell)
Material examined. : 1 6 females, INDIA: Uttar Pradesh,
Aligarh, on Ficus infectoria 10. viii. 1980 ( R.K.Avasthi ).
This species is more common on Ficus plants at
Aligarh. It is easily recognized in the field by the presence
of glossy covering whereas the mounted specimens by the
presence of single large spine on dorsum at the region of
stimatic clefts and two rows of small spear — head shaped
marginal spines.
Megapulvinaria maxima (Green)
Material examined: 2 females INDIA: Andhra Pradesh,
Nellore, Bucchireddypalam, on weed plant, 27. i. 1978; 1
female, Tamil Nadu, Coimbatore, on Flacourtia indica,
21. in 1979 (R.K.Avasthi).
This species is considered as a serious pest of Neem
trees in India (Ayyar 1930). Mounted specimens are easily
identified by the stout, truncated marginal spines with
bidentate apices.
Refer
Avasthi, R.K. & Shafee, S.A. (1986): Species of
Ceroplastinae (Homoptera : Coccidae) from India. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc., 83(2): 327-338.
Ayyar, T.V.R. (1930): A contribution to our knowledge
of South Indian Coccidae (scales and mealy bugs).#w//. Agr. Res.
Parasaissetia nigra (Nietner)
Material examined: 8 females INDIA: Tamil Nadu,
Coimbatore, on Hibiscusrosa-sinensis L., and Abutilon
indicum, 27. iii. 1979 ( R.K.Avasthi ).
Mounted specimens of this species are easily identified
by the presence of large pale polygonal areas and thick,
cylindrical setae with slightly swollen apices on dorsum.
Saissetia coffeae (Walker)
Material examined: 3 females, India: Andhra PradesK,
Guntur, on Cajanus cajan , 5. i 1967; 5 females, Tamil
Nadu, Tirunlveli, on Psidium guava L., 5. iii. 1967 (SA.
Shafee). 2 females, Coimbatore, Mettupalaiyam, on weed
plant, 27. iii 1979 (R.K.Avasthi).
Saissetia oleae (Olivier)
Material examined: 4 females, INDIA: Andhra
Pradesh, Guntur, Ponnur, on Cajanus cajan, 3. iv. 1979
(R.K. Avasthi).
De Lotto (1971) discussed the authorship of this
species and credited it to Olivier instead of Bernard.
Saissetia privigna De Lotto
Material examined: 5 females, INDIA: Andhra Pradesh,
Guntur, on Abelmoschus esculentus 14, iv. 1979 (R.K.
Avasthi).
This species is closer to S. oleae , but distinctly differs
in having numerous long marginal setae and in the shape
of tubular ducts which have inner ductule much narrower
than outer.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Chairman, Department of Zool-
ogy, A.M.U. Aligarh, for providing research facilities.
One of us (RKA) is thankful to C.S.I.R., New Delhi for
financial assistance.
RAJENDRA KUMAR AVASTHI
August 18, 1988. S. ADAM SHAFEE
N C E S
Inst. Pusa,197 (1929): 77 pp.
Borchsenius, N.S. (1957): Fauna of U.S.S.R. Homop-
tera, Coccidae (in Russian)A£od. NaukZool. Inst. (n.s. 66)9: 493
pp.
De Lotto, G. (1971): The authorship of the Mediter-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
471
ranean black scale (Homoptera : Coccidae)J. Ent. (B) 40(2): Varshney, R.K. (1985): a review of Indian Coccids
149- 150. (Homoptera : Coccoidea ).Oriental Insects, 19: 1-101.
43. A NEW TYPE OF MIMICRY IN BUTTERFLIES
Hitherto, two types of inter-butterfly mimicry have
been observed:
1 . Batesian, where non-poisonous/ palatable butterflies,
generally females, mimic wing coloration patterns, habits
and flight patterns of poisonous/ non palatable butterflies.
B atesian mimicry is apparent in relationships such as those
between females of the Eggfly Hypolimnas misippus L.,
the Palmfly Elymnias hypermnestra L. on the one hand
and the Plain Tiger Anosia chrysippus L. on the other.
Similarly between the Tawny Mime Chilasa agestor Mo.
and the Chestnut Tiger Parantica sita Kol.
2. Mullerian, where poisonous butterflies mimic each
other’s wing/body coloration in an effort to develop a
warning coloration pattern easily recognisable by
predators. Mullerian mimicry is prevalent among the
Windmills (Byasa dasarada M. group), the Black Crows
( Euploea core Cr. group)and the Blue Crows (Euploea
mulciber Cr. group).
A strange relationship exists between the Swordtails
( Pazala eurous cashmirensis Roth, and Pazala glycerion
Gr.) and the Cabbage Whites (Pieris brassicae L. and
Artogeia canidia Sparrman).
The Swordtails are on the wing for two to three weeks
in early spring, at elevations between 1250-2200 m above
sea level. Their flying time coincides with the first brood
of Cabbage whites. During this period, the Whites out-
number the Swordtails in a ratio of about 25:1.
During the morning hours, the Swordtails make no
attempt to mimic any insect, but depend on swift flight in
the upper canopy of trees to avoid predators. At midday,
however, both species of Swordtails come down to 3-5 m
above ground level, that is, the zone in which Cabbage
Whites are predominant. At this level, they affect the much
slower, fluttering, erratic flight of the Whites as opposed
to their normal ‘flap and glide’ technique making it ex-
tremely difficult to distinguish between the mimic and the
model. The reason behind this became clear when I (in the
role of predator) tried to catch them. Calculating the net’s
sweep according to the feigned flight of the Swordtail, I
was surprised when it reacted with a series of high speed,
complicated manouvres that on most occasions left me
baffled.
Since these insects seem to be capable of reacting more
swiftly than Cabbage Whites and are more alert, they
generally manage to escape into the upper canopy (birds
seem to be incapable of maintaining the rate of accelera-
tion while ascending) when attacked, and, after a while,
return to the lower levels to continue the mimicry. The
other advantage of this form of mimicry lies in the large
population of the models. The chances of being singled
out for attack are considerably reduced by ‘merging with
the crowd’. In the case of the Swordtails, this fact is
relevant since they are the only inhabitants of the upper
canopy at that time of the year.
I propose to refer to this form of mimicry as Self-
Detractive mimicry because the mimic actually imitates
the vulnerability of the model and, after detracting from
its own abilities, depends upon its true capabilities to
escape predators. As opposed to this is Batesian mimicry,
where the non-poisonous mimic imitates various aspects
of the poisonous model in order to be considered
poisonous as well. Since it is being poisonous that makes
the model invulnerable, it is clear that the mimic imitates
this invulnerable aspect of its model.
Self-detractive mimicry is also prevalent between the
Sailers (Genus Neptis), which are the models and the
Sergeant Major Abrota ganga Mo., the Sergeant Emperor
Apatura chevana Mo. and the Sergeants (Genus Athyma,
prev .Pantoporia) which are the mimics. It probably exists
in other insect relationships, but results can only be ob-
tained by observation of the subjects in their natural
habitat.
August 3, 1988
PETER SMETACEK
472
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
44. OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR AND EGG HATCHABILITY IN TASAR UJI FLY
BLEPHARJPA ZEBINA (WALKER)
(With a text-figure)
Introduction
The tasar uji fly Blepharipa zebina (Walker) (Diptera:
Tachinidae) has been amajor parasitoid of tasar silkworm
Anther aea paphia (Linn.) (=A. mylitta Drury) in the tradi-
tional and oak tasar belts of North India, causing nearly
10% loss to the tasar crop (Jolly et al. 1974). The parasitoid
occurs in Khanapur andBiligiri Rang ana Hills of Kamatak
where tasar silkworm is reared on commercial scale. A
perusal of literature revealed that information on oviposi-
tion behaviour and egg hatchability of the parasitoid is
very scanty, and this paper deals with the above aspects.
Material and Methods
The observations on oviposition behaviour were made
at the Basic Tasar Seed Farm, Khanapur (Belgaum Dis-
trict) during December, 1986. The A. paphia worms util-
ized for the study were from the commercial outdoor
rearings on Terminalia trees. They were mostly at their III
or IV instars. The uji infested worms were brought and
held in the laboratory for studies on oviposition and egg
hatchability of the parasitoid.
Observations and Discussion
Host-stage-preference: The uji fly exercised care and
preference in selecting the proper host for oviposition.
Fourth instar worms were most preferred as compared
with those at III instar. In the present survey, the number
of eggs laid by the parasitoid on IV instar host was ten
times the number laid on HI instar host. For instance, on
'Fig. 1 . Tasar silkworm Ant her aea paphia parasitized by uji
fly Blepharipa zebina: a. Tasar uji fly eggs; b. Black scar,
diagnostic of tasar infestation.
an average 41 .33 eggs (ranging from 22 to 77 per larva)
were laid on IV instar, whereas only 4.0 eggs (ranging
from 1 to 8 eggs per larva) were laid on III instar tasar
worm. Even during the III moult, i.e. at the time when the
host was entering into its IV instar, the number of eggs
laid by the parasitoid was very less (average 1.67).
Moreover, the worms at II and I instars were among the
least preferred ones. Interestingly, no eggs were laid on
the fully grown prespinning or spinning worms. Likewise,
the worms settling for moult were also avoided. Besides,
less number of eggs (on an average 2.0 per larva) were laid
on pebrinised worms. Furthermore, it was noticed that,
even among the worms of preferred instars, the fly selected
well-fed worms as against the poorly developed ones.
Singh (1986) remarked that generally the parasitoid
preferred bigger worms. However, the present study
shows that the preferences were made on the basis of the
host-stage, health and vigour.
Host-site-preference: The parasitoid laid the majority of
eggs on the dorsal surface of the host. For example, about
75.4% of the eggs were laid on dorsal aspect, while only
24.1 and 0.5% on the lateral and ventral surfaces respec-
tively. Reasons for such a preferential deposition of the
eggs appear to be the responses of the host to the uji fly at
the time of oviposition. It was observed that the fly which
alighted on the lateral aspect was driven away by the
sideward movements of the body, and the eggs laid on
sides were dislodged by nibbling by the host. Moreover
the parasitoid could hardly get any space to oviposit on
the ventral surface since it was tightly attached to the
substratum. However, the fly which alighted on dorsal
surface remained undisturbed.
Act of oviposition: The adult uji flies were very active
during cooler hours of the day with moderate sunshine, i.e.
from 0900 to 1200 hrs and 1600 to 1700 hrs. During this
period they flew actively around the tasar silkworms.
Initially, tasar silkworms did not allow the gravid
female uji fly to alight on their body for oviposition. They
briskly moved their anterior portion of the body sidewards
so that the fly got physically disturbed. However, the
female fly made persistent and hectic attempts to settle on
the body of the host. Too frequent visits by the fly ul-
timately exhausted the worms and at this stage the fly
alighted on the host’s body and walked freely over its
body.
Settling on the host, the fly first feels the surface of the
worm with the help of its protruded ovipositor. Sitting
parallel to the body segments of the host, she fastened the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
473
eggs one after another tranversely to the long axis of the
body, avoiding the intersegmental regions and the
tubercles. The eggs were laid singly but in instalments. In
majority of thercases the eggs were glued side by side very
near to each other (Fig. 1) with their micropylor end
invariably pointing upwards. At each visit the fly laid one
or more than one egg on the host. A maximum of 77 eggs
were counted on the body of a healthy IV instar host.
Perhaps, therefore, the superparasitism was very common
in the tasar population.
Hatching of eggs: The eggs usually hatched in 3 days after
deposition, i.e., in the present case they hatched in the last
week of December. The percent hatchability was as high
as 97.9 (ranging from 66.7 to 100) under laboratory con-
ditions. A longitudinal slit was made on the attached
surface of the egg extending up to 1/2 or 2/3 length from
themicropylar end. And the tiny maggot penetrated direct-
ly into the host’s integument through the slit. Soon the area
around the point of entry of the maggot became black (Fig.
1). This black mark is the characteristic feature of uji fly
infestation which can be utilized for diagnostic purpose.
The egg shell remained attached to the integument of the
host even after the death, decay and drying of the carcass
of the silkworm.
G.M.PATIL
January 20, 1989. C.J. SAVANURMATH
References
Jolly, M.S., Sen, S.K. & Maqbool, M. (1974): Tasar Singh, R.N. (1986): Enemies of tasar silkworm and their
Culture. Ambika Publishers, Bombay: pp. 1-266. conXxoU ndian silk 75(5): 15-18.
45. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF GANGANAGAR (RAJASTHAN)
Introduction
Ganganagar is situated in the north of Rajasthan State
between 28° 40’ and 30° 06’ N Lat. and 72° 36’ and
75° 30 E Long. It constitutes a part of the Great Indian
Desert. The Gang canal drawing water from the Sutlej
river was launched in the year 1927-28, which has greatly
changed the face of the area. The irrigation waters, which
owe their source to the Punjab rivers, have been bringing
seeds and other propagules of a number of extra-limital
species year after year and many of these have already
become successfully established in the area as crop weeds
or along the banks of canals (Dhillon and, Bajwa 1969,
D hi lion and Bhandari 1974, Singh and Brar 1984). The
most striking example of this naturalization of Himalayan
plants in the Great Indian Desert are species of Riccia,
Marchantia and Ophioglossum vulgatum L. (Singh and
Brar 1980) which are found frequently in the canal ir-
rigated areas, showing thereby the extent to which plants
from the Himalayas and other places have become
naturalised in the irrigated desert.
There are no rocks or gravelly soil in the district. In the
irrigated tract, soil under irrigation by Gang canal and
Bhakra canal are sandy-loam. In the non-command areas,
sandy plains with stabilized and shifting sand dunes are a
common sight in the South of the district and its adjoining
districts Churu and Bikaner of Rajasthan. There is a
seasonal river called Ghagger which enters the tehsil Tibbi
in the East and through Anupgarh flows to Pakistan. The
soil in the bed of this river is heavy clay. There are some
saline areas near Jetsar and Anupgarh where a few
halophytes occur. The average annual rainfall is less than
300 mm. The rainy months are June to September with
maximum rainfall in July — August. The summers are
extremely hot and winters severely cold. The maximum
and minimum average temperatures recorded are 44° C
and 5° C, respectively.
We are presently working on the flora of North Rajas-
than. While studying the specimens, we found some of
these were not reported previously from Rajasthan desert
(Blatt. and Hallb. 1918—21; Puri et al. 1964, Bor 1960,
Bhandari 1978, Sharma and Tiagi 1979), therefore, new
extrants to the desert. The specimens have been preserved
in the Herbarium, Department of Botany, SGN Khalsa
College, Sriganganagar, Rajasthan.
Results and Discussion,
The vegetation of the area explored can be divided into:
( 1 ) vegetation of loose sand dunes
and sandy regions,
(2) vegetation of stablized sand dunes
(3) vegetation of Ghagger Alluvial plains,
(4) weeds of winter season
(5) weeds of rainy seas on,
(6) vegetation along canals,
474
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
(7) aquatic plants,
(8) Common parasites are Cistanche tubulosa ,
Orobanche aegyptiaca, Striga
angustifolia, Cuscuta reflexa, C. capitata
on Medicago saliva and on the species of
Tribulus and Zaleya.
Total number of wild species so far collected is 487,
belonging to 305 genera covering 82 families. In the
present work, flora of an area of about 20,648 sq.kfn of
northwest part of Thar desert, which is now under irriga-
tion by network of canals system, has been studied and
compared with that of non-irrigated regions of the area.
A comparison of the vegetation of the hitherto unirrigated
areas and that of the irrigated regions of the district of
Ganganagar shows that irrigation has brought about
remarkable changes in the composition of the original
flora, both by way of new introduction as well as elimina-
tion of many of the original species. In comparison to the
natural flora of the Thar desert (unirrigated parts only), the
following species are new introductions in the irrigated
regions.
1 . Ranunculus cantonenesis DC.
2. R.sceleratusLinn.
3. Nymphaea stellata Willd.
4. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.
5. Argemone ochroleuca Sweet
6. Dilophia salsa Thoms.
7. Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f.et Thoms.
8. Malcolmia africana R. Br.
9. Hypecoum procumbens Linn.
10. Oligomer is linifolia (Vahl) Macbride
1 1 . Arenaria serpyllifolia Linn.
12. Vaccaria pyrimidata Medik.
13. Portulaca grandiflora Hook.
14. P.pilosa Linn.
15. Oxalis latifolia H.B. & K.
16. Astragalus subumbellatus Klotzsch
17. A. tribuloides Del.
1 8. Lotus corniculatus Linn.
19. Medicago minima Lamk .
20. M. lupulina Linn.
21. Trigonella hamosa Linn.
22. T. pubescens Edgew.
23. Myriophyllum spathulatum Blatt .et Hallb.
24. Anethum graveolens Linn.
25. Ammi majus Linn.
26. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban
27. Oenanthe javanica (Bl.) DC.
28. Psammogeton canescens (DC.) Vatke
29. Tr achy spermum ammi (Linn.) Sprangue
30. C art hamus oxy cant ha Beib.
3 1 . Cirsium wallichii DC.
32. Cichorium intybus Linn.
33. Cotula anthemoides Linn.
34. Lactuca scariola Linn.
35. PartheniumhysterophorusUnn.
36. Soliva anthemoides (Juss.) R. Br.
37. Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn.
38. Gastrocotyle hispida (Forsk.) Bunge
39. II eliotr opium currasavicum Linn.
40. Cuscuta capitata Roxb.
4 1 . Lycium europaeum Linn.
42. Antirrhinum orontium Lmn.
43. Majus pumilus (Burm.f.) Steenis
44. Verbascum thapsus Linn.
45. Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers.
46. Utricularia inflexa Forsk.
47. Lantana camara Linn.
48. Salvia plebeia R. Br.
49. PlantagoamplexicaulisCzv.
50. Kochia indica Wt.
5 1 . Chrozophora oblongifolia (Del.) A. Juss.
52. C. prostrata Dalz.
53. Euphorbia helioscopia Linn.
54. E. parvifloraLxrm.
55. E. serpens H.B.E.
56. Pouzolzia pentandra (Roxb.) Benn.
57. Polygonum lanigerum R. Br.
58. Ficus palmala Forsk.
59. Commelina diffusa Burm.f.
60. Lemna trisulca Linn.
61. Carexfedia Nees
62. Cyperus exaltatus Retz.
63. Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.) Henschel
64. F imbristylis diphylla (Retz.) Vahl
65. F. woodrowii Clarke
66 . Pycre us polystachyus Beauv .
67. Aristida plumosa Linn.
68. Catabrosa aquatica (Linn.) P. Beauv.
69. Crypsis schoenoides (Linn.) Lamk.
70. Dichanthium odoralum (Lisboa) Jain
7 1 . Digitaria bicornis (Lamk.) Roem.
72. D. slricta Roth ex Roem.
73. Diplachne fusca (Linn.) P. Beauv.
74. Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn.
75. Eragrostis nutans (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.
76. Koeleria argentea Griseb.
77. Leptochloa phleoides (Vill.) Reichb.
78. Lolium temulentum Linn.
79. Leptochloa chinensis (Linn.) Nees
80. L. pumila (Desf.) Bor
83. P. psilopodium Trin.
84. P . repens Linn.
8 1 . Panicum austroasiaticum Ohwi
82. P . miliaceum Linn.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
475
85. Phalaris minor Retz.
86. Setaria homonyma (Steud.) Chiov.
87. Sporobolus indicus auct. non (Linn.) R. Br.
Thus, out of 410 naturalized species of the area, 87 are
new entrants in comparison to the flora of the unirrigated
desert regions. This means that irrigation over the last 60
years or so has apparently changed about 21 per cent of
the species of the natural flora. This is too superficial a
judgement since the real change is much more and not
easily comprehensible. Some of these new extrants are
temperate Himalayan plants such as Cotula anthemoides,
Arenaria serpyllifolia, Astragalus subumbellatus, A.
tribuloides, Ammi majus, Trachyspermum ammi,
C ichor ium intybus, Soliva anthemifolia, Verbose um thap-
sus, Pktntago amplexicaulis, Pouzolzia pentandra etc.
Still many of them are abundant in the cooler regions of
Punjab. It is therefore obvious that their seeds have been
transported by irrigation waters. Further, protracted irrig-
ation has brought about so much amelioration in the
climate that it is already supporting luxuriant growth of
such arborescent forms of humid tropics such as Bambusa.
Many other tree species such as Dalbergia sissoo, Cordia
dichotoma, Jacaranda mimosefolia, Kigelia pinnata,
Emblica officinalis , several species of Ficus, Morus and
Phoenix are doing well in the area.
The natural flora has been modified in another way.
Refer
Bhandari, M.M. (1978): Flora of Indian Desert. Scien-
tific Publishers, Jodhpur.
Blatter, E. & Hallberg, F. (1 9 1 8 — 21): The Flora of the
Indian Desert (Jodhpur and Jaisalmer)J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
26: 218-246, 525-551 ,811-818, 968-987; 27: 40-47, 270- 279,
509-519.
Bor, N.L. (1960): The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India
and Pakistan, pergamon Press. London. Oxrford. New York.
Paris.
Dhillon, K.B.S. & Bajwa, P.S. (1969): A contribution to
the Botany of Ganganagar District, North Rajasthan. Bull. bot.
Surv. India. 1 1 : 234-244.
Dhillon, K.B.S. & Bhandari, M.M. (1974): Some plant
46. PNEUMATOPTERIS NUDATA (ROXB.;
(With eleven
Many of the common species of the unirrigated desert
which originally belong to this area have disappeared
obviously due to protracted irrigation, most probably due
to losing competition against the new extrants. Though
irrigation has effected the water contents and texture of the
soil substantially, not all the changes are for the worse and
the floristic richness can be attributed to irrigation alone.
With the availability of irrigation, large tracts are now
under cultivation and wastelands have become scarce.
Wild species can grow only as crop weeds which are
regularly removed by the farmers from their fields or on
the sides of the roads and canals. This reduction in the
realm of wild plants has obviously contributed substan-
tially to the reduction in the number of wild species.
However, whatever might be the factors responsible for
the change of the natural flora, they are all consequent to
the introduction of irrigation.
Acknowledgements
Our thanks to Principal, SGN Khalsa College, Srigan-
ganagar for providing facilities; to S. Kamail Singh, Ad-
vocate for encouragement and to the UGC for finance.
B.P. SINGH
January 15, 1989. K.B.S. DHILLON
iNCES
records new to Rajasthan from the district of GanganagarJ.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 577-582.
Puri, G.S., Jain, S.K. Mukarjee, S.K., Sarup, S. & Kot-
wal, N.N. (1964): Flora of Rajasthan, West of Aravallis.Rec.RoL
Surv. India 19(1): 1-159.
Sharma, S. & Tiagi, B. (1979): Flora of North — East
Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
Singh, B.P. & Brar, N.S. (1980): Note on the occurrence
of Ophioglossum vulgatum L. in Rajasthan State./. Indian bot.
Soc. 59: 38.
(1984): A note on the occurrence of Ophioglossum vul-
gatumL. in Rajasthan State. J. Indian bot. Soc. 59: 38.
) PUNETHA ET KHOLIA COMB. NOV.
text-figures )
Introduction observed that at least in the fresh specimens of
Pneumatopteris nudata ( Pronephrium nudatum (Roxb.)
During our studies on the taxonomy of fems of Holtt.) the aerophores at the base of basal pair of pinnae
Pithoragarh district of Kumaon (N.W. Himalayas), we are quite distinct and at least the lowest pair of pinnae is
476
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 86
Fig. 1 . Pneumatopteris nudata, habit;
Fig.2. P. nudata var. minor, isotype.
much reduced, hairs are usually absent on the surface of
rhizome scales and rhizome scales are narrower than the
rhizome scales of Pronephriurn. A specimen of this fern
With our comments was sent to Prof. R.E. Holttum (Ke^/),
who readily agreed for its transfer to Pneumatopteris
Some specimens of this fern differ markedly from the
typical P. nudata in having relatively small fronds, pinnae
narrow, base cuneate, apex narrowely acuminate, basal
one or two pairs slightly reduced, veins to 15 pairs. When
a specimen of this fern was sent to Prof. Holttum, he
replied that there are no Kew specimens with such narrow-
ly acuminate pinnae as those found in this fem and he
suggested that we describe it as a new variety (var minor)
of P. nudata.
Nakai (Bot. Mag. Tokyo, 47:179. 1933) erected anew
thelypteroid fem genus Pneumatopteris to accommodate
(Asp idium callosum Bl. ferns with free veins, basal pinnae
reduced, swollen or normal aerophores present at the base
of the lower pinnae. Holttum (1973) redefined the genus
and included within it the specimens in which 1 . basal pair
of pinnae are reduced, 2. aerophores are present at the base
of lower pinnae and 3. margins of rhizome scales are hairy
(hairs on surface of rhizome scales are usually absent).
Although Holttum (1973) gave a detailed taxonomic ac-
count of this genus, he described the Roxburgh’s fem
Polypodium nudatum as Pronephriurn nudatum (1972)
and was followed by other workers (Baishya & Rao 1982
Bir etal. 1983,Khullama/. 1983. Presence of aerophores
at the base of basal pairs of pinnae in this fem was noticed
by Beddome (1883, p. 175) but this character was over-
looked by subsequent taxonomists.
