JOURNAL )F THE ^lOMRAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY , .^RIL 2000 Vol. 97 (1) / .... V M.R. ALMEIDA BOARD OF EDITORS Editor J.C. DANIEL AJITH KUMAR M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN T.C. NARENDRAN B.F. CHHAPGAR A.R. RAHMANI R. GADAGKAR J.S. SINGH INDRANEIL DAS R. WHITAKER A.J.T. JOHNSINGH ^ - Assistant Editor GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA > INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS 1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere should not be submitted. 2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star. 3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. 4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be acceptable if labelled free hand. 5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus: Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66. Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 35-48. 6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words, and 6-8 keywords. Keywords should include the scientific names of important species discussed. 7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free copy of the Journal. 8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s. Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-400 023. Editors, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society POPULATION DENSITIES OF THE BLACKNAPED PlARE LEPUS NIGRICOLLJS NIGR1COLLIS AT ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KURNOOL DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH ( With six text-figures ) By Ranjit Manakadan and Asad Rafi Rahmani 3 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL ( OCYCEROS G RISE US ) IN SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA (With one text-figure) By Divya Mudappa 15 SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN THE INDIAN TRANS-HIMALAYA By Charudutt Mishra 25 AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA ( With three text-figures) By Charles Santiapillai, Mangala de Silva, Sarath Dissanayake, B.V.R. Jayaratne and S. Wijeyamohan 33 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES (MAC AC A SILENVS) IN THE WILD ( With three text-figures) By Ajith Kumar 42 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS ( With seven text-figures) By E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 52 PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (HUBNER) (PHYCITIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA) AS A POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS By S.P. Rad, H.R. Pajni and Neelima Talwar 62 FRESHWATER CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA : BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS ( With one text-figure) By K. Venkataraman 67 LONGICORN BEETLES (CERAMBYCINAE, PRIONINAE : CERAMBYCIDAE) OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE, JALPAIGURI, WEST BENGAL ( With twelve text-figures) By Dinendra Raychaudhuri and Sumana Saha 74 FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS BLEEKER 1859, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM MANIPUR, INDIA ( With one text-figure and one plate) By Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin 92 FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS, MEGALAIMA SPP. ( With three text-figures) By Hafiz S.A. Yahya 103 NEW DESCRIPTIONS SPINY EELS OF THE GENUS MACROGNATHUS LACEPEDE FROM MANIPUR, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES ( With four text-figures ) By L. Arunkumar and H. Tombi Singh 117 THREE NEW GENERA OF WHITEFLIES M OH A NA S UN DA RA MI ELLA , SHANTHINIAE AND V A SA NTH A RAJ I ELLA (ALEYRODIDAE : HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA ( With three text-figures) By P. Manidurai Manoharan David 123 LYSIONOTUS PALINENSIS — A NEW SPECIES OF GESNERIACEAE FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA ( With one text-figure) By G.D. Pal 131 REVIEWS 1 . BIRDS OF NEPAL: FIELD ECOLOGY, NATURAL HISTORY AND CONSERVATION Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 133 2. BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE REPTILES OF SOUTH ASIA Reviewed by Meghana Gavand 133 3. MOSSES OF KH AND ALA AND MAHABALESHWAR IN THE WESTERN GHATS, INDIA Reviewed by P.K.K. Nair 134 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS 1 . Instances of fruit bat mobbing the barn owl By Sunil Zaveri 136 2. Possible occurrence of the lesser woolly horseshoe bat ( Rhinolophus beddomei) in Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary By Kumaran Sathasivam 136 3. Dead snow leopard Uncia uncici at Yabuk, Dongkung (5500 m) in north Sikkim By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 137 4. On the longevity of the tiger {Panther a tigris) in captivity By L.N. Acharjyo, B.C. Prusty and S.K. Patnaik 138 5. Sighting of barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjac) in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu By Jayanti Ray, Justus Joshua and J. Ronald 139 6. Type specimens of mammals in the collections of the Bombay Natural History Society By Meghana Gavand and Naresh Chaturvedi 1 40 AVES 7. Night herons and little cormorants in Thrissur, Kerala By Leela Madhavan 142 8. Grey heron wresting fish from herringgull By Lavkumar Khacher 142 9. Additional site records of black stork Ciconia nigra (Linn.) in Andhra Pradesh By V. Vasudeva Rao. V. Nagulu and C. Srinivasulu 143 10. Stealing of redwattled lapwing Vanellus indicus (Boddaert) and yellow-wattled lapwing Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert) eggs by cowherds By K. V. Srini vas and S. Subramanya 143 11. A note on the feeding of lesser coucal {Centropus toulou) BySamiranJha 144 12. Occurrence of the yellowbrowed bulbul Hypsipetes indicus (Jerdon) in the Nalamalla Hills, Andhra Pradesh By Srinivasulu and V. Vasudeva Rao 144 13. Termite attack on nest material leading to desertion of eggs by birds By K. V. Srini vas and S. Subramanya 145 14. Range extension of the purplerumped sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica By Lavkumar Khacher 146 15. Water acquisition strategy adopted by goldfinch ( Carduelis carduelis) By R. Suresh Kumar 147 REPTILES 16. Occurrence of draco or flying lizard Draco dussumieri in Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh By S. Balachandran and Aasheesh Pittie 1 47 1 7. Occurrence of yellow-bellied Pelamis platurus (Linn.) Reptilia : Hydrophidae, in coastal waters off Digha, West Bengal By S. Mitra, J. Sarkar and T.K. Chatterjee .. 148 AMPHIBIA 1 8. A record audio feat by an anuran By Sanjeev B. Nalavade 149 FISHES 19. Range extension of Pangio goaensis (Cyprini formes : Cobitidae) to the Chaliyar drainage of Kerala By K. Rema Devi, K.G. Emiliyamma and R.S. Lalmohan 150 20. Fishes of Nambiyar river, Kalakad- Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu By M. Arunachalam, A. Sankaranarayanan, J.A. Johnson, A. Manimekalan, R. Soranam, P.N. Shanthi and C. Vijaykumar 1 53 21 . A profile of the food and feeding of hillstream teleosts ofGarhwal Himalayas By N. Singh and R. Subbaraj 155 INSECTS 22. A supplementary list of the host-plants of Indian Lepidoptera By Peter Snietacek and Rajani Smetacek .... 157 23. On the predation of the Giant Redeye Gangara thyrsis (Fabricius) (Family : Hesperiidae; Order : Lepidoptera) By S. Karthikeyan 160 24. Mating behaviour of the Common Mormon Papilio polytes (Family : Papilionidae) By Arnab Bose 160 OTHER INVERTEBRATES 25. Mycophagous arthropods from the Andaman Islands By Prashanth Mohanraj and K. Veenakumari 1 61 26. On Daphniopsis tibetana Sars, 1903, (Cladocera) collected from a high altitude Himalayan lake, India By K. Venkataraman 162 BOTANY 27. fndigofera mysorensis Rottler ex DC. (Leguminosae : Papilionoideae) — An endemic species of Peninsular India from West Bengal By S. Mitra, S. Bandyopadhyay and A. K. Sarkar 165 28 . Range extension of Nepenthes khasiana i n the Jaintia hills, Meghalaya By Anwaruddin Choudhury 166 29. Scleria laxa R. Br. (Cyperaceae) - A new record for India from Nicobar Islands By P.V. Sreekumar 167 30. Rhaphidophora calophyllum Schott (Araceae) — An addition to the flora of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands By K. Sasikala and E. Vajravelu 169 Cover photograph: Wild Tusker Editorial The problems facing the Asian elephant in India are a reflection of the state of environ- mental conservation in India. As a species able to live in a wide spectrum of vegetational types, the elephant acts as an indicator species of the condition of its biotic environment. A sub-optimal habitat is unable to meet the demands made on it by a herd of elephants, whose presence will result in further deterioration. Elephants in such habitats are compelled to seek sustenance elsewhere, and come into conflict with man. At the present rate of habitat loss, and degradation of existing habitats, it is doubtful if present populations can survive. One has to consider seriously the possibility that the Asian elephant will be known mainly as a domesticated animal in the 21st century. In India, an enormous area of prime elephant habitat has been lost since 1 860, to the plantations of coffee, tea, rubber and teak which were carved out of existing forests. After 1950, hydroelectric projects ravaged elephant habitat through the submerging of forests and unscrupulous exploitation of the remnant forests. In central India, the forests holding elephants cover the single largest deposit of iron-ore in Asia, and mining has been a continuing process since 1909. The states of northeast India, which used to be the stronghold of the elephant in India, are the areas where the main human-elephant conflict has developed. Exploding human populations have destroyed crucial elephant habitat for cultivation and plantations, extinguishing traditional migratory routes; and slash-and-burn cultivation has devastated habitats, making unlikely the survival of the elephant in some of the states. There is also the question of ivory poaching. Though not on as massive a scale as of the African species, the selective removal of tuskers has played havoc in the sex ratio of many populations. The elephant is an apex species, able by its size and its interaction with its habitat, particularly in its quest for food, to influence the direction of development of its biotic environment. It has been one of the causes for the process of change in its ecosystem. Such a function is no longer acceptable in an environment managed by man, where the process of change has been speeded up. The range of the elephant has, through the ages, shrunk considerably. This process was accelerated, however, as the industrial revolution in the latter half of the last century brought a mechanized commercial culture into the countries of its occurrence. The tools used by man in a region decide its future, and the tools of an alien culture, now in use for gathering natural resources for commerce and to meet the needs of an ever-increasing human population, have destroyed a natural slow-moving ecosystem. The elephant has become in the process too large an animal to find sustenance and living room in the shrinking world of nature. The conservation of the Asian elephant in Asia cannot be the concern of only the forest departments and environmentalists. Conserving the elephant involves the conservation of prime wildlife habitats. This needs a multidisciplinary effort, where the local people, the administrators and land-use planners have to be involved at all levels. Conserving the elephant, therefore, means conserving the human environment, and it has to be a part of the development plans of each state of Asia as a whole. The Asian elephant is a part of the culture of man in tropical Asia. It is an integral part of the religions of the region and one hopes, will not be sacrificed in the search for a better life for the people of the region. J.C. DANIEL ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt, of India, FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL. JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY April 2000 Vol. 97 No. 1 POPULATION AND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX VULPES BENGALENS1S AT ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ANDHRA PRADESH. INDIA1 Ranjit Manakadan and Asad Rafi Rahmani2 ( With six text-figures) Key words: Indian fox, Vulpes bengcilensis , Ardeotis nigriceps , population, diet, breeding season, Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh The population of the Indian fox Vulpes bengcilensis , its spatial and temporal abundances, den distribution, characteristics and use, predation on eggs and chicks of the great Indian bustard Ardeotis nigriceps , and general ecology were studied from February 1993 to April 1995 at the Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (RWS), Andhra Pradesh state, India. The population and spatial abundance of the fox was estimated by enumeration and monitoring of dens, animal sightings at den sites and from censuses. The population of the fox at RWS was estimated to be around 40-50 adult animals in 1993 and 1994, which declined to about 10 animals in 1995 due to an epidemic. Densities of the fox were significantly higher in the protected grasslands {0.65/40 ha ± 0.99 (S.D)} than unprotected grasslands (0. 1 5/40 ha ± 0.49). A total of 1 35 dens (active and non-active), comprising of 33 'den groups', were located in the study area. There was a concentration of dens in and around protected grasslands. Den use by the Indian fox at RWS was confined to the pup rearing season (February to June/July). We did not record any evidence of fox predation on bustard eggs and chicks. increase after the establishment of the Sanctuary in the early 1980s to protect the great Indian bustard and its habitat (Manakadan and Rahmani 1989, 1993, 1997). The Indian fox is known to be a predator of eggs and probably chicks of the bustard (Rahmani and Manakadan 1987). This was suspected to be one of the reasons for the decreasing numbers of the great Indian bustard at RWS over the years, in spite of good protection to the bird and its habitat. We undertook this study to estimate the population of the Indian fox at RWS; compare its abundance in protected and unprotected sites in the Sanctuary; assess reasons for the differences in abundance between sites (which could explain the increase in Introduction The Indian fox Vulpes bengcilensis is a widespread species in India, ranging from the foothills of the Himalayas to Kanyakumari (Prater 1980). In spite of its wide distribution and proximity to human habitation in many areas, it has not been studied adequately (Johnsingh 1978). The population of the Indian fox in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (RWS), Andhra Pradesh had undergone a remarkable 'Accepted April, 1999 2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400023, Maharashtra, India. JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000 3 POPULATION AND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 Fig. I : Location of fox dens in the study area POPULA TIONAND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX populations over the years after protection); investigate the role of the fox as a predator of bustard eggs and chicks; and collect other ecological information on the species. Study Area Rollapadu is 18 km southeast of Nandikotkur (15°58' N lat. & 78° 18' E long.), Kurnool dist., Andhra Pradesh. It lies in the plains between the Nallamalai and Yerramalai hills, at about 200 m above msl. The terrain is gently undulating with predominantly poor red soil. The region is semi-arid with an average annual rainfall of 668 mm, received from both the southwest (June to August) and northeast (September to December) monsoon. Summer (March to May) peaks at 42°C and winter (November to February) is mild at 17° C. Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (area: 6.14 sq. km) was established in 1982, after the "rediscovery’ of the great Indian bustard A rdeotis nigriceps, and was declared a sanctuary in 1988. The sanctuary proper consists primarily of three grassland plots or enclosures: Enclosure-I (320 ha), about 500 m north of Rollapadu, and Enclosure-II (40 ha) and III (120 ha), both about 1.5 km to the northeast of Rollapadu (Fig. 1). These enclosures are demarcated by trench-cum- mound (TCM) walls to exclude livestock and people. However, Enclosure-Ill was opened to grazing after protests by the locals about the lack of grazing land for their livestock. The extent of protection to Enclosure-II varied from year to year during the study. The three enclosures are separated from each other by grazing lands and crop fields. Both the grazing lands and the enclosures are predominantly grasslands, with scrub dominated areas along streams. The other major fauna of the Sanctuary include the blackbuck Antilope cervicapra , wolf Canis lupus, jackal Canis aureus, jungle cat Felis chaus, common mongoose Herpestes edwardsi, blacknaped hare Lepus nigricollis nigricollis, common Indian monitor Varanus bengalensis and lesser florican Sypheotides indica. The grassland is a major roosting ground for harriers (largely Circus pygargus and C. macrourus ) wintering in the Indian subcontinent. For more details, see Rahmani and Manakadan (1986) and Manakadan and Rahmani (1989, 1993 & 1997). Methodology Studies were conducted from February 1993 to April 1995, during daylight hours on unmarked animals. Prior to the studies, we had a fairly good idea of the population and distribution of the fox in RWS from July 1992, due to our field visits during other multi- disciplinary studies of the project. Population: A pilot survey was conducted during the breeding season in 1993 to assess den distribution in the study area. The survey was concentrated in the three enclosures and grazing lands adjoining them, to get an insight into the breeding season, den characteristics and distribution of the fox in the Sanctuary. Den searches were more intensive during the breeding season of 1994 and 1995. Searches in 1994 began in February, when the dens located in 1993 were found to have been dug up afresh, indicating the start of the breeding (pup rearing) season. The area searched (Fig. 1) was divided into smaller blocks and combed intensively for dens by two or three people. The locations of these dens were plotted on a map (Fig. 1) and details, such as active or non- active, number of holes per den, distances between dens, and site characteristics were recorded. After the survey, all the dens were visited once a week to collect data on den use. Sightings of animals (adults and young) at den sites were recorded. We also looked for indirect signs of animal presence, such as freshly unearthed soil, additional holes dug up, pugmarks, presence of scats and food remains at den sites. Visits were made till June (when the animals abandoned the dens with the onset of the monsoons) in 1994, and till May in 1995 (after the breeding season). JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 5 POPULA r I ON AND ECOLOG Y OF THE INDIAN FOX Population estimate: Based on the number of dens located, den use data, and number of adult foxes seen at den sites, a rough estimate of the adult population at RWS was determined. Where animals were never seen at active dens throughout the study period, and especially if the den formed part of a complex of dens (termed den group) as in the majority of cases, we presumed that the den / den group belonged to a pair, as two animals for each den group was the norm in most of the den groups. Densities in grazing land and enclosures: Four sites of 40 ha each were selected in each of the two habitat types. Except for one site in the grazing land, which was predominantly scrub, all the other sites were grasslands. The sites were thoroughly covered on foot fortnightly — on different days — in the evenings from July 1994 to April 1995. Though the sites were searched on different days, repeated flushing of animals from the same areas suggested that the animals were territorial and that there was no significant movement between sites. Each site was searched in an hour’s time, by walking at a steady pace, in an irregular and generally zigzag manner. Some light noise (humming, dragging of feet, tapping with a stick) was made to flush the resting, sleeping or hidden foxes inside dens or among vegetation. Loud noise was avoided as it would alert the animal a good distance away, allowing it to slip away without being detected. On flushing a fox, the direction in which it ran and the place it stopped was observed to avoid duplication of counts. The fox sightings were expressed as number of foxes/40 ha. Food Availability: Data on the abundance of the known food items of the fox, such as fruits (number of fruiting trees) and grasshoppers in the two habitat types was obtained from other studies carried out during the project. Grasshoppers were sampled by the sweep net sampling method (100 sweeps per site), and was done fortnightly at all four sites in both the habitat types. The density of fruiting trees was enumerated by laying 40 quadrats (size 50 x 50 m) each in both the habitat types, and noting the species of trees or shrubs, their numbers and heights. An index of rodent abundance was obtained by enumeration of burrows along one kilometre transects (with a width of two metres), laid at random in both the habitat types. The transects were done during summer (breeding season of the fox). Fifteen transects each were laid in the enclosure and grazing land during 1994 and 1995. For more details, see Manakadan and Rahmani (1997). Diet: Scats of fox were collected whenever seen, but mostly during the breeding season, when they were available around den sites. The scats were mixed with warm water, strained and dried. After drying, the remains of animal and plant parts were recorded visually. The percentage composition was not estimated systematically, as the main purpose of the exercise was to look for remains of bustard eggs or chicks. Results Dens: The breeding (pup rearing) season of the fox in RWS was determined to be between February to May from 3 years observations. The breeding season was heralded by the re- excavation of old dens or digging of new ones in February. Scats of pups were found around den sites during April and May. Pups were seen around the den sites till the onset of the monsoon, after which the dens were abandoned. Thus, den use by the Indian fox at RWS was largely restricted to the pup rearing period. Fox dens were recorded in grassland or light scrub habitats — none in dense scrub areas. Dens were dug in the flat ground or in trench cum mound walls (TCM) of the enclosures. Two dens were recorded along the slopes of a stream. The number of holes or openings per den varied from one to as high as 43, but two to seven holes were most common (Figs. 2, 3). All the holes of a den were not used, two to seven active holes per den were most frequent. The frequency of 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 POPULA TION AND ECO LOG Y OF THE INDIA N FOX Frequency of dens Number of holes Fig. 2: Number of holes per den Frequency of dens Fig. 3: Number of active holes per den (1994) JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 7 POPULA TION AND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX Table 1 DETAILS AND STATUS OF DEN GROUP (BASED ON 1994 DATA) Den Group No. No. of dens per group No. of foxes recorded/ estimated 1994 Status in 1993 1995 1 1 0 NA - NA 2 4 2* A A A 3 6 2** LL-A A NA 4 5 0 NA A NA 5 3 0 0 A NA 6 5 2* A A NA 7 8 9 NA A NA 8 5 2* A A NA 9 5 0 0 NA NA 10 5 2* B A NA 11 1 0 0 NA NA 12 4 2** B A NA 13 7 9 A B NA 14 2 1* A A NA 15 9 2* B B NA 16 2 0 0 - NA 17 1 2(?) LL-A - NA 18 2 1* A B NA 19 7 2* B A A 20 4 2** B - NA 21 5 2* B A NA 22 3 0 0 - NA 23 3 0 0 - NA 24 8 2**(j *\ A A A 25 3 9 LL-NA - NA 26 3 2(?) A - NA 27 3 7** B - NA 28 1 1* A A NA 29 5 2**(1 *) A - A 30 3 9 A - A 31 4 2**(1*) A - B 32 4 2(?) A A NA 33 4 9 LL-NA B NA * - from sightings ** - from signs (scats or intensive burrowing) 2**( 1 *) - 1 seen, but probably used by a pair. ? - uncertain A - Active burrows regularly used, dug or redug NA - Not active, dug early in the season, but later largely or totally unused. O - Dens of previous years: not dug at all during the year of survey . B - Breeding (pups or scats of pups seen) LL-A - Located late (afterbreeding season); -probably active LL-NA - Located late (after breeding season); - probably not active - Not located - all or some of the dens of the den group were not located. active openings in the eight breeding dens of 1994 were six for three dens, five for two dens, three for two dens and nine for one den. Many of the dens in the grazing land had rodent burrows around them, indicating that these sites had been appropriated from rodents. In some cases, the rodents continued to live in some of the burrows not enlarged by the fox. Re- use of dens by rodents after the fox had abandoned the dens during the monsoon was recorded in some cases. On two occasions, large monitor lizards Varanus bengalensis were recorded entering active fox dens. Once, a large monitor lizard, flushed by us near a den site, ran into a fox den, from which a family of gerbils rushed out and ran into their burrows a few metres from the fox den. Seven of the fox dens were appropriated by jackals or wolves (Fig. 1). During the preliminary non-intensive searches for dens in 1993, a total of 52 dens were located (33 active and 19 non-active). Breeding activity was detected in 4 dens: 1 in Enclosure-1, 2 in Enclosure-II and 1 in the grazing land. During intensive searches in 1994, a total of 135 dens were located, of which 52 were active. Of the 135 dens, 51 were in Enclosure-1, 15 in Enclosure-II, 9 in Enclosure-Ill and 60 in the* grazing land. As much as 31% of the dens in the grazing land were close to Enclosure-I and II. Breeding activity was recorded in eight dens: three dens each in Enclosure-I and Enclosure- II; one each in Enclosure-Ill and grazing land. During the breeding season in 1995, no additional dens were located. Of the dens located in 1994, only eight dens were reused (active). Breeding was confirmed at only one den in the grazing land. From the data on sightings of animals and den use, it was evident that many of the foxes used more than one den. From this data, the 135 dens located during the intensive survey in 1994 were grouped into 33 den groups, of which 22 were active (Table 1 & Fig. 1). Dens of a group generally tended to be clumped in an area, the distances between dens varying from as close as 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 POPULA TJONAND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX No. of occurrences Den group size classes Fig. 4: Number of dens per den group (1994) No. of occurrences Den group size classes Fig. 5: Number of active dens per den group ( 1 994) JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 9 POPULA TION AND ECO LOG Y OF THE INDIA N FOX 12 m to 100 m. In some cases, the distance of a den from the main cluster was more than 200 m (e.g., den group no. 10 - Fig. 1), but these were clumped to the group, based on sightings and movements of adult and young foxes between dens. In some cases, we grouped two clusters of adjoining dens into one (e.g., den group no. 7), as one of these clusters was hardly used and was probably the denning site of the pair in the area during a previous year. The distances between den groups varied, and were less in the enclosures {Enclosure-I: 463.6 m ±283.8 (S.D.), Enclosure- II: 275.0 m ±302.9, Enclosure-Ill: (400.0 ±424.3) than the grazing land (633.3 m ±314.3)}. The number of dens per den group varied from one to nine dens, with three to five dens being most frequent (Fig. 4). However, not all dens in a den group were active during a year, one to three active dens was most common (Fig. 5). We presume that each (active) den group belonged to either a pair of foxes or rarely individuals, but cannot be certain as the animals were not collared, the nocturnal movements were not monitored, and a few dens showed all signs of regular use (especially those in the grazing lands), but no animals were sighted in them. Population: We regularly saw five pairs of foxes around Enclosure-I (den group 3, 6, 8, 10 & 13), four pairs around Enclosure-II (den group 14, 15, 19, 21), three pairs in the grazing lands east of Enclosure-Ill (den group 25,31 and 33), and a single individual at den group 28 during our field trips in 1993 and 1994 — a total of 25 foxes. Judging from the number of dens and groups, den use data, and sightings of the animal around dens during the census, it is estimated that about 40-50 foxes were present in the study area during the 1994 breeding season. About the same numbers should have been present during 1993. In 1995, the population dropped to about 10 animals due to an epidemic. The foxes were usually seen in pairs around the den-groups. Two instances of four adult animals frequenting a common area was 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 July-1 July-ll Aug- 1 Aug-ll Sep-I Sep-ll Mean numbers/40 ha Fortnights (1994) □ Grazing Land □Enclosure Fig. 6: Abundance (sighting / 40 ha) of the Indian fox in the two habitats 10 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 POPULA TIONAND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX observed. In the first instance, it was during the early monsoon period, when four animals (probably pairs from nearby waterlogged dens) regularly sheltered under a fallen tree as the grass cover was burnt off in a summer fire. In the other instance four adult animals were flushed from a non-breeding den in summer. Otherwise, pairs were the norm and even in clumped den areas, the pairs kept to themselves. Solitary animals were flushed from dens on a few occasions, but the possibility of the mate sleeping elsewhere unnoticed cannot be ruled out. The only den where solitary animals were repeatedly flushed, was at den group 28, which comprised of only one den with a single enhance. Additionally, this was the only single-hole den from which we had actual sightings of the animal. Abundance of the fox was significantly higher (U=140, P<0.05) in the enclosure (mean 0.65/40 ha, S.D. ± 0.99) than in the grazing land (mean 0.15/40 ha S.D. ±0.49). The fox was recorded during all the fortnights in the enclosures from the first week of July 1994, till the first week of September 1994 (Fig. 6). In the grazing land, the fox was recorded only during two fortnights between July to August 1994. In both cases, the foxes were close to Enclosure-II, and ran into it on being approached. All the sightings in the grazing land and enclosures were m ‘grassland habitats’, none in scrubland. After the second week of September 1994, there were only rare sightings of the fox in the Sanctuary. The remains of five foxes and two wolves were found at different places between July to September. The locals too reported seeing dead foxes. After the epidemic, the only sightings were of single animals, one each in Enclosure-II and the grazing land (den group No. 31) during March and April 1995. Food Availability Fruits: Of the two species of fruits recorded to be eaten by the fox, the density of Cassia fistula was higher in the enclosure (1.8 trees/ha) than in the grazing land (0.2 trees/ha). Though the density of Zizyphus mauritiana was about the same in the enclosure and the grazing land, the trees were relatively taller in the enclosure (mean = 1.5 m) than in the grazing land (mean = 0.65 m), and yielded more fruit. Other fruits that could probably be part of the diet of the fox are Morinda tinctovia and Phoenix sylvestris. Trees of these two species were more abundant in the enclosure (0.6 and 5.2 trees/ha respectively) than in the grazing land ( 1 tree/ha for P. sylvestris ; M. tinctoria not recorded). The higher densities of fruiting trees and fruit yield, and restrictions on harvesting of fruits in the enclosures, make the availability of fruits greater in the enclosure than grazing land. Grasshoppers: Insect sampling showed that there was a slightly higher abundance of grasshoppers in the enclosure than in the grazing land. Besides numerical abundance, there was greater insect biomass availability in the enclosure due to the predominance of a larger species of grasshopper ( Acorypha ), compared to a smaller species ( Chrotogonus ) in grazing land. Studies on the great Indian bustard have shown that Acorypha is preferred to Chrotogonus , especially by adult birds (Manakadan and Rahmani 1990). The fox would also find feeding on the larger species more profitable. Rodents: Rodent burrows were recorded only in the grazing land in 1994 and 1995. Of the 1 5 transects each laid in the grazing land for both the years, a total of seventeen burrows (2 active and 15 non active) were recorded in five transects during 1994, and nine burrows (6 active and 3 non-active) were located in 5 transects during 1995. Diet: Analysis of 58 scats showed the presence of rodents, hare, monitor lizard and grasshoppers (predominantly Acorypha sp.) among the animal matter. Among vegetable matter, seeds of groundnut Arcichis hypogea , Zizyphus mauritiana and Cassia fistula were recorded. Remains of eggs or chicks of the great Indian bustard were not recorded. Scats of pups were almost solely made up of rodent fur. 1 1 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 POPULA TIONAND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX Threats: The potential predators of the fox at RWS are the wolf, jackal, jungle cat, monitor lizard (on young), and large raptors. Wolves and jackals were seen digging (to eat cubs?) or appropriating fox dens during the breeding season. Large monitor lizards were also seen entering dens on a few occasions. The remains of two foxes, with the flesh stripped off neatly from the bones, were found, indicating that the kills were made by birds of prey. A local reported seeing a dog killing a fox (during the epidemic), but we observed play between a fox and a half grown dog (at a good distance away from each other). The local people do not eat the fox, but two communities, the Pardhis based at Nandikotkur and a nomadic beggar community, hunt and eat them. We recorded three dens that were smoked and dug out in the grazing land. Poachers do not hunt in or near the enclosures, for fear of being caught by the Forest Department. Discussion Fox populations often increase steadily with the years, reach levels of overpopulation or saturation, and then decline rapidly due to epidemics (Rausch 1958, Prater 1980, Wandeler et al. 1974, Malcolm 1986, and Ginsberg and Macdonald 1990). In RWS, the population of the fox had increased from half a dozen animals during 1985-87 (Manakadan and Rahmani 1987) to about 40-50 animals during 1992-94. It then dropped down to about 1 0 animals in 1 995 due to an epidemic. Canine distemper and rabies are common among canids and could be an important factor in controlling populations, especially of the fox, due to their greater numbers and density (Mech 1970, Wandeler et al. 1974 and Malcolm 1986). The increase in population of the fox in the Sanctuary could have been a natural occurrence, or brought about by the protection of the species and its habitat after the establishment of the Sanctuary. Scrub control is suggested as a manage- ment tool to aid detection and avoidance of terrestrial predators of the San Joaquin kit fox Vulpes macrotis mutica (Warrick and Cypher 1998) and the desert kit fox Vulpes macrotis arsipus (Zoellick et al 1998). Tree and shrub growth at RWS has increased significantly, especially bordering streams (Manakadan and Rahmani 1997), and the fox or its dens were not recorded in such habitats. Scrub control appears necessary in such areas, as it gives cover to potential predators of the fox, such as wolf, jackal and jungle cat, to stalk the species. The fox was recorded in light scrub areas, which appear important for resting and shelter during the day (especially during the non-denning period), and may be vital to the species to escape aerial predators (such as eagles), especially in over- grazed or burnt areas. Digging of dens in trench cum mound (TCM) walls is easier due to the loose soil and mbble on the trenches, and this may explain the concentration of dens in the enclosures and TCM walls. Most areas of grazing land had shallow soil, exposed rock beds and a calcareous layer, which made digging of dens difficult. In the case of the Arctic fox A lope x lagopus, Eberhardt et al. (1982) mentioned that den sites were restricted to areas where the permafrost was sufficiently deep and soil characteristics allowed burrowing. It is also likely that absence of poaching results in the concentration of dens in an area. This is because the young have greater chances of survival, and on maturity, some of them dig dens in the vicinity of their parents’ dens, especially since foxes are social canids. This may explain the clumped distribution of dens and den groups in the protected enclosures, in contrast to relatively dispersed distribution in the grazing land. Although TCM walls may attract the fox for denning, it is primarily protection, habitat improvement and lack of disturbance that have attracted them to the enclosures. This explains why dens were concentrated in Enclosure-I and II (protected plots), but not in Enclosure-Ill (unprotected). Malcolm (1986). and Ginsberg 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 POPULA TIONAND ECOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FOX and Macdonald ( 1 990 - quoting various sources) reason that clumping of fox dens is an indication of good habitat. Trottier (1992) mentioned that the swift fox Vulpes velox prefers grass of moderate height. This may also be true for the Indian fox, for respite from the heat and protection from aerial predators, especially eagles. The protected enclosures were relatively free of human disturbance. Foxes in the grazing land were frequently disturbed by the movements of people, graziers and dogs. During our visits to the dens, sightings of animals were common around den sites in the enclosures, but were rare in the grazing land. It was not clear whether the foxes in the grazing land come out of their dens only at dusk to avoid frequent disturbance (and were hence missed during our visits), or they took refuge elsewhere during the day. Multiple den use is likely to be both, a strategy to confuse predators (jackal and wolf) and for sanitation. In the desert kit fox Vulpes macrotis cirsipus, individuals were reported to use 3-16 dens, while pahs use 9-16 dens (Zoellick et al. 1998). Canids are known to move their pups regularly to different dens (Sargeant et al. 1975), and this has also been reported in the Indian fox (Johnsingh 1978). Sargeant et al. (1975) recorded splitting of litters among two or more dens in the red fox Vulpes vulpes. In this study, it was observed that usually after breeding and occupancy of a den for about two months, die pair shifted to another den nearby and even to a third den later on. Half grown pups then frequent all such dens of the den group. Johnsmgh (1978), from his studies in Madurai dist., Tamil Nadu, recorded dens with either two holes or the more common multiple opening dens (maximum of 23 holes). In this study, except for a few single hole dens, the rest were multiple hole dens (up to 43 openings). A greater number of holes per den probably indicates the use of the dens by the same pair for many years, as stated by Johnsingh (1978). However, unlike Johnsingh’ s findings, areas around dens in RWS had less vegetation compared to the surrounding areas. This is because the soil at RWS has a calcareous layer. This layer when brought to the surface by the foxes digging, hinders plant growth. The extent of predation on bustard eggs and chicks by the fox was not established. Remains of eggs or chicks were not recorded in the scats analysed, probably because most scats were not collected in the major breeding season of the bustard. It is also unlikely for egg shell pieces to appear in the scats, as the fox might lick the egg contents and leave the shell. In some cases of nest predation recorded during this and the earlier study [predator not known] shell pieces were found strewn around the nest sites. As for chicks, not much identifiable matter could be expected in the scats, except for the bill or claws. A major drawback of our studies on the Indian fox was that we could not investigate the nocturnal activities of this largely nocturnal species. Also, it was not possible to identify individuals from body characteristics since the animals were not marked. A study of radio- collared animals with the help of night vision equipment is essential to get precise information on the species. Acknowledgements This study is a part of the Grassland Ecology Project of the Bombay Natural History Society and the Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University, funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India. We thank the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department for permission to work in the Sanctuary, and the cooperation and help rendered by the staff of Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 13 POP U LA TION AND ECOLOG Y OF THE INDIA N FOX References Eberhardt, L.E., W.C. Hanson, J. Bergston, R.A. Garrot & E.R. Hanson (1982): Arctic fox home range characteristics in an oil development area. J. Wild/. Manage. 46: 183-190. Ginsberg, J.R. & D.W. Macdonald ( 1 990): Foxes, wolves, jackals and dogs. An action plan for the conservation of canids. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Johnsingh, A.J.T. ( 1 978): Some aspects of the ecology and behaviour of the Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 397-405. Malcolm, J.R. (1986): Socio-ecology of bat-eared fox ( Otocyon megalotis). J. Zool. London (A) 206: 457- 467. Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1989): Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 368-380 Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1990): Growth and development of a captive great Indian bustard chick. Avicidtural Magazine 96: 133-140. Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1993): A decade of conservation of the great Indian bustard at Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh. Proc. Changing Scenario of Bird Ecology and Conservation (Ed: A. Verghese, S. Sridhar & A.K. Chakravarthy), Ornithological Society of India, Bangalore. Manakadan. R. & A.R. Rahmani (1997): Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (pp: 1 17-180). In: A study of the ecology of grasslands of the Indian plains with particular reference to their endangered fauna. Final Report, (Ed: A. R. Rahmani). Bombay Natural History Society. Mumbai. Pp 549. Mech. L.D. (1970): The Wolf : Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. Natural History Press, Doubleday. New York. Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. 3rd Edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Rahmani, A.R. (1989): The Great Indian Bustard. Final Report. Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay. Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1986): Study of the Ecology of Certain Endangered Species of Wildlife and their Habitats: The Great Indian Bustard. Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1987): Interspecific behaviour of the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 17-31. Rausch, R. (1958): Some observations on rabies in Alaska, with special reference to wild canids. J. Wild!. Manage. 22: 246-260. Sargeant, A.B., W.K. Pfeifer & S.H Allen (1975): A spring aerial census of red foxes in North Dakota. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 30-39. Trottier, G.C. (1992): Conservation of Canadian Prairie Grasslands: A Landowner’s Guide. Canadian Wildlife Service, Canada. Wandeler, A., .1. Muller, G. Wachendorfer. W. Schale, U. Forster & F. Stack (1974): Rabies in wild carnivores in Central Europe. Ill Ecology and biology of the fox in relation to control operations. Zbl. Vet. Med. B. 21: 765-773. Warrick, G.D. & B.L. Cypher (1998): Factors affecting the spatial distribution of San Joaquin Kit Foxes. J. Wildl. Manage. 62: 707-717. Zoellick, B.W., N.S. Smith & R.S. Henry ( 1 989): Habitat use and movements of Desert Kit Foxes in Western Arizona J. Wildl. Manage. 