JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY VOL 92, No. 1, April 1995 \ BOARD OF EDITORS Executive Editor J.C. DANIEL M.R. ALMEIDA P.V. BOLE M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN B.F. CHHAPGAR B.V. DAVID R. GADAGKAR ANIL GORE Assistant Editor K.P. SHIRODKAR V / INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS 1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere should not be submitted. 2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette ( 3.5" or 5.25" ), using Word Star. Word Perfect, MS Word or in MS DOS. 3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. 4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at least 9x12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board. 5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author's name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and titles of books or papers in roman type. 6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important species discussed. 7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free copy of the Journal. 8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member's contribution earlier than a non-member's. A.J.T. JOHNSINGH AJITH KUMAR A.R. RAHMANI J.S. SAMANT E.G. SILAS J.S. SINGH R. WHITAKER Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023. Editors, Journal of the Bombay Matured History Society VOLUME 92 (1) : APRIL 1995 Date of Publication : 24-04-1995 CONTENTS HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS OF CENTRAL INDIA (With four text-figures) By Llemant S. Datye and A.M. Bhagwat 1 COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF BIRD PESTS AND THEIR DIURNAL RHYTHM IN RIPENING SORGHUM ( With a text figure) By B.M. Parasharya, K.L. Mathew and D.N. Yadav 1 1 STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION OF THE TRAVANCORE TORTOISE, 1NDOTESTUDO FORSTEN11 IN WESTERN GHATS (With two plates and a text-figure) By S Bhupathy and B.C. Choudhury 16 ON THE MORPHOLOGY, ADVERTISING CALL AND HABITAT OF THE BUSH FROG PHILAIJTUS LE U C O RUIN US (LICHTENSTEIN AND MARTENS, 1856) ( With a text-figure) By Aloysius G. Sekar 22 MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN GREY MONGOOSE HERPESTES EDWARDS II EDWARDSII GEOFFROY ( With a text- figure ) By Jagathpala Shetty, Gunapala Shetty and S.R. Kanakaraj 26 COMPOSITION, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUATION OF FISH IN BANGANGA-GAMBHIR RIVER SYSTEM AND SOURCE OF FISH TO THE KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR (With two text-figures) By C.R.Ajith Kumar, N.K. Ramachandran and Arun Asthana 30 KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENERA ORTHR1US GORHAM AND XENORTHR1US GORHAM (COLEOPTERA: CLERIDAE: CLERINAE) By Jonathan R. Mawdsiey 40 TAXONOMIC STUDIES OF THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHUR1A (LINNAEUS, 1767) FROM THE SEAS AROUND INDIA (With a plate and two text-figures) By D.B. James 43 ECOLOGY OF POLLINATION IN TWO CAT-MINT SPECIES By Raju J.S. Aluri and C. Subba Reddi 63 A STUDY OF ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAYA WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES (LINN.) IN RAJASTHAN (With six text-figures) By Satish Kumar Sharma 67 AGE DETERMINATION OF DOLPHINS ENTANGLED IN GILLNETS ALONG THE KERALA COAST (With two plates) By R.S. Lai Mohan 77 NEW DESCRIPTIONS TWO NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS APANTELES FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA (With two text-figures) By T V. Sathe and D.M. Ingawale 81 PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS D1CLADOCERUS (HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM NORTHERN INDIA (With forty text-figures) By M.A. Khan 85 A NEW GENUS OF PTEROMALIDAE (HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA) FROM COORG, KARNATAKA (With seven text-figures) By P.M. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran 96 A NEW GENUS OF TINGINAE (HETEROPTERA) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA {With a text-figure ) By David Livingstone and S. Jayanthibai 99 A REVISION OF GENUS UNGUL1A MALAISE (HYMENQPTERA, SYMPHYTA, TENTHREDINIDAE: ALT ANTINAE) (With forty four text figures) By Malkiat S. Saini and V. Vasu 101 MAMMALS MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1 . Claw marking on trees by tiger Panthera tigris (Linn.) in Kanha National Park By P.C. Kotwal and G.P. Mishra Ill 2. Aggressive behaviour of a thirsty leopard, Panthera pardus (Linn.) By Raza Tehsin 112 3. Cannibalism in south Indian palm squirrel Funambulus palm arum (Linn.) By S. Sadakathufla and A. Abdul Kareem 113 4. An approach-blocking display by a Five- striped palm squirrel Funambulus pennanti (Wroughton) to a house crow Corvus splendens By Tiziano Londei 114 5. Occurrence of bharal Pseudois nayaur (Hodgson) in Thingbu circle of Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh By Pratap Singh 115 6. A new report on pigmy hog Sus salvanius (Hodgson) from West Bengal By P. Sanyal 116 7. Feeding behaviour of kmgtailed tree mouse Vandeleuria oleracea (Bennett) and Indian desert gerbil Meriones hurrianae on syncarps of Xanthium indicum Koenig By Satish Kumar Sharma 116 8. Interaction between blackbuck Antelope cervicapra (Linn.) and Indian fox Vulpus bengalensis (Shaw) By Ashok Kumar Sharma 118 BIRDS 9. Probable occurrence of Whitefronted goose Anser albifrons (Scopoli) in Andhra Pradesh By Ranjit Manakadan 118 10. Hare in the diet of white-eyed buzzard eagle Butastur teesa (Franklin) By Salim Javed 119 11. Unusual nesting season of bronzewinged jacana Metopidius indicus (Latham) By Rakesh Vyas 119 12. The crab plover, Dromas ardeola Paykull - an enigma By Lavkumar Khacher. 120 13. Roseringed parakeets Psittacula krameri (Scopoli) feeding on seeds of Karvi Carvia callosa (Nees) Bremek. By Naresh Chaturvedi and M..R. Almeida 121 14. Crab-eating by whitebreasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis (Linn.) By Raza Tehsin 121 15. Little green bee-eater, Merops orientalis Latham feeding on crabs By Lavkumar Khacher. 121 16. Unusual escape behaviour in goldenbacked woodpecker Dinopium benghalense (Linn.) By Manoj V. Nair 122 17. The greythroated or plain sand martin Riparia paludicola Vieillot - a new bird for southern India By V. Santharam 122 18. Lanius cristatus Linn, in Kutch, Gujarat - a westward extension By Himmatsinhji 123 19. Food storing behaviour of the jungle crow Corvus macro rhynchos Wagler By Satish Kumar Sharma 123 20. Yellowthroated bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus (Jerdon) at Biligirirangan hills, Karnataka By S. Karthikeyan, J.N. Prasad and T.S. Srinivasa 123 21. A note on baya, Place us phil ipp inus nesting on Krishnacfauda ( Delonix regia) tree By K.K. Gupta 124 22. The mystery of “mass suicides” by birds By Humayun Abduiali 125 REPTILES 23. Colour change of tongue by fat-tailed gecko Eublepharis macular ius By Sattish Kumar Sharma 126 24. Presence of common green whip snake Ahaetulla nasutus at “Phulwari Ki Nal” Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan By Satish Kumar Sharma 127 INSECTS 25. A new altitudinal and range record for the copper flash butterfly Rapala pheretimus Hewitson (Lycaenidae) By Peter Smetacek 127 OTHER INVERTEBRATES 26 . New record of a Concho stracan (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) from Maharashtra State By H.V. Ghate and S.G. Patil 128 27. On Sida crystallina (O.F. Muller, 1776) and Aero perns harpae (Baird, 1834) (Crustacea: Cladocera) from Tripura State By K. Venkataraman and S.R. Das 128 28. Redescription of Phrynichus phipsoni Pocock (Family Phrynichidae: Arachnid a) collected after 100 years from new locations in Maharashtra, Western India By D.B. Bastawade 132 BOTANY 29. Siphonodon celastrineus Griff. (Siphonodontaceae) - a rare Tree from Orissa By M. Brahmam and H.O. Saxena 135 30. Eryngium foetidum Linn. (Apiaceae) - a new record for Bihar By S.K. Varma and N.N. Das 135 3 1 . Pascalia Orteg. (Asteraceae) - a new genus for India By Aloke Bhattacharya, M.C. Biswas and H.S. Debnath 136 32. On the identity of Paraboa nagalandiana Deb & Dutta By D.B. Deb and Ratna Dutta 137 33. Teucrium viscidum Bl. (Lamiaceae) - an interesting distributional record from Orissa By H.O. Saxena, M. Brahmam and N.C. Rout 140 34. First record of the alligator weed, Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Gris eh. from Pune, Maharashtra By G. K. Wagh, H. V. Ghate and Vinaya S. Ghate 141 35. A report on the occurrence of Antidesma thwaitesianum Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) from South Andamans By Sam P. Mathew and Susan Abraham . 143 36. A report on the threatened orchids of Manipur By V. Ramakantha 144 37. Woodsia l arias a Hook. (Woods iaceae) from Garhwal Himalaya -rediscovered By P.C. Pande and Kusum Bhandari. 145 38. Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees : An addition to the grasses of Orissa By R.R. Jha 145 39. Studies on the spore morphology of Oleandra undulata (Wild.) Ching and O. wallichii (Hook.) Pie si. By Preeti PainuH and R.D. Gaur 147 40. Occurrence of Battarea stevenii (Lib.) Fr. (Tulos tomataceae) in Mysore - a new record from south India By G.R. Shivamurthy, H.G. Vijay Gopal Raj Urs and K.B. Sadanand 149 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY April 1995 Vol. 92 No. 1 HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS OF CENTRAL INDIA1 Hemant S. Datye2 and A.M. Bhagwat3 ( With four text -figures) Key words: home range, range fidelity, habitat, degradation, fragmentation, central India. Home range of three adult bulls and one adult female (and her clan which included her family unit and associated family units) living in Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar were studied from 1989-1992. All animals were identified visually and their locations were digitized and analyzed using Spacial Ecology Analysis Program (SEAS). One bull represented the resident population of 16 elephants, whereas the remaining two and the female represented migratory population of 50 elephants. Analysis of home range pattern showed that considerable part of home range of all the individuals of the whole population lie outside the sanctuary limits. The home ranges expanded to the maximum in winter and shrunk to minimum in summer. The expansion was always along the long axis of home range The resident population expanded the heme range towards west and to a lesser extent towards north and the migratory population to the east. Existing traditional routes might be one of the factors influencing such directional expansions. Knowledge of home ranges of elephants, especially in fragmented areas, could be a key to solve many problems associated with elephant management. shape and spatial distribution. The fidelity to the home range was studied by Wyatt and Eltringham (1974). Leuthold (1977b), and Viljocn (1989). In Asia, home ranges were studied by Khan 1967. Olivier 1978, Sukumar 1985, 1989a, 1989b; Easa 1988, and Desai 1991. Olivier (1978) studied home ranges of elephants in Malaysian primary and secondary rain forests. Easa (1988) carried out similar studies in forests of Kerala state. Sukumar (1985, 1989a, 1989b) estimated home ranges of clans and bulls in the eastern ghat area, using Minimum Convex Polygon method. Management issues like identification and maintenance of corridors that INTRODUCTION The ranging behaviour of elephants has been studied in different parts of Africa and Asia. The African studies were started by Douglas-Hamilton 1973, 1975, Leuthold and Sale 1973, Leuthold 1977b, Merz 1986a. Dunham 1986, Hall-Martin 1987, Viljoen 1989. and mainly described the size of the home range in relation to environmental factors, vegetation. 'Accepted March 1995. 2C-5 Samant Blocks. Ghantali. Naupada. Thane 400 602. 3Vice-Prineipal, Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College, Ghatkopar. Bombay 400 086. 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) link sub-populations were studied by Desai (1991). A review of the literature on the ranging pattern of elephants reveals that information on home ranges of elephants in fragmented areas, where the habitat was/is rapidly lost to urban development and was/is continuously degraded, is not available. In India, there is no protected area for elephants as small as Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary (193 sq. km), having heavy biotic pressure. The Chandka Wildlife Sanctuary in Orissa is also as small but with negligible biotic pressure at the present. The ranging of elephants in such a habitat as Dalma has an additional component of seasonal migration of 75 % of the population to the plains of West Bengal for 5 to 6 months of the year. Therefore, it was important to study home ranges and of elephants in the fragmented areas for better management planning. The objectives were: 1. To find the size and extent of home ranges of some identified elephants of the Sanctuary. 2. To determine the fidelity of the individual animals to their home ranges. 3. To ascertain the factors influencing the size of the home ranges. 4. To estimate the overlaps of the individual home range and the Sanctuary, i.e. to find how much of the home range lies outside the Sanctuary7, in agricultural land, and inside the Sanctuary. Study area The study was undertaken in Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary and surrounding elephant areas of the Chhotanagpur Plateau in the state of Bihar and in the migration range of elephants of the Singhbhum district into the plains of West Bengal. The major elephant ranges in Bihar other than the Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary are Palamau National Park, Porahat, Kolhan, Saranda, Roam and Mosabani reserved/protected forests, most of which are fragmented and severely degraded. The Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary is spread between 22° 5.30' N to 22° 57' N and 86° 7' E to 86° 20' E on the Chhotanagpur plateau in south Bihar and it is adjacent to the tri -junction of borders of the states of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal (Fig. 1). The range of elephants of Dalma Sanctuary extends into plains of West Bengal covering parts of Purulia, Midnapur, Bankura, and to a lesser extent Bardhaman and Hoogli districts. In Bengal the natural forests exist only in small patches of few hectares mainly in the western part adjoining Bihar. Most other forest patches consist of sal monoculture that are in a state of severe degradation, though in some places there are signs of recovery due to protection provided by local villagers. The essential feature in the physical aspect of the elephants' habitats in Bihar, is the prevalence of plateaux and hills, often rising into mountains which rarely exceed 1000 metres in elevation. The forest of Dalma belongs to a unique Shorea-Cleistcmthus-Croton series (Gadgil & Meher-Homji 1986). The Champion-Seth classification shows the forest as consisting of dry peninsular hill sal, and northern mixed dry deciduous type. The forests of the Chhotanagpur plateau exhibit a variety of habitat types ranging from dry deciduous to evergreen though the study area constituted only dry deciduous type of forest. The whole study area being a tribal belt is inhabited by7 several different tribes, each having a distinctive tradition, language and culture. The area is extremely backward in spite of being the most mineral rich area of India, producing copper, uranium, iron ore, coal, gold and many other important minerals. In fact this area generates a fourth of the total mineral produce of the HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS 3 River , State boundaries District boundaries Dalma Sanctuary Other forests Bom bay-Howrah Main rail-line Directions of elephant « ► movements ! 1992 < > Fig. 1 . Location of the study area and general directions of movement of Dalma Sanctuary elephants. country. However, it lacks in basic amenities like medical facilities, education, potable water supply, electricity, transport and education in most places. The rapid industrialization due to the presence of vast deposits of a variety of minerals has resulted in economic disparity between the urban 'outsiders' and the tribals. Since 1914, the tribals of the plateau have been demanding an independent tribal state called 'Jharkhand' and the agitation has/had taken violent turns in the last and the present decade. The anger against the ruling government was often redirected towards the state owned forests, by felling the trees indiscriminately. The forests of the area which were rich in flora and fauna are giving way to mining activities in many places and almost all the forests are under various degrees of biotic pressure. This has resulted in shrinking and degradation of the elephant habitat, forcing elephants to move out of the traditional habitat, to raid crops to meet their energy requirements and to seek better habitat elsewhere. Methodology The ranging behaviour of elephants has been studied through different methods. In 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) Africa, visual resightings of identified individuals was used to determine home ranges (Douglas-Hamilton 1975, Viljoen 1989). In Asia, particularly in India, a similar method was used by Sukumar (1985, 1989a, 1989b); Easa (1988), Daniel et al. (1987); and Desai (1991). Coloured collars (Daniel et al ., 1987), coloured and notched radio-collars (Dunham 1986), body painting ( Jones 1975, Rodgers and Elder 1977) were also used in the study home ranges. The most successful method, according to several studies, is radio-telemetry. In Africa, this method was used by Leuthold and Sale (1973), Leuthold ( 1 977), Douglas-Hamilton and Douglas-Hamilton (1975) and Dunham (1986). In Asia, this has been used by Olivier (1978) in Malaysia and by Desai (1991) in India. The present study: The data on home range of elephants for this study was gathered between 1989 to 1992. Radio-telemetry, though a better method, was not employed in this study because of the unfavourable cost/benefit ratio. The elephants of the study area, due to their constant interaction with people, had good chances of getting killed, especially in the migration range in the state of West Bengal. This would have defeated the purpose of collaring. Another important point was, in fragmented areas it was not difficult to locate the elephants, once they were out of the forests. Therefore the home range values calculated using radio-telemetry data and visual resighting data would not show a significant difference in fragmented areas as it does in areas having vast stretches of forest. However, sightings within the Sanctuary had limitations because of the visibility and the home range size could be underestimated in such situations, for seasonal ranges. A considerable amount of time is used in locating the herds, due to the terrain and undergrowth and the inherent problem of identifying the herd and then the required individual. This can be definitely avoided in radio telemetry. For the present study, four identified elephants were selected for the home range estimation, of which 3 were adult males and one adult female. The female was named as Long Cut Ear (LCE), after the deep cut in her longish ear. The three males had human names : Arjun, Ganesh and Gabbar and were identified by their individualistic body characters. The elephants were tracked on foot, and a record of resightings, within the DWS and beyond in the migration and raiding ranges, was maintained. The sightings were maximum during the summer months followed by rains and Winter. The female (LCE) had her accompanying clan whose number varied from season to season, according to the number of family units joining or breaking away. [A clan is considered as a group of elephants having a coordinated movement and is believed to be related (Moss 1988).] All the elephant resighting locations were digitized along with the map of the study area with the help of a digitizer pad attached to a computer. The locations were then analyzed and the home range sizes and the overlaps were calculated with the help of a software SEAS (Spatial Ecology Analysis System) developed by John Carey, Wisconsin University, U.S.A. All the home ranges were calculated using the Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) .method. Other methods- 95 % Ellipse and Harmonic Mean Transformation were also experimentally tried and compared. The choice of MCP over the other two is discussed in the results. Home range size: Several techniques have been developed to analyze the home range of animals. All these techniques are divided into, based on statistical considerations, parametric estimators and non-parametric estimators. The best and the most extensively and popularly used non-parametric method, the Minimum Convex HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS 5 Polygon (MCP) (Mohr 4947) is used here to estimate the size of individual home ranges and their overlaps, where the 'Convex* is defined as a figure having no inner angle greater than 180 degrees. Fidelity to home range: The general pattern of home ranges was established by the end of the first year. The following years of observations were used to check the fidelity of the known individuals to the over all home range and the seasonal home range. The crop raiding areas were visited every year, around the DWS and the migration range in the state of West Bengal, to locate the identified individuals. Results and discussion Home range size: The home ranges were estimated using the Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) Method (Mohr 1947). The other two methods, 95 % Ellipse (Jennch and Turner 1969) and Harmonic Mean Estimator (Dixon and Chapman 1980), were also tried but the calculated home range projections included areas like Jamshedpur town and other known non-elephant areas within their limits. Comparatively, the MCP method gave very logical results and the general axis of all the home ranges was close to what was permitted by the physical limits of elephant movement. The home range of the 4 individuals [3 males and 1 of individual years were not plotted as the number of sightings were inadequate. As such, all the migratory elephants, including three of the study individuals, have been expanding their home range on the eastern side, every year since 1987 till the end of the study in 1992. Therefore, the observation time-area curve could not reach an asymptotic value and did not flatten out. However, the summer ranges did not increase significantly as the elephants stayed within the Sanctuary throughout the summer. In an area like DWS where elephants are moving out in search of a better habitat, possibly for colonization, the curve is not expected to stabilize till the elephants reach a suitable habitat or can not move further in any direction due to real physical barriers. The tremendous difference in the home ranges of the first and the last 3 animals (Table 1) is because the latter (Gabbar, Table 1 HOME RANGE SIZES OF THE STUDY ANIMALS Study animal No. of sightings Area of Home range in sq. km using MCP Unit Arj un 41 258.60 Bull Gabbar 39 3343.19 Bull Ganesh 18 4348.99 Bull LCE 31 3396.14 Clan Ganesh and LCE) migrated every year to West Bengal during late rainy season, unlike Arjun who stayed back in Bihar, and raided crops Table 2 CALCULATED AND MAXIMUM SUMMER RANGES OF THE STUDY ANIMALS Name of the elephant Calculated summer range (MCP) in sq. km Maximum possible summer range in sq. km On sunny Days On cloudy/rainy days Arj un 23.75 35 55 Gabbar 28.27 35 55 Ganesh 04.54 35 55 LCE 22.61 35 55 female (clan)] were defined only for the study locally, in and around the western part of period of three and half years. The home ranges Dalma Sanctuary. Arjun's home range size falls 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) within the home range sizes exhibited by study elephants at Mudumalai Sanctuary (Desai 1991) and by adult bulls in deciduous forests of eastern ghats (Sukumar 1989). The large overall home range sizes exhibited by the other three study animals are similar to those shown by elephants of Northern Namib Desert region of Kaokoveld (Viljoen 1989). Home range size normally varies with the habitat type. However, habitat condition and environmental factors may influence the home ranges to a considerable extent especially Fig. 2. Home range of elephants of Dalma Sanctuary (Ganesh, Gabbar, LCE, 1989-92). in fragmented habitats. Although the migratory elephants (Gabbar, Ganesh, LCE) did not show significant variation in the home range 'size, -they utilized the area within the home range differently in different years. Fig. 2 shows the overall home range of these 3 individuals. On the left edge of the map is the Dalma Sanctuary. None of these 3 elephants ever used the western part of the Sanctuary (west buffer) or fraided crops in the area to the west of DWS. On the contrary, Arjun utilized the western part (west buffer) and the core area of the Sanctuary extensively and raided crops only in the area surrounding the west buffer zone and the area southwest of the Sanctuary (Fig. 3). The 'Core area' of elephant usage was not estimated in this study. Similar studies in south India showed the 'Core area' to be 21.3% to 36.7% of the total home range, for the studied individuals (Daniel et al. 1992). In case of the migratory elephants this might be more than 75% of the total estimated home range. The LCE group and other family units migrating to West Bengal, all totalling about 45 Fig. 3. Home range of elephant of Dalma Sanctuary (Arjun, 1989-92). individuals, also showed similar home range patterns. One group of 12 individuals (two family units), that stayed back in Bihar throughout the winter and never migrated to the east, to Midnapur in West Bengal, but instead shuttled between the Sanctuary and the Ajodhya hill in Purulia district of West Bengal. Factors influencing home range size: All the individuals studied showed seasonal variation in ranges. The summer ranges were the smallest (Table 2) for all the four individuals (Fig. 4). HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS 7 This was because the Chhotaiiagpur Plateau has extremes of temperature and almost all waterholes in the buffer zones dry up. The high ambient temperatures force the elephants to take refuge in the Sanctuary core which is 55 sq. km in area. Of this 55 sq. km. only the northern slopes, which have an area of approximately 35 sq. km, are used on sunny days (most days of summer) as they are comparatively cooler than the southern slopes (Table 3) and hold most of the big waterholes. So effectively elephants were contained in an area of approximately 35 sq. km throughout summer. Table 3 AVERAGE TEMPERATURE