Taxonomic Account
Pneumatopteris nudata (Roxb.) comb. nov.
Polypodium nudatum Roxb., Calc. Joum. Nat. Hist., 4.
491. 1844.
Pronephriurn nudatum (Roxb.) Holtt., Blumea, 20: 111.
1972; Dhir, Bibl. Pterid., 1: 105. 1979; Dhir, Bibl. Pterid., Z:
1981; Baishya & Rao, Ferns and Fem — allies of Meghalaya State,
85. 1982; Bir etal, Pteridophytic Flora of Garhwal Himalaya, 38.
1983; Khullar etal..
PolypodiummultilineatumYNdXt. ex Hook., Sp. Fil.,5: 1 1 .
1883.
Nephrodium moulmeinese Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit.
India, 275. 1883.
Rhizome wide creeping, scaly at apex; scales lanceo-
late, margins slightly hairy, surface smooth, apex
acuminate; stipe erect, 2-3 cm distant on rhizome, 30-60
cm long, scaly at base, hairy above, scales rhizomatous,
hairs acicular, hyaline; lamina ovate, coriaceous, once
pinnate, 40-60 x 25-40 cm, pinnae oblong lanceolate,
broad, 15-25 x 2.5-4 cm, lowest pair reduced, base broad,
apex acute, margins slightly dentate, hairy, hairs on veins,
sinus and rachis; swollen aerophores present at the base of
pinnae; veins 16-20 pairs, anastomosing and form an
excurrent vein to sinus; sori near the excurrent vein or at
the junction of veins and excurrent vein, indusiate; in-
dusium reniform, deciduous; sporangia globose, smooth
(not setose) with elongated glands; spores brown, ovate
perisporiate, finely spinulose, 35 x 28 mm (Figs. I, 3 — 5).
Fairly common throughout the region along hill
streams between 600-1200 m.
Mention is to be made of Pangtey et al. (1986) regard-
ing its occurrence in Nainital; they believe that they col-
lected this fem for the first time from Nainital. However,
as early as 1890, Hope (1904, p. 83) collected this fem
(described under the name Polypodium multilineatum
Wall.) from Gola valley (2500’) in Nainital.
Specimens examined: K; Bot. Pith. 87211, 87212,
88211,88212.
Pneumatopteris nudata (Roxb.) Punetha et Kholia var.
minor Punetha et Kholia var. nov.
A varietate typica speciei differt: frondibus minoribus,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
All
Figs. 3-11. 3-5. P. nudata , 3. a lateral pinna; 4. venation; 5. spore; 6-11. P. nudata var. minor , 6. a lateral pinna; 7. vena-
tion; 8. spore; 9. rhizome scale; 10. stipe scale; 11. rachis scale.
pinnis angustioribus basi cuneatis et apice acuminatis,
pinnis infimis 1 — 2 jugatis leviterredactis, venis usque 15
jugatis (Figs. 2, 6-11).
A rare fern, only once collected from Hachila village
(Didihat 800 m).
Specimens examined: K-Holotype; Bot. Pith. 88201 —
Isotype
Acknowledgements
References
Baishya, A.K. & Rao, R.R. (1982): Ferns and Fern — al- Beddome, R.H. (1883): A Handbook to the Ferns of
lies of Meghalaya State, India. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. British India, Ceylon and Malay Peninsula. Today and Tomorrow
We take this opportunity to thank Prof. R.E. Holttum
(Kew) for determining the identity of specimens, for
rendering latin diagnosis of the new variety, for sugges-
tions and encouragement. U.G.C., New Delhi is acknow-
ledged for financial help.
N. PUNETHA
November 29, 1988. B.S. KHOLIA
478
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.
Bir, S.S., Satua, C.K. Vasudeva, S.M. & Goyal, P.
(1983): Pteridophytic Flora of Garhwal Himalaya. Jugal Kishorc
& Co., Dehradun.
Holttum, R.E. (1972): Studies in the family Thelyp-
teridaceae — IV. The genus PronephriumVxc^l.Blumea. 20: 128-
150.
(1973): Studies in the family Thclypteridacea — V. The
genus PneurnatopterisNakai.Blu.mea. 21: 293- 325.
Hope.C.W. (1904): The ferns of North — Western India J.
Bombay nat. /lust. Soc., 15: 78-1 1 1 .
Kiiijllar, S.P., Sharma, S.S. & SINGH, P. (1983): The
thclypteridaceae of West Himalaya. Nova Hedwigia. 38: 617-
667.
Pangtey, Y.P.S., Rawat, G.S. & Samant, S.S. (1986):
Addition to the pteridophytic flora of Nainital. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc., 83: 472-473.
47. SOME RARE, ENDANGERED AND THREATENED PLANT SPECIES FROM
RATNAGIRI DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA
While going through the Red Data Book of Indian
Plants (RDBIP) vol. I, edited by M.P. Nayar and A.R.K.
Sastry (1987), we noticed that ten species of flowering
plants which have been collected by us from Ratnagiri
district are cited in the book.
The present communication is to supplement the data
given in the book about these species. These data were
collected by us during various field trips in Ratnagiri
district. For each plant, the name of the species is followed
by the family name, the page number of the species in the
RDBIP vol. I and, in quotation marks, the Category used to
indicate the degree of threat in the RDBIP. Specimen num-
bers of our collections are given. All specimens arc at
Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay.
1. Aponogeton satarensis Sundara. et al.
Aponogetonaceae 41.
“Vulnerable”. The species had so far been reported
only from the Mavashi plateau in Satara district,
Maharashtra. Attempts to find it on the Panchagani plateau
were not successful. We have collected the species from
the plateau of Gothane village, Sangamcshwar taluka, on
the crest (alt. 1,000 m) of the Western Ghats. The plants
are found only in a small area of the plateau, where a few
ems of water accumulates during the monsoon. Live plants
continued to flower in Bombay but the tubers did not grow
the next year. Since the species is difficult to cultivate, the
best conservation measure would be to protect its habitat.
The immediate danger to the species at Gothane may be a
proposed dam which may inundate the site. Mistry 1006.
2. Cryptocoryne cognatoides Blatt. & McC. Araceae
43.
“Vulnerable”. The plant has been found once in the
same locality as Aponogeton satarensis but it grows in
marshy soil on edges of ponds and streams. Mistry 1674.
3. Ceropegia huberi AnsariAsclepiadacea 58.
‘ ‘Vulnerable”. Collected only from the type locality at
the top of Amba Ghat on grassy road embankments which
are prone to landslides. Mistry 1266.
4. Ceropegia oculata Hook.f. Asclepiadaceae 62.
“Rare”. Collected once from the hill — top at Miry a
near Ratnagiri, a botanically interesting locality having a
reputation for medicinal plants. Mistry 1 156.
5. Ceropegia sahyadrica Ansari & Kulkarni 69.
“Rare”. It is a frequent plant in August — September
in the same locality as Aponogeton satarensis , but it is
more abundant towards the Western edge of the plateau
where the soil layer is thicker. Mistry 1191.
All the above species of Ceropegia have edible tubers,
which nourish both man and animals; this is a major threat
to their survival in the wild. Perhaps cultivation is the best
conservation measure for the Ceropegia species of the
District.
6. Dipcadi concanense (Dalz.) Baker Liliaceae 175.
“Possibly extinct in the wild; known only from two
gatherings; not seen since 1861, though the region has
been repeatedly exlored”. The species has now been-
found after 123 years, growing in a fenced, fallow plot of
rocky land in Ratnagiri city. The plant is noticeable only
when flowering, otherwise it is inconspicuous among
grasses. Unless quick measures arc taken to protect the
samll plot from building activities it is likely to be lost in
the near future. Cultivation may be the best conservation
measure. Flowers and fruits in August — Mistry 1068.
7. Iphigcnia magnifiea Ansari & Rolla Rao.Liliaceae
183
“Vulnerable”. Collected from the borders of rice
fields at Phurus on the Khed — Dapoli road and at Mirya
near Ratnagiri. Flowers and fruits in August. Mistry 196
& 1 155.
8. Abutilon ranadei Woodr. & Stapf Malvaceae 198
“Endangered or Presumed Extinct. First described in
1 894, next reported in 1 901 as a very rare plant; no report
since then.” This is the first report in 85 years. A single
plant was found on forested slopes at the type locality —
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
479
Amba Ghat. The species is in great danger of extinction,
as is the case of Ceropegia huberi in the same area. The
habitat is on the verge of destruction, being on the major
highway between the cities of Kolhapur and Ratnagiri,
with the forest unprotected. Almeida 1375.
9. Bhidea burnsiana BorPoaceae-290
4 ‘Rare”. This species is by no means rare in the district
if one has an eye for grasses. M.R. Almeida has collected
the species daily on several consecutive field — days from
Ratnagiri city and its surroundings. It grows on bare
laterite flats, along with a less common and probably more
threatened associate D anthonidium gammiei (Bhide) C.E.
Hubbard. In Ratnagiri district, at least, the species is not
in immediate danger — it has survived the expansion of
the city and was even found growing near the Police
Station in the heart of the city.
It may be pointed out here that another, rarer species
of Bhidea exists (unless it has become extinct in the last
45 years) in India, undcscribed since 1941 when Bor
noticed it with D anthonidium gammiei (Bhide) C.E. Hub-
bard specimens sent to Kew from Karnataka by C. Mc-
Cann, (see Kew Bull. 1948:44. 1949).
Almeida 448, 698A, 914; Mistry 466B.
10. Dimeria woodrowii Stapf Poaceae298.
“Rare”. An occasional species on bare laterite flats
especially near the sea as at Mirya, Mirjole and Shirgaon
near Ratnagiri city. Like Bhidea brunsiana the species is
not in immediate danger since it survives on land which is
already so degraded that nothing except short grasses and
herbs can grow on it Almeida 470A, 588B & 916.
We wish to thank the following for help given in
preparing this paper:
Mr M.R. Almedia of Alchemie Research Centre,
Thane for providing some specimens and helping in field
work and identification. Dr N.P. Singh and Ms. U.R.
Deshpande of BSI, Pune for providing literature and as-
sistance at BSI.
M.K. MISTRY
December 9, 1988. S.M. ALMEDIA
48. CYRTOMIUM HOOKERIANUM (PRESL) C. CHR. (ASPIDIACEAE) — A NEW RECORD
FOR WESTERN HIMALAYAS
During an extensive plant collection in Kumaun region
of Western Himalayas, we collected plants of Cyntomium
hookerianum (Presl) C. Chr. from Gwaldam. This species
has not been reported from Western Himalaya being
known so far from nepal, Bhutan, Khasia hills,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, China, Tonkin, Japan, Taiwan and
Australia. The present collection extends its distributional
ranges further west to Kumaun Himalaya, and is an im-
portant addition to the fern flora of North — Western
Himalaya. The voucher specimens are lodged in the Her-
barium of Department of Botany, Kumaun University
Campus, Almora.
Cyrtomium hookerianum (Presl) C. Chr., Ind. Fil.
Suppl. 1, 101, 1913; Jamir&Rao, Ferns of Nagaland, 334,
1988; Dixit, Cens. Indian Pterido. Scr. 4, 1984.La.s7mz
hookeriana Presl, Tent. Pterid., 77, 1836. Aspedium
caducum Wall, ex Hook. etGrev., Icon. Fil. 1.171, 1829
(non HBK, 1815 ).Cyrtomium caducum (Wall, ex Hook.
etGrev.) Moore, Ind. Fil. 276, 1861; Bedd., Handb. Ferns
Brit. India, 21 1 , 1 883 . Phanerophlebia hookeriana (Presl)
Copel., Gen. Fil., 3, 1947.
Rhizome stout, short, erect with spreading wiry roots.
Stipe upto 30 cm long, stout, covered wiih dark brown,
lanceolate, acuminate scales (upto 30 mm at base and 6a
mm at middle and onwards). Lamina 35-45 x 15 x 2 cm,
simple pinnate, pinnatifid at apex; lateral pinnae upto 27
pairs, slightly oblique to the rachis, shortly petiolate;
largest pinnae upto 15 x 1. 5-2.5 cm, petiolate, falcate,
cuneate at the base, acuminate at the apex, margin toothed,
texture coriaceous, glabrous above and scaly beneath
(scales upto 1 .5 mm long); rachis and costules sparsely
covered with small brown scales; veins free, much forked.
Sori globose, scattered; indusium peltate with slightly
lobed margin; sporangia stalked; spores not matured.
Ecology: Rare, growing along the banks of perennial
streams in dense forests at an altitude about 2000 m.