53: 955-961 . ■ ■ ■ 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL {OCYCEROS GRISEUS) IN SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA.' Divya Mudappa2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: hornbill, tropical rainforest, frugivory, seed dispersal, cavity- nesting, breeding biology The Malabar grey hornbill ( Ocyceros griseus) is a frugivore, endemic to the tropical rainforests and moist deciduous forests of the Western Ghats hill ranges, India. I studied its breeding biology in the Anamalai hills (Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary), Tamil Nadu state, by monitoring 10 nests and their middens, and conducting intensive observations at a focal nest. The nesting period lasted an average of 86 days (N=4), and observations at the focal nest revealed the pre- and post-hatching phases to be 40 and 46 days, respectively. At the end of the nesting period, the females and the young simultaneously broke out of the nests. A total of 2397 items of food were delivered by the male hornbill to the inmates of the focal nest. They included 6 species of lipid-rich and 8 species of sugar-rich fruits, and at least 14 kinds of animal matter. Lipid-rich fruits formed a major component (c. 37%) of the diet during nesting. Ficus fruits formed 26%, and animal matter 13.8% of the diet of the incarcerated hornbills. The frequency of sugar- and lipid-rich fruits delivered per hour of observation was significantly greater in the pre-hatching phase. While the frequency of animal food delivered was higher in the post-hatching phase. Although the Malabar grey hornbill used a wide range of food resources, it was observed that a few species of rare, tropical trees producing lipid-rich fruits during the nesting period, play an important role in the maintenance of the species. Introduction Hornbills (Aves : Bucerotidae and Bucorvidae) are a group of large, forest and savanna birds restricted to the Old World tropics. There are 54 species of hornbills in the world (Kemp 1988, 1995), nine of which occur in India (Ali and Ripley 1987). Only in the last two decades, a few studies have provided valuable insights into the ecology of these unique cavity- nesting birds (Hussain 1984, Kannan 1994, Kemp 1976, 1978, 1988, Kinnaird 1993, Leighton 1982, Poonswad 1995, Poonswad and Tsuji 1989, 1994, Reddy et al. 1990, Reddy and 'Accepted June, 1 998 :Centre for Ecological Research and Conservation 3076/5 IV Cross, Gokulam Park Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India. Basalingappa 1995). Hornbills are secondary cavity-nesters, and the forest-dwelling species are predominantly fmgivorous. Their breeding cycles are synchronous with food productivity of the forest (i.e., fruiting phenology; Kannan 1994), but they are also dependent on keystone resources like Ficus for their survival in times of low food availability. They exhibit wide-ranging movements to meet their specialized food requirements (Poonswad 1994). Functionally, they have been described as keystone mutualists (Gilbert 1980) as they play an important role in the dispersal of many rare rainforest tree species (Kinnaird 1998, Whitney et al. 1998). The present study aimed to determine the nesting habitat requirements and breeding biology of the Malabar grey hornbill, endemic to the Western Ghats. The former aspect is dealt JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 15 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL with elsewhere (Mudappa and Kannan 1997). This paper describes in detail: 1) nesting activities and behaviour of the male and female hornbill, 2) duration of nesting period and distinct phases of the nesting cycle, and 3) qualitative and quantitative data on the food delivered by the male to the incarcerated female and young, in relation to the phases of the nesting period. The results are compared with other hornbill species, their reproduction and survival strategies, and the implications for the conservation of this rainforest endemic are discussed. Study Area The study was undertaken between December 1993 and May 1994 at the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (10° 13' - 10°33' N and 76°49' - 77°21' E, an area of 968 km2) in the Anamalai Hills of the southern Western Ghats, in Tamil Nadu state, India. A one-month long preliminary study was carried out in the area in May- June 1993, when 15 nests were discovered and seeds from the middens were collected and identified for future reference. The nests selected for intensive observation and monitoring were in the 5.1 km2 wet evergreen' forest patch of Karian Shola National Park. This forest, classified as a Southern Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest (Champion and Seth 1968), receives an annual rainfall of about 1500 mm. The terrain is hilly, and the altitude ranges from 350 m to 2400 m above msl in the Sanctuary, which extends into Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and Eravikulam National Park in the adjacent Kerala state. The forest is contiguous with moist deciduous, teak ( Tectona grandis) and bamboo forests in the surrounding areas. Study Species Of the 9 species of hornbills in India, the Malabar grey hornbill ( Ocyceros griseus), is the smallest. It is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. occuring only in the heavy rainfall tracts of the Western Ghats hill ranges. Most of the information on the Malabar grey hornbill and other Indian hornbills is anecdotal- with notes on natural history. Early papers dealing with nidification of the Malabar and the common grey hornbills ( Ocyceros birostris) are those of Bingham (1879), Hall (1918), Lowther (1942), and Abdulali (1942). More comprehensive information on their ecology and behaviour was provided by Ali and Ripley (1970, 1987) and Kemp (1978). The Malabar grey hornbill is sexually dimorphic: the male has a large, bright orange bill and golden brown iris, while the female has a relatively small and pale-coloured bill and dark brown iris. The species is monogamous, the nesting pair usually exhibiting high nest-site fidelity, occupying the same nest-cavities every year (Kemp 1978, Ali and Ripley 1987, Mudappa and Kannan 1997). The Malabar grey hornbill exhibits biparental care like most other monogamous birds with altricial young (Clutton- Brock 1991). While the incubating female is incarcerated, the male provisions her and the other inmates of the nest. Methods Active nests of the Malabar grey hornbill were located with the help of a local field assistant, by following the parent birds, and by checking for signs of previous nesting, such as seeds and faecal remains (midden) at the base of the nest trees. Fifteen nests were located during the preliminary study in May 1993. Seeds collected from the midden were catalogued and used for reference during the study. Twelve additional nests were discovered during the initial half of the study (December 1 993 to March 1994). Ten nests were chosen for monitoring during the nesting period (the period of incarceration of the female and the young) in Karian Shola National Park. Of these, one was 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORN BILL selected on the basis of logistics for intensive observation. Intensive observation of a focal nest: The ✓ focal nest was observed from the last week of January 1994 to May 1994, for approximately six-hour intervals on every alternate day (more or less uniformly) throughout the three-month nesting period. Observations were made between 0700 h and 1300 h. The forenoon was chosen for nest observation, while the rest of the day was used to visit the other nine nests. I observed the nest to gather information on the quantity and quality of food delivered by the male to the incarcerated inmates. The food was broadly classified as plant and animal food. The plant food was further categorised as: a) figs, b) sugar-rich non- fig, and c) lipid-rich fruits, based on McKey (1975) and Snow (1981). Observations were made from a ground hide about 18m from the base of the focal nest through a 7x50 binoculars or a 20x50 spotting scope. For each visit by the male hornbill to the nest, I recorded the number and type of food items delivered, the duration of the visit (to the nearest 5 seconds), and the total number of visits during each sampling/observation session. Ad libitum observations on other activities like nest-cavity sealing, cleaning, excretion, begging by the inmates, and the behaviour of the male during the time of food delivery were recorded. At the end of each session, the seeds and other faecal remains in the midden were examined, identified, classified, and counted. Nest midden monitoring: Ten nests (including the focal nest) were visited regularly to note the status of nesting, quantify the regurgitated or excreted seeds of the fruits eaten by the inmates, and to identify the other debris in the midden. Of the food items consumed by the nest-cavity inmates, only non-digestible parts such as seeds of fruits, elytra of insects, and reptile scales occur in the midden. All distinguishable midden remains were collected, identified, counted, and recorded. The midden below the nest-tree was cleared of all debris after each visit. Small seeds and animal matter in the faecal remains could not be quantified. The presence of Malabar grey hornbill feathers in the midden was taken to indicate moulting. Similarly, the presence of egg-shell in the midden, or the characteristic begging calls of the young, were evidence of hatching or the presence of chick(s) in the nest. Statistical analyses: The frequency of food items delivered during the nesting period was calculated. Differences between the food (type and quantity) consumed between the two distinct phases (pre- and post-hatching) of the nesting period were tested for statistical significance using Mann- Whitney U test (Seigel and Castellan 1988), using SPSS/PC+ computer software (Norusis 1990). The difference in the occurrence of seeds (frequency) in the midden was tested for significance, using the non- parametric Mann- Whitney U Test similar to the analysis of direct feeding observation. Results Characteristics and occupation of focal nest: The focal nest cavity was located at about 14 m on an Artocarpus lakoocha (Moraceae) tree. The diameter at breast height (1.2 m) of the focal nest tree was 56 cm, the height 25 m, and the estimated diameter at nest height was 50 cm. The cavity entrance was circular in shape, and oriented towards northwest. My field assistant observed a bird entering the nest cavity in the first week of February. This was probably an instance of nest preparation, cleaning, and widening of the nest entrance. After this, there was regular movement of the breeding pair in the vicinity of the nest- tree. On February 17, the female hornbill was seen entering the nest-cavity. The cavity entrance was then half-sealed. The male and the female visited the nest (8 times in 6 hrs). During these visits, they appeared to be enlarging the cavity entrance. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 17 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL The female was in the nest on February 18, and was seen sealing the cavity entrance, leaving only a slit, through which the male fed the inmates during the nesting period. The male was never observed to be involved in nest sealing, repair, or delivering any kind of sealing material, unlike the female which often repaired the seal with its bill. The female was seen cleaning the nest-cavity by throwing out a lot of seeds and woody debris. The female hornbill used her own excreta, rich in Ficus seeds, as material for sealing the cavity entrance. The inmates effected nest sanitation by squirting their excreta out through the slit-like opening of the cavity entrance. Nesting period: The nesting season lasted for about three months, between February and May in the study population of the Malabar grey hornbills. The nesting period could be distinguished into two main phases: the pre- hatching and the post-hatching phase. However, each phase in turn has been further divided into 3 sub-phases (fortnightly) for analysis. The nesting period in the focal nest was 86 days, commencing from February 18 (incarceration of the female) to May 15 (emergence of chick and female from the nest). The mean duration of the nesting period was 86 days (± 2.7 S.D.; N=4). In the focal nest, the young hatched 40 days after the incarceration of the female. The post- hatching phase was 46 days. Only one chick appeared to have fledged. The female and young broke out of the nest together. Details of the nesting period in the ten nests are given in Table 1 . Clutch size and moulting: The clutch size in the breeding population could not be determined. In the focal nest, only one young was seen. One nest when examined on March 1 , 1994, had only one egg. A week later, there were two eggs in this nest. The female resealed the cavity entrance and bred successfully. Flight feathers were collected from the midden occasionally, particularly in the month of April. The rectrices were never found and the Table 1 DATES OF INCARCERATION AND FLEDGING IN THE STUDY NESTS Nest number Date of incarceration Fledging date 1. 1 7 February 1 6 May 2. 1 5 February 3 May 3. 1 8 February 13 May* 4. 1 8 February 15 May* 5. 21 February 1 6 May 6. 1 8 February 1 8 April** 7. 4 March* 1 1 May* 8. 1 7 March* 13 May 9. 3 March* 1 6 May 10. 1 8 February 1 5 May * — The chick fledged between this day and 20 May ** — Abandoned * - Nests discovered after the nesting had commenced female of the focal nest had tail feathers throughout the nesting period. These could be seen while the bird was ejecting the faecal matter through ‘the slit. However, rectrices had been collected from the midden of six nests during the preliminary study in 1993. Thus, it is likely that the moult in this species is partial. Food delivery by the male hornbill: The focal nest was observed for a total of 161 hours and 45 minutes. All through the nesting period, the male provisioned the incarcerated female and later, the young also. A total of 2,397 food items, which included 1 1 kinds of fruit, 5 species of vertebrates, and at least 8 types of invertebrates, including 6 types of insects, were delivered by the male (Appendix). Lipid-rich fruits predominated in the diet of the incarcerated hornbills, constituting 36.9% of the food delivered. Other food categories were Ficus 26%, sugar-rich fruits 22.6%, and animal matter 13.8%. If there were several items, these were regurgitated one by one. Large fruits and vertebrate prey were usually brought as single items. The number of food items delivered peaked during the pre-hatching phase, and declined thereafter, being minimum before the fledging of the young. The frequency of lipid-rich and 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORN BILL APPENDIX PLANT AND ANIMAL FOOD DELIVERED AT THE NEST BY THE MALE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL A: Plant food (fruit) S.No. Species Habit Number Number (Family) in pre- in post- hatching hatching phase phase Sugai 1. r-rich Fruit Ficus spp. (Moraceae) Tree/ Strangler 443 123 2. Mi mu sops elengi (Sapotaceae) Tree 17 _ 3. B ridel ia sp. (Eupborbiaceae) Climber 417 13 4. Elaegnus conferta (Elaegnaceae) Climber 4 _ 5. Linocera intermedia (Sapindaceae)+ Tree 6. Syzygium spp. (Myrtaceae)+ Tree _ 7. Filicium decipiens (Oleaceae)* Tree _ 8. Zizyphus nummularia (Rhamnaceae) Shrub 61 9. Glycosmis pentaphylla (Rutaceae) Shrub 11 _ Lipid-rich Fruit 10. Uvaria sp. (Annonaceae) Climber 510 63 11. Neolitsea sp. (Lauraceae) Tree 173 52 12. Cinnamomum sp. (Lauraceae) Tree 13. Persea macarantlia (Lauraceae)* Tree _ 14. Litsea sp. (Lauraceae )+ Tree _ _ 15. Beilschmedia sp. (Lauraceae) Tree _ 19 16. Myristica dactyloides (Myristicaceae)* Tree A: Plant food (fruit) (contd.) S.No. Species (Family) Flabit Number in pre- hatching phase Number in post- hatching phase 17. Knema attenuate (Myristicaceae)* Tree 18. Polya Ithia sp. (Annonaceae)+ Tree - - 19. 20. Other Fruits Strychnos nux-vomica ( Logan iaceae)* Unidentified** Tree - + — Found in the midden of the focal nest * — Found in the middens of other (non-focal) nests ** — Ten species whose seeds were found in small numbers in the middens (three were found in the midden of the focal nest) B: Animal Food Vertebrates 1. Young bird 2. Snake 3. Lizard ( Calotes sp.) 4. Gecko 5. Frog Invertebrates 1 . Beetle 2. Cricket/Grasshopper 3. Cicada 4. Stick Insect 5. Caterpillars 6. Winged insect (wasp, termite, etc.) 7. Millipede/Centipede 8. Scorpions Total number of animal food items delivered during the nesting period = 491. non-fig sugar-rich fruits was significantly higher in the pre-hatching phases (Mann- Whitney U test, N=16, U=24, pO.OOl and U=36, p<0.001, respectively). Figs were eaten consistently throughout the nesting period. The frequency (number per hour of observation) of animal matter delivered was greater in the post-hatching phase (Mann-Whitney U test, U=41, p=0.047 for invertebrates and U=64, p=0,014 for vertebrates; Fig. 1). Within the pre-hatching phase, the frequency of lipid-rich fruits was significantly higher than the other types (Kruskal-Wallis JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 19 Minutes/hour Number/hour Minutes/hour BREEDING BIO LOG Y OF THE MA LA BA R GRE Y HORNBIL L Fig. 1 : a. Time spent at nest by the male, b. Visiting rate of the male, and c. Frequency of different food items delivered to the inmates by the male during the nesting period. 20 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORN BILL X2= 1 3 .48, df=3, p<0.001), while in the post- hatching phase, animal food was significantly greater (%2=23.26, df=3, p<0.001). Time spent at nest and visitation rate of the male: The time spent and the visitation rate of the male hornbill was influenced by the number and type of items delivered. Time spent (minutes per hour of observation) was significantly higher (Mann- Whitney U test, U=38, p<0.01) in the pre-hatching than in the post-hatching phase, as a greater number (69.5%) of small fruits (< 1.5 cm) was delivered (each had to be regurgitated individually). The visitation rate did not differ between the phases (Fig. 1). Feeding habits — evidence from middens: Supplementary data from the middens of the ten nests showed that nine additional species of fruits were consumed by the incarcerated hornbills (e.g. Strychnos nux- vomica, Litsea sp., Persea macarantha, see Appendix). A few seeds of ten unidentified plant species were collected from some middens. There was no significant difference between the pre- and post-hatching phases in the frequency of the lipid-rich fruit seeds collected in the midden. The frequency of non-fig sugar-rich fruit seeds in the midden was found to be significantly greater in the pre-hatching phase (Mann- Whitney U test, N=21, U=T 16, p=0.007). Predation on Malabar grey hornbill and nest intrusion: Two cases of mortality of Malabar grey hornbills were recorded. The first was of a young bird found towards the end of the nesting period during the preliminary study in 1993. The second was presumably an adult, whose remains were found in the middle of the nesting period in 1994, close to a regularly monitored nest which had been abandoned five days earlier. The focal nest was once visited by three hill mynas ( Gracula religiosa ) that flew away at the approach of the male hornbill. A Malabar giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica) and the dusky- striped palm squirrel ( Funambulus sublineatus ) were other inquisitive visitors to the nest, but were apparently disregarded by the incarcerated female. Discussion The 32 species of Oriental hornbills are essentially forest-dwelling, arboreal birds (Kemp 1988, 1995). These species, including the Malabar grey hornbill, are long-lived, and have a distinct and relatively long nesting period. The nesting period of the Malabar grey hornbill lasted an average of 86 (± 2.7 days) during this study. The success of this bird as a rainforest specialist can be attributed to its life-history strategies (the long and peculiar nesting behaviour), and the adaptation in food habits. Predation of adult Malabar grey hornbills by animals other than man is rare. Even during the vulnerable period of incarceration, the chances of predation are low, because the nest- cavity entrance is sealed, and the female with her large, armoured bill can protect the nest from intruders. This protection, along with the cavity nesting habit, can be the reason for the long incubation period of these birds. Overall, the nesting periocl and food delivery by the Malabar grey hornbill in the area, as in the case of great pied hornbill ( Buceros bicornis ), seems to be associated with fruiting phenology, and the onset of the southwest monsoon (Kannan 1994). Studies in Thailand (Poonswad et al. 1988) have found the nesting of hornbills to commence and terminate later than in this region, probably because of the later monsoon. Hornbills subsist on an array of diverse, locally rare, tree species (e.g. members of the Lauraceae; Kannan and James 1999). The nesting period coincides with the peak in fruit availability, as shown by the fruiting phenology study of Kannan and James (1999). Large numbers of rainforest trees of the families Lauraceae, Burseraceae, and Myristicaceae {op cit.) contribute to the abundance of fruit. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 21 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORN BILL Lipid-rich fruits formed the most abundant component of the food delivered. The coincidence of nesting with peak in lipid-rich fruit availability could be as a result of long-term co-evolutionary process (McKey 1975). The high lipid content of these fruits may be necessary to meet the requirements of the nesting, moulting, and growing birds (Snow 1981). Protein, carbohydrate, and water is obtained from sugar-rich fruits (including figs) and animal matter, which supplement the lipid- rich diet of the nesting hornbills. Notably, the Malabar grey hornbill fed less on Ficus fruits (26%) than the great pied, oriental pied (Anthracoceros coronatus ), and wreathed {Aceros undulatus) hornbills (Kannan and James 1997, Tsuji 1996). The smaller white-throated brown hornbill ( Ptilolaemus tickelli ), however, is shown to feed less on figs. Smaller-sized hornbills are able to feed on a wider range of fruit and animal food, probably due to their smaller body size which enables them to access even the understorey shrub species, thus reducing the predominance of any one type of food. The Malabar grey hornbill consumes a greater variety of sugar-rich, particularly understorey fruits, as well as fruits of small trees and climbers, unlike the larger syntopic great pied hornbill which prefers large, canopy and emergent trees (Kannan 1994). A wide range of food items are fed to the nest inmates. The kind of food delivered influenced the visitation -rate, and the time spent at nest by the male. The time spent was significantly higher in the pre-hatching phase as there was a greater number of small fruits (both lipid- and sugar-rich fruits, i.e., 61% of all small fruits) delivered at the nest. The time spent at the nest decreased towards the end of the nesting period, when large fruits and animal food were brought for the inmates and delivered as a single item per visit. The visitation rate did not differ between the phases, though the number of fruits delivered per visit decreased in the post-hatching phase. This was probably compensated by the nutritive quality (lipid-rich fruits and animal food), and larger size of the food items delivered (eg. fruits of Myristica sp., Beilschmedia spp.). There was a drastic fall in the number of visits during the last few days of the nesting period. Welty (1982) proposed that the steady decline in feeding frequency may be a naturally evolved strategy of the parent to encourage the nearly- fledged young to leave the nest. The differences in the food delivered during the nesting period can be explained by one or a combination of the following factors: (i) It could be related to the availability of fruits due to the usually high seasonal and synchronous fruiting of tree species bearing lipid-rich fruits (Snow 1981, Leighton and Leighton 1983, Kannan and James 1999), while the sugar-rich fruits are available all through the year. Community fruiting patterns in the study area were found to be largely determined by the trees producing lip id-rich fruits like Lauraceae, Annonaceae, which form a major proportion of tree species in the area (Kannan 1994). It was observed that certain fruits such as Alseodaphne semecarpifolia , Litsea sp., and Persea macaranthci , which were common and abundant in the middens during the preliminary study in 1993, were absent in 1994. So, inter-annual differences in fruiting patterns, and intra- seasonal staggering in the fruiting patterns of the Lauraceae in the rainforests is likely to play a major role in the nesting and nesting success of the hornbills (Snow 1981, Leighton 1982, Leighton and Leighton 1983, Kannan and James 1999). (ii) Another possibility is that the hornbill selects high quality nutritive food for the growing chicks in the post-hatching phase, feeding them largely lipid-rich fruits and animal matter, which may be of co-evolutionary significance. The increased delivery of animal food toward the end of the nesting season may reflect an increase in abundance of insect prey in the forest just after 22 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL the rains. The supplementation of high quality animal matter, however, coincides with the hatching of the chick and may provide the growing chick with essential nutrients. (iii) Hombills are known to be territorial, ranging between 3 to 30 km2 (white-throated brown and great pied hornbills, respectively) depending on the size of the bird (Poonswad and Tsuji 1994). Seeds of some fruits (eg. Filicium decipiens , Polyalthia sp.) were found in the middens of only a few nests, probably because these fruiting trees were abundant in the territories of the hornbills inhabiting those nests. Conclusion The Western Ghats have been identified as one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world (Myers 1990, 1991). However, large scale deforestation for dam construction, agriculture and other developmental activities has resulted in the loss of over 40% forest cover in the last 70 years (Chattopadhyay 1985, Menon and Bawa 1997). This in turn has restricted the range of many species, including many endemics such as Refer Abdulali, H. (1942): The nesting of the Malabar Grey Hornbill. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43:102-103. Ali, S. & S. D. Ripley. (1970): Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol 4. Oxford University Press. Pp. 130-133. All S. & S. D. Ripley. ( 1 987): Compact handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Bingham, C. T. (1879) Notes on the nidification of some hornbills. Stray Feathers 5:459-463. Chattopadhyay, S. (1985): Deforestation in parts of Western Ghats region (Kerala), India. J. Environ. Manage. 20: 219-230. Champion, H. G. & S. K. Seth (1968): A Revised Survey of the Forest types of India. Manager of Publications, Government of India, New Delhi. Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1991): The evolution of parental care. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Gilbert, L. E. (1980): Food-web organization and the the Malabar grey hornbill. Hornbills play an important role in the dynamics of their habitats because of their specialised frugivorous habits (McKey 1975, Snow 1981, Leighton 1982) and as effective dispersers of many tree species (Kinnaird 1998, Whitney et al. 1998). The Malabar grey hornbill, like other members of the family Bucerotidae, act as keystone species in the range of its distribution (Gilbert 1980). This endemic, specialist frugivore of the rainforest of the Western Ghats plays an important role in the dynamics of the moist evergreen forest it inhabits, dispersing the seeds of a few rare rainforest tree species. Conservation of their habitat is imperative as they have specialised feeding and nesting requirements (Mudappa and Kannan 1997). ACKNO W LEDG EM ENTS The research was supported by a grant from the Oriental Bird Club, U. K. I thank R. Kannan for guidance and encouragement and Ganesh, my assistant, for help in field work. I thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department for permission to carry out the study. ENC ES conservation of neotropical diversity. Pp. 1 1-34. In Soule M. E. and Wilcox, B. A. (eds.). Conservation Biology, Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts. Hall, E. F. (1 91 8): Notes on the nidification of the Common Grey Hornbill (Lophoceros birostris). J ’. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 503-505. Hussain, S. A. (1984): Some aspects of the biology and ecology of Narcondam Hornbill ( Rhyticeros narcondami). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 1-18. Kannan, R. (1994): Ecology and conservation of the Great Pied Hornbill ( Buceros bicornis) in the Western Ghats of southern India. Unpubl. Ph. D. thesis, University of Arkansas, Arkansas. Kannan, R. & D. A. James (1997): Breeding biology of the great pied hornbill ( Buceros bicornis ) in the Anamalai hills of southern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 451-465. Kannan, R. &D.A. James (1999): Fruiting phenology and the conservation of the great pied hornbill ( Buceros JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 23 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORN BILL bicornis ) in the Western Ghats of Southern India. Biotropica 31 : 167-177. Kemp, A. C. (1976): A study of the ecology, behaviour and systematics of Tockus hombills (Aves: Bucerotidae). The Transvaal Mus. Memoir 20. Kemp, A. C. ( 1 978): A review of the hombills: biology and radiation. The Living Bird 17: 105-136. Kemp, A. C. ( 1 988): The systematics and zoogeography of Oriental and Australasian hombills (Aves: Bucerotidae). Bonn. zool. Beitr. 39:315-345. Kemp, A.C. (1995): The hombills. Oxford University Press. Oxford, England Kemp, A. C. & M. I. Kemp (1975): Report on a study of hombills in Sarawak, with comments on their conservation. World Wildlife Fund Project Report 2/ 74. Kinnaird, M. F. (1993): Variation in fruit resources and the effects on vertebrate frugivores: the role of disturbance regimes in Sulawesi rainforests. Report, LIPI. Jakarta, Indonesia. Kinnaird, M. F. (1998): Evidence for effective seed dispersal by the Sulawesi red-knobbed hornbill Aceros cassidix. Biotropica 30: 50-55. Leighton, M. (1982): Fruit resource and patterns of feeding, spacing and grouping among sympatric Bornean hombills (Bucerotidae). Unpubl. Ph. D. thesis, University of California, Davis. Leighton, M. & D. R. Leighton (1983): Vertebrate responses to fruiting seasonality within a Bornean rainforest, pp 181-196. In: Sutton, S. L., Whitmore, T. C., and Chadwick, A. C. (eds.) Tropical Rain Forest: Ecology and Management. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford Lowther, E. H. N. (1942): Notes on some Indian birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43:386-401. McKey, D. ( 1 975): The ecology of coevolved seed-dispersal system. Pp. 159-199. In Gilbert L. E. and P. H. Raven (eds.). Coevolution of animals and plants. University of Texas Press, Austin. Menon, S. & K. S. Bawa (1997): Applications of geographical information systems, approach to bio- diversity conservation in the Western Ghats. Curr. Sci. 73: 134-145. Mudappa, D. (1994): Nesting habitat of the Malabar Grey Hornbill ( Ocyceros griseus ) in the Anaimalais, southern Western Ghats, India. M. S. dissertation, Salim Ali School of Ecology, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry. Mudappa, D. & R. Kannan ( 1 997): Nest-site selection by the Malabar Grey Hornbill ( Ocyceros griseus ) in southern Western Ghats, India. Wilson Bull. 102: \ 1 1- 119. Myers, N. ( 1 990): The biodiversity challenge: expanded hot-spots analysis. Environmentalist 10: 243-256. Myers, N. (1991): Tropical forests: present status and future outlook. Clim. Change 19: 3-12. NoruSis, M. J. (1990): SPSS/PC+: Statistics 4.0. SPSS Inc., Chicago. Poonswad, P. (1995): Nest-site characteristics of four sympatric species of hombills in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Ibis 137: 183-191. Poonswad, P. & A. Tsuji ( 1 989): Conservation of hombills in Thailand. Presentation at the joint meeting of ICBP Asian section and east Asian bird protection conference, 1989. Bangkok, Thailand. Poonswad, P. & A. Tsuji ( 1 994): Ranges of the males of the Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis , Brown Hornbill Ptilolaemus tickelli and Wreathed Hornbill Rhyticeros undulatus in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Ibis 736:79-86. Poonswad, P., A. Tsuji, R. Liewviriyakjt & N. Jirawatkavi (1988): Effects of external factors on hornbill breeding and population. World Conference on breeding endangered species in captivity, Cincinatti, Ohio. Reddy, M. S., K. S. Muralidhar, M. R. Gandhi & S. BASALiNGAPPAtl990): Distribution and variation in number of Malabar Pied Hombills Anthracoceros coronatus (Boddaert) in selected areas of north Kanara forest of Western Ghats in Karnataka (India). The Indian Zoologist 1 4:63-13. Reddy, M. S. & S. Basalingappa (1995): The food of Malabar Pied Hornbill. Jour. Ecol. Soc. 8: 23-28. Seigel, S. & N. J. Castellan, Jr., (1988): Non-parametric Statistics for the behavioural sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York. 399 pp. Snow, D. (1 98 1 ): Tropical frugivorous birds and their food plants: a world survey. Biotropica 13: 1-14. Tsuji, A. (1996): Hombills: Masters of tropical forests, Hornbill Research Foundation, Bangkok Welty, J. C. (1982): The Life of Birds. 3rd edn. Saunders College Publishing Whitney, K.D., M.K. Fogiel, A.M. Lamperti, K.M. Holbrook, D.J. Stauffer, B.D. Hardesty, V.T. Parker & T.B. Smith (1998): Seed dispersal by Ceratogymna hombills in the Dja Reserve, Cameroon. / Trop. Ecol. 74:351-371 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN THE INDIAN TRANS -HIMALAYA1 Charudutt Mishra2,3 Key words: management, protected area, policy, livestock, Uncia uncia, Canis lupus The founding postulate of the preservationist conservation philosophy — that local human communities cause land degradation and biodiversity loss — is increasingly being questioned for its scientific validity. That this postulate may not hold in many cases is being used, inter alia , in support of calls for more inclusive conservation policies in developing countries. Such policies would allow, or even encourage, consumptive human use of natural resources within designated wildlife-protected areas. However, the latter approach again rests upon the assumption that local human communities and their impacts on natural resources are constant. The present paper questions this assumption using a case study from a hitherto isolated region of the Indian Trans-Himalaya. I describe the ongoing socio-economic flux in an agropastoral Buddhist community dependent upon the resources of a protected area, and the impacts of this transition on wildlife conservation. The analysis shows radical changes in the local economy and land use in the last decade, that ultimately proceed from extrinsic factors (market forces, changes in Government policy). Immediate conservation problems have proximately arisen from both extrinsic (uncontrolled tourism) as well as intrinsic (escalation of livestock stocking rate) changes. The analysis underscores the need for conservation policies to be sensitive to the transient nature of local human communities, even in seemingly isolated protected areas. Introduction The thrust of India’s conservation policy has been preservationist, wherein emphasis has been placed on minimising or eliminating consumptive human uses within areas designated for protection of wildlife. Despite such an exclusionary official policy, more than 80 % of Indian wildlife reserves are inhabited by local human communities that continue to use the natural resources in them, albeit within state-imposed restrictions (Kothari et al. 1989). Such restrictions on traditional resource use following the creation of protected areas are responsible for local hostility and the absence of local support for conservation efforts (Kothari et al 1995, Guha 1997, Saberwal 1997). This 'Accepted June, 1998 ^Centre for Ecological Research and Conservation, 3076/5, IV, Cross Gokulam Park, Mysore 570002, Karnataka, India. 3 Present address: Tropical Nature Conservation and Vertebrate Ecology Group, Wageningen University, 69 Bomsesteeg, 6708 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands. hostility gets further aggravated in the face of serious human-wildlife conflicts in many protected areas, and the subsequent bureaucratic apathy faced by the local people (Guha 1997, Mishra 1997a, Saberwal 1997, Saberwal et al. 1994) Not surprisingly then, as in many other developing countries (Prins 1992), the merits of the Indian preservationist approach are being increasingly questioned on social, economic, ethical, political, pragmatic and even ecological grounds. Critics have contended that the preservationist policy has been based on scientifically unsubstantiated assumptions that local human communities cause land degradation and the loss of biodiversity (Saberwal 1996, Guha 1997). There is an increasing call for 'rethinking conservation’ and embracing a more inclusive policy, which, in theory, allows for biodiversity conservation alongside local human resource use (e.g. Kothari et al. 1995, Saberwal 1996). However, the latter thesis again rests upon an important yet unsubstantiated assumption that views local human communities, their life-styles, JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 25 SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION and the magnitude of their impacts, as static and immune to change (Mishra and Rawat 1998). It is this assumption that is questioned here. The aim is neither to denounce nor advocate the demands for ‘democratic’ multiple use policies; under the complex sociopolitical situations in most developing countries, strict adherence to either stand will prove counter-productive for wildlife conservation. The purpose of this paper, instead, is to show that irrespective of the official conservation policy ( 1 ) local human communities even in the remotest regions of the develop- ing world are undergoing rapid social and land use transition, (2) this transition has potentially important consequences for wildlife conserva- tion, and following from this, (3) conservation policies need to be extremely sensitive to these changes. Focusing on three agropastoral Buddhist villages (80 households) dependent upon the resources of a protected area, this paper describes the ongoing socio-economic transition in the Spiti region (31° 42' to 32° 58' N lat. and 77° 21' to 78° 35' E long.) of the Indian Trans-Himalaya. Located close to the politically sensitive Sino-Indian border, in difficult mountainous terrain, Spiti remained a remote area with restricted geographical as well as administrative access until 1992. In this paper, I specifically document the socio-economic trends in the region over the last 25 years, and subsequently discuss their consequences for wildlife conservation. The urgent research and management inputs required for conservation both at the local and regional levels are also outlined. Study Area The Trans-Himalayan region includes the high altitude plateau of Tibet and the Tibetan marginal mountains, an area of over 2.6 million km2. The c. 186,000 km2 within India, despite its conservation significance, forms one of the least represented biogeographic zones in the Indian protected area network (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). The Spiti region in the Trans-Himalayan Lahaul and Spiti dist. (Himachal Pradesh) spans an area of 12,210 km2 in the catchment area of the Spiti river, with a human population of 9,59 1 (in 1991; Directorate of Economics and Statistics 1996) which is largely Buddhist (Kaushik 1993). Spiti had no wildlife reserves until the last decade. The establishment of the 675 km2 Pin Valley National Park (31° 44' to 32° IT N lat., and 77° 45' to 78° 06' E long.) in 1987, and the 1400 km2 Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary (32° 5' to 32° 30' N lat. and 78° 1' to 78° 32' E long.) in 1992, has resulted in 17% of Spiti’s land area being designated as wildlife reserve. The protected area boundaries, however, are only nominal, considering they were drawn around existing settlements and villages whose inhabitants continue using these areas for grazing, fuel and fodder collection. Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary lies in the northern catchment of Spiti and is flanked by Ladakh to the north and Tibet to the east. The Sanctuary, like the rest of the Trans-Himalaya, lies in the rain shadow of the Greater Himalaya, and ranges in altitude from c. 3,600 m to 6,700 m above msl. Temperatures range between -30°C to 3°C in the winter, and between 1°C to 28°C in summer (Rana 1994). Vegetation in the area has been broadly classified as dry alpine steppe (Champion and Seth 1968). The Sanctuary is flanked by 13 villages along its southern boundary inhabited by an agropastoral Buddhist community, whose agricultural activities are restricted to the short growing season between May and September. Barley Hordeum vulgare and green pea Pisum sativum are the main crops. Livestock includes goat, sheep, cattle, yak, dzomo (female hybrid of cattle and yak), donkey and horse. Goat, cattle and dzomo are used for both milk and meat. Sheep are used for wool and yaks for ploughing, in 26 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSER VA TION addition to meat. Donkeys are used as draught animals, and raised partly for trade. Horses, apart from being used for religious ceremonies, are raised mainly for trade (Mishra 1997a). The mammalian fauna of the Sanctuary includes snow leopard Uncia uncia , wolf Canis lupus , red fox Vulpes vulpes, pale weasel Mustela altaica, stone marten Mcirtes foina , Himalayan mouse hare Ochotona sp., bharal Pseudois nayaur , and ibex Capra ibex. Methods Unpublished archival records of the State Government were scrutinised (see Mishra 1997a for details of sources) for information relating to human population and past literacy rates, livestock population, and developmental changes in the region over the last 25 years. Of the 13 villages surrounding Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, three, which together comprised 1 9% of the population living around the park, were selected as samples for the study (for details see Mishra 1997a). This included Kibber, the largest in the area (316 inhabitants), and two small villages nearby, Gete (36) and Tashigang (24). Structured interviews were conducted with at least one member from each household in the three villages, to obtain information regarding present family size and literacy, livestock and land holdings, and past and current agricultural practices. Human and livestock population growth rates (r) were calculated using the exponential growth curve equation (Nt = N0ert where Nt is the population at time t, N0 is the starting population, and e the base of natural logarithms). Crop yield per unit area was obtained for different crops by interviewing two experienced farmers, and the lower limit of the reported range used to obtain a conser- vative estimate of crop production. Casual interviews and observations during the course of field work yielded information on tourism and its impacts. Results Human population and development The human population in the thirteen villages bordering Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary increased only marginally (at an annual growth rate of 0.09%) between 1971 and 1991 (1985 people in 1991; data for 1996 not available). Likewise, between 1971 and 1996, the three study villages saw a total population increase of only 6.5%, an average annual growth rate of 0.25% (Mishra 1997a). Children <18 years comprise 49% of the present population of the study villages. Literacy rate has doubled (from 22% to 48%) in the last 25 years. Presently, 31% of the adult males (n = 91), and 26% of the adult females (n = 100) are literate. In the school-going age group (c. 5 to 1 8 years), there is 97% literacy (n = 127). Among other indicators of development, this period has seen an increase in the number of schools and the electrification of all three study villages (Table 1). Two of the three villages, Gete and Tashigang, which earlier had no roads, have been connected by motorable roads. Agriculture The number of people per unit of irrigated land has remained nearly constant over the last 25 years (Table 1), with the current average land holding per household at 1.13 ha. The cropping pattern, however, has changed in the last decade. Prior to 1986, agriculture was for subsistence. Table 1 PATTERNS IN SOME INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LAST 25 YEARS IN THREE SAMPLED VILLAGES OF KIBBER WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Indicator 1 971 1996 No. of medical care centres 1 1 No. of post offices 1 1 No. of schools 1 4 Irri gated land (ha) 83 91* People per ha irri gated land 4.2 4.1 No. of villages with electricity 0 3 No. of villages connected by motorable road 1 3 *in 1987 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 27 SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION The main crops were barley and a local variety of pea (the latter largely for supplementing livestock feed), cultivated on two-thirds and one-third of the land holding respectively. Since 1986, however, one-third of the land holding is cultivated for green peas, one-third for barley, and the remaining is partly planted with local pea and partly left fallow. The entire harvest of green pea is sold as a cash crop. The estimated annual production of green pea per household is 2,587 kg, which translates into a per capita profit (corrected for transport costs) of US$ 210 per year (1994-95 conversion rate of 1 US$ = 31.4 Indian Rupees; World Bank 1996). The estimated annual production of barley per household is currently 1,294 kg. This change in cropping pattern has significantly affected an age-old barter trade between the inhabitants of the study area and a semi-nomadic pastoral community, the Changpa of Ladakh. Changpa herders have been coming into Spiti for at least a few centuries (Kapadia 1996). They come in summer with their livestock (> 1,000 goat and sheep) when the high mountain passes ( c . 5,600 m) become negotiable. The main trade involved barley, which earlier was in surplus, and was bartered with the Changpa largely in exchange for wool, salt and rugs. Owing to the replacement of barley with the commercially valuable green pea, and the resulting absence of surplus barley, the development of a market economy, and the improvement in transportation, communication, and supplies in Spiti, this trade is on the verge of breakdown. However, the trade continues for Spiti horses and donkeys, which are still in demand with the Changpa. Livestock The annual growth rate of livestock holdings in the study villages increased from 2.6% (between 1971 and 1987) to 3.5% after 1987 (up to 1996; Mishra 1997a). The growth rate of livestock throughout Spiti after 1987 was 3.2% (10,458 heads in 1988 to 1 1,881 heads in 1992). In the last 25 years, the ratio of livestock to human population in the study villages has increased from 1.85 (the year 1971, in Gete and Tashigang) to 2.80 (1996, in all three villages). In terms of herd composition, Gete and Tashigang (data for Kibber for the year 1 97 1 were not available) show an increase in all livestock species between 1971 and 1987, though the maximum increase was accounted for by goat and sheep (42%). After 1987, the number of donkeys and cow Idzomo declined, while the other species continued to increase (Table 2). In Kibber, the trend after 1987 was almost the same with all the species except cow Idzomo continuing to increase. Thus, in the last ten years, the population of cow Idzomo in all the sampled Table 2 LIVESTOCK POPULATION TRENDS OVER 25 YEARS IN THREE SAMPLED VILLAGES (DATA POOLED FOR THE VILLAGES GETE AND TASHIGANG) OF KIBBER WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Species 1971 Gete and Tashigang * 1987 1996 Kibber village* 1987 1996 Yak 9 14 29 28 110 Cattle/ dzomo 13 32 28 113 98 Horse 6 11 18 34 57 Donkey 11 17 11 93 114 Sheep/ goat 76 101 137 322 452 Total 115 175 223 590 831 *data for 1 971 were not available villages has declined marginally, while yak has increased more than threefold (Table 2). Goat and sheep again accounted for the maximum increase (57 %) during this period. Tourism Prior to 1992, foreign nationals were not allowed in Spiti, and even non-domicile Indians needed to obtain special permits from the State Government to enter the region. With the relaxation of Government policy since 1992, there has been a sudden growth in tourism. 28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION Kibber, one of the study villages, had three functional hotels and one more under construction when this study was conducted, as opposed to none before 1993. These small hotels (3-4 rooms), catering to both Indian and foreign tourists, are run by local villagers. Many villages of Spiti now have makeshift hotels. The tourist inflow is restricted to between June and September. Between June and August 1996, a hotel owner reported a net profit of c. US$ 637 (Chering Dorje, Kibber, pers. comm. 1996). Demand for local guides and donkeys by trekking tourists also causes a substantial inflow of money at the local level, which could not, however, be quantified. Discussion Human population Most habitat change and biodiversity loss in developing countries has been attributed to socio-economic change in growing rural populations (Machlis 1992). The Indian population, 74% of which is rural, has indeed grown at an annual rate of 2. 