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Ghate and V.D. Vartak GENETIC STATUS OF WHITE TIGERS AT NAND ANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK, ORISSA {With two text-figures) By A.K. Roychoudhury and L.N. Acharjyo 20 NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF Varanus griseus koniecznyi MERTENS (SAURIA: VARANIDAE) {With four text-figures ) By Walter Auffenberg, Hafeezur Rehman, Fehmida Iffat and Zahida Perveen 26 PREDATION BY Aquila EAGLES ON NESTLING STORKS AND HERONS IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR {With four plates and a map) By Rishad Naoroji . 37 VOCAL ACTIVITY OF THE INDIAN GRAY MONGOOSE Herpestes edwardsii edwardsii GEOFFROYIN CAPTIVITY By Jagathpala Shetty, Gunapala Shetty and S.R. Kanaka Raj 47 STUDIES ON NESTING AND ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF THE ENDANGERED RIVER TERRAPIN Balagur baska (GRAY) IN THE SUNDARBANS TIGER RESERVE, WEST BENGAL {With a plate) By Arin Ghosh and N. Mandal . 50 REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR TAXA IN W YNTER-BLYTH ’ S BOOK ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF INDIAN REGION — m By R.K. Varshney 53 MAMMALS OF COX’S BAZAR FOREST DIVISION (SOUTH), BANGLADESH, WITH NOTES ON THEIR STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION {With two text- figures) By S.M.A. Rashid, Anizuzzaman Khan and M. Ali Reza Khan 62 BREEDING OF THE COMMON TERN Sterna hirundo IN SRI LANKA By Thilo W. Hoffmann 68 AVIAN PROFILE OF A MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM IN THE BACKWATERS OF THE UJJANI DAM {With two plates and four text-figures ) By E.K. Bharucha and P.P. Gogte 73 DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA {With a text-figure ) By Indraneil Das 91 LIFE CYCLE OF Phlyctenophora indica ANNAPURNA AND RAMA SARMA, AMARINE BENTHIC PODOCOPAN OSTRACOD {With two text- figures) By C. Annapurna, D.V. Rama Sarma and K. Shyamasundari 98 NEW DESCRIPTIONS DESCRIPTION OF A NEW CY?RmD,Barilius dimorphic us (SUBFAMILY: RASBORINAE) FROM RAJAH NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH {With four text-figures) By Raj Tilak and Akhlaq Husain 102 ON TWO NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS Puntius HAMILTON FROM INDIA (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE) {With two text-figures) ByK C. Jayaram 106 A NEW GENUS Pseudopagiophloeus OF WEEVIL (CURCULIONIDAE: HYLOBUNAE) FROM INDIA {With two text-figures) By H.R. Rajni, Sukesha Sood and P. Kama! Tewari 109 TWO NEW SPECIES BELONGING TO THE GENUS Allop hleps BERGROTH (CICADELUDAE: HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA ( With eighteen text-figures ) By V. Rama Subba Rao and Usha Ramakrishnan Ill A STUDY ON THE INDIAN SPECIES OF Plutarchia GIRAULT (HYMENOPTERA : EURYTOMIDAE) ( With twenty-nine text- figures) By T.C. Narendran and R. Padmasenan 114 ANEW SPECIES OF GENUS Parevaspis RITSEMA (HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA : MEGACIIILIDAE: ANTHIDINAE) FROM INDIA (With five text-figures) By Virendra Kumar and V.K. Tiwari 122 A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS Sirthenea SPINOLA (PIRATINAE- REDUVDDAE-HETEROPTERA) FROM THE COROMANDEL COAST, INDIA (With a text-figure) By C. Murugan and David Livingstone 125 TWO NEW SPECIES FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA (ORTHOPTERA : ACRIDIDAE) (With eight text-figures) By Kharibam Meinodas and Shaikh Adam Shafee 126 ANEW SUBSPECIES OF Dendrobium panduratum LINDL. (ORCHID ACE AE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA (With four text-figures) By R. Gopalan and A.N. Henry 128 REVIEWS The Indian blackbuck Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 130 Proceedings of the Symposium on endangered marine animals and marine parks Reviewed by B.F. Chhapgar 130 The wealth of India, raw materials. Vol. I A Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 131 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS 1. Overlapping distribution of capped langur Trachypithecus p Heat a and Phayre’s leaf monkey T. phayrei By Anwaruddin Choudhury 133 2. A hunting technique of the jungle cat Felis chaus By Hashim N. Tyabji 134 3. Occurrence of Dobson’s long-tongued fruit bat Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson, 1971) (Chiroptera : Pteropodidae) in Meghalaya By Y.R Sinha 134 4. Occurrence of Pipistrellus camortae miller, 1902 (Chiroptera : Vespertilionidae) in the Andaman Is- lands, with comments on its taxonomic status By RK. Das 135 5. Five-striped squirrel Funambulus pennanti (Wroughton) killing birds By Jugalkishore Tiwari 137 BIRDS 6. Heronries in Raigad district, Maharashtra, - a preliminary survey By Anil Mahabal 137 7. Feeding association between jackal Canis aureus (Linnaeus) and two species of egrets at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu By P. Balasubramanian 138 8. Breeding of egrets in Kerala By P.K. Uthaman 139 9. Weight of whiteneckedstork Ciconia episcopus By Prakash Rao and S. Muralidharan 139 10. Aggressive behaviour of blacknecked storks towards cranes By D.P. Bannerjee, S.P. Bavdekar and V.K. Paralkar 140 11 . Status of greylag goose Anser anser in Gujarat state: a re-evaluation By B.M. Parasnarya, J.F. Dodia, K.L. Mathew and Lalsinh Raol 140 12. Blackwinged kite Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham) at 3650 m in Sikkim By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 142 13. Interaction of honey buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus- with fantail flycatcher Rhipidura albicollis and red- wattled lapwing Vanellus indicus By Divyabhanusinh 142 14. Roosting and feeding of harriers in Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh By S.M. Satheesan and Prakash Rao 143 15. Jungle cat Fells chans and grey jungiefowl Gallus sonneratii By Raza Tehsin and Fatema Tehsin 144 16. Hover-fly Eristalis sp. among the stomach contents of gullbilled tern Gelochelidon nilotica (Gmelin) By S.M. Satheesan 144 17. Breeding of the river tern Sterna aurantia in Kerala By K.K. Neelakantan 144 18. Behaviour of southern spotted owlet Athene brama brama (Temminck) and jungle crow Corvus mac- rorhynchos at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu By P. Balasubramanian 145 19. Bird-aircraft collision at an altitude of 2424 m over the sea By S.M. Satheesan 145 20. Occurrence of long-clawed skylark Alauda gulgula dharmakumarsinhji in central India By K.K. Mohapatra and Prakash Rao 146 21 . Occurrence of haircrested drongo Dicrurus hotten- tottus (Linn.) in Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu By V. Natarajan and P. Balasubramanian 147 22. Reappearance of Sturnus vulgaris Linn, in Kutch By Himmatsinhji, S.N. Varu and N.N. Bapat . 147 23. Altitudinal range extension of the brahminy myna Sturnus pagodarum in Chushul, Ladakh By S. Asad Akhtar 147 24. Extensionof breeding range of brown flycatcher Muscicapa latirostris By Taej Mundkur 148 25. An unusual nesting site of the sunbird By Asad R. Rahmani and Ravi Sankaran ...... 148 26. Range extension of the Spanish sparrow Passer hispaniolensis (Temminck) By K.K. Mohapatra and Prakash Rao 149 27. Flower petals of Crotalaria juncea observed from half built nests of Ploceus benghalensis By Satish Kumar Sharma 149 REPTILES 28. Territorial behaviour of male gharial Gavialis gan- geticus in the National Chambal Sanctuary, India By L.A.K. Singh and R.J. Rao 149 29. Two freshwater turtles of the genus Kachuga from Assam By Anwaruddin Choudhury 151 30. A survey of freshwater turtles of Gujarat By Raju Vyas and B.H. Patel 152 3 1 . Notes on the land tortoises of B angladesh By Indraneil Das 155 AMPHIBIA 32. Onset of breeding season in some anuran amphibians of Dharwad, Karnataka R.D. Kanamadi and C.R. Hiremath N.V. Bhuttewadkar : 156 33. Amphibian (anura) species and their altitudinal dis- tribution in northeast India By S.K. Chanda 157 FISHES 34. On the fish resources of Ujni wetland, Pune, Maharashtra By G.M. Yazdani and D.F. Singh 157 INSECTS 35. Morphology of the scent glands of the Rutherglen bug, Nysius vinitor Berg. (Hemiptera-Lygaeidae) By P. Ramesh 161 36. Behaviour of the Indian tortoiseshell butterfly Aglais ( vanessa ) caschmirensis (Kollar) in the Himalaya By Meena Haribal 163 37. New record of Microtrombidium saharanpuri Dhiman and Mittal (Acarina - Trombidiidae - Micro trombidinae) parasitizing green bottle fly Lucilia caesar L. (Diptera - Calliphoridae) By S.C. Dhiman, R.K. Singh and R. Kumar.... 164 38. Mosquitoes of Div By J.S. Khamre and M.B. Kaliwal 164 39. Jatropha gossypifolia L. and Jatropha curcas L- new host plants for the longhomed beetle Sthenias grisator Fb. (Cerambicidae: Coleoptera) By P. Balasubramanian 165 40. New records of cladocera of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur - III. By K. Venkataraman 166 BOTANY 41. Monadenium heteropodum N.E.Br. (Euphor- biaceae) - an exotic in the process of naturalization in India By Seshagiri Rao and M.N.V Prasad 168 42. Abnormal flowering of Caryota urens L. (Arecaceae) By P. Venkanna, G.M. Narasimha Rao and J.B. Raju 170 43 . Entada pusaetha DC . (Mimosaceae) - new distribu- tional record from Gujarat By A.S. Reddy 170 44 On the endemic status of three wild legumes with spe- cial reference to their distribution in West Bengal By Arabinda Pramanik 172 45. New records of some ferns for Kumaun Himalaya (western Himalaya) By S.S. Sam ant and Y.P.S. Pangtey 173 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY April 1990 Vol. 87 No.l THE BREEDING BIRDS OF OVERA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KASHMIR1 Trevor Price2 and Niten Jamdar3 (With four text-figures) The occurrence, abundance and altitudinal ranges for the breeding birds of Overa Sanctuary is documented. Of 117 species recorded near or in the Sanctuary, 89 appear to regularly breed within its boundaries. 51 of these species breed in the fir woodlands and associated ecotones at c. 2,400 m, 51 breed in the birch woodlands at c. 3,300 m, and 23 species breed above the tree line. The results are discussed in the context of the suitability of the Sanctuary as a bird preserve. In Kashmir there are currently 54 Sanctuaries and Protected Areas administered by the State’s Department of Wildlife Protection. They have been primarily established to preserve wildlife and natural resources, and for use as educational and recreational areas. Additionally other economic ven- tures, such as agroforestry, may be developed in so far as they do not interfere with conservation goals. Many of the parks have only recently been set aside as protected areas and there is currently a critical lack of the sort of knowledge needed to make plan- ning decisions. The Department of Wildlife Protection’s re- search resources have of necessity been applied to studies of particular rare species for which several of the reserves have been explicitly set aside, e.g. the hangul (Schaller 1969, Inayat Ullah 1986), the blacknecked crane Grus nigricollis (Hussain 1985, Narayan et. al. 1987) and the snow leopard Panther a uncia. To date there has been no taxon-wide survey of any sanctuary, and complete lists for even the most conspicuous taxa (for example the birds and mammals) are unavailable. In this paper we describe the results of a three year study of the breeding birds of one Sanctuary. We present measurements of species’ abundances, altitudinal distributions, and habitat preferences. Our purposes in presenting this information are twofold. First, it will be of use to or- nithologists visiting similar habitats (fir-pine- birch woodland) in Kashmir. Second, the results provide baseline data against which population decreases or increases in subsequent years can be assessed. We discuss our results in the context of species’ conser- vation and sanctuary management given the long term goals of the Wildlife Department. Despite the absence of the sort of quantitative study we will be presenting, Kashmir has been fre- quently visited by naturalists and ornithologists who provide anecdotal reports on species’ occurrence and behaviour (e.g. Dewar 1923, Osmaston 1927, Alexander 1950, Bates and Lowther 1952, Koul 1968, Gauntlett 1972). Much of this previously published work is summarised in Ali and Ripley (1983). Our new observations on breeding behavior are reported in separate publications (Jamdar 1987, 1988, Jamdar and Price in press , Price and Jamdar, in preparation ). 1 Accepted June 1988 department of Biology C-016, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, U.S.A. Bombay Natural History Society, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 (Address for correspondence) 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 OVEfM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Fig. 1. Map of Qvera Wildlife Sanctuary. The dotted line is the approximate 3,300 m contour. The letter captions are acronyms for the study sites (see Tables 1 and 2). The insert map shows the location of Overa in relation to the major local towns, the area above c. 3,000. m is shaded. Study Location Overa Wildlife Sanctuary is one of the smallest (33 sq. km) and most recently established (1981) reserves in the state. It is approximately 10 km from the tourist centre of Pahalgam, and 80 km from the state capital, Srinagar (Fig. 1). It is hoped that it will eventually form part of a much larger biosphere reserve. The sanctuary extends from about 2,100 to 4,200 m above sea level. There are three main vegetational types - coniferous forest, birch forest, and alpine pasture. To the south the sanctuary is bor- dered by the Overa valley, opening into the Lidder valley. This is an agricultural area, although some deciduous trees have been retained. Along the Lid- der valley side to the east and west of the sanctuary lie heavily grazed pasture lands and coniferous forest. To the north lies an expanse of high altitude land, also grazed in the summer. Methods One or both of us spent May, June and July in each year 1985, 1986, and 1987 at the Sanctuary. We established three main study areas - one at 2,400 m (FRH) and two at c. 3,300 m (UPI and UP2, Fig. 1 and Table 1). Altitudes were obtained using an al- timeter, standardized to 1,570 m at Dal Lake in Srinagar. We spent most of May at the lower altitude and June and July at the higher locations. We recorded temperature and daily rainfall at these loca- tions. We also occasionally visited locations at 2,800 m and at 3,600 m (KK and RT) to obtain more infor- mation on altitudinal distributions of birds. To quan- tify habitats we established five grids along the al- titudinal gradient ranging from 1-4 ha. in size (Fig. 1, Table 2). We counted all trees in each grid, and es- timated the area covered by juniper and rhododendron bushes. Birds were censused by the following methods. Table 1 OBSERVATION AND TRAPPING INTENSITY AT EACH LOCATION Location Altitude (m) Number of days each month at site (number of net-miomings)- May 1985 June July May 1986 June July May 1987 June July FRH 2430 28 (41) 16(9) 15 (26) 15(4) 3(4) 4 13 (30) 2(20) 1 KK 2800 - 3 3 - - - - 1(10) 1 UPI1 3340 - 18 13(9) 17 27 (18) 16 (20) 17 (52) 25 (20) 15 UP2 3300 ■ - _ _ 15 23 10 11 24 6 RT 3725 - - - - - - - - 2(20) - Figures in parentheses are the number of nets opened for a morning summed across all mornings in which nets were opened in that month. Abbreviations: FRH-Forest Rest House. KK-Kanj Kut, a local name for this area of the sanctuary. UP stands for ‘up above’, with UP1UP meaning above UPI. RT-ridge top. deludes trapping and observation at UPI UP (altitude 3550 m). BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY 3 Table 2 TREE DENSITY (NUMBERS/HA,) AT VARIOUS ALTITUDES Site Silver birch Betula udlis Blue pine Pinus walli- chiana Fir Abies pindrow Horse chestnut Aesculus indica Ash Fraxinus floribunda Cherry Prunus cornuta Maple Acer stercul iaceum Unidentified deciduous Rhodo- dendron* sq.m Juniper sq.m. FRH „ 0.5 176 28 5 8 1 5 _ _ (4ha) KK 8 155 7 11.5 (4ha) UP1 'll 2 18 1 1 80 10 (5ha) UP1UP 39 375 500 (2ha) RT 500 3000 (lha) Notes: The number of ha. surveyed is given in parentheses. The predominant understory shrubs are Viburnum grandiflorum in the valleys alongside the coniferous forest and Salix denticulata under the birch. All trees with trunk widths 10 cm. at chest height are included. Birch and cherry often have several trunks from a subterranean bole and these were counted as a single tree. *Rhododendron and Juniper are estimated approximate areas (in sq.m.) per hectare. Table 3 WEATHER DATA FOR THE HIGH ALTITUDE CAMP (UP1) Percentage of days with 1985 June July May 1986 June July May 1987 June July Sun ? 71 62 56 92 50 56 86 78 Rain, hail, > 70* Snow 59 46 52 ,38 44 56 52 39 Hail ? 35 15 >24 4 0 > 4 21 0 Snow ? 0 0 > 16 0 0 >19 0 0 We placed up to 10 mist-nets on varying dates at each location (Table 1) and opened them from dawn (c. 0600 hrs) until between 1000 hrs and 1200 noon. Captured individuals were weighed and their wing- length measured, using the maximum chord method of Svennson (1975). They were then ringed and released. The average number of individuals of a given species captured per mist, net per morning provides a useful index of relative abundances, at least for commoner passerines (Price 1979, Schluter 1982, Martin 1984). We recorded the number of individuals of each species we observed in a daily log book. Although most of our observations werq.made casually, we also used two census methods to obtain these data, conducted as follows. First, we estimated the num- ber of singing males in each of five established grids by carefully walking round the grid on between one and five mornings over the three seasons combined. Second, at the low altitude site only, we conducted a regular 2 km post-dawn walk up a small valley running through a fir woodland (from 2,300-2,600 m), recording all singing males heard. We did this at approximately 10 day intervals in 1985 and 1986, and on fewer occasions in 1987. Results Vegetation: Typical forest types of Kashmir are described in Champion and Seth (1968). The density of trees in grids at each of five altitudes is given in Table 2. Lower altitudes are dominated by fir, al- though several deciduous trees are common, par- ticularly along water-courses. The first birch trees are encountered at approximately 3030 m altitude and birch is dominant above 3100 m. Large firs occur up to 3400 m however, and a few small in- dividual fir trees occur up to the tree line (i.e., the upper limit of the birch at about 3550 m). Rhododendron and juniper are first encountered at 3330 m. Rhododendron extends beyond the birch to 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 87 * u. & & 6. 4» 3 | I -o- 1 985 (low) -*- 1986 (low) ♦ 1 986 (high) ♦ 1 987 (high) Fig. 2. Climate data for Overa. The upper figure gives the maxi- mum temperature recorded in five day periods from May 1st. Middle figure gives minimum temperatures, lower figure gives rainfall totals, in similar five day periods. Data are not available for all years at all locations. Lines connect points for which data are continuously available. 3750 m, and juniper is found up to 3900 m. Above the juniper, and also intermingled with it there is an expanse of pastureland dominated by Alpine flowers. There are thus no abrupt transitions be- tween the various dominant plant forms, except along the sanctuary’s lower boundary where the forests abut agricultural land. Climate: We present available temperature and rain- fall data in Fig. 2. The weather at Overa during May- Octave Fig. 3. Species abundance distributions, for passerines only, at the low and high sites. Abundance is the number of individuals captured at each site (from Table 4). The number of species in each abundance class is graphed against abundance class group, or octave:(0-l individinls, 1-2 individuals, 2-4 individuals etc. up to 128-256 individuals; see Preston (1962). The numbers along the x-axis give the upper bound of each abundance class. July can be summarized as follows. Each winter most of the sanctuary is under snow for between 3- 4 months The snow persists into May at the higher altitudes, and following the hard winters of 1986 and 1987 a metre of snow was present at the 3,300 m camps throughout May. It only disappeared from these altitudes in June. In 1985" the snow disappeared several weeks earlier: the last snow disappeared from a watercourse in the UP1 area on 15 June in 1985, on about 10 July in 1986, and on 19 July in 1987. Each year at the high altitudes May was typi- cally wet, June was fine, and July was more variab- ly fine and wet (Table 3). Hailstorms may occur at any time (Table 3). For breeding birds at this altitude the climate can be unpredictable, and at times harsh. It is significantly cooler at the higher altitudes than at lower altitudes, and at the low altitudes June and July can be hot (Fig. 2). Although it may rain a great deal at the low altitude, no snow fell below 2,900 m in any year during the study periods. Bird Occurrence We have recorded a total of 116 species in or BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY 5 Table 5 NUMBER OF SPECIES BREEDING AT THREE ALTITUDES Location Number Number shared across Number shared across (altitude, m) two adjacent sites all three sites FRH(2430) 51 26 UP1(3340) 51 12 2 RT(3725) 23 TABLE 6 DATES OF ARRIVAL OF SPECIES WHICH ARRIVE LATER THAN MAY 1ST Species 1985 1986 1987 Cuckoo 6 May 5 May 3 May Small cuckoo 25 May 25 May 7 June Black bulbul 17 May 5 May 16 May Sooty flycatcher • 7 May 26 May 25 May Largebilled leaf warbler 23 May 18 May ? near the sanctuary. Of these 16 are primarily as- sociated with the arable land and villages bordering the lower boundary (Appendix 1), and although two (the house sparrow and the dark-grey bush chat) have been recorded breeding within the sanctuary, we do not discuss these species further. Another 11 species were recorded on fewer than three occasions (Appendix 2), and in the light of their uncertain status are also not considered here. This leaves a total of 89 species which appear to breed regularly or oc- casionally in the sanctuary, and be dependent on the habitats within its boundaries. Habitat associations, measures of abundance, and biometrics of these species are presented in Table 4. We give two dif- ferent measures of abundance at each of the high and low altitudes. The first is based on mist net surveys and gives a direct estimate of relative density (in- dividuals/mist net/day). For the passerines these values agree well with general impressions of rela- tive abundance, and the grid surveys. The second measure is the proportion of days on which we ob- served at least one individual of a given speces. The observation and mist net measures are correlated (for passerines captured at least once, r = 0.5, N = 29, P < 0.5 at the low altitude, and the same values: r = 0.5, N = 29, P< 0.5 at the high altitude). The cor- relation is not strong, and the measures provide dif- ferent information. The observation measure is not a good indication of relative densities (a single con- spicuous individual might be often recorded, even though the species as a whole is rare, as was the case for example at the high altitutde for the strongfooted bush warbler Cettia montana and the scalybellied green woodpecker Ficus squamatus. However it is a good indicator of the chances of seeing a particular species at each of the two altitudes, and should be of use to naturalists visiting this and other similar localities in Kashmir. In Fig. 3 we show number of individuals trapped for the high and low sites separately, for all Passerines. Species abundance classes are grouped into the histogram by octave (i.e. the first octave graphs all species for which 1 individual was cap- tured, the next octave for which 1 or 2 individuals were captured, the next for 2,3, or 4 individuals and so on. Where two octaves share some boundary numbers (the first two both include one individual for example, the number of species is divided among them). Abell shaped curve indicates the species dis- tributions follow an approximately lognormal dis- tribution, as is usually observed (Preston 1962). Abundances at both the low and high site follow similar distributions, and appear to be approximate- ly lognormal. By this measure, however, the y el- lowbrowed leaf warbler Phylloscopvs inornatus is exceptionally abundant. Several species are rare, and to these should be added those recorded ex- tremely infrequently and not included in Fig. 3 (Ap- pendix 2). Altitudinal distributions: Total bird density at the Table 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 oo ■3 00 lx I n> « IS •a! CO ^ I ^ oo oo o c4 c4 I l 00 m 3 01 o m xi •8 n iii moo t": ■ os 05 On On 04 On O' in 00 CO 04 q O «n o4 oi oi 05 oi oi 05 oi 05 05 05 cn cn cn in oi 05 O 04 OO O' in CO 00 V© O' VO VO VO CO cn in cn '*? On 0 O' 0* vB vo in in in in in in in vo vo vo in O' ■'5" ON cn tj- 00 in O rf vo O On co in vo ON O in m in ON vo 09 O' On ON O' XT On in On 0 0 tj- 05 O Tf VO 0© ■cr ON O O' O' '<5" 05 O' 04 00 cn CO 05 in O' vo o- ON O' »n VO On OS cn KffipQe3S«pqpQpq .a i «3 .2 -I l-s i e § : ^ ; 60 *2. 8.8.8. .§ .3 .§ P P P § § 3 •I -c -a -I | |.s| S.| ^ §• 8- g g •g -3 ^ =5 ^ |r^-^ U ft, ft, a. 5 “2 g § 8>-g o g g •Ul § u 3 g. a g. e> o o U & a, o - s j§ 3 8 3, a. a. a, §8^ g g § o $P*e fts a, o$ fe3 If M’d « IflS ■olSI 1 V. *1 I|ll 23I '. ; Q }: 0 s 3^ g> § g>3 i Pols Table 4 SPECIES 1 OCCURRENCE AND ABUNDANCE AT OVERA Woodpecker Picoides auriceps Ringing Observation Wing (mm.) Weight (g.) Sample 70 97 33-3.5 c-3.3 1 § 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 a> IN <3 M CO e»D t .£P « r- r~- d On cn^cnc^cnnJc^Tj-r^oocnQQOocncocncncn dcWcvqdcsd^.co^cococS^csdcoco^co^ n rfs A fSl rs) n m A m p«"i p*-. fi rv*> r) r*-i A A A A pn A #~o in y co y (sj ni co co co y co o co A A A y co y co »n ON CO NO 1-H CS r-t co CO 1-1 d cs d ’"H X ON in r-~ o o © ti- o On o 00 , o oo NO co N in d CO o 6 NO -*f CO On CO co oo i> co NO o 1 T-t •PS o ON fH oo no On in CO CN cs ni •“ 1 cs CO r4 CS CS X in oo o o 146 t"- r-~ r~ oo CO CS NO ON o r- r~ o NO CO NO NO NO r~~ in in ^j-ooo ocoinomcoOcoooooooN-HO'Ocoo^j-O'no on 't M tj- oo '35 so I* 00,3 CO j§ jo 5 3 S3 O 3 <3 3 3 .O .O .£5 >n OO co Cji rr ^ u g ».* s s i £ o *§> q 2 -d *8 A « "Si ^ a> ~ •s .g ■•s 3 3r5r&r3 JB I 0 ^ O -£ hn 73 3 3 9 g-grass lands No speciec name is given for Buteo because of difficulties of identification (All and Ripley 1983). 2.9 13.5 0.9 2.1 35.0 2.3 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 high and low altitudes was similar (2.24 per net per day and 2.70 per net per day respectively), and at each locality 51 species were thought to breed. However only 26 species were held in common be- tween the two sites (Table 5). There is therefore sub- stantial turnover of species along the altitudinal gradient. Both the high and low altitudes are predominantly woodland: the former mostly birch and the latter mostly conifers. Above the tree line 26 species breed, i.e. species diversity is half that of the wooded areas, and this presumably reflects the loss of structural habitat diversity. Many of the species breeding above the tree line are unique to this area (Table 5) and only two species (the pinkbrowed rosefinch Carpodacus rhodochrous and the black- and-yellow grosbeak Coccothroustes ictirioides breed across the entire altitudinal range. Based on shorter surveys at intermediate al- titudes we are able to assess the altitudinal range of each species to within 100 m (Table 4). Some species are habitat specialists (e.g. the yellowbrowed leaf warbler in birch, the ruby throat Erithacus svecicus in juniper) whereas others respond more to altitude than habitat (e.g. the wren which can be found breed- ing among high altitude scrub, or in coniferous forest, but does not occur below c. 3,000 m). Migration: Individuals of many species probably leave the Sanctuary extent during the winter. In the status column of Table 4 we list those species which vacate the area totally. According to Ali and Ripley (1983), they form 49% (44 species) of all the species. Many of these species are present in the Sanctuary by May. However, some arrive later than this, and their arrival times are recorded in Table 6. In addi- tion to annual migration there are temporary al- titudinal movements due to inclement weather. Thus although the redflanked bush robin Erithacus cyanuew was recorded commonly at low altitude in May it does not breed there. Single individuals of this species, the large crowned leaf warbler, Phyllos- copus occipitalis and the Tytler’s leaf warbler Phyl- loscopus lytleri were ringed in May at the low al- titude, and subsequently observed in June at higher altitudes. The rosefinches and the plaincoloured mountain finch Leucosticte nemoricola are common in May at the high altitude locality, but they largely breed still higher, above the treeline. At least one species, the yellowbrowed leaf warbler, appears to undergo a regular diurnal migration in May, spend- ing the early morning displaying at its future breed- ing location, and the rest of the day at lower altitudes (Price and Jamdar, in preparation ). Breeding Seasons: Our information on the timing of breeding agrees with that of Ali and Ripley (1983). Most species begin building nests in May, and breeding is complete by the middle of July. Documented exceptions are the black-and-yellow grosbeak, the woodcock Scolopax rusticola and smallbilled mountain thrush Zoothera dauma all of which were observed with fledged young in May, and the redbrowed finch Callacanthis burtoni ob- served nest building in late July. Comparisons with other localities: Kedarnath Sanctuary lies in the Himalayas of Uttar Pradesh, c. 500 km to the southeast of Overa. Green (1986) has recently provided a species list based on three years of casual observation in the Sanctuary. Excluding observations limited "to one or two sightings he recorded 101 species as breeding above c. 2,400 m compared to the 89 we recorded at Overa. Of the 101 species 54 are also found at Overa. Hence 39% (35 species) of those observed at Overa do not appear to regularly breed at these altitudes at Kedarnath (one of the Overa species was recorded at a lower al- titude). This suggests that some species have restricted ranges, and there may be a number of en- demics to Kashmir, for which reserves such as Overa could be extremely important. The results on bird abundance can be com- pared with a similar study in the tropics, at a dry deciduous forest site in Andhra Pradesh, c. 1900 km to the south and at an elevation of 2,300 m (Price 1979). Here 58 species were found to breed at a single forest locality (excluding hawks, owls and other large non-Passerines, (Price 1979). The com- parable figures from Overa are 47 species at the low altitude site (including three watercourse species) and 42 species at the high altitutde site. The Kash- mir totals are 20-25% lower than those from Andhra. Two species (the blackbird and jungle crow) are held in common between the sites, but both have distinctive subspecies in each area. Total bird density during the breeding season at the Andhra site lies between 0.5 and 1.5 birds per net per day (Fig. 8 of Price 1979), and thus appears to be lower than in Kashmir. The trend of more species Population Sfze BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY 11 Winter season Fig. 4. The effect of increasing, or conserving, breeding season habitat depends on the manner of population regulation. If the population size is mostly regulated by availability of winter season habitat, and density dependent mortality, the increased availability of breeding habitat may have little effect on popula- tion size (upper right figure). If the population is mainly affected by density dependent reproductive success, and mortality factors are largely density independent, increased availability of breed- ing habitat may be very important (lower right figure). in tropical areas appears to be a general phenomenon (Karr 1971), but bird densities have been rarely com- pared in this manner. Discussion Kashmir’s sanctuaries have been established for a number of reasons, one of the more important being species preservation. In this paper we have been concerned with providing as complete a list as possible of bird occurrence and abundance in specific habitats in one sanctuary. We now use this information to assess the suitability of the sanctuary. We now use this information to asssess the suitability of the sanctuary as a wildlife (particular- ly bird) preserve. First we ask if the Sanctuary is large enough to maintain breeding populations of all species. Second, we discuss the impact of surround- ing agricultural land on the Sanctuary. These are questions generally considered in conservation dis- cussions (Gilpin and Soule 1987, Janzen 1987, Wil- cove et al 1987). There is concern over loss of habitat in Kashmir (Oza 1980, 1985) and in the Western Himalayas in general (Gaston et al 1981), and several studies in both temperate and tropical regions have shown that loss of Passerine birds oc- curs as habitat becomes fragmented (Diamond 1984, Wilcove 1985, Blake and Karr 1987). Finally, we consider the extent to which bird populations are limited by the availability of breeding habitat (cl mortality outside the breeding season). This ques- tion is less often considered because it is specific to migratory populations in temperate reserves (as are most of the birds in this Sanctuary). Sanctuaries are often established with a view to preserving one or two prominent (usually mam- malian) species in their natural habitat. One goal of this sanctuary is to conserve large mammals - the black bear Selenarctos tihetanus, brown bear Ursus isabellinus , hangul Cervus elaphus and musk deer Moschus moschiferus. Because of its small size, in isolation, the Sanctuary cannot support viable populations of these species. Indeed, although the black bear breeds, it is not clear that the other three species are resident in the Sanctuary. Tracks of han- gul and musk deer regularly observed but we have sighted these species and the brown bear on one or two occasions only. The Sanctuary has connections with the much larger Dachigam Sanctuary (c.25 km over high altitude pasture land which is uninhabited for much of the year). It therefore acts as an impor- tant extension to Dachigam, and will continue to do so if animals do pass between the two protected areas (the extent to which this occurs needs to be estab- lished). The value of Overa as a large mammal preserve depends on it not being isolated, and is one of the strongest arguments for the establishment of a biosphere reserve which includes and extends the Sanctuary. Similar arguments can be made for many of the bird species. Critical population sizes for long term preservation vary with the species but are likely to be greater than several hundred individuals (Soule 1987). Many of the larger species (including the two species of pheasants) would have far less than viable populations if confined to the sanctuary by sur- rounding areas of unfavourable habitat. Indeed the range of a single pair of golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos may be greater than the area covered by Sanctuary. Barriers for bird species may be less for- midable than for the mammals. Although some tropical bird species are known to be poor dispersers (Diamond 1980, Karr 1982) many temperate species 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 should have high dispersal rates, since they vacate the sanctuary in winter. Hence exchange between other areas of similar habitat may occur reasonably frequently (the pheasants may be an exception, but this is not known). Since sanctuary size may also af- fect bird populations through the loss of plants and insects on which they depend, it is clear that the proximity of neighbouring similar habitats will be an important factor in maintaining the flora and fauna of the Sanctuary. One side of the Sanctuary is bordered by per- manent human habitation and people live on the other three sides during the summer months. This may affect the Sanctuary in two ways (Janzen 1987): through loss of individuals which emigrate to un- suitable habitats and through immigration of un- desirable elements. The extent to which this is going on needs to be critically assessed, but we noted three aspects of concern. First, there is inevitable encroachment of cattle in the border areas of the Sanctuary, although the central area is kept free of domestic animals. Nevertheless illegal grazing is having a noticeable effect in slowing the recovery of the flora from the days before it was a Sanctuary. In the New World tropics understorey grazing has been shown to adversely affect species diversity (Martin 1974). Second, during our studies of leaf warblers (Price and Jamdar, in preparation ) we noted intense nest predation due to crows. Some of this predation was undoubtedly due to the crows observing us as we visited nests, and then raiding the nest after we departed but it is likely that crows are at a higher den- sity in the Sanctuary than they would be in the ab- sence of human habitation surrounding it. Recentre- search on North American songbirds has identified increased nest predation by crows as a cause of decline of several species (Wilcove 1985). A management programme would be justified. Third, there is a danger of forest fires initiated by shepherds. One such fire, consuming several large trees, was observed inMayT985r India is unique in that it harbours both impor- tant breeding and wintering areas for temperate zone migrants. Many considerations will enter into the setting up of any new reserves in the country. Here we ask where they would best be sited if maximiz- ing the survival probability of migratory species was an important goal. The answer depends on where population regulation is most severe (Fig. 4). If populations are most severely regulated by the availability of winter habitat, then clearly a Sanctuary in the wintering grounds would be of more value. On the other hand, suitability of suitable breeding habitat may severely limit reproductive output of a species. Temperate passerines are subject to density- dependent effects on both reproduction and survival (Lack 1966, Perrins 1979, Arcese and Smith 1987). The prevailing view has been that winter mortality is of prime importance in affecting population size for migrant species. This has been supported by studies in Europe on the cause of recent declines in migratory species (attributable to droughts in the sub-Saharan regions, Winstanley et al. 1974, Sims 1985), as well as studies of migrant birds in the winter season (Keast and Morton 1980, Price 1981). However, recent research on North American pas- serines has suggested that nest predation (i.e. breed- ing season mortality) due to crows etc. encroaching from surrounding arable land may account for a decline in migratory birds (Wilcove 1985, Wilcove et al 1987). The evidence suggests that for Himalayan migrants winter mortality may be the prime deter- minant of population size. First, according to Gas- ton (1984) several species of small passerine bird are now threatened in the plains of India as a result of habitat loss, but none of these are species breeding in the temperate regions of the Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh. This suggests that a shortage of some habitats may be becoming critical in the plains: these are the wintering grounds for many migrant species. Second, the total area available for over- wintering East Asian birds is severely restricted when compared with species breeding in Europe and North America. Third, the conclusion that food shortage in the winter is a major cause of migrant mortality has been supported by a detailed study in South India (Price 1979, 1981). If the above reasoning is correct we should find species absent from apparently suitable breed- ing habitat, and a low density of breeding pairs, as indicated by lack of contiguity of territories. Many species do seem to follow this pattern. In addition to those listed in Appendix 2, which are so scarce in tlie Sanctuary as to be of uncertain status, more in- BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY 13 dividuals of virtually every species that vacates the Sanctuary in winter may be able to breed in the reserve. Some of the best examples of species with low density in apparently suitable habitat are the bluefronted redstarts Phoenicurus frontalis , blueheaded redstarts Phoenicurus caeruleocephalus , and the chestnutbellied rock thrush Monticola ruflventris (which migrate to the Himalayan foothills and adjoining plains) and the rubythroat, smallbilled mountain thrush, blueheaded rock thrush Monticola cinclorhynchus and firecapped tit Cephalopyrus flammiceps (which are long distance migrants). The clearest exceptions are the yellowbrowed leaf warbler, the large crowned leaf warbler, the blue chat Erithacus brun- neus and the redflanked bush robin. These four species, which are at very high density in the Sanctuary, appear to overwinter successfully, and may well benefit from increased breeding habitat. But the overall conclusion is that wintering habitats are in more acute short supply than breeding habitats. Of course, for the resident fauna and flora Overa provides an important year-round Sanctuary. Our suggestion that there is an excess of breed- ing habitat for many migratory species needs to be qualified for at least three reasons, which should be further investigated. First, there are few studies of the breeding requirements for any species. Subtle aspects of the habitat may make superficially suitable areas unoccupiable, as we have shown for some species of Phylloscopus warblers (Price and Jamdar, in preparation). Second, if an area of suitable is isolated it may not be discovered by returning migrants, and hence habitat remains unoc- cupied. Third, the territory itself may not provide all the requirements for a breeding pair. We have shown that habitat at lower altitudes is necessary for many species which retreat there during inclement weather. Thus preservation of high altitude species requires preservation of habitats over a broad al- titudinal range, and not just at high altitudes. This should be an important consideration in reserve management. Two essential pieces of information are miss- ing in any assessment of the value of this Sanctuary. First, are there specially threatened species for which the Sanctuary may be of particular impor- tance? In the absence of quantitative information from elsewhere in Kashmir this is unknown (indeed in this study we recorded several species not pre- viously known to occur m the area), but there may well be Kashmir endemics with severely restricted ranges. Second, are species disappearing from the Reserve? The answer to this question is obviously needed if we are to assess ways to prevent any loss. We hope this paper will provide the baseline against which further surveys can be measured. Acknowledgements We especially wish to thank Mr. Mir Innayat Ullah, formerly Chief Wildlife Warden, for all the support he provided us during the three years of the study. We thank our local assistants and the staff of the Wildlife Protection Department for field assis- tance, and Mr. J.C. Daniel for help with the planning. The research was supported by a grant from the Smithsonian Foreign Currency Program. References Alexander, H.G. (1950): Some notes on the genus Phylloscopus in Kashmir. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 9-13. Ali,S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition Oxford University Press, Delhi. Arcese, P. & Smith, J.N.M. (1988): Effects of population density and supplemental food on reproduction in song sparrows. /. Anim. Ecol. 57: 119-136. Bates, R.S.P. & Lowther, E.H.N. (1952): Breeding birds of Kashmir. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Blake, J.G. & Karr, J.R. (1987): Breeding birds of isolated woodlots: area and habitat relationships. Ecology 68: 1724- 1734. Champion, H.G. & Seth, S.K. (1968): A revised survey of the forest types of India, Manager of Publications, Delhi. Dewar, D. (1923): Himalayan and Kashmiri birds. John Lane. London. Diamond, J. (1980): Patchy distributions of tropical birds, pp. 57- 74. In: Conservation Biology (M. Soule and B. Wilcox, eds.). Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass., U.S.A. (1984): "Normal" extinctions of isolated popula- tions. pp. 191- 246. In: Extinctions (M.H. Nitecki, ed.). University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Gaston, A .J. (1984): Is habitat destruction in India and Pakistan beginning to affect the status of endemic passerine birds? J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 636-641. Gaston, A.J., Hunter, M.L. & Garson, PJ. (1981): Status and conservation of forest wildlife in Himachal Pradesh, Western Himalayas. Biol. Conserv. 27 \ 291-314. Gauntlett, F.M. (1972): Notes on some Kashmir birds. J . Bom- bay Nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 591-615. 2 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Gilpin, M.E. & Soule, M.E. (1987): Minimum viable popula- tions: processes of species extinction, pp. 19-34. In: Con- servation Biology (M.E. Soule, ed.) Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass., U.S.A. Green, M.J.B. (1986): The birds of the Kedamath Sanctuary, Chamoli District, Uttar Pradesh: status and distribution. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 603-617. Hussain, S.A. (1985): Status of Blacknecked Crane in Ladakh - 1983, Problems and Prospects. ./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 449-458. Inayat, U. M. (1986): Hangul Cervus elaphus hanglu. Depart- ment of Wildlife Protection Publication, J & K Govt. 8 pp. Jamdar, N. (1987): An interesting feeding behaviour of the white-cheeked nuthatch Sitta leucopsis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(2): 443. (1988): Singing posture of the strong-footed bush warbler Cettia fortipes J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85 (7):194 Jamdar, N. & Price, T. (in press): The Simla black tit Parus rufonachalis and rufousbellied crested tit Parus rubidiventris breeding sympatrically in Kashmir. J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. Janzen, D.H. (1987): The eternal external threat, pp. 286-303. In: Conservation Biology (M.E.Soule, ed.) Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass.. U.S.A. Karr, J.R. (1971): Structure of Avian communities in selected Panama and Illinois habitats. Ecol. monographs 41: 207- 233. Keast, A. & Morton, E.S. (eds.) (1980): Migrant birds in the neotropics: ecology, behavior, distributions, and conserva- tion. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Koul, S.C. (1968): Birds of Kashmir, 3rd ed. Korula, Mysore. Lack, D. (1966): Population Studies of Birds. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Narayan, G., Akhtar, A., Rosalind, L. & D’cuhna, E. (1987): Blacknecked crane Grus nigricollis in Ladakh - 1986. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 180-195. Osmaston, B.B. (1927): Notes on the Birds of Kashmir. Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31: 975-999. Part II. ibid 32: 134 — 153. Oza, G.M. (1980): Potentials and problems of hill areas in rela- tion to conservation of wildlife in India. Environmental Conservation 7: 193-200. (1985): Human impact on Kashmir Himalayan bird populations. The Environmentalist 5: 293-296. Perrins, C.M. (1979): British Tits. Collins, London. Preston, F.W. (1962): The canonical distribution of commonness and rarity. Ecology 43: 185-215, 410-432. Price, T.D. (1979): The seasonality and occurrence of birds in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 379-422. (1981): The ecology of the greenish warbler Phyl- loscopus trochiloides in its winter quarters. Ibis 723:131-144. (1990):The impact of loss of forest on birds of the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. In: Conservation in developing countries — problems and prospects. Proceed- ings of the BNHS centenary seminar (Eds. J.C. Daniel, J.S. Serrao). Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Sciialler, G.B, (1969): Observations on the Hangul or Kashmir Stag Cervus elaphus hanglu Wagner. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 1-7. Schluter, D. (1982): Distributions of Galapagos ground finches along an altitudinal gradient: the importance of food supp- ly. Ecology 63: 1504-1517. Sims, E. (1985): British Warblers. Collins, London. Soule, M. (ed.) (1987): Viable populations for conservation. Cambridge Universitty Press. Svennsson, L. (1975): Identification Guide to European Pas- serines. Stockholm. Wilcove, D. (1985): Nest predation in forest tracts and the decline of migratory songbirds. Ecology 66: 1211-1214. Wilcove, D.S. Mclellan, C.H. & Dobson, A.P. (1987): Habitat fragmentation in the temperate zone. pp. 237-256, In: Con- servation Biology (M.E. Soule, ed.) Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass., U.S.A. Winstanley, D., Spencer, & Williamson, K. (1974): Where have all the whitethroats gone? Bird Study 21: 1-14. BIRDS OF OVERA SANCTUARY 15 Appendix 1 SPECIES WHICH PRIMARILY OCCUR ALONG THE SANCTUARY’S LOWER BOUNDARY Species Scientific name Ringing high low Observation high low Black-eared kite Milvus migrans 0 24 Roller Coracias garruLus 0 0 Hoopoe Upupa epops 0 68 Wryneck Jynx torquilla 1 14 Swallow Hirundo rustica 0 9 Rufousbacked shrike Lanius schach 0 15 Indian myna Acridotheres tristis 0 6 •Jackdaw Corvus monedula 0 0 Whitecheeked bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys 1 0 24 Collared bush chat Saxicola torquata 0 40 Dark-grey bush chat Saxicola ferrea 1 0 54 White wagtail Motacilla alba 0 29 House sparrow Passer domesticus 0 40 Goldfinch Car duel is carduelis 0 14 Greenfinch Carduelis spinoides 1 0 15 Greyheaded bunting Emberizafucata 0 18 Notes: See notes to Table 4 for explanation. The observation column includes observations made just outside the sanctuary. Appendix 2 SPECIES RECORDED EXTREMELY RARELY IN THE SANCTUARY Species Scientific name Ringing high low Observation high low Booted hawk-eagle Hieraaetus pennatus 2 0 Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos 0 1 Snow pigeon Columba leuconota 2 0 Speckled wood pigeon Columba hodgsonii * 0 Slatyheaded parakeet Psittacula himalayana 0 * Grey drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus 0 1 Blackbrowed fly- catcher-warbler Seicercus burkii 1 0 1 Magpie robin Copsychus saularis 0 1 Alpine accentor Prunella collaris 1 0 Witherby’s tree Pipit Anthur trivialis * 0 Whitecapped bunting Emberiza stewarti 0 1 See Table 4 for explanation. ’"indicates that the species was recorded only once NOTES ON ESTABLISHED EXOTIC TREES FROM WESTERN GHATS OF MAHARASHTRA1 VINAYA S. GHATE AND V.D. V ARTAK2 A large number of plants have been brought to the areas of Western Ghats of Maharashtra mostly by foreigners right from the days of the Greeks (327 BC.) to modem times. Many such introductions got acclimatized/established in the original flora of the area and now constitute important elements of the present day flora. It is difficult to identify such naturalized species from the original flora on account of their wide distribution and occurrence in the wild. This category of plants needs critical taxonomic investigations. This paper accounts for 35 such established exotic trees having common occurrence and wide distribution. Details regarding the country of origin, probable date or period of introduction and remarks on their establishment and spread have been presented. Introduction The Western Ghats of Maharahstra (15°75’ to 21°00’ N, 72°75’ to 75°00’ E) have a peculiar ter- rain. The eastward sloping terraced plateau. Desk , separated from the coastal strip, Konkan by the Western Ghats or the SahyacLri. The local climatic factors coupled with edaphic and geographical fea- tures influence the growth and prevalence of vegeta- tion. The flora of the region thus shows diversity and adaptability to the varied climatic conditions. The same adaptability features of the flora also provide habitat to the exotic elements. A large num- ber of exotic plants were introduced in the area from prehistoric times, either by natural agencies like sea currents or brought by foreign traders or invaders for betterment of human life. The introduction of species, their suitability to the region and spread through natural regeneration accommodated them in the original set of floristic elements. They now grow naturally along with the original elements in such a way that it becomes difficult to trace their regions of origin. Such species sometime create problems for describing the original flora of a region (Chatterjee 1939, 1962; Maheshwari 1962). Earlier botanists like Cooke (1903-1908), Tal- bot (1909-1911), Santapau (1953) and others, while describing the flora of this region, intermixed the naturalized exotics with the original flora, separat- ing commonly cultivated exotic species. The sys- tematic studies on these established exotic elements as attempted by Matthew (1969), Maheshwari and Paul (1975) and S harm a and Pandey (1984) are lack- ing for the study area. The project, therefore, was un- dertaken to evaluate naturalized exotic trees in isola- tion from the natural flora. Accepted September 1989 department of Botany, M.A.C.S., Pune 411 004. Material and Methods The species which, following their immigra- tion or introduction during prehistoric times or in the recent past, became naturalized in the wild flora, have been considered for the present study. 35 established exotic trees having common oc- currence and wide distribution in the study area have been described in Table 1 . The table includes data on place of origin, probable date of introduction and remarks on their establishment, spread and utility at- tributes. The data on country of origin have been adopted from Brandis (1906), Bailey (1949), Maheshwari and Paul (1975) and S harm a and Pan- dey (1984). It may be also mentioned that the time of introduction of species in many cases is difficult to determine, as exact records of their introduction are lacking (Table 1). Discussion The flora of an area, its nature, distribution and association of the species, is more or less dependent on peculiarities of terrain and the climatic condi- tions. Exotics on the other hand are the introductions from abroad. Their survival, growth and spread depend on the suitability of the habitat and adap- tability of the species. Some introductions remain restricted, survi » e in patches and do not grow unless and until spe.LJly planted. These isolates, accord- ing to Mahabale (1973), are secondary endemics. Some introductions on the other extreme become obnoxious weeds by prolific adaptability. These may be referred to as cosmopolitan species. Some species, however, grow fast, regenerate on their own and find a suitable niche in the natural flora as if they are the natural elements of uie region. The rate of introduction of foreign plants, par- ticularly of the trees, was accelerated in 17th, 18th and early 19th centuries by Portuguese traders and- ESTABLISHED EXOTICS FROM WESTERN GHATS 17 European explorers. They brought many plants of economic value, particularly fruit trees and or- namental trees. In many cases it is difficult to determine the centres of origin as the regions and routes are imper- fectly studied. It is particularly true in the case of prehistoric introductions like Areca catechu , Azadirachta indica , Borassus flabellifer , Cocos nucifera , Plumeria rubra forma acutifolia , Sesbania grandiflora and Tamarindus indica. As per available literature (Brandis 1906, Bailey 1949, Anonymous 1957,Randhawa 1958, 1965 and Santapau 1966) the centres of origin of these species are either doubtful or in alien countries. In agreement with these workers and in view of this uncertainty about the na- tive place, these species are considered as exotics in the present study. The introduction and naturaliza- tion of these species is so ancient that they have a great importance in Indian religion and folklore. The task of assigning the original habitat for such species is a formidable one. Introduction of trees is mostly man-made. However, wide and wild occurrence of species like Areca catechu , Borassus flabellifer and Cocos nucifera along sea coast suggest the probability of their introduction naturally through sea currents and similarity of climate to that of the original home. Now varieties of Areca catechu and Cocos nucifera also have been developed for inland plantations. Species like Anacardium occidental. Ficus carica , Manilkara zapota, Phyllanthus acidus , Psidium guajava and Punica granatum were brought as fruit yielding trees mostly by Portuguese traders in the 16th and 17th centuries. They became naturalized in various regions of the area under study as if they were native to the regions. These regions, namely Konkan for cashewnut (kaju), Gholwad (Thana district) for sapodilla plum (chiku), Bhor- Junnar (Pune district) for fig (anjir) and Ahmednagar district for pomegranate (dalimba), are now impor- tant trade centers for commercial production of these fruits. Species like Phyllanthus acidus and Psidium guajava become so popular that they are present in every home garden. Species like Cassia renigera , C. siamea, Delonix regia , Peltophorum pterocarpum , Polyal- thia longifolia and Samanea sarnan were introduced as ornamental horticultural trees by European ex- plorers. These novelty introductions now rank first in any plantation programme. Trees like Casuarina equisetifolia , Eucalyptus globosus , Euphorbia tirucalli , Leucaena leucocephala , Parkinsonia aculeata , Pithecel - lobium dulce and Ricinus communis were intro- duced and naturalized in connection with soil con- servation and afforestation programmes of dry and arid areas. These species are now commonly adopted by forest department in various plantation programmes and have thus become common. Among these successful species, Euphorbia tirucal- li, Parkinsonia aculeata , Pithecellobium dulce and Ricinus communis proved more adaptable and now occupy any type of habitat including waste lands. As stated earlier, introductions of trees were mostly man-made. The case of invasion of tree species by accident is not on the record so far as in case of herbaceous weeds (Parthenium, Acan- thospermum etc.). Adaptability features of these in- troduced species have made them naturalized in the region. However, some of the 35 established species, namely Areca catechu , Cassia javanica , C. renigera , Casuarina equisetifolia , Cocos nucifera , Delonix regia. Eucalyptus globosus. Plumeria rubra forma acutifolia, Polyalthia longifolia and Swietenia mahogani, do not show self generation in spite of their wide occurrence in the area under study. In general these naturalised exotic elements are the new ecological isolates. They provide rich poten- tial for research in terms of their adaptability and suitability in varied climatic conditions. Acknowledgements We thank the Director, M.A.C.S., Pune, for giving facilities for the work, and Dr. M.S. Kumbhojkar, Scientist-in-charge, Botany Depart- ment, M.A.C.S., Dr. M.C. Suryanarayana, Central Bee Research Institute, Pune, for going through the manuscript and making valuable suggestions. 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 ESTABLISHED EXOTIC TREES FROM WESTERN GHATS OF MAHARAHSTRA Sr. Botanical name Nativity /probable date Remarks No. (common name) of introduction 1. Adansonia digitata L. Tropical Africa/ (Gorakh chinch) Mughal period 2. Anacardiwn occidentale L. (cashewnut, kaju) Brazil, South Tropical America, West Indies/ 16th century 3. Anona reticulata L. (bullock’s heart, ramphal) West Indies, Tropical Africa/ Last quarter of 17th century. 4. A. squamosa L. (custard apple, sitaphal) West Indies, Tropical America/ 16th century 5. Areca catechu L. (betel nut, supari) Nativity doubtful, Malaya/prehistoric period. 6. Azadirachta indica A.Juss.(margose tree, neem) Burma, Asia Minor/ prehistoric period 7. Borassus flabellifer L (tad) Tropical Africa/ prehistoric times 8. Carica papaya L. (papaya) Tropical America/ 16th century. 9. Cassia javanica Aubl. (Java cassia) Java and Sumatra/ probably after 1845. 10. C.renigera Wall. (Burmese pink cassia) Burma/Late 17th century 11 C. siamea Lam. (kassod, PWD Tree) Burma, South East Tropical Asia/ 1 8th century 12. Casuarina equisetifolia Forst, (sum) Malay, Andaman, Archipelago, Australia/ Late 17th century 13. Cocos nucifera L. (naral) Nativity doubtful, said to be native of Cocos Island, Melanesia/ Prehistoric times. 14. Delonix regia (Hook.f.) Raf. (gulmohar) Madagascar/About 1840. 15. Eucalyptus globosus Labill (Nilgiri) species. Victoria, Tasmania/1843. 16. Euphorbia tirucalli L (milk bush, pardeshi thor, shend East Africa, Ceylon/ probably before 1814 17. Ficus carica L. (fig, anjir) Baluchistan, Afghanistan, South Arabia, West Asia/ probably before 1832. 18. Gliricidia sepium Steud (giripushpa) Central and South America/ About 1916. 19.. Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) Dewit. (subabhul) Tropical America/ After 1 832. 20.. Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen (sopodilla plum, chikku Tropical America, Mexico/ 16th century Introduced by Arab traders and Africans employed in Mughal army. Considered to be one of the longest living trees. Introduced in India by the Portuguese from Brazil. Naturalized all along the west coastal regions of India and forms an important export crop. Introduced in India for its edible fmit. Now completely naturalized and run wild. One of the first American plants introduced by Portuguese for its edible fruits. Now naturalized and run wild. Naturalized and cultivated in coastal areas. Also grown inland. Important article of trade. Naturalized and wild throughout. Natural regeneration plenty. Controversy about the nativity as well as period of introduction. Naturalized and self-sown throughout coastal regions. Locally used variously. Introduced in India by Portuguese for edible fruits. Naturalized and self-sown throughout the area. Introduced in the India first in botanic gardens probably by the British for its ornamental flowers.. Naturalized and now used commonly for avenue plantations. Introduced for beautification. Naturalized and very commonly used for avenue plantation. Introduced in India, probably by the British, as fast growing ornamental tree, popularized as P. W.D. tree for its common use in roadside plantations. Introduced in India probably by the British, as fast growing forest species. Naturalized and cultivated mainly along coastal sandy areas and also inland for ornamentation. Introduced and wide-spread in coastal areas, appears as if growing wild. Cultivated foyts multi-utilitarian attributes. Introduced in India probably by the British for its ornamental flowers. Naturalized and now popular as roadside tree. Introduced in India as fast growing timber species. First introduced in hilly areas of Nilgiris, naturalized and spread throughout the country by man. Naturalized and mostly cultivated as hedge plant near villages Brought to India probably by Portuguese traders. Naturalized in parts of Deccan, Particularly Pune area and has become a peculiarity of the region for its edible fruits. Introduced in India from Ceylon. First planted in Bombay by Millard. Planted as fast growing hardy species on barren hilly tracts of Maharashtra and become naturalised for the region. Introduced in India in British period as fast growing species, spread throughout and now becoming a weed with tremendous natural regeneration. Introduced in India by Portuguese traders for its edible fruits. Established in Dahanu- Gholwad areas of Thana District and has become a commercial peculiarity of the region for its fruits. ESTABLISHED EXOTICS FROM WESTERN GHATS 19 Sr. Botanical name Nativity/probable date Remarks No. (common name) of introduction 21 . Melia azedarach L Persia, Asia Minor, (bukan-nim, Persian lilac) Baluchistan/ 22 Parkinsonia aculeata L. Tropical America/ (vilayati babul) About 1797. 23. Peltophorum pterocarpum Ceylon, Malay peninsula. (DC.) Baker ex Heyne Archipelago and (copper pod) N. Australia 24 Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Malay, Archipelago/ Skeels (harparrevdi, raiavla) Uncertain. 25 Pithecellobium dulce Benth. (vilayati chinch) Mexico/before 1795. 26.. Plumeria rubra L forma Guatemala, Mexico, acutifolia Woodson Central America/ (Pagoda tree, temple tree). Prehistoric times. 27. Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner) Thw. (ashok) Cey 1 on/U ncertain. 28. Psidium guajava L. Brazil, Mexico/ (guava, pern) 17th century. 29.. Punica granatum L. Iran, Persia, (dalimba) Afghanistan/ 30. Ricinus communis L. Africa, Abyssinia/ (castor oil, erand) Prehistoric period 31. Samanea saman (Jacq.) Central and southern Merr. (rain tree) tropical America/ First half of 1 8th century. 32. Sesbania grandiflora Indonesia/Prehistoric (L.) Poir. (hadga) period. 33. Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. (shevri) Tropical Africa, Asia. 34. Swietenia mahogani Jacq. Jamaica, Central (mahogany) America/1795. 35. Tama r Indus indica L. Nativity doubtful, (chinch) probably Tropical Africa/ very early introduction. Introduced as ornamental tree, naturalized and commonly used as roadside tree in area under study. Introduced for afforestation programmes in arid zones of India, to reduce erosion. Naturalized and spread everywhere through natural regeneration. Introduced probably by the British as ornamental roadside tree. Now naturalized and commonly used in amenity plantations. Introduced for its acidic edible fruits. Naturalized and now a common feature of home orchards. Introduced by Spaniards as protective hedge and for its edible fruits. Naturalized and now growing even in wastelands. Introduced probably via China. So naturalized that it has become an important element of temple environment flora. Introduced for its graceful shape and ornamental value. Naturalized and commonly used for avenue plantations. Brought by Portuguese for its edible fruits. Now established in all parts of country for the fruits. Developed into many horticultural varieties. Introduced and naturalized from remote antiquity in India. Established in arid regions of Western Ghats of Maharashtra and has become a commercial crop. Introduced as fast growing species for field bunds. Run wild and grows even along barren waste places. Introduced probably by the British as fast growing shade tree Naturalized and commonly utilized as roadside tree. Introduction is ancient, as it has a religious value. Naturalized and commonly cultivated along field bunds. Introduced as fast growing species for field bunds. Naturalized and self-sown in the area. Introduced as a timber tree in India. Naturalized and utilized as timber and beautification tree. Introduced and naturalized throughout India. Self-sown even in dry waste places. Fruit is important in commerce. References Anonymous (1957): Maharashtra State Gazetteer, General Series Vol. A. Botany (rev.ed.) Part II: Timbers. Govern- ment of Maharashtra Publication, Bombay. Bailey, L.H. (1949): Manual of cultivated plants. (Revised ed.) New York. Brandis, D. (1906) (Rept. 1978): Indian Trees. Rept. by Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India. Chatterjee, D. (1939): Studies on the endemic flora of India and Burma. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal II: 5: 19-67. (1962): Floristic patterns of Indian vegetation. Proc. Summer School ofBot ., Darjeeling, pp. 32-42. Cooke, T. (1903-1908): (Rept. 1958): The Flora of Bombay Presidency. 3 Vols. Rept. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. Mahabale, T.S. (1973): Endemic and Exotic plants in Deccan flora. Proc. Symp. Deccan Trap Country Bull. INS A No. 45: 102-107. Maheshwari, J.K. (1962): Studies on naturalized flora of India. Proc. Summer School Bot. Darjeeling, pp. 156-170. & Paul, S.R. (1975): The exotic flora of Ranchi. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (1): 158-188. Matthew, K.M. (1969): Exotic flora of Kodaikanal and Palni hills. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 20 (1 ): 1-241. Randhawa, M.S. (1958): Beautiful Trees of India. New Delhi. — (1965): Flowering trees New Delhi. Santapau, H. (1953): The Flora of Khandala on Western Ghats of India. Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 16 (1): 1-336. (1966): Common Trees. National Book Trust, India. Sharma, B.D. & Pandey, D.S. (1984): Exotic flora of Allahabad district. Publ. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. Talbot, W.A. (1 909-19 ll): Forest flora of the Bombay Presiden- cy and Singh. 2 Vols. Govt. Photozinco Press, India. GENETIC STATUS OF WHITE TIGERS AT NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK, ORISSA1 A.K. Roychoudhury2 and L.N. Acharjyo3 (With two text-figures) Using genealogies the inbreeding coefficients of the white tigers at the Calcutta, Delhi and Nandankanan Zoos have been calculated. The white tigers at Nandankanan are less inbred than those at Calcutta and Delhi. Inbreeding does not have much effect on fertility and mortality of the white tigers at Nandankanan. An objective breeding plan for Nandankanan has been given in order to breed white tigers with small values of inbreeding coefficient. All the white tigers found at the zoos of Cal- cutta and Delhi in India, Washington D.C. in the U.S.A, and Bristol in England originated from two founder animals, namely Mohan, a white male and Begum, a coloured female. Since these two animals were caught in the forests of Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, India, all their descendants belong to the Rewa lineage. During the last two decades the white tigers of this lineage suffered grevious losses due to the deleterious effects of inbreeding. Matings be- tween close relatives like father-daughter, mother- son, brother-sister etc. practised in the above men- tioned zoos resulted in reduced fertility and in- creased early mortality (Roychoudhury and Sankhala 1979). There is another lineage of white tigers found at the Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa (Roychoudhury and Acharjyo 1983). The white tigers bom there to a pair of normal coloured tigers have apparently no biological connections with the patriarch of white tigers, Mohan, or with his descen- dants. As of 20 February 1986, this park had the largest collection of white tigers in India, 8 females and 5 males. It has also 18 normal coloured tigers of which at least one is heterozygous, i.e. carrying a gene for white coat colour. They are all founded by three wild-caught tigers (Pradeep, Sikha and Rani) and one white female (Diana/S ubhra) of the Rewa lineage obtained from the Delhi Zoo. Seven white offspring produced by Diana at this Park are the products of a mixture between Rewa and Nan- dankanan lineages. A number of coloured tigers have been sold or exchanged for animals to three zoologi- cal parks and one animal dealer in India. A Accepted February 1988. Nandankanan Biological Park, Barang, Orissa 754 005 3Bose Institute, 93/1, Acharya Prafulla Ch. Road, Calcutta 700 0 09. genealogical chart of the animals is shown in Fig. 1. The dates of births and deaths of the tigers as well as the dates of selling and sending them to different zoological parks are given where available. In this paper we shall discuss the genetic status of the white tigers at Nandankanan. Degree of inbreeding: At present 19 white descen- dants of Mohan and Begum are living in India, the USA and England. The inbreeding coefficients of these tigers range from 0.37 to 0.50 with an average of 0.41 ± 0.09 which is slightly higher than the average value (0.39 ± 0.13) of seven white tigers living in Delhi and Calcutta (Table 1). It is therefore clear that all the animals are highly inbred. Among 19 white tigers of the Rewa line, at least four (Neema, Sefali, Barun, and Priya) appear to be in- fertile. Nothing is known about the reproduction of Seema, Thiana, Akbar II and Nanda. The remaining tigers have produced offspring. At Nandankanan among 13 white tigers seven are non-inbred, five have an inbreeding coefficient of 0.25 and the one (Diana/S ubhra) that had been brought from the Delhi Zoo has an inbreeding value of 0.50. However, the average inbreeding coefficient of all of the white tigers is 0. 13 ± 0.05 and it is 0. 10 ± 0.04 when Diana is excluded (Table 2). The white tigers at Nandankanan are significantly less inbred than those at the Delhi and Calcutta Zoos. Genetic contributions of four founders: To preserve the ideal genetic diversity in the tiger population at Nandankanan, all the four founder animals should have equal genetic contributions. From the genealogical chart we can easily calculate the percentage of genes contributed by the founders to each individual. Averaging over all living in- dividuals, the percentages of genetic contributions of four founding animals are determined. It is ob- served that Pradeep and Sikha have higher genetic NORMAL COLOURED GENETIC STATUS OF WHITE TIGERS Geneological chart of tigers at Nandankanan Biological Park 22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 INBREEDING COEFFICIENTS AND OTHER INFORMATION OF THE LIVING WHITE DESCENDANTS OF MOHAN AND BEGUM Name Sex Sire Dam Birth date Birth place Present location Inbreeding coefficient 1. Homa F Mohan Sukeshi 6 Sep 1967 NZPD NZPD 0.3750 2. Hari M Raja Rani 3 May 1968 " " 0.3750 3. Ashima F lf 11 Apr 1970 n MYZ 0.3750 4. Diana/Subhra F Hari Ashima 6 June 1977 " NBP 0.5000 5. Thiana F " ff " " NZPH 0.5000 6. Neema F " " 22 Nov 1977 " NZPD 0.5000 7. Seema F ft " ff " KZ 0.5000 8. Vijay M Homa 6 May 1978 " NZPD 0.3750 9. Sohrab M " tf " " 0.3750 10. Banin M Neeladri Malini 18 May 1969 CZG CZG 0.3750 11. Himadri Jr. F Himadri Chandni 28 July 1975 " " 0.3750 12. Sefali F " " 19 June 1973 " GZ 0.3750 13. Ranjit M Ramana Kesari 20 June 1974 NZPW NZPW 0.4062 14. Bharat M " " " " " 0.4062 15. Priya F ” n " " " 0.4062 16. Roop M Raja Radha 7 June 1969 NZPD BZ 0.3750 17. Sumati F Champak Chameli 9 July 1968 BZ " 0.3750 18. AkbarH M Roop Sumati 16 June. 1976 " " 0.3750 19. Nanda F ft Nirmala 7 July 1977 /•* " 0.3750 Average 0.406 Abbreviations: BZ: Bristol Zoo, England; CZG: Calcutta Zoological Garden, Calcutta; GZ: Guwahati Zoo, Assam; KZ: Kanpur Zoo, Uttar Pradesh; MYZ: Mysore Zoo, Mysore; NBP: Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa; NZPD: National Zoological Park, New Delhi; NZPH: Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad; NZPW: National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. Table 2 INBREEDING COEFFCIENTS AND OTHER INFORMATION OF THE LIVING WHITE TIGERS AT NANDANKANAN Name Sex Sire Dam Birth date Birth place Present location Inbreeding coefficient 1 Unnamed M Debabrata Diana 26 Oct 1985 NBP NBP 0 2 " F " ff " ft ff 0 3 Sweta F " ft 29. Dec 1983 ft ff 0 4 Sangram M ff " ft ft 0 5 Swapna F ft ft tf ff ft 0 6 Sipra F ” M " ft ft 0 7 Aswini M Deepak 20 Oct 1981 ft ff 0 8 Jamuna F Ganga 8 Decl981 ff 0.250 9 Pinaki M " " " ft " 0.250 10. Alaka F tf 8 Jan 1980 ft " 0.250 11. Nanda F ff ff " f» " 0.250 12. Debabrata M " ft " ff " 0.250 13 Diana Average F Hari Ashima 6 June 1977 NZPD 0.500 0.134 *NBP: Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa NZPD: National Zoological Park, New Delhi GENETIC STATUS OF WHITE TIGERS 23 cn FOUNDERS Fig. 2. Genetic constribution of four founders to the tiger popula- tion at Nandankanan. The dotted line shows the ideal contribu- tion to the genome, if all founders contribute equally (25%). contributions than Rani and Diana (Fig. 2). Diana has contributed the least, since she is old and highly inbred. Inbreeding effects on fertility: The effect of in- breeding on litter size in white tigers of the Rewa lineage at the Delhi and Calcutta Zoos and in white and coloured tigers of the Nandankanan lineage at the Nandankanan Biological Park was examined (Table 3). Cubs with inbreeding coefficients of 0 are classified as non- inbred and those with values greater than 0 as inbred. At the Delhi and Calcutta Zoos, the average litter size of inbred tigresses is less than that of non-inbred ones but the difference is not statistically significant ( p > 0.05). At Nandankanan, the average litter size is higher in inbred tigresses than in non-inbred ones, but the difference is not statistically significant. Nothing can be said categorically until more data for both inbred and non-inbred births are available. Inbreeding Effects on Mortality It has been stated earlier that the matings be- tween close relatives of white tigers at the Delhi, Calcutta, Bristol and Washington Zoos resulted in early mortality. Table 4 shows the number of deaths of offspring for the Rewa and Nandankanan lineages within 30 days after their births for different levels of inbreeding coefficients. It is observed that 10% of Table 3 LITTER SIZE OF NON-INBRED AND INBRED BIRTHS OF WHITE TIGERS IN REWA LINEAGE (DELHI AND CALCUTTA) AND THOSE OF WHITE AND COLOURED TIGERS AT NANDANKANAN Number of cubs in a litter Mean ± S.D. ■ 1 2 3 4 5 Rewa lineage Non-inbred births 3 5 3 3.00 ± 0.23 Inbred births 4 18 6 10 1 2.64 ± 0.17 Nandankanan lineage Non-inbred births 2 6 4 1 2.39 ± 0.29 Inbred births - 4 9 2 - 2.87 ± 0.17 Table 4 30 DAY MORTALITY DATA FOR THE OFFSPRING OF TWO LINEAGES OF WHITE TIGERS Inbreeding Rewa lineage Nandankanan lineage coefficient Total No. No. of Total No. No. of births deaths births deaths 0.0 10 1 31 6 0.1250 - - 15 5 0.1875 - - 16 6 0.2500 30 8 12 2 0.3750 91 32 - - 0.4062 4 0 _ _ •• 0.4375 7 5 _ - 0.4687 2 1 _ _ 0.5000 22 17 _ _ 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 the non- inbred offspring of Rewa lineage died before they were 30 days old, as compared to 40% of the inbred offspring. The early mortality is in- creased up to 77% when inbreeding coefficient of the offspring attains 0.5. But at Nandankanan, 19% of the non-inbred offspring died as against 30% in the inbred offspring. In both the lineages, the dif- ferences are not statistically significant. To study the inbreeding effects on mortality of the offspring of the Rewa and Nandankanan lineages, the following standard genetic model is used (Morton et al 1956). P = exp (-A-BF) Where P is the proportion of dead offspring whose inbreeding coefficient is F and, A measures the contribution of non-genetic or environmental causes of death and B the contribution of genetic causes of deaths due to inbreeding. Following Chak- raborty and Chakravarti (1977), the estimates of A and B for the Rewa lineage are: A = 0.061 ± 0.077, B = 1.386 ± 0.282 Since the standard error of A is larger than its estimate, environment does not seem to have any ef- fect on the mortality of the offspring of the Rewa lineage. But the estimate ofB is about five times its standard error, indicating that the inbreeding has a significant role in* the early deaths of the offspring. Using similar type of mortality data for the off- spring of the Nandankanan lineage the estimates of A and B are obtained as follows: A = 0.241 ± 0.091, B = 0.589 ± 0.712 Unlike the offspring of the Rewa lineage, the effects of inbreeding on early deaths for the off- spring of the Nandankanan lineage seem to have a minor role as compared to those of environment. Breeding Plan If we know in advance the inbreeding coeffi- cients of the resulting offspring for all possible pairs, an objective breeding plan can be made. A number of workers have calculated the inbreeding coeffi- cients of the resulting offspring for all possible com- binations of captive males and females of Sumatran tigers (Ballou and Seidensticker 1982), Indian lions (Smith 1985) and north American white tigers (Mur- taugh 1985). We have also calculated the inbreeding coefficients for the offspring of all hypothetical pair- ings of living tigers at Nandankanan (Table 5). Table 5 INBREEDING COEFFICIENTS FOR THE OFFSPRING OF LIVING WHITE (CAPITAL LETTERS), HETEROZYGOUS (ITALICS) AND COLOURED TIGERS AT THE NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK Male Female ASWIN1 DEBA BRATA PINAKI uml SANGRAM urn 2 Pritam Pavak Anand SUBHRA/ DIANA 0.375 0. 0. 0. 0.375 0.375 0. 0 ALAKA 0.188 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.188 0.188 0.234 0.234 0.250 NANDA 0.188 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.188 0.188 0.234 0.234 0.250 JAMUNA 0.188 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.188 0.188 0.234 0.234 0.250 Janhabi 0.188 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.188 0.188 0.234 0.234 0.250 Kaberi 0.188 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.188 0.188 0.234 0.234 0.250 Rohini 0.188 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.188 0.188 0.234 0.234 0.250 Ufl 0.188 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.188 0.188 0.234 0.234 0.250 SWETA 0.281 0.313 0.313 0.313 0.344 0.344 0.177 0.117 0.125 SWAPNA .0.281 0.313 0.313 0.313 0.344 0.344 0.117 0.117 0.125 SIPRA 0.281 0.313 0.313 0.313 0.344 0.344 0.117 0.117 0.125 UF2 0.281 0.313 0.313 0.313 0.344 0.344 0T17 0.117 0.125 Bisakha 0.313 0.188 0.188 0.188 0.281 0.281 0.125 0.125 0.125 Lipsa 0.125 0.219 0.219 0.219 0.109 0.109 0.375 0.375 0.188 Anuradha 0.125 0.219 0.219 0.219 0.109 0.109 0.375 0.375 0.188 Chitra 0.125 0.219 0.219 0.219 0.109 0.109 0.375 0.375 0.188 Banani 0.125 0.234 0.234 0.234 0.117 0.117 0.359 0.359 0.344 Sibani 0.125 0.234 0.234 0.234 0.117 0.117 0.359 0.359 0.344 uf 3 0.125 0.234 0.234 0.234 0.117 0.117 0.359 0.359 0.344 uf 4 0.125 0.234 0.234 0.234 0.117 0.117 0359 0.359 0.344 uf 5 0.125 0.234 0.234 0.234 0.117 0.117 0.359 0.359 0.344 GENETIC STATUS OF WHITE TIGERS 25 The inbreeding coefficients of the offspring can be used as guides in the selection of mates for future breeding of white and coloured tigers. Apart from age and health considerations, the mates are to be selected in such a manner that their offspring will have the least inbreeding coefficient. In this respect Lipsa, Anuradha and Chitra may be ideal partners for the white Sangram or the white unnamed male, for their offspring will have an inbreeding coeffi- cient of 0.11. Since Sangram and the unnamed male (UM2) are not mature, they cannot be paired im- mediately with these three females. In this analysis we have excluded Rekha, the offspring of Sikha, for she has passed her reproductive period. Of 40 possible pairings between eight white females and five white males, only two pairs produce offspring with inbreeding coefficient of 0, nine pairs produce offspring with inbreeding coeffi- cient of 0.19 and the remaining pairs produce off- spring with inbreeding coefficients varying between 0.28 and 0.38. To breed white tigers with an inbreed- ing value of 0, Diana should be paired with either Debabrata or Pinaki. But she is too old to produce further offspring. Instead of Debabrata, Aswini or Sangram may be the ideal partner for Alaka, Nanda and Jamuna. Bisakha, born to Subhra and Deepak, is a heterozygous female. If she is mated with any of the mature white males, namely Aswini, Debabrata and Pinaki, white offspring may appear with a chance of 50% per cent. Matings of Bisakha with the last two white tigers will produce offspring with low inbreed- ing coefficient (0.19). Four coloured females and one coloured male born to Deepak and Ganga in their last two litters are heterozygous with a prob- ability of 0.67. If they are mated with any white tiger, the probability of obtaining a white offspring is 0.33. Refe Ballou, J.D. & Seidensticker, J. (1982): Demographic and genetic status of the captive population of Sumatran tigers ( Panthera tigris sumatrae). In: International Tiger Stud- book. Zoologischer Garten Leipzig. Germany, pp. 5-39. Chakraborty, R. & Chakravarti, A. (1977): On consan- guineous marriages and the genetic load. Hum. Genet. 36: 47-54. Morton, N.E., Crow, J.F. & Muller, H.J. (1956): An estimate of the mutational damage in man from data on consan- guineous marriages. Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. 42 : 855-863. Murtaugh, J. (1985): A genetic analysis of the north American It is quite unlikely that both Anand and Lipsa are heterozygous. If they were so, they would have produced at least one white cub out of their 16 cubs in five litters. To examine whether any of them is heterozygous, Anand may be paired with Sweta, Swapna or Sipra, and similarly Lipsa with Aswini or Sangram. If Anand or Lipsa produce at least one white offspring, they will be considered heterozygous. In any case the inbreeding coefficient of their offspring will not be higher than 0.12. Conclusions To reduce the levels of inbreeding, white tigers should be allowed to outcross with unrelated normal coloured tigers and the offspring thus produced are to be backcrossed with white tigers, preferably of different lineage. If outcrossing and backcrossing are conducted alternately, avoiding common lineage whenever possible, white tigers can be produced with the lowest possible level of inbreeding. This strategy of breeding in white tigers has been advo- cated earlier by Murtaugh (1985). Acknowledgements We are thankful to Dr Jonathan Ballou of the National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., U.S.A. for critically going through the manuscript and correcting some errors in inbreeding coefficients in Tables 1 and 5 and to Dr Ranajit Chakraborty of the Centre for Demographic and Population Genetics, the Univer- sity of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, USA for helping us in using the computer programme for studying the effects of inbreeding on mortality. Our thanks are also due to Prof. W.J. Schull of the same University for improving the ear- lier draft of this paper. NCES population of white tigers with recommendations for fu- ture management. National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C., USA, (Unpublished). Roychoudhury, A.K. & Sankhala, K.S. (1979): Inbreeding in white tigers. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 88B: 311-323. & Acharjyo, L.N. (1983): Origin of white tigers at Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa. Indian J. Expt. Biol. 21: 350-352. Smith, G.L. (1985): International Studbook. Indian Lion, Pan- thera leo persica (Meyer 1926). Knoxville Zoological Park, Tennessee, USA. NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI I MERTENS SAURIA: VARANIDAE1 Walter Auffenberg2, Hafeezur Rehman, Fehmida Iffat and Zahida Perveen3 (With four text-figures) The present study documents several aspects of the biology of Varanus griseus koniecznyi in Pakistan. Adequate material now available makes possible a more detailed description of the morphological features and the geographic distribution of this species than was previously possible. The annual reproductive and abdominal fat cycles are outlined and the common prey organisms identified. Introduction This study was undertaken as part of an exten- sive research programme involving the varanid lizards of India and Pakistan. It is the second of a series of publications intended to make the results of this work available to biologists. With the exception of a few casual notes (Corkhill 1928), literature con- tains nothing regarding the biology of this sub- species (a significant unpublished thesis research study on food and burrow use was conducted by Dave (1961) at the University of Rajasthan (see below). Several of the earlier publications (i.e. Smith 1935) that deal with the eastern populations of Varanus griseus (now considered to represent the distinctive V. g. koniecznyi) include behavioural and other data relating to more western populations now considered as distinct geographic races, so that it is not clear what information pertains to the eastern race and what does not. Varanus griseus (desert monitor lizard) is dis- tributed from northern Africa to north-central India. Within this large area three geographic races are recognized V. g. griseus from Africa to approximate- ly eastern Iran, V. g. caspius from the western shores of the Caspian Sea, Turkman and the Iranian Plateau, eastward through Afghanistan and Baluchistan to western Sinkiang Province, China; and V. g. koniecznyi from central Pakistan to north-central India. Varanus g. koniecznyi was described by Mer- tens in 1954; the type locality is Khorangi, near Karachi, Pakistan. In addition to those morphologi- 1 Accepted September 1988 2The Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, U.S.A. 3 All remaining authors Zoological Survey Dept., Block 61, Pakistan Secretariat, Karachi, Pakistan. cal features he listed as distinguishing it from its closest geographic conspecific V g. caspius , he in- cluded a few other localities. To these he added several more in 1969. Minton (1966) published a few natural history notes, added still more localities in southern Pakistan, and further characterized the subspecies on the basis of a few additional mor- phological features. Our studies were primarily con- ducted to better understand the biology of this poor- ly known subspecies. The study was intended to supply baseline information on distribution, mor- phology, reproduction and nutrition as an aid to developing a conservation programme for this (and other) monitor species in southern Asia. The following data were obtained as a result of field work conducted from 1984 through most of 1987 in both countries. Additionally, important museum specimens were examined in both these countries and in Europe and the United States. Total field time was approximately 22 months (India 10, Pakistan 12). Data were obtained from 150 specimens (52 in museums, 98 in the field). All measurements of total length (TOL), tail length (TL) and snout-vent length (SVL) were made to the closest mm; all internal measurements (testes, ova, etc.) were made to the closest 0.1 mm; all weights to the closest 0.1 g. Results Distribution: Fig. 1 shows the published literature records as well as those Pakistan localities demonstrated as possessing Varanus griseus during the present study. These data make it quite clear that the subspecies V g. koniecznyi is restricted to what is best described as the historic and the present Indus River Valley (see Fig.l). However, within this large area, it is more or less restricted to sandy tracts. This habitat preference has already been mentioned by BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI 27 Fig. 1. Locality records for Varanus griseus koniecznyi ; literature records hollow dots, examined specimens solid dots. Shaded area represents what we believe to be the entire range of the subspecies. The zone of intergradation with V. g. caspius along the western border is not yet clear (see text). Only one specimen is considered an intergrade (half solid dot). The traingles represent the closest localities known at present for Varanus g. caspius. Minton (1966); it is rarely found in clay deserts. Common plants noted in areas where V g. koniecznyi were seen during this study are Acacia jacquemon- tii , Prosopis cineraria , Salvadora oleoides , Cap- paris aphylla , Leptadenia pyrotechnica , and Col- li gonum polygonoides. Localities from which this subspecies are now known and the data source follow: INDIA. Uttar Pradesh Prov., Sikandra (this study), near Agra (Carlleyle 1869); Dayalbagh (this study), Agra (Boulenger 1885, based on Carlleyle?), Delhi (Jerdon 1870), Oudh (Murray 1884); Maharashtra Prov., Narsingarh (Smith 1932, see text, locality questioned). Gujarat Prov., Surat, (Gleadow 1905), Deesa (ZSI and Smith 1932); Kutch (Stoliczka 1872). Haryana Prov., Ambala; Rajasthan Prov., Bikaner, Banner and Pugal (Dave 1961), Pokaran (this study), Jodhpur (ZSIJ, Smith 1932 and this study), Jaipur (this study). Pakistan. Baluchistan Prov., Gwador Distr.: Ormara (this study); Quetta Distr., Quetta (ZSD); Las Bela Prov., Bela (this study), Goth Mauladad (Mertens 1969), Uthal (ZSM), Panjgur Distr., Panjgur; Punjab Prov., Jhellum Distr.: Goolpour, 9.6 km Pindo Dadau Khan (this study); Jhang Distr.: Jhang (UMMZ), Rabwah (this study), Bhravi Desert (Minton 1966); Sargodha Distr.: Khewra, nr. Jhel- lum River (this study); Lahore Distr.: Lahore (Jer- don 1870): 32 km SE Lahore; Kolakhatai; Narang Mandi; Sri Rampura; Changa Manga (all this study), Mianwali Distr.: Salt Range (Theobald 1868). Sind Prov., Badin Distr.: Badin (MCZ and Mertens 1969), Thar Parkar Distr.: (Smith 1932), Islamkot (ZSD), Nagar Parkar (this study), Umarkot (ZSD and this study); Karachi Distr.: Karachi (Minton 1966 and many museum collections), Dabiji (Mertens 1969), Clifton (Minton 1966), 6.4 km E Landhi (Minton 1966), Khar Centre nr. Hab Dam (this study), San- ghar Distr.: Sher Khadra (this study); Thatta Distr.: Jati (Mertens 1969, Jherruck (Mertens 1969), Jungshahi (Mertens 1969 and this study); 4.8 km NE Gharo (Minton 1966); Hyderabad Distr.: nr. Bhalori (Minton 1966), Mirpur Khas (ZSD); Dadu Distr.: nr. Thana Bulla Khan (ZSD, Minton 1966 and this study). The locality Narsingarh (Smith 1932) requires verification, for it is out of the expected range on zoogeographical grounds. In the most eastern parts of this subspecies range Nikolsky (1907) reports Varanus griseus (subsp.?) from SE Iran; but the sub- species represented is probably V g. caspius on the basis of Mertens ’s record from Iranshah (1956). The 28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 western limits of V.g. koniecznyi is apparently at the edge of the Iranian Plateau (i.e., die Sulaiman, Bruhai and Kirthar Mountain Ranges in central Pakistan. At the southeastern limit the subspecies ranges into, but not beyond, the Gujarat Plains (Surv. India Maps, pi. 41), and eastward to, but apparendy not beyond the Ganga-Jamuna Doab. I have seen a specimen (not captured) from the sandy river bed near Firozabad that I believe represents this species. If correcdy identified, it is the most eastern locality known. Systematics: At an early date the distinctive colora- tion and pattern of the Varanus griseus populations from India had already been reported in the litera- ture (Hardwicke and Gray 1827, Anderson 1898). In 1942, Mertens suspected that the Indian and Pakis- tani specimens represented an undescribed race on the basis of its colour pattern, but had too few specimens for study to be certain. Additional Pakis- tan material was made available through collections made by Mr Konieczny. Mertens described the sub- species V. g. koniecznyi in the collector’s honour in 1954. Unfortunately, Mertens was unable to define the geographical limits at the western edge of the range, for at that time there were no Baluchi specimens with precise locality data. Today, the situation is hardly better, though Minton (1966) reported a specimen referred to V.g. caspius from Chagai District, 17.6 km NW Nushki. It is also presumed that the specimen reported by Wall (1912) from Chitral Distr., N.W.F.P., was also a member of this race. Thus systematists believe the populations along the Afghani-Baluchi border are referable to V. g. caspius. It is presumed that those populations between these and those examined from the most northwestern localities in the Indus Valley (Fig. 1) are intermediate, though this has not been proven with the material at hand. Even less is known about the subspecific allocation of populations along the Irani-Baluchi border. Specimens from the mid- dle and eastern part of the Mekkran Coast (Ormara, Uthal, and Bela) are clearly assignable to V.g. koniecznyi , and show no evidence of intergradation. However, a single adult from Panjgur, Baluchistan (ZSM 161/1985) is intermediate in body and tail colour pattern between V.g. koniecznyi and V.g. caspius. The closest undoubted V.g. griseus records are in central Iran (Tuck 1971). A good black-and-white photograph of Varanus griseus koniecznyi is provided by Minton (1966) and a coloured one by Auffenberg (1986). The photograph by Pilleri (1970) is not of this species as stated, but of V. bengalensis bengalensis , as first noted by Mertens (1971). Detailed descrip- tions of material then available are provided by Mer- tens (1954) and Minton (1966). The following short description is based on a much wider selection of specimens available to us in this study: Tongue long, slender, bifid and retractable into a sheath. Head moderately broad, with a pointed snout. External nares, located near the eye (28-40 % of the distance from the nostril to tip of the snout). Tail rounded in cross section throughout most of its length, longer than snout-vent distance (109-128 % of SVL). Head scales small, polygonal; mid-dorsal body scales small (108-139 scale rows around body), granular above, squarish ventrally. Dorsal head colour dark grey to black, lighter in the young. Body dull yellow to light grey, speckled with dark grey to black; 3 -4 dark grey, greenish grey (to dark brown or black in young) cross bands on trunk, bordered by and sometimes enclosing white to yellow spots. This pattern is sometimes obscured by a long triangular dark grey to black patch that extends from the top of the head over the dorsal part of the neck onto the shoulders, sometimes farther posteriorly. This "cape" is best developed in older individuals, especially from the Indian side of the Thar Desert (photograph in Auf- fenberg 1986). There is always a dark brown to black stripe extending from the canthus through the ear opening onto the neck and a shorter, narrower one from behind the eye. The base and proximal two thirds of the tail are often crossed with from 8-12 greyish bands; distal third to one half black with a white tip. The limbs are greyish with yellow spots and the ventral surfaces are white, often with dark speckling on the throat. Corkhill (1928) reports that during early sum- mer the bellies of males have a pinkish cast. Though this is probably correct, we were not able to confirm a seasonal colour change in either sex. The few Pakistan specimens of Varanus g. caspius that are available are similar, but have a longer tail (148% SVL), a higher number of mid- dorsal scales (143) and more body (6-8) and BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI 29 tailgraph (15-17) bands. The body bands are not bordered by lighter spots (photograph in Minton 1966). The distal part of the tail is whitish. Addition- ally, they reach larger size. Size and Mass: In the sample of adult V. g. koniecznyi measured and weighed in the field during this study (N = 94), female SVL varied from 190- 335 mm (N = 39); males 183-365 mm (N = 55). Males were slightly, but significantly larger than females (X male SVL 286.7 ± 34.6 mm, X female SVL 268.0 ± 33.22; t test = 6.5; p < 0.001). The proportional difference in SVL between the sexes is less than in all other monitors studied so far. Total length in males varies from 449 to 835 mm, and in females from 412 to 752 mm. The tail is longer than the body, as in most monitor species. There is no sig- nificant sexual difference in the proportional length of the tail, the mean SVL/ Tail L (X 1.23 ± 1.0 in males, 1.20± 0.1 in females). Its tip is missing in 11 % of the males and 12.8 % of the females, with no significant sexual difference between them in this regard. Total weight varied from 62 to 580 g in females (X 250.9 ± 133.1 g) and 85 to 520 g in males (X 296.2 ± 106.0 g). Among sexually mature adults there is no sig- nificant relation between SVL and Wt (best fit with exponential curve, R2 = 0.29), suggesting that total weights vary greatly intra-individually and seasonally. This high variance is probably due to variation in local insect abundance. Sex ratio: A total of 96 specimens were dug from their burrows in Sind Province, Pakistan. Of these, the sex of twelve was indeterminant (gonadal im- maturity). The sex ratio of adults (84) was 58 males to 26 females (2.23:1), which is significantly dif- ferent (P < 0.5) from a 1:1 ratio (X2 = 4.4, 1 df). Pianka (1968, 1969, 1971), Horn (1980), Pen- gilley (1981) and Auffenberg (1981) have reported unequal sex ratios in different species of varanid lizards; the latter showed that such ratios may obtain in unhatched eggs as well (though based on small sample size). Studies of still other species have shown that ratios of 1:1 are normal (Auffenberg 1988, Auffenberg et al in press, King and Rhodes 1982, and Auffenberg in MS). King and Green (1979) thought it likely that unequal sex ratios in varanids were the result of differences in activity patterns or levels. That this is likely was suggested by the activity patterns of many captive V. ben- galensis , in which males were much more active than females of the same age (Auffenberg 1979). Further studies of the same species in the wild (Auf- fenberg in MS) show that when individuals are ex- cavated from their burrows the sex ratio is 1:1. A recent study of V. flavescens in India and Pakistan (Auffenberg et al. in press) provides the same 1:1 ratio on the basis of excavated specimens. However, the same capture technique for V. griseus (also in Pakistan) shows that this subspecies exhibits a sex ratio favouring males. Thus, while it seemed for a time that the une- qual sex ratios in varanids may be due to bias related to differential activity levels of the sexes, the occur- rence of unequal ratios in the eggs of at least some species and the clear presence of unequal ratios in samples taken from refugia suggests that some varanids have equal sex ratios, others do not. When unequal, the ratios favour the males. So far these species favour xeric habitats. Unequal sex ratios in land tortoises inhabiting xeric conditions have also been demonstrated (Auffenberg and Weaver 1969). Reproductive Cycle: In spite of a number of publi- cations on Varanus griseus , there is little informa- tion on the reproductive biology of this species in the eastern parts of its range. The data presented below were obtained from specimens originating in both Pakistan and India, representing most of the geographical distribution of this subspecies. The female reproductive cycle is best studied by examination and measurement of the ovarian fol- licles. Ovary volume and diameter of the largest ovum both show a dramatic rise in August (Fig. 2). Though there is a drop in October-November, both remain at high levels through January. The ovaries are in a regressed phase (Jacob and Ramswami 1976) from February through July. The smallest female with enlarged follicles (< 3.0 mm diameter) has an SVL of 245 mm, which is taken as the smal- lest size of mature females. Eggs are ovulated when they are about 10 mm in diameter. Oviducal eggs were found in 12 females. Col- lection dates of these individuals were from August 8 to September 15. Shelled oviducal eggs are found from October 13 to September 15. The smallest in- dividual with oviducal eggs has an SVL of 276 mm. 3 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 2. Seasonal change in ovary and testes volume and the diameter of the largest follicle in Varanus griseus koniecznyi. Clutch size of oviducal eggs ranges from 6-11; luteal bodies remain in the ovary for at least one year, and range in number from 2-15. Thus our evidence from Pakistan suggests that mature females lay from 2 to 15 eggs, with the mean for this area calculated as 8.7 ±4.3. Females appear to produce only one clutch per breeding season. All females throughout the sub- species range are synchronous in respect to gonadal activity. The ovaries of individuals with oviducal eggs generally contained both corpora lutea and a number of degenerating ova. We found no evidence that eggs pass through the oviducts of this subspecies as rapidly as suggested by Jacob and Ramswami (1976) for V. bengalensis , who reported the presence of mature follicles, and both shelled and unshelled eggs in a single individual. Ovulation oc- curs mainly in August and September, with continu- ing slow decrease in ovary volume through January (Fig. 2), after which there is a radical reduction in ovary size March through June. Ovulation in this subspecies is later than that in the sympatric V flavescens (Auffenberg et al. in press). Corpora lutea vary from 2 to 15. There is no significant relationship (R2 = 0.01) between female size (SVL) and number of ovulated eggs (number of corpora lutea). Testes volume of all males with SVL >250 mm shows a significant seasonal change (Fig. 2). Testes volume is highest in April, gradually becoming more or less smaller in the following months through July. In August there is a dramatic decrease in testes volume, after which it slowly increases through December, followed by a more rapid rise to April. Varanus g. koniecznyi exhibits a composite reproductive cycle. Males produce sperm during the spring, after they emerge from a period of dorman- cy (or at least reduced activity) from November through March. Thus testicular recrudescence takes place when ambient temperatures are increasing in spring. Combat takes place May, June and early July (just before the monsoon, which in Pakistan and western India usually begins between mid-July and mid- August). This is suggested both by the presence of combat scars on the shoulders of adult males (see Auffenberg 1988) and combatant pairs during these months. Ovarian activity (as well as courtship and breeding) occurs during August. Most eggs are laid in September, a few in October. The timing of reproductive activity in this sub- species of monitor is of considerable interest. We have demonstrated that the onset of testicular ac- tivity is correlated with increasing ambient tempera- ture. In contrast, ovarian activity is not correlated with temperature, but is greatest during the monsoon season. Because ambient temperature and precipita- tion are not correlated, the gonadal activity of males and females are asynchronous. Reproductive activity is controlled by complex environmental cues, including temperature, BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI 31 photoperiod and precipitation (see Duvall et al. 1982 for review). Licht (1971) and Marion (1982) have demonstrated that lizard testicular activity is stimulated by increasing temperature. Thus the male desert monitor annual reproductive cycle with sper- matogenesis in spring is not surprising. However, the fact that female gonadal activity does not begin until much later in the year is unusual among monitors. Guillette and Sullivan (1985) have demonstrated a similar asynchronous reproductive cycle in male and female iguanid lizards (Sceloporus formosus). However, in that case females are preg- nant during spring. They point out that pregnancy hormones would block any stimulatory environmen- tal cues (through action of the anti-gonadal hormone progesterone). However, there is no evidence that female V g. koniecznyi are pregnant during spring, so that the mechanism inhibiting ovarian activity in females during the earlier part of the year remains unknown. Unfortunately, we are not certain when the eggs hatch. Minton (1966) collected what he believed to be newly hatched individuals in August and September (SVL 94 mm). Three small specimens (X SVL 102 mm); in collections of the California Academy of Science and M.S. Khan (Rabwah, Pakistan) were collected together during July from the roof of a thatched hut, suggesting they had hatched several weeks previously (sibling hatc- hling monitors sometimes remain together for some time (Auffenberg 1981, 1988). Thus the current data suggest that V. g. koniecznyi hatch from July through September (monsoon), further suggesting that in- cubation takes about 10 months. This premise requires confirmation from Pakistani and Indian biologists. In Tunisia, Thilenius (1897) reports hatchlings 3 to 4 months after shelled eggs are found in the oviducts. However, his total length measurements of about 30 cm are much too great for young of the year, suggesting that his "hatc- hlings" were already one season old. Thus there is no information on how long incubation lasts in Tunisia. The long incubation period suggested for V. g. koniecznyi is not unique among monitors (though exceptionally long when compared to lizard species in other families), for Varanus niloticus requires a similar incubation period in some parts of its range (Cowles 1930). Other workers have demonstrated that the incubation of the eggs of other monitor species may take 4 to 6 months (see Auffenberg 1988 for review). In every case where comparisons are possible, the hatching of monitors seems correlated with the onset of the rainy season, which evidence suggests is also true of V. g. koniecznyi. This is, of course, the time when insect prey usually reach their highest annual peaks. Thilenius (1897) suggests the possibility that in Tunisia, female desert monitors may return to the nest near the time of hatching. Auffenberg (1981) repeats a local rural story that the females of V. komodoensis do likewise, though he saw no evidence for such behaviour. Additional information on such possible maternal behaviour on the part of adult females would be very important, if confirmed. Newly hatched monitors of many species are rarely seen in the wild even by professional monitor hunters. We presume this is usually due to their often arboreal habits when young. However, hatchlings of Varanus griseus are also rarely caught when com- pared to adults. The paucity of trees in their usual habitat suggests they are spending their time else- where. This is another area in which local biologists can shed much light on - where very young monitors spend most of their time. In contrast, ovarian activity is not correlated with temperature, but is greatest during the monsoon season. Because ambient temperature and precipitation are not correlated, the gonadal activity of males and females are asynchronous. On the basis of limited growth data on captive Varanus griseus caspius (Segeev 1939), V. g. koniecznyi may become sexually mature at the end of the second year of life, certainly during the third. Thilenius (1897) believes that the larger nominal subspecies may become mature as early as two years, but for most individuals he believes it is 4 or 5 years. They have been known to live in captivity at least ten years (Flower 1925). Abdominal Fat Bodies, Male and female fat bodies exhibit identical annual cycles (Fig. 3), as they do in the tropical evergreen species Varanus olivaceus (Auffenberg 1988). In both sexes of V griseus the fat body weight begins to accumulate during the monsoon season, reaching a peak in September and October. This is directly associated with increased 32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 3. Abdominal fat body cycles of male (M) and female (F) Varanus griseus koniecznyi. Fig. 4. Annual cycle of proportional liver weight (SVL/Liver Wt g x 100) abundance of insect prey (Auffenberg, MS). Ab- dominal fat in both sexes begins to decrease in November, correlated with the beginning of annual dormancy and following egg deposition during August and September. This fat body reduction is later than vitellogenesis, suggesting that the fat bodies in V. griseus , as in V. olivaceus , are not used for this purpose. The senior author has suggested elsewhere (Auffenberg 1988) that considerable fat is also stored in the tail of varanids and that this varies seasonally. It is possible that caudal fat, rather than abdominal fat is a more important lipid source during vitellogenesis in varanid lizards. Auffenberg and Auffenberg (in press) have suggested that the caudal fat may be the source of some (or all) of the lipids used in vitellogenesis in Philippine scincids as well. In both sexes abdominal fat weight is least during April, May and June. While it is true that this inverse relationship agrees with spermatogenesis in male desert monitors (most marked in April), it does not agree with vitellogenesis in the female (mainly August). Thus the weight of abdominal fat in both sexes BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI 33 Table 1 STOMACH CONTENTS OF Varanus griseus koniecznyi IN RAJASTHAN, BASED ON DATA PROVIDED IN DAVE (1961) Food category Percent of total Insects 48.0 Non-insect invertebrates 5.0 Amphibians 2.9 Lizards 19.1 Snakes 10.0 Birds 4.2 Eggs (various) 10.8 Table 2 STOMACH CONTENTS OF Varanus griseus koniecznyi FROM SIND PAKISTAN BASED ON DATA OBTAINED DURING THIS STUDY Food category Percent of total Centipedes Scolapendridae 1.3 Cockroaches Blattidae ( Arenarius ) 5.3 Beetles Scarabidae 21.1 Tenebrionidae 56.2 Toads Bufonidae (Bufo stomaticus) 1.3 Reptiles Agamidae ( Uromastix hardwickii , Calotes versicolor , Agama sp.) 7.8 Lacertidae ( Acanthocephalus cantoris ) 1.5 Reptile eggs 4.0 Rodents Muridae ( Meriones cf. hurrianus) 1.3 exhibit cyclic changes, with the greatest weight achieved during and immediately after the monsoon season (Fig. 3). Liver:The pattern of seasonal changes in propor- tional liver weight has been investigated in Varanus olivaceus (Auffenberg 1988) and V flavescens (Auf- fenberg et al. in press). Fig. 4 demonstrates seasonal differences in the weight of this organ in V.g. koniecznyi. The annual peak in both males and females is during August, when, in the females, vitellogenesis occurs. However, the fact that liver weight is also highest in males during this same month suggests that greater liver weight is related to increased insect prey abundance during the same month (Auffenberg, unpubl. data). Lowest liver weights occur during May and June, when insect prey are the least abundant. Food and its seasonal utilization. Several previous workers have reported in a general way on the prey taken by Varanus griseus koniecznyi. Corkhill (1928) reported that they fed chiefly on small ro- dents, lizards, snakes and crickets. Minton (1966) reports that his captives fed on mice, rats, fish, meat and eggs, and small toads. The inference from these reports is that V g. koniecznyi feeds largely upon small vertebrates. However, Dave (1961) provided a long list of prey taken from the stomachs of in- dividuals captured in Rajasthan, India (no indication of number examined). More importantly, his data show that insects comprise the major food category (Table 1). Food remains were recovered from the stomachs of 75 specimens during this study. All those individuals captured during December through March had empty stomachs and intestines. Our data show that during these three months V g. koniecznyi is usually inactive. Insects are the most common food category taken (82.6%); vertebrates (including their eggs) comprise a small percentage of the total stomach contents (15.9%; Table 2). Thus in both of those studies in which food habits are based on wild caught specimens, insects predominate; vertebrates are not the most common food of this subspecies. Almost all the prey in Pakistan specimens are partly fossorial. The gerbill, desert cockroaches, centipedes, tenebrionid beetles, toads, and reptile eggs are all most commonly encountered under stones and surface detritus, or in their burrows. It is also highly likely that at least the juvenile Uromas- tix hardwickii were also taken from their burrows. Acanthodactylus cantoris regularly hides in burrows and could have been retrieved from holes. However, Calotes versicolor was almost certainly taken while on the ground (normally an arboreal form). Scarib beetles are commonly found either on the ground at cow or camel pats, or within pats or the soil beneath them. When the entire spectrum of prey taken is reviewed it becomes obvious that almost all the prey are found below the surface or extricated from beneath debris on the desert floor. The largest prey taken are Uromastix hardwickii - all were juveniles with a mean SVL of 77 mm. One adult desert monitor contained 5 hatc- hling U. hardwickii , two of which appeared to have been eaten the day before, and three the day it was captured. Another adult monitor contained remains 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 3 SEASONAL PREY UTILIZATION IN Varanus griseus koniecznyi FROM SIND, PAKISTAN (JN% OF MONTHLY TOTALS) Prey Type Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Centipedes 1.4 0.5 1.3 8.8 Beetles 25.0 70.6 93.3 98.9 79.3 78.8 91.7 96.5 Blattids 17.6 10.1 Toads 5.9 3.5 Lizards 18.0 2.3 2.4 Reptile eggs 50.0 11.8 2.2 1.1 Rodents 23.6 1.3 of two hatchlings. Most beetle prey were represented by a number of individuals in each stomach (mean 10.2 per stomach). The mean cockroach length is 10.0 mm; mean beetle length 1 1.9 mm. Thus the vast majority of the prey eaten are small in proportion to predator length. In spite of prey lists in the literature that tend to emphasize the vertebrate prey of Varanus griseus koniecznyi , most prey are small beetles they dig from beneath detritus or from shal- low burrows, usually under desert shrubs. Dave (1961) demonstrates considerable seasonal variation in the prey taken by the desert monitor in Rajasthan, India. He concludes that in- sects comprise the major prey during July and August; reptiles are eaten primarily in March through April, and eggs (order not determined) in May and June (but no quantitative seasonal data is provided). Table 3 provides data obtained during the cur- rent study on seasonal prey utilization in Sind Province, Pakistan. No food was found in any desert monitor stomachs from December through March. Beetles were taken every month that the monitors were active, varying from about 4 to 96 % of the total monthly items. Lizards were taken only during the monsoon season; reptile eggs mainly before the monsoon. The remainder of the prey categories reflect no obvious pattern. Thus the seasonal utiliza- tion of prey in Pakistan is somewhat different from what Dave described in western India. Utilization. In connection with study of the be- havioural ecology of monitor lizards in Pakistan and India during five years by the senior author, there is no clear evidence that this monitor lizard is regular- ly* (if at all) hunted for its leather. This is striking in view of the fact that in appropriate habitats it is rather common. Not once have we seen a leather product (handbag, wallet, etc.) made of its skin in either of these countries. Nor have we noted it among the thousands of confiscated skins ready for processing in tanning establishments. Such skins are always of Varanus bengalensis and V. flavescens (in Pakistan and western India). The reason seems to be that in- dividuals of both the last two species tend to be con- centrated, whereas individuals of the desert monitor, while clearly more abundant on the basis of com- parative sizes of the areas inhabited by each, tend to be more widely scattered over the vast sandy arid tracts in which they are found. We found no evidence that the desert monitor lizard is avoided by hunters (though many uninformed rural people believe it is venomous, the professional animal catchers do not). In general, through both India and Pakistan much of the original preferred habitat of this sub- species remains intact. This is due mainly to its aridity. Some schemes have been proposed in both countries to convert some of these desert lands (where they lie near a major water source) to agricul- tural land. This will undoubtedly result in some habitat destruction of importance to the desert monitor. However, viewed in broad perspective, such schemes will have little significant effect on the totality of the geographic area in which it exists. Most of this land cannot be irrigated and thus the total range will probably not experience as much sig- nificant future modification as the habitats of the other Indo-Pakistani monitor species. In fact, the continued salination (and thus abandonment for agricultural purposes) of marginal desert habitat through hydro-agriculture may, in the long run, match and even exceed the effects of habitat destruc- tion through urbanization and highway construction. However, proof of this remains for the future. These observations suggest that of the three species found in southern arid Asia, V. g. koniecznyi is the least threatened. BIOLOGY OF VARANUS GRISEUS KONIECZNYI 35 Acknowledgements Thanks are extended to the following in- dividuals for allowing the study of prepared materials in their care (museum abbreviations in parentheses where appropriate): Dr Farooq M. Ahmed, Director, Zoological Survey Dept., Karachi (ZSD); Dr N. Arnold, British Museum (Natural His- tory), London (BMNH); Mr K.J. Baig, Pakistan Museum Natural History, Islamabad; Mr J.C. Daniel, Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS); Dr W. Bohme, Alexander Koenig Museum Natural History, Bonn; Dr J.Eiselt, Vienna Museum Natural History; Dr O. Gruber, Zoologisches Staatmuseum Munchen (ZSM); Dr K. Klemmer, Senckenberg Museum Natural History, Frankfurt (SMF); Mr H. Marx, Chicago Museum Natural History, Chicago. Mr S.M. Nair, Director, Museum Natural History, New Delhi; Mr J.P. Rosada, Museum Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge (Mass.); Mr D.P. Sanyal, Zoological Survey of India, Calcut- ta (ZSI); Mr R.C. Sharma, Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur (ZSIJ); Dr G. Zug, United States National Museum, Washington; Dr R. Zweifel, American Museum Natural History, New York (AMNH); Additional material was ex- amined in the Florida Museum Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FI., U.S.A. (UF). Mr. Qayyum Nazar, Zoological Survey Department, Pakistan was a valued laboratory assis- tant. Dr S. Telford, Florida Museum Natural History, University of Florida, examined all blood smears for parasites. Appreciation is also extended to the Florida Museum Natural History and the Zoological Survey Department of Pakistan for allowing the in- vestigators to conduct the work, and to the follow- ing agencies for providing funds without which the study could not have been possible: United States Fish and Wildlife Service (India 1984-5, Pakistan 1985-7) and a Fullbright Senior Fellowship to W. Auffenberg (India 1979). References Auffenberg, W. 