Specimens examined: Kumaun Himalaya, District Al-
mora, Gwaldam (2000 m), P.C. Pande, 17057.
Ac KNO W LEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dr S.P. Khullar, Punjab University,
Chandigarh for sending relevant literature. Financial as-
sistance from CSIR, New Delhi is thankfully acknow-
ledged.
April 15, 1989.
P.C. PANDE
H.C. PANDE
480
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
49. CARALLUMA NI LAG IRIAN A KUMARI AND SUBBA RAO
(ASCLEPLADACEAE) — A NEW RECORD FROM KARNATAKA
Caralluma nilagiriana was reported as a new species
for India by Kumari and Subba Rao (1976) based on the
specimens collected on way from Anaikatti and Ebanad in
Nilgiri District, Tamil Nadu, in rocky areas at 900 m
altitude. They considered this species as allied to C. trun-
cate— coronata but differentiated from it on the basis of
the characters such as non — succulent roots, deltoid
leaves, pellucid glands on the external parts of corolla and
others.
The present collection was made from a lateritic hilly
area in GKVK campus of the University of Agricultural
Sciences, Bangalore, at an altitude of 800 m. This species
is likely to escape attention as the plants are ephemeral and
appear only in a small patch of area among bushes partially
exposed to sunlight. When a closer observation is made
the plant appears striking with its small stature, erect
branched stem up to 10 cm height, 6-9 dark purplish
flowers in terminal umbel quite large to the size of the
plant.
Caralluma nilagiriana appears to multiply chiefly by
root suckers and hence they occur in patches. The flowers
open after 9.00 in the morning and remain open until next
day and then fall. Fruits were not observed on any plant.
In all other characters the plants resemble Caralluma
nilagiriana described by Kumari and Subba Rap (1976).
Thus, the present report has shown that this taxon is not
endemic to Nilgiri District but also occurs elsewhere.
Coll.: V. Bhaskar and C.G. Kushalappa, 796, UAS,
GKVK, Bangalore North, Karnataka, 2 September 1988,
alt. 800 m. Specimens are deposited at Herbarium, Depart-
ment of Farm Forestry, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore.
V. BHASKAR
December 10, 1988. C.G. KUSHALAPPA
References
Kumari, G.R. & Subba Rao, G.V. (1976): A new species Soc.73: 194-196.
of Caralluma (Asclepiadaceae) from India. J. Bombay nai. Hist.
50. TWO NEW RECORDS OF ASCLEPIADACEAE FROM MAHARASHTRA
(With a plate and twelve text-figures )
During the course of exploration of rare, endangered
and endemic plant species of Maharashtra, the following
two interesting plants of Asclepiadaceae were collected
from Kolhapur and Satara districts of the State. Brachys-
telma edulis Coll, and Helmsl. which is originally known
from upper Burma and Siam (Thailand) is collected from
Kolhapur district (Yadav-3601) and forms a new record
for India. Ceropegia juncea Roxb. has been collected from
Satara district (Yadav — 4020) and forms anew record for
Maharashtra State. As these two species form new reoerds
from Maharashtra, descriptions with plate and figure are
presented here.
1) Brachystelma edulis Coll, and Helmsl. in Joum. Linn.
Soc. 28:89, t. 14,1890.
An erect perennial dwarf herb, 5-12 cm in height with
subglobose or depressed tuberous root, tubers 2-10 cm in
diameter. Stem terete, 2-3 mm in diameter, branched or
unbranched, covered with short downwardly pointed
hairs. Leaves sessile or subsessile, linear to linear — lan-
ceolate to narrowly elliptic, 3-8 x 0.4-1 cm, acute, mar-
gins ciliate. Flowers 1-2 on lateral side of scaly or
foliaceous leaves, bracteate, small; pedicel 3-8 mm,
puberulous, bract subulate, 1-2 mm. Calyx 5-partite,
sepals 1.3-1 .5 x 0.4-0.5 mm perberulous. Corolla 0.6-1. 2
cm long, straight, divided almost to the base, dark purple
and variously varigated on inner side, pale-green-purple
outside, corolla tube short c. 1 .5 mm, corolla lobes, broad
at base tapering and filiform at apex, connate and twisted
at tips, usually glabrous or sparsely hairy on inner side.
Corona biseriate, 2-2.5 mm in diameter, outer corona
cupular of 5 — bifid lobes, lobes glabrous outside, hairy on
margins and inner side or rarely entirely hairy; inner
corona of 5 dark purple procumbent processes which bent
upon stigma, usually glabrous or sparsely hairy, each
process usually trifid at apex with 2 small lateral lobes and
one large middle lobe procumbent on stigma. Pollinia
erect, minute, yellow attached to brown carriers by short
caudicles. Pistil 1-2 mm long, style indistinct, stigma
pentangular and fleshy. Follicles usually in pairs; 5-11 x
0.2- 0.3 cm, horn — shaped, tapering at apex. Seeds 8-12
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86
Yadav et al: Asclepiadaceae from Maharashtra
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
481
Figs. 1-12. Brachystelma edulis Coll. & Helmsl.
1. Plant; 2 & 3. Flowering buds; 4 & 5. Open flowers; 6. Follicle; 7. Seed with coma; 8. Pistil; 9. Plan view of flower;
10. Side view of corona; 11. Plan view of corona; 12. Pollinia.
482
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 86
x 2-3 mm, elongated, margined, coma 1-1.5 cm long,
white.
Note: The species grows on borders of slopes on
hillocks and in grasslands. Flowering of the species is very
peculiar. After first showers of premonsoon in mid — May,
the plants sprout out and initially produce scaly leaves. On
lateral side of each scaly leaf 1 or 2 flowers are produced,
usually one on each side of scaly leaf. After flowering and
fruiting, the plants produce foliaceous leaves. Rarely
flowers, fruits and foliaceous leaves are produced simul-
taneously. Main flowering season is May to June. Then
after vegetative growth is continued upto Augusl and then
the leaves and above ground parts of stem die off.
2) CeropegiajunceaRoxb.,Pl.Corom. 1: 12, 1. 10, 1795.
Twining orprostrate, glabrous, fleshy, perennial herbs,
when prostrate rooting at nodes, tubers small with many
branched roots. Stem with distinct nodes and intemodes;
intemodes 5-12 cm long and 3-5 mm in diameter, thick,
fleshy, green, glabrous. Leaves scalelike, c. 1 cm x 2 mm
or absent. Cymes pedunculate, usually 2-3 flowered.
Pedicels 6-7 mm long, thick. Calyx 5 partite, sepals 3-4
mm long. Corolla 3. 5-4.5 cm long, corolla tube inflated
at base, funnel shaped above the middle, slightly curved,
c. 2.5 cm long, variegated with purple outside, dark purple
inside, corolla lobes 2 cm long, greenish - yellow, adher-
ing at tip. Outer corona of 5 bidentate - deltoid ciliate
lobes, c. 4 mm in diameter; inner corona of linear, erect,
hooked lobes, lobes c. 3.5 mm long. Follicle in pairs, c. 4
cm long.
Note: Very rare plant in Maharashtra and found grow-
ing on hilly slopes. The branches coming in contact with
soil produce roots at nodes and form small tubers.
We are thankful to Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew for confirming the identification of Brachystelma
edulis. Coll. & Helmsl.
S.R. YADAV
C.B. SALUNKHE
January 27, 1989. G.B. DIXIT
51. DISPERSAL OF WILD LIME ATALANTIA MONOPHYLLA (L.) CORK. SERR.
(RUTACEAE) SEEDS BY SHORTNOSED FRUIT BAT CYNOPTERUS SPHINX VAHL IN
POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, SOUTH INDIA.
Van der Pijl (1982) while discussing the various prin-
ciples involved in the dispersal of higher plants, men-
tioned that citrus fruits (hesperidia) deviate from the
omithochorous type by possessing an indehiscent, repel-
lent, tough pericarp and by the large seeds, which separate
easily from the sweet pulp when pecked at. He further
comments that this type of fruit is fit for dispersal by
monkeys, but there is no data available on the dispersal of
these seeds in the natural environment.
However, Ridley (1930) cited data from Jamaica,
where certain birds such as Icterus leucopteryx and T urtur
leucopteryx feed and disperse the seeds of cultivated oran-
ges. Also instances of cultivated citrus fruits damaged by
birds for the sake of seeds is reported from Northern
Australia (Van der Pijl 1982) and Pakistan (Shafi et al.
1986).
At Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary during a two
year study on the seed dispersal by fruit-eating birds
and mammals, I found that the fruits of Atalantia
monophylla (citrus type) were eaten and dispersed by
Shortnosed Fruit Bat Cynopterus sphinx Vahl
(Megachiroptera).
Atalantia monophylla (L.) Corr. Serr. (Rutaceae) is
an evergreen small thorny tree, distributed in the penin-
sular India, Sri Lanka and Khasia hills (Mathew 1982).
The fruit (hesperidia) is a green globose berry with thick
rind and bitter taste; 2 cm di am.; 1-5 celled; cells 1 seeded;
seeds 1.3 x 1 cm diam. This species is common in Point
Calimere Sanctuary and its Peak fruiting was observed in
October and November.
Shortnosed Fruit Bat is a commonly noticeable small
at at Point Calimere Widlife Sanctuary . It visits the fruiting
trees, plucks the fruits, carries them in its mouth, flies to a
nearby tree and eats at leisure. The fruits are chewed and
the seeds are spat out along with the uneaten parts. The
spat out seeds found under the feeding roosts were col-
lected twice in a week. Totally 309 samples were collected
from January 1987 to December 1987. Seeds of atalantia
monophylla were found in 50.5% of the samples collected.
In December 1987 four samples comprising 46
A. monophylla seeds were left in situ to deter-
mine whether they will germinate or not. During January
’88, immediately after the monsoon rains, 29 seedlings
were found growing in the marked sites. From this obser-
vation it is evident that the A. monophylla fruits are eaten
and dispersed by Shortnosed Fruit Bat. This note forms
the first record of citrus type fruit dispersel by a
suitable disperser, mammal in the natural environment.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
483
Acknowledgements
My sincere thanks are due to my research guide. Prof.
P.V. Bole, President, Bombay Natural History Society for
Refer
Mathew, K.M. (1982): The flora of the Tamil Nadu
Carnatic, Rapinat Herbarium publications, Tiruchy. Parti, P. 200,
201.
PiJI, Van Der (1982): Principles of dispersal in higher
plants. Springer — Verlag, New York. 214 pp.
his guidance and Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator, of the same
institution for his encouragement.
March 31, 1989. P. BALASUBRAMANIAN
E N C E S
Ridley, II.N. (1930): The dispersal of plants throughout
the World. Reeve & Co., Ltd. Ashford. 744 pp.
Shah, M.M., Khan, A.A. & Hussain, I. (1986): Parakeet,
Psittacula Krameri (Scopoli) damage to citrus fruits in Punjab,
Pakistan. J. Bombay nat. IList. Soc. 83: 438 — 444.
ERRATA
VOLUME 86 (1) : APRIL 1989
Notes on the status and distribution of some birds in Sri Lanka
For migrant
Read vagrant
VOLUME 86(3) : DECEMBER 1989
105th Annual Report and Accounts
To list of office bearers
Add : Vice President Mr. K. T. Sataravala
Bombay Natural History Society
Minutes of the AGM held on 22 — 11 — 1988
The Annual General Meeting of the Bombay Natural 1988 at 6.00 p.m. at Hombill House, when the follow-
History Society was held on Tuesday, the 22nd November ing were present:
1.
Prof. P V Bole (In the Chair)
19.
Mr G Bromilow
37.
Mr K P Karamchandani
2.
Mrs D S Variava
20.
Ms Usha Shah
38.
Mrs P Lalkaka
3.
Mr S S Nadodwalla
21.
Dr A N D Nanavati
39.
MsSWorah
4.
Mr Bharat Bhushan
22.
Mr Promode Kant
40.
Mr Owen Joseph Fonseca
5.
Mr D B Jamdade
23.
Mr J C Daniel
41.
Mr S G Bhatkal
6.
Mr S Krishnan
24.
Mr S Solomonraj
42.
Mr S Mistry
7.
Mr Secunder A Padsha
25.
Dr C V Kulkami
43.
Dr Meena Haribal
8.
Mr S FTarapore
26.
Mr N D Sethna
44.
Mr S R Mehta
9.
Mr D J Ugaonkar
27.
Dr Asad Rahmani
45.
Mr SDN Gandhi
10.
Mr M S Behramfram
28.
Mr M R Almeida
46.
Ms Archna Mehrotra
11.
Mr Mukesh Dialani
29.
Mr Mihir Devare
47.
Mr Carl D’Silva
12.
Mr Sunil R Zaveri
30.