1 7% in the past two decades, yielding a current density of close to 300 per sq. km (Repetto 1994). In contrast, the absolute human density of Spiti is very low (0.78 per sq. km). The unusual absence of population growth could largely be a consequence of the relatively intact system of primogenitary inheritance over most of Spiti (and polyandry in one region) where the younger siblings become celibate monks (Mamgain 1975, Punjab Government 1994). The stable population size seems to have stabilised the pressure for fuelwood on the protected area. However, it is important to keep in mind that most of the area in Spiti is uninhabited due to its inhospitable cold desert mountainous environment. Consequently, 31% of Spiti’ s present population is concentrated in and around the two protected areas, and is dependent on them for grazing and fuelwood (Pin Valley has a human population of 1500 inside and around the National Park area; Mishra 1997b). A study estimates an annual per capita extraction of 2 17 kg of shrubs and dung (for fuel), and fodder (for winter supplemental feeding) by the resident population from Pin Valley (Bhatnagar 1996). It is also prudent to note that, faced with modernization, other trans-Himalayan Buddhist communities are undergoing rapid population growth following a breakdown of social population regulation mechanisms, and this might happen in Spiti as well (Goldstein 1 98 1 , Fox et al. 1 994, Mishra and Humbert-Droz 1998). Changes in agriculture and animal husbandry The most significant socio-economic change in the region during the last decade has been the shift from a barter-based sub- sistence economy, to a market economy, resulting from, inter alia , changes in cropping pattern. The return per household from green pea harvest, the new cash crop, is almost as high as the average annual per capita income for Himachal Pradesh (US$ 248, 1994-95; World Bank 1996). Along with agriculture, there is indication of commercialisation of animal husbandry as well (livestock trade was earlier restricted to barter with the Changpa). This is evidenced in the three-fold increase of yaks in the last decade, which are now partly being raised in the villages of Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary for selling in other areas of Spiti (Chhewang D. Zangpo, Pin Valley, pers. comm. 1996). This contrasts with other yak rearing communities in the Himalaya, where the yak population is known to be declining rapidly (Negi and Gadgil 1997, J.L. Fox pers. comm. 1996.). Between 1988 and 1992, the yak population of Spiti increased from .786 to 897 heads. Livestock of the study villages graze in the Sanctuary area nearly throughout the year, though their diet is supplemented by stall feeding in winter. This supplemental forage is partly JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 29 SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION collected during the growing season from the Sanctuary area, and partly from the cropfields. In addition, the State Government has initiated a scheme to provide supplemental feed at subsidised rates. Given the present trend and the augmented ability to purchase supplemental feed, livestock holdings are likely to continue growing in the near future. The increasing livestock stocking rate seems to be intensifying the pressure on the protected area resources for fodder. Escalating livestock stocking rate is a countrywide phenomenon in India, the last two censuses indicating a 1.2% annual growth rate (419 million in 1982 to 445 million in 1987). With 67% wildlife sanctuaries and 83% national parks subject to livestock grazing (Kothari et al. , 1989), the urgency for evaluating the impacts of livestock on wildlife resources is obvious. In Kibber, the increase in stocking rate (together with poor anti-predatory livestock management) seems to be the main reason behind the recent escalation in instances of livestock depredation by large carnivores (the snow leopard and the wolf; Mishra 1997a). Even now, livestock outnumber bharal, the dominant wild ungulate and natural prey of the wild carnivores, by an order of magnitude. To reduce this depredation, villagers have been killing the wolf, and elsewhere, I have expressed concern that persecution of the snow leopard is likely to begin unless specific research and management measures are undertaken to understand and reduce this conflict (Mishra 1997a). At a broader level, there is a need for assessing the impact of grazing on plant communities and evaluating the forage relations between livestock and wild herbivores. The potential for regulating livestock stocking rates and range use to enhance conservation objectives has long been recognised (e.g., Anderson and Scherzinger 1975, Willms etal. 1980), and such studies are a pre-requisite to designing effective multiple-use management policies for Indian protected areas. Uncontrolled tourism Uncontrolled tourism in wildlife reserves has usually resulted in conservation problems (Budowski 1976, deGroot 1983, Kenchington 1989). Kibber presently lacks even a record of the number of tourists visiting the Sanctuary. With the sudden development of tourism, the age-old trade route between Kibber and Ladakh (used by the Changpa ; c. 125 km) has now become a popular trekking route. This route passes along wetlands in Ladakh that are important breeding sites for water birds, including rare and threatened species (Mishra and Humbert-Droz 1998). A rather conspicuous impact of this tourism has been the pollution of this route with discarded garbage (including non-degradable metal cans and polythene), especially around about 15 camping sites. In addition, Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, like some other regions of Spiti, has deposits of nautiloid, balamnite, and ammonite fossils (Y.V. Bhatnagar, pers. comm. 1997). Locals reported that fossils were being removed from the area even before Spiti was opened to tourists. However, this was confined to geologists and amateur collectors. Tourism has now created a market for fossils, which is causing a rapid depletion of the fossil reserves of Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary and elsewhere in Spiti. Depending upon its size and quality, a fossil may fetch US$ 3 to USS 15. I could not, however, assess the magnitude of this trade. The need for a culturally and ecologically well designed tourism plan for Spiti is apparent, and has already been expressed (Kaushik 1993, 1994). Conclusions Spiti remained geographically as well as politically remote and isolated until 1992, and the so far intact social population regulation mechanisms have kept the local human population under control. However, a rapid socio-economic transition is in progress, 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION exemplified by improvements in transporta- tion, increase in literacy, changes in cropping pattern (the adoption of a cash crop), breakdown of barter trade, expansion of livestock holdings, and a sudden development of an unplanned tourism industry. This is ultimately driven by far-reaching extrinsic factors such as the influence of commercial markets and changes in Government policy. The transition from a subsistence (barter-based) economy to a market economy, and changes in land use in Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, have resulted in conservation problems such as the escalation of human- wildlife conflict (livestock depredation by wild carnivores), increased pressure on the protected area for fodder, pollution, and the depletion of fossil reserves. These have proximately been brought about by intrinsic (escalating livestock stocking rates) as well as extrinsic (tourism) factors. This paper joins a growing body of literature documenting the significant influence of market forces even in relatively remote regions of the developing world (e.g. Goldstein 1981, Goldstein and Beall 1989, Fox et al. 1994, Negi and Gadgil 1997, Mishra and Humbert-Droz 1998). It further shows that the resultant Refer Anderson, E.W. & R.J. Scherzinger (1975): Improving quality of winter forage for elk by cattle grazing. J. Range Manage. 28\ 120-125. Bhatnagar. K. ( 1 996): A study on people’s dependence, attitudes and ecodevelopment in Pin Valley National Park, Himachal Pradesh. Unpublished report. Worldwide Fund for Nature (India), New Delhi, India. Budowski, G. (1976): Tourism and environmental conservation: conflict, coexistence, or symbiosis? Enviro. Conserv. 3: 27-31. Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth ( 1 968): A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications, Delhi, India, pp 404. deGroot, R.S. (1983): Tourism and conservation in the Galapagos islands. Biol. Conserv. 26: 291-300 Directorate of Economics and Statistics (1996): transition in socio-economy and landuse in local human communities can result in complex conservation problems. Conservation policies therefore, ought to bear in mind the transient nature of local human communities residing even in seemingly remote protected areas. Acknowledgements I thank Dr. K. Ullas Karanth, the Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, and the Netherlands Foundation for the Advancement of Tropical Research (WOTRO), a body residing under the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) for financial support. My gratitude for technical support to the Department of Forest Farming and Conservation, Himachal Pradesh, and the Director, Wildlife Institute of India. I thank Y.V. Bhatnagar, K. Bhatnagar, T. Dorje, Dr. J.L. Fox, L. Gyalson, N. Manjrekar, and B.S. Rana, for discussions; Dr. S.P. Goyal and Dr. A.J.T. Johnsingh for encouragement, and Dr. R.S. Chundawat, Dr. S.N. Mishra, Madhusudan Katti, and T.R.S. Raman for comments. The contribution of M.D. Madhusudan in restructuring the paper is gratefully acknowledged. ENCES Economic review. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Himachal Pradesh Government. Shimla, India. Fox, J.L., C. Nurbu, S. Bhatt, & A. C'handola (1()94): Wildlife conservation and land-use changes in the trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, India. Mount. Res. Develop. 14: 39-60. Goldstein, M.C. (1981): High altitude Tibetan populations in the remote Himalaya: social transformation and its demographic, economic, and ecological consequences. Mount. Res. Develop. I: 5-18. Goldstein, M.C. &C.M. Beall (1989): Nomads of western Tibet: survival of a way of life. Serindia Publications. London, 191 pp. Guha, R. (1997): The authoritarian biologist and the arrogance of anti-humanism: wildlife conservation in the third world. The Ecologist 27: 14-20 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 31 SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVA TION Kapadia, H. (1996): Spiti: adventures in the trans-Himalaya. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi, India. Kaushik, S. (1993): Towards a tourism strategy in Spiti. Equitable Tourism Options, Bangalore, India. Kaushik. S. (1994): The blossoming of an affair: a Spiti update. Equitable Tourism Options, Bangalore, India. Kenchington, R.A. (1989): Tourism in Galapagos Islands: the dilemma of conservation. Environ. Conserv. 16: 227-232. Kothari, A., P. Pande, S. Singh & D. Variava (1989): Management of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in India: a status report. Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi, India, 298 pp. Kothari, A., S. Suri & N. Singh (1995): People and protected areas: rethinking conservation in India. The Ecologist 25: 188-195. Machlis, G.E. (1992): The contribution of sociology to biodiversity research and management. Biol. Conserv. 62: 161-170. Mamgain. M.D. (1975): Himachal Pradesh district gazetteers: Lahaul and Spiti. Greater Punjab Press, Chandigarh, India. Mishra, C. (1997a): Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian Trans-Himalaya: conflict perceptions and conservation prospects. Environ. Conserv. 24: 338-343. Mishra, C. (1997b): Livestock grazing and wildlife conservation in the Indian Trans-Himalaya: a preliminary survey. Unpublished report for the Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx. NY. Centre for Ecological Research and Conservation, Mysore, India, 22 pp. Mishra, C. and B. Humbert-Droz ( 1 998): Avifauna! survey of Tsomoriri Lake and adjoining Nuro Sumdo wetland in Ladakh, Indian trans-Himalaya. Forktail 14: 865-867. Mishra, C. & G.S. Rawat ( 1 998): Livestock grazing and biodiversity conservation: comments on Saberwal. Conserv. Biol. 12: 1 1 2-7 1 4. Negi, H.R. & M. Gadgil (1997): Conserving livestock genetic resources: a case study of Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh. .1. Human Ecol. 6 (Special issue): 317-324. Prins, H.H.T. (1992): The pastoral road to extinction: competition between wildlife and traditional pastoral ism in East Africa. Environ. Conserv. 19: 117-123. Punjab Government (1994): Gazetteer of the Kangra District, parts II to IV- Kulu, Lahaul and Spiti, 1897. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi, India. Rana, B.S. ( 1 994): Management plan of Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary. Department of Forest Farming and Conservation, Wildlife Wing, Shimla. Himachal Pradesh, 81 pp. Repetto, R. (1994): The ‘Second India’ revisited: population, poverty, and environmental stress over two decades. World Resources Institute, Washington D.C., USA. Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1988): Planning a protected area network in India. Vol. I - the Report. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. India, 341 pp. Saberwal, V.K. ( 1996): Pastoral politics: gaddi grazing, degradation and biodiversity conservation in Himachal Pradesh, India. Conserv. Biol 10: 741-749. Saberwal, V.K. ( 1 997): Saving the tiger: more money or less power? Conserv. Biol. 1 1: 8 1 5-8 1 7. Saberwal, V.K., J.P. Gibbs, R. Chellam & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1994): Lion-human conflict in Gir Forest, India. Conserv. Biol. 8: 501-507. Willms, W., A.W. Bailey & A. McLean (1980): Effect of burning or clipping Agropyron spicatum in autumn on the spring foraging behavior of mule deer and cattle. J. Appl. Ecol. 17: 69-84. World Bank (1996): India: country economic memorandum. World Bank Report 1 58882 IN . World Bank. Washington, DC, USA. 32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000 AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA1 Charles Santiapillai, Mangala de Silva2, Sarath Dissanayake3, B. V.R. Jayaratne4 and S. Wijeyamohan5 ( With three text-figures) Key words: Marsh crocodile, Crocodylus palustris, estuarine crocodile, C. porosus , Ruhuna National Park, basking, feeding, conservation A study was carried out in Block I (140 sq. km) of the Ruhuna National Park (RNP) opportunistically from October 1 99 1' to October 1 994, in order to study the two species of crocodiles occurring in Sri Lanka, viz. Crocodylus palustris and C. porosus. A total of 341 sightings of the two species were made on 77 occasions, 307 sightings on C. palustris and 34 sightings on C. porosus. Among C. palustris , solitary animals made up most of the observations (55.8%) while pairs accounted for 13.0%. Of the 22 water-holes that were surveyed, 13 (59%) had only one crocodile. Although both species could be seen at any time of the day, the number basking increased with the increase in the ambient temperature, and peaked around noon. C. porosus basked alone, and C. palustris communally. The population structure consisted of 44% hatchlings, 6% juveniles, 24% subadults and 26% adults. Only adults of C. porosus were observed. Hatchling losses can be very high through predation by birds and mammals. Both species feed on a variety of food, ranging in size from aquatic insects and Crustacea (in hatchlings) to fish, frogs, birds and large mammals (in adults). The minimum crude density values for C. palustris and C. porosus are estimated to be 0.72 and 0.07 animals per sq. km respectively. The populations of both species in Block I appear to be secure and viable. Introduction Of the 13 species of ‘true’ crocodiles (Subfamily: Crocodylinae) that are extant in the world, 8 species occur in Asia, of which 2 are found in Sri Lanka, namely the freshwater, or marsh crocodile, or mugger ( Crocodylus palustris) and the saltwater or estuarine crocodile (C. porosus). While C. palustris is listed as ‘vulnerable’ by IUCN (Groombridge, 1993), C. porosus has been transferred to the Tow risk’ category, given the tens of thousands known to ‘Accepted April, 1999 department ofZoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka ?National Wildlife Training Centre, Giritale, Sri Lanka JWasgomuwa National Park, Hasalaka, Sri Lanka 'Faculty of Applied Sciences, Vavuniya Campus of the Jaffna University, Vavuniya, Sri Lanka be present in numerous localities across its geographical range. However, in Sri Lanka, given its low number and restricted distribution, C. porosus is more threatened than C. palustris. According to Whitaker and Whitaker (1989), “Sri Lanka has more mugger crocodiles than the rest of the subcontinent put together, mostly concentrated in the two national parks, Yala (=RNP) and Wilpattu.” Even though this may not be strictly true now, it indicates the high number of mugger crocodiles still occurring in Sri Lanka. Both species found in Sri Lanka are listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Crocodiles were once plentiful in Sri Lanka. The man-made reservoirs or tanks in the Dry Zone were teeming with crocodiles (Baker JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 33 ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK 1853; Tennent 1859; Hennessey 1949). But today, both species have declined in range and number as a result of poaching and loss of habitat. Crocodiles are almost confined to the first peneplain in Sri Lanka. They represent an excellent renewable natural resource and, therefore, their conservation can be made much easier if such a resource is used for the benefit of the people who share the land with them (Child, 1987). Unfortunately, crocodiles have a poor image in Sri Lanka. They are considered dangerous, and few would really regret their disappearance. The general public is unaware of the beneficial role played by crocodiles in wetlands. Legislation alone cannot save a species if the public is against its conservation. As Sale (1985) points out, a sound scientific understanding of a natural resource is fundamental to the management of that resource. Nowhere is this more true than in Sri Lanka, where the aims of crocodile management are straightforward preservation of the species within protected areas, with no interest in utilization despite the high economic value of the skin. So far, there has been no ecological study of crocodiles in Sri Lanka. Deraniyagala (1953) provides detailed information on the taxonomy, range and ecology of the two species of crocodile in Sri Lanka, while Whitaker and Whitaker (1979) carried out the first comprehensive survey of crocodiles in Sri Lanka. More recently, Porej (1997) studied the distribution of the two species along the south-western coast of Sri Lanka. An island-wide reassessment of their status was carried out by Santiapillai & de Silva (1998, under review). Study Area The study was carried out in Block I of the Ruhuna National Park, in southeast Sri Lanka in the low country Dry Zone (Fig.l). Block I is about 140 sq. km in extent, and is separated from the rest of the park by the Menik Ganga (= river) in the northeast. The vegetation of the park has been classified by Mueller-Dombois (1972) into three physiognomic categories: (a) forest (with at least 20% of crown biomass above 5m in height), (b) scrub (less than 20% of crown biomass above 5m), and (c) grassland or plains. The dominant forest trees are Manilkara hexandra (palu), Drypetes sepiaria (weera) in well drained soil, and Limonia acidissima (divul) and Salvadora persica (malithan) in poorly drained areas (Balasubramaniam et «/., 1980). The coastal region in Block I has numerous water-holes of varying size and salinity, surrounded by grasslands where the main species are Eragrostis viscosa, Dactyl otaenium aegyptium , Sporobolus diandrus , Echinochloa colonum, Setaria pallidifusca and Alloteropsis cimicina (Balasubramaniam et al. , 1980). The fauna includes threatened species such as the Asian elephant Elephas maximus (E), leopard Panthera pardus (T), sloth bear Ursus ursinus (I), and water buffalo Bubalus buba'lis (V). In addition, there are several herbivores: wild pig Sus scrofa , sambar Cervus unicolor , spotted deer Axis axis and mouse deer Tragulus meminna , which are potential prey species of the crocodiles. Other reptiles include the common monitor lizard Varanus bengalensis, cobra Naja naja, Russell’s viper Daboia russelli. At least three species of sea turtles, the green Chelonia mydas (E), olive Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea (E) and leatherback Dermochelys coriacea (E), nest along the beach (Hewavisenthi, 1990). The most numerous crocodile in Ruhuna National Park is the marsh crocodile or mugger (C. palustris). Methods The study on crocodiles was incidental to a much larger study on the mammals of the Ruhuna National Park and was carried out in Block I opportunistically from October 1991 to October 1994. All observations were made from a vehicle, using a pair of 7 x 52 binoculars, from 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK Menik Pannagamuwak~-o Fig. 1 : Map of Block I of Ruhuna National Park showing the waterholes 0600 to 1 900 hr, during which time most of the water-holes in the park were visited. At every sighting of crocodiles, their number, location, habitat and behaviour were noted. Whenever possible, the species was identified based on field criteria such as the shape of the dorsal osteoderms — subquadrangular plates transversely sutured to one another in C. palustris , and ovoid and separated by skin in C. porosus (Deraniyagala, 1953). But this was not easy, for as Daniel (1983) points out, the two species are difficult to distinguish in the field. When the two species JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 35 ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK are in water, they are almost impossible to tell apart. Besides, smaller individuals are difficult to distinguish in the field. Wherever possible, the length of the animals was estimated visually. Four categories were recognized: hatchlings (<0.5 m), juveniles (0. 5-1.0 m), subadults (1. 1-2.0 m), and adults (>2 m). The crocodiles were also monitored from 0600 to 1900 hrs at Buttuwa Wewa during the peak of the dry season in early October 1991, just prior to the northeast monsoon rains, to study their basking behaviour. An attempt was made to estimate the minimum number and density of crocodiles by taking into account the maximum number recorded from each waterhole within a sampling session (7-10 days). Results A total of 341 crocodiles (of both species) were recorded in 77 observations, of which 307 sightings were on C. pcilustris and 34 on C. porosus. Among C. porosus, solitary animals made up 55.8%, while pairs accounted for 13.0% (Fig. 2). The largest group seen during the survey consisted of 44 animals (39, C. pcilustris and 5, C. porosus ), in the Buttuwa reservoir. It is likely that many of the pairs observed in Buttuwa reservoir are adult male and female marsh crocodiles. Of the 22 water-holes that were surveyed, 13 (59%) had only one crocodile (C. pcilustris) each. Crocodiles were observed to move from one waterhole to another during the dry season. As the dry season progresses from May to September, many of the smaller water- holes become bone dry, and the crocodiles (C. pcilustris ), move either to large water-holes such as the Buttuwa Wewa, Wilapala Wewa, Keen Wewa and Katagamuwa tank, or concentrate along the Menik Ganga. In the dry season, one crocodile (C. pcilustris) was observed more than a kilometre from the nearest water- hole in the neighbouring Block II. At the peak of the drought, marsh crocodile numbers along % of observations 36 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK the banks of Menik ganga can be as high as 35 animals per km. Furthermore, if the drought is prolonged, the Menik ganga mostly dries up, leaving scattered pools of water along the banks. These pools, which are no more than 0.5 m in depth, and a few sq. m in area, may be inhabited by up to 4 marsh crocodiles. The largest estuarine crocodile seen measured about 3.0 m at Diganwala, while the largest marsh crocodile was about 2.5 m at Gonalabba lagoon. Table 1 SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF MARSH CROCODILES (C. PALUSTRIS) IN RNF (N = 50) size class (m) number percentage category <0.5 22 44 hatchling 0.5-1 .0 3 6 juvenile 1 .0-2.0 12 24 subadult >2.0 13 26 adult When the maximum number observed in each waterhole within a sampling session (7-10 days) was taken into account, there were 101 marsh crocodiles and 10 estuarine crocodiles in Block I. This amounts to a minimum crude density of 0.72 per sq. km of C. pdlustris , and 0.07 per sq. km of C. porosus in Block I. Among C. palustris, 44% were hatchlings, 6% were juveniles, 24% subadults, while sexually mature animals made up 26% (Table 1). The observed C. porosus were all adults. However, the hatchlings and juveniles taken as C. palustris may have included some C. porosus as well, since these two species are difficult to distinguish in the field from a distance, especially when they are small. Crocodiles could not be sexed in the field. Crocodiles were seen throughout much of the day, either in water, or basking on land. In Block I, both species were observed basking on the embankment of the reservoirs or on the banks of rivers and streams. The pattern of basking observed at Buttuwa Wewa was generally the same in both species (Fig. 3). The ambient temperature increased as the day progressed, and there was a substantial increase in the number number of crocodiles 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 time C. palustris C. porosus Fig. 3: Pattern of basking activity shown by both species of crocodile JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 37 ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES INRUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK of C. palustris observed basking, with the maximum number recorded from 1 1 00 to 1 200 hrs. A much smaller number of C. porosus, while showing a similar trend, were observed basking from 0800 hrs, reaching a peak from 1100 to 1500 hrs, and subsequently declining until 1700 hrs. Another behavioural difference that may help in the identification of species in the field concerns basking. Marsh crocodiles were seen basking communally, while estuarine crocodiles were never observed basking together. However, the estuarine crocodile was also seen basking in the company of marsh crocodiles. While basking, one C. palustris was observed defaecating, after which it moved its hind leg over the pile of faeces and shifted its hind parts a little away, then continued basking. Basking crocodiles varied in the length of time they kept their mouths open, the maximum period being 2 hrs. Both species of crocodile were observed feeding on frogs, which are abundant in almost all the water-holes in Block I. In the dry season, frogs may form a substantial part of the crocodiles’ diet at the smaller water-holes where there are no fish or crustaceans such as crabs or prawns, since the water-holes dry up. However, in the lagoons such as Gonalabba, Uraniya and larger water-holes at Heenwewa, Wilapala Wewa or Palatupana, into which Tilapia were introduced, crocodiles fed largely on such fish. Two marsh crocodiles were seen at night attacking a dead buffalo, in Uraniya plains. Marsh crocodiles were also observed feeding on the carcass of spotted deer, and sambar. In the present study, estuarine crocodiles were not observed feeding on carrion, although it is quite likely that they do. They were not observed doing so, though they were seen at night away from the water-holes. Marsh crocodiles were seen pulling the carcasses either from land or near the water’s edge into water and eating them. Once the carcass is under water, it is out of reach of other scavengers such as jackal ( Canis aureus) and wild pig ( Sus scrofa). In Ruhuna National Park, crocodiles of both species catch most of their terrestrial prey near the edge of the water. Much of the feeding appears to take place at night. Hatchling losses can be very high due to predation. In Block I, hatchlings were seen among the roots of Rhizophora trees in the mangroves at Buttuwa, where the prop-roots form a three dimensional mesh, which even some large wading birds find difficult to penetrate. The only birds large enough to attack hatchlings are the black-necked stork ( Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus), lesser adjutant stork ( Leptoptilos javanicus ), spot-billed or grey pelican ( Pelecanus roseus ), and raptors such as crested hawk eagle (Spizaetus cirrhatus), crested serpent eagle ( Spilornis cheela), brahminy kite (Haliastur indus) and white -bellied sea eagle ( Haliaeetus leucogaster). According to Park officials, egg predation by jackal ( Canis aureus ), monitor lizard (Varanus bengalensis) and wild pig can be substantial. Discussion In addition to the crocodiles that were observed in Block I of RNP, another 150-200 marsh crocodiles were recorded from the Katagamuwa Wewa (Fauna International Trust, 1993; de Silva, pers. obs.), which lies just outside the northwest comer of Block I (Fig. 1). As these marsh crocodiles regularly move in and out of Block I, they could be considered a part of the crocodile population of Block I. If these crocodiles are also taken into account, then the minimum cmde density of the marsh crocodile in Block I could be as high as 1.99-2.16 animals per sq. km. Marsh crocodiles live in groups, but male estuarine crocodiles, being aggressive and highly territorial, tend to live alone. Furthermore, in estuarine crocodiles, the large territorial males may service a number of females, and thus keep potential competitors at bay (Webb and Manolis, 1989). This may explain the movement of some 38 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RU HUN A NA TIONAL PARK males far into the interior, away from the estuaries. The number of crocodiles inhabiting a particular waterhole depends not only on the productivity of the waterhole, but also on its size. Usually, large waterholes such as Wilapala Wewa and Buttuwa Wewa support relatively large numbers of crocodiles, in particular C. palustris, all year round. In general, female crocodiles grow more slowly and reach maturity at a smaller size than males, which continue growing and usually exceed females in maximum size (Ross, 1998). According to Webb and Manolis (1989), in saltwater crocodiles, the females reach sexual maturity at the age of 12 years (2.3 m total length), while the males become sexually mature at the age of 16 years (3.4 m total length). But female marsh crocodiles of 6 years and 8 months of age (2.2 m) have also been known to reach sexual maturity in India (Whitaker and Whitaker, 1989). As crocodiles cannot maintain a constant body temperature by physiological means, heating and cooling are of particulai importance to them (Webb and Manolis, 1989). Crocodilians have a preferred body temperature of about 30-33°C, and to achieve this temperature range, they move to and fro between water and land. Basking crocodiles usually orient themselves in such a way as to get the maximum exposure to the sun. But as their body gets heated, they reduce the heat uptake by turning and facing the sun, and opening their mouth to cool the brain through evaporative cooling (Webb and Manolis, 1989). Crocodiles in general are very sluggish, and their short periods of activity are usually followed by long periods of inactivity. Wading birds were seen feeding quite close to the basking crocodiles. Crocodiles are very effective aquatic predators. They are also opportunistic feeders, and catholic in their diet. Most wild crocodiles are known to be attracted to carrion (Webb and Manolis, 1989). In Katagamuwa tank, marsh crocodiles are known to feed communally on fish, when water is low (Fauna International Trust, 1993). Although game animals fall prey to crocodiles, such predation is unlikely to have a significant effect on their numbers. It is likely that the bulk of the crocodiles’ food in the park consists of fish, frogs and water birds, which are most abundant the year round. As the dry season progresses, many of the water-holes dry up. Fish become concentrated in a few water-holes, which attract crocodiles from other areas. Crocodiles can go for months without feeding (Whitaker and Whitaker, 1989). They are known to feed on a variety of food items that range in size from freshwater mussels to water buffalo (Webb and Manolis, 1989). Their food changes with their size: beginning with aquatic insects, Crustacea, small fish, and as they grow larger, vertebrates such as fish, turtles, birds and mammals (Ross, 1998). Much of the feeding appears nocturnal, for which they are well equipped with good eye sight. The retinal tapetum situated at the back of the eyeball is an image intensifier, allowing crocodiles to see better even in low light intensities (Webb and Manolis, 1989). The predators on crocodile hatchlings, apart from those observed in Block I, include larger crocodiles, freshwater turtles, large predatory fish and python (Webb & Manolis, 1989). Although crocodiles lay many eggs, only 1 % of the hatchlings may survive to maturity, largely due to predation. The estuarine crocodile also suffers heavy losses when flash floods inundate estuaries where its mound nests are found. Given the high number of crocodiles, especially marsh crocodiles, present in Block I of RNP, and the fact that these animals maintain genetic exchange with crocodiles from the rest of the Park, it is clear that both species of crocodile present in Block I constitute secure and viable populations. Factors such as desiccation of eggs during severe drought and avian predation on hatchlings appear to help regulate crocodile numbers in the Park. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 39 ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK Conservation and Management There has never been any conservation programme designed specifically for crocodiles in Sri Lanka. While, they are being killed as vermin or poached for meat and skin outside the protected areas, their prospects for long-term survival appear good in a few protected areas such as the Ruhuna National Park in the southeast and the Wilpattu National Park in the northwest. The policy of allowing nature to follow its own course appears to have benefited crocodiles within these protected areas. Crocodiles being large predators, require very large areas of undisturbed wetlands to survive (Ross, 1998). Such areas are becoming increasingly difficult to find in Sri Lanka, as a result of the increase of its human population, currently estimated to be over 18 million. Therefore, protected areas appear to be the last refuge for wildlife. There have been no recent reports of crocodiles being poached within the Park, although several were killed outside. The approach to management of crocodiles in the park is therefore a conservative one, in that the crocodile habitats are secure and remote from centres of high human population. So far, management measures have boosted the numbers of the crocodiles inside RNP. The crocodile, being an exceptionally adaptable predator, is able to survive on a broad spectrum of prey species. So the emphasis in crocodile conservation policy Refer Baker, S. W.H. ( 1 853): The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon. Repr. 1970. Tisara Prakasakyo, Dehiwela. Balasubramaniam, S., C. Santiapillai & M.R. Chambers (1980): Seasonal shifts in the pattern of habitat utilization by the spotted deer ( Axis Erxleben, 1 777) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Spixiana. 3: 157-166. Bellairs, A. d’A. (1987): The Crocodilia. 5-7. In: (eds.) G.J.W. Webb, S.C. Manolis, & PJ. Whitehead. Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Alligators. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia. Child, G. F. T. ( 1 987): The management of crocodiles in must be on maintaining a variety of prey, and preventing the pollution and destruction of the Park’s wetlands. The national parks, however, remote from human population centres, are still prone to environmental disturbances outside their boundaries. The crocodile is well adapted to respond to a “sanctuary strategy”. There are good grounds to believe that it will increase in number under protection, which is by far easier, cheaper and more likely to be successful, than re-introduction. Local people strongly object to the translocation of a potentially dangerous predator such as the crocodile, to their neighbourhood. Law enforcement will become ineffective in the face of public hostility to crocodiles. The dissemination of factual information on crocodiles and their role in the ecosystem may help change the people’s attitude. In the final analysis, the survival of crocodiles is intimately linked with their acceptance by local people and the attitude of their politicians. What is needed is the widest possible acceptance of crocodiles as a renew able natural resource. Their conservation can be made easier, if this resource is used for the benefit of the people who share the land with them (Child, 1987). If crocodiles are properly managed, either in farms or as wild populations, they can become a considerable economic asset to the countries that contain them (Bellairs, 1987). E N C E S Zimbabwe. 49-62. In: (eds.) G.J.W. Webb, S.C. Manolis & P.J. Whitehead. Wildlife Management: Crocodiles and Alligators. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia. Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles.Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Deraniyagala, P.E.P. ( 1 953): A Coloured Atlas of some Vertebrates from Ceylon. The Ceylon Government Press, Colombo. Fauna International Trust. (1993): Yala National Park. Aitken Spence Printing (Pvt.) Ltd. Colombo. Groombridge, B.(ed.). (1993): 1994 IUCN Red List of 40 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK Threatened Animals. IUCN Gland, Switzerland. Hennessey. D.J.G. (1949): Green Aisles: A story of the jungles of Ceylon. Colombo Book Centre, Colombo. Hewavisenthi, S. ( 1 990): Exploitation of marine turtles in Sri Lanka: historic background and the present status. Marine Turtle Newsletter 48: 14-19. Mueller-Dombois, D. (1972): Crown distortion and elephant distribution in the woody vegetation of Ruhuna National Park, Ceylon. Ecology. 53: 208-226. Porej, D. (1997): Crocodile Survey and Public Relations Program. Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. 16(3): 910. Ross, J.P. (ed.) (1998): Crocodiles. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. 2nd edition. 1UCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Santiapillai, C. & M. de Silva ( 1 998): Status of Crocodiles in Sri Lanka, (under review). Sale, J. B. H (1985): Wildlife Research in the Indomalayan Realm. 1 37-149. In: (ed.) J.W. Thorsell. Conser\>ing Asia’s Natural Heritage: The planning and Management of Protected Areas in the Indomalayan Realm. IUCN Gland, Switzerland. Tennent, Sir. .1 .E. ( 1 859): Ceylon: an account of the island physical, historical and topographical, with notes on its natural history, antiquities and productions. 6th edn. Tisara Prakasakyo, Dehiwela, Sri Lanka. Webb, G. & C. Manolis ( 1 989): Crocodiles of Australia. Reed Books, Australia. Whitaker, R. &Z. Whitaker (1979): Preliminary crocodile survey — Sri Lanka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 66-85. Whitaker, R. (1987): The Management ofCrocodihans in India. 63-72. In: (eds.) G.J.W. Webb. S.C. Manolis & P.J. Whitehead. Wildlife Management Crocodiles and Alligators. Surrey Beatty & Sons. Chipping Norton, Australia. Whitaker, R. & Z. Whitaker (1989): Ecology of the Mugger Crocodile. 276-296. In: Crocodiles: their ecology, management, and conservation. IUCN Gland, Switzerland. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 41 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES {MAC AC A SILENUS) IN THE WILD1 Ajith Kumar2 (With three text-figures) Key words: reproductive suppression, sexual swelling, Maccica silenus , mounting frequency Adult female lion-tailed macaques often harass sexually interacting adult male and female members of the group. The extent of harassment and its implication for reproduction by females was studied in a group in the Anaimalai (presently Indira Gandhi) Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, India. Nearly 1 560 hours of observation were made on the same group during nine months in 1979-80 and 15 months in 1982-84. A total of 577 sexual interactions between single adult male and females were recorded. Most of the sexual mountings occurred when the females had sexual swelling with a peak 2-4 days prior to deflation of the swelling. Most of the harassment was by females with sexual swelling. Harassment decreased the probability of mating taking place once a sexual interaction had been initiated (from 0.582 to 0.07). Aggressive harassment significantly reduced the duration of mating (from 9.12 secs to 6.16 secs), and thus probably prevented ejaculation. The percentage of sexual interactions that were harassed increased with the number of females with sexual swelling. Postponement of conception due to harassment might be a major reason for the absence of a synchrony in conceptions and births similar to that seen in sexual swelling soon after the summer amenorrhea. Sexual harassment is unlikely to serve as a behavioural means of population regulation. This is because fewer females show sexual swelling as the group becomes larger, probably due to increasing competition for food resources. The major reason for the occurrence of sexual harassment in the lion-tailed macaque might be competition among females for mating. This competition results from a high synchrony in sexual swelling among the females, the tendency for groups to have only one adult male, a high female to male (5:1) ratio, and multiple mount pattern in the male. Introduction Reproductive suppression of ovulating females occurs in some primates. In Theropithecus gelada, females actively disrupt each other’s copulation (Mori, 1979). In the same species anovulatory cycles and premature termination of menstrual cycles and implantation occur in low ranking females from social stress due to harassment by high ranking females (Dunbar, 1980). Reproductive suppression from social stress also occurs in Papio cynocephalus (Wasser, 1983). In captivity, female rhesus monkeys could be prevented from mating by 'Accepted June, 1998 :Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History Ana ikatti, Coimbatore 641 108, Tamil Nadu, India. aggression from high ranking females (Keveme, 1983). Reproductive suppression of ovulating females has also been demonstrated in captive Miopithecus talapoin (Abbot et al. , 1986). In marmoset monkeys ( Callithrix jacchus) ovulation by subordinate females is physio- logically suppressed by the mere presence of the dominant females (Abbot, 1988). Lion-tailed macaque, Confined to the rain forests of the Western Ghats of South India, mostly live in one male units with a mean group size of 18-20 animals (Kumar, 1995a). The reproductive biology is characterized by a high sex ratio in favour of females ( 1 :5), a conspicuous sexual swelling phase to which compulatory mountings are mostly confined, and a low birth rate (0.30/female year) compared to other macaques (Kumar 1987, 1995a). There is also a 42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION- TAILED MA CA QUES high degree of synchrony in the incidence of sexual swelling among the females. Harassment of the mating pair by others, especially by adult females, is frequent. This study examines the extent of harassment of matings pairs and its implication for reproduction by the females. Whether such harassment could play a population regulatory role is also discussed, since birth rate has been found to decrease with increasing group size (Kumar, 1995b). Methods The analysis is based primarily on data collected during an ecological study on one group in the Anaimalai (presently Indira Gandhi) Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu State, from March 1979 to March 1980, and from December 1982 to March 1984. The group was located in Varagaliyar shola, about 25 km south of Top Slip, the Sanctuary headquarters. Varagaliyar shola is about 20 sq. km in area and is the largest of the rain forest fragments in the Sanctuary. This shola had five or six groups of lion-tailed macaque. The main study group had only one adult male during both the study periods. There was no Table 1 COMPOSITION OF THE MAIN STUDY GROUP IN THE INDIRA GANDHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IN 1979-80 AND 1982-84 Year Adult males Subadult males Adult females Immatures Total Jan 1979 1 0 5 6 12 Mar 1980 1 0 5 9 15 Dec 1982 1 1 6 9 17 Mar 1984 1 1 9 12 23 subadult male in 1979-80, and one in 1982-84. The number of adult females varied from 5 in 1979-80 to 9 in 1982-84 (Table 1). Data on the incidence and duration of sexual cycles come from records on the sexual status (presence or absence of swelling) of females in the study group. These records were made during five to eight days of dawn to dusk observation of the group every month, and at least once in a week during the remaining part of the month. All sexual interactions between the adult male and females were recorded ad libitum during dawn to dusk observation, along with the sexual status of the female. The copulatory calls of the females (see below), given during more than 80% of the sexual mounting and audible up to 75 m, was used as an indicator of mounting. Mounting frequency/hour was estimated for each day by dividing the number of mountings (seen and heard) by the number of hours of observation. Only days with dawn to dusk observation were selected for analyses, since mounting showed a strong diurnal variation. Five to eight days of such observations were earned out each month between March 1979 and January 1980 (except for July and August when no data was collected) and again between December 1982 and February 1984 (except for January and February 1984 when only two days of observations were done each month). A total of 631 hours of ad libitum records were made in nine months in 1979-80 and 937 hours in 15 months in 1982-84. Besides the study group, six other groups were monitored at intervals of 30-40 days in 1979-80 and 1982- 84. Data on seasonality of births were taken from these groups (see Kumar, 1987). Results Female Sexual Cycle: The female sexual cycle in the lion- tailed macaque is characterized by the cyclical appearance of sexual swelling in the perineal region and at the base of the tail which is conspicuous (Fooden, 1975). The swelling phase had a mean length of 14.1 days (range 8-19 days, n=7) and the non-swelling phase had a mean length of 16.4 days (range 6- 25, n=7). The combined duration of these phases gave a mean cycle length of 30.5 days. More than 80% of the mountings by the adult male occurred JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 43 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MA CA QUES Fig. 1 : Mounting frequency (per hour) by the adult male on successive days of a sexual swelling cycle of a female: mean for six sexual cycles. The sexual cycles were aligned by the day on which the swellings disappeared (day 0). when the female had sexual swelling. Nearly 84% of these mountings were accompanied by copulatory calls of the females, compared to only 9.1% in the case of females without swelling (x2 = 24.9, df=l,/?<0.001 ). The mounting frequency started to increase 3 to 4 days before the appearance of the swelling and reached a peak (of about 3/hour) four days prior to its disappearance. It then dropped abruptly almost to zero on the last day of swelling (Fig. 1). The interval between the appearance of the swelling and peak sexual activity varied from 10 to 15 days, with a mean of 12.2 days (n=6). When data from 1979-80 and 1982-84 were combined, swellings were seen in the study group m all months of the year except March and April. In May, swelling was seen only in the last week in 1979 and none in 1983 (Fig. 2). Although there are no systematic data from the other groups, no swellings were seen in them during March-May of 1979 and 1983. It appears. therefore, that there is a summer amenorrhea in the lion-tailed macaque in the months of March and April, probably extending to May. There was a synchrony of sexual cycles in the study group soon after the first cycle following the summer amenorrhea (Fig. 2). In 1979, the sexual cycle of two females started in the last week of May, and in June all the five females of the group had sexual cycles. The sexual cycle of two subadult females started only in September-October. All the four adult females which showed swelling in 1982-83 did so in synchrony in October 1983, one sexual cycle after the first cycle of the season. (Four of the remaining five females were in post- partum amenorrhea. The fifth, the oldest female of the group, did not show swelling in 1982-84). The cycle of the subadult female started only one month later. Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassment consisted of activities by members of the group that apparently interfered with sexual 44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION- TAILED MA CA QUES Months (1979-80) Months (1983-84) | | One sexual swelling cycle | Sexual swellings leading to conception Fig. 2: The distribution of sexual cycles and conceptions in the adult females of the study group in 1970-80 and 1982-84. interactions between adult male and female. Such interference occurred in 12.8% of the 577 sexual interactions observed. Interference occurred at the premounting stage (i.e. after the initiation of sexual interaction but before mounting) or at the mounting stage. Most of the interference were at the latter stage (70.3%). Out of 74 harassments recorded, 23.0% were by infants and juveniles. These occurred mostly at the mounting stage, and consisted of rushing to the mating pair, and then moving about rapidly in short arcs about 2-3 m away (with tail-wagging and uttering ‘ uh uh ’ sounds) until the mounting was over. Mountings involving females with and without sexual swellings were equally harassed by the immatures (Fisher exact test p= 0.33). Moreover, mounting did not appear to discontinue as a result of such harassment. Harassment by the subadult and adult females was related to the sexual status of the female interacting with the male. In 1982-84. 11.9% of the 270 sexual interactions involving females with swelling were harassed by other adult females, while none of the 69 mountings involving females without swelling were JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 45 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES harassed (%2=7.7, df=l, /?<0.01). In 1979-80, 13.1% of the 145 sexual interactions involving females with swelling were harassed by other adult females as opposed to only 2.2% of 90 sexual interactions involving female without sexual swelling (%2=6.8, df=l, /?<0.01). About 5.2% of the sexual interactions were harassed by the subadult and adult females at the pre- mounting stage and a further 12.1% at the mounting stage. Harassment at the pre-mounting stage consisted of a female presenting to the adult male while another female was presenting, often between the male and the first female. Sometimes a female rushed to a presenting female with aggressive calls and chased it away from the male or physically prevented the male from mounting by pulling it by the tail or by standing in the way. Harassment at the premounting stage occasionally resulted in the redirection of mounting to the harasser (21.4%). More often it prevented mounting from taking place. The percentage of sexual initiations which ended in mounting when harassed by adult females (7.0%) was significantly lower than those which were not harassed (58.2%, %2=12.0, df=l, /?