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(1885): Catalogue of the lizards in the British Museum (Natural History), Vol. 2. London. 455 pp. (1890): The Fauna of British India. Taylor and Francis: London. 541 pp. Branch, W.R. (1982): Hemipenial morphology of platynotan lizards. J. Herp. 16(1): 16-38. Carlleyle, L. (1869): A collection of reptiles from Agra, India. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 38: 192. Corkhill, N.L. (1928): Notes on the desert monitor ( Varanus griseus) and the spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastix microsquamata). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 608-610. Cowles, R.B. (1930): The life history of Varanus niloticus (Linn.) as observed in Natal, South Africa. J. Entomol. Zool. 22: 1-31. Dave, K.C. (1961): Contributions to the systematics, distribution and ecology of the reptiles of the deserts of Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis (Zoology), University of Rajasthan: Jaipur. 231 p. Duvall, D., Guillette, D. & Jones, R.E. (1982): Environmental control of reptilian reproductive cycles, pp. 201-231. In: C. Gans and H. Pough (eds.). Biology of the Reptilia. Vol. 13, Academic Press: New York. Flower, S.S. (1925): Contributions to our knowledge of the dura- tion of life in vertebrate animals. 3, Reptiles. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1925: 911-981. Gleadow, J. (1905): Reptiles from Surat, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16: 724. Gray, J.E. (1827): A synopsis of the genera of saurian reptiles in which some new genera are indicated and the others reviewed by actual examination. Philos. Mag. (n.s.) 2: 54- 58. Guillette, L.J. & Sullivan, W.P. (1985): The reproductive and fat body cycles of the lizard Sceloporus formosus . J. Herp. 29(4): 474-480. Horn, H.G. (1980): Bisher unbekannte details zur kenntnis von Varanus varius auf grand von feld herpetologischen und terraristischen beobachtungen. (Reptilia: Sauria: 36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Varanidae). Salamandra 16: 1-18. Jerdon, T.C. (1870): Notes on Indian herpetology. Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, pp. 66-85. King, D. & Green, B. 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PREDATION BY AQUILA EAGLES ON NESTLING STORKS AND HERONS IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR1 Rishad Naoroji2 ( With four plates, and a map) Large scale predation of chicks in heronries by Aquila species during the 1985 breeding season is reported in Keoladeo National Park, which harbours the largest heronry in India. Young of the painted stork Mycteria leucocephala which nested successfully in large numbers that year were preyed upon. Their nesting coincided with the influx of Aquila migrants. Large and nearly full-grown young in nests and later fledged young on the ground were killed and fed upon collectively by six to eight Aquila. Predation was not observed when nesting was unsuccessful in the next two years when drought prevailed. To my knowledge earlier published records of predation by Aquila in the subcontinent do not exist. Killing of nestlings was not observed, though unsucessful attempts were. A minimum of 2.5% of the total number of young herons in the main study area were preyed upon. Introduction The Keoladeo National Park has become world famous for its vast numbers of wintering waterfowl. It is also the only wintering grounds of the rare Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus in India. A wide variety of waterbirds breed here in the monsoon and post monsoon period. The Park is the winter host of one of the world’s largest concentrations of raptors, mainly eagles of the genus Aquila. Other species of raptors also breed and winter here. This paper describes predation by eagles of the genus Aquila primarily on nestlings and fledglings of the painted stork. Systematic killing of painted stork young by Pallas’s fishing eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus has been previously recorded by Low- ther (1949). Ali (1953) mentions heron nestlings taken by the Pallas’s and marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus , imperial eagle Aquila heliaca preying on flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus chicks was observed by Ali (1953, unpublished notes). Study Area The park is divided into fifteen blocks (of which the relevant blocks are shown in Fig. 1) bounded by man- made dykes, (bunds). The flow of water from the main reservoir (Ajan Bund) is so regulated that different blocks can be flooded as re- quired (Breeden and Breeden 1982). In blocks B, D and L, clusters of mounds support groves of Acacia nilotica. These trees provide safe nesting sites for a wide variety of waterbirds during the monsoon when the marsh is flooded. Accepted June 1989 2Belha Court, 24 Ramchandani Marg, Bombay 400 039. During my study period, two pairs of Pallas’s had established territories in the park. One of these pairs was nesting in D-block and had a large ter- ritory in the southeastern part, whereas the other, in LW and N-block, comprised of an adult female and a non-adult male, which were not nesting and were holding a smaller territory in the northwestern part of the park (Fig. 1). Both these pairs were under con- stant observation and a study of their activity will be published elsewhere. Material and Methods My study period lasted from mid September to mid April. I studied the predation presented here, from 27 October to 16 November 1985, 8 January to 20 February 1986, and 8 November 1988 to 3 February 1989. Observations were made using 8 x 40 binoculars from a punt. Results Migration schedule of raptors: During the latter half of September, there was an influx of migrant raptors into the park, and by mid October a variety of different species, mainly Aquila , were observed. The greater spotted eagle Aquila clanga was the most numerous. By late November the eagles had dispersed over the 8 sq. km. of marsh. From then until mid-January, the numbers of migrant raptors were at peak levels. A raptor survey on 3 December 1985 tallied 75 raptors of eleven species which in- cluded a total of 49 Aquila of the following four species: imperial 10, steppe eagle A. nipalensis 8, greater spotted 30, lesser spotted eagle A. pomarina 1 . The other species were: black- winged kite Elanus caeruleus 4, black kite Milvus migrans govinda 1, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 N Entrance Main Boating Area Heronry Outer Boating Area Heronry Bakalia Heronry B-Block Heronry Sapan Mori Heronry D -Block Heronry \ Park Boundary Main road Area under water Block boundary ^ Heronry IH Territory limit of H. leucoryphus Fig. 1 . Map of study area, showing relevant blocks AQUILA PREDATING ON STORKS AND HERONS 39 besra sparrow hawk Accipiter virgatus 1, marsh har- rier 15, Bonellis’s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus 1, Pallas’s 2, crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela 2. Several other species of raptors seen regularly during this period were not observed during the two and a half hour survey which was restricted to the marsh. By the end of January, a marked decline was noticeable in raptor numbers, especially marsh har- rier, and Aquila , and by early February steppe out- numbered the greater spotted eagles. Whether this was due to an influx of steppe or a departure of many of the greater spotted could not be ascertained. Around 27 February, numbers of all migratory Aquila had decreased considerably, though steppe still outnumbered greater spotted. Marsh harriers, greater spotted, steppe and imperial eagles were rep- resented by a few individuals at least till the end of March. The gradual departure of many raptor migrants after January coincided with a decrease in the num- ber of their prey species such as ducks, coots and moorhens. By late February, painted stork young began leaving the park and they were no longer seen killed. By 5 March, the number of prey individuals had dwindled, and the remaining were leaving the park on their return migration. Aggressive en- counters over food and kleptoparasitism were evi- dent between the greater spotted and steppe, among steppe, and between steppe and Pallas’s fishing eagles, and the ,;e will be discussed in detail in another paper. Heronries: 15 species of storks, herons and allied species breed in the park (Ali 1953). In 1985 there were five major heronries in the park, three in L- block and one each in D and B-blocks (Fig. 1). L- block contained the largest concentration, with one large heronry at Sapan Mori and another in LW - (sub-divided into the main and outer) around the boating area; scattered Acacia between these two large heronries harboured only a few nests, and a small but dense concentration of painted stork nests existed at Bakalia. Average density of nests per mound in the boating area heronry was 42, at Sapan Mori 41, Bakalia 9 and the D-block heronry 5 (Ali and Vijayan 1986). Seven species, namely little cormorant Phalacrocorax niger , shag Phalacrocorax fuscicol- lis , darter Anhinga rufa , large egret Ardea alba , median egret Egretta intermedia , little egret Egretta garzetta and openbill stork Anastomus oscitans begin nesting around the second week of July. The painted stork usually start in late August or early September, continuing up to November/December. Their peak nesting season, September/October thus coincided with the influx of migrant Aquila and other raptors. The painted stork nested socially, mostly among themselves, though sometimes with other species. Heronry predation: The eagles were opportunists, maintaining no fixed territory, and investigated every jheel for food. They fed at the heronries during the first few weeks of arrival, later shifting to scavenging and kleptoparasitism (on marsh harrier by greater spotted and steppe and sometimes on Pallas’s by steppe). By mid October, the painted stork nests con- tained young - two to three to a nest of variable age. Predation on stork young continued after the young had fledged. In February and March fledged young still dependent on adults for food, were being killed and on some days as many as four to five bodies were found, with steppe feeding on them along with some greater spotted (Table 1). Most of the predation took place in the large heronry in the boating area. Surprisingly the L-block pair of Pallas’s were not observed feeding from the LW-block heronry, though this behaviour has been frequently men- tioned for Bharatpur by earlier observers (Ali 1953, Ali and Ripley 1978). A large painted stork colony was observed decimated by a pair of Pallas’ where many of the squabs killed were well grown and had only the breast eaten (Lowther 1949). The presence of large numbers of Aquila in LW may have deterred the L-block Pallas’s pair. Nest predation did not occur at Sapan Mori heronry apparently due to the aggressive nature of the nearby nesting D-block Pallas’s pair, which was observed to drive away all raptor intruders from Sapan Mori, where mainly iso- lated instances of predation were observed by the Pallas’s D-block pair. Among the eagles observed feeding around the heronry, the majority were greater spotted, with four to seven present at once. One steppe was observed on 8 out of 14 days and a single imperial on 6 out of 14 days (Table 1). Out of the 14 days of predation 40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 PERCENTAGE OF Aquila SPECIES FEEDING ON HERONCfflCKS AND FLEDGED JUVENILES, DURING THE 1985-1986 SEASON . Species of At the heronry Post heronry period Eagle chick stage juvenile stage Greater spotted 84.4 38.7 Steppe 8.4 58.1 Imperial 7.2 32.2 The table also reflects the shift in the species composition of the steppe and spotted eagles. Table 2 PERCENTAGE OF PREDATION BY Aquila SPECIES Species preyed upon in 1985 Percentage % Painted stork 73.5 Cormorant 14.7 Openbill stork 11.8 Painted stories, normally late nesters, were more prone to preda- tion than other heronry species. Late nesters among cormorants and openbill stories were also subject to predation. observed, on two days six nests of cormorants, on one day four nests of openbill stork, and on seven days 19 nests of painted storks were predated (Table 2). The remaining four days were utilized by the eagles for feeding on leftovers, which were available to them in spite of wastage and feeding by house Corvus splendens and jungle crow C. macro- rhynchos. No adult of the painted and openbill stork, and white ibis Threskiornis aethiopica was observed taken by any Aquila. Timing and method of predation: Apparently the heronries were visited early in the morning so that, except for a cormorant squab which I saw being killed by a single steppe, I never observed a kill being made. Even when I visited the heronry at 0600 hrs, half an hour before sunrise, the Aquila were al- ready settled and feeding at nests. However, on 26 October 1985, around 0800 hrs, Mr. Rajan Mathur, the deputy Chief Wildlife Warden and Sohanlal, a reliable forest guard, observed in the boating area five greater spotted eat nestlings from five closely placed nests of painted storks on a single Acacia. All young were killed and partly eaten. The method of killing is known only in the case of the cormorant that I saw being killed by the steppe. Four greater spotted were perched on a single Acacia where egrets and cormorants were nesting and the top most bird was being mobbed by a marsh harrier. At this time, one steppe flew straight into a cormorant nest (which was a late nest) ousting the adult which flew away. The predator immediately after alighting began defeathering the nearly fledged squab. On this day young cormorants from four other nests were also killed. A single greater spotted was observed to be un- successful in displacing an adult painted stork from its nest (see later). How active were the larger and dominant steppe and imperial in nest predation is not known, though they were seen feeding on nests predated early in the morning, with several greater spotted waiting their turn. Nests in isolated trees were predated as often as closely placed nests in Acacia clumped together. Early mornings, if young from four to five closely packed nests were predated, one greater spotted would be feeding while seven to eight others per- ched together or singly nearly would be awaiting their turn to feed. If no heronry predation took place in the morning and there were not enough leftovers, the eagles would scatter all over the heronry await- ing an opportunity to find suitable prey or pirate from a marsh harrier. When fledgelings from a group of nests were killed, and one nest spared, the young from that nest would subsequently be killed. Feeding on predated nestlings: After an average of four to five stork nests, each containing almost fledged young had been predated, 7 to 10 eagles and 15 to 30 crows would feed off the carcasses over two to three days. If undisturbed by crows or other rap- tors, the eagles would gorge themselves to satiation with crops bulging. At times large numbers of rap- tors, upto nine of three species, would be gathered, awaiting their chance to feed. By about 1000 hrs usually, all feeding activity would end and the rap- tors would fly to nearby perches in the shade. If more than two to three nests were destroyed, raptors would sometimes disperse satiated as early as 0800 hrs. Occasionally, as a consequence of conflicts among predators over a carcass, wastage of food was considerable. While feeding, an eagle might try to take off with a heavy stork young to avoid harass- ment by crows or from being displaced by another eagle. On many such occasions, the large prey would be dropped into the water before the eagle could get to a safe perch. The following two observations among others illustrate this. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Naoroji : Heronry predation by Aquila Plate 1 Top: Aquila clanga alighting on predated nest displacing the crows. Bottom left: Aquila clanga juvenile mobbed by crow as it feeds on painted stork fledgling. Bottom right: Aquila clanga awaiting its turn to feed is mobbed by crows. X/ J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87 Naoroji : Heronry predation by Aquila Plate 2 Top : Body of painted stork young hanging out of the nest. Another carcass in the nest is fed upon by crows. Bottom left : Bold dark juvenile Aquila clanga feeding in the heronry. Bottom right: Aquila awaiting their turn to feed in the heronry. Aq. heliaca flanked by 2 Aq. clanga. Top: Aquila nipalensis returns to feed on almost fledged painted stork nestling. Adult stork looks on. Bottom left : Painted stork adult on its decimated next in protective posture. Bottom right: Fledged painted stork young begging to be fed on mound away from the main group. Young of this age were also vulnerable to attacks by Aquila. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Naoroji : Heronry predation by Aquila Plate 3 Plate 4 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Naoroji : Heronry predation by Aquila Above : Aquila nipalensis continues feeding on painted stork young in the jheel after other Aquila have left. Below: Remains of two fledged young painted storks after Aquila have fed on the ground. AQUILA PREDATING ON STORKS AND HERONS 41 A steppe alighted on a predated nest but before it could settle down to feed, a greater spotted landed almost on top of it displacing the former which in turn upset the nest, and both stork nestlings fell into the water. On another occasion, two greater spotted alighted together on a nest to feed. One of them, to avoid being displaced, flew off immediately with the carcass of a stork nestling. It stuck the half eaten car- cass precariously in the crotch of an Acacia 20 m away. However, it subsequently dropped the carcass into the water when disturbed by crows during feed- ing. Crows at the predated nests: Usually 11 to 15, and sometimes as many as 20 to 30 house and a few jungle crows were present to exploit heron preda- tion. greater spotted were effectively prevented from alighting on nests by crows on a number of oc- casions. If an eagle did manage to land on a nest during a frenzied mobbing session (Plate 1), it was often prevented from feeding (Plate 1). When an eagle lowered its head to feed, it was harassed by at- tacks to the head, pulling of the tail and sometimes by a momentary landing on the back which usually unsettled a raptor considerably, forcing it to fly off and return later. Mobbing intensity by crows was related to the number of nests predated and number of crows and raptors present on the nest tree (Plate 1 ). If there were a small number of crows present with four to five nests to feed from and only a few raptors around, the intensity of mobbing would be low and crows would mob only the bird that interfered with their feeding. When an adult painted stork became possessive of its decimated nest and presented an aggressive dis- play, it was mobbed. Many times raptors and crows would feed side by side, the raptor being intermit- tently mobbed. The crows would then peck at scraps at the edge of the nest, and sometimes even sneak away a morsel between the legs of a feeding raptor, or when the latter’s attention was held elsewhere, usually by another mobbing crow or raptor. Crows would jostle amongst themselves. On two occasions on the same day, a crow lifted its leftfoot and kicked sideways at a josding neighbour, unsettling the latter which flew off. Crows would continue feeding on the leftovers in nests after the satiated eagles had left (Plate 2) and occasionally even in the evenings. However, their main feeding period was in the morning. If there was no fresh prey in the morning they appeared to wait for the eagles to kill. Dominance hierarchy among raptors: Greater spotted were the most numerous, but the larger steppe and imperial were clearly more dominant and were observed, on eight and six occasions respec- tively, feeding relatively undisturbed by the greater spotted early in the mornings. The imperial, though the largest, was shy and would fly off, if disturbed by the approach of boats. Steppe in a similar situa- tion would remain or re-alight later to feed. When satiated, the larger eagles would allow themselves to be displaced by the smaller raptors perched nearby awaiting their chance. Among the more numerous greater spotted, a larger individual would im- mediately displace a smaller one, which would fly off and wait to displace the larger after it had fed sub- stantially. However, one small, dark juvenile greater spotted, almost black and easily recognisable, was very bold and dominant; it often displaced larger conspecific individuals (Plate 2) and occasionally even a steppe. Greater spotted frequently displaced each other during early mornings. It was a common sight to see them replacing each other in quick succession at the fresh carcasses in a few nests (Plate 2), with five or more impatient hungry raptors perched on the same or a nearby tree awaiting their turn to feed. Early in the morning, the dominant eagles were hungry and held their ground, aggressively display- ing and vocalizing at other nearby eagles awaiting their turn. In 1988 at around 0900 hrs. I observed an adult imperial perched on an Acacia above a spotted feeding on a newly fledged grey heron Ardea cinerea. The imperial vocalised for about five minutes before displacing the spotted. Reaction of storks to predators: On two occasions only in 1985 was a painted stork seen using a threat display effectively against a greater spotted and a steppe. In the first case, after feeding for fifteen minutes on a day old carcass at a painted stork’s nest, an immature greater spotted flew to an active nest, where the adult painted stork successfully defended its nestling with a typical threat display, namely, wings widespread and mandibles clicking. The eagle countered with a wings spread pose, which was in- effective, the stork refusing to budge. After two 42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 minutes the eagle flew back to feed on the stale car- casses. It is possible that if there had been a collec- tive attack by the eagles, the stork’s reaction may have been different. In the second incident, which occurred at 0625 hrs, four Aquila, one steppe and three greater spotted were feeding on an Acacia where young from six nests were eaten over a period of two days. Three other greater spotted were perched nearby apparent- ly waiting an opportunity to feed. An adult painted stork flew to the Acacia and perched near the nest where the steppe was feeding. The stork flew off after 20 minutes, only to return within 10 minutes to drive off the feeding steppe. The stork remained on the nest lunging menacingly with bill stretched towards the nearest eagle and crows, with wings widespread and mandibles clicking. The crows, however, continued to feed nearby at a safe distance. The adult stork probed its partially eaten young with its bill a few times, while lunging repeatedly at the steppe as it flew low over the nest contemplating a landing. An hour later the same steppe landed on the nest ignoring the painted stork which demonstrated threateningly with head raised. The stork did not, however, lunge at the steppe but moved away, while the eagles resumed feeding (Plate 3). Eventually, after remaining perched for some time, the painted stork flew away to settle nearby. Later, the painted stork again returned for a few moments to die nest before flying off to a nearby tree. In 1988 a spotted was observed at 0905 hrs, perched above an imperial feeding on a grey heron. It suddenly flew to a painted stork nest containing two large young. The young and an adult painted stork perched nearby displayed with much wing flapping and mandibles clicking. The eagle perched on the nest rim flew away after four to six seconds. These incidents appear to be exceptional since the adult storks usually stood by impassively and watched their chicks being eaten by the eagles. The adult storks (single birds) were occasionally ob- served to perch motionless above their predated nests for considerable periods after the eagles had left, probing and prodding with their bills their dead young in the nest (Plate 3). This behaviour was ob- served mainly during the evenings, only on the days the young were killed. Sometimes, while crows and eagles were feeding on freshly killed nestlings, an adult stork would perch on a branch above its nest and watch without interfering for 15 to 20 minutes, sometimes even longer (once over two hours) if un- disturbed by the eagles. Once a dislodged nestling, a survivor from among four predated nests, was found preening un- concernedly near the base of the nest tree, while the eagles fed above on its siblings. It was killed two days later. No contact was observed between the adult stork perched on the Acacia and the displaced young while the raptors were feeding. On two separate occasions, an adult openbill stork and white ibis were seen to alight on the very same Acacia in which Aquila were feeding on painted stork young and watch the proceedings for on a few minutes before flying off. Predation on newly fledged painted storks: Once the fledged painted storks left their nests, they were still fed by their parents and vulnerable to attacks by Aquila. Fledgeling storks would cluster together in large groups on the ground. At this stage, they could fly but not as strongly as the adults. They would leave the groups individually to be fed when their parent alighted nearby, but always away from the main group (Plate 3). After the feed the young storks would rejoin the group. These groups were attacked by the eagles, presumably during the early morning. As in the case of the heronry killings, no actual at- tack was observed. Predation on the young storks continued during their fledgling period till around 20 February, when they began leaving the park. Fledged painted storks appeared to be one of the main food sources of Aquila in 1985/1986 winter, supplemented with food obtained by pirating and to a lesser extent by actual hunting and opportunistic carrion feeding. From 8 January to 20 February, 11 instances were recorded in L- block (outer and inner boating) and Bakalia area (Map) and one in D-block, involv- ing a total of 14 dead storks and 36 Aquila - out of which 12 were greater spotted, 23 steppe and one imperial. In one observation, probably a natural kill, an egret was fed upon by two greater spotted, two steppe and one juvenile imperial. In another obser- vation five dead storks were located in one morning, three in outer boating area and two at Bakalia. On 31 January 1986, from my hide at Bakalia around 1030 hrs I saw two carcasses of fledged AQUILA PREDATING ON STORKS AND HERONS 43 painted stork about 100 m apart. The carcass nearer the hide was fed upon by three steppe and one greater spotted on the ground at the base of a heronry mound. Marsh harriers frequently investigated the feeding Aquila and even perched frequently for long periods a few feet above them. The usual dominance hierarchy occurred with repetitive displacement and confrontations already described. A few unusual in- teractions that occurred on this day are mentioned. While two Aquila fed, the nearby eagles awaiting their turn were observed to repeatedly drive off the crows ensuring more food for themselves when they got the opportunity to feed. At 1212 hrs a wild boar Sus scrofa foraging nearby approached the eagles and appropriated the kill. The eagles and crows flew away. Ten minutes later a steppe perched above the feeding boar, who left at 1230 hrs. At 1557 hrs the wild boar returned and fed on the remaining scraps. When the kill was later examined at 1628 hrs, only the feathers remained attached to the partly eaten legs. A few days later near the same spot a wild boar was observed driving off a gathering of steppe and greater spotted, scavenging a day old stork kill. Most of the carcasses would last the Aquila two days or more. All prey were found on the ground, ex- cept in D-block on 8 January when a young was killed in a nest, probably when resting. The eagles fed in shallow water or where the thickness of grass adequately supported their weight (Plate 4). A fledged painted stork was seen standing motionless on the main road opposite D-block between Sapan Mori and Keoladeo temple, with serious head in- juries from which it died a day later. On another oc- casion in the LW outer boating area four painted storks were lying dead together in shallow water under a low thorny bush where they must have crawled for protection and died, after an attack (Plate 4). I can find no other reason for finding the bodies in such an inaccessible place. On another occasion, four steppe and two greated spotted, one of the ful- vous morph, were feeding on a carcass in Bakalia area in L-block under another thorny bush. After 20 February 1986, killings were rarely observed, as most painted stork had left the park. March onwards the herons and egrets commenced nesting again, mainly in D-block and by mid to late April most Aquila had left. On 1 1 March in D-block, I observed a steppe feeding on the eggs of a grey heron. By mid April after I had left, three remaining Aquila - one juvenile imperial and two juvenile greater spotted - ate 38 clutches of purple Ardea pur- purea and grey herons, so that heronry success was nil in 1986 summer (V. Prakash, pers. comm.). It ap- pears that 1985-1986 was an exceptional year for heronry predation by Aquila. Discussion The Aquila , with the exception of the imperial, were not territorial on their wintering grounds in Bharatpur though they had preferred loafing sites. They are known opportunists (Brook et al. 1972, Brown and Amadon 1968, Brown et al. 1982, Morel et al. 1957), and were observed feeding on all kinds of prey they could find, or easily overcome, such as injured birds and young squabs from the heronry, taking carrion including stranded fish, pirating from marsh harriers and even Pallas’s, and doing little ac- tive hunting. In a habitat less favourable to oppor- tunism (Paulson 1984), their hunting would probab- ly increase considerably, as they are efficient hunters especially in their breeding haunts (Brown and Amadon 1968, Dementev et al 1966, Steyn 1973). They are versatile and ecologically unspecialized. In their search for food, they visited all areas in the park, though mainly the marshland where most op- portunities existed for locating food. In fact their winter movements within the park were apparently governed mainly, if not solely, by the search for food (Newton 1979). Thus, when the heronry is success- ful it could serve as an important source of easy food for the Aquila , who are attracted to the area because of an abundant food supply (waterfowl and other migrant species) and turn to the herons when they are available. Most of the wintering Aquila here are juveniles and subadults, which are known to winter further south than adults (Bijlsma 1983, Brook et al. 1972, Christensen et al. 198 1). A successful heronry could thus ensure a higher rate of survival for the compara- tively inexperienced juveniles. Initially the greater spotted was more numerous among the Aquila but from February onwards, steppe outnumbered the other raptors (except vultures) and became extreme- ly dominant often in pairs or larger groups. The greatest densities of Aquila and other migratory rap- tors found in the park are in the vicinity of water, and 44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 this coincides with the greatest prey -population den- sities. Species diversity and abundance fluctuates in different years (Ali and Vijayan 1983, 1986) due to many reasons, and it would be interesting to note whether raptor numbers fluctuate correspondingly over a long period. Most of the heronry killings in 1985 took place in LW where the largest number of nests are con- centrated, mainly in boating area and Bakalia but surprisingly not at Sapan Mori. This was probably due to the aggressive nature of the D-block Pallas’s pair who were very defensive of their hunting ter- ritory as they were nesting. Painted stork nests were predated mostly by the Aquila as they nested later than the other monsoon waterbirds, and their young were easy prey for migratory eagles as they offered little or no resistance. Adult painted and openbill storks and white ibis were not taken. Almost fledged and fledged painted stork young are large birds and, considering wastage and sharing prey with at least 15 to 20 crows, four to five carcasses would ade- quately last a couple of days. No kills were observed made around sunrise, during the day or thfe evenings. Thus a reasonable surmise would be that the fledged storks were killed in and out of their nests early in the morning before sunrise or at night. As the peak killing period coin- cided with moonlit nights it is definitely plausible that the eagles took advantage of bright moonlight. A possible correlation between predation and phases of the moon needs to be investigated. Vultures have been observed in forest feeding in moonlight (Gough 1935, Grubh 1974, Lewis 1940, Livesey 1938, Morris 1935). The black-shouldered kite Elanus caeruleus has been recorded hunting at night and active before dawn (Steyn 1971), as have noc- turnal group flights of the pale chanting goshawk Me tier ax canorus (Rasa 1986). The greater spotted, which outnumbered the other Aquila species during the heronry period, ap- peared to do most of the hunting. Probably they drive off the relatively placid adults with advantage of numbers and then attack the large but helpless young. Another factor contributing to this pattern of predation may be the vulnerability of the nests at night as predators are known to synchronize their predatory activity to prey vulnerability (Curio 1976). This may have been of great advantage to the Aquila and contributed to their success in taking so many of the large fledglings. Destruction of nests was systematic. Usually only after young from closely packed nests on a single or cluster of Acacia were eaten, would the eagles move on to attack oc- cupants of nests in adjacent or nearby trees after kill- ing the few survivors. Whether the adult painted storks were driven collectively off their nests by greater spotted or other Aquila as they brooded their almost fledged young on or near their nests is not known. It appears prob- able that attacks were directed at the head, as a num- ber of dead fledglings had sustained head and neck injuries. In 1986 due to severe drought only nine adult painted storks were counted and nesting did not occur. There were also fewer Aquila and migratory prey species. Most of the raptors that visited the park disappeared after a few days for lack of food opportunities. In 1987, the second consecu- tive year of prolonged drought, no waterbirds nested. In 1988, due to a good monsoon the heronry was successful though, unlike in 1985, scattered over the park mainly in L-block. Grey herons, egrets and cormorants were predated more frequently than painted stork in the boating area. Raptor numbers were lower than in 1985 and 1986, periodically fluc- tuating, and mainly concentrated in L- block. The scale and magnitude of the 1985 heronry predation was not observed. 1985 was undoubtedly a peak predation year when 2433 painted storks nested totalling 1749 nests for the whole park and 1004 in LW (Ali and Vijayan, 1986). According to a forester Bholu Khan (pers. comm.), the systematic and prolonged killings were never witnessed here earlier. Unfortunately no written records exist ex- cept for stray observations. It is possible, however, that heronry predation was overlooked. How much these predatory attacks affect breeding success, if at all, as painted storks nest in hundreds, is not clear. My observations which covered the major phase of predation of painted stork young in nests during 1985 indicated a minimum predation rate of 2.5% in LW and 1 .4% for the entire park, which would close- ly match the actual predation. Heronry success is directly dependent on two main factors: water level and the millions of fish fry that come in with the flood waters. With natural fac- tors unfavourable for the nesting waterbirds, as in AQUILA PREDATING ON STORKS AND HERONS 45 1984 when painted stork numbers were as low as 440 (Ali and Vijayan 1986), predation and consequent disturbance could have a negative effect on the breeding success of vulnerable species. If this sys- tematic killing in the heronry continues, long-term observations on the heronry would shed some light on many interesting points, such as inter-relations between heronry success (the various natural factors contributing to this success) with arrivals of raptors and extent of predation in heronry, mode and timing of attacks and species or combination of species and number of predators involved, main species predated over a number of years, and effect of preda- tion, if any, on heronry success in any given year. This will elucidate the optimum conditions suitable for the destruction of nests by the Aquila. Acknowledgements My sincere thanks to Shri O.P. Mathur and Shri V.D. Sharma, Chief and Asstt. Chief Wildlife War- dens respectively of the Rajasthan Forest Depart- ment for readily granting me permission to work in the field. At Bharatpur I am indebted to the then Dy. Chief Wildlife Wai len, Shri Rajan Mathur and Bholu Abrar Khan for their hospitality and unstint- ing assistance. In 1988 the present Warden Shri K.L. Saini offered me wholehearted co-operation. Nir- pesh and Arun Arya accorded me open house hospitality. I am indebted to Prof. R.M. Naik of Saurashtra University, Rajkot, for guiding me at all stages. His support and encouragement have been a source of strength. In Rajkot, Mrs. Shashi Naik, Harsh Trivedi, P.M. Sukumar, Taej Mundkur and Rishad Pravez made my sojourn more enjoyable. Taej made many useful suggestions on the manuscript. Shivrajkumar Khachar was as usual the perfect host during my fre- quent visits to Jasdan. Divyabanusinh as always helped out in numerous way and Jait Singh and Nihal Mathur in Jaipur. My cousin Jamshed Godrej made available equipment without which my work would have suffered. I am grateful to the Managers, Shri Asthana and Shri Rathore, and the staff of the Forest Lodge, viz. Babulal, Vijay, Mathai, Bakshi. The Forest Depart- ment staff mainly Sohanlal, Amarnath, Prakash Chand Sain, Habib and Iqbal Khan, Suresh and Shiv Singh were extremely helpful in the field and at Shanti Kutir. Dr V.S. Vijayan, Project Scientist, Dr. Lalita Vijayan, Vibhu Prakash, M.N. Haque, re- search students and staff of the B.N.H.S. hydrobiological project always extended assistance and hospitality. C. Siva Subramanium provided data on the heronry. Ian Newton and William S. Clark assisted by sending reference material not available here. Then- assessment of the text is much appreciated. Carl D’Silva drew the map. References Ali, S. (1953): The Keoladeo Ghana of Bharatpur, Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 (3): 531-536. Ali, S. (1954): The Birds of Gujarat,/. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 52 (2&3): 397. Author’s handwritten observation opposite relevant page in book of bound reprints. Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1978): Handbook of Birds of India & Pakistan, Vol. I. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Ali, S. & Vuayan. V.S. (1983): Hydrobiological Research at Keoladeo National Park. First Interim Report. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. (1986): Keoladeo National Park Ecology Study. Summary Report 1980-85. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Bulsma , R.G. (1983): The migration of raptors near Suez, Egypt, Autumn 1981. Sandg rouse 5: 19-44. Breeden, S. & Breeden, B. (1982): The drought of 1979-1980 at Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary, /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 (1): 1-37. Brook, R.K., Grobler, J.H., Stuart Irwin, M.P. & Peter Steyn (1972): A study of Migratory Eagles, Aquila nipalensis and A. pomarina. Occ. Pap. National Museums of Rhodesia B5(2): 61-114. Brown, L.H., Urban E.K., Newman, K. (1982): Birds of Africa, Vol. I. Academic Press, London. Brown, L.H. & Amadon, D. (1968): Eagles, Hawks & Falcons of the World. Hamlyn, Feltham, Middlesex. Christensen, S, Lou, O., Muller, M. & Wohlmuth, H. (1981): Spring Migration of Raptors in Southern Israel & Sinai. Sandgrouse3: 1-42. Curio, E. (1976): The Ethology of Predation. Springer- Verlag, Berlin. Dementev, G.P., Gladkov, N.A., Ptushenko, E.S., Spangen- berg, E.P. & Sudikovskaya, A.M. (1966): Birds of the Soviet Union, Vol. I. Israel Program for Scientific Transla- tions, Jerusalem. Gough, W. (1935): Vultures Feeding at night. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38 (3): 624. Grubh, R.B. (1974): Ecology of Vultures in Gir. University of Bombay, unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Lewis, E.S. (1940): Vultures Feeding at night. J. Bombay nat. 4 46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HINT. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Hist. Soc. 42(1): 189. Livesey, T.R. (1938): Vultures feeding at night. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40 (4): 755. Lowther, E.H.N. (1949): A Bird Photographer in India. Oxford University Press, London. Morris, R.C. (1935): Vultures feeding at night. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38 (I): 190. Morel, G., Morel, M.Y. & Bourlifre, F. (1957): The Black- faced Weaver Bird or Dioch in West Africa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54 (4): 811-825. Newton, I. (1979): Population Ecology of Raptors. T. & A.D. Poyser Ltd., Berkhamsted. Paulson, D. (1985): The importance of open water habitat to the occurrence of kleptoparasitism. Auk 102 (3): 637-639. Pienaar, U. de V. (1969): Observations on the nesting habits & predators of breeding colonies of Red-billed Queleas — Quelea quelea lathami (A. Smith) in the Kruger National Park. Bokmakierie, 21 (3): Suppl: 11-15. Rasa, O.A.E. (1986): Nocturnal group flights of the Pale Chant- ing Goshawk Melierax canorus poliopterus in the Tara desert, Kenya. Ostrich 57: 191-192. Steyn, P. (1971): The Crepuscular Hunting Habits of the Black- shouldered Kite. Ostrich42 (2): 158. (1973): Observations on the Tawny Eagle Aquiia rapax. Ostrich 44 (1): 1-22. VOCAL ACTIVITY OF THE INDIAN GRAY MONGOOSE HERPESTES EDWARDSI EDWARDSII (GEOFFROY) IN CAPTIVITY1 Jagathpala Shetty, Gunapala Shetty and S.R. Kanakaraj2 (With a text-figure) Patterns of day and night vocal activity have been studied in a group of Indian gray mongoose Herpestes edwardsii edwardsii Geoffrey, with special reference to ‘conversation type’ of vocalization. The hourly recording of the calls revealed that the mongooses become communicative with daybreak, reaching a maximum by dusk. The vocalization was least or absent during nights. The juveniles were most vocal, the subordinates moderately, and the dominants least vocal. The possibility of vocalization playing a role in their social ranking has been discussed. Introduction Among mongooses vocalization is an impor- tant medium of communication in view of their size and the habitat of dense grass and brush which af- fords limited visibility. Reports on acoustic features of mongooses are scanty and not exhaustive (Ewer 1973, Mulligan and Nellis 1975, Jacobsen 1982). Since there are no reports on the acoustic features of the Indian gray mongoose a detailed study on the day and night patterns of vocal activity of this species has been made. Methods The study group consisted of seven individuals of Indian gray mongoose Herpestes edwardsii ed- wardsii Geoffroy, captured around the environs of Mysore city and quarantined for about 6 months together, during which time a social hierarchy had been established. Based on factors like ability to guard prey, aggression and grooming they were categorised into three groups (Table 1). During the month-long period of observation the three groups were housed in three cages in a single room. All through they were fed once a day around 1700 hrs with beef and eggs. Water was made available ad lib. Hourly recordings of the calls of ‘Conversation type’ was made in the 24 hour cycle. A minimum of 8 observations of each hour of the day/night was made at least once in 4 days since continuous obser- vation was not practicable. Though it was possible to record calls of individuals during the daytime, it was difficult to distinguish during nights and there- accepted February 1988. department of Studies in Zoology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore 570 006. fore scores have been recorded only for groups. The results for all three groups are presented in Fig. 1 . For statistical analysis the 24 hour cycle was divided into 6 units of 4 hours each (Table 2). To bring out the natural trends in vocalization and dif- ferences in different groups and also with reference to the time of the day/mght, two-way as well as one- way analysis of variance for the number of calls by different groups of individuals have been made. Observations and Discussion The vocal repertoire of the Indian gray mon- goose has been observed to include several types of sounds and calls. Most of these were in response to a visual stimulation from outside like responding to provocation, attacking the prey, devouring recently killed prey etc. The type of vocalization selected for detailed analysis in the present study is of ‘Conver- sation type’ (Ewer 1973). This category of vocaliza- tion was observed to accompany almost any activity, it was non-aggressive and did not depend on any visual stimulation from outside. This type of sound is produced in the throat without opening the mouth as a part of their social communication. The pattern of vocal activity during a 24 hour cycle was found to be similar for all the three groups of individuals (Fig. 1). They become communicative with the daybreak, reaching the maximum around the time of sunset. During nights vocalization was Table 1 DETAILS OF COMPOSITION OF THREE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS OF MONGOOSES Group Status Sex Body weight range (g) A Juveniles (2) Females 165-170 B Subordinates (3) Females 620-705 C Dominants (2 ) Males 950-1250 The number in parenthesis indicates the number of individuals in each group. 48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 2 NUMBER OF CALLS OF 3 GROUPS OF MONGOOSES IN 4 HOUR UNITS IN A 24 HOUR CYCLE Time of day/night Number of calls (Mean of 8 observations/group/individual ± S.D.) A B C 0600-0959 hrs 6.27 ± 0.344 3.73 ± 0.228 1.84 ± 0.168 1000-1359 hrs 21.03 ± 0.550 13.02 ± 0.377 7.02 ± 0.542 1400-1759 hrs 32.17 ± 0.465 23.43 ± 0.302 14.09 ± 0.369 1800-2159 hrs 21.37 ± 1.205 15.68 ± 0.577 5.84 ± 0.375 2200-0159 hrs 1.18 ± 0.203 1.03 ± 0.158 0.10 ± 0.050 0200-0559 hrs 0.46 ± 0.083 0.062 ± 0.028 0.00 ± 0.000 A. JUVENILES 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 02 04 TIME OF DAY/ NIGHT Fig. 1. Number of calls per hour in three experimental groups of mongooses (Mean ± S.D.) to be highly significant (P< 0.01). A one-way analysis of variance of the number of calls of dif- ferent groups with respect to the time periods (Table 2) has also shown to be highly significant (P< 0.01). A comparison of three groups during a time period (Table 2) reveal that the difference was highly sig- nificant from 0600 to 1759 hrs (P< 0.01) and sig- nificant between 1800 and 2159 hours (P< 0.01). There was no significant difference in the number of calls between the three groups during the time period 2200 and 0559 hrs. The pattern of vocal activity is clearly indica- tive of the diurnal habit of Indian gray mongoose. The increased vocalization during dusk may be at- tributed to the time of feeding in captivity in the present study. An innate demand for food due to hunger may be expressed in the form of increased vocalization, more so in the juvenile group. Shipley (1986) has suggested temperature to be a factor in- fluencing the rate of vocalization in elephant seals. But in gray mongoose the data on hand is not indica- tive of temperature influencing vocalization. The present study denotes the possibility of the conver- sation type of vocalization in the Indian gray mon- goose to be an expression of activity such as explora- tion and food finding, the juveniles giving greater number of calls than the adults. Vocalization thus may have an important role to play in their social ranking. least or completely absent. The juveniles were rela- tively more vocal, the subordinates moderate and dominants least as represented by the mean number of calls per hour (Table 2). A two-way analysis of variance has shown that the interaction between the groups and time periods Acknowledgements We are thankful to Dr N.B. Krishnamurthy and Dr H.B. Devaraj Sarkar for their interest in this study and Dr N. Mohan Madhyastha for useful sug- gestions in statistical analysis. VOCAL ACTIVITY OF GRAY MONGOOSE 49 References Ewer, R.F. (1963): The behaviour of the Meerkat, Suricata suricatta (Schreber). Z. Tierpsychol. 20: 570-607. (1973): The carnivores. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 5 Winsley Street, London W1 . Jacobsen, N.H.G. (1982): Observations on the behaviour of slender mongoose, Herpestes sanguineus in captivity. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft mbH Munchen 40, 30. Jhg., Heft 3: 168-183. Mulligan, R.E. & Nellis, D.W. (1975): Vocal repertoire of the mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus . Behaviour L.V. 3-4: 237-267. Shipley, C & Strecker, G. (1986): Day and night patterns of vocal activity of northern elephant seal bulls. J. Mamm. 67 (4) : 775-778. STUDIES ON NESTING AND ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF THE ENDANGERED RIVER TERRAPIN BATAGUR BASK A (GRAY) IN THE SUNDARBANS TIGER RESERVE, WEST BENGAL1 Arin Ghosh2 and N.R. Mandal3 (With a plate ) Nesting ground of the endangered river terrapin Batagur baska was first recorded on the beaches of the Sundar- ban Tiger Reserve of West Bengal during February-March 1988. Three clutches of eggs were collected from the Mechua beach (Bagmara block) of the National Park. In the hatchery, after 60-66 days of incubation, hatchlings emerged. Average hatching success of 48% was recorded. Artificial hatching of Batagur has been done for the first time in India. Introduction Batagur baska has been one of the most ex- ploited estuarine turtles over the centuries and is listed as endangered in IUCN Red Data Book. Four large riverine turtles Batagur baska , Callagur broneoensis , Kachuga trivittata and Pelochelys bibroni inhabit the estuarine habitat throughout tropical Asia (Moll 1985). The population of all these four species have been very much depleted over the years. The river terrapin Batagur is moderately large, web- footed and is distinctive in having four clawed toes on the forelimb. Moll (1976, 1978, 1980), Siow & Moll (1982) and Tikader & Sharma (1985) have discussed the biol- ogy and its exploitation. This terrapin inhabits the lower reaches of major rivers over the tropical main - land of Asia and is reported to be available in Sumatra, Malaysia, Thailand, Bangladesh, Burma and the Sundarbans of India. Batagur was formerly abundant at the mouth of Hooghly river where they were captured in large numbers (Gunther 1864). Theobald (1868) reported that the terrapin was used as substitute for sea turtle in making turtle soup. In Bangladesh, Batagur has recently been discovered in the Sundarbans (Khan 1982, Whitaker 1982). There has been no report of its presence and nesting in India for the last several years. Maxwell (1911) reported the numbers of this river terrapin as declining in Burma. Wirot (1979) pointed out that in Thailand the population has been heavily exploited. In Malaysia the river terrapin is found in the large rivers. The decline in its popula- 1 Accepted June 1988 2Field Director, Project Tiger, Sundarbans Tiger Reserve, West Bengal. 3Research Officer, Sundarbans Tiger Reserve, West Bengal. (Deceased) tion is documented by Loch (1950), Mohamed Khan (1964), Moll (1980) and Siow & Moll (1982). Three clutches of eggs of the, Batagur were col- lected during February and March 1988 from the beaches of the Sundarban Tiger Reserve and suc- cessfully hatched in the hatchery. Nesting ground: The nesting ground of the river terrapin was located on the Mechua sea beach (Bag- mara block) of the National Park in the course of searching for Ridley turtle eggs. Following the flip- per marks on 25 February 1988 a nest was located in the sandy beach 25 m away from the maximum tide water mark. The nest was excavated and 32 eggs were found. The nest chamber was 30 cm deep. The upper layer of eggs was found at a depth of 15 cm. The chamber was flask shaped, the length and width being 27 and 13 cm respectively. On 3 March 1988 another nest was located 80 m away from the maximum tide water mark. While excavating the nest, 19 eggs were found. The nest was 40 cm deep and the upper sand layer above the eggs was 30 cm thick. The egg chamber was flask- shaped, 18 cm in length and 15 cm in width. On the same date another clutch was located which was 158 m away from the maximum tide water mark. This nest was 45 cm deep and the upper sand layer above the eggs was 30 cm. The length and width of the chamber was 28 and 20 cm respectively. 37 eggs were collected from this nest. Hatching in hatchery: The eggs of the three nests were marked in the conventional manner on the top pole before transferring them to the transportation bucket and carriage (following Pritchard et al. 1982). The eggs were oblong shaped, average dimension 68 x 40 mm and the average weight 70 g. These eggs were transferred with the original sand to the hatchery at Pakhiralaya, where artificial nests j. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87 Plate l Ghosh & Mandal : Batagur baska Hatchlings of Batagur baska in Sunderbans Tiger Reserve. ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF BATAGUR BASRA 51 were prepared. Hatching technique: Artificial nests were prepared using the original estuarine soil and sand in a trench of size 3 m x 1.5 m. Nest cavities were scooped out resembling the original one and the eggs were placed in separate clutches as collected. A hollow bamboo pipe was inserted at the centre of each egg chamber for placing a thermometer through the pipe to record the nest temperature. The temperature of air and nest was recorded daily at 3 hr intervals. The clutch collected on 25 February 1988 con- taining 32 eggs was marked as Nest I. 19 eggs col- lected on 3 March 1988 were marked as Nest II, and 37 eggs collected on 3.3.1988 were marked as Nest HI. Hatching: The eggs started hatching in Nest I at 66 days of incubation and in Nest II and III at 61 and 62 days respectively. The temperature records showed the nest temperature remained within 24.7° C to 33.1° C (Table 1). Hatching behaviour: In Nest-I first hatching took place on 1 May 1988 and one hatchling came out in the early morning on 2 May 1988 at noon; at 2100 hrs. 2 hatchlings emerged and on 3 May 1988 at noon 4 hatchlings came out. From this nest a total of 7 hatchlings were obtained. The other eggs were ex- amined but no sign of embryo formation was noticed. Hatching success in this nest worked out to be 21.9%. In Nest II one hatchling came out on 2 May 1988 at 0900 hrs. On 3 May 1988 at 0700 hrs one hatchling and at 2100 hrs another hatchling emerged. On 4 May 1988 at 0600 hrs 7 hatchlings, and at 1800 hrs 5 hatchlings emerged. The remain- ing eggs were unfertilised. In this nest 79% hatching success was achieved. In Nest III on 1 May 1988 between 0600 to 2100 hrs 15 hatchlings emerged, and on 2 May 1988 at 1900 hrs 2 hatchlings came out. In this clutch 46% hatching was observed. All the hatchlings were active and healthy; the average weight was 45 g. The shape of the hatc- hlings was nearly circular. Length and width of the carapace was 6 cm. The total length from snout to tail is 10 cm. Forelimb and hindlimb were 3.5^4 cm in length. The newly hatched hatchlings were kept in the nursery tank, their rearing being especially cared for. Discussion Finding of nests of Batagur in the Sundarban Tiger Reserve is the first recent record of this species, nesting ground in India. This indicates the presence of Batagur in the Hooghly-Matla es- tuaries, though there is no record available regard- ing the population density and abundance of this species. On account of large scale exploitation for its eggs and flesh for food, Batagur was over-exploited in Bengal in the mid 19th century. Habitat destruc- tion is also a very important factor for the decline of this terrapin in Malaysia, Thailand and India (Tikader and Sharma 1985). However, in view of the good protection being accorded to the habitat by Project Tiger authorities the terrapin may be able to re-establish itself in its erstwhile habitat. The nesting of Batagur is nocturnal and the nests obtained between February and March coin- cide with the time of nesting in Malaysia (Moll, 1985). Only 3 clutches were obtained and the num- ber of eggs varied from 19-38 and perhaps only 2- 3 females landed on the beach for egg-laying. The Table 1 TEMPERATURE RECORDS OF THE AIR AND THE NESTS OF Batagur 0600 hrs 0900 hrs 1200 hrs 15000 hrs 1800 hrs 2100 hrs Air Nest Air Nest Air Nest Air Nest Air Nest Air Nest Nest I Mean temp.0 C 24.7 27.4 29.0 28.4 32.7 29.2 32.7 29.5 27.4 28.8 25.6 28.2 S.D.± 1.96 1.96 1.57 1.93 1.77 1.88 1.70 2.03 3.29 1.85 1.54 1.90 Nest II Mean temp.°C 24.9 28.1 29.2 28.8 32.8 29.0 33.1 29.8 27.5 29.2 26.1 28.7 S.D.± 1.87 1.7 1.42 1.56 1.35 1.59 1.51 1.52 3.51 1.44 1.26 1.58 Nest III Mean temp.°C 24.9 28.1 29.2 28.8 32.8 29.5 33.1 29.9 27.5 29.6 26.1 28.8 S.D. ± 1.87 1.71 1.42 1.58 1.35 1.60 1.51 1.57 3.51 1.45 1.26 1.58 52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 survey of the beaches of the National Park has been continuing from 1983 for the collection of Ridley’s sea turtle eggs, but it is the first time that \he Batagur eggs have been found. The hatching results in the present study showed that the incubation period ranged between 60-68 days. Moll (1985) reported that in Malaysia the incubation period is approximately 90 days. The lower incubation period in the present study may be due to the change of microclimatic conditions and to certain abiotic factors. The hatching success achieved in the 3 nests was 2 1 %, 79% and 44% . This indicates that all the eggs were not fully fertilised or that handling of the eggs killed some of the embryos. The records of temperature showed very little variation of the nest temperature throughout the in- cubation period, though there was considerable variation in air temperature. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Shri G.S. Mandal, I.F.S. Chief Wildlife Warden, West Bengal, for encourage- ment, suggestions and valuable advice during the present study. The hard work put in by the staff of the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in locating the eggs in most inhospitable terrain is gratefully acknow- ledged. References Gunther, A. (1864): Reptiles of British India. Robert Handwicks, London, 452 pp. Khan, M.A.R. (1982): Chelonians of Bangladesh and their con- servation. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(1): 110-116. Loch, J.H. (1950): Notes on the Perak River turtle. Malay, nat. J. 5: 157-160. Maxwell, F.D. (1911): Reports on inland and sea fisheries in the Thongwa, Mayaungmya and Bassein Districts and the turtle banks of the Irrawaddy Division. Govt, printing of- fice, Rangoon 57 pp. Khan.M.B.M.K. (1964): A note on Batagur baska (The river ter- rapin ortuntong). Malayan nat. J. 18: 184-189. Moll, E.O. (1976): West Malaysian Turtles: Utilisation and Con- servation. Herpetol. Rev. 7(4): 163-166. (1978): Drumming on Perak. Natur. Hist. 87(5): 36- 43. (1980): Natural history of the river terrapin, Batagur baska (Gray) in Malaysia (Testudines: Emydidae). Malayasian. J. Sci. 6: 23-62. (1985): Estuarine turtles of Tropical Asia, Status and Management. Symposium on endangered marine animals and marine parks. The Marine Biological Associa- tion of India, pp. 1-24. Slow, K.T. & Moll, E.O. (1982): Status and Conservation of es- tuarine and sea turtles in West Malaysian waters. In: Biol- ogy and conservation of sea turtles. K. Biorandal (Ed.). Smithsonian press, Washington, D.C. pp. 339-347. Theobald, W. (1868): Catalogue of the reptiles of British Burma, embracing the provinces of Pagu, Martaban and Tenas- serim, with descriptions of new or little known species. J. Linn. Soc. Zool. 10: 4-61. Tikader, B.K. & Sharma, R.C. (1985): Handbook of Indian Tes tudines. Zoological Survey of India. 156 pp. Whitaker, R. (1982): Bangladesh: a general survey. Hamadryad 7(B): 4-12. Wirot, N. (1979): The turtles of Thailand Siam. Farm Zoologi- cal Garden, Bangkok, Thailand. REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR TAXA IN WYNTER-BLYTH * S BOOK ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF INDIAN REGION - III1 R.K. Varshney2 [Continued from Vol. 82 (2): 321] In the earlier two parts of this study (Varshney 1980, JBNHS 76(1): 33-40; 1985, ibid. 82 (2): 309- 321) eight families, namely Danaidae, Satyridae, Amathusiidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae, Acraeidae, Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae, have been covered. In the present part, which is the third and last in this series, the remaining two families of Wynter-Blyth’s book, namely Erycinidae and Nymphalidae, have been dealt with. The style of presentation is as ear- lier, e.g. taxa which do not require any change have been left out from the tables. Family LlBYTHEIDAE Libytheidae is represented by a single genus, Libythea, in South Europe, Africa, America and Indo-Australian region. These butterflies, which have the common name ‘The Beaks’ , are more close to Family Nymphalidae, but differ in their long palpi, which are porrect and beak-like. These are low flying species. Wynter-Blyth has included Libythea in Family Erycinidae. However, modem workers treat this group as a separate family. No change is required in the generic name of the four species. L. myrrha, L. lepita, L. celtis and L. narina , included by Wynter- Blyth (1957 : 238-240). However, the author of generic name Libythea is Fabricius. Additional in- formation come across is thatL. narina rohini Mar- shall occurs in Assam, and L. geoffroyi Godart oc- curs in Burma, in the Indian region. Family Riodinidae Family Erycinidae of earlier authors is now referred to as Riodinidae. Some other authors call it Nemeobiidae. Wynter-Blyth has treated the taxa of this as well as the preceding family under Erycinidae. This is a small family comprising of species more closely related to the Lycaenidae than to the Nymphalidae. The family is represented on all Accepted October 1987 2Zoological Survey of India, M-Block, New Alipur, Calcutta 700 053. continents, except Australia, but is predominantly a tropical American family. The butterflies occur lo- cally, flying in sunshine, and their male genitalia shows affinity to the Lycaenids. I have followed Corbet & Pendlebury (1956, BUTTERFLIES OF THE MALAY PENINSULA, 2nd ed.) and some other works for the revision of names. The changes are given in Table 9. Important changes are found only in the author’s name, e.g. author of Dodona egeon is Westwood and not Doubleday; and authors of Abisara kausambi and A. savitri is not Felder, but C. Felder and R. Felder jointly. Peile (1937, A GUIDE TO COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA) shows Dodona ouida phlegra Moore as an Indian subspecies. Family NYMPHALIDAE About 15 years back I observed, "Unluckily there is no revised monographic study on the Nym- phalid butterflies of the country, which is one of the largest families of the group. Whereas Bingham (1905, 1907) and Evans (1932) are old and Wynter- Blyth (1957) inadequate, there the Fauna volumes by Talbot (1939, 1947) do not cover this family" Table 9 Riodinidae Page No. For Correct Subfamily IIamearinae 1. 240 Genus Zemeros Genus Zemeros Boisduval 2. 240 Zemeros flegyas Zemeros flegyas indicus Crame Fruhstorfer 3. 240 Genus Dodona Genus Dodona Hewitson 4. 241 Dodona dipoea Dodona dipoea nostia Hewitson Fruhstorfer 5. 242 Dodona egeon (Doubleday) Dodona egeon (Westwood) subfamily Riodininae 6. 243 Genus Abisara Genus Abisara C. & R. Felder 7. 244 Abisara kausambi Abisara kausambi C. & R. Felder 8. 245 Abisara savitri Abisara savitri C. & R. Felder 9. 245 Genus Taxila Genus Taxila Doubleday subfamily Euselasiinae 10. 246 Genus Stiboges Genus Stiboges Butler 54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 [Varshney and Chanda 1971 (1974), Indian Mus. Bull. 6 (1): p. 51]. Unfortunately the situation has not altered as yet. In the absence of any revisionary study on the Indian Nymphalidae, I have opted for outside sour- ces for the present revision, though I may frankly admit my limitations. Corbet & Pendlebury’s THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE MALAY PENINSULA (1956, 2nd ed.) and its latest revision by J.N. Eliot (1978, 3rd ed.) have been consulted extensively, the BUT- TERFLIES OF japan by Kawazoe and Wakabayashi (1980, revised ed.), and encyclopedia of the but- TERFLYWORLD by Smart (1985) were found helpful in many cases. Hemming (1967, Bull. Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Ent.y Suppl. 9) has been followed for generic information. Through the courtesy of Lt. Col. J.N. Eliot I got a copy of his monograph on Neptini (Eliot 1969, ibid. 15) which proved indispensable. However, I could not get D’Abrera’s butterflies of the oriental region Part 2. There are a large number of changes in the names of taxa of this family from that given in Wynter-Blyth’s book (see Table 10). I pointed out some of these changes in an earlier work dealing with the common and scientific names of Indian but- terflies (1983, Index Rhopalocera Indica - Part II. Rec. Zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper 47). Notes on the important changes in Table 10 are as follows: Generic name Eriboea Huebner is now treated as a synonym of Charaxes on subjective taxonomic basis; as such the former genus is given its next valid oldest name Polyura Billberg. One species of it, schreiberi , has been changed to schreiber in Corbet and Pendlebury (1978), and I could not see the original publication of Godart. C. polyxena (Cramer) is preoccupied. Genus Agatasa has been formed to receive Nymphalis calydonia Hewitson, which is said to be the most beautiful butterfly by some authors. Prothoe franckii was first corrected to JranckV in their 2nd edition, and then to franck' in the 3rd edition of their book by Corbet & Pendlebury. Smart (1985) has also used the latter spelling, but Hemming (1967) shows that Huebner 1824 proposed genus Prothoe with a new species franckii (monotypy). I feel that the original spelling should be preserved as per Articles 31-32 of the In- ternational CODE OF ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLA- TURE (1985, 3rd edition). Among the additional species of Charaxinae from the Indian region, not reported by Wynter-Blyth, I have come across two: Charaxes kahruba Moore, and Prothoe regalis But- ler from Assam. Genus Eulaceura is reportedly monotypic and Malaysian. Its type-species osteria Westwood looks similar to Limenitis dudu. The taxonomic status of E. manipurensis Tytler (very rare) is not known. Genus Apatura is divided into some subgenera (Smart 1985), which some other authors have used in the generic position, e.g. Rohana parisatis , of which the Indian subspecies is camiba Moore (vide Peile 1937). Apatura chevana has been synonymised with A. leechi in Smart (l.c.). The forms or races of any species given in Wynter-Blyth have been generally kept out of the present revision, but when any form is found established as a species group taxon, it has been included, e.g. Euripus nyc- telius. Idrusia Corbet 1943 is synonym of Euripus. Smart (1985) has treated Diagora as a subgenus of Hestina , but I stick to Wynter-Blyth. Genera Calinaga and Penthema have been as- signed to Family Satyridae, instead of Nymphalidae, by Smart (1985). He says that formerly these but- terflies (of Calinaginae) were considered allied to the Apaturinae (Nym.) and in some respects they fall between the two families. Euthalia is a large and characteristic genus of Indo- Oriental Nymphalids. Now some of its species are assigned to other genera. The name Symphaedra ought to be revived, the type-species of which is a synonym of Euthalia nais. It is monobasic and con- fined to peninsular India. Some other species of Euthalia are now put in Tanaecia Butler/Cynitia Snellen. Corbet & Pendlebury (1956) say that T. julii is recorded from Malaya and Sumatra only, but the Malayan subspecies is T. julii bougainvillei Corbet. The author of julii is Lesson who described Nymula julii in a publication of Bougainville 1837. Later Moore 1897 described a new genus Haramba , the type-species of which is a synonym of T. julii. In my INDEX RHOPALOCERA INDICA - Part II (1983 : p. 17) Euthalia atala is an error for E. patala (Kollar). E. garuda is now treated as E. aconthea garuda (Moore), which should not be confused with another subspecies E. aconthea gurda (Fruhstorfer) that does not occur in the Indian region. Euthalia phemius (Doubleday) is sometimes credited to REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR BUTTERFLY TAXA 55 Doubleday and Hewitson jointly. This is incorrect. Doubleday 1848 figured and proposed this species in a new genus Itanus , but this was however placed in Adolias , when the text of phemius was ‘written’ by Westwood 1850. Corbet & Pendlebury (1978) have retained it in Euthalia. E. evalina in Wynter- Blyth is an error for evelina , now put in Dophla , and its Indian subspecies is laudabilis Swinhoe. Corbet & Pendlebury (1956) report that£. tnonina (F.) oc- curs from Sikkim to Indo-China; and E. aconthea (Cramer) is widely distributed in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) eastwards; both these species are not given in Wynter- Blyth. E. recta and E. teuta are referred to Bassarona , while some other Euthalia species treated under Adolias by Wynter-Blyth are now referred to Lexias, since in the past Oriental species were erroneously placed in Adolias due to a mistake over its type-species. Hemming (1967) shows that Acontia doubledaii Westwood 1848, which is the type- species of genus Neurosigma , was mistakenly sunk as a homonym and under Article 59 (c) of I.C.Z.N. it is permanently invalid. The replacement name siva Westwood 1850 is applicable in its place. Genus Limenitis is a large group of species, in which Kawazoe & Wakabayashi (1980) and Smart (1985) have recognised several subgenera. Here these are treated in generic rank. I took this stand since as early as Bingham (1905, fauna of BRITISH INDIA - BUTTERFLIES, 1st ed., Vol. 1) has used Auzakia in generic rank. Accordingly, a number of Limenitis species are transferred as follows: aus- tenia and danava to Auzakia , procris to Moduza , daraxa to Sumalia , and zayla and dudu to Parasar- pa. For procris Corbet & Pendlebury (1956) also opined that it merits a separate genus. Further, in their 1978 edition they say that Limenitis should not be used for any Oriental species. I am convinced that this group requires more studies, e.g. to ascertain the correct genus of zulema Doubleday and trivena Moore. Smart (l.c.) put the last species in Limenitis , the genus which he considers Holarctic and Orien- tal. Pantoporia of Wynter-Blyth and auctorum has been replaced with Parathyma by many workers. The true Pantoporia is a Neptid genus (see SI. No. 95-99 in Table 10). The Limenitid Pantoporia Auct. has been replaced with Parathyma in Peile (1937), Corbet & Pendlebury (1956), Hemming (1967) etc. I have also used Parathyma (Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper 31 and 47). However, Corbet & Pendlebury (1978) and Kawazoe & Wakabayashi (1980) have shown most species of Limenitid Pan- toporia in Athyma , which is followed here. A. nefte is Malaysian, and A. nefte inara Doubleday is the In- dian subspecies. Incidentally it may be noted that A. jina Moore is the type-species of genus Tharasia Moore 1898. For Neptis , I have followed Eliot (1969) ex- clusively. Table 10 shows that some Neptis species are now placed under Phaedyma, Lasippa and Pan- toporia. Wynter-Blyth has not given the name of respective author with any species of Neptis. These have been provided here. Neptis soma of Evans (1932, IDENTIHCATIONOFINDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 2nd ed.) and Wynter-Blyth is TV. nata , while true TV. soma is what Wynter-Blyth and others called TV. yerburyi ( vide Eliot 1969: p. 68). A number of subspecies are reported in each case from our region. Other notable changes are : vikasi to pseudovikasi , anjana to nashona , heliodore to tiga camboja , and paona to bieti paona. True antilope is from China; the species of our region is probably sylvana. TV. hordonia is now well known to represent two species: P. hor- donia (Stoll) and sandaka (Butler), both of which occur from South India to Indo-China, the former in Sri Lanka also. Corbet & Pendlebury (1978) state that the In- dian leaf butterfly is Kallima paralekta (Horsfield). We have been calling it as K. inachus (Boisduval). Both have the upper side of wings alike, but the former is Malaysian and the latter Indian in distribu- tion. I retain the latter. Precis is another genus of common butterflies represented in our region. Recent authors divide it into two subgenera: Precis and Junonia. According to Corbet & Pendlebury’s classification, iphita and hedonia belong to Precis and all the rest to Junonia. But Smart states that Precis has Old World species, mostly Ethiopian, while Junonia has American species. Due to these contrasting views I have not adopted these subgenera in Table 10. P. orithyia is corrected to orithya , following Seitz (1927, THE MACROLEPIDOPTERA OF THE WORLD, 9: p. 522), though I feel that oritya , the original spelling given by Linnaeus 1758 should have been preferable. P. 56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 hierta Fabricius 1798 is preoccupied by the names lintingensis Osbeck 1765, and oinone Cramer 1775. However, these names are nomina oblita, and sup- pressed vide Opinion No. 842 of 1968 of the ICZN. The generic nam zDoleschallia has been erroneous- ly cited as Dolleschallia in Corbet and Pendlebury (1978). V anessa is yet another large genus found in our region, many species of which are now shifted to other genera. Among the species listed by Wynter- Blyth, indica and atalanta are still referable to it; cardui to Cynthia ; canace to Kaniska\ cashmirien- sis, urticae and ladakensis to Aglais ; and xan- thomelas , polychloros and antiopa to Nymphalis. Some authors have put egea under Polygonia , though it is reportedly Holarctic in distribution. I have followed Kawazoe and Wakabayashi (1980) for the above assignments. Regarding Cynthia car- dui my earlier note (1977, Newsl. zool. Surv. India 3 (1): 13) may be seen. Aglais cashmiriensis is spelt as 1 kashmir ensis' in Kawazoe and Wakabayashi, and as ' caschmirensis’ in Smart. I could not see the original publication. According to Corbet and Pendlebury (1978) Symbrenthia hippo clus is found in the Papuan subregion of the Oriental Region, and S. lilaea occurs from N. India and China to Neomalaya. Genus Argynnis Fabricius is mostly Holarctic and only partially Oriental. The Indian species belonging to it are presently placed in various other genera, namely Argyreus , Argyronome, Childrena , Issoria , Fabriciana etc. Although not so treated here, Argynnis kamala is the type-species of genus Protodryas Reuss 1928. Boloria pales Schiffer- mueller has been reported from Sri Lanka by Wood- house (1949, BUTTERFLY FAUNA of ceylon) as Ar- gynnis pales , but not included by Wynter-Blyth. Smart (1985) reports B. pales generator juldussica Wagner from India. Generic name Melilaea in Hem- ming (1967 : p. 286) is an error for Melitaea Fabricius. Corbet and Pendlebury (1978) hint that M. robertsi Butler is a synonym of Tanaecia aruna (C. & R. Felder). The name Atella Doubleday as given in Wynter-Blyth ’s book, has long been substituted with Phalanta Horsfield, by many workers including Peile (1937, l.c.). Name Issoria has been used for two different genera; the true Issoria is Argynnid (see SI. No. 134), while the false Issoria of authors has been renamed as Vagrans by Hemming 1934. Corbet and Pendlebury (1978) made a mistake by citing ' Vagrans lathonia ’ and also stating that Vagrans was formerly incorrectly known as Issoria Huebner. While their latter statement is correct, the former combination is wrong, as they have changed true Issoria there. Table 10 can show this anomaly. The above authors further state that Vagrans egista (Cramer) is distributed from India as far as Pacific Is. In that light, I. sinha (Kollar) may probably be a synonym of V egista , but it requires confirmation. Name Cynthia is also misused for two genera; the true Cynthia is now retained for the cosmopolitan ‘Painted Lady’ butterfly (SI. No. 116), while the false Cynthia of authors is presently replaced with Vindula Hemming 1934. Wynter-Blyth has reported three species of Cirrochroa from India : thais, aoris and thyche. A fourth species C. mithila Moore was pointed out by me (1983, l.c.: p. 44). Corbet and Pendlebury (1978) report another species C. orissa orissa C. and R. Felder from Burma eastwards. According to Corbet & Pendlebury (1956) Cethosia hypsea Doubleday is a common species occurring in S. Burma onwards to Malaysia. Subfamily name Biblidinae (or Biblinae sensu Smart 1985) is based on type-genus Biblis (not found in Indian region) and not on Biblia, which is an in- correct subsequent spelling of Byblia Huebner. Generic name Ergolis Boisduval 1836 has lost to prior name Ariadne Horsfield 1929, with which both species of Indian region ariadne and merione form combination. Among the additional taxa, not reported by Wynter-Blyth, are two genera: Yoma Doherty and Paduca Moore. Corbet and Pendlebury (1956) report Yoma sabina (Cramer) from Burma eastwards. The range of Paduca is from Burma to Malaysia and it is represented by P. fasciata (C. & R. Felder) in S. Burma. Classification Before ending this series, I consider it would be useful to give a revised classification of but- terflies as applicable to our region. This has been fol- lowed in a modified way from Corbet and Pendlebury (1978, l.c. revised 3rd ed.) and tabulated in Tables lOAand 10B. REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR BUTTERFLY TAKA 57 Table 10 A CLASSIFICATION UP TO FAMILIES Superfamily Family I. Papilionoidea 1. Papilionidae 2. Pieridae 3. Danaidae 4. Satyridae 5. Nymphalidae 6. Libytheidae 7. Stygidae * 8. Riodinidae 9. Lycaenidae II. Hesperioidea 1. Hesperiidae 2. Megathymidae * * Not represented in Indian region Table 10 B CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN FAMILIES UP TO SUBFAMILIES Family Total No. of Subfamilies subfamilies Papilionidae 3 Papilioninae, Pamasiinae, Basoniinae Pieridae 4 Pierinae, Coliadinae, Dismorphiinae, Pseudopontiinae Danaidae 2 Danainae, Ithomiinae Satyridae 4 Satyrinae, Amathusiinae, Morphinae, Brassolinae Nymphalidae 1 1 Nymphalinae, Biblidinae, Argynninae, Helioconiinae, Marpesiinae, Limenitidinae, Pseudergolinae, Apaturinae, Charaxinae, Calinaginae, Acraeinae Libytheidae - - Riodinidae 3 Riodininae, Hamearinae, Euselasiinae Lycaenidae 7 Lycaeninae, Poritiinae, Liphyrinae, Miletinae, Polyommatinae, Theclinae, Curetinae, Hesperiidae 3 Hesperiinae, Coeliadinae, Pyrginae Acknowledgements I initiated this study on 25 December 1972 and continued over the years on account of the com- ments and inspiration received from various cor- respondents. I may particularly thank the following for their kind interest in my work and/or sending literature : Mr J.C. Daniel, BNHS, Bombay; (Late) Mr. D.G. Sevastopulo, Mombasa; Lt. Col. J.N. Eliot, Taunton, Somerset; M/s E.W. Classey Ltd., Faringdon, Berks. Mr. D.P. Wijesinghe, Colombo; Prof. Dr. S. Takagi, Sapporo; Prof. Dr. T.C. Majupuria, Kathmandu; and M/s Biswanath Nandi and I.J. Gupta, ZSI, Calcutta. Besides, I am grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, for providing facilities. Addendum , After about an year of submitting the manuscript, I have been able to consult the monumental work of D’Abrera, B. (1985, BUT- TERFLIES OF THE ORIENTAL REGION Part II Nym- phalidae, Satyridae & Amathusidae. Hill House, Melbourne : 534 pp.). He has covered most of the taxa of our region, with exceptions left such as genus Melitaea and many species of Vanessa complex. The names used by him in most cases are confirmative to my observations given above. However, since he has given subspecies names, an addendum has be- come necessary to point out wherever single or in come cases two subspecies names alone are ap- plicable to our region, along with some other revisionary names for Nymphalidae. These are presented below (Table 10C). D’Abrera has not used parenthesis on author’s name in eligible cases. Un- fortunately I have not been able to correct it in all cases, and a discussion on the reasons for these chan- ges in names is also not possible in this addendum. 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 10 NYMPHALIDAE Page No. For Correct subfamily Charaxinae L 143 Genus Charaxes Genus Charaxes Ochsenheimer 2. 143-151 Genus Eriboea Genus Polyura Billberg 3. 144 Charaxes polyxena (Cramer) Charaxes bernardus (F.) 4. 146 Charaxes fabius Charaxes fabius cerynthus (Fabridus) Fruhstorfer 5. 147 Eriboea schreiberi (Godart) Polyura schreiber (Godart) 6. 150 Eriboea moorei (Distant) Polyura moori (Distant) 7. 151 Genus P rot hoe Genus Prothoe Huebner 8. 151 P rot hoe franc kii Godart Prothoe franck (Godart) 9. 151 Prothoe calydonia Agatasa calydonia (Hewitson) Subfamily Apaturinae 10. 152 Genus Helcyra Genus Helcyra C. Felder 11. 152 Helcyra hemina Hewitson [probably] Helcyra superba f. hemina Hewitson 12. 152 Genus Eulaceura Genus Eulaceura Butler 13. 152 Genus Dilipa Genus Dilipa Moore 14. 153 Genus Apatura Genus Apatura F. 15. 154 Apatura sordida Moore Chitoria sordida (Moore) 16. 155 Aatura ulupi (Doherty) Chitoria ulupi (Doherty) 17. 155 Apatura chevana (Moore) Apatura leechi Moore 18. 155 Apatura parisatis Rohana parisatis Westwood (Westwood) 19. 156 Genus Herona Genus Herona Doubleday 20. 156 Genus Sephisa Genus Sephisa Moore 21. 157 Genus Euripus Genus Euripus Doubleday 22. 158 Euripus halitherses Euripus nyctelius female f. nyctelius Doubleday 23. 159 Genus Diagora Genus Diagora Snellen 24. 159 Diagora nicevillei Moore Diagora nicevillei (Moore) 25. 160 Genus Hestina Genus Hestina Westwood 26. 160 Genus Sasakia Genus Sasakia Moore 27. 160 Sasakia funebris (Leach) Sasakia funebris (Leech) Subfamily Calinaginae 28. 160 Genus Calinaga Genus Calinaga Moore 29. 161 Genus Penthema Genus Penthema Doubleday Subfamily Pseudergolinae 30. 162 Genus Dichorragia Genus Dichorragia Butler 31. 162 Dichorragia Dichorragia nesimachus nesimachus Boisduval (Boisduval) Page No. For Correct 32. 162 Genus Stibochiona Genus Stibochiona Butler 33. 162 Stibochiona nicea Stibochiona nicea (Gray) (G.R. Gray) subfamily Limenitidinae 34. 162 Genus Eulhalia Genus Euthalia Huebner 35. 163 Euthalia lepidea (Butler) Tanaecia lepidea (Butler) 36. 163 Euthalia cocytus Tanaecia cocytus (F.) 37. 164 Euthalia julii Cynitia julii (Lesson) 38. 167 Euthalia garuda (Moore) Euthalia aconthea garuda (Moore) 39. 172 Euthalia evalina (Stoll) Dophla evelina (Stoll) 40. 173 Euthalia nais (Forster) Symphaedra nais (Forster) 41. 173 Euthalia recta (de Niceville) Bassarona recta (de Niceville) 42. 173 Euthalia teuta Bassarona teuta (Doubleday) 43. 174-175 Genus Adolias [Huebner] Genus Lexias Boisduval 44. 175 Genus Parthenos Genus Parthenos Huebner 45. 175 Parthenos sylvia Cramer Parthenos sylvia (Cramer) 46. 176 Genus Lebedea Genus Lebadea C. Felder 47. 176 Genus Neurosigma Genus Neurosigma Butler 48. 176 Neurosigma doubledayi (Westwood) Neurosigma siva 49. 177 Genus Abrota Genus Abrota Moore 50. 177 Genus Limenitis Genus Limenitis F. 51. 178 Limenitis austenia (Moore) Auzakia austenia (Moore) 52. 178 Limenitis danava Moore Auzakia danava (Moore) 53. 179 Limenitis zayla Doubleday Parasarpa zayla (Doubleday) 54. 179 Limenitis daraxa Doubleday Sumalia daraxa (Doubleday) 55. 179 Limenitis dudu Westwood Parasarpa dudu (Westwood) 56. 180 Limenitis procris (Cramer) Moduza procris (Cramer) 57. 183 Genus Pantoporia [Auct.] Genus Athyma Westwood 58. 184 Pantoporia nefte (Cramer) Athyma nefte inara Doubleday 59. 184 Pantoporia cama (Moore) Athyma cama Moore 60. 185 Pantoporia selenophora (Kollar) Athyma selenophora (Kollar) 61. 185 Pantoporia zeroca (Moore) Athyma zeroca (Moore) 62. 186 Pantoporia ranga (Moore) Athyma ranga Moore 63. 187 Pantoporia opalina Athyma opalina (Kollar) (Kollar) REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR BUTTERFLY TAKA 59 Page No. For Correct Page No. For Correct 64. 187 Pantoporia asura Athyma asura Moore 104. 200 Chersonesia rahria Chersonesia rahria (Moore) (Moore) Moore 65 187 Pantoporia perius (Linnaeus) Pantoporia reta (Moore) Athyma perius (L.) Subfamily Pseudergolinae 66. 188 Athyma reta Moore 105. 200 Genus Pseudergolis Genus Pseudergoli C. & R. Felder 67. 188 Pantoporia kanwa Athyma kanwa Moore Subfamily Nymphaeinae (Moore) 106. 200 Genus Hypolimnas Genus Hypolimnas Huebner 68. 188 Pantoporia pravara Athyma pravara Moore 107. 203 Genus Rhinopalpa Genus Rhinopalpa (Moore) C. & R. Felder 69. 188 Pantoporia larymna Athyma larymna 108. 203 Genus Doleschallia Genus Doleschallia (Doubleday) (Doubleday) C.&R. Felder 70. 189 Pantoporia jina Athyma jina Moore 109. 203 Genus Kallima Genus Kallima Doubleday 71. 189 Genus Neptis Genus Neptis F. 110. 204 Kallima philarchus Kallima horsfieldi 72. 190 Neptis columella Phaedyma columella (Westwood) philarchus (Westwood) (Cramer) 111. 205 Kallima alompra [probably] Kallima spiridiva 73. 190 Neptis jumbah Nept is jumbah Moore Moore f. alompra Moore 74. 190 Neptis magadha Neptis magadha C. & R. 112. 205 Genus Precis Genus Precis Huebner 75. Felder 113. 206 Precis orithyia Precis orithya (L.) 190 Neptis mahendra Neptis mahendra Moore (Linnaeus) 76. 190 Neptis hylas Neptis hylas (L.) 114. 208 Precis atlites Precis atlites (L.) 77. 191 Neptis soma Neptis nata Moore (Johanssen) 78. 191 Neptis nandina Neptis nata Moore 115. 209 Genus Vanessa Genus Vanessa F. 79. 191 Neptis yerburyi Neptis soma Moore 116. 210 Vanessa cardui Cynthia cardui (L.) 80. 194 Neptis sankara Neptis sankara (Kollar) (Linnaeus) 81. 194 Neptis vikasi Neptis pseudovikasi (Moore) 117. 212 Vanessa atalanta Vanessa atalanta (L.) 82. 194 Neptis harita Neptis harita harita Moore Linnaeus 83. 194 Neptis cartica Neptis cartica Moore 118. 213 Vanessa canace Kaniska canace (L.) 84. 194 Neptis anjana Neptis nashona nashona (Johanssen) 85. Swinhoe 119. 213 Vanessa egea Polygonia egea (Cramer) 194 Neptis ananta Neptis dnanta Moore (Cramer) 86. 195 Neptis miah Neptis miah Moore 120. 214 Vanessa Aglais cashmiriensis 87. 195 Neptis manasa Neptis manasa manasa cashmiriensis Kollar (Kollar) Moore 121. 215 Vanessa urticae Aglais urticae (L.) 88. 195 Neptis aspasia Phaedyma aspasia (Leech) (Linnaeus) 89. 195 Neptis nycteus Neptis nycteus de Niceville 122. 215 Vanessa ladakensis Aglais ladakensis Moore 90. 195 Neptis narayana Neptis narayana Moore Moore 91. 195 Neptis radha Neptis radha Moore 123. 216 Vanessa Nymphalis xanthomelaena 92. 195 Neptis zaida Neptis zaida Westwood xanthomelas (Denis & Schiffermuller) 93. 195 Neptis viraja Lasippa viraja (Moore) (Denis & Schiffermueller) 94. 195 Neptis heliodore Lasippa tiga camboja 124. 216 Vanessa polychloros Nymphalis polychloros (L.) 95. (Moore) (Linnaeus) 195 Neptis paraka Pantoporia paraka paraka 125. 217 Vanessa antiopa Nymphalis antiopa (L.) 195 (Butler) (Linnaeus) 96. Neptis hordonia Pantoporia hordonia (Stoll) 126. 217 Genus Arose hnia Genus Araschnia Huebner 97. 198 Neptis dindinga Pantoporia dindinga (Butler) 127. 217 Genus Symbrenthia Genus Symbrenthia Huebner 98. 198 Neptis aurelia Pantoporia aurelia 128. 217 Symbrenthia Symbrenthia lilaea 99. 198 (Staudinger) hippoclus (Hewitson) Neptis paona Pantoporia bieti paona (Tytler) [probably] Neptis sylvana Oberthur de Niceville 100. 198 Neptis antilope 129. 219 Subfamily Argynninae Genus Argynnis Genus Argynnis F. 101. 198 Neptis cydippe Neptis cydippe kirbariensis 130. 220 Argynnis hyperbius Argyreus hyperbius (L.) Tytler 131. 221 (Johanssen) Argynnis childreni Childrena childreni (Gray) Subfamily Marpesknae (Cyrestiinae) Gray 102. 198 Genus Cyrestis Genus Cyrestis Boisduval 132. 221 Argynnis kamala Fabriciana kamala (Moore) 103. 199 Genus Chersonesia Genus Chersonesia Distant Moore 60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Page No. For Correct Page No. For Correct 133. 222 Argynnis laodice Argyronome laodice (Pallas) 143. 227 Genus Cynthia Genus Vindula Hemming 134. 222 (Pallas) Argynnis lathonia Issoria lathonia (L.) 144. 227 (Auct.) Cynthia erota Vindula erota (F.) 135. 223 (Linnaeus) Argynnis jerdoni Clossiana jerdoni (Lang) 145. 227 (Fabricius) Genus Cirrochroa Genus Cirrochroa 136. 223 Lang Genus Melitaea Genus Melitaea F. 146. 228 Doubleday Cirrochroa tyche Cirrochroa tyche 137. 223 Melitaea trivia Melitaea trivia Felder (C. & R. Felder) 138. 224-225 Schiff Genus Atella Schiffermueller Genus Phalanta Horsfield 147. 229 Subfamily Heliconiinae Genus Cethosia Genus Cethosia F. 139. 225 (Doubleday) Atella alcippe Phalanta alcippe (Stoll) Subfamily Biblidinae (Biblinae) 140. 226 (Cramer) Genus Cupha Genus Cupha Billberg 148. 231 Genus Byblia 149. 23 1-232 Genus Ergolis Genus Byblia Huebner Genus Ariadne Horsfield 141. 142. 226 226 Genus Issoria [Auct.] Issoria sinha (Kollar) Genus Vagrans Hemming Vagrans egista (Cramer) 150. 231 [Boisduval] Ergolis ariadne (Johannsen) Ariadne ariadne (L.) Table 10C NY MPHALID AE (SUPLLEMENT) SI. No. in Page No. For Correct Table 10 inW-B 3a 144 Charaxes polyxena race psaphon Charaxes psaphon Westwood 3b 144 -do- race itnna Charaxes psaphon imna Butler 3c 144 -do- races hemana , hierax and male f. hindia Charaxes bernardus hierax Felder 3d 146 Charaxes durnfordi Charaxes durnfordi nicholii Distant Grose-Smith 4 146 Charaxes fabius (Fabr.) Charaxes solon Fabricius (Fabr.) 5 147 Eriboea schreiberi (Godart) (i) Polyura schreiber ward'd Moore (ii) Polyuraschreiber assamensis Rothschild 6 150 Eriboea moorei Distant Polyura moori sandakanus (Distant) Fruhstorfer 6a 150 Eriboea narcaea (Hewitson) Polyura narcaeus aborica Evans 11 Helcyra superbaf. hemina Hewitson Helcyra hemina Hewitson 17 Apatura leechi Moore Apatura chevana (Moore) 18a 156 Apatura parvata Moore Rohana parvata (Moore) 22 158 Euripus halitherses Doubleday Euripus nyctelius Doubleday 37 164 Euthalia julii (Bougainville) Tanaecia julii appiades Menetries 37a 164 Euthalia jahnu (Moore) Tanaecia jahnu Moore 37b 165 Euthalia kesava (Moore) Euthalia monina kesava (Moore) 38 167 Euthalia garuda Moore Euthalia aconthea Cramer (Moore) 38a 167 Euthalia jama (Felder) Euthalia alp he da jama (Felder) Fruhstorfer 38b 169-171 Euthalia [spp.] Bassarona (spp.) 39a 172 Euthalia evalina race evalina Dophla evelina evelina race evalina (Stoll) 39b 172 -do- race laudibilis Dophla evelina laudabilis Swinhoe 39c 172 -do- race derma Dophla evelina derma Kollar 51 178 Limenitis austenia (Moore) Bhagadatta austenia Moore 56a 181 Limenitis zulema Doubleday Sumalia zulema Doubleday & Hewitson 56b 181 Limenitis trivena [This essentially Palaearctic Moore species is a frequent visitor in N. India; no change in name] 66 188 Pantoporiareta (Moore) Athyma retamoorei Fruhstorfer 67 188 Pantoporiakanwa (Moore) Athyrna kanwaphorkys Fruhstorfer 68 188 Pantoporia pravara (Moore) Athyma pravara acutipennis Fruhstorfer 69 188 Pantoporia larymna (Doubleday) Athyma larymna siamensis Fruhstorfer 77 191 Neptis soma Neptis nata adipala Moore REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR BUTTERFLY TAKA 61 SI. No. in Page No. For Correct Table 10 inW-B 79 191 Neptis yerburyi Neptis yerburii pandoces Butler 88 195 Neptis aspasia Phaedyma aspasia falda Eliot 102a 199 Cyrestis codes Cyrestis codes natta Swinhoe 104 200 Chersonesiarahria Moore [probably] Chersonesia intermedia Martin 107a 203 Rhinopalpa polynice (Cramer) Rhinopalpa polynice birmana Fruhstorfer 139 225 Atella alcippe (Cramer) (i) Phalanta alcippe alcippoides Moore (ii) Phalanta alcippe ceylonica Manders 142 226 Issoria sinha Vagrans egista sinha (Kollar) (Kollar) 146 228 Cirrochroa tyche Felder Cirrochroa tyche mithila Moore 147a 249 Cethosia nietneri race nietneri Cethosia nietneri nietneri Felder 147b 249 -do- race mahratta Cethosia nietneri mahratta Moore Certain names given in D’Abrera (1985) have not been followed by me. These are: Hypolimnas missipus in place of H. misippus , Vanessa cardui in place of Cynthia cardui, Argynnis hyperbius in place of Argyreus hyperbiusf and generic name Junonia in place of Precis. I have followed Smart (1985) for these, except C. cardui. D’Abrera has cited Byblia ilithyia as ‘alithyia’ in his text, which is erroneous, as I have checked the original work of Drury 1773 where it is ‘ilithyia’. 