Mr Nitin Jamdar
48.
Ms Iyer Shashi Rekha
13.
Dr Pratap Saraiya
31.
Dr Shashi Menon
49.
Mr Y U Bulsara
14.
Ms Heta Pandit
32.
Mr S P Kamath
50.
Mr Sangeet Sharma
15.
Mr Debt Goenka
33.
Mr Ulhas Rane
51.
Mr S D Swatantra
16.
Mr ND Mulla
34.
Mr Shakunt lari
52.
Mr R K Ojha
17.
Mr Kisan Mehta
35.
Mr Ravi Sankaran
18.
Prof. Parvish Pandya
36.
Mr R S Moral
Agenda Item 1: The Chairman proposed that the minutes
of the Annual General Meeting held on 18th December
1987 and the Minutes of the Extraordinary General Meet-
ing held on 26th March 1988, which had been circulated
in draft form to the members who had attended the meeting
and thereafter finalised by Chairman, be received.
Mr Mulla pointed out that his suggestion that the
results of the Referendum on the representation of the
Central and State Governments on the Executive Commit-
tee should be circulated to all members of the Society had
not been incorporated. It was resolved unanimously that
this would be done. The minutes were accepted with the
above modification.
Agenda Item 2: The Honorary Secretary’s Report:
The Honorary Secretary’s report which was available was
taken as read.
The Honorary Secretary further stated that the Govern-
ment of India have now sanctioned the organisation of a
Centre for Ornithology and that arrangements are being
made to register a separate Society under the auspices of
the BNHS for the management of the 100% government
furided centre which will be named after Dr Salim Ali.
The members expressed appreciation at the fulfilment
of Dr Salim Ali’s desire.
In the discussion the report, Mr. Mulla pointed out
discrepancies of time — lag in the publication of certain
articles in the Journal. The Chairman said the matter would
be looked into and explanation, if any, provided.
It was pointed out by Mr. Debi Goenka that there was
no mention of the Reference Collection nor of the
Hebarium in the Honorary Secretary’s report. The
Honorary Secretary expressed regret for this oversight.
Mrs D S Variava pointed out that in future reports the
Chairpersons of the various sub — committees would be
reporting on the activities of their respective sub — com-
mittees which would be incorporated in the Honorary
Secretary ’ s report.
The Honorary Secretary’s Report was then accepted.
Agenda Item 3: Accounts: The Honorary Tresurer
gave a resume of the financial situation of the Society as
a corallary to the report he had already submitted.
Inquiries regarding utilization of certain funds and
investments were made together with suggestions. Ex-
planation of queries were given. Suggestion of other per-
missible investments will be looked into by the Society,
particularly with ref. to UTI investments under Trust
Security act, as suggested by Mr. Debi Goenka.
Mr. S A Padsha suggested that the percentage set apart
for the Society from amounts collected for field trips
should be indicated to members. The Hon. Treasurer
stated that he would consider the suggestion.
The Annual Accounts for 1987 were then approved.
Agenda Item 4: Appointment of Auditors: Messrs
Habib and Co. Auditors, were re — appointed for the en-
suing year, at a remuneration to be fixed by the Executive
Committee.
Agenda Item 5: Any other business: Mr Mulla an-
nounced that he would send a requisition duly signed by
several members for holding an E.G.M. to discuss the
conduct of the last referendum.
The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the
Chair.
INDEX OF AUTHORS, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Almeida, S.M.
Blatter Herbarium, St Xavier’s College, Bombay 400 001
478
Avasthi, Rajendra Kumar
Dept, of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh.
468
Balasubramanian, P.
BNHS Pt. Calimere Ecology Project, Pt. Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary,
Kodikkarai, Thanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu 614 807
437,450,482
Bapat, N.N.
Pipla Street, Junavas, Madhapur, Bhuj, Kutch.
443,445
Barman, R.P.
Zoological Survey of India, 27, Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Spirit Building,
Calcutta 700 016.
463
Bharos, Arun M.K.
M-532 Padmanabhpur, Durg, Madhya Pradesh.
462
Bharucha, E.K.
“Saken” Valentina Society, North Main Road, Koregaon Park,
Pune 41 1001.
450
Bhaskar, V.
Dept, of Farm Forestry, University of Agricultural Sciences,
GKVK Cartipus, Bangalore 560 065
480
Biswas, Biswamoy
Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta 700 016.
448
Choudhury, Anwaruddin
Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium, Islampur Road, Guwahati 781 007
436
Cox, Jack H.
2919 Colony Road, Charlotte, NC, USA 28211
Present address: P.O. Box 969,
Jayapure 990 01, Irian Jaya, Indonesia.
452
Davidar, Peter
David Nagar, Padappai (Via) Madras, Tamil Nadu 601 301
437
Devi, Uma C.
Dept, of Zoology, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003.
467
Dhillon, K.B.S.
Dept, of Botany, SGN Khalsa College, Sriganganagar, Rajasthan.
473
Dixit, G.B.
Dept, of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004.
480
Duttagupta, B.
Division of Herpetology, Zoological Survey of India,
Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Calcutta 700 016.
462
George, N.J.
Dept, of Zoology, University of Calicut,
P.O. Calicut University, Kerala 673 635
436
Haque, Md. Nayerul
BNHS Ecological Research Centre, Bharatpur 321 001
435
Harrap, S.C.
177 Antrobus Road, Handsworth, Birmingham, B21 9NU U.K.
460
Himmatsinhji, M.K.
Jubilee Ground, Bhuj, Kutch
443,445
Joshi, Vijay
10, Pranav Society, 1000/6-C, Navi Peth, Pune 41 1 030.
446
Khachar, Satyajit
Darbargadh, Jasdan, Gujarat 360 050.
453
Khachar, Shivrajkumar
Darbargadh, Jasdan, Gujarat 360 050 (Deceased).
446,448
Kholia, B.S.
Dept, of Botany, Govt P.G. College, Pithoragarh 262 501.
475
Kulshreshtha, Manoj
41, Panchwati, Udaipur, Rajasthan 313 001
456
Kushalappa, C.G.
Dept, of Farm Forestry, University of Agricultural Sciences,
GKVK Campus, Bangalore 560 065.
480
Manakadan, Ranjit
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
447
Mandal, Ajay Kumar
Zoological Survey of India, 535 New Alipore Road,
‘M’ Block, Calcutta 700 053
435
Manohar, Ram B.
Dept, of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan 302 004
461
Mistry, M.K.
Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay 400 001.
478
Mundkur, Taej
Dept, of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat 360 005
440,446
Namassivayan, L.
13A369, Kammath Lane, Kozhikode, Kerala 673 002.
447,458
Narayan, E.
Dept, of Microbiology, JIPMER, Pondicherry 605 006
445
Navarro, A.
St Xavier’s High School, Bombay 400 001.
451
Pande, H.C.
Dept, of Botany, Kumaun University Campus, Almora 263 601.
479
Pande, P.C.
Dept, of Botany, Kumaun University Campus, Almora 263 601.
479
Patil, G.M.
Dept, of Sericulture, University of Agricultural Sciences,
GKVK Campus, Bangalore 560 065
472
Pravez, Rishad
Dept, of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat 360 005
440
Punetha, N.
Dept, of Botany, Govt. P.G. College, Pithoragarh 262 501
475
Rahmani, Asad R.
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
447
Rajan, S. Alagar
BNHS Avifauna Project, Pt. Calimere Tanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu 614 807.
450
Rajasekaran, M.
Dept, of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan 302 004.
461
Raju, U.V. Bairagi
A.P. Natural History Society, Kingfisher House, Near A.U. Post Office,
Visakhapatnam 530 003.
449
Raju, K.S.R. Krishna
A.P. Natural History Society, Kingfisher House, Near
A.U. Post Office, Visakhapatnam 530 003.
449
Ranade, Sunil
10, Pranav Society, 1000/6-C, Navi Peth, Pune 411 030
446
Ranjitsinh
Ministry of Environment & Forests, Kota House Hutments,
Shahjahan Road, New Delhi 110 011
435
Reddy, Prasad N. A.V.
Dept, of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University,
Visakhapatnam 530 003.
467
Redman, N.J.
14, Sandiway Place, Altrincham, Cheshire, WA14 1HT U.K.
460
Salunkhe, C.B.
Dept, of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004.
480
Sankaran, Ravi
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
451
Sant, Niranjan
10, Pranav Society, 1000/6-C, Navi Peth, Pune 41 1 030
446
Santharam, V.
No. 68 (I floor), Santhome High Road, Madras 600 028.
452
Sanyal, D.P.
Division of Herpetology, Zoological Survey of India,
Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Calcutta 700 016.
462
Savanurmath, C J.
Dept, of Zoology, Kamatak University, Dharwad 580 003.
472
Shafee, Adam S.
Dept, of Zoology, Vaish College, Rohtak
468
Sharma, Satish Kumar
Van Chetana Kendra, Gulab Bagh, Udaipur, Rajasthan 313 001.
453,455,456
Shrestha, Mukti N.
Dept, of National Parks & Wildlife Conservation, Central Zoo,
Jawalakhel, Lalitpur, Nepal.
438
Singh, B.P.
Dept, of Botany, SGN Khalsa College, Sriganganagar, Rajasthan.
473
Singh, Ravinder
41, Panchwati, Udaipur, Rajasthan 313 001.
456
Smetacek, Peter
The Retreat, Bhimtal, Nainital, Uttar Pradesh.
471
Sodhi, Navjot S.
Dept, of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160 014.
Present Address: Dept, of Biology, University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N OWO, Canada.
440
Talukdar, S.K.
Division of Herpetology, Zoological Survey of India,
Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Calcutta 700 016.
462
Tehsin, Raza
41, Panchwati, Udaipur, Rajasthan 313 001.
449,456
Thomas, Shaju
Dept, of Zoology, Nirmala College, Muvattupuzha,
Kerala 686 661
438
Unnithan, S.
Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
451
Uthaman, R.K.
Kerala Natural History Society, 13/369, Kammath Lane,
Kozhikode, Kerala 673 002.
458
Varu, S.N.
Pipla Street, Junavas, Madhapur, Bhuj, Kutch
443
Venugopalan, R.
Kerala Natural History Society, 13/369, Kammath Lane,
Kozhikode, Kerala 673 002.
447,458
Watve, Milind
10, Pranav Society, 1000/6-C, Navi Peth, Pune 411 030
446
Yadav, S.R.
Dept, of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004.
480
105TH ANNUAL REPORT AND ACCOUNTS
1988-89
Patron
President
Vice Presidents
Hon. Secretary
Hon. Treasurer
Curator
Mr Rajiv Gandhi, Prime Minister of India
Prof. PV Bole
Mr Humayun Abdulali; Mrs. D S Variava
Dr A N D Nanavati
Dr Pratap R Saraiya
Mr J C Daniel
Executive Committee
Mr M R Almeida; Dr. Erach K Bharucha; Dr B F Chhapgar
Mr Cyrus J Guzder; Dr (Ms) Meena Haribal; Mr K Karamchandani
Mr Kisan Mehta; Prof. Parvish Pandya; Mr Ulhas Rane; Mr D I Solanki
The Secretary, Dept, of Education and Social Welfare, Govt, of Maharashtra
Auditors
MNs Habib and Company, Chartered Accountants, Bombay
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Registered Office: Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE FOR THE 15 MONTH PERIOD
ENDED 31 MARCH 1989
105TH “ANNUAL” REPORT
MEMBERSHIP
The Membership of the Bombay Natural His-
tory Society (BNHS) remained more or less static
and showed only a marginal increase in 1988 over
1987 as shown below:
A? on 3 1st December
Type of membership
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
Ordinary Members
1762
1764
1680
1960
2008
Corporate Members
132
152
138
81
83
Life Members
562
639
737
986
1057
Compound Corporate
Members
107
108
115
115
115
Student Members
192
164
141
190
206
Honorary Members
3
3
3
3
3
Vice Patrons
6
6
6
6
6
Centenary Life Members 3
3
3
3
3
It is hoped that with the increase in members’
activities generated by the various Sub-Committees
constituted by the Executive Committee, member-
ship will increase considerably in the coming
months. The strength and independence of an or-
ganisation like the BNHS depends on its ability to
attract and increase its membership.
FIELD PROGRAMMES
Membership and Programmes Sub-Committee
Chairperson : Dr (Ms) M. Haribal
Convenor : Mr Naresh Chaturvedi
Members : Mr Parvish Pandya
Dr A. Kothari
Mr Kisan Mehta
Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary ^
Dr Paratap Saraiya, Hon.Treasurer I Ex-officio
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator J
With the assistance of many members who
volunteered their services for guiding members in
field outings and other programmes, the Program-
mes Sub-Committee could undertake a large num-
ber of field activities as described below:
During the year under review, members in the
Bombay area were taken on nature walks to areas of
natural-history interest such as Mamabanja,
Chinchoti falls, Kukoba hills, Uran, Jambulwadi, ,
Kamala Bird Sanctuary, Kehim Sea Shore etc. The
seashore outings were particularly well attended.