<0.001). Harassment at the mounting stage consisted of rushing to the pair with growls, and chasing and often physically attacking the female. Presenting in front of the mounted pair was also seen. Mounting of the harasser soon after mounting the harassed female occurred in 1 1 . 1 % of the cases. When harassment was overtly aggressive the harassed female often ran or jumped away before the male had dismounted. Significantly fewer of the harassed mountings were accompanied by copulatory calls (63.3%) than those which were not harassed (83.6%, X2=4.6, df=l, p<0.05). Harassed mountings had a shorter duration (mean=7.75 secs, s.e=0.89, n=12), than normal mountings (mean=9. 12 secs, s.e=0.35, n=95). However, duration of only those which were aggressively harassed (mean=6.16 secs. s.e=0.72, n=9) was significantly shorter (/-test, t= 2.6, p< 0.05). In short, harassment (a) was mostly by adult females with sexual swelling; (b) was targeted at females with sexual swelling (c) drastically decreased the probability of mounting taking place after the initiations of a sexual interaction, from 0.582 to 0.07; (d) caused a premature termination of mounting and thus probably prevented ejaculation; and (e) redirected mounting from the harassed to the harasser. Harassment and Synchrony in Sexual Swelling: The frequency of harassment varied with the number of females with swelling. At the pre-mounting stage, 1.3% of the sexual interactions were harassed with two females with swelling and 13.7% with four such females (X2=14.5, df=3, /?<0.001, Table 2). Harassment at the mounting stage also increased with the number of females with swelling in the group, although the difference was not significant (X2=5.09, df=3, /?>0.10). Harassment at the mounting stage was significantly more frequent when there were three females with swelling (33.3%) compared to when there was only one (7.3%, Fisher exact test, p=0.04). Table 2 PERCENTAGE OF SEXUAL INTERACTIONS, HARASSED AT THE PREMOUNTING AND MOUNTING STAGES BY ADULT FEMALES, AND ESTIMATED PERCENTAGE OF MATING CURTAILED Number of females with swelling Sexual interactions seen % harassed premount mount stage % harassed mounting stage 0 69 0 0 1 108 1.9 7.3 2 75 1.3 14.3 3 14 7.1 33.3 4 73 13.7 1 1.6 The frequency of mounting by the male showed significant differences between days, depending on the number of females with swelling. (Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance (K-W test), x2=13.4,p<0.005. Table 3). However, it did not increase in proportion to the 46 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES Table 3 MOUNTING FREQUENCY (PER HOUR) BY THE ADULT MALE AND SUBADULT MALE WHEN THERE WERE 0 TO 4 FEMALES WITHSEXUAL SWELLING IN THE GROUP Number of females with swelling 0 1 2 3 4 Adult male Mean 0.09 0.42 1.66 1.37 1.53 Min. 0.00 0.00 1.14 0.27 1.24 Max. 2.50 1.24 2.53 2.45 1.90 Subadult Mean 0.04 0.04 0.23 0.30 0.22 Male Min. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Max. 1.50 0.10 0.38 0.82 0.36 number of females with swelling, but appeared to reach a plateau when there were two females with swelling. The single subadult male in the group in 1982-84 had a mating frequency that was considerably lower than that of the adult male, but seemed to increase as the number of females with swelling increased (Table 3). However, the duration of mounting was considerably shorter for the subadult male (often less than 5 secs), and also did not show the characteristic multiple mount pattern of the adult male. Consequences of Harassment: If harass- ment significantly reduces the frequency of ejaculatory mating, this could result in a reduction in the chances of conception by female. This is particularly so if harassment is asymmetrically distributed among the females, for example due to social dominance. Dominance interactions were relatively few and occurred mainly on major feeding trees when visibility was poor. As a result, the dominance hierarchy of females in the main study group was not precisely known. Moreover, it was often impossible to identify the females because of the speed with which harassments occurred and poor visibility. Therefore, the reproductive consequences of harassment was examined indirectly. The distribution of conceptions and births in the study group was used to test whether females were less likely conceive when there were more than one female with swelling. If this is so, then conceptions and births would not show a synchrony similar to that shown by sexual swelling, but would be more evenly spread out across the months. The date of births in the group during the study period were known. For these, the months of conception were estimated using a gestation period of 172 days (Lindburg and Lasley. 1985). Conceptions did not have a peak corresponding to that of sexual swelling at the beginning of the season (Fig. 1). Of the five females which had swellings in June 1979, only one conceived during that month. There were no data on sexual cycles in July and August, but only one each of four remaining females conceived in July and August. The cycles of the remaining two females continued in synchrony until one conceived in December. Since the second study ended before the births from the 1983-84 mating season (September 1983 to February 1984), stoppage of cycling by females was taken as indicating conception. Two females which showed swelling in September 1 983 did so again in October, when the four females which showed sexual swelling during that mating season, did so in synchrony. The cycle of only one stopped after that month. The remaining three females showed swelling in November (along with a subadult female), but only two conceptions occurred. The cycle of the remaining adult female continued until December 1983. The subadult female’s cycle continued until the end of the field study in February 1984. Population regulation: Sexual harassment could potentially play a population regulatory role since the number of females that postpone conception, especially to the next reproductive year, could increase with group size. If this is the case, then the births in the larger groups should be more dispersed among the months. This was tested with data on births from the mam study group and six other groups that were periodically monitored. The seven groups were divided into two group size classes (12-18 and JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 47 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION - TAILED MA CA QUES Months Months Fig. 3: The distribution of births in two group-size classes, 12-18 (above) and 19-28 (below). Each square represents one birth. 19-28) based on the mean group size during the study period (Fig. 3). Both the classes had the same mean birth date (Caughley 1977), June 15, but the coefficient of variation for the smaller class (205.0%) was nearly twice that of the larger class (112.2%). Thus, contrary to what was expected, births in the smaller groups were more dispersed through the year than the larger groups. It is also noteworthy that the main study group had a shorter mating season in 1983-84 when the group size was 17, compared to that in 1979- 80 when the group size was 12 (Fig. 2). Discussion Sexual harassment by adult females probably occurs as a consequence of the high synchrony of sexual swelling among the females of a group, a high female/male ratio (5:1), and the tendency for the groups to be one-male units. These could lead to considerable sexual competition among the females. The multiple- mounting pattern of the male (Fooden, 1975; Kumar and Kurup, 1985) might also impose constraints on the mating potential of the male. 48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES This competition could increase with the number of females in sexual synchrony. The extent to which harassment could affect the probability of conception would depend on the stage of the sexual cycle in relation to ovulation and the degree of asymmetry in the direction of harassment. Even though the frequency of mounting in the first week of swelling was highly variable even when there was only one sexually active female (Kumar, 1987), the peak between 2-5 days prior to deflation indicates that mountings at this stage of the cycle might be critical to conception. Thus, harassment in the last week of swelling could severely affect the probability of conception. At extreme asymmetry, in the direction of harassment, all the curtailed mountings could be of the low-ranking females. In addition, if harassments between females of different ranks differed in aggressiveness (for example, those by dominant females being more aggressive) mounting by the low-ranking females could be curtailed more than those of dominant females since aggressive harassments were more effective in curtailing mounting. Birth rate in the lion-tailed macaques is a decreasing function of group size and the number of adult females in the group (Kumar, 1995b). Sexual harassment could lead to such an effect and thus serve as a population regulatory factor, if two conditions are met: i) the proportion of females coming into sexual synchrony during the mating season should be constant with group size, so that their absolute number would increase with group size; and ii) groups should be either one male units irrespective of group size, or when there is more than one male, only one of them is reproductively active during all the phases of the sexual cycle of the females. If these conditions are met, then the mating season should be more prolonged with increasing group size, as more females postpone conception. Therefore, births should be more dispersed in the larger groups and have a higher coefficient of variation. The limited data on the main study group shows that the mating season gets shorter, and not longer as predicted, as the group becomes larger. Also, contrary to the second prediction, births were relatively less dispersed in the larger groups than in the smaller groups. This was probably because of the violation of the above two conditions. It is known that females do not ovulate until they reach a particular nutritional level (Frisch and McArthur 1974). Since resource competition increases with group size, it could be expected that the number of females able to build up sufficient nutritional reserves, so as to start ovulation, would decrease with increasing group size. There is no systematic data on the number of females coming into sexual cycle as a function of group size. In one large group with more than 25 members, which was regularly censused, not more than 4 of the 1 2 females were ever seen with sexual swelling on the same day. Since births in the larger groups were few, it was unlikely that other females were in post-paitum amenorrhea. Moreover, although the group was seen almost every month in 1979, swellings were seen only in June and November-December (with 2 and 3-4 females respectively). In addition, the number of adult and subadult males increase with group size (Kumar, 1987). No data was collected on the sexual behaviour of males in multi-male groups. The limited data on sexual behaviour of the subadult male of the study group indicate that mounting frequency of subadult males increased with the number of sexually active females in the group (Table 3). Even if mountings by the subadult male (and probably low ranking adult males of multi- male groups) are confined to the early follicular and luteal phases of the cycle, such mountings could significantly reduce the sexual competition between the females with overlapping sexual cycles. As a result, mountings by the adult male (or dominant male in multi-male groups), even if only confined to the late follicular phase, could be less harassed by other females which are in other phases of the cycle. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 49 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES The short birth season in the larger groups might be, therefore, a cumulative function of (a) fewer females coming into sexual cycles in each season which in itself would significantly reduce female sexual competition and (b) more adult males in the larger groups which would further reduce female sexual competition. Thus, it appears unlikely that sexual harassment could be a population regulatory factor, in the small and large groups. In the former, in spite of female sexual competition (resulting from one male and several sexually active females), postponement of conception is expected to be only within the mating season. In the larger groups, on the other hand, fewer females ovulate in the mating season. It is possible that ovulating females are still sufficiently numerous in the medium sized one male groups, so that sexual competition could be high. A few females would be forced to postpone conception to the next mating season thus leading to/reproductive suppression. Postponement of conception within the season could serve indirectly as a population R E FE Abbott, D.H. (1988): Social suppression of reproduction in primates. In: Comparative Socioecology: The Behavioural Ecology and Humans and Other Animals (Eds. V. Standen and R.A. Foely), pp. 285-304. Abbot. D.H., E.B. Keverne, G.F. Moore & U. YoDYiNGYARd (1986): Social suppression of reproduction in subordinate talapoin monkeys, Miopithecus talapoin. In: Primate Ontogeny, Cognition and Reproductive Behaviour (Eds. J.G. Else and P.C. Lee), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp 329-34 1 . Caughley, G. ( 1 975): Analysis of Vertebrate Populations. Wiley, Chichester. Drickamer. L.C. (1974): A ten-year summary of reproductive data for free-ranging Macaca mulatto. Folia Primatologica 21: 61-80. Dunbar, R.I.M. (1980): Determinants and evolutionary consequences of dominance among female gelada baboons. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 7: 253-265. Fooden, .1. (1975): Taxonomy and Evolution of Liontai 1 and Pigtail Macaques (Primates : Cercopithecidae). regulatory factor. Increased mortality of infants born in late season has been reported; for example in M. mulatto (Drickammer, 1974) and in A. palliatta (Froelich et al., 1981). Since postponement of conception is expected to increase with group size within the small to medium-size range, late season births and infant mortality could be expected to increase with group size within that range. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Tamil Nadu Forest Department for facilities provided in the field; to Zoological Survey of India for funding in 1 977- 80, to Wenner-Gren Foundation, L.S.B. Leaky Foundations, WWF-US, WWF-India, and Cambridge Commonwealth Trust for grants in 1981-87; and to Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, for grants in 1987-89. Earlier drafts of this paper greatly benefited from comments by Drs. D.J. Olivers, E.L. Bennet, J.M.Y. Robertson, E. Barret, L. Fuller, E.B. Keverne, and G.W. Norton. e n c e s Bibliotheca Primatologica 10. Basel, Karger. Frisch, R.E. & E. McArthur (1974): Menstrual cycles: fatness as a determinant of minimum weight for the maintenance or onset. Science 185: 949-95 1 Froelich, J.W., Thorington, Jr., & J.S. Otis ( 1 98 1 ): The demography of howler monkeys ( Alouatta palliata) on Barro Colorado Island, Panama. International Journal of Primatology 2: 207-236. Keverne. E.B. (1983): Endocrine determinants and constraints on sexual behaviour in monkeys. In: Mate Choice, (Ed. P. Bateson). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 407-420. Kumar, A. (1987): The Ecology and Population Dynamics of the Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) in South India. Ph.D. Dissertation submitted to the University of Cambridge, U.K. Kumar, A. (1995a): The life history, ecology, distribution and conservation problems in the wild. In: The Lion- taled Macaque: Population and Habitat Viability Assessment Workshop. Zoo Outreach. Coimbatore, India. Kumar, A., S. Molurand S. Walker (Eds.). Kumar. A. ( 1995b): Birth rate and sun ival in relation to 50 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES group size in the lion-tailed macaque, Macaco silenus. Primates. 36: 1-9. Kumar, A. & G.U. Kurup (1 985): Sexual behaviour of the Lion-tailed macaque, Macaca silenus. In: The Lion- tailed Macaque: Status and Conservation (Ed. P.G. Heltne), pp, 1 09- 1 30, Alan R. Liss, New York. Lindburg, D.G. & B.L. Lasely (1985): Strategies of optimising the reproductive potential of lion-tailed macaque colonies in captivity, lit: The Lion-tailed Macaque: Status and Conservation (Ed. P.G. Heltne). pp. 34-56. Alan R. Liss. New York. Mori. A. (1979): Analysis of population changes by body weight in the Koshima troop of Japanese monkeys. Primates 20: 371-397. Wasser, S.K. (1983): Reproductive competition and cooperation among female yellow baboons. In: Social Behaviour of Female Vertebrates. (Ed. S.K. Wasser), Academic Press, New York. pp. 349-390. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 51 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS1 E.A. Jayson2 and D.N. Mathew3 ( With seven text-figures) Key words: Seasonal changes, forest birds, Western Ghats, Kerala, India A study was carried out in the tropical forests of Silent Valley and Mukkali in the Western Ghats, Kerala from May 1988 to April 1993, to elucidate the seasonal changes of bird communities in the two vegetation types. Abundance and density of birds were assessed, using variable width line transects each month. The highest populations, 609-1 ,892 /km2 were found from December- April. Total number, monthly density and species richness of birds declined during monsoon. When compared, abundance and density of birds, observed in the evergreen forests was more (929 /km2) than in moist deciduous forests (747 /km2). However, bird population showed more stability in the moist deciduous forests. Except for two summers, significantly higher bird density was obtained in the evergreen forests during summer (1,074 /km2). Bird species diversity was high during summer and low in monsoon in both the vegetation types. A direct negative relationship was also obtained between the rainfall, total number of birds, bird density and total number of bird species in the evergreen forests. Significant positive correlation was obtained between the temperature and bird community parameters in the evergreen forests, whereas rainfall and temperature showed no significant effect on the bird community in the tropical moist deciduous forests. Introduction Tropical forests support a stable population of birds m all seasons, whereas marked variations have been noted in temperate forests (Wright, 1970; Kricher, 1975). Seasonal variation of forest birds has been reported from several other countries (Anderson, 1972, Morrison etal. 1980, Pyke, 1984). No information, however, is available on the seasonal trends of tropical forest birds of the Western Ghats of South India. An attempt has been made to monitor the seasonal changes of bird communities in the tropical evergreen forests and the southern secondary moist mixed deciduous forest of Kerala. Birds of Kerala have been studied by Ali (1969), Ali and 'Accepted April, 1999 ;Division of Wildlife Biology Kerala Forest Research Institute Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India. ■ Department of Zoology University of Calicut, Calicut University P.O, Kerala, India. Ripley (1983a) and All and Ripley (1983b) earlier. Ecological studies were carried out at Silent Valley by Balagopalan (1990) and Balasubramanian (1990). Ramakrishnan (1983) studied the ecology of birds in the Malabar forests. Daniels (1989) and Daniels et al. (1990) reported many aspects of birds of the northern Western Ghats. StudyArea Location and topography: The study areas, Silent Valley and Mukkali are located in Palakkad dist., Kerala State, between 1 1° 3' and 11° 13' N lat., and between 76° 25' and 76° 35' E long. They lie in the Western Ghats of south India and form part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 1). After evaluating the entire area, two intensive study sites were selected: a tropical evergreen forest, Silent Valley, and a moist deciduous forest at Mukkali. The elevation of the study sites varied from 500 m to 1500 m above msl. The topography is undulating. According 52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 53 Fig. 1 : Location of the study area SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS to Udvardy (1975), Silent Valley and Mukkali fall under the Malabar Rain Forest Realm. These two study sites are at a distance of about 20 km with a difference in elevation of 400 m between them. Climate: There are two distinct seasons in the study area, monsoon starting from the end of May, up to mid-November, and the dry summer from December to April. Mukkali (4,227 mm/year) receives less rainfall compared to Silent Valley (5,096 mm/year). Heavy rainfall, 803 mm to 2,043 mm/month, was recorded at Silent Valley. From December to March, there is practically no rain. Temperature ranged froml9°C to 22°C at Silent Valley and 21°C to 27°C at Mukkali. Vegetation: A total of 966 species of angiosperms belonging to 559 genera and 134 families were recorded from Silent Valley and adjacent areas (Manilal, 1988). Pascal (1988) described the vegetation of the area as Cullenia exarillata-Mesua ferrea-Palaquium ellipticum type. It is characterised by the abundance of these three species, which may constitute about 80% of the large trees. Degraded areas and other vegetation types like grasslands are also common here. Vegetation of Mukkali is southern secondary moist mixed deciduous forest (Champion and Seth, 1968), degraded to some extent. Methods After considering all the available techniques, variable width line transect method described by Burnham et al. (1981) was adopted. Whenever a bird was spotted, it was identified up to the species level and details like the number of birds, perpendicular distance from the transect, height at which it is located in the canopy and habitat features were noted. Two line transects were selected, one at Silent Valley and the other at Mukkali; each transect was 4 km in length. The first transect covered evergreen forests and the second habitats like moist deciduous forests, rocky patches and fire burned moist deciduous forests. Census was started 30 minutes after sunrise in all the months. Transects were covered at a uniform speed. No census was done on days with very heavy rain and fog. Two samples were collected from each area in a month. The second sample was started from the end of the first sample. A total of 1 50 samples were collected between May 1988 and 1993. No systematic data was collected on nocturnal birds. All calls were considered as single individuals. Perpendicular distances were measured approximately up to metres. To help distance assessment, known distances were measured and marked on trees using a Range Finder before the census. Abundance of birds in each month obtained from the census was used for analysis. Seasonal index of birds for each month was calculated using Time Series Analysis by the method of Simple Averages (Rao, 1983). The formula used is given below: Monthly average Seasonal Index = x 100 Sum of monthly averages Analysis of variance was employed to find any significant difference existing in the total number of birds among the months. The Fourier Series Method was employed for calculating density from the ungrouped perpendicular distances from the transect. All the assumptions described by Burnham et al. ( 1 98 1 ) were followed during the census. Students ‘t’ test was applied to find out the significant difference in the number of birds between summer and monsoon. Diversity was calculated using Shannon- Wener Index (H - -X (pi In pi) with the program specdivers.bas developed by Ludwig and Reynolds (1988). Spearman Rank Correlation was used to find out the correlation between climatic parameters and bird community parameters. 54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS Table 1 SEASONAL INDEX OF BIRDS PRESENT IN EACH MONTH AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI Area Months .1 F M A M J .1 A S O N D Silent 114 109 88 81 95 54 58 59 119 101 136 153 Valley Mukkali 113 92 131 89 84 113 73 87 116 99 133 70 Results Patterns of change Monthly variation: During September to February, more birds were present at the Silent Valley compared to the annual average of 100 (Table 1). In Mukkali, higher number than the annual average were observed during the months of January, March, September and November. Highest Seasonal Index (133) was obtained in November. Analysis of variance showed a significant difference in the total number of birds among the months at Silent Valley (F= 6.18; P= 0.01), whereas no significant difference was obtained at Mukkali (F= 1.95; P= 0.08). Seasonal variation in a year: The total number, monthly density and species richness of birds at Silent Valley and Mukkali declined during monsoon and increased in the dry months (Table 2). No significant difference in total number was obtained between monsoon and summer at Silent Valley and Mukkali (Silent Valley ‘t’=1.63, P=0.14; Mukkali ‘f=0.28, P=0.79). Species like the black bulbul ( Hypsipetes madagciscariensis ), emerald dove(Chalcophaps indica) and the imperial pigeon ( Ducula badia) were practically absent during monsoon at Silent Valley. Seasonal change over the years: Total number of birds: Data were pooled into two seasons, monsoon and summer, to find out the seasonal differences in the total number of birds over the years. Chi-square test revealed a significant difference in the number of birds between the seasons at Silent Valley (Table 3). The highest number of birds per month (91) was observed in the 1991 summer and the lowest (53) in the monsoon of 1992. At Mukkali, there was no significant difference among seasons in the total number of birds. Significant difference in the number of birds per month between Silent Valley and Mukkali was observed during three summers. During these seasons, there were more birds at Silent Valley. But during the 1992 summer and monsoon, no significant difference in the number of birds was observed, both at Silent Valley and Mukkali. Table 2 COMM UNITY PARAMETERS OF BIRDS RECORDED DURING TWO SEASONS (1 988-1993) Area Monsoon season Summer season No. of birds (mean) 70.00 (±28.63) 90.33 (±32.25) Silent Valley Density (birds/knr ) 958. 16 (±478.58) 1286.17 (±781 .1 8) Species richness 28.33 (±6.87) 43. 16 (±7.00) No. of birds (mean) 60.67 (±12.61) 56.5 (±12.91) Mukkali Density (birds/knr) 854.33 (±400.43) 707.00 (±285.36) Species richness 30.67 (±9.35) 39.17 (±10.23) Standard Deviation is in parenthesis JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 55 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS Table 3 MEAN NUMBER OF BIRDS RECORDED PER MONTH IN DIFFERENT SEASONS AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI Seasons Silent Valley Mukkali Total X2 P= Monsoon 1988 70 76 146 0.25 NS Summer 1989 95 52 147 12.58 0.02 Monsoon 1990 74 48 122 5.50 0.02 Summer 1991 91 50 141 11.92 0.001 Monsoon 1992 53 67 120 1.63 NS Summer 1992 83 70 153 1.10 NS Summer 1993 Total X2 P = 89 555 16.36 0.02 59 422 1 1.83 NS 148 6.08 0.02 NS= Not Significant Species Richness: There is no significant difference in bird species richness between years in monsoon (x2=4.26; P=0.05) and summer (X2=8.92; P=0.05) at Silent Valley. But a significant difference was obtained between years in both seasons at Mukkali (Monsoon x 2 =38.97; P=0.001, Summer %2= 14.64; P=0.001). Density: Significant difference in density was obtained between seasons in different years at Silent Valley and Mukkali. The values for summer and monsoon showed a significant difference (Silent Valley: %2=62.25, P=0.05, df=l; Mukkali: %2=39.33, P=0.05, df=l). Bird density was high during summer, both at Silent Valley and Mukkali. Except for two summers, significantly higher bird density was observed at Silent Valley in summer (Table 4). Diversity: Variations in the diversity of birds, based on Shannon- Wener diversity index, in different seasons at Silent Valley and Mukkali are given in Table 5. Diversity index showed high values in summer (X=3.12, 11=5) and lower during monsoon (X=2.65, n=4), at Silent Valley and Mukkali (monsoon: X=2.78. n=4 and summer: X=3.14, n=5). Table 4 SEASONAL VARIATION IN BIRD DENSITY AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI Seasons Density/sq. km Mean density Silent Valley Mukkali Total Mean X2 P = Monsoon 1036 638 1674 837 94.63 0.00 1 1988 (3.23) (5.01) Summer 2123 1662 3785 1892.5 56.15 0.001 1989 (2.21) (7.72) Monsoon 685 401 1086 543 74.27 0.001 1990 (3.03) (7.86) Summer 741.4 370 1 1 1 1 .4 555.7 124.11 0.001 1991 (3.93) (14.99) Monsoon 493 792 1285 642.5 69.57 0.001 1992 (9.11) (3.06) Summer 823 757 1580 790 2.76 NS 1992 (6.03) (4.34) Summer 608 688 1296 648.0 4.94 NS 1993 (10.91) (5.61) Total 6509.40 5308 X2 1976.52 1471.29 P = 0.001 0.001 NS= Not Significant; The values in the brackets denote coefficient of variation of the estimates. 56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS Factors affecting the seasonal variation Rainfall: A direct relationship was obtained between rainfall and number of birds, density and total number of bird species at Silent Valley. When rainfall increased, all of these three community parameters decreased, and vice versa (Figs. 2, 3 & 4). At Mukkali also, rainfall had its influence on bird community, but not in the same magnitude as that of Silent Valley (Figs. 5, 6 & 7). At Silent Valley, significant negative correlation was obtained between the mean of monthly total rainfall (1988-1993) and number Fig J FMAMJ JASOND Months 2: Relation between rainfall and number of species at Silent Valley 1400 J FMAMJ JASOND Months Fig. 3: Relation between rainfall and number of species at Mukkali Species 19 Rainfall Species Rainfall JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 57 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS 1600 1400 1200 1000 | 800 75 c 600 c 400 200 0 J FMAMJ JASOND Months Fig. 4: Relation between rainfall and abundance of birds at Silent Valley i ou 1400 -1200 -1000 E 800 £ 75 600 1 DC 400 200 0 J FMAMJ JASOND Months Fig. 5: Relation between rainfall and number of birds at Mukkali Birds 91 Rainfall Birds Rainfall of species in each month (r= -0.731, P= 0.01, n= 12). Significant correlation was also obtained between mean monthly rainfall and total number of birds in each month (r= -0.66, P= 0.05, n= 12). But there was no significant correlation between the density of birds in each month and rainfall (r= -0.45, P= 0.05, n= 12). At Mukkali, no significant correlation was obtained between monthly rainfall and bird community parameters. Here, monthly rainfall showed negative correlation with the number of bird species (r= -0.41, P= 0.05, n= 12) and there was no significant correlation between monthly rainfall and the total number of birds (r= -0.21, 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS 3000 1600 J FMAMJ JASOND Months Fig. 6: Relation between rainfall and density of birds at Silent Valley 1400 1200 1000 £ 800 » & 600 J FMAMJ JASOND Months Fig. 7: Relation between rainfall and density of birds at Mukkali Density Rainfall Density Rainfall P= 0.05, n=12) and their density (r= -0.06, P= 0.05, n= 12). This suggests that rainfall does not have any significant effect on the bird community at Mukkali. Temperature: There was significant positive correlation between temperature and bird community parameters at Silent Valley. Number of species increased with increase in temperature (Coefficient of correlation r= 0.57, P= 0.05, n= 12). Similarly, total number of birds (r= 0.83, P= 0.001, n= 12) and their density (r= 0.62. P= 0.05, n= 12) showed an upward trend as the JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 59 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS Table 5 SEASONAL VARIATION IN DIVERSITY (H’) AT SILENT VALLEY AND MUKKALI Seasons Silent Valley Mukkali Monsoon 1988 2.77 2.50 Monsoon 1989 2.38 2.63 Monsoon 1990 2.70 2.85 Monsoon 1992 2.74 3.13 Mean 2.65 2.78 Summer 1 989 3.20 2.96 Summer 1 990 3.01 2.95 Summer 1991 3.23 3.08 Summer 1 992 3.29 3.46 Summer 1993 2.88 3.25 Mean 3.12 3.14 temperature increased during summer. At Mukkali, no such significant correlation was found (temperature and number of species r= 0.21, P= 0.05, n= 12; temperature and total number of birds r= -0.08, P= 0.05, n= 12). Discussion Patterns of change: During monsoon, there was reduction in the number of birds both at Silent Valley and Mukkali. Birds appeared to move locally to avoid the unfavourable climate. Local movements in search of optimum habitats are possible because of the availability of other habitats in the vicinity as the tracts where the study was conducted were fragmented forest patches. Similar trends were reported from the tropical forests of other countries also. Variation in rainfall and soil moisture makes tropical bird fauna seasonal (Greenberg and Gradwohl, 1986). According to them, this is due to the influence of rainfall on phenological patterns of trees, which in turn affect the population trends of arthropods. Karr (1976) also showed the effect of high rainfall on the seasonal patterns of birds. Higher numbers of birds were recorded during summer in two vegetation types. A greater abundance of birds was found at Silent Valley during summer than at Mukkali. Density of birds and their diversity indices were also higher for Silent Valley during summer, which can be attributed to the availability of more fruits at Silent Valley during summer. However, at Mukkali, the bird population showed much more stability. Factors influencing the seasonal variations: Rainfall and temperature were the major factors influencing the abundance of birds at Silent Valley and Mukkali. Price (1979) who worked on the birds of Eastern Ghats also found a similar trend in annual cycles of bird fauna due to changes in rainfall. As mentioned earlier, a few species of birds like the yellowbrowed bulbul ( Hypsipetes indicus ) showed stability in population even in the fluctuating environment. This can be attributed to the resident nature of the species, coupled with its ability to feed on various food types like berries, drupes, nectar, spiders and insects. Stiles (1978) had also shown that in tropical forests bird communities fluctuated in number as a response to the availability of food and climate changes. The relationship between food resources and bird diversity was also reported by Terborgh (1985). Even though tropical forest birds are considered sedentary, MacArthur (1972) has shown that seasonal movements are fundamental in many species as an adaptive strategy in varied forest habitats. This study also showed that rainfall and temperature influence the tropical evergreen forest bird community, whereas such climatic factors have little effect on birds of moist deciduous forests. Acknowledgements Statistical analyses were done with the help of Ms. K.A. Mercey, Asst. Prof., College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, Trichur. We thank the field staff of Silent Valley National Park for their help and the Dept, of Environment, Govt, of India for support. 60 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS References Ali, S. (1969): The Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press, Bombay, pp. 444. Ali, S. & S.D. Rjpley ( 1 983a): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp. 737. Ali, S. & S.D. Rjpley (1983b): A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay, pp. 1 77. Anderson, S.H. (1972): Seasonal variations in forest birds of Western Oregon, Northwest Science 46(3) : 1 94- 206. Balagopalan, M. (1990): Soil and plant community relationships in wet evergreen forests of Silent Valley. In: Ecological Studies and Long-term Monitoring of Biological Process in Silent Valley National Park. KFRI Research Report, pp. 1 35-206. Balasubramanian, K. (1990): Establishment of permanent sample plots for long-term monitoring of ecological process. In : Ecological Studies and Long-term Monitoring of Biological Processes in Silent Valley National Park. KFRI Research Report, pp. 201-231. Burnham, K.P., D.R. Anderson & J.L. Laake (1981): Line transect estimation of bird population density using a Fourier series. In: Estimating the number of terrestrial birds. Eds. C.J. Ralph and M.J. Scott. Studies in Avian Biology No. 6. Cooper Ornithological Society. Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth ( 1 968): A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Govt, of India. 404 p. Daniels, R.J.R. (1989): A conservation strategy for the birds of the Uttara Kannada District. Ph.D. Thesis. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. Daniels R.J.R, M. Hegde & M. Gadgil (1990): Birds of the man-made ecosystems: the plantations. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci (Anim. Sci.) 99(1): 79-89. Greenberg, R. & J. Gradwohl (1986): Constant density and stable territoriality in some tropical insectivorous birds. Oecologia (59:61 8-625. Karr, J.R. ( 1 976): Seasonality, resource availability and community diversity of tropical bird communities. Amer. Nat. // 0:973-974. Kricher, J.C. (1975): Diversity in two wintering bird communities: Possible weather effects. Auk 92 (4):! 66-111. Ludwig, J. A. and J.F. Reynolds (1988): Statistical Ecology, John Wiley and Sons, New York. MacArthur, R.A. (1972): Geographical Ecology. Harper and Row, New York. Manilal, K.S. (1988): Flora of Silent Valley Tropical Rainforests of India. The Mathrubhmni (MM) Press, Calicut, pp. 398. Morrison, M. L.. A. Kimberly & 1. C. Timossi (1980): The structure of a forest bird community during winter and summer Wilson Bull., 98(2): 214-230. Pascal, J.P. (1 988): Wet Evergreen Forests ofthe Western Ghats of India, Ecology, Structure, Floristic Composition and Succession. Institute Francais de Pondicherry. Pondicherry. 239 p. Price, T.D. ( 1 979): The seasonality and occurrence of birds in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(3):319-422. Pyke, G.H. (1984): Seasonal patterns of abundance of insectivorous birds and flying insects. Emu 85(1): 34-39. Ramakrishnan, P. (1983): Environmental Studies on the Birds of Malabar Forest. Ph. D. Dissertation. University of Calicut. Rao, G.N. (1983): Statistics for Agricultural Sciences. Oxford and IBH Publ. Co. pp 280. Stiles, F.G. (1978): Temporal organization of flowering among the Humming bird, food plants of a tropical forest. Biotropica 10: 1 94-2 10. Terborgh, J. (1985): Habitat selection in Amazonian birds In: Habitat selection in birds. Ed. M.L. Cody, Academic Press, New York. 3 1 1 -338. Udvardy, M.D.R. (1975): A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. IUCN Occasional Paper. 18 IUCN. Gland, Morges. Wright, J.S. (1970): Competition between insectivorous lizards and birds in Central Panama. Amer. ZooL, 19:1 145-1156. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 61 PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (HUBNER) (PHYCITIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA) AS A POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS1 S.P. Rad3, H.R. Pajni andNeelima Talwar2 Key words: Plodia interpunctella , dry fruits, susceptibility, weight loss, development period, moisture content Relative susceptibility of 1 2 types of dry fruits viz., almond, apricot, cashewnut, chilgoza, coconut, date, fig, hazelnut, mulberry, pista, raisin and walnut and 1 0 varieties of pista procured from Iran i.e. Ebrahimi, Fandoghi, Gholam Rezaia, Jabbary, Kallenghoochi, Momtaz, O’hadi, Rezaia, Shasti and Wahedi to the attack of Plodia interpunctella (H.) has been studied for the first time. The results showed that cashewnut and pista were the most susceptible and date the least. Out of 10 pista varieties, the varieties Rezaia and Wahedi were the most resistant while the cultivars Fandoghi and Momtaz were the most susceptible. The index of susceptibility has been calculated on the basis of weight loss of fruits and development period and progeny of the pest. Introduction The Indian meal moth Plodia inteipunctella (Hubner) (Phycitidae : Lepidoptera) is an important pest of stored cereals, legumes and dry fruits. The damage is caused by the larvae: besides consuming the product they also spoil it with their webbings and faecal matter, making it unfit for human consumption. A large number of studies have been made on its general biology. Hoppe (1981), Mbata (1987, 1990) and Stein (1990) studied the development pattern while food preference was studied by Lecato (1976). Observations on oviposition behaviour have been made by Mullen and Arbogast (1977), Mbata (1985, 1990) and Almasi et ah, (1987). Grant (1974), Grant and Brady (1975) and Grant (1976) studied the copulation while Grant (1974), Grant and Brady (1975), Ono (1981) and Rangaswamy ( 1 985) made observations on the role of pheromones. The diapause behaviour has been studied by Bell and Walker (1973) and Bell ( 1 976a, 1 976b). However, only a few dry fruits have been tested as hosts of this pest. Myers (1928) studied the relative preference of the pest for a few dry fruits. Hamlin et al.,{ 1931 ), Simmons ( 1 93 1 ) and William ( 1 964) observed development in some dry fruits and 'Accepted February, 1998 : Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India. 'Present Address: 28, Matyer Feeroze Lane, Caroon Street, Azarbyjan Street, Tehran - Iran 1 3448. cereals. Mullen and Arbogast (1977) studied oviposition on peanuts and dates while Mbata and Osuji ( 1 983) studied the development in whole and cracked groundnuts. The present communication deals with the relative susceptibility and extent of damage to 12 dry fruits and 10 varieties of pista, to assess the potential of P. interpunctella (Hubner) as a pest of stored dry fruit. Material and Methods Adults of Plodia interpunctella (H.) used in the present study were taken from stock cultures raised in the laboratory from small samples collected from Delhi and Chandigarh. The cultures were maintained on different foods stored in an electric incubator fixed at 30 ± 1° C and 75-85% R.H. The foods used for stock cultures as well as those selected for different experiments were sterilized at 50° C for two hours in order to eliminate any parasites or other microorganisms. The twelve selected dry fruits were Prunus amygdalus Batsch almond, Primus armeniaca L. apricot, Anacardium occidental L. cashewnut, Pinus gerarcliana chilgoza, Cocos nucifera L. coconut, Phoenix dactylifera L. date, Ficus glomerata fig, Corylus spp. hazelnut, Morus nigra L. mulberry, Pistacia vera L. pista, Vitis vinifera L. raisin and Juglans regia L. walnut. The susceptibility index of different dry 62 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA ASA POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS fruits was studied out by keeping ten three-day old eggs mixed with 2 gm of nuts. Three replications were kept in each case. The samples were reweighed after emergence to determine the loss of weight due to consumption by the larvae. The moisture content of the samples was also calculated at the beginning and the end of the experiment and loss/ increase in weight due to moisture variation was considered while calculating actual weight loss. The percentage weight loss due to moisture content variations has been calculated by using the following relationship given by Jamieson (1970). 100 (M,-M.) G = — - 100 -M, Where M, = Initial moisture content percentage wet basis. M, = Final moisture content percentage wet basis. Knowing the value of G, the loss Or gain in weight due to variation in moisture content (d) can be calculated as under, and necessary correction in weight loss of the food made. GxW, d - — 100 Where W = Observed weight loss of the food. G =* Loss or gain percentage in weight due to moisture content variation. The data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis. Results and Discussion The relative susceptibility of twelve types of dry fruits was calculated on the basis of food consumed, the number of adults emerged, duration of developmental period and weight loss of the fruits. The results given in Table 1 showed that amount of different foods consumed by the larvae varied greatly, the largest amount being consumed in mulberry (1.816 gm) and the least in the case of coconut (0.004 gm). Appreciable differences have also been noted in the average development period. Pista registered the shortest development period of 31.71 days, whereas, date showed the longest development period of 104.25 days. However, Hamlin et al. (1931) observed more rapid development of larvae on figs among three fruits namely raisins, prunes and figs tested by them. The progeny produced was maximum in pista, walnut, cashewnut and almond, while other fruits produced comparatively much less progeny. The Table 1 WEIGHT LOSS OF 1 2 DRY FRUITS DUE TO THE ATTACK OF PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H.) (based on three observations) Food Initial Weight of food mean (gm) Final Weight of food mean (gm) Moisture Content M, M, Weight loss Mean % age weight loss Corrected mean % age weight loss Mulberry 2 0.184 8.96 7.326 1.816 90.80 90.768 Fig 2 0.593 10.32 9.949 1.407 70.35 70.345 Cashewnut 2 1.149 4.38 3.307 0.851 42.55 42.541 Almond 2 1.248 3.82 3.410 0.752 37.60 37.597 Walnut 2 1.449 3.40 2.208 0.551 27.55 27.544 Pista 2 1.485 3.34 2.828 0.515 25.75 25.748 Raisin 2 1.497 12.12 6.479 0.503 25.15 25.120 Hazelnut 2 1.550 3.46 2.387 0.450 22.50 22.496 Date 2 1.713 9.26 7.764 0.287 14.35 14.346 Apricot 2 1.862 17.54 14.607 0.138 6.90 6.896 Coconut 2 1.996 2.98 2.550 0.004 0.20 0.200 Chilgoza 2 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 63 PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA ASA POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS larvae failed to survive on apricot, coconut and chilgoza as they do not get sufficient nutrition to reach maturity. In fact, the larvae did consume some food in the case of apricot and coconut but died before reaching the pupal stage. In the case of chilgoza, on the contrary, the larvae did not consume any food. The relative suitability of different foods was also determined with the help of the formula Log eY/T, given by Osuji (1976), where Y is the number of progeny, T is the time taken by 50% of the adults to emerge and e is a constant with a value of 2.303 (Table 2). Pista, walnut and hazelnut, with a suitability index value of 1.743, 1.590 and 1.393, were the most suitable food while date with an index value of 0.085 was the least suitable food. The relative susceptibility of various foods can be judged by combining the amount of food consumed with the index of suitability (Table 3). Cashewnut and pista with susceptibility index values of 49.773 and 44.878 respectively, were the most susceptible foods whereas date with the index value of 1.219 was the least susceptible food. Table 2 RELATIVE SUITABILITY OF 12 DRY FRUITS TO THE ATTACK BY PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H.) (based on three replications of 1 0 eggs each) Food Progeny Y (Average) Development period (Todays) Index of suitability L°SeY/T50 Pista 24 31.71 1.743 Walnut 25 36.20 1.590 Hazelnut 21 34.71 1.393 Cashewnut 25 49.20 1.170 Almond 24 49.04 1.127 Mulberry 14 81.21 0.397 Fig 8 101.38 0.181 Raisin 5 94.60 0.121 Date 4 104.25 0.085 Apricot Nil Nil Nil Coconut Nil Nil Nil Chilgoza Nil Nil Nil Loge = 2.303 (constant) T-0 = Time taken by 50% of the adults to emerge. It is clear from the data in Tables 2 and 3 that the order of relative suitability and relative susceptibility of the foods was different. This is so because cashewnut undergoes maximum weight loss though the development period on this food is long. It is the duration of the Table 3 RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF 12 DRY FRUITS TO THE ATTACK BY PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H.) Food Suitability index value (a) ‘ Corrected mean % age of weight loss (b) Susceptibility index value (axb> Cashewnut 1.170 42.541 49.773 Pista 1.743 25.748 44.879 Walnut 1 .590 27.544 43.795 Almond 1.127 37.597 42.372 Mulbeiry 0.397 90.768 36.035 Hazelnut 1.393 22.496 31.337 Fig 0.181 70.345 12.732 Raisin 0.121 25.120 3.039 Date 0.085 14.346 1.219 Apricot Nil 6.896 Nil Coconut Nil 0.200 Nil Chilgoza Nil Nil Nil development period that pushes the cashewnut at number 4 in term of suitability index. However, maximum weight loss by cashewnut pushes its susceptibility index to number 1. There is little difference in the two indices of pista and date which occupy the same order in the lists of both indices. The resistance among ten cultivars of pista procured from Tehran Agriculture University was tested on the same pattern as followed for different fruits and susceptibility index was calculated in the same manner The obtained results are give in Tables 4, 5 and 6. Table 4 reveals that varieties kGH’ and ‘WA’ underwent a minimum weight loss of 0.439 gm and 0.465 gm respectively whereas, ‘MO’ underwent a maximum weight loss of 0.660 gm. The progeny from 30 eggs on each food varied from 20 to 28 and the developmental period differed from 22.5 to 26.83 days (Table 5). 