5 MAMMALS OF COX’S BAZAR FOREST DIVISION (SOUTH) BANGLADESH, WITH NOTES ON THEIR STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION1 S.MA. Rashid, Anizuzzaman Khan and M. Ali Reza Khan2 (With two text-figures) A study was made in the Cox’s Bazar Forest Division (South) to gather information on the mammals of that area from May 1982 to December 1983. A total of 1848 man hours were spent in the field. From the study it was revealed that 53 mammalian species occur in this area. They were represented by Order Insectivora (2 species), Order Chirop- tera (10 species), Order Primates (8 species). Order Pholidota (1 species), Order Carnivora (18 species), Order Probos- cidea (1 species), Order Arctodactyla (3 species), Order Rodentia (9 species) and Order Cetacea (1 species). Introduction Cox’s Bazar Forest Division (South) (CB), which ranges from Cox’s Bazar to Teknaf (the southern- most part of the country) supports a large area of evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. These forests are the habitat of a large number of wild flora and fauna. No detailed study on the mammalian fauna of this area is available in the literature, so the present study was undertaken to explore the mammalian fauna of this area. Some work has been done on the primates and other wildlife Khan (1979, 1980, 1981, 1982a, b/, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987), Khan and Ahsan (1981), Khan and Wahab (1983) and on elephants (Khan 1980b). The present paper is a result of a 20 month study of the area from May, 1982 to December, 1983 with 1848 hours of field observation. Study Area Bangladesh lies between 20°34’to 26°38’N and 88°01’ to 92°40’E approx., having an area of about 144,054 sq.km. The present study area lies between Cox’s Bazar township and the Teknaf township, within the Cox’s Bazar Forest (South) Division of the Government Forest Department. The study area covers an area of 43,197 hectares of which 35,715 hectares is likely to support reserved forests. The quantity of natural forests may not exceed 10,000 hectares (Khan et al. 1983). The remaining areas are under a mono-culture of teak ( Tectona grandis, newly introduced mulberry (Morus sp.) and Eucalyptus sp. During the last half of the decade, ^Accepted department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh. Present address: Curator, Al-Ain Zoo & Aquarium, P.O. Box: 1204, Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E. over 5000 hectares of reserved forests have been handed over to the oil-palm ( Elaeis guinaensis) project for plantations. The area under study com- prised evergreen, semi-evergreen and plantations with undulating hillocks of varying heights ranging from 5 m to 200 m above mean sea level and tidal mudflats supporting mangrove forests along the banks of the international Naaf river and the islands. The temperature is more or less uniform throughout the year. The average maximum temperature is c. 60°C and the minimum is c. 49°C. Average humidity and annual rainfall is about 81.2% and 4060 mm respectively (Anon. 1969). Habitat The habitat of the mammals of Teknaf Peninsula, CB, comprises (a) evergreen forests, (b) semi- evergreen forests, (c) plantations and (d) mangrove forests, (a), (b) and (a) are natural, while the planta- tions are human raised. The floristics of the tropical wet evergreen forests are the chapalish Artocarpus chaplasha , telsur Hopea odorata chundul Tetrameles nudiflora , pitraj Amoora wallichi , uriam Mangifera longipes, civit Swintonia floribunda, toon (Toona ciliata) and jam ( Syzygium spp.), etc. These plants were prevalent in CB prior to 1947 or so, that is before the introduction of the clearfelling operations in this Forest Division. Now-a-days this type is found mostly in the deep valleys or in localities shaded by lofty trees where there is plen- tiful supply of water, as in the north sub-division of CB. The tropical semi- or mixed-evergreen forest is the general forest type of the Teknaf Peninsula. It is a dense, many storyed forest of tall trees ranging from 20 m to 45 m, in which the evergreen species predominate in the second or lower canopy. The MAMMALS OF COX’S BAZAR, BANGLADESH 63 64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 LIST OF THE MAMMALS OF COX’S BAZAR FOREST DIVISION (SOUTH) ORDER: INSECTIVORA Family: Tupaiidae 1. Tupaia glis Malayan tree shrew R, EG. Family: Sorocidae 2. Suncus murinus grey musk shrew C,WD ORDER: CH1ROPTERA Family: Pteropidae 3. Pteropus giganteus flying fox C, WD 4. Rousettus leschenaultii fulvous fruit bat C, WD 5. Cynopterus sphinx short-nosed fruit bat C, WD Family: Emballonuridae 6. Taphozous saccolaimus pouch-bearing sheath-tailed bat UC. WD Family: Megadermetidae 7. Megaderma lyra false vampire C, WD Family: Rhinolophidae 8. Rhinolophus subbadins horse-shoe bat C,WD Family: Vespertilionidae 9 Pipistrellus coromandra Indian pipistrelle VC, F 10 Hesperoptenus tickelli Tickell’s bat VC, F 11 Scotophilus temmincki lesser yellow bat R, F 12 Kerivoula papillosa painted bat R, F ORDER: PRIMATES Family: Lorisidae 13 Nycticebus coucang slow loris U C, F Family: Cercopithecidae, Subfamily: Cercopithecinae 14 Macaca nemestrina pig -tailed macaque C, F (not south of Harikhola 15 Macaca fascicularis crab-eating macaque UC, M 16 Macaca assamensis Assamese macaque R,F 17 Macaca mulatta rhesus macaque C, WD Subfamily: Colobinae 18 Presbytis phayrei Phayre’s leaf monkey R, EG 19 Presbytis pileatus capped langur C, F Family: Hylobatidae 20 Hylobates hoolock hoolock gibbon R.F ORDER:PHOUDOTA Family: Manidae 21 Manis crassicaudata Indian pangolin UC, WD ORDER: CARNIVORA 22 Canis aureus jackal C, WD 23 Vulpes bengalensis Bengal fox C, WD 24. Cuon alpinus wild dog, dhole R, F Family: Ursidae 25 Selenarctos thibetanus Himalayan black bear R.F Family: Mustelidae 26. Lutra lutra common otter UC,T 27 Aonyx cinerea clawless otter UC, T 28 Arctonyx collaris hog badger R, F Family: Viverridae 29 Vivera zibetha large Indian civet C, WD 30 Viverricula indica small Indian civet C, WD 31 Paradoxurus hermaphroditus palm civet R, F 32 Arctictis binturong binturong R, F Family: Herpestidae 33. Herpestes auropunctatus small Indian mongoose C, WD 34. Herpestes edwardsi common mongoose C, WD 35. Herpestes urva crab-eating mongoose R, F Family : Felidae 36. Panthera pardus leopard UC, WD 37. Felis viverrina fishing cat C, WD 38. Felis chaus jungle cat C, WD 39. Felis temmincki golden cat R, WD ORDER : PROBOSCIDEA Family : Elephantidae 40. Elephas maximus Asian elephant UC, WD ORDER : ARCTODACTYLA Family : Bovidae, Subfamily : : Caprinae 41. Capricornis sumatraensis serow R, F Family : CerVidae 42. Muntiacus muntjac barking deer UC, WD MAMMALS OF COX'S BAZAR, BANGLADESH 65 Family : Suidae 43. Sus scrofa ORDER : RODENTTA wild boar VC, WD Family : Scuiridae 44. Petaurista petaurista large brown flying squirrel UC, EG 45. Ratufa bicolor Malayan giant squirrel C, WD 46. Calloscuirus pygerythrus hoary-bellied Himalayan squirrel C, WD Family : Muridae 47. Bandicota bengalensis Indian mole rat C, WD 48. Bandicota indica bandicoot rat C, WD 49. Mm booduga Indian field mouse C, WD 50. Mm mmculm house mouse C, WD 51. Millar dia meltada metad, soft-furred rat R, F Family : Hystricidae 52. Hystrix indica Indian porcupine C, WD Family : Cetacea 53. Peponocephala electra melon-headed dolphin C, mouth of river Naaf. Abbreviations: C- common, UC- uncommon, VC- very common, R- rare, WD- widely distributed. EG- evergreen forests, F- forests, M- mangrove forests, T- tidal mudflats commonest species are baitta garjan Dipterocarpus scaber , telya garjan D. turbinatus , dulya garjan D. alatus , koroi Albizzia procera , chuka koroi A. chinensis , chapalish, uriam, civil, shimul ( Bombax ceiba and B. insignae , bandarholla Duabangha grandiflora , narikeli Sterculia alata , etc. Under the top storey, there is a second storey which ranges from 20 m to 30 m in height, and has a variety of trees, evergreens on the whole predominating. Under the second storey there is another series of trees ranging from 7 m to 18 m in height which in- clude saplings of the first two storeys and adaliya Meliosma pinnata , naricha Moosa ramentacea , bor- mala Callicarpa arborea , goda Vitex glabrata , kes- toma andkechua ( Glochidion spp.), sheora ( Streblus asper ), jalpai ( Elacocarpus spp.) bela Semicarpus anacardium , etc. Bamboo occurs as undergrowth. The commonest species are muli Melocanna bam- busoides , mitenga ( Bambusa tulda , kaliserri Oxytenanthera auriculata, daloo ( Teinostachyum dullooa) and orah {Dendro calamus longispathus). As practically all the accessible areas of the Teknaf Peninsula were subjected to clear-felling or jhoom- (shifting cultivation) - virgin forest is seldom noticed in the peninsula. Due to the removal of vir- gin forest many areas are now covered with sungrass ( Impereta cylindrica), bhat ( Clerodendrum infor- tunatum),Lantana camara , assam lata (Eupatorium odoratum ), Melostoma spp., etc. The tidal mudflats and the islands of the river Naaf are inundated daily by the high tide. These areas also support the typical mangrove species. The dominant arekeora {Sonneratia apetala ), goria ( Candelia cau- dal), dhundal ( Xylocarpus obovata ), kankra ( Bruguiera gymnorhyza), hargoza {Acanthus ilicifolius ), bola {Hibiscus tiliaceus.), gol pata Nypa fruticans ), kewakanta {Pandanus odoratissimus ), batul {Sapium indicum ), hijol {Barringtonia racemosa), etc. The climbers included gila lata {En- tada pursaetha), Derris. spp., Sacrolobus globosus, etc., and among the grasses uri gash {Oryza coaretata), Pragmites kakra, Imperata cylindrica and Typha elephantina were prominent (Anon. 1969). Observations During the field work definite transect paths were followed, sometimes in a straight line and some- times in a zig zag way depending on the topography of the area. Special attention was given to areas which were densely covered by trees and where the visibility was less. The study of the area from May 1982 to December 1983 revealed the presence of 53 mammalian species. The complete list of the observed mammals along with their status and distribution is given in Table 1. A total of 1848 man -hours were spent in the field for observation. Status and Distribution As seen from the list, the mammalian species of the Cox’s Bazar Forest Division is represented by 9 or- ders and 25 families including 3 sub-families. Order: Insectivora: In this order Tupaia glis (Fam.: Tupaiidae) is very rare and is distributed only in the evergreen forested areas of Inoni and Rajar- chara whereas Suncus murinus (Fam.: Soricidae) is very common and is widely distributed throughout 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 the area. Tupaia glis used to visit Nhila rest house frequently in the late 1970s (Khan 1982). Order: Chiroptera: Among the species of the fami- ly Pteropidae, Pteropus giganteus is very common, whereas the other two species of the same family are fairly common. All the species are widely dis- tributed. Taphozous saccolaimus (Fam.: Embal- lonuridae). Megaderma lyra. (Fam.: Megader- matidae) and Rhinolopus subbadius (Fam: Rhinolopidae) are more or less common and are widely distributed. Among the members of the fami- ly Vespertilionidae, Pipistrellus coromandra and Hesperoptenus tickelli are very common and wide- ly distributed among the forested areas, whereas Scotophilus temmincki and Kerivoula papillosa are rarely met with, the later species restricted only to the forested areas. Order: Primates: Of the 10 non-human primates recorded so far from Bangladesh, excluding the con- troversial dsky leaf monkey, Presbytis obscurus , eight are found in the forested areas of the Teknaf Peninsula. Nyctibecus coucang (Fam. Lorisidae) has been found in the semi-evergreen and evergreen forests of Rajachara, Shilkhali, Roikeong, Inoni and Himchari with ope being caught in the Teknaf bazaar. It is uncommon. The family Cercopithecidae is represented by two sub-families. Macaca fas- cicularis. is distributed only in the tidal mudflats and islands of the river Naaf, which supports the mangrove vegetation. M . nemestrina. and M. mulat- ta are not so uncommon but M. nemestrina has not been observed south of Harikhola, Whykeong. M. assamensis occurs in small numbers with restricted distribution. Presbytis pileatus is common and can be seen occasionally feeding in the semi-evergreen forests. P. phayrei is very rare and was seen only twice at Noya Para, Madhya Nhila and at Patwatek, Inoni. They are restricted to dense evergreen forested areas. Hylobates hoolock (Fam: Hylobatidae) was observed in the evergreen forests of Inoni and on one occassion the local people in- formed us that they have seen it at Monkhali. Order: Pholidota: Manis crassicaudata is widely distributed but its population is steadily declining due to poaching. The tribals hunt it for the meat and others seek it for its scaly skin as there is a belief that it has aphrodisiac values. Order: Carnivora: Among the members of the family Canidae, Canis aureus, Vulpes bengalensis are quite common and widely distributed whereas he Cuon alpinus is rare and was only met twice, once at Madhya Nhila and again at Inoni. Selenarctos thibetanus. (Fam.: Ursidae) is also very rare and was met only once at Thainkhali-Monkhali border. Among the members of the family MustelidaeLwrra lutra and Aonyx cinerea were uncommon and dis- tributed along the tidal mudflats of the river Naaf, Arctonis collaris is quite rare and only two specimens were collected during the study period. One specimen was collected in December 1982 from Whykeong, from near human habitations and the other from the semi-evergreen forests of Kutupalong in November 1983. These are the first two specimens collected from Bangladesh. Khan (1985) has already reported it. Skins of both the specimens are deposited in the department of Zoology, Univer- sity of Dhaka. The family Viverridae is represented by four species, of which Viverra zibetha and Viverricula indica are common and distributed widely. On the other hand, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and Arctictis bin- turong are rare and are distributed in forested areas of Rajarchara and Inoni. The members of the fami- ly Herpestidae, Herpestes auropunctatus and//, ed- wardsi are common and widely distributed but //. urva is rare and was twice sighted at Thainkhali. It is restricted to forested areas. The family Felidae is represented by four species. Panthera pardus is un- common but widely distributed. It was sighted twice but pugmarks were seen throughout the forested areas and a number of reports of cattle-lifting by this species were recorded. Felis temmincki is very rare and was sighted at Dhumdhumia under Teknaf Beat. The other two species F. viverrina and F. chaus are common and widely distributed. Order: Proboscidea: Elephas maximus is uncom- mon but widely distributed. This animal is threatened with extinction from this area. A recent study has shown that there are about 110 individuals in this area. Apart from these there are also about 30 migratory elephants which come from the neigh- bouring hills of Burma during the winter months (Khan et. al 1983). Order: Arctodactyla: The hoofed mammals are the most threatened animals of this area, since they are under constant hunting pressure. Capricornis MAMMALS OF COX’S BAZAR, BANGLADESH 67 sumatraensis is very rare and was sighted only once in the deciduous forested areas of Madhya Nhila. This species is also on the verge of extinction from this area as well as from Bangladesh. Muntiacus muntjac (Fam.: Cervidae) is uncommon but widely distributed. Occassionally hunted by local people from various areas of the forests, this species is also decreasing at a steady rate and if poaching is not stopped the days are not far away when this species will be eliminated from the area. Sus scrofa is very common in this area and sometimes it creates havoc by destroying their crops. These are also hunted by the tribals and non-Muslims for meat. Order: Rodentia: Some variations were noted in the distribution of the family Sciuridae. Petaurista petaurista is uncommon and is found only in the dense forested areas. It was sighted at Rajarchara and Inoni. Ratufa bicolor is a common species of the area and is mostly seen in the semi-evergreen and deciduous forested areas. Calloscuirus pygerythrus. is also very common and is distributed, in the peripheral areas of the forests and is rarely seen in the evergreen forested areas. All the species of the family Muridae found in the area are quite common and widely distributed excepting Millar dia meltada which is rare and restricted to the forests only. Hystrix indica (Fam: Histricidae) is also common and widely distributed in the area but due to large scale killings by the local people in recent days, it is now seldom met. Moreover, it is considered as a menace in the oil-palm gardens where porcupines love to eat the soft root and stem of the plants. Order: Cetacea: Peponocephala electra (Fam.:Delphinidae) is common at the mouth of the river Naaf and sometimes they come upstream even up to Whykeong. Conclusions The occurrence of almost 50% percent of the total mammalian fauna of Bangladesh gives a good pic- ture of the forests and some easily demarcated forest ecological habitat. If proper management program- mes are taken with practical implementation of the conservation laws, this area will attract a lot of local and foreign tourists. Through wildlife tourism, the Government can the earn considerable foreign cur- rency provided infrastructure for giving some facilities to the tourists is improved. Acknowledgements We thank the WWF and the IUCN for financial sup- port. Thanks are due to the Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, for permitting one of us (MARK) to run the Elephant Project under the departmental sponsorship, which enabled us to do field work. We thank the Forest Department for their assistance. We specially thank Mr. Zafar Alam of Whykeong for his cooperation and help in various ways and Ms. Selina Alam for use of her typewriter. References Anonymous (1969): Working Plan for the Cox’s Bazar Forest Division for the period from 1968-69 to 1977-78, Dhaka: East Pakistan Government Press. Khan, M.A.R. (1979): The distribution and population status of the non-human primates of Bangladesh. Paper presented at the Satellite Symposium on the Primate-populations. VLlth Congress of IPS, Bangalore. (1980): On the distribution and population status of the Asian Elephant in Bangladesh. The Asian Elephant in Indian Subcontinent. IUCN/SSC Report Report, 63-72 pp. (1981): The mon -human primates of Bangladesh. Tiger-paper 8( 1): 12-15. (1982a): On the distribution of mammals in Bangladesh. Proceedings of the 2nd Bangladesh National Conference on Forestry. 560-575 pp. (1982b): Wildlife of Bangladesh - A Checklist. Dhaka University, Dhaka. 173 pp. (1984): The endangered mammals of Bangladesh. Oryx 18(3): 152-156. (1985): Mammals of Bangladesh - A Field Guide. Nazma Reza, Dhaka. 92 pp. (1986): Wildlife in Bangladesh Mangrove Ecosys- tem. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(1): 32-48. (1987): The status and distribution of Cats in Bangladesh. In: Cats of the world: Biology, Conservation & Management. National Wildlife Federation, New York, U.S.A. 43^49 pp. & Ahsan, M.F. (1981): The status of primates in Bangladesh and a description of their forest habitats. Primate Conservation 7: 102-109. Khan, M.A.R. , Rashid & Wahab, M. A. (1983): Eco-ethology of the crab-eating macaque ( Macaca fascicularis) in Bangladesh. J. Asiatic Soc. Bangladesh. Khan, M.A.R., Rashid, S.M.A. & Khan, A.Z. (1983): Develop- ment of a Management Plan for the Elephants of Cox’s Bazar Forest Division (South). Report of the WWF/IUCN/DU -Elephant Project No. BD-3033, Depart- ment of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka. 16 p. BREEDING OF THE COMMON TERN STERNA HIRUNDO IN SRI LANKA1 Thilo W. Hoffmann2 This paper describes a breeding colony of Ster- na hirundo in Sri Lanka, the first recorded in the Eurasian tropics. Generally the common tern is regarded as a winter visitor to the coasts of Sri Lanka, both in the dry and wet zone, in irregular but small numbers. Henry (1955) says that it arrives in some years in considerable numbers, but is absent in most. It has been rarely collected only from the northwest and northeast coasts. In recent years I have observed variable numbers of common terns regularly every winter at Colombo and in January 1988, for instance, many thousands were noted in the northwest (Kal- pitiya Peninsula) and in the south (Hambantota). On the whole it would appear that the common tern has become a regular winter visitor in fair and some- times large numbers. At the end of May 1980 I discovered a breed- ing colony of this tern on a tiny island of loose coral debris not shown on any map, locally called Irrach- chal (08°N, 81°E). This little island lies northeast of Thenadi Bay, on the east coast of Sri Lanka, about 5 km north of Valaichchenai. The island is formed by coarse coral debris (mostly stag-horn) and seashells and lies in the centre of a fairly extensive coral reef which runs for several miles in a north-south direc- tion, roughly parallel to the coast about 2.5 km away. There is no vegetation, and the white island, ap- proximately 65 m long and about 15 m at its widest point, is exposed to the elements at all times with fre- quent changes size, shape and topography as a result of wave action, chiefly during the NE Monsoon (December to February). There are ridges and val- leys in its surface, which rise 1-1.3 m over the water level. During the period of the SW Monsoon (May to September) when the terns breed, the sea is nor- mally calm and wave action minimal, with no chan- ges in the topography and shape of the island. A hot dry wind called kachchan blows from the landside, the result of the SW Monsoon which then lashes the western coast of Sri Lanka. Accepted May 1988 Ceylon Bird Qub, P.O. Box 11, Colombo, Sri Lanka I had been visiting this bare and desolate little island for some years for the purpose of goggling. Regularly in June-July each year there were breed- ing colonies of large crested terns Sterna bergii , roseate terns ( Sterna dougallii, and sometimes little terns Sterna albifrons). On 28 May 1980 when I visited the island I noted four large crested terns sit- ting on one egg each, as well as five nest scrapes with much smaller eggs, all singles, except for one nest which contained two eggs. I left the island and a lit- tle later approached it swimming with an underwater camera; in this manner I managed to get very close to about a dozen terns standing close together at the edge of the island just above the waveline. About half of these were clearly roseate terns with beauti- ful pink-hued underparts, glossy black caps and long, pointed black beaks, vermilion feet and legs. But to my surprise the other six birds had brilliant orange-red beaks’ with black tips, though otherwise they were almost identical with the roseates, except for the pink hue; they appeared slightly smaller. I got to within a few feet of the birds, and there could be absolutely no question of their identity, which I sub- sequently confirmed over and over again: they were common terns in breeding plumage; I can find no record of this stage ever having been noted in Sri Lanka before. With my Nikonos underwater camera I took colour photographs of both these roseate and com- mon terns and the photographs came out quite well, showing very clearly the different identities of the two species of terns. Later when I walked on the is- land, the birds took off but some kept circling above and dived at me; these were common terns, the Roseates having flown away on being disturbed. When I left the island, the common terns returned immediately, even before I was back in the water, and settled on the five nests. Until then I had thought that the five nests were those of roseate terns, a regular summer visitor for breeding in Sri Lanka. During the next three days I checked and re-check- ed and alway s made the same still surprising obser- vation: the common terns were actually breeding here on this small coral island off the east coast in BREEDING OF COMMON TERN IN SRI LANKA 69 Sri Lanka. During these same days I observed many terns hovering over hand- operated coastal purse-seines, locally called madel, which were then in use along this stretch of the shore, and found that the majority were common terns in breeding plumage with a few large crested and some little. The common terns were quite conspicuous and easily identified with the naked eye on the basis of their coral red and mosdy black-tipped bills. The birds also produced the piping, metallic-sounding twink (Henry after Leg ge 1955) as well as the scolding crarr , both over the madels and on the island. Nearly one month elapsed until I was again able to visit the east coast and this coral island. During the period 26 to 30 June 1980 1 reconfirmed the earlier observations. I counted from the boat 16 large crested and three lesser crested (Sterna ben- galensis) in breeding plumage (unusual — this species too is a non-breeding winter visitor and sum- mer loiterer), as well as 50 to 60 common terns, all in breeding plumage and all clearly recognisable by their black-tipped red bills; in a few the bill was en- tirely brilliant red without the black tip. When I went ashore some of the birds took to the air but quickly settled down again on the nests when I crouched be- hind a ridge of coral debris. I could observe them very clearly through binoculars, the nearest being only about 6 m. away. There were two separate colonies of breeding birds, namely one of some large crested terns (the nests being quite close to each other, most only 30 cm apart), and one of the com- mon terns (individual nests much further apart), but not a single roseate or little tern was present. I watched the birds on the island for about 30 minutes, then got up when they all tok to the air with much noise, in which the clear high twink of the common was easily discernible. Several of the common at- tacked me repeatedly by diving at me. I counted 41 nests of common terns, all with one egg, except for one which had two; in addition there were seven broken eggs of common with embryo, and two downy chicks, making altogether 50 observed nests. There were also about one dozen abandoned ensts (including the five seen at the end of May) of common terns clearly distinguishable from those of the large crested. In addition, 8 nests with one egg each, three broken eggs and one aban- doned nest of large crested terns were found. It was obvious that the common had started breeding about a month earlier (end May) and most nests had reached the stage where the young would hatch, whereas the large crested were only starting their colony (end June), which conforms with obser- vations made in earlier years. For instance, at the beginning of July 1977 I counted over 200 nests of the large crested tern on this same island. On that oc- casion I noted for the first time the main natural hazard to these breeding colonies: The white-bellied sea eagl zHaliaeetus leucogaster , which early in the breeding season had destroyed and partly eaten over 25% of the eggs laid till then. Two basic ground colours could be distin- guished in the eggs of the common terns, one beige- brown, the other pale sepia to pale greenish-beige, all with variable dark brown markings. There was considerable variation in measurements and shapes, some being extremely pointed and longish in shape. Apart from being smaller, they were much darker than those of the large crested which are white or off- white with very variable markings. (I had observed one pure white egg without markings which was very conspicuous against the background, in con- trast to the marked ones.) Most of the nests of the common were lined with feathers and/or seashells (every nest had at least a few feathers and shells), whereas those of the large crested were devoid of any linings or embellish- ments, and often barely a scrape in the coarse rough coral debris. Most of the nests of the common were between or near relatively large pieces of coral rock, obviously for shelter (shade), all were on ridges, not in depressions, and well away from and above the waves. Both nesting colonies were in an elevated portion at the northern widest end of the island, though later greater numbers of large crested would also nest in the lower portions. With a caliper I measured the 29 common tern eggs which were present at that time. The average was 41.2 x 28.5 mm, which is less (especially in width) than Baker’s 41.9 x 30.5 mm in Ali and Ripley (1968-1974), or 41 x 31 as given by Cramp (1985), or 41.3 x 30.5 by Harrison (1975). The most common size was 40 x 29 mm, the smallest 36 x 27 mm, and the largest 47 x 30 mm. The downy chicks were greyish-brown with dark brown and orangy mottling. The eggs of 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 the large crested are, of course, much bigger and easily recognisable at a glance, therefore I did not measure them on this occasion in order to shorten to the minimum the period of disturbance. I had measured large crested eggs the year before, which gave an average of 62 x 42 mm compared with 62 x 43 mm (Cramp 1985) and 60 x 40 mm (Ali and Ripley). The average egg size of the roseate tern is given as 43 x 30 mm (Cramp 1985). The five nests of common terns seen a month earlier (end May) were empty and it would appear that egg laying in the colony was staggered; the same is the case with the large crested which had four nests at the end of May, a dozen at the end of June, over 100 by mid- July, and the maximum of about 150 by the 23rd of July. I took a number of colour photographs of nests, eggs, downy chicks, and of the island. Both species sat on the eggs mainly during the day, particularly at midday when the temperature rises steeply and the eggs must be protected. Towards evening all birds left the island for feeding and to roost on low rocks nearer the shore; I have observed them there throughout the night. In the morning they returned to the breeding colonies on the island. Throughout the period of observation practi- cally all the nests of common terns contained only one egg each (two being the rare exception). In the literature greater clutch sizes are given: 2 or 3 in Ali and Ripley (handbook), usually 2-3 (rarely 4) in Harrison (1975), 1-3 (varying between colonies) with means around 2.5-3 in Cramp (1985); in the latter it is also stated that older birds lay bigger clutches and lay earlier in the season. Could it be that this Sri lankan colony was composed mostly of first time breeders (3rd or 4th year) who might have been in Sri lanka for several years or even have hatched here? The smaller width and variable size of the eggs would add weight to this possibility. Or is the single egg per nest conditioned by location and environ- ment? At the southern tip of Thenadi Bay there is a group of large rocks in the sea forming the end of a promontory called Elephant Point or Amakallu. On these rocks I observed at the end of June 1980 up to 100 immature common terns, recognisable by the pronounced dark carpal band, with dark feet and dark bills. There were also 10 adult common terns in breeding plumage sitting on these rocks; I could not determine whether these sat on eggs in depres- sions on the rock surface, but it looked like it. Again many common terns, both in breeding plumage and im matures were seen hovering over and swooping down on purse-seines being pulled in, in order to catch prey escaping from the nets. By mid-July (12th/13th) all except 12 nests of the common tern (including one with a broken egg and embryo) were empty, but there were over 100 adults in breeding plumage on the island. I also noted two fledglings almost ready to fly, which were probably young of large crested; they were very adept at hiding under large flat plates of coral and most difficult to find. Superficial description: Dark grey feet and bill, head spotted, throat white, back with folded wings shows zig-zag white and black pattern, edge of the short tail white. Many adult com- mon terns were bringing small fish to the island, so there were probably also fledglings of this species hidden under the coarse coral pieces. There were now also over 100 ‘nests’ of large crested terns, as well as 4 roseate and some little terns incubating. By mid-August the little island was deserted, with only some of the scrapes and nests remaining. It would seem that all the common terns (adults and newly raised juveniles) had flown away before the 23 July. This is a clearly documented case of the breed- ing of common terns in Sri Lanka, and the only in- stance known to me where this species has bred in the Asian tropics. According to Cramp (1985), the nearest known breeding areas are at the northern end of the Persian Gulf ( S . h. hirundo ), clearly outside the Tropic of Cancer, and the high-elevation lakes of Tibet ( S.h . tibetana). According to the same source there are two known breeding areas of S.h. hirundo on the West African coast, within the tropics, and some in Central America and the im- mediately adjoining South American continent (Venezuela), but never before has the species been known to breed so far south in Eurasia. Unfortunately I have not been able to confirm the breeding of common terns in Sri Lanka during subsequent years due to several factors. In the early 1980s tourism rapidly developed into a major in- dustry in Sri Lanka and hotels were established at Pasikudah Bay only a few kilometres south of the coral island. Despite annual appeals to the hotels, BREEDING OF COMMON TERN IN SRI LANKA 71 toursits, quite ignorant of the special importance of the little island, were brought there for goggling, spear-fishing and shell collecting. Particularly during the breeding season (which is also the main tourist season) there were daily visits with people trampling over the corals and swimming in the near- by sea, thus disturbing the terns and preventing any attempts by them to breed; this was especially the case in 1981 and 1982. The breeding birds are fur- ther disturbed by collectors of coral who illegally remove in sacks boat-loads full for lime burning, and also by collectors of tropical fish for export who operate here during the time of the year. In July 1981 I observed only seven common terns (and only 20 large crested) in breeding plumage, and there was no sign of breeding of any terns on the island, perhaps due to unusual weather (late SW Monsoon) and the absence of swarms of sprats and sardines, the main food of the terns at this time. Roseate and little terns were also missing. Per- haps the breeding started later for all four species, but I was unable to make further observations that year. Later the ethnic conflict broke out in earnest and it was no longer possible for me to visit the area. But I am fairly convinced that common terns breed in and around Sri Lanka in suitable undisturbed localities. Adult pairs are highly faithful to breeding colonies (Cramp 1985). This documented discovery in 1980 of a sub- stantial number of common terns in breeding plumage, with nests, eggs and chicks, thousands of kilometres away from the nearest known breeding areas, if confirmed in later years, would add a new breeding resident to the checklist of Sri Lanka and reveal an amazing extension of the breeding range of this species in Eurasia. An exciting prospect when it is considered that since about Legge’s time one hundred years ago, there have hardly any additions to the list of resident breeding species, in evident contrast to the list of winter visitors and pelagic birds which grows almost every year by one or several species. A recent probable breeding addition is the greyheaded mynah Sturnus malabaricus , and another candidate is the large pied wagtail Motacil- la maderaspatensis , which I suspect to breed in the northern islands, e.g. Delft. Worldwide there are three races of the common tem: S.h. hirundo , which breeds in a wide geographi- cal band from central and eastern North America through Europe to West Siberia; S.h. tibetana which breeds in Kashmir, Tibet, Mongolia and China; and S.h. longipennis which breeds in NE Asia and winters from Japan through to Australia (it differs from the other two in blackish bill and legs), all nest- ing mostly on freshwater lakes. Of the three sub- species only S.h. hirundo breeds in or near the tropics (W. Africa, Central America) and also in the Arabian Gulf on bare islands similar to the one described here. The race which visits Sri Lanka in winter is S.h. tibetana which breeds on the high- elevation lakes in Tibet and Ladakh. This led me to speculate (Hoffmann 1981) that the breeding colony described in this paper might perhaps belong to the race S. h. hirundo. In the original Ceylon Bird Club Notes (1980, May- August: 27-43) the birds are referred to by me as S.h. tibetana (with S.h. hirundo as a possibility). However, this question must remain unresolved until another breeding colony is found and a specimen can be procured. S.h. hirundo (prac- tically not distinguishable from S.h. tibetana in the field is a winter visitor and non-breeding summer loiterer to Sind and Baluchistan, but has not been definitely recorded (collected) in India. In Hoffmann (1984) and also in Hoffmann (1989): the common tern is listed as S. h. tibetana on the strength of the observations presented in this paper There have been uninformed comments on my report of this breeding colony of the common tem in Sri Lanka, seemingly based on hearsay and a misunderstanding of my brief reference to this oc- currence in the 1980 annual Ceylon Bird Club digest (Hoffmann 1981); the original observations as published in the monthly Ceylon Bird Club Notes were obviously not consulted. Thus it became desirable to present this detailed paper on my obser- vations in 1980. 72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 References Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968-74): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Cramp, S. (Chief Ed.) (1985): The Birds of the Western Palearctic, Vol. 4. London. Harrison, P. (1975): A Field Guide to the Nests, Eggs and Nes- tlings of British and European Birds. London. (1983): Seabirds, an Identification Guide. London. Henry, G.M. (1955): A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon. London. Hoffmann, W. (1981): Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club 1980. Loris 15(5): 283-285. (in press): J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. (1989): Notes on the Status and Distribution of Some Birds in Sri Lanka as Listed in S.D. Ripley (1982) "A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, J. Bom- bay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86(1 ): 7-16. AVIAN PROFILE OF A MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM IN THE BACKWATERS OF THE UJJANI DAM1 E.K. BHARUCHA 2 AND P.P. GOGTE3 (With two plates and four text-figures) This study highlights the avifaunal aspects of a man-modified aquatic ecosystem in the backwaters of a recent- ly constructed irrigation dam. It uses the bird profile of the area as an indicator of changes in the ecosystem. The study provides a strategy to develop a viable nature conservation scheme in a multiple use area in the backwaters of the Uj- jani Irrigation Project. Introduction It is commonly believed that dams and irriga- tion projects are detrimental to the ecology of an area.They are known to submerge large tracts of forests, destroying their diverse plant and animal life, or lead to detrimental changes in the water regime of the area. However, this is not always the case. If carefully managed they can also help in the conservation of nature in a limited sense (Soule 1986). One such example is the Ujjani dam, which has provided a new habitat for a large number of waterfowl and terrestrial birds. We would thus like to point out that if dams must be built for the economic well-being of mankind, selection of the site must be a prime concern so as to minimise ecological damage. After impoundment, careful management must provide natural resources on a sustainable basis for local inhabitants. And finally an attempt must also be made to balance its utilitarian values with the institution of a nature conservation scheme in the newly formed man-modified ecosys- tem. This last aspect has not been given adequate at- tention. This paper demonstrates that by identification of specific conservation goals and careful planning, natural resources can be protected within the exist- ing framework of an irrigation project. The Ujjani dam was built only eight years ago. Before the dam was constructed, the area consisted of semi-arid marginal agricultural tracts and waste- 2. land on the banks of the Bhima river. A small num- ber of local and migratory aquatic birds were found in patches along the length of the river. Terrestrial Accepted February 1990 2‘Saken’, Valentina Society, North Main Road, Koregaon Park, Pune 411 001, Maharashtra 317-Vidya Vilas Colony, I.T.L Road, Aundh, Pune 411 007 birds that fed on surrounding crops and those that used the semiarid wasteland were also present. Today this pattern has changed dramatically and the backwaters of the Ujjani dam at Bhigwan constitute a highly complex wetland ecosystem. This makes it not only an interesting study site, but also provides an insight into what can be achieved around other ir- rigation projects. An important factor which emerged during this study was that several abiotic features in the newly established waterbody are still progressively changing. This has produced a series of successional changes in the biotic component of the system. Pat- terns of wetland utilization and land use, which have been modified by the dam, built in the recent past, have played a considerable role in producing various changes in the ecosystem. Objectives The primary objective of this study was to provide a baseline assessment of the present state of the ecosystem in the backwaters of the Ujjani dam at Bhigwan, so that it could be used to formulate a rational and scientific basis for management. The main aims of this study were: 1. To study the abiotic parameters of the habitat such as its geographical features, the physicochemical properties of water, the depth of the water in different areas, and relate them to avifaunal patterns. To study changes in successive years of biotic features such as planktonic forms, aquatic and semi-aquatic vegetation and their effects on the diversity and population of bird life. 3. To document the avian profile of the area and study habitat utilization by different species of waterbirds. 4. To study land use patterns and the utilization of 74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 the waterbody by local inhabitants. 5. To define the effects of human utilization of the ecosystem with special reference to its bird life. 6. To assess the ill effects of human interference on the conservation values of the area. 7. To provide management recommendations for the conservation of this wetland. Methods This study was conducted over a period of five years (January 1985-January 1990). Regular field trips were made throughout this period at intervals of 15 to 20 days. However, the area has been visited fairly regularly by us since 1979. Water depth: Water depths were measured during April 1986. The measurements were taken along a transect by dropping a scaled rope at fixed intervals across the lake from the southern bank to the north- ern bank. Physicochemical: Four sampling stations were set up along the shore of the waterbody (Fig. 1). The criteria for choosing the respective sites were re- lated to the distribution and movement of water- fowl, especially flamingos. Station A was on the eastern bank, where flamingos were seldom seen. Station B was near Bhigwan township and was not frequented by flamingos. Stations C and D always had flamingos, the former being a feeding area, the latter a roosting site. The physicochemical study of the waterbody consisted of recording dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, pH, and hardness. All the tests, except for hardness, were carried out in the field according to standard methods (apha, awwa, wpcf, 1975 ). Samples were collected in two litre plastic cans and were brought to the laboratory for analysis of hardness. The analysis was done 24 hours after collection. The sampling was done every week in 1987 and 1988. Plankton: The plankton study consisted of iden- tification of the common phytoplankton and the den- sity of plankton during different seasons. Samples were collected from the four stations and preserved in formalin. Their analysis was done in the laboratory 24 hours after collection. Botanical: A brief botanical survey of the aquatic and semi-aquatic macrophytes found in the lake and its immediate surroundings was made. Specimens were collected in the field for a her- barium and later identified in the laboratory. Plant density was calculated by the list count quadrat method. Ornithological: The ornithological study consisted primarily of a study of population dynamics and be- havioural ecology of the diverse species of bird life of the area. More detailed behavioural studies of flamingos and nesting terns were also carried out. The status of the water birds was determined on the basis of absolute number of a species in comparison with the population of related species of the same family, as well as by comparing their abundance with other lakes in the area. Bird counts were carried out around the 15th of January of every year from point A to D. Bird counts were done by two different methods. Actual head counts were done for bird species which were small in number. For fast moving birds or for birds present in large flocks, a section of the flock was counted, using this as a guide to estimate the total number in the flock. Bird behaviour was studied by observing their movements and habits. Hides in the form of cloth sheets, spread over the observer, were used to observe nesting birds. The identifica- tion of birds was done using field guides such as a PICTORIAL GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCON- TINENT (Salim Ali, 1983). All observations were made using binoculars (Sears 8x35, 16° wide angle). Photographic documentation was done with a Nikon FE and Nikormat EL with 300 mm telephoto lens or 80 to 210 Vivitar zoom; or an Asahi Pen tax with 200 mm or 400 mm telephoto lenses). Socio-economic: Repeated surveys were done to correlate ecological data with sociological and economic changes in the life of the local people. These periodic surveys were carried out to elicit the people’s reaction to the dam, their impressions of the avifauna, and their attitudes towards the impending notification of the area as a sanctuary. During such surveys the people were given an idea of what the local conservation goals were, and informed that notification would not be economically detrimental to them. Results and Discussion Study area: Bhigwan is a small township situated on the Pune- Solapur highway 100 km southeast of AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 75 Fig . 1. ivlap of Bhigwan wetland, showing study area. Pune, with a population of 4,000-5,000. The large expanse of shallow water is a part of the backwaters of an irrigation dam built across the Bhima river at Ujjani. The waterspread in the backwaters covers a considerable area from Bhigwan to Dalaj (Fig. 1). This shallow area is a favoured habitat for a large number of waders and surface feeding ducks. The original river bed, which is relatively deep, also at- tracts diving ducks and fishing birds such as terns and gulls. There are several small settlements on the banks. Bhigwan, which is the largest, is situated just off the Pune-Solapur highway. Another small vil- lage, Kumbhargao, is situated on the south bank. Further downstream the submerged village of Dalaj has been split into three settlements called Dalaj 1, 2 and 3. There is a small island off Khanoti, upstream towards the northeast, beside which is another small settlement called Chincholi. Water depth: One of the important features of this wetland is the large expanse of shallow water. This is due to the fact that much of this inundated land is in the plains (Fig 2). The expanse of the water can be divided into three zones (Odum 1971) (Table 1): Zone I. The edge of the water close to the shore, which is frequented by waders like stilts, plovers, godwits, sandpipers, shanks, etc. The water level in this area is very shallow, ranging from 0 to 10 cm. Zone II. The shallow portions where water levels vary up to a depth of 120 cm. This area has a large amount of aquatic plants and is frequented by larger birds like the flamingos, herons, storks, cranes, spoonbills, ibises, and surface feeding ducks. Zone III. The deep water region where water- depth is greater than 120 cm is commonly fre- quented by the diving ducks. Flamingos were also seen in feeding parties swimming into deep water on several occasions. Many birds like gulls, terns, osprey, etc. do not require a specific depth of water to feed in. These birds, which feed by diving into the water, were found in all the three zones. Some specialist species have a specific ‘niche’ and feed mostly in a single zone, while others are less specific and can use a combination of two or even all three zones. The 76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 RELATIVE WATER DEPTHS FROM SOUTH BANK Fig. 2. Water depth in relation to distance from southern bank. SEASON WISE PLANKTONIC VARIATION Fig. 3. Season-wise planktonic variations number of species using individual zones and com- bined ones is shown in Table 2. Habitat utilization: The birds are classified accord- ing to habitat utilization as aquatic (A) or terrestrial (T). However, certain aquatic species also feed on land, while some of the terrestrial birds utilise aquatic forms of life as an additional source of food (Table 2, Appendix 1). Table 1 WATER DEPTH Depth (m) Distance from southern to northern shore (m) 0.91 Zone I 30 1.22 60 1.22 Zone II 100 1.83 150 1.89 190 1.89 200 1.66 230 1.52 250 1.70 280 0.61 Zone m 300 8.23 320 6.10 340 1.52 360 1.37 400 1.52 460 1.37 500 0.91 Zone II 550 0.61 Zone I 860 Physicochemical characteristics: In the four sampling stations the physicochemical analyses showed a similarity in the water at stations A and B, which were upstream of stations C and D. At sta- tions C and D the water had a higher pH. These areas were more frequently used by the flamingo to feed in (Table 3). The water is more alkaline than in other lakes in this area of Maharashtra. Apparently this is an im- portant factor that attracts large numbers of greater flamingos to this wetland. Both hardness and dis- solved oxygen show high concentrations. As the physicochemical analysis was done over a relative- ly short period of time its results are only indicative of the abiotic characteristics of the water (Tables 3, 4). Plankton: The high alkalinity at Bhigwan evident- ly contributes to the development of specific micro flora and fauna on which various birds survive (Table 5). The seasonal variation observed in the plankton population is shown in Table 6. This Table 2 HABITAT BASED DISTRIBUTION OF AVIFAUNA AT BHIGWAN Feeding zones Terrestrial I n m i,n n,m i, n,m Primarily aquatic species A 0 9 0 l 21 13 18 Aquatic & partly terrestrial A (t) 0 1 8 0 0 5 0 Primarily terrestrial T 60 0 0 0 0 0 0 Terrestrial & partly aquatic T (a) 0 1 0 0 0 0 14 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Bharucha & Gogte: Ecosystem of Uijani Dam. Plate 1 Top: Early period, mudbanks frequented by flamingos. Centre: Transition period, with growing expanse of Paspallum Bottom: Recent period, with heavy overgrowth of Paspallum. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Bharucha & Gogte: Ecosystem of Uijani Dam. Plate 2 MANAGEMENT OF KEY AREAS AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 11 Table 3 Table 4 PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER COMPARATIVE pH OF NEIGHBOURING WATERBODIES Parameters A B C D Waterbody Min. pH Max. pH Average pH pH 7.5 7.2 7.6 7.9 Bhigwan 7.8 8.3 8.0 Dissolved Oxygen 3.7 4.1 3.1 3.6 ppm. Kurkumbh 6.5 7.2 6.9 Total Alkalinity 76 87 91 69 ppm. Patas (1) 7.5 7.9 1.1 Hardness 18 124 174 136 ppm. Patas (2) 7.1 7.7 1A Varvand 7.2 7.7 7.5 Table 5 MICRO FLORA AND FAUNA 1. Anabaena sp. 9. Euglena sp. 17. Synedra sp. 2. Bulbochoeta sp. 10. Navicula sp. 18. Spirulina sp. 3. Cylindrospermy sp. 11. Oosystus sp. 19. Sperocoestoes sp. 4. Cely strum sp. 12. Oodogonium sp. 20. Tetraedron sp. 5. Colestrium sp. 13. Oscillotorias sp. 21. Ulotrix sp. 6. Cosmarium sp. 14. Phormidum sp. 22. Zignima sp. 7. Cladophora sp. 15. Pediastrum sp. 8. Cymbella sp. 16. Scenedesmu s sp. Table 6 PLANKTON DENSITY FOR 1986-87 Planktonic Forms April 86 June 86 Aug 86 Nov 86 April 87 June 87 Aug 87 Nov 87 1 Diatoms ++ + + ++ + 2. Desmids ++ + + ++ + 3. Blue green algae + +++ + + + ++ +++ 4. Protozoans + + ++ + + + ++ ++ 5. Rotifers ++ +++ ++ +++ 6. Crustaceans ++ + +++ +++ + +++ 7. Insect larvae ++ + ++ ++ + ++ + Traces ++ Present +++ Abundant Table 7 BOTANICAL PROFILE 1. Argemon nuscilaca 11. .Ipomea aquatica 21. Pavith sp. 2. Amaranthus sp. 12. Limnophila indica 22. Phasotius trilobus 3. Acasia nelotica 13. Lochnera sp. 23. Paspallum sp. 4. Bacopa monnier 14. Nympkoides sp. 24. Rotala tenuis 5. Ceratophyllum demersum ‘ 15. Najas minor 25. Trianthemum nonogejha 6. Centaurium roxburghii 16. Ottelia alsinoides 26. Vallisneria speralis 7. Commelina sp. 17. Polygonum glabrum 27. Vinca sp. 8. Gomphrena sp. 18. Polamogeton nodosus 28. Zornia gibbosa 9. Hydrella verlicillata 19. Phyla nodiflora 10. Hopper dichotoma 20. Partaloca alevacea shows that phytoplankton population peaks around June, followed by zooplankton in November (Fig. 3). The planktonic forms thus show definite seasonal changes in their abundance and density. Water depth and turbidity are the factors that control their population. In the rains when the silt is washed into the waterbody, the turbidity and the water level increases, and there is a sudden fall in planktonic density. Botanical profile: The profile of the plant macro- phytes in the area is shown in Table 7. Eutrophication and succession: A significant finding was the sudden increase in 1989 in the growth of Paspallum , which was uncommon until 1986. m 6 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 8 MACROPHYTIC VEGETATION Quadrat No. Paspallum Other plants per sq.m per sq.m 1. 56 33 2. 100 0 3. 121 0 4. 103 2 5. 56 7 6. 62 21 7. 97 5 8. 73 2 9. 88 0 10. 90 0 11. 102 1 12. 91 2 13. 77 17 14. 86 11 15. 62 3 16. 75 2 17. 103 13 18. 81 0 19. 69 6 20. 62 9 21. 50 11 22. 75 13 23. 111 1 24. 100 3 25. 85 5 26. 112 9 27. 63 15 28. 84 12 29. 97 3 30. 57 7 31. 92 6 Total in 31 plots Paspallum 2580, other plants 189 Percentages Paspallum 93.17, other plants 6.83 Paspallum was found to be the commonest species (93%) of the macrophytic vegetation along a major part of the shore. It was recorded up to a depth of 0.6 m inside the water at a distance of about 25 m from the shore in the summer of 1988 (Table 8). Avian Profile A checklist of the birds recorded, along with their abundance and seasonal variation, is shown in Table 9. The change in relative abundance is indi- cated by a + when the population has shown an up- ward trend and a - if the population was found to drop appreciably during the study period from 1986 to 1989. The checklist also shows the ‘niche’ used by purely terrestrial (T) and aquatic (A) species. Those that require a combination of habitat conditions are catagorised as A(t) or T(a). The aquatic system is divided into three zones - 1, II and ID according to the depth of the water, as discussed earlier (see Appendix 1). The profile of aquatic and terrestrial birds shows that during the study period 160 species of birds were recorded (Hussain 1984, Ali 1983, Ali 1986). Out of these 85 (50.3%) were aquatic, and 75 (49.7%) were terrestrial. In 1989 of the 160 species, 65 (40.6%) were migratory, 5 (3.1%) were local migrants while 90 (56.3%) were resident throughout the year. The species diversity index calculated for January 1987 and January 1988 was 2.01 and 2.08 respectively (Shannon-Weiner formula). In summer the species diversity index calculated for March 1987 and March 1988 was 1.32 and 1.72 respective- ly. This shows that the population is considerably modified by the influx of migrants in winter. Between 1986 and 1989 the population of several species was observed to have changed. Among the 26 species that showed an increasing trend in population, 21 had to be reclassified into a commoner category in 1989. Certain birds, however, showed a decline in population. Among the 21 declining species, 15 were found to have become ap- preciably less common and had to be grouped among the less commoner category. Those whose population increased were either marsh dependent species or those that are dependent primarily on fish. Those that showed a drop in population were invariably waders, which depend on mudflats for their food. Comparing the seasonal status of the birds, 18 species that were considered local migrants in 1986 were found to have become resident throughout the year by 1989. Birds that have established nesting colonies during these years figure prominently in this group. Bird counts: The bird counts were conducted by walking along the periphery of the waterbody. As this covered only a small sector of our study area along the edge of the lake from station A to station B it only indicates the relative abundance of dif- ferent species through the study period. Table 10 shows annual counts on 15 January from 1986 to AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 79 Table 9 WINTER BIRD COUNT OF SOME INDICATOR SPECIES CARRIED OUT FOR 4 YEARS ON/AROUND 15 JANUARY IN THE SAME SEGMENT OF THE LAKE. Birds 1986 1987 1988 1989 1. Grey heron 4 7 5 10 2. Purple heron 8 1 3 12 3. Smaller egret 7 4 5 3 4. Openbilled stork 19 3 4 1 5. Whitenecked stork 1 1 2 - 6. Painted stork - 5 8 5 7. Glossy ibis 16 23 20 45 8. Spoonbill 53 7 12 - 9> Flamingo 555 47 - 49 10. Demoiselle crane 715 220 104 - 11. Common crane 150 - - - 12. Ruddy shelduck 80 28 15 21 13. Pintail 163 16 23 34 14. Wigeons 243 180 78 94 15. Shoveller 162 7 57 48 16. Common pochard 59 59 132 187 17. White-eyed pochard - 24 78 13 18. Tufted pochard - 356 543 651 19. Cotton teal - 4 15 24 20. Coots 290 1077 1342 1524 21. Osprey 7 2 2 1 22. Marsh harrier 39 1 5 23 23. Spotted eagle 1 1 - - 24. Herring gull 1 3 2 12 25. Brownheaded gull 25 10 29 35 26. Purple moorhen 27 - 54 82 27. Black-tailed godwit 10 3 15 7 28. Temminck’s stint 17 3 6 21 29. Blackwinged stilts 54 12 - - 30. Little ringed plover 62 55 43 32 31. Kentish plover 12 31 14 4 32. Curlew - 7 - - 33. Painted snipe - 5 4 12 34. Green sandpiper 9 2 17 2 35. Spotted sandpiper 4 1 3 14 36. Common sandiper 11 8 - 3 37. Green shank 6 1 3 - Table 10 FLAMINGO POPULATION 1986-1989 Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1986 _ 400 1500 200 100 50 100 50 10 200 300 1987 500 500 1000 1150 100 100 50 10 0 20 50 50 1988 0 50 250 400 43 21 2 0 0 0 0 12 1989 49 14 20 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Table 1 1 NUMBER OF NESTS RECORDED DURING PEAK PERIOD OF NESTING SEASON Species 1986 1987 1988 1989 River tern Little tern Little ringed plover Kentish plover Small pratincole 100 4 5 1 11 250 8 9 2 18 120 16 4 1 14 The total number of nests throughout the nesting season is several times greater, as these figures only indicate the number of active nests counted at one time during the peak period of each year. 80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 FLAMINGO POPULATION 1986-89 Fig . 4. Flamingo population in 1988-89 1989, of some important indicator species that have been affected by habitat changes. The Flamingo At Bhigwan the flamingos feed along the shore and on mud banks. Their major feeding area is in the vicinity of Kumbhargao, which is also one of the roosting places where they spend the night. It is known that flamingos are highly special- ized feeders and occupy a narrow niche within the ecosystem. The greater flamingo is known to feed on both minute plant and animal life that is abundant in certain muddy areas (Allen 1956). As shown ear- lier, one of the features observed was the high pH values obtained from Bhigwan lake as compared to lakes at Patas, Kurkumbh and Varvand, where the flamingos though present are always found in much smaller numbers. The pH values are between 8 and 9 for Bhigwan, 7 and 8 for Patas and Varvand and between 6 and 7 for Kurkumbh. The factor that at- tracts the flamingo to Bhigwan is related to the abun- dance of its specialized food. In all probability some components of this food material must be dependent upon a higher alkalinity. Population dynamics: The flamingo population showed wide fluctations (Table 10). The main peak period was in February and March (Fig 4). Their lowest numbers were recorded during the monsoon. The bird profile in a wetland is affected not only by the abundance of specific food supply, but also by the ease with which it can be exploited. Even though there is apparently no reason for the flamingo’s favoured food sources to have diminished in the lake bed, its accessibility has been decreased by the over- growth of weeds. This prevents the ease with which the birds can filter their food from the mud. This may be a major contributory factor for the progressive decline of the flamingo population over the last four years (Fig. 4). The flamingo movements, feeding and roost- ing sites showed several changes over the study period. In 1986, the flamingos were found almost all over the lake. In 1987 however, they had selected isolated feeding and roosting areas. Only one roost- ing area was located near Kumbhargao. As the water levels went up drastically during June-July 1987 the movement of flamingos showed a sudden change. They no longer favoured their old feeding sites. However, the roosting sites remained the same. The Paspallum grass had by then covered most of their favorite mud banks, used earlier, forcing them to move west, closer to the Pune-Solapur highway. Here they fed on the clear patches of mud and in the deeper part of the lake at the edge of the grass. In late February 1988, the birds were observed going upstream at dusk. This suggested that they had abandoned their old roosting site near Kumbhargao, but still frequented the area to feed in. In 1989 the flocks were smaller and were evidently hard pressed to locate feeding areas. Courtship display: Between March and July of 1986 and 1987 the flamingo at Bhigwan were seen to perform courtship displays. During displays near- ly the whole population congregated in the shallows near Kumbhargao. The males formed small groups with their beaks nearly touching while holding their heads high up in the air and fluffing up their dorsal feathers. A loud croaking accompanied this frantic activity, followed by pairing. Unfortunately, they made no attempt to build nests. An attempt to induce nesting was made by the Forest Department by making mud mounds, but these were washed away by the rains in 1986 and in 1987 they cracked due to lack of moisture, as they were built a little too far in- land (Johnson 1982, Rooth 1982). To induce these birds to breed the mudbanks that they require must be maintained and given protection. At present these mud banks are being encroached upon by the now fast spreading- AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 81 Paspallum weed. Measures to check the further encroachment of Paspallum would be beneficial to the flamingo, both for feeding and breeding. Breeding Colonies on Mudbank Islands As this waterbody is shallow, the silt that is brought down by the river and deposited in it creates constant changes in the configuration of the floor of the lake. In some places these deposits form large mudbanks which emerge out of the water when the lake recedes in summer, thus forming islands.These islands are not permanent as they are submerged in the rains. During the monsoons due to the increase in the rate of flow these mudbanks are either shifted to a different place or disappear altogether. New islands also suddenly appear when the water recedes. When the islands first appear in winter they are covered with algal mats. As soon as the soil dries up weeds and grasses take root. These terrestrial plants slowly start moving outwards as more of the mud bank emerges. In late summer these islands develop muddy bridges with the shore of the lake and are thus invaded by cattle which, feed on the vegetation. The islands are used by several species of ground nesters as they afford some degree of protec- tion and seclusion, during the early part of the sum- mer (Table 11). All the colonies were dominated by river terns which nest throughout March and into early May. As the number of river tern nests drop in late April, the little terns start nesting. Nests of little ringed plovers and pratincoles were found in dif- ferent stages of development during the entire nest- ing period ranging from March to May. A pair of great stone plovers was observed to perform nesting activities but their nest could not be located. Solitary nests of redwattled lapwing, Malabar crested lark and tawny pipit were found along the shore and on the islands when the emergent grass grew denser. The total number of nests during the peak of the nesting season in different years is shown in Table 11. As the islands grow progressively larger with the approach of summer their periphery is gradually colonised. The overall density of river tern nests which was 4/sq. m in the center, was much lower at the periphery with only 0.5/sq. m. Human Utilization This wetland is a multiple use area. The primary use of its terrestrial component consists of farming by lift irrigation and grazing of cattle and sheep. The aquatic system is used as a source of water for agriculture and domestic use and for fish- ing arid commuting across the water. Utilization of aquatic component: The water from the lake is used for a number of purposes such as : a) Irrigation: The main purpose for the con- struction of the Ujjani dam was for irrigating agricultural areas downstream. Cultivators on the banks of the backwaters utilize water pumped up from the lake throughout the year. b) Drinking and bathing: Water is pumped to Bhigwan, Kumbhargao, Dalaj etc. for drinking, bathing and other domestic activities. The lake is also used for washing of domestic animals. c) Fishing: Fishing has become one of the chief occupations of the people living in the area. Several people have purchased new boats. Fingerl- ings have been released in the lake and the annual catch has increased significantly. A thriving fishing co- operative has been established in the area. d) Communication: As old overland routes have been disrupted by the inundation, fishing boats are used to ferry people from place to place. Utilization of terrestrial component: a) Agriculture: The land that is exposed during the summer when the water recedes is used for cul- tivation of cash crops mainly sugarcane. Other crops such as onion, bajra and jawar are also grown. The only species which damages crops off and on is the demoiselle crane. This problem can be minimised if managed carefully (Fog 1982). Land which is now under the jurisdiction of the Irrigation Department is leased to local people for cultivation. b) Grazing: as the water level drops, the ex- posed land is covered by grass which is grazed by livestock. c) Plantations: the Forest Department has selected three plots along the shore for plantation of Acacia, Eucalyptus , Australian Acacia and Neem along with some other indigenously occurring trees. Interaction between resource utilization and con- servation goals: Though the utilitarian functions appear to produce a conflict with conservation goals a compromise solution can be worked out. It is 82 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 12 INTERACTION BETWEEN UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION UTILIZATION OF RESOURCES CONFLICT ADVERSE EFFECTS ON CONSERVATION GOALS TERRESTRIAL COMPONENT AQUATIC COMPONENT Disturbance to feeding and roosting area of waders Destruction of nesting colonies on islands Rapid eutrophication and formation of thick marsh, reducing wildfowl diversity and population. Disturbance to wildfowl and dispersal outside refuge TERRESTRIAL COMPONENT Waterlogging and increasing salinity. Erosion of soil affects micro and macro plant and animal life at edge of the water. Eventually decreases soil fertility. Siltation shortens dam life Degradation of rangeland and desertification, which affects terrestrial avifauna and wildlife. Eventually affects pasture carrying capacity. neither necessary nor desirable to totally prevent farming or fishing in the whole area. However some control is essential so that key conservation objec- tives can be achieved. The interactions between utilization and conservation are given in Table 13, which shows the complex interrelationships that lead to conflicts in using and conserving the aquatic and terrestrial components of this wetland. If a small strip of land about 50 to 100 m in width is not leased for agriculture several conserva- tion goals can be achieved. This would be a small price to pay for a large conservation gain, by reduc- ing disturbance in key feeding, roosting and nesting sites. It would also help in reducing eutrophication and thus prevent the overgrowth of Paspallum. The reduced density of the weed and the reappearance of mudbanks would provide multiple niches and in- crease the diversity of bird life. Prevention of fishing and ferrying in certain key areas where birds feed in the shallows and stop- ping the fishermen from using nesting islands to dry nets is another important conservation issue. However, there need be no general ban on fishing throughout the area. Changing Patterns in the Ecosystem The changing patterns in the ecosystem show that there is a close relationship between the habitat requirements of avifauna and human utilization. The environmental changes created by the dam have modified the lifestyle of local people as well as progressively created changes in the ‘niches’ of various aquatic birds. During the early part of the study this wetland provided a large amount of food material that the flamingo and other waders found highly suitable. Due to the very gradual slope of the lake floor in the peripheral shallow zone, even a small drop in the water level exposed a wide belt of open mud, rich in food material. The main change in these mud banks is the sudden invasion by Paspallum grass that has colonized the shore. This has been highly detrimen- tal to a specialized feeder such as the greater flamin- go and other birds that feed by probing for food in the mud. It is well known that an aquatic ecosystem evolves through several successional stages such as marsh, grassland, woodland, which culminates in a AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 83 forest ecosystem. However, each transition should take several years. At Bhigwan the surrounding mud flats and the emerging islands which supported little or no vegetation in 1986, suddenly began to harbour patches of Paspallum in 1987. Within two years, this grass completely covered the open mudflats and has replaced most of the original vegetation such as Typha by 1989. In the recent past the grass has spread over the whole area, both in the surrounding soft moist mud at the periphery of the lake and in the water up to a depth of about 60 cm. Thus today large expanses of what used to be feeding grounds for a variety of waders has been converted into a marsh or grassland ecosystem. The surrounding area consists of farmlands in which cash crops like sugarcane, as well as jawar, bajra and onions are grown. The farmers in the area use large amounts of fertilizers which are washed into the lake during the monsoons. The surrounding mud banks, which are exposed in summer, are also used for cultivation. These are again submerged, as water levels rise during the rains. As they are heavi- ly fertilized, the residue directly enters the water. This is evidently responsible for the rapid eutrophication within the lake, which manifests it- self as: a) large algal mats, b) a thick tangle of aquatic weeds, c) a peripheral zone of the spreading semi- aquatic grass, of which one is th & Paspallum species, and d) peripheral patches of Echornia which have now begun to spread. The adjacent terrestrial ecosystem supplies large inputs in terms of micro-nutrients into the aquatic ecosystem, resulting in an acceleration in the normal rate of succession. The sequence of interac- tions are depicted in Table 12. Any management scheme must thus take into consideration the fact that it is essential to maintain mudbanks and an appropriate water depth, without an overgrowth of any form of macrophytic vegeta- tion. Adequate periods of draw down which expose the mudflats are thus essential to dry off the vegeta- tion and permit recycling of various micro or- ganisms, worms, molluscs and Crustacea in the mud (Thomas 1982). The changes in the avian profile thus indicate how the overall ecological picture has been progres- sively modified. In the Pre-dam period the Bhima had a seasonal flow. It supported primarily rain dependent crops. Aquatic avifauna had patchy low density populations of the commoner bird species found in Maharashtra. During the Early Period soon after the con- struction of the dam, the surrounding farmland ac- quired by the Irrigation Department was mostly fal- low. The ecosystem was dominated by the formation of extensive open mudbanks at the edge of the water. As these were progressively colonized by micro- scopic plankton and later by invertebrates such as worms, molluscs, and Crustacea the waders began to increase in number. This also provided the favoured ‘niche’ of the flamingo. This was followed by a Transition Period with the establishment of a few areas of aquatic and semi- aquatic macrophytes. The peripheral land was now leased to farmers to grow cash crops which were heavily fertilized, leading to progressive eutrophica- tion. This brought about a shift from the predominantly wading species to that of dabbling ducks and marsh birds. The growing expanse of Paspallum grass now began to attract more and more coots, moorhens and jacanas. With the increasing number of fingerlings released by the Fisheries Department there was a rise in the fisheating birds such as gulls and terns. During this period the nesting colonies of tern were established. The Recent Period is characterised by an over- growth of Paspallum that has converted the multi- niche wetland into an extensive single niche marshland. Only the deep water is left open while most of the mudbanks are covered with weeds. The waders and specialist feeders such as the flamingo have thus been drastically reduced. The avifaunal pattern is dominated by increasing numbers of com- moner species of marsh birds. Summary and Conclusions Bhigwan is a wetland that has an immense con- servation potential and thus requires special atten- tion from Government. Unless it is notified im- mediately and a well formulated management plan drawn up and implemented, the ecosystem will soon deteriorate beyond the point of no return. One of the special features of this wetland is the relatively high pH, and the presence of large mudbanks that in 1986 84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 created an ideal habitat for waders. As a result the flamingo aggregated here in larger numbers than anywhere else in Maharashtra. The profile of aquatic and terrestrial birds shows that during the study period a total of 160 species of birds was recorded. Of these 85 were aquatic, and 75 were terrestrial. The species diversity index calculated for January 1987 and January 1988, was 2.01 and 2.08 respectively ( Shannon- Weiner formula). In sum- mer the species diversity index for March 1987 and March 1988, was 1.32 and 1.72, which was con- siderably lower than in winter. Bhigwan is the only large breeding colony for a variety of ground nesters in Maharashtra. The is- lands on which a major concentration of breeding occurs are selected by the birds for their seclusion. Unfortunately as the water level drops in summer, the islands develop mud bridges like an isthmus that joins them to the shore of the lake. This produces an influx of cattle that trample the eggs and chicks. The village dogs also predate on them and within a few days all the nests are destroyed. Our observations have shown that population trends for different avifauna are related to : a) Changes in the habitat and availability of favoured niches; b) Availability and accessibility of specific food sources; c) Presence of secluded nesting sites; d) Extent of disturbance by human activity to feed- ing, roosting and nesting sites. It is apparent that this specialized system is undergoing a process of rapid succession and con- sequently becoming a less specialized one. Even though this may have enhanced the absolute num- ber of birds especially of the commoner marsh species, it has lead to a decrease in certain specialist birds dependent on mudbanks that occupy a very narrow ‘niche’. During the study period 26 species became relatively more common, while the popula- tion of 21 other species showed a decline. Habitat suitability has mirrored the changes observed in the avifaunal population. The early period with newly formed mudbanks, gave way place to a multi-niche intermediate period with a very high population of diverse birds and finally a uni- niche marshland with a lower diversity and population of several species. The point in question is, what should be en- visioned as an ‘ideal’ wedand habitat for Bhigwan. A highly diverse and densely populated mix is what is evidently most desirable. Management should aim at transforming this man-modified ecosystem so that it mimics a natural ecosystem as closely as possible. This can be done if the wetland is managed so as to provide multiple ‘niches’ for a variety of species. However this may not be easily feasible as the ability to control such a complex system re- quires careful, constant scientific monitoring. Ar- resting the process of succession is in itself difficult and to attempt to reverse it, is even more problematic. For instance the influx of Paspallum may indeed necessitate an expensive bulldozing operation or provide a major drawdown every sum- mer to dry the weed. Maintaining open mudbanks provides a challenge to the wetland manager. Removal of weed species such as the Eichhornia also poses a serious problem. Controlling the water level is another tool that can be used to manage the aquatic ecosystem. This would necessitate building of bunds and sluices to maintain a specified water level as is done in Bharat- pur. Lift irrigation pumps can be used to raise water levels in them. The submerged road and trolley track that extends from the Bhigwan Forest Depart- ment Nursery up to Kumbhargao could be used as a foundation to build the bunds. A pilot experiment on these lines could be made near Kumbhargao, where the old road and the banks form a shallow lagoon. Studies could then be instituted to observe how changes in water levels affect various bird species, producing local fluctuations in their popula- tion. Management must attempt to balance the needs of resource utilization and nature conservation. As the specific conflict sources have been identified and key conservation goals specified during this study, it has been possible to evolve a multi-faceted management formula for the wetland. Management Recommendations Administrative measures: At present, the entire waterbody is under the jurisdiction of the Irriga- tion Department of Maharashtra. This wetland, or a part of the backwaters, should be handed over to the Forest Department and notified as a sanctuary. The Forest Department has already accepted our as- AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 85 sessment that this is a unique wetland, and has proposed to the Government that it should be notified as a bird sanctuary. We would like to point out that though the northeastern bank is said to be already notified as the Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, this has little mean- ing as this very large sanctuary cannot be protected effectively. We feel that this unmanageably large Sanctuary should be denotified as core areas used by the bustards have now been identified. Once this is done, the area on the northeastern banks of the Uj- jani lake would be left without a protected status, as there are no bustards in the area. In view of this, the whole area should be separately notified as a Wetland Sanctuary, rather than being left as part of the Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary. Land use management around the wetland: a) Farming: As the waterbody stores an enor- mous quantity of water even through the dry season, the utilization of water for domestic use and irriga- tion presents no threat to the ecosystem. In fact the irrigated fields attract a large number of gram- nivorous and insectivorous birds and provide a habitat for small mammals. However, farming on the exposed land during the summer draw-down should not be permitted in the immediate vicinity of the shoreline in the back- waters. At present this adds to very rapid eutrophication by the excessive use of fertilizers. Filling this area increases siltation and will shorter the effective lifespan of the Irrigation Project. The local effect of pesticides, which has not been studied, may also be detrimental to the aquatic ecosystem. The continuation of uncontrolled farming in this area will further disturb the probable nesting of flamingos and other ground nesters around the shore. Thus this area at the edge of the water may be constituted into a ‘core zone’ where disturbance should be minimized. This can only be done if the local people are involved and are made aware of the economic benefits of creating a sanctuary for wildlife tourism and are given job opportunities for its management. We are given to understand that compensation for these lands has been given to the farmers, and these areas are only leased to them by the Irrigation Department each summer. This practice need not be stopped completely. However, those areas which get totally inundated every year should not be leased out to prevent further ecological changes. This con- sists of a strip of about 50 to 100 meters in width at the edge of the water. b) Control of grazing: Grazing on the islands where the tern colonies are located should be im- mediately stopped, as it destroys the large nesting colonies that have been established. Grazing of livestock in the peripheral area poses no threat to the aquatic ecosystem. However, the institution of scientific rangeland management would improve the quantity of locally available fodder. Some areas should be closed by rotation, to permit better rejuvenation of the semi-arid grassland ecosystem. This would also support larger numbers of semi-arid land birds. c) Afforestation: The hill ranges near the waterbody as well as the entire shore, are totally bar- ren. Suitable trees should be planted around the water, a sufficient distance away from it. These trees will serve as roosting and nesting places for birds like storks, herons and egrets. Afforestation of the permanent islands with Acacia trees would also help establish nesting colonies of birds, which prefer seclusion and thorny trees to nest in. The trend, at present, is to plant exotic fast growers and attractive flowering trees around the lake. These do not form part of this semi-arid Savannah ecosystem and are detrimental to its ecology. This will reduce the habitat suitability for semi-arid land birds, rep- tiles and mammals. The aforestation must thus be aimed at recreating a near natural semi-arid area vegetation, with trees such a Babul and Ber , which are indigenous to the area and also require less economic inputs to grow successfully in the murum soil. Management of the aquatic component of the wetland: a) Fishing: At present fishing, does not have any adverse effect on the ecosystem. However, fishermen should not be permitted to leave their nets in the shallows for several days, as they trap waterfowl such as ducks, waders and flamingos. Otters are also killed by fishermen. This must be prevented. The nesting islands should be made out-of-bounds for drying of nets or other activities. Movement through the feeding and roosting areas should be through specific routes to minimise dis- 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 turbance. The species of fingerlings released by the Fisheries Department should contain a smaller proportion of carnivorous fish so as to reduce com- petition (for molluscs and Crustacea) with wildfowl. b) Ferrying: The establishment of specific routes to ferry people from one village to another will reduce disturbance to critical feeding, roosting and nesting sites. c) Habitat improvement: Some isolated areas can be selected to plant Typha or other aquatic reeds. These will provide nesting places for resident ducks and waders. Mudflats that appear and disappear rapidly must be stabilized by controlling the direction and flow of water. This can be done by adding rubble to existing mudbanks to prevent them from being washed away in the monsoon. This will allow more birds to nest regularly. An attempt must be made to allow the large expanses of Paspallum grass to revert, to mudbanks This can be done by encourag- ing grazing by buffaloes and by manual removal for stall feeding. The annual summer draw-down that will occur once the water is fully utilized for canal irrigation downstream, may further help in the con- trol of the unwanted grass by drying during the sum- mer. Opening up the mudbanks by reducing macro- phytes in a part of the area would effectively increase the accessibility of food essential for specialized waders. The wetland can also be managed by building bunds and manipulating water levels as is done in Bharatpur. A small pilot scheme to study the effect should be instituted before going in for any large scale management on these lines (Harrison 1982). Wildlife Management: a) Protection of nesting colonies: Specific protection should be given to the nesting colonies of terns, pratincoles and plovers on the islands. The land connections that form in summer between the islands and the shore of the lake should be discon- nected or closed off with barbed wire fences when the water level drops. Guards must be posted near the islands to prevent damage by villagers, cattle and dogs. b) Poaching: There have been several reports of ‘shikar’ of birds at the lake. Large numbers of ducks, waders, cranes and even flamingos have been shot. There have also been some cases of trap- ping of otters which should be looked into and stopped immediately by the Forest Department. Notification as a Sanctuary would effectively prevent this in future. Wildlife tourism: Currently there are no tourist facilities in this area. If such facilities are provided in a well controlled fashion it will help to improve the economic standards of the local people. Special problems: a) Eradication of Paspallum: This weed must be removed on a priority basis by repeated manual removal. Reducing the weed density and producing open mudbanks constitutes a major conem. Graz- ing by domestic buffaloes should be encouraged. b) Eradication of water hyacinth: The in- vasion by water hyacinth is becoming more evident. This should also be removed on a priority basis before the whole lake is covered by this weed. c) Increasing salinity: During 1989 several areas around the periphery of the water showed signs of salinity. Patches of salt deposits were seen in cer- tain areas and in some cases apart from sugarcane, the yield from other crops is on the decline. This aspect needs further investigation so that the farmers, income is not jeopardised. d) Proposal for nuclear and thermal powerplant: There is a recent proposal to develop a nuclear and a thermal powerplant at Ujjani. The BNHS has been requested to study its impact on the ecosystem. Permission to start work on the project should not be granted till the EIA is completed. Proposed pilot study: It is essential to build small bunds to impound water at different depths and ob- serve its effects on resource utilization and feeding habits of the different waterfowl. The cycling of nutrients and effects of fertilization and pesticides should also be evaluated. This would help formulate further management principles to improve the habitat suitability for its avifauna and support a larger population with a greater diversity of bird life. Environmental awareness programs: Conserva- tion consciousness can be best achieved by design- ing a specific audio-visual programme on the benefits of protecting and managing the wetland as a sanctuary. This can be shown to local people on market days, and to village schools in the area. Conservation: Though the Forest Department has been considering creating a sanctuary here for AVIAN PROFILE OF A MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 87 several years, the area is yet to be officially notified. It has iso been included in the list of proposed Protected Areas in a report for the Department of Environment by the Wildlife Institute of India (Rodgers and Pan war 1988) If a productive multiple use area and a bird sanctuary are to coexist in this wetland its active management must be done with local involvement. Only then can its conservation objectives be realized on a long term basis. Acknowledgements The fieldwork was funded in the earlier part of the study by the W.W.F. Maharashtra and Goa Refe Anderson J.M.(1981): Ecology for Environmental Sciences: Biosphere, Ecosystems and Man Edwart Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. Ali,S. (1983): A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Sub- continent. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Ali, S. & Vuayan, V.S. (1986): Keoladeo National Park, Ecologi- cal Study Summary Report 1980-1985. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay Ali, S. & Hussain, S. A. (1983): Studies on the Movement and Population Structure of Indian Avifauna. Annual Report - II, 1981-1982. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Allen, R.P. (1956): The Flamingos : Their Life History And Survival. Fog, M. (1982): Prevention of crop damage. In Managing Wet- lands And Their Birds , (Ed. D.A. Scott) International Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, England, pp. 227-232. Harrison, J.G. (1982): Creating and improving island wading bird habitat at Sevenoaks, England. Managing Wetlands And Their Birds 137-142. Hussain, S.A., Mohapatra, K.K. & Ali, S. (1984): Avifauna Profile of Chilka Lake, A Case for Conservation. Committee and was sponsored by Air India during the Crystal Year celebrations of W.W.F. India. We are grateful for their financial help. We are indebted to Shri K.A. Shaikh, D.F.O. Wildlife, who has taken keen interest in the area. We wish to thank Prof. B.B. Chaughale of the Botany Department, Pune University for his inputs on the botanical aspects of the study. We thank Shri J.C. Daniel and Dr V.S. Vijayan who went through the draft of the report and gave us guidance and sug- gestions for changing it to its present form. We wish to thank Dr. (Mrs) Statira Wadia and Mrs Parveen Godrej who helped with editing the manuscript. NCES Johnson, A. R. (1982): Construction of a breeding island for Flamingos in the Camargue, France, In Managing Wet- lands And Their Birds , (Ed. D.A. Scott) International Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, England, pp. 204-208. Odum, E.P. (1971): Fundamentals of Ecology, 3rd edn. pp. 303- 304. W.B. Saunders Toppan Co Ltd. Rodgers, W.A. & Panwar, H.S. (198 8) Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. Vol II 148/MH-14. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. Rooth, J. (1982): A man-made breeding Sanctuary for Flamin- gos on Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles, In Managing Wet- lands And Their Birds, (Ed. D.A. Scott) International Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, England, pp. 172-178. Soule, M.E. (1986): Conservation Biology p. 369 Sinauer Ass. Inc. Sunderland, Massachusetts. Thomas, G.J. (1982): Management of vegetation at wetlands) In Managing Wetlands And Their Birds, (Ed. D.A. Scott) International Waterfowl Research Bureau, Slimbridge, England. 88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol87 Appendix 1 BIRDS RECORDED AT BHIGWAN BACKWATERS FROM 1986 TO 1989 Checklist with ecological classification, feeding ‘niche’, seasonal population dynamics, status, and population trends from 1986 to 1989. Column 1 : Habitat utilization of avifauna: A = Aquatic, T = Terrestrial, A (t) = Primarily aquatic, secondarily terrestrial; T(a) = Primarily terrestrial, secondarily aquatic. Column 2: Aquatic feeding zone : I = 0 to 10 cm deep (at shoreline) II = 1 1 to 120 cm (relatively shallow) and HI = 120 cm and deeper water. Column 3: Status and seasonal variations in 1986 (3a) and 1989 (3b) VC = Very Common, C = Common, U = Uncommon, O = Occasional M = Migratory, LM = Local Migratory, R = Resident Column 4: Population trends : + = Increasing, - = Decreasing SPECIES 1 2 3a 1986 3b 1989 4 1. Little grebe Podiceps ruficollis A n/m C/R? C/LM 2. Cormorant P halacrocorax carbo A n/m U/LM C/LM + 3. Indian shag P halacrocorax fuscicollis A n/m U/LM C/LM + 4. Grey heron Ardea cinerea A n/m C/LM C/R 5. Purple heron Ardea purpurea A n/m C/LM C/LM + 6. Pond heron Ardeola grayii A IV C/LM VC/R? 7. Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis T (a) i VC/LM VC/R? + 8. Large egret Ardea alba A i/n VC/LM VC/R? 9. Smaller egret Egretta intermedia A i U/LM U/LM 10. Little egret Egretta garzetta A i C/LM VC/R? 11. Painted stork Mycteria leucocephala A i/n/m O/LM C/R + 12. Openbilled stork Anastomus oscitans A i/n/m VC/R? VC/R - 13. Whitenecked stork Ciconia episcopus A i/n/m C/LM VC/R 14. White ibis Threskiornis aethiopica A i/n/m C/LM C/R - 15. Black ibis Pseudibis papillosa A i/n/m C/LM C/R 16. Glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus A i/n/m VC/LM C/R - 17. Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia A n/m VC/LM C/R? - 18. Greater flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus A n/m VC/M C/M - 19. Lesser whistling teal Dendrocygna javanica A i/n C/M U/M - 20. Ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea A i/n/m C/M C/M 21. Pintail Anas acuta A i/n VC/M C/M - 22. Common teal Anas crecca ' A i/n VC/M C/M - 23. Spotbill duck Anas poecilorhyncha A i/n C/R C/R + 24. Gad wall A mw strepera A i/n U/M C/M + 25. Wigeon Anas penelope A i/n U/M VC/M + 26. Gargany teal Anas querquedula A i/n C/M C/M 27. Shoveller Anas clypeata A i/n VC/M C/M - 28. Common pochard Aythyaferina A i/n VC/M VC/M 29. White-eyed pochard Aythya nyroca A i/n C/M VC/M + 30. Tufted duck Aythya fuligula A i/n/m U/M VC/M + 31. Cotton teal Nettapus coromandelianus A i/n C/M C/M? 32. Coumb duck Sarkidiornis melanotos A i/n/m U/M U/M 33. Blackwinged kite Elanus caeruleus T C/R C/R 34. Pariah kite Milvus migrans govinda T (a) i/n/m C/R C/R 35. Large Indian kite Milvus migrans lineatus T (a) i/n/m C/M? C/M? 36. Brahminy kite Haliastur indius A i/n/m U/M O/M 37. Shikra Accipiter badius T C/R? C/R 38. Sparrow-hawk Accipiter nisus T C/M C/M 39. White-eyed buzzard-eagle Bulaster teesa T C/R C/M : 40. Bonelli’s eagle Hieraaetus pennatus T (a) i/n/m C/R? O/R ' I 41. Tawny eagle Aquila rapax vindhiana T (a) i/n/m U/M U/M 42. Eastern Steppe eagle Aquila rapax nipalensis T (a) i/n/m U/M U/M 43. Lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina T (a) i/n/m C/R? C/R? 44. Greyheaded fishing eagle Ichlhyophaga ichthyaetus A i/n/m U/M? U/M? 45. Montagu’s harrier Circus pygargus T (a) i/n/m U/M C/M + AVIAN PROFILE OF MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 89 SPECIES 46. Marsh harrier Circus aegruginosus 47. Short-toed eagle Circaetus gallicus 48. Osprey Pandion haliaetus 49. Lagger falcon Falco biarmicus 50. Redheaded merlin Falco chicquera 5 1 . Kestrel Falco tinnunculus 52. Grey partridge Francolinus pondicerianus 53. Rock bush quail Perdicula argoondah 54. Common crane Grus grus 55. Demoiselle crane Anthropoides virgo 56. Whitebreasted waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus 57. Moorhen Gallinula chloropus 58. Purple moorhen Porphyrio porphyrio 59. Coot Fulica atra 60. Pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus 61. Painted snipe Rostr alula benghalensis 62. Blackwinged stilt Himantopus himantopus 63. Great stone plover Esacus magnirostris 64. Indian courser Cursorius coromandelicus 65. Collared pratincole Glareola pratincola 66. Small Indian pratincole Glareola lactea 67. Redwattled lapwing Vanellus indicus 68. Yellow-wattled lapwing Vanellus malabaricus 69. Golden plover Pluvial 'is apricaria 70 Ringed plover Charadrius hiaticula 71 Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius 72 Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus 73 Curlew Numenius arquata 74 Blacktailed godwit Limosa limosa 75 Bartailed godwit Limosa lapponica 76 Spotted redshank Tringa erythropus 77 Common redshank Tringa totanus 78 Greenshank Tringa nebularia 79 Green sandpiper Tringa oc hr opus 80 Spotted sandpiper Tringa glareola 81 Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos 82 Fantailed snipe Gallinago gallinago 83 Sanderling Calidris alba 84 Little stint Calidris minula 85 Temminck’s stint Calidris temminickii 86 Ruff and reeve Philomachus pugnax 87 Herring gull Larus argentatus 88 Brownheaded gull Larus brunnicephalus 89 Blackheaded gull Larus ridibundus 90 Whiskered tern Chlidonias hybrida 91 Gullbilled tem Gelochelidon nilotica 92 Caspian tem Hydroprogne caspia 93 Indian river tem Sterna aurantis 94 Blackbellied tem Sterna acutrcauda 95 Little tem Sterna albifrons 96 Indian sandgrouse Pterocles exustus 97 Blue rock pigeon Columba livia 98 Indian ring dove Streptopelia decaocto 99 Red turtle dove Streptopelia tranquebarica 100 Little brown dove Streptopelia senegalensis 101 Roseringed parakeet Psittacula krameri 102. Koel Eudynamys scolopacea 103 Crow-pheasant Centropus sinensis 1 2 3a 3b 4 A L/n/m VC/M VC/M + T(a) i/n/m U/M? O/R A m C/M C/M T O/R O/R T C/R? C/R T O/M O/M T C/R? C/R T C/R? C/R A(t) i/n U/M U/M A(t) i/n C/M O/M A(t) m U/R? U/R? A(t) i/n U/LM? C/R? + A(t) i/n C/R VC/R + A i/n C/R VC/R + A i/n U/R? VC/R? + A(t) i U/M? VC/R? + A i/n VC/M C/R? - A(t) i C/R O/R T C/R C/R A(t) i O/M? O/M? A(t) i VC/R VC/R A(t) i VC/R VC/R A(t) i VC/R VC/R A(t) i U/M O/M A(t) i U/M O/M A(t) i VC/R VC/R A(t) i VC/R VC/R A(t) i O/M O/M A m VC/M C/M A i/n U/M O/M A i/n O/M O/M A i/n U/M U/M A i/n C/M U/M - A i/n VC/M C/M A i C/M C/M A i C/M VC/M + A (t) i O/M C/R? + A i C/M C/M A i C/M C/M A i U/M? ? A i C/M U/M A i/n/m U/M C/M + A i/n/m C/M C/M A i/n/m U/M O/M A n/m U/R? C/R + A n/m C/M C/M A n/m C/M U/M A n/m VC/R VC/R + A n/m C/R? C/R? A n/m C/R VC/R T C/R C/R T C/R C/R T C/R C/R T C/R C/R T VC/R VC/R T Vc/R? VC/R T U/R U/R T C/R? C/R 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 87 SPECIES 1 2 3a 1986 3b 4 1989 104 Great homed owl Bubo bubo T C/R? C/R 105 Spotted owlet Athena brama T C/R C/R 106 Mottled wood owl Strix ocellata T U/M? U/M? 107 House swift Apus affinis T (a) mm C/R C/R 108 Lesser pied kingfisher Ceryle rudis A mm C/R /R 109 Common kingfisher Alcedo atthis A mm U/M C/R + 110 Whitebreasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis A mm C/R C/R 111 Green bee-eater Merops orientalis T C/R C/R 112 Indian roller Coracias benghalensis T C/M C/M 113 Hoopoe Upupa epops T C/R C/R 1 14 Small green barbet Megalaima viridis T C/R C/R 115 Maratha woodpecker Picoides mahrattensis T C/R? C/R 1 16 Redwinged bush lark Mirafra erythroptera T C/R C/R 1 17 Ashycrowned finch-lark Eremopterix grisea T C/R C/R 118 Rufoustailed finch-lark Ammomanes phoenicurus T C/R C/R 119 Malabar crested lark Galerida malabarica T C/R C/R 120 Collared sand martin Riparia riparia T (a) mm U/M O/M 121 Dusky crag martin Hirundo concolor T (a) im/m C/R C/R 1 22 Swallow Hirundo rustica T (a) i/n/ra C/M C/M 123 Wiretailed swallow Hirunda smithii T (a) i/n/m C/R? C/R? 124 Striated swallow Hirundo daurica T (a) mm C/M? C/M 125 Grey shrike Lanius excubit or T C/M C/R 126 Baybacked shrike Lanius vittatus T U/R? C/R + 127 Rufousbacked shrike Lanius schach T C/R C/R 128 Black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis T C/R C/R 129 Blackheaded myna Sturnus pagodarum T C/R C/R 130 Rosy pastor Sturnus roseus T C/M VC/M + 131 Common myna Acridotheres tristis T C/R VC/R 132 House crow Corvus splendens T C/R C/R 133 Jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos T C/R C/R 134 Small minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus T O/R? O/R 135 Common iora Aegithina nigrolutea T C/R? C/R 136 Redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer T C/R C/R 137 Common babbler Turdoides cauda t us T C/R? C/R 138 Large grey babbler Turdoides malcolmi T C/R C/R 139 Indian great reed warbler Acrocephalus stentoreus A (t) i C/M C/M 140 Booted warbler Hippolais caligata T O/M O/M 141 Lesser whitethroat Sylvia curruca T C/M C/M 142 Magpie-robin Copsychus saularis T C/R C/R 143 Black redstart Phoenicurus ochruros T O/M C/M 144 Indian robin Saxicoloides fulicata T C/R C/R 145 Blue rock thrush Mont icola cinclorhynchus T O/M O/M 146 Grey tit Par us major T C/R C/R 147 Tawny pipit Anthus campestris T C/R C/R 148 Yellow wagtail Motacilla flava A(t) i U/M C/M + 149 Yellowheaded wagtail Motacilla citreola A(t) i U/M C/M + 150 Grey wagtail Motacilla cinerea A(t) i VC/M C/M 151 White wagtail Motacilla alba A(t) i U/M C/M + 152 Laige pied wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis A(t) i C/R C/R 153 Purple ramped sunbird Nectar ina zeylonica T C/R C/R 154 Purple sunbird Nectar ina asiatica T C/R C/R 155 White-eye Zosterops palpebrosa T C/R C/R 1 56 House sparrow Passer domesticus T VC/R VC/R 157 Baya Ploceus philippinus T C/R C/R 158 Whitethroated munia Lonchura malabarica T C/R C/R 159 Blackheaded bunting Ember iza melanocephala T C/M C/M 160 Redheaded bunting Ember iza bruniceps T C/M C/M DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA1 INDRANEIL DAS2 (With a text-figure) Distributional records for 10 species of chelonians, based primarily on collections from the northeastern states of Assam and Meghalaya have been presented. These include: Emydidae- Pyxidea mouhoti , Cuora amboinensis, Melanochelys tricarinata, M. trijuga , Geoclemys hamiltonii, Kachuga smithii, K. sylhetensis, K.tentoria , Tes- tudinida e-Manouria emys and Trionychidae-Liy^emyj punctata Introduction The chelonian fauna of the northeastern states of India (Fig. 1) comprises at least 17 species, belonging to 3 families (Table 1). Much of the exist- ing knowledge on the distribution of the group in the region is based on collections that are decades old, scattered in several museums. Literature concerning the region’s turtles and tortoises is scanty. Those solely dealing with north eastern India, published in the present century include Chaudhury (1912), Talukdar (1979), Vijaya (1983) and Das (1987). The present account describes the notable records of turtles and tortoises discovered during a recent (January-February and June- July 1988) sur- vey in the states of Assam and Meghalaya, under- taken by me and supported by the IUCN/WWF. A description of the survey will be found in the final project report (Das 1988). Methods Turtles and tortoises were collected during the survey either by hand or in tangle-nets set in water or from forest villages. At the Manas Tiger Reserve, the chelonian collections made by Mr. S.K. Sarma, Forest Range Officer, Bansbari, were examined. In addition, material at several museums was verified. The following museum acronyms have been used: BM(NH): British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington, London, England. MHNG: Museum Histoire Naturelle, Geneva, Switzerland. ZSI: National Zoological Collection, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, India. ZSI/ER: Zoologi- cal Survey of India, Eastern Regional station, Shil- long, India. All material referred to in subsequent sections, Accepted 2Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Vadanemmeli, Perur Post, Mahabalipuram Road, Madras 603 104. except those in the MHNG have been personally verified. ID/NE refers to my north eastern India field number and material collected during the above sur- vey are being deposited at the ZSI. Nomenclature follows Iverson’s (1986) most recent checklist. Scute terminology used are those suggested by Zangerl (1969). Two or more of the following measurements were taken on each specimen dealt with sub- sequently: 1. Straight carapace length (SCL): For emydids and testudinids, cervical at carapace midline to posterior edge of 12th marginal; for trionychids, from the cervical, along the medial region to the posterior tip of flap, taken with dial vernier calipers for specimens upto 20 cm, and with steel tape for those exceeding this length. Table 1 LIST OF CHELONIANS RECORDED FROM THE NORTHEASTERN STATES OF INDIA Emydidae 1. Pyxidea mouhotii Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh 2. Cyclemys dentata Assam, Meghalaya 3. Cuora amboinensis Assam, Nagaland 4. Melanochelys trijuga Assam, Nagaland 5 Melanochelys tricarinata Assam, Arunachal Pradesh 6. Geoclemys hamiltonii Assam, Meghalaya 7. Morenia petersi Assam 8. Hardella thurjii Assam, Meghalaya 9. Kachuga smithii Assam 10. Kachuga tecta Assam 11. Kachuga tentoria Assam 12. Kachuga sylthetensis Assam, Meghalaya 13. Kachuga dhongoka Assam Testudinidae 14. Indotestudo elongata Meghalaya, possibly Assam 15. Manouria emys Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya , Nagaland Trionychidae 16. Lissemys punctata Assam, Meghalaya 17. Trionyx hurum Assam 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 2. 3. Fig. 1. Map of northeast India, showing localities cited in the text. Assam: 1. Manas; 2. Kaziraga; 3. Sibsagar; Meghalaya; 4. Ranikor: 5. Nonghyliem. Emydedae 1. Keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray 1862) In a recent review of the distribution of this little - known species (Das 1987), I mentioned that, based on museum specimens, it is positively known from the Garo hills of Meghalaya and Deban, Tirap (presently Changlang) district of Arunachal Pradesh, with a possible record from Cachar, Assam, BM(NH)98°12°20o 1, registered as from ‘Eastern Curved carapace length (CCL): Taken with a flexible tape. Straight carapace width (SCW): Distance across widest part of carapace, perpendicular to longitudinal body axis, taken with dial ver- nier calipers for specimens up to 20 cm, and with steel tape for those exceeding this length. CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA 93 Assam hills, probably North Cachar, near Barail Range. Since then I have obtained the following infor- mation: Three specimens have been recorded as col- lected from the Cachar hills by Anderson (1871) and evidently two of these were from the Kapili river of the North Cachar hills. All were presented to the Asiatic Society by Maj. H.H. Godwin- Austin hand- written comments, together with the initials ‘J.A.’ ( = John Anderson?) on blank page between pages 10 and 11 of Theobald (1868) in the library of the ZSI. The zoological collections of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in 1875, was transferred to the In- dian Museum, and in 19 16 the collection was handed over to the ZSI, but the 3* North Cachar hills specimens of Pyxidea mouhotii cannot be located at present 2. Malayan box turtle Cuora amboinensis (Daudin 1802) Material: 2 examples, from Kaziranga National Park, Golaghat district, Assam. ID/NE 02 : SCL 21.6 cm, CCL 25.3 cm, SCW 14.8 cm. ID/NE 09 : SCL 20.9 cm, CCL 25 cm, SCW 14.3 cm. Both col- lected by me in January-February 1988. Moll and Vijaya (1986) reported on a specimen belonging to this species in the collection of the ZSI (Reg. 16690), from Mangaldai, Darrang district, Assam. The present records further confirm the occur- rence of Cuora amboinensis in northeastern India. In addition to the Kaziranga material, 3 more ex- amples collected from Manas Tiger Reserve, Bar- peta district, Assam, by Mr S.K. Sarma, were verified. An example of the present species, from the ‘Gela Bil river, Jorhat, Assam’ is reported to be in the collection of the MHNG (Reg. 1557.15). ‘Bils’ in the region, however, refers to large bodies of standing water. Anderson (1872a) recorded the species from Samagooting in the Naga hills, now in Nagaland, but this record is not supported by a museum specimen. 3. Tricar mate hill turtle Melanochelys tricarinata (Blyth 1856). 6 examples of this poorly known emydid were seen at Manas, which were collected from the Bansbari grasslands (Sarma, pers. comm.), within the Tiger Reserve. The distribution given for the species by Smith (1931) is Bisnath plain, Assam; Dafla hills, presently in Arunachal Pradesh; Jal- paiguri district, northern West Bengal and Chaibas- sa, now in Singhbhum district, Bihar. The ZSI has collections from the localities mentioned in addition to one (Reg. 18391) listed as from ‘a few miles from Sonarpur, Assam’. Moll and Vijaya (1986) collected the species from near the Nepal border in West Champaran dis- trict, Bihar, and saw photos of the turtle taken in Nepal’s Chitawan National Park. The species has also been reported from Corbett National Park, Nainital and Garhwal districts, Uttar Pradesh by Frazier (1986). There are, in adddition, published records of Melanochelys tricarinata from Bangladesh - Mymensingh district (Khan 1982a, 1982b and 1987), Dinajpur (Khan 1982b) and the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf region of Chittagong (Khan 1987). The record of the species from the Sunder- bans of West Bengal by Mukherjee (1975) is surprising and erroneous. At Manas, 2 of the cap- tive turtles laid one large egg each on the open ground, in November, but both were broken possib- ly by the turtles themselves (Sarma, pers. comm.). One of the broken eggs were examined by me and found to be large in size, with a thick, brittie shell. Moll (quoted in Dinerstein et al. 1987) believed clutch size in the species to be between 1-3. 4. Indian black turtle Melanochelys trijuga (Schweigger 1814) Material: A nearly complete carapace from Lailad village, Nongkhyllem Reserve Forest, East Khasi hills, Meghalaya. Reportedly caught from the ad- jacent Umtru river. Collected by me in June 1988. ID/NE 18:SCLc. 20.5 cm, CCL c. 25 cm, SCW 15.8 cm. To this species, I assign an incomplete carapace, put together from a cluster of disarticu- lated bones discovered on the roof of a shed in Lailad village, where in the past, it was used as a feeding bowl for dogs. Subspecific allocation is not possible, as the 5 races that are currently recognised are dif- ferentiated primarily by their head colorations and the locality falls approximately halfway between the known ranges of the subspecies indopeninsularis : northern India and possibly Bangladesh and Nepal, and edeniana: almost throughout Burma (Das 1985, Iverson 1986). The Manas records, a collection of 7 individuals made by Mr. S.K. Sarma, had long, black 7 94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 spear-shaped marks on the foreheads, diagnostic of indope ninsularis, This extends the range of the sub- species into Assam. The subspecies indopeninsularis was given a rather restricted distribution by Smith (1931), ‘Chota Nagpur and Jalpaiguri district, N. Bengal! ’ Mol! and Vijaya (1986) collected it from West Champaran district of Bihar. Dinerstein et al. (1987) recorded Melanochelys trijuga from western and central Nepal and though a subspecific allocation was not made in either case, indopeninsularis seems to be the race involved. 5. Spotted pond turtle Geoclemys hamiltonii (Gray 1831). Material: 8 examples, shells and entire specimens, from forest camps and large ponds in Kaziranga Na- tional Park, Golaghat district, Assam. ID/NE 04 : SCL 16.6 cm, CCL 18.9 cm, SCW 11.0 cm, ID/NE 06: SCL 32.3 cm, CCL 36.6 cm, SCW 19.6 cm, ID/NE 10: SCL 21.6 cm, CCL 24 cm, SCW 13 cm, ID/NE 14: SCL 19 cm, CCL 21.5 cm, SCW 11.8 cm, ID/NE 15:SCL 19.5 cm, CCL 23 cm, SCW 12.2 cm, ID/NE 16:24.7 cm, CCL 28 cm, SCW 15.2 cm, ID/NE 17:SCL 22.4 cm, CCL 25.6 cm, SCW 13.7 cm, ID/NE 07, plastron only (notch-notch) 18.3 cm; greatest length 19.7 cm. All collected by me between January and February, 1988. Smith (1931) gave the distribution of Geoclemys hamiltonii as from ‘Sind to Bengal’. Vijaya (1983) extended the range of the species into Assam, based on photographs of the species taken at Kaziranga. Most of the material reported herein were collected as shells discovered in the vicinity of forest camps, where the turtles were eaten by the human inhabitants. Exceptions include ID/NE 14, a complete articulate skeleton of a female from the bank of Barbeel besides ID/NE 10 and 15, both males, from Mehrbeel and Barbeel respectively, caught in tangle nets set among reed clumps. The only other locality in Assam from where the species is known is Sonarpur, Kamrup district, (ZSI 18339) collected by L.W. Middleton. At ZSI/ER, a large but poorly preserved and un- catalogued example of the species was seen, which was collected from the West Khasi hills of Meghalaya (Ranikor) by V.T. Darlong on 10 February 1987. The present records confirm the occurrence of Geoclemys hamiltonii in northeastern India. 6. Brown roofed turtle Kachuga smithii (Gray 1863) Moll (1987) recently reviewed the biology and distribution of the small riverine species and described a new subspecies, pallidipes. During the present investigations, a single example of K. smithii was seen at Manas, which was locally acquired by Mr. S.K. Sarma. The dark pigmented limbs and head and large black blotches on the plastron keys this out as the nominate form, smithii Rivers Indus and Ganga are included in the range of the species in general works (Das 1985, Pritchard 1979, Smith 1931), as Chaudhury (1912) in his account of the turtles of the Brahmaputra was not clear whether the brown roofed turtle does in fact occur in this river. Iverson’s (1986) distributional map for the species shows a locality in the Brah- maputra, and this is based on the MHNG record cited below (Iverson, pers. comm.): MHNG 1185.27, from Kaziranga; MHNG 1240.55 listed as from the north bank of the Brahmaputra, in the Jorhat area. Since the city of Jorhat is situated in the south bank, the collection locality is presumably opposite Jorhat, across the Brahmaputra, the collection locality is presumbaly across the river, north of Jorhat. 7. Assam roofed turtle Kachuga sylhetensis (Jerdon 1870) Material: 1 example, from Kolathua village, Sib- sagar district, Assam. ZSI/ER VI/8139 : SCL 7.2 cm., CCL 8.8 cm., SCW 6.0 cm. Collected by J.P. Sati, 12 June 1981. Moll (1987) in his recent review of K. sylheten- sis had listed specimens from Cherrapunji (Khasi hills) and Garo hills of Meghalaya and Cachar dis- trict of Assam, in India besides the Khasi hills of Syl- het district of Bangladesh, based on material in the BM(NH) and ZSI collections. The referred material from Sibsagar district in the southern bank of the Brahmaputra, central Assam, extends the range of the species by over 250 km to the north. In addition, an example of the present species was seen in the collection of Mr. S.K. Sarma in Manas, which was collected from the Rupahi Bhumuk, a perennial stream within the Tiger Reserve. This is the first record of the species from the north bank of Brahmaputra. CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA 95 8. Indian tent turtle Kachuga tentoria (Gray 1834) Material: 3 shells, from Gobrai, Kaziranga Nation- al Park, Golaghat district, Assam. ID/NE 11: SCL 5.9 cm, CCL 7.7 cm, SCW 4.8 cm. ID/NE 12: SCL 7.1 cm, CCL 8.1 cm, SCW 5.8 cm. ID/NE 13: SCL 8.6 cm, CCL 9.8 cm, SCW 6.7 cm. All collected by the author in February, 1988. Moll (1987), in his most recent review of the subgenus Pangshura , included the Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna drainages in the distribution of Kachuga tentoria , in its 3 subspecies, tentoria , circumdata and flaviventer. Besides the Kaziranga material referred to, a living juvenile of the present species was seen at Manas, in the collection of Mr. S.K.Sarma. The dark plastral pattern, red markings on the head, black and cream striped rump and absence of pleuro-marginal ring identifies it as the nominate race, which was thought to be restricted to the rivers of peninsular India (Moll 1987). A third locality for the species from the Brah- maputra is Sibsagar, from where Mr Anwaruddin Choudhury, Extra-Assistant Commissioner, Guwahati, photographed a juvenile which I have verified. It was reportedly found in a channel of the Brahmaputra after the floods in 1988. These records comprise the first documenta- tion of Kachuga tentoria from the Brahmaputra drainage, and puts Assam in the distribution of the species. Testudinidae 9. Asian brown tortoise Manouria emys (Schlegel and Muller 1844) Material: 1 carapace, from Umling village, Non- gkhyllem Reserve Forest, East Khasi hills, Meghalaya. Reportedly from Lailad, north of the Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary: ID/NE 19: CCL c. 60 cm, CCW 54 cm. 1 plastron from Nongpoh vil- lage, East Khasi hills, Meghalaya. Reportedly from Borhulong, inside the Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary: ID/NE 20: notch to notch 35 cm, greatest length 40 cm. Both collected by me in June 1988. The above material constitutes the first record of the species, based on actual collection, from Meghalaya. Anderson (1871) noted that 3 examples of Testudo phayrei (now considered synonymous with the northern subspecies Manouria emys phayrei) were collected from the Cachar hills (Assam) and deposited at the Indian Museum, Cal- cutta. Subsequently, the Museum’s Zoological col- lection was handed over to the ZSI. At present, there are 2 examples of M. emys phayrei from the Cachar hills in the said collection, ZSI 15545 and ZSI 20476, both collected by Maj. H.H. Godwin- Austin. These are apparently the specimens mentioned by Anderson (op.cit.), though the fate of the third is un- known, and it is presumably lost or destroyed. The first volume of the register of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, now in the possesion of the ZSI, lists no fewer than 6 examples of ' Testudo phayrei ’ . ZSI 901-904, are listed as collected from the Cachar hills by Maj. Godwin-Austin in January 1870; ZSI 900, for which no collection data (locality/collec- tor/date) is available and ZSI 983, registered as from ‘Assam’ by Dr Anderson. Jerdon (1870) wrote that the species is not un- common in the hills of North Cachar, from where Godwin-Austin ’s specimens were obtained. The same authority stated, on information received, that the tortoise extends westwards to the Jaintia hills of what is now eastern Meghalaya. The two shells of Manouria emys from the Cachar hills that are cur- rently at the ZSI, as well as the Nongkhyllem material, show characteristics of the northern sub- species, phayrei , whose known distribution encom- passes northeastern India, Burma, northern and western Thailand, such as a brownish-black shell, small gulars and pectorals that are united. The southern subspecies, emys , from southern Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia possesses a brownish shell, with large gulars and widely separated pectorals. The Nonghkhyllem carapace (ID/NE 19) shows a hole in the 2nd and 3rd vertebrals, where the animal was burnt to kill it by the Khasia tribals, from whom the carapace was obtained. Smith (1931) gave the distribution of the species (as Testudo emys) in India as ‘Assam (Cachar, Naga Hills)’. While the Cachar hills record is supported by the museum specimens cited earlier, the report from the Naga hills is not, and is probab- ly based on Anderson (1872 b) who wrote on a col- lection of both ' Testudo phayrei ' and ' Manouria emys ’ from Lumajooting in the Naga hills, present- ly in the state of Nagaland. However, Anderson (op. 96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 cit.) believed the two to be indistinct, admitting after a lengthy discussion that ‘beyond the variation of the pectorals, they presented no other points of difference*. One of the five tortoises from the above men- tioned locality did possess pectorals that are separated, a character thought to differentiate Manouria emys emys from M. emys phayrei , sug- gesting that the ‘southern* subspecies emys, occurs within Indian limits. Elsewhere (Das 1985), I have included Manipur in the distribution of the species, and this is based on information provided by the her- petologist, Mr. S. Biswas (pers. comm.), previously of the ZSI and is not supported by a museum specimen. The Nongkhyllem record is the first record of the species from the country in over 100 years, and an extension of range by 100+ km to the northwest. Tri ony chid ae 10. Indian flapshell turtle Lissemys punctata (Lacepede 1788) Material : 1 example from Barbeel, Kaziranga Na- tional Park, Golaghat district, Assam. ID/NE 03: SCL 27 cm, CCL 31 cm, CCW 29.5 cm. Collected by the author in January, 1988. 