Besides weekend camps were organised at
Gaurapur, Jaikwadi, Castle Roack, Prabalgad,
Sawantwadi, Malshejghat, Suriamal, Nandur
Madhmeshwar and Palgar. We are examining the
feasibility of arranging field programmes in other
parts of the country for members of the BNHS.
Three major field camps were held during the
year. The first was a high altitude camp in Sikkim
State which enabled members not only to trek but
also to watch the birds and study the rich butterfly
and other fauna and flora of the eastern Himalayas.
The camp was for 1 1 days and 3 batches of members
trekked from 3000 ft to 13,000 ft.
The second camp was held in the Manas
Sanctuary in Assam, one of the best sancturies in
India and a world heritage site which holds several
endangered species, including the hispid hare and
Pygmy hog. The third camp was held at Rantham-
bore Sanctuary in Rajasthan, a Tiger Project area as
is Manas. The members in 3 batches stayed for 5
days and 4 nights to look at the tiger and other
interesting fauna and flora and observe problems of
management of the protected area.
The other programmes at Bombay included
film shows and lectures by guest lectures and BNHS
members and Research Staff. Exhibitions of
photographs on wildlife and of stamps were also
held.
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Sub-Committee
Chairperson : Mr C.J. Guzder
Convenor : Mr J.C. Daniel
Member : Dr B. Chhapgar
Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary j
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer J Ex-officio
The Publications Sub-Committee undertook
the task of reorganisation of the publication struc-
ture of the BNHS Journal and the results can be seen
in the coming year. The Sub-Committee also
propose to reorganise the processing and manage-
ment of the publications of the BNHS.
2
In 1987, the Honorary Treasurer, with the ap-
proval of the Executive Committee, negotiated an
arrangement for the worldwide distribution of the
Society’s publications by the Oxford University
Press. Under this arrangement, except for sale to
members at concessional rates by the Society, all
other sales are being handled by the OUP. This
arrangement has proved to be highly advantageous
to the Society and has resulted in the reprinting,
within a short period, of most of the popular publi-
cations of the Society.
Journal:
265 notes and articles were received from
members and others for publication in the Journal
during the year. From among these and notes and
articles received earlier, 157 were accepted for pub-
lication.
During the year, 4 issues of the Journal i.e., vol.
84(2&3) and vol. 85(1&2) were published. The 956
pages of these Journals held 247 articles and notes.
Hornbill:
The two issues of the first two quarters of the
magazine were published in the usui format. The
remaining issues were combined into one as the
Salim Ali special issue of the ‘Hornbill’. The
Hornbill continues to be popular and to attract mem-
bers. Under the revised rules, this magazine is sent
free to all members of the BNHS while the Journal
now requires a separate subscription.
NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME
Nature Education Sub-Committee
Chairperson : Mr U. Rane
Convenor : Mrs S. Grubh
Members : Ms M. Haribal
Mr S.A. Hussain (ODA)
Dr Arun Joshi
Ms Heta Pandit
Mr Parvish Pandya
Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary )
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer Ex-officio
Mr J.C.Daniel, Curator J
The regular activities like field trips, slide
shows, camps, competitions etc. involving schools
and colleges in Bombay were continued during the
year. 20 programmes of slide/film shows and talks
were conducted for schools, colleges and nature
clubs in Bombay. These included Municipal schools
and teachers’ colleges. 41 field trips were organised
for schools and colleges at Borivli National Park
and Tansa Sanctuary. Additionally, 17 study visits
were organised for schools to the Natural History
Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, Jijamata
Udyan and Taraporewala Aquarium. A quiz
programme for schools and junior colleges was or-
ganised on World Forestry Day. A vacation camp for
children was organised in co-ordination with R.C.F.
club.
The Nature Education Sub-Committee mem-
bers carried out various educational programmes for
the BNHS members, college students and rural
children. These included slide shows, film shows,
exhibitions, nature trails, competitions in photog-
raphy, basic courses in natural history subjects, na-
ture orientation camps for members and armed for-
ces personnel, awareness programmes on free con-
servation and publicity through newspapers, radio
and television. A teachers’ camp was organised at
Bharatpur.
The special features of the programmes con-
ducted in the year 1988 were:
1 . Involvement of more voluntary organisations in
our rural programmes.
2. Active involvement of the BNHS staff and mem-
bers in the nature education activities.
3. Beginning of nature education courses for
amateurs.
4. Extension of nature education activities to Kar-
nataka and Gujarat with the help of our members
in these states.
5. Conservation workshop at Kota for army of-
ficers. This is likely to be an annual feature, in
future.
6. A unique syllabus is being prepared for tribal
children (who do not get the facilities like
schools, books etc.) to orient them towards na-
ture conservation with a scientific approach.
This experiment is being carried out at Murbad,
in Thane district in co-ordination with Lokvid-
nyan Chalwal and Shramik Mukti Sanghatana.
7. Compilation of educational literature on natural
history in English and Marathi.
8. An Orientation Camp for selected teachers
from Bombay at Bharatpur wasorganised.
3
COLLECTIONS
Collections Sub-Committee
Chairperson : MrH. Abdulali
Convenor : Mr N. Chaturvedi
Members : Dr M. Almeida
Dr B. Chhapgar
Ms M. Haribal
Mr N. Jamdar
Staff in chaise of different collections
Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary )
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer | Ex-officio
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator )
The BNHS presently holds a reference or study
collection of 18000 + mammals, 26,000 + birds,
7,000 + reptiles and amphibians and over 50,000
insects, a collection of birds, a collection of birds
eggs and a small collection of shells. The purpose of
the collection is to assist in taxonomic studies.
Mammals:
Assistance was given to Ms Chandran who had
planned an ecological study of Indian rodents.
Another scholar, Mr Sundaraj, collected data on eye
measurements. Dr Allan Rodgers of the Wildlife
Institute studied skulls of Cervidae and Bovidae in
the collection. Hair samples from the collections
were sent to Dr Johnsingh to help in the identifica-
tion of hairs in scats. Otter specimens were studied
and a key was prepared for their identification. A
presentation on Otter identification was given at the
Otter Symposium held at Bangalore.
The work of computerising the data of the
mammal collection was begun.
Birds:
The systematic cataloguing of the collections
by Mr Humayun Abdulali was continued during the
year. Under this programme, specimens of Zoothera
and Turdus were sent to the British Museum for
opinion. Specimens were also given on loan to
various workers for studies. 47 specimens of birds
collected from Arunachal Pradesh in October 1988
and 28 specimens from Mandapam and Point
Calimere bird ringing camps were added to the
collections.
Reptiles:
Collection of amphibians made by the Oxford
University Students Expedition to the Srivilliputur
Hills, Tamil Nadu, was identified. Similarly,
specimens received from Dr S.K. Dey, collected by
him from Sikkim were also worked out. A small
collection received from Dharwad (Dr Kanmandi)
and Kerala (Dr M I Andrew) were identified and
returned. Specimens of the Cobra Naja naja were
sent to Dr R S Thorpe, Department of Zoology
Aberdeen, U K for study.
Insects:
A small collection of Butterflies received from
the Oxford University Students Expedition was
identified. Information on Mantis found in
Maharashtra was given to a research worker from
Pune. 40 butterflies collected from Parambikuiam
area and Kashmir were added to the collections.
Besides students and staff of colleges and re-
search institutions, several BNHS members from
Bombay and outside visited the collections for ref-
erence, research and identification of specimens.
Herbarium:
Specimens donated by Hindustan Ciba-Geigy
were added to the collection. Over 212 specimens
received from members and staff were identified.
A survey trip was made to the Surat Dangs with
a member-researcher and plant specimens were col-
lected and identified.
During the year 86, field trips were made to the
BNHS land at Goregaon and plants of 153 quadrats
of 10 x 10 m were identified and studied. The data
has been entered in the computer and will be
analyzed.
NATURAL HISTORY STUDIES
Natural History Studies Sub-Committee
Chairperson
Convenor
Members
Dr E. Bharucha
Mr S.A. Hussain
Mr M. Almeida
Mr Bharat Bhushan
Prof P V. Bole
Dr B. Chhapgar
Mr Rishad Naoroji
Mr Ulhas Rane
Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary '
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator J
Ex-officio
A Sub-Committee was set up this year with the
objective of encouraging studies in various fields of
Natural History by members and students. The com-
mittee was assigned the following funds with
specific objectives.
4
Name of the Fund
Objectives
1. Salim Ali Loke Wan Tho Ornithological Re-
search Fund
2. Pirojsha Godrej Field work Fund
3. Sir Dorab Tata Trust Field work Fund
4. W. Boolchand Trust Fund
5. Plant Studies Fund
It was decided as a preliminary exercise to
identify members interested in various aspects of
natural history by setting up study groups for mem-
bers in Botany, Forest Ecology, General Ecology,
Ornithology, Mammals Herpetology, Insects and
Archnids, Aquatic Fauna and Geology to build up a
suitable data bank for this purpose. But the response
to the announcement made in the Hombill about the
study groups was negligible.
Some of the activities of the Sub-Committee
funded and generated during the year were:
1. ICBP Membership:
The BNHS was made a subscribing member
by providing funds towards subscriptions to the
International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP).
It was felt that it would be advantageous to BNHS
to become a member of ICBP and initiate moves to
set up an ICBP Indian National Section under the
leadership of BNHS and with the collaboration of
other NGO’s.
2. Waterfowl and Wetlands Newsletter:
The BNHS, in association with the Interna-
tional Wetlands and Waterfowl Research Bureau,
conducted the Asian midwinter waterfowl counts in
India. Over three hundred birdwatchers, most of
them BNHS members, participated in the count. The
results of the counts were compiled in a newsletter
“Wetlands and Waterfowl”, partly funded by the
To provide an opportunity, through grant of
fellowships or otherwise to undertake study and
research on problems of Field Ornithology
To provide assistance for research and training
on environmental ecology.
To promote field work and research in Natural
History.
To provide scholarships for the study of Ecology
& Ornithology.
To provide for research and conservation of
floristic elements and studies on inter-relation-
ship between plants and animals.
NHS Sub- Committee. The newsletter was dis-
tributed to all the participants as well as key person-
nel in India and abroad.
3. Photographic record of BNHS land in
Goregaon:
The BNHS collection staff have been carrying
out Natural History Studies in the land alloted to
BNHS at Goregoan. A support grant was given to
keep a photographic record of the flora and fauna of
the area at different times of the year and record their
natural cycle.
4. Other studies — M. Phil thesis:
a] Two students of the AVC college,
Mayavaram were awarded support grant so
as to enable them to write up their respective
M. Phil thesis. The students had worked at
the Keoladeo National Park.
b] One student Mr. Maranko under the aegis of
the BNHS field project had studied the
wintering behaviour of the Siberian Crane.
c] Another student, Mr Neduraman, studied the
habitat utilisation of the Siberian crane at
Keoladeo National Park.
5. Scholarship:
A scholarship was awarded to Ms Mehrab
5
Johnson, of Osmania University, for the study on
feeding and breeding biology of openbilled stork
under the guidance of Prof. J V Ramana Rao. The
field work is being carried out at Kolluru lake,
Krishna Dist. and Puniakhesturan, East Godavari
dist. Andhra Pradesh.
6. ICBP Asian Section Conference at Bangkok
in April 1989:
Two of the BNHS scientists, Mr S.A. Hussain
and Dr A.R. Rahmani were offered grants for attend-
ing the above conference for exchange of informa-
tion on conservation and for establishing com-
munication among the bird conservation organisa-
tions of Asia. At the conference, Mr Hussain read
out the National status paper prepared by Mr Daniel
as well as his own paper entitled “Bird Migration in
Asia - a case for regional cooperation” while Dr
Rahmani presented a paper on “Bustard Conserva-
tion in India”.
Mr Hussain was elected as one of the two
Vice-Chairmen for the ICBP Asian section for the
next four years.
THE SALIM ALI NATURE CONSERVATION
FUND (SANCF)
SANCF Sub-Committee
Chairperson : Mrs D.S. Variava
Convenor : Mr Bharat Bhushan
Members : Dr E. Bharucha
Mr D. Solanki
Mr S.A. Hussain
Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hem. Secretary >
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator, Ex-officio J
Ex-officio
The Sub-committe continued to initiate as well
as support activities of conservation interest from
SANCF. Major undertaken projects during the year
were:
1 . A survey of the status of the Blacknecked Crane
in Bhutan by Mr Prakash Gole and Col. Chacko.