64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1 ) APR. 2000 PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA ASA POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS Table 4 WEIGHT LOSS OF TEN VARIETIES OF PISTA DUE TO THE ATTACK OF PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H. ) (based on three observations) Food Initial Weight Final Weight Moisture Content Weight Mean Corrected of food of food M, m2 loss %age mean % age mean (gm) mean (gm) weight loss weight loss ‘MO’ 2 1.340 4.380 4.029 0.660 33.000 32.998 ‘FA’ 2 1.363 4.600 4.400 0.637 31.850 31.849 ‘KA’ 2 1.406 4.420 4.196 0.594 29.700 29.699 ‘JA’ 2 1.431 4.160 3.913 0.569 28.450 28.449 ‘EB’ 2 1.433 4.100 3.698 0.567 28.350 28.348 ‘SH' 2 1.471 4.620 4.554 0.529 26.450 26.449 ‘OH’ 2 1.498 4.680 4.270 0.502 25.100 25.098 ‘RE’ 2 1.524 4.480 3.608 0.476 23.800 23.796 ‘WA’ 2 1.535 4.360 3.452 0.465 23.250 23.246 ‘GH’ 2 1.561 4.520 4.290 0.439 21.950 21.949 MO = Momtaz FA = Fandoghi KA = Kallehghoochi JA = Jabbary EB = Ebrahimi SH = Shasti OH = O’hadi RE = Rezaia WA = Wahedi GH = Gholam Rezaia It is clear from the susceptibility index results (Table 6), that the varieties ‘FA’ and ‘MO’ with the susceptibility index values of 84.750 and 77.578 were the most susceptible foods while the varieties ‘RE’ and ‘WA’ with the index value of 41.1 19 and 45.887, were the least susceptible foods. The result of this study reveal that dry fruits like cashewnut, pista, walnut, almond, hazelnut Table 5 RELATIVE SUITABILITY OF TEN VARIETIES OF PISTA TO THE ATTACK BY PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H.) (based on three replications of 1 0 eggs each) Food Progeny Y (Average) Development period (Todays) Index of suitability L°ScY/T50 ‘FA’ 26 22.50 2.661 ‘O’H’ 28 25.64 2.514 ‘GH’ 26 24.23 2.471 ‘KA’ 27 25.48 2.440 ‘MO’ 25 24.48 2.351 ‘JA’ 26 25.65 2.334 ‘SH’ 25 25.12 2.291 ‘EB’ 22 23.77 2.131 ‘WA’ 23 26.83 1 .974 ‘RE’ 20 26.65 1.728 Loge = 2.303 (constant) T = Time taken by 50% of the adults to emerge. and mulberry are preferred foods of Plodici interpunctella (Hubner) and therefore special care should be taken to save these commodities from the attack of this pest. The damage to fig and raisin is not much and therefore, no special care is required for protection of these two fruits. The remaining three fruits namely apricot, coconut and chilgoza are not attacked by the pest in nature. Some larval feeding is witnessed on apricot and Table 6 RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF TEN VARIETIES OF PISTA TO THE ATTACK B.Y PLODIA INTERPUNCTELLA (H.) Food Suitability index value (a) Corrected mean % age of weight loss (b) Susceptibility index value (axb) ‘FA’ 2.-661 31.849 • 84. 750 ‘MO’ 2.351 32.998 77. 578 ‘KA’ 2.440 29.699 72.465 ‘JA’ 2.334 28.449 66. 400 ‘O’H’ 2.514 25.098 63. 096 ‘SH’ 2.291 26.449 60.594 ‘EB’ 2.131 28.348 60. 409 ‘GH’ 2.471 2 1 .949 54. 235 ‘WA’ 1.974 23.246 45. 887 ‘RE’ 1.728 23.796 41.1 19 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 65 PLOD1A INTERPUNCTELLA ASA POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS coconut under experimental conditions, whereas no feeding takes place in case of chilgoza. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Chairman, Refer Almasi, Radmila, Z. Srdic & T. Stojanovic (1987): Influence of food on the fecundity and fertility of Indian meal moth {Plodia interpunctella Hbn.) (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae, ZastBilja 38(4): 309-316. Bell, C.H. (1976a): Effect of cultural factors on the development of four stored product moths. J. Stored Prod. Res. 12: 185-193. Bell, C.H. (1976b): Factors governing the induction of diapause in Ephestia elutella and Plodia interpunctella (H.) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). Physiol. Ent. 7:83-91. Bell, C.H. & D.J. Walker ( 1 973): Diapause induction in Ephestia elutella (Hubner) and Plodia interpunctella (Hubner) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) with a dawn dusk lighting system. J. Stored Prod. Res. 9: 149-158. Grant, G.G. ( 1 974): Male sex pheromone from the wing glands of the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Hbn.) (Lepidoptera : Phycitidae). Experientia. 30: 917-918. Grant, G.G. ( 1 976): Female coyness and receptivity during courtship in Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). Can. Ent. 108: 975-979. Grant, G.G. &U.E. Brady (1975): Courtship behaviour of phycitid moths (1) comparison of Plodia interpunctella and Cadra cautella and role of male scent glands. Can. J. Zool. S3: 813-826. Hamlin, J.C., W.D. Reed& M.E. Philips (1931): Biology of the Indian meal moth on dried fruits in California. U.S.D.A. Technical Bull No. 242. Hoppe, T, (1981): Food preference - oviposition and development of the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (H.) on different products and chocolate industry. Z. Angew Entomol. 91(2): 170-179. Jamieson, M.F.S. (1970): A simple tool for calculating loss or gain in weight resulting from a change in the moisture content of produce. Trop. Stored Prod. Int. 19-20. Lecato, G.L. (1976): Yield, development and weight of Cadra cautella (Walk) and Plodia interpunctella (H.) on twenty-one diets derived from natural products. J. Stored Prod. Res. 12:43-41. Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh for research facilities. The first author is also thankful to the Government of Iran for providing necessary funds for studying in the Panjab University, Chandigarh. N C E S Mbata, G.N. ( 1 985): Some physical and biological factors affecting oviposition by Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera : Phycitidae). Insect. Sci. Appl. 6(5): 597-604. Mbata, G.N. (1987): Studies on the susceptibility of groundnut varieties to infestation by Plodia interpunctella (H.) (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). J. Stored Prod. Res. 23(1): 57-63. Mbata, G.N. ( 1 990): Suitability of mai/e varieties for the oviposition and development of Plodia interpunctella (H.) (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). Trop. Pest Manage. 36(2): 122-127. Mbata, G.N. & F.N.C. Osuji ( 1 983): Some aspects of the biology of Plodia interpunctella ( H.) (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae), a pest of stored products in Nigeria. J. Stored Prod. Res. 19(3): 141-151. Mullen, M.A. & R.T. Arbogast (1977): Influence of substrate on oviposition by two species of stored product moths. Environ. Ent. 6(5): 641-642. Myers, J.G. (1928): Report on insect infestation of dried fruits. Empire Marketing Board No. 12. Ono, T. (1981 ): Factors releasing the copulation attempt in three species of Phycitidae. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 16(1): 24-28. Osuji, F.N. (1976): A comparison of the susceptibility of cowpea varieties to infestation by Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera : Bruchidae). Ent. Exp. and Appl. 20: 209-217. Rangaswamy, J.R. (1985): Sex pheromones of stored product insect pests. J. Sci. Jnd. Res. (India). 44(9): 491-500. Simmons, P. (1931): Fig insects in California. U.S.D.A. Circular No. 157. Stein, W. (1990): Investigations about the development of stored product insects at fruits of indigenous trees and shrubs. Anz. Schaedlingskd Pflanzenschutz Umweltschutz. 63(3): 41-46. Williams, G.C. ( 1 964): The life history of the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (H.) in a warehouse in Britain and on different foods. Ann. Appl. Biol. 53: 459-475. 66 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 FRESHWATER CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA : BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS1 K. Venkataraman2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Cladocera, 38 species, Andaman and Nicobar Islands During 1990-92, 221 Cladocera samples were collected from 106 freshwater habitats throughout the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. A total of 38 species belonging to 21 genera of five families were identified, of which 24 were chydorids and 14 nonchydorids. The seven regions, viz. north, middle, south and little Andaman, Carnicobar, Nancowry group and Great Nicobar, were divided into two groups for the present study. All the seven stations were compared by the Sorensen index of similarity, and Koch index of biotal dispersity. The indices are generally high, reflecting the small number of species involved and their wide distribution, but two groups of stations are easily discernible. The indices for the Nicobar group of islands are somewhat lower, being influenced by the erratic occurrence of eurytopic species such as Moina micrura , Ceriodaphnia cornuta and Macrothrix spinosa , but they are clearly interrelated. Introduction The Andaman and Nicobars consist of over 550 islands, including several archipelagoes with a land area of 8,293 sq km. Being oceanic islands, they have hilly terrain and virgin forests, free flowing streams and cavities where water logging takes place throughout the monsoon. Irrigation reservoirs or lakes are absent, except for a few very small dams used mainly for drinking water (Danikari dam and Dilthaman tank, Port Blair). A few perennial water bodies, and many temporary cavities and rice fields are the main wetlands, where this study was conducted. The Cladocera are dominant micro- crustaceans in the freshwater habitats of the Andaman and Nicobar islands, but they are not known taxonomically and ecologically as compared to those in the surrounding regions, such as the Indian mainland (Venkataraman, 1983; 1992a; Michael and Sharma, 1988; Venkataraman and Das, 1993), Sri Lanka 'Accepted November, 1 997 Zoological Survey of India 100, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India. (Rajapaksha and Fernando, 1987), Malaysia (Idris, 1983) and the Philippines (Marnaril, 1977). Except for Venkataraman ( 1 99 1 , 1 992b, c), no worker has studied the freshwater bodies of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Hence, this study on the occurrence of Cladocera was undertaken in the freshwater habitats of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Material and Methods During 1990-92, 221 samples of Cladocera were collected from 106 freshwater habitats throughout the North (NA), Middle (MA) and South Andaman (SA), (Diglipur, Mayabunder, Rangat, Kadamthala, Port Blair, Havelock, Ross Islands and Little Andaman), Carnicobar (CN), Nancowry Group (NG) and Great Nicobar (GN) of Nicobar Islands (Fig. 1). Samples were collected from ponds, marshes, reservoirs, rice fields, dams, streams and rainwater pools, using a plankton net of 45 cm diameter, with circular mouth. The samples were usually collected in shallow water, among vegetation and in clear water. The net was dragged close to the bottom; excessive stirring of the mud was avoided. This technique gave a qualitative sample of shallow JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 67 FRESH W A TER CLADOCERA OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS water invertebrates living on the substratum, among vegetation and in the water column as in rice fields or marshes. The normal annual rainfall was 3,180 mm, mean max. temp. 29.98 °C and the mean min. temp. 23. 1 3 °C. The mean relative humidity was 79%. Descriptions of Some Rare Species Brief descriptions of five rare species reported in the present study are given below. All the other 33 species recorded in this study have been described by Michael and Sharma (1988) from the Indian mainland, Malaysia (Idris, 1983) and Sri Lanka (Rajapaksha and Fernando, 1987). Family Sididae Diaphanosoma volzi Stingelin 1905 Material examined: 5 females from Bomila creek marsh, Little Andaman. Female: Body size 0.73 mm. Head rounded and small, eye relatively large. Valves straight on ventral margin, duplicature forming a wide angle, posteroventral comer rounded, without denticles except for a long spine on the posterior margin. Postabdomen with three long and sharply pointed basal spines. Remarks: Very rare. The material agrees with the description often mentioned under the name D. aspinoswn by Chiang (1956) from China, and by Idris (1983) from Malaysia. Family Macrothricidae Guernella raphalis Richard 1892 Material examined: 3 females from Hut Bay nalla, Little Andaman, several females from roadside ponds in Wandoor, Port Blair. Female: Body size 0.41 mm. Carapace 68 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000 FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS slightly oval. Head rounded anteriorly and concave ventrally; eye large, ocellus at the apex of rostrum. Antennule short and broad with lateral setae. Valves with polygonal reticulations, broadly rounded distally, ventral margin rounded and serrated. Claw short without basal spine. Macrothrix laticornis (Jurine 1820) Material examined: 6 females from Kadamthala fish pond (NA). Female: Body size 0.48 mm. Head rounded; rostrum small with two antennules implanted with a bunch of subapical long spines and four rows of dorsal spines. Ventral margin with movable spines. Postabdomen thick and swollen, with numerous fine spines. Family Chydoridae Pleuroxus denticulatus Birge 1879 Material examined: 5 females from Yatrik pond, 7 females from Schoolline pond, 22 females from Coast Guard pond. Female: Body size 0.42 mm. Shape broadly oval, with striated carapace. Posteroventral comer with 2-4 denticles. Rostrum long and pointed. Ocellus situated closer to the eye than to apex of rostrum. Postabdomen with 14-16 denticles with two basal spines on the claw. Alona cf. dentifera (Sars 1901) Material examined: 9 females from Mumgan temple pond, 6 females from Schoolline pond, Port Blair (SA). Female: Body size 0.45 mm. Valves with longitudinal lines. Posteroventral corner rounded, with three denticles. Ocellus slightly smaller than eye, situated half-way between eye and tip of rostrum. Labrum rounded anteriorly, slightly pointed ventrally. Postabdomen with prominent preanal and postanal corner, with 1 1 groups of denticles. Claw long, with a long basal spine. Remarks: Rare. New record to India. Idris (1983) shifted this species from the genus Alonella to Alona. More studies are required to confirm the identity of this species. Results and Discussion A total of 38 species belonging to 2 1 genera of 5 families were identified in the 22 1 samples collected from different habitats during 1989-1991, of which 24 were chydorids and 14 nonchydorids. Of all the samples, only 10 contained no cladocerans. There were great differences between the islands in the number of cladocerans collected (Table 1). As in the Northeast (Venkataraman, 1994, 1995), as well as Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan (Venkataraman, 1983, 1992a), cladocerans of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a mixture of tropical and temperate species (Table 2). Ceriodaphnia cornuta , Moina micrura and Diaphanosoma excisum are considered to be typically tropical species widely distributed from the northernmost tip Diglipur, to the other end, Great Nicobar. Diaphanosoma volzi , Macrothrix laticornis , Pleuroxus denticulatus , Chydorus pubescens , Alona cf. dentifera and Leydigia acanthocercoides, which are considered to be temperate in origin, occur in Andaman and Nicobar Is. (Table 1). Cladoceran hatching and growth rate is controlled by temperature, which ranged from 29-32 °C (Table 3) in the study. The pH range of these wetlands was narrow, 7.25 to 8.90. Previous workers Bayly (1963), Moitra and Bhattacharya (1965) and Chengalath (1982) showed that Cladocera and other freshwater, zooplankton populations vary inversely with pH. However, the present study does not show any such significant variation. The study areas receive monsoon rain from March through October. This continuous rainfall dilutes the ionic strength and nutrient levels of the water, which in turn may affect the proliferation of cladoceran population. It also increases the oxygen content of the water along JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 69 FRESH W A TER CL A DOCERA OF THE A NDA MAN AND N I CO BA R IS LA NDS Table 1 OCCURRENCE OF CLADOCERA (IN NUMBER OF SAMPLES) IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS (TOTAL NUMBER OF SAMPLES COLLECTED IS GIVEN IN PARENTHESIS) Andaman Nicobar SI. No. Cladocera species North Andaman (20) Middle Andaman (30) South Andaman (96) Little Andaman (44) Carnicobar (10) Nancowry Group (6) Great Nicobar (15) Family Sididae 1 . Pseudosida bidentata 2 - - - - - - 2. Latonopsis australis - - 3 1 - - 1 3. Diaphanosoma sarsi 3 4 10 3 - - 2 4. Diaphanosoma excisum 1 3 28 - - - - 5. Diaphanosoma volzi - - - 1 - - - Family Daphniidae 6. Ceriodaphnia cornuta 5 7 18 6 3 1 3 7. Scapholeberis kingi - 1 7 - - - - Family Moinidae 8. Moina micrura 6 13 19 5 - - 1 9. Moinodaphnia macleayi - - 5 - - - - Family Macrothricidae 1 0 . Macrothrix spinosa 1 1 9 3 - 1 3 1 1 . Macrothrix laticornis - 1 - - - - 1 2. Echinisca triserialis - - 18 2 - 1 - 1 3 . Ilyocryptus spinifer - 1 7 3 - - - 14. Guernella raphalis - - 2 1 - ■ _ Family Chydoridae Subfamily Chydorinae 15. Pleuroxus similis 4 1 6. Pleuroxus denticulatus - - 6 - - - - - 17. Chydorus ventricosus - 1 19 3 - - - 18. Chydorus reticulatus 7 13 22 5 - - - 19. Chydorus eurynotus 5 6 9 2 - 1 1 20. Chydorus parvus - 1 6 - - - ■ 2 1 . Chydorus barroisi - - 17 - - - - 2 2 . Chydorus pubes cens - 1 - - - - - 23. Dadaya macrops 1 2 8 2 - - 1 24. Dunhevedia crassa - 2 12 3 - - 1 25. Dunhevedia serrata - 1 7 - - - * Subfamily Aloninae 26. A Iona monacantha 1 - 8 - - - ■ 27 . A Iona cf. dentifera - - 3 - - - - 28. Alona pulchella - 6 12 4 - - - 29. Alona guttata - 2 - - - ■ ■ 30. Alona davidi - - 18 5 - - • 31. Alona karua 2 5 12 3 - - - 32. Alona verrucosa - - 6 - - - - 3 3 . Oxyurella sinhalensis ' - - 10 - - - - 34. Kurzia longirostris 1 - 7 2 - - 1 35. Euryalona orientalis - - 4 - - - ■ 36. Notalona globulosa 2 - 7 - - " 3 7 . Leydigia acanthocercoides 1 1 3 - - ■ 1 38. Leydigia australis - - 4 - ■ ■ ' Total number of species 14 20 32 19 1 4 10 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000 FRESHWATER CLADOCERA OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS Table 2 OCCURRENCE OF SPECIES OF CLADOCERA IN DIFFERENT STATES OF INDIA SI. No. Name of the family Number of species of Cladocera Tamil Nadu Rajasthan West Bengal Tripura Andaman and Nicobar India (total) 1. Sididae 5 5 5 5 5 6 2. Daphniidae 12 12 9 7 2 17 3. Moinidae 2 4 3 2 2 5 4. Bosminidae - 1 2 2 - 2 5. Macrothricidae 4 8 6 4 5 8 6. Chydoridae 23 24 32 29 24 47 Total 46 54 57 49 38 85 with the nutrient level in the wetlands of Andaman (Table 4). The seven regions viz. north, middle, south and little Andaman, Carnicobar, Nancowry group and Great Nicobar have been divided into two groups for the puipose of the present study. The four northern regions known as the Andaman group have fourteen or more species Table 3 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF THE FRESHWATER PONDS AND LAKES STUDIED IN ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. SI. No. Name of the pond Date pH Surface water Temp. °C Conductivity mmhos O, mg/I Transparency cm 1. Mayabundar (NA) 23.01.91 5.5 - 8.70 '* - 2. Schoolline pond (SA) 28.04.90 - - 3.80 - - 3. Dhobi pond (SA) 21.05.90 8.53 32.3 1.30 4.10 30 4. Yatrikpond I (SA) 21.05.90 7.95 33.0 2.00 8.10 75 5. Bay Island Hotel Pond (SA) 25.05.90 8.70 31.2 4.00 10.42 50 6. Murugankoil pond (SA) 02.06.90 7.09 29.9 2.40 6.05 7. Murugankoil pond (SA) 02.07.90 7.17 30.8 2.00 - - 8. Dhobi pond (SA) 02.07.90 7.59 30.2 7.30 - - 9. Murugankoil pond (SA) 09.07.90 7.78 31.2 6.90 - 10. Murugankoil pond (SA) 17.7.90 7.29 29.5 7.50 5.70 - 11. Murugankoil pond (SA) 18.07.90 7.04 30.4 8.00 5.90 ■ - 12. Murugankoil pond (SA) 19.07.90 7.26 30.2 3.00 5.20 - 13. Yatrikpond(SA) 27.7.90 8.94 31.5 1.90 6/00 - 14. Dhobi pond (SA) 18.07.90 8.50 31.5 6.60 10.30 - 15. Dhobi pond (SA) 19.07.90 7.34 29.7 5.70 5.30 - 16. Coastguard Pond (SA) 19.07.90 8.36 30.1 2.00 6.20 - 17. Schoolline pond (SA) 08.08.90 7.35 31.4 0.11 7.78 - 18. Yatrik pond (SA) 08.10.90 7.26 30.8 2.00 8.00 - 19. Havelock pond I (SA) 23.01.91 5.50 - 8.70 - - JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 71 FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS Table 4 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF THE SURFACE RUN OFF WATER BEFORE AND AFTER RAIN IN THE CANALS OF PORT BLAIR DURING MAY 1 990 SI. Canals of Port Blair Conductivity in pH 02mg/l Total solid Dissolved solids No. mmhos mg/1 mg/1 Before Rain After Rain Before Rain After Rain Before Rain After . Rain Before Rain After Rain Before Rain After Rain 1. Murugan temple 4.6 6.9 7.40 7.02 6.54 6.43 120 3800 500 1200 2. Shadipur canal 2.1 4.1 7.61 7.48 6.34 6.63 340 2000 500 1400 3. Phoenix Bay canal 8.0 11.3 7.51 7.49 4.27 4.73 3300 5700 1000 2000 4. Anarkali canal 9.3 8.4 7.88 7.64 6.19 6.53 770 21800 700 2200 5. Megapod Nest canal 3.3 3.4 7.68 7.70 5.88 6.36 1250 1300 200 900 Mean 6.0 8.37 7.64 7.49 5.97 6.25 683 6017 533 3000 Deviation 2.57 4.76 0.17 0.25 0.86 0,76 577 7910 287 3609 of Cladocera each, while the southern three regions known as the Nicobar group have only one to ten species. The seven stations have been compared by the Sorensen index of similarity. This was calculated for each combination of stations according to the following equation (Sorensen, 1948): S=2c/a+b x 100, where ‘c’ is the number of species common to both associations, ‘a’ the number of species in one association and ‘b’ the number of species in the other association. The results for 21 pairs of stations are given in Table 5. The indices are generally high, reflecting the small number of species involved and their wide distribution, but the two groups of stations are easily discernible. Andaman group (4 stations) have highly interrelated indices. Those for the Nicobar group are lower, being influenced by the erratic occurrence of eurytopic species such as Moina micrura , Ceriodaphnia cornuta and Macrothrix spinosa, but they are clearly interrelated. Andaman Islands closely resemble each other, the Great Nicobar closely resembles Nancowry group, whereas Camicobar is unique (Table 5). Koch (1957) has devised an index ofbiotal dispersity (IBD) which can be used to assess the wide dispersity of species between islands. IBD =T-S/S(n-1 ) x 100, where ‘T’ is the arithmetical sum of species living in each ‘iT compared associations and ‘S’ is the total list of species in ‘iT compared associations. If each station had a completely different set of species, ‘S’ should equal ‘T’ and the IBD would be 0%. If each station had an identical set of species, ‘T’ would equal n x S and the IBD would be 100%. When the Koch index for all seven stations was calculated, the resulting IBD was 27, but when separate indices were calculated for the Andaman and Nicobar groups, there was an increase in the IBD for the former (40) and a decrease for the latter (18). The large increase in IBD when the Andaman group were considered separately indicates that these Table 5 SORENSEN INDICES FOR CLADOCERA FROM SEVEN DIFFERENT ISLAND GROUPS OF ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 _ 53 59 53 13 33 67 2 53 - 64 60 10 25 33 3 59 64 - 68 7 24 45 4 53 60 68 - 10 58 60 5 13 10 7 10 - 40 18 6 33 25 24 58 40 - 43 7 67 33 45 60 18 43 - 1 - North Andaman; 2- Middle Andaman; 3 - South Andaman; 4 - Little Andaman; 5 - Camicobar; 6 - Nancowry Group; 7 - Great Nicobar. 72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 FRESHWA TER CLADOCERA OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS regions resemble each other in Cladocera fauna much more than they resemble the Nicobar group. This agrees well with the Sorensen indices. Acknowledgements I thank the Director, ZSI, Calcutta, Officer- in-charge Andaman and Nicobar Regional Refer Bayly, I.A.E. (1963): Reversed diurnal vertical migration of planktonic Crustacea in inland waters of low hydrogen ion concentration, Nature , 200 : 704-705. Chengalath. R. (1982): A faunistic and ecological survey of the littoral Cladocera of Canada, Can. J. Zool. 60: 2668-2682. Chiang, S.C. (1956): Some species of Diaphanosoma (Cladocera) from Wuchang, China (in Chinese with English Summary). Acta Hydrobiologia Sinica, 2: 31-2-341. - Idris, B.A.G. (1983): Freshwater zooplankton of Malaysia (Crustacea : Cladocera), Penerbit Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 153 pp. Koch, L.P. (1957): Index ofbiotal dispersity. Ecology, 38: 145-148. Mamaril, A.C. (1977): Freshwater zooplankton of Philippines (Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepoda) M.Sc. thesis, University of Waterloo, Canada, 151 pp. Michael R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India, Indian Cladocera (Crustacea : Branchiopoda : Cladocera) Ed. Director, Zoological Survey of India, 262 pp. Moitra, J.K. & B.K. Bhattacharya (1965): Some hydrological factors affecting plankton production in a fish-pond in Kalyani, West Bengal, India, Ichthyologia, 4: 8-12. Rajapaksa, R. & C.H. Fernando (1987): Redescription and assignment of Alona globulosa Dady 1 898 to Station and Marine Biological Station for facilities for preparing this paper. I also thank Dr. H.S. Mehta, Shri Bulganin Mitra, Dr. Sanjeev Kumar, Shri P.T. Rajan, Shri Sukla, Shri Ponnusamy, Shri Deivaprakasam and Shri Selvaraj of Andaman and Nicobar Regional Station for their valuable help in collecting the specimens. ENC ES new genus Notoalona and a description of Notoalona freyi sp. nov., Hycirobiologia. 144: 131-153. Sorensen, T. (1948): A method of establishing group of equal amplitude in plant sociology based on similarity of species content and its application to analysis of the vegetation on Danish commons, Biol. Skr. 5(4): 1-34. Venkataraman, K. (1983): Taxonomy and Ecology of Cladocera of southern Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, 190 pp. Venkataraman, K. (1991): Freshwater Cladocera of Little Andaman, J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 6: 60-62. Venkataraman, K. (1992a): I. Cladocera of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur and its environs, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.., 89: 1 7-26. Venkataraman, K. (1992b): Freshwater Cladocera of Andaman, J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 8: 133-137. Venkataraman, K. (1992c): Occurrence of male Cladoceran of Moinodaphnia macleayi (King) in oriental region, / Andaman. Sci. Assoc. 8: 179-180. Venkataraman, K. (1994): Cladocera In: State Fauna Series 3: Fauna of West Bengal, Part 10: 1-36. Venkataraman, K. (1995): Freshwater Cladocera of Tripura State, North Eastern India,/. Andaman Sci. Assoc. II: 15-20. Venkataraman, K. & S.R. Das (1993): Freshwater Cladocera (Crustacea : Branchiopoda) of southern West Bengal, /. Andaman Sci. Assoc.. 9: 1 9-24. JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 73 LONGICORN BEETLES (CERAMBYCINAE, PRIONINAE : CERAMBYCIDAE) OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE, JALPAIGURI, WEST BENGAL1 Dinendra Raychaudhuri2 and Sumana Saha C With twelve text-figures ) Key words: Taxonomy, Cerambycidae, Cerambycinae, Prioninae, Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal The paper deals with the taxonomy of 1 2 species of Cerambycidae (Cerambycinae and Prioninae) of Buxa Tiger Reserve. Of these, 7 species Ceresium leucosticticum White, C. rufum Lameere, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis Newman, Macrotoma (Zooblax) spinosa (Fabricius), Tetraommatus filiformis Perroud, Thranius simplex Gahan and Xoanodera regular is Gahan, are new records from the state of West Bengal. The species have been described and suitably illustrated. Identification keys are provided wherever necessary. Introduction Family Cerambycidae refers to the longhorn beetles. These coleopterans are wood borers in their larval stages, for which they are extremely important in any forest ecosystem. Because of their great economic importance, these beetles have received serious attention. Up to 1200 species of cerambycids are reported from the Indian region, largely dominated by the Lamiinae (Beeson, 1961). The systematics, biology and ecology of these beetles have been worked out. Khan and Maiti ( 1 983) while dealing with the biotaxonomy, biology and ecology of some of these borers have reviewed the works of others, e.g. Stebbing, Beeson, Beeson and Bhatia, Husain and Khan, Bhasin and Roonwal, Bhasin et al., and Dutt. Basak and Biswas (1993) have remarked “our present state of knowledge of longicom beetles of the state of Orissa is very incomplete and fragmentary”, and “no comprehensive work on the longicom beetles from Orissa is available”. They, however, listed 32 species belonging to 27 genera under 3 subfamilies as the cerambycid fauna of Orissa. Though they indicated the distribution of some of these species in West Bengal, recent State 'Accepted June, 1999 :Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Calcutta 700019, West Bengal, India. Fauna Series 3: Fauna of West Bengal Pt 6A, 6B (Insecta : Coleoptera), 1995-96 Z.S.I. did not include Cerambycidae. Our survey of Buxa forest, presently known as Buxa Tiger Reserve ( Jalpaigun, West Bengal) during 1994-97 revealed the existence of 12 species of longhorn beetles (Cerambycinae; Prioninae) belonging to 1 1 genera. Raychaudhuri (1996) had reported 10 species belonging to 10 genera of the same subfamilies from the forest. Besides, we have several species of lamiids in our collection. We now present the taxonomic details of the beetles belonging to the subfamilies Cerambycinae and Prioninae. Incidentally, Basak and Biswas (1993) have not presented any taxonomic key or detailed description of the 32 listed species. Such a taxonomic treatise is necessary for India, as several decades have elapsed since the publication of Gahan (1906). This paper details the morphology of each species, together with keys, even of the higher categories. All the species have been illustrated. Ceresium leucosticticum White, C. rufum Lameere, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis Newman, Macrotoma spinosa (Fabricius), Tetraommatus filiformis Perroud, Thranius simplex Gahan and Xoanodera regularis Gahan appear to be new records from the state of West Bengal. All the reported species are at present in the collection of Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta. 74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE Material and Methods Insect samples have been collected and preserved for further study following the recommendations of Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta (Ghosh and Sengupta, 1982). Abbreviations used: BG - Bhutanghat — B.T.R. - Buxa Tiger Reserve DM - Damanpur EL - Length of elytra EW * Humeral width of elytra FA - Apical width of frons FL - Length of frons A. HW - Maximum width of head JY - Jayanti a. LT - Light trap NL - Newland NM - Nimati al PA - Apical width of pronotum PB - Basal width of pronotum PK - Phaskhawa — PL - Length of pronotum PN - Panbari PW - Maximum width of pronotum — RB - Rajabhatkhawa RM - Raimatang SB - South Bholka — SR - South Raydak TG - Tashigaon B. Taxonomy Key to Subfamilies, Tribes and Genera 1. Prothorax marginate at sides, sometimes entire, more frequently dentate or spinose; fore coxae strongly transverse; antennae usually inserted close to mandibular base; mesonotum without al . stridulatory area (except in Philus ); vein Cu2 usually present; vein Al with a large subelliptical cell Prioninae A. Episterna of metathorax with posteriorly converging sides, narrowly truncate or obtusely pointed at apex; intercoxal process of prosternum arched; lateral margins of prothorax unarmed or with 1-3 spines or teeth; antennal joints spinose; 1st antennal joint short Megopidini, Megopis Serville Episterna of metathorax parallel-sided for greater part of their length, broadly truncate behind; intercoxal process of prosternum flat and horizontal; lateral margins of prothorax crenulate, denticulate or spinulose; antennal joints not spinose, if at all with short spines; 1 st antennal joint long or moderately long .... Macrotomini, Macrotoma Serville Prothorax emarginate at sides; fore coxae rarely strongly transverse; antennae inserted at some distance from base of mandibles; mesonotum generally with stridulatory area; veins Cu2 and branch of Cul usually absent; vein Al mostly without any cell Cerambycinae Intercoxal process of prosternum not or weakly dilated at apex a Ligula corneous; antennae never ciliated but may have long pubescence; vein Cu2 absent Oemini Head flat between antennae; 1st coxae contiguous; antennae never spinose or dentate Tetraommatus Perroud Head raised forming a ridge, broadly concave between antennae; 1st coxae separate; antennae dentate Xystfocera Serville Ligula membranous; antennae ciliated; either vein Cu2 or posterior branch of Cul absent .. Hesperophanini, Stromatium Serville Intercoxal process of prosternum distinctly dilated at apex B Acetabula of fore coxae closed or nearly closed posteriorly, rarely angulated on outer side .... i Metasternum with scent-pores; acetabula of middle coxae extended to epimera Callichromini, Aiiubis Thomson Metasternum without scent-pores; acetabula of middle coxae open to epimera Cerambycini Pronotum transversely irregularly wrinkled with broken ridges; elytra with a spine at sutural apex; 1 st joint of hind tarsus nearly as long as the next two united Hoplocerambyx Thomson Pronotum without ridge, instead either transversely grooved near base and apex or with variable number of sharp, straight, longitudinal costae; elytra without spine at sutural apex; 1st joint of hind tarsus shorter than next two united Xoanodera Pascoe JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 75 LONG1CORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE Fig. 1 : Anubis inermis (White): A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg — Acetabula of fore coxae open posteriorly, angulated on outer side ii ii Eyes coarsely faceted Callidiopsini, Ceresium Newman — Eyes finely faceted iii iii. Elytra dehiscent posteriorly, acuminate at apex; front coxae prominent, contiguous; prothorax parallel-sided Thranini, Thranius Pascoe — Elytra neither dehiscent nor acuminate at apex; front coxae not prominent, globular and not contiguous; prothorax with sides weakly to distinctly rounded Clytini, Xylotrechus Chevrolat Subfamily 1 : Cerambycinae Tribe: Callichromini Genus: Anubis Thomson Anubis , Thomson 1864, Syst. Ceramb. : 177. Type-species: Anubis clavicornis Fabricius Anubis inermis (White) (Fig. 1) Polyzonus inermis White 1853, Cat. Coleopt. B.M., Longic.: 171. Male: Head, antennal segment I, pro- notum, scutellum, elytra at base and apex chalybeate blue, pronotal disc and elytra violaceous, elytra with a pair of yellow transverse bands, one just above the middle and the other just below the middle, antennae and legs blue- black; body beneath clothed with silvery grey pubescence. Head at base narrower than pronotum, much narrowed beyond eyes, densely and coarsely punctate; vertex flat; frons midlongi- tudinally sulcate between the antennae; clypeus broad, flat, transverse; HW/PA 1.11; FA/FL 0.46; 76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000 L ON G I CORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE mandibles robust, weakly curved, strongly dentate; genae long, midlongitudinally faintly raised, sloped on either side; eyes deeply emarginate, extending beyond antennal support. Antennae 1 1 -segmented, a little longer than body, gradually swollen apically, segment III longest, last segment longer than the penultimate, obtuse at apex. Pronotum ovate cylindrical, longer than broad, lateral margin rounded, basally nearly straight, apically a little constricted, densely and coarsely punctate; PL/ PA 1.52, PL/PW 1.0, PB/PA 1.0, PB/EW 3.09. Scutellum small, triangular and obtuse, finely and rather densely punctate. Elytra long, parallel-sided, rounded at apex, finely and very densely punctate, those near base large and distinct, a pair of costae evidently running from the middle of the base almost to apex; EL/EW 18.18; metasternum midlongitudinally sulcate and free of pubescence; abdominal venter at sides with more dense pubescence. Legs moderately long, femora pedunculate, gradually subclavate, densely punctate, joint 1 of hind tarsi longer than 2+3. Body length: 13-17 mm. Material examined: 1 male, PK, B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 9.V.1994. Distribution: india: Sikkim, West Bengal; Laos; Malaysia; Myanmar; Pakistan; South China; Thailand (Gahan, 1906; Gressitt and Rondon, 1970). Tribe: Callidiopsini Genus: Ceresium Newman Ceresium Newman, 1842. Entomologist, i: 322. Type-species: Ceresium raripilum Newman KEY TO SPECIES 1. Elytra with yellow-white pubescence, 1st pair oblique, near scutellar apex, 2nd round, transverse, marginal, 3rd oblique, close to suture and 4th comma-shaped, transverse, marginal near apex; head without any pubescence near base; body brown-black; antennae twice as long as body leucosticticum White — Elytra without any such pubescence; head with yellow-white pubescence between eyes near base; body reddish brown; antennae a little shorter than body rufum Lameere Ceresium leucosticticum White (Fig. 2) Ceresium leucosticticum White, 1855, Cat. Col. B.M. Longic. 2: 245. Male: Brown black, with elytra centro- medially reddish, pronotum laterally with 2 pairs of yellow white pubescence, 1st pair near apex, other pair almost basal, scutellum with similar pubescence, elytra also with similar pubescence arranged thus: 1st pair near scutellar apex, rather oblique, broad distally, 2nd pair at basal 1/3, transverse, circular, placed marginally, 3rd almost at midlength, near the suture, oblique, directed towards apex, 4th near the turning of elytra, transverse, marginal, comma-shaped, directed towards apex, eyes at inner margin with semilunar band of similar pubescence; antennae reddish brown, with faint pubescence; legs reddish brown with femora apically darker; body ventrally red brown to dark brown, with yellow white pubescence laterally. Head a little narrower than pronotum, densely punctate, concave between antennae; frons midlongitudinally sulcate; vertex sloped towards eyes, anteriorly truncate; clypeus transverse, band- like; HW/PA 1.16; FA/FL 0.9; eyes emarginate. Antennae 1 1 -segmented, slender, twice as long as body, 1st joint closely punctate, little longer than 3rd, nearly equal to 4th, 5th and following segments longer, 10th twice as long as 11th. Pronotum elongately rectangular, longer than wide, marginally rounded, medially broad, densely and coarsely punctate, clothed with short hairs; PL/PA 1.15, PL/PW 1.15, PB/PA 0.93, PB/EW 1.40. Scutellum small, obtuse. Elytra parallel-sided, naiTOwed just before the truncate apex, densely JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 77 LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE Fig. 2: Ceresium leucosticticum White: A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg punctate, clothed with short hairs; EL/EW 5.35; prostemum truncate, punctate; metastemum plate- like, midlongitudinally with a black streak. Legs moderately long, femora basally pedunculate, apically clavate, hind legs extending much beyond the abdomen. Body length: 12 mm. Material examined: 2 males, RB(LT), B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 22. v. 1995, 25. v. 1995. Distribution: india : Assam (Gahan, 1906), West Bengal; Indonesia; Laos; Myanmar; South China; Thailand (Gahan, 1906; Gressitt and Rondon, 1970). Ceresium rufum Lameere (Fig. 3) Ceresium rufum Lameere, 1890, Ann. Soc. Ent. Beige, 34, C.R. : cc 11. Male: Reddish brown, densely pubescent, head with 2 white semilunar bands of pubescence, pronotum with such pubescence submarginally, anterior ones round, posterior ones rather elongate and longitudinal, extending a little on the basal margin, scutellum with similar pubescence, elytra without any such, antennae reddish brown, 9th joint onwards much darker, legs reddish brown, body ventrally red brown with white pubescence laterally. Head narrower than pronotum, anteriorly narrowed, densely punctate; frons concave, midlongitudinally sulcate, anteriorly subquadrate; vertex sloped towards eyes, anteriorly truncate; clypeus transverse, band-like, truncate; HW/PA 1.12, FA/FL 0.69; eyes emarginate. Antennae 1 1 -segmented, slender, a little shorter than body; 4th joint much shorter than any of the succeeding joints, hairy beneath. Pronotum elongately rectangular, longer than wide, marginally rounded, broad medially; pronotal disc with dense, coarse, transverse rugosities, clothed with short hairs; PL/PA 1 .25, PL/PW 1.00, PB/PA 1.04, PB/EW 2.06. Scutellum small and obtuse. Elytra parallel- sided, narrowed just before the truncate apex, strongly punctate, those towards apex feeble and scanty, clothed with short, dense hairs; EL/EW 8.31; prosternum truncate, punctate; metasternum plate-like, midlongitudinally with a black streak. Legs moderately long, clothed with rather long pubescence, femora basally pedunculate, apically clavate, hind legs extending much beyond the abdomen. 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 L ONG1CORN BEE TEES OF BOX A TIGER RESER VE Fig. 3: Ceresium rufum Lameere: A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg Body length: 13 mm. Material examined: 1 male, SB(LT), B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 21.V.1997. Distribution: india: Kunbur (Gahan, 1906), West Bengal; Myanmar (Beeson, 1961). Tribe: Cerambycini Genus: Hoplocerambyx Thomson Hoplocerambyx Thomson, 1 864, Syst. Ceramb.: 229. Type-species: Hammciticherus spinicornis Newman Hoplocerambyx spinicornis (Newman) (Fig. 4) Hammciticherus spinicornis Newman, 1842, Entomologist, 1: 245. Male: Pitch brown, ventrally more reddish; head, pronotum, antennae, legs and underside with fine grey pubescence, elytra more densely covered with red-ochraceous silky pubescence, faintly banded light and dark. Head strongly exserted, apically finely punctate, basally wrinkled, with the vertex deeply grooved medially, extending between the eyes, continuing as a shallow groove between antennal supports, carinate on either side; frons oblique with a fovea on each side; clypeus apically sinuate, basal submedian area bi-tuberculate, sloping towards the frontal fovea with a few long, grey hairs at the corners; genae long; slightly shorter than width of pronotum; HW/PA 1.22; FA/FL 0.50; mandibles longer than in female, straight at base; eyes deeply emarginate. not extending beyond the antennal supports; gula with 3 strong transverse ridges. Antennae 11- segmented, 1/5 to 1/3 longer than body, faintly pubescent, 1st to 7th segments sparsely but strongly punctate, 3rd segment onwards spinose, 8th segment onwards gradually shortened and almost weakly so on the last segment, flattened or slightly canaliculate above. Pronotum a little longer than broad, constricted in front, rounded at the sides between the anterior constriction and the base; the disc with a slightly raised oblong space in the middle, the rest of the surface with deep, irregular, transverse wrinkles, with the JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 79 LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE Fig. 4: Hoplocerambyx spinicorn is Newman: A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg ridges more or less broken and convolute towards the sides, at base with 2 transverse ridges continuing up to the margin; PL/PA 1.22, PL/ PW 0.79, PB/PA 1.14, PB/EW 1.34. Scutellum pitch brown, small and broadly triangular, with grey pubescence. Elytra with a slight elevation close to the suture at about 1/4 of their length; each elytron convex, narrow posteriorly, obliquely truncate at apex, with a spine at suture and a feeble tooth at outer angle, the surface (where rubbed bare of pubescence) with 2 kinds of punctures, some minute and very dense, others larger and less numerous, suture just below the scutellum reflexed; EL/EW 5.39; prosternum very sparsely scattered with punctures, moderately pubescent, with hmd margin of epipleural process moderately arcuate. Venters of meso- and metathoracic segments hardly punctate, clothed with silky grey pubescence, metasternum midlongitudinally sulcate, abdominal venter with fine silky pubescence. Legs moderately long and stout; femora slightly compressed, hind pair scarcely reaching the elytral apex, gradually swollen apically and widest at apical 3/5; hmd tibia long and slender; hind tarsi 1 as long as 2+3; claw-bearing joint of 80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 L ON G I CORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE the tarsi long and paronychium nearly always distinctly visible between the claws. Body length: 32-51 mm. Material examined: 2 males, PN, B.T.R., 20. v. 1995; 1 male, RB, B.T.R., 20.V.1995; 1 female, DM, B.T.R., 23.V.1995; 2 males, JY(LT), B.T.R., 24. v. 1995, 25.V.1995; 1 male, RB(LT), 16. ix. 1996; 1 male, SB, B.T.R., 20.V.1997; 1 male, NM, B.T.R., 21. v. 1997. All from Jalpaiguri, W. Bengal Distribution: india: Assam, Uttar Pradesh (Gahan, 1906), Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan (Beeson, 1961), Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa (Basak and Biswas, 1993), West Bengal; Afghanistan; Indonesia; Laos; Malaysia; Myanmar; Nepal; The Philippines; Singapore; Sunda Island (Gahan, 1906; Gressitt and Rondon, 1970). Genus: Xoanodera Pascoe Xoanodera Pascoe, 1857, Ent. Soc. (2) iv : 92. Type-species: Xoanodera trigona Pascoe Xoanodera regularis Gahan (Fig. 5) Xoanodera regularis Gahan, 1890, A.M.N.H. (6) V : 52. Male : Dark brown, head, pronotum and elytra (greater part) with dense yellowish-brown pubescence, elytra at base with a ring-like dark brown band encircling the scutellum and a lateral area from the shoulders extending a little beyond the middle dark brown, devoid of dense pubescence; the narrow border between submarginal carina and outer margin sparsely pubescent. Head and 1st antennal joint closely JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 81 LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUKA TIGER RESER VE mgulose-punctate. Antennae reddish brown, with a faint covering of grey pubescence. Pronotum strongly and irregularly ridged, scantily clothed with patches of tawny pubescence, laterally with a dense, yellowish brown pubescence. Thoracic and abdominal sternites rather densely covered with greyish white pubescence, legs less so. Head shorter and narrower than pronotum, broadest across eyes, anteriorly sloped, medially raised, posteriorly weakly sloped to a little beyond the eyes, medially with a deep longitudinal sulcus, 2 such on either side of the median, or just behind the antennal socket; vertex densely punctate, and entirely covered by pubescence; frons medially lobed, enclosed by a deep circular sulcus, anterolaterally broadly produced, truncate; clypeus broadly rectangular; HW/PA 1.20; FA/FL 0.50; mandibles broad at base, curved, bluntly pointed at apex, with lateromedian depression, outer margin reflexed up to a little beyond the middle; eyes large, deeply emarginate, extending almost to the frontal sulcus, closely approximated above, with a narrow space in between. Antennae 11- segmented, a little shorter than body, densely covered by minute pubescence; 5th to 10th joints sharply edged in front and acutely angulated at apex, 1 1th shorter than 10th. Pronotum as long as broad, sides unevenly rounded, apex with 1 and base with 2 transverse grooves; PL/PA 1 .44, PL/PW 0.90, PB/PA 1.17, PB/EW 1.66. Scutellum obtuse, with dense pubescence. Elytra parallel-sided, narrowed near apex, posterior submarginal carina with apex truncate and feebly bidentate; EL/EW 6.75; prosternum raised between coxae, sharply deflexed posteriorly, and dilated at the end to meet the epimera, acetabula of front coxae not angulated outwards. Legs moderately long, femora carinate on each side near their lower portions; 1 st joint of hind tarsus shorter than the next 2 united. Body length: 20-21 mm. Material examined: 2 males, SR, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 5.iv.l993. Distribution: India: North India?, West Bengal; Laos; Myanmar (Gahan, 1906; Gressitt and Rondon, 1970). Tribe: Clytini Genus: Xylotrechus Chevrolat Xylotrechus Chevrolat, 1860, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. : 456. Type-species: Xylotrechus sartorii Chevrolat Xylotrechus srnei (Lap. et Gory) (Fig.: 6) Clytus smei Lap. et Gory, 1841, Hist. Nat. et Iconogr. des Ins. Coleopt. : 37. Male: Black, head and most of pronotum with olive green and yellowish pubescence, such pubescence on elytra forming bands and spots; pronotal disc with 3 black spots, one centrally near base, the other two very near the middle, but a little marginal; elytral bands and spots are as follows: 1) elongately circular yellow band, with the outer margin rather narrow, a little discontinuous near the scutellar apex enclosing (2) a transverse marginal yellow broad band extending to the shoulder hump and narrowing towards the suture, (3) midposteriorly with a transverse yellow band at sutural margin, broad, narrowed towards the margin, (4) apical yellow band broad at apex and narrowed in front with the margin oblique; venter with bands or spots of whitish pubescence. Head a little narrower than pronotum, anteriorly sloped; vertex flat with a median longitudinal carina bifurcating anteriorly; frons with 4 carinae, outer ones strongly curved inwardly, median ones nearly parallel-sided, anteriorly united; clypeus transverse, ridged; HW/PA 1.28; FA/FL 0.58. Antennae shorter than half the body, 1st joint equal to 3rd, 3rd to 5th subequal, 6th to 10th gradually shorter. Pronotum nearly squarish, a little longer than wide, with lateral margins rounded, broadest just below the middle, medially raised; PL/PA 1 .35, 82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 LONGICORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE Fig. 6: Xylotrechus smei (Lap. et Gory): PL/PW 0.90, PB/PA 1.0, PB/EW 2.33. Scutellum small, broad, semilunar, densely clothed with white pubescence. Elytra weakly narrowed at apex and truncate apically; EL/EW 8.66; prosternum produced and truncate, metastemum plate-like, midlongitudinally with one black sulcus, basally and apically with transverse bands of white pubescence. Legs moderate, femora thick, hind pair of legs extending a little beyond abdomen, 1st joint of hind tarsus about twice as long as the next two joints united. Body length: 15 mm. Material examined: 1 male, SR, B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 5.iv.l993; 1 male, RB(LT), B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 20. v. 1995. Distribution: india: Assam, Orissa, West Bengal, North, West, Central and South India (Gahan, 1906), Bhutan; Myanmar; Sri Lanka (Gahan, 1906; Beeson, 1961; Basak and Biswas, 1993). . Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg Tribe: Hesperophanini Genus: Stromatium Serville Stromatium Serville, 1834, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr.3: 80. Type-species: Callidium barbatum Fabricius Stromatium barbatum (Fabricius) (Fig. 7) Callidium barbatum Fabricius, 1775, Syst. Ent. : 189. Male: Red brown to a little darker; faintly covered with orange brown pubescence, 1 st joint of antennae brown black, rest red brown, apical segments a little darker. Head at base narrower than pronotum, densely and rather coarsely punctate, longitudinally sulcate between the antennae; clypeus short, transversely depressed, anteclypeus leathery; HW/PA 1.19, FA/FL 0.69; mandible short, oblique; eyes rather deeply emarginate, with large lower lobe, extending JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 LONGICORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE Fig. 7: Stromatium barbatum (Fabricius): A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg anteriorly almost up to the genal edge; antennal tubercles posteriorly raised and bluntly pointed. Antennae 1 1 -segmented, about 1/3 longer than body, with long silky pubescence beneath, 3rd joint longest, 4th slightly shorter than 5th. Pronotum broader than long, subquadrate, with numerous strong coarse punctures; the disc with 5 slightly raised, less distinct tubercles, 2 placed anteriorly, 1 behind middle, and 2 near base, straighter and each marked with a large depression; PL/PA 1.0, PL/PW 0.74, PB/PA 1.0, PB/EW 1.85. Scutellum broadly triangular, with a midlongitudinal depression forming 2 weakly raised lobes on either side. Elytra nearly parallel- sided, narrowed and truncate at apex, coarsely and very densely punctured, each with 2 distinct dorsal and 1 lateral costae, a short sutural tooth at apex; EL/EW 6.57; prosternum weakly sloped at apex. Venters of meso- and metathorax truncate, covered with pubescence, metathoracic plate with median longitudinal black streak; abdominal venters punctate, laterally with rather dense pubescence, medially weakly so. Legs moderately long, femora compressed, fore tibiae very broad a little below the base and gradually narrowed outwards, the middle and hind pairs gradually widened up to the middle; the hind pair nearly reaching elytral apex; 1st joint of the hind tarsus subequal to 2+3, last tarsus with distinct paronychium. Body length: 21-23 mm. Material examined: 1 female, RB(LT), 84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUXA TIGER RESER VE B.T.R., 20. v. 1995; 1 male, RM, B.T.R., 30. v. 1996; 1 male, NL, B.T.R., 17.V.1997; 1 male, SB(LT), B.T.R., 19.V.1997. All from Jalpaiguri, West Bengal. Distribution: india: All over; Africa; Bangladesh; Islands of Reunion; Rodriquiz & Seychelles; Pakistan; Malagasy Rep.; Mauritius; Myanmar; North America; Sri Lanka (Gahan, 1906; Beeson, 1961 Khan and Maiti, 1983); England (Beeson, 1961). Tribe: Oemini Genus: Tetraommatus Perroud Tetraommatus Perroud, 1855, Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon (2) ii:390. Type-species: Tetraommatus filiformis Perroud Tetraommatus filiformis Perroud (Fig. 8) Tetraommatus filiformis Perroud, 1855, Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon (2) h : 391. Male: Head, pronotum reddish brown; elytra brown; antennae yellow brown, legs yellow. Head narrower than pronotum, narrowed at both ends, broadest medially, flat, raised between the antennal sockets, densely and coarsely punctate, sparsely hairy; clypeus transverse, band-like; HW/PA 1.40; FA/FL 0.75; mandibles dark brown, robust, strongly curved, apically broad and truncate; eyes large, deeply emarginate; gula indicated, apically narrowed. Antennae 1 1-segmented, as long as body, segment III onwards subequal, each at least twice of segment I, sparsely setose. Pronotum subcylindrical, basally broad, anteriorly narrowed, lateral margin sharply rounded towards apex, constricted near base, transversely sulcate striate near middle, densely and finely punctate, sparsely setose; PL/PA 1.40, PL/PW 0.87, PB/PA 1 .53, PB/EW 1 .76. Scutellum short, broad and obtuse. Elytra parallel-sided, sharply curved towards apex, apically blunt, punctate- striate, sparsely setose; EL/EW 5.70; prosternum between fore coxae short, metasternum medially raised, midlongitudinally with a black sulcus. Legs moderately long, intercoxal part of prosternum very short, front coxae contiguous. Fig. 8: Tetraommatus filiformis Perroud: A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 85 LONGICORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE with acetabula angulate outwardly and open posteriorly, middle coxae almost contiguous, femora rather long, pedunculate, apically clavate and darker, basally curved, laterally compressed towards apex; tibia basally dark; tarsi long and narrow; 1st joint subequal to the following 3 joints. Body length: 7-9 mm. Material examined: 1 male, BG, B.T.R., 25. v. 1995; 3 males, TG, B.T.R., 26.V.1996; 2 males, RM, B.T.R., 30. v. 1996. All from Jalpaiguri, West Bengal. Distribution: india: Pondicherry (Gahan, 1906; Beeson, 1961), West Bengal; Sri Lanka (Gahan, 1906 ; Beeson, 1961). Genus: Xystrocera Serville Xystrocera Serville, 1834, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 3: 69. Type-species: Xystrocera globosa (Olivier) Xystrocera globosa (Olivier) (Fig. 9) Cerambyx globosa Olivier, 1795, Entomologist, 4 (67) : 27. Male: Reddish brown; pronotum with green metallic bands: along the anterior and posterior margins, midlongitudinally but narrow, and laterally running oblique joining the fore and hind bands; elytra testaceous yellow, with green metallic bands: the median longitudinal extending obliquely from base, over the shoulder almost to the tip, the outer running from base and at apex turning along the apical margin; head with 2 such rounded spots on either side of the median sulcus of the vertex. Head at base narrower than pronotum, vertical in front, raised, forming ridges, broadly concave from side to side, between the antennae, densely punctate; antennal supports emarginate in front, acutely pointed on the inner side; vertex densely punctate, midlongitudinally sulcate. 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1). APR. 2000 LONGICORN BEETLES OFBUXA TIGER RESER VE continuing to the clypeus, laterally weakly emarginate; clypeus transverse, strongly ridged, anteclypeus membranous, postclypeus separated from the front by a transverse groove; HW/PA 1.50; FA/FL 0.83; mandible basally straight, apically turned at right angles, knobbed at point of turning; eyes large, deeply emarginate, the lower lobes extended close to the mandibular edge of the genae. Antennae 1 1 -segmented, about 1/3 to twice as long as the body, fust 4 joints strongly warty, margins with blunt spines, these in distal segments greatly reduced and finally obsolete; 1st joint asperate at apex with spines, 3rd to 5th strongly asperate, with the apices thickened and dentate beneath; 3rd joint thicker and about 1/4 shorter than the 4th. Pronotum anteromedially convex, following the transverse depression (-s/*), otherwise weakly depressed medially, anterolaterally depressed on both sides, marginally rounded, base with rounded lobe at the middle, entirely strongly warty; PL/PA 1 .06, PL/PW 0.85, PB/PA 0.69, PB/ EW 3.41. Scute Hum tongue-shaped. Elytra long, anteriorly broad, posteriorly narrowed, apex rounded, densely and strongly punctate; each with 3 slightly raised longitudinal striae - 2 dorsal and 1 lateral EL/EW 19.54; prostemum with transverse striate metallic glossy band, close to the front margin, the rest and the sides of the lower part of prothorax form a convexly raised, very minutely and densely punctate dull red area; mesostemum moderately broad, narrowed posteriorly and truncate at tip, metastemum plate-like, with a black median streak. Legs long, fore legs shorter; femora fusiform-clavate, compressed, pedunculate at base, hind femora long; tibiae compressed. Body length: 23-26 mm. Material examined: 2 males, RB(LT), B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 26. v. 1995. Distribution: India: Assam, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal; Celebes; China; Egypt; Hawaiian Islands; Indonesia; Japan; Korea; Laos; Malaysia; Malagasy Rep.; Mauritius; Myanmar; Philippines; Pacific Island; Taiwan; Thailand; Sri Lanka (Gahan, 1906; Beeson, 1961; Gressitt and Rondon, 1970; Khan and Maiti, 1983). Tribe: Thraniini Genus: Thranius Pascoe Thranius Pascoe, 1859, Trans. Ent. Soc. (2) v : 22. Type-species: Thranius gibbosus Pascoe Thranius simplex Gahan (Fig. 10) Thranius simplex Gahan, 1 894, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov., 34 : 15. Male : Dark brown; head, thorax, abdomen, legs, antennae brown black; antenniferous tubercles, pronotum, scutellum reddish brown; clypeus anteriorly and maxillary palpi yellow. Head narrower than pronotum, wide transversely, strongly sloped anteriorly, frons flat, subquadrate, midlongitudinally sulcate between the eyes, punctate, vertex transversely depressed below the eyes, clypeus transverse, rectangular, punctate; HW/PA 1.28; FA/FL 0.66; eyes rather transverse, long, weakly emarginate, with upper lobe short, not extending behind the antenniferous tubercles, lower lobe rather prominent inwardly. Antennae 1 1 -segmented, shorter than body, joints cylindrical, 1st joint closely and rather finely punctate, apex rather pale. Pronotum parallel-sided, squarish, basal margin straight, anterior margin weakly concave, lateral margin weakly rounded, medially a little broad, midlongitudinally sulcate, strongly gibbose anteriorly, densely punctate; PA/PL 1.14; PL/PW 0.80, PB/PA 1.28, PB/EW 2.25. Scutellum small, obtuse, scantily punctured. Elytra elongate, almost flat above, deflexed at the sides, narrowed up to the middle, the surface densely punctate, with the front edges of the punctures slightly raised; EL/EW 8.37; prosternum punctate; metathoracic plate with a median longitudinal black streak, its episterna very broad in front, nan owed almost to a point posteriorly. Legs moderately long, femora clavate, with the 1st tarsal joint of hind legs a little longer than 2+3 united. JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 87 LONGICORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE Fig. 10: Thranius simplex Gahan: A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg Body length: 12 mm. Material examined: 1 male, SB, B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 20.V.1997. Distribution: india: Manipur (Gahan, 1906), West Bengal; Bhutan; Myanmar (Gahan, 1906). Subfamily 2: Pnoninae Tribe: Megopidini Genus: Megopis Serville Megopis Serville, 1832, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. i : 162. Type-species: Megopis muticci Serville Megopis (A ego soma) bowringi (Gahan) (Fig. 11) Aegosoma bowringi Gahan, 1894, A.M.N.H. 14 (6): 226. Male: Reddish brown; densely clothed with short faint brown pubescence, elytral costae free. Head narrower than pronotum, elongate behind, eyes more or less inclined in front, densely warty and with deeply distinct midlongitudinal black sulcus; vertex flat; frons anteriorly sloped, posteriorly weakly concave; clypeus transverse; HW/PA 0.87; FA/FL 0.59; mandibles short, oblique, toothless; eyes narrowly emarginate in front; gula short, basally broad, anteriorly narrow, either side marked by black ridge. Antennae shorter than body, basal segments densely punctate, apical 3 segments coarsely wrinkled, 1st joint short and stout. 3rd joint longest, subequal to 4+5. Pronotum broadly transverse, wider than long, its warty basal and apical margins nearly straight, lateral margin medially weakly produced, antero-lateral comers weakly produced, rounded, strongly reflexed: PL/ PA 0.66, PL/PW 0.59, PB/PA 0^83, PB/EW 2.0. Scutellum nearly globose, densely warty. Elytra broader than pronotum, nearly parallel-sided for the greater part of their length, slightly narrowed posteriorly, rounded at apex, with sutural teeth; EL/EW 8.09; prostemum raised, sloped, on either side extending beyond fore coxae; mesosternum sulcate, midlongitudinally blackish, metasternum broad, plate-like, midlongitudinally with a deeply distinct black sulcus; abdomen ventrally a little paler, densely punctate, segmental joints brown- black, transverse, band-like, clothed with pale brown hairs. Legs moderately long, the hind pair 88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 LONGICORN BEETLES OFBUXA TIGER RESER VE Fig. 1 1: Megopis ( Aegosoma ) bowringi (Gahan): A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg longest, femora laterally compressed, with their dorsal and ventral borders nearly parallel, tarsi rather narrow, with the claw joint at least as long as 1+2. Body length: 20-23 mm. Material examined: 1 male, RB, B.T.R., 22. v. 1995; 1 male, SB(LT), B.T.R, 19.V.1997. Both Jalpaiguri, West Bengal Distribution: india: Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal; Bangladesh; Myanmar (Gahan, 1906). Tribe: Macro tomini Genus: Macrotoma Serville Macrotoma Serville, 1832, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 2: 264. Type-species: Prionus serripes Fabricius Macrotoma (. Zooblax ) spinosa Fabricius (Fig. 12) Prionus spinosus Fabricius, 1787, Mailt. Ins. 1 : 130. Male: Red brown, elytra rusty brown towards base and yellowish towards apex, antennae with three basal segments brown-black, legs reddish, venter glossy red. Head elongate behind eyes, coarsely punctate between eyes, closely and finely granulate behind, vertex impressed with a median groove; frons punctate, midlongi- tudinally sulcate due to bulging antennal tubercles, anteriorly vertical and truncate; clypeus depressed, limited above by an impression, weakly punctate; shorter than width of pronotum; HW/PA 0.61; FA/FL 0.76; mandibles vertical, straight at base, incurved at tip, each with 2 teeth on inner edge, punctate; eyes not deeply emarginate on front; venter warty. Antennae 1 1 -segmented, reaching basal 2/3 of elytra, 1st joint apically broad, basally pedunculate, twice as long as broad, closely and coarsely punctate, 3rd segment more than twice JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 89 LONGICORN BEETLES OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE Fig. 12: Macrotoma ( Zooblax ) spinosa (Fabricius): A. Whole body, B. Antenna, C. Hind leg as long as 1 st, 4th onwards shorter, 1 1 th much longer, spinose beneath and along the front margin, the spines rather short, 4th weakly spinose. Pronotum rather strongly de flexed at sides just before the middle, very closely and finely punctate and opaque, with 2 triangular spaces before the middle, a small spot external to each of these, a narrow transverse band near base, a median streak from the middle and an oblique band from each end of the basal band, all more or less strongly lustrous, lateral edges armed with a series of short spines and teeth, basally broad, apically narrowed; PL/PA 0.80, PL/PW 0.53, PB/PA 1.50, PB/EW 2.14. Scutellum long, tongue-shaped. Elytra much longer than broad, rounded at apex, usually dentate at suture, rugulose-punctate and very finely granulose, the granules more distinct and the surface rough towards base, especially on the slightly elevated part near scutellum, each with 4 longitudinal striae; EL/EW 6.00; prostemum sloped on either side, mesosternum at apex slightly clubbed, metasternum plate-like, medially sulcate with a longitudinal black streak. Legs long, spinose beneath; fore femora and tibiae asperate with short sharp spines beneath, those on mid and hind legs reduced and punctate; middle and hind femora sparsely punctate, armed with a few spines beneath, 1 st joint of front tarsus a little shorter than 2+3. 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 L ONGICORN BEETLES OF B UXA TIGER RESER VE Body length: 56 mm. Material examined: 1 male, JY(LT), B.T.R., Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 25.V.1996. Distribution: india: Bihar, Karnataka (Gahan, 1906), West Bengal; Arabia; Laos; Sri Lanka; (Gahan, 1906; Gressitt and Rondon, 1970). R E F E Basak, P.K. & S. Biswas (1993): Insecta: Coleoptera: Cerambycidae. Zool. Surv. India: State Fauna Series, 1 : Fauna of Orissa, (Part 4): 185-195. Beeson, C.F.C. (1961): The Ecology and Control of Forest Insects of India and the Neighbouring Countries. Govt, of India Publication, Delhi, pp. 767 (Reprint). Gahan, C.J. (1906): Fauna of British India. Coleoptera. Vol. 1 (Cerambycidae), Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 329. Ghosh, A.K. & T. Sengupta ( 1 982): Handbook on Insect Collection, Preservation and Study (Ed. Director), Zool. Surv. India, Calcutta, pp. 64. Acknowledgements We thank the authorities of Buxa Tiger Reserve for facilities and the Head of the Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta for kind permission to carry out the work. E N C E S Gressitt, J.L. & J. A. Rondon (1970): Cerambycidsof Laos (Disteniidae. Prioninae, Philinae, Aseminae. Lepturinae, Cerambycinae). Pacific Insects Monograph, 24: 1-314 Khan, T.N. & P.K. Maiti (1983): Studies on the biotaxonomy, biology and ecology of some longicom beetle borers (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) of the islands of Andaman, India. Rec. zool. Surv. India. Misc. Pubi. Occ. Paper, No. 45, 1-100. Raychaudhuri, D. (1996); Longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae : Coleoptera) of Buxa Tiger Reserve, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal. Insect Environment 2(3): 81 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 91 FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS BLEEKER 1859, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1 Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin2 {With one text-figure and one plate) Key words: Cyprinid fish, Semiplotus, new species, Manipur The cyprinid fishes of the genus Semiplotus Bleeker are distributed in northern India, Myanmar and Nepal. Four species (including a new one) of the genus are recognised. They are: S. semiplotus (McClelland), S. modestus Day, S. cirrhosus Chaudhuri and S. manipurensis sp. nov. This paper describes the new species from the rivers and streams draining Ukhrul dist. of Manipur (Chindwin drainage), India. Semiplotus manipurensis differs from S. semiplotus and S. cirrhosus in having a broader body, fewer branched dorsal rays and several horny tubercles scattered randomly on the snout. It differs from S. modestus in having a broader body and an unserrated last dorsal spine. Semiplotus cirrhosus is considered a valid species. A key to identification of species of the genus Semiplotus is provided. Introduction Bleeker (1859) established the genus Semiplotus to accommodate Cy prinus semiplotus McClelland, 1839 (type locality: River Brahmaputra, Assam). Day (1870) described another species, S. modestus from Akyab in Myanmar and distinguished it from S. semiplotus by the serrated last dorsal spine. Later, Chaudhuri (1919) described S. cirrhosus based on a single specimen collected from Putao of Myanmar, and distinguished it from the former two species mainly by the presence of two pairs of maxillary barbels and absence of knob at the symphysis of the lower jaw. However, Hora (1973) treated S. cirrhosus as a synonym of S. semiplotus. Jayaram (1981) included only S. semiplotus and S. modestus in the genus. The distribution of the genus is restricted to the Himalayan foothills of Nepal, north and northeast India and Myanmar (Fig. 1). On the basis of its jaw anatomy, Howes (1982) put Semiplotus under the genus Cyprinion Heckel, 1843. Talwar and Jhingran (1991) recognised Semiplotus as a subgenus of Cyprinion without justification. However, Banarescu and Herzig (1995) recognised Semiplotus as a distinct genus, as it has more 'Accepted January, 1999 department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India. branched dorsal fin rays. No detailed revisional work on this genus has been conducted, and very little is known about the fishes of this genus. This is partly due to the difficulty in obtaining specimens. A brief revision of the genus Semiplotus is made here. Material and Methods The new species was collected by cast net. Type specimens are deposited in the Manipur University Museum of Fishes (M-UMF) and National Science Museum, Tokyo (NSMT). Type and other specimens of S. cirrhosus, S. modestus and S. semiplotus in Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta were re-examined. Measurements and counts follow Jayaram (1981). Body proportions are expressed as percentage of standard length (SL) and head length (HL). Total number of vertebrae was counted from radiographs and dissected specimens. Transverse scales were counted as scales between lateral line and dorsal fin origin (including mid-dorsal scale)/lateral line scale/ scales between lateral line and pelvic fin origin. Semiplotus Bleeker. 1 859 Semiplotus Bleeker, 1859, Nat. Tijdschr. Neder. -Indie. 20: 424 (type species Cyprinus semiplotus McClelland, 1839); Banarescu & 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97(1 ) APR. 2000 NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMI P LOTUS Fig. 1: Drainages of Nepal, northern and eastern parts of India and Myanmar showing the distribution of known species of Semiplotus. Herzig-Straschil, 1995, Ann. Naturhist. Mus. Wien., 97 B: 411 (status discussed). Diagnosis: A genus of Cyprinidae with the following combination of characters: body large and deep (depth 35.4-41.3% SL); head short, as long as high at occiput (height 93.3-1 16.1% HL); snout broad, blunt with open pores or tubercles; mouth inferior, wide (width 45.3-65.2% HL) with exposed cornified mandibular cutting edge; dentary with a broad deflected labial surface; maxillary barbel rudimentary; long dorsal fin with 20-25 branched rays; anal fin with 7-9 branched rays; lateral line scales 27-36; lower jaw with a knob at symphysis. Distribution: india, Ganga-Brahmaputra, Kaladan and Chindwin drainages, Nepal and Myanmar. Remarks: Banarescu and Herzig (1995) differentiated Semiplotus from Cyprinion on the basis of (i) more branched dorsal fin rays (20-25 vs. 9-17), (ii) fewer branched anal fin rays (5 vs. 7) and (iii) no barbels. The first character holds true. However, the characters (ii) and (iii) differ from our observations. All the Semiplotus specimens studied by us have a pair of small maxillary barbels and 7-9 branched anal fin l ays. From the literature it is also observed that Semiplotus has more pelvic rays (8-9 vs. 7), fewer scales on lateral line (27-36 vs. 33-45), and a deeper body than Cyprinion. Key to the species of genus Semiplotus Bleeker la Last simple dorsal ray serrated posteriorly; branched dorsal rays 20-21 S. modestus 1 b Last simple dorsal ray not serrated posteriorly; branched dorsal rays 20-25 2 2a Tubercles on snout randomly distributed on each side of tip of snout; branched dorsal rays 20-23 S. mcinipurensis JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 93 NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEM IPLOTUS 2b Tubercles/open pores on snout arranged in a transverse row; branched dorsal rays 23-25 ... 3 3a Open pores on snout 4; lateral transverse scales 7/1/4 S. cirrhosus 3b Open pores on snout 10-12; lateral transverse scales 6/1/4 S. semip lotus Semiplotus cirrhosus Chaudhuri, 1919 Semiplotus cirrhosus Chaudhuri, 1919, Rec. Indian Mus. 16(4): 280 pi. 22 figs 3, 3a (type locality: Putao plains, Burma); Hora, 1973, Rec. Indian Mus., 39(1): 46 (part). Material examined: ZSI F 9747/1 holotype, 41.0 mm SL, Myanmar: Putao plains near Tibetan frontier, coll. Murray Stuart, ? . ii . 1 9 1 8 Diagnosis: A species of Semiplotus with large eye (diameter 36.2% HL); predorsal length 47.6% SL; a row of 4 open pores (2 on each side) on the snout; the last simple dorsal fin ray not serrated; 25 branched dorsal fin rays; 8 branched pelvic fin rays; 9 branched anal fin rays; a small knob at the symphysis of lower jaw. Description: Dorsal rays iii, 25; pectoral rays 15; pelvic rays i, 8; anal rays ii, 9; lateral line scales 33; scales above lateral line to origin of dorsal fin 7; scales below lateral line to origin of pelvic fin 4; predorsal scales 13. Head and body laterally compressed. Snout broad, obtuse, with a row of 4 open pores (2 on each side). Maxillary barbels well developed, extending to below anterior margin of orbit. Eye large, almost in the middle of head. Caudal peduncle deep. Dorsal fin origin slightly nearer snout tip than caudal fin base. Last simple dorsal ray not serrated. Pectoral fin almost reaching pelvic fin origin. Caudal fin forked. Colour: Head and body silvery with black dorsal surface. Ventral surface dull white. Distribution: Myanmar: Putao plains (Irrawady drainage). Remarks: Chaudhuri (1919) described S. cirrhosus and differentiated it from other Semiplotus by the presence of two small maxillary barbels and the absence of a knob at the symphysis of the lower jaw. Hora (1937) treated S. cirrhosus as a synonym of S. semiplotus after he found that all other specimens of the genus in ZSI possessed small maxillary barbels. It has not been possible to examine more specimens from Myanmar. However, the holotype of S. cirrhosus in ZSI (F9747/1) has been examined. The species differs from S. semiplotus as it has fewer pores on the snout [4 (2 on each side) vs. 10-12 (5-6 on each side)]; a longer head (length 26.9% SL vs. 21.9-23.7); larger eye (diameter 36.2% HL vs. 20.8-30.0); longer predorsal length (47.6% SL vs. 39.5-44.2); one more scale row between dorsal fin origin and lateral line (7 vs. 6) and fewer branched pelvic fin rays (8 vs. 9). The anal fin of the holotype is damaged. But Chaudhuri (1919) reported that it had two simple and nine branched rays. Thus, it also differs from 5. semiplotus as it has more branched anal rays (9 vs. 7). Thus S. cirrhosus is treated here as a separate species. Semiplotus manipurensis sp. nov. (Plate 1 Figs. 1, 2a) Material examined: Holotype: MUMF 2049, 83.5 mm SL, India: Chall ou river at Thetsi, near Jessami, Manipur (Chindwin basin), 94° 35’ E, 25° 38’ N, about 1,270 m above msl, coll. L. Kosygin, 2.vi.l994. Paratypes: NSMT-P 52636. 1 ex., 85.0 mm SL, same data as holotype; MUMF 2011, 2045- 2048,2051-2055,2145,2146, 12 ex., 55.3-126.0 mm SL, same data as holotype; MUMF 2236- 2240, 5 ex., 42.9-57.5 mm SL, India: Chall ou river, Chingai, Manipur, 94° 3 V E, 25° 18’ N, 130 km northeast of Imphal, 30.iv.1995; MUMF 2250, 2251, 2 ex., 53.3-185.0 mm SL, India: Wanze stream, Khamsom, Manipur, (Chindwin basin), 116 km northeast of Imphal. 94° 32’ E, 25° 12’ N, coll. L. Kosygin. 7.vii.l995. Diagnosis: A species of Semiplotus with a broad body (width 17.3-22.1% SL); last dorsal spine not serrated; 20-23 branched dorsal fin 94 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS Vishwanath, Waikhom et al: Semiplotus manipurensis sp. nov. Plate 1 Fig. 1 : Semiplotus manipurensis sp. nov (holotype, MUMF- 2049, 83.5 mm SL). Scale bar indicates 10 mm a b Fig. 2: Front view of snout showing arrangement of tubercles/open pores: a. S. manipurensis (MUMF-2251, 185.0 mm SL); b. S. semiplotus (ZSIF-2662/2, 181.0 mm SL) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 1999 95 1 NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEM I PL OTUS rays; 9 branched pelvic fin rays; 12-13 predorsal scales; dorsal fin base length 34.0-39.7% SL; 32- 36 lateral line scales; 7 scale rows between dorsal fin origin and the lateral line; many horny tubercles distributed randomly on each side of snout tip, extending posteriorly to the region below the anterior margin of orbit. Description: Dorsal rays iv, 20-23 (last ray branched at base); pectoral rays 15-16; pelvic fin rays i, 9; anal fin rays ii-iii, 7-8 (last ray branched at base); principal caudal fin rays 10 + 9; lateral line scales 32-36; scales above lateral line to origin of dorsal fin 7; scales below lateral line to origin of pelvic fin 4; predorsal scales 12- 13; total vertebrae 36. Body short, deep and compressed. Dorsal profile arched from tip of snout to dorsal fin origin and then gently sloping down to caudal fin base. Dorsal profile more convex than ventral. Abdomen edge rounded. Head short and small compared to body depth, almost as long as high at occiput. Snout thick, prominent, broad, obtuse, overhanging the mouth. Snout with horny tubercles distributed randomly on each side, extending to the region below the anterior margin of orbit. Tubercles larger and more prominent towards tip of snout, smaller and less prominent posteriorly. Tubercles not well developed in small specimens (<56.0 mm SL). Number and size of tubercles increasing with total length. Eye large, not visible from below, placed almost in middle of head. Nostrils close to each other, closer to eye than to tip of snout. Mouth wide, transverse, inferior, lower jaw with a knob at symphysis, and an exposed cornified cutting edge. Small maxillary pair of barbels, more prominent in smaller specimens, hardly visible in larger specimens as they are concealed in groove between maxilla and snout. Scales moderate to large, those on chest and abdomen smaller than those of other parts of body. Lateral line complete. Dorsal fin origin nearer to snout tip than to caudal fin base, extending from a little ahead of pelvic fin to above anal fin base. Last simple dorsal ray strong, osseous and not serrated in large specimens. In small specimens (<130 mm SL), distal third of spine slightly serrated posteriorly. Height of dorsal almost equal to head length. Pectoral fin shorter than head, not reaching pelvic fin origin, latter not reaching anal fin origin. Caudal fin deeply forked with a slightly longer upper lobe. Colour: Body silvery white, slaty grey dorsally. All fins tinged orange with dusky edges. Distribution: india: Chall ou river and Wanze stream (Chindwin drainage), Ukhrul District, Manipur. Etymology: The species is named after the state of Manipur. Habitat: Moderate to fast flowing hill streams with rocky beds. Smaller specimens inhabit shallow and fast flowing water, while larger ones inhabit deeper waters where water current is comparatively slow. Remarks: Semiplotus manipurensis differs from S. semiplotus in its wider body (width at dorsal fin origin 17.3-22.1% SL vs. 1 1.8-16.7), fewer branched dorsal fin rays (20-23 vs. 23-25) and randomly distributed tubercles on either side of the tip of snout vs. a transverse row of open pores on the snout including its tip [all the specimens of S. semiplotus in ZS1 and the freshly collected specimen (MUMF 2307) from the Brahmaputra river at Dibrugarh, Assam have open pores on snout, while the 2 1 specimens of S. manipurensis have tubercles on snout]; shorter dorsal fin base (34.0-39.7% SL vs. 40.9-44.6); more scales in lateral line (32-36 vs. 27-33) and one more scale row between the origin of dorsal fin and lateral line (7 vs. 6). The new species is also distinct from S. cirrhosus as it has a wider head (63.3-74.2% HL vs. 58.8); wider body (width at dorsal fin origin 17.3-22.1% SL vs. 11.1); fewer branched dorsal rays (20-23 vs. 25); smaller eye (diameter 20.0-31.8% HL vs. 36.2); shorter predorsal length (40.8-45.7% SL vs. 47.6); one more branched pelvic fin ray (9 vs. 8): fewer branched anal fin rays (7-8 vs. 9) and many randomly in JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE C.YPRINID GENUS SEM IPLOTUS distributed tubercles on snout (vs. a transverse row of 4 open pores across the snout). Semiplotus manipurensis is distinct from S. modestus as it has fewer predorsal scales (12- 13 vs. 14-15); broader body (width at dorsal fin origin 17.3-22.1% SL vs. 9.9%); more branched pelvic rays (9 vs. 8) and last dorsal spine not serrated posteriorly (vs. serrated). Semiplotus modestus Day, 1870 Semiplotus modestus Day, 1870, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.: 101 (type locality: Akyab, Burma); Barman, 1988, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 210 (Koladyne R., Mizoram). Cyprinion modestum : Howes, 1982, Bull. Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool), 42(4): 331 (status discussed). Material examined: ZSI 2343, 1 ex., (syntype), 85.4 mm SL, Myanmar: hill ranges near Akyab, coll. F. Day, no date. Diagnosis: A species of Semiplotus with last dorsal spine osseous and serrated posteriorly; 20-2 1 branched dorsal fin rays; 8 branched pelvic fin rays; 14-15 predorsal scales; 32-34 lateral line scales; and several open pores on either side of snout. Description: Dorsal fin rays iv, 20-21; pectoral fin rays 15; pelvic fin rays i, 8; anal fin rays iii, 7; principal caudal fin rays 10 + 9; lateral line scales 32-34; scales above lateral line to origin of dorsal fin 7; scales below lateral line to origin of pelvic fin 4; predorsal scales 14-15. Body deep, laterally compressed. Head short with concave dorsal profile, as long as high at occiput. Snout short, obtuse, overhanging the mouth with several open pores on either side. Maxilla extending below the middle of orbit. Eye large, longer than snout. Dorsal fin origin nearer snout tip than caudal base. Last simple dorsal ray serrated posteriorly. Pectoral fin extends to pelvic fin origin, latter to anal fin. Caudal fin forked, lower lobe slightly longer than upper. Colour: Silvery grey with black dorsal surface. Pelvic and anal fins orange. Distribution: india: Kaladan river (Koladyne river as per Barman, 1 988), Mizoram; Myanmar: Akyab. Remarks: The species is quite distinct from other members of the genus Semiplotus as it has a posteriorly serrated last dorsal spine. Semiplotus semiplotus (McClelland, 1839) (Plate 1 Fig. 2b) Cyprinus semiplotus McClelland, 1839, Asiatic Researchers, 19(2): 274, 346, pi. 37 fig. 2 (type locality: River Brahmaputra, upper Assam, India). Semiplotus mcclellandi: Day, 1878, Fishes of India: 550 (description). Semiplotus semiplotus: Hora, 1937, Rec. Indian Mus., 39:45 (part). Cyprinion semiplotum: Howes, 1982, Bull. Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool), 42(4): 331, figs la- c (Jaw structure studied, status discussed). Material examined: MUMF 2307, 1 ex., 131.4 mm SL, India: Brahmaputra river, Dibrugarh, Assam, coll. L. Kosygin, 22.x. 1995; ZSI F 2861/2 1 ex., 162.0 mm SL, India: Darjeeling Himalayas, coll. G.E. Shaw & E.O. Shebbeare, 28.iii.1937 ZSI F 2662/2, 3 exs. 89.7- 181.0 mm SL, India: Tista drainage, S.L. Hora, ?.xi.l938. Diagnosis: A species of Semiplotus with last simple dorsal fin ray not serrated; 23-25 branched dorsal fin rays; a transverse row of 10- 12 open pores (5-6 on each side) across the snout posteriorly directed toward middle of orbit. Description: Dorsal fin rays iv, 23-25; pectoral fin rays 15-16; pelvic fin rays i, 9; anal fin rays ii, 7 (last ray branched at base); principal caudal fin rays 10 + 9; lateral line scales 27-33; scales above lateral line to origin of dorsal fin 6; scales below lateral line to origin of pelvic fin 4; predorsal scales 11-12. Head and body deep, laterally compressed, with convex dorsal profile. Snout blunt with a very distinctive transverse row of 10-12 (5-6 on each side) open pores across it. Posteriorly open 98 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1) APR. 2000 NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPR/NID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS CO -'t -<3 5- CO R C — bo cn to 00 N O: of S O.E: -o ^ ^ .£ O ^ O 00 iO I N NO — of m — 04 04 04 mi O of WO — 04 04^ 04 mi o « Or a. 40 t 3 S - £ m ot O 04 04 04 00 wo co O 04 04 04 <14 O — on o|S X 2 04 ON OO O — NO NO co © of co oo oo 04 Nt U\ Tj- 04 Tt 't NO OO O r-i no o O- ON O —I ON NO NO O NO OO WO 04 oo cd — — mi wi 04 CO —I of 04 of O' 04 O' 04 in O O 1/0 — 1 of O' ON © WO Of CO 04 of O' of wo 00 CO O' Of 04 CO — O NO I/O I/O co CO NO on of 04 — * in of OO ON of 04 04 CO — I of 04 ON NO — 04 of CO — I O' 04 in m 04 of 04 04 I — CO OO 04 CO i/o O' O © ON O' OO CO 'T tT q of in on nd in 4 o-i 04 O', 04 OO CO ON O'; O CO — NO © of 04 of O' 00 c ■p s -o c rt or> o q q co q O' 04 on C) NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS S EM I P LOTUS *§ 04 CL, SO CO ■'7 CO 04 p cs 5.0 oo cs wo os w~, d of fd o O 04 >r wo oo O' rsi ^f d C/3 of + s O, 2 sO 0 3 Q s ' I/O OS — cd ~ 2* 30 N CO £ wo CO cs of wo Os 1 •- : = 04 so 0 § C3 30 fe 2 ( — CS cs 04 p Os O o of 04 OS O' C 30 30 D S o — ■ wo wd — i fd o o > wo —4 _ ~ O CO 04 sO CO 04 Of sO ■" •~ CO so 30 dO 00 ce Sf d cl. cs w, -q p WO o~ CO co o < "7 O C/3 CO oi 04 cd WO wd ' w-, •7 (N 04 C3 Q o s Q- z ' p X Cu OS o "o 2 3) S Os 'd- o r^ cs of CO fd O) cd 04 cs oo od so Os O' (N CO •S rt (j O 33 CS r- CO cs of wo oo :=l CO fd C/3 0) 9- -e T3 c J= 2 i - 3 -O 3 "O E « O 4i CD W C >s e tC co tu £ w> 1 § >, % d w <3 >> 9 «= - _ a - slf I cS C 1C S £ 2 — .£ « cd 1/3 ^ 1 ' o - u z LU D a w os Lu U Qfl.Xo.JJ ^■2 5 2 -2 5 ■S’ -S-- -2 Co 05 CO 100 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1 ) APR. 2000 NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS pores directed towards middle of orbit. Eye moderate, almost in middle of head. Mouth wide, inferior, lower jaw with a horny layer. Barbels a small maxillary pair, more prominent in smaller specimens. Dorsal fin high, with long base. Last dorsal simple ray strong, osseous, not serrated in large specimens but slightly serrated in distal half in juveniles. Pectoral fin equal to head, almost reaching pelvic fin origin. Pelvic fin shorter than pectoral, not reaching anal fin. Caudal fin forked. Colour: Dull silvery with black dorsal surface. Pectoral, pelvic and anal fins orange. Distribution: india: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam (Brahmaputra drainage), north Bengal; Nepal: Terai (Ganga drainage). Remarks: According to Day (1878), the species is often termed Rajah-mas (King fish) in upper Assam, as it was asserted that when captured it had to be taken to the Rajahs for their own consumption. He also remarked on the statement of McClelland that the fish attained at least two feet in length and was reckoned the most delicious in Assam. Menon (1989) included S. semiplotus in the list of endangered freshwater fishes of India. The underutilised hill stream fishes of Nepal were listed by Shreshtha (1997), who included this species, and suggested the possibility of developing recreational fishery of these fishes in Nepal. Discussion Most workers (Bleeker, 1859; Gunther, 1868; Day, 1878; Jayaram, 1981; Barman, 1988) erroneously considered that Semiplotus lacks barbels. However, Hora (1937) examined all the specimens of Semiplotus in ZSI and a specimen from Nepal collected by Col. Bailey, and concluded that the presence of small maxillary barbels is a constant feature of the genus. He further remarked that in young specimens barbels are longer and project outside the groove, whereas in half-grown and adult specimens they are more or less concealed, though it is not very difficult to make them out. This statement of Hora {op. cit) holds true for the present study, as all the specimens of Semiplotus examined (including the type specimens of S. manipurensis ) have a small pair of maxillary barbels. Thus the presence of a small pair of maxillary barbels is a distinct character of the genus Semiplotus. Interesting observations have been made in the ichthyogeography of Semiplotus species which are endemic in Southeast Asia. McClelland (1839) originally described S. semiplotus from the Brahmaputra river, upper Assam. Day (1878) put the fish under S. mcclellandi and reported that it inhabited the rivers of Assam, especially in the upper portion but was also found as low as Goalpara and in Myanmar. Gunther (1868) on the other hand mentioned only Assam as the place of its distribution. Mukerji (1933) included this species in the list of fishes of Mali Hka river, upper Myanmar without giving a systematic account. As there is no specimen of the fish collected by either F. Day or D.D. Mukerji in ZSI (although they are supposed to be there), it is difficult to establish the correct identity of the species and its distribution in Myanmar. Hora (1937) reported this fish from the Nepal terai which is drained by tributaries of the Ganga. Thus, S. semiplotus is perhaps present only in the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage. On the other hand S. cirrhosus and S. manipurensis share the Clnndwin-Irrawaddy drainage, which is entirely separate from the Brahmaputra drainage (Chaudhuri, 1919). Further, distribution of S. modestus is totally isolated from other species of the genus. The species is distributed in Akyab of Myanmar and parts of Mizoram (India) which are drained by the Kaladan drainage which enters the Bay of Bengal directly. Kaladan drainage is separated from the Barak- Brahmaputra drainage of India by the Chittagong hill tract. The region is also separated from the Chindwin-Irrawaddy drainage of Myanmar by the north-south JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 101 NEW AND KNOWN FISHES OF THE CYPRINID CMOS'S EM IP LOTUS extension of the Arakan Yoma hill range. From the above statements it is clear that Semiplotus is distributed in north India, Myanmar and Nepal, with restricted distribution in different drainages. A detailed study of the geological history of the region may give a true picture of the phylogeny of these fishes. Refer Banarescu, P.M. & B. Herzig-Straschjl(1995): A revision of the species of the Cyprinion mcicrostomus - group (Pisces: Cyprinidae). Ann. Naturhist. Mus. Wien. 97 B 41 1-420. Barman, R.P. (1988): First record of the King-fish, Semiplotus modestus Day, 1870 (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from India. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 210. Bleeker, P. (1859): Conspectus systematics cyprinorum. Nat. Tijdschr. Neder. -Indie, 20: 421-441 . Chaudhuri, B.L. (1919): Report on a small collection offish from Putao (Hkamti Long) on the northern frontier of Burma. Rec. Indian Mus., 16(4): 271-282. Day, F. ( 1 870): The fishes of India; being a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon, William Dowson and Co., London, pp. 778. Gunther, A. (1 868): Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum, John Edward Gray, London, 7, pp 512. Heckel, J.J. (1843): Abbildungen and Beschreibungen der Fische Syriens. In: Russegger, J. Reisen in Europa, Asien und Afrika Bd. 1, T. 2. Stuttgart, Schweizerbart’sche Verlags-buchhandlung. 991 - 1099. Hora, S.L. (1937): On a collection of fish from Nepal. Rec. Indian Mus. 39(1): 43-46. Howes, G.J. ( 1 982): Anatomy and evolution of the jaws in the semiplotine carps with a review of the genus Acknowledgements We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, ZSI and Mr. T.K. Sen, Head, Fish Section, ZSI, for their help in examining types of Semiplotus. We also thank Dr. Keiichi Matsuura, Chief Curator, National Science Museum, Tokyo, for his help in registering a type of the new species. NCES Cyprinion Heckel, 1843 (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Bull. Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool), 42(4): 299-335. Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka — a handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 475 pp. Kottelat, M. (1989): Zoogeography of the fishes from Indo-Chinese inland waters with an annotated checklist. Bull. Zoologisch Museum. Univ. Amsterdam. 12(1): 1-56. Menon, A.G.K. (1989): Conservation of the ichthyofauna of India. In: Jhingran A.G. and V. V. Sugunan, (Eds). Conservation and management of Inland capture fisheries resources of India. Inland Fisheries Society of India, Barrackpore: 25-33. McClelland, J. (1839): Indian Cyprinidae. Asiatic Researches, 19(2): 274, 346. Mukerji, D.D. (1933): Report on Burmese fishes collected by Lt.-Col. R.W. Burton from the tributary streams of the Mali Haka River of the Myitkyina district (upper Burma). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(4): 812-831. Shreshtha, T.K. (1997): Sustained development of fisheries resources of Himalayan waters of Nepal. J. Freshwater Biol. 9(1): 47-56. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and adjacent countries, /, Oxford and IBH Publ. Co. Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 541 pp. 102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS, MEGALAIMA SPP.1 Hafiz SA. Yahya2 ( With three text-figures) Key words: Barbets, congeneric, sympatric, food, feeding method, ecological isolation, coexistence, conservation. A comparative study on the ecology and biology of Indian barbets ( Megalaima spp.) was carried out between 1 977 and 1 980 in different parts of the country. Megalaima viridis and M. rubricapilla malabarica were studied more intensively at Thekkady (Kerala), while M. virens, M. zeylanica, M. lineata, M. asiatica, M. franklinii and M. haemacephala were studied at other places. The findings on the feeding behaviour of the barbets are discussed in this paper. Data on food items, fruiting seasons, abundance of fruiting trees, feeding method and extent of ecological isolation in food habits of coexisting species are discussed. The barbets are predominantly frugivorous, but during the breeding season all species feed their young with insects. Among the congeneric sympatric M. viridis and M. rubricapilla at Thekkady, the former was found to be more insectivorous, helping considerably in checking the deadly teak defoliator Hyblaea puera. Contrary to reports of M. zeylanica and M. viridis being minor pests on coffee, they were found to be quite helpful to coffee plants in picking up the coffee stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes. Barbets also help in seed dispersal and pollination of scores of trees, and thus play an important role in maintaining the rich biodiversity of the country, and they deserve conservation priorities. Introduction The name barbet is derived from the French Barbu (=bearded) which is suggested by the presence of nasal and rictal bristles. They are closely related to Old World honeyguides (Indicatoridae) and the New World puff birds (Bucconidae). The barbet family Capitonidae has a pantropical distribution. Ripley (1961) reported 10 species from the Indian subcontinent under the single genus Megalaima. According to Simmons (1970), food supply plays an important role in determining the breeding biology, dispersion pattern and social system of a species through natural selection. In this paper, apart from mentioning the main food items, fruiting seasons and abundance of fruiting 'Accepted June, 1 999 ^Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. trees at Thekkady, the food and feeding methods of coexisting M. viridis and M. rubricapilla are described to ascertain the extent of isolation in food habits. Food habits of M. zeylanica and M. haemacephala are also discussed briefly. The impact of food habits of M. viridis on coffee plantations was assessed and has been published elsewhere (Yahya 1982). Barbets do not drink water regularly, but they were often recorded drinking water and bathing from the rain filled natural tree holes. Drinking and bathing behaviour have been described elsewhere (Yahya 1991). The study was carried out mainly in the Periyar Tiger Reserve (9° 30' N lat. and 77° 10' E long.) Kerala, consisting of evergreen, semi- evergreen, shola, moist-deciduous and savanna forests. Details of the study area have been published earlier (Ali 1935, Yahya 1980, 1988, 1989, Vijayan 1984, and Robertson and Jackson 1992). Comparative studies were made at several other locations. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 103 FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS On reconnaissance, it was found that moist deciduous forest was favoured most by the barbets (Yahya 1989). Therefore, Thekkady - a small area of moist deciduous forest, 3 km in length and an average of 0.5 km wide, was selected for intensive study. A road of about 4 km passes through the middle of the forest connecting the reserve to the nearby town Kumily. There are several buildings in this area, besides a picnic spot and a caravan park. Methods Barbets were observed in their natural condition for about three years to study various aspects of their ecology and biology. Data was collected on food and feeding habits between April 1978 and April 1979. Each day was divided into three 4-hour shifts; 0600 to 1000 hrs, 1000 to 1400 hrs and 1400 to 1800 hrs. Observations were made on alternate shifts. On two days in each month, barbets were followed for the whole day. Fruiting of trees was recorded each month by trekking through different routes in the study area at least every fifth day. The data collected included food items, heights at which the birds fed, number of birds feeding at that time and any antagonistic behaviour. Barbets are mostly arboreal birds and only on five occasions did I note M. viridis searching for food on the ground. Hence, the vertical height distribution of feeding zone was divided into three broad levels: Primary level 1 to 4 m. Secondary level 4 to 8 m and Tertiary level above 8 m. In the beginning, I tried to distinguish different canopies at which the birds fed, but this was not done later as both species were found exploiting the canopy equally. The total numbers of each species of barbet recorded feeding on different fruiting trees and hunting insects were considered during the final analysis. As barbets hunt in the brighter hours of the day and in exposed areas, it was possible to identify such prey as cicadas, leafhoppers, ants, termites, butterflies, spiders, beetles and caterpillars. But barbets were seen to be primarily frugivores, and easy to observe visually, therefore no specimen was collected for stomach analysis. The data gathered from April 1978 to April 1979 are analysed here. During this period, a total of 3,346 M. viridis and 1,889 M. l'ubricapilla were recorded feeding. Fruiting season and relative abundance of FRUIT TREES IN THE INTENSIVE STUDY AREA Fruiting/flowering seasons of the principal trees/shrubs on which barbets were found feeding/sipping and relative abundance of fruiting trees in the intensive study area are shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. Table 1 RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF FRUITING/FLOWERING TREES VISITED BY BARBETS FOR FOOD IN THE STUDY AREA (3 km x Vi km) Plant species Relative abundance <5 5 to 10 10 to 15 >15 Actinodaphne hookeri X Bischofw javanica X Bridelia retusa X Bombax ceiba X Careya arborea X Erythrina sp. X Eucalyptus sp. X Evodea lunuankenda X Ficus gibbosa X F. infectoria X F. insignis X F. mysorensis X F. retusa X F. tsiela X Grewia tiliaefolia X Lantana camara X Leea indica X Machilus macrantha X Macaranga sp. X Olea dioica X Santalum album X Scolopia crenata X Solanum indicum X Spathodea campanulata X Syzygium cumin i X Ziziphus sp. X 104 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS Table 2 FRUITING/FLOWERING SEASONS* OF PRINCIPAL TREES AND SHRUBS ON WHICH BARBETS FEED Plant species Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Oct Nov Dec Actinodaphne hookeri X X X X Bischofia javanica X X Bridelia retusa X X X Bombax ceiba X X X X X Careya arborea X X Erythrina sp. X X X X X Eucalyptus sp. X X X X Evodea lunuankenda X X X Ficus gibbosa X X X X X X F. infectoria X X X F. insignis X X X F. mysorensis X X X X X X X X X F. retusa X X X X X X X X X X F. tsiela X X X X X X X X X X X Grewia tiliaefolia X X X X Lantana camara X X X X X X X X X X X Leea indica X X X X X X X Machilus macrantha X X X Macaranga sp. X X X X X X Olea dioica X X Santalum album X X X Scolopia crenata X X Solanum indicum X X X X X X X X X X X X Spathodea campanulata X X X X X Syzygium cumini X X *As recorded between April 1 978 to July 1 979; no data for September 1 978. Almost all the trees except some Ficus fruit annually at Thekkady. Though the fruiting period varies from species to species and at times from one individual to another, there appear to be two peak periods of fruiting, April-June and November-December. However, during April- June 1979, comparatively few species of trees were recorded fruiting. This could be due to lower rainfall in the previous year, as the fruiting period of the same tree may vary from year to year due to rainfall and other climatic factors. During April-June Actinodaphne hookeri, Ficus gibbosa, F, tsiela, Grewia tiliciefolia, Machilus macrantha, Macaranga sp., Olea dioica, Santalum album, Scolopia crenata and Syzygium cumini were the main fruiting trees. During November-December, different species of Ficus were the main fruiting trees. Some other tree species also start flowering. From the flowers of Erythrina indica, Bombax ceiba and Spathodea sp., only M. viridis was seen sipping nectar. Among these, Erythrina flowers for an extended period of 5 months, mainly October to February, Bombax flowers from November to February and Spathodea mainly during June to August, though some trees were found flowering as late as November. Bischofia javanica fruits from November to January, whereas, Bridelia retusa fruits from August to November. Fruits of Lantana camara and Solatium indicum comprise the regular food of M. viridis. These plants fruit almost throughout the year. Leea indica, on which only M. viridis feeds, fruits for a long period of 8 months (May to December), some trees with a few fruits are found in other months also (Table 2). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 105 FOOD A ND FEEDING HA BITS OF INDIA N BA RBETS The fruit abundance in this region from April to June appears to be a reciprocal adaptation with the breeding season of local birds. Most of the resident birds breed during this period (Yahya 1988) and thus the chances of seed dispersal are maximum. Ficus trees provide the maximum quantity and variety of food to barbets. Ficus tsiela and F. retusci are more versatile and one or other of these species may be found fruiting throughout the year. However, no fruit was recorded on F. retusa in July-August. Ficus mysorensis and F. insignis were recorded fruiting during the rainy months, whereas F. gibbosa commonly fruits during drier months. F. hispida and F. glomerata, which were found fruiting invariably throughout the study area (the former at Thekkady and the latter at Lowercamp, Tamil Nadu) were never eaten by either species. At Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai M. zeylanica, were observed at times pecking at the ripe receptacles of F. glomerata , but never successfully, as the fruit fell down before the bird could pluck it. This could be due to the very weak peduncle of the ripe receptacle. However, near Churchgate, Mumbai, I found M. haemacephala pecking bit by bit on the semi-ripe receptacle of F. glomerata, but on no occasion did I find any barbet feeding on F. hispida). Comparatively few species of trees fruit during February and March at Thekkady. This could be due to the deciduous nature of the dominant species. During this period, almost all the trees shed their leaves, the rain is comparatively meagre, and most of the trees prepare for the forthcoming fruiting season. According to Champion and Seth (1968) the seasonal distribution of rainfall has a far- reaching influence on the nature of vegetation. Results and Discussion The ratio of consumption of animal and plant matter by M. viridis and M. rubricapilla is almost similar in every month (Fig. 1 & 2), except during the nesting period (March- July) for M. viridis which then consumes a larger quantity of animal matter. This could be due to the marked difference between the nestlings’ food in the two species (Yahya 1980, 1988). % plant & animal matter I % plant matter L 1 % animal matter Fig. 1: Monthly feeding pattern of M. viridis 106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr 1978 I 1979 ■H % plant matter t I % animal matter Fig. 2: Monthly feeding pattern of M. rubricapilla Plant matter consumed by M. rubricapilla was restricted to fruits, and was about 8% more than that of M. viridis. However, the latter is a more versatile vegetarian, feeding on a wider range of vegetable matter. While M. viridis often feeds on the nectar of various flowers, M. rubricapilla was never found to do so. Though predominantly frugivores, both M. viridis and M. rubricapilla also feed on a large amount of animal matter, the former consuming about 10% more than the latter (Table 3). Animal food items consumed by M. viridis were larger in size and more diverse than those of M. rubricapilla. M. viridis feeds on earthworms (seen only twice) butterflies, dragonflies, mantids, cicadas, beetles, spiders, termites and caterpillars, whereas M. rubricapilla restricts itself to smaller caterpillars, borer larvae, termites and ants. Though the food preferences of these congeneric species are distinguishable, their feeding niches and food often overlap. Vegetame tood of M. viridis and M. rubricapilla As shown in Table 4, M. viridis and M. rubricapilla both show a preference for certain fruits in each month, but many fruits favoured by one species are frequently taken by the other also. Before analysing the data for a possible explanation of how these two congeneric sympatric species manage to coexist in the same habitat, a broad outline of their month-wise food items and preferences is given briefly. During January-February when only a Table 3 PERCENTAGE OF BARBETS FEEDING ON PLANT/ANIMAL MATTER Species No. of individuals Fruit/nectar Insects M. viridis (n = 3346) 2352 - 70.29% 994-29.71% M. rubricapilla (n = 1 889) 1485-87.61% 404-21.39% limited number of trees are fruiting, M. viridis very frequently forages on shrubs, while M. rubricapilla restricts itself to certain Ficus species. The common trees, on which the feeding of both species considerably overlaps during this period, are Ficus mysorensis , F. retusa, F. gibbosa, F. infectoria and F. tsiela. Among these, M. rubricapilla shows a much higher preference for/7, gibbosa, F. tsiala arid F. retusa, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 107 Tablk 4 PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDIS AND M. RUBRIC APILLA FEEDING ON FRUITS/NECTAR FOOD AND FEEDING HA BITS OF INDIAN BA RBETS Cl. < 04 t — t — O' T; O h OO On ^ O' — • o) 04 m ON r- ON tu NO o', oi o~, o 04 04 ON NO 04 o NO, 04 NO oc No! O) ioi O P no d co ^ OO OO OO 04 O Nt - r, it, - Tt — P P co 04 04 — O' N C d «o) • oo d NO OO 1 ON NO ON »n p — - no, — 04 — NO) 04 ioi O- ON — o ON 00 04 NO — < OO 4/S 04 — 04 04 O', CJ o z NO) ' 04 04 NO — o NT) ON CO Tf 04 in oo oo —nOoooo- — d d oi co oo — o- no) no, 0 — < CO NO 04 01 irl o - - 04 — Tj-ONO — r- P — ' OO - o ci o o — 04 — 04 04 NO, 010 O'. 1 p 04) 3 < CO P NO) CO O O', 04 NO) ON ON ON — — 04 vO oo — ON OO oo o — 04 0 4 © 1 NO, O' oo O' ON 04 OO NO O' O' NO) NO O'; NO 04 Nt O NO p — NO, o^ O' »oi p 04 ON O', — NO ON 1 04 1 O — ; ON — ; p no NO NO) Nr) Tl- NO O' O', 04 04 O' P tp NO ON O' P NO, NT) NO O' O 04 04 NO) OO O) oi oi oi cc 04 04 p 04 OO O) 04 NO, d »o] o'] O', 04 oc oi O' — as o4 04 O^ O' NO 04 04 NT) NO, _ ' O'. p O P as OO iTi O'. oo oo O', NT) P ok oi oi 04 * o. < oo — 00 p 01 p; p QQ .2 PS c OQ 04 N 6 — P O' NO O' P 04 O F oo ci - 04 04 Q <3 a? ■s Q a U 53 p kJ kj ’5 .00 Lr, cp k; g as k; .5 p k-i ■2 Ju 3 g § $ p p <4, 108 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 Table 4(contd.) * PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDJS AND M. RUBRICAPILLA FEEDING ON FRUITS/NECTAR FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS o <35 Os m> o ml EL i ■ in i 1 i m i , , , , so m < O mi m mi Os Os so m- c3 m, , , ■n- i i n — m — ; oo SO — i sd mi — ■ SO oo Os m~ Os X> ■ SO SO i • Os 1 1 1 i , 1 m mi m m o mi oo [Jh sd mi mi mi — m~ oo C , , , , , i i i sO 1 ''t sO a m m. r- *— > mi r- O m- oo o c-~ 1 OS OO a> 00 Os O Q mi — : d r- m- > m in ■ , , 1 m o o so p o Z O so r- m- bO , , ' Os , t 1 so o 3 r- o °o m> < mi o oo so t-~ oo , ! j , i i i 1 m 1 os m m* Os 3 o 00 m, m- mi o as m- r- C , , , , , i , o 1 o i i i , ' os m 3 m m mi m. — d SO OO , , , 1 m~ ' Os m m i i i , , 1 so Os t 1 — i in c? O os os m, m, oo £ mi mi mi mi mi d mi — '< 00 so m- , 1 m t — t~- i — r*~> i> 1 t"~ m, t 1 ^ 1 -rj- oo EL in m m r-; P so p ml o m> mi < mi SO mi mi mi mi mi mi m mi so r- .3 3 3 ■3 3 cL 3 1 cL C/3 .§ 3 3 g 3 3 g" 3 5 S c O oo W) C3 Loranthus s g .3 -5 1 a 3 5 a ‘o Olea dioica "a S 3 2 s cn £ 3 1 cn •S 3 3 .3 3 V "3 -3 3 CO- Syzygium cl Viscum sp. Ziziphus sp. C ’C ^ & 1 6 mm M. viridis (n = 2352) 37.45% 34.31% 28.24% M. rubricapilla (n = 1 485) 70.09% 1 9.90% 1 0.01 % zeylanica and M. haemacephala in San jay Gandhi National Park, Borivli, Mumbai (SGNP) and at Lowercamp, appeared to show remarkable food preference according to size; the former preferring figs of F. bengalensis and F mysorensis, whereas the latter always congregated in greater numbers on F. gibbosa, F. infectoria and F. religiosa. M. zeylanica was often found sipping nectar on Butea monosperma at SGNP, but M. haemacephala was never seen doing so. At Ranikhet (Uttar Pradesh) M. virens was recorded gulping pear blossom ( Pyrus sinensis ) conveniently owing to its large beak. Animal food of M. viridis and M. rubricapilla Insects of different groups comprise the main animal food of M\ viridis and M. rubricapilla. A month-wise record of animal food taken by these two species is shown in Tables 3 and 4 respectively. They usually hunt insects while following mixed hunting parties. However, during the breeding season both search for insects individually or in pairs. Quite often, both the barbet species were found capturing winged termites by short ‘flycatching’ sallies after light rain during March- April. Thesekhunts normally take place in groups; one such group of 30 M. rubricapilla was recorded hunting winged termites for 30 minutes at Thanikuddy area. All the birds were perched on a Terminal ia paniculata tree and caught the termites in the air one by one as they emerged from the ground. While the barbets were catching termites at about 16m height, swallows were also catching the termites much higher than the barbets, while red- whiskered bulbuls Pycnonotus jocosus were diving after them from bushes nearby. During April-May the teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera, swarm on young teak leaves and both barbets congregate in large numbers to feed on these caterpillars along with other birds. Except for this caterpillar, no swarming of any particular species was noticed during the study period at Thekkady. A Phalangid species was JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 FOOD A ND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BA RBETS found swarming in hundreds on some shrubs and tree trunks throughout the year, but no bird was seen to feed on them. Formation of Mixed Hunting Parties (MHP) At Thekkady, the formati on of large MHPs is a common avian activity. Generally bright hours of the day (Table 6) and comparatively open areas are selected for foiming a MHP. In the non- breeding season, both AT. viridis and M. rubricapilla commonly hunt with MHPs. A MHP sometimes follows a longer route, but normally limits itself to a circumference of c. 250 m or so. A ‘wave of birds’ as described by McClure (1972) was always noticed while observing the MHP. The difference between the flocks of insectivores and those assembled in a fruiting tree is that the insectivores’ ‘wave’ moves through the forest, while the frugivores confine themselves to a specific tree (McClure, 1972). Table 6 PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDIS AND M. RUBRICAPILLA FEEDING AT DIFFERENT HOURS OF THE DAY WITH MIXED HUNTING PARTY A VERAGE OF 1 1 MONTHS APRIL 1 978 TO APRIL 1 979 6 to 10 10 to 14 1 4 to 1 8 Total No. of hr. hr. hr. birds observed M. viridis 09.75 75.00 15.25 682*/994** M. rubricapilla 15.00 78.15 06.84 205*/404** * Number of birds seen hunting with MHP ** Total number of birds seen feeding on animal mater Position of barbets in MHP Normally, 10-12 bird species comprise a single MHP, but sometimes as many as 25 species were recorded, the commonest and perhaps the ‘nucleus’ of the party being drongos. The common species forming a MHP were usually the racket-tailed drongo ( Dicrurus paradiseus ), grey drongo (Z). leucophcieus ), bronzed drongo ( D . aeneus ), goldenbacked woodpecker {Din opium benghalense), goldenbacked threetoed woodpecker (D. javanense), common and southern tree pies ( Dendrocitta vagabundci, D. leucogastra ), common woodshrike (Tephrodornis virgatus ), jungle and hill mynas (Acridotheris fuscus, Gracula religiosa) minivets (Pericrocotus flammeus, P. cinnamomeus ), tits {Parus major, P. xanthogenys ) velvet-fronted nuthach (Sitta frontalis ) and various species of flycatchers. Barbets are opportunist members of the party, joining a passing MHP and hunting actively with the rest. AT. viridis being far more active than AT. rubricapilla exploits the maximum feeding zone. While ‘flowing’ with the wave, AT. viridis makes short sallies, glides down after insects or even lands on the ground, whereas AT. rubricapilla never descends below the secondary level. However, both peck on dry and dead tree trunks like woodpeckers, and at times on dry leaves, and pick up caterpillars. Intraspecific aggression between AT. viridis and AT. rubricapilla was not as common in a MHP as noted on fruit trees. This could be due to the marked difference in their feeding zones and larger feeding areas. On a fruit tree, especially when fruit is scarce, there is more rivalry and aggression — fight and chase — while in a MHP the food resource is always scattered. However, intraspecific aggression among AT. viridis itself is not uncommon. Aggression among other groups of birds in a MHP is also not as common as among a feeding flock of frugivores in a fruiting tree. However, racket-tailed drongos always try to dominate and chase other birds, even snatching morsels from them, as I have witnessed on several occasions. Competition for Food and Coexistence From the foregoing account, it appears that AT. viridis and AT. rubricapilla do not compete severely for food. However, they do overlap on certain fruiting trees or when hunting in a mixed hunting party of insectivores. As discussed below, 1 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 FOOD A ND FEEDING HA BITS OF INDIA N BA RBE TS the food competition is further reduced owing to their different feeding behaviour and overall dimensions. Feeding habitat Utilisation of different parts of the vegetation differs greatly between M. viridis and M. vubriccipiUa. The feeding zone is clearly distinguishable when both feed in a single microhabitat. During the study period, whether feeding on fruit or hunting insects, individually or with MHP, 82% M. rubricapilla were recorded feeding on the tertiary level, whereas only 51% M. viridis fed at that level. M. rubricapilla was seldom recorded descending below the secondary level (Table 7), while M. viridis frequently fed at the primary level or at times even on the ground, M. rubricapilla never does so. Table 7 PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDIS AND M. RUBRICAPILLA FEEDING AT DIFFERENT LEVELS M. viridis (n = 3346) M. rubricapilla (n = 1889) Ground 0.15% - Primary level, 1 to 4 m 18.42% - Secondary level, 4 to 8m 29.93% 17.06% Tertiary level, above 8m 51.50% 82.94% Ecological isolation by feeding heights has been reported in English titmice Parus major by Hartley (1953) and Gibb (1954). Vijayan (1975) suggested that the difference in the feeding zone is distinguishable in coexisting Pycnonotus cafer and P. luteolus at Point Calimere (Tamil Nadu) and plays a major role in isolating them ecologically. At Lowercamp, M. zeylanica , M. viridis and M. haemacephala were sometimes observed hunting together with a MHP. On those occasions, the feeding zones of the three species were always markedly different; M. zeylanica hunted at the topmost level, M. haemacephala mostly at secondary level, whereas M. viridis fed at the primary and secondary levels. Method of feeding The feeding methods of M. viridis and M. rubricapilla differ considerably, especially on larger fruits like the receptacles of Ficus mysorensis and F. bengalensis and other similar sized fruits. While M. viridis swallows the entire fruit, M. rubricapilla feeds by pecking and eating it bit by bit. The difference in feeding method is obviously due to the differences in their beak size. While M. viridis swallows larger fruits easily, M. rubricapilla cannot do so, and has to spend more time and energy on the same fruit. At Lowercamp, occasionally M. zeylanica , M. viridis , M. haemacephala and sometimes M. rubricapilla, were recorded feeding together on F. bengalensis and F. mysorensis. The feeding method of the two larger and two smaller 'pairs' was noted to be different: M. zeylanica and M. viridis with larger beaks normally swallowed the entire receptacles, whereas the other two (with almost equal beak size) fed by pecking at them bit by bit. Such a difference in method of feeding was recorded in unequal sized congeneric sympatric M. asiatica and M. haemacephala, and M lineata and M. haemacephala respectively in Calcutta Botanical Garden and in Valmiki Tiger Reserve (Bihar). Even while hunting insects individually or with MHP, M. viridis frequently catches cicadas, butterflies and such larger insects, whereas M. rubricapilla restricts itself to ants, small flies and termites. Feeding cycle Barbets are voracious feeders and can be seen feeding throughout the day. However, intensity of feeding activity varies during different hours of the day (Table 8). Both M. viridis and M. rubricapilla show maximum feeding activity during morning hours. M. viridis is comparatively less active around noon and more active in the afternoon. The difference in feeding cycle appears to be due to the differences in their roosting hours (Yahya 1987). On an 113 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS average, M. rubricapilla roosts one hour longer than M. viridis, and hence is probably more active in the noon hours also, while M. viridis takes rest. After some rest M. viridis becomes more active and hence spends more time in feeding, while in the later afternoon M. rubricapilla spends more time in preparing to roost. Table 8 PERCENTAGE OF M. VIRIDIS AND A/. RUBRICAPILLA FEEDING AT DIFFERENT HOURS OF THE DAY ON DIFFERENT FRUIT TREES 6 to 10 10 to 14 14 to 18 lus hrs hrs M. viridis (n = 2325) 47.40 22.50 30.09 M. rubricapilla (n = 1485) 48.00 28.33 23.67 Similar results were obtained while observing M. zeylanica and M. haemacephala at Sanjay Gandhi National Park. M. zeylanica showed less feeding activity during noon hours whereas M. haemacephala was quite active during that period. M. haemacephala also roosts almost one hour longer than M. zeylanica (Yahya 1 987). Skutch (1944) also found the prong-billed barbet most active in the morning hours and least active at noon, when it rested for 1 to 2 hours. Aggression at feeding sites Intraspecific aggression is much more pronounced in M. viridis than in M. rubricapilla. The former is far more aggressive towards other species of birds as well. While feeding with frugivorous flocks, M. viridis chases almost all birds except the koel Eudynamys scolopacea. The koel was found to be the most dominant species and no other bird dared to fight it back. Intraspecific aggression at feeding sites might play some role in isolating two congeneric sympatric species and thus help in successful coexistence. Grubh (1979) concludes that intraspecific aggression at food plays an important role in successful coexistence of the Eurasian griffon Gyps fulvus, whitebacked vulture G. bengalensis and longbilled vulture G. indicus in Gir Forest: while the whitebacked is comparatively peaceful at feeding sites, the 1 14 other two spend considerable time quarrelling with their own kind, thereby indirectly permitting the weaker whitebacked to feed. Morphological adaptations for feeding In physical dimensions M. viridis and M. rubricapilla are different. The larger beak of viridis enables it to swallow larger fruits and insects, which rubricapilla cannot do. This could help them in reducing food competition and successful coexistence. Zacharias (1978) states that owing to the difference in overall size, the larger jungle babbler Turdoides striatus mostly feeds on larger insects while hunting together with whiteheaded babblers T. affinis. Another point which supports the view that the overall size difference in barbets may play an important role in their successful coexistence is the common occurrence side by side of two species of different sizes. During my study I found M. viridis and M. rubricapilla occurring together at Thekkady; M. zeylanica and M. haemacephala coexisting at Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Hazaribagh National Park and at the Betla Tiger Reserve; M. lineata and M. haemacephala coexisting in Valmiki Tiger Reserve and Corbett National Park, and M. asiatica and M. haemacephala in Calcutta City. All these coexisting congeneric species have the same remarkable differences in size. Hinde (1959) suggested that the morphological differences between coexisting species are not merely adapted to feeding methods, but largely determine them. The degree of dominance while feeding may also vary according to the body size as reported by Grubh ( 1 979) among different species of griffon vultures - the largest (Eurasian griffon) was found to be the most dominant and the smallest (whitebacked) the least. Conclusion Though fruits of different species of plants constitute the main food of barbets, both M. viridis and M. rubricapilla feed on insects to JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 FOOD A ND FEEDING HA BITS OF INDIA N BA RBETS a considerable extent. The former consumes about 30% animal matter, whereas the latter consumes about 20%. M. viridis consumes more insects during the breeding season than M. rubricapilla. Only M. viridis sips nectar from flowers. Both species often hunt together with mixed hunting parties of insectivores; M. viridis always joins the party in larger numbers and for longer periods. During March- April, after light showers, both the species hunt winged termites in groups; sometimes this single-species group may consist of as many as 30 individuals. Food competition between the coexisting M. viridis and M. rubricapilla is not severe, for they normally procure food from different feeding zones. Intraspecific aggression among M. viridis is markedly more while feeding either on a fruit tree or with a mixed hunting party of insectivores which reduces its competition for food with M. rubricapilla to some extent. Another factor responsible for ecological isolation in feeding behaviour is the varying heights from which they exploit food: while M. viridis feeds at primary, secondary and tertiary levels, and at times lands even on the ground, M. rubricapilla restricts itself to the secondary and tertiary levels. The study also supports Huxley’s (1942) postulation that “big size difference between congeneric species of birds are means of ecological isolation”. Based on the data collected in the present study, it could be added that since food is the primary requirement of an animal, for the successful coexistence of two closely related species in a single habitat, divergent morphological adaptations in relation to feeding habits are an outcome of the process of natural selection. Refer Ali, Salim, (1935): The ornithology of Travancore and Cochin (with notes by Hugh Whistler) Part 1 . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37: 814-843. Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of the forest types of India. Govt, of India Press, New Delhi. Gibb, John. (1954): Feeding ecology of tits, with notes on Barbets are economically important and play a significant role in controlling various harmful insects, in cross-pollination and seed dispersal of trees. Though they are presently common in many places, their conservation priorities should be anticipated by wildlife biologists and managers to maintain sustainable populations of different species. Acknowledgements I am greatly indebted to the late Dr. Salim Ali for his guidance, constant interest and constructive criticism at various stages of the study. I am grateful to the Bombay Natural History Society for supporting the study under Salim Ali — Loke Wan Tho Ornithological Research Fund. Mr. J.C. Daniel, Mr. S.A. Hussain, Dr. Robert Gmbh and Dr. V.S. Vijayan kindly visited the study area and provided valuable suggestions. Dr. Mohammed Ali Raza Khan and Dr. Priya Davidar were always source of encouragement throughout the study. I thank Mr. K.K. Nair, Ex. CCF (Kerala) for permission for field study, and Mr. S.N. Asari, Field Director of Periyar Tiger Reserve and his subordinate officers for help. Dr. P.S. Easa, Dr. M. Balakrishnan, Dr. Lalitha Vijayan, Dr. K.K. Ramachandran and other members of Kerala Forest Research Institute were very cooperative while working at Thekkady. I thank Babu and Kumaran (local assistants) for their tireless help during the fieldwork. I am obliged to my colleagues Drs. Asad R. Rahmani, Salim Javed and Satish Kumar for peer reviewing the draft and helping in preparing the diagrams. ENC ES Tree creeper and Goldcrest. Ibis 96: 5 1 3-543. Grubh. R.B. (1979): Competition and Co-existence in Griffon Vultures. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 810- 814. Hartley, P.H.T ( 1 953): An ecological study of the feeding habits of the English Titmice. J. Anim. Ecol. 22: 261-288. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 115 FOOD A ND FEEDING HA BITS OF INDIA N BA RBE TS Hinde. R.S. (1959): Behaviour and speciation in birds and lower vertebrates. Bird Rev. 34: 85-128. Huxley, J.S. (1942): Evolution: The Modern Synthesis. George Allen & Unwin Ltd. London. Lack, D. (1971): Ecological Isolation in Birds. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford and Edinburgh. McClure, E.H. (1972): Two Tropical forests and their birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71: 517-535. Newton, I. (1967a): The adaptive radiation and feeding ecology of some British Finches. Ibis 109: 33-78. Rjpley, S.D. (1961): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Robertson, A. & M.C.A. Jackson (1992): Birds of Periyar — An aid to Birdwatching in the Periyar Sanctuary, Kerala. Tourism & Wildlife Society of India. Simmons, K.E.L. (1970): Ecological determinations of breeding adaptation and social behaviour in two fish-eating birds. Social behaviour in Birds & Mammals. Edited by Crook. H.J. The Whitefriars Press Ltd., London & Tonbridge. Skutch, A.F. ( 1 944): The life-history of the Prong-billed Barbet. Ank 61: 61-87. Vijayan, L. (1 984): Comparative biology ofDrongos with special reference to ecological isolation. Ph.D. thesis, Dept, of Field Ornithology, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Vijayan, V.S. (1975): Ecological isolation in Bulbuls (Family Pycnonotidae. Class Aves) with special reference to Pycnonotus cafercafer (Linnaeus) and P. luteolus( Lesson) at Point Cali mere. Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Bombay. Yahya, H.S.A. (1980): A comparative study of ecology and biology of Barbets. Megalaima spp. (Capitonidae: Piciformes) with special reference to Megalaima viridis (Boddaert) and M. rubricapilla malabarica (Blyth) at Periyar Tiger Reserve. Kerala. Ph.D. thesis, University of Bombay. Yahya, H.S.A. (1982): Observation on the feeding behaviour of barbets, Megalaima spp. in Coffee estates of South India. J. Coffee Research 12(3): 72-76. Yahya, H.S.A. (1987): Roosting behaviour of barbets, Megalaima spp. In: Recent Trends in Ethology Ed. M. Balakrishnan & K.K. Alexander Ethological Society of India, Bangalore, pp 101-106. Yahya, H.S.A. (1988): Breeding biology of barbets, Megalaima spp. with special reference to M. viridis and M. rubricapilla malabarica at Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(3): 493-511. Yahya, H.S.A. ( 1 989): Habitat preference of birds in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala. Indian Journal of Forestry 12(4): 288-295. Yahya, H.S.A. (1991 ): Drinking and bathing behaviour of barbets, Megalaima spp. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(3): 454-455. Zacharias. V.J. (1978): Ecology and biology of certain species of Indian Babblers ( Turdoides spp.) in Malabar, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Calicut, Kerala. ■ H ■ 116 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 NEW DESCRIPTIONS SPINY EELS OF THE GENUS MACROGNATHUS LACEPEDE FROM MANIPUR, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES' L. Arunkumar and H. Tombi Singh2 ( With four text-figures ) Key words: Macrognathus morehensis sp. nov., Yu drainage system, Manipur. The paper gives a systematic account of two species of Macrognathus, hitherto known from Manipur, viz. M. aral (Bloch & Schneider) and M. pancaius Hamilton-Buchanan, which are distributed in the Barak drainage system and in the hill streams of Manipur respectively. A new species M. morehensis occurring in Manipur has been described here. It is found in the southeastern corner of this state and the adjoining areas of Myanmar, drained by the Yu drainage system, known as the Chindwin of Meaner. The diagnostic feature of M. morehensis is the combination of the following distinctive characters: 1 1 to 16 dorsal spines, 20 to 25 broad black transverse bars, 12 to 14 black spots that form imperfect ocelli at the base of dorsal fin rays, 6 black oval spots at the base of dorsal spines, 10 to 13 black spots at the base of anal fin rays, 5 to 7 oblique striations of black dots arranged in longitudinal parallel rows at the dorsal and anal fin rays, 7 to 10 black lines of striations formed by the dots at the caudal fin, a single ocellus at base of caudal fin, 8 to 11 rostral tooth-plates, and 76 vertebrae. Introduction Manipur is an isolated hill state in the northeast corner of India having three drainage systems: the Barak, Manipur, and Yu drainage systems draining the western, central and eastern water bodies respectively (Fig. 4). The Barak drainage system is connected with the Barak- Brahmaputra river system of India, whereas the Manipur drainage and the Yu drainage systems are connected with the Chindwin river system of Myanmar. Hora (1921) described a new species of spiny eel, Mastacembelus manipurensis from Khurda (Khordak) stream of Manipur and Rhynchob della dhcinashorii from Dhanashori stream, about a mile from Dimapur, Assam. Menon (1954), while reporting on the fishes known from Manipur, listed two spiny eels, viz. M. armatus and M. manipurensis. Later, Menon (1974) considered M. manipurensis and ‘Accepted August, 1997. department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur795 003, Imp'hal, Manipur, India. R. dhanashorii as synonyms of M. armatus and Macrognathus aculeatus respectively. Presently, three species, viz. M. aral (Bloch & Schneider), M. guentheri (Day) and M. pancaius Hamilton- Buchanan have been reported from Indian waters (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). No further report is available on the spiny eels of the genus Macrognathus of Manipur. Recently, several specimens of Macrognathus were obtained from the Lokchao river and the Maklang river of the Yu drainage system of this state near Moreh, which is known as Chindwin of Meaner. From this collection, a new species, Macrognathus morehensis , is described here. Material and Methods Fishes were collected using different types of nets, grooping, dewatering of shallow water pockets and with the help of local fishermen. Some fishes were also purchased from Moreh Bazar, Chandel dist. , Manipur, near the Indo- Myanmar border. In the field, their local names and fresh colours were noted.The fishes were JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 NE W DESCRIP TIONS then preserved in 10% formaline and brought to the Fishery Laboratory of Manipur University. The fishes were identified with reference to Day (1889), Hamilton-Buchanan (1822), Roberts (1980, 1986) and, Talwar and Jhingran (1991). The specimens were deposited in the Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF). Registration numbers are given below. Results Macrognathus aral (Bloch & Schneider) (Fig. 1) Fig. 1: Macrognathus aval (Bloch and Schneider) Rhynchobdella dhcinashorii Flora, 1921. Rec. Indian Mus., XXII : 205, PI. IX fig. 2 (sp. nov.). Macrognathus aral Roberts, 1980. Copeia, 3: 385-391, fig. 1 2b (Revision). Macrognathus aval Talwar & Jhingran, 1991 Inland Fish. India & Adjacent Countries , 2\ 1026 (Distribution extended). Manipuri name: Ngaril/Jirigi ngaril pokch aob i/Ngari l yangmitpanbi. Material examined: 3 exs. Uncat. MUMF. 1 from Jiri River; 120 mm total length; 7. viii. 1 995, 2 ex. Makru stream; 124 to 135 mm total length; 2.ix.l985, coll. M.G. Sharma, 1 ex. MUMF 20 1/1 A, Jiri River, 205 mm total length, 16.x. 1992, coll. L.A. Distribution: Manipur: Barak drainage system. Remarks: Formerly reported as M. aculeatus and distributed strictly in the western sides of this state, drained by the Barak drainage system of the Brahmaputra system in India. It is easily distinguished from M. aculeatus by the lack of 14 to 17 oblique dark bars on the body and smaller number of rostral tooth-plates (18 to 21 vs. 38 to 55). Roberts (1980) stated that M. aculeatus was known from the southern half of the Malay Peninsula: several of the principal rivers of Sumatra; the Kapaus river of Borneo and northern Java as far east as the Brantas river. The specimens (M. aral) from the Barak drainage of Manipur are similar to M. siamensis (Roberts 1980) in the presence of ocelli at the base of dorsal fin rays, but can be easily distinguished by the lack of ocelli at caudal fin, smaller number of rostral tooth-plates ( 1 8 to 2 1 vs. 7 to 14), and total number of vertebrae (71 vs. 75). Macrognathus pancalus Hamilton-Buchanan (Fig. 2) Fig. 2: Macrognathus pancalius Hamilton-Buchanan Macrognathus pancalus Hamilton- Buchanan, 1822. Fish Ganges, 30, 364. pi. XXII, fig. 7. Mastacembelus pancalus Sufi, 1956 Bull. Raffles Mus., 27: 93-146 (Revision). Macrognathus pancalus Talwar & Jhingran, 1991 Inland Fish. India & Adjacent Countries , 2: 1027-1028, Fig. 292. Manipuri name: Ngaril/Ching-ngaril- macha. Material examined: 3 exs. MUMF 202/ 3A, 1 ex. Jiri River; 1 1 1 mm total length; 1 3 .xii. 1 990, 1 ex. Litan stream at the root of Thoubal river; 132 mm total length; 15.xi.1991 and 1 ex. Maklang river; 124 mm total length; 8. xii. 1992, coll. L.A. Distribution: Manipur: Hill streams and 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97(1) APR. 2000 NE W DESCRIP TIONS rivers of the Barak drainage, the upper and lower regions of Manipur drainage and the Yu drainage system. Remarks: It is the smallest among spiny eels and mainly found in hill streams. A distinct streak of longitudinal spots runs along the lateral line from the eye to the base of caudal fin in the present specimen, with 65 to 66 vertebrae. Roberts ( 1986) mentioned that it belongs to the second group of Macrognathus which lack rostral tooth-plates. Macrognathus morehensis sp. nov. (Fig. 3) Fig. 3: Macrognathus morehensis sp. nov., MUMF 203/8 A Paratype, 147 mm TL, Manipur: Yu drainage system. Holotype: MUMF 203/1 A, fromMaklang river near Moreh Bazar, Chandel district, 155 mm total length 17.x. 1992. Coll. L.A. Paratypes. MUMF 203/8A, 3, from Lokchao river near Moreh Bazar. 5 from Moreh Bazar; near Indo-Myanmar border, 80 to 147 mm total length. 2 1.x. 1992. Coll. L.A. Manipuri name: Ngaril/Ngamoi-tup/ Ngamu-tup/Tou-ngaril Diagnosis: A Macrognathus has the distinctive combination of the following characters: (i) 1 1 to 16 dorsal fin spines, (ii) 20 to 25 black broad transverse bars on the body, (iii) 8 to 11 rostral tooth-plates, (iv) 12 to 14 black spots that are imperfect ocelli at the base of dorsal fin rays, (v) 10 to 13 distinct black spots at the base of anal fin rays, (vi) 6 black oval spots at the base of dorsal spines, (vii) 5 to 7 oblique striations of black dots arranged in parallel longitudinal rows at the dorsal and anal fin rays, (viii) 7 to 10 black lines of striations formed by dots at the caudal fin, (ix) a single ocellus at the base of caudal fin and (x) 76 vertebrae. Description: Br. 3-5, D. 11-16/39-51, P. 15-20, A. 3/40-54, C. 11-14. Body slightly compressed. Rostrum slightly rounded. Pre- orbital and pre-opercular spines absent. Head long and pointed. Mouth inferior, cleft of mouth narrow. Ventral side of snout transversely striated by 2 to 4 black bars. Eyes not visible from ventral side and covered by a thin membrane. Eye diameter more or less same as the interorbital distance. Lips thin. No gill rakers. Caudal fin distinctly separated from the dorsal and anal fins. Scales are minute. The third anal spine is very near the origin of anal soft fin rays and difficult to identify, since it is buried inside the skin. Proportional measurements of holotype and paratypes (the latter in parenthesis): Depth of body 10.97 (11.11-12.93), height of head at eye 4.51 (4.08-6.25), height of head at occiput 6.45 (6.25-7.69), length of head at occiput 12.90 (11.11-15.47), length of head at the end of lateral operculum 17.42 (17.36-22.22) and length of caudal fin 7.09 (6.94-9.52) in the percentage of total length respectively. Depth of body 1 1 .80 (1 1 .94-13.79), height of head at eye 4.86 (4.41-6.84), height of head at occiput 6.94 (6.72-8.33), length of head at the end of lateral operculum 18.76 (18.65- 24.33), length of pectoral fin 6.94 (7.14-8.62), predorsal length at the origin of dorsal fin spine of 43.85 (43.29-46.72), and predorsal length at the origin of dorsal fin soft rays 63.29 (62.1 1- 69.93) in the percentage of standard length respectively. Diameter of eye 33.33 (33.33-35.59), interorbital distance 33.33 (33.33-35.95) and width of mouth 22.22 (20.00-25.00) in percentage of length of snout respectively. Colour: Body light yellowish to ashy. In young stages (81-120 mm total length), the dorsal fin soft rays, anal fin soft rays and caudal JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 119 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 4: Map of Manipur showing distribution of Macrognathus fins are distinctly red with black striations and pin dotted transverse bars along their entire length. Abdomen yellowish white. Habitats: M. morehensis has a habit of actively burrowing in the swampy and vegetated stream bed. The inhabitants of Kwatha village near Moreb, of the Indo-Myanmar border call it ‘ Tou-ngariV , according to the habitat of the fish. The fish hides under pebbles, stones, gravel, sandy beds of clear torrential stream. It makes small pits and holes in the swampy arid vegetated beds of stagnant streams and waterbodies. The fish is associated with Amblypharyngodon molci , Aspidoparia morar , Badis badis , Chanda nama , Chela laubuca , Colisa fasciata , Danio aequipinnatus , Esomus dancricns , Garni gravelyi , 120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 NEW DESCRIPTIONS G. lissorhynchus , G. rupecola, Glyptothorax pectinoptems , G platypogonoides , G. trilineatus, Mystus bleekeri , M. cavasius , Nemacheilus vinciguerrae and Parluciosoma dciniconius. Its distribution extends upto Tumu of Myanmar. Remarks: M. morehensis is easily distinguished from M. guentheri (Day) and M. pancalus Hamilton-Buchanan by the presence of rostral tooth-plates. It is also easily distinguished from M. aral (Bloch & Schneider) by the presence of less rostral tooth-plates (8-11 vs. 14-28), dorsal fin spines (11-16 vs. 16-23), total number of vertebrae (76 vs. 7 1 ), coloration (indistinct i.e. imperfect ocelli vs. distinct ocelli at base of the dorsal soft fin rays, and an ocellus at base of caudal fin vs. absent) and specific distribution, viz. Yu drainage system vs. Barak drainage system of Manipur. Etymology: The specific name is derived from Moreh, the type locality of the fish. Discussion: Roberts (1980, 1986) stated that M. aculeatus was known strictly from the southern half of the Malay Peninsula. He synonymised and referred all the formerly well known species of M. aculeatus which are distributed in India to M. aval. M. aculeatus had not been found in Myanmar or in the Indian subcontinent, but was found in Thailand at Surat Thani, Chiao Lam and the Tapi River basin. M. morehensis can be easily differentiated from M. caudiocellatus, M. circumcinctus , M. semiocellatus and M. zebrinus by the absence of preopercular and preorbital spines, and presence of rostral tooth-plates. M. morehensis differs from M. aral in having a smaller number of rostral tooth-plates (8-11 vs. 14-28), fewer dorsal fin spines (11-16 vs. 1 6-23), more vertebrae (76 vs 7 1 ) and pattern of bands (20 to 25 transverse dark bars vs. 2 pale longitudinal stripes along its entire length). M. morehensis differs from M. aculeatus in having fewer rostral tooth-plates (8-11 vs. 29- 55) and numbers of oblique transverse bars on the body (20-25 vs. 14-17). M morehensis differs from M. meklongensis in having a smaller number of dorsal fin rays (39- 51 vs. 50-54), pectoral fin rays (15-20 vs. 22-23), caudal fin rays (11-14 vs. 16-19), coloration of black spots at dorsal fin base (12-14 distinct large spots which are imperfect ocelli vs. no ocelli or 10-12 faint small ocelli), rim of anterior nostril with finger-like projections (absent vs. 6) and transverse bars on the body (20-25 vs. absence of transverse bars). M. morehensis differs from M. siamensis in the presence of fine dark striations in the caudal fin (7-10 fine black striations formed by dots vs. absence of striations), ocelli in the dorsal fin base (12-14 black spots which are imperfect ocelli vs. with series of large and distinct form of ocelli), fine oblique striations in the dorsal soft fin-rays (5-7 vs. absent) and distribution (Manipur vs. Thailand and Kampuchea). M. morehensis has a restricted distribution in Moreh, near the Indo-Myanmar border, Chandel Dist., Manipur at lower portion of Lokchao river, Pumpum stream of Kwatha, Lairok Maru, lower portion of Maklang river, which belong to the Yu drainage- system of Manipur, extend to Myanmar and join the Chindwin river. The fish was also collected from the adjoining areas of Manipur-Myanmar border of the Yu river system, which is known as the Chindwin of Meaner. According to Kottelat (1989) and Zakana- Ismail (1994), M. aral, M. caudiocellatus and M. zebrinus are the Salween elements of fishes. Kottelat (loc. cit.) described M. aculeatus as the Malay peninsular element of fish and M. circumcinctus, M. meklongensis, M. semiocellatus and M. siamensis as the Thailand elements of fishes. According to Zakaria-Ismail (loc. cit.) M. aculeatus, M. caudiocellatus, M. circumcinctus, M. meklongensis, M. semiocellatus and M. siamensis belong to the Indo-Chinese elements of fishes. M. pancalus is the true Indian element of fish. Hence M. morehensis is a distinct species with JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 121 NEW DESCRIPTIONS meristic, morphometry, anatomy (vertebrae), colour pattern and specific distributional areas, i.e. the Chindwin of Meaner as the defining features. ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS The first author thanks Dr. W. Vishwanath Refe Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma, Fishes, 2, 509. Taylor and Francis, London. Hamilton-Buchanan, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its tributaries, vii, 1- 405, 39 pis. Edinburgh and London. Hora, S.L. ( 1 92 1 ): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some observations on those of Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus. 22(3): 165-214. Kottelat, M. (1989): Zoogeography of the fishes from Indo-Chinese inland waters with an annotated checklist. Bull. Zool. Mus. 12: 1-55. Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish fauna of Manipur state. Rec. Indian Mus. 25(1): 21-26. Menon, A.G.K. (1974): A check-list of fishes of the Himalayan and the Indo-Gangetic plains. Inland of Manipur University, Dr. Maurice Kottelat of Switzerland (CMK), Dr. Kelvin K.P. Lim, and Dr. Peter K.L. Ng of National University, Singapore and Dr. Mohd. Zakaria Ismail of University of Malaya for help. We also thank UGC, Special Assistance Programme, Life Sciences Department, Manipur University for financial assistance. E n c e s Fisheries Society of India. Special Publications. 