1 example from Ranikor, West Khasi hills, Meghalaya. ZSI/ER VI/8390: CCL 29.1 cm, CCW 24.1 cm. Collected by V.T. Darlong and party, 10-2-1987. Distributed in Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bangladesh and south-western Burma the northern subspecies of Lissemys punctata punctata was con- sidered the forma typica, till Webb (1980) showed that the trinomial punctata should be correctly ap- plied to the southern subspecies, the Lissemys punctata granosa of Smith (1931) and Pritchard (1979) from peninsular India and Sri Lanka. This, amazingly enough, left no name for the widely dis- tributed and familiar yellow-spotted northern sub- species, and Webb (op.cit.) proposed the name andersoni for it. Smith (1931) remarked that the northern sub- species has not been recorded from Assam. Nearly half a century later, Talukdar (1979) reported on a collection of a specimen belonging to this species from Munnabeel, Kaziranga National Park, Assam. Recently, I had the opportunity to verify the material, ZSI/ER VI/500. In addition, one more example (cited above) was collected by me during field work from the same general area. Yet another example from northeastern India examined, ZSI/ER VI/8390, was collected from the West Khasi hills of Meghalaya, close to the Assam border, and is the first record of the species from the state. These material indicate that Lissemys punctata is widespread in the Brahmaputra drainage. I tentatively assign all three examples referred above to Lissemys punctata andersoni , as these pos- sess yellow- blotched heads and carapaces. The comparative sizes of the entroplastral callosities which had been used by Smith (1931) in separating the subspecies are highly variable in size even within a single form, sometimes being absent altogether, and this is therefore not a good taxonomic character. Acknowledgements I thank the Forest Departments of Assam and Meghalaya for permission and logistical support provided during the field work, and the officials who rendered help and shared their knowledge on chelonians of Assam. I am grateful to the Director, ZSI, and the Of- ficers-in-charge, Mr. D.P. Sanyal, ZSI Reptilia Sec- tion, and Dr. J.R. Alfred, ZSI/ER, for permission and facilities to examine the chelonians in their collec- tions. Dr. John B. Iverson, Earlham College, In- diana, sent lists of several species at the MHNG. Dr. John G. Frazier, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., made me aware of J.A.’s com- ments on Pyxidea mouhotii. Field work in north-eastern India was sup- ported by a grant from the IUCN/WWF (Project 6343) through Dr. Edward O.Moll, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston and WWF-India (Eastern Region) rendered administrative help. Comments on an earlier draft were given by Mr. Romulus Whitaker. CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN INDIA 97 References Anderson, J. (1871): A list of the reptilian accession to the In- dian Museum, Calcutta, from 1 865 to 1 870, with a descrip- tion of some new species. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 40 (Part 2): 12- 39. — — — (1872 a): On Manouria and Scapia , two genera of land tortoises. Proc. Zool. Soc., London 26: 132-144. (1872 b): On some Persian, Himalayan and other reptiles, ibid. 26: 371-404. Choudhury, B.L. (1912): Aquatic tortoises of the middle Ganga and Brahmaputra. Rec. Indian Mas. 7: 212-214. Das, I. (1985): Indian turtles: Afield guide. World Wildlife Fund- India (Eastern Region), Calcutta. 119 pp. — (1987): Distribution of the keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 (1): 221- 222. (1988): A survey of land tortoises and freshwater turtles of northeastern India. Final Report. lUCN/WWf Project 6343.28 pp. Dinerstein.E., Zug, G.R. & Mitchell, J.C. (1987): Notes on the biology of Melanochelys (Reptilia, Testudines, Emydidae) in the Terai of Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 687- 688. Frazier, J. (1986): Turtles of Corbett National Park. Report sub- mitted to Corbett Tiger Reserve, U.P. Forest Department. 3 pp. Iverson, J.B. (1986): A checklist with distribution maps of the turtles of the world. Privately printed, Paust Printing, Rich- mond. 283 pp. Jerdon, T.C. (1870): Notes on Indian herpetology. Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal. 1870: 66-85. Khan, M.A.R. (1982a): Chelonians of Bangladesh and their con- servation. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 (1): 110-116. (1982 b): Wildlife of Bangladesh: a checklist. Dhaka University, Dhaka. 173 pp. + corrigenda. — (1987): Bangladesher bonyoprani. Vol. 1. (In Bangla). Bangla Academy, Dhaka. 16 + 169 pp. Moll, E.O. (1987): Survey of the freshwater turtles of India. Part II. The genus Kachuga. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84 (1): 7-25. — & Vuaya, J. (1986): Distributional records for some Indian turtles, ibid. 83 (1): 57-62. Mukherjee, A.K. (1975): The Sunderban of India and its biota, ibid 72 (1): 1-20. Publications, Inc., Neptune, New Jersey. 895 pp. Smith, M.A. (1931): The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I. Loricata, Tes- tudines. Taylor and Francis, London. 185 pp. Talukdar, S.K. (1979): Lissemys punctata punctata (Bon- naterre) [Testudines: Trionychidae]: An addition to the chelonian fauna of the Brahmaputra drainage, Assam. In- dian J. Zootomy 20 (3): 181. Theobald, W. (1868): Catalogue of reptiles in the museum of the Asiatic Society. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal (Extra number). Vuaya, J. (1983): Range extension for the spotted pond turtle Geoclemys hamiltonii. Hamadryad 8 (2): 20. Webb.R. (1980): The identity of Testudo punctata Lacepede 1788 (Testudines, Trionychidae). Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. nat. Paris (4) 2: 547-557. Zangerl, R. (1969): The turtle shell. In: Biology of the Reptilia. Vol. I. Morphology A. pp. 311-339. C. Gans, A.d’A. bel- laris & T. Parsons (Eds.) Academic Press, New York. LIFE CYCLE OF PHLYCTENOPHORA IND1CA ANNAPURNA AND RAMASARMA, A MARINE BENTHIC PODOCOPAN OSTRACOD1 C. Annapurna, D.V. Rama Sarma and K. Shyamasundari2 (With two text-figures ) Introduction In the course of a study of the systematics and ecology of benthic ostracods inhabiting the marginal water bodies of the east coast of India, adults and juveniles of Phlyctenophora indica were seen in considerable numbers, adequate for undertaking a study of its life-cycle. Relatively few living ostracods have been studied in detail in this regard. Innumerable instars of several species are still not traceable to the species with certainty (Kesling 1953). Inform on so far published reveals that all the members of the sub-order Podocopa apparently pass through eight larval stages (Claus 1868, Muller 1894, Muller-Cale 1913, Scheerer-Ostermeyer 1940, Kesling 1951). Usually a pair of antennae and mandibles are present in the first instar. Very little is known about the duration of the larval stages and the related environmental parameters. This is the first attempt to study the develop- ment of Phlyctenophora indica Annapurna and Rama Sarma, 1985; of the family Cyprididae. Material and Methods Adults were picked up from fresh sediments and maintained in the laboratory in sea water of about 28% salinity (ambient salinity) and at temperatures fluctuating between 27°C and 29°C. The specimens were examined every day and instars were separated. A few instars were fixed and preserved in 70% ethyl alcohol at intervals of 24 hours for identification at a later stage while the remaining were allowed to develop. Some of the in- stars, encountered directly in the field samples, were also fixed for comparison with the instars obtained in laboratory cultures. Only the later stages, namely sixth, seventh and eighth instars were encountered in the field collections, while instars up to the fifth were obtained from those cultured in the laboratory. Accepted March 1988. department of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003. Thus with the instars obtained in the field together with those cultured in the laboratory, the entire life history could be successfully traced and ages of the instars fixed. To find the time required for the different lar- val stages, culture studies were carried out with the ostracods kept together with the sediment in small Petri dishes and maintained as far as possible at temperatures and salinities identical to those of the habitat. A daily close examination of the instars and the time required to reach the next successive stages was made (Table 1). Results A scattergram of carapace length versus carapace height plotted on a graph paper was prepared as this is a standard method used for deter- mining the number of instars. Instars of identical developmental stages formed discrete clusters of points (Table 2, Fig. 1) and these clusters fell suffi- ciendy apart, so that the various stages in the sample could be deciphered with considerable ease (Table 2). The carapaces of adults and of instars are as- signed to species on the basis of several criteria such as (1) progressive changes in shape from the youngest instar to adult, (2) progressive thickening of valves (immature valves in Phlyctenophora in- dica are fragile and hence susceptible to breakage), (3) the increasing complexity in ornamentation during ontogeny, (4) a progressive shift in the adduc- tor muscle scar, (5) the hinge structure becoming in- creasingly complex, (6) posterior part of the valve becoming proportionately longer. Table 1 TIME SPAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF Phlyctenophora indica Stages Time (days) I instar - II instar 15 II instar - HI instar 15 IH instar - IV instar 20 IV instar - V instar 20 V instar - VI instar 30 VI instar - vn, vm 45 LIFE CYCLE OF PHLYCTENOPHORA INDICA 99 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 LENGTH (mm) 0.S0 0.60 0.70 Fig. 1. Length-height distribution of larval stages: O single specimen G 20 specimens Table 2 AVERAGE SHELL DIMENSIONS FOR INSTARS OF Phlyctenophora indica ANNAPURNA AND RAMA SARMA Average Instar length mm Average height mm No. of specimens examined First 0.12 0.09 20 Second 0.16 0.08 18 Third 0.23 0.10 11 Fourth 0.28 0.12 40 Fifth 0.36 0.15 60 Sixth 0.43 0.16 15 Seventh 0.50 0.16 20 Eighth 0.53 0.20 20 Adult 0.64 0.26 15 Table 3 LARVAL INSTARS OF Phlyctenophora indica ANNAPURNA AND RAMA SARMA Instars A1 A2 Md Mx LI L2 L3 G E I * n * • m * * • • IV * * * • V * * * * • VI * * * * * o vn * * * * * * • vm * * * * * * * • * Adult * * * * * * * * * * Definitive form ® Rudiment Description of instars (Table 3, Fig. 2) First instar: Carapace slightly elongate and moderately compressed. Anterior end rounded, carapace slighdy calcareous. Antennule consisting of 4 podomeres with a few moderately elongate setae. Segmentation indistinct. Second instar: Carapace becomes further elongated and becomes slightly calcareous. Anterior end round. Second antenna appears with 4 podomeres and brisdes. Third instar: Carapace further elongates. Antennule and antenna well developed and rudiments of max- ilfa and mandible appear. Fourth instar: Formation of calcareous shell, elon- gation of carapace continues. Maxilla and mandible develop into definitive structures. Anterior end rounded. Posterior end slightly narrow and trian- gular. a rudiment of first pair of thoracic legs ap- pears. Fifth instar: Carapace elongates. Normal pores and marginal pore canals develop. Both antennule and antenna remain the same as in fourth instar but for a slight increase in size. Mandible and its palp assume a definitive form. Maxilla provided with a short and broad masticatory tube beset with some setae. The second rudimentary thoracic leg appears behind the first. 100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 2. Life cycle of Phlyctenophora indica (Annapurna & Rama Sarnia, 1985). 1. First instar, 2. Second instar, 3. Third instar, 4. Fourth instar, 5. Fifth instar, 6. Sixth instar, 7. Seventh instar; 8. Eighth instar; 9. Adult; Al. Antennule; A2. Antenna; Md. Mandible; Mx. Maxilla; LI, L2, L3. Thoracic legs. UFE CYCLE OF PHLYCTENOPHORA INDICA 101 Sixth instar: Carapace elongates further. The ap- pendages become elaborate and no new appendages are added. Seventh instar: This resembles the adult except in size. Third thoracic leg and eyestalk appear. Eighth instar: All appendages take finite shape. Rudiments of sex organs appear between thoracici legs and posterior part of the body. Adult: The adult differs from the eighth instar by the development of chitinous appendages. Sex organs form. General Remarks The growth of Phlyctenophora indica is typi- cally discontinuous. As the body grows, the rigid cal- careous shell containing the animal moults, shed- ding its carapace and replacing it by a new and larger one to accommodate the growing body. After each moult an animal, differing in size and form from the previous stage, emerges. The old appendages may change in form and function and new appendages get added quickly before a carapace is secreted anew. In nature, reproduction of P. indica appears to take place throughout the year as evidenced by its appearance in the sediment. A noteworthy feature resulting from this con- tinuous growth is a change in function of certain ap- pendages which may be used as walking legs in the first two instars and as accessory feeding rogans in the next. Not only is there an increase in the number of appendages in many of the earlier stages, but dif- ferentiation of appendages occurs later. In addition, the number and shape of the carapace of various in- stars changes. When the adults, holding ripe eggs, were col- lected from fresh sediments and cultured in the laboratory, the fourth instar emerged after 7 weeks. Attempts to rear them in the laboratory beyond the fourth instar proved futile. However, simultaneous field collections contained sixth instar stage at a time when the fourth instar just appeared in the laboratory cultures. This observed time lag in the rate of develop- ment in laboratory cultures and in nature, may be re- lated to water temperature and food availability, as noticed by Theisen (1966). Hutchins (1947) states that the temperature influences not only its survival but also its reproduction and repopulation. References Claus, C. (1868): Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Ostracoden. I. Entwicklungsges chichte von Cypris. Schr. Ges. Beforder. ges. Naturwiss. Marburg 9: Hutchins, L.W. (1947): The basis for temperature zonation in geographical distribution. Ecol. Monogr., 17: 325-335. Kesling, R.V. (1951): The Morphology of Ostracod MoltStages. Illinois Biol. Monogr ., 21: 1-324. (1953): A slide rule for the determination of instars in ostracod species. Contr. Mus. Paleontol. Univ. Michigan 11 (5): 97-109. Muller, G.W. (1894): Die Ostracoden des Golfes von Neapel und der angrenzenden Meeres-Abschnitte. Fauna Neapel, Monogr. 21 : 404. Muller-Cale, K. (1913): Uber die Entwicklung von Cypris in- congruens. Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Anat. Ontog. der Tierre 36: 113-170. Scheerer-Ostermeyer, E. (1940): Beitrag zur Entwicklung sges- chichte der Susswassorostrakoden. ibid. 66: 349-370. Theisen, B.F. (1966): The life history of seven species of ostracods from a Danish brackish water locality. Meddr. Danm. Fisk. Havunders. (n-ser.) 4: 215-270. NEW DESCRIPTIONS DESCRIPTION OF A NEW CYPRINID, BARILIUS DIMORPHICUS (SUBFAMILY: RASBORINAE) FROM RAJAH NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH1 Raj Tilak and Akhlaq Husain2 (With four text-figures ) Introduction During a recent survey of Rajaji National Park, Uttar Pradesh, we collected interesting material of a hitherto undescribed species of the genus Barilius Hamilton from two localities, namely Song river (upstream near the road bridge) at Satyanarain, Eastern Doon Valley, District Dehra Dun and Ghasi Ram Sot (downstream near causeway) on Chila- Hardwar road, near Chila Forest Rest House, Dis- trict Pauri-Garhwal, both tributaries of the river Ganga. Barilius dimorphicus sp. nov. Description: B. iii, D.II/6-7, P.I/12-13, V.I/7- 8, A.III/10-11,C. 17-19 (8-10/9), L.l 60-66, L.tr. 12.5/7.5, Predorsals 25-27. In Head Length: head width 1.67-1.96. Head height 1.10- 1.33. Snout length 3.12-3.67. Eye diameter 3.08- 4.12. Interorbital width 2.72-3.23. Postorbital head length 1.82-2.72. Cleft of mouth 2.27-2.86. Height of dorsal fin 1.31-1.72. Dorsal base 1.79-2.09. Pectoral fin 1.25-1.47. Distance be- tween outer edges of pectoral base 2. 12-2.87. Pectoral base to pelvic base distance 1 . 10-1 .38. Pel- vic fin 1.73-2.04. Distance between outer edges of pelvic base 3.47^1.60. Pelvic base to anal base dis- tance 1.19-1.61. Anal fin 1.96-2.29. Anal base 1.35-1.69. Length of caudal peduncle 1.17-1.60. Caudal fin (upper lobe) 0.75-0.95. In Total Length: Head length 4.67-5.44. Body depth 4.59- 5.75. Body width 6.83-10.45. Height of body at anal origin 5.25-6.76. Height of dorsal fin 7.11-8.85. Dorsal base 9.17-10.95. Pectoral fin 6.22-7.19. Pectoral base to pelvic base distance 5.47-6.89. Pelvic fin 8.32-10.45. Pelvic base to anal origin 6.04-7.50. Anal fin 9.74-11.56. Anal base Accepted June 1988. 2Zoological Survey of India, Northern Regional Station, 218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehra Dun 248 195. 6.65-8.85. Caudal fin (upper lobe) 4.08^1.79. Predorsal distance 2.32-2.61. Post-dorsal distance 2.71-3.19. Prepectoral distance 3.97-4.48. Post- pectoral distance 1.66-1.98. Prepelvic distance 2.56-2.87. Post-pelvic distance 2. 19-2.61 . Pre-anal distance 1.86-2.05. Post-anal distance 3.35- 4.11. Caudal peduncle length 6.33-7.93. In Standard Length: Head length 3.60-4.12. Body depth 3.47-4.05. Body width 5.29-7.69. Height of body at anal origin 3.96-4.70. Height of dorsal fin 5.38-6.47. Dorsal base 7.10-7.80. Pec- toral fin 4.78-5.39. Pectoral base to pelvic base dis- tance 4.23-5.32. Pelvic fin 6.40-7.57, pelvic base to anal origin distance 4.68-5.78. Anal fin 7.48- 8.87. Anal base 5.15-6.25. Caudal fin 3.08-3.50. Predor- sal distance 1.79-1.95. Post-dorsal distance 2.11- 2.25. Prepectoral distance 3.11-3.44. Post- pectoral distance 1.28-1.40. Prepelvic distance 1.95-2.11. Post-pelvic distance 1.70-1.92. Pre-anal distance 1.43-1.53. Post-anal distance 2.61- 3.04. Caudal peduncle length 4.83-5.93. Other Proportions: Eye diameter 0.90-1 .3 1 in snout length and 1.00-1.37 in interorbital width. In- terorbital width 1.55-1.80 and postorbital head length 1 .04-1 .22 in head width. Distance from snout tip to nostril 1.31-1.63 and distance from nostril to anterior margin of eye 4.50-6.18 in snout length. Length of dorsal base 1.20-1.43 in length of anal base. Length of pectoral fin 0.95-1.20 in pectoral to pelvic distance. Distance between outer edges of pectoral bases 1.16-1.67 in head width and 1.61- 2. 15 in pectoral to pelvic distance. Length of pelvic fin 1.27-1.59 in distance between pelvic base and anal origin. Distance between outer edge of pelvic bases 1.89-2.40 in head width and 2.69-3.50 in pel- vic base to anal origin distance. Least height of caudal peduncle 1.56-1.93 in its length. Trout-like fish. Body compressed. Lower profile comparatively more arched than upper. Ab- domen rounded. Head moderately compressed. NEW DESCRIPTIONS 103 Barilius dimorphicus sp. nov. 1 . Lateral view of male; 2. Lateral view of female; 3. Ventral view of male; 4. Ventral view of female. 104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Mouth terminal, cleft deep, oblique, posterior ex- tremity of maxilla extending to below anterior mar- gin of eye. Rostral margin and lower jaw finely tuberculated; this condition is more prominent in some specimens. Lips thin. Two pairs of barbels present (a minute rostral pair and a rudimentary maxillary pair). Jaws subequal, the lower very slightly longer than the upper; tip of upper jaw with a shallow notch into which the corresponding tip of lower jaw fits; lower jaw without a symphysial knob. Snout obtuse, with a transverse groove or a depres- sion in front but close to nostrils. Nostrils together, simple, distinctly nearer anterior margin of eye than snout tip and almost at level of upper margin of eye. Eyes large, slightly bulging (convex), visible both from dorsal and ventral sides of head. Interorbital space slightly arched. Suborbital ring of bones wide, especially the 3rd which is the deepest and compara- tively narrower than the opercular width. Dorsal fin short, margin almost cut; and when folded against body, the tips of anterior rays not reaching tip of last ray. Its longest ray (the last un- divided ray) much shorter than body depth below and at anal origin, slightly shorter than pectoral fin and slightly longer than pelvic fin and longest ray of anal fin. Tip of last dorsal ray extending to middle of anal base. Dorsal origin midway between the pel- vic and anal bases, much nearer caudal base than tip of snout; it is almost midway between middle of eye and caudal base. Pectorals shorter than head, their tips pointed or nearly so. Pectoral length somewhat variable, generally not reaching pelvic base but in some examples, it does so and may even extend slightly beyond the origin of pelvic base. 1st branched ray of pectoral ossified in mature males. Axillary scale of pectoral fleshy, slightly longer than the diameter of eye. Pelvics shorter than pectorals, margin (posterior extremity) notched. Outer un- branched and 1st branched rays of pelvics equal in length and extend to below anterior l/3rd of dorsal base. The last two branched rays thickened and al- most fused at base. Pelvic fin distinctly not reaching anal opening (which lies at anal base origin), falling short of a distance almost equal to eye diameter. Axillary scale of pelvic thin, longer than the axillary scale of pectoral and extending beyond pelvic base. Anal origin just below the base of last dorsal ray; fin margin concave. Last anal ray shortest (almost equal to eye diameter), reaching almost middle of caudal peduncle. Anal fin base longer than that of the dor- sal. Caudal peduncle narrow, distinctly longer than high. Caudal fin’s deeply forked, the fork extending to more than half the fin’s length (lower lobe); lobes pointed, lower caudal lobe distinctly longer than the upper and also the head length. Upper lobe general- ly shorter than head length (sometimes equal). Scales minute (visible to naked eye). In some large specimens, the margin of scales of upper region, especially the anterior part, are studded with prominent tubercles, imparting to the surface a rough texture. This is a secondary sexual character of males. Lateral line complete, curved downward, passing below the mid line of caudal peduncle. Coloration : Silvery. Body with 2-4 irregular rows of bluish-black spots of varying sizes. These spots are generally vertically oval. The rows of spots do not generally extend below the lateral line. The spots of the uppermost row (14-16 in number) are the biggest. Head and body dorsally darkish. Eyes with blackish pupil and golden iris. Dorsal fin greyish except its upper corner which is whitish. Pectoral, pelvic and anal fins are also whitish. Caudal fin greyish, lower lobe more so. Sexual Dimorphism: In mature males, the mar- gin of scales on anterior region of body (below and in front of dorsal) are studded with fine tubercles. The lower jaw and the area between the mandibles and branchiostegal rays are covered with tubercles which are spiny in nature. The first branched ray of pectoral fin is ossified and strongly developed. The females lack these characters Holotype: 185 mm total length, 140 mm stand- ard length. Song river near its union with Teenpani nala, Satyanarain, Eastern Doon Valley, Rajaji Na- tional Park, Dist. Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh. 13 Sep- tember 1987. Raj Tilak and Akhlaq Husain. Regd. No. ZSI/NRS/F-728. Paratypes - A. 5 examples, 115-171 mm total length, 81-133 standard length. Other data same as of Holotype. Regd. No. ZSI/NRS/F-729. Paratypes -B. 7 examples, 104-147 mm total length, 80-111 mm standard length. Locality same as of Holotype and Paratype - A. 14 September 1987. Raj Tilak and Akhlaq Husain. Regd. No. ZSI/NRS/F-730. Paratypes - C. 2 examples. 94-112 mm total NEW DESCRIPTIONS 105 length, 75-76 mm standard length. Ghasi Ram Sot 7. Stream, near Chila Forest Rest House, Chila- Hardwar Road, Rajaji National Park, District Pauri- 8. Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh. 12 September 1987. Raj Tilak and Akhlaq Husain. Regd. No. ZSI/NRS/F- 9. 731. Barilius dimorphicus sp nov. is closely related to Barilius tileo Hamilton - an Eastern Indian form, io. but can be easily distinguished from it in a number of characters, especially in the extent of maxilla and lepidosis as per the details given below: 1 1 1. Lower jaw slightly longer, when the mouth is closed, in Barilius dimorphicus, (vs. upper jaw slightly longer, when the mouth is closed, in 12 Barilius tileo Hamilton-Hamilton 1822, Day 1878, 1889). 2. Posterior extremity of maxilla reaching anterior margin of eye (vs. reaching to beneath the middle of eye - Day 1878, 1889). 3. Two pairs of minute barbels (rostral and max- illary) present (vs. devoid of tendrils according to Hamilton 1822; barbels very rudimentary or entirely absent - Day 1878, 1889). 4. Eye diameter 1.00-1.37 times in interorbital width (vs. 1.50 times - Day 1878, 1889). 5. Dorsal fin midway between middle of eye and caudal base (vs. midway between hind edge of eye and caudal base - Day 1878, 1889). 6. Pectoral fin generally longer than head exclud- ing the snout (vs. as long as head excluding the snout - Day 1878, 1889). Caudal fin with 17-19 rays (vs. 20 rays - Day 1878, 1889). 60-66 scales in lateral line (vs. 70-75 scales - Day 1878, 1889). 12.5 rows of scales between dorsal fin and lateral line (vs. 14 rows of scales - Day 1878,1889). 25-27 rows of scales before the base of the dor- sal fin (vs . 30 rows of scales - Day 1878, 1889). 185 mm in total length (vs. attaining at least 127 mm = 5 inches in length - Day, 1878, 1889). Distribution: Rajaji National Park (Dehra Dun and Pauri- Garhwal districts, Uttar Pradesh) (vs. Kosi river - Hamilton 1822; Bengal and Assam - Day 1878, 1889). In the same locality, in the Ganga and its tributaries there is a similar looking species, Raiamas bola Hamilton which differs from die new species in the deep cleft of the mouth. The cleft of the mouth extends posteriorly up to anterior margin of eye in B. dimorphicus whereas it reaches beyond the posterior margin of the eye in R. bola. They also differ greatly in the number of lateral line scales on body (60-66 in B. dimorphicus vs. 88-94 in R bola - Day 1878, 1889). Acknowledgements We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for encouragement and facilities and the Director, Rajaji National Park, for cooperation. References Day, F. (1878): The fishes of India, being a natural history of the (1889): The fauna of British India, including fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Ceylon and Burma. Fishes. London: I: 351-353. Burma and Ceylon. London: 589, 593, 594, pi. CXI IX, Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of fishes found in river Ganges Fig. 5, pi. CXLIX, Fig. 4. and its branches. Edinburgh: 276. 106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 TWO NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS PUNTIUS HAMILTON (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM INDIA1 K.C. Jayaram2 (With two text-figures ) Fig. 1. Puntius nangalensis sp. nov. While studying the Cyprinid fishes of the subfamily Cyprininae, I came across two un- described species in the collections of the Zoologi- cal Survey of India, Calcutta. These are described here as new. The name Puntius is now applied for all ‘barbs’ of South Asia and Barbus for those of West Asia and Europe. The genus as now revised by me comprises of 54 species, classified under 10 groups, each group with complexes of species. This revision is under publication elsewhere. Puntius nangalensis sp. nov. Specimens studied: ZSI, F. 4841/2, Holotype, 27.5 mm SL, Nangal lake, Punjab fisheries depart- ment (with a name label Puntius mitrai Menon); 1 ex., 24.0 mm SL, Paratype; 9 exs., 22.0 to 28.0 mm SL., same data. Diagnosis: A deep bodied fish without any bands or blotches, with no barbels, dorsal ray os- seous, serrated, lateral line incomplete ceasing after 7 or 8 scales and with 31 to 33 scales. Description: D. I-D, 6-8; P. i, 12-13; V. i, 7-8; A. i-ii, 5; C. 14-15; LL. 31-33. Dorsal profile convex, with a good rise up to dorsal fin base. Head conical, head length 3.14 to Accepted December 1988. Principal Investigator, DOEN Project on Krishna River, Zoological Survey of India, Madras. 4.19, body depth 3.12 to 3.69 in standard length. Head width 1.67 to 2.33, height of head at occiput 1.11 to 1.49, snout 2.00 to 4.00 in head length. Eyes large, superior, 2.00 to 4.00 in head length, 0.80 to 1.25 in interorbital width and 0.80 to 1.50 in snout length. Mouth subterminal, its width greater than inter-nostril distance. Lips thin, plain. No barbels. Dorsal fin inserted nearer tip of snout than caudal base. Last unbranched dorsal ray osseous, finely serrated, first branched dorsal ray elongated. Dorsal fin base greater than least depth of caudal peduncle. Pectoral fins extending to pelvic fins; lat- ter not reaching anal opening. Anal fin when laid flat not reaching root of caudal fin. Least depth of caudal peduncle 1.25 to 1.83 in its length. Lateral line in- complete, ceasing after 7 or 8 scales from anterior. Scales: PDS 12 or 13; pre-anal 12 to 14; pre- pelvic 6 to 8; between LL and dorsal fin base 5 to 5 1/2; between LL and pelvic fin base 5 1/2 to 6; Table 1 ADDITIONAL DATA ON Puntius nangalensis SP. NOV. TL/Head length 3.87 to 5.60, N = 10 TL/Body depth 3.64 to 4.67, N = 10 SL/P re-dorsal 1.73 to 2.18, N = 11 SL/Pre-anal 1.41 to 1.69, N = 10 SL/Pre-pelvic 2.00 to 2.64, N = 10 LH/LCPD 1.07 to 1.49, N = 9 LH/HCPD 1.62 to 2.33, N = 11 LH/Dorsal fin base 1.49 to 2.00, N = 11 LH/Width of mouth 3.00 to 4.00, N : = 10 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 107 Table 2 COMPARISON OF P. nangalensis WITH ITS CLOSELY RELATED SPECIES Character P. apogon (Val. 1842) P. guganio (Ham. 1822) P. punjabensis (Day 1871) P. nangalensis sp. nov. TL/LH 5.25 5. 0-5. 5 5.5 3.87 to 5.60 TL/BD 3.25 3.5 3.5 3.64 to 4.67 LH/Eye 3.5 to 4.1 3. 3 -3.5 5.33 2.00 to 4.00 IOW/Eye 1.00 to 1.25 0.90-1.00 1.3 0.80 to 1.25 Snout/Eye 0.76-0.88 1.00 1.3 0.80 to 1.50 LL Complete Incomplete, ceasing after 5 or 6 scales Incomplete Incomplete, ceasing after 7 or 8 scales LL scales 36-38 36-39 43 31-33 PDS 12-15 15 14 12 or 13 LL/Dorsal 6 1/2- 7 1/2 8-9 8 5 to 5 1/2 LL/Pelvic 5-5 1/2 5 1/2-6 4 1/2 5 1/2 to 6 LL/Anal 5 1/2 6 3 1/2 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 Circumpeduncular 13-14 10 9 or 10 12 or 13 Barbels Nil Nil Nil Nil Dorsal spine Osseous, serrated Osseous, serrated Weak, articulated Osseous, serrated Pre-anal 21 21 25 12 to 14 Pre-pelvic 6-8 9 12 6 to 8 Distribution Burma to Malay INDIA: Ganga, INDIA: Jabalpur, INDIA: Nangal Lake, Archipelao Brahmaputra, Yamuna drainage, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, W. Bengal. Orissa, also Madras . Bangladesh Madhya Pradesh, Bihar PAKISTAN: Sind Lahore, Baluchistan E. Punjab between LL and anal fin base 3 1/2 to 4 1/2; circum- peduncular 12 or 13. Gill Rakers: 5+12 Size: 37.0 mm TL Colour : Uniformly brown all over, body diaphanous over pectoral area, each scale with a small black dot, a faint dark longitudinal streak along lateral line seen. Distribution: INDIA: Nangal Lake, E. Punjab. Related to P. guganio but differing from it in having a less deep body, larger eyes, less number of lateral line scales, coloration (Table 2) besides a more northern distribution. The material was found in the reserve type col- lections of ZSI, Calcutta, labelled Puntius mitrai Menon. I have searched the entire literature and find that this name is a nomen nudum . Hence it is described with a new name. Puntius afasciatus sp. nov. Specimens studied: E 2985/2, ZSI, Holotype, 50 mm SL., Vellakaravi and Vathakad village, Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu (with a name label P. melanampyx kanniyakumarei Menon & Sareen). Diagnosis: A deep bodied fish without any ver- tical bands, last unbranched dorsal ray weak and smooth, and a complete lateral line with 22 scales, dorsal fin with 9 branched rays, four barbels. Description: D. I, 9; P. 15; V. i, 8; A. ii, 5; C. 16; LL. 22. Dorsal profile steeply arched, ventral profile gently. Head short, conical. Head length 3.57; body depth 2.70 in standard length. Head width 1.75; height of head at occiput 1.16; snout 3.50 in head length. Snout plain, smooth. Eyes large 3.68 in head length, 1.31 in interorbital width and 1.05 snout length. Mouth subterminal, narrow, its width less than inter-nostril distance. Lips thin, plain. Two pairs of barbels. Dorsal fin inserted nearer caudal base than tip of snout. Last unbranched dorsal ray weak, smooth. Dorsal fin base greater than least depth of caudal Table 3 ADDITIONAL DATA ON Puntius afasciatus SP. NOV. TL/Head length 4.29 TL/Body depth 3.24 SL/Pre-dorsal 1.92 SL/Pre-anal 1.35 SL/Pre-pelvic 1.96 LH/LCPD 1.55 LH/HCPD 1.75 LH/Dorsal fin base 1.40 LH/Width of mouth 1.12 108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 2. Puntius afasciatus sp. nov. peduncle. Pectoral fins not extending to pelvics; lat- ter not reaching anal opening. Anal fin when laid flat reaches root of caudal fin. Least depth of caudal peduncle 1.12 in its length. Lateral line complete. Scales: PDS 6; pre-pelvic 6; pre-anal 12; be- tween LL and dorsal fin base 4 1/2; between LL and pelvic fin base 2 1/2; between LL and anal fin base 2 1/2; Circumpeduncular 10. Gill Rakers: Not taken Size: 60 mm TL Distribution: INDIA: Nagercoil, Kan- Table 4 COMPARISON OF THE fasciatus’ COMPLEX OF SPECIES OF Puntius Characters P. fasciatus fasciatus (Jerdon), 1849, p. 305 P. fasciatus pradhani Tilak, 1973, p. 97 P. afasciatus sp. nov 1. Number of barbels Four Four Four 2. Last unbranched dorsal ray Weak, articulated Weak, articulated Weak, smooth 3. Lateral line Complete Complete Complete 4. LL Scales 18 to 20 19 or 20 22 5. PDS 6 to 7 6 or 7 6 6. LL/Dorsal 3 to 3 1/2 3 1/2 to4 4 1/2 7. LL/Pelvic 2 1/2 to 3 2 1/2 to 3 2 1/2 8. LL/Anal 2 1/2 2 1/2 to 3 2 1/2 9. Circumpeduncular 8 to 10 11 or 12 10 10. Pre-anal 11 10 to 13 12 11. Pre-pelvic 4 or 5 5 or 6 8 12. Gill Rakers 4+10 4 + 7 - 13. SL/LH 2.67 to 3.69 3.20 to 3.58 3.57 14. SL/Body depth 2.68 to 3.30 2.50 to 2.86 2.70 15. LH/Eye 3.05 to 3.75 2.83 to 3.42 3.68 16. LH/Snout 2.50 to 3.75 2.43 to 2.87 3.50 17. IOW/Eye 1.00 to 1.28 1.14 to 1.28 1.31 18. Snout/Eye 1.00 to 1.43 0.83 to 1.14 1.05 19. LCPD/HCPD 1.00 to 1.38 1.00 to 1.44 1.12 20. Width of mouth equal to IND equal to IND less than IND 21. Dorsal fin base greater than HCPD greater than HCPD greater than HCPD 22. Colour 3 vertical bands 5 vertical bands Nil 23. Distribution Western Ghats Goa Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu IND = Inter-nostril distance. NEW DESCRIPTIONS 109 niyakumari Dist., Tamil Nadu. Differs from fasciatus fasciatus in absence of colour bands, in having 9 branched rays in dorsal fin and 22 scales on lateral line (Table 4). The material which forms the basis of this new species was present in the reserve type collections of ZSI, Calcutta, under the name P. melanampyx kanniyakumarei Menon & Sarecn. I have made ex- tensive enquiries and also searched literature and find that this name was never published and thus be- comes a nomen nudum. The spcies is therefore described as new. Acknowledgements Thanks are due to Department of Environment, Government of India for a brief assignment as an Emeritus Scientist of the Zoological Survey of India during which this revision was completed, and to the Director, Zoological Survey of India for facilities. The drawings were executed by Sri. D. Sengupta, Zoological Survey of India, Madras, and manuscript typed by Sri B. Hanumantha Rao of Krishna River Project, Zoological Survey of India. A NEW GENUS PSEUDOPAGIOPHLOEUS OF WEEVIL (CURCULIONIDAE: HYLOBIINAE) FROM INDIA1 H.R. Pajni, Sukesha SoodandR KamalTewari2 (With two text-figures) A weevil collected during April 1978 from grass in Arunachal Pradesh is assigned to a new genus Pseudopagiophloeus and is described. Pseudopagiophloeus gen. nov. Type species: Pseudopagiophloeus divergus sp. nov. Head with a depression just behind posterior margin of each eye. Antennal club slightly shorter than funicle, pubescent. Pronotum with basal and apical margins bisinuate, ocular lobes developed. Prostemum with its anterior margin deeply sinuate. Elytra with humeral angles rounded, impressed posteriorly. Femora clavate at apex; tibiae with ex- ternal fringe of corbal oblique, premucro present. Metastemum short. Intercoxal process between hind coxae acuminate. Spiculum ventrale of female genitalia with its anterior arm long and transversely expanded at free end. Coxites broad but narrow at base; styli slightly longer than broad, strongly sclerotized. The new genus comes close to genus Pagioph- loeus Fst. of the tribe Hylobiini and agrees with it in possessing a long antennal club and in the oblique position of corbels. The overall appearance of the body, the rigid surface of pronotum and the furcate apices of elytra are also shared by the majority of the Accepted February 1989. department of Zoology, Pimjab University, Chandigarh 160 014. species of Pagiophloeus Fst. with this genus. However, the presence of mucro and the extension of the anterior end of the spiculum ventrale into lateral processes clearly separates the new genus from the genus Pagiophloeus Fst., in which tibiae are always without a mucro and anterior end of spiculum ventrale is simple. In fact, the structure of spiculum ventrale forms a very unique character, which the genus shares only with the genera Niphades Pasc. and Niphadonyx Dalla Torre. Pseudopagiophloeus divergus sp. nov. Head piceous, small, deeply and coarsely punctate, with a depression on posterior margin of eyes; frons almost as broad as base of rostrum; eyes brownish-black, lateral, almost in level with surface of head, rostrum piceous, almost as long as pronotum, narrowed to middle and broadened towards apex; surface of rostrum with 2 lateral deep furrows in basal half and two distinct median fur- rows which stop short of lateral furrows, broadly and coarsely punctate, punctures smaller and closer at apical broadened part, each puncture with a short yellow scale, scales being absent near apex; scrobes long, oblique, broadened posteriorly, their upper margins touching the lower margins of eyes. Anten- nae fuliginous, long, inserted a little away from apex of rostrum; scape long, its surface punctate and beset with pale yellow setae; funicle longer than scape, 7- segmented, segments 1 and 2 longer than broad, 3 to 8 110 JOURNAL, BOMBA? NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Psuedopagiophloeus diver gus sp. nov. 1. Adult, 2. Female genitalia. 6 long but shorter than preceding two, 7 shorter than broad and distinct from club; club long, pubescent, oval, 3-segmented. Pronotum almost as long as broad, broadest a little before middle and narrowed towards apex, con- stricted near apical margin, its basal and apical mar- gins bisinuate, ocular lobes well developed; surface of pronotum rugosely punctate and tuberculate, tubercles less distinct near apex, with an indistinct middle keel near apex. Scutellum piceous, transverse, closely punctate and furnished with yel- low scales. Elytra piceous, broader than base of pronotum at shoulders, humeral angles well developed, their apices separately acuminate and strongly furcate, posterior callosity distinct; surface of each elytron marked with broad punctures form- ing indistinct striae; intervals narrower than striae, tuberculate, interval 3 with a pair of tubercles im- mediately below scutellum, beset with a few yellow scattered scales. Legs piceous, long, punctate, beset with pale yellow setae; femora clavate, toothed ventrally; tibiae very slender, uncinate, armed with a premucro, external fringe of corbel oblique; tarsi spongy underneath, with segment 3 strongly bilobed and 5 very long, claws separated. Thoracic stemites piceous, closely punctate, furnished with yellow setae; prostemum with its anterior margin deeply sinuate and fringed with yellow setae; mesepimeron broad; metasternum coarsely punctate, its head broader than posterior visible part. Abdominal ster- nites piceous, sparsely and finely punctate, each puncture beset with a yellow seta, its intercoxal process between hind coxae acuminate; stemite 1 al- most as long as 2. Female genitalia with coxites broad, narrow at base and abruptly broadened at middle, uniformly and weakly sclerotized, each with long setae near apex; styli slightly longer than broad, cylindrical, highly sclerotized, each with many long setae at apex, spiculum ventrale Y-shaped, with free end ex- tended transversely on either side, its middle arm longer than broad basal arms, not uniformly sclerotized. Body length 18.0 mm; Body breadth 5.4 mm; Rostrum length 3.4 mm; Rostrum breadth 0.8 mm. Material examined: Holotype 1 female; Grass; 30 April 1978; Khasi hills, Arunachal Pradesh; H.R. Pajni, Material deposited in the Entomological Sec- tion, Zoology Department, Punjab University, Chandigarh. The species is named after the characteristic shape of the apices of elytra, which are acuminate and distinctly divergent. Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, for financing a 5 year project NEW DESCRIPTIONS 111 on family Curculionidae under which this work has been carried out. Thanks are also due to Dr Sen- Sarma, Forest Entomologist, Forest Research In- stitute, Dehra Dun and Dr. R.T.Thompson of the British Museum (Natural History), London, for per- mitting comparison of our material with their collec- tions. The liberal loan of unidentified material from Dr. Sen-Sarma of Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun is also thankfully acknowledged. We thank the Chairman, Department of Zoology, Punjab Univer- sity, Chandigarh, for laboratory facilities. TWO NEW SPECIES BELONGING TO THE GENUS ALLOPHLEPS BERGROTH (CICADELLIDAE: HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA1 V. Rama Subba Rao2 and Usha Ramakrishnan3 (With eighteen text-figures ) Two new species of the Allophleps Bergroth are described A. delhiensis with the Aedeagal shaft bifurcated ventrally near gonopore into a shorter pointed process and A. menoni , with the bifurcated process tooth-like. The genus Allophleps was erected by Bergroth in 1920 and was known only by its type species, A. inspersa Bergroth till Pruthi in 1936 added another species, A. indica from India. Datta (1988) redescribed A. indicus Pruthi. Hence it is represented by only two species, and two new species are being described here. Based on the Indian species, generic characters have been suitably modified. Colour stramineous. Vertex with or without ventral sub- marginal fuscous line and dorsal mar- ginal spots. Head wider than pronotum. Vertex shorter than the breadth between the eyes. Forewings with four apical and three ante- apical cells, the outer ante- apical cell either narrow and pointed at apex or divided into two or more cells by supernumerary cross veins. Posterior femoral setal pattern 2-2-1. Pygoferal lobes uniformly broader for two- thirds length, then abruptly narrowed into subacute apex and macrosetae on postero-dorsal area, a pair of strap-like pygofer processes from mesodorsal edge directed ventrad. Subgenital plates triangular with submarginal macrosetae and marginal filamen- tous setae. Connective linear, arms closely apposed, stem fused with aedeagus. Style with slightly curved and pointed apophysis; pre-apical lobe angulate Accepted February 1989. 2Asst. Professor, Deptt. of Entomology, Agricultural College, Bapatla 522 101, Andhra Pradesh. 3Senior Scientist, Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012. with minute setae. Aedeagus long bifid sub-apical- ly; gonopore sub-apical. The Indian species of the genus may be separated by the following key. 1. Aedeagal shaft bifurcated ventrally near gonopore into shorter pointed process 2 — Aedeagal shaft bifurcated ventrally, just below the gonopore into a tooth-like short process ? A. menoni sp. nov. 2. Outer ante-apical cell of forewing secondarily divided into two or more cells .. A. delhiensis sp. nov. — Outer ante-apical cells of forewing narrow and pointed at apex but not divided ,.. A. indicus Pruthi Allophleps delhiensis (Figs. 1-9) Colour: Colour stramineous without any spots. Form : Head wider than pronotum. Vertex shorter than the length between the eyes/Ocelli mar- ginal close to the eyes. Face broader than long. Pronotum longer than vertex. Fore wings longer than the body, with four apical and three ante-apical cells, the outer ante-apical cell secondarily divided into two or more cells, the number of cells not con- stant even in the left and right wings of the same specimen. Male genitalia: Shape and setosity of pygofer as in generic description; its processes extending beyond ventral margin, their apices curved caudad. Valve with posteriorly produced rounded margin. Subgenital plates and styles also as mentioned in the genus. Aedeagus thin, elongated, bifurcated ventral- ly near genopore into shorter pointed process, shaft apex also pointed, dorsal apodeme curved apicad of the shaft, gonopore sub-apical and dorsal. Second abdominal apodemes well developed, extending into sternum III. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Figs 1-9. Allophleps delhiensis sp. nov. 1. Pygofer, lateral view; 2. Aedeagus, lateral view; 3. Aedeagus, dorsal view; 4. Style; 5. Forewing; 6. Hind wing; 7. Abdominal opodemes; 8. Valve and subgenital plate; 9. Female sternum VII. Figs. 10-18 .Allophleps menoni sp. nov. 10. Pygofer, lateral view; 11. Aedeagus, lateral view,; 12. Aedeagus, dorsal view; 13. Style; 14. Valve and subgenital plate, 15. Forewing; 16. Hind wing; 17. Abdominal apodemes; 18. Female sternum VII. NEW DESCRIPTIONS 113 Female sternum VII rounded and slightly produced at the posterior margin. Measurements (in mm) of Male (Female): Head, width 1.05 (1.10); vertex, width 0.50 (0.50), length 0.35 (0.40); pronotum, width 0.95 (0.98), length 0.45 (0.45); scutellum, width 0.65 (0.70), length 0.45 (0.50); total length including fore wings 3.75 (3.95). Types: Holotype, Male - Delhi, inside lamp dome, 30 April 1965, R. Menon; Paratypes, 1 Male, 5 females, same data as holotype; deposited at Na- tional Pusa Collection, Division of Entomology, In- dian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012, India; 2 females will be deposited at British Museum (Natural History), London. This species is similar to indicus in the shape and bifurcation of apex of aedeagus and connective, but differs in the shape of subgenital plates and styles. Outer ante- apical cell of forewings is divided into two or more cells in this species but in indicus it is not divided. Allophleps menoni sp. nov. (Figs. 10-18) Colour: Stramineous. Vertex with three pairs of light brown spots on the anterior margin and a fus- cous submarginal ventral line; a pair of pale sunken spots basally one on each side of coronal suture. Face with pale striae laterally. Scutellum with pale brown spots at basal angles. Fore wings fuscous with some dark brown pigment deposited in the cells. Form: Form and wing venation as given in the genus. Male genitalia: Pygofer, valve, subgenital plates, connective and styles as given in the genus and are similar to that of the previous species. Aedeagus linear, elongated, shaft bifurcated into tooth-like short process before the gonopore; dorsal apodeme less curved; gonopore sub-apical and dor- sal. Second abdominal apodemes well developed, extending into sternum III. Female sternum VII with much more produced posterior margin. Measurements (in mm) of Male (Female): Head, width 0.95 (1.00); vertex, width 0.40 (0.45), length 0.35 (0.35); pronotum width 0.85 (0.90), length 0.40 (0.45); scutellum, width 0.55 (0.60), length 0.35 (0.43); total length including fore wings 3.4 (3.8). Types: Holotype, Male - Delhi, inside lamp dome, 30 April 1965, R. Menon; paratypes, 2 Males, 3 females, same data as holotype deposited at Na- tional Pusa Collection, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi - 110 012, India; 2 Males, 2 females will be deposited at British Museum (Natural History), London. This species is similar to the previous species in respect of pygofer, valve, subgenital plates, con- nective and styles, but differs in aedeagal shaft. The coloration and spotted pattern are also different. Acknowledgements We thank the Indian Agricultural Research In- stitute and Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, for the facilities and financial assistance provided. References Bergroth, E. (1920): Hemiptera from British East Africa. Arkiv. Pruthi, H.S. (1936): Studies on Indian Jassidae (Homoptera). Zool. 12: 1-30. Part HI. Descriptions of some new genera and species, with DattAj B. (1988); On oriental Cicadellidae (Homoptera: Insec- first records of some known species from India. Indian ta). Rec. Zool. Surv. India Occ. paper No. 90: 89-90. Mus. Mem. 11: 101-131. 114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 A STUDY ON THE INDIAN SPECIES OF PLUTARCH! A GIRAULT (HYMENOPTERA : EURYTOMIDAE)1 T.C. Narendran and R. Padmasenan2 (With twenty-nine text-figures ) The Indian species of Plutarchia have been studied. Six new species, namely Plutarchia bengalensis, Plutar- chia carinata, Plutarchia hayatii, Plutarchia keralensis, Plutarchia malabarica , and Plutarchia marginata are described. A dichotomous key for the identification of Indian species of Plutarchia is provided. The little known genus Plutarchia was erected by Girault (1925) with the type-species Plutarchia bicarinativentris Girault from Queensland, Australia. Walker (1860) described a species, name- ly Plutarchia indefensa , from Sri Lanka. Subba Rao (1974) reported this species from India and described a new species from Nigeria. During our studies on Eurytomidae of India we come across six remarkable species which are new to science. These are described below. The following abbreviations are used in this paper: BMNH: British Museum (Natural History), London; DZCU: Department of Zoology, University of Calicut; OOL: Ocellocular length; POL: Pos- tocellar length; m: marginal vein; pm: Postmarginal vein; st. stigmal vein. Plutarchia marginata sp. nov. (Figs. 1-3) FEMALE: Length: 2.31 mm. Black; scape ex- cept apical one third dorsally, fore and mid tibiae, all trochanters, apices and bases of fore and mid femora, fore tarsus, apex of ovipositor sheath brownish; api- cal one third of scape dorsally, pedicel, fore and mid femora except bases and apices, hind femur, hind tarsus and mandibles blackish brown; mid coxa and flagellum brownish black; mid and hind tarsi and venation testaceous. Wings hyaline, pubescence whitish. Head dorsally 1.77x as broad as long, anterior- ly 1.35x as broad as high; densely umbilicately punctured on vertex and frons; punctures shallower than those on thorax, interstices shagreened; on lower face punctures confluent into shallow grooves separated by raised striae radiating from depressed clypeal margin; malar space shagreened. Frons con- 1 Accepted February 1989 department of Zoology, University of Calicut , Kerala 673 635. KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES OF Plutarchia GIRAULT 1. Propodeum with a median carina (Figs. 2, 11, 16, 22, 27) 2 — Propodeum without a median carina (Fig. 6) 6 2. Dorsal length of second gasteral tergite more than 2.2.5 x first tergite 3 — Dorsal length of second gasteral tergite less than 2.2.5 x first tergite 4 3. POL more than 3 x OOL; exposed part of ovipositor sheath subequal to dorsal length of epipygium; gaster as in Fig. 1 8 Plutarchia bengalensis sp. nov. — POL 2.2 x OOL; exposed part of ovipositor sheath dorsal- ly distinctly shorter than epipygium; first gasteral tergite very small and fused to the second dorsally; marginal vein small and broad as in Fig. 3; gaster as in Fig. 1 Plutarchia marginata sp. nov. 4. Gaster subequal to thorax; venation brownish; dorsal length of epipygium 2x dorsal length of ovipositor sheath; gaster as in Fig. 24 Plutarchia keralensis sp. nov. — Gaster distinctly shorter than thorax; other characters not as above 5 5. Stigmal vein shorter than marginal; dorsal length of epipygium 1.5 x ovipositor sheath; POL more than 12.5 x OOL; gaster as in Fig. 29 Plutarchia hayatii sp. nov. — Stigmal vein longer than marginal; dorsal length of ovipositor sheath subequal to epipygium; POL 2 x OOL; gaster as in Fig 13 Plutarchia carinata sp. nov. 6. Scape luteous; venation brownish; marginal vein longer than stigmal Plutarchia indefens a (Walker) — Scape brownish black except lower one third; marginal vein shorter than stigmal; venation testaceous; gasteras in Fig. 8 Plutarchia malabarica sp . nov. vex but not bulging; scrobe deep, slightly shagreened, its lateral sides carinate; front ocellus located outside scrobe; pre and postorbital carinae well developed, a single row of piliferous punctures present in between these carinae and eye margin. Lower edge of toruli at about halfway between median ocellus and emarginate mouth margin; malar sulcus absent. POL: OOL - 100:45; eye length:malar space - 100:83. Antenna 11153; scape just reaches the lower level of median ocellus; first NEW DESCRIPTIONS 115 funicular segment the largest, segments 2-5 sube- qual in length; club slightly longer than the com- bined length of preceding two segments combined. Thorax umbilicately punctured, interstices shagreened; about 1.21x as long as mesoscutum broad, 1 . 16x as long as high; pronotal collar carinate dorsolaterally, ecarinate medially, its posterior mar- gin slightly concave, its lateral part carinate anterior- ly; its collum shagreened. Tegula aciculate at hind margin; propodeum vertical, its median area flat with a median carina and two submedian carinae as seen in Fig. 2. Mesopleuron with faint horizontal striation on upper mesepimeron, lower mesepimeron and mesepistemum reticulate, epic- nemial area with a single row of piliferous puncta. Fore coxa with a single diagonal groove; hind tibia with seven backwardly directed spines dorsally. Forewing 2.08x longer than broad; m: pm: st - 77:100:96. Gaster 1.2x thorax; 2. lx as long as broad, 1.54x as long as high; petiole very small, seen only in dissected specimen; second gasteral tergite the largest, dorsally 2.65x first, its surface microsculp- tured as in Fig. 1; first tergite very small and fused to second dorsally, it bears two strong carinae dor- solaterally; dorsal length of epipygium about 1.1 6x those of ovipositor sheath. MALE: Unknown. Host: Unknown. This species differs from the rest in having a short broader marginal vein, first gasteral tergite very small and fused to the second dorsally, it oc- cupies only a very small portion of gaster anteriodor- sally. Holotype: Female. INDIA: Kerala, Malampuz- ha, January 1986, T.C. Narendran et al. (DZCU). Plutarchia malabarica sp. nov. (Figs. 4-8) FEMALE: Length: 1.39-1.93 (Holotype 1.93 mm). Black; head and thorax with short silvery pubescence; antenna except the base of scape, fore and hind femora except bases and apices, middle of mid and hind tibiae brownish black; base of scape, apex or ovipositor sheath and mandibles blackish brown; in mid and hind tibiae the colour changes towards the tips from brownish black to blackish brown, to brown and to yellow at the extreme tip; bases and apices of fore, mid and hind femora, fore tibia, and fore tarsus yellowish brown; mid and hind tarsi, venation testaceous. Wings hyaline; pubes- cence whitish. Head dorsally 1 .62x as broad as long, anterior- ly 1.32 x as broad as high; shallowly and umbilicate- ly punctured on vertex; punctures on lower face con- fluent into shallow grooves separated by raised striae radiating from depressed clypeal margin; malar area shagreened. Frons con vex but not bulg- ing; front ocellus located outside scrobe; pre and postorbital carinae faintly indicated, indistinct on the dorsal side of the eye. Lower edge of toruli at half distance between median ocellus and emar- ginate mouth margin; malar sulcus absent. OOL:POL - 31:100; eye length: malar space - 100:89. Antenna 11153; scape reaches a little below the level of front ocellus; funicular segments sube- qual in length, first funicular segment a trifle longer than the rest. Thorax shallowly umbilicately punctured, punctures more prominent than on head, interstices narrow; about 1.75x as long as mesoscutum broad, 1.53x as long as high; pronotal collar slightly carinate on anteriolateral margin, ecarinate medial- ly, its posterior margin slightly concave, its lateral part carinate anteriorly; its collum shagreened. Tegula smooth and shiny, aciculate at hind margin. Propodeum vertical, its median area flat and without a median carina (Fig. 6). Mesopleuron with faint horizontal striation on upper mesepimeron, lower mesepimeron and mesepistemum reticulate; epic- nemial area with a single row of piliferous punc- tures. Fore coxa with a narrow diagonal groove. Forewing length 2.3x width; m: pm: st - 75: 100:83. Gaster 1.33x thorax, 2.17x as long as broad, 1.6 lx as long as high; second gasteral tergite the largest, its dorsal length 1.5x the first, its surface microsculptured as in Fig. 8. MALE: Unknown. Host: Unknown. This species resembles Plutarchia bengalensis in general appearance but differs from it in the fol- lowing characters: 1. Propodeum without a median carina, 2. Upper two thirds of scape brownish black, 3. Slightly longer marginal vein. Holotype: Female. INDIA: Kerala, Neeles- waram (Kasargod), 26 February 1988, Narendran 0-3 mm 116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 0-2 mm 0-2 mm 0.2 mm Figs. 1-3. Plutarchia marginata sp. nov. 1. Body profile; 2. Fropodeum; 3. Venation. Figs. 4-8. Plutarchia malabarica sp. nov. 4. Head; 5. Antenna; 6. Propodeum; 7. Venation; 8. Gaster. NEW DESCRIPTIONS 117 0-4 mm 0-2 mm Figs. 9-13. Plularchia hayatii sp. nov. 9. Head; 10. Antenna; 11. Propodeum; 12. Venation; 13. Gaster. Figs. 14-18. Plularchia bengalensis sp.nov. 14. Head; 15. Antenna; 16. Propodeum; 17. Venation; 18. Gaster. 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 et al. Paratypes : 2 females. Same data as for holotype; 1 female: INDIA: Kerala, Payyanur, 26 February 1988, Narendran et al .; 1 female. INDIA: Kerala, Kadakkattupara (Nr. Calicut University), 9 November 1988, Narendran et al.\ 1 female. INDIA: Kerala, Kallayi, 24 June 1987, Narendran et al. All types at DZCU. Plutarchia hayatii sp. nov. (Figs. 9 -13) FEMALE: Length: 2.16 mm. Black; head and thorax with white pubescence; lower two thirds of scape, all trochanters, base and apex of fore femur, fore tibia and tarsus, mid femur, mid and hind tibiae except bases and apices, apex of ovipositor sheath brownish; upper one third of scape, pedicel man- dibles blackish brown; bases and apices of mid and hind tibiae yellowish brown; mid and hind tarsi and venation testaceous; flagellum, middle region of fore femur, hind femur and tegulae brownish black. Wings hyaline. Head dorsally 1 .85 x as broad as long, anterior- ly 1.29 x as broad as high; shallowly umbilicately punctured excluding malar space, latter shagreened, on lower face these punctures confluent into shallow grooves separated by raised striae radiating from the depressed clypeal margin. Frons convex, not bulg- ing; scrobe deep, slightly shagreened, its lateral sides carinate; front ocellus located outside scrobe; pre and postorbital carinae present, a single row of piliferous punctures present between these carinae and eye margin. Lower edge of toruli at half distance between median ocellus and emarginate mouth mar- gin; malar sulcus absent; POL:OOL - 100:37, eye length: malar space - 100:70. Antenna 11153; scape reaches a little below the median ocellus; first funicular segment largest, segments 2-5 subequal; club slightly longer than the preceding two segments combined. Thorax densely umbilicately punctured, inter- stices shagreened; about 1.34x as long as mesos- cutum broad, 1.23x as long as high; pronotal collar slightly carinate anteriolaterally, ecarinate medially, its posterior margin slightly concave, lateral part carinate anteriorly, collum shagreened. Tegula slightly striate reticulate at hind margin. Propodeum steep with a flat median area containing a median carina and two incomplete submedian carinae as in Fig. 11. Mesopleuron rugosopunctate with horizon- tal striation on mesepimeron and mesepistemum, epicnemial area slightly raised and contains single row of piliferous puncta. Fore coxa with a narrow diagonal groove. Forewing 2x longer than wide; m:pm:st- 83: 100:70. Gaster 1.3x thorax; petiole very short, not seen in undissected specimens; gaster 2.55x as long as broad, 1.46x as long as high; second gasteral tergite the largest, its dorsal length 1.5x those of first; epipygium dorsally 1.6 x ovipositor sheath; surface of second gasteral tergite microsculptured as in Fig. 13. MALE: Unknown. Host: Unknown. Holotype : Female. INDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh, 31 May 1987, M. Hayat., (DZCU). Plutarchia bengalensis sp. nov. (Figs. 14-18) female: Length: 1 .75 mm Black; head, thorax, and tip of abdomen with short silvery pubescence; upper half of scape, pedicel, mid and hind coxae, mandibles, tegulae, fore, mid and hind femora ex- cept apices, hind tibia except base and apex black- ish brown; flagellum brownish black; trochanters brownish; lower half of scape, fore and mid tibiae, fore tarsus, apex of ovipositor sheath yellowish brown; mid and hind tarsi and venation testaceous. Wings hyaline, pubescence whitish. Head dorsally 1 .62 x as broad as long, anterior- ly 1.1 8x as broad as hicdv shallowly umbilicately punctured on frons and vertex, on lower face these punctures confluent into shallow grooves separated by raised striae radiating from depressed clypeal margin; malar space shagreened. Pre and postorbi- tal carinae present, a single row of piliferous punc- tures present in between these carinae and eye mar- gin. Frons convex, not bulging; scrobe deep and smooth, its sides carinate; front ocellus located out- side scrobe. Lower edge of toruli at about halfway between median ocellus and emarginate mouth mar- gin. POL:OOL - 100: 29; eye length: malar space - 100:76. Antenna 11153; scape reaches a little below the lower level of median ocellus, funicular seg- ments except the first subequal in length, first a tri- fle longer than the rest; club slightly longer than the preceding two segments combined. NEW DESCRIPTIONS 0.7 mm Figs. 19-24. Plularchia keralensis sp. nov. 19. Head; 20. Antenna; 21. Scape of male antenna; 22. Propodeum; 23. Venation; 24. Gaster. Figs. 25-29. Plularchia carinata sp. nov. 25. Head; 26. Antenna; 27. Propodeum; 28. Venation; 29. Gaster. 120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Thorax shallowly umbilicately punctured, punctures more distinct than those on head, inter- stices narrow, shagreened; about 1.36x as long as mesoscutum broad, 1.28x as long as high; pronotal collar carinate anteriolaterally, ecarinate medially, posterior margin slightly concave, lateral part carinate anteriorly, collum shagreened. Tegula smooth, its hind margin aciculate. Propodeum verti- cal, its median area flat with a median carina as in Fig. 16. Mesopleuron with horizontal striation on upper mesepimeron; lower mesepimeron and mesepistemum reticulate; epicnemial area with a single row of piliferous punctures. Fore coxa with a narrow diagonal groove. Fore wing length 2x its width; m: pm: st- 60:100:80. Gaster 1.2x longer than thorax; 2.15x as long as broad, 1.47x as long as high; petiole very short, concealed; second gasteral tergite the largest, dor- sally 2.47x longer than first; surface of second gasteral tergite microsculptured as in Fig. 18. MALE: Unknown. Host: Unknown. Holotype: INDIA: West Bengal, 28 September 1983, S.S. Islam, (DZCU). This species resembles Plutarchia malabarica in general appearance but differs from it in having a median carina on propodeum, in having a shorter marginal vein and coloration of antennal scape. Plutarchia keralensis sp. nov. (Figs. 19-24) FEMALE: Length: 1.52-2 mm (Holotype: 1.72 mm). Black; head, thorax and tip of abdomen with white silvery hairs; scape except the apical one third dorsally, all trochanters, bases and apices of fore and hind femora, base and apex of hind tibia, apex of ovipositor sheath and venation brownish; apical one third of scape dorsally and pedicel blackish brown; antenna except scape and pedicel, mid and hind coxae, fore femur, hind femur, fore and mid tibiae yellowish brown. Wings hyaline, slightly infumated, pubescence brownish. Head dorsally 1.76x as broad as long, anterior- ly 1 .38x as broad as high; umbilicately punctured on vertex and frons, on lower face these punctures con- fluent into shallow grooves separated by raised striae radiating from depressed clypeal margin. Frons convex but not bulging; scrobe deep, slighdy shagreened posteriorly, lateral side carinate; front oceilus located outside scrobe; pre and postorbital carinae present, a single row of piliferous punctures present between these carinae and eye margin. Lower edge of toruli at about halfway between median ocellus and emarginate mouth margin; malar space shagreened; malar sulcus absent. POL:OOL 100:40; eye length:malar space - 100:86. Antenna 11153; scape just reaches the lower level of median ocellus; first funicular segment slightly longer than the rest, segments 2-5 subequal in length; club slightly longer than the preceding two segments combined. Thorax umbilicately punctured, interstices nar- row, shagreened; about 1.33x as long as mesos- cutum broad, 1.26x as long as high; pronotal collar carinate dorsolaterally, ecarinate medially, its posterior margin slightly concave, its lateral part carinate anteriorly, its collum shagreened. Tegula aciculate at hind margin; propodeum vertical, its median area flat, reticulate, with a median carina as in Fig. 22. Mesopleuron horizontally striated on the upper mesepimeron, reticulate on lower mesepimeron and mesepistemum, epicnemial area with a single row of piliferous puncta. Fore coxa with a narrow diagonal groove. Forewing length 2.4x its width; m: pm: st - 95: 91: 100. Gaster a trifle over the length of thorax, twice as long as broad, 1 .44x as long as high; petiole short, concealed: first gasteral tergite bears two strong dor- solateral carinae, the latter bears a rectangular projection anteriorly; second gasteral tergite the largest, its dorsal length about 1.94x the first, its sur- face microsculptured as in Fig. 24; dorsal length of epipygium twice that of ovipositor sheath. MALE: 1.76 - 1.85 mm. Resembles female in almost all characters except the following: 1. anten- nal funicle six-segmented; scape blackish brown on its upper half, brownish basally, ventrally it bears a knob-like projection as in Fig. 21; gaster petiolate, petiole longer than hind coxa, gasteral body very small. Host: Unknown. This species resembles Plutarchia indefensa (Walker) in having infumated wing with brownish venation, differs from it in having a median carina on propodeum, in having 2 subglobose gasters. The male of this species can be distinguished from that NEW DESCRIPTIONS 121 of P. indefensa in having six funicular segments on antenna, in having a knob-ike projection on the ventral side of scape. It also resembles P. marginata in general appearance but differs from it in having an infumated wing with brown venation and in the nature of carina on propodeum and in the measure- ments of gasteral tergites. Holotype: Female. INDIA: Kerala, Silent Valley, 9 December 1987, Narendran et al . (DZCU). Paratypes: 1 Female. Same data as for holotype; 8 Females and 3 Males. INDIA: Kerala, Kadakkattupara (Nr. Calicut University), 9 Novem- ber 1988, Narendran et al:, 1 Female. INDIA: Kerala, Valiyakavu (Pathanamthitta), 25 December 1988; 2 Females. INDIA: Kerala, Idikki, 1 December 1988, Narendran et al.; 1 Female. INDIA: Kerala, Edayar (Cannanore), 30 October 1988, Narendran et al:, 1 Female & 1 Male. INDIA: Kerala, Pyyannur, 26 February 1988, Narendran et al:, 26 Females and 9 Males. INDIA: Kerala, Kumarakom, 29 November 1988, Narendran et al.. All types at DZCU. Plutarchia carinata sp. nov. (Figs. 25-29) female: Length: 2.17 mm. Black; head thorax and tip of abdomen with short silvery pubescence; lower half of scape, pedicel, mid and hind trochanters, apex and base of mid femur, bases and apices of mid and hind tibiae, apex of ovipositor sheath brownish; upper half of scape, flagellum, fore and hind femora except bases and apices, hind tibia except base and apex, mid and hind coxae brownish black; fore trochanter, bases and apices of fore and hind femora, middle region of mid femur and mid tibia blackish brown; fore tarsus yellowish brown; mid and hind tarsi, venation yellowish; Wings hyaline, pubescence whitish. Head dorsally 1.89x as broad as long, anterior- ly 1.33x as broad as high; umbilicately punctured on vertex and frons, on lower face these punctures con- fluent into shallow grooves separated by raised striae radiating from depressed clypeal margin; malar space shagreened. Frons convex, not bulging, scrobe smooth, deep, its lateral sides carinate; pre and postorbital carinae present, a single row of piliferous punctures present in between these carinae and eye margin. Lower edge of toruli at about halfway between median ocellus and emar- ginate mouth margin; malar sulcus absent. POL: OOL- 100:52; eye length : malar space - 100 : 77. Antenna 11153; scape reaches a little above the lower level of median ocellus; first funicular seg- ment slightly longer than the rest; segments 2-5 sub- equal in length; club slightly longer than the preced- ing two segments combined. Thorax umbilicately punctured; interstices shagreened; about 1.4 lx as long as mesoscutum broad, 1.21x as long as high; pronotal collar carinate anteriolaterally, medially ecarinate, its posterior margin slightly concave; lateral part of propodeum carinate anteriorly, its collum shagreened. Tegula smooth, aciculate on hind mar- gin; propodeum flat with a strong median carina and three submedian carinae as in Fig. 27. Mesopleuron with horizontal striation on upper mesepimeron; lower mesepimeron and mesepistemum reticulate; epicnemial area with a single row of piliferous puncta. Fore coxa with a narrow diagonal groove. Forewing length 2. lx its width; m: pm: st - 84: 100:92. Gaster 1.1 7x longer than thorax; petiole very short and concealed; 1.85x as long as broad, 1.25x as long as high; second gasteral tergite largest, its dorsal length 1.48x first; surface of second gasteral tergite microsculptured as in Fig. 29. MALE: Unknown. Host: Unknown. This species resembles P. marginata in general appearance but differs from it in having a slender long marginal vein, in the nature of carinae on propodeum, and in the measurements of gasteral ter- gites. Holotype: INDIA: Tamil Nadu, Siruvani, 27 September 1987, Narendran et al., (DZCU). Plutarchia indefensa (Walker) Eurytoma indefensa Walker, 1860, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 6: 358, Female. Sri Lanka (BMNH), Subba Rao (1974) has given a good redescrip- tion of the female of this species. This species resembles Plutarchia keralensis in general ap- pearance but differs from it in having luteous scape, elliptical gaster and propodeum without a median carina. MALE: 1.7 - 2.5 mm. Resembles female except in having a plumose antenna with brownish black 122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 scape and five funicular segments, and in having a small gaster with a petiole longer than hind coxa. The male of this species closely resembles that of Plutarchia keralensis but can be distinguished from the latter by the antenna which has a five-seg- mented funicle and a scape devoid of knob-like projection. Host: Melanagromyza spp. (Subba Rao 1974) Distribution: Sri Lanka; INDIA: Namkum, Tamil Nadu (new record for Tamil Nadu), Uttar Pradesh (new record for Uttar Pradesh), Kerala (new record for Kerala). Materials examined: 1 Female. INDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh, 19 November 1984, M. hayat; 1 Female. INDIA: Kerala, Amalagiri (Kottayam), 28 November 1988; Narendran et al; 2 Females. INDIA; Kerala, Calicut University Campus, 1 February 1986, 2 June 1987, Narendran et al; 1 Female. INDIA: Tamil Nadu, Coimbatore, Sept. 1987, Narendran et al .; 1 Female. INDIA: Kerala, Kallayi, 24 June 1987, Narendran et al.; 2 Females and 7 Males. India: Kerala, Kalkandi (Nr. Silent Valley), Refe Girault, A. A. (1925): Indications ( in new insects) of ruling power and law in nature. Private publication , p. 1 86. Subba Rao, B.R. (1974): Redescription of Plutarchia Girault and Axanthosoma Girault with the description of a new 13 December 1987, Narendran et al , 1 Male. INDIA: Kerala, Kumarakom, 28 November 1988, Narendran et al.; 1 male. India: Kerala, Malampuz- ha, 11 December 1987, Narendran et al; 2 females. INDIA: Kerala, Mukkali (Nr. Silent Valley), 13 December 1987, Narendran et al ., 15 Females and 1 Male. INDIA: Kerala, Parambikulam, 22 December 1985, Narendran et al; 1 Male. India : Kerala, Payyannur, 26 February 1988, Narendran et al; 1 Female. India: Kerala, Silent Valley, 30 December 1988, Narendran et al. All types at DZCU. Acknowledgements This research is financed by Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, New Delhi. We are thankful to Dr. M. Hayat, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for providing us a few specimens of Plutarchia for our studies. We also thank authorities of University of Calicut for providing necessary facilities for our work. NCES species of Plutarchia from Nigeria (Eurytomidae : Hymenoptera). J. Ent. (B) 42(2): 199-203. Walker, F. (1860): Characters of some apparently undescribed Ceylon insects. Ann. Mag, nat. Hist. 6: 358. A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS PAREVASPIS RITSEMA (HYMENOPTERA : APOIDEA : MEGACHILIDAE : ANTHIDINAE) FROM INDIA1 Virendra Kumar2 and V.K. TiwarI3 ( With five text-figures ) The genus Parevaspis Ritsema from the Indian region is represented by only one species,namely Parevaspis carbonaria Smith (Bingham 1897 and Michener 1965). In this paper a new species, Parevaspis baijalii , is described from Bombay, (India). Parevaspis baijalii sp. nov. (Figs. 1-5) MALE: Integument of head and thorax rough Accepted March 1989. 2Research Student, Department of Zoology, Agra College, Agra. 3Lecturer, department of Zoology, Agra College, Agra. and not shining, abdomen shining; facial pubes- cence white, rest of body having few scattered white hairs; integument black. Head wider than the median length; inner eye margin convergent below and slightly incurved at median area; clypeus triangular, broadly protuberant and coarsely punctured; supraclypeal area elevated and with a prominent ‘Y’ shaped carina, lower arm of carina touching the apical margin of clypeus, upper bifurcated arms reach up to antennal sockets level; width of parocular area equal to the basal width of clypeus; subocellar area flat, punctured and bare; vertex margin straight and incarinate; genae NEW DESCRIPTIONS 123 Figs. 1-5. Parevaspis baijalii sp. nov. (Male) 1. Adult, full dorsal view; 2. Head front view; 3. Sternum 6th; 4. Sternum 8th; 5. Genitalia. (Dots on Figs. 1 & 2 indicate pubescence). 124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 narrowed below and hypostomal area with short white pubescence; mandible tridentate with wide in- terspace between second and third tooth. Pronotal lobe expanded laterally, anterior ridge subcarinate; scutum flat, broadly protuberant anteriorly, with coarsely deep punctures; median line distinct, parapsidal lines much short; notauli in- evident; scutellar surface with coarsely pits like deep punctures, posterior margin broadly arched and ridge like; mesepistemum minutely punctate, with few pale yellow hairs and a complete carina on antero-lateral surface; median length of propodeal triangle about twice that of median groove below; wing colour clear hyaline, with apical fuscous mar- gin, veins black to piceous, first recurrent vein is far from base and second reaches beyond the apex of second cuboital cell; coxae and trochanter normal with long white hairs on inner margin; femora broad- ly cylindrical, angulated and ventro-apically notched; tibia ventrally carinate and with a fringe of short pale bristles; outer surface of leg with short white hairs. Basal tergum concavity margin carinate and with ferrugenous pubescence; apical margin of ter- gites with smooth area and rudimentary fringe; ter- gites 2-5 with unexposed pregradular area and graduli; post gradular area exposed; 6th tergum with broadly arched apical margin, laterally finely ser- rated and slightly blunt at apex; apical margin of 7th tergum slightly declivous at midline, broadly imer- ginate and testaceous brown; 6th sternum exposed with invaginate apical margin and incurved medial- ly; 8th sternum pentagonal, apical lobe obtusely an- gulated, fringe with few fine bristles, basal part nar- rowed and produced into a broad stalk. Gonocoxite medially constricted; gonostylus broadly dilated, fan-shaped, with long fringe; penis- valve flattened, triangular with narrow apex; penis membranous. Measurements: (in mm): Total length 9.6; eyes: length 2.70, lateral width 1.4; clypeus : median length 1.1, basal width 1.2, apical width 1.7; anten- nae : length of scape 0.9, pedicel 0.25, flagellar seg- ments 1-0.20, II-0.30, XI-0.40; labrum : median length 0.8, basal width 0.9, apical width 0.75; man- dible : length of dentate and lower margin 0.60 and 0.90; scutum : median length 2.4, maximum width 3.0; forewing: total length 7.0; tergites I- VII, rela- tive median width 1 .6, 2. 1 , 2. 1 , 2.0, 2.0, 1 .6 and 0.5. FEMALE: Not known. Material Examined: Holotype : male, Solanum sp. Bombay (National Park), 16 June 1985. (V.K.) deposited in I.A.R.I., New Delhi . Paratypes : 2 males with same data, in the collection of the Deptt. of Entomology, Agra College, Agra. The new species is close to P. carbonaria Smith. However, P. baijalii sp. nov. can be distinct- ly separated from P. carbonaria by : "facial pubes- cence white; both the recurrent veins are not equi- distant; hypostomal area is broadly elevated and with few white pubescence; median carina of mesepistemum absent; apical margin of 6th sternum is medially incurved; sternum 8th pentagonal in shape, apical lobe obtusely angulated, basal part with long hairs and elongated; penis-valves trian- gular with narrow apex". This species has been named after Dr. H.N. Baijal, Head of the Zoology Department, Agra Col- lege, Agra. Acknowledgement We thank Dr H.N. Baijal, Head of the Zoology Deptt., Agra College, Agra, for providing necessary facilities. References Bingham, C.T. (1897): Fauna of British India, including Ceylon Michener, C.D. (1965): A classification of the bees of the and Burma. Hymenoptera (Wasps and Bees), Vol. I. p. 498- Australian and South pacific region. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 499. Hist; 130: 213-214. NEW DESCRIPTIONS 125 A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS SIRTHENEA SPINOLA (PIRATINAE- REDUVIIDAE- HETEROPTERA) FROM THE COROMANDEL COAST, INDIA 1 C. Murugan and David Livingstone2 (With a text-figure) A new species of the genus Sirthenea Spinola, namely Sirthenea nigripes sp. nov. (Reduviidae : Heteroptera) from the Coromandel Coast of India has been described and illustrated. Introduction The genus Sirthenea Spinola can be identified from all other genera of Piratinae by their well formed tibiarolium on the fore tibiae alone and by their extraordinary elongation of the ante-ocular area, carrying the antennae forward, farther in front of the eyes. Distant (1904) recorded only one species, namely Sirthenea flavipes (Stal) from the Oriental region. Apart from this species, Villiers (1969) described yet another species (S. rapax) from the Ethiopian region. The present species from the Coromandel Coast of the Indian peninsula is a new addition, bringing two from the total species under this genus from India. This new species is based on a single specimen collected by light trap by Mr. G. Ravichandran from Sunabeda, Koraput District, Orissa on 19 June 1987 at an elevation of 950 MSL, temperature 25°C and humidity 70%. Sirthenea nigripes sp. nov. MALE: macropterous; elongate; length 18 mm, width across the pronotum 4 mm and across the ab- domen 3 mm; piceous; legs pale fuscous, anterior lobe of the pronotum, dorsal and ventral surface fus- cous; a longitudinal dark streak extending from beneath the antennal socket up to the base of the ar- ticulation of the rostrum conspicuous; entire ster- num, scutellum, posterior lobe of pronotum, major part of the corium and membrane piceous. Head : elongate; ante-ocular area more than twice as long as the post - ocular area; antennal sock- et more dorsal ly located, far removed from the eyes; frons, clypeus, lorum etc. setaceous; ocelli wide apart, reddish brown, encircled by piceous ring; ocellar prominence smooth; collar short and narrow; Accepted June 1989. division of Entomology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil Nadu Fig. 1. Sirthenea nigripes sp. nov. scape slightly incrassated, very short, almost half as long as the pedicel and not exceeding the anterior limit of clypeal prominence; second segment of the rostrum almost four times as long as the first seg- ment and almost twice as long as the very slender, acutely pointed third segment. Thorax: anterior lobe of the pronotum almost twice as long as the posterior lobe; the sulcations in- clude, one on either side of the median longitudinal fissure, another oblique one outer to it, extending al- 9 t 126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 most up to the posterior limit of the anterior lobe and a short, more shallow one in between these two; anteriorly, the sulcations expand, being lined by fine setae; antero-lateral tubercles obscure; posterior lobe with discal prominence demarcated on either side of the median longitudinal furrow, a transverse fissure delineating the two lobes fairly deep; scutel- lum piceous, acutely pointed apically and laterally compressed and dorsally flattened; hemelytra with an ochraceous spot at the distal end of the clavus, confluent with a similar spot on the corium; both corium and clavus basally ochraceous; the membrane basally piceous, apically ochraceous and translucent; legs concolorous; femora only slightly longer than the coxae, both laterally compressed, forming a ventral setaceous keel; fore tibiae almost as long as the femora; tibial pad more apically dif- ferentiated, anteriorly extending upto the tip of the first tarsomer; mid and hind tibiae without any trace of a pad; mesosternal carination prominent, metastemum foveated at the posterior margin. Abdomen: with ochraceous spots on the con- nexivum, mid ventral keel of the abdominal seg- ments brownish ochraceous except at the pregenital and genital segments; first abdominal sternite ochraceous throughout. This species closely resembles Sirthenea flavipes in the pattern of formation of its carinations and sulcations of the anterior lobe of pronotum and characters of the head and segments of the ap- pendages. However, it can be readily recognised from S. flavipes by its small size and by the colora- tion of the corium, clavus and the sulcations of the anterior lobe of pronotum (black in S. flavipes and fuscous concolorous with the rest of the anterior lobe of the pronotum in S. ni gripes sp. nov.); legs in the former ochraceous and in the latter pale fuscous. The type is for the present deposited in the reduviid collection of the Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India. Acknowledgements We are grateful to the authorities of the Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, for providing facilities, and to the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, for financial assistance during the course of the investigation. Thanks are due to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Cal- cutta, for placing at our disposal their reduviid col- lection for comparison and to Mr. G. Ravichandran for making available the specimen with the collec- tion data for the present description. References Distant, W.L. (1904): The Fauna of British India, including Villiers, A. (1969):Hemipteres Reduviides recoltes a Madagas- Ceylon and Burma - Rhvnchota, Vol. II (Heteroptera). car par Mr. F. Keiser, Verhandl. Naturf. Ges. Basel. 80 (I): Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 288-303. 62-69. TWO NEW SPECIES FROM NORTH EASTERN INDIA (ORTHOPTERA : ACRIDIDAE)1 Kharibam Meinodas and Shaikh Adam Shafee2 (With eight text- figures ) Two new species of the subfamily Acridinae from northeastern India, viz. Odontomelus manipurensis and Pargaella champ haiensis are described and illustrated. Further, occurrence of the genera Odontomelus Bol. and Pargaella Bol. is reported for the first time from the Oriental region. 1 Accepted June 1989. Section of Entomology, Zoology Department, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 001. Odontomelus manipurensis sp. nov. (Figs. A-E) MALE: Head (Figs. A,B) brownish, strongly oblique, distinctly longer than pronotum; vertex convex; fastigium of vertex slightly longer than wide, depressed, with median and lateral carinulae; fastigial foveolae absent; antennae slightly widened basally, much longer than head and pronotum together, inserted in front of lateral ocelli; frontal ridge compressed between antennae, with carinae NEW DESCRIPTIONS 127 New species from northeastern India. Figs. A-E Odontomelus manipurensis sp. nov. F-H Pargaella champhaiensis sp. nov. almost parallel, slightly divergent before reaching clypeus. Thorax brownish; pronotum (Fig. B) long with well developed median and lateral carinae, median carina crossed by posterior transverse sulcus; teg- mina and wings short, never reaching beyond the third abdominal segment; mesostemal interspace open; hind femur with knee passing slightly beyond the apex of abdomen, upper basal lobe slighdy longer than lower basal lobe, external apical spine of hind tibia absent. Abdomen brownish, carinate above; tym- panum well developed; supra-anal plate triangular with a mid-longitudinal groove; cerci long, tubular; epiphallus (Fig. D) with bridge narrow, ancorae short, lophi lobiform; aedeagus (Fig. E) with apical valve curved upward. Body length : 22-24 mm. The new species differs from Odontomelus usambaricus Ramme in the knee of hind femur reaching slightly beyond apex of abdomen; antennal segments 7 to 14 much longer than wide; tegmina 128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 reaching beyond the third abdominal segment. Holotype: Male, from grass, Waithou, Manipur, 20 June 1983, Kh. Meinodas. Preserved specimen deposited at present in Zoological Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. Paratype: 1 Male (Same data as for holotype). Pargaella champhaiensis sp. nov. (Figs. F-H) FEMALE: Head (Figs. F, G) brownish, slightly shorter than pronotum; fastigium of vertex with dis- tinct median and lateral carinulae; fastigial foveolae indistinct; frontal ridge narrow, shallowly sulcate, with carinulae slightly divergent downwards; vertex with indistinct mid-longitudinal carinula; antennae slightly ensiform, shorter than head and pronotum together. Thorax brown; pronotum (Fig. G) with fine median and lateral carinae; dorsum rugose in prozona, longitudinal carinulae in metazona; median carina crossed by posterior transvere sulcus; metazona about one-half the length of prozona, posterior margin obtusely angular; mesostemal in- terspace open, as long as wide; tegmina and wings short, never reaching beyond third abdominal seg- ment; hind femur with knee never extending beyond tip of abdomen; external apical spine of hind tibia absent. Abdomen brown, supra-anal plate long with mid-longitudinal groove basally; cerci short, tubular; subgenital plate with egg- guide long. Body length: 30 mm. The new species is closely related to Pargael- la luctuosa Bolivar, but differs from it in the knee of hind femur not extending beyond the tip of the ab- domen, and by the presence of lanceolate tegmina. Holotype: Female, from grass, Champhai Tasar farm, Mizoram, 12 July 1983, O. Kupera. Preserved specimen deposited at present in Zoologi- cal Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. A NEW SUBSPECIES OF DENDROBIUM PANDURATUM LINDL. (ORCHIDACEAE) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1 2 R. Gopalan and A.N. Henry2 {With four text -figures) Dendrobium panduratum Lindl. subsp. vil- losum subsp. nov. Dendrobium panduratum. Lindl. subsp. pan- duratum affinis, sed sepalis dorsalibus ellipticis, ob- tuso-mucronatis, sepalis lateralibus obtuso- mucronatis, petalis super medianum fimbriatis; lobis lateralibus labii, basibus midlobi et discis intus villosis differt. Allied to Dendrobium panduratum Lindl. subsp .panduratum but differs in: dorsal sepal ellip- tic, obtuse-mucronate; lateral sepals obtuse- mucronate; petals fringed above the middle; and lip- lateral lobes and base of midlobe, and disc villous within. Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs; pseudobulbous stems 3-15 cm long, elongate, flat, narrowed at base, broader towards apex; young leafy stem arises from the anterior side; mature (old) leafless flowering 1 Accepted September 1989. 2Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu. stem enclosed by sheath (sometimes with one or two leaves at apex). Leaves 1-10 x 0.2-1. 5 cm, linear- lanceate, sessile, acute, membranous. Flowers white in terminal or axillary, zigzag, 2-7 flowered racemes up to 8 cm long; bracts minute, ovate. Dorsal sepal 7-8 x 2.5-3 mm, elliptic, obtuse- mucronate, 3- veined, gland-dotted; lateral sepals 9-10 x 2.5-3 mm, falcatly ovate-lanceate, obtuse-mucronate, 5- veined, gland-dotted. Petals c. 7 x 2 mm, oblanceate, acute, margin fringed above the middle, 3-veined, gland-dotted. Lip c. 10 x 6 mm, panduriform, 3- lobed; lateral lobes small, acute, incurved, villous within, 3-veined, veins branching at apex; midlobe c. 4x5 mm, broadly ovate or orbicular, irregularly crenulate, undulate, acute and recurved at apex, vil- lous at base within, 5-veined; disc thick, villous within, 5-veined, outer veins branched; mentum c . 4 mm long, spur-like, straight or slightly incurved; 2-lobed at tip. Column c. 6x1 mm, 3-toothed, oper- culum attached to the middle; pollinia 4, in pairs, waxy. Ovary with pedicel 5-8 mm long. Fruits NEW DESCRIPTIONS 129 globose. (Figs. 1-4). Holotype (Gopalan 88699, CAL) and isotypes (Gopalan 88699, MH- acc. no. 144695-144701) were collected at Inchikkuzhi in Kannikatty R.F., Tirunelveli Kattabomman District, Tamil Nadu, on 20 September 1988. We are thankful to Dr N.P. Balakrishnan, Scientist ‘SE’ for encouragement and to Dr V.J. Nair, Scientist ‘SD\ for the Latin translation. KEY TO THE SUBSPECIES OP D. Panduratum LINDL. Dorsal sepal oblong -lanceolate, acuminate; lateral sepals acuminate; petals not fringed above the middle; lip and disc glabrous sub sp. panduratum {Distrib.: Sri Lanka) Dorsal sepal elliptic, obtuse-mucronate; lateral sepals ob- tuse-mucronate; petals fringed above the middle; lip - lateral lobes and base of midlobe, and disc villous within sub sp. villosum {Distrib.: Southern India) Figs. 1-4. Dendrobium panduratum Lindl. subsp. villosum Gopalan & Henry 1. Habit; 2. Flower, 3. Rostrum from front; 4. Sepals, petals and lip spread out from front. REVIEWS THE INDIAN BLACKBUCK by M.K. Ranjitsinh. Natraj Publishers, Dehradun, 1989. 156 pp, with 25 monochrome and 2 coloured plates. Rs. 250. As any other species of Indian wildlife, the black- buck, that magnificient symbol of India’s indigenous fauna, has a declining fortune, swamped as it is by an ever increasing human population encroaching and destroying the natural habitats of the subcontinent. This book by Ran- jitsinh relates the history of its survival and discusses what the future holds for the species. In the process the author has reviewed all that has appeared in published literature from the time of the Emperor Babur to the present day. Ranjitsinh is perhaps the best qualified to undertake such a review. A member of the Indian Administrative Service, he is atypical of those guardians of the red tape and is more at home in the wilderness than in the musty corridors of power. The two main areas he had studied intensively, the Velavadar and Kanha National Parks , are illustrative of optimal and suboptimal habitat for the species. The en- vironmental parameters in both habitats have been dis- cussed in detail. The physiology, distribution and status; group struc- ture, birth and mortality; food and feeding habits; social behaviour; courtship and reproduction; relationship with other species; blackbuck and cheetah; and finally conser- vation and future of the species are discussed, based on the author’s wide experience of the species correlated with the published data of other workers. The blackbuck could be the best subject for inten- sive management. The population is widespread, often iso- lated, abundant in pockets and just holding its own else- where. The high reproductive capacity of the species enables it to respond effectively to protection. This is a blessing as well as a curse: in well protected areas the ever increasing population becomes a human interest con- flict problem. Selective culling may be necessary and pragmatic. The dilemma is that if the total population is considered the species is still endangered; but in particular areas expanding populations are counterproductive to its conservation and require to be thinned. A very useful and instructive monograph, recom- mended to all those interested in wildlife ecology. J.C. DANIEL PROCEEDINGS OF THE SYMPOSIUM ON ENDANGERED MARINE ANIMALS AND MARINE PARKS. Edited by E.G. Silas. Marine Biological Association of India, Cochin, 1988. pp. xli + 508 (25 x 18 cm), with many plates and illustrations. Price Rs. 500/- Some 200,000 kinds of plants and animals are es- timated to inhabit the world oceans. As these do not ob- serve international boundaries and move freely, they are more uniformly distributed than the terrestrial species. People, therefore, tend to believe that the threat of extinc- tion is less in these marine species. This is as wrong a no- tion as the naive belief that the volume of water in the seas and oceans being so huge, one can, with impunity, dump one’s sewage and industrial wastes therein. It is fairly recently that people have woken up to the threat posed to many living marine resources from unscientific commer- cial exploitation and increasing damage to the marine habitat from human activities and other economic inter- ests. The human population explosion, and the consequent need for increased food resources, coupled with ‘development’ of the coast and of new ocean resources, have led to an equally rapid growth of concern regarding overexploitation of our marine resources. With a view to disseminating current knowledge and apprising institutions, both governmental and NGOs, of the need to do something about this grave situation, the Marine Biological Association of India organized this symposium in 1985. It is the sixth in a series of such sym- posia. (Earlier ones were on Scombroid fishes, Crustacea, Mollusca, Corals and coral reefs, and Coastal aquacul- ture.) It is up to the high standard that we have come to ex- pect from the Association and succeeds very well in presenting the current status of this important range of sub- jects. A total of 60 papers delivered at the symposium form the basis of this text. These papers are grouped under four headings: Marine Mammals; Estuarine and marine rep- tiles; Other marine vertebrates and invertebrates; and Marine parks, sanctuaries, reserves, zoos and oceanariums. There are 23 papers in the first category. The first paper, by John G. Frazier titled ‘What is endangered?’, though placed under ‘marine mammals’, is of a general nature and helps to answer the non-specialist’s query on the definition of an endangered species. Eleven papers in the first category are concerned with whales. Even the wildlife enthusiasts among Indians are not conversant with this group, knowledge being generally restricted to cur- REVIEWS 131 sory reports on occasional standings of whales on our coasts which, being headlined in the newspapers, receive immediate but short-lived attention. It is not surprising, therefore, that the vast majority of papers on whales are by foreign scientists. In fact I was astonished to find four papers by India workers, until I browsed through them, to find that two of them were by non-residents based in U.S.A. and Brazil. While Silas et al. have done a good job of studying the food of a specimen of sperm whale stranded at Tranquebar, the remaining paper by a scientist from India is very sketchy, and appears to have been writ- ten solely for presenting at the symposium. Of the five papers dealing with lesser Cetaceans, three are by Indian scientists. There are four papers on dugongs. Of these, the one by Silas and Fernando should make every Indian hang his head in shame, dealing, as it does, with the sordid tale of human avarice and utter cal- lousness and impotence of the authorities that be, of a harmless creature with as much a right to life as any of us. It is not that the killing is done to fill an empty belly, or even to pit our skill against a dangerous beast like a tiger or a shark. The butchery of an innocent vegetarian, and the secrecy with which its flesh is shared would place the per- petrators of this heinous crime in a class with the worst of criminals, murderers and smugglers. And this happens in the land of ahimsa! Of the 16 papers in the category of estuarine and marine reptiles, the vast majority are on turtles. The three dealing with captive rearing prove that we have come a long way in achieving succcess. The influence of incuba- tion temperature on sex determination of turtles is also well brought out here. Kar gives an excellent picture of the present status of the highly endangered saltwater crocodile in Orissa, the only place, apart from the Sunderbans, on the Indian mainland where this reptile is found. Whitaker ’s paper is of a more general nature, but is notable for its coverage of the water monitor lizard. The 14 papers under 'Other marine vertebrates and invertebrates" cover a heterogenity of animals ranging from fiddler crabs and pearl oysters to hemichordates and sea-eagles. Some of the papers at the end of this category cannot be strictly included under "endangered". For ex- ample, Reza’s paper deals more with the effect of pollu- tion due to an oil spill. James’ paper, although excellent as a taxonomic review of 95 echinoderms from the Gulf of Mannar, loses its value when he tries to justify it by giving the isolated example of depletion of just one species. Again, Azariah and Pillai’s coverage of a hemichordate deals with the toxic effects of its body extract on a polychaete worm — excellent as a physiology paper but in- cluded here only because the animal itself is ‘protected’. The paper by Vodden and Thomas on cleaning oiled birds deserves species mention as it is written from the humane or animal welfare point of view. Thirteen papers are grouped in the fourth category. While the establishment of a national park in the Gulf of Kutch and a proposed park in the Gulf of Mannar are fully justified, the proposal for one at Malvan-Vengurla appears to be far fetched, and more a result of vying with other states for a status symbol or showpiece. Such marine parks would be more attractive and effective at Andaman- Nicobar and Lakshadweep. In view of the great spread of interest about marine life and conservation, these proceedings provide a refresh- ing approach to the problems attendant upon them. The nonspecialist, who desires to find ready access to facts and figures, can gain some understanding about the subject material of present concern to conservationists, even though some of the papers may be difficult for him to un- derstand. For the specialist, on the other hand, there is a considerable amount of material which he will find of in- terest, and useful summaries of the present state of knowledge. The shoddy proof-reading does not detract from the overall value. B.F. CHHAPGAR THE WEALTH OF INDIA, RAW MATERIALS. VOL. IA (Revised Edition). Edited by Shri Y.R. Chadha and 27 others. Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, 1985. pp. lx + 54 (29 x 22 cm), 84 figures, 11 plates. Price: Rs. 200/ (Not indi- cated on the book). This is the first volume of the revised second edition of Wealth of India series, which was started in 1948 and completed with eleven volumes in 1976. Since the publi- cation of the first volume immediately after independence, there have been tremendous additions to the knowledge of natural resources of our country, which is reflected in the increase in the number of pages from 142 to 5 13 under the alphabet A in this volume. It was pointed out by reviewers of concluding volumes of the first edition that with the large time lag between the first and the final volume there was ? tremendous difference in the amount, type and quality of information published, and it was high time that whole series was revised in the light of new information. This volume of revised series therefore serves a common- ly felt need. Although the series is supposed to furnish informa- tion about resources from the plant and animal kingdoms as well as the mineral wealth of India, more than 95% of 132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol...87 Name earlier used Corrected name in this volume Abutilon asiaticum G. Don Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Acacia arabica Willd. Acacia nilotica Delile ssp. indica (Benth.) Brenan Acacia concinna DC. Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merrill Acacia caesia W. & A. Acacia torta (Roxb.) Craib Abroma Jacq. Ambroma Linn. f. the entries deal with plant resources only, which is evident from the fact that this first volume includes information on 198 genera of plants, with merely 6 entries about minerals. The old concluded series had information on 5000 plant species belonging to 1,730 genera, 48 animals and animal products and 74 minerals. In fact, while reviewing the first volume of the earlier series in Blumea , Dr. C.J.J. Van Steenis had rightly pointed out that ‘Wealth of India’ Raw Materials series was Only the revision of ‘Dictionary of Economic products of India’ by Sir George Watt. Instead of revising the entire work in the fashion presently undertaken, it would have been perhaps more appropriate and economical to supplement the earlier volumes, periodically updating the information. With the publication of this first volume of the revision, the old volumes are rendered out-dated and useless, and as a result the old series has already made its way to second-hand booksellers on the pavements of Bombay. In contrast, the data presented in the volumes of ‘Dictionary of Economic Products of India’ remains unrevised and the original volumes still retain their importance and value among book rarities. The present revision is not only rich in information, but also corrects the nomenclature of many species in the light of present understanding, although it is not fully up- to-date. Some nomenclatural corrections from earlier series brought up-to-date in this volume are shown in the table above. However, the name used in this volume Adina cor- difolia (Roxb.) Hook.f. ex Brandis, is now corrected as Haldinia cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale in recent taxonomic works. The later volumes of the earlier series have been well received by experts from both India and abroad; the present volume also keeps up the tradition of good work, and deserves praise. I have no hesitation in saying that this series would be the best source of cumulative information on all aspects of our natural resources, particularly the vegetational wealth; it is recommended for research or- ganisations, colleges, schools and also individual users. M.R. ALMEIDA MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. OVERLAPPING DISTRIBUTION OF CAPPED LANGUR TRACHYPITHECUS PILEATA AND PHAYRE’S LEAF MONKEY T. PHAYREI ( With a Fig.. 1. Distribution of capped langur and Phayre’s leaf monkey. Note the zone of sympatric distribution. The capped langur Trachypithecus pileata Blyth is the commonest of the leaf monkeys found in the forests of northeast India. Outside India it is found in Upper Burriia and Bangladesh. In Bhutan, although it was an unrecorded species (Eudey 1987), I observed a group in the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (eastern bank) on 20 October 1985. This 400 sq.km sanctuary in Bhutan is contiguous with the Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam. text-figure) Phayre’s leaf monkey T. phayrei Blyth is the most extensively distributed leaf monkey of continental Southeast Asia(Fooden 1976). However, in India its range is a small one, covering parts of Assam (Cachar and Karimganj districts), Tripura and also perhaps Mizoram. It is also found in eastern Bangladesh. The most interesting question in the distribution of these two neighbouring species of langurs is whether they are sympatric or allopatric. Fooden (1976) mentioned that capped langur is strictly allopatric with Phayre’s leaf monkey. However, later surveys showed that in some areas these two are sympatric. In the forests of Cachar (south of Barak river) and Karimganj districts of Assam, I have found them sympatric (Choudhury 1989). Moreover, I have also observed them resting together without any antagonistic behaviour towards each other. Once a group of capped langurs were seen chasing away a group of Phayre’s leaf monkeys while the latter were busy feeding. The capped langurs then started feed- ing at the same spot (some even on the same Ficus hispida figs). The locality was Damchara, c. 1.5 km west of Nagorhgena (24° 17’ N, 92°30’E) in the Innerline reserve forest of Cachar. In Nagorhgena also both the species were found together. In Tripura, and maybe both in Mizoram and eastern Bangladesh both the species could be sympatric. There is a possibility of a little overlap in the Chin Hill region of Burma. There are two specimens in the American Museum of Natural History, one each of capped langur and Phayre’s leaf monkey. The capped langur specimen was collected from Mt. Victoria of Chin Hill (21°14’N, 93°55’E) and the Phayre’s leaf monkey from Dudaw Taung of Magwe (21°05’N, 94°19’E, Fooden 1976). August 30, 1989 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY References Blyth, E. (1 843): Report of Curator, Zoological Department, for February 1843. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 12(1): 166-184. (1847): Supplementary report of the Curator of the Zoology Department. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 16: 728-737. Choudhury, A. (1989): Primates of Assam: their distribution, habitat and status. Unpub. Ph.D thesis, Gauhati University, 300 pp. Eudey, A. A. (1987): A compiled works for the Action Plan for Asian Primate Conservation: 1987-91. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, New York. Fooden, J. (1976): Primates obtained in peninsular Thailand, June- July, 1973, with Notes on the Distribution of Con- tinental Southeast Asian Leaf -Monkeys ( Presbytis ). Primates (Inuyama), 17(1): 95-118. 134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 2. A HUNTING TECHNIQUE OF THE JUNGLE CAT FEUS CHAUS Over the last few years, while working at Royal Chit- wan National Park in Nepal and Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh, I have been able to observe, at close quarters, a number of stalks and hunts conducted by jungle cats Felis chaus, and have learnt something of the different methods they use. One technique is what may be called the ‘vertical assault’. This seems to be almost exclusively employed against prey lurking in small, dense thickets like a clump of dead bamboo, a bunch of high grass or a bush. When alerted by some sound or movement to the presence of a potential prey in such a place, the cat cautiously ap- proaches the edge of the thicket and then sits, still and in- tent, until it spots its intended victim and identifies it. Once located, the cat gathers its hindquarters under it and launches itself high into the air, sometimes as much as a metre, to descend almost vertically upon its startled prey which is caught as it seeks to escape. The advantage of this ‘vertical assault’ over other techniques seems to be that, apart from overcoming the barrier presented by dense vegetation, the very suddenness of the descent serves to startle and confuse the prey and flush it out of the thick cover, thus rendering it more vul- nerable. Every time that I have actually seen the prey animal it has always been after the attack, never before. Although I have seen several successful and unsuc- cessful attempts, I have got a clear look at the kill on only six occasions. They have all been small rodents barring one instance when I saw a common bustard quail Turnix suscitator escape from between a cat’s paws. August 4, 1989 HASHIM N. TYABJI 3. OCCURRENCE OF DOBSON’S LONG-TONGUED FRUIT BAT EONYCTERIS SPELAEA (DOBSON, 1971) (CHIROPTERA:PTEROPODIDAE) IN MEGHALAYA The Dobson’s long-tongued fruit bat Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson), although recorded from Kumaon, Uttar Pradesh (Bhat 1968), Andaman Islands (Bhattachar- rya 1975), Darrang District, Assam (Ghose and Bhat- tacharya 1977); coastal Karnataka (Bhat et al. 1980) in India, has hitherto not been reported from the rest of the country (Blanford 1891, Andersen 1912, Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951, Tate 1947). Recently, I obtained two females from the hills of northeast India (near La-ilad Forest Rest House, E. Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, alt. c. 350 m) on 17 May 1989 between 0300 and 0400 hrs in a mist-net set between plantains near cultivation. The smaller of the two females, a young adult, was pregnant and had two spots on the chest instead of teats. A single embryo (12 mm) was present in the right horn of the uterus. Both the females had projecting para - anal glands. Bhat et al. (1980) mentioned that it is polyestrous and breeds throughout the year. One female from Siju cave (360 m), Garo Hills, Meghalaya, (S.W. Kemp & B.N. Chopra, Feb. 1922) present in the National Zoological collection of India at the Zoological Survey of India was also identified as Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson), by Shri P.K. Das, Scientist - ‘SD’, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, who has al- lowed me to report it in this paper. Measurements (in mm): 2 (Khasi Hills) and 1 (Garo Hills): External : Head and body 92, 102, - ; tail 14, 15,- ; forearm 68, 70, 70.5; ear 18, 18, - ; tibia 28, 30,- ; foot and claw 16, 19, - ; wing span 370, 400, - ; Skull: Total length 34, 35.4, 35.5; zygomatic width 19, 20, - ; cranial width 14, 15, 14.9; cranial height 11.2; 12.2, - ; width of cranial rostrum 7, 7.6,- ; maxillary width {m - m) 8.3, 9.2, 8.9; upper tooth row (c - m!) 12, 13, 12.4; lower tooth row(c-m2)13, 13.5, 13.1; mandibular length 26, 27, 26.4. Distribution: India, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Viet- nam, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Phillipines. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, and the Officer-in-Charge of this Regional Station for providing facilities for this work. My sincere thanks are also due to Shri P.K. Das, Scientist ‘SD’, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for providing measurements of the Garo Hills specimen. November 10, 1989 Y.P. SINHA References Andersen, K. (1912): Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the Collec- tion of the British Museum, London. Bhat, H.R. (1968): Dobson’s long-tongued fruit bat, Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson), from Kumaon hills, U.P. An addition to the chiropteran fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64: 550-551. Bhat, H.R., Sreenivasan, M. A. & Jacob, P.G. (1980): Breeding cycle of Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson, 1871) (^Chiroptera : Pteropidae, Macroglossinae) in India. Mammalia 44 : 343- 347. Bhattacharrya, T.P. (1975): Occurrence of Dobson’s long-ton- gued fruit bat, Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson) (Mammalia: MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 135 Chiroptera : Pteropidae) in the Andaman Islands, India. Sci. & Cult. 41: 317-318. Blanford, W.T. (1891): The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma, Mammalia. Vol. 2. Taylor and Francis, London. Ellerman, J.R. & Morrison-Scott (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London. Ghose, R.K. & Bhattacharya, T.P. (1976): Occurence of Dobson’s long-tongued fruit bat, Eonycteris spelaea (Dob- son) in Assam, India. J. Zool. Soc. India , 26: 152-153. Tate, G.H.H. (1947): Mammals of Eastern Asia. Mac Millan Company, New York. 4. OCCURRENCE OF PIPISTRELLUS CAMORTAE MILLER, 1902 (CHIROPTERA : VESPERTILIONIDAE) IN THE ANDA MAN ISLANDS, WITH COMMENTS ON ITS TAXONOMIC STATUS While examining the alcohol-preserved specimens of pipistrelline bats present in the National Zoological Col- lections of India at the Zoological Survey of India, Calcut- ta, I came across a specimen of Pipistrellus misidentified as Miniopterus schreiberi; locality: Andamans; donor: Major A.R. Anderson, I.M.S.; date of entry : 25-11-04. No other detail was available from the register. However, the specimen is a female. The specimen was finally identified as Pipistrellus ccunortae Miller, 1902. Pipistrellus ccunortae was described by Miller (1902) from Kamorta (=Camorta) Island of the Middle Nicobar group of islands, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Since then it has also been reported from Great Nicobar Island (Hill 1967) and Car Nicobar Island (Soota and Chaturvedi 1980). Additional specimens of this bat have been reported from Camorta Island, Great Nicobar Island and Car Nicobar Island by Hill (1967), Saha (1980), and Hill and Harrison (1987), respectively. Thus, Pipistrellus camortae is so far known only from the Nicobar group of islands. The present specimen, therefore, extends the dis- tributional range of Pipistrellus camortae much northwards to the ‘Andamans’ (^Andaman Islands). Though no precise locality is available for the specimen under discussion, its donor. Major A.R. Ander- son, belonged to the Indian Medical Service, and was posted at Port Blair from where he sent some other species of bats as well to the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Thus, the place of origin of the present specimen is probably Port Blair (or some other place near it). South Andaman islands. Miller (1902), while describing Pipistrellus camor- tae, compares it with the Javan Pipistrellus abramus (Tem- minck 1840) and remarks, Pipistrellus camortae appears to be a well-marked species related more closely to P. abramus than to any other’. Tate (1942) believed that the species may be a relatively unspecialised member of the abramus group. Following Tate, Ellerman and Morrison- Scott (1951) kept Pipistrellus camortae as a species under the abramus group. Hill (1967), in his account of the bats of the Andaman and Nicobar islands, however, considers camortae as a subspecies of Pipistrellus javanicus (Gray 1838). Soota and Chaturvedi (1980) have studied six specimens of P. camortae (from Car Nicobar Island), in- cluding the baculum of one specimen. They have also compared the data (forearm, upper cheek teeth row and baculum) available in literature with respect to Pipistrel- lus abramus, P. camortae, P. javanicus and P. paterculus Thomas, 1915, with their data on P. camortae , and have come to the conclusion that while the forearm and cheek teeth row of P. camortae show their affinity to P. abramus, P. camortae should be treated as a separate species on the basis of its baculum. In their comprehensive study of the bacula of pipistrelline bats in general. Hill and Harrison (1987) have provided diagrams of the bacula of P. abramus, P. camortae, P. javanicus and P. paterculus , and have considered abramus, javanicus and paterculus as distinct species, with camortae as a subspecies of P. javanicus. Under the circumstances, a fresh review of the taxonomic status of Pipistrellus camortae Miller was thought necessary. Agrawal and Sinha (1973) studied the baculum of a specimen of a pipistrelle from Indawagyi lake, Burma, which they identified as Pipistrellus abramus paterculus Thomas. They found the baculum of their specimen having the ‘shaft doubly curved’. This study has formed the basis of Soota and Chaturvedi ’s (1980) statement that the baculum of P. paterculus also is doubly curved, like that of P. abramus , as has been stated by Thomas (1928). However, on the basis of the material (including the original material seen by Thomas) in the collections of the British Museum referred to paterculus , Hill and Harrison (1987) stated that this species has a relatively straight baculum. According to these authors, the specimen from Indawagyi lake, Burma, mentioned earlier, should perhaps be referred to Pipistrellus abramus. When diagrams of the baculum of Pipistrellus camortae , P. javanicus and P. peguensis given by Sinha (1969), Agrawal and Sinha (1973), Soota and Chaturvedi (1980), and Hill and Harrison (1987) are compared, the baculum appears to be similar (more or less straight) in all three species. In details, however, the baculum of P. camortae differs equally from those of P. javanicus and P. 136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 EXTERNAL MEASUREMENTS OF Pipistrellus camortae MILLER, 1902 Authority & No. of specimens Fa T1 E Tr Tb F&C1 Remarks Locality & Sex Miller (1902) 1M 31.6 30.0 - 3.0 12.0 6.8 Holotype * Camorta IF 32.0 32.0 - 4.0 11.6 6.6 Paratype Hill (1967) 4 M 31.3- - - - - - Range of 4 specimens ♦Great Nicobar 1 unsexed 32.7 (sex not mentioned, but probably all females) Soota & Chaturvedi (1980) 1 M 32.0- 33.0- 10.0- - 11.4- 6.0- Range of 6 specimens ♦Car Nicobar Saha (1980) 5 F 34.0 36.0 12.0 — 13.8 8.0 Great Nicobar 2 F 31.0, 32.5, 10.0, - 12.5, - Weight 4.5 gm each 32.0 33.5 10.5 - 13.0 - Present report ♦Andaman Islands 1 F 32.4 - 10.3 5.2 12.0 7.3 Tail not measurable ♦First reports Table 2 CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS OF Pipistrellus camortae MILLER, 1902 Authority & No. & sex Locality of specimens / cb C'm3 cV iw zw cw ml c-m3 Remarks Miller (1902) 1M 12.6 12.0 5.0 _ 3.6 9.0 - 10.0 5.0 Holotype ♦Camorta Hill (1967) 3 (sex not - - 4.6 - - - ♦Great Nico- mentioned 4.7, bar & Camorta 4.7 Soota & Chatur- vedi (1980) 1 M, 5 F 12.7- 12.3- 4.7- 4.2- 3.9- 8.4 6.5- 9.8- 5.0- Zygomatic ♦ Car Nicobar 13.0 12.5 5.0 4.6 4.0 6.8 10.0 5.1 width of 1 spe- cimen only Present report IF 12.8 12.4 4.8 4.7 3.7 - 7.1 9.8 5.0 ♦Andaman Islands ♦First reports peguensis. Further, the baculum of only two specimens of P. camortae have been studied so far. This, of course, is not sufficient to establish the range of variation in the structure and dimensions of the baculum. It would, therefore, appear that there is no justifica- tion for considering camortae as a subspecies of Pipistrel- lus javanicus. On the basis of data available so far, the best course would be to treat P. javanicus , P. camortae and P. peguensis as closely related species. In fact, Hill and Haris- son (1987) have already made a move in that direction by placing P. paterculus and P. peguensis just after P. javanicus, in that order, under Javanicus subgroup of Pipistrellus group, in the classification of the Vesper- tilioninae proposed by them. External and cranial measurements of the specimen of Pipistrellus camortae from the Andaman Islands together with those of this species available in literature are appended in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. August 8, 1989 P.K. DAS References Agrawal, V.C. & Sinha, Y.R (1973): Studies on the bacula of some Oriental bats. Anat. Anz. 133: 180-192. Ellerman, J.R. & Morrison-Scott, T.C.S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758-1946. British Museum (Natural History), London. Hill, J.E. (1967): The bats of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64: 1-9. Hill, J.E. & Harrison, D.L. (1987): The baculum in the Vesper- tilioninae (Chiroptera : Vespertilionidae) with a systematic review, a synopsis of Pipistrellus and Eptesicus, and the descriptions of a new genus and subgenus. Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool.) 52: 225-305. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 137 Mn i .FR, G.S. (1902): The mammals of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Proc. U.S. Natn. Mus. 24: 751-795. Saha, S.S. (1980): Notes on some mammals recently collected from Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Rec. Zool. Surv. India 77: 119-126. SlNHA, Y.P. (1969): Anew pipistrelle bat from Burma. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 22 : 83-86. Soota, T.D. & Chaturvedi, Y. (1980): New locality record of Pipistrellus camortae Miller from Car Nicobar and its sys- tematic status. Rec. 7x>ol. Surv. India 77: 83-87. Tate, G.H.H. (1942): Results of the Archbold Expeditions. No. 47. Review of the vespertilionine bats, with special atten- tion to genera and species of the Archbold Collections. Bull. Am. Mus. not. Hist. 80: 221-297. Thomas, O. (1928): The Delacour Exploration of French Indo- China- Mammals. II. On mammals collected during the winter of 1926-27. Proc. Zaol. Soc. Lond.: 139-150. 5. FIVE-STRIPED SQUIRREL FUN AMB ULUS PENNANT! (WROUGHTON) KILLING BIRDS The five-striped squirrel Funambulus pennanti (Wroughton) usually feeds on fruits, nuts, young shoots, buds and bark. They visit flowering trees to lap nectar and also feed on seed pods. Insects are taken whenever they are come across, and occasionally the eggs of birds form a part of their diet. Prater (THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS) brands them as persistent nest robbers. I have observed five-striped squirrels capture, kill and eat birds in the Luni village, district Jodhpur, Rajas- than. On 25 July 1989, 1 saw a female squirrel capture a redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer by its tarsus while the bird was feeding on the ground. The bulbul struggled, but was soon subdued. The squirrel clambered up a neem tree with the victim, placed it on a branch and began feeding from the ventral side. Having taken some bits, thdsquirrel left its prey and scampered away. On 29th July and 12th August, I came across two more such instances. In the first a whitecheeked bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys was the victim, and on the latter occasion it was a house sparrow Passer domesticus. In both these instances the bird was not eaten. In all the three instances, the squirrels involved were females. September 14, 1989 JUGALKISHORE TIWARI 6. HERONRIES IN R AIG AD DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA- A PRELIMINARY SURVEY A survey of the avifauna of Raigad district of Maharashtra was undertaken during the rainy season in July 1987. This district is situated in the western part of Maharashtra (1 8° 19’ N, 70° to 73°35 ’E). The annual rain- fall of the district is between 2600 mm and 3600 mm. The main agricultural crops are rice and ragi. During the survey, a number of heronries and breed- ing populations of the pond heron Ardeola grayii (Sykes), cattle egret Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus), little egret Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus) and median egret Egretta intermedia (Wagler) were noticed in different places (Table 1). Ac- cording to the system of classification of heronries described by Singh and Sodhi (1985), the heronries in Raigad district can be classified as follows. All the heron- ries were very close to human settlement and hence they are ‘associated’ type of heronries. The nesting of egrets Table 1 NUMBER OF NESTS OF BREEDING HERONS AND EGRETS AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS IN RAIGAD DISTRICT Location of heronry town/village taluka pond heron cattle egret Number of nests little egret median egret Total Panvel town Panvel 35 42 60 12 149 Shirdhon village -do- 36 35 6 - 77 Palaspa village -do- 10 8 18 - 36 Apta village -do- 12 18 14 2 46 Karjat town Karjat - 10 14 4 28 Neral -do- - 20 33 4 57 Uran town ll ran - 11 12 15 38 Pen town Pen 6 12 - 3 21 Shaha baj village Alibag 7 100 25 /' L;/ ’ 132 Roha town Roha 44 32 10 5 91 Kolad village -do- 37 4 23 - 64 Nagothana village -do- 5 38 22 - 65 Mangaon town Mangaon 6 4 2 - 12 138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 and herons was observed mainly on trees such as tamarind Tcunarindus indica Linnaeus, mango Mangifera indica Linnaeus and some Ficus sp. and hence they are ‘tree’ type of heronries. All the observed heronries were of ‘loose’ type, except at Kolad and Nagothana village, where they were ‘compact’ heronries. These were ‘mixed’ heronries, either on a single tree or on scattered trees in a small area. All these heronries seem to be small or medium-sized. At most of the heronries, either construction of nest and/or incubation of eggs was in progress, whereas at a few heronries there were nestlings. Besides the breeding birds at the nest, a number of egrets and herons were feed- ing in the paddy fields in the immediate vicinity of the heronries. At Roha town, two pairs of little cormorant Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot) were found to be nesting very close to the breeding colony of cattle egret. The egrets and herons occur in large numbers in Pan- vel, Karjat, Uran, Alibag, Pen and Roha talukas of the dis- trict, whereas hardly any heronries were observed in the southern part of the district, consisting of Mangaon, Shrivardhan, Mhasla, Mahad and Poladpur talukas. I am thankful to the Officer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Pune, for providing necessary facilities. June 29, 1988 ANIL MAHAB AL References Singh, N. & Sodhi, N.S. (1985): Heronries and the breeding coromandus (Boddaert) during 1985, in tehsil Kharar of population density of the cattle egret Bubulcus ibis the Ropar District (Punjab). Pavo 2 3(1/2): 77-84. 7. FEEDING ASSOCIATION BETWEEN JACKAL CANTS AUREUS (LINNAEUS) AND TWO SPECIES OF EGRETS AT POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU The feeding associations between African birds and mammals have been discussed in detail by Dean and Mac- Donald (1981). They described both commensalistic and mutualistic feeding associations. In the commensalistic type of association, the birds mostly followed the mam- mals for their food as the mammals ’movement or presence provided them some sort of ‘beating effect’ to flush their prey. In the mutualistic associations described, in which both were benefited, the birds directed the mammals to the source of food. On field duty on 5 May 1988 at 0625 hrs in the Muniappan Lake area of the Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, I saw a jackal Canis aureus feed- ing along with some waterbirds in the lake. The water was restricted to a pool in the middle of the lake, with a depth of c. 25 cm. There were about 25 large egrets, 40 little egrets, 22 pond herons and 40 brownheaded gulls feeding together in the water. Moreover, two whitebreasted kingfishers and five house crows were seen perched on the power lines. Apart from these, three whiskered terns and three brahminy kites were seen hovering. Among these birds, the jackal was in the middle, encircled by the egrets which formed a ‘Vigilance circle’. As it was quite unusual to see a jackal among the birds. I approached close to the spot, hid, myself behind a nearby bush and started observ- ing their feeding behaviour. Though the jackal was very close to the birds they were neither afraid nor did they fly off. They were feeding complacently along with the jack- al. The jackal every now and then plunged its head into the water, grabbed the fishes (Tilapia mossampica) and ate them. Whenever it got a bigger fish it took it to the land, held it between its paws and tore it to pieces, ate it, and went back into the water for more fish. As and when the jackal fished the egrets were alert and they also started picking up fish from the periphery of the jackal’s action. Obviously, the jackal’s every fishing attempt formed a ‘beating effect’ that enabled egrets to get more fish. The tail of the jackal was raised while it was feeding in the water. Around 0655 hrs another jackal came to the site. This time also the birds made no attempt to fly away, but moved back a little, making a wider circle large enough to accommodate both the jackals. The second jackal entered the water, smelt the back of the first jackal and it also started fishing in the same way. Every time a jackal took a big fish to the land to devour, the left-overs were suc- cessfully picked up by the house crows (commensalistic feeding association). But most of the time the jackals ate the prey in the water. The hovering brahminy kites and whiskered terns were also seen fishing frequently. At 0745 hrs one of the jackals with its stomach full came out of the water and stood at the water edge. Shortly thereafter the other jackal came out of the water, and both moved into the jungle. Subsequently on 6 June (one jackal between 0630 hrs and 0750 hrs), on 7 June (two jackals between 0720 to 0740 hrs) in similar feeding associations were ob- served at the same site. Schaller (1967) recorded the presence of scales of minnow-like fishes in the droppings of the jackal, but was not certain whether the fishes were caught or scavenged. The observations of the fishing behaviour of jackals at MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 139 Point Calimere confirms their ability to fish whenever con- ditions are suitable. Even though the jackals are predators of birds (Schaller 1967, and Prater 1980) it is interesting to note that in spite of their close proximity to the birds like egrets, herons and gulls they ignored them. Instead there existed a feeding relationship between them in which both were benefited in getting food, hence a mutualistic association. At Point Calimere Sanctuary during the rainy Refe Dean, W.R J. & MacDonald, I. A.W. (1981): AReview of African birds feeding in association with mammals. Ostrich 52: 135- 155. Prater, S.H. (1980): The book of Indian Animals. Bombay season many of the low lying areas inside the forest go under water in which the bigger waterbirds like egrets and storks feed in flocks. Hence it may have helped the jack- als to learn this technique of fishing in association with waterbirds. Further study on the feeding ecology of the jackal would reveal more interesting results. July 9, 1988 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN :nces Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 111-127. Schaller, G.B. (1967): The Deer and The Tiger: A study of Wildlife in India. The Chicago University Press, Chicago, pp. 313-315. 8. BREEDING OF EGRETS IN KERALA According to Salim Ali in THE BIRDS OF KERALA (1969), breeding of the large egret ( Ardea alba), the median egret Egretta intermedia, and the little egret Egret- ta garzetta has not been recorded in Kerala. Prof. K.K. Neelakantan later reported the breeding of the little egret in Kanyakulangara, near Trivandrum. (See ‘Keralathile Pakshikal’, (Malayalam), Kerala Sahity a Academy, 1986). I have, in August-September, 1987, seen both the median egret and the large egret nesting, in the company of the lit- tle egret and some other birds, in Nooranad in Alleppey district, and in Panamaram in Wynad district. Nooranad is a small town, 15 kms. south of Kayam- kulam. 32 big trees standing in some office premises on the Kayamkulam - Punalur road had been colonised by the birds. A large majority of the nests-about 2,500-belonged to the little cormorant Phalacrocorax niger, and the night heron Nycticorax nycticorax, which were also rare breeders in Kerala. Among them were more than a hundred nests of little egrets, and a few dozen nests of median egrets and large egrets. On 5 September, I got the opportunity to observe very closely and photograph one occupied nest each of the median and the large egrets. There were half- grown nestlings in both the nests and one of the parent birds was sitting in each nest. Local people said that the heronry in Nooranad was 7 years old. Unlike in other parts of Kerala, the people of Nooranad guard the breeding birds from poachers and egg-pickers. At Panamaram, in north Kerala, the heronry was es- tablished on a few bamboo clumps on the banks of the Panamaram river, a tributary of the Kabani. There were about 50 nests of Little egrets and 4-5 nests of little cor- morants. By the time I discovered the heronry on 2 Sep- tember, most of the fledgelings had left their nests and were perched on bamboos or on branches of on a big tr.ee standing nearby. But, luckily, I could observe one nest of the large egret with two full grown nestlings, and two nests of the median with one nestling each. These chicks were being fed by their parents. During the nesting season of 1985 (July-Septem- ber), I saw three nests of large egrets on a tree standing in the busy bus stand at Meenangadi, also in Wynad district. Pond herons Ardeola grayii nest regularly in large num- bers on a few Indian coral trees around Meenangadi town. But the large egret did not return to nest in Meenangadi during 1986 or 1987. Thus, the breeding of the median and the large egrets is not altogether absent in Kerala, and the nesting of the little egret is not as rare as it was thought to be. April 12, 1988 P.K. UTHAMAN 9. WEIGHT OF WHITENECKED STORK CICONIA EPISCOPUS On 11 December 1985, while carrying out ecologi- cal studies at Tezpur in Assam we received a fresh dead specimen of the white necked stork. The bird measured as follows: Wing 470 mm. Bill 182 mm, Tarsus 190 mm. Tail 210 mm. It was an adult male. The weight of the bird was 2,185 gms. The stomach was empty. There is no known record of the weight of the bird in the available literature. October 7, 1988 PRAKASH RAO S. MURALIDHARAN 140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ///ST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 10. AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR OF BLACKNECKED STORKS TOWARDS CRANES During our visit to Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary, Rajas- than, in the last week of December 1986, we saw aggres- sive behaviour of the blacknecked stork Ephippior- hynchus asiaticus towards the Siberian cranes Grus leucogeranus and Sarus cranes Grus antigone in particular and other large waterbirds in general. A pair of blackneck- ed stork approached all big birds and if they did not move off immediately, started hustling them. While the Siberian cranes immediately moved away, the Sarus cranes resisted. The storks then displayed and started moving slowly towards the cranes. The Sams cranes did challenge by calling out a few times and also displayed, but even- tually retreated and flew off. However, one of the three pairs of sarus did not yield to the threat behaviour of the storks for quite some time, but eventually flew upwards. The storks chased the pair and even succeeded in pecking and plucking off feathers from one of the cranes’ back. With that ended the resistance from all the birds. The storks, after flying around other roosting or feeding birds and making them take to flight, settled down and started displaying again. D.R BANNER JEE S.P. BAVDEKAR May 15, 1987 V.K. PARALKAR 11. STATUS OF GREYLAG GOOSE ANSER ANSER IN GUJARAT : A RE-EVALUATION (With a text-figure) Introduction The eastern greylag goose Anser anser rubrirostris Swinhoe is a palaearctic species wintering from the Mediterranean countries to China. It is abundant during winter in the northeastern states of India but, it becomes rare in Madhya Pradesh and is absent in states further south (Ripley 1982). It has been reported to occur in a small numbers in north Gujarat ( Ali and Ripley 1983). Its occur- rence in Gujarat, particularly from Kutch, comes from an early publication of Palin (1904) and a report by Vijayraj- ji in 1930 (Ali 1954). Though Ali (1954) himself never came across this species in Gujarat during his surveys in 1944-45, he has reported that Aldrich had recorded them near Pariej and Chittersumba of Kheda district during the winters of 1931-32 and 1939 respectively. Since then, there is no report of its occurrence from Gujarat, which ap- parently led Ali and Ripley (1983) to consider it as a rare visitor to the state. Only recently Parasharya et al. (1986) reported sighting of more than 100 geese from Kheda dis- trict and opined that the geese might be visiting their preferred habitat in Gujarat, but that such habitats may not have been surveyed by ornithologists. Here, we report recent sightings of the greylag goose Anser anser from dif- ferent parts of Gujarat state and discuss its present status. Methods After the first accidental sighting of the geese (Parasharya et al 1986), we carefully checked major reser- voirs of Kheda district during winter months from 1984- 85 to 1987-88. Other sightings outside Kheda were recorded during casual birdwatching trips to the respective reservoirs. Census data of first and second Asian water- fowl census from Gujarat state were referred to confirm the bird’s status in other parts of the state where personal confirmation was not possible. A few birdwatchers were also contacted to learn about recent sightings of the bird in their areas. Results The number of greylag geese sighted from Novem- ber 1984 to January 1988 at different places in six districts of Gujarat is given in Table 1. The largest flock (401) ob- served was at Wadhawana of Baroda district by Nitin Pan- dya (pers. comm.). Such a big flock was not reported from Table 1 RECENT SIGHTINGS OF THE GREYLAG GOOSE IN GUJARAT District Place Date No. of geese Ahmedabad Nalsarovar 23 Nov. 1984 20 Baroda Wadhawana1 Jan. 1988 401 Kheda Dakor 24 Dec. 1985 100 + Goblaj 14 Jan. 1986 20 Pij 18 Nov. 1986 60 Pariej 20 Nov. 1986 157 16 Jan. 1987 56 Kanewal 17 Nov. 1987 23 16 Jan. 1988 78 Narda 20 Nov. 1986 5 25 Dec. 1987 45 26 Jan. 1988 12 Anand 19 Jan. 1988 11 Mehsana Thol 21 Dec. 1985 104 Sabarkantha Idar 5 Dec. 1986 2 Surendranagar Muli2 Jan. 1987 7 Recorded by Nitin Pandya, 2 Recorded by Narendrasinh Zala MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 141 Fig. 1 Map of Gujarat showing locations where the greylag goose was recorded. Closed circles represent locations of present sightings, open circles show sites of old pulished records. elsewhere. However, a large number (100 +) of the geese were found wintering in Ahmedabad and Kheda districts also, it was seen only in fewer numbers in Sabarkantha and Surendranagar districts. Although the size of the flock ob- served at the reservoirs of Kheda district varied each year, the data indicated that they regularly visited the well ir- rigated parts of the state in winter. All the places where the goose has been sighted in Gujarat are mapped in Fig. 1. Discussion The greylag goose was regularly captured and brought to the Ahmedbad Municipal Zoo by the trappers from Nalsarovar region (Babubhai, pers. comm.). En- quiries with the trappers confirmed that the geese visit the area regularly. The present review confirms that the geese visit intensively irrigated areas of Ahmedabad, B aroda and Kheda districts, where the river canal system for irrigation is well established since long. An irrigated agroecosystem seems to be a preferred habitat of the wintering geese. It seems possible that the geese would winter in the other parts of Gujarat mainland where extensive irrigation facilities through canals from perennial rivers exist. The geese are seen rarely in lesser numbers in Saurashtra and Kutch. The species is not included in the checklist of birds of Saurashtra by Dharmakumarsinhji (1955). Only once, two birds were seen at Gaurishankar lake at Bhavnagar in the early seventies (Shivab- hadrasinhji, Pers. comm.). Although two of us (B.M.P. & L.R.) spent several years in Saurashtra and Kutch, we never came across this species. Several other birdwatchers of the region also substantiate this; the only exception is a record fifbm Muli (Narendrasinh Zala, pers. comm.), where 7 geese were seen in January 1987. All these obser- vations indicate that the geese avoid the semi-arid regions 142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 of the state — Saurashtra and Kutch. It is difficult to say whether the presence of geese in large numbers in the central part of Gujarat mainland is the recent phenomenon. It must be taken into considera- tion that the number of resident ornithologists in Gujarat mainland was negligible and the rarity of sight records for the goose in earlier years may be a reflection of this. The presence of geese at a reservoir is subject to wide diurnal fluctuation in winter, so that their presence, when in small numbers, in a region would be recorded only under inten- sive birdwatching. On the other hand, it is also possible that the frequency of the goose in Gujarat may have ac- tually increased in recent years. Reports from Europe reveal that the population of the greylag goose has in- creased in recent years (Owen 1980, Karel and Pallantova 1985). An increase in the population density of the bird would make its presence more prominent in our fields. Such a situation would also force the geese to invade and exploit newer areas within their wintering grounds and thereby increase the frequency of site records. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr. D.N. Yadav, Officer-in-charge, AICRP on Economic Ornithology for his encouragement. We thank Dr. R.M. Naik, Professor, Department of Bios- ciences, Saurashtra University, for critically going through the manuscript. The financial assistance given by ICAR is acknowledged. B.M. PARASHARYA J.F. DODIA K.L. MATHEW November 1, 1988 LALSINH RAOL References Ali.S. (1954): The birds of Gujarat. J. Bombay nat.Hist. Soc. 53: 374-458. Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. (Compact ed.). Oxford University Press, Delhi. Dharmakumarsjnhji, K.S. (1954): Birds of Saurashtra. Times of India Press, Bombay. Karel, H. & Pallantova, J. (1985): Game management of geese ( Anser spp.) in Czechoslovakia. Folia Zool. 34(3): 255- 266. Owen, M. (1980): The role of refuges in wildfowl management. In: E.N. Wright, I.R. Inglis, (Eds.) Bird problems in Agriculture. The British Crop Protection Council, Croydon, pp. 144-156. Palin, H. (1904): The Birds of Cutch. Times Press, Bombay. Parasharya, B.M., Dodia, J.F. & Patel, R.C. (1986): Recent record of Greylag Goose Anser anser from Gujarat. Pavo, 24 ( 1&2 ): 119-120. Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakis- tan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 12. BLACKWINGED KITE ELANUS CAERULEUS VOCIFERUS (LATHAM) AT 3650 M IN SIKKIM On 7 May 1987, while we were on our way to the high altitude lake Menmoitso (3450 m) in east Sikkim to collect botanical specimens, we halted at Sherathang (3650 m) to get a better look at a pigeon-sized bright white bird of prey with black wingtips, hovering ahead of our jeep. It was perfectly at home in the open snowcovered landscape where the only visible vegetation was small tufts of soggy primulas under drippy rock overhangs. The time was 1 000 hrs and the weather was quite sunny. A good look at its typical wing-upraised ‘stationary hovering’ fol- lowed by a couple of hesitant ‘parachute descents’ of a few metres (after which it flew off to rest on a rocky slope) con- firmed it to be blackwinged kite Elanus caeruleus. After resting for a few moments, it took flight at the noise of our jeep as we moved ahead and flew out of sight. This bird is not mentioned in BIRDS OF SIKKIM ( 1 962) by Salim Ali. The compact edition of HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA and PAKISTAN (1983) by Ah and Ripley states that it occurs "from the Himalayan foothills (from c. 1600 m) and terai, south to Kanyakumari; upto c. 1200 m in the peninsular hills. Nepal, chiefly terai and lowlands but recorded at c. 1370 m. (Biswas)." Hence the above sighting proves not only a status record but also an altitude record. March 24, 1988 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA 13. INTERACTION OF HONEY BUZZARD PERNIS PTILORHYNCUS WITH FANTAIL FLYCATCHER RHIPIDURA ALBICOLLIS AND REDWATTLED LAPWING VANELLUS INDICUS On 9 June 1988 at around 1700 hrs. I was at the bund in spite of the unprecedented drought conditions this year, built the previous year beyond Milak Talai in Ran- As our jeep approached the bund a honey buzzard flew off thambhore National Park, Rajasthan. On both sides of a tree parallel to the vehicle and settled with its back the bund there is a small quantity of water among the rocks towards us on a branch of kadam tree beyond the water. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 143 On a nearby branch of the same tree was a fantail flycatcher. It was disturbed by the honey buzzard and at- tacked it vigorously by striking it on its back in three suc- cessive swoops. Surprisingly, this had no effect at all on the bigger bird. The fantail flycatcher became even more aggressive; it sat on the honey buzzard’s back and pecked away with its beak vigorously. This, too, did not evoke any response and the fantail flycatcher flew off. It repeated the manoeuvre twice in quick succession before it gave up, as all the while the honey buzzard paid no attention what- soever to its tormentor. While the fantail flycatcher remained agitated on the nearby branch, the honey buzzard turned around to face our jeep and the water. There was a redwattled lapwing with one fledgeling on the water’s edge. The honey buz- zard swooped down from the tree towards them. The mother took off and intercepted the honey buzzard in mid- air and deflected its flight. The latter returned to its perch on the same kadam tree. In a few moments it repeated the swoop to meet with the same response from the lapwing. This time the honey buzzard flew off to settle on a tree a 14. ROOSTING AND FEEDING OF HARRIES In November 1986 and October 1987 observations were made on the feeding and roosting habits of some har- riers in a protected grassland area c. 1 sq.km in Secunderabad (17°27’N, 78°28’E) almost 10 km NNE of Hyderabad. Feeding habits of three harriers ( Circus spp.) were studied in the winters of both 1986 and 1987, but roosting only in 1987. Montagu’s (C. pygargus), pale (C. macrourus ) and marsh (C. aeruginosas ) harriers fed along with pariah kites and kestrels on insects, chiefly grasshoppers. Most of the time from daybreak to sundown the harriers flew low over the grassland area, dipping every now and then, catching grasshoppers perched on some raised hard surface, and fed on them as fast as they could. Some of the larger grasshop- pers eaten by harriers and kites in the study area included the long-homed ones like Mecopoda elongata and Con- ocephalus indicus as well as short-horned ones like Demodocus and Cyrtacanthacris species. Kestrels, kites and harriers also fed on medium-sized grasshoppers like Gastrimargus , Hieroglyphus and Acrida species. Several other birds like crows, mynas and egrets also feed on medium and large sized grasshoppers. But what attracted us in harriers, especially the Pale and Montagu’s is the way they catch and feed on them. They are specialists at the job - very agile in catching a grasshopper, cutting it open and skillfully removing the alimentary canal, legs (except the trochanter and femur portions), as well as wings, and swallowing the rest of the body. Pariah kites, kestrels and marsh harriers were seemingly rather slow considerable distance away. I then moved on. Lapwings are well known for being extremely ag- gressive and will attack anything if they feel threatened. On one instance in 1985, 1 observed a lapwing attacking a tigress twice on the edge of Padam Talao in this very park because the latter had decided to settle too close to the former’s fledgelings. As such, its behaviour towards the honey buzzard cannot be considered unexpected or par- ticularly unusual. However, the repeated attacks of a fan- tail flycatcher are a different matter altogether, particular- ly when, as in this case, it had no apparent reason to be so agressive, apart from the fact that the honey buzzard had settled too close to its own favoured perch. I visited the bund successively on 10, 11 and 12 of June. The honey buzzard was not noticed, though I was informed by the forest department staff that one was usual- ly to be found in the vicinity of the bund. Nor was fantail flycatcher seen. The lapwing with its fledgeling was, of course, very much present. June 25, 1988 DIVYABHANUSINH IN SECUNDERABAD, ANDHRA PRADESH and lacked in neat execution. Very often these birds left out only the homy portion of the legs (tibia) and tarsus, that too of the mid and hindlegs. Cattle egrets are known to swallow the full insect. About sixty grasshoppers (most of them intact) were once got from the stomach of a cattle egret, the carcass of which was obtained from the Bombay airport. All the harriers of the area roosted on the ground among tall grass. The study area had tall grass ( c . 120 cm), short grass ( c . 60 cm) and bare patches. At dusk these birds settled among the tall grasses away from the fence and compound wall of the protected area, possibly to avoid areas of human activity. Four Montagu’s and four pale harriers roosted in twos, interspersed by a marsh harrier almost three metres apart. Observations made elsewhere show that marsh har- riers as a rule roost in short grass or on bare ground. Some of the common grasses in the roosting area are Heteropogon contortus, Cymbopogon martinii, Chrysopogon fulvus, Dichanthium annulatum, Dichan- thium caricosum, Eragrostis tenella , Eragrostis bifaria , Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Cynodon dactylon. Panic um antidotale, Paspallidum geniculatum and Digitaria ciliaris. Some of the sedges in the study area are Cyperus iria and Kyllinga colorata. The tall grasses probably af- forded the protection the harriers needed from natural enemies. S.M. SATHEESAN September 1, 1989 PRAKASH RAO 144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 15. JUNGLE CAT FEUS CHAUS AND GREY JUNGLEFOWL GALLUS SONNERATII Ladan lies in the hilly tract about 125 km west of Udaipur in Rajasthan. On 2 June 1988, at about 0830 hrs we were crossing a ravine in Ladan forest, when we came across a group of four grey junglefo wl, consisting of a cock and three hens, feeding about 90 m away. Taking ad- vantage of the bushes in between us and the bunds, we reduced this distance to about 55 m without disturbing them. The birds were feeding, gradually moving away from us. Suddenly they stopped feeding and looked intent- ly towards a bush about 20 m away from them on slightly raised ground. The cock, which was in the rear, advanced and stopped just ahead of the group. We scanned the area with binoculars and saw a jungle cat Felis chaus crouching in the bush. Its entire body except the head was concealed by a low bush and it was slowly moving its head in a clockwise direction. In doing so it was also stirring some of the leaves of the bush. The cock became curious and advanced a few steps towards the bush; the other birds followed suit. In this fashion, slowly, the birds reached within 4 to 5 metres of the bush. The cat stopped its head movement and darted towards them. Before the birds realized the danger it had landed on one of the hens. The other birds scattered and flew away in different directions. Within seconds the cat disappeared into the bushes with its prey. RAZATEHSIN September 17, 1988 FATEMATEHSIN 16. HOVER-FLY ERISTAUS SP. AMONG THE STOMACH CONTENTS OF GULLBILLED TERN GELOCHEUDON NILOTIC A (GMELIN) The carcass of a juvenile male gullbilled tern Gelochelidon nilotica (Gmelin) was collected from San- tacruz at Bombay on 24 August 1982. This bird had in its stomach three cockroaches Periplanetta americana. Two fishes, one freshwater species Puntius sophore and the other marine Pseudosciaena sina , two chelicerae of a small-sized crab as well as pupae (1.5 cm long body and 3 cm long stigmata) of a hover-fly Eristalis sp. Larvae of the genus Eristalis and some others live in water or sub- merged in filth and have their breathing stigmata at the end of very long, extensible tubes so as to reach the surface while the animal is feeding. During the monsoon of 1982 a small flock of 12-15 gullbilled terns were flying over ponds and puddles in S an- tacruz area several times for two days. On 23 August 1982, some of these terns were dipping into these shallow water bodies, possibly to swoop on the larvae, pupae or adults of some insects such as those found in the stomach of the tern reported above. September 17, 1988 S.M. SATHEESAN 17. BREEDING OF THE RIVER TERN STERNA AURANTIA IN KERALA S alim Ali did not include the river tern Sterna auran- tia in his BIRDS OF KERALA (1969) as he did not come across it anywhere during his survey of Travancore and Cochin. But from 1944 to 1951 when I used to spend a couple of weeks every September and December, and 2 to 3 months between April and July, at Kavassery (Palghat Dist., Kerala), I often came across this tem in the Gayatri river. It was recorded in almost every month between April and December. In some years the blackbellied tem was also seen. The first published record of these two terns from Kerala is that of Dr. A. J. Gaston ( J . Kerala Nat. Hist. Soc. 1979, p. 28) who found them in 1978 near Cheruthuruthi in the Bharatpuzha river. However, the breeding of the river tem has not so far been reported from Kerala. On 16 February 1987, on a small, low, circular islet close to the dam at the Malampuzha reservoir c. 15 km north of Palghat town, a number of river terns and small swallow-plovers Glareola lactea were flying about and calling constantly. The terns were chasing and harassing every crow and brahminy kite that ventured near the islet. A closer look showed that about a dozen river terns were squatting in the middle of the islet with a larger number of pratincoles sitting around them. The way the terns sat at the centre of the islat, each bird at the same distance from the nearest ones and the tireless, noisy, persistent pursuit of crows and kites reminded me of the various occasions when in the 1940s, I had watched river terns and swallow- plovers nesting on the islands in the Godavari at Rajah- mundry. However, owing to the distance, the glare, and the fact that all the terns on the island were probably incubat- ing, we were not able to see eggs or nestlings, which alone would have been positive proof of their nesting. In the hope of obtaining firm evidence of the breed- ing of these birds, I went again to Malampuzha on 2 March 1987 with Namassivayan and P.K. Uthaman. But, owing MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 145 most probably to the intrusion of some persons into the islet, all the birds had deserted the place. In May 1988 river terns in ones and twos were seen occasionally fishing in a tank and a river close to my home at Kavassery and flying off to the south whenever they had secured a small fish. As the only reservoir in that direction was that of the Mangalam Dam (c. 11 km south of Kavas- sery), I went to the reservoir on 1 June with Mohanan Van- dali. On a island close to the shore we found six river terns and some 25 small swallow-plovers, which showed great agitation when we waded to the island. On the island we came across a number of half-shells and at one spot a large quantity of crushed fragments of the terns’ eggs. The des- sicated carcass of a juvenile was also found. Our attention was then caught by some large splotches of white faecal matter, and as we walked towards it the terns displayed in- tense agitation. These splotches were at the edge of a cir- cular patch of thick grass and shrubs that capped the flat top of the island. Searching in the dense vegetation, Mohanan spotted a juvenile tern lying close to a heap of boulders. It was about seven inches long. It had so pressed itself into a shallow depression that its back and wings looked absolutely flat. The growing primaries and the short tail were pale grey, the wing coverts buff with sub- terminal blackish chevrons. The bill was dull ochre-yel- low. We left the place as quickly as possible in order to save the birds further anxiety. We found no evidence of the breeding of the pratincoles on that island, but, as all of them had flown to a much larger island a kilometre away over which some terns were flying, we thought that the pratincoles could have been nesting there along with some terns. This, to the best of my knowledge, is the first record of the breeding of the river tern in Kerala. I am grateful to Mr Jamal of Mudappallur for arranging this trip to the Mangalam dam. June 21, 1988 K.K. NEELAKANTAN 18. BEHAVIOUR OF SOUTHERN SPOTTED OWLET ATHENE BRAMA BRAMA (TEMMINCK) AND JUNGLE CROW (TEMMINCK) AND JUNGLE CROW CORVUSMACRORHYNCHOS AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU On 10 June 1988 at 1210 hrs I heard the distress call of a whitebreasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnonsis near the fence of our office campus at the Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. I went in the direction of the call and noticed a jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos perch- ing on a Thespesia populnea tree holding a whitebreasted kingfisher in its bill. The kingfisher continued calling and with its flapping wings tried to extricate itself from the predator’s clutches. The call of the kingfisher was high pitched; I saw one of the three spotted owlets Athene hrama perched on a nearby Madhuca longifolia tree, fly at the jungle crow and its prey. When the spotted owlet flew close to the jungle crow, it dropped the kingfisher to the ground and changed its perch. The spotted owlet then returned to its earlier perch. The wounded kingfisher was still alive and was slowly crawling towards cover at the base of the Thespesia tree, but the crow caught the kig- fisher again and perched in the same tree. Once again the spotted owlet flew at the crow, which dropped its prey im- mediately. The owlet again returned to its earlier perch. When the owlet left, the crow picked up the prey and per- ched on the same tree. It was joined by another jungle crow and the crows complacently started pecking and tearing at the prey though the kingfisher was calling in distress. This time, the spotted owlet made no attempt to mob the crow, probably being frightened by the presence of the second crow. It is clear that the attempts by the owlet to mob the crow were a reaction to the distress call of the kingfisher rather than an effort to grab the prey. Probably, as the spotted owlet was with its family, the distress call of the kingfisher might have motivated a defence reaction. On both the occasions when the kingfisher was dropped to the ground, the owlet made no attempt to go near it. July 5, 1988 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN 19. BIRD-AIRCRAFT COLLISION AT AN ALTITUDE OF 2424 M OVER THE SEA According to reports from the Indian naval authorities in INS Virat, at about 2100 hours on 10 October 1987, an aircraft cruising 30 nm west of Dabolim (Goa) over the Arabian Sea at a speed of 400 knots and altitude of 2424 m was hit by a medium- sized bird. After detailed macroscopic and microscopic examination of the bird strike remnants sent to us, we identified the bird as a Kash- mir roller (blue jay) Coracias garrulus. Not much data on migration or ringing is available on this bird. According to Ali and Ripley (1983) Kashmir rollers migrate during day time, chiefly in the morning before noon and later throughout the day. From the above data we understand the bird must have been flying at night at an altitude of 2424 m and probably was on its autumn 146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 migration from east-northeast to west-southwest, which generally occurs during mid August to early October. This bird is not recorded so far to be flying at this altitude. This data was collected as a part of the work in the BNHS project on Bird Hazards at Indian aerodromes and Bird Hazard Research Cell, both sponsored and funded by AR & DB, Defence Ministry, Government of India. October 13, 1988 S.M. SATHEESAN References Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition Oxford University Press, Delhi. 20. OCCURRENCE OF LONG-CLAWED SKYLARK ALAUDA GULGULA DHARMAKUMARSINHJI IN CENTRAL INDIA (With a text-figure ) References Abdulali, H. (1975); On a new subspecies of the Skylark Soc. 72(2): 448-449. Alauda gulgula Franklin in Gujarat, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Fig. 1 Long-clawed skylark During the Society’s bird ringing camp at Karera Bustard Sanctuary (25°30’N, 78°12’E), Dist. Shivpuri, Madhya Pradesh between 6 January and 28 March 1988, 35 eastern skylark Alauda gulgula were ringed. Interest- ingly on 19 February 1988, while ringing was in progress a skylark with an unusually long hindclaw was noticed. We checked the claw measurement and compared it with the other skylarks trapped that day. We were then under the impression that the bird was just a skylark A lauda gul- gula like the others we were netting but with an abnormal hindclaw. The bird was ringed with BNHS ring A202640 and released after noting all the physical parameters such as wing, bill, tarsus and tail length. While compiling the ringing data we identified it as of the subspecies A.g. dhar- makumarsinhji Abdulali 1975. The race had been separated from the other races A.g. gulgula and A.g. pun- jaubi mainly on the basis of the long hind claw. The hind claw length of this subspecies has been given as ranging from 17.5-24 mm with an average of 20.2 mm. The bird which we ringed had a claw length of 22 mm and the fol- lowing other measurements: Wing 93 mm, bill 15 mm, tarsus 23 mm, tail 56 mm, weight 25 g. Seven specimens of this race, all from Kutch area of Gujarat, were described by Abdulali as A. gulgula dhar- makumarsinhji. Hence it is of interest to note that the bird has been recorded beyond its known range. At the same time it cannot be ruled out that the bird can be a resident somehwere in the neighbourhood from where it strays or migrates. In due course, when sufficient number of birds are reported from this area, the range of the subspecies can be described with certainty. Mr Humayun Abdulali, who desribed this sub- species, when approached for his comments agreed with our conclusions. We thank him for his help. K.K. MOHAPATRA July 9, 1988 PRAKASH RAO MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 147 21. OCCURRENCE OF HAIRCRESTED DRQNGO DICRURUS HOTTENTOTTUS (LINNAEUS) IN POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU On 10 November 1987, while ringing the forest birds near the old Forest Rest House at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu, we identified a haircrested drongo Dicrurus hottentottus along with a catch of five Indian grey dron- gos. The haircrested drongo was ringed and the measure- ments are as follows. Wing 161 mm; bill (from skull) 39 mm; tarsus 25 mm; central tail 130 mm, outer tail 134 mm; weight 82 g. Refe Jamdar, N. (1987): Addition to the birds of Point Calimere, S. India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 206. Sugathan, R. (1982): Some interesting aspects of the Avifauna of the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Thanjavur district, Sugathan (1982), Jamdar (1987) and Sugathan et al. (1987) recorded 243 species of birds from Point Calimere. Though 16,830 forest birds were ringed under the BNHS ringing programme (1980-1986), the haircrested drongo has been neither ringed nor sighted earlier. V. NATARAJAN September 27, 1988 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN NCES Tamil Nadu. ibid. 79: 567-575. Sugathan, R., Melville, D.S. & Alagarrajan, S. (1987): Fur- ther additions to the Avifauna of Point Calimere. ibid. 84: 206-207. 22. REAPPEARANCE OF STURNUS VULGARIS LINNAEUS IN KUTCH One of the authors, while birdwatching at Devisar jheel (north of Bhuj, Kutch) on 9 November 1988, came across five starlings. On two subsequent visits to the jheel by SNV and some members of the Pelican Nature Club of Kutch on the 1 1 th and 13th two and three starlings respec- tively were observed. He visited Devisar on 18 November and noted 50 ± birds. Four of them were seen first, and after they flew away 14 more came and settled on a tree, while in-between a flock of 30 ± were seen flying across. The birds under observation came and perched on stunted Prosopis juliflora standing at the edge of the jheel with a lush growth of reeds and other vegetation cropped short by buffaloes. The starlings would come down to the ground to feed among the clumps of reeds and would fly up frequently to their perches, a habit typical of this species. Sturnus vulgaris , though commoner in Sind, across the border, is a rare cold weather visitor to Kutch, Saurashtra and perhaps also to the adjoining areas of north Gujarat. The Salim Ali survey of Kutch in 1943-44 failed to meet with this species. As far as we are aware, the bird has not been recorded here since they were seen by Capt. C.D. Lester, who mentions having seen about a dozen of them on 27 December 1895 ( JBNHS 10 p. 331, Jan. 1896), and he again came across seven of these birds at Padhar village (about 10 km east of Bhuj) on 23 February 1896. Thus die recent occurrence of Sturnus vulgaris per- haps follows after a gap of a few years short of a century; and hence this note for the sake of information and record. HIMMATSINHJI S.N. VARU November 30, 1988 N.N. BAPAT 23. ALTITUDINAL RANGE EXTENSION OF THE BRAHMINYMYNA STURNUS PAGODARUM IN CHUSHUL, LADAKH During the survey of the blacknecked crane Grus nigricollis conducted by the BNHS from July to Novem- ber 1987, I came across a small party of four brahminy myna Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin) in a willow plantation (Salix sp.) in Chushul, Ladakh (34° 35’N, 78° 43’E, al- titude 4,419 m). They were seen regularly till the third week of September. This species was also seen during August - October 1986. Its altitudinal range has been recorded as 3000 m by Ripley (SYNOPSIS, 1982). An exceptional extralimital sight record near the Hanley monstery, Ladakh, about 90 km southeast of Chushul (32° 47’N, 79° 04’E, altitude 4340 m). has also been reported by Ripley (op. cit.) The above sighting indicates an altitudinal range ex- tension of the species in the arid region of Ladakh. This is probably because of afforestation willow plantations by the Jammu and Kashmir forest department. October 13, 1988 S. ASAD AKHTAR 148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 24. EXTENSION OF BREEDING RANGE OF BROWN FLYCATCHER MUSCICAPA LATIROSTRIS The known breeding range of the brown flycatcher Muscicapa latirostris in India consists of three disjunct areas: the Eastern Himalayas, the Vindhya range, and the southern part of the Western Ghats, and it is suspected to breed in parts of the Eastern Ghats (Ali and Ripley 1983). This bird was first observed in the Gir forest in Gujarat in March 1966 (Raol 1966), though it was recorded from the Dangs forest (also in Gujarat) earlier (Ali 1955). There- after, the bird has been seen occasionally, and these obser- vations were believed to be of wintering or migrating birds. On 28 May 1988, Jamal Ahmed Khan and I were walking a transect in the Amla and Khokhara forest blocks of the Gir Lion Sanctuary in Gujarat, for ungulate counts, when I came across an adult brown flycatcher. It was in the upper canopy of a Ficus tree, foraging for insects in small aerial sallies. After a few flights, it flew to a branch on which a young bird was perched. The adult fed the young one. The fledgling was capable of flying and it took to flight immediately following the feed. Then it remained on a nearby branch calling out to the parent. The adult moved off into a neighbouring tree to forage. There were no signs of any other fledglings or a second parent in the vicinity. The present observation further extends the breed- ing range of the brown flycatcher to the Gir forest in Gujarat. June 25, 1988 TAEJ MUNDKUR References Ali, S. (1955): The birds of Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 735-802. Ali,S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Raol, L. M. (1966): Occurrence of the Brown Flycatcher in the Gir forest. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63: 751. 25. AN UNUSUAL NESTING SITE OF THE SUNBIRD (With a text-figure ) Fig. 1 . Sunbird nest on telegraph wire According to Ali and Ripley (1983) the nest of the purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica is generally suspended on a twig within a couple of metres from the ground, main- ly in some bush or a low tree. They have also collated some unusual nest site records like punkah-pulling rope, hang- ing electric wire of portico lamp in regular use, rafter in veranda, pendant flush-tank chain in temporary disused lavatory, etc. To these unusual nesting site records, fully exposed telephone wire should now also be included. On 21 May 1988, outside the Dudwa National Park in Uttar Pradesh, on Dudwa-Pallia road, we saw an old (?) sunbird nest suspended from the telephone wire (Fig. 1). It was about a metre from the pole, and was built on the middle wire, among the five wires. The nest was complete, with a small porch-like protection over the entrance. It was about 5 m from the ground and fully exposed. After two days we found the nest about one metre from its earlier position. The knot from which it was suspended must have become loose, so the nest moved away with the strong wind (there was a mild storm on 22 May). We are not sure whether or not the sunbird was successful in raising the chicks, but from the condition of the nest it appeared that it was untouched by a predator. We are also not very sure about the identity of the sunbird species but we think the nest was built by a purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica , as this species is commonly seen in the Park. ASAD R. RAHMANI July 9, 1988 RAVI SANKARAN MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 149 References Ali. S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Delhi. Pakistan. (Compact edition). Oxford University Press, 26. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE SPANISH SPARROW PASSER HISPANIOLENSIS (TEMMINCK) While banding birds at the Karera Bustard Sanctuary (25°30’N, 78° 12’E) in Madhya Pradesh, we ringed several Spanish sparrows Passer hispaniolensis (Tem- minck) between 10 January and 25 March 1988. A total of 44 birds (15 males, 29 females) were ringed. Several large flocks of these birds were seen in wheat and sugarcane fields at Fatehpur and nearby areas in the sanctuary. According to Ah and Ripley (HANDBOOK, Comp. Ed., 1983), the Spanish sparrow is a winter visitor to India and has a range extending from the plains of Punjab and Haryana, south to northeastern Rajasthan (Bharatpur- 27°14’N, 77°32’E). The occurrence of the species in Karera further ex- tends the range of the bird south by approximately 200 km from its known range. K.K. MOHAPATRA October 15, 1988 PRAKASH RAO 27. FLOWER PETALS OF CROTALARIA JUNCEA OBSERVED FROM HALF BUILT NESTS OF PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS At the ‘helmet’ stage of the construction of the nest, a quantity of wet mud or cowdung is daubed thickly along the edge of the helmet — analogous to the nape portion — into which brightly coloured scarlet or orange flowers or flower-petals ( Lantana , Lagerstroemia ) are implanted (Ali & Ripley 1983). I had earlier observed flowers of Acacia nilotica, Cucumis melo var momordica, Momordia dioca and M. balsamia in half built nests of Ploceus benghalensis (Shar- ma 1985, 1986). In August 1987, while studying the effect of drought on the breeding success among different species of weaver birds, I came across three half built nests of P. benghalen- sis on clumps of Saccharum munja near village Badli in Alwar district, with yellow coloured flower petals of Crotalaria juncea implanted in the wet bed of dung inside the egg chambers of the half built nests. I observed a blooming, irrigated Crotolaria juncea crop in a field hardly 50 m away from the breeding colony, near a hamlet. The whole of the nearby area did not have any wild monsoon plants like Cucumis melo var. momor- dica, Momordica dioica and M. balsamia due to unusual drought during 1987. Perhaps due to scarcity of wild yellow flowers, cocks of blackthroated weaver birds used the yellow flowers of irrigated agricultural crops like C. juncea. September 26, 1987 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA References Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. (1983): Handbook of the birds of India & Pakistan, Compact edition, p. 678. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Sharma, S.K. (1985): Use of wet dung in egg chamber of half built nest by the blackthroated weaver bird. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3): 661-664. (1986): Colour selections by the blackthroated weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis. ibid 83: (Centenary supplement): 214-216. (1986): Monochromic beautification of nest by blackbreasted weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis. Vijnama Parishad Annusandhan Patrika 29(2): 149-153. 28. TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOUR OF MALE GHARIAL GAVIAUS GANGETICUS IN THE NATIONAL CHAMB AL SANCTUARY, INDIA (With a text-figure ) During the breeding season a 6 m long male gharial Gavialis gangeticus fought with a male of equal length but tolerated a younger and smaller male in the same breeding area. Observations related to this are reported below. Gharial populations in the National Chambal Sanctuary (NCS) are annually monitored by undertaking on-boat surveys from downstream. The surveys are nor- mally carried out during January- February when the gharial breeding season commences. In this season, be- haviour related to breeding are (a) congregation of breed- 150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 1. Map of National Chambal Sanctuary. Arrows show nesting sites where two male gharial showed territorial behaviour. ing groups near traditional or potential nesting sites and (b) courting. The communal nesting site located in the uppermost reaches of the NCS during 1984 was at Baroli, which is 57 km downstream from the Chambal-Parbati confluence (Fig. 1). During the course of the next annual survey, on 18 February 1985, a group of 6 females and one male gharial was sighted at 1600 hrs at Baroli. The next morn- ing we confirmed the presence of 13 female gharials, but could not locate the male. While continuing our survey from Baroli towards Nadigaon (downstream) we located 2 more females. At the Nadigaon communal nesting area, located 17 km downstream from Baroli, we saw two equal sized (6 m) male gharials engaged in a fight. Their snouts, including the g haras, had numerous injuries and appeared pink and red from the distance. The fight included side-to-side sur- facing and then sudden leaping up above the water surface with audible clashing of the snouts held vertically up- wards. Noises included nasal hissing and water splash. This was followed by either submergence or resurfacing. Resumption of the fight was usually after a lapse of about 5 minutes. After observing the fight for an hour we left the place to continue the survey. We were informed by the vil- lagers that the fight had started two days earlier. On 28 February 1985, we found one of the injured resident males back at Baroli. The male was seen con- tinuously for the 6 days we stayed there. Discussion Gharial are usually extremely tolerant of smaller conspecifics in close proximity in the wild (Bustard and Maharana 1981). While studying the ecology of gharial in the Mahanadi river, Singh (1978) reported that males are territorial during the breeding season. Occasionally, the territoriality will end with fatal consequences. Bustard and Maharana (1981) reported that a resident 3 m male in a breeding enclosure atNandankanan Biological Park, Oris- sa, was killed (though without any apparent external in- jury) by another 3.85 m male introduced during the breed- ing season. However, two young male gharial along with 8 females were present in a rearing enclosure at Kukrail Crocodile Rehabilitation Centre, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, where they bred for the first time during 1985 (Basu, pers. comm.). Observations from Kukrail and Tikerpada (Oris- sa) on gharial and our experience from captive manage- ment of the mugger Crocodylus palustris suggest that ir- respective of sex, equal sized crocodilians may tolerate each other if they have grown up together from the hatc- hling stage. From the incident narrated in this note, it appears that the resident male at Nadigaon had first travelled upstream and entered the territory of the male at Baroli. The reason may be for mating and the cue leading to the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 151 presence of a large group of females upstream may be chemical. Such chemical communication has been sug- gested for mugger (Singh 1979). The territorial male at Baroli may have chased the intruder until they travelled 17 km downstream to Nadigaon where we noticed them fighting. Under whatever circumstances the males may have met, it is clear that equal sized males are strongly ter- ritorial during the breeding season. Singh (1985) men- tioned that the minimum distance between two males oc- cupying their own territories was 5 km in Chambal. Rao (1988) reported that a young male about 5 m in length was sighted in October 1986 at the Baroli nesting site. Thereafter, it was seen sharing the river stretch with a large male and participating in hatchling attendance. However, the males basked at places separated by a dis- tance of around 500 m. It is presumed that, since the new male was small and young, the old resident male was tolerant of it and allowed it to join the breeding population at Baroli. Permitting a younger male in the breeding popula- tion at a particular area may bear a survival significance because, after the death of the resident large male, breed- ing will continue until a more vigorous/territorial male takes over the area. As per available records, one 7 m male gharial was killed at Baroli during January 1983. It is not known whether the 6 m male now present at Baroli had replaced the dead male or had succeeded it in the hierar- chical order after living with it for some years. In conclusion, it is seen that an old gharial male may allow a younger male to join its breeding group but at the same time maintain its territory with other breeding males of different groups. From these observations, it is sug- gested that introducing anew breeding male into an estab- lished adult group should be done with caution. It is safer to add a younger male than an older or smaller male. Acknowledgements We thank the Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), Madhya Pradesh, for necessary facilities. Director, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, for finan- cial assistance, Mr. D. Basu of Uttar Pradesh Forest Department for information and the field staff of Nation- al Chambal Sanctuary (Madhya Pradesh/Uttar Pradesh/Rajasthan) for accompanying us on the survey L.A.K. SINGH November 18, 1989 RJ RAO References Bustard, H.R. & Maharana, S. (1981): Fatal male-male conflict in the gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (1): 1-3. Rao, RJ. (1988): Nesting ecology of the gharial in National Chambal Sanctuary, Study report, WII/NCS mimeo pp. 105. Singh, L.A.K. (1978): Ecological studies on the Indian Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia). Ph.D. thesis, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Orissa. (1979): Sexual attraction of a wild mugger (i Crocodylus palustris , Lesson) toward captive muggers. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1): 167-172. (1985): Gharial population trends in National Cham- bal Sanctuary with notes on radio-tracking. Study report. CRC/WIL mimeo pp. 167. 29. TWO FRESHWATER TURTLES OF THE GENUS KACHUGA FROM ASSAM (With a text-figure) I report here the collection of two roofed turtles of the genus Kachuga from the state of Assam. In 1987, 1 was given a carapace (Fig. 1) of a roofed turtle by a Mishing (formerly Miris) fisherman of Dis- angmukh (94°30’E) in the Sibsagar district of Assam. Dis- angmukh is on the banks of the Brahmaputra river, near the confluence of the Disang river with that of the Brah- maputra. The turtle may have been caught from either of the rivers. Later on it was tentatively identified as a brown roofed turtle Kachuga smithii (Gray, 1863). It measured 18.7 cm (straight carapace length) and 13.7 (straight carapace width). It may well be an undescribed subspecies of K. smithii . So far as the available work goes, the east- ern known limit of the species is Bengal (Das 1988, Moll 1987). Moll comments on the species, "Based on the height of the shell, I would tentatively support your identification of K. smithii. However, it would help to see the plastron. The high spine on the 3rd vertebral scute is unusual. Also the second vertebral tends to be shaped similar to that of K. tecta. The specimen is sufficiently unusual that I can- not be positive of the species". On 25 October 1987, while on a bird survey in the flooded Fulai-Dighali beel in Pani-Dihing area of Sib- sagar district, I collected another species of the genus Kachuga , the Indian tent terrapin Kachuga tentoria Gray, 1834. It was given to me by the local fishermen and was released after examination and photography. The 152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 L... ,1 Fig. 1. Carapace of Kachuga smithii , lateral view specimen was a young one, with a carapace length (straight) of 7.0 cm. Although the area is a complex of beels (ox-bow lakes and depressions) and jans (channels), during my visit it was virtually a part of the Brahmaputra river, following the devastating floods in 1987 that breached many embankments along the river. The typical race of Kachuga tentoria , to which my turtle was sub- sequently assigned, was not noted as occurring in the Brahmaputra by Smith (1931). However, Das (1988) reported finding the form in the Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam’s Barpeta district and in the Kaziranga National Park in Nagaon and Golaghat districts of the same state, but within the drainage of the Brahmaputra. My records thus further confirm the existence of the species in the Brahmaputra river. Locally, both species are called dora kacho , while the shell is referred to as solong. I thank Indraneil Das of Calcutta for identifying Kachuga tentoria , Dr. E.O. Moll for commenting on the possible Kachuga smithii , Prabhat Yien of Disangmukh for donating the carapace of Kachuga smithii and Puran Das of Jailgaon for extending help during the Fulai- Dighali trip. November, 12 1989 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY References Das, I. (1988): A survey of land tortoises and freshwater turtles in northeastern India. IUCN/WWF Project 6343. 28 pp. Moll, E.O. (1987): Survey of the freshwater turtles of India. Part II. The genus Kachuga. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 7-25. Smith, M.A. (1931): The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Part I. Loricata. Tes- tudines. Taylor and Francis, London, xxxiii +185 pp. 30. A SURVEY OF FRESHWATER TURTLES OF GUJARAT (With a plate and a text-figure ) Introduction Information available on the reptilian fauna of Gujarat with respect to their systematics and regionwise distribution is scant. The literature reveals that few her- petologists e.g. Stoliczka (1872) and McCann (1938), have attempted the study of reptiles and amphibia of Kutch. Acharya (1949) and Kapadia (1951) listed the rep- tiles from Gujarat, Daniel and Shull (1963) have listed the reptiles from Gujarat region and Sharma (1982) made a study of reptiles of Gujarat. As a part of studies on rep- tilian fauna, a survey of freshwater turtles of Gujarat was undertaken during the years 1987 and 1988. (In the year 1987-88 Gujarat suffered a severe drought and most of the rivers and water reservoirs went dry. It was thus a favourable time for getting information about turtles.) The river systems of Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, Sabar- mati, Ambika, Puma and Shetrunji and the perennial water reservoirs were surveyed. Information was collected on the habitat, biology, vernacular name, natural history, water pollution, myths and beliefs etc., from local fisher- men and tribal people. A few turtles were kept alive for feeding and breed- ing behavioural studies at Sayaji Baug Zoo, Vadodara. The specimens were measured with vernier cal- lipers and tape measure and weighed with a spring balance. Measurements taken include curved carapace length (CL), curved carapace width (CW), plastron length (PL), and height of shell (H), weight (W). Physiography of Gujarat: Gujarat is conveniently divisible into (i) Saurashtra and Kutch, (ii) north Gujarat and (iii) south Gujarat. Kutch and the north and northwest borders of north Gujarat are a desert, while Saurashtra is less arid; the rest of Gujarat is semi-arid. Big river s like Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada, and Tapi flow throughout the year in north and south Gujarat regions. Turtles and the culture of Gujarat: There is a stone turtle in the temple of Lord Shiva, symbolizing the Yamunariver. Turtle worship can be seen in many parts of Gujarat. Turtle-meat and eggs are used as food by some of the Gujarati tribals. The Waghari, Bhoi, Dangi, Koli, Pad- J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87 Plate l Vyas & Patel: Turtles of Gujarat Top: Costo-periferal fontanelles in shell of male Kachuga tecta. Centre: Fungus infection on carapace of K. tecta. Bottom: Cockroach eating K. tecta. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 153 har and Harijans believe that turtle meat is good for health and increases fertility in men. The farmers keep live turtles in wells and water tanks as they keep the water clean. Results The following species of freshwater turtles were recorded. The colour, measurements and other descriptive data given here are from live specimens. Family: Emydidae Peninsular black turtle Melanochelys trijuga trijuga (Schweigger). Material: 1 . CL 7.80 cm, CW 6.60 cm, PL 6.40 cm, H 2.93 cm, W 0.086 kg. Gira river, near Dhuldha Village, Dist. Dangs, 25 Jan. 1987, Coll. K.P. Bhatt. 2. CL 8.80 cm, CW 6.33 cm, PL7.30 cm, H 1.36 cm, W 0.095 kg. Bardipada, Dist. Dangs, 20 Sept. 1987, Coll. K.P. Bhatt. 3. CL 24.9 cm, CW 21.7 cm, PL 20.7 cm, H 8.8 cm, W 1.745 kg. Dhuldha Village, Dist. Dangs, 18 Aug. 1988, Coll. K.P. Bhatt. 4. CL 23.8 cm, CW 21.3 cm, PL 20.8 cm, H 8.1 cm, W 1.622 kg, Dhuldha Village, Dist. Dangs, 22 Aug. 1988, Coll. K.P. Bhatt. Description : Carapace moderately depressed and tricarinate. Colour light brown in young, darker in adults. Head brown with pale reticulation, upper jaw pale and bicupspid. Feet dark with enlarged scales, digits well webbed. Underparts of neck and limbs creamy yellow. Distribution: Gujarat: tributary of Ambica and Puma rivers, Ahwa, Dangs district. Elsewhere: peninsular India (Das 1985). Indian roofed terrapin Kachuga tecta (Gray) Material : 1. CL 8.8 cm, CW 6.0 cm, PL7.0 cm, H 2.15 cm, W 0.125 k.g (Mahi river, near Lunawada, Dist. Panchmahals, 20 Feb. 1987, Coll. Aspibhai Driver. 2. CL 9.0 cm, CW 6.60 cm, PL 7.50 cm, H 2.20 cm, W 0.130 kg. Mahi river, near Lunawada, Dist. Panchmahals, 16 March 1987 Coll. Aspibhai Driver. 3. CL 2 1.0 cm, CW 18.9 cm, PL 18.0 cm, H 9.30 cm, W 1.150 kg. Sabarmati river, near Indroda village, Dist. Gandhinagar, 23 May 1988, Coll. R.V. Vyas. 4. CL 23.0 cm, C W 19.8 cm, PL 18.6 cm, H 10.0 cm, W 1.350 kg. Sabarmati river, near Koba village, Dist. Gandhinagar, 25 May 1988, Coll. D. Matang. 5. CL 10.7 cm, CW 7.55 cm, PL 8.30 cm, H 2.8 cm, W 0.150 kg. Sabarmati river, near Indroda village, Dist. Gandhinagar. 20 Dec. 1988, Coll. J. Golaniya. Description: Carapace elevated with flat sides and a strong median keel with second vertebral shields longer than the third. Carapace olive brown with red and black bordered Fig. 1 . Map of Gujarat showing major rivers. Inset figure shows location of Gujarat state i n India. 154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 dorse-median keel, a yellow border on marginal, cervical shield black. Black spot or thick line on the joint of each pleural scute and four small black spots on comer of the last (5th) vertebral scute. The plastron yellow-orange with 2-3 black markings on each scute, a black spot on each in- guinal and axillary scute. A dark orange-red mark on the border of the anal scute. The head with a large orange-yel- low crescent-shaped mark, mandible orange, neck dark olive with yellow stripes, limbs dark with yellow spots, yellow vertical stripes on rump. Distribution: Gujarat: Sabarmati and river systems of Mahi. Reported by Moll and Vijaya (1986) from the Nar- mada river. Elsewhere: Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers and their tributaries (Moll 1987). We observed some of the specimens eating insects like crickets, cockroaches, ants and moths in captivity. The largest specimen recorded by Smith (1933) was 32.0 cm. Female was also recorded by us from the Sabarmati river near Koba village, Dist. Gandhinagar, Gujarat. The Gujarati name is "Rangin Kachab". Pinkringed tent terrapin Kachuga tentoria circumdata (Mertens) Material: 1. specimen; CL 9.60 cm, CW 8.10 cm, PL 9.0 cm, H 4.33 cm, W 0.085 kg. Tapi river, near Surat, Dist. Surat 20 July 1988, Coll. K.P. Bhatt. Description: Carapace elevated with flat side and a strong median keel; third vertebral shield longer than the second. Carapace olive brown with a light pink colour ring around pleuro-marginal junction, dorso-median keel pink with black border. Plastron yellow with large black blotches on each scute. Head olive brown with a pink broken band on the occipital region and pink postocular spot, a much smaller pink mark located at dorsal posterior edges of eye. Neck with indistinct stripes, limbs olive with unclear yel- low spots. Dark olive and cream coloured vertical stripes on rump region. Distribution: Only a single specimen was collected from the Tapi river near Surat, Dist. Surat. Elsewhere: the western and central drainage of the Ganga river (Das 1985, Moll 1987). Family: Triqnychidae Indian flapshell turtle: Lissemys punctata punctata (Bonnaterre) Material: 1 . CL 21 .50 cm, CW 21 .00 cm, PL 19.50 cm, H 7.35 cm, W L600 kg. Gaurishankar lake, Bhavnagar, Dist. Bhavnagar, 18 Jan. 1987, Coll. R.V. Vyas. 2. CL 10.00 cm, CW 10.20 cm, PL 9.90 cm, H 3.30 cm, W 0.155 kg. Tapi river, near Surat, Dist. Surat, 13 March 1987, Coll. K.P. Bhatt. 3. CL 24.50 cm, CW 24.00 cm, PL 22.20 cm, H 8.80 cm, W 2.100 kg. Raja Rani talao, Vadodara, Dist. Vadodara, 12 April 1988, Coll. K.B. Mali. 4. CL 22.00 cm, CW 22.00 cm, PL 20.00 cm, H 8.20 cm, W 1.850 kg, Vishvamitri river, near Vadodara, Dist. Vadodara, 15 Sept. 1988, Coll. R.V. Vyas. Description: Carapace convex and oval, olivebrown with numerous dark green or black spots, which disappear with age. Plastron pale yellow or light orange. Head greenish with three oblique streaks and a black bar from eye to angle of mouth. Digits well webbed. Distribution: Gujarat: Very common in the ponds and rivers of Gujarat state. Elsewhere: Peninsular India (Das 1985). Most common species in Gujarat. Normally Vaghari and other tribes use it as food. Farmers like to keep it in wells and watertanks. The local name is Pani no Kachabo. Ganges soft-shell turtle Trionyx gangeticus Cuvier Material: 1. CL 44.00 cm, CW 33.00 cm, PL 26.50 cm, H 13.50 cm, W 11.5 kg. Vishvamitri river, near Vadodara, Dist. Vadodara, 5 March 1986, Coll. R.V. Vyas. 2. CL 71.00 cm, CW 56.00 cm, PL 49.50 cm, H 17.50 cm, W 23.0 kg. Talao of Harni village, Dist. Vadodara, 10 Sept. 1987, Coll. R.V. Patel. 3. CL 77.00 cm, CW 63.50 cm, PL 55.00 cm, H 21.50 cm, W 26.5 kg. Mahi river, near Sin thro t, Dist. Vadodara, 25 Oct. 1987, Coll. R.V. Vyas. 4. CL 36.00 cm, CW 32.00 cm, PL 19.50 cm, H 7.50 cm, W 3.8 kg. Narmada river, near Bharuch, Dist. Bharuch, 2 Feb. 1988, Coll. Kasambhai Koli. Description: Carapace low and oval, old specimens with deep vertebral groove. Carapace dark olive-green, no markings on the shell in adults. Head dark greenish with 3-5 oblique streaks and a black bar from eye to the nape, on each side. The head markings are entirely lost in very old specimens. Plastron pale yellow, sometimes light pinkish white. Limbs olive green. Underparts of neck and limbs skin light yellow colour. Distribution: Gujarat: Very common in Mahi, Nar- mada and Tapi rivers. Also found in Sabarmati, Puma and Ambika rivers. Elsewhere: river systems of Ganga, Mahanadi and Indus. The meat and eggs are used as a food by Bhoi, Waghari and other fishermen. Live turtles are kept in temple tanks for religious purposes . The local name is Moti Kachab or "Kachher". Summary and Discussion Five species of freshwater turtles contained in four genera belonging to two families are recorded from Gujarat. All the five species are commonly found in south MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 155 Gujarat, where big rivers flow throughout the year. Only L. punctata is found all over Gujarat. We have recorded for the first time new localities of Kachuga tecta and K.t circumdata from the rivers Sabar- mati, Mahi and Tapi. The freshwa ter turtles Trionyx leithii, T. hurum and Chitra indica are mentioned in lists of rep- tiles by Acharya (1949) and Kapadia (1951) from the temple tank of Dakor village, Kheda district, and rivers of south Gujarat, but during the survey we have not found any of these species from Gujarat state. T. leithii is known to be restricted to the rivers and reservoirs of peninsular India, but the other species may well occur. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Shri Karmvir Bhatt of Surat dis- trict. Shri Jay anti Golaniya, Gandhinagar and Devraj Matang, Koba village, for their help during this survey. Our thanks are also due to the Curator of Sayaji Baug Zoo, Vadodara, for providing facilities. RAJU VYAS June 29, 1989 B.H. PATEL References Acharya, H. (1949): list of reptiles from Gujarat. Prakruti 8: 158-175. Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. & Shull, E.M. (1963): A list of the reptiles and am- phibians of Surat, Dangs, South Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 737-743. Das, I. (1985): Indian turtles: Afield Guide. W.W.F.-India, Cal- cutta. Kapadia, G.A, (1951): Animal Life of Maha Gujarat. Guj. Res. Soc. 1-18. Moll, E.O. (1938): Survey of the Freshwater turtles of India. The genus Kachuga Parts I & II ibid 83: 538-553, 84: 7- 25. McCann, C. (1938): The reptiles and amphibia of Kutch state. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 425-429. Vuaya, J. (1986): Distributional records for some Indian turtles, ibid. 83: 57-62. Sharma, R.C. (1982): Taxonomic and ecological studies on the reptiles of Gujarat. Rec. Zool. Survey. India 80: 85-106. Smith, M.A. (1933): The Fauna of British India, Reptilia & Am- phibian, Vol. I. Taylor and Francis, London. Stoliczka, F.L. (1872): Notes on the reptilian and amphibian fauna of Kutch. J. Asiatic Soc., Bengal. 41: 71-85. Vyas, R. (1989): The Ganges soft-shell turtle (Trionyx gangeticus Cuvier) from Vadodara City. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 107. 31. NOTES ON THE LAND TORTOISES OF BANGLADESH The elongated tortoise Indotestudo elongata and Asian giant tortoise Manouria emys are the two land tor- toise species reliably reported to occur in the Republic of Bangladesh. The sight record of the Indian star tortoise Geochelone elegans from Dhaka district, cited by Jayakar and Spurway (1966), is curious and has not been con- firmed either by collection or subsequent sightings. In fact, the known natural distribution of the aforementioned species has been shown by Frazier (1987 and in prep.) to encompass eastern Pakistan and northwestern India, as well as southern peninsular India and Sri Lanka, in two well marked clusters. The present note is based on data on the identity and distribution of the two land tortoise species, obtained during a survey of the chelonians of Bangladesh. The elongated tortoise has been reported from Pablakhali in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of southeastern Bangladesh by Khan (1987). During fieldwork at the West Bhanugach Reserve Forest, Moulvi Bazar (formerly apart of Sylhet District), in north eastern Bangladesh, a slightly damaged carapace (field number ID/BGD 01; now in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta) was obtained on 11 January 1989, from a Khasia village at Lawachara. The animal was reportedly locally caught and consumed by the villagers about a month previously. Lo- cally, the species is called ‘hunro ’ by the Khasia tribesmen. Measurements: SCL 23.8 cm, CCL 27.7 cm, SCW 15.9 cm, CCW 23.7 cm. West Bhanugach Reserve Forest, where the elon- gated tortoise is reportedly uncommon, comprises 27 sq.km of degraded forests, scrublands and plantations. Another example of this species, a male, was seen in mid January 1989, at a menagerie in Srimangal town in the same district, which was reportedly caught at Patrok- hola, in a natural forest within a tea estate. The animal had bright pink patches on the head, a condition found seasonally in male tortoises of the genus Indotestudo and thought to play a role in sex- and species-recognition during the breeding season (Auffenberg 1964). These records indicate the existence of the elongated tortoise in northeastern Bangladesh. The nearest locality to this from where the species has been recorded is Tura, in the West Garo Hills, Meghalaya, India, mentioned in a review of nematodes by Baylis and Daubney (1922 : 304). The other land tortoise species of Bangladesh, the Asian giant tortoise Manouria emys is as poorly docu- 156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 mented from the country. Khan (1982) put the Chittagong Hill Tracts, which has been recently subdivided into 3 dis- tricts, in the distribution of the species. On a visit to the museum of Dhaka University’s Zoology Department, I had the opportunity to verify the material, collected by Prof. K.Z. Husain in 1965 (see Husain 1979), on which Khan’s ( op.cit .) record was based. An account of the ex- pedition during which the specimen was collected from the Rangkhyang Reserve Forest, presently in the Bandar- ban Hill Tracts district, has been given by Husain (1967). The shell (CCL 60 cm+; nuchal slightly damaged anteriorly) is raw umber in colour, the scutes nearly trans- lucent and the gulars long and projecting - conditions that key out the nominate subspecies emys, while the sub- species phayrei has a blackishbrown shell, with smaller gulars. In the nature of its pectorals, it is intermediate be- tween the 2 subspecies - in emys , these are widely separated, but in phayrei , they meet on the midline, making a broad contact. In the present specimen, the pec- torals narrow towards their contact points and barely touch each other. I therefore consider the specimen to be a Manouria emys emys - M. emys phayrei intergrade, as might occur in areas where both forms naturally occur. This research was supported by the Fauna and Flora Preservation Society, London. I thank the Bangladesh Forest Department for logistical support to conduct the study and Mr. Syed Abdul Rahaman, Conservator of Forests, for permission and facilities. Assistance during fieldwork was rendered by Mr. Abdul Wahab Akonda, Senior Research Officer, Forest Department, and Mr. Ab- dullah Al-Javed, Graduate Student, Life Science Institute, Jahangimagar University. Mr. Mohammed Ghulam Mus- tafa, Postgraduate Student, Department of Zoology, Dhaka University, provided generous help in Dhaka, especially while studying the chelonians at the University Zoological Museum. March 15, 1989 INDRANEIL DAS References Auffenberg, W. (1964): A first record of breeding colour chan- ges in a tortoise. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(1): 191-192. Baylis, H. A. & Daubney, R. (1922): Report on the parasitic nematodes in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India. Mem. Indian Mus. 7(4): 263-347. Frazer, J. (1987): Biology and conservation of Indian turtles and tortoises. Interim report to the American Institute for In- dian Studies. Typescript. 64 pp. Husain, K.Z. (1967): Expedition to Chittagong Hill Tracts (Ban- darban Subdivision), 1965. J. Asiatic Society, Pakistan. 12(1): 121-165. (1979): Bangladesher bonnyojontu shompodo tar shongrakshan (in Bangla). Bang la Academy Bijnan Patrika5(3): 29-31. JAyakar, S.D. & Spurway, H. (1966): Contribution to the biol- ogy of the Indian star tortoise Testudo elegans Schoepff - I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63(1): 83-114. Khan, M.A.R. (1982): Chelonians of Bangladesh and their con- servation. ibid. 79(1): 110-116. (1987): Bangladesher bonnyoprani. Vol. I. (In Bangla). Bangla Academy, Dhaka. 168 p. 32. ONSET OF BREEDING SEASON IN SOME ANURAN AMPHIBIANS OF DHARWAD, KARNATAKA Observations on the onset of the breeding season of Polypedatus maculatus , Tomopterna breviceps , Microhyla ornata and Rana limnocharis have been made since 1985 around Karnataka University campus, Dharwad, Karnataka. Many tropical and sub-tropical anurans spawn responding to monsoon rains (Lofts 1984). Breeding coincided with the onset of the southwest monsoon in Bufo melanostictus, Ramanella montana, T. breviceps , Rana tigerina, Rana cyanophlyctis , R. limnocharis and P. maculatus at Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Borivali, Bombay (Gnanasekar 1986). In 1985 and 1986 at Dharwad, onset of breeding in the above species coincided with monsoon rains. However, in both these years there was no consistent heavy rainfall in April and May. There was heavy pre-monsoon rainfall in the last week of May in 1987, with the result that we could record the in- dividual advertisement calls of T. breviceps and P. maculatus fromthe banks of several ponds. In April 1988 there were heavy showers for about five days regularly in the evening. We could record individual and chorus advertisement calls of T. breviceps, P. maculatus, R. limnocharis , and Microhyla or- nata. Female P. maculatus and T. breviceps were brought from the breeding ground and injected with heteroplastic pars distalis pituitary homogenate at 2200 hrs. After eight hours, i.e. at 0600 hrs the next morning, both species had spawned in the laboratory. Based on the advertisement calls in all the above species and spawning response to pars distalis extract in some, it is suggested that at Dharwad the breeding season begins much before die monsoon rains, if heavy premonsoon rains occur. R.D. KANAMADI N.U. BHUTTEWADKAR May 21, 1988 C.R. HIREMATH MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 157 References Gnanasekar, S.A. (1986): Ecology of Amphibia of Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Borivali, Bombay, with special reference to behaviour of adults and food habits of tad- poles. M.Sc. Thesis, Bombay University. Lofts, B. (1984): Reproductive cycles of vertebrates - Am- phibians. In: G.E. Lamming (ed.) Marshall’s Physiology of Reproduction (Churchill Livingstone, London, pp. 127- 205. 33. AMPHIBIAN (ANURA) SPECIES AND THEIR ALTITUDINAL DISTRIBUTION IN NORTHEAST INDIA Studies on altitudinal distribution of amphibians (Anura) have not been undertaken in any form in the country. Pillai & Chanda (1976) published an account of the distribution pattern of anuran amphibians from Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur in northeastlndia. Chanda (1986, unpublished) made a com- prehensive study of the amphibian (Anura) fauna of north- east India. In this paper, an attempt has been made to ana- lyse the distribution of amphibian species of northeast India on an altitudinal scale. Out of 54 species presently known (Chanda 1986, unpublished) from northeast India, the greatest number of species occur between 500 m and 1500 m, while the diversity gradually diminishes from 2000 m and above, and only one species, which is com- mon at all elevations, has been recorded at 3000 m (Table 1). The following points are interesting to note: At c. 500 m 11 species, viz. Philautus kempiae , Megophrys boettgeri , Rana leptoglossa R> kexadactyia, Uperodon globulosum, Micrixalus borealis , Philautus garo , Chirixalus doriae , Rana khasiana , Microhyla rubra and Pedostibes kempi are mostly restricted. Between c. 500 m - 1000 m 9 species, viz. Rana tiger ina, R . garoensis , Rhacop horns jerdonii , Theloderma asperum, T. moloch , Rhacophorus bipunctatus , R. tuberculatus, Lep- tobrachium hasseltii and Philautus argus are mostly restricted. Between c. 500 m - 1500 m 9 species, viz. Rana danieli , R. erythraea , R. livida , R. mawphlangensis, R. malabarica , Rhacophorus nigropalmatus , Microhyla berdrnorei , Megophrys parva and Amolops afghanus are restricted while two species Rana cyanophlyctis and R. limnocharis occur between c. 500 m - 2500 m. One species Bufo melanostictus is restricted c. 500 m - 3000 m. A group of 1 6 species, viz. Rana alticola , R. assamen- sis , R. bilineata , R. gerbillus , R. laticeps, R. garoensis , Philautus cherrapunjiae , P. andersoni , p. annandalei , P. shillongensis , Rhacophorus leucomystax, Bufoides meghalayana , Hyla annextens, Scutiger sikkimensis, Microhyla ornata , Amolops formosus , appear to be restricted in their altimdinal gradient of c. 1000 m- 1500 m. Besides, four species: Rana mawlyndipi, Philautus shyamrupus , Bufo himalayanus , Pterorana khare are restricted at c. 1500 m, and Rhacophorus naso and Chirixalus simus at c. 1000 m. The exact cause for this diversified altitudinal varia- tion of amphibian (Anura) species in this region is not quite clear. However, it may be presumed that distribution of food species and physiological condition play an impor- tant role in their altitudinal distribution. Acknowledgements I wish to thank Prof. Mohammad Shamim Jairajpuri, Director, Zoological Survey of India, for providing me facilities to carry out the work and Dr. A.K. Ghosh, Scien- tist ‘SF\ Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for his en- couragement. April 13, 1988 S.K. CHANDA References Chanda, S.K. (1986): A study of anuran (Amphibia) fauna of Pillai, R.S. & CHANDA, S.K. (1976): The distribution pattern of northeast India. Ph D. Thesis (Unpublished), Kalyani amphibia in northeast India. J. Assam Sci. Soc. 19(1): 53- University. 56. 34. ON THE FISH RESOURCES OF UJNI WETLAND, PUNE, MAHARASHTRA (With a text-figure) In India a few attempts have been made to study the various aspects of wetlands (Pandit 1982, Pandit and Fotedar 1982, Ali and Vijayan 1983, Adoni and Saini 1984, Yousuf et al 1986). These studies relate to the physico-chemical properties of water, its plankton popula- tion, the macrophyte community or a combination of one or two of these aspects, but no comprehensive study ex- ists. Recently a steering committee for the development of 11 158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 ALTITUDINAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANURANS IN NORTHEAST INDIA Species 500m 1000m 1500m 2000m 2500m 3000m Bufo melanostictus (Schneider) + + + + + + Rana cyanophylyctis (Schneider) + + + + + - Rana limnocharis (Boie) + + + + + - R. danieli Pillai & (Chanda) + + + - - - R. erythraea (Schlegel) + + + - - - R. livida (Blyth) + + + - - - R. mawphlangensis (Pillai & Chanda) + + + - - - R. malabarica (Tschudi) + + + - - - Rhacophorus nigropalmatus (Boulenger) + + + - - - Microhyla berdmorei (Blyth) + + + - - - Megophrys parva (Kuhl & V. Hass.) + + + - - - Amolops afghanus (Gunther) + + + - - - Rana tigerina Daudin + + - - - - R. garoensisBoxAenger + + - - - - Rhacophorus jerdonii (Gunther) + + - - - - Theloderma moloch (Annandale) + + - - - - T. asperum (Boulenger) + + - - -- - Leptobrachium hasseltii (Tschudi) + + - - - - Philautus Annandale + + - - - - Rhacophorus bipunctatus (Ahl) + + - - - - R. tuberculatus (Anderson) + + - - - - Philautus kempiae (Boulenger) + + - - - - Megophrys boettgeri (Boulenger) + - - - - - Rana leptoglossa(Cope ) + - - - - - Rana hexadactyla (Lesson) + - - - - Uperodon globulosum(Gun\her) + - - - - . - Micrixalus borealis (Annandale) + - - - - - Philautus garo(Boulenger) + - - - - - Chirixalus doriae (Boulenger) + - - - - Pedostibes kempii (Boulenger) + - - - - - Rana khasiana (Boulenger) + - - - - - Microhyla rubraQerdon) + - - - - - Rana alticolaBoxAenger + - - - - - R.assamensis (Sclater) - + + - - - Rana bilineata (Pillai & Chanda) - + - - - R. garoensis (Boulenger) - + + - - - R. laticeps (Boulenger) - + + - - - Philautus cherrapunjiae (Roonwal & Ripalani) - + + - - - P. andersoni(A\A) ~ + + - - - P. annandalei (Boulenger) - + - - - P. shillongensis (Pillai & Chanda) - + + - - - Polypedates leucomystax (Kuhl) - ■f + + + + Bufoides meghalayana (Yazdani & Chanda) - + + - - - Hyla annectens (Jerdon) - + + - - - Scutiger sikkimensis (Blyth) - + + - - - Microhyla ornata (Dum. & Bibron) - + + - - - Amolops for mosus (Gunther) - + + - - - Rana gerbillus (Annandale) - + + - - - Rhacophorus naso (Annandale) - + - - - - Chrixalus simus (Annandale) - + - - - - Rana mawlyndipi (Chanda) - - + - - Philautus shyamrupus (Chanda & Ghosh) - - + - - - Bufo himalayanus (Gunther) - - + - - - Pterorana khare (Kiyasetuo & Khare) - - + - - MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 159 wetlands has been established at the central level which selected 16 wetlands of national importance in different states. Ujni wetland in Pune district of Maharashtra is one of them. Since no comprehensive work has been done on its flora and fauna, a project was taken up from 1984 as a part of a long term ecological study of the Bhima river ecosys- tem. The present report covers a survey of the fish and fishery of Ujni wetland. Ujni wetland: Ujni wetland has been formed by construc- tion of a dam on the Bhima river at Ujni (Fig. 1), about 140 km southeast of Pune, Maharashtra (17°54’ to 19°24’ N, 73°19’ to 75°10’E). Bhima, the major river of Pune dis- trict and a part of the Krishna rivers system, rises from the crest of the Western Ghats near the famous temple of Bhimashankar and flows southeast. On its way it is joined by Bhama, Indrayani, Mula-Mutha and Ghod river (all originating from the Western Ghats), finally flowing into a reservoir at Ujni. Ujni wetland is spread over an area of about 357 sq. km, with a maximum length of 134 km and a maximum width of 8 km. The gross catchment area covers over 14,856 sq.km. This wetland is located in the rain-shadow region of the Western Ghats and receives an annual rain- fall of about 500 mm which falls mainly in August and September. The temperature ranges from 12°C to 35°C. Since the completion of the dam in 1980, irrigation water is readily available, leading to cultivation of cash crops like sugarcane and groundnut. One 12 MW hydroelectric power plant is now under construction. Methods of Collection: Cast and bag nets were used for collecting the fish samples. Fish landing sites at Saha, B hi gw an and Khanota were also visited regularly. The col- lecting stations from where regular fish samples were ob- tained are given in Fig. 1. Fish and Fishery The systematic account of the fish fauna is given in Table 1 and has been adopted after Greenwood et al . (1966). In the present survey 42 species of fish belonging to 1 4 famihes have been recorded. The wetland has proved to be a good fishing ground with an annual catch of about 450 tonnes. The State Fisheries Department has set up a fish farm near Ujni Dam where fish seed of major carps are being raised to finger ling stage before stocking the wetland. During 1988-89 over two lakh seeds of major carps were released in this wetland. The State Fisheries Department has regulated fish- ing operations by handing them over to two cooperative societies (situated in Ujni and Indapur). These societies issue licences to individual fishermen, hire out boats and nets at nominal rates. Loans are also given to the fisher- men for purchasing their own gear. The fishermen use gill nets (surface) varying from 50 m to over 1 km in length. The meshes range from 30 mm to 100 mm. These nets have floats as well as sinkers. The bottom set nets are not used because of submerged tree stumps and weeds. Long lines (used for catching catfishes and snakeheads) are not in much use. Departmental fishing is done on a very limited scale. In Ujni the freshwater grey mullet Rhinomugil cvr- sula (Ham.) has been noticed in very large numbers. Prad- • CQLLEC TING STATION cm dam site mz TAR ROAD RAILWAY Cd ISLAND UJNI WETLAND ( MAHARASHTRA ) Fig. 1. Location of Ujni wetland 160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 FISH FAUNA OF UJNI WETLAND Class : Pisces, Subclass : Teleostomi Order Osteoglossoformes Family Notopteridae 1. Not op ter us notopterus (Pallas) Order Cvpriniformes Family Cyprinidae 2. Salmostoma boopsis (Day) 3. Rasbora (R.) daniconius (Ham.) 4. Danio (D.) aequipinnatus McQelland 5. Barilius bendelesis (Ham J 6. Puntius conchonius (Ham.) 7. P. kolus (Sykes) 8- P. sophore (Ham.) 9. P. ticto ticto (Ham.) 10. Osteobrama vigors ii (Sykes) 11. O.neilli (Day) 12. O. cotio cun mu (Day) Some specimens show remarkable difference from the known description of the species. Fur- ther studies are in progress. 13. Schismatorhynchus (n) nukta Sykes 14. Labeo kawrus Sykes 15. L. rohita (Ham.) 16. L. cal basu (Ham.)* 17. L. boggut (Sykes) 18. Cirrhinus mrigala (Ham.)* 19 C.fulungee (Sykes) 20. Cat la catla (11am.)* 21. Cyprinus carpio carpio Linn.* 22. Ctenopharyngodon idella (Val.)* 23. Garra mullya (Sykes) ban and Singh (1984) reported it for the first time from Bhima river. Earlier this fish was known from the Brah- maputra (Day 1889) and Kaveri (Menon and Jayaram 1977) river systems. Since spawn and fry were initially procured from Calcutta for releasing in Ujni wetland, it is quite possible that small numbers of Rhinomugil spawn or fry might have come along with carp fry. Similar accidental stocking of this fish has been reported from Krishnagiri and Sathaanur reservoirs in Tamil Nadu (Ranganathan and Natarajan 1969). Like other mullets (Mugilidae), this fish swims in shoals near the water surface with its eyes, head and anterior portion of the body out of water. This aerial vision, which is an adaptive feature, gives it a fair chance of es- Family Cobitidae 24. Noemacheilus botia (Day) 25. N. denisonii (Day) 26. Lepidocephalus (Lepidocephalichthys) guntea (Ham.) Order : Siluriformes Family : Bagridae 27. Mystus bleekeri (Day) 28. Malabaricus (Jerdon) 29. Aorichthys seenghala (Sykes) 30. Aaor (Ham.) Family: Siluridae 31. Wallago attu (Sch.) 32. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) Order : Atheriniformes Family : Belonidae 33. Xenontodon cancila (Ham.) Family : Cyprinodontidae 34. Aplocheilus lineatus (Val.) Family : Poecilidae 35. : Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard) Order : Channiformes Family : Channidae 36. :Channa marulius Ham. 37 . :C. orientalis (Schn.) Order : Perciformes Family : Chandidae 38. -.Chanda nama (Ham.) Family : Cichlidae 39. ’.Tilapia mossambica Peters Family : Mugilidae 40. \Rhinomugil corsula (Ham.)* Family : Gobiidae 41. .Glossogobius giuris giuris (Ham.) Order : Mastacembeliformes Family : Mastacembelidae 42. : Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede) ♦Introduced species caping enemies and capture. As a result very few were caught in gill nets. The fish catch shows predominance of species like Osteobrama, Channa, Wallago, Mystus and major carps. Recent fish catches have shown the presence of Tilapia , and exotic species from Africa. As this fish adver- sely affects the growth and production of carps, its presence is a matter of concern. Our ongoing studies on the fish diversity and ecology will throw more light on the impact of such introduced species on the local ones. G.M. YAZDANI December 15, 1989 D.F. SINGH References Adoni, A.D. & Saini, R.S. (1984): Eutrophication and production of some lentic ecosystems around Sagar, M.P. Proc. 2nd An. Workshop on MAB Projects, New Delhi, 163-167. Ali, S. & Vuayan, V.S. (1983): Hydrobiological (Ecological) Research at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. First in- terim report. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Day, F. (1889): The Fishes of India. William Dawson, London. Greenwood, P.H., Rosen, D.E., Weitzman, S.H. & Myers, G.S. (1966): Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes with a provisional classification of living forms. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist. 131: 339-456, pis. 21-23. Menon, A.G.K. & Jayaram, K.C. (1977): The freshwater grey Scanning Electron micrographs of scent gland opening of nymphs of Nysius vinitor. Above: Two openings. Below: Openings surrounded by thickened cuticle. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Ramesh: Nysius vinitor Plate l X MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 161 mullet Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton) a fishery resource in the Cauvery river system, South India. Science and Culture, 43(7): 302-304. Pandit, A.K. (1982): Feeding ecology of breeding birds in five wetlands of Kashmir. Indian J. Ecol. 9: 181-190. & Fotedar, D.N. (1982): Restoring damaged wet- lands for wildlife. J. Environ. Mgml. 14: 359-368. Pradhan, M.S. & Singh, D.F. (1984): First record of the fresh- water grey mullet, Rhinomugil corsula (Ham.) from Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(1): 202-204. Ranganathan, V. & Natarajan, V. (1969); Studies on the occur- rence and biology of Rhinomugil corsula Hamilton in Krishnagiri and Sathanur reservoir, Tamil Nadu. J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3): 518-532. Yousuf, A.R., Mustafa, S.G. & Qadri, M.Y. (1986): Some lim- nological aspects of Mirgund wetland. Geobios new Reports 5: 27-30. 