Mr Gole has presented the recommendations to
the Royal Government of Bhutan.
2. A survey of the status of the Malabar Civet in the
Elayur and Beypore areas of Kerala by Mr N.J.
George of Calicut University. Mr George had
earlier rediscovered the Malabar Civet after
nearly fifty years.
3. A survey of the status of the Dugong in the Gulf
of Mannar in Tamil Nadu by Dr Helene Marsh.
The preliminary report has been received. The
Tamil Nadu Forest Department have initiated
follow-up action on the recommendations made
in the report.
4. The Mangroves of the Krishna estuary in Andhra
Pradesh were surveyed by Mr. Narendra Prasad.
The recommendations have been followed up
with the Andra Pradesh Forest Department and
the area has since been declared as a sanctuary.
5. An aerial survey of the Surat Dangs in Gujarat
by Dr E Bharucha was partially supported as
part of other ecological studies of the Surat
Dangs.
6. On the basis of a request for studies by the local
NGO, Honavar Taluka Parisara Kuta, financial
support was extended to Mr. Nitin Jamdar to
conduct a short survey of the Sharavati Valley in
Karnataka.
7. Wild Buffalo survey in Madhya Pradesh -
SANCF sponsored a short survey with funds
provided by the Department of Environment,
Government of India, to ru;ord status of the Wild
Buffalo populations in the Bastar and Raipur
districts of Madhya Pradesh.
In addition, SANCF extended financial sup-
port for a) preparing an exhibition at Bombay on the
“Save Sahyadris March”; b) organised a painting
competition; and a quiz competition for students;
and c) organising a nature discovery room for stu-
dents at the BNHS.
A Conservation Officer was appointed during
the year.
PROJECTS
Projects Sub-Committee
Chairperson : Prof P.V. Bole
Convenor : Dr R.B. Grubh
Members : Mr H. Abdullali
Mr M. Almeida
Dr E. Bharucha
Mr. Karamchandani
Senior Scientists incharge of major projects.
Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary ^
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer | Ex-officio
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator J
During the year 1988 the BNHS handled six
t major field ecological research projects. These
were:
6
1. Bharatpur (Keoladeo) Ecology Project (Funded
by USFWS)
2. Bird Migration Project (Funded by USFWS)
3. Elephant Ecology project (Funded by USFWS)
4. Endangered Birds Project (Funded by USFWS)
5. Pt. Calimere Ecology Project (Funded by
USFWS)
6. Bird Hazard to Aircraft Project (Funded by
GOI)
1. Bharatpur Ecology Project
It is an extension of the original Bharatpur
Hydrobiology project and the expected data of com-
pletion is April 1990. During the year, the 15 re-
search staff headed by Dr V S Vijayan continued to
collect data on various ecological parameters
governing the Bharatpur wetland ecological system.
The parameters included limnological aspects,
vegetation, macro-invertebrates, fishes, herpetol-
ogy, ornithology and mammalogy.
The number of fish species recorded within
the Keoladeo National Park rose to 42. Two more
amphibian species were collected. The population
of aquatic birds was higher than during the previous
year. The wintering population of the Siberian Crane
did not settle down inside the park because of the
drought.
2. Bird Migration Project
This is another extension project of the
original project, ‘Movement and population of In-
dian Avifauna. The expected date of completion is
September 1992. Mr Hussain, the Project Scientist,
and his team of five research staff handled the field
programme as well as entering of banding data into
the computer. Bird banding was conducted at Shiv-
puri, Karera (MP), Khabar Tal (Bihar), Hingolgadh
(Gujarat), Point Calimere and Mandapam (TN). A
total of 2224 water birds of 32 species were ringed
during the year. Random netting was done at certain
sites in order to assess the species composition of
terrestrial birds.
3. Elephant Ecology Project
This project is an offshoot of the original
‘Endangered Species’ Project and is expected to
continue until September 1992. The work is carried
out by four research staff under the guidance of Mr
J C Daniel. The major studies carried out during the
year are i) feeding ecology of the elephants, ii)
population dynamics, behaviour and conservation
problems, and iii) migration of peripheral elephant
population. The first two studies were carried out at
the Elephant Project Field Station at Mudumalai
(TN). The third study was initiated mainly to under-
stand the possible reasons for the unpredictable
movements of elephants in the existing degraded
forests and even straying out into cultivation fields
resulting in lethal encounters with man.
The areas covered were Hosur and Dhar-
mapuri Forest devisions of Tamil Nadu, Chitoor
division of Andhra Pradesh and Kanakapura
division of Karnataka. The studies conducted at
Mudumalai as well as on the peripheral populations
of the elephants have given additional insight into
the conservation and management problems of
elephants. Additional studies were planned for
elephants of Dalma in Bihar.
4. Endangered Birds Project
The ‘Endangered Birds’ project has so far
completed an ecological study of the Great Indian
Bustard and rediscovery of the Jerdon’s courser.
Two more species taken up under the Project for
detailed study are the lesser florican and the Bengal
florican. The second and final phase of this project
is ending in September 1989. Dr A R Rahmani and
three research staff form the team.
5. Point Calimere Ecology Project
Commenced in 1987, the Project aims at un-
derstanding the functioning of this complex ecologi-
cal system with a view to offering management
solutions to the forest department. Dr Y.N. Rao
(Project head) and his four colleagues collected field
data on the i) phyto sociology of the grazing lands,
ii) plant animal interactions, iii) ecology of a few
dominant bird species, and iv) ecology of the black-
buck. Additional aspects are to be taken up during
1989 in order to understand the dynamics of this
ecological system.
6. Bird Hazard to Aircraft Project
At the request of the Government of India, the
BNHS undertook to make an ecological study of 22
7
Indian aerodromes. The field work commenced in
1980 and concluded in 1988. During the last year,
field work was limited to follow up observations at
a couple of aerodromes with the help of one field
staff. The GOI has now financed the BNHS to set
up a Bird Hazard Research Cell to help identify bird
remnants and to offer advice on bird hazard reduc-
tion. The final report of the study is under prepara-
tion.
UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT
During the year the department affiliated to the
University of Bombay since 1957 continued to con-
tribute to the Scientific Study of Natural History. Mr
Vibhu Prakash submitted his thesis for the Ph.D
degree in field ornithology, on “The General Ecol-
ogy of raptors in Keoladeo National park” under the
guidance of Mr J C Daniel.
Mr Manek Mistry submitted his thesis for Ph.D
degree in Botany, on “Contributions to the flora of
Ratnagiri dist. in Maharahstra” under the guidance
of Prof. P V Bole.
The following students are registered for M.Sc
and Ph.D degrees through the BNHS.
Name of Student
Subject of Study
Guide from
BNHS
Mr S. Alagar Rajan
M.Sc. Zoology
Ecology of Spotted and Ring Dove
Dr R.B. Grubh
Mr Gurmeet Singh
Ecology of Bank Myna
Dr R.B. Grubh
Mr Ramachandran
Ecology of the Jacanas
Dr V.S. Vijayan
Mr Ravi Sankaran
The Ecology of the
Mr J.C. Daniel
Mr U. Sridharan
Lesser Florican
Ph.D Zoology
Ecology of the resident ducks of
Mr J.C. Daniel
Mr G. Narayan
Keoladeo National Park
The Ecology of the Bengal Florican
Mr J.C. Daniel
Mr S.M.Satheesan
Birds of Prey
Mr J.C. Daniel
Mr Sunderamoorthy
The Ecology of terrestrial Birds of
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur
Mr J.C. Daniel
Mr V. Natarajan
Ecology of the Crow-pheasant
Mr J.C. Daniel
Mr P. Balasubramanian
Ph.D Botany
Plant-animal Interactions
Prof. P.V. Bole
LIBRARY
Library Sub-Committee
Chairperson
Convenor
Members
Dr B. Chhapgar
Mr Isaac Kehimkar
Mr M. Almeida
Mr Kisan Mehta
Mr Kiran Srivastav
Dr A.N.D. Nanavati, Hon. Secretary
Dr Pratap Saraiya, Hon. Treasurer
Mr J.C. Daniel, Curator J
Ex-Officio
The library continued to be a much used mem-
ber facility. In 1988, 132 books were added to the
library out of which 30 were purchased for the
projects and 7 for the library. 12 books were sent by
publishers for favour of publishing reviews in the
Journal and 14 were received as complimentary
copies from authors and publishers. Out of the 69
books received as donation, 29 books were donated
by Mr. M. Hidayatullah, the Society’s former Presi-
dent, and 20 books were donated by Mr A B Vakil.
The Govt, of India extended financial support
for the purchase of a photocopier. It is now possible
to attend to requests from members for reprints of
articles etc. promptly.
The air-conditioning of the library with finan-
8
cial assistance given by the Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Government of India, is in progress.
With this, the preservation of valuable books and
manuscripts in the library is now assured.
CONSERVATION
The Society was consulted by the Govt, of
India and other organisations and by members of the
Society on various matters of conservation interest.
The Society’s representatives on various conserva-
tion committees and organisations offer ther exper-
tise available at the Society.
The proposal to construct major dams on the
Narmada River and the clearance of the proposal by
the Government of India for funding was a cause for
acute concern. The Committee consulted other like
minded organisations and persons on a possible
positive approach to prevent environmental
damage.
SALIM ALI CENTRE FOR ORNITHOLOGY
AND NATURAL HISTORY
We are glad to report that the proposal has been
re- activated and the scope of the Centre enhanced
by the addition of “Natural History” to its terms of
reference. Negotiations have been finalised and the
sanction order has been received and funds released
for preliminary expenses. We should be registering
the new society and commencing operations in
1989.
DONATIONS
We are grateful to the Ministry of Environment
and Forests for a grant to purchase an Atomic Ab-
sorption Spectrophotometer for the Bharatpur Field
Project and a photo copier for the Library.
We are grateful to the many organisations and
persons for donations to the Society.
1. General Donations Received from Members 27,315
2. Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology Field Work Fund
Mr S Chaudhury 750
3. Dr Salim Ali Memorial Fund
Mrs Kumud N Pandit 100
M/s Row Dayal Trust 500
Mr George Jonkel 2,000
Col. Guru Ratam Singh 1,000
M/s Tata Chemical Terminal 10,000
Ms Rajeshree Gokhaldas 5,000
Total 18,600
4. Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund
M/s Cheng Kim Loke Foundation 4,00,000
M/s Cheng Kim Loke Foundation 35,000
Lady Peng McNiece C/o 2,00,000
Total 6,35,000
5. Donations for Dang Forest Survey
& Hornbill Newsletter
Seth Purshotamdas Thakurdas
Divaliba Charitable Trust
For Dang Survey 30,000
For Hombill Newsletter 25,000
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Executive Committee acknowledges with Ministry of Defence of Goverment of India, the US
thanks the assistance given to BNHS by the Depart- Fish & Wildlife Service, the Government of
ment of Environment, Forests and Wildlife and the . Maharashtra, and the Charity Commissioner, Bom-
9
bay. It also thanks the various donors, the members tion in the various activities of the BNHS.
and staff of the BNHS for their unstinting coopera-
A.N.D.Nanavati, M.D.
Honorary Secretary
HONORARY TREASURER’S REPORT ON THE ACCOUNTS
FOR THE 15 MONTH PERIOD ENDING 31 MARCH 1989
1) The “Annual” Accounts for 1988-1989 relate to
an extended period of 15 months and this has to be
kept in mind when comparing the results with those
of the previous year (1987). However, it must be
noted that income by way of dividends. Grant from
the Govt, of Maharashtra, and from sales of books,
calendars and greeting cards is on an annual or
six-monthly basis, and so these receipts did not
increase corresponding to the 15-month period.
Taking all aspects into account, the results of 1988-
1989 may be considered encouraging.
2) During the period, the total funds owned by the
Society went up by about Rs 21.98 lakhs, as fol-
lows:
(i) Increase in Life Membership Fund
Rs. 2.78 lakhs
(ii) Increase in Corpus Funds (Schedule A)
Rs. 6.65 lakhs
(iii) Increase in Other Funds (Schedule B)
Rs. 11.22 lakhs
(iv) Excess of income over expenditure
Rs 1.33 lakhs
The increase of Rs 12.55 lakhs under items
(iii) and (iv) may be considered a fair measure of the
working of 1988-1989. The corresponding figure for
the previous year was Rs 5.5 lakhs.
3) Income from the following items showed sig-
nificant increases: interest, dividends, administra-
tive fees and sales of books. At the same time, there
were large increases in the expenses on Estab-
lishment (45%), the Journal and the Hombill. There
was also a decrease in the surplus from sales of
greeting cards, which was partly offset by an im-
provement in the sales of nature calendars.