AT NOON ON THE DALMA SLOPES IN SUMMER Name of the Location Slope °C in open °C in shade °C in water Majhla bandh North 46.2 40.4 28.7 Nichla bandh North 47.6 35.4 26.2 Aamdadi North 45.6 33.4 22.9 Bijli ghati North 40.2 31.3 28.4 Snan ghati North 43.5 34.8 29.9 Ghusi jharna North 42.0 38.8 26.0 Aamda Pahadi South 50.8 32.6 26.6 Megha doha South 55.9 39.7 28.5 Chagal Topa South 49.7 36.9 27.9 Nutandih South 56.7 49.7 27.7 Bhelatal South 51.1 40.1 dry They visited the southern slopes of the hill during night only sporadically when there was no forest fire, as the exposed rocks on the southern side gave out heat during the night, and forest fires only added to the ambient temperature. So the maximum area of the summer range could be 55 sq. km, if one includes the southern slopes where the elephants made forays only during the summer showers or overcast conditions with cool winds blowing. Moreover, there were more number of water holes on the northern slopes than the southern slopes. Due to the low tree density on the southern slopes, there was generation of gaps' in the forest canopy, which reduced the total available shade. The bigger the gap the greater the solar radiation on the forest floor and the greater the changes in the other facets of microclimate above and below the ground, from conditions beneath the closed canopy. Wien (1985) recorded the microclimatic (temperature) difference and its influence on the birds and mammals that showed a marked preference of study animals to low direct radiation areas in the extreme climate. The daily variation in the Fig. 4. Summer range of elephants of Dalma Sanctuary (Arjun,, Gabbar, Ganesh, LCE, 1989-1992). ground temperature is much higher in denuded areas compared to the land under forest. Studies in Singapore revealed higher temperatures at all * depths from 3 to 50 cm in the bare soil, slightly less under grassland and lowest and the least variable under forests (Meher-Homji 1991). The forest fires were more common on the southern than the northern slopes due to low humidity on the former as a result of low tree cover and relatively high grass cover adding to overall surface temperature. The summer ranges of Arjun, Gabbar and LCE did not differ significantly, however, summer range of Ganesh differed significantly from the other three. The small summer range of Ganesh could be because of the territoriality of 8 JOUliNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 92 (1995) the Big Bulls Arjun and Gabbar (both 35+ age class), who came into musth during the summer months. Ganesh being of a younger age class (18-20) was probably keeping away from the big bulls in the small core area. A study in the Mudumalai Sanctuary7 showed that the musth range of the adult bull overlapped most of the area of its total home range (Daniel et al. 1992). The musth ranges of the adult bulls studied during the present investigation also overlapped and were very small. However, this was not a problem because all the adult females in oestrous were present in the same area. This small area of 35-55 sq. km was the only place that offered food to the elephants during the entire summer. The forest area was exploited by the elephants to the fullest as there was little in the agricultural lands around the sanctuary to supplement their forest diet. At the end of summer the elephants were in run-down condition possibly due to low availability of quality food due to over exploitation of forest resources. At the onset of the rainy season, the temperature on the southern slopes dropped due to the cloud cover, and elephants immediately7 moved to the southern slopes to exploit whatever grass that was available and also other food tree species. The bulls moved down to the edges of the forest as the monsoon progressed and started raiding paddy. At this point the home ranges started expanding. The rainy season ranges were not calculated due to lack of sufficient sighting locations but could be roughly estimated to be around 150-200 sq. km. Arjun moved westward of the Dalma Sanctuary after the initial foray s on the southern fringe of the sanctuary : whereas Gabbar, Ganesh and LCE expanded their ranges on the east, from July onwards. Fidelity to home range. The three study animals (Gabbar, Ganesh, LCE) were located in the same areas of the western part of their home range in the succeeding years (summer and rain range in Bihar). The winter ranges were expanding throughout the study period and between the years the locations in the migration range (winter range) though lying in the same area changed localities. The reason for this, in case of the three migratory animals was that probably the herds and the bulls were chased randomly by the people and the officials of the forest department and hence could not reach the same locality every year in West bengal, although the general area of visit was same. Arjun and a family group visiting Ajodhya hills, maintained absolute fidelity to their home range in the western- part of the Sanctuary. In Bihar, the elephants were not chased as they were in West Bengal and this was one of the reasons for their fidelity to the home range. Gabbar, Ganesh and LCE never visited the western part of the sanctuary that includes western buffer of Dalma Sanctuary. In fact other family units associated with LCE also never moved to the western buffer throughout the study period. Similarly Arjun and a family group that stayed back in Bihar (not included in this home range study) never visited eastern part of Dalma Sanctuary . Thus even in the face of extreme degradation and fragmentation (Datye 1993) these study animals maintained fidelity to their home ranges. It will be interesting to see what happens to home ranges of such animals when the sanctuary is totally unable to support them in future due to loss of vegetation cover and food species. Axis of the home range and linear expansion: The home range of all the elephants migrating to West Bengal showed aNW-SE axis to their home range. Arjun showed NE-SW axis and the Ajodhya group showed a N-S axis. The linear expansion in home ranges is shown in Table 4. The linear expansion difference was statistically insignificant between the years 1988 HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS 9 and 1989 but the differences in linear expansion but also point to the fact that the present area of between 1988 and the years 1990, 1991 were the sanctuary may be a fragment of what was Table 4 LINEAR EXPANSION IN KM OF HOME RANGES OF THE STUDY ANIMALS Direction 1988* 1989 1990 1991 Extreme East 83 113 137 • 143 250 West - 06 05 06 06 North ** - 21 26 24 26 South - 0 0 0 0 * Past record of the Forest Department. ** Ajodhya hill family group not included in the home range estimation due to lack of sufficient observations. However, Linear expansion is based on the report from the northern most point of their visit. statistically very significant. The expansion of the home range on the west and north side is insignificant probably because elephants went to these areas only for crop raiding and not for exploration of a suitable habitat. On the other hand, the elephants expanded their home ranges considerably on the east, for exploration and search for a better habitat in the face of rapid degradation of the DWS, as an extension of their traditional seasonal range to east of the Sanctuary, in the west Midnapur area. Such a traditional seasonal range apparently did not exist in the west of DWS. The migrant population obviously had a different strategy than the resident Bihar population Home range overlaps with Sanctuary: All the study individuals showed that a very significant part of their home ranges lies outside the DWS. Arjun had 77.29%, Gabbar had 96.95%. Ganesh had 97.47% and LCE 96.45%, overlap on the agricultural areas outside the Sanctuary. Even if the agricultural overlap, calculated using MCP method, is considered to be much more than the actual area of usage, the area of the Sanctuary overlap would be -less than that of the agriculture. These overlaps indicate not only poor carrying capacity of the sanctuary once the original habitat of Dalma elephants that has come under human encroachment. The knowledge of home range of elephants in fragmented areas thus throws light on the real utility of such 'fragments', termed as sanctuaries in many places, to the elephants and could be used in knowing the preferred areas of elephants, for better management. Acknowledgements We thank U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Ministry of Environment. Government of India for funding and sponsoring a five year study (1988-92) on the Ecology of Elephants of Dalma Sanctuary and of Central India in general, under Elephant Ecology Project of BNHS. This paper is a part of the research work done under the project of BNHS. We appreciate the help of A jay Desai in training the first author, in digitizing maps and in the use of SEAS program. We also thank the state forest departments of Bihar, Orissa, and West Bengal for every help during the study period. We thank J.C. Daniel, Principal Investigator of the project, for guidance throughout the period of the project and for scrutinising the manuscript of this paper. 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 92 (1995) References Daniel, J. C„ A. A. Desal N. Sivaganesan, & S. RAMESHKUMAR ( 1 987): The study of some endangered species of wildlife and their habitats- The Asian Elephant. Report October 1985 to September 1987. Bombay Natural History Society. Daniel, J. C., A. A. Desai, N. Sivaganesan. S. Ramesh Kumar, & H. S. Datye (1992): Ecology of Indian elephant. Executive Summary Report. Bombay Natural History Society. DATYE, H.S. (1993): Ecology of Asian Elephant (Elephas maxim us ) in Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bombay. DESAI. A. A. (1991): The home range of elephants and its implications for the management of the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary. Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 88(2): 145-156. Dixon. K. R. & J. A. Chapman (1980): Harmonic mean measure of animal activity areas. Ecology. 61: 1040-1044. Douglas-Hamilton. I. (1973): On the ecology and behaviour of the lake Manvara elephants. E. Afr. Wild! J. 11: 401- 403. Douglas-Hamilton. I. & O. Douglas-Hamilton (1975): Among the elephants. Collins and Harvill Press, London. DUNHAM, K. M. (1986): Movements of elephant cows in the unflooded Middle Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe. Afr. J. Ecol. 24: 287-291. Easa. P. S. (1988): Movement pattern of Asiatic elephant {Elephas maximus ) in Perambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary. Kerala. Kerala Forest Research Institute. Research report 54. Gadgil, Madhav, & V. M. Meher-Homji (1986): Localities of great Indian significance. Acad Sci. (Anim. Sci/ plant Sci.) suppl: 165-180. Hall-Martin, A. J. (1987): Role of musth in the reproductive strategy of the African elephant (. Loxodonta africana). S. Afri. J. Sci. 83: 616-620. JENRICH. R. I. & F. B. TURNER (1969): Measurement of non- circular home range. J. Theor. Biol. 22: 227-237 . JONES, D. M. (1975): Elephant rescue in Sri Lanka . Oryx: 185- 190. Khan, Mohd. Khan bin Momin (1967): Movements of herds of elephants in the Upper Perak area. Malay. Nat. J. 20(1 & 2): 18-23. LEUTHOLD, W. & J. B. SALE (1973): Movements and patterns of habitat utilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park. Kenya. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 11: 369-384. Leuthold. W. (1977a): Spatial organization and strategy of habitat utilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. Z. Saugetierkune. 42: 350-379. Leuthold. W. (1977b): Changes in tree populations of Tsavo East National Park. Kenya. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 15: 61-69. MEHER-HOMJI. V. M. (1991 ): The forest link. In: The Hindu survey of the Environment 1991. MERZ. G. (1986a): Counting elephants {Loxodonta africana cyclotis) in tropical rain forests with particular reference to the Tai National Park, Ivory Coast. Afr. J. Ecol. 24: 61-68. Mohr. C. O. (1947): Table of equivalent populations of north American small mammals. Am. midi. Nat. 37: 223-249. MOSS, C. J. (1988): Elephant Memories. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Olivier. R. D. C. (1978): On the ecology of the Asian elephant. Ph.D. thesis. University of Cambridge, Cambridge. Rodgers, D. H. & W. H. Elder (1977): Movement of elephants in the Luangwa valley, Zambia. J. Wildl. Manage. 41(1): 56-62. SUKUMAR. R. (1985): Ecology of the Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus) and its interaction with man in south India. Ph. D. thesis. Indian Institute of science. Vol. I and II. SUKUMAR. R. (1989a): Ecology of the Asian elephant in southern India, I. Movement and habitat utilisation patterns. J. Trop. Eco. 5: 1-18. SUKUMAR, R. (1989b): The Asian elephant : Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. VlLJOEN, P. J. (1989): Spatial distribution and movements of elephants (Loxodonta africana ) in the northern Namib Desert region of Kaokoveld, South West Africa/Namibia. J. Zool. Lond. 219: 1-19. WlEN, J. A. (1985): Vertebrate responses to environmental patchyness in arid and semiarid ecosystems. In: The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. Academic press Inc. pp. 169-193. Wyatt, J. R. & S. K. Eltringham (1974): The daily activity of the elephants in the Rwenzori National Park, Uganda. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 12: 273-289. COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF BIRD PESTS AND THEIR DIURNAL RHYTHM IN RIPENING SORGHUM1 B.M. Parasharya, K.L. Mathew and D.N. Yadav2 ( With a text-figure) Key words: bird pest, community, damage, diurnal rhythm, sorghum, species diversity The species of birds and the maximum number that fed on isolated fields of standing sorghum. Sorghum vulgare were recorded from 0700 to 1800 hr and their community characters were determined. A total 12 species of birds fed on standing sorghum. The Baya Ploceus philippinus. Rose Finch Carpodacus erythrinus and Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata constituted 75.22% of the total bird species. The feeding pattern was bimodal with morning and evening peaks. The density of birds, species richness, their diversity and evenness were greater during the morning peak as compared to that of the evening. The bird density and the species richness were extremely low during the noon hours. Therefore it is suggested that morning is the best time to study the bird community and morning as well as the evening foraging periods are the times a ripening field requires maximum protection. The estimated percent damage inflicted by birds ranged from 38.54 to 73.93. Introduction Sorghum Sorghum vulgare and pearl millet Pennisetum typhoides are the two important cereals heavily depredated by birds. Seeds of these crops are exposed and so attract several bird species during the entire period of seed setting to harvesting stage and so suffer heavy losses. Bird pests of sorghum have been identified and the extent of damage to this crop has been reported in India (Rao and Rao 1953, Perumal et al. 1971, Mehrotra and Bhatnagar 1979, Santhaiah et al. 1983, Dhindsa et al. 1984, Dodia et al. 1989) and elsewhere (Manikowski and Da Camara-Smeets 1979, Brugger 1980). Dhindsa et al. (1984) reported on the bird community structure of sorghum and pearl millet at Ludhiana and estimated the damage inflicted by them. However, there exists no information Accepted September 1992. All India Coordinated Research Project on Agricultural Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110. Gujarat. on the diurnal rhythm of the feeding activity of pest birds on any of the crops. This paper deals with the diurnal feeding rhythm of pest birds on sorghum grown in isolation and the extent of damage caused by the pests. It is necessary to know the diurnal rhythm of bird communities associated with cereal crops at their ripening stage since it would be useful in evolving and employing different control strategies and methods. Such knowledge on the timing of bird activities in crop fields would be helpful in designing studies on the population dynamics of birds in ripening cereal fields too. Materials and Methods This study of the diurnal rhythm on the feeding activity of birds damaging sorghum Sorghum vulgare was carried out at the college farms of Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand (22° 32’ N, 73° 00’ E) from 20 November to 10 December 1984. The observations were recorded from 1330 to 1800 hr on a day and were followed up on the next day from 0700 to 1330 hr to complete one day cycle. During the study 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92 (1995) period, sunrise was at 0705 hr and 0720 hr on 20 November and 10 December whereas sunset was at 1800 hr and 1802 hr respectively. The maximum temperature ranged between 29.5 and 33.6° C and minimum temperature ranged between 8.5 and 17.5 C. The maximum UJ o z UJ a 10 8 of- C_ O r Blossomheaded Parakeet / Fig. 1. Diurnal rhythm in the feeding activity of granivorous birds in sorghum fields. number of birds feeding on grains were recorded during even 30 minutes block. The results are based on seven days observations recorded on 3 different fields (0.10-0.55 ha area). The birds were identified and counted using 7 x 30 binoculars from at least 2.0 m height above ground. The species diversity (H') and evenness of the species (J) were determined using Zar's (1974) method. Sorghum was the only cereal crop grown, mainly as fodder. During the study period, other cultivated crops were Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum , Sugarcane Saccharum offtcinarum , Pigeon-pea Cajanus cajan and Cotton Gossypium hirsutum. The damage caused by birds was estimated by moving across the field from one end to the other in a zigzag fashion. After an equal distance of walking, the earheads touching the 1 m stick raised at breast height were considered for estimating the damage. All the earheads were cut and brought to the laboratory. Besides working out the percentage of earheads damaged, overall damage was also calculated by counting the total number of seeds present and those missing in the earheads damaged by the birds. Parakeets cut the earheads, the number of seeds missing were extrapolated from the average number of seeds per earhead. Results and Discussion A total of 12 species of birds were1 identified feeding on sorghum grains during the study. Only 7 species occurred in fairly large numbers and showed definite feeding pattern (Fig. 1 and Table 1), whereas the remaining Table 1 RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF BIRDS FEEDING ON SORGHUM AND THEIR COMMUNITY CHARACTERISTICS Species Relative Abundance (%) Baya 29.33 Rose Finch 22.76 Blackheaded Bunting 8,37 Redheaded Bunting 1.10 Spotted Munia 23.13 Whitethroated Munia 0.06 Redvented Bulbul 4.34 Common Babbler 0.73 Jungle Babbler 1.10 Large Grey Babbler 1.50 Roseringed Parakeet 5.38 Blossomheaded Parakeet 2.20 species were only few in number. The three major species, the Baya Ploceus philippinus , COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF BIRD PESTS 13 Rose Finch Carpodacus erythrinus and Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata constituted 75.22% of the total birds counted. Species diversity (H') of the birds encountered in the field and its evenness (J) were 0.791 and 0.739 respectively. All the birds started feeding soon after sunrise and stopped completely after sunset. The Baya fed mainly from 0700-0900 hr and from 1630-1800 hr. There was absolutely no activity between 1300 and 1530 hr. They roosted in nearby sugarcane field and a few individuals intermittently fed between 0900 and 1300 hr. The feeding activity of the Rose Finch was recorded throughout the day but the peak activity was from 0700-1030 hr and 1630-1700 hr. The Spotted Munia and Blackheaded Bunting Emberiza melanocephala also showed a similar pattern of foraging as that of the Rose Finch. The finches and buntings took shelter in the adjoining Pigeon pea field during hours of the day and from there, a few birds visited the field occasionally. Feeding hours of the Roseringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri and Blossomheaded Parakeet P. cyanocephala were restricted in the morning between 0700 and 0930 or 1000 hr; it was much shorter in the evening. The Redvented Bulbul Pvcnonotus cafer also showed bimodal feeding pattern. The results incorporated in Table 2 show that the feeding pattern of birds associated with the sorghum field is bimodal with high activities during the morning and evening hours. However, when the species richness, diversity (H') and evenness (J) were compared, it was maximum between 0700 and 1000 hr (morning peak) as compared to that of 1600 to 1800 hr (evening peak). When the species richness was considered it was poor between 1030 to 1530 hr. But as the species richness, diversity and evenness were taken into account, it is obvious that the avian activities in the field were at a minimum from 1230 to 1430 hr. Since the highest number of species was 5 and the evenness of species was nearer to 1 during the noon hours, it was concluded that only a few species were present in the field during that time of the day and their numbers were almost even. But the bird density was the least (Fig.l). Therefore the field did not require much protection against birds at this time and also this was not the right time to study and conduct bird census. On the contrary, the number of species observed was the maximum during the morning peak with greater values of diversity and evenness even to that of the evening peak. Thus it could be considered that the morning hours between 0700 to 1000 hr as the best time to study the bird community in a ripening sorghum field. Moreover, this is the period of the day together with the evening peak period during which a field requires maximum protection against bird pests to make the scaring more effective and economical. Peak feeding hours of the birds may change with the season and changing day length period. The birds are seasonal breeders and hence higher food requirement during such periods may influence their feeding rhythm. Therefore, it is essential that the diurnal feeding pattern of birds is determined in all the seasons so -that right scaring time could be determined. Several behavioural and physiological functions follow circadian rhythms. Consequently the feeding activity of many of the birds exhibits a bimodal pattern with peaks in the morning and evening. The morning peak may be for making up the deficiencies built up during the previous night of starvation whereas the evening peak for enabling the bird to store energy in surplus for the coming night (Gwinner 1975). Among the 12 species recorded damaging sorghum in the present study, a few have already been reported from other parts of the country (Bhatnagar et al. 1982, Santhaiah et al. 1983, Dhindsa et al. 1984) the Redvented Bulbul and 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) Table 2 DIURNAL VARIATIONS IN THE COMMUNITY CHARACTERS OF BIRDS FEEDING ON SORGHUM Time (hr) Average no/obs. Species richness Diversity (H') Evenness (J) 0700-0730 48.57 7 0.720 0.852 0730-0800 65.00 9 0.809 0.848 0800-0830 54.14 10 0.836 0.836 0830-0900 41.28 9 0.792 0.830 0900-0930 24.57 9 0.840 0.880 0930-1000 24.42 10 0.776 0.776 1000-1030 13.57 7 0.626 0.741 1030-1100 04.28 4 0.508 0.843 1100-1130 07.57 6 0.590 0.758 1130-1200 11.28 6 0.574 0.738 1200-1230 15.14 5 0.569 0.815 1230-1300 12.28 4 0.470 0.781 1300-1330 01.57 4 0.562 0.934 1330-1400 02.28 5 0.614 0.878 1400-1430 03.00 4 0.584 0.969 1430-1500 06.14 5 0.609 0.87L 1500-1530 06.00 5 0.623 0.891 1530-1600 13.71 7 0.713 0.844 1600-1630 18.57 7 0.693 0.820 1630-1700 32.00 8 0.664 0.786 1700-1730 35.85 8 0.604 0.664 1730-1800 28.28 7 0.487 0.576 three species of babblers namely Large Grey Babbler Turdoides malcolmi , Jungle Babbler T. stricitus and Common Babbler T. caudatus are being reported for the first time. Earlier Toor and Saini (1986) had analysed the gut of Large Grey Babbler at Ludhiana and reported grams of wheat Triticmn aestivum and paddy Oryza sativa , however, the grams of sorghum were not recovered from the gut and its status as a pest of standing crop was not established. As in the present study, the Whitethroated Munia Lonchura malcibarica has already been observed damaging sorghum from Andhra Pradesh (Perumal et al. 1971, Santhaiah et al 1983) and Punjab (Dhindsa et al. 1984). The Rose Finch and Blackheaded Bunting as well as Redheaded i Bunting Emberiza brunniceps are winter migrants whereas the remaining species are residents. The present report of damage estimation was only on crops grown under isolated condition. Though the extent of damage varied from 38.54% to 73.93% with variation in the extent of damage depending on certain environmental factors (Mathew et al. 1991). Such high degree of damage was mainly attributed either to the isolated condition or leaving the fields unwatched. The identification of bird pests and the extent of damage due to them to sorghum have been done in other parts of the country (Rao and Rao 1953, Perumal et al. 1971, Santhaiah et al. 1983, Dhmdsa et al 1984, Mehrotra and Bhatnagar 1979, Dodia et al. 1989). Most of these studies including the present one deal with the estimation of damage in a small area under isolated condition if not COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF BIRD PESTS 15 mentioned otherwise, and hence do not represent Acknowledgement the nature or extent of damage caused by birds We are grateful to the ICAR for financial to sorghum in general. assistance. References Bhatnagar, R.K.. K.P. Srivastava, N.P. Agnihotri, M.Ci. Jotwani & V.T. CiAJBfflYA (1982): Efficiency of some bird repellent in sorghum at maturity stage of crop. pp. 224-226. In: Management of Problem Birds in Aviation and Agriculture. R.A. Agarwal & R.K. Bhatnagar (eds.), Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. BRUGGER, R.L. (1980): The situation of grain-eating birds in Somalia. Proc. Vertebrate Pest Conference 9: 5-16. Fresno, California. Dhindsa, M.S., H.S. Toor & P.S. Sandhu (1984): Community structure of birds damaging pearl millet and sorghum and estimation of grain loss. Indian J. Ecol. 11(1): 154-159. Dodia, J.F., B.M. Parasharya & D.N. Yadav (1989): Black Drongo feeding on sorghum grain. Pavo 27: 75. GwiNNER, E. (1975): Circadian and circannual rhythms in birds. In: Avian Biology Vol. 5. D.S. Farner and J.R. King (eds.). Academic Press, New York. Manikowski, S. & Da Camara- Smeets (1979): Estimating bird damage to sorghum and millet in Chad. J. Wildl. Manage. 