35. MORPHOLOGY OF THE SCENT GLANDS OF THE RUTHERGLEN BUG, NYSIUS VINITOR BERG. (HEMIPTERA - LYGAEIDAE) ( With a plate and two text-figures) Introduction Most of the insects belonging to the order Heterop- tera form social aggregations, which may result in severe localized damage to agricultural crops. Therefore, knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the formation of these aggregations might be useful. Investigations were carried out with the Rutherglen bug Nysius vinitor B., a polyphagous insect pest, in Australia. Preliminary experi- ments in the laboratory indicate that the individuals of these bugs are attracted to the odours of the neighbouring individuals of the same species, and the tendency to ag- gregate was drastically decreased when the antennae were amputated or the openings of the abdominal scent glands of the larvae were blocked with liquid paper (Ramesh, un- published). Giles (1958), Remold (1963), Gilby and Waterhouse (1965), Youdewei (1966), Baker and Kembell (1967), Games and Staddon (1973) observed similar be- haviour with different insect species belonging to the order Heteroptera. In order to understand the behaviour of bugs to scent secretions fully, knowledge of the morphology of glands and their functioning is essential. Material and Methods Insects used in this study were obtained from laboratory cultures, maintained at 25° ± 2° C. The insects were fed on cracked sunflower seeds and with water from a moistened pad of cotton. The morphology of scent glands was studied from dissections of various stages i.e. second to fifth instar nymphs and adults. Results and Discussion Morphology Scent glands of nymphs: In the nymphs of each instar there are two abdominal glands situated on the mid-dor- sal abdominal line (Fig. 1 A). The glands are open on the dorsal surface with two visible black dumb-bell shaped spots. Each of these two spots consists of elongated slits surrounded by the thickened cuticle (Fig. 1C and Plates 1 & 2). The glands are simple orange- red coloured sacs, situated just beneath the cuticle and above the gut, and opening directly to the exterior between abdominal seg- ments IV and V, V and VI. The posterior gland is 2-2 1/2 times as large as the anterior gland (Fig. 1 B). Scent glands of adults: Adults of both sexes have two scent glands on the ventral side of the thorax (Fig. 2D), which open at the base of the hind coxae by means of small pores through which the secretions pass into a narrow, ridged groove (Fig. 2E). The chitin on both sides of this groove is raised to form a characteristic lip. At one end of these lips, another raised stand of chitin, also surrounding a groove, extends to the lateral dorsal line just below the wings. These grooves provide a large surface area which according to Imms (1958), retains the secretion while it evaporates. Functions The position and morphological characteristics of the scent glands of the nymphs of N. vinitor differ from those of adults. The anterior and posterior glands of nymphs are not similar in size (Fig. IB). The scent gland secretions have a characteristic smell and evaporate from the surface of the cuticle within a few seconds. Observa- tions on the behaviour of the nymphs ofV. vinitor suggest separate function for these two glands. For instance, before nymphs rubbed their tarsi together or used them to clean their antennae, they were often seen passing them over the opening of the anterior gland. It is likely that in this way the insects spread the aggregating pheromone produced by the scent glands all over the body. When the nymphs are disturbed or pinched with a pair of forceps, they secrete a drop of thick liquid from the anus, which is spread over a large area at their back with hind tarsi. Then the nymphs (larvae) eject posterior gland secretions which spread over the anal secretion coating which was formed earlier. Anal secretion may here help in the retention of secretion of the 162 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 1. Dorsal abdominal scent glands of nymphs of Nysius vinitor. A: Position cf gland openings B: First and second glands C: Gland opening, to show slits. posterior gland. Nymphs exhibit this type of behaviour whenever an aggressor disturbs them. The secretion from the posterior gland therefore, appears to have a defensive function. The adults also secrete from their scent glands when disturbed. Acknowledgements I wish to thank my supervisors. Professor T.O. Fig. 2. Adult scent gland of Nysius vinitor D: Position of gland E: Gland opening, to show groove. Browning and Dr. Roger Laughlin, for their valuable guidance during this study. I am thankful to the University of Adelaide, South Australia, for awarding URG fellow- ship. This work was conducted at the Department of En- tomology, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, South Australia. April 20, 1989 P. RAMESH References Baker, J.T. & Kembell, P. A. (1967): Volatile constituents of the Games, D.E. & Staddon, B.W. (1973): Composition of scent from scent gland reservoir of the coned, Pternistria bispina Stal. the larvae of milkweed bug, 0 . facialus. J. Insect Physiol Aust. J. Chem. 20: 395-398. 19: 1527-1532. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 163 Gilby, A.R. & Waterhouse, D.E (1965): The composition of the scent of the green vegetable bug Nezara viridula. Proc. R. Soc. (B) 162: 105-120. Giles, P.H. (1958): Some investigations into the effects and causes of crowding in Dysdercus faciatus Sign. (Pyr- rhoeoridae). D.I.C. thesis. Imperial College, University of London. Imms, A.D. (1958): A general Textbook of Entomology. 9th Ed. (revised) * +886p., 606 figs, London. Remold, H. (1963): Scent glands of land-bugs, their Physiology and biological function. Nature, London. 198: 764-768. Youdeo WEI, A. (1966): Laboratory studies on the aggregation of feeding Dysdercus intermedins Distant (Heteroptera-Pyr- rhocoriadae). Proc. R. ent. Soc. London (A). 41 (4-6): 45- 50. 36. BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN TORTOISESHELL BUTTERFLY AG LAIS (VANESSA) CASCHMIRENSIS (KOLLAR) IN THE HIMALAYA The Indian tortoiseshell Aglais caschmirensis (Kol- lar) (Nymphalidae) is one of the most common butterflies of the Himalaya, seen from Kashmir to Assam at altitudes of 1000 m to 4200 m. It is one of the most well adapted butterflies, found in different types of terrain from cul- tivated areas to open forest glades and alps of the high al- titudes. I have seen this species in several parts of the Himalaya. While photographing and watching butterflies in Sikkim, I came across an interesting aggressive and ter- ritorial behaviour of this butterfly. On 7 November 1980 around 1100 hrs I was walk- ing along the path near Tashiding monastery. On one side there were fields of buckwheat; the other side was part of Tashiding monastery. At the edge of the field along the path was an oval stone (0.75 m x 1 m). The tortoiseshell was sitting on the stone with its wings open and body parallel to the sun’s rays and facing away from the sun, about 0.6 m away from the path. A large silverstripe Childrena childerni (Gray) came from the front (west). When it was about 2 m away from the tortoiseshell, the tortoiseshell dived at it and chased it about 10 m, then turned back and settled in the same manner. As soon as it settled a common jester Symbrenthia hippoclus de Niceville came from the west. It was also chased away in a similar manner, after which the tortoiseshell returned and settled in the same position. After about 2 minutes, although nothing could be seen coming from the west, the tortoiseshell went out as if chas- ing something (I do not know if there was something which I could not see) and took a semicircle and came back and settled in such manner that its body was perpendicular to the sun’s rays and was facing south. It slowly went on turning till its body became parallel to the sun’s rays and it was facing away from the sun. A red admiral Vanessa indie a (Herbst) came from the rear. When it was about 1 .5 m from the tortoiseshell, the latter flew ahead and turned back and chased away the red admiral. It also chased one common silverstripe Fabriciana karnala (Moore) and a bee (probably a bumble bee). All the butterflies which were attacked were within the buckwheat field. A common jester which was flying along the path passed the tortoiseshell about 1 m away from the butterfly, but was not attacked. I was also about 2 m away from it was not disturbed by my presence. On the basis of these observations I concluded that the butterf- ly had a territory in the buckwheat field, with an area of about 4 m radius around the three side of the rock, which was its look-out point with the path forming the fourth side of the boundary. Any intruder Within this area was chased out. This whole episode took about 25 minutes. After observing this incident I became interested in this species and have been on the look-out for such be- haviour. After the Sikkim trip I have visited several other parts of the Himalaya, viz. Pindari glacier region in Oc- tober 1981, Kashmir in 1982, Himachal Pradesh in May 1983 and Gharwal in June 1983 and 1984, Usually these butterflies were seen above 2000 m and other species were very few. I did not observe any aggressive behaviour. During the 1983 Garhwal trip on the slopes of die nearby mountains in Dokriyani glacier region around 3600 m there were a large number of tortoiseshells. I watched their behaviour for about an hour and the observations were as follows: I chose a small patch of 1000 sq. m, which consisted of several species of wild flowers like Anemone ob- tusiloba , Caltha palustris, Primula denticulatum, Taraxacum officinale, Gentian spp. etc. Several species of butterflies like the Indian tortoiseshell, yellow swallowtail Papilio machaon Linnaeus, dark clouded yellow Colias electo Linnaeus, cabbage whites Pieris spp., queen of Spain fritillary Issoria lathonia (Linnaeus) etc. were feed- ing on the wild flowers. There were about four A. caschmirensis in that area. Different species visited the same flowers or even flew within a few centimetres of each other. On one Gentian inflorescence there were both yel- low swallowtails and tortoiseshell feeding together and they were less than 1 cm away from each other. No aggres- sive behaviour was obsered. The queen of Spain fritillary showed some aggressive behaviour. Do the altitudinal variation and geographical dif- ferences influence the behavioural pattern or is it depend- 164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 ent on the availability or non-availability of food and mental conditions and altitudes, mates? It would be very interesting to study the behaviour pattern of this species in more detail in different environ- Janurary 30, 1989 MEENA HARIB AL 37. NEW RECORD OF MICR O TR OMBIDIUM SAHARANPURI DHIMAN AND MITTAL (ACARINA- TROMBIDIIDAE - MICROTROMBIDINAE) PARASITIZING GREEN BOTTLE FLY LU CILIA CAESAR L. (DIPTERA - C ALLIPHORIDAE) The green bottle fly Lucilia caesar L. frequently oc- curs at carrion and excrement, particularly during summer and rainy months. May to September, in the northwestern districts of Uttar Pradesh. Earlier, Dhiman and Dhiman (1981) recorded Microtrombidium sp. parasitizing Indian house fly Musca domestica nebulo and Dhiman (1983) made some ecological studies on it. Later, Dhiman and Mittal (1985) identified it as a new species, M. saharan- puri. Recently, at Saharanpur this mite species has been observed parasitizing Lucilia caesar. Further studies have revealed that only six legged reddish larvae are parasitic while eight legged nymphs and adults of the mite are free living, feeding on the eggs of green bottle and house flies as well as on soil microarthropods. The main attachment points of the larval mite on the host body were the head. Table 1 PARASITIZATION PERCENTAGE IN HELD CATCHES OF Lucilia caesar L. Date of catch No. of flies caught No. of infested Parasitization Percentage 5 May 1987 52 10 19.23 10 June 1987 64 18 28.12 16 July 1987 82 29 35.36 22 Aug 1987 75 32 42.66 12 Sept. 1987 56 18 32.14 15 Oct. 1987 38 11 28.94 haustellum, cervical membrane, wing axillaries, coxal joints of legs, veins of wing, pleuron, intertergal and inter- sternal membranes of abdomen and the genital part. Ob- servations on load of larval mite per host indicated that a maximum of 1 6 and a minimum of larvae are carried by a fly. Field catches of the green bottle flies were made to record the percentage of parasitization. The data are presented in Table 1, which indicates that maximum parasitization of 42.66% occurs during July and the min- imum of 19.23% in May. The probable reason for parasitization of green bottle flies is that these flies fre- quently occur in association with house flies on carrion and human and animal excrement. The mite also breeds in the same environment. Hence, after hatching the larvae crawl over the body of the host. At first they cling to the legs and then migrate to a suitable feeding site on the host body. One to three mite larvae has no marked influence on the host but more than four larvae influence the body ac- tivities.Heavily parasitized (with 10 to 16 mite load) flies become weak and unable to make the usual quick flight. We are thankful to the Principal and Head of the Zoology Department, M.S. College for necessary laboratory facilities and to Dr. G.D. Garg for his valuable suggestions. S. C. DHIMAN R.K. SINGH September 23, 1988 R. KUMAR References Dhiman, S.C. & Dhiman, R.C. (1981): Microtrombidium sp., an Acarine ectoparasite of Musca domestica nebulo Fabr. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77(2): 353-354. Dhiman, S.C. (1983): Ecological studies on Microtrombidiumlar- vae parasitizing the house fly Musca domestica nebulo Fabr. Proc. Insect Inter-relations in Forest Agro-ecosys- tem, 227- 231. Dhiman, S.C. & Mittal, J.P. (1985): Microtrombidium saharan- puri , a new species of trombidiid mite from India (Acarina-Trombidiidae-Microtrombidiinae). Uttar Pradesh Jour. Zool. 5(2): 190-194. 38. MOSQUITOES OF DIV The Union Territory of Div is a small island in the Arabian sea, near the southern coast of Gujarat. It has an area of 40 sq.km, has one town and five big villages and a population of 35,000. It is bounded on three sides by the sea and by a creek on the north, separating it from the main- land of Gujarat. The topography is generally flat, and a large part is rocky and barren. The climate is sultry. Im- portant crops are jowar and ragi. Annual malaria in- cidence in Div has been more than 2 since 1975. DDT was sprayed from 1965 to 1971 under a public health MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 165 programme and BHC is being sprayed since 1972. Information on the mosquito fauna of Div is scanty. Only 3 species of Anopheles, viz. A. stephensi, A. subpic- tus, A. vagus and Culex spp. were recorded earlier (J.S. Khamre, unpublished report, 1982). There has been no other information on the mosquito fauna of Div island. A mosquito survey was therefore done between 28 Septem- ber 1983 and 4 October 1983 to determine the mosquito fauna and their relative abundance. The results are sum- marised here. Adult mosquitoes that were resting indoor, outdoor and biting man and cattle were collected from 0600 to 1000 hrs and again from 2000 to 2400 hrs by suction tube method. Collections were made from cattle sheds, human dwellings, mixed dewellings, other man-made structures and from shrubs surrounding and nearby cattle sheds and human dwellings. Larval survey was also done in under- ground tanks, wells, cement tanks, water pools, drums, etc. and the larvae were held in cages until emergence. Adult mosquitoes were identified by using the keys of Chris- tophers (1933), Barraud (1934), Puri (1955) and Rao (1981). The results of the mosquito collections are given in Table 1 . A total of 725 mosquitoes were collected belong- ing to 3 genera: (i) 664 specimens of genus Anopheles con- sisting of 5 species, (ii) 55 specimens of genus Culex con- sisting of 3 species and (iii) 6 specimens of genus Ar- migeres. Anopheles subpictus (82.5%) was the most prevalent species which was collected more during day collections, followed by A. culicifacies (6.9%) which was collected only in day collections. Culex quinquifasciatus , C. gelidus and C. tritaeniorhynchus together formed only 7.6% of the total collections. Table 1 RESULTS OF THE MOSQUITO COLLECTIONS IN DIV Species collected No. collected PMHD Anopheles annularis Van der Wulp, 1 884 9 0.31 A. culicifacies Giles, 1901 50 1.65 A. stephensi Liston 1901 1 0.03 A. subpictus Grassi, 1899 598 20.27 A. vagus Donitz, 1902 6 0.20 Culex gelidus Theobald, 1901 18 0.61 C. quinquifasciatus Say, 1823 21 0.71 C. tritaeniorhynchus Giles, 1901 16 0.54 Armigeres sp. 6 0.20 Total 725 Anopheline fauna of Div includes the well-known malaria vectors A. annularis, A. culicifacies and A. stephensi incriminated in some parts of the country. Panicker et al. (1981) have recently incriminated A. sub- pictus as the vector of malaria in the coastal villages of southeast India. C. tritaeniorhynchus is the main vector of Japanese encephalitis in India, though C. gelidus can also play a role in transmission of the disease. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr. Estibeiro, Director of Health Services for Goa, Daman and Div, Dr. J.M. Pereira, CMO (Malaria) and Dr. Bhattacharya, Regional Director (H. & F.W.), Pune, for their encouragement and kind help in car- rying out the present studies. J.S. KHAMRE August 27, 1988J M.B. KALIWAL References Barraud, P.J. (1934): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Vol. 5 Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 1-463. Christophers, S.R. (1933): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Vol. 4, Taylor and Francis, London pp. 1-360. Puri, I.M. (1955): Synaptic table for the identification of the Anopheline Mosquitoes of India. Health Bulletin No. 10. Rao, T.R. (1981): The Anophelines of India, Malaria Research Centre (ICMR), Delhi. 39. JATROPHA GOSSYPIFOLIA L. AND JATROPHA CURCAS L.- NEW HOST PLANTS FOR THE LONGHORNED BEETLE STHENIAS GRISATORFB. (CERAMBICIDAE: COLEOPTERA) The longhomed beetle Sthenias grisator is a main pest of grape vine and has also been reported to attack other plants such as casuarina, mango, jack, croton, cacao, bougainvillea, oleander, erythrina, rose, M or us indica , and Tabernoemontana alba (Maxwell-Lefroy 1909, Fletcher 1914, Nayar et al. 1981). During the months of July and August 1988 the adults of this beetle attacked the two species of Jatropha, namely Jatropha gossypifolia and J. curcas occurring at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. The beetles, which are generally known as stem girdlers, have powerful mandibles and cut the base of the main stem as well as branches by ringing them com- pletely by biting through the bark. The beetles are noctur- nal, sluggish, cryptically coloured and hide under the fork of stems during the day. They girdle the stem so as to ar- rest the flow of sap, thus killing the branches. The eggs are 166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 laid and the larvae tunnel and live in the girdled twigs, which provide suitable food free from sap (Fletcher 1914). The life cycle is said to be more than a year (Mani 1968). J air op ha gossypifolia L., is a very common small shrub. Jatropha curcas L., which is larger, is of occasional occurrence in Point Calimere (Balasubramanian 1982). Both species are medicinally important and the latter is valuable commercially also as its seeds are used in the ex- traction of ‘Jatropha oil* (Nadkami 1926). 200 individuals of Jatropha gossypifolia were ex- amined for the infestation. Stems ranging from 5 to 10 cm in diameter were girdled. In plants with no branches or few branches the main stem was girdled, and hence the whole plant dried up. In the case of plants with many branches, mostly, the branches are girdled and the plant stays alive. About 62 individuals were attacked by the beetles, of Refe Balasubramanian, P. (1982): A study on the Flora of the Vedaranyam Reserve Forest. M.Sc. dissertation submitted to the University of Madras. Fletcher, T.B. (1914): Some South Indian Insects and other Animals of Importance. M/s Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. pp, 149-159. which 17 were completely dead. In the case of Jatropha curcas , out of 30 individuals examined, 10 were infested, but none dead. Sthenias grisator is a serious pest to the two Jatropha species, especially J. gossypifolia . The two plants are hence reported as new hosts of this beetle. Control: Swabbing the base of the main stem or branches with BHC 0.1% solution (Nayar et al. 1981) and collection of beetles and destruction by fire of girdled twigs (Fletcher 1914) are suggested remedies for infesta- tion. My sincere thanks are due to Mr. J.C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History Society, for his en- couragement. September 3, 1988 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN NCES Mani, M.S. (1968): General Entomology. Oxford and IBH Publ. pp. 364-366. Maxwell-Lefroy (1909): Indian Insect Life: A manual of the insects of the plains. Govt, of India, Pusa. pp. 368-379. Nadkarni (1926): Indian Materia Medica, pp. 483-485. Nayar etal. (1981): General and Applied Entomology. Tata Mc- Graw-Hill, New Delhi, pp. 328-362. 40. NEW RECORDS OF CLADOCERA OF KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR - III. (With two text-figures) Little is known regarding the occurrence of different species of Cladocera of Rajasthan. So far only 20 species of tills order have been recorded from this region. The im- portant previous papers on Cladocera of Rajasthan are those of Biswas (1964), Nayar (1971) and Venkataraman (1988). Biswas (1964) recorded a new species and Nayar (1971) recorded 17 species of Cladocera. The material for the present study was collected from the Keoladeo Nation- al Park, Bharatpur (27° 7.6’ to 27° 12.2’ N, 77° 29.5’ to 77° 33.9’ E) from July 1984 to May 1985. The collections revealed two new records, (1) Grimaldina brazzai Richard, 1892 and (2) Guernella raphalis Richard, 1892 in addition to the species recorded earlier (Venkataraman 1988). Family Macro thricidae Baird, 1843. Genus Grimaldina Richard, 1892 1 . Grimaldina brazzai Richard, 1892 (Fig. 1) FEMALE: Body size 0.72 - 0.83 mm, breadth 0.60 - 0.66 mm. Shape quadrangular oval. Head small, eye large, ocellus small and situated closer to the rostrum than to the eye. Antennules long, slender and slightly narrow distal- ly; 10-12 transverse rows of spinules; a group of long sen- sory setae at the apex. Antenna slightly more than half the body length. Postabdomen rather larger, bilobed with broadly rounded preanal margin. Anal margin armed with two groups of five long, sharply pointed spines. Preanal comer armed with one to two spines and followed by a series of short spinules proximally. Claw rather long, with two basal spines. This is the first record of the occurrence of this species in Rajasthan; it agrees with the previous descrip- tion of the species by Sars (1901 ), Harding (1957) and Idris (1983). Genus Guernella Richard, 1892 2. Guernella raphalis Richard, 1892 (Fig. 2) FEMALE: Body length 0.40 - 0.43 mm, breadth 0.33 - 0.35 mm; shape slightly oval. Head rounded anteriorly and concave ventrally; eye rather large, ocellus situated closer to the apex of rostrum. Antennules rather large and broad, with lateral setae and rows of setules. Valves with polygonal reticulation, ventral margin rounded and ser- rated without setae. Postabdomen broad proximally, nar- row distally and without anal denticles. Claw rather short without basal spine. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 167 Fig. l.Grimaldina brazzai, female Fig. Guernella raphalis, female All - antennule; F - postabdomen; A VC - anteroventral AI - antennule; P - postabdomen; A VC - anteroventral margin; PVC - postero ventral margin margin. 168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Distribution: Common and occurring in all types of habitat. This is the first record of the occurrence of this species in Rajasthan, and it agrees with the previous description of the species by Smirnov (1976) and Idris (1983). I thank Mr. C. Sivasubramanian, B.N.H.S. Bharat- pur, for his kind help in collecting the organisms, and Dr. T.M. Haridasan for his encouragement. July 6, 1989 K. VENKATARAMAN References Biswas, S. (1964): A new species of cladoceran genus Latona Straus (1 820) from Rajasthan, India. Proc. Zool. Soc., Cal- cutta 17: 149 - 152. Harding, J.R (1957): The South African Cladocera Euryalona colletti (Sars) and another African species. Ann. South African Mus. XLI1(5): 245-247. Idris, B.A.G. (1983): Freshwater zooplankton of Malaysia. Penerbit Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 153 pp. Nayar, C.K.G.. (1971): Cladocera of Rajasthan. Hydrobiol. 37: 509-519. Sars, G.O. (1901): Contributions to the knowledge of the fresh- water Entomostraca of South America as shown by artifi- cial hatching from the dried material. Archiv.fur math, og naturv.,XXni(3): 1-102. Smirnov, N.N. (1976): Macrothriddae and Moinidae. fauna of the World. Fauna of USSR, Crustacea 1(3): 236 Venkataraman, K. (1988): Cladocera of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. II. New records. 1. Moinodaphnia macleayii (King, 1 853) and 2. Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895, J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 229-233. 41. MONADENIUM HETEROPODUM N.E. BR. (EUPHORBIACEAE) - AN EXOTIC IN THE PROCESS OF NATURALIZATION IN INDIA (With a text-figure) Monadenium Pax is a genus of succulent plants belonging to the family Euphorbiacea, represented by about 47 species, distributed in East and South Tropical Africa (Bally 1961, Jacobson 1978). Hitherto, it has not been reported in India (Hooker 1 872-97). One species was found growing in red loamy soils of Secunderabad and Hyderabad. Monadenium heteropodum (Pax) N.E. Br. Fig. 1 Succulent, stem 50 cm tall, 3-4 cm thick with stout tuber- cular branches. Tubercles prominent, smooth, not grooved, base rhomboid-quadrangular, varying in size and shape. Leaves spatulate, glabrous, succulent undulate apice, 25 x 50 mm, seated on prominent rhomboid tubercle, rosulate. Leaf-scar armed with prickles. Inflores- cence axillary from terminal leaves, simple dichasium; consisting of one precocious central cyathium androeceous, gynoecium reduced. Lateral cyathia bisexual, zygomorphic, involucre cup-like, truncate at the top and open on one side. Involucre gland with thickened rim, inside with 5 lobes, fringe-toothed. Stamens arranged in five groups opposite to the lobes of the involucre, mingled with a few filiform bracteoles. Ovary pedicellate, surrounded by stamens, exserted from the opening in the frontal parts of the involucre and recurved, becoming erect in the last stage of maturity; 3- celled with one ovule, pen- dulous. Styles 3, free, shordy bifid, stigmas thickened. Voucher specimen: KSR 306A, Secunderabad; deposited in the Herbarium, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad. Monadenium heteropodum (Pax) N.E. Br. was pre- viously known only from Tanzania (Jacobsen 1978). The present record is interesting from the fact that several ex- otic Euphorbiaceous taxa like Euphorbia milii Desmoul, E.tirucalli L., Synadenium grantii Hk.f., Euphorbia pul- cherrima Willd. and Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poir. have become naturalized in India. Monadenium heteropodum, having effective vegetative propagation, may rapidly spread and get naturalized in the flora like other Euphor- biaceous species. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr. Dan H. Nicolson, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, USA, and Mrs. S. Carter Hol- mes, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, U.K., for valuable comments on this manuscript and the Dean, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, for providing neces- sary facilities. K. SESHAGIRI RAO February 16, 1989 MJM.V. PRASAD MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 169 Monadenium heteropodum N.E. Br. A. Habit sketch; B. Ventral view of dichasium; C. Dorsal view of dichasium; D. Front view of lateral cyathium; E. Involucre gland; F. Involucre lobes; G. Male flower: 1. Involucre, 2. Gland with thickened rim, 3. Pedicel 4. Capsule, ovary, 5. Style, 6. Secondary bud, 7. Male flower, 8. Bracteole 170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 References Bally, P.R.O. (1961): The Genus Monadenium. Benteli Publishers, Berne. Jacobsen, H. (1978): A handbook of suculent plants-descrip- tions, synonyms and cultural details for succulents other than Cactaceae. Vol. 2. English edn. reprint. Blanford Press, Poole & Dorset, 1978. pp. 682-693, Hooker, J.D. (1872-97): The flora of British India, Vol. 7, Lon- don. 42. ABNORMAL FLOWERING OF CARY OTA URENS L. (ARECACE AE) (With a plate) A fish-tail palm Caryota wrens L., family Arecaceae (Palmae), in the Andhra University Botanical Garden, Waltair, Andhra Pradesh, lost its crown during a cyclonic storm. After one year, the inflorescence arose during November-January, from the sides of the trunk very close to the top (Plate). According to Blatter (1926), branching is rare occur- rence in palms, except in the genus Hyphaene . It is often caused by injury to the terminal bud, as in Phoenix syl- vestris (L.) Roxb. (wild date), where the apex is con- tinuously tapped for toddy. The multiple branching due to the terminal bud being struck by lightning in wild date has been recorded by Field (1908). In other cases branching takes place consequent to the replacement of flowering buds by leaf-buds, which develop into shoots. In the present case abnormal flowering was formed instead of vegetative branches. This type of abnormal flowering is apparendy due to physiological or ecological factors. P. VENKANNA G.M. NARASIMHA RAO September 6, 1989 J.B. RAJU References Blatter, E. (1926): Palms of British India and Ceylon. Oxford Field, F. (1908): A branching date palm (Phoenix sylvestris). J. University, London, p. vii. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18(2): 699-700. 43 .ENTADA PUSAETHA DC.(MIMOSACEAE) - NEW DISTRIBUTIONALRECORD FROM GUJARAT (With a text-figure) During the course of intensive explorations in the vicinity of Dharampur forests in Bulsar district, Gujarat, under the the Botanical Survey of India’s District Flora Scheme, I came across an enormous tendrillar liana in vegetative condition. The presence and nature of tendril accompanied with the 2-pinnate leaves identified it ac- cording to Cooke’s flora (1901-1908) as Entada pur- saetha. To the best of my knowledge, this is the only In- dian tendrillar mimosoid. Entada pusaetha DC. so far has not been reported from Gujarat (Shah 1978, Raghavan et al. 1981). It has also been confirmed from the literature survey and from my visits to Blatter Herbarium, Bombay, and BSI(WC) herbarium, Pune, that this species was collected neither from Gujarat nor from any of the northwest districts (Nasik, Dhule, Jalgaon and Thane) of Maharashtra, which are adjacent to the present locality. The present report from the southeast hilly region of Gujarat supports its extended distribution from the Sahyadri hills in the Western Ghats. Sahni (1980) stated this taxon as being ‘perhaps the largest climber in the world’. Santapau (1953) estimated the length of this species as ‘well over 1500 m." As the complete description of this species is given by Cooke (1901-1908), only an illustration (Fig. 1) is provided here. Though this species has a wide distribution in central and eastern Himalayas, Sikkim, East Bengal, Bihar, Oris- sa, Deccan and Western Ghats (Chopra et al. 1956) it has recently been reported that this taxon is on the verge of ex- tinction (Vartak 1983), threatened (Rao and Reddy 1983), becoming rare (Gupta and Dakshini 1983) and scarce (Sahni 1980) in different parts of India. Recent workers, except Matthew and Britto (1983), report this Indian taxon under E. pursaetha DC. While the latter report it under E. rheedii. According to Henry and Chandrabose (1980), Brenan appears to have been the first to unite E. pursaetha DC., E. rheedii Sprengl and E. mono st achy a DC. and adopt the name E. pursaetha DC. for the combined species. The specific epithet pursaetha , a typographical error, given in most of the Indian Floras, should be spelt as pusaetha (pus - name of the liana; aetha = etta = seed). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Venkanna et, al. : Caryota urens Plate 1 Abnormal flowering of Caryota urens L. Fig. 1 .Entada pusaetha DC., illustration based on Lhe specimen (ASR 3591) collected from Barpuda in Dharampur Forests. Acknowledgements I am grateful to late Prof. G.L. Shah and Prof. Inam- dar for guidance; BSI, Howrah, for financial help. My sin- cere thanks are due to the authorities of Blatter Herbarium, Refe Chopra, R.N., Nayar, S.L. & Chopra, I.C. (1956): Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, (reprint (1986)). CSIR, New Delhi. Cooke, T. (1901-1908): The Flora of Bombay Presidency. 2 vols. London (reprint 3 vols. 1958, BSI, Howrah). Gupta, P.G. & Dakshini, M.N. (1983): Rare and Endemic Taxa in the Botanical Garden and Arboreta of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. In: An Assessment of Threatened Plants of India. Eds. S.K. Jain & R.R. Rao. Henry, A.N. & Chandrabose, M. (1980): An aid to the Intema- Bombay, and BSI (WC) herbarium, Pune, for allowing me to refer to the specimens. March 14, 1989 A.S. REDDY NCES tional Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Today & Tomor- row Printers and Publishers, New Delhi. Matthew, K.M. & Brttto, J.B. (1983); In: The Flora of Tamil Nadu Kamatic, 3 vols. Ed. K.M. Matthew. Rapinat Her- barium, Tiruchirapalli. Raghavan, R.S., Wadhwa, B.M., Ansari, M.Y. & RAO, R.S. (1981): A checklist of the plants of Gujarat. Rec. bot. Surv. India 2 1(2): 1-128. Rao, K.N. & Reddy, K.R. (1983): Threatened Plants of Tirupati and Its Environs. In: An Assessment of Threatened Plants 172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 of India. Eds. S.K. Jain & R.R. Rao. Sahni, K.C. (1980): Vanishing Indian Taxa and their Conserva- tion. In: Glimpses in Plant Research (vol. 5): Modem Trends in Plant Taxonomy. Ed. P.K.K. Nair. Santapau, H. (1953): The Flora of Khandala, (3rd ed. 1967). BSI, *■ Calcutta. Shah, G.L. (1978): Flora of Gujarat. 2 vols. Sardar Patel Univer- sity, Vallabh Vidyanagar. Vartak, V.D. (1983): Observations on Rare, Imperfectly known and Endemic Plants in the Sacred Groves of Western Maharashtra. In: An Assessment of Threatened Plants of India. Eds. S.K. Jain &R.R. Rao. 44. ON THE ENDEMIC STATUS OF THREE WILD LEGUMES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN WEST BENGAL1 Revisionary studies on three genera, namely, Smithia Ait., Geissaspis W. & A. and Zornia Gmel. in India reveal some of their members to be endemic. Among these endemics, Smithia grandis Baker, Geissaspis cris- tata W. & A. and Zornia quilonensis Ravi also occur in West Bengal, although this has not been mentioned in literature on endemic plants of India. The present com- munication deals with the endemic status and general dis- tribution of the above three taxa with special reference to West Bengal. Taxonomic interpretations are also included wherever required. Recently concluded revisionary studies on the three genera, namely Smithia Ait., Geissaspis W. & A. and Zor- nia Gmel. have shown that in the Indian subcontinent the above 3 genera were represented by 12, 2 and 1 species and some infraspecific taxa respectively (Baker 1876). Since then addition of new species and new records of known species have been made from time to time. Subse- quently, the Indian region has changed greatly both in size and ecological conditions. Presently, the above three genera are reported in the Indian context to comprise 15, 2 and 3 species and some infraspecific taxa respectively. Among these, 9 species and 1 variety of Smithia, 2 species of Geissaspis and 1 species of Zornia have been estimated to be endemic. A study on the legume flora of West Bengal reveals endemic taxa Smithia grandis Baker, Geissaspis cristata W. & A. and Zornia quilonensis Ravi as their distribution extended to West Bengal. Studies on the endemic status of these genera have never been attempted in detail. Ah- medullah and Nayar (1986) published an account of en- demic plants of India. Unfortunately, only Zornia quilonensis has been included in the list and is reported to occur only in Kerala, while the other two species are over- looked. This may be the result of insufficient field study and taxonomic misinterpretations. The present communication deals with the critical assessment of the endemic status and general distribution of the aforesaid three leguminous plants in tne light of criti- 1 An abstract of this paper is included in the proceedings of 76th Session (Botany Section) of the Indian Science Congress Association 1989. cal taxonomic as well as thorough field studies. Details of their distribution in West Bengal are also recorded. Smithia and Geissaspis are drought loving plants and are more frequent in drier areas. Smithia grandis is the only shrubby member of the herbaceous genus Smithia and grows vigorously in grasslands at the edge of swamps. This endemic species generally occurs along the sub- Himalayan tracts of eastern India and extends from Dar- jeeling in West Bengal, Sikkim to Assam and lower Khasi hills of Meghalaya up to 1,800 to 2,000 m. In West Ben- gal this species has been reported from Darjeeling tarai, Kuprail tarai, Lalltung on the Bengal border, Mahakalguri of Alipur Duar and on the Tista sand bank of Jalpaiguri. Geissaspis cristata is a unique natural species in its characteristic leafy, spathulous, large orbiculate, ciliate bracts covering the whole flower, which distinguishes the species as well as the genus from the allied genus Zornia. This species is common in forests along streams, and also in open dry grasslands. Apparently endemic to the tropics and subtropics of India, it is found in Maharashtra, Kar- nataka, Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andaman & Nicobar Is- lands and West Bengal. In its type locality (i.e., in penin- sular India) the overall habit does not vary much, but in Kerala, Andamans and in some places of Maharashtra it is a very small, prostrate herb with very small leaflets and is often confused with its allied species G. tenella. The only specimens (Bengalia, Circa Calcuttam 1836 - 38 John W. Heifer 493 and 165) deposited at CAL constitute its records of distribution in West Bengal. In a sense the species is very occasional in this locality. Usually the identity of Zjornia quilonensis is con- fused with the Ceylonese species Z. walkeri Amott in general habit but it differs in having narrow oblong and often orbicular, similar leaflets and 6-jointed pods having bristles with continuous retrorsely hairs. The species is en- demic to southern and southwest India, being distributed in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and West Bengal. This species was originally described from peninsular India as Z. angustifolia var. oblongifolia W. & A. This fact was overlooked by subsequent workers, and as a result the same plant was again described in 1969 from Kerala as a distinct species with the name Z. quilonensis. However, the later name is maintained here according to rules (vide MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 173 Art. 60 ICBN). This plant was collected from Digha in la (L.) Pers. West Bengal (Digha, Mednapur coast, 24 Aug. 1966 AX. Mukherjee E4468 - CAL) and misidentified as Z. diphyl- March 31, 1989 ARABINDA PRAMANIK References Ahmedullah, M. & Nayar, M.P. (1986): Endemic plants of the Baker, J.G. (1876): Leguminosae. In J.D. Hooker (ed.) Flora Indian region, Vol. I. Howrah. British India, Vol. II: 56-306, Kent. London. 45. NEW RECORDS OF SOME FERNS FOR KUMAUN HIMALAYA (WESTERN HIMALAYA) Pangtey and Punetha (1987) published an updated list of Pteridophytic flora so far known from Kumaun Himalaya based on their own collections and on previous reports. They recorded, in all, 251 species of ferns from the entire Kumaun Himalaya ranging from 300-4500 m altitudes. During 1988, we made several more collection trips, especially in fem-rich areas, which resulted in the collection of a fairly large number of specimens. On iden- tification, 5 species belonging to 5 genera and 4 families turned out to be new to the fern flora of Kumaun Himalaya. All the available previous published records indicate that these species have neither been collected nor reported from Kumaun Himalaya so far. Voucher specimens are housed in the Herbarium, Department of Botany, D.S.B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal. Family : Osmundaceae 1. Osmunda japonica Thunb., FI Jap. 330. 1784; Panigrahi & Dixit, J. Indian bot. Soc. 48:97. 1969; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 27. 1984. An infrequent fem in Kumaun Himalaya. It grows between 2000 - 2250 m on humus rich soil near wet areas in scrub jungles, open places, road edges. Specimens examined: Kumaun : Almora district, Khati en route Pindari glacier (YPSP 138); Pithoragarh district, Munsiari (Gori Valley) (YPSP s.n.) Previous Distribution: India (Garhwal, Assam and Meghalaya), Bhutan. Panigrahi and Dixit (1969) were the first to record this fern from western Himalaya from Garhwal without giving any definite locality, based on the collection made by Mackinnon. The present authentic collection of this species from Kumaun Himalaya confirms its existence in Western Himalaya. But its occurrence in Garhwal needs to be confirmed because it has not been collected again by subsequent workers from Garhwal after Panigrahi & Dixit (1969). Family : Aspleniaceae 2. Asplenium capillipesMakino, Bot. Mag. Tokyo 17: 77. f. 1-3. 1903; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 116. 1984; Khul- lar & Sharma, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(2) : 463 , 1986. An extremely rare fem in Kumaun Himalaya that grows on tree crevices where a little soil gets deposited and also in rock crevices around 2300 m. Specimens examined : Kumaun : Almora District, below Jatoli en route Sundardhunga glacier (SSS 1179). Previous Distribution: India (Garhwal), China, Japan, Bhutan. This interesting fem is reported earlier only from China and Japan. But it has not been recorded from Tibet so far. Later, H. Ito (in Hara 197 1) reported it from Bhutan. However, the first authentic collection of this fem was made by Khullar and Sharma (1986), who collected it from Yumnotri (Uttar Kashi District) in Garhwal (Western Himalaya). The collection of this species from Kumaun Himalaya indicates that it is being collected from India after Khullar & Sharma (1986). Thus it extends its dis- tributional range eastward to Kumaun Himalaya. It is very likely that this fem may be found to occur throughout the Himalayan regions of India, if exhaustive and careful col- lections are made. Family : Athyriaceae 3. Athyrium rubricaule (Edgew.) Bir, Nova Hedw. 4 : 169. t. 12 - 13. 1962; Dixit, Census Indian Pterid. 128. 1984. Asplenium filix-femina var. retusa subvar. rubricaulis (Edgew.) Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2. Bot. 1 :492. t. 59. f. 2. 1880. Rather rare fem that grows in open places and humus rich forest floors between 2200 - 3000 m. Specimens examined: Kumaun : Almora District , Khati en route Pindari glacier (SSS 1275); Phurkia en route Pin- dari Glacier (SSS 1291). Previous Distribution: India (Kashmir, Sikkim), Bhutan. Bir (1962) recorded this fem from Gulmarg (Kash- mir) in northwestern Himalaya. The present collection thus extends its eastward distribution to Kumaun from Kashmir. However, there is no report of this fem from other sectors of northwestern Himalaya between Kumaun and Kashmir. Family : Dryopteridaceae 4. Dryopteris barbigera (Hook.) O. Ktze., Rev. Gen. PI. 2 : 812. 1891 subsp. komarovii Fraser - Jenkins, Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. 14: 209. 1986. 174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 A rare fern of the high altitude regions of Kumaun. It grows on gentle alpine slopes and meadows between 3200-3700 m. Specimens examined: Kumaun : Almora district, Sun- dardhunga glacier (SSS 1199). Previous distribution: India (Kashmir to Garhwal). 5.Nothoperanema hendersonii (Bedd.) Nakaike, Enum. Pterid. Jap. 239. 1975; Dixit, census Indian Pterid. 155. 1984. Lastrea hendersonii Bedd., Ferns Brit. India Suppl. 17. t. 377. 1876. Nephrodium spectabile Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2. Bot. 1 : 526. 1880 .Lastrea spectabile (Clarke) Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India 257. 1883. A rather rare fem in the Kumaun Himalaya. It usual- ly grows in dark shaded humus rich forest floors and moist-shaded situations between 1500-2500 m. Specimens examined: Kumaun : Pithoragarh district, Kuk- Refe Bir, S.S. (1962): Some new and little known members of the genus Athyriumirom the Himalayas. Nova Hedw. 4: 165— 170. Hara, H. (1971): The Flora of Eastern Himalaya. Second Report. Univ. Mus. Univ. Tokyo Bull. 2: 197-221. Khullar, S.P. & Sharma, S.S. (1986): Asplenium capillipes Makino (Aspleniaceae) - A Sino-Japanese Fem in the India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 463-466. rouli (SSS 628); Almora district, below Jatoli en route Sun- dardhunga glacier (SSS 1249). Previous Distribution: India (Khasi Hills and Shillong), Nepal, China, Taiwan, Thailand. This species is being reported for the first time from northwestern Himalaya from Kumaun. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr. S.P. Khullar, Reader, Depart- ment of Botany, Punjab University, Chandigarh, for his help in the identification and in the preparation of this note. Thanks are due to Head, Department of Botany, D.S.B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal, for facilities. S.S. SAM ANT April 4, 1989 Y.P.S. PANGTEY NCES Pangtey, Y.P.S. & Punetha, N. (1987): Pteridophytic Flora of Kumaun Himalya : An updated list. In: Western Himalaya (Environment, Problems & Development) Ed. Y.P.S. Pangtey & S.C. Joshi 1: 389 - 412. Panigrahi, G. & Dexit, R.D. (1969): Studies in Indian Pteridophytes II. The family Osmundaceae in India. J. In- dian Bot. Soc. 48: 90-101. INDEX OF AUTHORS, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Page No. Akhtar, S. Asad Blacknecked Crane Project, Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Bombay 400 023 147 Balasubramanian, P. BNHS Research Station, Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Kodikkarai 614 807, Tamil Nadu 138, 145, 147,165 Bannerjee, D.P. 395, Mod Nagar, Lucknow 226 004 140 Bapat, N.N. Paburai Chowk, Bhuj, Kutch 147 Bavdekar, S.P. B/14, ‘Anand Chhaya’, Prabhadevi, Bombay 400 025 140 Bhuttewadkar, N.V. Department of Zoology, Kamatak University, Dharvvad 580 003 156 Chanda, S.K. Zoological Survey of India, Fire Proof Spirit Building, 27, J.L. Nehru Road, Calcutta 700 016 157 Choudhury, Anwaraddin Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium, Islampur Road, Guwahati 781 007, Assam 133, 151 Das, Indraneil Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Vadanemmeli, Perar Post, Mahabalipuram Road, Madras 603 104 155 Das, P.K. Zoological Survey of India, ‘M’ Block, New Alipur, Calcutta 700 053 135 Dhiman, S.C. Entomology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, M.S. (PG) College, Saharanpur 247 001 164 Divyabhanusinh 1 , Mansingh Road, New Delhi 1 1 0 001 142 Dodia, J.F. AICRP on Economic Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110 140 Ganguli-Lachungpa, Usha Sikkim Forest Dept., Deorali, Gangtok- 737 101 142 Haribal, Meena 4, Modi Nivas, Telang Road, Matunga, Bombay 400 019 163 Himmatsinhji Jubilee Ground, Bhuj, Kutch 147 Hiremath, C.R. P.C. Jabin Science College, Hubli 156 Kanamadi, R.D. Department of Zoology, Kamatak University, Dharwad 580 003 156 Khamre, J.S. Regional Office (Health & F.W.), Pune 164 Kaliwal, M.B. NMEP, Directorate of Health Services, Campal, Panaji, Goa 164 Kumar, R. Entomology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, M.S. (PG) College, Saharanpur 247 001 164 Mahabal, Anil Zoological Survey of India, High Altitude Zoology Field Station, Hospital Road. Solan 173 212 , Himachal Pradesh 137 Mathew, K.L. AICRP on Economic Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110. 140 Mohapatra, K.K. Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 146. 149 Mundkur, Taej Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot 360 005 148 Muralidharan, S. Sir P.P. Institute of Science, Bhavnagar 360 002 139 Natarajan, V. BNHS Research Station, Point Calimere 614 807, Tamil Nadu 147 Neelakantan, K.K. Kongalakode, Kavassery P.O., Kerala 678 543 144 Pangtey, Y.RS, Dept, of Botany, D.S. B College, Kumaun University, Nainithal 263 002, Uttar Pradesh 173 Paralkar, V.K. B 2/3, Manav Kalyan, Bangur Nagar, Goregaon, Bombay 400 090 140 Parasharya, B.M. AICRP on Economic Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110 140 Patel, B.H. Dept, of Zoology, Sir P.P. Institute of Science, Bhavnagar 360 002 152 Pramanik, Arabinda Botanical Survey of India, Howrah 71 1 103 172 Prasad, M.N.V. School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500 134 168 Rahmani, Asad R. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 148 Raju, J.B. Department of Botany, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003 170 Ramesh, P. Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030 161 Rao, G.M. Narasinha Dept, of Botany, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003 1 70 Rao, Prakash Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 139, 143, 146, 149 Rao, RJ. Simlipal Tiger Reserve, P.O. Khairi Jashipur, Orissa 149 Rao, K. Seshagiri School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500 134 168, 170 Raol, Lalsinh Parvatinagar Hats, Behind Om Cinema, Jivraj Park, Ahmedabad 380 05 1 140 Reddy, A.S. Department of Botany, Arts, Science & Commerce College, Shahada 425 409, Dhule (Dist.), Maharashtra 170 Samant, S.S. Department of Botany, D.S.B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal 263 002 (U.P.) 173 Sankaran, Ravi Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 148 Satheesan, S.M. Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 143, 144, 145 Page No. Sharma, S.K. Arboriculturist, World Forestry Arboretum, Thai an a Dungri, Agra By Pass, Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan 149 Singh, D.F. Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, 1182/2, F.C. Road, Pune 411 005 157 Singh, L.A.K. Project Tiger, Simlipal Tiger Reserve, P.O. Khairi- Jashipur, Dist. Mayurbhanj, Orissa 149 Singh, R.K. Entomology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, M.S. (PG) College, Saharanpur 247 001 164 Sinha, Y.P. Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Fruit Garden, Risa Colony, Shillong 793 003, Meghalaya 134 Tehsin, Fatema 41, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan 144 Tehsin, Raza 41, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan 144 Tiwari, Jugalkishore Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Bombay 400 023 137 Tyabji, Hashim N. 624/1, Road 10, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034, Andhra Pradesh 134 Uthaman, P.K, Field Publicity Office, Government of India, Kalpetta 673 122, Kerala 139 Varu, S.N. Junavas, Madhapar, Bhuj Ta., Kutch 147 Venkanna, P. Department of Botany, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003 170 Venkataraman, K. School of Energy, Environment and Natural Resources, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai 625 021 166 Vyas, Raju Zoo Inspector, Sayaji Baug Zoo, Vadodara 390 018 152 Yazdani, G.M. 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Ali Reza Khan 62 , ,, '.if BREEDING OF THE COMMON TERN Sterna hirundo IN SRI LANKA By Thilo W. Hoffmann 68 AVIAN PROFILE OF A MAN-MODIFIED AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM IN THE BACKWATERS OF THE UJJANI DAM (With two plates and four text-figures) By E. K. Bharucha and P. P. Gogte DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR CHELONIANS FROM NORTHEASTERN (With a text-figure) By Indraneil Das 91 LIFE CYCLE OF Phlyctenophora indica ANNAPURNA AND RAMA SARMA, A MARINE BENTHIC PODOCOPAN OSTRACOD (With two text-figures) By C. Annapurna, D. V. Rama Sarma and K. Shyamasundari 98 NEW DESCRIPTIONS REVIEWS MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Printed by Bro. Paulinus at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103 and published by J. C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023. of the Bombay Natural History H ABDULALI M. R. ALMEIDA P. V. BOLE B. F. CHHAPGAR B. V. DAVID A. J. T. JOHNSINGH R. M. NAIK R. WHITAKER Assistant Editor A. VARADACHARY V. -J INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS 1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere should not be submitted. 2. All words to be printed in italics should be underlined. 3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually col- lected. 4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at least 8.20 x 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 5 . Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board. 6. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabeti- cally arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus : Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal, /. Bombay not. Hist Soc . 55(2): 243-268. Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined. 7 . Each paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words. 8. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free copy of the Journal. 9 . The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s. Hombill House, Editors, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay Bombay 400023. Natural History Society VOLUME 87 (2): AUGUST 1990 Date of Publication: 30-10-1990 CONTENTS Page THE PAST AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD Ardeotis nigriceps (VIGORS) IN INDIA (With two text- figures) By Asad R. Rahmani and Ranjit Manakadan 175 RESULTS OF A PILOT SALTWATER CROCODILE Crocodylus porosus SCHNEIDER RESTOCKING IN BHITARKANIKA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ORISSA (With two text-figures ) By S.K. Kar and H.R. Bustard 195 A PRELIMINARY ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING, SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN (With two plates and five text-figures) By W. A. Rodgers 201 SCALING MODELS FOR FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS (With five text- figures) By Ram ana M. Athreya and Vijay A. Singh 210 POLYMORPHISM IN Acanthaspis siva DISTANT (REDUVHDAE: HETEROPTERA), A PREDATOR OF THE INDIAN HONEY BEE (With two text-figures ) By Dunston P. Ambrose and David Livingstone 218 OBSERVATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF TADPOLES OF THE MALABAR GLIDING FROG Rhacophorus malabaricus JERDON, 1870 (ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE) (With three plates and three text- figures) By A.G. Sekar 223 STRATEGIES OF BROODING AND PARENTAL CARE AND INFLUENCE OF STRESS CONDITIONS IN THE LABORATORY IN Heteropoda Venator ia (ARANEAE: HETEROPODIDAE) (With a text- figure) By K. Vijay alakshmi and S. Sivaraman 227 NEW RECORD AND DESCRIPTION OF Aethalotus horni BREDDIN (INSECTA: HETEROPTERA: LYGAEIDAE) WITH ITS IMMATURE STAGES FROM NORTHEAST INDIA (With twelve text-figures) By A. Mukhopadhyay, P. Roy and S. Das 235 AN ANALYSIS OF SOME EXTERNAL FACTORS IN THE SEXUAL PERIODICITY OF THE INDIAN BAT Megaderma lyra lyra (GEOFFROY) (With five text -figures) By A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik 240 TICKS (ACARI: IXODIDAE) COLLECTED ON CHELONIANS (REPTILIA) FROM INDIA AND BURMA By J.G. Frazier and J.E. Keirans 247 STATUS OF THE SWAMP DEER Cervus duvauceli duvauceli IN THE DUDWA NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH (With three text-figures) By Ravi Sankaran 250 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Julostylis polyandra (MALVACEAE) - A NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA (With a text-figure) By N. Ravi and N. Anilkumar 260 A NEW SPECIES OF GALL-FORMING Crotonothrips (Inermothrips) (TH YS ANOPTERA : PHLAEOTHRIPIDAE) FROM MANIPUR (With a text- figure) By L. Nilamani and B. Prasad 262 TWO NEW VARIETIES OF Christella dentata (FORSSK.) BROWNSEY ET JERMY (With a text-figure) By N. Punetha and B .S . Kholia 264 A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS Megachile LATREILLE (HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA: MEGACHILIDAE), FROM INDIA (With a text-figure) By Virendra Kumar 266 NEW SPECIES OF Aconurella AND Paramesodes (HOMOPTERA: CICADELUDAE) FROM INDIA (With two text- figures ) By V. Rama Subba Rao and Usha Ramakrishnan 268 ON A NEW SPECIES OF Salmostoma SWAJNSON (CYPRINIDAE: CULTRINAE) FROM DHOM RESERVOIR, SATARA DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA (With two text- figures) By R.T. Srithar and K.C. Jayaram 272 NEW PLANT TAXA FROM THE SIND VALLEY, KASHMIR (With three text- figures) By G.H. Dar and A.R. Naqshi 274 ANEW SPECIES OF Euagoras (HETEROPTERA: REDUVHDAE: HARPACTORINAE) FROM WESTERN GHATS, INDIA (With a text- figure) By David Livingstone and G. Ravichandran 280 Lecanthus peduncularis (ROYLE) WEDD. VAR. Garhwalensis : A NEW VARIETY FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA (With a text-figure) By R.A. Silas and R.D. Gaur 281 A NEW Eurya THUNB. (THEACEAE) FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH (With a text-figure) By G.S. Giri, G.D. Pal and T.K. Pal .. . 283 REVIEWS Plants of Dhofar (the southern region of Oman) Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 284 Further illustrations on the flora of the Tamil Nadu Carnatic, Vol. 4 Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 284 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS: 12. 1 . On the longevity of two species of Indian wild cats in captivity By L.N. Acharjyo and S.K. Patnaik 286 ^ 2. Relative toxicity of three acute rodenticides against Rattus rattus rufescens By Y. Saxena 286 ^ 3. Reaction of a group of gaur Bos gaur us to the presence of an unidentified predator in Bandhav- garh N ational Park, M adhy a Pradesh i r By Hashim N. Tyabji 287 4. Recto-vaginal prolapse in a wild chital Cervus axis By K. Sankar 288 ^ BIRDS: 5. Great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus cristatus near Bhilwara, Rajasthan By Raza Tehsin 289 6. Black bittern Ixobrychus flavicollis (Latham), an addition to the avifauna of Maharashtra By Nitin Jamdar and Kiran Srivastava 289 7. Occurrence of spoonbill Platalea leucorodia Linn, in Kerala By A.P. Jairaj and V.K. Sanjeev Kumar 289 8. Brahminy duck Iadorna ferruginea (Pallas) breed- ing in Sikkim By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 290 9. Spotbill duck Anas poecilorhyncha J.R. Forster in Kerala By P. K. Uthaman 290 10. Red kite Milvus milvus in Ladakh By M. Fily and C. Perennou 291 1 1 . Osprey Pandion haliaetus in Sikkim By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 291 Successful nesting of shaheen falcon Falco peregrinus peregrinator in Tamil Nadu By Douglas A. Bell ..291 Reappearance of common peafowl Pavo cristatus Linn, in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala By P.S. Easa 292 On the voice of the kora or watercock Gallicrex cinerea By K.K. Neelakantan 293 Recent breeding records of the lesser florican Sypheotides indica (Miller) from Andhra Pradesh By Ravi Sankaran and Ranjit Manakadan 294 Blacktailed godwit Limosa limosa and large Indian pratincole Glareola pratincola — two new records from Kerala By Sasi Kumar 296 17. Marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis eating a frog By Asad R. Rahmani, K.K. Mohapatra and Carl D’Silva 296 18. Food of the spotted sandpiper Tringa glareola Linn. By K. Sampath 297 19. Skuas Stercorarius sp. on the west coast By Stig Toft Madsen 297 20. Indian river tem Sterna aurantia, a coastal species or a case of mistaken identity? By Taej Mundkur 298 21. On the status of the sandwich tem Sterna sandvicen- sis on India’s west coast By Heinz Lainer 298 22. Incubation period of Indian little brown dove Strep- topelia senegalensis (Linn.) By C.R. Ajith Kumar and N.K. Ramachandran 299 23. Indian great homed owl Bubo bubo (Linn.) and peafowl Pavo crist at us Linn. By Raza Tehsin and Fatema Tehsin 300 24. Unusually large congregation and behaviour of In- dian rollers Coracias benghalensis By A.M.K. Bharos 300 25. Common grey hombill Tockus birostris (Scopoli) dust bathing By V. Santharam 300 26. Indian black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis eating a bird By Carl D’Silva, Ravi Sankaran, K.K. Mohapatra and Jagdish Chandra 301 27. Indian house crow Corvus splendens preying upon pied ground thrush Zoothera wardii at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu By P. Balasubramanian 301 28. Yellow -eyed babbler Chrysomma sinensis in Kerala By K.K. Neelakantan 302 29. Simla black tit Par us rufonuchalis andrufousbellied crested tit Parus rubidiventris breeding sympatri- cally in Kashmir By Nitin Jamdar and Trevor Price 302 30. Nest transplants and behaviour of blackthroated weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis By Satish Kumar Sharma 303 3 1 . Status of some birds in southeastern India By C. Perennou and V. Santharam 306 REPTILES: 32. Marsh crocodile Crocodylus palustris (Lesson) at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu By V. Natarajan and S. Balachandran 307 33. A bath by a common garden lizard Calotes ver- sicolor By Satish Kumar Sharma 308 34. Food of the dhaman Ptyas mucosus By Jugal Kishor Tiwari 308 35. Golden tree snake Chrysopelea ornata Shaw By Raju Vyas..... 309 36. King cobra Ophiophagus hannah in grassland: an unusual habitat By Goutam Narayan and Lima Rosalind 309 AMPHIBIANS: 37. Rana bhagmandlensis: a junior synonym of Rana aurantiaca Boulenger (Anura: Ranidae) By Sushil K. Dutta 310 38. Amphibians from India - some further species By Indraneil Das 310 39. Notes on morphometry, ecology, behaviour and food of tadpoles of Rana curtipes Jerdon, 1853 By A.G. Sekar 312 FISHES: 40. Occurrence of a trigger fish (Pisces: Balistidae) in Bombay seas By B.F. Chhapgar and A.M. Ringangaonkar.... 313 INSECTS: 41. Hypocala violacea Butler — a case of strong mor- phovariation By A. Srivastava 314 42. Studies on the biology of Apotomorrhinus cribratus Sch. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) By H.R. Pajni and Neelima Nanda 315 43. Intrasexual combat in Onthophagus pygmaeus (Schaller) (Coleoptera : Scarabaeidae) By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 318 44. Utilization of dry dung and intraspecific competi- tion in Onthophagus tritinctus Boucomont (Coleop- tera: Scarabaeidae) By K. Veenakumari and G.K. Veeresh 319 45. Odonata of Vedanthangal Waterbird Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, with notes on their field ecology By Anil Kumar 320 46. Seasonal changes in the population of earthworms (Oligochaeta) in an orchard By J.M. Julka and R. Paliwal 323 BOTANY: 47. Taxonomical and distributional notes on Poly gala telephioides Klein ex Willd. in India By S. Panda, R.N. Banerjee and A. P. Das 326 48. Distribution of some rare and less known species from Dudhatoli region (Garhwal Himalaya) By R.A. Silas and R.D. Gaur 327 49. Xanthium spinosum L. — a new record for the Indian subcontinent By G.H. Dar, A.R. Naqshi and S. Ara 329 50. Richardia scabra Linn. — an addition to the flora of Orissa By H.N. Subudhi, B.P. Choudhury and P.C. Panda 331 5 1 . Changes in the status of two species in the genus Ar- gostemma (Rubiaceae) By D.B. Deb and S.K. Basu 332 52. On the genus Neanotis Lewis (Rubiaceae) in India By D.B. Deb and Rama Dutta 332 53. Rediscovery of some rare ferns of Kumaun Himalaya (western Himalaya) By S.S. Samant and Y.P.S. Pangtey 333 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY August 1990 Vol. 87 No. 2 THE PAST AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS (VIGORS) IN INDIA1 Asad R. Rahmani and Ranjit Manakadan2 ( With two text-figures) The Bombay Natural History Society started a five year project in 1981 which was later extended by a year to study the ecology and distribution of the great Indian bustard Ardeotis nigriceps. The project was funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. This paper describes the present and past distribution of the bustard in India. Study Period The study started in April 1981 with a prelimi- nary survey of Rajasthan and Maharashtra. In August the same year, a field station was established at Nanaj, Solapur district, Maharashtra, where ecological studies were conducted till December 1984 (Ali and Rahmani 1982-84). Another field sta- tion was started in May 1982, at Karera Bustard Sanctuary, Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh, and studies continued till the end of 1986; but monitor- ing of the bustard population went on till the end of 1987. A third field station was established in 1985 atRollapadu, Kumool district, Andhra Pradesh, and work continued till December 1987. Surveys: In order to determine the present distribu- tion of the bustard, extensive surveys were done in the states where the bustard is known to exist. The Accepted January 1989. ^Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023. results of the surveys till 1983 have been given else- where (Rahmani and Manakadan 1985). Two major surveys were done in Gujarat (Rahmani 1985) and three in Rajasthan. In addition to this, frequent short surveys were done in the states where we had field stations (i.e. Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh) and the results were published in various reports (Ali and Rahmani 1982-84, Manakadan and Rahmani 1986). After receiving some information on bustard sightings in Tamil Nadu, a short survey was done in June 1986 (Rah- mani and Manakadan 1988b). Obviously, the states where we had the field stations were more thoroughly searched than other states where we could not spend much time. In order to cover this gap, two major surveys were organised for Gujarat (in March 1982 and January 1984) and a watch was kept on the bustard while surveying for the lesser florican Sypheo tides indica in January 1985 and August 1987. In spite of Rajasthan having the largest bustard population in the country, we could not get permission from the State Government to do intensive studies. However, three major sur- veys were organised in Rajasthan (March 1983, January-February 1986 and January 1987) but we still could not cover all the bustard areas. We could have perhaps surveyed Rajasthan much better if we had a field station. Among the six states where the bustard is found, Karnataka could not be surveyed properly mainly due to our preoccupation in other 176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig.l Former distribution of the great Indian bustard. (Based cm literature review till 1980). areas. There must be many more bustard populations in Karnataka yet to be discovered. Methodology As the surveys were more a search than population sampling, a simple visual count method was applied. The bustard is present in pockets and in seemingly perfect bustard habitats it was often not seen, so sampling a small-area and then extrapolat- ing to the whole bustard area of the country (hundreds of thousands sq. km) would have given erroneous results. For example even in western Rajasthan where the bustard is seen from Bikaner to Barmer, it is not distributed uniformly, so population sampling methods could not be applied. The chief aim of these surveys was to search and visually count the birds. Most of the Field work was done in the early mornings and late evenings when the birds are most active. Data on sex ratio, flock size, habitat utiliza- tion, time of the day, weather conditions and crop pattern of the area were recorded in the proforma. In DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD 111 addition to taking data, intensive publicity for the protection of the bustard was done in all the areas visited and posters were distributed. Wherever we had distributed the posters, during our subsequent visits we got better response from the locals, as a result of which in some areas we could see more birds compared to our earlier visits. Results State- wise results of the surveys are given below. All the data is based on our surveys, unless stated otherwise. For comparison, past records of the bustard are given in Appendix 1, and shown in Fig 1. Madhya Pradesh About a hundred years ago, the great Indian bustard was possibly a common bird in open scrublands of Madhya Pradesh, especially in the northwest region of the state. Bevan (1868) reported that trappers catch them in the neighbourhood of Gwalior (where the bustard is still found: see below), and Barnes (1886) found it "fairly com- mon" in Neemuch district. In this century, there were only a few records prior to 1980, mainly be- cause of lack of ornithologists working in the state, especially in bustard areas. Deeks (1935) saw a bus- tard in Sagar district and Ali (1939) though he did not see any bustards during his ornithological work in central India, recorded its presence from Gwalior and Shivpuri districts (Appendix 1). Interestingly, during his bird collection trips, Ali (1939) did not see any bustard near Narwar and Surwaya, which are very close to Karera where the present bustard sanctuary is located. Ali (1970) based on Dharmakumarsinhji’s Figures reported 400 bustards to be present in Madhya Pradesh, but cautioned that the figure was ‘much too high’. To Dr Salim Ali’s personal enquiry, the Chief Conservator of Forests, Madhya Pradesh, simply said ‘It is not seen’! Never- theless, Ali (1970) added that it is possible for a few fugitive birds to exist in Gwalior areas (Esagarh, Shivpuri, Morena). His optimism was not un- founded because in 1980, P.K. Naik, the then Direc- tor of the Madhav National Park, Shivpuri, found a few bustards near Fatehpur village about 20 km from Karera. Later Hassan (1980) did another sur- vey of the area and saw two birds between Fatehpur and Dihaila villages and some birds near Ghatigaon village in Gwalior district Dr Salim Ali visited the area the same year and proposed bustard sanctuaries near Karera and Ghatigaon which were declared in 1981. Between 1982 and 1986, we studied the bus- tard at Karera (Rahmani 1988) and also surveyed nearby areas. Apart from Karera, we have seen the bustard in the Ghatigaon Bustard Sanctuary and in Pohri area. We also found positive evidence of bus- tards near Chhatipur and Panna. Good bustard habitat is present in Guna and parts of Biora districts but we could not get any evidence of its occurrence there. It is also likely that a few bustards may still survive in Raipur district. Bharos (pers. comm.) wrote to us in 1985 saying that the bustard was found in good numbers between Tilda S.E. Railway and Khora on Pallari road, which was and still is suitable for the bustard. He saw three: one big (male?) and two smaller (females?) in 1965 and saw footprints of another big bustard. He also mentioned the local name Hurnma. Unfortunately, we could not go to Raipur and enquiries from the Forest Department did not give any conclusive evidence about its present status in Raipur district. Perhaps a few birds are still present there. During our stay at Karera between 1982 and 1986 we thoroughly surveyed Shivpuri and Gwalior districts, and later did a brief survey of Panna dis- trict in January 1988. As mentioned earlier, apart from the Karera area we saw bustards in the Ghatigaon Bustard Sanctuary and in Pohri area, and found positive evidence near Chhatipur and Panna. Detailed descriptions of Karera, Ghatigaon and Pohri are given elsewhere (Ali and Rahmani 1982- 84, Rahmani and Manakadan 1988a). Rajasthan Old records state that the great Indian bustard was plentiful in Rajasthan (Jerdon 1864, Barnes 1886, 1891, Blanford 1898, Baker 1929). Blanford (1898), included the whole of Rajasthan and eastern Sind (Pakistan) as the distributional range of the bustard. The birds were regularly seen or shot in Sind (Hume 1873, Butler 1878). Hume (1890) reported that upto 100 bustard eggs were collected by Khan Nizam-oo-din Khan from Bikaner region. Keeping in view the large number of bustards in the Thar desert in olden days, there are compara- tively few recent records of shooting or sightings of 178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 this bird. Out of the 78 references on the bustard from 1 834 to 1975, the Thar desert accounts for only fifteen and the figures in some of these references are either repeated or quoted from the earlier references. The comparative scarcity of first-hand reports of the bustard in Rajasthan reflects more on the remoteness of the area and consequent lack of recorders than on the actual scarcity of the species. Surprisingly, there is no mention of Jaisalmer dis- trict in old records, where the maximum number of bustards now occur. Once the district became easi- ly accessible to naturalists, bustard sightings be- came common. Prakash and Ghosh (1963, 1964) saw "appreciable numbers" of bustards in the Ram- deora region of Jaisalmer district. Ali (1970), quoting Dharmakumarsinhji’s data, stated that nearly 500 bustards must be present in Rajasthan. Considering the present population, the figure appears to be an underestimate. With the increase in environmental awareness and develop- ment of interest in natural history, more and more sightings of the bustard were reported (e.g. Prakash 1980, Kapoor and Bhatia 1980, Saxena and Sen 1980,Rathore 1980 and Bharat Singh 1980). It is not known whether the spurt in bustard sightings was due to an increase in the number of birds or to more diligent searches. Perhaps both the factors were responsible for sightings of the bustard in widely separated areas like Kundanpur near Kota (Bharat Singh 1980), Shonkhaliya near Ajmer (Rathore 1980), Sudasari, Khuri and Dhanana in Jaisalmer (Kapoor and Bhatia 1980), Bhinmal in Jalore and Diyatra in Bikaner (Vyas et al. 1980). Data upto 1980 was presented during the International Sym- posium on Bustards held at Jaipur, the proceedings of which were published as a book (Eds. Goriup and Vardhan 1980). Our surveys, as well as data collected from dif- ferent sources, reveal that presently the bustard is found in 11 districts: Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur, Bikaner, Pali, Jalore, Ajmer, Bhilwara, Tonk, Kota and Sawai Madhopur. Out of the 1 1 districts we have seen bustards in five: Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Ajmer and Kota (Table 2) Gujarat Dharmakumarsinhji (1957, 1962 a,b) did pioneer work on the ecology, behaviour and dis- tribution of the bustard in Gujarat, especially in the Kathiawar peninsula. According to him (1957): "In the past it was found throughout this peninsula ex- cept in the forest areas of Gir, Gimar and Barda Hills, and there was practically no grassland (Vids) where it was not seen. Droves of 30 to 40 individuals could be observed in certain suitable habitats for most of the year". Large tracts of grasslands were seen in Okhamandal, Junagadh, Nawanagar, Bhav- nagar, Jasdan, Wadhwan, Rajkot, Virpur, Bagasra, Bhawas, Wankaner and Morvi (Dharmakumarsinhji 1978). The bustard was not uncommon in the Kutch district in the 19th century (Stoliczka 1872, Hume 1873) but later Ali (1945) found it to be rare. The birds breed in the Kutch district during the monsoon. (Baker 1929, Vijayraji 1943, Ali 1945, Himmat- sinhji 1984, pers. comm.). An albino bustard was sighted near Mandvi (Vijayrajji 1926). A marked decline in the population of the bus- tard in Gujarat was noted by Dharmakumarsinhji (1978) during his surveys in 1970-71 for the Worldwide Fund for Nature-India. He reported the last stronghold of this species in Kathiawar to be in Jamnagar district, close to Okhamandal "where a staunch Iyer community allows no trespassing on their lands and the birds seem to realize this protec- tion". A few birds may be seen on the Panchal plateau and in the Rann borders where formerly they were not uncommon. Later, Sinha (1980) reported a further decline in the number of the bustards in Gujarat and through his questionnaire and en- quiries found the bustard to be restricted to Jam- nagar district and perhaps Rajkot and Bhavnagar districts. According to Sinha (1980), Lavkumar Khacher estimated the bustard population in Gujarat to be about 75 birds, while M. A. Rashid, the Chief Wildlife Warden (retd.) estimated it to be around 50 birds. At present, the bustard is definite- ly recorded only in two districts of Gujarat, i.e. Jam- nagar and Kutch. A few birds exist in other districts like Surendranagar and Rajkot (Table 3). Maharashtra There is some literature regarding the former status of the bustard in Maharashtra. The bustard ap- pears to have been quite common in this state. Robert Mansfield in the now defunct ‘Oriental Sporting Magazine’ says he shot no less than 961 bustards between 1809 and 1829 in the neighbour- DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD 179 hood of Ahmednagar. Davidson and Wendon (1878) and Fraser (1881) also provided some interesting in- formation. The bustard is no longer present in its former numbers, but still survives in some parts, and fortunately is making a comeback in areas where grassland enclosures are established under the Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP). Solapur, Ahmednagar, Aurangabad, Osmanabad, Beed, Kol- hapur and Pune are the districts where the bustard has been seen during the last 8-10 years (Table 4). Unconfirmed reports indicate their occurrence in Nagpur and Nasik districts. Andhra Pradesh Old records indicate the presence of the bus- tard in the ‘dry districts’ of Andhra Pradesh (Hume and Marshall 1879, Blanford 1898). Burton (1953) mentioned seeing a drove of 13 birds east of Gun- takal junction. Elliot (1880) and Tostems (1887) ac- knowledged their presence in Kumool district Till very recently, little was known about the present status of the bustard in Andhra Pradesh. Pushp Kumar (1980) offered a rough estimate of 15 birds for the whole state, based on information gathered mainly from hunters. Then, in August 1982, a few birds were sighted by the Forest Depart- ment near Rollapadu and Banganapalle in Kumool district Subsequently the bustard was also located by the Forest Department or by us at Nellibanda, Peddapadu, Siruvella, Palakurti, Malligeli in Kur- nool district; Hanimireddy-palli in Anantapur dis- trict, Chevalla and Shamshabad in Rangareddy dis- trict (Table 5). There are unconfirmed reports of their presence in some parts of Mahboobnagar dis- trict. Karnataka There is no clear picture of the status and dis- tribution of the great Indian bustard in Karnataka. There are unconfirmed reports of its occurrence in Bijapur, Raichur, Dharwad, Bellary, Chitradurgha, Tumkur, Hassan, Kolar and Mysore districts, but the bustard is definitely known to exist only in Dharwad district (Table 6). Discussion Limitations of the study: In order to estimate the number of a patchily distributed, rare species, it is important to know its complete ecology and espe- cially its movements and home range, to avoid duplication in counting. A serious limitation in our work was that we could not study the local or long distance movements(?) of the bustard because we were not allowed to mark the birds in sufficient num- bers. Therefore, we do not know whether the same individuals were seen in different places or they were different birds. An in-depth study of the home range using colour bands and radio telemetry would have been useful to extrapolate the population figures. Present distribution: Mukheijee in 1973 estimated the bustard to occupy only 1.7% of its former range. In the absence of data on the home range and move- ments, it is difficult to compare the area occupied by the bustard in the olden days and now. Moreover some of the older distributional records are so vague, e.g. ‘Saurashtra’ or ‘Deccan* that they cannot form a basis for any comparative studies. Even now the bustard is found in ‘Saurashtra* and ‘Deccan*, though certainly in much reduced numbers. As can be seen from the maps showing the former and present distribution of the bustard (Figs. 1 and 2), the area of distribution has not shrunk much, especially in the central part of its distribu- tional range. Only the density of the bustard has gone down (Goriup and Vardhan 1980; this study). For instance, based on available literature, the bus- tard was reported from five districts of Madhya Pradesh, i.e. Gwalior, Shivpuri, Neemuch, Sagar and Raipur (Fig. 1). It is still present in Gwalior and Shivpuri and possibly also in Raipur. In addition, we found it in Panna district, and we suspect it is present in Guna district which adjoins Shivpuri and still retains extensive open scrubland. Thus, as far as Madhya Pradesh is concerned, the range of the bustard has not decreased much. Similarly, in Maharashtra out of the 11 districts from which it was reported (Fig. 1), it is now definitely seen in five, and possibly in six districts. Its population has gone down much, hence few sight records, but the extent of distribution in Maharashtra has just halved. In Rajasthan, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh the bus- tard is seen in almost all the dry districts as in the olden days. Reduction in the distributional range of the bustard is markedly seen in the peripheral areas of its former range like Uttar Pradesh, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. From Orissa, there was only one record, i.e. 180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 2. Slates and districts having bustard populations, Sambalpur (Appendix 1) (Raipur is now in Madhya Pradesh). We do not know whether the bustard sur- vives there or not as we do not have any recent in- formation. Similarly, in Tamil Nadu either the bus- tard is totally extinct or has become extremely rare (Rahmani and Manakadan 1988b). Even in the past the bustard may not have been very common in Tamil Nadu (the erstwhile Madras Presidency) or was on the decline even during the early part of this century. Therefore, its disappearance from Tamil £ Breeding records y| Other records Nadu was only a question of time since its habitat was being altered at an accelerated rate. The greatest reduction in the range of the bus- tard is seen in the north, i.e. Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. It was a resident bird in all the three states (Haryana was earlier part of Punjab). Eggs were collected (e.g. from Sirsa; Oates 1902) or the birds were seen throughout the year (e.g. in Muzzaf- famagar, Butler 1880) in this region. The bustard was seen as far north as Ferozepur in Punjab and Table 1 STATE -MADHYA PRADESH DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD 181 oo •5*1 £<2 O as "5* 2 S-fl ^2 2* ffl .S O as ‘S Q 5 « * O O y IS -g jh- s 2 , * •§ *§ ij H- 6 ffl o £ .2, 2 •? ^ 2 •> os' -2 5 31 sll 6 £ .2,-2 SL-S •? "53 60 O .S *0 ll „ & g 8* -a 3 (5 si G ^5 & 1 ° a-zJ -o o o |b> S _0 wf §>•§ 2 a:“ o .a a a o o •? y 6 6 TJ TJ JH >H s O 2S e u - U o .3 Of ui 3 I £ s| c ^ « « s g 2 2 ■9 <81 a, £ i| M , 8 2 o u Uh a. « *3 * i i 6 6 2 2 e g® ej I 6 6 2 •? >< jz; Tf oo ON O 5 en /Li 00 X ON 2) . 4) S.i O .c/3 oo ^ o V 6 J= »n •S 2 w , r2 50. 2 a" (N O cs c/3 gS Cn) i 1 1 1 *r> 1 | •d a, _> ■d 1 1 u> s 53 c Kfi Q 00 2 00 6 y -do 6 T3 o 1 ffl V. 0$ cfl 2 ’S T3 « O g lx 2 H § i 2 < o •x: Vh 2 C/3 £ £ l-c o 111 ffl i s* •o ffl (L) — ffl i d 2 <+H 0 0) 1 2 3 2 a ,2 S « 00 c3 £ 53 £ 1 0 •d •s Oh 111 *3 g 00 3 if O oo S e § 1 5a £ r-4 r4 Tf »n NO rd 182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 l l i 1? “ t: C .1§>i p- 6 6 J 2 5 y V 55 >« JH 5m 00 00 oo vo 2 o\ VO 00 £ J3 ^ w> f-H O' »-H 1 g S § 1 sp VO CS a < 55 55 I l >« 5m l 8 Mar. 1983 Jan 1986 Dec. 1985 Jan. 1986 7 Feb. 1986 8 Feb. 1986 March 1983 Jan. 1986 •a ? l 1 11 3 males 11 00 CO 'w' 1 •M CO CO •si | li i S £ o 18 1 CQ! IS S3 * .■sff i in * * « 2 a, 5 l 1 I £ v-S vo £ ■? b § co Ut •I a 2 3 * 8* m i 0 § s I I £ a * 2 i i Name of the area District Size No. of bustards Date of Breeds Habitat type Major threat Major fauna Source (sq.km) seen (estimate visit in the in brackets) area: DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD 183 * 4^ r- i li *S c n 4 g -e £ £ 4 J cs cn tU’ V* « Si 31 <0 1 1 E e i2 o. £ ■? ■ss s s k a .s a a a s f fS.S . 81I3-? -op- -op- -op- 6 V None •5* § -op- -op- -do- -do- Typical area >1 >H 1983 1986 1986 1986 1983 .5 II to Si „ « 14 6 6 V ■9 4 -JS H JM >H S § On ^ I I O o 7 l5 04 i! < Q vd r->* 8 - I I ■9 ! Vh , I £ T3 § o .s 3 184 1 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 c/a 8 | g| CQ .5 « 2 .« «4_ .2 Q o £ "O O a 3 J tt X) 0^1 .S ?3 a" c/5 w 3 ■§ ■g §■ 1 1 on ft. 2 2 00 O SP”. I i ■O m S So 2 oo.2 |1 * S * c N 00 £?'J II O § 2 •5? 2 3g t u 8 ■? SO OO ^ Os C *-■ o 4 S3 B v s-s 2 f I £ 6 o § a.* ri I I itj o .s | s o « ia -e JS o o cq £ a Uh I I •| .3 e ll! 111 I I OO so Os OO OS (S OO Os «n 00 OS *n 00 os ob 3 1 s ►n i >— > < 8 •8 U< £* ^ »n 00 OO 00 OS OS Os 1 § s b *-, m 00 Os 1 ri ■s 3 2 a x ^ Q 00 ^ - O 33 rt 00 '« g* <*;§ g | o ^ •o •« !: 2 « | PQ 2 1 « I s> a z QO C I S -o -O O C O £ flj VI ■a .§ £ 3 “ -g -o 1 U g 2 i I § a II Cl, oo -op- 2 I i o 3 op- 1 2 jf • §1 I I I I I I >* I OS os o ^ IS r- so s J3 eo '<#’ 3 -S £2 2 “2S fi s< § » -s -o I &£ 1 »n so II ffl .9 53 .« <5 «+h -52 Q o £ "H 53 3 1 ^ w c 2 3 -3 o3 ° c S o « *° fc 5 .9 8 cr & ^ a D- a I I I I I I X «n oo 00 ov ON -1 1 | 6 9 •* I O PQ c 2 ■” a) _, o 2 -§ 5P -s - I « x ‘ Q « | J« 3 9 .S eg XI S -O « § U £ D Z 04 DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD 185 y Jy 43 o a * i .9 00 “ ■B r°- II 2 , oo | CL, & o to *j x ex o 3 Is 6, 2 to Sr 2 u -• I I >-• cn 00 . ON 00 o c<-> i n oo oo X ^ On On (S X ^ -h S'Ti'2 g-7 -si 1 *—l O CN •8 3 H o 'E, § « _ oo 2 O-i *o o £ § S |S c o “ a S m w «> u I ? Q? J X 43 o S « e* 2 x SSpqO&><0 i i i i i i co oo ■vt on OO OO Dh Cl — • O O I 5 o < 7 & Q ta 2 £ o •a I O --5 z, a) >n « E S ”£<- 2 ffsg ^ 22 C I I & -B « £ - f 3 1 1 1 l .§ ;g | § i> a uo Sex 5 £ iTsI n 't in x O ^Ph O X c4 cn PRADESH DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD 187 1-5 2 .ts a I .84 c/5 cr a 1 1 & a £ o M X) g- Q &! ts O tt ve e e 6 g O Oh 3 £ £ O Oh 3 £ ■a I, « ,o OQ ^ I I I cs ^ a oo oo On On ^ *■* *~l < 2} oo «— I 00 3 8 < 2 oo 00 ON 3 I •JJI bo T3 .§ 3 S> g 1 1ll ,a 11 i §1 J- (3Q > & £ CO II £l o >» •as 6 k «5 I 8. Rampura village, Raichur - 2 SepL 1989 - - - - Mohiuddin (1989, 4 km from Raichur pers. comm.) 188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Saharanpur in Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1). It has totally disappeared from Punjab and Haryana and the northern parts of Uttar Pradesh mainly because of poaching and alteration of its grassland habitat. Pun- jab and Haryana are semi-arid (average annual rain- fall less than 700 mm) and hence perfectly suitable for the bustard. However, owing to the development of irrigation projects, the open scrublands and grasslands have been converted into croplands. These two states have now become the granary of India and practically no area is left for the bustard and other denizens of the grasslands. Similarly the plains of Uttar Pradesh are now more or less covered by cropfields, especially in the fertile northern belt from Saharanpur to Lucknow (where the bustards was earlier seen, Fig. 1). There are still some chan- ces of sighting bustards in the southern parts of the state, namely in Agra, Etawah, Banda, Lalitpur and Jhansi districts which still have some open scrublands with marginal dryland crops. In such areas bustards can come from adjoining Madhya Pradesh. Moreover, on both sides of the interstate border, crops suitable for bustards (Bengal gram Cicer arietinum , groundnut Arachis hypogea , taramira Eruca sativa , wheat Triticum spp. and mustard Brassica campestris) are grown and the bustard can move to these parts in search of food. Comparing the old sight/hunting records in Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan (Fig. 1), it appears that the bustard was more common in Uttar Pradesh than in Rajasthan, because there are more records from the former than the latter (13 in U.P. v. 9 in Rajas- than). This discrepancy is mainly because of a very high human population in Uttar Pradesh, and hence more recorders, not due to high bustard density. As reported earlier, the Thar Desert was a comparative- ly remote area in the early part of this century, thus few naturalists or hunters could go there, resulting in fewer records in spite of the Thar being the major stronghold of this species. Numberof the bustards: As reported earlier, without knowing the home range and movements of the bustard, it is not easy to estimate the number be- cause we do not know how far they move and whether the same birds are seen in different places or they are different individuals. If the bustard does not move, say from Rajasthan to Andhra Pradesh, then the number of bustards may be between 1500 and 2000, with Rajasthan having more than half the number (Table 7). However, if the birds can move long distances, up to a thousand kilometres or more, and the same individuals are seen in many places such as Rol- lapadu, Nanaj and Sudasari then the population is very low, perhaps less than 500. The number of bus- tards at Nanaj (Rahmani and Manakadan 1986) and at Rollapadu (Manakadan and Rahmani 1989) varies from season to season with maximum num- bers being seen during the monsoon period and min- imum in late winter and summer. In contrast, in Sudasari in the Desert National Park we were told that the maximum number of bustards (even up to 70) are seen during the hot summer months of May and June, and less during the monsoon (mainly the breeding birds?). The most plausible explanation is that during summer the bustards are attracted to the waterhole of Sudasari and come from the nearby areas in search of water. However, in the absence of ringing data we cannot overlook the possibility of bustards coming from far off places such as Nanaj or Rollapadu, especially when they are not seen there in summer. The question is: where do most of the bustards of Rollapadu go in summer? (only 5 to 10 are seen in summer unlike 50 to 60 during early monsoon). Do they move to other states or spread out in the Table 7 STATE-WISE POPULATION ESTIMATE OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD State Districts Population estimate 1. Rajasthan Jaisalmer, Barmar, Bikaner, Pali, More, Bhilwara, Ajmer, Tonk and Sawai Madhopur. 500-1500 2. Gujarat Jamnagar, Surendra Nagar, Kutch, Rajkot (?) 20-30 3. Madhya Pradesh Shivpuri, Gwalior, Panna, Raipur (?), Guna (?) 50-100 4. Maharashtra Solapur, Ahmednagar, Aurangabad, Pune, Kolhapur, Beed 70-100 5. Andhra Pradesh Kumool, Anantapur, Ranga Reddy, Mehboobnagar (?) 100-150 6. Karnataka Dharwad, Tumkur, Bijapur, Mandhya (?), Raichur 30-40 Total 770-1920 DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD 189 nearby areas? Unseasonal showers and cloudy weather conditions even during summer result in temporary immigration of some bustards to the grasslands of Nanaj and Rollapadu, indicating that the birds were in the vicinity. Nonetheless, long distance movement of the bustard cannot be ruled out especially when many other species of bustards such as the houbara Chlamydotis undulata (Ali and Ripley 1969, Cramp and Simmons 1980, Mian 1984), little bustard Tetrax tetrax and great bustard Otis tarda (Cramp and Simmons 1980), lesser florican Sypheotides in- dica (Baker 1921, Ali and Ripley 1969, Dhar- makumarsinhji 1950) show migratory tendency. A Kori bustard Ardeotis kori wing-tagged in South Africa has been recorded in southern Kenya (P. Goriup 1988 pers. comm.). Perhaps the great Indian bustard also moves between the two arid areas of India, i.e. the Thar Desert and the Deccan Tableland. Unless we mark bustards and study their movement by radio- telemetry, we may never know the exact population of the bustard in India, and until we know its com- plete ecology and movements, we may never be able to evolve a long-term conservation strategy for this endangered species. Refe Adam, R. M. (1873): Notes on the birds of the Sambhur Lake and its vicinity. Stray Feathers I’: 361-404. (1874): Additional notes on the birds of Sambhur Lake and its vicinity, ibid. 2: 337-341. Auken, A.B. (1912): Note on the Great Indian Bustard. J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 1334. Ali, S. (1934): The Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey, part 2. ibid. 37(2): 442. (1939): The birds of central India. Part II. ibid. 41: 470-488. (1940): The birds of Bahawalpur (Punjab), ibid. 66: 542-559. (1945): The birds of Kutch. Oxford University Press, Bombay. (1970): The Great Indian Bustard Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors). IUCN Eleventh Technical Meeting. Vol. 11, No. 18: 58-62,1969. & Rahmani, A.R. (1982-84): Study of Ecology of certain Endangered Species of Wildlife and their habitats: The Great Indian Bustard. Annual Report 2. pp. 100. Bom- bay Natural History Society, Bombay. & Ripley, S.D. (1969): The Handbook of the Birds Acknowledgements We record our gratitude tp the late Dr Salim Ali under whose guidance the Endangered Species Project was started. The Project was funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (grant no. 885 1^658- 04) and was sponsored by the Government of India. We are thankful to them and specially to Mr David Ferguson of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and to Dr M.K. Ranjitsinh, Joint Secretary, Ministry of Environment, Government of India, for taking extra interest in the project We also want to thank the Forest Departments of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan states for their cooperation during the study period. We are grateful to Mr J.C. Daniel, Co-inves- tigator of the Project and Curator, BNHS, for his en- couragement throughout the study period, and also for commenting on the earlier draft. Thanks are due to Mr Paul D. Goriup, Chairman, ICBP Bustard Group, for providing some literature and also com- menting on the draft. Lastly, we want to thank our colleagues Messrs. Ravi Sankaran, Goutam Narayan, Eric D’ Cun ha and Taej Mundkur (of Saurashtra University), with whom we had discus- sions from time to time. :nces of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2, pp. 188-201. Oxford Univer- sity Press, Delhi. Allen, G.O. (1919): Great Indian Bustard in Mirzapur district, U.P. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 673, Baker, E.C.S. (1921): The Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon. Vol. II. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. (1929): Fauna of British India, Birds, Vol. VI. Taylor and Francis, London. Baker, H.R. & Inglis, C.M. (1930): The birds of Southern India: Madras, Malabar, Travancore, Cochin, Coorg and Mysore. Govt. Press, Madras, pp. 346-349. Ball, V. (1876): Notes on some birds collected in Sambalpur in Orissa. Stray Feathers 4: 231-237. (1878): From the Ganges to the Godavari. Stray Feathers 7: 191-235. Barnes, H.E. (1 886): Birds nesting in Raipootana. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. i: 38-62. (1891): Nesting in Western India, ibid. 6: 1-25. Bevan, R.C. (1868): Notes on various Indian birds. II. Ibis 4 (New series): 370-406. Bharat Singh (1980): Field notes on bustards. In: Bustards in decline (eds. P.D. Goriup and H. Vardhan), pp. 231-232. 190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Tourism and Wildlife Society of India, Jaipur. Blanford, W.T. (1898): The Fuana of British India: Birds, Vol. IV, pp. 194-196. Taylor and Francis, London. Burton, R.W. (1953): The Great Indian Bustard. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 506. Butler, E.A. (1876): Notes on the avifauna of Mount Aboo and northern Gujarat Stray Feathers 4: 1 -41 . (1878): My last notes on the avifauna of Sind. ibid. 7: 173-191. (1880): The Great Indian Bustard, ibid. 8: 490-491. (1 88 1): A tentative catalogue of the birds of Deccan and south Mahratta country, ibid. 9: 367-442. Carter, J.R. (1912): Bustard in Kathiawar, ibid. 21 : 1333-1334. Cramp, S. & Simmons, K.E.L. (1980): Birds of Europe, the Mid- dle East and North Africa. Vol. II. Oxford University Press, London. Dangre, B.J. (1966): The Great Indian Bustard in Ahmednagar. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 6(11): 9. Davidson, C.S. and Wendon, C.E. (1878): A Contribution to the avifauna of the Deccan. Stray Feathers 7: 68-95. Deeks, E.P. (1935): Occurrence of the Great Indian Bustard near Saugor. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37: 957. Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1950): The Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indica Muller): Its courtship display, be- haviour and habits. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 201 -21 6. (1957): Ecological Study of |he Great Indian Bus- tard Ardeotis nigriceps (Vigors) (Aves: Otididae) in Kathiawar Peninsula, Western India. J. Zool. Soc. India 9: 140-152. (1962a): The Great Indian Bustard Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors) at the nest. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 173-184. (1962b): Display, Posturing and Behaviour of the Great Indian Bustard .Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors). End. All-India Congr. Zool. 1962. 1-11. (1978): The changing wildlife of Kathiawar. J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 632-650. Elliot, W. (1880): Notes on the Great Indian Bustard with spe- cial reference to its gular pouch. Proc. Zool. Soc. London: 486-489. Fairbanks, S.B. (1876): List of birds collected in the vicinity of Khandala, Mahabaleshwar and Belgaum along the Sahyadri Mountains and near Ahmednagar in the Dakkan. Stray Feathers 4 : 250-268. Fraser, T.G. (1881): Records of Sports and Military Life in Western India, p. 139. Allen and Co., London. Ganguli, U. (1975): A guide to the birds of the Delhi Area. In- dian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Goriup, P.D. and Vardhan, H. (eds) (1980): Bustards in decline. Tourism and Wildlife Society of India, Jaipur. Gudlestone, M.A. (1911): Uncommon birds in the United Province. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 274. Gupta, P.D. (1974): Stomach contents of the Great Indian Bus- tard, Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71: 303-304. Hamilton, D. (1892): Records of sports of Southern India. John Bole and Sons, London. Hasan, S.M. (1980): Status of the Great Indian Bustard (i Choriotis nigriceps ) in Madhya Pradesh. In: Bustards in decline. (Eds. P.D. Goriup and H. Vardhan), pp. 44-50. Tourism and Wildlife Society of India, Jaipur. Heath, R.H. (1905): Notes on the ‘Houbara’. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16: 372-373. Holmes, D.A. & Wright, J.O. (1968): The birds of Sind: A review, I. ibid. 65: 553-556. Hume, A.O. (1873): Contributions to the Ornithology of India: Sind II. Stray Feathers 1: 44-290. (1890): The nests and eggs of Indian birds. 2nd R.H. Porter, London (Ed. E.W. Oates). & Marshall, C.H.T. (1879): Game Birds of India, Burmah and Ceylon, I. pp 8-15. 8 Hasting Street, Calcut- ta. Irly, L.H. (1861): Birds observed in Oudh and Kumaon. Ibis 3: 217-251. 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(1986): Study of Ecology of Certain Endanagered Species of Wildlife and their Habitats: The Great Indian Bustard. Annual Report. 3, pp. 50, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. (1989): Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary with special reference to the Great Indian Bustard. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86(3): 369-380. Mian, A. (1984): A contribution to the biology of Houbara: 1982-83 wintering population. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(3): 537-545. Mukherjee, A.K. (1973): Some examples of recent faunal im- poverishment and regression. In: Ecology and Biogeog- raphy in India. (Ed. M.S. Mani), pp. 330-368. The Hague. Neginhal, S.G. (1980): Status and distribution of the Great In- DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD 191 dian Bustard in Karnataka. In: Bustards in decline (Eds. P.D. Goriup and H. Vardhan), pp. 76-80. Tourism and Wildlife Society of India, Jaipur. Nichols, E.G. (1945): Occurrence of birds in Madura district, HI. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 122-132. Oates, E.W. (1902): Catalogue of the collection of eggs in the British Museum. B.M. Trustees. London. Prakash, I. (1980): Current status of the Great Indian Bustard (i Choriotis nigriceps) in the Thar Desert. In: Bustards in decline (eds. P.D. Goriup and H. Vardhan), pp. 39-43. Tourism and Wildlife Society of India, Jaipur. & Ghosh, P.K. (1963): The Great Indian Bustard in Rajasthan desert Newsletter for Birdwatchers 3: 4. (1964): The Great Indian Bustard breeding in Rajas- than. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 3: 2. Priestly, E. (19 1 1 ): A note that Mr Priestley had donated 5 Great Indian Bustard to the Museum, obtained from Thar and Parkar district Sind. /. Bombay nat „ Hist. Soc. 20: 1175. Pushp-Kumar, (1980): Great Indian Bustard ( Choriotis nigriceps) in Andhra Pradesh. In: Bustards in decline (eds. P.D. Goriup and H. Vardhan), pp. 164-166. Tourism and Wildlife Society of India, Jaipur. Rahmani, A.R. (1985): The Great Indian Bustard in Gujarat. Technical Report No. 7, pp. 26. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. (1988): The Conservation of the Great Indian Bus- tard Ardeotis nigriceps (Vigors) in the Karera Bustard Sanctuary. Biol. Conserv. 46(2): 135-144. & Manakadan, R. (1985): Present status of the Great Indian Bustard. Bustard Studies, No. 3: 123-131. (1986): Movement and Flock Composition of the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps (Vigors) at Nanaj, Solapur district, Maharashtra, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 17-32. (1988a): Bustard Sanctuaries of India. Technical Report No. 13, pp. 40. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. (1988b): The Great Indian Bustard and Lesser Florican in Tamil Nadu. Blackbuck 4 (3): 3-8. Raihore, R.S. (1980): Spotting Great Indian Bustard at Shokaliya (Ajmer). In: Bustards in decline (eds. P.D. Goriup and H. Vardhan), pp. 197-209. Tourism and Wildlife Society of India, Jaipur. Rayment, G.M. (1894): Note on Eupodotis edwardsii. J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 9: 107. Saxena, V.S. & Sen, G. (1980): Shokaliya - The Abode of Great Indian Bustard. In: Bustards in decline (eds. P.D. Goriup and H. Vardhan), pp. 167-177. Tourism and Wildife Society of India, Jaipur. Simcox, A.H. (1913): The Great Indian Bustard. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22: 202. Sinha, S.K. (1980): Status of Great Indian Bustard in Gujarat In: Bustards in decline (eds. P.D. Goriup and H. Vardhan), pp. 51-53. Tourism and Wildlife Society of India, Jaipur. Stoliczka, F. (1872): Notice of the mammals and birds inhabit- ing Kachh. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 41: 21-25. Sykes, W.H. (1834): Catalogue of birds in the Dukkun IV. ibid. 3: 639-649. Tostems, C.A. (1887): Letter to the editor. Stray Feathers 10: 167-168. Tweedie, M. (1878): Letter to the Editor, ibid. 7: 527-528. Tyabji, F.H.B. (1952): The Great Indian Bustard. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57:276-277. Vuayrajji, Maharaja kumar (1926): An albino bustard, ibid. 31: 526. Vuayraji Maharao (1943): Great Indian Bustard breeding in Kutch. ibid. 43: 660. Vyas, D.K., Jacob, D. & Mathur, K.M. (1980): Some aspects of the ecology, behaviour and breeding biology of the Great Indian bustard. In: Bustards in decline, (eds. P.D. Goriup and H. Vardhan), pp. 184-193. Tourism and Wildlife Society of India, Jaipur. Whistler, H. (1919): Some birds of Ludhiana District, Punjab, ibid. 26: 585-598. Wilson, F. (1880): The Great Indian Bustard. Stray Feathers 8: 490. 2. 192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.87 Appendix 1 A LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD (Till 1980) S. No. Place No. of birds/ status Dates Reference A. UTTAR PRADESH 1. Jallalnugger (Oudh) ‘sometimes seen’ - Irly, L.H. 1861 2. Kheri district ‘procurable in 2 places’ - Tweedie, M. 1878 3. Mozuffemugger ‘always to be found’ - Butler, F.W. 1880 Roorkee to Ghazeeabad ‘are to be found’ Meerut district ‘believed to extend’ East of Deobund ‘seen during the rains’ 4. East of Mozuffemugger 16 Winter Wilson, F. 1880 5. 12 miles from Gurmukhtesar 1 5 June Rayment, G.M. 1894 6. Orai (Jalaun district) 3 seat - Gudlestone, M.A. 1911 7. Mirzapur district a few generally seen Rains, Nov. and in March Allen, G.O. 1919 8. Mirzapur (south) a nest; ‘birds present throughout the year’ (as many as 5 or 6) Aug. 1943 Lowther, E.H.N. 1949 Tundha (Agra Dist.) 1 shot 1925 9. Jhansi A fine male January 1956 Ganguli, U. 1975. B. PUNJAB AND HARYANA 1. Sirsa Eggs collected June, July, Aug. Oates, E.W. 1902 2. 12 miles from Sirsa 1 killed Hot months Heath, R.H. 1905 3. Ferozpore 2 seen drinking 15 May 1912 Jones, R.T. 1912 4. Ludhiana district ‘not likely to be found now’ - Whistler, H. 1919 5. Near Bhatinda (Bikaner state) 1 male, 2 females shot Feb. 1906 Aitkin, A.B. 1912 C. MADHYA PRADESH 1. Morar (Gwalior) ‘native trappers -catch them in the neighbourhood’ — Bevan, R.C. 1868. 2. Neemuch ‘fairly common’ Egg found in July Bames, H.E. 1886 3. Saugor (Sagar) 1; ‘very rare in these parts’ 15 July 1934 Deeks, E.P. 1935. 4. Esagarh (Gwalior) near Mohana; becoming increasingly rare and Ali, S. 1939 along Deharda Esagarh Road along Pachchar-Esagarh, near Sarushkein; West of Gwalior near Tighara and Pagara; near Jaura in Morena dist.; along Shivpuri- Pohri road greatly persecuted by shikaris 5. Between Tilda S.E. Railway 1 shot 1960 or 61 Bharos, R.R. and Khorora on Pallare Road in Raipur district, Chhattisgarh area 3 seen; ‘found in good numbers’ 1965 (pers. comm.) D. RAJASTHAN 1. Sambhur Lake Never seen personally; reported shot by Railway engineers — Adam, R.M. 1873 2. Sambhur Lake 2 — 1 shot mid-Feb. Adam, R.M. 1874 3. Further north of Mt Abu in Rajpoot ana ‘Tolerably plentiful’ — Butler, E.A. 1876 4. Jodhpur ‘Uncommon’ - 5. Rajpootana ‘Plentiful’ - Bames, H.E. 1891 6. Pokaran (Jaisalmer) ‘A bird caught’ Aug. 1970 Gupta, P.D. 1974 7. Ramdeora (Jaisalmer) ‘Appreciable numbers ’ - Prakash, I. & ----- Ghosh, P.K. 1963 8. Shahpura (Bhilwara) 14 winter 1974 Kumar.S. (1986, pers. comm.) DISTRIBUTION OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD 193 Appendix 1 (Contd.) S. No. Place No. of birds/ status Dates Reference E. GUJARAT 1. Kutch Not common - Stoliczka, F. 1 872 2. Kathiawar ‘Common’ - Lloyd, J.H. 1873 3. Kathiawar ‘Very common’ - Butler, E.A. 1876 Kutch Uncommon 4. Sorath Prant (Kathiawar) ‘50 close to headquarters alone’ - Carter, J.R. 1912 5. Northwest of Kutch (Mandvi) 9 birds (one albino) 30 Jan. 1926 Vijayraji, Maharaja Kumar 1926 6. Kutch *A small chick’ 11 Oct. 1942 Vijayraji, Maharao 1943. 7. Kutch Resident, not common or abundant - Ali, S. 1945 Egg (Baker’s record) January 8. Jasdan (Kathiawar) ‘Some birds, a nest and eggs’ ‘More or less vanishing Jasdan, Shree Yuvraj of, from Kathiawar 1947 9. Gowane (Jamnagar) ‘Up to 30’ Till 1962 Jadeja 1984 (pers. comm.) 10. Ncrona village near 7 1967 Himmatsinhji, M.K. 1985 Banni (Bhuj) (pers. comm.) Bhadra, Lakhpat A male and female -do- Malia, Dhrangadhra 2 to 4 birds each Middle of 1970s -do- and Wankaner Dhaneti (Bhuj) 1 shot 1946 -do- F. MAHARASHTRA 1. ‘Dukhan’ (Deccan) ‘Common’ - Sykes.W.H. 1834 2. Ahmednagar district ‘Becoming scarce’ - Fairbanks, S.B. 1876 3. Deccan ‘Common and breeds’ — Davidson, C.S. and Wendon, C.E. 1878 4. Miraj, Sholapur ‘Common’ Butler, E. A. 1881 Nagar (Ahmednagar) Poona ‘Also occurs’ -do- 5. Malegaun 80-100 c. 1840 Fraser, T.G. 1881 6. Dhulia ‘Nesting’ Deccan ‘Found in considerable numbers’ - Simcox, A.H. 1913 7. Ahmednagar Dist. 961 shot by Col. Mansfield between 1808-1833 Elliot, W. 1880 Scindaghi (Solapur) 2 displaying males and several hens 12 Oct 1829 -do- ‘South of Kistna’ A hen with a 2 egg nest - -do- 8. Aurangabad (Vijapur) Parbhani Nander 2 males shot 20 Oct. 1924 •Ali, S. 1934 9. Ahmednagar-Manmad (Vambori) Kotagaon station 200-300 1923 Tyabji, F.H.B. 1952 (25 miles from Manmad) 400 1926 -do- 10. Araugaon (east of river Mendhaka) 2 birds 6 Oct. 1966 Dangre, B.J. 1966 G. ANDHRA PRADESH 1. Guntakal towards 17 birds between 1893 Burton, R.W. 1953 Gazerapally (13 in one flock) and 1895 2. Banganapiliny Falconry practised - Elliot, W. 1880 3. Hyderabad State (including ‘Not met with by the Survey’ - Ali, S. 1934 4. Hyderabad, Farahabad, Borgampad, Nelipaka, Poloncha, Narsampet and Asifabad) Kumool District Tostems, C.A. 1887 ‘Often to be had in the cold season’ 194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Appendix 1 (Contd.) S. No. Place No. of birds/status Dates Reference H. ORISSA 1. Buiga (Sambalpur) One pair (one collected) - BaU, V. 1876 Raipur (now in Madhya Pradesh) ‘Occasionally met with’. - 2. Sambalpur, South of Makandi, Raipur Ball,V. 1878 I. KARNATAKA 1. Raidroog near Bellary 12 - McMaster, A.C. 1868 2. Belgaum Occurs - Butler, E.A. 1881 3. Ten miles west of Bangalore 1 — Baker, H.R. and Inglis, C.M. 1930 Seringapatan and Cannanore Neighbourhood of Nellore A couple of them Jan. 1910 -do- 4. Mysore District 3 shot by Major Phythian-Adams - Ali, S. 1934 Near Nelmangalam (40 miles from Mysore city) 1 shot by Mr. Van Ingen Jan. 1940 -do- Hiiriyur-Chitaldrug ‘Occur sparingly’ -do- -do- Around Huliyar ‘Eminently suitable terrain’ 5. Kondajji near Davanagere 3 1975 Karanth, U. (1985, (Chitradurga dist.) pers. comm.) 6. Bukkapatna, Sira taluka (Tumkur district) some 1973 (Seen by S.K. Varadaraj, retired Chief Wildlife Warden) 7. Ranebennur Blackbuck Sanctuary Dharwad 15, plus an egg May 1976 Neginhal (1980) J. TAMIL NADU 1. Samayapuram, 10 miles north of Trichinopoly A male shot and preserved 25th Feb. Leigh, C. 1924 2. Madura district ‘Bustards are occasionally met with’ (Nelson’s Gazetteer in 1868) ‘Near extinction now’ Nichols, E.G. 1945 3. 3 miles west of Shot one and saw 7 or 8 Some years ago Tostems, C.A. 1887 Arupacottah Also ‘repeatedly seen eight or ten of a morning near the same place which is on the borders of Madura and Tirunelvelly’ ‘Come to these plains (in Tinnevelly and Madura) about Sept./Oct.’ 4. Plains ‘Occasionally met with’ - Hamilton, D. 1892 K. PAKISTAN (SIND) 1. Kurrachee One shot - Hume, A.0. 1873 Thar and Parkur districts ‘Not very uncommon’ 2. Greater part of Sind Very rare - Butler, E.A. 1876 3. Thar and Parkur districts ‘Common’ - Butler, E.A. 1878 Lower Sind ‘Occurs occasionally’ - Indus (near Hyderabad) One shot - 4. Thar and Parkar districts 5 obtained for Museum - Priestly, E. 1911 5. Manthar (Bahawalpur) 4 A pair"(?); said ‘to be rare here’ - Ali, A.S. 1940 6. Sind ‘Declining rapidly’ — Holmes, D.A. and Wright, J. 0 . 1968. RESULTS OF A PILOT SALTWATER CROCODILE CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER RESTOCKING IN BHITARKANIKA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ORISSA1 S.K. Kar2 and HR. Bustard3 (With two text-figures) This paper describes the rehabilitation of the saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus Schneider into the river systems of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuaiy, Orissa, as a part of the Conservation Programme of the species using 'grow and release’ techniques. The first pilot release was carried out in April/May 1977 with a release of 15 crocodiles of 1.2 m length (approx.) into the wild. Movement, dispersal and their adaptability in nature was recorded. A few released crocodiles created a problem — so-called ‘man and crocodile conflict’- which has been overcome to a great extent by capturing and again releasing them in suitable release sites away from human habitation. Introduction Bustard (1974) and Daniel and Hussain (1975) both referred to the area which is now the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary and mentioned the problems facing the saltwater crocodile population inhabiting the area. The State Government of Oris- sa acting through the State Forest Department in 1975 initiated a conservation programme to con- serve and study the saltwater crocodile. The first ac- tion taken was to gazette the area as a sanctuary (Kanungo 1974). Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary was gazetted on 22 April 1975. It was realised that unless the wild population was strengthened by release of captive-reared crocodiles into the wild, recovery of the seriously depleted population would either not occur or would be delayed. A programme of active management was taken up in which saltwater crocodile eggs were collected from the wild as soon as laid for hatchery incuba- tion. The resultant young were reared to a size of 1- 1.2 m prior to release back into well protected areas of the natural habitat Bustard (1975) gives an account of the early work in developing the saltwater crocodile Research and Conservation Centre at Dangmal within the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary and points out the key management objectives. De Waard (1975) also stressed the importance of protection and manage- ment in this sanctuary. A detailed survey carried out in the creeks and river of this 14 1 .0 sq. km sanctuary Accepted April 1989. Research Officer, Office of The Chief Wildlife Warden, Orissa, 315, Kharvel Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Orissa 751 001. 