4) The five research Projects funded by the US Fish
and Wildlife Service and the Bird Hazard Project
funded by the Govt of India, have played vital role
in building up the Society’s resources of men,
materials and money. It will be seen that administra-
tive fees for handling Project funds make a large
contribution to our annual revenues. However, the
Accounts do not give an indication of the assets
given on loan for these Projects, such as computer
systems, laboratory equipments, vehicles and so on.
The original costs of these assets, many of which
may be donated to the Society on the conclusion of
the Projects, add up to about Rs 28 lakhs.
5) While the results of 1988-1989 show an improve-
ment, there is little scope for complacency in regard
to the finances of the Society. Establishment costs
and expenses in regard to our traditional activities
continue to rise inexorably due to inflation. It is also
necessary to strengthen our administration and cer-
tain new posts have been created for that purpose.
This, however, is a move that should, in due course,
more than pay for itself by improved efficiency in
operations. Further, as the current research Projects
come to an end, new Projects will have to be
developed if receipts by way of administrative char-
ges are to be maintained at present levels.
6) In the final analysis, the real challenge is to build
up our own financial resources in order to progres-
sively increase our regular income and also to meet
the growing requirements of working capital.
14 October 1989 Pratap Saraiya
Bombay Honorary Treasurer
10
AUDITOR’S REPORT
Re: BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
[ Registration No.F -244 (Bom)]
We have audited the attached Balance Sheet of the Society as at 31st March, 1989 and also the
annexed Income & Expenditure Account for the financial year ended on that date and report that in our
opinion and to the best of information and explanation given to us:
(a) the accounts are maintained regularly and in accordance with the provisions of the Bombay Public
Trust Act, 1950 subject to the observation that as per past practice separate Receipts & Payments
Accounts has been drawn for the Nature Education Scheme, and the same has not been incorporated
in the accounts of the Society. We also observe that during the year the Society did not receive the
annual grant from the Govt, of Maharashtra for the year 1988-89 towards establishment and building
maintenance and for the publication of the Journal (educational activity) and no sanction letters too
having been received, the said grants could not be recognised as income. The relevant expenses
have therefore been charged to Income & Expenditure account,
(b) the receipts and disbursements have been properly and correctly shown in the accounts,
(c) the cash balance and the vouchers in the custody of the accountant on the date of audit were in
agreement with the books of accounts,
(d) the books, deeds, accounts, vouchers and/or other documents or records required by us were
produced to us,
(e) the register of movable and immovable properties is properly maintained and the changes therein
have been communicated to the Regional Office,
(f) the accountant appeared before us and furnished the necessary information required by us,
(g) we are not aware of any property or funds of the Society having been applied for any objects or
purpose other than the objects of the Society,
(h) the following items were outstanding for more than one year:
(i) Due towards supplies and services Rs. 3,193.00
(ii) Income tax Recoverable Rs. 840.00
(iii) Loan to staff (since recovered) Rs. 800.00
We may add that the outstanding against supplies and services interalia include certain items, which
are outstanding since 1986. We have been assured that the outstanding balances are considered good and
realisable. We may nonetheless suggest that effective measures be taken to realise the outstanding. During
the financial year under report a sum of Rs. 1,067. 07 representing dues considered irrecoverable has been
written off,
(i) during the financial year there were no repairs or construction carried out to the property in the
occupation of the Society involving expenditure exceeding Rs.5,000,
(j) we are not aware of any money of the Society having been invested in contravention of Sec. 35 of
the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950,
(k) we are not aware of any immovable property of the Society, therefore, the question of alienation of
any property contrary to the provisions of Sec. 36 of the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950 does not
arise,
(l) (i) in regard to the expenses charged to various grants and funds, we have relied on the information
given to us and the authentication of the Hon.Secretary and Hon.Treasurer that the expenses so
charged relate to these grants and have been spent on the specific objects for which the grants were
received. While checking the statement of accounts in regard to the expenditure incurred at various
camps, we have relied on the authorisation by the Hon.Secretary and Hon.Treasurer as to the
reasonableness of the expenditure,
(ii) the income towards membership subscription is being accounted on realisation basis,
11
(iii) the subscriptions received in foreign currency, we observe, are deposited in an account maintained
with Grindlays Bank Pic., London Branch. The said receipts and disbursements made therefrom
have been accounted at the exchange rate prevailing at the date of the Balance Sheet The closing
balance has been translated at the current exchange rate, at the date of the Balance Sheet and the
difference in exchange amounting to Rs.6, 168.62 has been credited to Income & Expenditure
account,
(iv) we suggest the following items of disbursement effected, provisions made, administrative charges
levied and amount written off be confirmed and ratified at the next meeting of the Executive
Committee :
A. Disbursement from:
Rs.
(i) Interest on Col. Burtons Nature Conservation Fund 24.38
(ii) Chas McCann Vertebrate ZoologyField Work Fund. 613.20
(iii) Interest on Salim Ali/Loke Wan Tho Ornithology Research Fund
Investment 28,557.62
(iv) Interest on Salim Ali Nature Conser-vation Fund Investment 1,80,961 .37
(v) Interst on Pirojsha Godrej FoundationField Work Fund Investment 9,761 .70
(vi) Dorabjee Tata Trust Field Work Fund 3,000.00
(vii) Plant Study Fund 11,618.05
(viii) Field Study and Schlolarship Fund from Watanmal Boolchand
Charitable Trust 5,824.00
(xi) Grant from Government of Maharashtra for 1987-88
towards establishment,Building Maintenance and Educational
Activity, (i.e. Journal Printing exp.) 2,15,000.00
(x) Govt, of India A.R.D.B . Grant for Bird Hazard Research Cell 87,044.74
(xi) Govt, of India A.R.D.B. Grant for ecological reliance of
Whitebacked Vulture 40,808.05
(xii) R.G. Saraiya Research Grant 25,000.00
(xiii) Chako Fund 1 0,000.00
(xiv) Grant from U.S. Department of Interior Fish and Wildlife Service
for :
(a) Study of Lesser Bustard (Florican) 6,82,789.10
(b) Ecology of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur 24,04,695.30
(c) Ecology of Point Calimere Sanctuary 7,04,155.63
(d) Ecology of Indian Elephants 11,98,647.06
(e) Study of Migration Pattern of Indian Birds and Avifauna
Migration Data Bank 13,40,131.19
(f) For the project on the habitat and population dynamics
of Wolves and Blackbucks 1,40,747.00
(xv) Grant Indian National Science Academy for the publication
of Journal 5,000.00
(xvi) Grant Chief Wildlife Warden, Jammu & Kashmir for the
project on Survey of Blacknecked Crane 5,526.90
(xvii) Grant Govt, of India (DST) towards Dr. Salim Ali Centre for
Ornithology and Natural History 4,712.00
B. Appropriations:
(i) Govt. Publication Fund, sale proceeds of publication 3,48,206.37
(ii) Fixed Assets Fund towards depreciation on Fixed Assets 5 1 ,892.52
(iii) Amount written off 1 ,067 .07
(iv) Administrative fees charged to various Grants/Funds for
handling the projects, etc 8,93,760.61
(v) Addition to fixed assets (other than those charged to
various projects) 1,15,830.00
12
(m) so far as is ascertainable from the books of accounts and according to the information and explanation
furnished to us by the accountant and the Hon. Secretary, there were no cases of irregular, illegal or
improper expenditure or failure to recover the monies or other properties belonging to the Society
or loss or waste of money or other property of the Society, subject to the observation made in para
(h) hereinabove,
(n) provision of Sec. 31- A and Rule 16- A of the Bombay Public Trust Act, 1950 have been complied
with.
II. (a) the maximum and minimum number of Executive Committee members is maintained having regard
to the provision contained in the rules and regulations,
(b) there is no specific provisions in the rules and regulations of the Society regarding the holding of
the meetings of the Executive Committee,
(c) the minute book recording the proceedings of the meetings is maintained,
(d) no member of the Executive Committee has any interest in the investment of the Society,
(e) no member of the Executive Committee is a debtor or a creditor of the Society.
Bombay
Dated: 15 September 1989
CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS
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TI1E SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in
colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations.
(Price to members Rs. 90)
The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett
The Book of Indian Birds, by S&lim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and
many monochrome plates. ( Price to members Rs . 90)
A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by S&lim Ali & S
Dillon Ripley (Price to members Rs. 155)
A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-
date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, 2nd edition. .Price to members Rs. 90)
Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 5
Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali &
J. D. Panday. Rs. 5
The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J. C. Daniel ((Price to members Rs. 90)
Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many
coloured and monochrome plates, 2nd edition. (Price to members Rs. 120)
Grasses of Western India, by Toby & Patricia Hodd. With 64 monochrome plates.
(Price to members Rs. 37.50)
Encyclopedia of Mian Natural History, Edited by R. E. Hawkins
(Price to members Rs. 225)
A Century of Natural History, Edited by J. C. Daniel (Price to members Rs. 145)
TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP
Entrance Fees :
Ordinary and Life Members
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Subscription :
(a) Ordinary individual Members
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Annual subscription to Journal for non-members
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Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders on
their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the 1st
January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £ 30 (£15 fees, £ 15 as sub-
scription for Journal) should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers — The
Grindlays Bank Ltd., 13, St. James’s Sq., London SWIY 4LF. Account No. 1101091.
The subscription of members elected in January, February and March covers the
period from the date of their election to the end of March of the following year.
ISSN 0006-6982
CONTENTS
HITHERTO UNREPORTED NEST SITE OF LESSER FLAMINGO Phoeniconaias minor IN THE LITTLE RANN
of KUTCH, gujarat ( With a plate and a text- figure )
By Taej Mundkur, Rishad Pravez, Shivrajkumar Khachar and R. M. Naik
a study of Voranus flavescens (hardwicke & gray) (sauria: varanidae) ( With ten text-figures )
By Walter Auffenberg, Hafizur Rahman. Fehmida Iffat and Zahida Perveen ............
intrusion of a rhesus Macaca mulatto pair into a langur Presbytis entellus group (With two
text-figures )
By Reena Mathur and A. Lobo *
anthecology and evolutionary considerations of Leonotis nepetaefolia r. br.
By A. J. Solomon Raju and C. Subba Reddi
satpura hypothesis and the distribution of laughing thrushes Garrulax lesson of india
(With two maps and a text- figure)
By Md. Anwarul Islam
advantages of commensalism in U labor us ferokus bradoo (araneae: uloboridae) (With three
plates containing six figures )
By B L. Bradoo ...... ... . . ........
observations ON the biology of the praying mantis Creobater urbana fabr. (orthoptera:
mantidae)
By R. X Ranjit Daniels, Malati Hegde and C. Vinutha ••
ecological aspects of the life-history of the HIMALAYAN newt Tylototriton verrucosus
(ANDERSON) WITH REFERENCE TO CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT (With tWO plates )
By Tej Kumar Shrestha • *
the greenbilled or ceylon coucAL Centropus chlororhynchus blyth — sri lanka’s rarest endemic
SPECIES
By Thilo Hoffmann *
FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE POISON APPARATUS AND HISTOLOGY OF THE VENOM GLANDS OF
THREE INDIAN spiders (With three plates and seven text-figures)
By Ridling Margaret Waller and G. J. Phanuel
FLOWERING PHENOLOGY OF THE MANGROVES FROM THE WEST COAST OF MAHARASHTRA
By N. G. Mulik and L. J. Bhosale •
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE KING VULTURE Sarcogyps calvilS (SCOPOLl) IN GUJARAT: RESULTS
OF A RECENT enquiry (With a text-figure)
By Shivrajkumar Khachar and Taej Mundkur
spawning in the frog Microhyla ornata (dum. & bibr.) (With eight figures in two plates)
By A. D. Padhye and H. V. Ghate
ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD (With
two maps and a text-figure)
By Ranjit Manakadan and Asad Raff Rahmani
STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND GENERAL ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN PYTHON Python molurus moluruS LINN.
IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN (With a plate and tWO text.figures)
By S. Bhupathy and V. S. Vijayan ......... —
POPULATION DYNAMICS OF ASSASSIN BUGS FROM PENINSULAR INDIA ( INSECTA-HETEROPTERA-REDU-
viidae) (With four text- figures)
By Dunston P. Ambrose and David Livingstone
FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE MALABAR WOODSHRIKE Tephrodomis virgatUS Sylvkola JERDON AT THEK-
KADY, KERALA
By Lalitha Vijayan *.
MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-8 (PTERIDOPHYTES)
By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida
NEW DESCRIPTIONS • •
REVIEWS • .. . • . • . .
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ? r
Printed by Bro. Paulinus at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103
and published by J. C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023.
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