43(2): 540-544. Mathew, K.L., B.M. Parasharya, J.F. Dodia & D.N. YADAV (1991): Environmental factors augmenting bird damage to cereals. Communicated to Wildlife Society Bulletin. Mehrotra, K.N. & R.K. Bhatnagar (1979): Status of Economic Ornithology in India. ICAR, New Delhi. Perumal, R.S., T.R. Subramaniam& P.L. David (1971 ): Studies on the birds visiting CSH - I. Sorghum and the extent of bird damage. Andhra Agric. J. 18: 205- 207. RAO, S.B.P. & D.V.N. Rao (1953): Bird damage in jo war. Madras Agric. J. 40: 466-467. Santhaiah, N., N. Shivanarayan & T.G. Manmohan SlNGH (1983): Bird pests of sorghum and losses associated with their damage. Indian J. Plant Prot. 11: 115-117. Toor, H.S. & M.S. Saini (1986): Feeding ecology of the large grey babbler T urdoides malcolmi. Proceedings of Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci.) 95(4): 429-436. Zar, J.H. (1974): Biostatistical Analysis. Prentice Hall, Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey. STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION OF THE TRAVANCORE TORTOISE, INDOTESTUDO FORSTENII IN WESTERN GHATS1 S. Bhupathy2 and B.C. Choudhury1 (With two plates and a text-figure) Key words: Indotestudo forstenii, Travancore tortoise. Western Ghats, endemic species, conservation This paper reports the status and distribution of the Travancore tortoise. Indotestudo forstenii based on a field survey conducted in the Western Ghats of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu between 21 October and 30 December 1991 . The survey identified strongholds of the Travancore tortoise and the several causes for its decline. The paper also describes tortoise habitat, morphometry, utilization by tribalsand conservation problems. Introduction Indotestudo forstenii , commonly known as the Travancore tortoise is distributed in the semievergreen and evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. India. Two populations of this species have been established, one in Western Ghats and the other in Sulawesi Islands, Indonesia (Moll 1989). However, the latter population is considered to have been introduced from India and hence, this species should be considered as endemic to India. Groombndge (1982) classified this chelonian as 'insufficiently known' in the Red Data Book (1982) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and natural resources (IUCN). It is included in the second category of the Action plan rating of IUCN which implies that this species is little known and has restricted distribution (Stubbs 1989). Published information on Travancore tortoise's natural history is scanty and cover only a few aspects such as: distribution, general biology (Smith 1931, Daniel 1983, Moll 1989) ’Accepted June 1993. Salim All Centre tor Ornithology and Natural History, Kalampalayam. Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 010. 3Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box No. 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001. U.P. and taxonomy (Hoogmoed and Crumly 1984). This paper deals with the distribution, status, habitat, exploitation by tribals and conservation problems of Travancore tortoise. Methods Study area: The study was carried out in the Western Ghats in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala from 21 October to 30 December 1991. Altogether, 11 protected areas were surveyed, namely three in Karnataka, four in Tamil Nadu and four in Kerala (Fig. 1). They are Nena Estate, Sharavati and Mookambika wildlife sanctuaries, in Karnataka; Mudumalai and Indira Gandhi (formerly Anaimalai) wildlife sanctuaries, Mundanthurai-Kalakad Tiger Reserve and Kothaiyar reserve forest in Tamil Nadu and Nevyar, Peppara Peechi-Vazhani and Parambikulam wildlife sanctuaries in Kerala. Survey methods included searching in probable habitats and inquiring in tribal settlements and forest camps. The following measurements were taken using a dial vernier calipers: straight line carapace length (SCL), carapace width (CW), plastron length (PL) and shell height (SH). Live specimens were weighed (M) to the nearest gram using a spring balance. Also, information on forest type, micro habitat ) THE TRAVANCORE TORTOISE, INDOTESTUDO FORSTENII 17 Fig. 1. Distribution of Travancore tortoise in the Western Ghats. and elevation were noted. Results and Discussion Identity: The overall coloration of the Travancore tortoise is yellow with one black blotch on each scute of the carapace (Plate la) and plastron. Hatchlings and juveniles are brown and devoid of black markings. Skin around the eyes and nostril become pink during breeding season (Auffenburg 1964). The closest relative of the Travancore tortoise is the Elongated tortoise, Indotestudo elongata which is distributed in the sal (Shorea rokusta) forests of the north and northeast India. The Travancore tortoise differs from Elongated tortoise in lacking the cervical (nuchal) shield and length of the interpectoral seam. The length of the interpectoral seam is shorter than the interhumeral seam in Travancore tortoise (Smith 1931). However, the lack of cervical shield is not always true as one individual was recorded with cervical shield during the present survey. This tortoise grows up to 33.1 cm 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) Table 1 KNOWN LOCALITY RECORDS OF TRAVANCORE TORTOISE IN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA State Locality Source Kerala Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary Peechi Wildlife Sanctuary Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary Periyar Tiger Reserve Chalakudi Forests Silent Valley Wildlife Sanctuary Karualai Reserve Forest Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary Present survey Present survey Present survey Present survey KFRI, Museum, Peechi Moll (1989) Karunakaran (1992, per. comm.) Nitin D. Rai (1992, per. comm.) Moll (1989) Tamil Nadu Kothaiyar Reserve Forest Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary Present survey Present survey Karnataka Neria Forest Sharavati Wildlife Sanctuary Mookambika WiMlife Sanctuary Agumbae Forest Dandeli wildlife sanctuary Sharath (1990) B.K. Sharath (1991, per. comm.) B.K. Sharath (1991, per. comm.) Das (1991) Renee Borges (1991, per. comm.) (Das 1991). Distribution: Shells or live specimens of Travancore tortoise were recorded in six out of 11 localities surveyed (Fig. 1). They were, Neyyar, Peppara, Peechi-Vazhani and Parambikulam wildlife sanctuaries in Kerala and, Indira Gandhi wildlife sanctuary and Kothaiyar teserve forest in Tamil Nadu. Also, during the survey specimens collected from Neria forest, Sharavati and Mookambika wildlife sanctuaries in Karnataka by B.K. Sharath were examined. The known distribution of this species is Travancore hills of Kerala and Coorg of Karnataka (Smith 1931, Daniel 1983, Moll 1989, Das 1991). Even though the distribution of this species is known as Travancore hills and Coorg, precise locality records are scanty. Additional records of this species are Kothaiyar reserve forest, Peppara, Neyyar and Peechi wildlife sanctuaries. Updated and precise information on the distribution of the Travancore tortoise are given in Table 1. Status: In all, 32 Travancore tortoises were recorded during the present survey of which seven were seen live in the wild and, .17 live tortoises and eight shells were found in various tribal settlements and forest villages (Table 2). Approximately 17 to 31 hours were spent in actual searching for tortoises in wild and in tribal settlements in each locality surveyed. A maximum of 12 tortoises were recorded in Kothaiyar reserve forests and more than one tortoise in all localities except Indira Gandhi wildlife sanctuary. The number of live tortoises or shells obtained per man hour work during field surveys were 0.04 in Kothaiyar reserve forest and Peechi-Vazhani wildlife sanctuary and 0.07 in Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary (Table 2). Even though, no wild tortoises were recorded in Peppara and Neyyar wildlife sanctuaries, the number of specimens obtained in tribal settlements were high (7 and 4 tortoises respectively). Travancore tortoises are assumed to be uncommon in these areas. Moll (1989) found this tortoise to be common to Chalakudi forests, adjacent to Parambikulam wildlife J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92 Plate 1 Bhupathy & Choudhury: Status of Travancore tortoise a. Travancore tortoise, Indotestudo forstenii. b. Moist deciduous forests of the southern Western Ghats. These forests still hold Fairly good populations of the Travancore tortoise. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92 Bhupathy & Choudhury: Status of Travancore tortoise Plate 2 a. A close view of the diurnal retreat of Travancore tortoise, b. Tortoises kept by the Kani tribals of the Western Ghats for future utilization. THE TRAVANCORE TORTOISE, INDOTESTUDO FORSTENII 19 Table 2 STATUS OF TRAVANCORE TORTOISE IN SOME PROTECTED AREAS OF THE WESTERN GHATS Details of information Name of the Protected Areas I II Ill IV V VI Tribal settlement survey No. of settlements checked 3 2 1 3 1 7 Man hours search time 10 10 1 3 1 15 No. of tortoise shells obtained 1 0 1 3 1 5 No. of live tortoises seen 7 4 0 1 0 5 Field survey No. of hours surveyed 8 8 16 20 20 16 No. of persons surveyed 3 3 3 3 3 3 No. of tortoises 0 0 2 3 - 2 Tortoise / man hour - - 0.04 0.07 - 0.04 Note: I. Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary; II. Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary; III. Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary; IV. Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary; V. Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary; VI. Kothaiyar Wildlife Sanctuary. sanctuary (0.175 tortoise/ man hour work). The Travancore tortoise has been recorded in ten sanctuaries, one Tiger Reserve and five reserve forests. The occurrence of the Travancore tortoise in many other protected areas of western ridges of the Western Ghats is not ruled out. The Protected Areas (i.e. sanctuary, national park and tiger reserve) in which the Travancore tortoises have been Protected Areas would certainly help in the survival of this species. Habitat: The Travancore tortoise was recorded in a variety of forest types such as, moist deciduous (Plate lb), semievergreen and rubber plantations at elevations 100-800 m above sea level. The tortoise utilized rock crevices (burrows) at ground level, cavities in fallen trees (Plate 2a), leaf litter and bushes as diurnal i 3 HABITAT DESCRIPTION OF TRAVANCORE TORTOISE BASED ON WILD CAUGHT TORTOISES Locality Habitat (forest type) Micro-habitat Elevation Nearest water point Kothaiyar RF 1 . Rubber plantation Leaf litter 100 m 200 m 2. Moist deciduous Fallen log 400 m 25 m Peechi-Vazhani 3. Moist deciduous Rock crevices 160 m 50 m 4. Moist deciduous Fallen log 400 m 1000 m Parambikulam 5. Moist deciduous Bush & fallen twigs 600 m 100 m 6. Semievergreen Bush 600 m 50 m 7. Moist deciduous Crevices 650 m 5 m recorded cover a total area of about 3900 sq. km in addition to six reserve forests. The ecological habitat of tortoise (i.e. habitat with actual distribution of the tortoise) such as evergreen or semievergreen and moist deciduous forests is very small. Hence, improved protection in retreats (Table 3). The tortoises recorded during the present survey were mostly near water, i.e. 5 - 200 m (Table 3). Morphometry: Seven tortoises were recorded in the wild and, 17 live tortoises and 8 shells in tribal settlements during the survey. 20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) The largest specimen recorded was a female with SCL 270 mm and mass (M) 2600 gm (Table 4). It is a general belief that the number of rings on the carapace or plastral scutes of a turtle or tortoise are correlated with its age. SCL (size) and number of annular rings on the pi astral/carapace scutes did not show a significant relationship (r=0.365, p>0.05, n=23). Hence, it appears that this belief is fallacious or it may be true for young tortoise up to approximately 10 years. Malayanmar in Peechi-Vazhani wildlife sanctuary and 3. Kadars in Parambikulam and Indira Gandhi wildlife sanctuaries. All used tortoises as pets, food, and medicine. Kanis call this tortoise 'vengala ama' (=brass turtle) or 'kal ama' (=stone turtle), whereas Malayanmar and Kadars used the name 'chural ama' (=cane turtle). Among the tribals of the surveyed Western Ghats, the Kanis utilised the Travancore tortoise most extensively. They keep them as pets by drilling a hole in one of the Table 4 MORPHOMETRY OF WILD-CAUGHT TRAVANCORE TORTOISES. MASS (M) IN GRAM (GM) AND OTHER MORPHOMETRY MEASUREMENTS IN MM Survey locality Sex Morphometry SCL PL CB M Kothaiyar RF Male 235 182 136 1350 Female 123 107 94 300 Peechi-Vazhani Female 111 96 90 250 Female 136 121 98 400 Parambikulam Female 144 126 102 525 Female 270 225 168 2600 Female 118 103 92 300 Sex ratio: Over all, the population of the tortoise had a sex ratio of 1:5 (male: female, n=19). Of 32 shells and live tortoises recorded during the survey, 7 had an SCL less than 100 mm and were considered as juvenile and in another 6, only the carapace was obtained and hence sex was not ascertained. Available studies in western countries show that most tortoises have a sex ratio of 1 : 1 (Auffenburg and Iverson 1979). Information of the sex ratio is not available for Indian species. From this limited data, it may be stated that the sex ratio is skewed towards females in the Travancore tortoise. Utilisation: Three major tribal communities were examined during the present survey: 1. Kanis or Kanikaran in Kothaiyar reserve forest, Neyyar and Pep para wildlife sanctuaries, 2. posterior marginals, at times tying three or more tortoises together on with a string (Plate 2b). They also use powder of the charred shell mixed with oil as a cure for external injuries and rashes. The tribals believe that the blood and meat of the tortoise cure stomach ailments, ulcers and piles. The consumption of tortoises as food by Kadar and Hill Pandaram tribals of the Western Ghats has already been reported (Moll 1989). Conservation: Habitat destruction by timber operations, cane collection and exploitation by tribals are some of the factors causing the present rarity and sparse distribution of this species. In almost all Travancore tortoise areas, hydroelectric projects or reservoirs were recorded causing habitat alteration and fragmentation. THE TRAVANCORE TORTOISE , INDOTESTUDO FORSTENII 21 The Travancore tortoise is listed as 'vulnerable' in IUCN Red Data Book, whereas it is included only in the Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972. Even though Travancore tortoises are common in some areas, considering the fast disappearing evergreen and semievergreen forests and anthropogenic pressure, and being an endemic to the Western Ghats, additional legal protection is recommended. The capture of tortoises by tribals should be controlled. Legal and illegal operations such as timber cutting, cane and honey collection should be checked in tortoise habitat. The loss of evergreen and semievergreen forests from developmental projects within the Travancore tortoise's distribution range should be reviewed. Studies on various aspects of ecology of this turtle is urgently needed. This would help not only in scientific management of the Protected Areas, but will also help in the continued survival of this species. Acknowledgements This study is a part of the collaborative project of the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Refer Auffenburg, W.. (1964): A first record of breeding colour change in a tortoise. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(1): 191-192. Auffenburg, W. & J.B. Iverson (1979): Demography of terrestrial turtles. In: Turtles Perspectives and Research. (M. Harless and H. Morlock, eds.), John Willey & Sons, New York, pp. 541-569. Daniel, J.C. (1983): The book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 141. Das, I. (1991): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of the Indian subcontinent. R & A Publishing Limited, Avon, England, pp. 133. Groombridge, B. (1982): The IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia Red Data Book. Part I. Testudines, Crocodilia, Rhyncocephalia. IUCN, Gland, pp. 426. Hoogmoed, M.S. & C.R. Crumly (1984): Land tortoise types in the Rijksmuseum van Natuurliike Historie with Dun, and US Fish & Wildlife Service, on freshwater turtle and land tortoises sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India. We express our sincere thanks to the Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) of the States of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka for necessary permission. The field officers of the survey areas in these states were very cooperative and helpful. Mr. K.S. Appukuttan, Research Assistant, Kerala Forest Department arranged logistics to conduct the survey in Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary. Thanks are due to Nitin D. Rai and Mr. Hebbar for offering hospitality when the survey team was in Bangalore and Neria respectively conducting surveys in the Western Ghats of Karnataka. Mr. B.K. Sharath of Mangalore kindly allowed us to examine his tortoise collections from Mookambika, Sharavati wildlife sanctuaries and Neria reserve forest. We are grateful to Mr. J.C. Daniel, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay and Dr. Edward Moll, advisor to the WII-USFWS Turtle and Tortoise Conservation Project, Dehra Dun for going through earlier drafts of this paper and comments. Mr. Justus Joshua, Senior Research Fellow, WII helped in the preparation of the map. ENCES comments on Nomenclature and systematics (Reptilia: Testudines: Testudinidae). Zool. Meded. Leiden 58(15): 241-259. Moll, E.O. (1989): Indotestudo forstenii, Travancore tortoise. In: The conservation biology of tortoises. (I.R. Swingland & M.W. Klemens, eds.) occ. paper, IUCN/SSC No. 5: 119-120. Sharath, B.K. (1990): On the occurrence of the forest cane turtle ( Geoemyda sylvatica ) in Western Ghats of Karnataka, South India. Hamadryad 15(1): 34. Smith, M.A. (1931): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 185. Stubbs, D. (1989): Tortoises and freshwater turtles: An action plan for their conservation. IUCN, Gland, pp. 48. ON THE MORPHOLOGY, ADVERTISING CALL AND HABITAT OF THE BUSH FRO G PHILAUTUS LEUCORHINUS (LICHTENSTEIN AND MARTENS, 1856)1 Aloysius G. Sekar2 ( With a text-figure) Key words: Philautus leucorhimis , morphometry, call sequence, habitat The information on the morphometry and ecology of the Bush frog Philautus leucorhinus (Lichtenstein and Martens. 1856) is meagre. The species was studied for their mating call and the habitat, in Goa during the monsoon in 1989. A total of 24 individuals were collected to study morphometry. Statistical relationship between different morphometric parameters was analysed. There was significant positive correlation between Snout-Vent length and Tibia length. The time taken for call sequence was also analysed. The individuals of the Bush frog used various microhabitats of shrubs while making their mating call. Introduction The genus Philautus (Family Rhacophoridae: Amphibia) comprises of small robust frogs which are usually 2-3 cm in snout- vent length. Species of this genus live in shrubs and low vegetation in tropical rain forest, sometimes quite far from water (Liem 1970). They appear only in the monsoon season. Due to their elusiveness information on their morphometry and ecology is meagre. Some Indian species of this genus have been described by Boulenger (1890) and Inger et al. (1984) with very little morphometric details. McCann (1932) provided some details on the call and habitat of species Philautus bombayensis. However, the literature on this group is negligible. In 1989 about 24 adult males of Philautus leucorhinus were collected from Goa forests (Volpoi-15, Molem-6 and Canacona-3) during the monsoon. This species has been recorded in India from Goa, Karnataka and Kerala states along the Western Ghats (Sekar 1991). This paper describes the morphology. 'Accepted September 1993. 2Bombay Natural History Society. Hornbill House. Dr. Salim Ali Chowk. Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg. Bombay 400 023. statistical relationship between the morphometric parameters, advertising call and habitat of the bush frog Philautus leucorhinus. Materials and Methods The frogs were collected from shrubs when they were making advertising call at night. They were preserved in 10% formalin. About 24 adult males were preserved. The call was recorded with the help of a micro cassette recorder. To measure the morphometric characters a dial vernier (least count 0.05 mm) was used. Some of the morphometric variables were compared with each other. Statistical analysis such as correlation coefficient (r) and regression equation (Y=mX + C) were done. Results Morphology: (a) Diagnosis: Small sized frog; adult male measured up to 29.45 mm in snout to vent length, average 26.96 mm (Table 1). Snout pointed projecting beyond the mouth. Nostrils nearer to tip of the snout than the eye. Tympanum distinct, almost half the diameter of the eye. Interorbital space broader than the width of upper eyelid. First finger shorter than second; fingers with a slight rudiment of web. Toes 2/3 HABITAT OF THE BUSH FROG PHILAUTUS LEUCORHINUS 23 Table 1 THE MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) OF 24 ADULT MALES OF Philautus leucorhinus COLLECTED FROM GOA Measurements Range Mean S.D. ± Ratio of measurement to SV length (%) Snout-Vent length 24.30-29.45 26.96 1.18 - Head length 8.30-10.85 9.29 0.52 34.45 Head width 9.50-11.40 10.13 0.49 37.56 Internasal space 2.30-3.10 2.69 0.23 9.97 Interorbital space 2.90-3.80 3.48 0.27 12.90 Width of upper eyelid 2.30-3.20 2.62 0.19 9.71 Diameter of eye 3.25-4.00 3.63 0.21 13.46 Tympanum 1.60-2.10 1.92 0.16 7.12 Arm length 11.40-16.40 14.24 0.93 52.80 Diameter of lower arm 2.40-3.05 2.68 0.22 9.94 Hand length 7.70-9.60 8.54 0.40 31.66 Leg length 37.30-47.00 40.63 2.12 150.65 Tibia length 11.90-15.25 13.07 0.74 48.50 Length of foot & tarsus 12.40-19.95 17.36 1.38 64.37 Foot length 10.00-12.25 11.12 0.55 41.23 Inner metatarsal tubercle 0.80-1.10 0.98 0.07 3.63 Width of toe-pad 1.30-1.80 1.57 0.13 5.82 First finger length 2.00-3.10 2.56 0.27 9,49 Second finger length 3.25-3.95 3.58 0.20 13.27 webbed. Tips of fingers and toes dilated into disc; the disc with circum -marginal groove. Tibio-tarsal articulation reaches tympanum or posterior border of the eye. Heels touch each prominent. Skin smooth above; a raised median line from the tip of the snout to the vent; belly, under side of thigh and around vent granular; a Fig. 1. Dorsal side of Philautus leucorhinus with different markings. other when legs are folded at right angles to the body. Sub-articular tubercles of fingers and toes moderate. Inner metatarsal tubercle small and fold from the eye to the shoulder. (b) Colour: The upper surface was light brown. A dark band below the canthus rostralis 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 92 (1995) and on the temporal region. The upper eyelids and the interorbital width darker than the body. An arch, one on each side of the back, joined at Some of them were located inside curled dry leaves and also small cavities in the stems. Males have a single vocal sac which was like a Table 2 STATISTICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT MORPHOMETRIC PARAMETERS IN Philautus leucorhinus (N=24, df=2) Morphometric parameters r value t value Significance Regression equation SV length (X) with Tibia length (Y) 0.80 6.25 P 0.001 Y=0.5X-0. 1 Tibia length (X) with foot length (Y) 0.728 4.9771 P 0.001 Y=0.98X-1 .68 Diameter of eye (X) with diameter of Tympanum (Y) 0.59 3.4161 P 0.01 Y-:0.45X+0.29 Head width (X) with interorbital space (Y) 0.457 2.4109 P 0.05 Y=J.25Xi-0.95 Head length (X) with foot length (Y) 0.39 1.9881 P 0.1* Y=0.4X+7.1 SV length (X) with Head length (Y) 0.37 1.8861 P 0.1* Y=0.16X+4.98 * Not significant interorbital width varies in the pattern (Fig. 1). T^ms in forelimbs, femur and thighs in hindlimbs are barred. Throat dotted with brown. (c) Morphometric relationship: Morphometric measurements such as snout-vent length (SV length), tibia length, head length, foot length, diameter of eye, diameter of tympanum, head width and interorbital space were taken and the relationships between these parameters were analysed statistically. Results of analysis (Table 2) indicated that there was significant positive correlation between SV length and Tibia length (r=0.8, P<0.001), Tibia length and foot length (r=0.728, P<0.001) and diameter of eye and diameter of tympanum (r=0.59, PO.Ol) whereas the positive correlation between head length and foot length, and SV length and head length are not significant at P<0.1 level. Advertising call: The advertising or breeding call of this species was recorded and studied. The frogs occupied different parts of the shrubs from which they relayed their call. They sat on the stems, branches and leaves in various positions, including the snout towards land and sticking upside down on the back of the leaves. bubble when it was fully inflated. Though the call is usually heard in chorus, the call of individuals was also recorded. The call can be syllabilized as 'trek.... trek.... trek... trekkkktak tak tak\ This makes one call sequence. To find out the average time taken for a call sequence, 10 sequences were observed. The time ranged from 8.64 to 43.74 seconds. On an average, each call sequence lasts for 21.41 seconds (Table 3). The duration of the sequence was dependent on Table 3 DATA ON THE TIME (IN SECONDS) TAKEN FOR A CALL SEQUENCE (N=10) AND TIME INTERVAL BETWEEN TWO 'TREK IN A SEQUENCE (N=25) Call Range Mean S.D. ± Time taken for call sequence 8.64-43.74 21.41 8.79 Time interval between two 'treks' in a sequence 2.33-5.39 3.62 0.82 number of 'trek' made by the frog during the call. The frog remained silent after it vocalised each 'tretf. The time interval between the two 'trek' calls was calculated from 25 HABITAT OF THE BUSH FROG PHILAUTUS LEUCORHINUS 25 observations. The frog remained silent for 3.62 seconds on an average after each 'trek' in the sequence. They were very wary of intruders. They stop calling even at the slightest movement or disturbance. Habitat: All the frogs were collected from shrubs of 2-3 m height in the moist deciduous forests and also in non-forested areas with shrubs. They were seen sitting on stem, branches on and under the leaves. No specimen was seen on the ground. They were collected far from the water. All frogs were caught guided by their call, so there was no female in the collection. Discussion The adult male frogs averaged 26.96 mm in snout-vent length. Boulenger (1890) recorded the length as 33 mm (1.3 inches) and Kirtisinghe (1957) has recorded it as 31 mm from specimens collected in Sri Lanka. But none of them mentioned the sex of the frog. The female may be a little larger in size than the male. Inger et al. (1984) have recorded the females as bigger than the males in all Philantus species collected by them at Ponmudi. The relationship between the different morphological measurements of Philautus leucorhinus was found to be positive especially the SV length and tibia length. Tibia length and foot length shows a high positive correlation. The pattern of the call is totally different from that of its related species Philautus bombayensis which can be syllabilised a 'tik tik tik'. The observation on the frogs calling sitting in face down position is supported by McCann's (1932) observation on Philautus bombayensis. He described that being a tree frog this species generally rests on the bark of trees and bush in facing down position. In this position the large vocal sac is inflated to its maximum. All frogs were picked up from shrubs and none from the ground. Inger et al (1984) have described the habitat of some related species P. charius , P. femoralis , P. signatus and P. temporalis. Among these species only P. femoralis was collected only from shrubs, the specimens of other species were collected from various microhabitats such as shrubs, on the surface of dead leaves on the ground, beneath logs, on the bare soil surface and on rocks. Though the frogs were seen calling, their breeding behaviour and egg laying behaviour are yet to be studied. Acknowledgements I thank Mr. J.C. Daniel, former Director of BNHS, for encouragement during the study and reading the manuscript. I thank Vithoba Hegde who accompanied me during the field trip. I also thank Forest Department of Goa for their kind cooperation during the field trip. References BOULENGER, (LA. (1890): The fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Taylor and Francis. London xvi+541 pp. Inger, R.F., H.B. Shaffer, M. Koshy & R. Bakde (1984): A report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from the Ponmudi, Kerala. South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 551-570. Kirtisinghe, P. (1957): The Amphibia of Ceylon. William Clowes and Sons limited.’ London and Beccles. xii+1 12 pp. LlEM, S.S. (1970): The morphology, systematics & evolution of the old world tree frogs (Rhacophoridae and Hyperoliidae). Fieldiana Zoology 57: vii+145 pp. McCann, C. (1932): Notes on Indian Batrachians. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 152-180. SEKAR, A.G. (1991): Distribution of the amphibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 125-127. MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN GREY MONGOOSE HERPESTES EDWARDSII EDWARDSII GEOFFROY1 Jagathpala Shetty, Gunapala Shetty and S.R. Kanakaraj2 ( With a text-figure ) Key words: Mongoose, mating behaviour A study of copulatory behaviour of the grey mongoose Herpestes edwardsii edwardsii, was made in captivity on 5 adult mongooses consisting of 2 males and 3 females. Both true and false mountings were recorded, in which the mountings occurred between the members of same sex or opposite sex. In the latter case, mounting between a dominant male and a dominant female usually resulted in true mounting and it lasted from 50 to 150 sec. The maximum frequency of mounting between a dominant male and a dominant female coincided with the oestrus of the female. The general pattern of mounting observed is compared with other species of mongooses. The role of heterosexual mounting in sexual orientation in their social behaviour is discussed. Introduction The courtship and mating behaviour has a close correlation with the social habit of animals and their social integration. In carnivores, generally pairing is not a temporary affair, in which sexually motivated individuals meet, copulate and part. In some cases it is a prelude to a partnership in which the male as well as the female will have parental responsibilities lasting till the young become self-supporting. Among viverrids the reproductive behaviour has been described in a relatively few species, which show that there is considerable diversity within the family (Ewer 1973). The members of herpestinae, a subfamily under Viverridae, comprising exclusively of mongooses, have received moderate attention with respect to their reproductive behaviour and parental care and the investigations are restricted to observations in captivity (Ducker 4960, Zannier 1965, Neal 1970, Ewer 1973, Rasa 1973a, b, 1977; Rood 1980, Jacobsen 1982). However there is no ’Accepted June 1994. 2Department of Studies in Zoology, University of Mysore. Manasagangotri. Mysore 570 006, Karnataka. scientific data available on the mating behaviour of Indian Grey mongoose Herpestes edwardsii edwardsii. In this paper we have made a comprehensive study on the reproductive behaviour of grey mongoose in captivity. Materials and Methods The grey mongooses used in the study consisted of 5 adult individuals: 2 males and 3 females captured in semiurban surroundings around the city of Mysore. The animals were housed in 4 cages with movable partition each measuring 90 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm which were serially connected with a free passage in between. The food provided once a day in the morning included beef liver, chicken heads, rats and mice often supplemented with chieken eggs taking care to see that each animal received sumptuous amount of food approximately Va of its body weight. Water was provided ad libitum. The individuals were kept together for about 3 months before the commencement of observation for mating behaviour during which time a social hierarchy became established. The observations were for an average duration of 3 hours per day for about 50 days. Most of the MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN GREY MONGOOSE 27 observations were made from behind a black curtain with peep holes in front of the cages. Simultaneously the reproductive status of the females was also determined everyday by the examination of the vaginal smear collected by restraining the animal using movable partition of the cage. Table la FREQUENCY OF MOUNTING OBSERVED IN A GROUP OF 5 MONGOOSES Mounting individual Mounted individual 0*1 0*2 91 92 93 0*1 - 15 178 10 12 o*2 0 -- 15 12 18 91 25 20 - 5 2 92 0 8 0 - 6 93 0 5 7 0 - Table lb MEASURES OF COPULATORY BEHAVIOUR OBSERVED IN A PAIR OF DOMINANT ADULT MONGOOSES Total mounts 178 Mating with ejaculation 16 Percentage of mating with ejaculation 8.98 Mean number of intromissions to ejaculate 18.44± (M ± S.E.) 0.848 Mean duration of time (in secs) of a 103.47± mount with ejaculation (M ± S.E.) 3.997 The frequency with which each individual of the group mounted one another is given in Table la, in the form of a matrix. Table lb gives the measurements of copulatory behaviour recorded for a pair of dominant mongooses. The licking of genitals by both partners following the break of copulation was taken as a criterion for a true and complete copulation (Rasa 1977). Observations and Discussions Two categories of mounting were distinguished: (a) 'False mounting' was observed to occur between the members of the same sex or opposite sex. It was characterised by the non- occurrence of premounting rituals; (b) Mounting between a dominant male and a dominant female usually resulted in true mounting. The occurrence of mounting was more ritualistic and far more frequent between a dominant male and a dominant female compared to the mountings occurring between subordinate individuals. The maximum frequency of the mounting between a pair of dominant individuals coincided with the oestrus of the female (Fig. 1A). A pronounced friendly interaction was also noticed between the partners during this period. They remained in contact, slept together and groomed each other more frequently. The oestrus female which was maximally receptive responded to an investigating male by not moving away. The preliminary investigatory activity by the male included sniffing and smelling of the snout and anogenital region of the female. When the male mounted from the posterior side by clasping the sides of the female with its forelimbs the female attained a receptive posture by arching its back slightly and moving her tail aside (Fig. IB, i). The male clasped the 28 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) • • • HI Fig. IB. Postures adopted by a pair of mongooses during different stages of mounting. (i) Preliminary stage of mounting by a male with a reciprocating female, (ii) Intermediate stage of mounting with the male holding the female and beginning the intromissions, (iii) Final stage of intromission. Note the position of chin of the male and the hind-legs which are raised from the floor. flank of the female and intromission followed (Fig. IB, ii). Towards the end of the process the male flexed one or both the hind limbs and lifted them off the floor and placed its chin pressed against the side and neck of the female (Fig. IB, iii). Soon after the copulation the partners parted company, sat on their hind limbs and licked their genitals. This behaviour was however not observed at the end of all mountings. A true mounting beginning with the rapid thrusts and ending with the ejaculatory thrusts lasted from 50-150 secs. The male was found not to be successful in mounting in all its attempts. This was more evident in case of mounting involving the subordinate male. In such instances the female moved away in the midst of the process which sometimes dislodged the male. Of the total mountings occurring between the members of highest rank 8.98% of the mountings resulted in ejaculation. The dominant male always preferred to mount the dominant female. Among false mountings 76.68% were heterosexual and 23.31% were homosexual. The Mann-Whitney 'U' -test showed that in a group the tendency for heterosexual mounting is more compared to homosexual mounting (P < 0.1). The general pattern of mounting observed in captive grey mongoose is similar to what has been reported in other mongooses like Herpestes ichneumon (Ducker 1960), Helogale parvula (Zannier 1965, Rasa 1973, Rood 1980), Mungos mungo (Neal 1970), Herpestes sanguineus (Jacobsen 1982) and Helogale undulata rufula (Rasa 1977). In all these mongooses there is more or less uniform short preliminary premounting sessions. The increased marking behaviour during the oestrus of the „ female reported in Crossarchus (Ewer 1973) and Helogale undulata rufida (Rasa 1977) was not observed in the present study. Flowever the oestrus of the female was marked by a high frequency of mounting as reported in dwarf mongooses (Rasa 1977). The grey mongooses also differ from meerkats (Ewer 1973) in not showing the typical 'neck -gripping' - a means of inducing passivity in a recalcitrant female. Lacking a neck grip and the manner in which the male thrusts its head against the female's MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN GREY MONGOOSE 29 neck as observed in the grey mongoose have also been reported in Herpestes and Mungos (Ewer 1973). The short premounting rituals among the captive group may be attributed to a high social organisation. Due to prior familiarity between the partners in a captive social group, there appears to be no need for prolonged preliminaries leading to establishment of contact. The act of mounting does not seem to inflict any rivalry between individuals. Neal (1970) has made a similar observation in Mungos mungo. In the present case it may be due to the fact that the observations are confined to a socially stabilised group where definite hierarchy had been established. Less frequent occurrence of mating between subordinate individuals may also be due to the same reason. Occurrence of homosexual mountings has also been reported in Helogale undulata rufula (Rasa 1973a, 1976) and Helogale parvula (Rasa 1973b). In the grey mongooses though both homo- and heterosexual mountings have been recorded, the higher frequency of the heterosexual mounting suggests that mounting is sexually oriented. Acknowledgements JS and GS are grateful to CSIR and UGC for financial assistance during the tenure of this work. References DUCKER, G. (1960): Beobachtungen uber das paarungs Verhalten des ichneumons ( Herpestes ichneumon L.). Z. Saugetierk. 25: 47-51. Ewer, R.F. (1973): The Carnivores (Ed. by R. Carrington). Widenfeld and Nicolson, London. JACOBSEN, N.H.G. (1982): Observations on the behaviour of slender mongoose, Herpestes sanguineus in captivity. Saugetierkd Mitt. 30: 168-183. Neal, E. (1970): The banded mongoose, a little known carnivore. Animals, 13: 29-31. RASA, O.A.E. (1973a): Marking behaviour and its social significance in the African dwarf mongoose, Helogale undulata rufula. Z. Tierpsychol. 32: 293-318. Rasa, O.A.E. (1973b): Intrafamilial sexual repression in the dwarf mongoose, Helogale parvula. Naturwissenschaften, 60: 303. Rasa, O.A.E. (1976): Invalid care in the dwarf mongoose (Helogale undulata rufula). Z. Tierpsychol. 42: 337- 342. Rasa, O.A.E. (1977): The ethology and sociology of the dwarf mongoose, Helogale undulata rufula. Z. Tierpsychol. 43: 337-406. Rood, J.P. (1980): Mating relationships and breeding suppression in the dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula). Anim. Behav. 28: 143-150. ZANNIER, F. (1965): Verhaltensuntersuchungen an der Zwergmanguste Helogale undulata rufula in Zoologischen Garten Frankfurt am Main. Z. Tierpsychol. 22: 672-695. COMPOSITION, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN BANGANGA- GAMBHIR RIVER SYSTEM AND SOURCE OF FISH TO THE KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR1 C.R Ajith Kumar2 N.K. Ramachandran3 and Arun Asthana4 ( With two text-figures) Key words: Banganga-Gambhir river, Notoptems chitala , Labeo dyochilus , Lepidocephalichthys guntea. Danio devario. Aplocheilus panchax , Labeo boggut , geomorphology The Keoladeo National Park. Bharatpur is situated at the confluenee of two non-perennial rivers ' Gambhir and Banganga. A detailed survey of the ichthyofauna was carried out in the river course and in the tributaries of these rivers to know the composition, abundance and distribution of fish. Every year Keoladeo National Park gets water as well as millions of fry from these rivers and the piscivorous birds mainly depend upon this fry input. The study showed that even though both the rivers are non-perennial, Gambhir has a number of perennial pools in the river course and also in the tributaries. Conservation of these perennial pools is very essential to get sufficient fish fry to the Park. In spite of that, several bunds are constructed and they are extensively used for reservoir fisheries. The perennial pools and the reservoirs are the main source of fry to the Park. During the survey, samples were collected from 27 sites from Banganga-Gambhir river system and another three from Chambal. A total of 46 species were recorded, out of which 41 species were recorded from Banganga-Gambhir river system. Compared to Banganga, more species were recorded from Gambhir. It may be due to the direct connection of this river with Yamuna. Further analysis of the data from Gambhir showed that half of the species were uniformly distributed and the other half were site specific, which include the rare species also. The rarest species were Notoptems chitala , Labeo dyochilus . Lepidoceplu i/ichthysguntea , P seudeutropis athennoides , Danio devario , etc . 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CQ os o 0> 4i 4i .tS -t-* 4) -L X — 4> bO ~o 03 o J2 r- C/3 a c/3 o • - ' r“ a . . 2 «3 co o 73 ® UO X C3 (A P < . „ ,o .a ° ^ § g S g o3 O CL 'Ci 03 L O i — * c CM! C/3 li +-* O is H Ci C3 t- bfj 03 C3 DQ ^3 X n3 a = 3 =3 CQ CQ — H *Mj -Os 4> 4i 4i i — » i— * H — > C/3 C O 00 co 03 X = 3 T3 o 4i C 03 03 C/3 03 ^ 36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) Single Linkage Method (Nearest Neighbour) Tree Diagram Distances Metric is Euclidean distance. 0.000 Cirrhinus reba Puntius sophore Labeo rohita Carrhinus mrigala Mastacembelus armatus Puntius sarana Labeo gonius Labeo bata Wallago attu Glossogobius giuris Channa marulius Xenentodon cancila Heteropneustes fossilis Mystus seenghala Lepidocephalichthys guntea Gudusia chapra Labeo dyocheilus Danio devario Esotnus danricus Notopterus chitala Catla catla Labeo pangusia Chanda nama Pseudeutrpius atherinoldes Amblypharyngodon mola Chela cachius Noemacheilus botia Chanda ranga Labeo calbasu Mystus vattatus Channa punctaus Puntius tic to Salmostoma phulo Salmostoma bacaila Osteobrama cotio Mystus cavasius Notopterus notopterus Ompok bimaculatus a -4 1.000 0.488 0.488 0.577 0.577 0.535 0.436 0.436 0.436 0.378 0.309 0.309 0.309 0.309 0.309 0.218 0.309 0.309 0.309 0.309 0.309 0.309 0.309 0.218 0.218 0.218 0.218 0.309 0.309 0.436 0.436 0.436 0.488 0.309 0.309 0.488 0.488 0.488 0.488 Fig. 2. Dendrogram showing the two main groups of species in Gambhir river. uniformly distributed rare and site specific species uniformly distributed species species DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN BANGANGA-GAMBH1R RIVER SYSTEM 37 Table 2 COLLECTION SITES AND SPECIES RECORDED IN BANGANGA RIVER AND ITS TRIBUTARIES Sampling sites Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 Notopterus notopterus - 1 1 - . - - Salmostoma bacaila 2 - 3 - - - Salmostoma phulo 2 - 3 - - ' - Esomus danricus - - - 3 - - Danio devario - - - - 2 - Amblypharyngodon mo la - 3 3 - - 2 Puntius sarana 1 1 - - - - Puntius sophore - - 2 2 3 Puntius ticto - - - 2 - 2 Osteobrama cotio 3 3 2 - - - Labeo bata - - - 2 2 - Labeo calbasu 1 1 1 - 1 - Labeo rohita 2 - - - - - Cirrhinus mrigala 2 2 - - 2 - Cirrhinus reba 2 2 2 3 2 - Catla catla - 2 - - - - Mystus cavasius - 1 - - - - Mystus vittatus - - - 1 1 - Mystus seenghala - 1 - - - - Ompok bimaculatus - 1 - - 1 - Wallago attu - 1 - - - - Channa marulius - 1 - - - - Channa punctatus 1 1 - 1 1 - Channna striatus 1 - - - - - Glossogobius giuris 1 - - - - - Mastacembelus armatus 1 3 - - - - Aplocheilus panchax - - - - 2 2 Labeo boggut - - - - 1 - Total species 12 * 15 * 7 * 7 11 * 4 - = absent 1 = rare 2 = common 3 = dominant * = dam Site 1 : Bhandari bund; Site 2 : Senthal bund; Site 3: Kalako bund; Site 4: Downstream of Banganga; Site 5: Jamva Ramgarh; Site 6: Upstream of Ramgarh pangusia, Chela cachius, Catla catla and Esomus danricus. Some other species such as N. chitala , Guducia chapra, Xenentodon concilia , Channa marulius , etc. were downstream specific. The most dominant recruiting species to the Park, such as Puntius sophore, Cirrhinus reba, Salmostoma bacaila (Oxygaster bacaila) and Osteobrama cotio recorded during the survey had a wide distribution in the river course. Major carps such as Cirrhinus mrigala and Labeo rohita also had a wide distribution because of their introduction to reservoirs for commercial purpose. These widely distributed species enter the Park in large numbers when 38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) water is drawn from these sources. Chanda , one of the major species that enters the Park, was confined to Panchna and Angai dams. It can, therefore, be concluded that the origin of most of the non-airbreathing species inside the Park is these dams and the pools in the river course, because of large quantity of water present in reservoirs, more species were recorded in them particularly in Angai, Panchna and Mam chari, but in some reservoirs water depth was very7 low and so was the number of species. Banganga: The river Banganga is not directly connected with Yamuna which may be one of the reasons for the fewer number of species in this river (Table 1). Yet another reason may be its possible sandy nature. During the flood period, indirect connection is possible through the flood water and also through the Ajan bund which is connected with both the rivers- Banganga and Gambhir. There was no perennial water body in the river course except a small stretch near Ramgarh and a pool upstream of Ramgarh. So the recruitment of fry from this river is only from the reservoirs. Aplocheilus panchax , which was a new addition to the fish fauna of Rajasthan was restricted only to Ramgarh area. Among Labeo species Labeo boggut was recorded only from Ramgarh area and not from Gambhir. The species such as Gudusia chapra, Notopterus sp.. Chela cachius, Labeo dyocheilus, Labeo gonins, Labeo pungusia, Noemacheilus botia, Lepidocephalichthys guntea , Pseudeutropius atherinoides .Heteropneustes fossilis , Xenentodon cancila , and Chanda spp. were not recorded from river Banganga. Fish stock: A large number of small and large dams have been constructed across the tributaries of both Banganga and Gambhir for irrigation as well as for drinking water. Almost all these dams are used for reservoir fisheries by the State Fisheries Department. Major carps are being introduced in these reservoirs every year by the Department. In addition to the perennial reservoirs, a number of deep pools and small stretches of water are present on the course of river Gambhir and the river bed is more alluvial. Important among them (upstream to Bharatpur) are near Sevla Bareta, Supa bridge, Samover bridge and at Katkar. Downstream to Bharatpur are collection site 6 and 8 in Parvati and 9, 2 and 1 m the river course of Gambhir. These pools provide habitat for the fish stock to survive the summer and breed during the monsoon. Almost all fishes, mainly the small ones, captured in these pools were in breeding stage. Conservation of these perennial pools is very essential to get sufficient fish fry to the Park. In the reservoirs, small as well as large commercial species were abundant. In some reservoirs autostocking is also reported. When water is released from these reservoirs the fishes get into the river and disperse. Hence these pools and reservoirs are the main source of fish to the Ajan bund and thereby to the Park. Another possible source is that when Gambhir joins Yamuna during high discharge, there is a chance of upstream movement of fishes to Gambhir because of the tendency of fish to move against the current. Several species which were not reported from the Park were collected during the survey such as Labeo pungucia, L. dyocheilus, L. boggut, Notopterus notopterus and Aplocheilus panchax (Kumar and Vijayan 1988), although their number was very low. Such rarity may be one of the reasons for the non-availability of these fishes and their fry in the Park. Even though there are air-breathing fishes in some of the reservoirs such as Angai dam, Talab sahi, Urmila sagar, and Manda-ka-bund, they are very rare in the river course. Air breathers are not riverine species. DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN BANGANGA-GAMBHIR RIVER SYSTEM 39 Acknowledgements This study was an offshoot of the Keoladeo National Park Ecology Project taken up by Bombay Natural History Society, sponsored by US Fish & Wildlife Service through the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. We are grateful to Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Project Scientist, for his guidance and suggestions during the study, to Dr. A.G.K. Menon, Zoological Survey of India for confirmation of species, and to Rajasthan State Fisheries Department officials for giving permission and assistance to make collections. Discussions with Dr. Neil Armen trout, US Fish & Wildlife Service, Dr. U K. Gopalan, National Institute of Oceanography, Cochin are acknowledged. We express our gratitude to Dr. P.A. Azeez, Mr. N.R. Nadarajan and K.N. Mohanan for their help in various ways and are also thankful to Mr. Rajpal and the other local assistants for their help during the survey. References Anon. (1979): Master plan for flood control works in Bharatpur District. First draft. Report No. 1. Irrigation Dept., Bharatpur. Datta, A.K. & N. Majumdar (1970): Fauna of Rajasthan, India. Part 7. Fishes. Rec. Zool. Suw. India. 62 (1-2): 63-100. Datta Gupta, A.K., P.K.B. Menon, C.K.G. Nair & C.R. Das (1961): An annotated list of fishes of Rajasthan. Proc : Rajasthan Acad. Sci. Pilani. 8(1 & 2): 129-134. Dhawan, S. (1969): Fish Fauna of Udaipur Lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 190-194. GASQUIN, H.S. (1927): Record of Irrigation by bunds and canals in the Bharatpur State - during the year 189,6-97 to 1925-26. Irrigation Dept., Bharatpur. Gupta, S.N., V.S. Durve, S.D. Kulshreshtha & N.K. SHARMA(1988): Limnology, fisheries and conservation needs of tank Khandia, Jhalawar. Pro. Nat. Sym. Present and Future of Bhopal Lake. 91-96. JAYARAM, K.C. (1981): The fresh water fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Johal, M.S. & K.S. Dhillon (1981): Ichthyofauna of Ganganagar district (Rajasthan), India. Res. Bull. Punjab Uni. 32: 105-107. JOHAL, M.S. & K.P. Sharma (1986): Fish fauna of Sawai Madhopur district. Rajasthan State, India. Vest. cs. spolec. zool. 50: 112-119. KUMAR, C.R. A. (1991): Habitat segregation of fishes in Keoladeo National Park. Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Ph D. Thesis. Kanpur University, Kanpur. Kumar. C.R. A. & A. Asthana (1993): The fish fauna of Rajasthan. Indian Rev. Life Sci. 13: 133-148. Kumar, C.R. A. & V.S. Vijayan (1988): On the fish fauna of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 44-49. MAHAJAN, C.L. (1980): Effect of human activities on the structure and functioning of fresh water ecosystem of Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Bharatpur and Ramgarh Lake, Jaipur, Rajasthan. A preliminary report on the Man and Biosphere Project (1976-77). Department of Science and Technology. Govt, of India. • Mathur, D.S. & G.M. Yazdani (1969): Occurrence of Aplocheilus blochii (Arnold) in Rajasthan. Lab. dev. J. Sci. and Tech. B, 7(1): 77. Mathur, D.S. & G.M. Yazdani (1970): Noemacheilus rajasthaniens , a new species of roach from Rajasthan (India). J. Zool. Soc. India 22: 79-100. Mathur, D.S. & G.M. Yazdani (1973): Additional records of fishes from Jodhpur with a list of species occur in the district. Sci. & Cul. 39(2): 87-89. MENON, A.G.K. (1987): Rare and endangered Indian freshwater fishes. In abstract: Symposium on the impact of current land use pattern and water resources development on riverine fisheries. C.I.C.F.R.I. Barrackpore. MOONA, J.C. (1963): Notes on fishes from Bharatpur district, Rajasthan. Rec. Indian Mus. Delhi 58(2): 56-66. PANDAY, R. (1970): Bharatpur up to 1826 (A special and political history of Jat). Rama Publishing House, Jaipur. Sharma, K.P. & M.S. Johal (1982): On the fish and fisheries of Jaisamand Lake. Rajasthan, India. Vest. cs. spolec. zool. 64: 56-69. Sharma, K.P. & S.D. Kulshreshtha (1981): Fishes and fisheries of Kota district, Rajasthan. J. Zool. Soc. India 33(1 & 3): 63-70. SHARMA, M.L. ( 1 986): Geomorphology of a semi-arid region - A case study of Gambhir river basin, Rajasthan - India. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. Vijayan, V.S. (1986): Keoladeo National Park ecology study. Summary report 1980-1985. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENERA ORTHRIUS GORHAM AND XENORTHRIUS GORHAM (COLEOPTERA: CLERIDAE: CLERINAE)1 Jonathan R. Mawdsley2 Key words: Coleoptera, Cleridae, Orthrius, Xenorthrius Dichotomous keys are provided for the identification of the 17 species of the genus Orthrius Gorham and the 5 species of the genus Xenorthrius Gorham known from India. Orthrius stevensi Corporaal is synonymised with Orthrius binotatus (Fisher), New synonymy. Introduction The genera Orthrius Gorham and Xenorthrius Gorham presently contain 58 and 14 species, respectively, and are generally distributed throughout the Indo-Australian region. Both Orthrius and Xenorthrius belong to a large group of genera in the subfamily Clerinae of the family Cleridae in which the eyes are coarsely granulate (facet diameter 0.30 mm or greater). At present, 22 genera are included in this group (Corporaal 1950: 97-127). However, the limits of these genera are poorly- defined, and further research will probably reduce the number of genera recognised in this group through synonymy. At the present time, I do not think that the single character given above is sufficient justification for erecting a tribe for the species of this group, as this character is strongly correlated with nocturnal habits and hence is probably highly convergent. Orthrius and Xenorthrius both belong to a section of this generic group in which the elytra are more or less robust and the elytral punctures are relatively small. Separation of genera in this group is particularly problematic, and it seems probable that the African genera Gyponyx Gorham and Aphelochroa Quedenfeldt will 'Accepted October 1993. department of Entomology, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA eventually have to be placed in synonymy with Orthrius. The only other genus of this group which is found in India is Opilo Latreille, which is presently under review by other workers. Species of Orthrius and Xenorthrius may be separated from species of Opilo by examination of the tenninal segment of the maxillary palpi, which is triangular in Opilo but cylindrical in Orthrius and Xenorthrius. Species of Orthrius and Xenorthrius may be separated by means of the key given below. Complete bibliographic information for all species may be found in Corporaal (1950: 123-126). Materials and Methods I have examined specimens of the species of these genera from the collections of the following institutions: The Natural History Museum, London, Hope Department of Entomology, Oxford University; Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique; Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Genova; Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University; Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. In all cases, I have based my identifications of species on personal examination of original type specimens. Distributions of species of these genera are poorly known at present, and it is hoped that the present paper stimulates interest in this neglected field of clerid research. KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENERA ORTHRIUS AND XENORTHRIUS 41 KEY FOR SEPARATION of Orthrius AND Xenorthrius 1. Pronotum deeply and rugulosely punctate laterally, almost strigose; elytral punctures separated by small tubercles Genus Xenorthrius Gorham Pronotum finely and sparsely punctate laterally, smooth, shining; elytral punctures not as above . . . Genus Orthrius Gorham Genus Orthrius Gorham Orthrius Gorham (1876: 74; 1892: 737); Schenkling (1903: 29, 45); Chapin (1924: 208, 211); Corporaal (1950: 123-126). Type-species Orthrius cylindricus Gorham (by orginal designation). Key to Indian species of Orthrius Gorham 1 . Elytra distinctly striatopunctate, at least at base . 2 Elytra finely punctate at base, shining 12 2. Pronotum with two or three distinct tubercles . . 3 Pronotum lacking such tubercles 4 3. Pronotum bituberculate; elytra uniformly reddish- brown Orthrius tuberculicollis Schenkling Pronotum tritubercualte; elytra with two yellow maculae Orthrius dorsalis Schenkling 4. Elytra uniformly reddish-brown, in one species with' a single pair of black median maculae 5 Elytra yellowish-brown or black 8 5. Legs entirely reddish-brown Orthrius rufotestaceus Schenkling Legs at least in part black 6 6. Legs and abdomen entirely black Orthrius tarsalis Gorham Legs and abdomen in part reddish-brown 7 7. Elytral punctures becoming irregular by apical third Orthrius striatopunctatus Schenkling Elytral punctures in rows from base to apices .... Orthrius brachialis Gorham 8. Elytra robust wider than pronotum 9 Elytra elongate, as wide as pronotum 10 9. Elytra black with three yellowish- white maculae which attain suture Orthrius subsimilis White Elytra black with two yellowish-white maculae which do not attain suture Orthrius abdominalis (Germar) 10. Each elytron yellowish-brown with three black maculae Orthrius sexplagiatus Schenkling Each elytron yellowish-brown with two black maculae 11 11. Pronotum very dark brownish-black Orthrius sufasciatus (Westwood) Pronotum yellowish-brown . Orthrius bengalus (Westwood) 12. Elytra yellow with brown maculae 13 Elytra reddish-brown with white maculae 15 13. Each elytron largely yellow, with a single black apical macula Orthrius posticalis (Westwood) Elytra not as above . . 14 14. Elytra laterally brownish-black, yellow along the suture Orthrius elongatus Corporaal Elytra predominantly brownish-black with two transverse yellow maculae Orthrius binotatus (Fisher) 15. Elytra bimaculate . . . Orthrius madurensis Gorham Elytra trimaculate 16 16. Ground colour of elytra distinctly paler in colour than that of pronotum Orthrius grandjeani Pic Ground colour of elytra and pronotum concolorous. . Orthrius feae Gorham Genus Xenorthrius Gorham Xenorthrius Gorham (1892: 733; 1893: 575); Schenkling (1903: 29, 46); Corporaal (1950: 126). Type-speciesAeworZ/zraAsmow/ioriGorham (by original designation). Key to Indian species of Xenorthrius Gorham 1 . Elytral apices rounded • . . . . 2 - . Elytral apices truncate, bidentate Xenorthrius truncatus Gorham 2. Elytra brown with yellowish-white maculae ... 3 Elytra uniformly reddish-brown 4 3. Elytra with two transverse white maculae narrowly joined along the suture; apices black Xenorthrius mouhoti Gorham Elytra with two transverse white maculae not joined along suture; apices white Xenorthrius ephippiatus Gorham 4. Length/width ratio of elytra greater than 3. 0:1.0 . . Xenorthrius robustus Corporaal Length/width ratio of elytra equal to or less than 3. 0:1.0 Xenorthrius geniculatus G orham Discussion of new synonymy I have examined a large number of 42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) specimens of Orthrius binotatus (Fisher) collected throughout the range of this species (India east to China and south to New Guinea). In general, the coloration of this species is very variable, but the surface sculpturing is not. The specimens from India described as Orthrius stevensi by Corporaal (1926: 180-181) and preserved in the Natural History Museum, London, fall within the range of both colour and sculptural variation of Orthrius binotatus, and on the basis of this evidence I have no difficulties in synonym ising Orthrius stevensi Corporaal with the previously-described species Orthrius binotatus (Fisher), New synonymy. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the following curators for their assistance during my visits to their collections to examine type specimens: P.M. Hammond, N.E. Stork (The Natural History Museum, London); G. McGavin (Hope Entomological Collection, Oxford University); K. Desender, M. Cludts (Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Brussels); R. Poggi (Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Genova); J.J. Menier (Museum National; d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris). References Chapin. E.A. (1924): Classification of the Philippine Components of the Coleopterous Family Cleridae. Phil. Jonm. Sc. 25: 159-286 + 5 plates. CORPORAAL, J.B. (1926): Some New Species of Oriental Cleridae and Remarks on Known Species. Encycl. Ent. B. Col 1(4): 175-188 + 2 plates. Corporaal. J.B. (1950): Coleopterorum Catalogus Supplementa, Pars 23 Editio Secunda, Cleridae. W. Junk, The Hague. 373 pp. CjORHAM, H.S. (1876): Notes on the Coleopterous Family Cleridae. Cist. Ent. 2: 57-106. Gorham, H.S. (1892): Cleridae di Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmania e Regioni Vicine. Ann. Mus. Genova 32: 3-31. Gorham, H.S. (1893): A list of Coleoptera, of the Family Cleridae, collected by Mr. Doherty in Burmah and Northern India, with Descriptions of New Species, and of some species from Borneo, Perak and etc. from the collection of Alexander Fry, Esq. Proc. Zool Soc. London 1893: 566-581. SCHENKLING, S. (1903): Malacodermata: Cleridae. Gen. Insect. (Wytsman) 13: 1-124 + 5 plates. TAXONOMIC STUDIES OF THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA (LINNAEUS, 1 767) FROM THE SEAS AROUND INDIA1 Part 1 D.B. James2 ( With a plate and tw>o text-figures) Key words: Holothuria , taxonomy, habits, habitats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Lakskadweep In this paper earlier attempts made to revise the genus Holothuria Linnaeus, 1767 are given in detail. Of the 26 species known under the genus Holothuria from Indian seas, 18 species have been collected by me. These have been described in detail with full synonymy, notes on habits and remarks with figures and photographs. Keys have been provided for all the species known from Indian seas. Introduction The genus Holothuria Linnaeus, 1767 has been subject for revision since the early part of this century. A large number of holothurians have been assigned to this genus and it became very unwieldy to handle and arrange the species correctly. In order to sort out this problem, various attempts have been made in the past to revise the genus. Rowe (1969) considered that the number of valid species under the genus was about 114. Review of earlier classifications Pearson (1913-1914) attempted to revise the genus Holothuria , based on material from the Indian Ocean. He divided the genus Holothuria into five subgenera, namely Bohadschia Jaeger, Actinopyga Bronn, and included three new subgenera Argwdia, Halodeima and 77 lymiosycia. He was of the opinion that by the elaboration of the simple branched rods and rosettes of the species Actinopyga and 'Accepted October 1992. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi 682 03 1 . Present Address: Tuticorin Research Centre of CMFRI, 90 North Beach Road. Tuticorin 628 001. Bohadschia , perforated plates, and later, buttons and tables could have developed. He considered that the calcareous ring of Actinopyga and Bohadschia are primitive since they lack the anterior and posterior projections and have deep ampullar notches. In the genera Argiodia , Halodeima and Thymiosycia , the radial and interradial plates of the calcareous ring show marked projections. The radial plates are also markedly longer than the interradial plates. He did not give much taxonomic importance to the presence or absence of anal 'teeth' or papillae. He was of the view that the arrangement of the tubefeet in Actinopyga and Bohadschia also showed that they are more primitive than his three new genera. Pearson (1913, 1914a, b) dealt only with a few species from the Indian Ocean, so his revision was incomplete. Panning (1929-35) did an admirable job by bringing all the information on the genus Holothuria together, but, according to Deichmann (1958), this magnificent work suffered from his dependence in too many cases on the accounts of earlier workers; hence many errors have been perpetuated and related forms have been placed far apart. In his revision of Holothuria , he treated Actinopyga , Bohadschia and Microthele as subgenera. Later, Panning (1939) revised his treatment of Holothuria. He 44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) was not sure of the relationship between Actinopyga and Bohadschia since he did not consider the presence or absence of anal papillae to be of great importance, but he concluded that there could be no relationship between Actinopyga and Microthele , the possession of anal papillae in both being the result of convergence. Deichmann (1958) felt that the name Holothuria Linnaeus (i.e. sensu 1758) should be discarded and the species previously included in it divided into a number of genera. She proposed 13 generic names, of which 11 were new to science. According to Rowe (1969), by erecting new genera she disregarded a number of appropriate prior genus group-names of Brandt (1835), Jaeger (1833), Haacke (1880) and Pearson (1914) on the grounds of poor definition; most of these names are available under the rules, being associated with recognised species, those of Jaeger and Brandt needing only designation of type-species in order to qualify for recognition under the rules. Deichmann (1958) stated that there was nothing new about her classification, since this type of arrangement of the species on the basis of ecological divisions has been foreshadowed in the key of Fisher (1907) for the Hawaiian holothunans. She based her classification mainly on ecological division. She was of the view that within each habitat are groups in different stages of development, which can be separated by means of their spicules. She was also of the view that the most primitive ones are those with regular tables and rosettes. This is exactly opposite to the view of Pearson. She based her revision predominantly on the species from the East Pacific and left unconsidered a number of others from different parts of the world, so that her revision was necessarily incomplete. Rowe (1969) reviewed the Family Holothuriidae and proposed a new classification. He had two great advantages. He had access to the vast collections of the British Museum and also the benefit of advice of Miss A.M. Clark, the foremost echinodermologist in the world today. He considered the balance of those species not taken into consideration by Deichmann and brought her system into line with the rules of nomenclature. During the last 20 years, most of the specialists like Liao (1975, 1978), Price (1981, 1982, 1983), A.M. Clark (1980, 1984), Price and Reid (1985), Marsh (1986), James (1986a, 1989a) and Cherbonnier (1988) followed his classification without any comment. The classification proposed by Rowe is technically sound and is in conformity with the rules of nomenclature. It is hoped that other species under the genus will be assigned to the various subgenera in due course. During the last thirty years, I made extensive collections from various places along the mainland of India and collected large samples from the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. I also collected material from the Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. From the literature, it is seen that 26 species are known from the seas around India. In this paper 18 species collected by me are described with notes on synonymy, habits and, in some cases, remarks. Holothuria rugosa is already referred to the genus Labidodemas and is placed under a new family Labidodematidae by James (1981b). Special care is taken to see that all the species of Holothuria mentioned in earlier papers are correctly assigned as far as possible. Some of the corrections have already been notified by James (1983). The diagnosis and keys to various subgenera are taken from Rowe (1969). Genus Holothuria Linnaeus, 1767 Diagnosis: Tentacles 17-30, usually 20, papillae and pedicels arranged variously on the TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA 45 dorsal and ventral sides respectively; anal papillae variously developed or absent; body wall 2-20 mm in thickness; body form variously developed, vermiform, cylindrical or with the ventral side distinctly flattened and 'sole'-like, dorsally arched; size ranging from small to large even up to 600 mm in length; calcareous ring more or less well developed, usually with radial plates two or three times as long as mterradial plates, anterior margin of the ring rarely scalloped, posterior margin undulating (except in the subgenus Theelothuria where the radial plates bifurcate posteriorly); spicules very diverse and variously developed, tables present or absent, rosettes and small branched rods sometimes present. Type species: H. tremula Linnaeus, 1767 (non H. tremula Gunnerus, 1767= H. tubulosa Gmelin, 1890: Validated, Opinion 80, 1924: 17- 18). 26 species of Holothuria belonging to 12 subgenera are reported from the seas around India. Of these, 18 species belonging to all the 12 subgenera have been collected and described in detail in this work. Keys to all the species known from the sea around India are given. The following key to the various subgenera is modified from Rowe (1969). Key to the subgenera of the genus 1. Spicules: perforated or thorny rods or plates; tables and buttons absent H. (Selenkothuria) Deichmann, 1958 1'. Spicules: tables always present, usually well developed, alone or in combination with buttons. pseudobuttons, rods or rosettes 2 2. Spicules: tables always present in combination with rods or rosettes, never with buttons or pseudobuttons 3 2'. Spicules: tables always present in combination with buttons or pseudobuttons, no rosettes or rods . . 5 3. Spicules: tables present in combination with rosettes; no rods in body wall 4 3' Spicules: tables present in combination with rods in the body wall, tables usually with reduced disc and spire of moderate height, either rounded at the tip or terminate in a few spines which form a single or double Maltese cross when viewed from above; no rosettes H. (Semperothuria) Deichmann, 1958 4. Spicules: tables usually with reduced disc and moderately high or high spire, ending in a few spines forming a Maltese cross when viewed from above . H. (Halodeima) Pearson, 1914 4'. Spicules: tables large and clumsy with spinose well- developed disc, its rim is often turned up to give a 'cup and saucer' appearance to the table in lateral view, spire low to moderate height H. (Acanthotrapeza) Rowe, 1969 5. Spicules: tables variously developed, never modified into hollow fenestrated spheres; buttons smooth, regularly or irregularly developed, often twisted. . . .6 5'. Spicules: tables always strongly developed, sometimes modified into hollow fenestrated spheres; buttons always knobbed or rugose or modified to form hollow fenestrated ellipsoids 9 6. Spicules: tables usually well developed, the rim of the disc not spinose; buttons not twisted, sometimes flat and thin, with or without an apparent median longitudinal ridge, outlines regular or irregular 7 6'. Spicules: tables more or less well developed, disc usually spinose; buttons irregular or twisted, never flattened, lacking any appearance of a median longitudinal ridge 8 7. Spicules: tables well developed, disc smooth and round, usually with ten or more peripheral holes, spines of moderate height, ending in several small spines; buttons oval, thin, flat, very rarely with a few knobs, an apparent median longitudinal ridge present, three to six pairs of relatively small holes, buttons regular or irregular in outline H. (P latyperona) Rowe, 1969 7'. Spicules: tables fairly stout, disc smooth, squarish in outline, usually with eight regular peripheral holes, spire of moderate height ending in a cluster of small spines; buttons not thin or flat and lacking any appearance of longitudinal ridge usually with three pairs of comparatively large holes and regular in outline H. (Thymioscycia) Pearson, 1914 8. Spicules: tables not strongly developed, rim of disc usually spinose, spire low, ending usually in a ring of spines or cluster of spines, tables occasionally degenerate or incomplete; buttons irregular though not twisted, usually with three pairs of holes, or else 46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) incomplete, forming small lobed rosette-like bars H. (Mertensiothuria) Deichmann, 1958 8'. Spicules: tables always well developed rim of disc spinose and turned up to give a 'cup and saucer' aspect to the table in lateral view, spire low to moderate in height, usually terminating in a ring or a cluster of small spines; pseudobuttons abundant, smooth, usually irregular and often reduced to single row of three or four holes, occasionally buttons quite regular with three pairs of holes H. (Lessonothuria) Deichmann, 1958 9. Spicules: tables with disc usually knobbed, spire low, bearing many short spines which are sometimes so numerous and closely crowded that they may almost either obscure the disc or become connected to the knobs of the margin of the disc, thus forming a fenestrated sphere; buttons usually simple, with large regularly or irregularly arranged knobs, generally three to four or more pairs of relatively small holes which may become somewhat obscured by the size of the large knobs H. (Cystipus) Haacke, 1880 9'. Spicules: tables stout, well developed spire moderate or high, never modified into hollow fenestrated ellipsoids 10 10. Spicules: tables well developed, disc smooth or spinose, spires either moderate or high, usually terminating on a cluster of small spines, tables with spires perfectly smooth and tapering to a point, giving the whole table a tack-like appearance usually also present: buttons either simple with irregular, moderate sized knobs, or modified into hollow fenestrated ellipsoids, calcareous ring with radial plates usually possessing more or less well developed posterior bifurcate prolongations H. (Theelothnria) Deichmann, 1958 10'. Spicules: tables well developed, disc smooth, often squarish in outline, spire of moderate height or high, terminating in small spines, never pointed and tack- like, buttons simple with moderate sized knobs or modified into hollow fenestrated ellipsoids, calcareous ring never with any indication of posterior bifurcate prolongations on the radial plates 11 1 1 . Spicules: tables well developed with smooth disc, spire of moderate height or high, terminating in several small spines; buttons simple, with moderate sized, irregularly arranged knobs and three to six pairs of relatively large holes, buttons never modified into hollow fenestrated ellipsoids H. (Metriatyla) Rowe, 1969 1 1'. Spicules: tables as per 11, buttons hollow fenestrated ellipsoids though a few simple knobbed buttons may be present H. (Microthele) Brandt, 1835 Subgenus Selenkothuria Deichmann, 1958 Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels crowded but more or less distinctly arranged in three rows on the ventral 'sole', papillae small, numerous, scattered dorsally; body wall soft, not very thick, about 1-3 mm; body with flattened ventral 'sole' and arched dorsally; size moderate up to 150 mm long; calcareous ring with radial plates up to three times as long as the interradial plates, the latter usually with the outer surface slightly concave; spicules consisting of perforated or rugose plates or rods, tables rare or more often totally absent. Type species: Holothuria lubrica Selenka, 1867 (Designated by Deichmann, 1958: 314). Two species are known under this subgenus from the Indian seas. Both the species have been collected and described in the present work. Key to the species of the subgenus Spinose rods present, colour brown H. (Selenkothuria) moebii Ludwig, 1833 'Flattened plates and rods present; colour brownish-black.. H. erinaceus Semper, 1868 Holothuria (Selenkothuria) moebii Ludwig (Fig. 1, A) Holothuria moebii Ludwig, 1833, p. 171; James, 1969, p. 61: Gulf of Mannar & Arabian Sea; James, 1982, p.5; James, 1988b, p. 404: Gulf of Mannar. Holothuria lubrica Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 10: Andaman Islands, Sri Lanka. (Non H. lubrica, Selenka, 1867); Gravely, 1927, p. 163: Gulf of Mannar; Satyamurti, 1976, P. 45: Shingle & Krusadai Islands. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) moebii Mary Bai, 1980, p. 11; James, 1986a, p. 585: Sri Lanka, Gulf of Mannar-Palk Bay. Material: Mandapam Camp (Gulf of Mannar), 1 specimen; Vizhinjam (Arabian Sea), TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA 47 4 specimens; Ratnagiri (Arabian Sea), 2 specimens, all collected from the intertidal region attached to stones. Description: Length ranges from 137 mm to 146 mm. Body spindle-shaped, with a bulge at the middle when alive. Ventral side clearly demarcated into a 'sole' which has four distinct rows of pedicels. Dorsally, the papillae are sparsely arranged. In one specimen dissected there were 19 small stone canals and a single polian vesicle. Calcareous ring large and massive. Radials much larger than the interradials and circular in outline with a cleft at the top. Interradials like small stumps. Spicules (Fig. LA) consist of spmose rods with finely spinulated surface. Mostly simple with a hole at each end. Some of the rods have three or four rays. The length of the rods varies from 0.052 to 0.189 mm and the breadth from 0.010 to 0.049 mm Pedicels have large end plates and curved rods. The colour in the living condition is dark brown on the dorsal side and light brown on the ventral side. Notes on habits: This species is collected near the low water mark under stones. They were found to be firmly attached to rocks by the pedicels. During low tide the holothurians contract and become bulged at the centre and remain in the same condition until the tide rises. H.L. Clark (1938) has stated that the normal habitat of the species is well below the lower water mark in the face of the reef. Distribution: It is known from Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China & Southern Japan and the South Pacific Islands. It was recorded for the first time from the Arabian Sea by James (1969). Holothuria (Selenkothuria) erinaceus Semper (PI. 1, A & B and Fig. 1, B & C) Holothuria erinaceus Semper, 1968, P. 91: North Australia, Philippines, South Pacific Islands. Holothuria andersoni Bell, 1886, p. 28: Mergui Archipelago. Holothuria marenzelleri Ludwig, 1887, p. 1229: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Theel, 1886, p. 207: Nicobar. Holothuria lubricc var. glaberrima Panning, 1934, p. 47. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) erinaceus Mary Bai. 1 980, p. 11; Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 512: Interview Island, Port Blair, Nancowry; James, 1986a. p. 585. Sri Lanka, Andaman-Nicobar Islands. Holothuria ( Selenkothuria ) glaberrima Soota et a!., 1983, p. 519: Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Material: Port Blair (Andamans), several specimens, collected from mud-flats in the intertidal region. Description: Ranges in size from 60 to 160 mm in length. This species does not grow to a large size. Body spindle-shaped with a very soft body wall. Posterior end narrow with the anus surrounded by fine papillae. One of the specimens collected had two posterior ends (PI. 1, B). Tentacles small. Dorsally a few scattered papillae. Ventrally the pedicels are arranged in three bands. In the central band, the pedicels are arranged in two rows, and in the other two bands they are arranged in a single row. A single polian vesicle, very few cuvierian tubules present, radials rectangular with a distinct notch at the anterior end and a concavity at the posterior end (Fig. 1, C). Interradials half the size of the radials and have a distinct stump at the anterior end. Spicules (Fig. 1, B) mostly short, flat, dumb-bell shaped rods with a few lateral or terminal holes, there are also a few oval plates with several holes at the margin. The length of the rods varies from 0.052-0.082 mm and breadth from 0.019 mm to 0.032 mm. In the living condition the colour is light 48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) brown to brownish-black. Small specimens are light pink in colour. Notes on habits: The species is distributed in the supra-littoral zone. It is usually found under stones. At low tide, on lifting stones the anterior end of the body is seen as a brown round patch free from sand and in a shallow depression. The posterior end is also kept near the surface of sand since, on disturbing the animal, a jet of water is released. In the Marina area near Port Blair where there is a lot of mud 3-5 specimens were distributed per square metre. On walking over the mud, due to the pressure caused on the surrounding area, a jet of water is ejected by nearby specimens. Though common, it is overlooked unless one makes a careful search for it in the supralittoral zone. In some places it is truly gregarious. As many as 30 specimens were distributed in a one square metre area at some places. When the tide recedes, they come out of the sand or mud and keep a small portion of the anterior end (about 30 mm in length) outside with the tentacles spread out. Distribution: It is known from Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines and South Pacific Islands. Subgenus Semperothuria Deichmann, 1958 Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels more or less distinctly arranged in three rows on the ventral side, papillae scattered dorsally; body- wall soft, not very thick (1-4 mm); body slender and cylindrical; size moderate up to 150 mm long; calcareous ring quite well developed, radial plates up to three times as long as the interradials; spicules consisting of tables in combination with rods, the former with disc reduced or absent, spire high and terminating in a few spines which form a single or double Maltese cross when viewed from above, rosettes totally absent. Type species: Holothuria languens Selenka, 1867; designated by Deichmann, 1958: 303. Two species are known under this subgenus from the seas around India. Key to the species of the subgenus Only tables with flattened base in the body wall H. (Semperothuria) imitans Ludwig, 1875 Tables and finely spinose rods in the body wall H. (Semperothuria) cinerascens (Brandt, 1835) Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinerascens (Brandt) Stichopus (Gymonochirota) cinerascens Brandt, 1835, p. 51. Holothuria cinerascens Bell, 1867b, p. 654: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Pearson, 1913, p. 64: Maldives, Seychelles, Ceylon (Sri Lanka); James 1969, p. 61: Mandapam (Gulf of Mannar), Vizhinjam (Arabian Sea),Minicoy (Lakshadweep), Rangat Bay (Andamans); Daniel and Haidar, 1974, p. 428: Lakshadweep and Maldives. Halodeima cinerascens Clark and Davies, 1965, p. 600: Maldives. Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinerascens Mary Bai & Ramnathan, 1977, p. 380: Coast of Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin); Mary Bai, 1980, p. 1 1; A.M. Clark, 1984, p. 99: Seychelles; Sirvoiker & Parulekar, 1986, p. 279: Goa; Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 302: Lakshadweep; James, 1983, p. 93; Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 513: Rutland Island (Andamans); James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Sri Lanka; Mukhopadhyay, 1988, p. 1988, p. 4: Krusadai Island; James 1989b, p. 124: Chetlat, Bitra, Kiltan, Amini, Androth, Kavaratti, Minicoy (Lakshadweep). Material: Mandapam (Gulf of Mannar), 1 specimen; Ratnagiri (Arabian Sea), 2 specimens; Vizhinjam (Arabian Sea), several specimens; Chetlat, 2 specimens; Bitra, 2 specimens; Kiltan, several specimens; Kadmat, 3 specimens; Amini, several specimens; Androth, one specimen; Kavaratti, 3 specimens; Minicoy, several specimens; all specimens collected under coral stones. Description: Ranges in length from 30 mm TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OE HOLOTHURIA 49 to 200 mm. Robust, sub-cylindrical with dorsal and ventral sides sharply differentiated. Dorsal surface covered with uniformly distributed numerous papillae. Ventrally beset with crowded robust pedicels. Tentacles 20 in number, large and sub-globose when fully expanded. Mouth ventral. Posterior end of the body blunt. Anus surrounded by papillae. Body wall thick and fairly smooth to touch. Pedicels more or less arranged in three rows. Papillae of dissimilar sizes. In the living condition the tentacles, though peltate, appear to be slightly arborescent. The collar surrounding the tentacles is inconspicuous. The calcareous ring is of the usual type. There were four polian vesicles of dissimilar size in one specimen dissected. On the right side of the mesentery there is a single stone canal. Cuvierian tubules are well developed. Longitudinal muscle bands are thin. Spicules (Fig. 1, D) are of two types, namely tables and rods. Rods simple and finely granulated, a characteristic of the species. They are either straight or curved with the extremities often branched or with coarser tubercles. Occasionally, triradiate and tetraradiate rods occur with three or four ends considerably branched. The length of the rods varies from 0.10 mm to 0.30 mm. Tables simple with the annular disc varying in size from 0.042 mm to 0.060 mm. Four large holes at the centre and four large holes near the margin in each disc of the table. The crowns of the tables are subquadrate, being 0.045 mm in diameter. Colour in living condition is reddish-brown with some of the papillae and pedicels yellowish in colour. Notes on habits: This species is characteristic of rocky shores. Both small and large forms (30-200 mm in length) were found at the same locality in large numbers. Individuals were often found attached firmly at the rock edges by the three rows of pedicels on the ventral side. The tips of the peltate tentacles are branched, and during high tide the tentacles were observed to move gently, probably to procure planktonic food. It is provided with profuse cuvierian tubules which are discharged when the animal is disturbed. It is a surf-loving form extending up to the supralittoral zone. During low tide, individuals are exposed for a long time but they remain in the splash zone. Distribution: It is known from islands of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Maldives, Sri Lanka, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, Japan, South Pacific Islands and Hawaiian Islands. James (1969) recorded this species for the first time from the Arabian Sea. Subgenus Halodeimci Pearson, 1914 Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels in three distinct but crowded rows on the more or less distinctly 'sole'-like ventral side, papillae small and irregularly arranged on the dorsal surface; body wall soft, quite thick, usually 2-3 mm; body almost cylindrical; size moderate to large, up to even 600 mm long; calcareous ring quite stout, radial plates up to three times the length of the interradials; spicules consist of tables usually with reduced disc, spire moderate or high, ending in a few spines forming a Maltese cross when viewed from above, no large flattened or spinose rods present in the body wall. Type species: Holothuria edulis Lesson, 1830; designated by H.L. Clark, 1921, p. 184. Remarks: The genus Ludwigothuria Deichmann, 1958 is a synonym of this subgenus. Two species are known under this subgenus from the Indian Seas. Both the species have been collected and described in this work. 50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) O-IMm Fig. 1. Spicules of A. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) moebii, B. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) erinaceus; C. Radial and interradial plates of Holothuria (S.) erinaceus ; D. Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinerascens; E. Holothuria (Halodeima) atra\ F. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis; G. Radial and interradial plates of Holothuria edulis. TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA 51 Key to the species of the subgenus Spicules: rosettes present, discs of tables small; colour uniformly dark brown or black H. (Halodeima) atra Jaeger, 1833 Spicules: rosettes absent, discs of tables reduced to ring; dorsal side black and ventral side pink II. (Halodeima) edulis Lesson, 1830 Holothuria (Halodeima) atra Jaeger Holothuria atra Jaeger, 1833, p. 22; Bell, 1887a, p. 140: Andaman Islands; Bell, 1887b, p. 654: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Ludwig, 1887, p. 1217: Ceylon; Bell, 1888, p. 389: Tuticorin; Thurston, 1894, p. 115: Pamban; Pearson, 1903, p. 202: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Herdman & Herdman, 1904, p. 447: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 5: Andaman Islands, Galle (Sri Lanka), Flat Island, coast of Arakan; Pearson, 1913, p. 67: Sri Lanka; Gravely, 1927, p. 164: Gulf of Mannar; Patil, 1953, p. 430: Karwar; James, 1969, p. 62: Gulf of Mannar & Palk Bay; Jones & James, 1970, p. 799: Vedalai, Shingle Island, Mandapam; James, 1973, p. 708: Southeast coast of India: Daniel & Haidar, 1974, p. 428: Lakshadweep & Maldives; Satyamurti, 1976, p. 42: Rameswaram, Krusadai Island; Nagabhushapam & Rao, 1979, p. 290: Minicoy Atoll (Lakshadweep); James, 1982, p. 5; James, 1983, p. 98; Rao et al. 1985, p. 11: Gulf of Mannar; Tikader & Das, 1985, p. 99: Andaman & Nicobar Islands; Tikader et al. 1986, p. 117: Andaman & Nicobar Islands; James, 1986b, p. 4: James, 1986c, p. 1340: Andamans & Mandapam; James, 1988, p. 44: Gulf of Mannar. Holothuria (Halodeima) atra Soota et al. 1983, p. 510: Campbell Bay. Port Blair, Car Nicobar, Long Island, Little Andaman, Interview Island; Mary Bai, 1980, p. 12: Price & Reid, 1985, p. 3: Chetlat (Lakshadweep), Galle & Kalpitiya (Sri Lanka); Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 302: Lakshadweep; James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep- Maldives, Gulf of Mannar-Palk Bay, Andaman-Nicobar Islands; Mukhopadhyay, 1988, p. 5: Krusadai Island, Mandapam Camp; James, 1989b, p. 189: Chetlat, Kiltan; Kadmat, Amini, Agatti, Kavaratti. Material: Mandapam, Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar), several specimens; Devipatnam (Palk Bay), several specimens; Vizhinjam, 2 specimens; Karwar, 2 specimens; Chetlat, several specimens; Kiltan, several specimens; Kadmat, 5 specimens; Amini, 3 specimens; Agatti, several specimens; Kavaratti, 2 specimens; all specimens collected from the intertidal region. Description: Length from 90-500 mm but known to grow up to 600 mm. Body elongate, subcylindrical and capable of considerable extension. Posterior end blunt. Mouth in the form of a transverse slit and surrounded by a conspicuous papillose collar. There are 20 tentacles in a double row. Pedicels numerous and crowded on the ventral side. Papillae rather thicker than the pedicels and sparsely arranged. Peristome rather thick, tough and leathery in consistency. Anus terminal. The calcareous ring is not very large. The radial pieces extend farther forward than interradials. Radials square-shaped, the anterior edge of each radial has a rounded incision while each interradial piece has an anterior tooth. Posterior margin of the interradial arched. In a specimen dissected there were four polian vesicles and 18 stone canals. The right respiratory tree extends forward to the calcareous ring and is firmly attached to the body wall and the left one, which is shorter, is connected with the extensive rete mirabile of the intestine. Cuvierian tubules absent. The spicules (Fig. 1, E) consist of tables and rosettes. Tables numerous but not crowded. Each table possesses a smaller annular disc and a robust spire composed of four rods and one cross beam. Disc diameter 0.055 mm and commonly consists of a simple ring with perforation at the base of each rod. Cross beam nearer to the disc than to the crown. Spire surrounded by eight robust horizontal and four equally strong, sharp, large vertical teeth. Central hole of the spire subcircular. Height of the spire varies from 0.06 mm to 0.08 mm and the breadth of the crowns is about 0.06 mm. Rosettes small and vary in size from 0.019 to 0.045 mm. Pedicels have well developed terminal plates. A few bilaterally symmetrical 52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) fenestrated plates are present close to the terminal plates of the pedicels. The papillae contain slightly curved smooth or spinose rods, mostly with enlarged fenestrated ends. In the living condition, the colour is black or very dark brown or reddish-brown. The pedicels have white sucking discs and the papillae have white tips. The stocks of the pedicels and papillae are always black. The tentacles and the peristome are dark brown. Notes on habits: This is one of the most common holothurians around Indian Seas. It is always found fully exposed in shallow water on sandy bottoms. During low tide where water remains as a pool this species is found but it is never encountered under stones. Specimens ranging from 110-230 mm were found in the lagoon with sand coated on them. Of the 46 specimens examined in the field on one occasion, only two were free from sand on the body. Usually specimens ranging in size from 110-160 mm were common in the lagoon. At some places 1-10 specimens were found to be distributed per square metre. Specimens collected on the outer side of the reef were large ( 400 mm in length) and were found to have the alga Halimeda inside the alimentary canal. Suspended matter like mud and sand settles on the surface of the animal and forms a coat. Often there are paired rows of round spots free from sand or mud. This is due to the presence of two rows of dorsal papillae. Bakus (1973) stated this species has a toxin known as holothurm which kills many forms of life in a ,tide pool. James (1986c) described the experiments conducted at Port Blair (Andamans) and also at Mandapam. The toxin kills all marine life in two hours time when put in a rock pool. Jones and James (1970) reported an endoparasitic gastropod Stilifer sp. from the cloaca of this species. The occurrence of the parasite is very rare and they also described its early development. Waren (1983) referred it to the genus Megadenus. Conand (1990) has stated that this species is of low commercial value. H. atra was collected for processing at Vedalai for the first time in 1992. The specimens ranged from 180-310 mm in length. The processed material is sold at the rate of Rs. 50.00 per kilogram. Distribution: It is known from the islands of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Persian Gulf, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, Japan, South Pacific Islands and Hawaiian Islands. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis Lesson (Fig. 1, F & G) Holothuria edulis Lesson, 1830, p. 125; Ludwig, 1887, p. 1227: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 7: Andaman Island; James, 1969, p. 61: Gulf of Mannar; James, 1982, p. 5; James, 1983a, p. 98; James, 1988b, p.404: Gulf of Mannar. Holothuria albida Bell, 1887a, p. 140: Andaman Island; Daniel & Haidar, 1974, p. 410: Andamans. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis Mary Bai, 1980, p. 12; Soota et al., 1983, p. 519: Andaman & Nicobar Islands; Price & Reid, 1985, p. 4: S.W. Kalpitiya (Sri Lanka); James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Andaman- Nicobar Islands; Mukhopadhyay, 1988, p. 6: Tuticorin. Material: Mandapam (Gulf of Mannar), 4 specimens, 15 metres; Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar), 18 metres; Port Blair (Andamans), 2 specimens, 14 metres. Description: Length from 90 mm to 300 mm. Body elongate, narrow at the anterior end and blunt at the posterior end. Minute papillae found on the dorsal side of the body. Numerous pedicels on the ventral side. An arrangement into three rows is discernible in one of the specimens. There are 20 medium-sized tentacles surrounded by a rim of black papillae. Skin smooth and thin. The inner wall of the cloaca is black in colour. "\ \ J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92 Plate 1 James: Holothuria A Holothuria ( Selenkothuria ) erinaceus (normal specimen); B. Holothuria ( Selenkothuria ) erinaceus (specimen with two posterior ends); Holothuria ( Acanthotrapeza ) pyxis; D. Holothuria ( Thymiosycia ) hilla. TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA 53 The calcareous ring (Fig. 1, G) is of moderate size. In one specimen dissected there are 37 stone canals and one polian vesicle. Both the right and left branches of the respiratory trees are large and of equal size. Spicules (Fig. 1, F) consist of tables and buttons. Discs of tables reduced to a ring which is narrower than the top of the spire. There is a horizontal beam in the middle of the spire. The top of the spire is expanded and bears four blunt spines on each side which can be seen only in the lateral view. Height of the table varies from 0.052 mm to 0.066 mm and diameter of the spire varies from 0.037 mm to 0.043 mm. Small buttons present in the inner layer. The number of holes varies from 3 to 1 0 and most of them are incomplete. Length of the buttons varies from 0.026 mm to 0.058 mm and the breadth from 0.017 mm to 0.031 mm. Long supporting rods which have expanded ends and three to four holes are present in the pedicels. In the living condition the body is bright rose pink which may be obscured by varying degrees of black pigment. The black colour is well marked on the dorsal side where it varies from grey to intense black and at the side it is replaced by pink. On the ventral side there is no black colour. Notes on habits: Both in the Gulf of Mannar and at Andamans around Port Blair, this species was collected from shallow depths (4-18 metres). It was never encountered in the intertidal region at both the places. Rowe and Doty (1977) report this species in the intertidal region under stones. Distribution: It is known from East Africa, Red Sea, S.E. Arabia. Subgenus Accinthotrcipeza Rowe, 1969 Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels irregularly arranged on the ventral side, papillae small to large and conical, arranged irregularly on the dorsal side; body wall soft, fairly thick, usually 3 (2-5) mm; body almost cylindrical but sometimes ventrally flattened and 'sole'-like; size small to large, up to 450 mm long; calcareous ring stout, radical plates squarish, up to twice as long as interradials; spicules consisting of tables in combination with rosettes, tables usually large and clumsy with well developed spinose disc and low to high spire, the rim of the disc is often turned up to give the tables a cup-and-saucer appearance in lateral view. Type species: Holothuria pyxis Selenka, 1867; designated by Rowe, 1969: 138. Three species are included under this subgenus. Only one species is known from Indian Seas. Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) pyxis Selenka (PI. 1, C; Fig. 2, A & B) Holothuria pyxis Selenka, 1867, p. 337: Java: Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 14: Andamans; James, 1982, p. 5; Daniel & Haidar, 1974, p. 419: Andamans; James, 1983, p. 93: South Andamans; Tikader et al. 1986, p. 120: Andaman & Nicobar Islands; James, 1987, p. 110: Andamans. Holothuria papillata Bell, 1887a, p. 145: Andaman Islands. Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) pyxis Mary Bai, 1980. p. 12; Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983. p. 509: Nancowry (Camorta Island); James, 1986a, p. 34: Andaman- Nicobar Islands; James, 1986d, p. 34: South Andamans. Description: The length of the specimens examined varied from 270-450 mm. The body is tubular. The posterior region is bulged and blunt with the anterior end narrow. A number of projections are found on the dorsal side. Some of them are 20 mm in length. They are not arranged according to any order. However, in the smallest specimen (270 mm in length) on the mid-dorsal region there is a double row of tubercles, the arrangement of which is not very t distinct. The projections at the sides are not distinctly arranged as a row. In the smallest specimen there are 25 projections longitudinally 54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) Fig. 2. Spicules of A. Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) pyxis, B. Radial and interradial plates of Ho/othuria (A.) pyxis ; C. Holothuria (P latyperona) difficilis\ D. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) arenicola; E. Radial and interradial of Holothuria (T.) impatiens\ F. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens; G. Radial and interradial plates of Holothuria (T.) hilla\ H. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla\ I. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) pervicax\ J. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea. TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA 55 and four transversely. In the largest specimen (450 mm in length), there are 35 projections longitudinally and five to seven projections transversely. On the ventral side, there are four bands of pedicels. In each band there are five or six pedicels arranged side by side. The pedicels are not evident in preserved specimens. Radials large with a deep notch at the anterior end, the posterior end straight (Fig. 2, B). Interradials half the height of the radials and have a concavity at the posterior margin. A single stone canal and a single polian vesicle. The spicules (Fig. 2, A) consist of only tables in the body wall. Margins of the tables spiny with four large holes at the centre and a number of small holes around the margin. Tables short and end in about 10 short spines. Height of the tables is 0.04 mm and diameter of the disc of the tables 0.05 mm. In the living condition, the dorsal side is brownish-pink with some of the tubercles blackish brown. The ventral side is light brown, with spaces between the bands of the pedicels yellow. Distribution: It is known only from the East Indies and the Andaman Islands. This species is highly secretive and is likely to be taken at other places in the Indo-Pacific region. Notes on habits: The species is always found under large stones which are well fixed to the ground. The long and narrow anterior region is kept out and is seen in constant movement like a snake. It is impossible to pull out the specimen without damaging it since the posterior end is firmly fixed in a crevice of the rock. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota also exhibits similar habit though it is easy to take out complete specimens. Remarks: Andaman and Nicobar Islands are well known for the hoiothurians which are used for Beche-de-mer (James 1983b, 1987). Panning (1944) lists Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) pyxis under the species used for Beche-de-mer. Due to its large size and thick body wall, this species should be well suited for Beche-de-mer preparation. However, the potential of this species for Beche-de-mer industry remains to be exploited. Subgenus Platyperona Rowe, 1969 Diagnosis: Tentacles 18-20; pedicels crowded, irregularly arranged except in smaller specimens where they appear to be arranged in three distinct bands on the flattened ventral surface, papillae small, irregularly arranged on the arched dorsal side, a distinct 'collar' of papillae present around the base of the tentacles; body wall soft, not very thick, usually 2 (1-5) mm; body with a distinct flattened ventral 'sole', arched aborally; size small to moderate, up to 200 mm long; calcareous ring stout, radial plates about twice as long as the interradial plates; spicules consisting of well-developed tables, the disc smooth, round and flat, with a varying number of peripheral holes, spires of moderate height, ending in several spines, the buttons oval, thin, flat, very rarely with a few median knobs, a median longitudinal ridge is apparent with three to six pairs of relatively small holes. Type species: Holothuria difficilis Semper; designated by Rowe, 1969: 143. Three species are included under this subgenus of which one was collected and is presented in this work. Holothuria (Platyperona) difficilis (Semper) Holothuria difficilis Semper, 1868, p. 92: Samoa; Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 6: Andamans. Microthele difficilis A.M. Clark & Davies, 1966, p. 600: Maldives; James, 1969, p. 61: Lakshadweep; Nagabhushanam & Rao, 1972, p. 291: Minicoy Atoll (Lakshadweep). Holothuria (Platyperona) difficilis Mary Bai, 1980, p. 12; Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 303: Lakshadweep; Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 512: Camorta 56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) (Nicobar); Price & Reid, 1985, p. 5: Sri Lanka; James, 1986a, p. 585: Maldives-Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka; James, 1989b, p. 125: Chetlat, Kiltan, Amini (Lakshadweep). Material: Chetlat, several specimens; Amini, Several specimens; Minicoy, two specimens; all collected under stones. Description: Length varies from 60 mm to 180 mm. Ventral side well demarcated from the dorsal. Papillae scattered on the dorsal side without any arrangement. Pedicels arranged in three bands on the ventral side. The calcareous ring is of the usual type. The radials have a deep notch at the anterior end a slight concavity at the posterior end. Interradials rectangular with an anterior knob- like projection. Polian vesicles two in number and the stone canal is single. Left branch of the respiratory tree is much longer than the right. Cuvierian tubules thick. Spicules (Fig. 2, C) consist of table and buttons. Tables short and robust. Spire with four rods and numerous teeth at the top. Discs of the tables either round or squarish, with usually eight peripheral holes and one large central hole. Frequently there are several small accessory holes. The diameter of the table disc is 0.08 mm to 0.09 mm. Buttons large, smooth and vary considerably in size, the average length being 0 1 mm. They are broadly elliptical with six or eight small holes. An apparent median longitudinal ridge is present for each button. The number of holes on each side of the button sometimes varies. The colour in the living condition is light brown with dark brown blotches. The posterior end is tapering. The ventral side is thickly distributed with pedicels which are yellowish- brown in colour. Distribution: It is known from the islands of Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, Red Sea, Maldives, Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, Japan, South Pacific Islands and the Hawaiian Islands. James (1969) reported this species for the first time from the Lakshadweep. Subgenus Thymiosycia Pearson, 1914 Diagnosis: Tentacles 18-20; pedicels and papillae usually irregularly arranged ventrally and dorsally, respectively; anal papillae more or less apparent, a 'collar' of papillae usually present around the base of the tentacles; body wall not very thick, usually 2 (1-5) mm; body vermiform; size small to moderate, up to 200 mm (rarely 250 mm) long; calcareous ring stout, radial plates up to three times the length of interradial plates; spicules consisting of fairly stout tables, the flat disc is squarish or irregular in outline, rarely reduced, usually with 8-10 peripheral holes, the spire of moderate height, ending in a cluster of small spines, the buttons regular or irregular in outline with three or more pairs of comparatively large holes (except in H. (Thymiosycia) arenicola which has comparatively small holes), not flattened, lacking any appearance of having median longitudinal ridge, rarely buttons present with slight nodules or forming hollow fenestrated spheres. Type species: Fistularia impatiens Forskaal, 1775; designated by Pearson, 1914: 164). Remarks: Brandtothuria Deichmann 1958, becomes a junior subjective synonym of Thymiosycia since its type species, the circum tropical H. arenicola Semper, according to Deichmann, is congeneric and consubgeneric with Fistularia impatiens Forskaal, the type- species of Thymiosycia according to Rowe (1969). Thirteen species are included under this subgenus. Rowe (1969) is of the opinion that all the nominal species included under the subgenus Thymiosycia are not valid. From the Seas around India, five species are known. Three species were collected and included in this work. TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA 57 Key to species of the subgenus 1 . Spicules: only tables present H. (Thymiosycia) aphanes Lampert, 1885 1'. Spicules: tables and buttons present 2 2. Spicules: tall spired tables and six-holed buttons present .... H. (Thymiosycia) remollescens Lampert, 1885 2'. Spicules: spires of tables not tall 3 3. Spicules: buttons with small holes H. (Thymiosycia) areyiicola Semper, 1868 3'. Spicules: buttons with large holes 4 4. spicules: tables stout with cluster of short spines at the top . . H. (Thymiosycia) impatiens (Forskaal. 1775) 4'. Spicules: tables not stout and with a few spines at the top H. (Thymiosycia ) hilla Lesson, 1830 Holothuria (Thymiosycia) arenicola Semper (Fig. 2, D) Holothuria maculata Bell, 1888, p. 837: Gulf of Mannar, Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 11: North Andamans. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) arenicola Mary Bai. 1980, p. 12; James, 1983a, p. 96; Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 514: Neil Island (Andamans); James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives; James, 1989b, p. 125: Chetlat, Kadmat, Amini. Androth (Lakshadweep). Material: Port Blair (Andamans), several specimens; Chetlat, four specimens; Kadmat, two specimens; Amini, one specimen; Androth, one specimen; all of them found buried in sand. Description: Length 30 mm to 200 mm. Body slender and vermiform. Mouth small and surrounded by tentacles ventrally. Dorsally, there are a few papillae. Pedicels small and not conspicuous and arranged in three bands ventrally. Midventral band not distinct. In the other two bands there are 3 or 4 pedicels arranged in a row. Anus terminal and surrounded by five groups of four to six short papillae. The calcareous ring consists of ten pieces, of which the radials are distinctly longer than the interradials. There is a single large polian vesicle and a single stone canal. The gonads are situated in a single tuft on the left side of the mesentery. The respiratory trees are long and much branched. The spicules (Fig. 2, D) consist of tables, buttons and supporting plates. Buttons smooth and regular with six holes with edges regularly indented between each pair of holes. Sometimes there are two holes on one side and three on the other side. Buttons numerous in the body wall varying in length from 0.065 mm to 0.069 mm, and from 0.030 mm to 0.032 mm in width. Disc of the table with smooth border and quadrate- circular outline. A large hole at the centre and a small hole at the base of each spire. Peripheral holes vary in number from four to ten. Spire made up of four rods, one cross beam and a crown ending in 10 to 20 teeth. Diameter of the disc varies from 0.056 mm to 0.061 nun, and the length of the spire is about 0.041 mm. Supporting rods of the pedicles smooth, dilated at the ends and in the middle where three to five perforations are present. In the middle generally there are two or three oval holes. The length of the supporting rods varies from 0.18 mm to 0.21 mm. In the living condition, the general colour of the body is white. On the dorsal side, there are three pairs of reddish-brown spots which are of different sizes. The dorsal side is also scattered with very small brown dots which are not conspicuous. The ventral side is uniformly white. In large forms (200 mm in length) there are ten pairs of reddish brown spots. The spots in the middle region are big. In smaller forms (60 mm in length) there are only three pairs of spots. In one specimen there is a light brown ring round the cloaca. In very small forms (30 mm length) the colour is light brownish-yellow with a few irregular light brown blotches. The colour of the spots varies a great deal and Deichmann (1958) has stated that it depends on the colour of sand or mud in which they live. Notes on habits: This is a fairly common holothurian at Port Blair and also at 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) Lakshadweep. It is an inactive holothurian, often completely buried in sand. At Chetlat, when the tide receded small holes were seen on the sand through which water was gushing out. This is caused by this species. It is almost impossible to take out the specimen completely. The moment we dig they go deeper into sand, and lower down there are big stones which make digging difficult. The pedicels and papillae are highly reduced, therefore the burrowing must apparently be effected only by the contraction of the body muscles. In one of the specimens, a small Carapid fish Echeliophis (Jordanicus) gracilis (Bleeker) was found. The details of this association are given by James (in press). Mukerji (1932) gave an account of the fishes associated with holothurians from the Andamans. Arnold (1953) presented some observations on the habits of Carapus acus. Jones and Kumaran (1980) reported three species of Carapids from Bohadschia marmorata. Distribution: It is a tropical species from the West Indies, Red Sea, Zanzibar, Mascarene Islands, East Indies, Philippines, Southern Japan, Fiji, Hawaii, Tahiti, Galapagos, Cocos Island and eastern coast of Australia. James (1989b) reported this species for the first time from Lakshadweep. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens (Forskaal) (Fig. 2, E & F) Fistularia impatiens Forskaal, 1775, p. 121. Holothuria impatiens Bell, 1887a, p. 140: Andaman Island; Bell, 1887b. p.654: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Ludwig, 1887, p. 1226: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Bell, 1888, p. 389: Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar); Koehler & Vaney, 1908. p. 8: Andaman Islands, Great Cocos Island, Point Galle (Sri Lanka); A.M. Clark & Davies. 1966, p. 599: Maldives; James, 1969, p. 61: Red Sea. Lakshadweep, Andamans; Nagabhushanam & Rao, 1972, p. 290: Minicoy Atoll (Lakshadweep); James, 1982, p. 5; James, 1983b, p. 98: Andamans; Tikader & Das, 1985, p. 99: Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Holothuria impatiens war. bicolor James, 1969, p. 61: Port Blair (Andamans). Holothuria {Thymiosycia) z>w/>a//msMukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 307: Lakshadweep; Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 514: Corbyn's Cove, Havelock Island, Katchal Island, Curlew Island, Trinket Island (Andamans); James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Sri Lanka, Andaman-Nicobar Islands; James, 1989b, p. 125: Chetlat, Kiltan, Kadmat, Amini, Agatti, Kalpeni, Minicoy (Lakshadweep). Material: Port Blair (Andamans), several specimens; Chetlat, two specimens; Kiltan, two specimens; Kadmat, one specimen; Amini, two specimens; Agatti, one specimen; Kalpeni, two specimens; Minicoy, three specimens (Lakshadweep); all specimens collected in the intertidal region under coral stones. Description: Length from 60 mm to 240 mm. Body bottle-shaped with a long 'neck'. Superficially the body cannot be differentiated dorsally and ventrally. Mouth and anus terminal. Tentacles about 20 crowded around the small mouth. Body surface covered by \vell developed papillae placed on low, round warts which are conspicuous by their lighter colour than the rest of the body. Papillae scattered fairly evenly over the surface and not in series. Skin unusually sandy to touch. Radial (Fig. 2, E) pieces of the calcareous ring much larger than interradials and project forward. The rounded margins have a deep concavity. Interradial pieces with short teeth. A single stone canal and one or two polian vesicles. Cuvierian tubules occur in relatively large bunches. Respiratory trees slender with a few branches. Longitudinal muscle bands very thick. Spicules (Fig. 2, F) consist of tables, buttons and supporting plates. Tables arranged in a crowded manner with the edges of the discs touching or overlapping each other on the outer layer. Each table consists of four upright rods and two cross beams. Spire robust and the top of the spire with a number of teeth which are level with the upper cross beam. Disc subquadrate TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA 59 usually provided with nine holes forming three rows, central hole larger than the other holes. Diameter of the table discs c. 0.10 mm. Spire 0.09 mm high and 0.05 mm in diameter. Buttons oval in shape with mostly three pairs of holes, smooth and with slightly undulating margins and obtuse ends. Very rarely, with more than three holes on each side. Length of the buttons varies from 0.084 mm to 0.10 mm, and breadth from 0.040 mm to 0.049 mm. Supporting rods slightly curved. Central portion dilated like a ring and has invariably two holes. Tips slightly expanded and provided with one to four holes which are generally smaller than those found at the middle. Sometimes the tips of the rods in the papillae are not perforated. In the living condition, the general colour of the body is light brown with 4 to 5 dark brown transverse bands on the dorsal side at the anterior end. A few dark brown blotches are also found on the dorsal side on the rest of the body. The ventral side is uniformly light brown with three dark bands of the dorsal side extending to the ventral side near the anterior end. In young forms (70 mm length) there are about eight pairs of chocolate brown round blotches, distinct only in the young. The specimen referred to as Holothuria impatiens var. bicolor by James (1969) has a dark purple body with yellow papillae. Notes on habits: This is one of the commonest holothunans found around Port Blair. It is a secretive form found under dead coral stones. Often, two or three specimens are found under the same stone. It occurs together with Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla. On disturbing the animals, thick Cuvierian tubules are released. It is an active holothurian unlike Holothuria (Thymiosycia) arenicola , which is very inactive. Distribution: It is known from the islands of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Persian Gulf, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, Japan, South Pacific Islands, Hawaii and China. James (1969) reported this species from Lakshadweep for the first time. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla Lesson (PI. 1, D; Fig. 2, G & H) Holothuria hilla Lesson, 1830, p. 266; James, 1969, p. 61: Minicoy, Port Blair; Nagabhushanam & Rao, 1972, p. 290: Minicoy Atoll. Holothuria monocaria Bell, 1887a, p. 140: Andaman Islands; Ludwig, 1887, p. 1224: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Bell, 1888, p. 385: Gulf of Mannar; Pearson, 1903, p. 201: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 11: Laccadives(Lakshadweep),Mergui Archipelago, Andamans, Persian Gulf; Gravely, 1927, p. 164; A.M. Clark & Davies, 1966, p. 603: Maldives; James, 1969, p. 62: Gulf of Mannar, Andamans, Lakshadweep; Daniel & Haidar, 1974, p. 428: Lakshadweep & Maldives; Satyamurti, 1976, p. 47: Shingle Island (Gulf of Mannar); James, 1 988b, p. 404: Gulf of Mannar. IHolothuria ondaatjei Bell, 1 887b, p. 654: Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1 983, p. 307 : Lakshadweep; Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 519: Andaman & Nicobar Islands; James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Gulf of Mannar-Palk Bay, Sri Lanka, Andaman & Nicobar Islands; Mukhopadhyay, 1988, p. 8: Pulli, Krusadai, Vedalai, Mandapam Camp, Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar); James, 1989b, p. 126: Chetlat, Bitra, Kiltan, Kadmat, Amini, Minicoy (Lakshadweep). Material: Mandapam (Gulf of Mannar), 1 specimen; Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar), Port Blair (Andamans), several specimens; Chetlat, several specimens; Bitra, two specimens; Kiltan, several specimens; Kadmat, three specimens; Amini, two specimens; Minicoy, two specimens; all collected from the intertidal region under coral stones. Description: Length from 50 mm to 200 mm. Body long and cylindrical with blunt ends. Body wall soft. Dorsal and ventral sides demarcated in the living condition. Papillae 60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) sparsely arranged and have expanded bases. Ventral side has numerous pedicels arranged in three rows. A small space at the anterior end near the collar is free from pedicels. Each band of pedicels with five or six tubefeet arranged side by side. Mouth surrounded by 20 inconspicuous papillae. Tentacles small. Ten anal papillae. The calcareous ring is of the usual type with the radials longer than the interradials (Fig. 2., G.). The right respiratory tree is long, extending up to the anterior end, while the left one is shorter and joins the viscera. Cuvierian tubules are present though not abundant. In a specimen dissected, two polian vesicles and a single stone canal were present. Spicules (Fig. 2, H) consist of tables and buttons. Tables possess smooth rounded discs. Four large holes corresponding to the four spires in addition to about fifteen peripheral holes. Spire of the tables consists of four pillars and one cross beam which terminates in twelve or more teeth. Buttons oval, smooth and symmetrical with three or four pairs of holes. Holes at either end generally elongate. Length of the buttons varies from 0.17 mm to 0.28 mm. Diameter of the disc tables varies from 0.031 mm to 0.038 mm. In young specimens (60 mm in length), the tables have slightly undulating margins. The papillae have rudimentary terminal plates and curved rod-like perforated spicules. In living condition, small specimens are chocolate brown in colour and large specimens are golden brown with a circular pale area around the appendages. Notes on habits: This too is one of the commonest holothurians around Port Blair. It is a fugitive species always found under coral stones. Often two or three specimens are found under the same stone along with Holothurici (Thymiosycia) impatiens. One of the specimens collected at Port Blair had a Carapid fish Encheliophis vermicularis at the base of the respiratory tree. The behaviour of this fish is similar to the fish Encheliophis ( Jordanicus ) gracilis collected from Holothuria (Thymiosycia) arenicola (James, in press). Distribution: It is known from the islands of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Persian Gulf, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, Japan, South Pacific Islands, Hawaiian Islands and China. Subgenus Mertensiothuria Deichmann, 1958 Diagnosis: Tentacles 18-20; pedicels crowded, in smaller forms arranged in three distinct rows ventrally, papillae small, irregularly arranged dorsally, anal papillae or 'collor' or papillae around the base of the tentacles not apparent; body wall variable, soft, ranging from thin to fairly thick, usually about 2-3 (1-4) mm; body almost cylindrical but with a more or less flattened ventral 'sole'; size moderate to large (up to 250 mm long); calcareous ring stout with radial plates about twice as long as the interradial plates; spicules consisting of not very strongly developed tables with the rim of the disc usually spinose and the spire low, ending in a ring or cluster of spines, the tables occasionally degenerate or incomplete, buttons irregular, usually with three pairs of holes, sometimes incomplete. Type species: Stichopus leucospilota Brandt, 1835; designated by Deichmann, 1958. Under this subgenus, six species are included. Three of the species are known from the seas around India, and have been collected and described in this work. Key to the species of the subgenus 1. Spicules in inner layer resembling narrow rosettes . H. (Mertensiothuria) pervicax Selenka, 1867 TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA 61 1'. Spicules in inner layer, buttons either complete or incomplete 2 2. Buttons mostly two slit-like holes and one or two smaller pairs of holes at either end . ... H. (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea Jaeger, 1 833 2'. Buttons delicate, mostly with large holes, often narrow . . H. (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota (Brandt, 1835) Holothuria(Mertensiothuria)pervicaxSelenka (Fig. 2, I) Holothuria pervicax Selenka, 1867, p. 327: Zanzibar; A.M. Clark & Davies, 1966, p. 600: Maldives; James, 1969, p 61: Lakshadweep. IHolothuria exilis Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 14: Andaman Island. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria ) pervicax James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Sri Lanka, Andaman- Nicobar Islands; James, 1989b, p. 126: Chetlat, Minicoy (Lakshadweep). Material: Chetlat, one specimen; Minicoy, two specimens; Port Blair (Andamans), one specimen; all collected from intertidal region under coral stones. Description: The specimens examined ranged in length from 70 mm to 120 mm. They are subcylindrical in shape. The dorsal and ventral sides are well differentiated. On the ventral side there are a number of pedicels arranged closely without any evidence of band formation. The papillae are scattered on the dorsal side. The tentacles are definitely ventral in position. Cuvierian tubules are thick. Calcareous ring is of the usual type. There is a single large polian vescicle and a single stone canal. Spicules (Fig. 2, I) consist of incomplete and oblong rods with lateral projections resembling narrow rosettes. The disc of the table is usually subcircular. Each disc has a fairly big hole at the base of each slender spire. Frequently supplementary holes are also present. The edge of the disc is smooth. The diameter of the discs varies from 0.03 mm to 0.05 mm. The spire has a cross beam and is frequently incomplete and ends in four simple teeth. In some cases, the spire is rudimentary and the crowns have no transverse pieces. The rosettes vafy in size from 0.023 mm to 0.069 mm in length. They are irregular and smooth. The pedicels have well developed plates, but in the papillae they are rudimentary. The pedicels and papillae, in addition to long curved rods with short irregular processes, have bilateral fenestrated plates. These plates vary in length from 0.30 mm to 0.36 mm. Those plates which are in the neighbourhood of the terminal plates of the pedicels are formed by the branching and joining of the lateral processes of the supporting rods. In the living condition, the dorsal side is brown in colour with 5 to 7 honey coloured transverse bands of different widths. The ventral side is lighter, mottled with white and light violet on a brown background. The cloacal opening is surrounded by a dark violet ring with some portion of the inner cloacal wall of the same colour. Remarks: This is a rare species, both at Lakshadweep and the Andamans. Distribution: It is known from the islands of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Maldives, Sri Lanka, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, South Pacific Islands and Hawaiian Islands. It was reported for the first time from Lakshadweep by James (1969). James (1986a) also reported this species for the first time from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea Jaeger (Fig. 2, J) Holothuria fuscocinerea Jaeger, 1833, p. 22: Celebes; Ludwig, 1887, p. 1227: Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Holothuria curiosa Pearson, 1910, p. 188: Mergui Archipelago. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 304: Lakshadweep; James, 1986a, p. 585: Sri Lanka and Andamans. 62 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) Material: Port Blair (Andamans), one specimen, collected under coral stone in the intertidal region. Description: The length of the specimen is 120 mm. The body is long and tubular with 20 large ventral tentacles. Tentacles on the ventral side are arranged in three, though not distinct bands The papillae on the dorsal side are scattered. There is a single polian vesicle and a large stone canal. Cuvierian tubules are large. In the specimen examined only buttons (Fig. 2, J) were noticed. Buttons are small and often incomplete. Usually each button has two narrow slit-like holes and one or two pairs of minute holes at each end. The length of the buttons varies from 0.01 mm to 0.04 mm. Colour in the living condition is brownish, more or less mottled. Ventral side is pale grey. Distribution: It is known from Sri Lanka, Philippines, Celebes, Fiji, Samoa, Australia and Japan. James (1986a) recorded it for the first time from the Islands. (to he continued) ECOLOGY OF POLLINATION IN TWO CAT-MINT SPECIES Raju J.S. Aluri and C. Subba Reddi2 Key words: Anisomeles, pollination, carpenter bees, sunbirds The herbaceous perennials, Anisomeles malabarica and A. indica grow from perennating root stock and seed. A. indica produces flowering episodes in correspondence with water-saturation of the soil while Anisomeles malabarica does not. The floral morphology and pollination mechanism of the two species are similar. The plants resort to self -pollination shortly before flowers turn disfunctional in the absence of pollinators. Both plants are nototribically pollinated by some species of carpenter bees and sunbirds during probing for floral forage. The pollinators by their forage collecting behaviour coupled with territorial and traplining behaviour greatly augment cross-pollination in the plants. The data presented in the paper are valuable for commercial breeding. Introduction The Asian-Australian genus Anisomeles belongs to the tribe Lamieae of the subfamily Lamiodeae (Abu-Asab and Cantino 1987) and is taxonomically characterised by glandular-hairy floral parts, and upper pair of stamens with 1- celled anthers and a lower pair with 2-celled anthers. The essential floral parts always extend dorsally in the corolla tube, proximate to or along the upper corolla lip, and not along the lower lip as in the subfamily Ocimoideae. Except for a small note on the flower morphology and foragers of Anisomeles indica by Burkill (1916), there is no information on the details of ecological aspects of pollination in the genus Anisomeles. The pollination biology data are required to understand sexual reproduction and perpetuation of weedy species. The paper describes ecological aspects of pollination in Anisomeles indica and Anisomeles malabarica in India. The investigation was made with a view to provide information on pollination of the plants for extensive commercial uses. ’Accepted November 1992. Department ol Environmental Sciences, Andhra U ni versity, Waltair 530 003. Observations 1. Plant and flowering phenology Anisomeles malabarica grows in disturbed and undisturbed areas with soils saturated and unsaturated, while Anisomeles indica is confined to undisturbed areas with only water-saturated soils on foot hills of Nallamalai range near Turimella (15 10’ and 16' 18' N, 78 45* and 79 34' E) of Prakasam district of Andhra Pradesh, India. The two species are herbaceous perennials and grow from perennating root stock and seed. The perennial root stock produces rapidly growing and early flowering plants, while plants that develop from seed appear later and flower later. Anisomeles malabarica starts vegetative growth with the first rains of the monsoon and continues until flowering is initiated. The plant can extend vegetative growth beyond flowering. The plant commences vegetative growth in July, flowers in mid- October and disappears in January. Anisomeles indica primarily inhabiting stream edges does not show vegetative growth following first rains. Streams in this area are rain -fed and used for irrigating local farmlands through regulation of water flow by diverting excess water into reservoirs. The plant begins 64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) vegetative growth only when the soil is water- saturated. The water-saturation of the soil of the area depends on water flow in streams. The vegetative growth and flowering of the plant fall during the period from October to mid-January. The plant exhibits flowering episodes in response to the water content of the soil where it grows. 