3Airlie Brae, Alyth, Perthshire, PH 11 8 AX, Scotland. between 1 December 1976 and 31 January 1977 in- dicated the presence of only 29 adult crocodiles (Kar 1981, Kar arid Bustard 1981, 1989). Recruitment was also extremely poor, only six individuals being recorded between die length 1.8 and 2.2 m. The present paper describes the first pilot release carried out in April/May 1977. The release site selected was unsuitable which makes it important to document reasons for and the consequences of this choice. Material and Methods Selection of release site: It is crucial that the release site(s) be chosen with care in order to select ideal areas of the natural habitat, free from disturbance, of all sorts, where it would be possible to re-estab- lish a sizeable crocodile population. The first release site was selected at Dangmal creek which runs im- mediately behind the Centre and is very close to Dangmal village. Timing of release: Crocodiles were released several months prior to the onset of the monsoon, in order to ensure that they had adequate time to be- come familiar with the habitat before the annual floods. Two crocodiles were released late on 25 April 1977, three on 26 April 977 and ten on 5 May 1977. Selection of crocodiles to be released: Size of the crocodiles for release is the most important parameter as the release of crocodiles from captivity to the wild involves change from the limited sur- roundings of the yearling pool (4 x 4 x 1 m depth) to a vast area. In order to maximise future survival in the wild, the crocodiles selected for release were 1-1.2 m in total length. At this size they are able to protect themselves from most potential enemies. Marking of crocodiles: Prior to release, all 196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.87 crocodiles were tail scute clipped for subsequent recognition. The standard method adopted by the Government of India/FAO/UNDP-assisted Project Crocodile Breeding and Management was used. One side scute of the first double row of scutes (beginning at the single row of posterior scutes) was clipped to signify the year of release and here it sig- nifies the first year release. For successive years the scute immediately anterior to the scute clipped in previous years and so on is clipped to designate year classes. The scute on the left side is clipped in the case of females and the corresponding scute on the right in the case of males. The scute cuts easily and cleanly near the base using a sharp knife and generally there is little bleeding. Antiseptic is ap- plied to the wound. Such cut scutes do not regenerate. In the year 1977 all the crocodiles for release were females so the left side of double row scute was clipped for all 15 crocodiles (Fig. 1.) The whole creek from the mouth to the saline embankment was divided into 10 sections each 0.3 km in length. The point of release was designated as ‘O’ and upstream towards the blind end the sections were numbered + 1, + 2, + 3, + 4, + 5, + 6, + 7. Downstream from the release point to the mouth of the creek the sections were marked -1, -2, -3 (Fig. 2). Results The released crocodiles were monitored regularly in order to record data on their movements and behaviour in the wild. Both day and night ob- servations were carried out on the released crocodiles. Night time was chosen for detailed Fig. 1. Details of distal portion of C. porosus tail to show the clipping code used to indicate sex and year class. monitoring as all individuals could readily be seen after dark using a 5 cell torch or spotlight. All census work reported here was carried out by boat, no other method being practicable due to the dense mangrove forest fringing the creeks. Local country boats used in the normal protection patrols within the sanctuary, were employed for the census. These vessels are eight metres overall and are crewed by three boatmen - two on the oars and one on the rudder. One of us (S.K.K.) operated the light source. At night the tapetum of the crocodiles’ eyes reflected light, enabling individuals floating on the water surface (the normal alert posture after dark) to be sighted on distances of over 0.5 km with a power- ful spot Surveys in tidal rivers and creeks irrespective of whether they are conducted by day or by night are greatly affected by the state of the tide. When the tide is high, crocodiles will be missed a) by day because the basking mud banks will be inundated and any crocodiles which have emerged will be within the vegetation zone where they are likely to be missed. Fig. 2. Dispersal of yearling crocodiles returned to the wild in 1977. Each unit of distance represent 0.3 km. The figure shows the dispersal in succeeding months commencing one month after release and should be read from the bottom upwards. CROCODYLUS POROSUS RESTOCKING IN BHITARKANIKA SANCTUARY 197 Table 1 MONITORING RESULTS FOR 1977 RELEASED CROCODILES Date of monitoring Number of crocodiles observed in different places ABC Total Number Location in relation to release site Remarks 30 May 1977 4 11 - 15 -1 to 0 and 0 to +1 Found in a limited place. 15 June 1977 4 10 - 14 -1 to 0, 0 to + 1, +1 to 2 Gradually moving towards the blind end. 1 July 1977 5 8 - 13 -1 to 0, 0 to + 1, +1 to 2, +2 to +3 -do- 15 July 1977 5 9 - 14 -1 to 0, 0 to + 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4 -do- 30 July 1977 3 8 11 -2to + 1,-1 toO, 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5 3 crocodiles were observed moving towards the main river. 15 August 1977 1 8 " 9 -2 to — 1, -1 to 0, 0 to 1* 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6 Crocodiles close to blind end of creek. 30 August 1977 1 11 12 -3 to -2,-2 to -1, -1 to 0,0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6 -do- 15 September 1977 2 10 12 -3 to -2, -2 to -1 ,-l to 0, 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6 -do- 30 September 1977 1 9 10 -2 to -1, -1 to 0, 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, 6 to 7, Almost near the blind end. 15 October 1977 1 8 - 9 -do- -do- 30 October 1977 ' 8 “ 8 -1 to 0, 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5 5 to 6, 6 to 7 3 crocodiles went into Bhitarkanika river. 15 November 1977 - 7 - 7 -do- -do- 30 November 1977 1 7 - 8 -do- -do- 15 December 1977 1 8 9 -1 to 0, 0 to 1, 1 to 2 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, 6 to 7 -do- 30 December 1977 1 7 - 8 -do- Limited to Dangmal creek. 30 January 1978 1 7 4 12 -do- 4 entered into paddy fields close to Dangmal village 28 February 1978 6 4 10 -1 to 0, 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, 6 to 7, and in the paddy field. -do- 31 March 1978 1 7 4 12 -do- -do- 30 April 1978 1 7 4 12 -do- -do- 31 May 1978 - 6 4 10 -do- -do- 30 June 1978 1 6 4 11 -do- 4 crocodiles are caught from paddy field and released in Ganjeikhia creek. 198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 (Contd.) Date of monitoring Number of crocodiles observed in different places ABC Total Number Location in relation to release site Remarks 31 July 1978 1 4 4 9 -1 to 0, 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, 6 to 7, and in the paddy field 4 crocodiles were caught from paddy field and released in Ganjeikhia creek. 31 August 1978 1 7 4 12 -1 to 0, 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, 6 to 7, and Ganjeikhia creek. -do- 30 September 1978 1 5 6 12 -do- Other 2, excluding Ganjeikhia, 4 entered the paddy field. 31 October 1978 - 5 7 12 -do- 1 more entered into the paddy field. 30 November 1978 1 3 7 11 -do- -do- 31 December 1978 1 4 7 12 -1 to 0, 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, 6 to 7. 5 crocodiles in the Dangmal creek plus 4 in Ganjeikhia creek plus 3 in the paddy field. A-Release point to blind end of the creek, B-Release point to mouth of the creek, C-Crocodiles available in Ganjeikhia creek and paddy fields. b) by night because smaller crocodiles (less than 2 m) usually remain close to the creek-banks. When the tide is high the reflection of their eyes may be hidden by overhanging vegetation. If the tide has flooded the bank, these crocodiles may be in the vegetation zone itself. In either situation the eye reflections are likely to be missed. Accordingly all surveys were carried out when the tide was half or less, i.e. when there was a drop of at least 1 .5 m from the fortnightly high tide level. In night survey work it is important to carry out the surveys during the darker phases of the moon. Nights on which work can be completed prior to the moon rising are best. When the moon is visible and there is little or no cloud cover, good results cannot be expected. With a moon more than one quarter full, since the spotlight is less effective under such conditions, the crocodiles are more likely to detect the approaching vessel (and hence not permit close approach). Crocodiles were monitored between 1900 and 2300 hrs. Except for four occasions when the 6 volt spotlight was used, the rest of the'time the crocodiles were monitored using a five-celled torch. Although the spodight rendered the crocodiles’ eyes visible from a much greater distance than with the 5-cell torch there was no difference in the total number ob- served using the two methods. Staff were trained so as to be able to bring the dinghy very close to the crocodiles when sighted without disturbing them. Complete silence was ob- served. The behaviour of the released crocodiles dif- fered from wild crocodiles in the distance to which the dinghy could approach. The released crocodiles, for at least 4-5 months, permitted approach to within 1 m. They appeared less sensitive to distur- bance than wild juveniles. About 10-15% of the crocodiles were positively identified from their scute clipping. In the muddy waters of Bhitarkanika, it is only when the crocodile keeps the tail portion slighdy above the water and also permits approach to within 2-3 m that such positive identification is possible when they are in the water, The remaining crocodiles were monitored only from knowing their behaviour. The first monitoring of the released crocodiles took place on 30 May 1977. All 15 were sighted within 1-0 and 0-1, that is, within a distance of 0.6 km (Table 1 and Fig. 2). Then up to the end of the year (31 December 1977), these crocodiles were regularly sighted at approximately fortnightly inter- vals, and upto 31 December 1978 at monthly inter- vals. As can be seen from Table 1 and Fig. 2, the crocodiles showed a strong tendency to move progressively upstream separately towards the CROCODYLUS POROSUS RESTOCKING IN BHITARKANIKA SANCTUARY 199 Table 2 SIZE OF RELEASED CROCODILES AT THE TIME OF RECAPTURE Size of Crocodiles Crocodile Date of Date of Period At release At recapture Remarks number release recapture between release and Length Weight Length Weight recapture (m) (kg) (m) (kg) 7 5 May ’77 9 May ’78 1 year, 4 days 1.07 3.82 1.1 3.78 Weight decrease 2.3% 2 25 April’ 77 11 May ’78 1 year, 16 days 1.09 3.95 1.14 4.33 Weight increase 9.6% 10 5 May ’77 18 May ’78 1 year, 13 days 1.00 2.90 1.03 3.^5 Weight increase 15.5% 14 5 May ’77 23 May ’78 1 year, 18 days 0.99 3.04 1.03 3.00 Weight decrease 1.3% saline embankment bisecting the creek. On 30 Sep- tember 1977, ten crocodiles were sighted and these were scattered from -2 to +7, that is, some had al- ready reached the area of the embankment (Fig. 2). On 30 December 1977, eight crocodiles were sighted and these were distributed from - 1 to +7. In the month of January 1978, it was reported by the people of Dangmal village, that four crocodiles were in the paddy Fields and while monitoring on 30 January 1978 this was confirmed. A total of 12 crocodiles were located, including four which had escaped into paddy fields. In the month of June, four crocodiles were caught from the paddy fields and were released into Ganjeikhia creek, a small (2.5 km) associated creek of Bhitarkanika river which ends blindly in the Bhitarkanika Reserve Forest This creek has no resi- dent adults at the present time and only two natural- ly occurring juveniles of 1.1 -1.4 m (Kar and Bus- tard 1989). The four crocodiles were released in the middle portion of the creek. In the same month (30 June 1978) seven crocodiles were sighted in Dangmal creek, distributed from -1 to +7. In the month of September, two more entered into the paddy fields from Dangmal creek and while the creek was searched on 30 September 1978, only six were found distributed from -1 to +7. In the month of October 1978, a released crocodile was seen in a pond which belongs to Bengali speaking setders of Dangmal. In December 1978, both Dangmal creek and Ganjeikhia creek were searched to locate the position of released or re-released crocodiles. In Dangmal creek only five crocodiles were reported and those were distributed from -1 to +7. In Gan- jeikhia creek all four re-released crocodiles had set- tled down in the middle portion of the creek. A total of 12 crocodiles, including these four, were found up to the end of the year 1978, including the three crocodiles which were found in the paddy fields. The remaining released crocodiles were not sighted; they had probably gone into the main river. Survival: Of the 15 crocodiles released in 1977, 12 (80%) are known to have definitely survived after two years. The whereabouts of the remaining three are not known. However, there is no evidence to suspect that they have been lost from the population. The four crocodiles recaptured from the paddy fields and relocated in Ganjeikhia creek were reweighed and measured at the time of capture. The data given in Table 2 indicate that little growth had taken place in one complete year in nature (mean length increase 3.57 cm). Furthermore, two individuals showed weight increases of 9.6 and 15.5%, the other two showed very small weight loss over the year. It is not known to what extent these reflect their entering the unnatural habitat of the paddy fields. Hence, the data should be treated with caution as they may not be typical of the growth of those released individuals which remained in the usual creek habitat Discussion The pilot restocking exercise underlined the importance of choosing the release site most care- fully. The site selected in 1977 was unsuitable for a number of reasons. Particularly, it allowed ready ac- cess of the released crocodiles through a sluice in the saline embankment into the unnatural habitat of paddy fields where, naturally, the crocodiles came into close contact with people. A major management objective for the sanctuary is to separate people and crocodiles as far as possible. However, the release offered an excellent op- portunity, due to the small size of the creeklet chosen and its proximity to the Research Centre, for data collection on post-release dispersal and espe- cially on survival. The 1977 release also took place late (in late April and May) whereas the ideal time for release is 200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 the end of the winter, around mid February. The late release may also have contributed to the entry of animals into the paddy fields due to the floods com- ing before they had fully settled down and become familiar with the geography of the release site. The crocodiles had been released into a creek bisected by a saline embankment There was good river habitat on the upstream side of the embank- ment but the adjoining lands had been cleared for paddy cultivation. The paddy fields form a rich source of prawns, the favoured article of diet both in captivity and in the wild for juvenile crocodiles up to at least 1.5 m (Kar 1981). The regular flow of water in and out of the paddy fields to the creek car- ries large numbers of these prawns, which proved attractive to the juvenile crocodiles, encouraging them to migrate to the upstream portion of the creek above the saline embankment. Once there, in the ab- sence of the normal mangrove cover, they entered the paddy fields. To sum up, the crocodiles were liberated into an artificial situation which they would never en- counter under normal circumstances in the wild. They showed what was considered to be an abnor- mal response to this in gradually migrating up the creek, eventually entering into the paddy fields. We have no records of saltwater crocodiles ever occur- ring naturally in paddy fields in Bhitarkanika. The normal movement pattern of crocodiles in their second year is to gradually move down the creek from the site where they entered the creek as hatchlings. This dispersal pattern is continued in the third year (Kar 1981). The results described in this paper have to be taken into account in planning future release. Whereas some creeks are bunded with a sluice in the wall of the embankment resulting in two way water flow, other creeks have not been bunded and have a blind end. Of the seven major creeks of the Bhitarkanika block, four are bunded and three (on the Bhitarkanika island side) have blind ends. The results of the 1977 release clearly show the disadvantages of carrying out major releases in bunded creeks. Quite apart from the released crocodiles showing abnormal behaviour under such conditions, they are brought into close contact with people, because the creeks have been bunded for agricultural purposes. The natural creeks, terminat- ing in a blind end, have none of these disadvantages. In future, therefore, it is recommended that releases should not be carried out in bunded creeks. The survival of the 1977 year class - 80% are definitely known to have survived after two years, with the possibility that the other individuals had also survived - is an excellent vindication of the ‘rear and release’ technique if any vindication is re- quired. We are grateful to the State Forest Department, Orissa; Government of India, and Food and Agricul- ture Organisation of the United Nations for support in carrying out this work. References Bustard, H.R. (1974): India. A Preliminary Survey of the Prospects of Crocodile Fanning. F.A.O., Rome. (FO: IND/71/033)pp. 1-50. (1975): India. Gharial and Crocodile Conservation Management in Orissa. F.A.O., Rome. (FO: IND/7 1/033). pp. 1-15. Daniel, J.C. & Hussain, S.A. (1975): A record (?) Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus Schneider). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71(2): 309-312. De Waard, J.M. (1975): Economic Potential of Gharial and Saltwater Crocodile Scheme in Orissa (India) with notes on the Sea-Turtle industry. FO: IND/71/033. Project Work- ing Document. FAO, Rome. Kanungo, B.C. (1974): An Integrated Scheme for Conservation of crocodiles in Orissa with Management Plan for Satkosia Gorge and Bhitarkanika Sanctuaries. Forest Department, Government of Orissa, Cuttack, Orissa, pp. 1-128. Kar, S.K. (1981): Studies on the Saltwater Crocodile, Crocodylus porosus Schneider. Ph.D. thesis submitted to Utkal University, Orissa, India. & Bustard, H.R. (1981): Crocodile kills taken as human food. British Journal of Herpetology 6: 137. (1989): Status of the Saltwater Crocodile (i Crocodylus porosus Schneider) in the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, Orissa, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 (2): 141-150. A PRELIMINARY ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING, SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN1 WA. Rodgers2 (With two plates & five text-figures) The value of the dry deciduous forest biomes for wildlife is often determined by the presence of moister valley situations with permanent water sources. This paper describes one such valley site within the dry hill slope forests of Sariska Tiger Reserve. The valley and spring provide water, evergreen shade and cover, and fruit and fodder resour- ces to a wide variety of mammals and birds. Plant species diversity is much higher than in the surrounding forest. Despite the importance of these sites, they rarely attract the management attention they deserve. Riverine vegetation cover is diminishing as seedlings fail to survive due to pressure from people and their livestock and larger individuals are cut and lopped. Some simple management inputs are suggested to restore these important communities. Introduction The wildlife carrying capacity of the dry deciduous forests of western and central India is lar- gely determined by the number and distribution of moister valleys with their perennial water springs. These sites, which offer greater amounts of dry season cover and food (including nutritious fruits), as well as water, are thus key areas for management. All too often such areas attract the attention of human settlement and their attendant domestic stock. A village or cattle camp at a spring site makes it unavailable for most wildlife, but even casual human use may greatly reduce the spring’s effec- tiveness as a wildlife refuge. Undergrowth cutting, heavy grazing, lopping and tree felling will reduce cover, restrict woody plant regeneration, reduce diversity and allow accelerated erosion and water loss. Despite the obvious importance of these key areas they have received little attention in India’s scientific literature. The typical species and size class composition of the vegetation, with discussion on patterns of diversity and regeneration, has not been described. Their importance as a habitat for animals and birds has not been documented outside the popular wildlife writings. Recent ecological studies in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Alwar District, Rajasthan, show the impor- tance of perennial springs and streams for wildlife. Their natural vegetation cover of a greater greenness and species diversity than the surrounding Accepted October 1989. ^Wildlife Institute of India, RO. New Forest, Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh. deciduous woodlands means they offer a greater wealth of habitat components to a wider variety of vertebrate and invertebrate animals than the more sterile artificial water points of recent management (Rodgers, unpublished observation). In November 1987, 1 had the opportunity to investigate an isolated water source in the main core area of Sariska, Algual Spring (Fig. 1). Botanical and ornithological exper- tise of scientists and members of the Bombay Natural History Society and Wildlife Institute of India allowed the rapid documentation of the floris- tic structure and composition, and avifauna at that period. This paper describes the results of this sur- vey. Study Site Sariska Tiger Reserve of some 800 sq. km lies in the ancient Aravalli mountain range of western India. The highly dissected topography typically consists of steep sided plateaux divided by narrow rocky valleys. Geologically the area is a complex of the Delhi and Aravalli precambrian crystalline and metamorphic rock systems of quartzites, con- glomerates, grits, granites and schists. The area is semi-arid, annual rainfall averag- ing some 600 mm in a typical ten week July-Sep- tember monsoon season. There is thus little sig- nificant rain for nine continuous months. Rainfall in 1986 and 1987 was much below normal and the whole region was suffering from a major drought. The vegetation is briefly described by Parmar (1985). The plateau slopes are covered with aBos- wellia serrata-Anogeissus pendula forest, and the flatter tops bear a more mixed dry deciduous cover. The broader valleys have an open woodland of 202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Wot. 87 Road to Alwar Road to Kalighati Fig. 1. Location of Algual Spring in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Alwar District, Rajasthan. more settlements are awaiting such movement, a process to be given priority now that National Park status has been approved. The study site is illustrated in Fig. 2. Algual Spring is an isolated water source on the western foot of Kirashka plateau. The nearest alternative per- manent water sites are all 2-3 km away: a tank at Kirashka village, a spring at Bharthari Mandir (now with settlement) and a small spring at Tarunda below the Kankwarhi plateau. At Algual water flows from 2-3 small springs and continues for about 100 m along a well defined stream bed with a distinct riverine vegetation cover up to 10 m wide. In the Acacia - Zizyphus - Butea on alluvium, degenerat- ing to a Zizyphus - Acacia - Capparis - Balanites scrub where over-used or on gravel deposits. Steeper gorges may have perennial streams with a more evergreen Phoenix - Ficus mixed species riverine community. Management as a major wildlife sanctuary and more recently as a Tiger Reserve has allowed the development of a large core area in which human and livestock exploitation is prohibited. The village of Karnawas and cattle camps at Slopka and Kalighati have been resettled, allowing a great in- crease in wildlife numbers and sightability. Seven ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING 203 Road to Sariska Fig. 2. Generalised diagram of Algual Spring and surroundings. monsoon, temporary flood levels may reach 1.5 m above the stream bed for very short periods. Old ruins (a chowki and small shrine, plus demarcating walls) testify to the use of the spring in the Maharaja’s time. In 1987 management has created a barrier to prevent cattle from Kirashka village (1- 2 km away) gaining access to the lower spring in the dry season. The barrier and stricter controls on vegetation cutting etc. were enforced by a semi- per- manent guard post at the spring. However, the bar- rier was broken in November 1988 and remains open to date. Methods The vegetation of the hill-valley system was initially surveyed by three parallel transects running down slope perpendicular to the stream. At ap- proximately 20 metre intervals (25 paces) the vegetation and slope characteristics were described as follows: The nearest 5 trees (>3 m height) were identified and categorised into 1 m height classes. The nearest 5 shrubs (woody plant <3 m) were iden- tified and shrub cover estimated in three classes. Dominant herb layer species were noted. Slope was subjectively described as precipitous, very steep, gentle or flat Rock frequency was described as above 2/3 of ground cover, 2/3 -1/3 and below 1/3. Tree canopy cover was expressed as dense, medium or open. The stream side vegetation was surveyed in more detail by a 30 x 10 m plot laid along and on either side of the stream. This plot was demarcated into 12 internal 5 x 5 m sub-plots, numbered north 1-6 and south 1-6. Within each sub-plot all woody plants with a girth of 10 cm or more at breast height were enumerated to allow profile description. Non- woody plants were assessed as present or absent in each sub-plot following a careful search. Woody plant data collected were: species, girth (of each stem), total height, canopy height (first foliage), canopy spread each side of the central stem along the plot long axis. Cutting signs and snags (hollows, holes etc.) were searched for. Plants that were not identifiable were collected for later identification. Mammal presence was based on our past ob- servations, pugmark collections, and identification of scat and tracks along the valley. Obvious drink- ing sites were identified and soil smoothed to facilitate track recognition on later days. Bird presence and abundance were assessed by a series of formal bird walks on the afternoon of 29 November and morning of 30 November. Walks 204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 PLANT SPECIES COMPOSITION OF HILL SLOPE FORESTS ABOVE ALGUAL SPRING A) Trees (n = 154) Species Frequency % Mean Height (m) B) Shrubs (n = 240) Species Frequency % Boswellia serrata 31 13 Grewia flavescens 62 Anogeissus pendula 31 10 Anogeissus pendula 21 Euphorbia neriifolia 15 6 Bauhinia racemosa 5 Acacia catechu 10 7 Euphorbia neriifolia 3 Bauhinia racemosa 5 6 Wrightia tinctoria 3 Wrightia tinctoria 5 3 Acacia catechu 2 Diospyros melanoxylon 3 13 Zyzyphus spp. 1 Lannea coromandelica 1 8 Capparis decidua 1 Capparis sepiaria 1 Ficus tomenlosa 1 Dendrocalamus strictus 1 C) Ground layer plants prominent in the dry season: Chloris dolichoslachya Barleria prionitis D) Dominant species of the monsoon: Acalypha ciliata Bide ns pilosa Chrysopogon montanus Corchorus aestuans Aristida funiculata Actinopteris radiata Alloteropsis cimcina Blainvillea acmella Cleome viscosa Table 2 ABUNDANCE PARAMETERS FOR WOODY PLANTS (GIRTH 10 CM GBH) IN ALGUAL SPRING STUDY PLOT Species N % (Density stems ha) Basal area (sq.m/ha) % Regeneration Phoenix sylvestris 20 49 670 44.1 33 ++ M allot us philippensis 6 15 205 1.7 1 ++ Anogeissus pendula 3 7 96 3.9 3 ++ Holoptelea integrifolia 2 5 68 3.0 2 0 Syzygium cuminii 3 7 96 22.4 17 ++ Ficus glomerata 2 5 68 32.0 24 + Grewia ? tilaefolia 2 5 68 0.1 0 0 Bute a monosperma 1 2 27 20.9 16 0 Cordia dichotoma 1 2 27 3.7 3 + Capparis sepiaria 1 2 27 0.1 0 + Total 41 100% 1352 131.9 100% Table-3A GIRTH CLASS FREQUENCY FOR Phoenix sylvestris * Girth Class (cm) 10-29 30-49 50-69 70-89 90-109 110-129 130-149 150-169 170+ % 0 5 10 45 30 5 0 5 (1 dead) Table 3B GIRTH CLASS FREQUENCY FOR ALL STEMS OF ALL INDIVIDUALS ENUMERATED Girth 10-29 Class (cm) 30-49 50-69 70-89 90-109 110-129 130-149 150-169 170-181 190-209 210+ % 24 7 9 28 15 4 0 24 2 0 7 ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING 205 i) Boswellia - Anogeissus ii) Anogeissus iii) Boswellia - Anogeissus iv) Euphorbia - Boswellia v) Riverine S = Steep; G = Gentle; VS = Very Steep; R = Riverine Fig. 3. Vegetation and slope patterns to the north of Algual Spring. 12 sample points, along 3 parallel transects. See text for details. were undertaken by experienced ornithologists along transects parallel to the stream; along the stream itself, and in the dry woods on the northern and southern slopes. Results 1. Vegetation Hillside vegetation: The features of the hillside vegetation are depicted in Fig. 3, and species fre- quencies given in Table 1. The slopes are dominated by an open Boswellia woodland to 13 m high, over a lower Anogeissus pendula layer with some Acacia catechu, Bauhinia racemosa and Wrightia tinctoria. The shrub layer which is sparse on the rocky ridge and denser on the slopes is totally dominated by Grewia flavescens with some Anogeissus regenera- tion. No Boswellia seedlings or saplings were seen here (or elsewhere in the reserve). The ground is ex- tensively rocky with large boulders and slabs. Soil is largely removed, remaining in small pockets. A sparse herb layer is dominated by occasional tus- socks of Chloris and Aristida with conspicuous Bar- leria prionitis to 0.5 m. Many other more ephemeral herbs were not obvious at this stage in the dry season. The dry fern Act inop ter is radiaia was fre- quent in rocky crevices. Some 10% of Boswellia trees had conspicuous Dendrophthoe falcata parasites (Loranthaceae). Nearer the stream the slopes become very steep with a greater proportion of woody candelebra Euphorbias in the underwood layer to 10 m. The bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus is heavily cut over and now rare. A cross section is shown in Fig. 4. Boswellia, Wrightia and Lannea were totally Fig. 4. Generalised cross section of Algual Spring showing major vegetation zones. 206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 5. Profile diagram of part of Algual Spring riverine vegetation viewed from north. Drawn to scale. See text for details. deciduous, Anogeissus was rapidly losing leaf cover. Acacia , Bauhinia and Diospyros still retained a green canopy. Grewia lost most leaves early that year, probably due to the drought. Riverine vegetation: Three facies could be recog- nized: a pui&Phoenixsylvestris stand, a mixed stand with shrub layer, and an open stand of relict single trees with no shrubs. Our studies were in the mixed stand. The profile diagram (viewed from the north) is shown in Fig. 5. The separation into an underwood layer to 8 m high and a canopy layer of palms and bigger trees from 10- 1 8 m is quite distinct. The shrub layer is sparse, most members are tree saplings. There is only one liane, Capparis sepictria. The diagram does stress the way fruit trees Ficus, Syzygium and Phoenix dominate the canopy. It is necessary to stress the narrowness of the com- munity, averaging less than 15 m wide including the stream (Fig. 5.). Abundance parameters are given in Table 2. Phoenix comprise almost half of all individuals at 49%, followed by Mallotus at 15%. The total den- sity figure for trees above 10 cm gbh is 1367 in- dividuals per hectare, a low figure for moist tropical forest Basal area values are dominated by Phoenix (33%) with other major contributions by the few large individuals of Ficus (32%), Syzygium (22%) and Butea (21%). The overall value of 131.9 sq. m/ha is high, reflecting the number of large old trees that a productive riverine community can support. The population of Phoenix trees shows a unimodal girth class frequency with a distinct peak around the 80-100 cm girth class (Table 3). There are no young trees or saplings. The abundant regeneration was all in the small (<20 cm high) see- dling class. Table 3b shows the relatively low proportion of stems in the smaller size categories and the numerical dominance of larger individuals. All woody species except Butea and Holop- telea showed some regeneration. For Phoenix , Anogeissus , Mallotus and Syzygium , seedlings were frequent Other woody species represented in the seedling/sapling stages were Grewia , Helicteres , Wrightia , Bauhinia , Flacourtia , Mitragyna , Cassia , and Linnea (Table 6). Over half the woody species are considered as fruit trees for frugivorous birds ( Phoenix , Ficus, Above: General view of country around Algual Spring looking northwest. Note rocky slopes with Euphorbia in foreground and leafless Boswellia behind. Anogeissus slopes in rear left. Below: General view from shaded evergreen spring up slope to the north into open deciduous Boswellia-Anogeissus slopes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87 Rodgers: Algual Spring, Sariska Tiger Reserve Plate 1 Above: Phoenix sylvestris grove in the spring area. Note relatively bare ground, and low capability of stream bed to withhold monsoon water flow. Below: Typical view of spring interior. Ficus glomeraia (leaning into centre from left) is a major fruit source. Small Mallotus in rear centre. Note poor ground cover. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87 Rodgers: Algual Spring, Sariska Tiger Reserve Plate 2 ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING 207 Table 4 FREQUENCY OF FRUITING TREES, CUTTING PRESSURE ETC. Fruiting species 6/10 Fruiting individuals 29/41 Cut individuals 6/41 (6/21 non palms) Lopped individuals 2/41 (1 Bulea, 1 Mallotus) Individuals with hollows, holes, snags. 5/41 (5/21 non palms) Syzygium , Grewia , Cordia , Capparis) and these species contribute 70.7% to the total number of in- dividuals (Table 4). Of the remainder, 2 species (another 22%) are major forage species, Mallotus and Anogeissus. Six out of the 21 non-palm in- dividuals (29%) showed signs of branch cutting and two trees had been lopped for fodder. Five trees had major snags (hollows and holes) for animal and bird Table 5 CANOPY DIVERSITY. ALL WOODY SPECIES AND INDIVIDUALS IN ALGUAL SPRING STUDY PLOT Height (m) Species Individuals % Fruit tree Individuals 0-2 3 6 0 2-4 6 13 31 4-6 7 10 63 6-8 7 14 67 8-10 4 15 100 10-12 3 12 100 12-14 3 11 100 14-16 3 5 100 16-18 2 3 100 18-20 0 0 - shelter. Table 5 shows the canopy to have its highest Table 6 PLANT SPECIES FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE IN ALGUAL SPRING STUDY PLOT GROUND LAYER Species (Woody elements) Frequency (x/12) Species Frequency (x/12) Grasses and sedges Anogeissus pendula 10 Chloris dolichostachya 6 Phoenix sylvestris 8 Fimbristylis sp. 4 Ficus glomerata 7 Cynodon dactylon 3 Grewia flavescens 6 Dicant hium annulatum 2 Syzygium cuminii 5 Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum 2 Mallotus philippensis 5 Eragrostis tenella 2 Helicteres isora 4 Cyperus nutans 2 Wrightia tinctoria 3 Paspalidium flavidum 1 Bauhinia racemosa 3 Echinochloa colonum 1 Flacourlia indica 4 Aristida funiculata 1 Capparis sepiaria 2 Apluda mutica 1 Mitragyna parvifolia 1 Setaria verticillata 1 Cassia fistula 1 Herbs Wrightia tomentosa 1 Dicliptera roxburghiana 9 Ichnocarpus frutescens 1 Barleria prionitis 5 Acacia sp. 1 Cassia tora 4 Celastrus paniculatus 1 Corchorus acutangulus 3 Lannea coromandelica 1 S'ida rhombifolia 3 S'ida ? acuta 3 Species seen outside the plot Cardiospermum halicacabum 2 Terminalia arjuna Rungia parviflora (pectinata) 2 Diospyros melanoxylon Achyranthes bidentata 2 Zizyphus mauritiana Phyllanlhus urinaria 2 Euphorbia hirta 2 Peristrophe bicalyculata 2 Leucas mollissima 2 Adiantum incisum 2 Blumea lacinata 1 Abutilon ramosum 1 Triumfetta ? 1 Bide ns pilosa 1 Plumbago zeylanica 1 ? Ipomoea pes-tigris 1 ? Commelina oblonga 1 ? Urena lobata 1 3. 208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 7 MAMMAL SPECIES KNOWN TO FREQUENT ALGUAL SPRING Species Notes Tiger Panthera tigris Panther Panthera pardus Jungle cat Felis chaus Jackal Canis aureus Hyaena Hyaena hyaena Toddy cat Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Small Indian civet Viverricula indica Common mongoose Herpestes edwardsii Ruddy mongoose Herpestes smithi Chital Cervus axis Sambar Cervus unicolor Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus Chousingha Tetraceros quadricornis Male + female from pugmarks Frequent droppings Seen in 1987 Seen in 1987 One pair seen in 1985 and 1986 Wild boar Sus scrofa Domestic cattle Bos indica Five striped palm squirrel Funambulus pennanti Indian porcupine Hystrix indica Common langur Presbytis entellus (Bats, smaller rodents and insectivores were not searched for.) species diversity in the middle storeys, 4-8 metres. All trees above 8 m are fruit bearing species. Herb layer sampling in November revealed a total of 50 species. This total includes 18 shrubs and woody seedlings, 12 grasses and sedges and 20 forbs. Much of the ground cover was running water, rock or gravel. One small area had a herb-rich Cynodon turf. Shrubs were infrequent - Grewia , Helicteres and Capparis. Dicliptera roxburghiana and Barleria prionitis were the commonest herbs. No climbing or epiphytic herbs were seen; grasses were heavily grazed. 2. Animals Table 7 lists the 18 species of larger mammals known to frequent Algual Spring. Nine mammalian carnivores illustrate the importance of infrequent water sources for these animals. Jackal Canis aureus and toddy cat Paradoxurus hermaphroditus drop- pings were frequent. Herbivore tracks were dominated by sambar Cervus unicolor , although cattle tracks obscure most evidence to the east of the gate. One pair of chousingha Tetraceros quadricor- nis were seen at the spring in 1985 and 1986. 25 species of birds were enumerated on the census walks, 23 of which were found within the riverine vegetation. Details are given in Table 8. There is a difference in bird use of the vegetation types at different times of day. In the afemoon the hot dry woodlands were almost devoid of bird life, in great contrast to the spring. In the early morning, however, the spring was in shadow and many birds were seen in the warm sunshine on the south-facing wooded slopes. Many bird species are largely frugivorous or otherwise dependent on moister forest for insect food. Discussion Several points warrant further discussion; first- ly, a methodological note. Useful ecological data can be collected in short intensive surveys by teams of capable naturalists. As such expertise does exist in India, then quantitative information can be ob- tained on a variety of plant and animal communities which urgently need documentation and conserva- tion. Robust survey techniques are available which allow the development of baseline descriptions for future monitoring and the analysis of component variables. Of primary interest in thi s Algual study is the great difference between the extensive deciduous dry woodlands of the slopes and the extremely restricted, largely evergreen moister forest around the spring. There is a sharp transition, defined by topography and moisture availability. Differences include species composition (but many woodland species do occur in the spring forest, e.g. Anogeis- sus, Grewia, Wrightia) but equally important are structure and deciduousness. The principal fruit trees of the spring are absent from the woodland. Data show the spring does have a greater diver- sity of fauna and flora than the surrounding wood- land. The paucity of water in the overall region stres- ses the importance of Algual to the wildlife com- munity of Sariska. Nearly all woody species of the spring show some tendency to regenerate, but size class frequen- cies suggest that biotic pressures have prevented regeneration for many years now. Much of this pres- sure has been due to people and their livestock. Relict trees and large gaps in the forest continuity suggest that pressures have long exceeded estab- lishment. The management authority of Sariska will have to take even greater initiatives to maintain and restore these riverine communities. Whilst posting watchmen can reduce cattle and pole cutting it may ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALGUAL SPRING 209 Table 8 BIRD SIGHTINGS WITHIN ALGUAL SPRING FOREST AND ON ADJACENT HILLSLOPES Spring Hillside Bird Species PM AM PM AM Water/Fruit Dependence Indian whitebacked vulture 1 1 3 Red spurfowl 1 Common peafowl 4 1 Redwattled lapwing 1 ++ Yellowlegged green pigeon 145 25 ++ Roseringed parakeet 6 9 10 + Whitebreasted kingfisher P 1 + Lesser goldenbacked woodpecker 1 1 Grey shrike P Whitebellied drongo 2 2 Indian tree-pie 4 1 5 Scarlet minivet P Redvented bulbul 13 2 P 2 Jungle babbler 3 8 Greyheaded flycatcher 2 1 Whitebrowed fantail flycatcher 1 Lesser white throat 2 ^eaf warbler 1 Black redstart P ndian robin 2 'Grey tit 1 1 Greynecked bunting P ++ Indian roller 1 Black drongo 2 No. of species 17 12 1 11 No. of individuals 188 + 42 + few 36 Combined species 29 12 Combined individuals 230 40 have its own problems of polluting waters by soap etc. Management must do two things. Firstly, reduce all pressure on the riverine forest, if necessary by removable fencing, allowing larger animals only limited access to water and shade. This can be done in sections, say one third of the water course at a time. Secondly, canopy gaps should be closed, by protecting natural regeneration and by planting selected indigenous tree species including figs, palms and other fruit bearers. Algual is not unique to Sariska; there are several similar sites, all requiring similar levels of management input. The present efforts of manage- ment to provide additional water sources by developing anicuts is to be welcomed, but it will be uany years before their surrounding vegetation sup- ports the same diversity of wildlife as the natural riverine forest. Acknowledgements This paper has resulted from the efforts of many people, especially the 25 scientists and mem- bers of the Bombay Natural History Society who participated in the Habitat Workshop at Sariska. My colleagues at the Wildlife Institute helped in the field and commented on earlier drafts. I thank Messrs A J.T. Johnsingh, N.L. Prasad, V.B. Sawarkar and S. Goyal; and Dr. E. Bharucha from BNHS. Mr. K. Saini, Director of Sariska National Park, and the staff gave hospitality and support. Dr N.L. Prasad supplied the photographs. References armar, PJ. (1985): A contribution to the flora of Sariska Tiger of India, 27(1-4) : 29-40. Reserve, Alwar District, Rajasthan. Bull. Botanical Survey SCALING MODELS FOR FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS1 Ramana M. Athreya and Vuay a. Singh2 (With five text-figures) We set up simple models to analyse two basic flight patterns: gliding and flapping. We present scaling argu- ments to explain a feature common to raptors, namely that the female of the species is larger and heavier than the male. Our scaling arguments assume two variables to be fundamental: (i) the weight W which is strongly correlated with the length L; (ii) the wing length L^. We present and analyse the available data on raptors to confirm our scaling argu- ments. Introduction It is a feature common among raptors, that the female of the species is larger and heavier than the male. The obvious source for this dimorphism seems to be the fact that the female birds have to carry eggs for a while. A heavier bird will be able to bear a tem- porary increase in weight better than a lighter one as the percentage increase is smaller for the former. The other pointer is that it is only among rap- tors that the female is larger than the male. In all other birds, as a rule, in case of a disparity in sizes, the male bird is larger. This seems to indicate that the habits of raptors are in some way related to this peculiarity; that this is an adaptation to the needs of speed and endurance which are so very important in hunting. This view is buttressed by the fact that rap- tors like kites and vultures which do not hunt, or at any rate hunt prey which demand little speed and agility, do not show this anomalous dimorphism. In fact, in case of a difference in size, the male bird is larger. In this paper we propose to investigate this anomalous feature of raptors using an elementary scaling model. Many problems in science defy a detailed ex- planation from first principles. It is often sufficient to understand a complex phenomenon by using simple qualitative arguments or rules of thumb. Here we illustrate the use of a special mode of argument, viz. scaling. The two basic flight patterns are gliding and flapping and we develop scaling models for each of them. The data is discussed along with a brief description of the method of analysis. The results Accepted June 1989. department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh 208 016. obtained are presented and discussed. Scaling One way of understanding a natural phenomenon is to solve the equations that one ob- tains on the application of basic laws of nature to that system. However, most systems in nature, par- ticularly biological ones, are complex and the data is often sketchy and incomplete, so that obtaining exact solutions is very time consuming and un- feasible, if not altogether impossible. Even without solving the equations exactly one can obtain a great deal of knowledge by qualitative methods and ap- plication of simple rules. Scaling is one such method (Haldane 1956, Stanley and Ostrowsky 1986) Scaling involves the study of variation of properties and characteristics of a system depending on some specific feature. A successful application of scaling needs: (i) Development of an appropriate physical model describing the system to a sufficient degree of ac- curacy. (ii) Identification of the basic independent vari- ables of the system which are sufficient to determine the required characteristics. These required charac- teristics are termed dependent variables. (iii) A basic knowledge of physics and data analysis. Consider the following examples which il- lustrate the methodology of scaling: 1. Heat loss, surface area and volume: Let the characteristic length of a system be *L\ For a cube this will be the length of an edge while for a sphere it corresponds to the diameter. The surface area ‘S’ of the cube is 6L2 while that of the sphere is n L2. The volume ‘V* of the cube is L3 while that of the sphere is n L3/6. The surface area is proportional to FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS 211 L2 while the volume is proportional to L3. We say that the surface area scales as the square of L while the volume scales as the cube of L. So the ratio of the surface area to the volume scales as: S/V«L2/L3=1/L (2a) In what follows « will indicate both ‘ap- proximately equal to* and ‘proportional to’. Consider the heat balance in animals (Lin 1982). The amount of heat produced is proportion- al to the mass of the body which is proportional to the volume (assuming that the density of animal tis- sues is the same for all animals). The amount of heat lost is proportional to the surface area. So Heat lost/heat produced » S/V ~1/L (2 b) A large L and hence low surface to volume ratio is very beneficial to animals wishing to con- serve heat. Large animals are better at withstanding colder temperatures. The reason why animals tend to huddle during cold spells is that the large group, in effect, forms a system with a large L and is more efficient in conserving heat. 2. Running speed and leg length: Consider the model of a running animal. Each leg, in the course of a stride, comes to rest on the ground before push- ing off. The work done by the leg in pushing off the ground is converted into the kinetic energy of the body. The work done by the leg is equal to the force it exerts against the ground multiplied by the dis- tance travelled during each stride. The force exerted is proportional to the number of muscle fibres run- ning parallel to the leg, which is proportional to the cross sectional area of the leg. The length of each GLIDING FLIGHT LIFT WEIGHT Fig. 1. Force diagram for the gliding model. The velocity vector of the bird is v. stride is proportional to the length of the leg. If ‘d’ is the diameter of the leg, ‘Lleg’ its length, ‘m’ the mass of the animal and V its speed then Kinetic energy = mv2/2 * d2L, (2c) Now, the legs also bear the body weight (Lin 1982). The maximum weight that any object can bear is equal to the product of the maximum com- pressive stress a that it can withtand and its cross sectional area, a is a constant for a given material and since animal tissues are approximately the same, we have M = a d2 = d2 (2d) i.e. heavier animals need to have legs with larger diameter to cope with their weight With this result, eqn (2c) simplifies to <2e) So all other factors such as shape and special adaptations being equal, an animal with longer legs will be capable of running faster, with eqn (2e) governing the relative speeds. Models In our analysis we will assume that the two fun- damental variables governing the flight of raptors are: (i) The body weight ‘W’ which is strongly cor- related with the body length ‘Lb’ and (ii) The wing length ‘Lw\ The relation between these two determines the dominant flight mode of the bird. Gliding flight: Consider a bird gliding with a velocity V, making an angle 0 with the horizontal. The bird is under the action of three forces: its weight ‘W\ the lift ‘L* and the drag ‘D’ (Fig. 1). The weight acts vertically downwards. The lift and drag are aerodynamic forces produced on ac- count of motion through air. The lift is always per- pendicular to the velocity while the drag acts in a direction opposite to the velocity. Under conditions of equilibrium D cos 0 = L sin 0 j(3a) W = L cos 0 + D sin 0 (3b) When 0 is not equal to zero these equations yield L (cos2 0 + sin2 0) = W cos 0 i.e.L = Wcos0 (3c) The lift is related to the velocity by L = (Cj p v2 Aw)/2 (3d) where CL is the coefficient of lift which is in- 212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 dependent of v but is dependent on the shape of the wing, p is the density of air and Aw is the area of the wing. Eqns (3c) and (3d) imply that v2Aw = Wcos8 ,(3e) Since the area scales as the square of the wing length, we have W cos 0 = v2 Lw2 (30 The minimum V which satisfies this relation is called the stalling speed. Any bird moving slower than this will go into an uncontrolled fall. As the area of the wings increases, the stalling speed decreases. So a bird with larger wings will be able to scan a given area more thoroughly. Further, for a given speed (greater than the stalling speed), the factor cos 0 increases with an in- crease in wing area and hence the dip angle 0 decreases. So a bird with a larger wing span will be able to travel farther for the same loss in height, i.e. the efficiency of gliding (also called the glide ratio, it being the ratio of the horizontal distance travelled to the loss in height in the meantime) increases. Eqn (3e) also explains the mode of hunting of such birds. They glide effortlessly high up in the sky on broad wings. As soon as their quarry is sighted, they sweep their wings back and go into a near ver- tical dive. The sweeping back of the wings decreases their effective area and so the angle of their dive in- creases. This steep descent helps them to achieve a very high speed in a short while which gains them precious seconds over their prey. Flapping or powered flight: In this case, the bird generates a thrust by beating its wings to cancel the drag force and maintains a constant level flight with a speed sufficient to produce a lift force to balance the weight. Fig. 2 depicts the forces involved. The thrust generated by the wing is the rate at which it imparts momentum to the surrounding air. It is equal to the product of the mass of air pushed by the wing during each stroke, the velocity im- parted to the air, and the frequency of wing beat. The mass of air is proportional to the volume covered by the wing during each stroke which scales as the cube of the wing length. The velocity imparted is the speed at which the wing moves. This is propor- tional to the product of the length of each wing beat and the frequency. The length of the wing beat is proportional to the wing length. If ‘f* is the frequen- cy, then FLAPPING (POWERED) FLIGHT LIFT DRAG ♦ THRUST WEIGHT Fig. 2. Force diagram for flapping (powered) flight. T ** Lw3 x Lw f x f = Lw4xf2 -(30 The drag force is similar in form to the lift and is given by D = (Cdpv2Acw)/2... (3g) where Cd is the coefficient of drag and Acw is the cross- sectional area of the wing. Equating the thrust and the drag, we obtain v2Lw2«Lw4f2 i.e. v « Lwf (3h) This form makes sense for any velocity arising from the motion of limbs — whether legs or wings. Intuitively it seems that the velocity must be propor- tional to the length of the limb and the frequency with which it is moved to and fro. In fact if we assume that the wing is a simple oscillator, its natural frequency is inversely propor- tional to the square root of its length and so eqn (3 h) simplifies to V ~ Lw/ V LW ~ V Lryy i.e. v2«Lw (3i) which is identical to eqn (2e) which describes running speeds. With the thrust and drag cancelling each other, only the lift and weight have to be con- sidered. This situation is similar to a level gliding flight, i.e. eqn (3c) with 0 = 0. 0 = 0 is not possible unless the bird is generating sufficient thrust or an external force like a thermal current is aiding it. Using eqn (3d) with L = W and using eqn (3i), FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS 213 we obtain W = (CL p v2 Aw)/2 W * v2 Lw2 i.e.W*Lw3 A comparison of the equations for gliding, eqn (3e), and for flapping, eqn (3j), indicates that for a given weight a flapping bird needs a smaller wing to maintain flight. An interesting feature is that greater wing area makes for greater stability while smaller wing area makes for greater manoevrability. Birds like ac- cipiters which have small wings can swerve and dodge at high speeds and are more often than not en- countered inside wooded areas. Birds belonging to the genera Aquila, Buteo, Circus , Haliaeetus etc. which have long and broad wings restrict themsel- ves to open grasslands, bare hillsides and water bodies where high gliding efficiency is more essen- tial than manoeuvrability. The hawk-eagles belong- ing to the genera Spizaetus and Hieraaetus are a very interesting lot, having combined the best of both worlds. The falcons, the fastest hunters in the air, have developed an ingenious method of improving their speed. According to eqn (3i) an increase in wing length improves the velocity. But since there is a decrease in the frequency of wing beat with increase in length the effect is reduced. Falcons have developed long and slim wings which curve back- wards sharply halfway through. So while the actual wing length which pushes against the air is large, the effective wing length which determines the frequen- cy is small. Thus they have the advantage of both a long wing and a high frequency of wing beat which gives them exceptionally high speed and agility, Material and Methods 0 The data was obtained from Grzimek (1978) <\J Barnes (1981) and Ali and Ripley (1983). Table 1 lists the data we obtained. The infor- mation collected are: (i) Lb* = length of the body from beak tip to tail tip. (ii) Lt = length of the tail. (iii) Lw = winglength as measured from the wing shoulder to tip of the longest primary feather. (iv) Sw = wingspan, being the maximum dis- tance between the wingtips. (v) W =body weight. (vi) a, b = dimensions of the eggs; 2a and 2b being the longer and shorter sides of the rectangle containing the egg. .(3j) (vii) p =number of eggs laid. The measurements from (i) to (v) were noted separately for male and female birds. The eggs were approximated as ellipsoids of revolution with the sides of the rectangle constitut- ing the major and the minor axes (Fig. 3).The volume of the ellipsoid is given by V=(4ji b2a)/3 (4a) The density of chicken eggs was calculated by weighing them and calculating their volume in the above fashion. The raptor egg volumes were multi- plied with this density to obtain their weights. Those measurements which were unavailable but essential for our model were calculated from the least error average of the available data. They are suitably marked in Table 1. The data was analysed using the method of linear regression. Since the aim is to obtain the in- dices of the scaling laws, the natural logarithm of the quantities were used. The scaling power appears as the slope of the linear log- log plot. Results and Discussion The results of the analysis of the data of Tables 2 and 3 show the variation of the body weight ‘W’ with the length of the body disregarding the tail ‘Lb’ (Lb = Lb*-Lt ). This was used to fill the gaps in the weights of the male and female birds respectively. 2a Fig. 3. Ellipsoidal approximation for the volume of the egg. See text eqn. (4a). 214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 t S.B t-gjr « 8 sa f? -s OO ' J J,S ijs ’wj'c* S» * s la OQ OO Tt OO r~~ © CO SO *-5 CO —i ON CO Tf O CS ' CS CO CS CN«— Jt^COCOCOcOCS »noco'0'oHp^«n »ncoMcotoos © NO OO CS CS CO CO CO CN CO O’ Tf — * 00 r-i On *t 'T 00 o 00 p CO 00 VO cs On P*; vo cs v-j CO »r> » w-i vd On 0 On «ri CO NO cd ON 0 Tf co CO \r> 8 0 VO *- 1 1 Oni O OOiCS vn on oo ^ o co — ' cs cs ' t-H l—l — 'lO p o vo , On o © vn ON 00 CS*0 >n ON t'- Tf p co Q CS CS 6 6 00 © o o ?? co co 'S s 00 t"; 00 — 1 co O 1-H cs n- (S ■*£ 0 Tf d d CS »n »n vq NO *T) VJ> »n 'T vq «A OO tj- VO yJ> 00 CO l> On OO On »n ON 00 oo v-i rr vn «n »Ti ■^r TT CO c-» tj- co o c— ©©»/->©o»n»n©©©oo©eso^*-« ^r):oc>TfONO'Ovdvdcd^vd»rio* OJ) 00 o o u "S ^ U U O T3 -=i ^5 *j ts 'oc *00 ’ci O g'gp^s.asss’i's 8 l? a I § III! 8 OOcqOOJhIJeS^ The underlined numbers are calculated values M: Male; F: Female. . FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS 215 Table 2 DATA USED TO FIND THE RELATION BETWEEN BODY WEIGHT AND BODY LENGTH FOR MALE RAPTORS Species W(g) Lb (cm) Golden eagle 3463 57.5 Black eagle 1000 36.9 Greater spotted eagle 1500 841.0 Imperial eagle 3113 54.8 Lesser spotted eagle 1800 37.1 Common buzzard 750 28.0 Bonelli’s hawk Cagle 1600 42.4 Booted hawk eagle 700 28.0 Ln W= 0.765 + 2. 199 Ln Lb; Correlation coefficient y= 0.9803 W=Body weight; Lb= Body length. The results are: (i) For males: Ln W = - 0.853 + 2. 199 Ln Lb Correlation coefficient = 0.980 (ii) For females: Ln W =- 0.482 + 2. 1 1 8 Ln Lb Correlation coefficient = 0.979 Table 4 shows the variation of the wingspan S w with the wing length This was used to fill the gaps in the data concerning the wing lengths. The result is: Sw= 2.173+3.202 Lw Correlation coefficient = 0.988 This is an ordinary plot (and not a log- log one). Figs. 4 and 5 deal with the variation of the wing length with weight for flapping and gliding birds respectively. The ratio of the wing lengths of the male and female birds was plotted against the ratio of the weights of the male and female + eggs in order to ensure as far as possible that species-specific characteristics are eliminated. Else it may lead to changes in the scaling power, the origins of which are beyond the complexity of our model. A markedly better correlation was obtained when the combined weight of the female and the eggs was used as compared to that obtained when only the weight of the female was used. It appears that the female grows wings larger than what is es- sential to accommodate her own weight. The female bird possesses more wing power, weight for weight compared to the male. However they appear to be on an equal footing when the female bird is carry- ing eggs. This seems to bear out our assumption that the anomalous dimorphism is indeed related to the eggs. We were unable to establish any relation be- tween the weight of the female and that of her eggs. Table 3 DATA USED TO FIND THE RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT AND BODY LENGTH FOR FEMALE RAPTORS Species W(g) Lb (cm) Golden eagle 4459 64.8 Black eagle 1600 46.0 Greater spotted eagle 2200 47.7 Imperial eagle 3630 59.4 Lesser spotted eagle 1800 40.1 Common buzzard 1000 32.3 Bonelli’s hawk eagle 2000 45.0 Booted hawk eagle 900 31.5 Ln W = 0.428 + 2.1 18 Ln Lb; Correlation coefficient y = 0.979 W = Body weight; Lb = Body length. The two groups for which our models were tested consisted of the hawks (genus Accipiter) and the hawk-eagles (genus Hieraaetus) on one hand and eagles and buzzards on the other. The hawk-eagles are among the finest of hunters among birds, mixing within them a very ef- ficient blend of hawk-like (flapping) and eagle-like (gliding) features and emphatically justify their English nomenclature. For one, they are much larger than the true hawks. Their wings in relation to then- weight are larger than those of hawks but smaller than those of eagles. Thus they are capable of fast flight as well as sustained gliding. In our results, it is evident that they fit into both groups. But we have classified them with the hawks as the ratio of their wing length to body length is closer to hawks than to the eagles and buzzards. We have obtained a scaling power of 3.325 for the hawks and hawk-eagles whereas the flapping model predicts an exponent of 3.00. For the eagles and buzzards we have obtained an exponent of 2.041 while our theoretical value is 2.00 These fits between the theory and the actual values are rather flattering but the scatter in the plot leaves much to be desired. One problem is that we need to augment our data base. The biggest and a very serious problem en- countered in the course of this work was the collec- tion of data. The data available in the extant litera- ture is very sketchy and rarely is the difference in values for male and female birds specified. Often data from two different sources have had to be spliced to obtain a full picture. While care has been taken to ensure that some justification exists for such an action, a few inconsistencies and spurious infor- mation have been impossible to avoid. w$ +w 216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig.4. Log-log plot of weight versus wing length for accipiters and hawk-eagles (also see text ). The plot yields Ln (W) = 0.086 + 3.325 Ln (Lw). Standard deviations for x-and y-axes are 0.0414 and 0.1725 respectively. The correlation coefficient is 0.9095. Table 4 WING SPAN VERSUS WING LENGTH FOR BOTH MALE AND FEMALE RAPTORS Species Sw (cm) Lw (cm) Golden eagle 202.5 62.6 Golden eagle 220.0 68.0 Greater spotted eagle 167.5 51.6 Greater spotted eagle 177.5 54.8 Imperial eagle 184.2 55.6 Imperial eagle 196.9 60.3 Tawny eagle 160.7 49.5 Tawny eagle 181.0 54.0 Lesser spotted eagle 152.5 48.8 Lesser spotted eagle 165.0 50.1 Common buzzard 120.0 37.7 Common buzzard 140.0 42.2 Long legged buzzard 138.7 42.7 Long legged buzzard 150.2 48.3 Sw = 2.173 + 3.202 L^,; Correlation coefficient y= 0.988 Sw = Wing span, Lw = Wing length. Fig. 5. Log-log plot of weight versus wing length for eagles and buzzards (also see text). The plot yields Ln (W) = 0.15 + 2.041 Ln (Lw). Standard deviations for x-and y-axes are 0.026 and 0.069 respec- tively. The correlation coefficient is 0.767. The purpose of this paper is to introduce a new method of understanding sexual dimorphism in birds. We have shown that in spite of various con- straints and approximations, it is powerful enough to lead to results which make physical and physiological sense. But a detailed analysis with a large data base is desirable. Acknowledgements One of us (VAS) wishes to acknowledge the hospitality of the Solid State Electronics Group (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research) and in par- ticular Ms A. Sardesai where this work was com- pleted. FLIGHT PATTERNS AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN RAPTORS 217 Rbpbrbnces Au, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Barnes, C. (1981): The birds of India. Cosmo Publications, New Delhi. Grzimek, B. (1978): Animal Life Encyclopaedia. Editor - in- chief Dr Bernhard Grzimek, Van Nostrand Rheinhold Co. Vol. 7. Haldane, J.B.S. (1956): On Being the Right Size. In: The World of Mathematics, Vol. 2, (ed. J.R. Newman), Simon and Schuster, New York, pp. 952-957. Lin, H. (1982): Fundamentals of Zoological Scaling, American Journal of Physics 50: 72-81. Stanley, H.E. & Ostrowsky, N. (1986): On Growth and Form, Mardnus Nijhoff Publishers. POLYMORPHISM IN ACANTHASPIS SIVA DISTANT (REDUVIIDAE: HETEROPTERA), A PREDATOR OF THE INDIAN HONEY BEE1 Dunston P. Ambrose2 and David Livingstone3 (With two text-figures) Acanthaspis siva Distant is a reduviid existing in four different morphs, namely (a) unbanded legs without thoracic spots, (b) banded legs without thoracic spots, (c) banded legs with thoracic spots, and (d) unbanded legs with thoracic spots. Inter and intra moiph breeding experiments in the laboratory established the existence of polymorphism in this species. The morph with unbanded legs without thoracic spots appears to be the most biologically successful one and the morph with unbanded legs with thoracic spots, the least successful. The existence of polymorphism in A. siva seems to be a non-mutational, non -adaptive trend in evolution, an equivalent of antogenetic evolution. Introduction A. siva has very striking variations among in- dividuals occurring in the same microhabitat that would compel a museum taxonomist to place them comfortably in different species altogether. A. siva exists in four different morphs, namely: unbanded legs without thoracic spots (A), banded legs without thoracic spots (B), banded legs with thoracic spots (C), and unbanded legs with thoracic spots (D) (Fig. 1). Distant (1902) described only the morph A of A. siva. The present report deals with the biological diversity exhibited by the morphs of A. siva. Material and Methods A. siva is entomosuccivorous, polyphagous, crepuscular, alate, black with creamy white spots at the base of corium, middle and apex of the membrane as well as at the connexivum. It is found in the scrub jungles, semi-arid zones and tropical rain forest in concealed microhabitats (Ambrose 1980). Adults and nymphal instars of all the four morphs of A. siva were collected from Salem semi- arid zone in Tamil Nadu. They were reared in the laboratory (temperature 30-32°C, humidity 80-85% and photoperiod 11-13 hrs.) separately in plastic containers (8x6x4 cm) on house-flies and cam- ponotine ants. Morphometric analyses of eggs, nym- phal instars, adults and spermatophore capsules were carried out. Six pairs of adults of each morph were maintained separately to study the oviposition Accepted October 1988. department of Zoology, St Xavier’s College, Palayankottai, Tamil Nadu 627 002. department of Zoology, Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 046, pattern and hatchability. Records of number of batches of eggs and eggs per batch were maintained and each batch of eggs was allowed to hatch in in- dividual containers. Hatching percentage of in- dividual batches of eggs was calculated and the lon- gevity of adults recorded. An index of oviposition days was calculated as a percentage ratio of egg laying days to the total adult longevity of the females (Ambrose 1980). Records on incubation and stadial period, nymphal mortality, nymphal weight and their camouflaging efficiency were calculated separately in the four morphs. Camouflaging ef- ficiency of different stages of nymphal instars was measured by calculating the particle carrying capacity index (= Particle weight + Nymph weight). The nymphs were weighed immediately after eclosion and ecdysis and after they gathered the camouflaging material. Sex ratio and the distribu- tion of morphs among the progeny were calculated. Observations and Discussion Size and shape: Morphometric analyses of eggs, nymphal instars and adults did not show any percep- tible variations. But morph A ejected the largest spermatophore capsule and morph C the shortest. The shape of the capsule also varied among the morphs (Table 1, Fig. 2). Oviposition pattern: Morph A and D females lived longer. Morph B females exhibited the shortest life span (Table 2). The pre-oviposition period was longer in morphs with longer life span and shorter in morphs with shorter life span. Long lived females registered higher fecundity rates than short lived ones. Morph C recorded the lowest fecundity. Highest index of oviposition days was recorded in the morphs A and D. Index of oviposition days had POLYMORPHISM IN ACANTHASPIS SIVA DISTANT 219 Fig. 1 . Prothoracic shield and legs of four different morphs of A. siva A. Unbanded legs without thoracic spots; B. Banded legs without thoracic spots; C. Banded legs with thoracic spots; D. Unbanded legs with thoracic spots. Fig. 2. Spermatophore capsules of four morphs of A. siva. 220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 POLYMORPHIC DIVERSITY IN MORPHOMETRY OF SPERMATOPHORE CAPSULE IN A. Siva (N = 6) Spermatophore capsule Morphs Length Width Exit Exit width Exit width length (broader end) (narrower end) A 1.24 0.69 0.47 0.34 0.09 B 1.27 0.55 0.25 0.57 0.05 C 1.36 0.26 0.33 0.98 0.03 D 1.2 0.47 0.7 0.7 0.15 A = unbanded legs without thoracic spots; B = banded legs without thoracic spots; C = banded legs with thoracic spots; D = unbanded legs with thoracic spots. All measurements in mm. direct correlation with adult longevity and fecun- dity. Hatchability: Hatchability had direct correlation with the fecundity rate in morphs A, B and C. Highest and lowest hatchability were recorded by morphs A and D respectively and this can be corre- lated with the highest and lowest frequency of 100% hatching respectively. Incubation period: Morphs A and D recorded the shortest and longest incubation periods respectively (Table 3). Morph A with higher hatchability and shorter incubation period and morph D with poor hatchability and longer incubation period are biologically significant Similar results have been observed in the different ecotypes of Acanthaspis pedestris Stal (Ambrose 1980). Stadial period: Morph A had the longest stadial period and the morph C the shortest (Table 3). Inter- estingly, morph A had the shortest incubation period and the longest stadial period. Nymphal mortality: Nymphal mortality was recorded as follows: morph A 63.2%, morph B 69.2%, morph C 36.5%, morph D 69.2%. The rela- tively short stadial period of morph C may be one of the reasons for its having the lowest nymphal mor- tality. Morph D, with fewer nymphs, recorded the highest nymphal mortality and this might be one of the reasons for its low level of population in different Table 2 POLYMORPHIC DIVERSITY IN OVIPOSITION PATTERN AND HATCHABILITY IN A. siva MORPHS A B C D Adult female longevity in days 141.5 ± 41.5 88.4 ±19.3 109.0 ±11.2 140 ±37.8 Pre-oviposition period in days 32.8 ±1.5 24.2 ±3.5 30.8 ±3.3 34 ±2.5 Index of opposition days 36 ±4.5 29.5 ±1.8 31.6 ±3.0 33.9 ±2.6 Total number of batches of eggs laid 52.0 ±8.0 35.2 ±6.7 29.8 ±6.3 44.0 ±6.0 Total number of eggs laid 209.7 ±40.0 146.4 ±39.8 134.1 ±36.6 160±41.4 Average number of eggs per batch 4.0 ±0.5 4.9 ±0.2 4.8 ±0.3 2.16 ±0.4 Minimum number of eggs per batch 1.0 ±0 1.0 ±0 1.0 ±0 1.0±0 Maximum number of eggs per batch 17.2 ±1.8 28.5 ±2.4 13.8 ±1.5 17.0 ±5.4 Total number of nymphs hatched 81.0±7.9 59.0 ±14.2 40.0 ±18.0 23.0 ±6.2 Hatching percentage 43.3 ±12.9 30.0 ±8.1 29.6 ±9.3 14.8 ±3.6 Age range in which 0% 47.0 ± 12.5 30.2 ±4.5 30.1 ± 6.0 38.0 ±4.2 hatching recorded to to to to 137.0 ± 14.0 84.2 ±18.0 68.0 ±12.0 142.0 ±42.8 Age range in which 100% 50.2 ±8.5 34.8 ±5.0 39.2 ±3.3 34.0 ±3.6 hatching recorded to to to to 109.3 ±9.0 91.7 * 21.6 58.9 ±12.3 55.0 ±7.6 Frequency of 0 % hatching 25.3 ±8.0 17.7 ±5.2 18.7 ±3.0 38.0 ±6.8 Frequency of 100 % hatching 11.3 ±2.0 5.1 ±3.2 3.4 ±1.2 2.1 ± 1.6 POLYMORPHISM IN ACANTHASPIS SIVA DISTANT 221 Tables POLYMORPHIC DIVERSITY IN INCUBATION AND STADIAL PERIODS IN A. siva Morphs Incubation period i-n n-in Stadial period (Days) m-iv IV-V V-Male V-Female I-Adult A (144) 17.1 17.3 15.6 15.7 19.9 28.4 29.2 95.9 ±0.1 ±0.4 ±0.5 ±0.3 ±0.2 ±0.5 ±0.6 ±1.5 B(70) 21.2 16.6 14.3 15.8 18.5 28.2 29.9 93.8 ±0.3 ±0.5 ±0.6 ±0.5 ±0.4 +1.2 + 1.9 + 2.9 C(121) 21.7 16.3 12.3 13.5 17.2 23.3 23.5 82.9 ±0.2 ±0.1 ±0 ±0 ±0.1 ±0.2 ±0.1 ±0.2 D(25) 23.9 14.4 13.5 14.3 18.4 26.8 26.8 87.3 ±0.3 ±0.6 ±0.9 ±0.6 ±0.6 ±.0.6 ±1.3 ±1.2 (Number in parantheses indicate the number of observations.) Table 4 POLYMORPHIC DIVERSITY IN NYMPHAL WEIGHT AND WEIGHT OF CAMOUFLAGING PARTICLE CARRIED AND THE CARRYING CAPACITY IN A. siva Instars Morphs Nymphal weight (mg) Camouflaging particle weight (mg) Carrying capacity A 1.8 ±0.3 3.6 ±0.3 2.8 ±0.5 B 2.2 ±0.3 4.9 ±0.9 2.9 ±0.9 First C 1.1 ±0.1 6.2 ±2.5 6.8 ±2.7 D 1.0 ±0 13.0 ±6.0 13 ±6.0 A 3.4 ±0.7 5.3 ±0.9 1.9 ±0.4 B 3.1 ±0.3 6.6 ±0.5 2.6 ±1.4 Second C 4.3 ±0.2 8.0 ±1.0 1.85 ±0.2 D 4.2 ±0.4 7.7 ±1.0 1.96 ±0.3 A 6.2 ±0.6 13.8 ±1.5 2.1 ±0.2 B 7.9 ±0.6 16.8 ± 1.9 2.4 ±0.3 Third C 9.5 ± 0.6 17.5 ±0.6 1.9 ±0.2 D 10.0 ±2.0 11.3 ±0.3 1.3 ±0.4 A 22.3 ±1.3 26.6 ±3.3 1.2 ±0.2 B 20.9 ±2.0 25.6 ±4.0 1.3 ±0.2 Fourth C 25.2 ±2.1 34.8 ±0.3 1.4 ±0.1 D 23.0 ±2.9 36.7 ±4.4 1.7 ±0.3 A 48.9 ±4.8 55.7 ±9.7 1.1 ±0.2 - B 56.4 ±3.9 61.2 ±3.7 1.1 ±0.1 Fifth C 52.2 ±5.4 55.0 ±11.8 1.3 ±0.1 D 55.5 ±1.8 70.0 ±9.6 1.3 ±0.2 habitats surveyed. Camouflaging: The first instar of morph D recorded the highest carrying capacity which was directly proportional to the camouflaging efficiency (Ambrose 1980). It may be an evolving adaptation to protect the nymphs from the threat of cannibalism as they recorded the lowest hatchability and highest nymphal mortality (Table 4). Adult longevity and sex ratio: In all morphs the females lived longer than the males. (72.6 ± 24.9 and 161.3 ± 18.9; 49 ± 11.3 and 105 ± 10.2; 43 and 80.4 ± 6.5; 32 and 70.2 ± 16.2 days of adult longevity of males and females respectively of morphs A, B, C and D). Both males and females of morphs A and D registered the highest and lowest longevity respec- tively. The population of morph B was slightly female biased (male:female = 0.9 : 1.0) and the population of morphs A and C were slightly male biased (1.0 : 0.8), whereas the population of morph D was not sex biased. In the field, generally the population was male biased. Morph distribution among the progeny: The inter and intra morph breeding experiments were carried out in the laboratory from 1 to 3 generations. The progeny from the inter morph breeding experiments did not follow any particular genetic pattern. The 222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vcl. 87 progeny of morph A was A = 47.9%; B = 40.4% and C = 1 1 .7%; and that of B was A = 21 .7%, B = 5 1 .7% and C = 26.6%. The parents of morph C gave birth to 15.9% A, 30.5% B and 53.6% C morph offsprings. The offsprings of morph D were of A and B = 37.5% each and D = 25%. The progeny of morphs A, B and C were more like that of parental type. From the parents of morph D, not even a single parental type progeny emerged. The other three morphs (A, B and C) also failed to give the progeny of the D morph type. Observations on the different biological parameters of different morphs collected from a single habitat reveal that intraspecific variations could prevail in abundance even though they belong to similar ecological conditions. Breeding experi- ments in between morphs of same habitat provide sufficient reasons to suggest that such intraspecific variations are not strictly genetic. Mayr (1963 and 1969) briefly defined polymorphism as variability within a population. Ford (1937) explained polymorphism as "the occurrence together in the same habitat at the same time of two or more distinct forms of the same species in such proportions that the rarest of them cannot be maintained by recurrent mutation". The rare occurrence of the morph D both under laboratory conditions as well as natural habitat conditions indicates that the segregation phenomenon does not occur in the Mendelian fashion. Therefore, the random occurrence of such morphs without any relation to environmental or genetic feedback is an example of a non-mutation- al, non-adaptive trend in evolution, an equivalent of "antogenetic" evolution of Simpson (1969). However, the adaptive significance of a particular morph in a given habitat cannot be ruled out as evidenced by the morph A with higher longevity, fecundity, hatchability and more abundant presence in the field. This morph appears to have acquired successful characters as they are found in larger proportions in the natural population as well as in the laboratory bred population. Unfortunately, no in- formation is available on the morph variation in reduviids except Louis* (1974) preliminary observa- tion on Rhinocoris sp. The present study establishes the existence of 4 different morphs in this species. Further investigation is required to understand this phenomenon of polymorphism better. References Ambrose, D.R (1980): Bioecology, Ecophysiology and Ethology of Reduviids (Heteroptera). of the scrub jungles of Tamil Nadu, India. Ph.D. thesis, University of Madras, Madras. Distant, W.L. (1902): Fauna of British India. Rhynchota Vol. II Heteroptera. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London, pp. 265. Ford, E.B. (1937): Polymorphism. Biol. Rev. 12: 461-503. Louis, D. (1974): Biology of Reduviidae of Cocoa farms in Ghana. The American Midland Naturalist 91(1): 68-89. Mayr, E. (1963): Animal species and Evolution. The Bleknap press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mas- sachusetts. (1969): Principles of systematic Zoology. Tata Mc- Graw - Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 162. Simpson, G.G. (1909): The meaning of Evolution. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, pp. 46. OBSERVATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF TADPOLES OF THE MALABAR GLIDING FROG RHACOPHORUS MALABARICUS JERDON, 1870 (ANURA : RH ACOPHORID AE) 1 A.G. Sekar2 (With three plates and three text- figures ) The ontogeny of the Malabar gliding frog Rhacophorus malabaricus was studied by rearing tadpoles from the egg stage. Metamorphosis took 68 days to complete. The juveniles were of the same colour as the substratum and quite distinct from the green of the adult. The tadpoles were carnivorous by preference. Introduction The Malabar gliding frog Rhacophorus malabaricus is distributed in the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats of India from Ponmudi Hills, Kerala, to Goa (Daniel and Sekar 1989). It is ar- boreal in habit, and has a cryptic green coloration. It can glide over a distance of 10 m (Ayyangar 1915). According to Ferguson (1904) this frog is common in the low country of the Travancore region of Kerala and sometimes enters houses. The breeding season commences with the S W monsoon and lasts from June to November (Ferguson 1904). The breeding call is syllabized as truk — truk — truk. Amplexus is axillary in this species (Abdulali and Sekar 1988). The female makes a foam nest attached to the leaves of a tree or a shrub overhanging a pool (Ferguson, op. cit.) The development of amphibian tadpoles in the Indian region has been scantily investigated. So far, literature is available only for such anuran species as Rana tigerina (McCann 1932), Rana cyanophlyc- tis (Mohanty-Hejmadi and Dutta 1979), Microhyla ornata (Padhye and Ghate 1989), Polypedates maculatus (McCann 1932, Mohanty-Hejmadi and Dutta 1988). Existing literature on tadpoles of Rhacophorus malabaricus (Ferguson 1904, Inger et al. 1984) is largely confined to general remarks on the field biology, including description and location of the eggmass and feeding behaviour of the larvae. There has been no previous study of tadpole development in Rhacophorus malabaricus. The present study focuses on the development of the tad- poles of Rhacophorus malabaricus under laboratory conditions. Accepted December 1989. 2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023. Material and Methods A pair of Malabar gliding frogs (male 61 .7 mm SV length and female 81.3 mm SV length), which were in amplexus on a bamboo shoot 2 m above the ground, was collected at 2200 hrs in Volpoi forest, Goa, in July 1989. This is a moist deciduous forest type with evergreen patches. The pair was kept in a dry plastic jar of 5 litre capacity. The female made a foam nest which was transferred to another jar con- taining water. The eggs (approximate number more than hundred) started developing in the foam nest. The nest was brought to Bombay and kept in an aquarium tank (30 x 15.5 x 15 cm) at room tempera- ture (28-35° C). The tadpoles were fed chopped earthworms. Different stages were preserved in 10% formalin. Some tadpoles were kept separately to ob- serve their feeding behaviour. Observations Developmental Stages The observations made on the development of the tadpoles are given chronologically. Embryonic stage: 20 July 1989 - The male and female made the foam nest at 0100 hrs. This was ex- actly like the foam nest of Polypedates maculatus in colour and texture (Sekar 1986). The eggs dis- tributed in the foam nest were cream coloured and spherical in shape. Average diameter = 2.76 mm. (S.D. = ± 0.1 mm; n = 10). 21 July 1989 - Age 34 hrs: Embryos had developed and were hatched, the larvae were wriggling and emerging from the foam nest. Hatching stage: 22 July 1989 - Age 56 hrs: Average total length of the hatched tadpoles = 8.73 mm (S.D. = ± 0.45; n = 7); body length 3.73 mm; tadpoles hatched out and settled at the bottom of the jar and 4. 224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 were motionless (more larvae were struggling to come out of the nest); tadpoles bore conspicuous yolk sac; no gills were visible and eyes were ap- parently well developed. 23 July 1989 - Age 83 hrs: Average total length = 11.88 mm (S.D.= ± 0.15; n = 10) body length 3.88 mm; tadpoles still motionless; dorsally pigmented with brown; ventrally white; belly with yolk; tail muscle and fins also pigmented. Feeding stage: 24 July 1989 - Age 4 days, 11 hrs: Average total length =13.7 mm (S.D. = ± 0.51; n = 6); body length 4.8 mm; tadpoles very active and come to the surface; oral disc formed but without beak and homy teeth; the intestine was in early stages of formation; belly white in colour. 25 July 1989 - Age 5 days: Average total length = 16.48 mm (S.D. = ± 0.63; n = 5); body length 5.48 mm; oral disc developed with beak, but no homy teeth; the coiled intestine was white in colour. 30 July 1989 - Age 10 days: Average total length = 17.84 mm (S.D. = ± 0.53; n = 5); body length 6.2 mm; oral disc with beak and rows (2:3 + 3/3) of developed teeth; the intestine dark brown in colour; spiraculam visible clearly; started feeding on chopped earthworms. Pre-hindlimb stage: 2 August 1989 - Age 13 days: Average total length = 18.7 mm (S.D. = ± 0.69; n = 5); body length 6.9 mm; tadpoles dorsally intensely pigmented with brown except around the eye; ventrally transparent. 4 August 1989 — Age 15 days: Average total length = 20.17 mm (S.D. = ± 0.71; n = 5); body length 7.57 mm; tadpoles voraciously fed on the meat of earthworms; they were very definitely carnivorous. 12 August 1989 - Age 23 days: Average total length = 21.5 mm (S.D.= ± 1.21; n = 3); body length 8.6 mm; no remarkable changes. 20 August 1989 - Age 3 1 days: Average total length = 31.6 mm. (S.D.= ± 0.73; n = 3); body length 11.6 mm; dorsally brownish yellow; ventral skin transparent; ventrally the heart beat was seen clear- ly; vent dextral. Hindlimb bud stage: 29 August 1989 - Age 40 days: Average total length = 38.0 mm (S.D. = ± 1.57; n = 3); body length 13.0 mm; hindlimb bud developed and measured 3.0 mm in length. 1 September 1989 - Age 43 days: Average total length = 40.0 mm (S.D. = ± 1.24; n = 3); body length 15.0 mm; hindlimb bud measured 4.5 mm in length. Fig . 1 . Mouth of Rhacophorus malabaricus tadpoles. Hindlimb stage: 7 September 1989 - Age 49 days: Average total length = 41.0 mm (S.D. = ± 0.44; n = 3); body length 16.0 mm; hindlimb measured 10 mm in length; toes black in colour; webs between toes yellow. 12 September 1989 - Age 54 days: Average total length (41.0 mm) and body length (16.0 mm) remained same; body skin became opaque; in colour yellowish brown dotted with dark brown or black. Dental formula of the oral disc was 2 : 4 + 4/1 + 1 : 2 (Fig. 1) The hindlimb well developed and with a length of 19.0 mm; thighs barred; forelimbs visible through the transparent ventral skin. Forelimb stage: 14 September 1989 - Age 56 days: No change in length; tadpole had attained the forelimb stage; the oral disc with homy teeth had disappeared and the mouth was as in a normal frog; the abdominal region was narrow; the behaviour was notably different from the hindlimb staged tad- poles; quiescent, not swimming actively, resting at a comer of the tank; they did not feed on the mashed earthworms; the colour of the body was yellowish brown with dark brown or black dots. 23 September 1989 - Age 65 days: Total length 21 .0 mm; the tadpoles had nearly lost their tails and be- come froglets with only a rudiment of the tail, measuring 5.0 mm; froglets came out of the water and clung to the wall of the tank; toes fully webbed. Metamorphosed froglet stage: 26 September 1989 - Age 68 days: Average total length = 16.0 mm (S.D. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87 Sekar: Tadpoles of Rhacophorus malabaricus Plate 1 Above: Rhacophorus malabaricus pair in amplexus Below: Eggs collected from the foam nest Above left: Age 56 hrs, total length 8.73 mm, hatched tadpoles . Right: Tadpoles in feedmg stage. Below: Tadpoles in hindlimb stage. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87 Sekar: Tadpoles of Rhacophorus malabaricus Plate 3 Above: Froglet with rudiment of tail. Below: Completely metamorphosed froglet mm :S TADPOLES OF RHACOPHORUS MALABARICUS 225 = ± 1 .0; n = 3); the froglets had lost all external signs of tail and had completely metamorphosed into a replica of the adult except in size and colour; the colour of the froglet was yellowish brown with black dots; thighs barred; toes fully webbed; web yellow. Feeding behaviour: Tadpoles kept separately for feeding behaviour observations were offered algae, chopped cabbage, non-spicy sausage, pieces of mut- ton, white of boiled egg, chopped earthworms, crushed snail flesh and pieces of bread. Of these, the sausage, mutton, snail flesh and earthworms were aggressively fed on by the tadpoles. The boiled egg was occasionally eaten whereas algae, cabbage and bread were rarely consumed. They were highly responsive to animal matter. They also fed on dead conspecifics. Discussion The tadpoles took 68 days to complete metamorphosis, which is a longer duration than that for the related species Ceylonese tree frog Rhacophorus cruciger cruciger , which completes its metamorphosis in 49 days (Morgan-Davies 1958) or for the Indian tree frog Polypedates maculatuSy which completes its metamorphosis in 55 days (Mohanty-Hejmadi and Dutta 1988). However, these animals may grow faster in nature than under laboratory conditions. The growth curve (Fig. 2) is Fig. 2. Growth curve for tadpoles of Rhacophorus malabaricus up to metamorphosis. similar to that for other anuran larvae (Mohanty- Hejmadi and Dutta 1988). The tail reached a maxi- mum length of 25 mm in 40 days, maintained the same length for 16 days and was resorbed complete- ly within 12 days. The body, however, grew up to 16 mm in 49 days and maintained this length until the tail was resorbed (Fig. 3). The maximum tail length of 46.67 mm in a tadpole collected from a forest pool which was recorded by Inger et al. (1984) was not observed in this study. Size in mm Body length ~ ^ Tail length Fig. 3. Relative growths of body and tail of tadpoles of Rhacophorus malabaricus up to metamorphosis. 226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 87 The gills were not visible at 56 hrs. At this time larvae were just hatched and emerged from the foam nest. This observation supports Ferguson’s (1904) report that the eggs hatched within the foam nest and the tadpoles fed within the nest until the external gills were absorbed. They then dropped out of the nest. Ferguson (op. cit.) reported that the colour of the living tadpoles was purple, closely dotted with dark brown. But in the present study it was observed that the colour of the living tadpoles was yellowish brown dotted with dark brown. The length of the body and tail agree with Ferguson’s description. He reported that the tadpoles were carnivorous, which was also confirmed in this study. The tadpoles of the Malabar gliding frog clearly preferred meat and mostly avoided vegetable matter while feeding. The metamorphosed froglets lacked the green colour of their parents. They emerged with a colour closely similar to that of the ground, i.e. yellowish brown dotted with dark brown and barred thighs as in land frogs of the genus Rana (Boulenger 1920). They may live on the ground for a short period until becoming arboreal and only then acquire the cryp- tic green body colour of more mature frogs. Acknowledgements I thank Mr. J.C. Daniel for encouragement during the study. I thank the Bombay Natural His- tory Society for the financial support. Special thanks are due to Mr. Vithoba Hegde, who accompanied me during the field trip. My sincere thanks are due to Dr. Renee Borges, who gave some valuable sugges- tions for the preparation of this paper, and to the Forest Department of Goa for their kind cooperation during the Field trip. References Abdulali, H. & Sekar, A.G. (1988): On a small collection of amphibians from Goa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85: 202- 205. Ayyangar, M.O.P. (1915): A south Indian flying frog Rhacophorus malabaricus (Jerdon). Rec. Ind. Mus. 11: 140-142. Boulenger, G.A. (1920): A monograph of the South Asia, Papuan, Melanesian and Australian frogs of the genus Rana. ibid. 20: 1-226. Daniel, J.C. & Sekar, A.G. (1989): Field Guide to the Am- phibians of Western India - Part 4. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 194-202. Ferguson, H.S. (1904): A list of Travancore Batrachians. ibid. 15: 499-509. Inger, R.F., Shaffer, H.B., Koshy, M. & Bakde, R. (1984): A report on a collections of Amphibians and Reptiles from the Ponmudi, Kerala, South India, ibid. 81: 406-427, 551-570. McCann, C. (1932): Notes on Indian Batrachians. ibid. 36: 152- 180. Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. & Dutta, S.K. (1979): Breeding and development of Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider, ibid. 76: 291-296. (1988): Life history of the common Indian Tree Frog Polypedates maculatus. (Gray, 1834) (Anura: Rhacophoridae). ibid. 85: 512- 517. Morgan-Davies, A.M. (1958- ): Some notes on the Reproduc- tion, Metamorphosis, and the Ecology of a Ceylonese Tree Frog, Rhacophorus cruciger cruciger (Blyth). ibid. 55: 1 1- 16. Padhye, A.D. & Ghate, H.V. (1989): Preliminary photograph, Record and description of various Developmental Stages of the Frog Microhyla ornata (Dumeril & Bibron). Her- peton 2: 2-7. Sekar, A.G. (1986): Ecology of amphibia of Sanjay Gandhi Na- tional Park, Borivli, Bombay. M.Sc Thesis. University of Bombay. STRATEGIES OF BROODING AND PARENTAL CARE AND INFLUENCE OF STRESS CONDITIONS IN THE LABORATORY IN HETEROPOD A VENATORIA (ARANEAE: HETEROPODIDAE)1 K. VUAYALAKSHMI AND S. SlVARAMAN2 (With a text-figure ) The mode of egg sac construction in Heteropoda venatoria, brood care and release of young ones showed that parental care is well evolved in this species of hunting spider. Egg sacs were constructed by mated and non-mated females, but the non mated females discarded the brood sac or ate it within 24 hours of construction of the sac. Brood- ing females tolerate each other. Maternal care is essential for tearing open the sac and prevention of dessication of eggs. Recognition of sac by the female does not exist and advancement of release of the second sac could be done by the removal of the sac from the female. Parental care in H. venatoria is primarily to prevent dessication of eggs and for protection from enemies. Since eggs undergo normal development in laboratory conditions (temperature 28 ± 2.5° C, relative humidity 70-85%) mass rearing of these useful predators could be taken up. In the present study the behaviour strategies during brood care, mode of egg sac construction, egg laying, brood care and release of young of H. venatoria were observed Experiments were designed to understand phenomena like mutual tolerance among two brooding females, the role of the mother in brood care, development of the young in the absence of the mother, recognition of her own egg sac by the mother and the changes in the egg laying pattern by the removal of egg sac soon after construction. Material and Methods In order to observe egg sac construction, egg laying, brood care and release of young ones the females were observed under different conditions. This was done in order to find out variations, if any, in the nature of brooding. The spiders were main- tained in closed cylindrical transparent plastic chambers (20 cm height and 15 cm diameter) with lids having two holes. One plugged with cotton was used to introduce the prey. The other carried a long glass tube with a broad mouth wrapped with filter paper at a bottom to hold water, and was used to maintain relative humidity (70-85%). The spiders were maintained at room temperatures of 28 ± 2.5° C and fed 24 hours prior to the commencement of the predation experiments. The following females were observed individually for their brooding habits. i) Females laboratory reared from egg stage on- wards and mated in the laboratory; ii) Females collected from houses as subadults Introduction Parental care is found to a great extent in spiders. Maternal care is very common in the vagabond families like Thomisidae, Salticidae, Gnaphosidae, Clubionidae and the females guard the egg sacs until they hatch (Turnbull 1973). Pisauridae carry their egg sacs wherever they wander. Lycosid egg sacs are attached to the spin- nerets. The egg sacs of web building spiders receive scant attention from their mothers with the notable exception of Theridids, Pholcids, Agelenids and Eresids. Thus parental care is evolved at different levels among the various groups of spiders. Heteropoda venatoria is a cosmotropical house spider which is a natural predator of the cock- roach and other pests. They do not construct webs to capture prey. The prey capture mechanism is one of attack and capture (Vijayalakshmi 1986). These spiders produce silk mainly to construct egg sacs to avoid dessication and attack by enemies. Besides, the female mates only once and receives the entire supply of sperm during that mating (Robinson 1975). So great care has to be afforded to reduce mortality and propagate the species. Hence maternal care is of great significance in this species. Heteropoda venatoria are reported to carry their brood sac firmly against their sterna with the help of pedipalpi till such time they release their young ones (Bhattacharya 1941, Ross et al. 1982). Accepted February 1988. department of Zoology, Loyola College, Madras, Tamil Nadu 600 034. 228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 that eventually moulted into adults, and were mated in the laboratory; iii) Females collected from the houses and left without mating. These females were provided with abundant prey (cockroaches - Periplaneta sp.) after mating and also after release of young ones to provide for the excess energy required for these phases (Vijayalakshmi 1985). Besides, certain experimental stress conditions were provided to observe the responses of such brooding females. Experiments conducted, results obtained and inferences are presented in Table 2. Observations and Results Behaviour prior to construction of the egg sac: On completion of mating the females fed voracious- ly. The spinnerets become enlarged and active, ex- hibiting increased deposition of silk. Prior to egg sac construction many attachment points were marked throughout the experimental chamber. Peculiar rota- tions of the terminal portions of the abdomen were observed and silk threads were extended from various points in the chamber irregularly. Such be- haviour by the relatively active female lasted for about 3 days. Onset of egg sac construction finally occurred after one week (Fig. 1 a, b). Method of egg sac construction and egg deposi- tion: The abdomen of the female rotated con- tinuously and extruded silk to form a disc several layers thick. This disc had a hold on the surface of the container. The epigynal plate expanded and the pale yellowish eggs were released layer upon layer at regular intervals. The number of eggs varied from 96 to 406. The basal plate of the sac was constructed first. The lid for the sac was constructed in a similar manner to that of the basal plate. The sac was pick- ed up by the female and held firmly with the chelicerae and pedipalps on the ventral side. The 1st and 3rd pair of legs were also used for gentle tap- ping. Freshly constructed sacs had a pinkish tinge. During preening the sac was left on the floor for a short while; if disturbed preening was stopped and the sac grabbed. Release of the young ones from the sac: Around the 14th to 16th day of brooding an expansion was observed in the sac. By the 16th to the 23rd day the female tore open the seam of the sac by holding with the chelicerae on top and the 3rd pair of legs at the bottom. Initially one or two spiderlings came out through the slit, and rested on the sides of the sac. In a day or two they started moving about and more spiderlings came out every day. Between days 2 and 7 all the young ones came out (96 to 406 in- Fig. 1. Female Heteropoda venatoria holding egg sac: a. Dorsal view; b. Ventral view. BROODING AND PARENTAL CARE IN HETEROPODA VENATORIA 229 dividuals) and even after release the empty sac was still carried about by the female for a further period of 1 to 4 days before being discarded. The young had already undergone the 1st moult inside the sac and the exuviae were observed in the egg sac. In the spiderlings the spinnerets were active and they climbed up and jumped down by using draglines and extended threads for dispersal. Feeding during brood care: Right from the time of construction of egg sac up to the release of young ones and the discarding of the sac the female did not feed. After the release of the young, the female broke the long period of starvation and fed voraciously. If at this stage the females were not provided with enough prey they died. Cannibalism: Intense cannibalism was noted amongst young ones of the first instar but no can- nibalism was noted between the mother and the spiderlings. Construction of subsequent egg sacs without mating: It was observed that the females do con- struct egg sacs without mating. Virgin females were also observed constructing sacs. Table 1 provides data for these observations. It is evident from the table that when the adult females were reared from the egg stage in the laboratory and not given an op- portunity for mating, they still constructed egg sacs with or without eggs at periodical intervals and when they contained unfertilized eggs they were eaten by the female with or without egg sac. Another observation was that the females which constructed sacs with viable eggs might con- struct subsequent egg sacs without viable eggs which were discarded or eaten up. It has also been observed that the female which kept constructing egg sacs with unfertilized eggs, when mated, con- structed egg sacs with viable eggs subsequently. Also, observations have been made where the female failed to construct a proper egg sac; it was in the form of a patch of silk attached to the wall of the container and eggs were released on the floor of the container. A female that had been mated once also constructed three egg sacs subsequently with viable eggs without any further mating. Discussion One of the biotic factors that influence preda- tion is brooding and maternal care of the females. In Heteropoda venatoria the females do not predate during brooding. However, they feed voraciously before and after brooding. The amount of feeding greatly deviates from the normal during such pre and post brooding phases. The voracious feeding of the female before the construction of the sac probably provides for storing energy for egg development, construction of egg sac and long period of starvation when brooding. The brood sac construction does not take place if the females do not feed after copulation. Feeding after copulation is necessary for the second phase of yolk accumulation. An expansion of the egg sac before the spiderlings moult to the first instar is ob- served in H. venatoria as also in some wolf spiders (Fuji 1978). As in many related families of wandering spiders, maternal care is better developed in H. venatoria than in many web weavers that abandon the egg sac after construction. Heteropoda do not construct any web either for prey capture or retreat. Since the egg sac is exposed to greater risk of des- sication and attack by enemies, it is tough and thick with several layers of silk. The female holds it firm- ly until the release of young. It is evident from earlier studies that there is a great variation in the number of egg sacs (Table 3). Studies of some workers (Ross et al. 1982) give an indication of the time taken to construct the egg sac after copulation. It is 12-14 days which is twice the time recorded during the present study. Also the duration of brooding is lengthened. The number of young collected in the laboratory is much less than the ones observed in the present study. That the females do not cannibalize their young could be due to the fact that the size of the emerging 1st instar nymphs is too small for capture by the adult. In Metaphiddipus galathea (Homer and Starks 1972) it was observed that the gravid female which was not allowed to mate constructed an egg sac and deposited infertile yolk-like material in which in- dividual ‘eggs’ appeared to run together. These in- fertile masses were deposited continuously at ap- proximately the same intervals that other females deposited fertile egg sacs. Once these females were mated they produced viable eggs. In H. venatoria construction of egg sacs with unfertilized eggs and those without eggs could be in- terpreted as the result of hormonal imbalance. Table 1 OBSERVED VARIATIONS OF THE BROOD SAC AND ITS FATE IN MATED AND NON-MATED FEMALE Hete.opoda venatoria 230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 •S %• | at w ■hum £ SS ’B 2 £ S‘l w g ■8 1 3 g 00 OX) ° 3 O «* Cl £ £ ■o ^ .s 3 8> 3 a I I Ti- cs .5 Cu Tf cs .s I 6 es efl w w S S S S £ fc £ ijlS1I0- sia^a* e j Tf TI- CS cs .S .5 §• fr I I e3 3 W W o 2 ■£ £ 8 e ^ i! 3 P-T3 3 § I i CL o op 8 & rj, cu O so S.g 5 s £ 8 "8 ««. "8 O M o 5 M „ £ 00 £ 00 _ „ _Q !* * £,3 -I V) 4 g Tf U £ C/5 >% *d cU 2 ■O E Tt 0) U g a E « b 0 O 5^ tj- >»T3 -h ^ 'O te « -S •- j “3 c2 8k tils 2 8* .9 1 s. a w i § — ■ «n cs Oi 1 . 1 1 .11. t s a s> Oc'Sc^c^it w Ji « MO I 8 S s III i! a q) a fli 8 = g-S* M g ? e o «> S S £ £ •5 f '8 -3 •§ * ! -81 = 13 c^iaiai BROODING AND PARENTAL CARE IN HETEROPODA VENATORIA 231 g. w a • X o w £ , «-* 5 -T3 III ts fc S'* ■g j ■2 » S T3 e| u ^ S c 11 t ° 5 « on y * Ji t£ 2 5S| 1 1 I1 e-8 £ 8- 2 00 «-E »| tf-SSS P >12 15 6 ts a fS l a If jg ™ 60 TD | e fa js s 3 8 *8 K IO 60 60 w , If I g* 2 „ ■§ | -S M -Q 60 Jta * .S || 05 8 2 232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 However, the construction of egg sacs by virgin females was also observed in H. venatoria and this was attributed to an artificially imposed mating schedule (Ross et al. 1982). Acts of ecdysis and reproduction are accompanied by an increased ac- tivity of groups of neuro-secretory cells in the protocerebrum and chelicerae of certain groups of spiders. (Legendre 1956). The role of neurosecretory cells has also been described (Yoshikura and Takaho 1972). In the light of such observations it may be sug- gested that hormonal imbalance could be the major factor governing premating egg laying, rather than artificial imposition of mating in the absence of a male. Moreover, the presence of a fertilized brood sac in the clutches of a female prolongs the release of new egg sacs and this is advanced by forcible removal of sac after a day (vide expt. 7). It is interesting to note that females differen- tiated between fertilized and unfertilized eggs within 24 hours of egg deposition and were observed to eat only the unfertilized ones. The drying of un- fertilized eggs may bring in loss of weight. Minute vibrations could be caused by cellular proliferation of the mass of eggs. These are probably detected by the female. It has been reported that the vibratile sense organs of the abdomen are very well specialised in spiders (Barth 1972). The eating of eggs prevents the wastage of un- fertilized eggs in H. venatoria. The eaten unfertil- ized eggs might be recycled by some mechanism. When this very same female is later mated normal development of eggs occurs. Construction of more than one egg sac after a single mating has been observed in Metaphiddipus galathea (Homer and Starks 1972). It is suggested that they receive a large number of sperms in one single mating and store them in spermatheca for fur- ther use. The same mechanism could be operating in H. venatoria as they are able to construct more than one egg sac with viable eggs subsequent to a single mating. The reduction in the size of the successive brood sacs and number of eggs could be due to the successive release of eggs. They decrease cor- responding to the decreasing availability of sperms. Such a situation is also observed in Cupiennius (Melchers 1963). The experiments conducted gave the reactions of H. venatoria under stress which may also occur in the natural habitat. Experiment 1: Mutual tolerance of females with egg sacs is quite advantageous. The females though avoiding each other do not attack or kill each other presumably due to the risk of losing their own sac. Experiment 2: From experiments where the egg sacs were not tom open but were left as they were to develop after isolation from the mother, it was in- dicated that tearing open of the egg sac and release of the young ones is an important function in the maternal care of the egg sac. A similar function to the mother was attributed in Pardosa astrigera (Fuji 1978) Experiment 3: Eggs when isolated from the female within 24 hours of construction of the sac undergo normal development in the laboratory when provided with the same microhabitat. Thus it is clearly indicated that the maternal care exhibited by H. venatoria has the primary function of prevent- ing dessication of eggs and secondarily affording Table 3 DETAILS OF OBSERVATIONS ON BROODING STRATEGIES OBSERVED BY VARIOUS AUTHORS IN H. venatoria Author (Year of publication) Country No. of eggs/sac Size Prebrooding duration (after copulation) till formation of brood Brooding duration 1. Bonnet, P. (1930) New Guinea 207 - Not mentioned Not mentioned 2. Bhattacharya, G.C.(1941) India Not mentioned - -do -do- 3. Sekiguchi, K (1944) Japan 188-436 1.27 cm -do -do- 4. Ross, J. et al. (1982) Rorida, USA 400 (in field) 277 (in lab.) 2.54 cm 1.5 cm 12-14 32 days 5. Vijayalakshmi, K.* (1985) Madras, India 96-406 2.5 cm 3-7 days 16-23 days ^Present work. BROODING AND PARENTAL CARE IN HETEROPODA VENATORIA 233 them protection from enemies. Experiment 4: Females accept their egg sacs or a foreign egg sac without the ability to distinguish be- tween them. The female spider cannot recognize her own egg sac. In Lycosid spiders the spiderlings of another species are also readily accepted and will settle down on the back of their ‘stepmother’ (En- gelhardt 1964). The level of recognition is of limited nature. Experiment 5: The schedule of tearing open of the egg sac in the present study was delayed or advanced to suit the moulting of the first instar nymphs. It is possible that such a stimulus to tearing response is provided by the active running movement of the young ones that begins just after moulting (Fuji 1980). Observations clearly indicate that these spiders regulate the egg sac tearing and expansion behaviour and that it is not a programmed be- haviour. Experiment 6: Though the female could not dif- ferentiate between its own and other sacs it definite- ly has a capacity to differentiate between a full and an empty sac. The acceptance of the empty sac, piece of cork, and paper for a while is a clear indication that ‘holding an object* is an instinctive behaviour in the brooding females. Individual spiders whose egg sacs were forcibly removed pick up and carry about various substitutes such as pieces of cork, waste paper or cotton, a small empty snail shell, rab- bit dropping etc. (Bristowe 1958, Savory 1977, Gertsch 1979, Fabre 1913). Non-brooding females and males accept these objects only when the ob- jects are in motion. The motion might be mistaken for the movement of the prey, but the immediate rejection of it clearly indicates that it at once distin- guishes between a prey and a fake and also that it does not have the instinctive ‘behaviour of holding’ like the brooding female individuals. Experiment 7: The advancement in release of second egg sac by the removal of the first, might be to reschedule its next phase. This could be attributed to the complete control of egg laying by females only after mating; the release of unfertilized eggs might be due to imbalance in the total reproductive cycle of a virgin female. Moreover, a single mating in the life span of a female is an important phase in the hormonal regulation and neurosecretion of these spiders. Eggs develop in the absence of the brood sac when provided with the same microhabitat. Moreover, females release more brood sacs succes- sively in a short duration when the sacs are removed. These aspects can be suitably adopted in mass rearing while using them in biocontrol programmes. The brood sacs could be isolated from the mother as and when they are constructed in the laboratory and maintained under controlled laboratory conditions. References Barth, F.C. (1972): Die Physiologies der Spatisinnesorgane II. Funktionelle Morphogie eines Mechanoreceptors. J. Comp Physiol. 81: 159-186. Bhattacharya, G.C. (1941): The food and habits of the house spider Heteropoda Venator ia . J. Bombay nat. II ist. Soc. 42 : 821. Bonnet, P. (1930): Observation Sur deux Heteropodes de la Guinee, etc. Ann. Soc. Entomal. France: 497-503. Bristowe, W.S. (1958): The World of spiders. Collins, London, pp. 1-304. Engelhardt, W. (1964): Dies mitteleuropaischen Arten der GaX\mgTrochosaCA.YL. 1848. (Araneae: Ly cos idae) Mor- phologic, Chemotaxonomie, Biologie, Autokologie. Z. Morphol. Okol. Tiere. 54(3): 219-392. Fabre, J.H. (1913): The life of a spider (translated by A. Teixiera de Mattos). Horizon Press, New York. Fuji, Y. (1978): Analytical study of maternal behaviour in Par- dosa astrigera L. Koch (Araneae, Lycosidae). Bull. Nip- pon. Dent. Univ. Gen. Ed. 9: 235:245. (1980): Analytical study of maternal behaviour in Pardosa astrigera L. Koch (Araneae, Lycosidae): Bull. Nippon. Dent. Univ. Gen. Ed. 3: 223-230. Gertsch, W.J. (1979): American spiders. Van Nostrand, New York. Horner, N.Y. & Starks, J. (1972): Bionomics of the jumping spider Metaphiddipus galathea. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 65(3): 602-607. Legendre, R. (1956): Les elements neurosecreteurs de la masse nerveuse et leur Cycle d’activite chezles Araignees. Com- ptes 1 ' Academic des Sci. 242: 2405-2407. Melchers, M. (1963): Zur Biologie and Zum Verhatten Von Cupiennius salei (Keyserling), einer amerikanischen Ctenidae. Zool. Jb. Syst. 91: 1. Robinson, M.H. (1975): The Evolution of predatory behviour in araneid spiders. In: Function and Evolution of behaviour. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 14: 291-312. Ross, J., Richman, D.B., Mansour, F., Tramburolo, A. & Whit- comb, W.B. (1982): The life cycle of Heteropoda Venator ia 234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 (Linnaeus) (Araneae: Heteropodidae). Psyche 89: 297- 305. Savory, T. (1977): Arachnida. Academic Press Inc (London) Ltd. 340 pp. Sekiguchi, K. (1944): Life History of Heteropoda venatoria Lin- naeus (in Japanese). Acta Arachnol 8(4): 98-117. Turnbull, A.L. (1973): Ecology of the true Spiders (Araenomor- phae). Ann. Rev. Entomol. 18: 305-348. V u ay alakshmi, K. (1985): Bioecological Studies on the giant crab spider Heteropoda venatoria (L.) (Araneae: Heteropodidae) with special reference to their predatory response and Biocontrol potential. Ph.D. Thesis Madras University. (1986): Predatory efficiency in giant crab Spider- Cockroach System: Predatory behaviour and Biocontrol Potential Oriental Entomology Symposium proceedings, Trivandrum 1: 133-140. Yoshikura, M. & Takaho, S. (1972): Neurosecretory system of the Purseweb spider: Kumamoto. J. Sci.ll: 27-36. NEW RECORD AND DESCRIPTION OF AETHALOTUS HORNI BREDDIN (INSECTA : HETEROPTERA : LYGAEIDAE) WITH ITS IMMATURE STAGES FROM NORTHEAST INDIA1 A. Mukhopadhyay, P. Roy and S. Das2 (With twelve text-figures ) Aethalotus horni Breddin is recorded for the first time from northeast India on a new host plant, Calotropis procera. A detailed description of the species and its nymphs is provided. In the oriental region Aethalotus horni Bred- din is known from Puttalam and Anuradhapuram in South India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) (Distant 1910). In addition Chatterjee (1937) reported it from Madras. Subsequent records were from North Salem, Aiyur, Jawalagiri-Madras and North Coorg, Fraserpet, Mysore and Coorg (Bhasin 1953). The specimens studied from the plains of district Dar- jeeling in northeast India are found to be slightly larger, with a different colour pattern than those recorded from peninsular India (pers. comm., W.R. Dolling 1985) and require a redescription. Besides some changes in morphological character and colour of the species, its establishment and breeding activity on a new host plant, Calotropis procera in this region, compared to its report from sandalwood plantations of south India (Chatterjee 1937) facilitated a study of its immature stages. The descriptions of all the life stages and adult are based on fresh specimens collected from the campus area of North Bengal University, District Darjeeling, West Bengal from the local host plant, Calotropis procera. Redescription of adult (Fig. 1): Body slender, oblong, greyish black with fine adpressed pilosity. Head triangular, yellowish red; tylus obtusely pointed exceeding juga; eyes rounded, shortly stalked with red crescent marking at base in some, separate from anterior pronotal margin; ruby red ocelli closer to lateral eyes than to one another, streaky brown marking anterior to ocelli; antennae black with fine pilosity; antennifers inconspicuous with a couple of red dots at base; labium reaching hind coxae, first labial segment exceeding base of head. Accepted August 1987. department of Zoology, Centre for Life Sciences, University of North Bengal, District Darjeeling, 734 430. Thorax with pronotum blackish having two longitudinal sordid yellow streaks extending along anterior margin, lateral margins sinuately concave in the middle, basal margin slightly elevated, moderate punctation more or less uniformly sparsed, deep black calli at anterio-lateral margins; scutellum triangular blackish with apex pale trans- lucent; pleura yellowish red, finely pubescent, punctate; sternum brown, non-uniform pubescence; legs sordid white with blackish tint, coxae pale with few hairs, femora pale with proximal blackish patches punctate, tibiae slender, darkish uniform hair, tarsi darkish, pretarsus with typical claws and arolia without hairs; forewing blackish with fine grey decumbent pubescence, membrane hyaline, exceeding abdominal tip in female and just touch- ing or passing in males; innermost of the five veins forked anteriorly, clavus impunctate excepting few along inner margin, corium with uniform insig- nificant punctures and vein-like thickening along subcostal margin; hind wing with well developed veins excepting faint hamus and second anal, radius does not reach margin, secondary veins absent, anal lobe separated prominently along anal fold (Fig. 2). Abdomen ventrally yellowish green with adpressed hair; posterior segments darker in male and pale in female; connexival margin sometimes visible laterally; margins of sternites and genital segments with some larger hairs; male genitalia with pygophore protruding externally; aedeagus (Fig. 3) with phallosoma moderately pigmented brownish yellow without any process, bottom area partly transparent, conjunctiva short, narrowly distin- guishable, ejaculatory reservoir complete, wings leaf- like, vesica at base circularly symmetrical but apically slender with 2 1/2 coils of helicoid process, a small part of the gonoporal process remain free, ring sclerite in secondary gonoporal region, basal apparatus resembles dog-bone; paramere with 236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig 1-6. Aethalotus horrii Breddin 1. Dorsal view of adult male; 2. Hind wing of male showing venation; 3. Aedeagus; 4. Right paramere; 5. Ovipositor showing 1st and 2nd gonapophysis (separated); 6. Spermatheca. Abbreviations: AB, Apical Bulb; 1 A, 1st Anal; 2A, 2nd Anal; B, Body; BA, Basal Apparatus; BL, Blade; Cu, Cubitus; ER, Ejaculatory Reservoir, GP, Gonoporal Process; I.G.P.O., 1 st Gonapophysis; 2GPO, 2nd Gonapophysis; M, Median; PCU, Post Cubitus; PH, Phal- losoma; R, Radius; RS, Ring Selerite; S, Shank; SB, Sub-basal part; SC, Sub Costa; SG, Secondary Gonopore; V, Vesica; W,Wing. AETHALOTUS HORNI FROM NORTHEAST INDIA 237 sickle shaped blade making almost a right angle with shank (Fig. 4), rough hair more on dorsal angular bent than rest; female genitalia with 1st and 2nd gonapophysis (Fig. 5) of ovipositor not well demar- cated, 1st ramus dark brown, traversing about 3/4th length of 1st gonapophysis, 2nd ramus pale yellow ending in hairy black apex of the blade-like 2nd gonapophysis; spermatheca (Fig. 6) with bulbous apical part enclosed in a mass of brownish tissue ex- tending along with sub-basal saccoid part through a short slender duct. All measurements, with ranges in parentheses are in millimetres and are based on at least ten ob- servations. Measurements: Total body length male 4.01(3.95- 4.15), female 4.82 (4.6-5.05); maximum width (across pronotum) male 1.06(1.05-1.1), female 1.23 (1.2-1.35); head length male 0.58 (0.5-0.65), female 0.67 (0.6-0.7); head width (across eye) male 1.18 (1.15-1.2), female 1.34 (1.3-1.4); interocular width male 0.81 (0.8-0.85), female 0.93 (0.9-1); antennal segment I male 0.25(-), female 0.255 (0.25-0.3), II male 0.70 (0.6-0.75), female 0.73 (0.7-0.75), III male 0.69 (0.65-0.75), female 0.72 (0.7-0.75), IV male 0.81 (0.75-0.85), female 0.86 (0.7-0.9); labial length male 1.82 (1.75-1.85), female 2.05 (1.95- 2.1). Description of Immature Stages Fifth instar (Fig. 7): General coloration green, females appear slightly larger than males, body linear in outline with fine pilosity. Head pale with tint of light brown; viewed from top wider (across eyes) than long; tylus sub- acutely protruding, slightly exceeding juga; anten- nifers just produced; vertex region slightly arched; buccular area a little swollen; eye chocolate brown, stalked separate from pronotal margin; ocellus red; dilute brown markings extending at base of head, anterior to ocelli, in tylus and antennifer regions; an- tenna brown fuscous, segment IV longest, II and III subequal, finely pilose; labium green with a central brown axial marking, tip of segment IV mostly brown, just passing or reaching hind coxae, segment I just reaching base of head. Thorax with pronotum twice as broad as long, anterior and posterior margins nearly straight with slight concavity, lateral margins insignificantly ex- planate and slightly wavy, a pair of shiny narrow straight calli; legs greenish with tint of brown shade at the lateral side of femora, part of tibiae and tarsi; fore femora without spine but small warty structure at distal end; mesothoracic wing pads green with scanty hair, explanate margin, extending up to mid- dle or end of III abdominal tergum. Abdomen in general green; two dark brown spots between IV-V, V- VI tergal segments preceded and followed by other light brown and white patches along mid-dorsal line; connexivum well marked with a light greenish yellow colour; very fine decumbent hairs all over abdomen; females with a broad patch of shiny oblong plate in the ovipositor region. Measurements: Total body length 3.92 (3.6-4.15); maximum width (across pronotum) 1.12 (1.05- 1.25); head length 0.69 (0.6-0.8); head width (across eye) 1.16 (1. 1-1.2); interocular width 0.78 (0.7- 0.85); antennal segement I 0.25 (-), II 0.63 (0.6- 0.65), III 0.64 (0.6-0.7), IV 0.77 (0.7-0.8); labial length 1.81 (1.75-1.85). Fourth instar (Fig. 8): Similar in form to 5th instar, coloration pale green; impression of ocelli obscure; wing pads extend up to half the length of abdominal tergum I, less green than that of 5th instar; brown markings along the mid-dorsal line dilute and less prominent; sexes not easily distinguishable by seeing genital segments. Measurements: Total body length 2.79 (2.5-3. 1); maximum width (across pronotum) 0.90 (0.85- 0.95); head length 0.56 (0.55-0.6); head width (across eye) 0.94 (0.9-0.95); interocular width 0.69 (0.65-0.75); antennal segment I 0.22 (0.2-0.25), II 0.51 (0.5-0.55), III 0.51 (0.5-0.55), IV 0.62 (0.55- 0.7); labial length 1.53 (1.45-1.6). Third instar (Fig. 9): General form and coloration similar to 4th instar; tiny mesothoracic wing pad ob- tusely triangular; mesonotum with a pair of brown streaky markings parallel to the pronotal calli; mid- dorsal brown markings of abdomen very light ex- cepting two around dorsal scent glands; connexivum well marked out, partly explanate with prominent yellowish marking; abdomen with fine hair. Measurements: Total body length 2.23 (2.1-2.35); maximum width (across pronotum) 0.77 (0.75- 0.85); head length 0.47 (0.45-0.5); head width (across eye) 0.79 (0.75-0.8); interocular width 0.57 (0.55-0.6); antennal segment I 0.18 (0.15-0.2), II 0.405 (0. 4-0.45), III 0.43 (0.4-0.45), IV 0.49 (0.45- 238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 7-12. Aethalotus horni Breddin 7. Fifth instar nymph; 8. Fourth instar nymph; 9. Third instar nymph; 10. Second instar nymph; 1 1. First instar nymph; 12. Eggs, AETHALOTUS HORNI FROM NORTHEAST INDIA 239 0.55); labial length 1.31 (1.25-1.35). Second instar (Fig. 10): Sordid yellowish green; head pale yellow with dilute brown markings; distal end of antennal segment IV whitish; dark brown mesonotal markings (calli) as prominent as that of prothoracic; connexivum slightly explanate; dorsal abdominal scent gland area yellowish brown with a darker tint around orifice; labium reaching or just passing abdominal segment I. Measurements: Total body length 1.75 (1.55-1.95); maximum width (across pronotum) 0.58 (0.55-0.6); head length 0.41 (0.4-0.45); head width (across eye) 0.6(-); interocular width 0.43 (0.4-0.45); antennal segment I 0.15 (-), II 0.34 (0.3-0.35), in 0.35 (-), IV 0.42 (0.4-0.45); labial length 1.01 (0.95-1.05). First instar (Fig. 11): Sordid yellow with a tint of green; head prominently yellow, labium passing ab- dominal segment I; pro, meso, and metathorax with transverse pairs of black markings, dorsal ab- dominal scent gland area light reddish-yellow in colour; abdominal tip with a prominent brown mark- ing, ventrally presence of a blackish blot of some in- ternal organ. Measurements: Total body length 1.47 (1.3- 1.6); maximum width (across pronotum) 0.47 (0.45-0.5); head length 0.34 (0.3-0.4); head width (across eye) 0.46 (0.45-0.5); interocular width 0.35 (0.3-0.4); an- tennal segmentl 0.13 (0.12-0.15), II 0.27 (0.25-0.3), III 0.28 (0.25-0.3), IV 0.32 (0.3-0.35); labial seg- ment 0.82 (0.75-0.9). Egg (Fig. 12): Pearly white, shiny with obscure decumbence, cucumber shaped with slight curva- ture, caudal end slightly tapered, mature orange red with eye spots of ensheathed embryo, micropylar processes long, slender, slightly swollen in the mid- dle and extending broadly up to the tip, micropylar processes 10 to 11. Measurements: Length 1.29 (1.15-1.4); width 0.402 (0.4- 0.42). Acknowledgements We thank Mr. W.R. Dolling, British Museum (Natural History), London, for identifying and com- menting on the specimens. We are also grateful to the Head, Dept of Zoology and the Director, Centre for Life Sciences, North Bengal University, Raja Rammohunpur, for providing working facilities and space. The financial assistance of North Bengal University is thankfully acknowledged. References Bhasin, G.D. (1953): A systematic catalogue of the main iden- tified entomological collections at the Forest Research In- stitute, Dehra Dun. Indian Forest Leaflet 121(3): 102. Chatterjee, N.C. (1937): Entomological investigations on the spike disease of sandal (32) Lygaeidae (Hemiptera). Indian Forest records 3(4): 105-121. Distant, W. L. (1910): The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma, Rhynchota-V (Heteroptera): 2-3; Taylor and Francis, London. 5 AN ANALYSIS OF SOME EXTERNAL FACTORS IN THE SEXUAL PERIODICITY OF THE INDIAN BAT MEGADERMA LYRA LYRA (GEOFFROY)1 A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik2 (With five text-figures) The breeding habits of Megaderma lyra lyra have been studied from different localities in India at different latitudes with markedly different climatic factors, such as temperature, rainfall, humidity and duration of the day. The species breeds once in a year almost synchronously in all the localities, the date of copulation advancing only by a few days towards lower latitudes. Evidently, the breeding pattern of this species is genetically determined, and external factors do not seem to play a significant role. Introduction Most species of Indian bats, whose reproduc- tive habits have been studied so far, breed once a year in a sharply defined season. The different species, however, breed during different seasons in the year. Thus, while some species mate during March-April and experience pregnancy during the following months (Gopalakrishna 1947, Gopalak- rishna et al. 1985, Kumar 1965, Sapkal and Khamare 1984), several species mate during November-December and gestation follows im- mediately (Ramakrishna 1951, Ramaswamy 1961, Gopalakrishna and Rao 1977, Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1978, Madhavan et al. 1978, Madhavan 1981). A few species like Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Madhavan 1971), Tadarida aegyptiaca (Sandhu 1986) and T. plicata (Pendharkar 1982) mate in June-July at the commencement of the mon- soon. Rousettus leschenaulti (Gopalakrishna and Choudhary 1977) and Cynopterus sphinx (Sandhu and Gopalakrishna 1984, Sandhu 1984) breed twice a year in quick succession, once during November- December and a second time during March-April. Taphozous longimanus (Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955), Pipistrellus dormeri (Madhavan 1978) and P. mimus (Gopalakrishna et al. 1975) breed throughout the year. All the above mentioned studies have been made by examining specimens of a given species in a given locality. Hence, it has not been possible to explore the possibility of the influence, if any, of ex- ternal factors on the breeding behaviour of these animals. India, being a vast country (Fig. 1) extend- 1 Accepted February 1988. department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur, Maharashtra 400 001. ing from about 8°N to over 37°N latitude and having several mountain ranges, thick forests and deserts, has a wide range of climatic and ecological condi- tions in different parts of the country. An evaluation of the effect of external factors on the reproductive behaviour of bats can only be made provided the breeding habits of the same species are studied in different parts of the country and under different climatic and external factors. The present work has been undertaken precisely with this view. Megader- ma lyra lyra has a wide distribution and is, therefore, an ideal species whose reproductive behaviour in different parts of the country with wide variations in climatic and ecological conditions may help in un- derstanding the possible influence of external fac- tors on the reproduction of this species in particular and of Indian bats in general. Material and Methods The present studies have been conducted on specimens of Megaderma lyra lyra collected at and near Bangalore (12° 58’N, 77° 35’E), Srirangapat- tana (12° 26’N, 76° 43’E), Aurangabad (19° 53’N, 75° 20’E), Nagpur (21° 09’N, 79° 07’E) and Agra (27°10’N, 78°02’E). The locations for study have been so chosen as to represent a wide range in latitude (from 12° 26* to 27° 10* N) with a view to ensuring a wide range of natural seasonal climatic conditions, and within a very small range in lon- gitude (from 75° 20* to 79° 07 ’E). Other factors such as altitude, occurrence within a short distance of forest, desert, or mountain have also been taken into consideration while choosing the geographical areas for this study. Since the breeding behaviour of this species is identical in Bangalore and Srirangapat- tana, and since the climatological characters of these two places do not differ significantly, the climatic SEXUAL PERIODICITY IN MEGADERMA LYRA LYRA 241 68 72 76 80 f 88 9f 4 1 ( . , , . . 72 76 80 84 88 92 4 Fig. 1 . Map of India showing locations where the reproductive habits of Megaderma lyra lyra have been studied. factors of only Bangalore are included in this report. The climatic and solar factors which have been considered here are: maximum and minimum temperature, percentage relative humidity, rainfall and duration of the day (sunrise to sunset). The data were obtained through the courtesy of the meteorological department. Government of India, and from the publication entitled "Climatological and solar data for India" by the Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttar Pradesh. General Notes on Megaderma lyra lyra This species normally roosts in underground tunnels, deep dungeons of old forts and dark reces- ses of old temples, deep natural and artificial caves, tunnels of discarded mines and deep, dark wells. In one or two places near Nagpur a few specimens were found hanging from the ceiling in dark grain godowns and old cowsheds. These were most probably temporary places of roosting adopted by the specimens which had been disturbed from their usual roosting places either due to breaking up of the original roost or due to mining and blasting activities carried out nearby. This species is specially scotophilous and avoids places where there is much light This peculiar habit is also evident from the fact that they do not emerge from their roosting places until quite some time after sunset and until darkness nearly sets in. They return to the roost at least two to three hours before sunrise. During moonlit nights their foraging time is considerably abbreviated - from about 2300 hrs to about 0200 hrs only. In all the places, where these bats have been studied for the present report, the roosting places were invariably near a water source, either in the form of a river or a canal or a large tank. It appears that this species selects a dark place near a constant source of water for roosting. The presence of water appears to ensure a certain degree of humidity in the roost, and this appears to be a natural requirement for this animal. Megaderma lyra lyra is a semicamivorous bat and feeds on smaller vertebrates like lizards, frogs, small birds apart from large bodied insects (Brosset 1962). This bat sometimes attacks other smaller bats and is sometimes cannibalistic (pers. obs.). No other smaller bat species was ever noticed among the specimens of Megaderma lyra lyra in any of the places from where these specimens were examined. Brosset (1962), however, mentioned that a few other species were associated with Megaderma lyra lyra at Elephanta and Pattadakal. This is a very uncom- mon feature, and probably a few specimens of Megaderma lyra lyra might have invaded the roosts of other bats for foraging or, conversely, some specimens of other species may have accidentally strayed into the roosting places of Megaderma lyra lyra. On a few recent visits to these places one of the present authors (A.G.) noticed the presence of Megaderma lyra lyra in these localities but invariab- ly the specimens remained separate from the other species, either in a separate cave (as in Elephanta) or in a separate temple building (as in Pattadakal). This species mates in November in all the localities and pregnancy follows immediately. Deliveries in the colony occur during the latter half of April. The young ones are weaned at an age of 35 to 40 days. The adults are sexually inactive during the rest of the year. Table 1 gives the data regarding the various phases of the sexual cycle of this bat in the four localities. Climatological Factors From Figs. 2a-d, which give the maximum and Temperature 242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig.2. (a-d) Maximum and minimum temperatures at different localities recorded on 5th, 15th and 25th of each month. An: anoestrus; C: copulation; G: gestation; L: lactation; P: parturition. 70 FMAMJJAS ON o MONTH Figs. 3 (a - d) Monthly rainfall in different localities. Legends as in figures 2a-d. SEXUAL PERIODICITY IN MEGADERMA LYRA LYRA 243 Table 1 VARIOUS PHASES OF THE SEXUAL CYCLE NOTICED IN THE PRESENT STUDIES IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES Locality Earliest date of conception Earliest date of delivery Lactation Anestrous period Bangalore 14 November 13 April Up to about Latter part of May to (unfertilised egg) 20 May middle of November. Aurangabad 18 November 15 April -do- -do- (2-celled embryo) Nagpur 24 November 17 April Up to about Latter part of May to (4-celled embryo) 23 May last week of November. Agra 26 November 20 April Up to about Last week of May to (4-celled embryo) last week of May last week of November. minimum temperatures in the four localities for the whole year, it is evident that there are marked dif- ferences not only in the temperature but in the dif- ference between the maximum and minimum temperature in the different localities on any given date. Whereas Bangalore experiences a nearly eq- uable climatic condition without much variation in the range of temperature (difference between daily maximum and minimum) throughout the year, the other localities, especially Nagpur and Agra, ex- perience severe summer, relatively cold winter and considerable variations in the range of temperatures during the year. Figs. 3 a-d show the monthly rainfall and Fig. 4 shows the percentage of atmospheric humidity in the four localities. These factors also present wide variations in the quantum as well as time relation- ships in the different localities. Fig. 5 illustrates the duration of the day, which varies considerably in the four places during different days of the year. Ex- amination of Table 1 reveals that the basic breeding pattern of this bat is nearly the same in all the localities, there being only a slight advancement of the various phases towards the lower latitudes. The entire range of difference in the various phases of the reproductive cycle between the lowest and the highest latitudes is about 8 to 10 days (Gopalakrish- na and Badwaik 1989). Discussion Baker and Baker (1936) and Baker and Bird (1936) were perhaps the First who made an attempt to relate reproduction to external factors in bats while studying the breeding habits of some bats in New Hebrides. They reported that Pteropus geddiei and P. eotinus among fruit bats and Miniopterus australis and a few other insectivorous bats at New Hebrides breed in a sharply defined season once a year. They were unable to draw any relationship be- tween climatic factors and breeding habits because an almost unvarying tropical rain forest precluded the effect of any external factor on the breeding habits of the bats which experience a well defined annual sexual cycle. Working on Indian bats Gopalakrishna and Sapkal (1986) and Gopalakrish- na and Badwaik (1989) noticed that even among species inhabiting the same locality, while some bats had a strict reproductive periodicity, a few breed throughout the year. Further, among the species mentioned in the first category the reproductive pat- tern differs considerably. For example, Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus and Rousettus leschenaulti live in the same roost in Mahabaleshwar but present very different breeding habits. Several such instan- ces have been reported already (Gopalakrishna and Sapkal 1986). All these investigations were made on one-species-one-location basis except Megaderma lyra lyra (Gopalakrishna and Badwaik 1989). Hence it was not possible to draw generalised conclusions on the effect of environmental factors on the breed- ing habits of bats. The work of Dwyer (1963a, b, 1968, 1970) on some Australian vespertilionids revealed that there was significant difference in the breeding habits of the bats he studied between lower and higher southern latitudes. Whereas the duration of the delay of implantation of the blastocyst increased towards higher southern latitudes in Miniopterus schreiber- sii blepotis , the breeding season of Myotis adversus was longer at lower latitudes. The present study has revealed that Megader- ma lyra lyra studied at different parts of India with considerable variations in climatic' and ecological conditions breeds nearly at the same time of the year Duration of the day in hours % Humidity 244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 5. Duration of the day on 5th, 15th and 25th of each month as calculated from sunrise to sunset in all the localities. Legends as in Fig. 4. SEXUAL PERIODICITY IN MEGADERMA LYRA LYRA 245 in all the places - copulation occurring in the third or fourth week of November and deliveries taking place in the third or the fourth week of the follow- ing April. There is no evidence of any delayed im- plantation of the blastocyst nor of retarded develop- ment of the embryo at any place where this species has been studied. The only Indian bat whose reproductive behaviour has been investigated from different parts of India is Rhinolophus rouxi from Bangalore and Khandala (Ramakrishna and Rao 1977). While this species has normal development of the embryo at Bangalore, the embryo has retarded early development and delayed implantation of the blastocyst at Khandala. This is the only Indian bat in which there appears to be some influence of ex- ternal factors on reproduction. The proximity of Megaderma roosts to a perennial water source partially obviates much variation in relative humidity in the roost. Second- ly, in all the places the bats live nearly in darkness. Further, they emerge from their diurnal haunts con- siderably after dusk and return to the roost much before dawn. Thus, it appears that sunlight may not play a significant role in the sexual periodicity of this species. It has been already mentioned that temperature changes do not alter the basic breeding pattern. The only slight change is that the date of onset of breeding activity is advanced by a few days towards lower latitudes. This is, however, not very significant In Megaderma lyra lyra no single external fac- tor or combination of factors brings about a major change in the season of onset of sexual activity and the course of embryonic development. Further, this species breeds nearly at the same time in all the places in spite of marked variable environmental conditions. Evidently, the reproductive rhythm of this bat is genetically determined and the influence, if any, of external factors is not very significant. Acknowledgements We thank the C.S.I.R. for financial assistance for carrying out this work. References Baker, J.R., & Baker, Z. (1936): The seasons in a tropical rain forest (New Hebrides) - Part III - Fruit bats (Pteropidae). J. Linn. Soc. London, 40: 123-141. — & Bird, T.F. (1936): Seasons in a tropical rain forest (New Hebrides) - Part IV - Insectivorous bats (Vesper- tilionidae and Rhinolophidae). ibid. 40: 143-161. Brqsset, A. (1962): The bats of central and western India - Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 583-624. Dwyer, P.D.(1963a): Reproduction and distribution in Miniop - terns (Chiroptera). Aust. J. Sci. 25: 435-436. — — — • — ■- (1963b): The breeding biology of Miniopterus schreibersii blepotis (Temminck) (Chiroptera) in north- eastern New South Wales. Aust. J. Zool. 11: 219-240. — (1968): The biology, origin and adapation of Mini- opterus australis (Chiroptera) in New South Wales. Aust. J. Zool. 16:. 49-68. — (1970): Latitude and breeding season in a polyoestrous species of Myotis. J. Mammal., 51 : 405-410. Gopalakrishna, A. (1947): Studies on the embryology of Microchiroptera - Part I - Reproduction and breeding seasons in the south Indian vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus wrought oni (Thomas). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 26: 219-232. (1954): Breeding habits of the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). Curr. Sci., 23: 60-61. (1955): Observations on the breeding habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci . India 21: 29-41. — & Badwaik, N. (1989) Breeding habits and as- sociated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part XII - Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffrey) (Megadermatidae) at dif- ferent latitudes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86 (1): 42-45. & Choudhary, P.N. (1977): Breeding habits and as- sociated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part I -Rouset- tus leschenaulti (Desmarest) - Megachiroptera. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 1-16. — & Madhavan, A. (1978): Breeding habits and as- sociated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part III - Hip- pos ider os ater ater (Templeton), ibid. 74: 511-517. & Rao, K.V.B. (1977): Breeding habits and as- sociated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part II - Rhinolophus rouxi (Temminck). ibid. 74: 213-219. - & Sapkal, V.M. (1986): Breeding biology of some Indian bats — A review, ibid. 83: 78-101. Thakur, R.S. & Madhavan, A. (1975): Breeding biology of the southern dwarf pipistrelle, Pipistrellus minus minus (Wroughton) from Maharashtra, India. Dr. BS. Chauhan Comm. Vol.: 225-240. Varute, A.T., Sapkal, V.M., Unune, A.R. & Chari, G.C. (1985): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part XI - Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus (Hodgson) - Vespertilionidae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 594-601. 246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Kumar, T.C.A. (1965): Reproduction in the rat-tailed bat, Rhinopoma kinneari. J. Zool. London, 147: 147-155. Madhavan, A. (1971): Breeding habits in the Indian vesper- tilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Wroughton). Mammalia 35: 283-306. (1978): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part V - Pipistrellus dormeri (Dob- son) - Vespertilionidae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75: 426- 433. (1981): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part Vl-Scotophilus heat hi (Horse- field) - Vespertilionidae. ibid. 77: 227-237. Patil, D.R. & Gopalakrishna, A. (1978): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part IV — Hipposideros fulvus fuivus (Gray) (Hip- posideridae). ibid., 75: 96-103. Pendharkar, Y.D. (1982): Early development. Development of foetal membranes and placentation in the Indian molossid bat, Tadarida plicata plicata (Buchanan). Unpublished thesis, Saugor University. Ramakrishna, P.A. (1951): Studies on reproduction in bats - 1 - Some aspects of reproduction in the oriental vampires, Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy) and Megaderma spasma (linn.). J. Mysore Univ. 1 %: 107-118. & Rao, K.V.B. (1977): Reproductive adaptations in the Indian rhinolophid bat, Rhinolophus rouxi (Tem- minck). Curr. Sci. 46: 270-271. Ramaswamy, K.R. (1961): Studies on the sex-cycle in the Indian vampire bat. Megaderma ( Lyroderma ) lyra lyra (Geof- frey). Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India, 27: 287-302. Sandhu, S. (1984): Breeding biology of the Indian fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in central India. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 600-611. (1986): Studies on the embryology of some Indian Chroptera. Unpublished thesis, Nagpur University. & Gopalakrishna, A. (1984): Some observations on the breeding biology of the Indian fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in central India. Curr. Sci. 53: 1189-1192. Sapkal, V.M. & Khamare, K.G. (1984): Breeding habits and as- sociated phenomena in some Indian bats - Part VIH - Taphozous melanopogon (Temminck) - Emballonuridae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 303-311. TICKS (ACARI: IXODIDAE) COLLECTED ON CHELONIANS (REPTILIA) FROM INDIA AND BURMA1 J.G. Frazier2 and J.E. Keirans3 An account of three species of hard ticks (Ixodidae) found on three species of chelonians in India and Burma is given. Data are presented for each tick species including: numbers of ticks, host, locality, and other collection infor- mation. In addition, the primary synonymy and published records for each species are briefly reviewed. Two new host records are reported, and a previously reported range extension of 3,000 km is confirmed. Introduction During a study (by J.G.F.) of chelonians in India and Burma, ticks were collected opportunisti- cally from wild and captive specimens. Two species of land tortoise (Testudinidae), one from India and one from Burma, and a terrapin (Emydidae, Batagurinae) in India were found to harbour ticks. Although in years past there has been active work on ticks in India (Sharif 1928, Miranpuri and Gill 1983), it was not possible to get local identifications of these parasites, and they were identified by a specialist (J.E.K.) at the Museum Support Centre, Smithsonian Institution, where the National Tick Collection (formerly deposited in the Rocky Moun- tain Laboratory [R.M.L.]) is housed. Collection data on tick, host, date, locality, and collection numbers are given in Table 1. Tick Species Amblyomma clypeolatum Neumann Amblyomma clypeolatum Neumann 1899 Amblyomma atrogenatum Nuttall & Warburton 1908 Amblyomma zeylanicum Neumann 1908 This tick species was orginally described by Neumann (1899) from 6 males found on a tortoise of unknown species and locality. Nuttall and War- burton (1908) described A. atrogenatum from 6 males collected on a specimen of the star tortoise Geochelone elegans (Schoepf), sent from India to the Zoological Gardens, London. Later Keirans and Accepted December 1988. 2Programa Regional de Vida Silvestre, Universidad Nacional, Apto. 1350, Heredia, Costa Rica. 3Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Na- tional Institutes of Health, National Institute of Allergy and In- fectious Diseases, Dept, of Entomology, Museum Support Centre, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560, U.S.A. Brewster (1981) selected a lectotype for A. atrogenatum from Nuttall and Warburton *s specimens. Neumann (1908) described A. zeylanicum on the basis of 2 females received from Sri Lanka from an unstated host, and Warburton (1925) reported a single collection of A. clypeolatum (number un- stated) from Geochelone elegans in the Colombo Museum, Sri Lanka. Robinson (1926) and Sharif (1928) also cited collections of A. clypeolatum from Geochelone elegans in India and Sri Lanka, and Seneviratna (1965) collected adult A. clypeolatum on G. elegans in the Zoological Gardens, Dehiwela, Sri Lanka. Amblyomma clypeolatum is not well repre- sented in collections. The U.S. National Museum Collection contains 1 female from a specimen of Geochelone elegans ‘from Calcutta, India* (RML 48932). Calcutta is well outside the known geographic range of Geochelone elegans , which is found from southeastern Pakistan, throughout much of western and southern India, to Sri Lanka (Frazier in prep.). In Sri Lanka, Deraniyagala (1939:275) reported that G. elegans hosted large concentrations of the tick Aponomma gervaisi (Lucas). However, A. gervaisi is known to parasitize only snakes and varanid lizards (Kaufman 1972); therefore, this record from a chelonian is questionable. It is remarkable that during a study in western India (Rajasthan and Gujarat) only 2 out of 90 specimens (2%) of G. elegans were parasitized by ticks (species identified in 1 case); in both cases there was only one tick attached to the host. In con- trast, the G. elegans population in south India (Andhra Pradesh) appears to be much more heavily parasitized; 5 out of 9 (56%) were infested: each one with a single tick. Sites of attachment include: forearm; hind leg near base; base of tail; midplastral 248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 TICKS COLLECTED ON CHELONIANS Tick host species Numbers RMLNo, Species JGFNo Date Locality Amblyomma clypeolatum 1 IM 119771 Geochelone elegans 5042 24 Aug. ’86 Moti Mager Snake Park, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. Amblyomma clypeolatum 1M 118982 Geochelone elegans 5467 16 July ’87 Batundody Cross, Chitoor District, Andhra Pradesh.India. Amblyomma clypeolatum IF 118983 Geochelone elegans 5468 16 July ’87 Batundody Cross, Chitoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Amblyomma clypeolatum IF 118984 Geochelone elegans 5469 16 July ’87 Batundody Cross, Chitoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Amblyomma geoemydae 2 F 118985 • Melanochely s trijuga 5506 23 July ’87 Chibidre &Charmady South Kendra, Karnataka, India. Aponomma varanensis 6 M 118986 Manouria emys 5532 3 SepL ’87 Rangoon Zoological Park, Rangoon, Burma suture; and carapace suture. In no instance did a tor- toise hosting a tick appear to be in bad condition. Amblyomma clypeolatum appears to be a specific ectoparasite of G. elegans in both India and Sri Lanka. There are no known records of ticks on the sister species, Geochelone platynola (Blyth), found only in Burma. Amblyomma geoemydae (Cantor) Ixodes geoemydae Cantor 1847 Amblyomma geoemydae Neumann 1906 Amblyomma malayanum Nuttall and Warburton 1908 Amblyomma caelaturum Cooper & Robinson 1908 Amblyomma caelaturum perfectum Schulze 1932 Amblyomma geoemydae was originally described by Cantor (1847) from the batagurine ter- rapin Heosemys (formerly Geoemyda , see Moll et al. 1987) spinosa (Gray) caught in the Pinang Hills, Sumatra. This tick parasitizes a variety of reptiles (especially chelonians, but occasionally lizards) in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan, Ryuku Islands, and Japan (Yamaguti et al 1971). Recently this tick was found on a Travancore tor- toise Indotestudo travancorica (Boulenger) from Kerala (Vijaya 1983), some 3,000 km outside its known range. Out of 22 specimens of Melanochelys trijuga (Schweigger) examined in Dakshin Kannad District (South Kanara), Karnataka, only 1 (5%) was parasitized by A. geoemydae . Not one of 21 specimens of this species of terrapin examined in Corbett National Park, Nainital District, Uttar Pradesh (north India), was infested with ticks. (Ac- cording to contemporary taxonomy the terrapins from Karnataka would be Melanochelys trijuga coronata (Anderson) and those from Uttar Pradesh, M. t. indopeninsularis [Annandale].) The occurrence of A. geoemydae on Melanochelys trijuga in India represents a new host record and confirms a range extension of ap- proximately 3,000 km for the tick. Amblyomma geoemydae is likely to occur on a variety of chelonians, and some lizards, in southern India, northeastern India and Burma. The Western Ghats may be the western-most limit of the geographic range of this tick. Aponomma varanensis (Supino) Ixodes varanensis Supino 1897 Aponomma quadratum Cooper & Robinson 1908 Aponomma gervaisi var. lucasi Warburton 1910 Aponomma lucasi Schulze 1933 Aponomma barbouri Anastos 1950 Aponomma varanensis Santos Dias 1958 Aponomma varanensis was first described from Varanus salvator collected at Monti Catcin, Burma (Supino 1897). This tick is most often reported from snakes and varanid lizards, and is known from a wide geographic range, including India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines (Kaufman 1972). Chelonians on which A. varanensis has been reported are few and include the Asian box turtle Cuora amboinensis (Daudin), (Kaufman 1972). The occurrence of Aponomma varanensis on Manouria emys (Schlegel and Muller) represents a new host record. TICKS COLLECTED ON CHELONIANS 249 Nothing is known of rates of tick infestation on Manouria emys. The presence of 6 male ticks on the appendages of a single male tortoise is not as remarkable as it may seem because this is a giant tor- toise; the individual infested was 40.7 cm in straight carapace length. Acknowledgements Support to J.G.F during the study was provided by: American Institute of Indian Studies, Indo- American Subcommission, Flora and Fauna Preser- vation Sociey, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- vice. Shri I. Das helped with an obscure reference and comments. References Anastos, G. (1950): The scutate ticks, or Ixodidae, of Indonesia. Entomol. Amer. 30: 1-144. Cantor, T. (1847): Catalogue of reptiles inhabiting the Malay peninsula and islands, collected or observed by Theodore Cantor, Esq., M.D. , Bengal Medical Service. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal. (180), n.s. (7): 607-656. Cooper, W.E & Robinson, L.E. (1908); On six new species of Ixodidae, including a second species of the new genus Rhipicenlor Nuttall and Warburton. Proc. Camb.phil. Soc. Math. Phys. Sci. 14: 457-470. Deraniyagala, P.E.R (1939): Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon. Colombo Museum, Colombo, xxxii + 412 pp., 24 pis. Kaufman, T. (1972): A revision of the genus Aponomma Neumann, 1899 (Acarina: Ixodidae). Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, ix + 389 pp. Keirans, J.E. & Brewster, B.E. (1981): The Nuttall and British Museum (Natural History) tick collections: Lectotype designations for ticks (Acarina: Ixodoidae) described by Nuttall, Warburton, Cooper, and Robinson. Bull. Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool.) 41: 153-178. Miranpuri, G.S. & Gill, H.S. (1983): Ticks of India. Lindsay & Macleod, Edinburgh, iv + 125 pp. Moll, E.O., Groombridge, B. & Vuaya, J. (1987): Redescrip- tion of the cane turtle with notes on its natural history and classification. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supp.): 112- 126. Neumann, L. G. (1899): Revision de la famille des Ixodides. 3e memoire. Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr. 12: 107-294. (1906): Notes sur les Ixodides. IV. Archs. Parasitol. 10: 195-219. (1908): Notes sur les Ixodides. VI. Archs. Parasitol. 12: 1-27. Nuttall, G.H.F. & Warburton, C. (1908): On a new genus of Ixodoidea together with a description of eleven new species of ticks. Proc. Comb. phil. Soc. Math. Phys. Sci. 14: 392-416. Robinson, L.E. (1926): Ticks. A monograph of the Ixodoidea. Part IV. The genus Amblyomma. Cambridge at the Univer- sity Press. 302 pp. Santos Dias, J.A.T. (1958): Notas ixodologicas m. Sobre duas especies do genero Aponomma Neumann, 1 899 do Regiao Oriental. Mem. Estud. Mus. Zool. Univ. Coimbra. (249): 1-9. Schulze, P. (1932): Neue und wenig bekannte Arten derZecken- gattungen Amblyomma und Aponomma. Zeit. Parasitenk 4: 459-476. (1933): Ixodidae der Deutschen Limnologischen Sunda-Expedition. Arch. Hydrobiol. Suppl. 12: 409-502. Seneviratna, P. (1965): The Ixodoidea (ticks) of Ceylon. Parts H and m. Ceylon Vet. J. 13: 28-54. Sharif, M. (1928): A revision of the Indian Ixodidae with species reference to the collection in the Indian Museum. Rec. Ind. Mus. 30(3): 217-344. Supino, F. (1897): Nuovi Ixodes della Biimania (Nota preven- tiva). Atti Soc. Ven.-Trent. Sci. Nat. Padova. 3: 230-238. Vuaya, J. (1983): First record of Amblyomma geoemydae from India. Hamadryad 8(1): 13. Warburton, C. (1910): On two collections of Indian ticks. Parasitology 3: 395-407. (1925): Report on Ixodidae of the Colombo Museum. Spolia Zeylanica 13: 255-256. Yamaguti, N., Tipton, V.J., Keegan, H.L. & Toshioka, S. (1971): Ticks of Japan, Korea, and the Ryukyu Islands. Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull. Biol. Ser. 15: 1-226.. STATUS OF THE SWAMP DEER CERVUS DUVAUCEU DUVAUCEU IN THE DUDWA NATIONAL PARK, UTTAR PRADESH1 Ravi Sankaran2 (With three text-figures) Despite protection to the Dudwa National Park since 1968, the swamp deer population has continued to decline. Satiana, which had about 1200 swamp deer in the early 1970s currently has only 300. In other areas, the population has remained static or has increased as in Kakraha. The reason for this decline at Satiana is the seasonal movement of the deer into two marshes that lie outside the Park in agricultural areas. Protection in these areas is non-existent and poaching presumably takes a heavy toll. It is suggested that a fence be erected along the Park boundary at Satiana to prevent the seasonal movement of swamp deer into agricultural areas. Introduction Most threatened species of deer occur in iso- lated rural areas of developing countries where wildlife poaching and pressures on wildlife habitats, to graze stock, cut grass or collect fuel is frequently intense (Holloway 1975). The rapid decline of the swamp deer Cervus duvauceli duvauceli in the terai of Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) over recent years is a case in point. This despite the establishment of two sanctuaries, Kishanpur and Katemiaghat, and the Dudwa National Park with the objective to conserve this species. Out of eleven areas where swamp deer were reported in the mid 1960s (Schaller 1967) only three held any ‘reasonable’ numbers by the early 1970s (Hollowayl973). The situation has deteriorated in some areas (Table 1). Preferred habitat of the swamp deer are mar- shes and grasslands. Due to the repatriation of set- tlers throughout the terai of U.P. most of the grassland have been converted into agriculture in the past, the predominant crops being sugarcane Sac- ckarum officinarum , wheat Triticum aestivum and paddy Oryza sativa. Forestry policies have often considered grasslands as ‘wastelands’. The resulting planting of exotics and indigenous tree species in grasslands has converted several good grassland habitats into woodlands (Rahmani et al. 1988). In addition, relendess hunting has decimated the large herds that were seen in the terai belt (Singh 1973). Today, North Lakhimpur, South Lakhimpur and Pilibhit are the. only three forest divisions where swamp deer exist in U.P. Excepting Dudwa Nation- accepted March 1990 2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023. al Park which holds the largest population, the cur- rent status of the swamp deer in other areas of U.P. is unknown. Despite protection of the Dudwa National Park since 1968, the swamp deer numbers have continued to decline there. The main grasslands of the Park are present along the Suheli river, hence most of the swamp deer are seen along the river which forms the southern boundary of the Park (Fig. 1). The grasslands of Satiana had the maximum numbers of swamp deer. Certain areas that are traditionally used for rutting by the herds at Satiana have not been in- cluded in the National Park. This has resulted in the movement of the swamp deer into unprotected agricultural areas for over half the year. Due to the high incidence of poaching outside the Park, the deer numbers continue to decline there. In areas where such movement is not seen populations have remained static or have shown an increase. Study Area In 1968, 212 sq. km, of the North Kheri forest division was declared as Dudwa Wildlife Sanctuary primarily to conserve the swamp deer. On 1 February 1977 the Dudwa Sanctuary was upgraded to a National Park, and covered an area of 614 sq. km, with a core area of 490 sq. km (Fig 1). In 1987 Dudwa National Park was brought under Project Tiger. Along with the Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (158 sq. km core area and 43 sq. km buffer) the Project Tiger area covers 815 sq. km. However, the two forest areas are not contiguous. The Dudwa National Park is situated between 28°24’ and 28°27’N and 80°31’and80°52’E in the northern extremity of Lakhimpur Kheri district of Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1). Elevation above sea level Bankatti Range Z Fig. 1. Map of Dudwa National Paik, Uttar Pradesh. '/// / Swamp Deer Areas 252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 1 POPULATION OF SWAMP DEER IN DUDWA NATIONAL PARK AS REPORTED BY HOLLOWAY (1972), SCHAAF &SINGH(1977),V.P. SINGH (1984) AND THIS STUDY (1988 & 89) Area Actual count 1972 Estimate 1977 Act. Est. 1981 Act. Est. 1988 Act. Est. 1989 Act. Est. 1 . Satiana 627 1200 950 _ 932 262 400 287 300 2. Kakraha 12a 20 276 - 221 150 250 302* 325 3. Bankey taal 40a 50 18 - 173 64 100 71 100 4. Nagra taal c. 20 b. - 40 b. - 4a. - 5. Bhadi taal 12a. 30 b. - 35 10 35 18 40 691 1320 1244 1401 486 800 682 765 a. reported (not personally seen by author); b. not counted; c. ‘present’ * Q. Qureshi, pers. comm. ranges from 150 m in the southeast to 182 m in the north. The Mohana and Suheli rivers form natural boundaries to the north and south respectively. The Park’s water system drains into these two rivers which are tributaries of the Sharda, which in turn is a part of the Ganges river system. The vegetation is chiefly moist deciduous forest, dominated by sal Shorea robusta. Typical of the terai, these forests are interspersed with tracts of low lying grasslands which tend to get flooded during the monsoons. In the 1950s, under planta- tions schemes, tracts of the grasslands were planted with sheeshum Dalbergia sissoo , simul Bombax ceiba and eucalyptus. These plantations have most- ly been unsuccessful, leaving behind scattered clusters of trees in varying densities. Grasslands occupy about 120 sq. km of the Park and can be broadly classified into two types. Wet low lying areas are dominated by tall grass species such as Schlerostachya fusca, Phragmites karka , Arundo donax and Saccharum spontaneum while drier high ground is dominated by grasses like Imperata cylindrica , Desmostachya bipinnata , Erianthus munja , Cymbopogon martini (Jain and Sastry 1983, Hajra and Shukla 1983, pers. obs.). The climate can be divided into three seasons. Winter (October to early March); summer (mid March to mid June); and monsoon (mid June to Oc- tober). The annual precipitation is about 1600 mm with July and August being the wettest months. The temperatures can reach 47°C in May/June, and may drop to a minimum of 0°C in December/January. Methods The study period extended from 22 January 1988 to 22 June 1988, 1 to 13 November 1988 and from 15 February 1989 to 10 July 1989. All data pertaining to herd size and composi- tion were collected from an area of about 25 sq. km around the Satiana Forest Rest House. Other areas occupied by swamp deer were visited frequently to assess the populations there. Between 1 and 13 November 1988 the entire Satiana region, including the marshes at Ghola and Ghajrola (agricultural areas into which the swamp deer move, Fig. 2) was surveyed extensively on elephant back. Swamp deer were counted mostly from a vehicle, and less frequently from a machan, on foot or from an elephant’s back. The grasslands around Satiana were divided into three zones namely Kowhaghatti and Chapra, Navalkhad and Madraiya, the roads being fixed transects (Fig. 2). The former two were visited at least once a day and Madraiya was visited approximately thrice a week. In addition to this, in 1989 all grasslands holding swamp deer in the Satiana region were extensively surveyed on elephant back. Every sighting of swamp deer was recorded and time and visibility permitting, the deer were also aged and sexed. They were classified into three groups. Stags and hinds were identified ir- respective of age. Fawns were all animals estimated to be bom in the preceding fawning season. The ratios for stags, hinds and fawns are calculated for the period between 24 January and 29 April 1988. During this time the visibility was best because the grasses were short. Estimate of population for 1988 at Satiana is based on the percentage of grasslands covered. As in 1988, counts were made from the roads and only about 65% of the grassland area was visible from the vehicle. Therefore while estimating (Table 1), I have correspondingly calculated for Satiana. In 1989 Satiana was surveyed extensively using elephants. FOREST FOREST Fig. 2 Satiana (Dudwa Range) showing ranges of swamp deer during end winter/summer and monsoon/early winter. 254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 By this method areas not visible from roads and machans are covered and very few swamp deer are missed. Both estimates for Bhadi taal are based on population structure as seen at Satiana. In 1988 Kakraha was surveyed in May when swamp deer herds are fragmented and the vegetation is tall. Therefore in spite of using elephants the ac- tual counts were poor and estimating population was difficult. Estimate of 1988 population is based on total 1989 population minus fawns under one year old. In this paper I compare the total population present in the various areas in 1989 with the 1988 census. Other details pertaining to population are from 1988. Results Census: A comparative account of the swamp deer population between 1972 and 1989 is given in Table 1. In 1988, 800 swamp deer were estimated in 4 disjunct grasslands of Dudwa National Park. Of these four grasslands Satiana had 50%, Kakraha 31%, Bankey taal 13% and Bhadi taal 5% respec- tively of the 800 swamp deer estimated in the Park. The remaining two areas reported to have swamp deer (Singh 1984), i.e. Nagra taal and Churela taal were visited only twice and swamp deer were not seen there. In 1989 about 765 swamp deer were estimated, with Satiana having 39%, Kakraha having 42%, Bankey taal 13%, and Bhadi taal 5% of the popula- tion. Four and seven deer were seen respectively at Nagra and Churela taals in 1989 (V. B. Sawarkar pers. comm.) At Bankey taal 173 swamp deer were counted in 1981 (Singh 1984). During this study, a maximum of 64 swamp deer was counted once in 1988 and 71 deer were seen in 1989. Up to 90 animals have been reported. Generally in the summer months, deer numbers varied between 20 and 40. The swamp deer are believed to move, seasonally, between Kakraha block and Bankey taal (Singh 1984, Q. Qureshi pers. comm., pers. obs.) and so an accurate estimate will be difficult to arrive at. In Kakraha block, which is now part of the rhino enclosure where seven rhinos Rhinoceros unicornis have been re-introduced, the second largest congregation of swamp deer is seen. 276 were seen in 1977, 221 in 1981 and 150 deer by me in 1988 (see also materials and methods) and in 1989, 302 animals were counted within the enclosure (Q. Qureshi, pers. comm.). There has un- doubtedly been an increase in the swamp deer population in this area. At Bhadi taal all 10 swamp deer seen in 1988 seemed to be stags. In 1989 out of 18 deer seen here 12 were stags. If the stag to hind to fawn ratio is as- sumed to be the same as in Satiana, then the popula- tion has remained stable between 1981 (35 deer), 1988 ( c . 35 deer) and 1989 (c. 40 deer). Periodic data on the numbers of swamp deer present in the Satiana region are available, between 1972 and 1989. There has been a drop by 75% of the population during the last 17 years. Losses have been comparatively less between 1972 and 1981 (22.3%), and severe between 1981 and 1988 (57.1%)and between 1988 and 1989(25%).In 1981 an actual count tallied 932 swamp deer (Singh 1984), but during this study the maximum seen in one day was 287, both studies having used elephants to do the census. Population structure: A comparative account of the average monthly herd sizes seen at Satiana in 1980 and 1988 is given in Table 2. Average herd size of all herds seen was 29.35 in 1980 and 18.41 in Table 2 COMPARATIVE DATA ON HERD SIZE 1980 & 1988 Months Herd size 1980 Average (n) Average Herd size 1988 (n) (s.d.) Difference in % 1 . Jan. 39.0 (23) 10.33 (6) 4.23 73.51 2. Feb. 38.7 (19) 19.78 (51) 15.69 48.89 2. Mar. 32.6 (12) 28.52 (94) 29.47 12.52 3. April 29.6 (26) 22.16 (75) 21.56 25.14 4. May 19.3 (27) 17.48 (96) 16.52 9.43 5. June 16.9 (9) 12.21 (38) 11.47 27.75 (n) = Number of herds; 1980 Singh (1984); 1988 this study. STATUS OF SWAMP DEER IN DUDWA NATIONAL PARK 255 Fig. 3. Highest number of swamp deer seen cm any given day during 5-day periods between 23 January and 22 June 1988 irf the grassland around Satiana Forest Rest House. 1988, showing a distinct drop in the herd sizes be- tween the two studies. This is more marked when the deer return to the Park and less so once they begin to disperse in the grassland (see also Fig.3). In 1988 the largest herd seen was of about 150 swamp deer, a drop of 37% from the herd of 237 animals seen in 1981 (Singh 1984). The largest herd seen in 1989 had 130 deer. Herd size averages have been calculated from groups of two or more individuals, and hence are the same in both studies. During this study, the ratio between hind and stags was 100:45.5. In 1964-65 it was 100:50 (Schaller 1967) and in 1979-80 it was 100:40 (Singh 1984) (Table 3). In the hard ground Barasingha Cer- vus duvauceli branderi in Kanha the ratio had remained more or less the same between 1964-65 and 1971-73 at 100 hinds to 75.2 stags (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977). Martin (op. cit.) also found in Kanha that the sex ratio between yearlings is 1:1 while in adults it is biased towards the hinds. In this study, ageing was not done while noting down the sex ratios. It is likely that the bi^s will be even greater towards the hinds. In 1988 37.14% and in 1989 c. 30% of the hinds had fawns. As counts were carried out more than 6 months after the fawning period, these figures would represent those fawns that survived early fawn mortality. In 1979-80, 27.58% of the hinds had fawns (Singh 1984) and for 1964-65 Schaller (1967) found that between 26.85 and 35.19% of the hinds had fawns. In the Sukla Phanta reserve in Nepal Schaaf (1978) found that between 33.9% and 42.6% of the swamp deer hinds had fawns over three successive years. In the barasingha at Kanha, 26.7%, Table 3 COMPARATIVE DATA ON HERD COMPOSITION 1980 - 1988 Year Stag % of Total Hind Fawn Number of fawns per 100 hinds 1980 25.4 58.5 16.12 27.58 1988 25.02 54.65 20.03 37.14 1980 Singh (1984), 1988 this study 6. 256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Table 4 NUMBER OF SWAMP DEER SIGHTINGS IN DUDWA N.P. BETWEEN 3 TO 13 NOVEMBER 1988 Area Total Stag Hind Rutting call Hoof prints Bankey taal 43 15 22 3 - Kakraha 0 0 0 0 (present but not seen, Sinha pers. comm.) Satiana Chapra 0 0 0 0 none Navalkhad 0 0 0 0 none Kowhaghatti 0 0 0 0 none Madraiya 3 1 1 0* few near Muthna taal Agriculture Ghola taal 18 9 3 8 numerous Ghajrola 10 5 4 0* numerous ♦Seen in the afternoon, a time of day the swamp deer do not bugle 41.2% and 36.1% of the hinds had fawns during the years 1971 to 1973 (Martin 1977). Movement of Swamp deer at Satiana The swamp deer at Satiana have two distinct ranges. The late winter and summer range is within the Park, during which time they are seen in the grasslands of Madraiya and around the Satiana Forest Rest House. During the monsoons and early winter the deer move outside the Park and are present in predominantly agricultural areas (Fig. 2). As both ranges are adjacent to each other, distance travelled by the deer is about two kilometres at most. With the onset of the monsoons the swamp deer at Satiana emigrate into the adjacent agricul- tural areas (Singh 1984, Schaaf and Singh 1977, this study). For the next seven months the deer live in the jheels (and in the sugar cane) of Ghola and Ghaj- rola. It is in this marshy habitat that the annual rut commences at the end of August and ends in the last week of January (Singh 1984). About mid January, when the grasses have dried up, the annual grass burning begins and is completed by the end of February. The swamp deer begin returning to the Park in the end of January fol- lowing the grass bum. At first they arrive in small herds, and then gather in larger groups before dis- persing within the grasslands. The swamp deer are seen at Madraiya first and then at Chapra and Kowhaghatti and lastly at Navalkhad (Fig. 3). By the end of June the swamp deer begin moving out of the Park into the adjacent agricultural areas of Ghola and Ghajrola. Monsoon and early winter range: The mon- soon/early winter and the late winter/summer ran- ges are given in Fig. 2. In 1965 Schaller saw a herd of about 500 swamp deer in and around the Ghola taal. At this time the land (about 1200 ha) belonged to a few large landholdings and much of the marshland and grassland remained intact. After the Land Ceiling Act, the land was cut into smaller portions ranging from 1 .2 ha upwards and distributed among landless immigrants from eastern U.P. and the Punjab. The grasslands and marshes swifly gave way to sugar- cane and to a lesser extent paddy. All that remains of the marsh at Ghola is one fairly large jheel called Ghola taal that covers about 100 ha less than 1 km. west of the Satiana Forest Rest house. From this a narrow channel, about 50 m at its widest, runs roughly parallel to the Suheli river and widens into another jheel adjacent to Ghajrola village, and in parts contiguous with the forest that flanks the Suheli river. This jheel is south of the Madraiya grasslands (Fig. 2). Thick stands of grass predominantly Sachharum spontaneum (local name kans) are present in and around the jheels. At Ghola (in the 1st week of November 1988) I counted about 18 swamp deer of which 9 were stags. Of these at least 5 stags were bugling. At Ghaj- rola the jheel was surveyed only in the afternoon and so rutting was not heard. Ten swamp deer were seen of which 5 were male. Inquiries among the locals in- dicated that at least 7-8 rutting stags were present. It was also understood from the agriculturists that several swamp deer spent the day inside the sugar- cane. It is probable that the swamp deer of Madraiya move into Ghajrola while the deer around the STATUS OF SWAMP DEER IN DUDWA NATIONAL PARK 257 Satiana forest rest house move into Ghola (Figs. 2 and 3). In contrast inside the Park no swamp deer were seen in Chapra Phanta, Navalkhad, Kowhaghatti and most of Madraiya. Furthermore there were no signs of swamp deer using these areas. Only 3 swamp deer were seen inside the Park, 1 stag and 1 hind near Muthna taal and 1 hind near the electric fence adjacent to Gliajrola taal. Bugling was not heard from any place within the Park. Discussion Till 1988 Satiana region had the maximum numbers of swamp deer found in the Park. With a further loss of about a hundred animals the popula- tion is now slightly less than that of Kakraha. The decline in numbers in Satiana is reflected as a general reduction in the total population. It is widely assumed that the loss of habitat is one of the major causes for the decline of many species of animals. The decline of swamp deer at Satiana can be attributed only indirectly to a loss of habitat because the area has been protected since 1967, first as a Wildlife Sanctuary and then as a Na- tional Park. Singh (1984) postulated that one reason for the decline of the swamp deer population was a high fawn mortality rate caused by the flooding of the grasslands during the monsoons. Data available to me contradicts this. Fawning success rates of 27.58% in 1980, 37.14% in 1988 and c. 30% in 1989 indicate normal fawning successes as compared to other mono-tocous deer (Martin 1977, Schaaf 1978). Furthermore, fawning takes place between end May and early July (Singh 1984), just with the onset of the monsoons at the end of June. Thus the fawns would escape all but unusually early floods. Fawn mortality is therefore not a likely explanation for the decline. The major cause for the decline in deer popula- tions all over the world has been over exploitation by hunting (Cowan and Holloway 1973). In India two other Cervidae, the hangul Cervus elaphus hanglu and the Manipur brow antlered deer Cervus eldi eldi have been seriously affected by hunting (Kurt 1978, Ranjitsinh 1978). Holloway (1973) and Singh (1984) recognized poaching as the cause for the decline of the swamp deer at Satiana. While hunting may not occur within the Park it is fairly widespread outside the Park. The swamp deer are therefore vulnerable when they leave the Park and move into their monsoon and early winter ranges. Evidence of poaching was present at both the mar- shes at Ghola and Ghajrola. The marshes are entered in buffalo drawn carts and swamp deer are shot with the aid of a spotlight. Alternatively, hunters drive around the crop areas and shoot deer from jeeps. Conversations amongst local agriculturists indi- cated frequent poaching incidents, especially by the wealthier farmers. Furthermore gunshots were heard almost daily throughout the study periods from the Satiana Rest House. Movement of the Swamp Deer Similar to the barasingha at Kanha (Martin 1977), the swamp deer at Satiana have distinct seasonal ranges. As a little over half the year is spent outside the Park in what are presently agriculture areas this has had a direct negative influence on the population. Before a conservation strategy can be prepared it is imperative to understand the causes behind this seasonal movement. While only an in- depth study will reveal in detail these factors, I at- tempt here to postulate certain relevant ideas. Seasonal migration or movement has been well documented in deer. This movement between seasonal ranges is an adaptation to specific climatic or food conditions in the different ranges during the year. In the elk Cervus canadensis and in the moose Alces alces such movements are largely due to non- availability of food due to snow (Phillips et al. 1973). Similar movements due to snow are seen in the hangul (Kurt 1978). In the hard ground barasin- gha at Kanha this movement is due to seasonal non- availability of water in different parts of its range (Martin 1977). Furthermore, deer are known to be traditional and have a strong tendency to return to their seasonal ranges over the years (Martin 1977, Schaaf 1978, Cederlund et al. 1987). In fact this tendency to return to rutting grounds appears to be so strong that in old fallow deer areas the rutting grounds were used for over 50 years (Ueckermann 1968). In the barasingha at Kanha in central India, lack of surface water is the main factor behind the deer’s movement (Martin 1977). At Dudwa this is not the case, for due to a high water level, surface water is available in almost the entire area 258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 throughout the year. It has been suggested that the deer migrate out- side the Park at Satiana due to flooding of the grasslands (Singh 1984, Schaaf and Singh 1977). This is unlikely due to three reasons: a) Ghola and Ghajrola are also prone to flooding during the mon- soons, b) Rood waters are not a permanent feature and subside within a few hours or days, depending on the intensity of the rains, c) The swamp deer had already begun leaving the Park at the end of June 1988, much before the monsoons had set in. In 1989 I surveyed the entire grassland areas of Satiana using elephants between 2 and 6 July. No swamp deer were seen at Kowhaghatti, Navalkhad or Chapra. In the adjacent Ghola taal at least 13 animals were present. Similarly, at Madraiya less than 10 deer were located. The outward migration had already taken place well before flooding of any sort had occurred. The reasons possibly lie in a need for a specific habitat during the monsoons and for the rutting season. This habitat is the marsh or jheel (shallow lake that dries up in part or completely in summer). All swamp deer seen during the November 1988 sur- vey were found in and around the jheels, the only exceptions being the 3 deer seen at Madraiya, and even these were close to a waterbody. At Bankey taal, in three visits in November 1988, all the swamp deer seen were within the water grazing on aquatic vegetation. Singh (1984) says that aquatic vegeta- tion forms an important part of the swamp deer’s diet. Therefore the marsh would be an important source of food to the swamp deer when grasses else- where have flowered and dried up. The marsh also appears to be important for rut- ting. An integral aspect of the rutting season is wal- lowing (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977, Schaaf 1978, Singh 1984, pers. obs.). At all the marshes visited, several wallowing holes wpre present at the periphery of the jheels. Martin (1977) and Schaaf (1978) state that stags appear to show site fidelity to their wallows. Furthermore, as the swamp deer have presumably been using the Ghola and Ghajrola taals for several years as their rutting grounds, they would traditionally return to these taals to rut in. Martin’s (1977) observation that at least one wallow remained the same between 1964-65 and 1972-73 would also indicate a strong traditional bond to the rutting grounds among sw^np deer. At Satiana, though there are several ponds and taals they are all quite deep. Marshland habitat (or jheels) do not exist inside the Park in this region. Hence the swamp deer would be compelled to leave the Park to fulfill specific habitat requirements for the monsoon and early winter period. The swamp deer would be induced to return to the Park primarily due to the new grasses emerging after the annual grass bum in January. Undoubtedly the human related disturbances would hasten their return, in spite of the conditions appearing to be favourable outside. Conclusions Satiana was the only area with a significant loss in swamp deer numbers. At Kakraha there has been an increase in deer numbers probably as a result of the deer being localised within the rhino re- introduction area. At Bhadi taal and Bankey taal the population seems to have remained stable but more data is necessary for these two regions. The decline of the Satiana population is due to traditional movements into preferred habitat that he in areas which are not protected from poaching. In areas of the Dudwa National Park where such move- ments into agricultural areas are not found, the swamp deer populations have remained stable or in- creased over the years. Intensive patrolling of the Ghola and Ghajrola agricultural areas during the monsoon and winter is the immediate action that needs to be taken to en- sure the survival of the swamp deer at Satiana. Ideally the agricultural areas of Ghola and Ghajrola should have been acquired to prevent fur- ther loss of habitat and to prevent poaching in the vital rutting grounds. However, these areas are quite densely populated now and land acquisition will be difficult to achieve. Instead, I propose that the entire length of the Suheli upto its confluence with the Neora nala be permanently fenced so that the deer are forcibly retained within the Park throughout the year. If the outward seasonal movement of the swamp deer is not stopped it is likely that the swamp deer will vanish from the grasslands of Satiana in a few years. One basic requirement for the survival of any species is safe breeding grounds. At Satiana, where the largest herds of swamp deer were present, tradi- STATUS OF SWAMP DEER IN DUDWA NATIONAL PARK 259 tional movement patterns between breeding and non-breeding grounds were not taken into con- sideration when the Dudwa National Park was created. This has resulted in an annual exposure of the swamp deer to heavy poaching pressures and the continuing conversion of swamp deer rutting grounds into agriculture. Acknowledgements This study was undertaken while studying the Bengal florican under the Endangered Species Project of the Bombay Natural History Society. The Project was sponsored by the Department of En- vironment, Government of India and funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. I wish to thank Mr J.C. Daniel, Dr A.R. Rah- mani, Dr A.J.T. Johnsingh, Dr Chris Wemmer, Mr Ajay Desai and especially Dr Michael Stuwe for their comments and criticisms on earlier drafts of this paper. Dr S.P. Sinha and Mr Qamar Qureshi provided important information. In the Uttar Pradesh Forest Department. I thank Mr R.P. Shar- ma, Mr Bhadoria, Mr R.P. Singh, Mr G.C. Mishra, Mr M. Singh and the field staff of Dudwa National Park for their support. I also thank Mr Arjan Singh for fruitful discussions. Mr Mehboob Alam’s able assistance in the field made life much easier. References Cederlund G., Sandgren, F. & Larsson, K. (1987): Summer movements of female moose and dispersal of their off- spring. J. Wildl. Manage. 51(2): 342-352. Holloway, C. (1973): Swamp deer in Uttar Pradesh. Oryx 12: 41-48. Holloway, C. (1975): Threatened deer of the world: Research and Conservation projects under the IUCN Programme. Deer Vol. 3 No. 8. Hajra, P.K. & Shukla, U. (1983): Dudwa National Park (Some botanical aspects of the proposed new habitat for rhino). Botanical Survey of India. Howrah. Jain, S.K. & Sastry, A.R.K. (1983): Botany of some tiger habitats in India. Botanical Survey of India. Kurt, F. (1978): Kashmir deer ( Cervus elaphus hanglu) in Dachigam. Threatened deer. pp. 87-108. IUCN Morges, Switzerland. Phillips, R.L., Berg, W.E. & Siniff, D.B. (1973): Moose move- ment patterns and range use in Northwestern Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(3): 266-278. Martin, C. (1977): Status and ecology of the barasingha (Cervus duvauceli branderi) in Kanha National Park (India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(1): 60-132. Rahmani, A.R., Narayan, G., Sankaran, R. & Rosalind, L. (1988): The Bengal Florican. Annual report 3. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1978): The Manipur brow antlered deer (Cer- vus eldi eldi ): A case history. Threatened Deer. pp. 26-32. IUCN Morges, Switzerland. Schaaf, D. (1978): Population size and structure and habitat rela- tions of the Barasingha (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli ) in Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Ph.d. thesis, Michigan State University. Schaaf, D. & Singh, A. (1977): Barasingha in the Dudwa Sanctuary. Oryx 13 : 495-498. Schaller, G.B.' (1967): The Deer and the Tiger. A study of Wildlife in India. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. Singh, A. (1973): Tiger Haven. Macmillan London Limited. Singh, V.P. (1984): Bio-ecological studies on Cervus duvauceli duvauceli , Swamp Deer (Barasingha) in Dudwa forest near Indo-Nepal Border. Ph.D. Thesis, Kanpur University. Ueckermann (1968): Das Dam wild. Hamburg/Berlin. (Not con- sulted in the original). NEW DESCRIPTIONS JULOSTYUS POLYANDRA (MALVACEAE) - A NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA1 N. Ravi and N. Anilkumar2 (With a text-figure) Julostylis polyandra , a new species from the forests of Kerala, is described and illustrated. Introduction Until the discovery of the species described here, Julostylis Thw. has been a monotypic genus represented by J. angustifolia (Am.) Thw. from Sri Lanka (Th waites 1858) and Kerala (Ramamoorthi and Rajan 1985). The specimens of the new species have been collected from the forests of Ponmudi Hills, Trivandrum District and Kakki, Pathanamthit- ta District, Kerala at different periods. The new species, especially in herbarium specimens, has su- perficial resemblance to Kydia calycina Roxb. and hence is often mislabelled in local herbaria. Julostylis polyandra sp. nov. Affinis J. angustifolia (Am.) Thw. ab hac tamen differt in eo quod habet suborbicularia ad ovata folia cum elongatis glandibus ad inferiorem basem, largi flores cum 4-6 triangulares-ovatae epicalyx segmento, cordatae ad basem, sparse stel- latae cum pilis exterioribus, stamina 17-20 et aciculares staminales dentes. Holotypus Ravi 2475 A (MH), Isotypus 2475 B (CAL), 2475 C (Sree Narayana College Her- barium) (SNCH), Quilon et 2475 D (KFRI),15 August 1988, Ponmudi Hills, Trivandrum Dt., Kerala, Paratypus Ravi 2647 (SNCH), 19 Decem- ber 1988, Ponmudi Hills, Anilkumar 70 (SNCH), 11 September 19 87, -Kakki, Pathanamthitta Dt., Kerala et Anilkumar 364 (SNCH), 12 January 1988, Kakki. Julostylis polyandra sp. nov. is allied to J. an- gustifolia (Am.) Thw. but differs from the latter in having suborbicular to ovate blade with elongate glands at the base below, large flowers with 4-6 tri- angular-ovate epicalyx segments, cordate at base, sparsely stellate hairy outside, 17-20 stamens and Accepted May 1989. department of Botany, Sree Narayana College, Quilon, Kerala. acicular staminal teeth. Holotype Ravi 2475 A (MH), Isotypes 2475 B (CAL), 2475 C (Sree Narayana College Herbarium) (SNCH), Quilon and 2475 D (KFRI), 15 August 1988, Ponmudi Hills, Trivandrum Dist., Kerala, Paratypes Ravi 2647 (SNCH), 19 December 1988, Ponmudi Hills, Anilkumar 70 (SNCH), 11 Septem- ber 1987, Kakki, Pathanamthitta Dist., Kerala and 364 (SNCH), 12 January 1988, Kakki. Small trees, 8-15 m high; branches terete, rusty stellate tomentose when young. Leaves reddish when young, simple, alternate, stipulate; stipules linear-oblong, stellate tomentose outside, caducous; petiole 1-8 cm long, terete, stellate tomentose; blade suborbicular to ovate, 4-21 by 2-18 cm progressive- ly small upwards, often palmately 3-angled or - lobed in the upper half, palmately 5-ribbed at base, sparsely stellate tomentose on both sides, prominently so on ribs and veinlets below and usual- ly with an elongate gland with a median slit at the base and lower surface of mid-rib, sometimes also on one or both inner lateral ribs, base rounded or cuneate, margin subentire. Inflorescence erect more or less congested pyramidal panicle, branches 2 to many flowered, progressively shorter upwards. Flowers yellow, bisexual; pedicel up to 1.5 cm long; bract elliptic- oblong, 3 by 1 mm, rusty stellate tomentose outside; bracteoles obovate, a little shorter than bract, stellate tomentose outside. Epicalyx accrescent, segments 4-6, slightly con- nate at base, triangular-ovate, up to 15 by 8 mm, stel- late pubescent, subcordate at base, acute to sub- acute, erect, ultimately spreading. Calyx persistent, connate to the middle, 8-10 by 5-6 mm, stellate tomentose outside, prominently so on the tube; lobes triangular, subacute, 3-nerved. Corolla yellow with a purple centre; petals 5, free, narrowly obovate, 1.5- 2 by 1 cm, stellate pubescent on outer surface and simple hairy on inner surface. Stamens 20 (rarely NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. l.Julostylis polyandra sp. nov. A. Infrutescent twig; B. Gland (Anilkumar 364); C. Flower, D. Bract; E. Bracteole; F. Epicalyx segment; G. Calyx; H. Petal; I. Androecium; J. Anther, K. Gynoecium; L. C.S. of ovary (Ravi 2475); N. Stellate hairs on fruit; O. Seed (Ravi 2647). 262 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HITT. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 17-19), monadelphous, sparsely glandular hairy; column short 5-7 mm long; apical teeth 5, acicular; filaments slender, purplish c. 6 mm long; anthers yellow, 1-celled, reniform. Ovary c. 2 mm long, den- sely hairy, bilocular; ovules 2 per loculus, basal- axile; style exserted, up to 1.5 cm long with 2 (rare- ly 1) branches, thickened and stellate hairy above the middle, stigma peltate-thickened. Fruit indehis- cent c. 5 by 6 mm, shortly beaked, densely covered with stellate and simple hairs. Seeds reniform, c. 4 mm long, dark brown, closely longitudinally striate with sparse to more or less dense fugaceous stellate hairs. There is much variability in the extent of lobing of the blade, number of glands on the ribs, nature of inflorescence and hairiness of the seed in different plants. The glands are often absent in the smaller upper leaves. Acknowledgements We thank the Director, B.S.I. for financing the District Flora Scheme- Pathanamthitta, which enabled us to discover the new taxon; Dr R. Geesink, Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Holland, for confirming the identity of the species; Dr J. Joseph, former Joint Director, B.S.I., Dr. M. Sanjappa, B.S.I., Howrah, Dr M. Sivadasan, Department of Botany, University of Calicut and Mr. N. Sasidharan, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, for encouragement and helpful suggestions. We also wish to thank Rev. Fr. Alphonse G. Thundil, Jyothi Niketan Women’s Col- lege, Quilon, for the Latin diagnosis. References Ramamoorthi, K. & Rajan, R. (1985): Journal of Economic and Thwaites, G. H. K. (1 858): En. pi. Zey. 30. Taxonomic Botany, 7, 3: 728-29. A NEW SPECIES OF GALL- FORMING CROTON OTHR1PS (INERMOTHRIPS) (THYSANOPTERA: PHLAEOTHRIPIDAE) FROM MANIPUR1 L. Nilamani and B. Prasad2 ( With a text-figure) Crotonothrips ( Inermothrips ) maoensis sp. nov. which inhabited horn gall on Schefflera wallichii from Mao, Manipur State, is described and illustrated. Ananthakrishnan (1967) erected a new genus Crotonothrips with C. gallarum as type-species and Muraleedharan & Sen (1978) described a new sub- genus Inermothrips under the genus Crotonothrips Ananthakrishnan with Crotonothrips {Iner- mothrips) cacharensis as type-species. In this paper a new species C. (Inermothrips) maoensis produc- ing horn-like galls on Schefflera wallichii from Mao, Manipur State is described. KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES OF SUBGENUS Inermothrips OF GENUS Crotonothrips Fore femora yellow, antennal segment 1 brown, yellow at extreme base, 2 yellow, brown at base and margin, 3-4 yellow, rest brown. Forewings with 6-7 double fringes cacharensis Muraleedharan & Sen Antennal segments 1-2 brown, 3-8 yellow. All the femora brown, forewings clear with 12-15 double fringes maoensis sp. nov. Crotonothrips maoensis sp. nov. female (Macropterous): General body colour brown; head, abdominal segments V-Vin and tube dark. Antennal segments 1-2 brown, 3-8 yellow. All femora brown, fore tibiae yellow, mid and hind tibiae brown with yellow at apices. Wings clear with brown stripe at the middle parallel to the wings. All setae brown and blunt Head a little broader or as long as wide, 194- 2003 long, 186-190 wide across the eyes, 198-202 wide across the cheeks, 182-186 wide across the base. Eyes 56-60 long, 44-48 wide. Lateral ocelli 20- 24 wide, median ocellus overhanging between the Accepted December 1989. 2Laboraatory of Entomology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Manipur, Canchipur 795 003, India. 3 All measurements in microns unless otherwise mentioned. NEW DESCRIPTIONS 263 Fig. 1. Crotonothrips maoensis sp. nov. A. Head and Prothorax; B. Antennae; C. Abdominal segment IX with tube; D. Pelta; E. Mesopraestemum. antennae. Postoculars shorter than eyes, 36-40 long. Antennal segments 1-8 length (width) 1:24-28(44); 2:44-48(34); 3:50-54(32); 4:52-54(36); 5:50- 54(36); 6:50-54(28); 7:42-46(18); 8:20-24(8). Sense cones 20-24 long, mouth cone 120-126 long, 166-170 wide at base, 40-44 wide at apex. Maxillary stylets oculad, retracted from the base of the pos- toculars and closed at the middle. Prothorax 122-126 long at median line, 190- 194 wide at anterior margin, 318-322 wide at posterior margin including coxae. Anteroanguiars a little longer than anteromarginals, 26-30 and 18-22 long respectively. Mid laterals 42-46 long, epimerals 82-86 long, postangulars 26-30 long. Pterothorax 364-370 wide at meso — and 348-354 wide at metathorax. Forewings 782-788 long, 80-84 264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 wide with 1215 double fringes. Specially, it has 4 basal wing bristles 42-46, 50-54, 52-56, 44-48 long respectively. Mesopraestemum complete, narrow at middle. Abdomen 334-338 wide at base, 336-340 wide at middle, 250-254 wide at segment VIII, 160-164 wide at segment IX. B1-B3 of segment IX 208-212, 206-210, 220-224 long respectively. Tube 264-268 long, anal setae 212-216 long. Total body length without tube 1.9- 2.1 mm. MALE (Macropterous): Body colour same as female. Head 202-206 long, 180-184 wide across the eyes, 192-196 wide across the cheeks, 172-176 wide across the base. Eyes 80-84 long, 48-52 wide, lateral ocelli 20-24 wide, median ocellus overhang- ing. Postoculars 28-32 long. Antennal segment 1-8 length (width) 1:36-40(40); 2: 48-52(28); 3:64- 68(32); 4:68-72(36); 5:64-68(28); 6:60-64(28); 7:56-60(20); 8:28-32(12). Sense cones 20-24 long. Mouth cone 152-156 long, 156-156 wide at base, 40-44 wide at apex. Maxillary stylets oculad, closed at middle. Prothorax 148-152 long at median line, 196- 200 wide at anterior margin, 352-356 wide at posterior margin including coxae. Anteroangulars 28-32 long, anteromarginals 24-28 long. Mid laterals 40-44 long, epimerals 92-96 long, postan- gulars 36-40 long. Pterothorax 384-388 wide at meso — and 376-380 wide at metathorax. Fore wings 780-786 long, 80-84 wide with 12-15 double frin- ges. Basal wing bristles Bi - B5 48-52, 44-48,60-64, 48-52, 40-44 long respectively. Mesopraestemum complete, narrow at middle. Abdomen 352-356 wide at base, 384-388 wide at middle, 208-212 wide at segment VIII, 112-116 wide at segment IX. B1-B3 of segment IX 220-224, 60-64, 180-184 long respectively. Tube 232-236 long, anal setae 160-164 long. Total body length without tube — 1 . 1 - 1 .3 mm. Material examined: Holotype female, allotype male, paratype 6 females, 4 males, INDIA: Manipur, Molnum (Pallel, 1000 m), 8 December 1984 and Mao (3000 m), 2 November 1986. Ex-Leaf horn gall on Schefflera wallichii. This new species resembles Crotonothrips ( Inermothrips ) cacharensis Muraleedharan and Sen in general characters, but differs in colour of femora and antennae, number of double fringes, shape of pelta; and specially it is differentiated from other species in having 4-5 basal wing brisdes. The new species Crotonothrips maoensis sp. nov. is named after the Mao area which is the col- lection site. Acknowledgements We are indebted to Prof. (Dr.) T.N. Ananthak- rishnan, Director, Entomological Research Institute, Madras for the confirmation of the species. We also thank Dr Samir Sen, Assistant Zoologist, Thysanop- tera Section, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for his invaluable help in the identification and providing us many relevant literature. References Ananthakrishnan, T.N. (1967): Studies on new and little known Tubulifera from N.E. India with description of a new sub- Indian Thysanoptera. Orient. Ins. 1 (1-2): 113-138. genus. Bull. Tool. Surv. India. 7(3): 257-261. Muraleedharan, N. & Sen, S. (1978): Two new species of TWO NEW VARIETIES OF CHRISTELLA DENTATA (FORSSK.) BROWNSEY ET JERMY1 N. PUNETHA AND B.S. KHOLIA2 (With a text-figure) Among thelypteroid ferns, Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey et Jermy is fairly widespread in Accepted August 1989. department of Botany, Govt. RG. College, Pithoragarh 262 501, Uttar Pradesh. the western Himalaya. It grows in varied habitats and is spreading in the areas where the forests have been felled. It is an extremely polymorphic species. During fern-collection from Pithoragarh district of Kumaon region (northwest Himalaya) certain vari- NEW DESCRIPTIONS 265 Fig. 1. New varieties of Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey et Jenny 1-5. Christella dentata var. glabra var. nov.: 1. Lateral pinna; 2. Reduced basal pinna; 3. Venation; 4. Indusium; 5. Spore. 6-10. Christella dentata var. himalayensis var. nov.: 6. Lateral pinna, 7. Reduced basal pinna, 8. Venation, 9. Indusium, 10. Spore. able populations of this fern from the typical Chris- tella dentata (which are cytologically, however, in- variably sexual tetraploid) were observed and specimens collected. Subsequently these, along with our comments were sent to Prof R.E. Holttum (at Kew), who confirmed their identity as new varieties of C. dentata. A key is provided to distin- guish between the two varieties. KEY FOR TWO VARIETIES OF Christella dentata Rhizome erect; plants glabrous; pinnae broadly lobed; veins 6-7 pairs; perispore spinulose C. dentata var. glabra Rhizome long creeping, plants pubescent; pinnae narrowly lobed; veins + 7 pairs; perispore vemicose C. dentata var. himalayensis 266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey et Jermy var. glabra var. nov. A varietate typica speciei differt: caudice erec- to. Stipite apicem versus glabro, pinnis late-lobatis, veins 6-7-jugatis (Fig. 1:1-5). Specimens examined: Holotype, K; Isotype, Bot. Pithoragarh 88130, 88131. Locality: Thai (800 m), April 1988. Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey et Jermy var. himalayensis var. nov. A varietate typica speciei differt: pinnis in- ferioribus 3-5- jugatis sensim redactis, infimis 5.5 cm longis; veins +7-jugatis (Fig. 1: 6-10). Specimens examined: Holotype, K; Isotype Bot. Pithoragarh, 88120, 88121, 88122. Locality: Village Hachila (Didihat -1200 m), February 1988. Acknowledgements We thank Prof. RE. Holttum (Kew) for the identity of the ferns, for the Latin diagnosis of the new varieties and for encouragement. Thanks are also due to the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, for financial support A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS MEGACHILE LATREILLE (HYMENOPTERA: APOIDEA: MEGACHILIDAE), FROM INDIA1 Virendra Kumar2 (With a text-figure) The genus Megachile Latreille is represented by 8 subgenera: Eutricharaea Thomson, Paramegachile Friese, Xanthosarus Robertson, Cyphopyga Robertson, Delomegachile Viereck, Litomegachile Mitchell, Macromegachile Nos- kiewicz, Addendella Mitchell from Western Hemi- sphere (Mitchell 1980); 2 subgenera: Callochile Michener as well as Eutricharaea Thomson from Eastern Hemisphere. Megachile s. str. occurs in both the Hemispheres. Megachile s. str. from the Indian region was so far represented by only one species, namely: Megachile buddhae Dali. Torn (Bingham 1897). In this paper a new species, Megachile ( Megachile ) bharatpurensis is described from Bharatpur (India). Megachile (Megachile) bharatpurensis sp. nov. MALE: Integument black, shining; tegulae brown; punctures are fine and closely placed; pubes- cence golden-red, on cheeks and stemums white. Head wider than the median length; inner eye margin convergent below and slightly incurved at median area; clypeal surface is flat, apical margin laterally outcurved and medially broadly in- 1 Accepted November 1989. department of Zoology, Agra College, Agra, Uttar Pradesh. vaginated; parocular area with a prominent carina; occipital margin without parallel fold; genae dis- tinctly narrowed above; hypostomal area with dense, elongated white hairs; mandible four dentate, lower margin almost straight from base to apex. Scutum convex, with coarse and sparsely dis- tributed punctures; median line distinct, parapsidal lines very fine and obscure; scutellar surface medio- longitudinally shallowly grooved; anterior and posterior margins of metanotum carinate; wing colour dark fuscous with basal hyaline area, veins black to piceous; coaxae and trochanter are normal; ventral margin of femora is carinate; inner face slightly concave; anterior and posterior surfaces of tibiae are broadly smooth; tarsi ventrally with milky- white fringe. Basal tergum concavity margin semicarinate; tergite 2-5-with completely eclipsed pregradualar area; 6th tergum with more angulate carina at median area; 6th sternum projects beyond the apical margin of post gradualar area; apical lobe of 8th ster- num with flattened and medially slightly in- vaginated apex, posterior lobe projects acutely. Gonocoxite protuberant basally and con- stricted subapically at outer margin; gonostylus is slightly dilated and with an inward diversion subapi- cally, with elongated setae. NEW DESCRIPTIONS 267 Fig. 1. Megachile ( Megachile ) bharatpurensis sp. nov.: male 1. Head, front view (dots indicate pubescence); 2. Mandible; 3. Sternum 6th; 4. Sternum 8th; 5. Genitalia. \ Measurements: (in mm). Total length 7.5; eyes: length 2.25, lateral width 1.0; clypeus: median length 0.9, basal width 1.12, apical width 1.75; an- tennae: length of scape 0.57, pedicel 0.2, flagellar segments 1-0.5, II-0.32, XI-0.4, labrum: median length 1.0, basal width 1.0, apical width 0.9; man- dible: length of dentate and lower margin 0.8 and 0.65; scutum: median length 1.5, maximum width 2.5; fore wing: total length 6.25; tergites I- VII, rela- tive median width 0.9, 0.7, 1.2, 1.0, 1.3, 1.4, 0.3. FEMALE: Not known. Material examined: Holotype: male, Bharatpur, 15 June 1986 (V.K.); paratypes: two males with same data, all specimens in the collection of the Deptt. of Entomology, Agra College, Agra. The new species is close to M . buddhae Dali. Torn However, M. bharatpurensis sp. nov. can be distinctly separated from M. buddhae by: “thorax 268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 above with golden red pubescence; clypeal surface is flat; lower margin of mandible is almost straight from base to apex; apex of gonostylus of genitalia is pointed, with long and dense setae; apex of penis valve is narrow; pregradualar area of 6th sternum projecting on both laterals; apex of 8th sternum is flattened, medially slightly invaginated." Bingham, C.T. (1897): Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Hymenoptera (Wasps and Bees), Vol. I: 484- 485. This specimen has been named after the col- lection locality, Bharatpur. Acknowledgements I thank Dr V.K. Tewari, Department of Zool- ogy, Agra College, Agra, for providing necessary laboratory facilities and Dr Prem Kishor, Entomol- ogy division, I.A.R.I. New Delhi, for suggestions. NCES Mitchell, T.B. (1980); A generic revision of the Megachiline bees of the Western Hemisphere. Contr. Deptt. Entomol. N.C. State. Univ. p. 23. NEW SPECIES OF ACONURELLA AND PARAMESODES (HOMOPTERA: CICADELLIDAE) FROM INDIA1 V. Rama Subba Rao2 and Usha Ramakrishnan3 (With two text-figures ) Two new species, Aconurella neosolana and Paramesodes wilsoni from India are described and illustrated. Introduction Material and Methods Aconurella Ribaut, when erected, was a monotypic genus with its type-species Thamnotettix prolixus Lethierry. Vilbaste (1965) synonymized Doratulina Matsumura with Aconurella and published a con- solidated list of 10 species. Anufriev (1972) described two new species. Ghauri (1974) described a new species, A. solana and proposed a new com- bination A. erebus (Distant) from Deltocephalus. Thus there are 14 species recorded so far from all over the world, out of which five are reported from India. One new species is described here. Wilson (1983) redescribed and revised Paramesodes Ishihara with 11 species, of which three species are recorded from India. One new species is described here. ^art of Ph.D. thesis submitted by the first author to the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi . Accepted September 1989. Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, Agricultural College, Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh 522 101. 3Di vision of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Nev4 Delhi 110 012. The methods used in the handling and prepara- tion of specimens for study including dissection of male genitalia advocated by Knight ( 1 965) were fol- lowed. The terminology given by Blocker and Triplehom (1985) was used in descriptions. For studying external morphological characters and genitalia dissections a Nikon SMZ 10 stereozoom binocular microscope was used. Dissected male genital structures were further studied in detail with a Leitz Ortholux II Phase contrast, interference, compound microscope and illustrations were also made with the same microscope, using drawing ap- paratus. The scales of magnifications are indicated on the right side of the illustrations and in all cases the line is equal to 0.1 mm. Abbreviations: NPC: National Pusa Collection, Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. BMNH: British Museum (Natural History), London. Aconurella neosolana sp. nov. (Fig. 1) Colour: Stramineous to greenish yellow. External morphology: Vertex subacute, slightly shorter than the width between eyes, excavated and NEW DESCRIPTIONS 269 Fig. 1. Aconurella neosolana sp. nov. 1. Pygofer, lateral view; 2. Aedeagus, lateral view; 3. Aedeagus apex, ventral view; 4. Valve and subgenital plate; 5. Connective; 6. Style; 7. Fore wing; 8. Hind wing; 9. Abdominal apodemes; 10. Female sternum VH sulcate at the base. Ocelli marginal, away from the eye at a distance equal to its own diameter. Clypeus black with median yellow stripe. Clypellus long, ex- tending up to the lower margin of genae. Pronotum with black maculations and obscure fine transverse striae anteriorly. Forewings extending beyond the abdomen, with four apical and two anteapical cells. Posterior femoral setal pattern 2-2-1. Abdominal sternal apodemes well developed. Male genitalia : Pygoferal lobe angulate at postero- mesal margin; serrated comb-like structure on postero- ventral margin, posteriormost tooth well developed compared to other teeth; macro and micro setae on dorsolateral surface. Valve is as shown in Fig. 1. Subgenital plates triangular, shorter than pygofer, with marginal setae. Connective Y-shaped with arms close together. Style with narrow body, claw-like apophysis well developed, inner process longer than outer process, both wide apart. Aedeagus as shown in the Figure; gonopore apical. Female sternum VII as shown in Fig. 1 Measurements (mm) of male (female): Head, width 0.7 (0.85); vertex, width 0.3 (0.35), length 0.25 (0.3); pronotum, width 0.6 (0.75), length 0.25 (0.3); scutellum, width 0.35 (0.5), length 0.2 (0.25); total length including forewings 2.15 (2.85). Types: Holotype Male, Raghavendranagar, Visak- hapatnam Dt., Andhra Pradesh, grasses, 13 May 270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Fig. 2. Paramesodes wilsoni sp. nov. 11. Pygofer, dorsal view; 12. Pygofer, lateral view; 13. Fore wing; 14. Hind wing; 15. Aedeagus and connective, lateral view; 16. Aedeagus and connective, ventral view; 17. Valve and subgenital plate; 18. Abdominal apodemes; 19. Style; 20. Female sternum VH. NEW DESCRIPTIONS 271 1987, V.R.S. Rao, deposited in NPC. Paratypes: 1 male, 8 females, same data as holotype, deposited in NPC. 1 male, 2 females, same data as holotype deposited in BMNH. This species resembles A. solana Ghauri in having pygofer with postero-ventral marginal ser- rated comb-like structure, but differs from solana in the shape of pygofer, style, female sternum VII and also in the arrangement of macro and micro setae which are not covered along the entire length of comb-like structure of pygofer. It also differs from solana in the absence of markings on the head and thorax. Paramesodes wilsoni sp. nov. (Fig. 2) Colour: Pale yellowish brown. A submarginal transverse pale black band on the vertex between eyes and two sunken spots at the base of the latter. External morphology: Head broader than pronotum. Vertex with anterior margin rounded, slightly longer medially than next to eyes. Forewings with four api- cal and three anteapical cells, the inner anteapical cell open basally. Posterior femoral setal pattern 2- 2-1. Abdominal sternal apodemes well developed. Male genitalia: Pygofer lobes with long, prominent setae; pygofer processes projecting considerably beyond pygofer lobes, directed posteroventrally up to posterior margin of pygofer lobes, afterwards curving dorsally, in lateral view. Subgenital plates triangulate, approximately same length as pygofer with ventrolateral submarginal row of spines. Styles well developed as shown in the figure. Connective fused to aedeagus, arms closely apposed. Aedeagal shaft tubular, narrowed apically with its ventral wall, extending beyond gonopore, bifurcated, appearing Refer Anufriev, G.A. (1972): Two new far eastern species of Aconurel- la Rib. previously confused with Aconurella japanica (Mats.) (Auchenorrhyncha). Bull. Acad. Pol. Sci. Ser. biol., 20(3): 203-208. Blocker, H.D. & Triplehorn, B.W. (1985): External morphol- ogy of leafhoppers. In: The Leafhoppers and Planthoppers, L.R. Nault and J.G. Rodriguez (eds.). John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 41-60. Ghauri, M.S.K. (1974): New genera and species of Cicadel- loidea (Homoptera, Auchenorrhyncha) from economic like closely apposed processes; gonopore subapical. Female sternum VII as shown in the Fig. 2 Measurements (mm) of male (female): Head, width 1.50 (1.7); vertex, width 0.75 (0.85), length 0.35 (0.4); pronotum, width 1.35 (1.5), length 0.50 (0.65); scutellum, width 0.85 (0.95), length 0.5 (0.65); total length including forewings 4.75 (5.40). Types: Holotype Male, Delhi (IARI), grasses, 5 November 1965, R. Menon, deposited in NPC. Paratypes: 3 females (2 abdomen lost), same data as holotype, deposited in NPC; 2 females, same data as holotype deposited in BMNH. The new species is close to P. lucaniae (Dlabola) in the key given by Wilson (1983) in having long, slender pygofer processes, with recurved apices directed dorsally, in lateral view. This species differs in the aedeagus, the apex of its shaft bifid, appearing like closely apposed proces- ses extending beyond gonopore, whereas in lucaniae , the apex of the aedeagus is not bifurcated. This aedeagal character is unusual and is unlike any other species of Paramesodes. The species is named in honour of Dr M. R. Wilson who has contributed a lot to the study of this genus. Acknowledgements We thank the Indian Agricultural Research In- stitute and Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, for the facilities and financial assistance provided. Thanks are also due to Dr M. R. Wilson, Dr W. J. Knight and Dr M. Webb, British Museum (Natural History), London, who provided generous help and encouragement in going through the manuscript and making valuable suggestions. ences plants in India. Bull. ent. Res., 63: 551-559. Knight, W.J. (1965): Techniques for use in the identification of leafhoppers (Homoptera : Cicadellidae). Entomologist’s Gaz., 16: 129-136. Vilbaste, J. (1965): On the genus Aconura Leth. (Homoptera, Lassidae). Notulae Entomologicae, 45: 10-11. Wilson, M.R. (1983): A revision of the genus Paramesodes Ishihara (Homoptera, Auchenorrhyncha: Cicadellidae) with descriptions of eight new species. Ent. Scand. 14: 17- 32. 7 272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 ON ANEW SPECIES OF SALMO STOMA SWAINSON (CYPRINIDAE : CULTRINAE) FROM DHOM RESERVOIR, SATARA DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA1 R.T. Srithar and K.C. Jayaram2 (With two text-figures) A new species of Salmostoma (Cyprinidae: Cultrinae) from river Krishna at Dhom reservoir, Satara District, Maharashtra, is described. Statisti- cal comparison with S. novacula indicates its diver- gence in having a longer caudal peduncle, shorter body and head and smaller eyes, besides a greater number of lateral line scales. During the course of a bioresources survey of the Krishna river system, peninsular India, we found that me population of Salmostoma species inhabit- ing the Dhom reservoir comprises of a hitherto un- described species. The species is akin to S. novacula (Valendennes) but differs from it in many charac- ters. The genus Salmostoma was established by Swainson (1839) with Cyprinus bacaila Hamilton as the designated type. Later Banarescu (1968), in an excellent revision of this genus, clarified the generic status of Salmostoma vis-a-vis Chela Hamilton and Securicula Gunther. Jayaram (1981), following Banarescu, listed 10 species found in In- dian waters. Of these, five are known in the western ghats river systems, and three of these — S. boopsis (Day), S. clupeoides (Bloch) and S. novacula (Val.) — occur in the Krishna river. We have examined 29 specimens of the new species and made a statistical comparison with the samples of S. novacula from Madras, Poona, Deolali and Deccan. The material was sent to Prof. Banares- cu who also confirmed its separate identity. Data on 17 meristic and 17 non-mcristic characters were recorded, and 29 examples, comprising of both sexes and of all size ranges, were selected. This was compared with data published in Banarescu (1968, p. 6) and the results are presented in Table 1. The in- tergradations and divergences can be seen from Fig. 1. Meristic characters such as lateral line scale counts and lateral line/pelvic fin counts could not be compared, as frequency and other details of S. a r~m b . r in i A -LTUT B-TX~1 Accepted August 1989. 2Krishna River Project, C/o Zoological Survey of India, Madras , Tamil Nadu 600 028. n /.« Kfl Rft fi? fifi 70 7L 7ft Fig. 1. Bar diagrams comparing intergradation and divergence between S. longicauda and S. novacula. NEW DESCRIPTIONS 273 1 mm. Fig.2. Lateral view of S. longicauda , holotype. novacula are not available in the published work. Although lateral line scales in the new species of Dhom reservoir range from 5 1 to 70 and in the rest 79 to 95, which itself clearly differentiate the species; the other characters also support its identity. The new species can be easily separated from S. novacula by its longer caudal peduncle, shorter body depth, shorter head and smaller eyes, besides greater number of lateral line scales (Table 1). Salmostoma longicauda sp. nov. D ii or iii, 7 or 8; P. i, 10 or 11; V. i-ii, 7 or 8; A ii-iv, 13-16; C. 10 + 9; LL 51-70. Material examined: Holotype 84 mm. SL; Paratypes 10 exs, 62 to 83.5 mm. SL; Others 18 exs, 62 to 85 mm. SL. from rivers Krishna and Vaitali at Dhom reservoir at Asari village, 8 km west of Wai, Satara District, Maharashtra, 3 January 1988, K.C. Jayaram et al. All specimens are in the Zoological Survey of India, Madras. Diagnosis: A Salmostoma species with gill raker counts 58-76, length of caudal peduncle 13.52 % (10.76-16.21) of standard length and with lateral line scales 51 to 70. Description : Dorsal profile nearly straight with a gentle rise up to occiput. Body compressed and elon- gated, head short, mouth upturned, lips thin, snout plain, eyes placed superiorly in the anterior part of head, visible from below ventral surface of head, no barbels. Table 1 BIOMETRIC COMPARISON OF TWO POPULATIONS OF Salmostoma SPECIES N Range Mean SD SE t SL/BD A 29 15.67-21.79 19.25 1.564 0.290 5.9822 B 25 17.70-25.30 22.23 2.089 0.418 SL/Lcpd A 29 10.76-16.21 13.52 1.341 0.249 14.2606 B 25 16.70-0.00 18.05 0.915 0.183 SL/Hcpd A 29 6.08-8.39 7.38 0.539 0.100 2.2764 B 25 6.80-9.60 7.80 0.807 0.161 SL/P re-anal A 29 67.11-75.19 71.40 1.970 0.366 8.3786 B 25 64.50-68.50 67.49 1.344 0.269 SL/Pre-pelvic A 29 50.51-57.14 54.38 1.675 0.311 1.8145 B 25 48.00-66.80 56.18 5.035 1.007 SLVLH A 29 24.21-29.07 26.15 1.286 0.239 7.5781 B 25 22.40-26.00 23.74 0.994 0.199 SL/Snout A 29 5.39-7.58 6.09 0.637 0.118 3.0386 B 25 5.00-6.12 5.67 0.289 0.058 SUEye A 29 6.06-8.79 7.22 0.703 0.131 3.8672 B 25 5.80-7.70 6.56 0.522 0.104 Eye/IOW A 29 80.00-136.99 106.68 13.790 2.560 0.6052 B 25 89.00-122.00 104.75 8.601 1.720 A - Dhom reservoir. B - S. novacula from Madras, Poona, Deolali and Deccan. 274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87 Measurements: Head length 26.15 (24.21-29.07), body depth 19.25 (15.67-21 .79), pre-dorsal distance 70.56 (67.57-72.46), pre-pelvic 54.38 (50.51- 57.14), pre-anal 71.40 (67.11-75.19), length of caudal peduncle 13.52 (10.76-16.21), height of caudal peduncle 7.38 (6.08-8.39) in percent of standard length. Eye diameter 27.73 (23.26 -34.25), snout 24.44 (20.92-31.25), width of mouth 17.47 (11.63-24.21), width of head 35.03 (31.55-44.44), height at occiput 61.80 (56.50-73.53) in percent of head length. Eye diameter 106.68 (80.00-136.99) percent of interorbital width, 1 1 1 .08 (80.00-129.89) in percent of snout. Gill rakers very long, 58-76 in the first gill arch. Dorsal fin inserted above anal origin. Pectoral fins laterally inserted, not reaching pelvic fin, outer rays prolonged. Pelvic fins not reaching anal fin. Anal fin moderately long, not reaching caudal fin when depressed. Least depth of caudal peduncle 55.11 (41.67-71.43) in percent of its length. Lateral line curved, reaching base of caudal fin. Caudal fin forked with unequal lobes. Colour: In fresh specimens, metallic green over sides of body, fins and abdomen pale white. In preserved specimens, light grey above lateral line, a streak of grey running along centre of body and over dorsal ridge, pale white below lateral line. Distribution : Krishna river at Dhom reservoir. Satara District, Maharashtra. Scale counts: LL/Dorsal 9 1/2 LL/Pelvic 1 1/2 or 2 1/2 LL/Anal 2 1/2 or 3 1/2 Circumpeduncular 16 or 17. Dhom reservoir is a man-made impoundment across the Krishna and Vaitali rivers. Fishermen operate a purse-seine type net with a mesh size of 1 cm and invariably the catch comprises of Salmos- toma novacula and S. longicauda , the latter to a larger extent. It appears that the changed habitat and isolation has resulted in the fish having a longer caudal peduncle, shorter body and head, smaller eyes, and greater number of lateral line scales. Acknowledgements This study was supported by a financial grant to the second author by the Department of Environ- ment, Government of India, for which he is grateful. Our sincere thanks are due to the Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra; Regional Deputy Director of Fisheries, Poona and to Mr. Jagdale in particular. Thanks are also due to the Officer in Charge, Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India, Madras, for facilities, and to Prof. Petru Banarescu, Department of Biology, Bucharest, Rumania, for confirming the material and for his critical com- ments. References Banarescu, P. (1968): Revision of the Indo-Burmese genus Sal- mostoma Swainson (Pisces, Cyprinidae) with description of a new species. Rev. Roum. Biologie Zoolog ie 13(1): 314. Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Freshwater fishes of India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka. Handbook No. 2, Zoological Survey of India, 475 pp., 13 plates. Swainson (1839): The natural history and classification of fishes, amphibians and reptiles or monocardian animals. 2 vols, London. NEW PLANT TAXA FROM THE SIND VALLEY, KASHMIR1 G.H. Dar2 and A.R. Naqshi3 (With three text-figures ) The following new taxa from the Sind valley, Kashmir (India) are described: Ermania kashmiriana, E. kachrooi, Lepidium virginicum var. kashmiricum (Brassicaceae), Dolomiaea baltalensis (Asteraceae) and Veronica biloba var. densa (Scrophulariaceae). The three new species are also illustrated. 1 Accepted December 1989. Ermania kashmiriana sp. nov. ^Dcpartmcm ofBolany, University of Kashmir, Herbae perennis, 3-10 (-15) Cm alta, multi- Wrnof Plant Taxonomy, University of Kashmir. ram0Sa ad basim> denSe folioSa; PiloSa si"e si!‘