2. The Flower The flower details of the two Anisomeles species are similar to each other. The purple and fragrant flowers are borne in verticils on the stem. Within a verticil the flowers are arranged in rings. New flowers open daily from each verticil and each flower lasts 2 days. The flowers are gullet type and distinctly bilabiate with a small upper lip and a broad expanded lower lip. They have a basal corolla tube containing a good amount of nectar (1.6- 1.8 pi) having 32-48% sugar concentration and protected from unwelcome foragers by a ring of hairs from the base of the flowertube at the point where the stamens are inserted. The anthers which dehisce prior to anthesis are oriented downward at the upper lip of the corolla, thereby brushing pollen onto the anterior dorsal part of the flower. The bilobed stigma protrudes little beyond the anthers. The spreading lower lip acts as landing place for the insect foragers. The sugar composition of the two Anisomeles species nectar determined by paper chromatography indicated presence of glucose, sucrose and fructose. 3. Pollination Anisomeles malabarica antheses during the night from 0100 to 0500 hr and Anisomeles indica in the early morning from 0530 to 0730 hr, the flowers of both are available for day-time foragers. The flowers are foraged by day-flying bees, wasps, ants, thrips, butterflies and sunbirds. The foragers seem attracted to the purple colour of the flowers with sweet fragrance, ample pollen and copious nectar. Of these, only carpenter bees and sunbirds are regular and perform effective and efficient pollination. The other foragers occasionally visit the flowers and some of them deplete floral forage by probing from the side of the flowers bypassing the pollination apparatus. The carpenter bees after landing on the strong lower lip probe flowers nototribically in upright position for nectar during which the stigma situated near the tip of the upper lip contacts the residual pollen in the dorsal cervical crevice of the bees. The bees exhibit territorial foraging behaviour defending selected plant populations of Anisomeles from intruders depleting floral forage by remembering space constellations and images of the region. The bees also display trap- lining behaviour by foraging on discontinuously stretched flowering Anisomeles in a selected region visited on their regular rounds. The dual foraging behaviour displayed by carpenter bees greatly profit the plants in outcrossing. Sunbirds are as regular and effective as carpenter bees in performing the pollination in Anisomeles species. They forage for nectar in the flowers from the front in vertical position. Their foraging for the hidden nectar through the protective ring of floral hairs near the staminal base results in the contact of the bilobed stigma and the anthers with the bill and forehead of the birds. The Anisomeles species are used as feeding stations by the birds throughout the winter season. There are no other species of flowers and the birds totally rely on Anisomeles flowers for food source. The flowers of both species resort to self- pollination by reflecting the stigmatic lobes striking the powdery pollen in the anthers below. ECOLOGY OF POLLINATION IN TWO CAT-MINT SPECIES 65 This physiological movement of the stigma occurs shortly before the stigma turns brown and becomes dry. The auto-pollination occurs only in those flowers which have not been visited by foragers of any kind. Discussion Since the two Anisomeles species are herbaceous perennials, they reproduce asexually from perennating root stock and sexually by seed. Sexual reproduction of the plants involves seasonal or timely production of flowers coinciding the availability of pollinators. Flowering in Anisomeles malabarica is independent of water-saturation of the soil after the plant's vegetative growth. In contrast, the flowering on Anisomeles indicci seems regulated by water quantity of the soil which causes flowering episodes. Attempts to test this phenomenon in a green house by growing this plant experimentally have been made without success. Seeds of this plant did not germinate in different treatments, and it appears that there are unknown barriers for breaking dormancy and subsequent germination (Alun unpubl. data; Cantino pers. comm ). The two Anisomeles species have a personate floral form with stamens and style extending beyond the upper lip and resulting in the classical gullet type blossom credited for precision and economy in pollen transfer by nototnby. The purple colour of the flowers appears to act as the main attractant coupled with flower density, amplified by patchy distribution of the plants. The purple flowers seem to reflect blue component which the insect foragers can see. Experimental evidence for this phenomenon has been repeatedly shown in the purple flowered Pedicularis species which reflect blue component and ultraviolet light and are pollinated by bumble bees (Macior 1968, 1982, 1986a, b, c). Recorded observations on the foragers of the two Anisomeles species suggest that only the carpenter bees and sunbirds are suitable and functional pollinators which orderly and precisely effect pollination by manipulation of the floral mechanism (Proctor and Yeo 1972, Faegri and Van der Pi if 1979). Burkill (1916) also observed carpenter bees as appropriate pollinators of Anisomeles indica. Other foragers by their occasional and intra-floral behaviour mainly deplete the floral forage thereby influencing the intensity of foraging visits of the functional pollinators. The flower form with sexual organs positioned near the upper lip and with the spreading strong lower lip facilitates adequate landing place for the large bodied carpenter bees ( Xylocopa latipes and X. pubescens). The bees nototribically pollinate the flowers by their probing in upright position dorsally contacting in the cervical crevice region and the anteriorly placed anthers and stigma near the upper lip. Since the plants resort to self-pollination extending the stigmatic lobes into the pollen- laden anthers shortly before the stigma becomes dry and brown in the absence of pollinators, the plants appear to have a preference for cross- pollination. The carpenter bees by their nototribic foraging behaviour and inter-plant and patch movement cross-poilinate the flower. The latter movement of the bees is exhibited in territorial and trap-lining behaviour, both of which are instrumental for effective cross- pollination. Such behaviour of the bees on different plants has been documented by several workers (Fiji 1954, Janzen 1964, Frankie 1976, Barrows 1980, Frankie et al. 1983). The sunbirds also probe the flowers nototribically by landing on intemodes of the inflorescence, inserting their bill and forehead into the flower mouth leading to the nectary and 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) contacting the bifid stigma with their pollen- laden posterior edge of the bill and anterior edge of the forehead. The birds do not employ foraging methods exhibited by carpenter bees. They, however, use flowering Anisomeles populations as feeding stations and daily forage on the flowers by having nests nearby in the branches of Euphorbia antiquorum. The carpenter bees also use the plants of some species for nest-making in the Anisomeles growing area. The birds also contribute to active pollen flow for cross-pollination by their regular and effective foraging on the plants within and between patches. Both carpenter bees ( Xylocopa latipes and X. pubescens) and sunbirds ( Nectarinia asiatica and N. zeylonica) are thus equally important for pollen transfer in the two Anisomeles species. The two Anisomeles species occupy the same geographic area but separated by habitat. Refe Abu-Asar. M.S. & P.D. Canting (1987): Phylogenetic implications of leaf anatomy in subtribe Melittidinae (Labiatae) and related taxa. Arnold A bor. 68: 1-34. Barrows, E.M. (1980): Robbing of exotic plants by introduced carpenter and honey bees in Hawaii, with comparative notes. Biolropica 12: 23-29. Burkill, I.H. (1916): Notes on the pollination of flowers in India. Note 8, Miscellanea. J. Astatic Soc. Bengal. 12: 239-265. Faegri, K. & L. Van der Pijl (1979): The principles of pollination ecology. Pergamon Press, Oxford. Frankie, G.W. (1976): Pollination of widely dispersed trees by animals in Central America, with an emphasis on bee-pollination systems. In: Tropical Trees: Variation, Breeding and Conservation, Eds. J. Burley and B.T. Styles. Academic Press (London), pp. 151-159. Frankie, G.W., W.A. Haber, P.A. Opler & K.S. Bawa (1983): Characteristics and organisation of the large bee pollination system in the Costa Rican dry forest. In: Handbook of Experimental Pollination Biology, Eds. C.E. Jones and R.J. Little. Von Nostrand Reinhold (New York), pp. 411-447. Janzen. D.H. (1964): Notes on the behavior of flower subspecies of the carpenter bees Xylocopa This habitat separation is not instrumental in preventing natural inter-breeding between the two plant species since carpenter bees and sunbirds are long distance flyers and make foraging movements between the two plant species. Such alternate foraging of the pollinators is likely to result in inter-breeding provided that the genomes of the plants are compatible for crossing. Field surveys in the study area indicate that one plant resembles in the vegetative and floral features of both Anisomeles indica and Anisomeles malabarica. Extensive study is needed to understand how this plant has resulted. Attempts are being made to test this by hybridization raising the plants from the seeds fed with its natural soil in a green house. If the results indicate viable and vigorous hybrids, the data would then form a basis for further studies on commercial lines. NCES ( Notoxylocopa ) tabaniformia in Mexico. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 57: 296-301. Macior, L.W. (1968): Pollination adaptation in Pedicularis groenlandica. Am. J. Bot. 55: 927-932. Macior, L.W. (1982). Plant community and pollinator dynamics in the evolution of pollination mechanisms in Pedicularis (Scrophulariaceae). In: Pollination and Evolution, Eds. J.A. Armstrong, J.M. Powell and A.J. Richards, Royal Botanical Gardens (Sydney), pp. 29-45. Macior, L.W. (1986a): Pollination ecology and endemic adaptation of Pedicularis howellii (Scrophulariaceae). PI. Sp. Biol. 1: 163-172. Macior, L.W. (1986b): Pollination ecology and endemism of Pedicularis pulchella Pennell (Scrophulariaceae). PI. Sp. Biol. 1: 173-180. Macior, L.W. (1986c): The fernflowers (Pedicularis) and their pollinators - A study in coadaptation. Bull. Native Plant Soc. N.E. Ohio 4: 3-9. Pijl, Van Der, L. (1954): Xylocopa and flowers of the Tropics I. The bees as pollinators: Lists of the flowers visited. Proc. Koninkl. Nederl. Akad. Van. Wetenschappen (Amsterdam) Series C 57: 413-423. Proctor, M. & P. Yeo (1972): The pollination of flowers. Taplinger, New York. A STUDY OF ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAYA WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS (LINN.) IN RAJASTHAN1 Satish Kumar Sharma2 ( With six text-figures) Key words: abnormal nests, monostoreyed nests, multistoreyed nests, symmetry, simple harmonic motion, stofeyfication, nest fusion The Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.) is a colonial nester. Besides normal nests, various types of abnormal nests are fabricated by cocks during breeding period. Many abnormalities can be seen in nests of Bayas, either structural or orientational or both. Keeping abnormalities in view, as many as 16 types of abnormal nests were observed in Rajasthan. There is a trend towards bistoreyed nests followed by fused nests. This paper describes a field study of various qualitative and quantitative aspects of abnormal nesting in sexually mature male Baya weaver bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). Besides a few stray notes and papers that had appeared in various journals (Jesse 1897, Prater 1932, Ali and Ambedkar 1956, Ambedkar 1964, 1980; Crook 1964, Sharma 1985, 1988; Davis 1985) no systematic study has been done so far on this aspect. Ambedkar (1980) has given a good account of multistoreyed and composite nests. Sharma (1985) gives a detailed account of some qualitative aspects of abnormal nesting in Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). Study area The study was carried out mainly in four districts, namely Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur of eastern Rajasthan and Udaipur in southern Rajasthan. Eastern Rajasthan is a fairly plain area receiving an average annual rainfall of 675 mm. The southern part of the state is hilly and receives more rainfall (up to 1000 mm.). 1 Accepted December 1992. O . Range Forest Officer, Aravalli Afforestation Programme, Jhadol (F.), Udaipur Dist., Rajasthan. Materials and Methods A large number of nest colonies of Ploceus philippinus (Linn.) were observed in the agricultural fields, ravines, forest fringes and area around water bodies. Abandoned abnormal nests were collected at the end of the monsoon rains when breeding activities of weaver birds come to an end. Parent birds then, leave their nests along with the juveniles. Nests were collected by a bamboo, having sharp hook at its upper end. When nests were beyond reach, their sketches were made on paper or they were photographed at the spot. Internal structure of the nest was examined by bisecting the nests at different planes, using scissors. General plan of a normal nest A typical completed nest of P. philippinus (Linn.) is a bottle shaped structure and can be divided into three parts - stalk, body and entrance tube. A normal completed nest of P. philippinus (Linn.) has its entrance tube slightly shifted towards the entrance-hall side due to which more bulging appears towards the egg- chamber. Due to this position of the entrance tube a completed nest can be divided into two equal halves across the chin-strip only, hence 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) Norma! Completed Nest Two unequal halves of Nest in (A) condition(T.S) divided into two bedivided equal halves into two equal along the chin halves across strip chin strip Two equal halves of Nest in (B) condition (T.S ) Fig. 1. Symmetry of normal completed nest at two planes. they are zygomorphic in terms of symmetry (Fig. 1). Incomplete nests are precursors of completed nests. They are bell shaped in structure, lacking an entrance tube and the characteristic 'dome' of the egg-chamber (Fig. 2). Details of structure of normal nests are given elsewhere (Ali 1931, Ali and Ambedkar 1956, 1957; Ambedkar 1958, 1964; Crook 1960, Mathew 1976, Sharma 1985). Qualitative aspects of abnormal nests Besides typical nests, which are otherwise called normal nests, various types of abnormal nests are prepared by sexually mature male birds during breeding season. Many variations can be seen in nests of Bay as which make a nest abnormal. A. Abnormality in structure of nest or any part of it. Abnormal structure(s) may appear due to: ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAY A WEAVER BIRD 69 (i) Duplication of part(s), or/and (ii) Formation of additional part(s), or/and (iii) Elaboration of normal part(s), or/and (iv) Abolition of normal part(s). B. Abnormality in position of nest or any part of it. As indicated above, there may be many kinds of abnormalities. When one type of abnormality is present in nest it may be called a ormal nests in their construction and general plan. Each individual monostoreyed nest possesses only one egg chamber in the only storey-hence monostoreyed. Details of different kinds of monostoreyed nests are given in Fig. 2. Belljar shaped nests: These are completed nests with very wide entrance tube through out or most of its length. Though lower most part of the entrance tube may become dilated due to simple abnormal nest and when more than one type of abnormalities appear in it, it may be called mixed or complex abnormal nest. A simple classification of abnormal nests is given in the diagram. A. Monostoreyed nests: A class of simple nests, much similar to continuous clinging on by the bird in normal nests also, but in belljar-shaped nests widening could be seen throughout length of tube. Rather it is structural widening which does not appear due to clinging. Buttressed nests: In certain cases a mesh of woven fabrics may occur at any angular region of nest. It was noticed that such type of mesh always occurs vertically on the body of the nest, 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) Bell - Jar shaped Nest Nest with double openings Buttressed Multistalked Nest Nest Wide stalked Nest Chained Nest 2a Meshed Nest Blind Nest Closed Nest Stalkless Nest Symmetrical Nest Symmetrical Nest con be divide into two equal halves at two planes Stomach shaped Nest 2b Fig. 2a. Mono-storeyed nests of various kinds with structural abnormalities; 2b. Mono-storeyed nests with orientational abnormalities. i.e. across the chin strip on either the outer front wall of the egg chamber or the entrance hall. Sharma (1988) has described such nests elsewhere. Blind nests: Sometimes a denser mesh may occur on both the openings of a half built nest, making it tightly closed. Such nests when viewed externally give no clue of openings. These club shaped nests having a short stalk, look like a spherical mass (Davis 1985). Closed nests: These are completed or uncompleted nests, which resemble blind nests, but their opening(s) could be traced externally due to the presence of thin mesh over the opening(s). Stalkless nests: Stalkless nests are fabricated by Ploceus benghalensis and P. manyar in reeds and grasses. Ploceus philippinus is a bird which fabricates stalked nest on trees and high bushes, but in certain cases stalkless nests could be seen in nature. Stalkless nests are hardly ever accepted by female birds, hence they are seldom completed by the cock. Multistalked nests: In normal cases only one stalk is fabricated by the cock. But, in many cases more than one stalk may occur, hence multistalked nest. The presence of two or more stalks provide extra attachment strength to the nest. Such type of nests are common on Phoenix sylvestris. It is the height of the P. sylvestris which makes a hanging nest prone to simple harmonic motion on windy days. Hence, to minimize such a pendulous motion more than one pinnae are involved for stalking the nest. Some times the gap between two stalks is blocked by a woven mesh, due to which a nest becomes 'wide stalked nest'. This device is equally good to minimize the simple harmonic motion. ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAY A WEAVER BIRD 71 Chained nests: In normal cases a male bird keeps a distance between two successive nests hanging on the same branch No phy sical contact is seen between the nests; but sometimes nests could be joined with a mesh of woven fibres which is fabricated along and around the twig itself. This is the simplest way to join the nests. Actual nests remain normal in structure Meshed nests: Often, instead of making a mesh around the twig, it is extended beneath the twig on which nests are hung. This flap like mesh is used to join the down stalk angular point of the top nest with the upper stalk angular point of the lower nest (Sharma 1988). Completed nests with double openings: Though uncompleted nests always contain two openings, a typical completed nest possesses only one for use. An additional opening with an additional very small tube was seen in a completed nest in 1980 on National Highway 1 1 near village Hantara in District Bharatpur (unpublished). This particular nest held eggs at the time of observation and double openings were maintained right from the pre-hatching stages, hence the nest was a truly double opening nest. It was observed that sometimes an additional opening may be created in those nests which have fledglings about to leave the nest. This opening is created near the egg chamber to shorten the length of the entrance tube so that the number ol feeding trips could be increased for growing chicks. This is the case where double openings are maintained during the post- hatching stage. Hence such nests are not truly double opening nests. Fused nests or Composite nests: Distance between two nests, in chained and meshed kind is kept shorter so that they could be linked easily. In both the cases linking is very loose and nests do not come in direct contact. Some times this inter-nest distance is further reduced and two or more successive nests are made side by side in physical contact. Various degrees of fusion could be seen between two closely hanging nests. Their fusion may be partial or total. Actually, a fused nest is an aggregation of parallelv fused two or more completed or/and uncompleted nests. It is remarkable to note that the base of the each individual nest of a 'fused complex' has independent attachment on branch(es) of the host tree. Fused nests have been recorded from different parts of the country by Prater (1932) and Ambedkar (1980) also. Branched nest: In fused nests, all individual nests of a 'fused complex' seek their attachment on twig(s) but this attachment pattern is not followed in a branched nest. In such a nest, besides one (main nest), the side nest(s) commences from any part of the main nest, except from the bottom of the tube. Due to this abnormal hanging pattern of individual nests, a branching nest comes into existence. Branched nests may be of two types: i) Free branching nest: Branches, l.c. side nests are not fused with the main nest. ii) Fused branching nest.: Side nests are fused with the main nest. Such nests may be either 'partially fused' or 'totally fused* according to the degree of fusion. Symmetrical nests: The position of the egg chamber and the entrance hall could be identified in ordinary completed nests due to the position of the entrance tube, which occurs slightly shifted towards the entrance hall side. Not only this, but a greater bulge could be seen towards the egg-chamber half also. Such a nest could be divided into two equal halves from one plane only, i.e. across the chin-strip. Sometimes the entrance tube is kept exactly centered so that both halves get similar bulges. In such a condition, even an expert could make mistakes in identifying the egg-chamber half externally. Such nest could be divided into two 72 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) equal halves at two different planes (perpendicular to each other) - across the chin- strip and along the chin-strip; hence such nests are actinomorphic in terms of symmetry. Stomach shaped nests: In ordinary cases the stalk is seen towards the upper terminal portion of the nest and all the three parts of a completed nest, namely stalk, body and tube remain in a straight vertical line. In stomach- shaped nest, alignment of the nest becomes disturbed and the stalk and the tube take a more or less perpendicular position on the body of the nest. Due to this abnormal position of the stalk and tube a nest looks like a human stomach in appearance - hence stomach shaped nest. B. Multistoreyed nests: A complicated group of nests, generally possessing more than one egg-chamber in a series vertically, and more than one storey built in the same fashion - hence, multistoreyed. Actually a multistoreyed nest is a linear fusion of two or more monostoreyed nests along their vertical axes in a series. Ambedkar (1980) called such nests as 'abnormal multi-chambered linear nest'. Details of multistoreyed nests are given below: Pseudo-bistoreyed nests: These are completed nests, basically monostoreyed in structure, having one egg chamber like a normal nest; but they present a false appearance of being double egg chambered and double storeyed, externally. Upper storey of such nests having no cavity, i.e. totally solid due to woven mass of fabrics. It is the lower storey which contains egg-chamber in it (see Fig. 3). Bistoreyed nests: These are truly bistoreyed, formed by the fusion of two completed or two half completed or one completed and one half completed nest in vertical plane, i.e. along their vertical axes. Such Pseudo- bistoreyed Nest Pseudo bistoreyed Nest in L S- Fig. 3. Pseudo-bistoreyed nest (0 + 1 Storey). nests having two storeys, have two egg-chambers in reality. In such complicated nests the lower nest commences from the bottom of the entrance tube of the upper nest. In most of the cases the upper storey is useless as the entrance is closed up by the lower nest (see Fig. 4). "Chain-storeyed nests: Chain storeyed nests are more complicated than the bistoreyed and are formed when more than two nests are fused along their vertical axes in a series. In Rajasthan state, only three storeyed nests have been observed during the study period so far, though a 'six storeyed' nest had been recorded from Pune by Ambedkar (1980); but in the present classification of abnormal nests, Ambedkar's six storeyed nest will be kept under 3Chain-storeyed nests were described as poly-storeyed nests by Sharma(1985). Because the term multistoreyed and polystoreyed are synonymous hence to differentiate them, term 'chain-storeyed nest' is used for polystoreyed nest in the present paper. .ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAY A WEAVER BIRD 73 1*1 Storeys 1 A/0 Storeys 2 V2*1 Storeys a V2*V2 Storeys Fig. 4. a. Bistoreyed nests in external appearance; b. A bistoreyed nest in L.S. (upper storey blocked); c. A bistoreved nest with both the 'alive' storeys. mixed abnormal group. Chain-storeyed nests have been described by Davis (1985) also. Various combinations of half built and completed nests are possible in chain storeyed nests (see Fig. 5). C. Mixed abnormal nests; Such nests possess a combination of more than one kind of abnormality. Sometimes linear storeys as well as adjacent fusion may occur in the same nest complex. Combination of other abnormalities are also possible. This category of nests could be considered most complicated in terms abnormality (see Fig. 6). Quantitative aspect of abnormal nests: A total 2996 nests were examined between 1982 and 1988 from four districts of Rajasthan state to study the trends of abnormalities. The findings are given in Table 1. Discussion It is clear from table 1 that there is a trend towards bistoreyed nests followed by fused nests in the state of Rajasthan. Why and how abnormal nests are prepared by the Baya Weaver Bird, is beyond the scope of this paper, however a few related points will be discussed . Fig. 5. Chain-storeyed nest. Fig. 6. Mixed abnormal nest. It is well known that armed host trees are preferred by the Baya for nesting, probably for Table 1 ABNORMAL NESTS OF PLOCEUS PHILIPPI YiS 74 JOURNAL.., BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995) Xl c d c ■*— * o H 03 £ i— o c X < ~o c * o < A +-> (A 0-> "c3 <— 1 c £ x < G 75 +— • C/5 :z ■o