1. pp 136. Roberts, T.R. ( 1 980): A revision of the Asian Mastacembelid fish genus Macrognathus. Copeia 3: 385-391 . Roberts, T.R. (1986): Systematic review of the Mastacembelidae or Spiny eels of Burma and Thailand, with description of two new species of Macrognathus. Jap. J. Ichthyol. 33(2): 95-109. Sufi, S.F.K. ( 1 956): Revision of the Oriental fishes of the family Mastacembelidae. Bull. Raffles Mus. 27: 93- 146. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran: Inland Fishes of India and Adjacent Countries. 2, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta. 543-1 1 58. Zakaria-Ismail, M. (1 994): Zoogeography and biodiversity of the freshwater fishes of Southeast Asia. Hydrobiologia. 285: 41-48. 122 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 THREE NEW GENERA OF WHITEFUES MOHANASUNDARAMIELLA, SHANTHINIAE AND VA SANTHARAJIELLA (ALEYRODIDAE : HOMOPTERA) FROM INDIA1 P. Manidurai Manoharan David- ( With three text-figures) Key words : Whiteflies, Aleyrodidae, Homoptera, Mohanasundaramiella , Shanthiniae, V cisantharajiella In a survey conducted in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu and the adjoining forests of Kerala during 1991-1994, 84 species of aleyrodids under 34 genera were collected and studied. Of the 34 genera three, viz., Mohanasundaramiella, Shanthiniae and Vasantharajiella were found to be new and Genus Mohanasundaramiella gen. nov. Type-species: Mohanasundaramiella rubiae sp. nov. Pupal case oval in outline, pale with no wax secretion; margin lobulate to serratulate; marginal setae present; tracheal pores and combs absent; submargin characteristically separated from dorsal disc by a well defined furrow; submarginal transverse ridges and furrows conspicuous; subdorsal fold-like suture extending between meso-metathoracic suture and third-fourth abdominal suture; submarginal setae present; cephalic, mesothoracic, metathoracic, first abdominal, eighth abdominal and caudal setae present; first abdominal setae located late rad of subdorsal fold- like suture. Vasiform orifice subcordate, operculum filling orifice, lingula tip exposed but included. Caudal furrow and ridges absent. Tracheal folds discernible. Diagnosis. This genus is strikingly different from the known genera of Aleyrodini in having a well defined submarginal furrow that distinguishes submargin from dorsal disc. It resembles some species of Crenidorsum Russell in the furrow in inner subdorsal area of 'Accepted August, 1 999 department of Agricultural Entomology, Agricultural College & Research Institute, Killikulam, Vallanad 628 252, Tamil Nadu, India. are described and illustrated. cephalothorax and abdomen, but differs from them in the presence of first abdominal setae and conspicuous submargin. Other distinguishing characters include presence of fewer than 19-21 pairs of dorsal setae that separate it from Aleuromarginatus Corbett, presence of first abdominal setae on subdorsum that are absent in Aleyrodes Latreille, presence of submedian meso- and metathoracic setae that are lacking in Aleurocybotus Quaintance & Baker, oval shape of pupal case that is typically elongate, parallel-sided and slightly square anteriorly and posteriorly in Aleurotulus Quaintance & Baker, and presence of minute submarginal setae that do not occur in Aleurotrachelus Quaintance & Baker. Etymology: This genus is named in honour of Dr. M. Mohanasundaram, Professor of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, the renowned acarologist, who taught the author the science of taxonomy, and suggested this study. Mohanasundaramiella rubiae gen. et sp. nov. (Fig. 1) Pupal case: Oval in shape. 1.03-1.05 mm long and 0.87-0.89 mm wide, widest across abdominal segment III. Pale white with no wax secretion. Living on either surface of leaves. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 123 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 1 : MohanasundaramieUa rubiae gen. et sp. nov. : A. pupal case; B. prothoracic leg and antenna; C. margin; D. vasiform orifice; E. disc pore and porette Margin; Lobulate to serratulate, about 14 teeth occupying 0.1 mm length of margin; teeth each longer than wide; margin slightly indented at cephalic and caudal ends medially and at thoracic tracheal pore areas. Tracheal pores and combs wanting. Anterior marginal setae 18.6 pm long, posterior marginal setae 38.0 pm long. Dorsum: Dorsal disc separated from submargin by a distinct furrow. Submargin rather uniformly wide. Well defined transverse ridges 124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 NE W DESCRIPTIONS and furrows running mesad from margin to outer subdorsum; adjoining 2-3 furrows more sclerotized, alternating every 3-4 less prominent ridges and furrows. Minute submarginal setae m 8 pairs, 6 on cephalothorax and 2 on abdomen, 6.2-12.4 pm long. Dorsal disc with numerous disc pores and porettes, one row in submarginal fold, one each at the darker transverse furrows. Transverse moulting suture reaching margin, curved caudad from its midpoint, terminating slightly anterior to the first-second abdominal suture at the longitudinal subdorsal fold-like suture which characteristically extends between meso-metathoracic suture and third-fourth abdominal suture. Meso-metathoracic suture much pronounced. Abdominal segmentation distinct. Abdominal segments IV- VI with a weak rachis, their sutures running lateral into subdorsum. Median length of abdominal segment VII slightly shorter than that of VI. Submedian cephalic setae long, tapered with a prominent base, 86.8 pm long. Two pairs of submedian thoracic setae present: one pair on mesothorax 18.6 pm long, the other on metathorax 34.1 pm long. First abdominal setae transpositioned on subdorsum laterad of longitudinal fold-like suture, 6.2 pm long. Eighth abdominal setae 65. 1 pm to at least 114.7 pm long, their bases anterocephalad of vasiform orifice. Caudal setae 28.0-74.4 pm long, located on submargin. Submedian abdominal depressions weak. Vasiform orifice subcordate with a broader rim, 46.5 pm long, 62.0 pm wide, posterior margin notched inside. Operculum of identical shape, filling three-fourths of orifice, 34.1 pm long and 46.5 pm wide. Lingula tip setose, exposed but included. Caudal furrow and caudal ridges absent. Venter: Thoracic tracheal folds faint, caudal fold distinct. Anterior thoracic and posterior abdominal spiracles evident. Adhesive sacs present. Antennae reaching anterior thoracic spiracles, their tips with a finger-like projection. Ventral abdominal setae 37.2 pm long. Host: Morindci sp. (Rubiaceae) Holotype: One pupal case mounted on slide, on Morindci sp., india: Kerala: Walayar forest, 24.ix.1992, coll. M. Mohanasundaram (No. 58 A.I.). Paratypes: Six pupal cases on slides, same data as holotype. Etymology: Species name derived from Rubiaceae, the host plant family. Remarks. Two out of the seven pupal cases are parasitised. Genus Shanthiniae gen. nov. Type-species: Shanthiniae sheryli sp. nov. Pupal case rather uniquely polyhedral in outline with lateral evaginations at six places on either side; margin very finely crenulate and crenate-looking, margin at pore area cleft; marginal setae present; thoracic tracheal pores well defined, inset with a single not very conspicuous tooth; dorsum ornamental with spots, reticulations; transverse moulting suture reaching margin; bases of cephalic, first abdominal and eighth abdominal setae distinct, caudal setae not discernible; abdominal segments VI and VII equally long, porettes with typically sclerotized rims; vasiform orifice cordate, with posterior margin toothed, operculum filling the orifice, lingula concealed; caudal furrow and ridges distinct; thoracic and caudal tracheal folds defined. Diagnosis: Pupal case outline of this genus is extraordinarily unique in being a 12-sided polyhedron with six corners on either side. This shape is not seen in any other whitefly species or genera of the world. However, Shanthiniae is related to Dialeurodes Cockerell, Dialeurolonga Dozier, and Dialeuronomanda Quaintance & Baker in the distinct structure of thoracic tracheal pore with tooth and in the presence of a comb of teeth in the inner margin of vasiform orifice, especially posteriorly. It shows affinity to Dialeurolonga in lacking subdorsal or JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 125 NEW DESCRIPTIONS submarginal row of setae but can be distinguished by the absence of small papillae in a row on the submarginal area. Its abdominal segments I-IV are subequal in length, similar to those in Dialeurodes, but are distinctive in the absence of a row of subdorsal setae. In both, Shanthiniae and Dialeuronomada, medium length of abdominal segment VII is shorter than that of VIII. Presence of a row of 12 marginal setae and a peripheral row of characteristic papillae on the submarginal area readily separate the latter from the former. The new genus differs from all the above three genera in the characteristic sclerotic pattern on the dorsum, in the transverse moulting suture typically reaching margin, in the location of vasiform orifice not greater than its length from posterior body margin, and in the absence of stipples in the tracheal folds as well. Etymology: This genus is named after the author’s wife Mrs. Shanthini David. Shanthiniae sheryli gen. et sp. nov. (Fig. 2) Pupal case: Typically polyhedral, with six corners on either side. 0.68 mm long and 0.56 mm wide, widest across abdominal segment I. Black in colour with no wax secretion. Margin: Very finely crenulate and crenate-looking, with about 4 crenulations in 0.1 mm length of margin; crenulations each much wider than long, their apices subconical to rounded or rather straight. Margin at pore area cleft. Thoracic tracheal pores well defined, inset with a single tooth-like projection. Caudal tracheal pore area not inset. Anterior marginal setae 9.3 pm long, posterior marginal setae 12.4 pm long. Dorsum: Ornamented with spots, reticula- tions and minute tubercles. Submargin narrowly marked by a weak furrow. Transverse ridges and furrows running mesad from margin and submargin to anastamose in the dorsal disc area, giving a leopard skin-like appearance to the dorsum. Marginal furrows each alternated with 2-4 submarginal ones. Subdorsum granulated. Submedian area on cephalothorax and median area on abdominal segments densely spotted. Longitudinal and transverse moulting sutures reaching margin, the ends of the latter opposite meso-metathoracic suture. Base of cephalic, first and eighth abdominal setae distinct, setae very minute; bases of eighth abdominal setae located laterad of top of vasiform orifice. Caudal setae not discernible. Segmenta-tion distinct in submedian area; sutures each with anterior and posterior branches, their ends anastomosing with subdorsal reticulation. Median length of abdo- minal segments subequal, median length gradually decreasing from abdominal segment I- VII; that of VII as long as that of VI and shorter than VIII. Disc pores and porettes present on dorsai disc; porettes dark-rimmed and characteristically sclerotized laterad. Vasiform orifice cordate, located about its length from posterior body margin, its sides prominent; its inner margin with teeth, especially posteriorly; 37.2 pm long and 34.1 pm wide. Operculum cordate, nearly filling the orifice; 24.8 pm long and 27.9 pm wide. Lingula concealed. Caudal furrow well defined. Caudal ridges distinct. Venter: Thoracic and caudal tracheal folds well defined. Ventral abdominal setae 9.3 pm long. All four pairs of spiracles evident, anterior thoracic spiracles larger than others. Setae or spines on legs not discernible. Antennae reaching the base of prothoracic legs. Adhesive sacs not discernible. Rostrum distinctly segmented, setae at base absent. Host: An unidentified plant. Holotype: A pupal case mounted on slide, on an unidentified plant, India: Tamil Nadu: Karaiyar Dam (Papanasam), 14.iv.1993. Coll: P.M.M. David (No. 180.A.). Etymology: This species is named after the author’s son D. Sheryl who often accompanied him during the survey. 126 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 2: Shanthiniae sheiyli gen. et sp. nov. : A. pupal case; B. thoracic tracheal comb; C. section of margin and submargin; D. disc pore and porette; E. vasiform orifice; F. dorsal markings. Genus Vasantharajiella gen. nov. Type-species: Vasantharajiella kalakadensis sp. nov. Pupal case oval, jet black in colour; margin lobulate; tracheal combs distinct; submargin separated from the dorsal disc by a distinct furrow not interrupted even at caudal region; marginal setae absent; submarginal setae present; first abdominal setae absent; transverse JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 127 NEW DESCRIPTIONS moulting suture reaching submarginal furrow; median area of abdominal segments tuberculate; rachis on cephalothorax and abdomen present; vasiform orifice much smaller compared with its body size, subcordate, wider than long; operculum of similar shape, filling half the orifice, concealing lingula. Diagnosis: The genus differs from such genera of Aleurolodini as Aleuropapillatus Regu & David, Aleurolobus Quaintance & Baker, Africaleurodes Dozier, and Asterochiton Masked in the presence of complete submargin all around the case, without interruption even in the caudal region. Though it resembles the rest of the genera in the presence of the complete submargin, it is clearly distinguished from them by several characters. It is distinct from Crescentaleyrodes David & Jesudasan in the presence of thoracic and caudal tracheal combs and in the absence of a row of crescent-shaped pores in the submargin. Absence of first abdominal setae and a pouch-like structure at the thoracic and caudal tracheal comb area separate Vasantharajiella from Rositaleyrodes Meganathan & David. Oriental eyr odes David possesses very long hair-like submarginal setae, comparatively shorter median length of abdominal segment VII, much larger (80 x 75 pm) elevated vasiform orifice located only about its length from the posterior body margin. On the other hand, Vasantharajiella has minute submarginal setae, well defined rachis on cephalothorax and abdomen, equally long abdominal segment VII and, compared to the body size, much smaller (24.8 x 34.1 pm), non- elevated, vasiform orifice located about 10 times its length from posterior body margin. The genus also differs from all these genera in lacking anterior and posterior marginal setae. Etymology: Named in honour of Dr. B. Vasantharaj David, Director, Jai Research Foundation, Valvada, Gujarat, as a mark of respect. Vasantharajiella kalakadensis gen. et sp. nov. (Fig. 3) Pupal case: Jet black in colour, surrounded by a thick fringe of white waxy filaments; powdery wax deposits on dorsal sutures and submarginal lines. Living on the upper surface of leaves. 1.82-1.86 mm long and 1.46-1.54 mm wide; widest across abdominal segments II-IV. Margin: Lobulate, 10-11 lobulations mO.l mm width of margin; teeth each as long as wide. Margin at tracheal pore area slightly indented. Tracheal combs distinct; about 6 teeth at pore area larger than other teeth, with incisions in between teeth deeper than those in between other teeth. Anterior and posterior marginal setae not discernible in available specimens. Dorsum: Submargin characteristic; complete without any interruption even at caudal region; separated from dorsal disc by a well defined furrow gradually widening caudad; approximately ‘A the width of dorsal disc across the greatest width of body. Submarginal ridges and furrows distinct. A row of faint papillae-like markings evident. Submarginal setae in 1 3 pairs arranged in 2 rows: 4 pairs in outer submargin (2 pairs at cephalic end, one just posterior to thoracic tracheal furrow, one opposite abdominal segment I) and 9 pairs in inner submargin (3 pairs anteriad of and 6 pairs posteriad of thoracic tracheal furrow) 12.4-24.8 pm long, their bases porous, setae tapered, apices acute. Cephalic setae 15.5 pm long. First abdominal setae absent. Eighth abdominal setae 9.3-15.5 pm long, located laterad of top of vasiform orifice on a conspicuous ridge, their apices pointing towards orifice. Caudal setae 18.6 pm long, located on outer submargin anterior to the lateral tooth of tracheal comb. Longitudinal transverse moulting suture reaching margin. Transverse moulting suture curved caudad from its midpoint, recurved cephalad, terminating at submarginal furrow opposite meso-metathoracic suture. Segmenta- tion well defined in submedian area. Median length of abdominal segments I-VI equal and of 128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 NE W DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 3: Vasantharajiella kalakkadensis gen. et sp. nov.: A. pupal case; B. thoracic tracheal comb; C. margin; D. disc pore and porette; E. vasiform orifice; F. submarginal seta VII shorter than that of other segments. Median area of abdominal segments I- VIII finely tubereulate. Rachis on cephalothorax and abdomen characteristic; promesothoracic suture bifurcated, each curved cephalad and caudad, recurving mesad with chain-like designs all along in subdorsal area; meso-metathoracic suture bifurcated. A somewhat transverse rachis laterad of meso-metathoracic suture; abdominal rachis III- VII each bifurcated, finger-like in inner subdorsum with chain-like designs along sutures; minute striations inside abdominal rachis. Disc JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 129 NE W DESCRIPTIONS pores and porettes in a row on central submargin, in groups of 2-3 in a row each on outer subdorsum and on submedian area. Submedian depressions distinct on thoracic and abdominal segments. Pockets on abdominal segment VII inconspicuous. Vasiform orifice very small, subcordate, located about twice its length from posterior suture and 1 0 times its length from body margin; wider than long, 24.8 pm long and 34. 1 pm wide; its top straight, less sclerotized; sides prominent. Operculum of similar shape; longer than wide, 12.4 pm long and 27.9 pm wide, filling about half the orifice. Lingula concealed. Caudal furrow indicated by shallow depressions. Caudal ridges distinct anterior to submarginal furrow and laterad of vasiform orifice. Venter: Tassellated. Thoracic tracheal fold marked up to submarginal line, then indicated by minute stipples; caudal fold distinct; stipples up to central submargin. All spiracles evident. Ventral abdominal setae 46.5 pm long, 31.0 pm apart. A minute seta at base of mesothoracic legs, their tips with a finger-like projection. Host: An unidentified woody climber. Holotype: Pupal case mounted on slide, on an undetermined climber, rNDiA; Tamil Nadu: Kalakad forest, 5. i. 1993. Coll: P.M.M. David (No. 208.4). Paratypes: 1 1 specimens on slides bearing the same collection data as of holotype. Etymology: Derived from the collection site, Kalakad forest. Types Depository: The holotypes are deposited with the Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi. The paratypes of M. rubicie and V. kalakadensis are available with the Centre for Advanced Studies in Agricultural Entomology, TNAU, Coimbatore; with Dr. B.V. David, Director, Jai Research Foundation, Vapi; and with the Department of Entomology, Natural History Museum, London. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Dr. M. Mohanasundaram, Professor of Agricultural Entomology (Retd.), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, for suggesting the problem and for guidance throughout the investigations, and to Dr. B. Vasantharaj David, Director, Jai Research Foundation, Valvada, Gujarat, for confirming the identity of the species, valuable suggestions and providing reprints. 130 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97(1) APR. 2000 L YSIONOTUS PALINENSIS — A NEW SPECIES OF GESNERIACEAE FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1 G.D. Pal2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Lysionotus palinensis, new species, Arunachal Pradesh. During plant exploration in the district of Lower Subansiri, Arunachal Pradesh, an interesting species of the genus Lysionotus D. Don was collected. A critical study, based on the regional herbarium specimens of allied species and literature on species of Lysionotus D. Don, has proved it to be quite distinct from all known species and is described. Line drawings are provided. Lysionotus palinensis G.D. Pal sp. nov. (Figs. : A-D) Lysionotus serrato D. Don affinis, sed differt foliis lanceolatis ad lineari-lanceolatis, ad marginum spinulosis crenato-serratis coriaceis, pedunculis 3-7 cm longis, calieis lobis lanceolatis, 0. 9-1.0 x 0. 1-0.2 cm, cuspidato- acuminatis, 4-6 nervatis. Typus: Holotypus lectus a G.D. Pal ad locum Arunachal, Inferior Subansiri district, Palin c. 1400 m, dia 9.ix.l983, subnumero 400, ex positus in CAL. Shrubby herbs, 30-40 cm tall, usually unbranched, rooting at the lower nodes. Stems terete or faintly ridged, pubescent above. Leaves ternate, sometimes basal leaves opposite, lanceolate to narrowly lanceolate, 3-7 x 0. 5-2.0 cm, cuneate or rounded at base, acuminate, spinulous crenate-serrate at margin, glabrous, coriaceous; young leaves hairy on nerves underneath, pale gren underneath; lateral nerves 4-6 pairs; petioles 0.2-0. 3 cm long, hairy. Inflorescence laxly cymose many flowered; peduncles 3-7 cm long, terete, wiry, glabrous or sparsely pubescent; bracts ovate-lanceolate, 0.5- 0.6 x 0.3-0.35 cm, acuminate, 3-nerved; pedicels 0.5-1 .0 cm long, wiry, glabrous. Flowers bluish- purple; calyx lobes lanceolate, 0.9- 1.0 x 0.1 -0.2 'Accepted December, 1998. :Botanica1 Survey of India, Arunachal Field Station ltanagar791 111, Arunachal Pradesh, India. cm, caudate-acuminate, 4-6 nerved, purple; corolla tubular, broad at middle, 4. 0-4. 5 x 0.8- 1.0 cm, distinctly nerved within, reticulate at throat; upper lip 0.8 cm longer than lower lip. 3-lobed; middle lobes oblong to sub orbicular, about 0.8 x 0.6 cm, obtuse; lower lip shorter, truncate; stamens 2, fertile; filaments 0.8-1 .0 cm long, flattened; anthers connivent; ovary oblong, 0.2 cm long; styles slender, 2. 0-2. 3 cm long, unevenly thickened. Capsules not seen. FI.: August-September. Remarks: Grows in moist shaded places of subtropical primary forests on humus rich soil associated with Impatiens, Begonia spp. Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh, Lower Subansiri dist . , Palin c. 1400 m, 9.ix.l983; G.D. Pal 400 (Holotype- CAL) Note: The new species is closely allied to L. servants D. Don, but can be differentiated by: leaves lanceolate to linear-lanceolate; spinulous crenate-serrate at margin, coriaceous; peduncles 3-7 cm long; calyx-lobes lanceolate, 0.9- 1.0 x 0.1 -0.2 cm, cuspidate-acuminate, 4-6 nerved. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities. I also thank Dr N.C. Majumder, ex Scientist SE, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for the la tin diagnosis of the taxon and Dr G.S. Giri, Scientist SE, Central National Herbarium, Howrah for sketches. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 131 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Figl. A-D: Lysionotus palinensis sp. nov., A. Habit; B. Corolla split open; C. Anther; D.Gynaecium with calyx. 132 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 REVIEWS 1. BIRDS OF NEPAL: FIELD ECOLOGY, NATURAL HISTORY AND CONSERVATION, by Tej Kumar Shrestha. Published by Mrs. Bimal Shrestha, Kathmandu, Nepal. 2000. Pp 287, (21 x 14 cm). Price not mentioned. Prof. Tej Kumar Shrestha of Nepal is a prolific writer on natural history. As the jacket of his latest book birds of nepal claims, he is the author of the book the spiny babbler: an endemic bird of nepal, and other “eleven outstanding books on wildlife and natural resources”. However, his books (I have read three) lack scientific accuracy and the high standard expected from a professor with a D.Sc. degree. While the quality of printing of the present book is much better than his earlier books, the language is pedantic and needs proper editing. There are too many editorial mistakes to be enumerated in this brief review. The book claims to be a photographic field guide. There is a chapter on bird photography, (Bird-watching and Field Craft, pp. 30-38) which shows Prof. Shrestha with his various cameras, but many of the pictures are taken in zoos (e.g. plates 10-13, 17-22, 46-47, 52-53, 69), some pictures are of trapped birds (e.g. coot, Baillon’s crake and Indian moorhen, plate 89, painted snipe, plate 93), and some even of mounted specimens (plates 31-32). The flight pictures on plates 33, 34 and 35 are quite interesting, and some close-ups are sharp. I particularly liked the picture of the jungle myna (plate 36). Another interesting picture is that of a male magpie robin (not foster mother as claimed in the caption) feeding a juvenile cuckoo (plate 70). More than 250 species have been depicted in 144 colour plates and many in black & white, but identification pointers are not given in the captions. Moreover, arrangement of bird pictures is arbitrary, so to find a particular species is not easy. The most ill-conceived aspect of this book is the checklist. The author enigmatically starts his checklist with the spiny babbler Turdoides nipcilensis, a species on which he has done his Ph.D. Since the publication of Sibley & Monroe’s new classification based on DNA finger printing, there is already confusion in the classification of birds. Prof. Shrestha’s book will further add to this confusion. Strangely, he has not given any valid reason for adopting his own classification. The book covers a wide spectrum of subjects from ‘Ornithography of Nepal’ to ‘Birds in Nepalese Literature’. Despite its many drawbacks, it is an interesting book for ornithologists and conservationists of the Indian subcontinent because birds face the same conservation problems all over South Asia. The type of trapping methods described by Prof. Shrestha in his book are also used in India. Similarly, the reasons for trapping birds (and other wildlife) and the modus operandi of trappers/traders in Nepal are the same as in India. Nepal is becoming the main conduit for smuggling of birds to European and Middle East markets. If this book creates awareness, this special third millennium edition would serve its stated puipose “to conserve environment and the health of people in the approaching millennium”. ■ ASAD R. RAHMANI 2. BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE REPTILES OF SOUTH ASIA by Indraneil Das, Kreiger Publishing Co., Malabar, Florida, 1996, pp. 87 + xxxvi colour plates, (24.5 x 16.6 cm). Price not mentioned. As the title suggests, this book is a The practice of displaying colour plates at compilation of different aspects of geographical the very beginning of the book, though not distribution of reptiles of the South Asian region, common, catches the reader’s attention. All the JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 133 REVIEWS plates are of exemplary quality. The Montane trinket snake ( Elaphe Helena montico Haris), on the cover is excellent. The author, at the outset, acknowledges the treatises of Smith (1931; 1935; 1943) (P. 1) to be ultimate sources of identifying the Subcontinent’s reptilian fauna. He also admits drawing on the biogeographic analysis of individual countries by various workers as sources for data regarding distribution, yet does not ‘necessarily’ agree with them on the ‘interpretation’ of their findings. The author has devoted an entire chapter to apprise the reader of the methods used in his analysis. He also points out that the status of nomenclature and species reallocation is in great turmoil and uncertainty. Thus, it is safe to assume that a more exhaustive study comprising of valid names, distribution and species reallocation is to follow. The descriptions of the physiographic zones within the South Asian region, first from the physical and biological point of view and then solely on the basis of faunal characteristics like biodiversity and endemicity, are very informative and give a detailed view of the South Asian region. The results obtained and subsequent discussions on (a) Biodiversity and Endemicity (b) Faunal characteristics of physiographic zones (c) Patterns and correlates of diversity (d) Affinities between physiographic zones (e) Affinities with extralimital fauna (f) Barriers and speciation (g) Disjunct distribution of taxa, are written in a lucid style. A map is used in Chapter 3 to depict the physiographic zones. A tree-diagram effectively explains the affinities between physiographic zones. Graphs have been used to interpret or express certain data. The presence of a map and graphs depicting the physiographic zones makes it easier to visualise the explanation given. These aids make the initial chapters very informative and interesting. The analysis is complete, but a $ the author himself points out, the checklist can be the basis of a more exhaustive study owing to the instability of the taxonomic arrangements and interpretation. ■ MEGHANA GAVAND 3 . MOSSES OF KHANDALA AND MAHAB ALESHWAR IN THE WESTERN GHATS (INDIA) by G.T. Debhade, Published by A.S. Dalvi, Thane, 1998. Pp. iv + 193, (25 x 18.5 cm). Hardbound price Rs. 800/-, $ (US) 40. The mosses and in fact the entire group of Bryophytes are neglected, though they have an important bearing on the evolutionary history of the plant kingdom. The very fact that the bryophytes represent the transitional zone between the amphibian and the terrestrial habit, and that they may, perhaps, be the base in the origin and the organisation of the reproductive machinery of other plant groups from pteriodophytes to angiosperms, explains the importance of the Bryophyta in comparative morphology, ecology and phylogeny. Inspite of the academic importance and even economic value, the group remains neglected and it is in this context that this publication becomes significant. The work, though confined to a certain region of the Western Ghats, is of value in the identification of many mosses in the entire Western Ghats. The author has painstakingly made field collections and described them, giving information on characters of diagnostic value, with particular reference to the capsule and even the spores at times. Altogether, 87 species under 48 genera and 27 families have been covered. The general introduction, the review of previous work and the scope of the present work, together with the table containing salient 134 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 REVIEWS information on the concerned taxa, give valuable information on phytogeography and ecology of the mosses in South India. The author has given information on the physiographic, edaphic and environmental conditions of the areas covered by the present study, followed by an account of methodology of collection, preservation and identification, including preparation of permanent slides of the whole plants and their parts, including spores. The morphological analysis, both mega and micro- characters, provides a picture of the thoroughness and depth of research that the author has carried out. The descriptions are followed by a general analysis of various aspects of the study which, perhaps, is the best part of the publication. The information on habitat shows the location- specific occurrence of mosses on calcareous, lateritic, or peaty soils, and such information is of immense environmental importance for using mosses as bio-indicators. Further, information on moss sociology is in fact a reflection of biodiversity combinations in various micro- ecosystems. The account on geographical distribution gives very useful data on the abundance or rarity of various taxa. The finding of a large number of endemic species in the restricted area of Khandala and Mahabaleshwar should receive conservative attention to help save these species from extinction. The concluding sentence “As we go south, more and more humid species begin to appear and as. one goes northwards, drier species are met with” holds good for the Western Ghats of India as a whole. It is my considered opinion that the work is of high academic merit and a useful reference book for field botanists working with mosses. ■ P.K.K. NAIR JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 135 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1 . INSTANCES OF FRUIT BAT MOBBING THE BARN OWL On the night of September 16, 1997, my family and I were watching the total lunar eclipse from our terrace garden at Sion, Mumbai. A pair of bam owls (Tyto alba), which were nesting in the rafters of the building next to our house, had the habit of perching on a tree opposite our house. The canopy of the tree was at eye level from our terrace garden on the 3rd floor. Fruit bats or Indian flying foxes (Pteropus giganteus) regularly fly all around the area, coming in large numbers mainly from their huge roosting sites at Five Gardens, Dadar, Mumbai. As we watched, a bat started mobbing one of the owls perched on the topmost branch. The owl immediately ducked and turned its face nearly upside down to look at the attacker. At the same time its mate, which was sitting on a lower branch, gave a loud squawk of protest. The bat then wheeled around and once again came to mob the first bird which ducked out of danger. The owl refused to fly away or move down to the lower branches. This went on for about 10 minutes wherein 1 7 attempts were made by the bat, out of which about 12 resulted in contact. At least 5 times the bird was nearly dislodged from its perch. We could clearly see that all the mobbing by the bat was done with its wings. All the time both the birds were calling regularly. The second bird then took off and sat on an adjacent tree, while the first bird was still perched in its original place. A few minutes after the second bird left, the bat was joined by three others, and all four started mobbing the first bird. The second bird then started screeching and flew over its mate in an attempt to protect it. The first bird then gathered enough courage to fly off to its roosting place in the rafters of the next building. It was amazing that, inspite of such continuous mobbing, the owl which was being mobbed rarely flew off, and its only evasive action was to duck. The bird flew away only when its mate came to help, or when the mobbing became unbearable. I am quite sure that both the birds were adults, not a protective parent and its offspring. It was lovely to see this drama as well as the total lunar eclipse. Instances like these have been regularly sighted by us, at least once a week, even to the date of writing this note. ACKNOW LEDG EM ENT I am grateful to Dr. A.R. Rahmani, Director, Bombay Natural History Society, for his guidance, help and valuable suggestions. March 2, 1 998 SUNIL R. ZAVERI Arham, Top Floor, Plot No. 266, Sion (East), Mumbai 400 022, Maharashtra . India. 2. POSSIBLE OCCURRENCE OF THE LESSER WOOLLY HORSESHOE BAT (RHINOLOPHUS BEDDOMEI) IN CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY During a short visit to Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, in October 1997, some members of my group found a black bat hanging from the doorway of a building at the Chinnar checkpost one evening. The surrounding habitat included riparian gallery forest and light deciduous forest. Judging from the appearance of its face, the bat appeared to be insectivorous, equipped with echolocating apparatus. For a microchiropteran, it was a large animal, and appeared black overall. The next morning, it was found roosting alone in a dark corner near the ceiling of the same building. Using BATS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT by Paul Bates and David Harrison, I tentatively identified the bat as Rhinolophus beddomei , the 136 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97ft} APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES lesser woolly horseshoe bat, on the basis of its large size, colour, habitat and solitary occurrence. I had an occasion to visit Chinnar again in June 1998. 1 found a bat, presumably the same individual, roosting at the same place as it had been doing nine months earlier. Even with a moderately bright torch, no further details could be noted to ascertain its identity. I was, however, able to photograph it using a flash this time. The photograph strengthens the impression that the bat is indeed a lesser woolly horseshoe bat. The animal is seen to be hanging by one leg, which is a habit characteristic of that species. Further, Dr. Paul Bates, who studied this picture wrote that he thought it was Rhinolophus beddomei. The lesser woolly horseshoe bat is endemic to peninsular India and Sri Lanka. In Kerala, it has hitherto been recorded from Wynaad, Tellicherry, Trichur district and Palghat. This report constitutes a possible new record of a species which has been described as very vulnerable to habitat destruction on account of low density populations and forest dependency. On a later visit to the same place in February 1999, 1 could not find any bat. March 23, 1999 KUMARAN SATHASIVAM 29 Jadamuni Koil Street, Madurai 625 001, Tamil Nadu , India. 3. DEAD SNOW LEOPARD UNCI A UNCI A AT YABUK, DONGKUNG (5500M) IN NORTH SIKKIM Snow leopard Uncia uncia is protected in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 as amended upto 1998. There are almost no recent sight records of this rare big cat from Sikkim, the last being a cub from Sebu La region in Lashar valley, north Sikkim. The male cub ‘Shebu’ survived for less than a year in captivity in Gangtok in 1993-1994. There has been no study so far on its present status in Sikkim. On November 18, 1998, a Tibetan grazier or ‘dokpa’ was attracted by a hovering raven while grazing his yaks at Yabuk (c. 5500m), a rocky place about 2 km above Dongkung, at the foot of Chomiomo peak on the Chho Lhamo Plateau. Upon investigating, he saw what he thought was a sleeping, probably sick, snow leopard in the grass at the base of some large boulders. Sensing something was wrong, he drove away the raven and went closer. He found it was an adult male snow leopard lying dead in sleeping posture. The spot was very isolated and intending to return the next day to collect the specimen to bring down to me in Gangtok, he went back to his camp. Unfortunately feral dogs discovered the carcass. The next day, most of the softer parts, the internal organs and the ribs had been eaten away. The grazier collected the remains. Almost in the same sleeping posture, most of the carcass except the head and shoulders dried naturally in the cold of this desert area. Six months later, on May 16, 1999, he brought the remains down to Gangtok in a highly decomposed state and deposited them in the Wildlife Circle of the Department of Forests, Environment & Wildlife. The heat accele- rated putrefaction and we tried to save the specimen as much as possible by skinning. On examining the jaws of the snow leopard, we saw that the upper left canine was missing, as was one incisor in the upper jaw. The other teeth were also worn out and yellow: The claws were blunt. The front pad in the pug measured 8.5 cm and the hind, 8 cm. The tail mea- sured 92 cm and had a diameter of c. 13 cm. The bones were buried in the ground to remove the tissue. They were later cleaned and measured (Table 1). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 137 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 SKULL MEASUREMENTS OF SNOW LEOPARD (IN MM) Total length 171 Condylobasal length 145 Zygomatic width 122.5 Post Orbital Width 44.9 Inter Orbital Width 40 Maxillary Width 72.5 Mandibular Length 115.2 Upper jaw Lower jaw Premolar 4 13.88 16.1 Molar 1 21.25 16.15 The ‘dokpa’ grazier had two previous sightings of snow leopard in this area. On July 27, 1998 it was sighted at Dongkung. It was last seen alive at Yabuk on September 10, 1998. He also recorded sightings of upto 30 blue sheep Pseudois nayaur in this area. Around 1 100 yak and 2000 sheep belonging to 1 8 ‘dokpa’ families also use the area. Feral dogs have long infested the entire area where this animal was found. These dogs were brought to the Tibetan plateau as pups from lower altitudes by the army jawans for company. On finishing their stint in this ‘difficult area’ all the dogs were abandoned. These have since bred with the local Tibetan mastiff and multiplied by feeding off the kitchen wastes of the army camps. Today these feral dogs roam in packs on the plateau, living off marmots, woolly hare, Tibetan gazelle, blue sheep, young nayan and kiang as also domestic sheep, goats and young yak including those animals which have been lamed by landmines. Usually nothing is done to control their number. Needless to say, pure breed of Tibetan mastiff, which is a master herder, also seems to have been irretrievably lost. It is difficult to quantify the feral dog population as the entire area, though under the jurisdiction of the Department of F. E. & WL, is under defence control, where civilian activities are severely and actively restricted. All wildlife and domestic livestock on the Tibetan plateau of Sikkim are under severe stress due to various defence priorities. This area, known as the Chho Lhamo plateau, is perhaps the only one in the entire eastern and central Himalayas to have breeding populations of endangered species such as the southern kiang Equus kiang polyodon, lynx Lynx lynx and blacknecked crane Grus nigricollis, .in addition to snow leopard — all listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. The richness of the region has prompted the State Wildlife Advisory Board to propose its recognition as a cold desert protected area. July 27, 1 999 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA Department of Forest, Environment & Wildlife, Government of Sikkim, Deorali 737 102, Sikkim, India. 4. ON THE LONGEVITY OF THE TIGER (. PANTHERA TIGRIS) IN CAPTIVITY A white tigress named Diana-Subhra born at the National Zoological Park, New Delhi, on June 6, 1977, was received at the Nandankanan Zoological Park, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, on December 28, 1979. She died on February 28, 1999, after remaining 21 years, 8 months and 22 days in captivity. The tigress was housed in an open-air enclosure with suitable vegetation. The enclosure had a set of retiring cells with cemented floor for protection from extreme weather conditions and for feeding. She was fed with 14 kg of fresh raw beef with bones six days in a week. Intermittently, vitamin supplements were added to the beef. She was usually caged with her mate or her cubs. During her lifetime in the park, she was paired with two tigers (one heterozygous normal coloured “Deepak” and one white “Debabrata”) and she gave birth to 16 cubs (6 males and 10 138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1 ) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES females) in six litters, including three heterozygous normal coloured female cubs. The first litter was born on May 12, 1981 and the sixth litter on April 23, 1990. According to Roychoudhury et al. (1989), the two white tigresses Mohini and Chameli born at Govindgarh Palace, Rewa on October 30, 1958, and March 24, 1962, died at Washington Zoo (U.S.A.) on April 6, 1979, and at Bristol Zoo (England) on August 23, 1982, at the age of 20 years, 5 months, 7 days and 20 years and 5 months respectively. A female Bengal tiger at the New York Zoological Park died at the age of 20 years, 7 months and 2 days (Crandall, 1965). A tigress of Alipore Zoological Gardens, Calcutta lived for 20 years and 3 months (Das, 1983). Under zoo conditions, the maximum longevity of tigers is 20 years, an age which is probably not exceeded in the wild (Schaller, 1967). The estimated life span of the tiger is about 20 years (Prater, 1971). Tigers have lived in captivity for 12 to 19 years (Walker et al. , 1964). Flower (1931) says that there appears to be no definite record of a tiger living to 20 years and the greatest longevity listed by him is that of a Siberian tiger that lived for 19 years in the Refer Acharjyo, L.N. & S.K. Patnaik (1987): A note on the longevity of the tiger (Panthera tigris) in captivity, Pranikee, 8: 77-78. Crandall, Lee S. (1965): The management of wild mammals in captivity. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, pp. 735. Das, A.K. (1983): Longevity record of Indian tiger, Pcinthera tigris tigris Linn, in captivity. Jour. Beng. nat. Hist. Soc. 2(1): N.S.pp.: 92-93. Flower, S.S. (1931): Cited by Crandall Lee S. 1965. Nair, Kesavan R. (1965): Cited by Crandall Lee S., 1965. Cologne Zoological Gardens. A tigress had lived for 19 years in the Zoological Gardens, Thnssur (Nair, 1957). A tiger of Nandankanan Zoological Park, Bhubaneswar died at the age of 1 8 years, 6 months and 10 days (Acharjyo and Patnaik, 1987). Diana-Subhra’s longevity of 21 years, 8 months and 22 days in this Park appears to be the longest so far recorded for this species in captivity. September 9, 1999 L.N. ACHARJYO House No. M-71, Housing Board Colony, Baramunda, Bhubaneswar 75 1 003 Orissa, India. B.C. PRUSTY Nandankanan Zoological Park Mayur Bhavan, Janapath, Saheednagcir, Bhubaneswar 751 007, Orissa, India. S.K. PATNAIK 7. Saheednagcir, Bhubaneswar 751 007, Orissa, India. ENCES Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals, 3rd edn., Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 65-66. Roychoudhury, A.K., G.C. Banerjee & R. Poddar ( 1 989): Studbook of white Tigers (Panthera tigris tigris Linn.) in India. Bose Institute, Calcutta. Schaller, G.B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, pp. 221-307. Walker, Ernest P., Florence Warnick. Kenneth I. Lange e't al. (1964): Mammals of the World, Vol. II, The John Hopkins Press, Baltimore pp. 1 279. 5. SIGHTING OF BARKING DEER (MUNTIACUS MUNTJAC) IN KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU As part of our biodiversity studies, we were Reserve in Tirunelveli dist., Tamil Nadu. On surveying the flora and fauna on the Mundanthurai October 15,1 997, the second day of our field work. Plateau, part of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger one of us (JR), after completing sampling at three JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 139 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES points for quantifying vegetation, moved on to the next point. Just near the fourth point, the sound of an animal running and at the same time one of our assistants shouting Khaleyaad (barking deer m Tamil) was heard. What one of us (JR) saw was a reddish brown deer, smaller in size, and somewhat different from a sambar or a spotted deer. Since it had antlers we knew it was a male. Our assistants showed us the place where it had been resting. It was under a Grewia hirsuta tree with sparse grass. We went to that site, had a closer look and found some hairs, which we collected and sent to the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun, for identification. Back at the field station, we checked the book of Indian animals (Prater 1971, p. 324). Our opinion that it could be a barking deer was confirmed. In addition, the hair sample also identified it a barking deer. It was really surprising to have seen a barking deer at Mundanthurai, as there have been no earlier records of its presence. Dr. A. J.T. Johnsingh, who has been working in this area for almost 30 years has not seen or even heard this deer (pers. comm). In addition, Dr. S.F. Wesley Sunderraj and one of us (JJ) have been working in this area since 1984, and have never seen or heard this deer before. In the past two years in KMTR, we have not heard or seen this deer. Our assistants, local Kanm tribals, say that they have seen this deer thrice near Kodamadi, beyond Servalar dam, while repairing the road in 1992. Mundanthurai plateau, covering an area of c. 60 sq. km, retains mainly dry deciduous and open scrub forest with grass patches. The altitude is 204 m above msl. The animal was sighted near Tambraparni river adjacent to the Deer Valley. In addition, one of us (JJ) sighted a female and J. Ronald sighted three, two adults (sex unidentified) and one yearling barking deer in the Kadayam range in the northwestern part of the Reserve. Our sighting is the first of this deer on Mundanthurai plateau. We suspect that barking deer could have moved in from the Kodayam range which lies further northwest of the Reserve. More sightings of barking deer are needed to confirm the new addition of this ungulate species to the fauna of the Reserve. July 27, 1 999 JAY ANTI RAY JUSTUS JOSHUA* J. RONALD Wildlife Institute of India P.O. Box # 18. Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttar Pradesh, India. * Present Address : Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology Patwadi Naka, Bhuj (Kachchh) 370 001, Gujarat, India. 6. TYPE SPECIMENS OF MAMMALS IN THE COLLECTIONS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY The mammalian type specimens present in the collections of the Bombay Natural History Society as on June ’99 are included. The Society has a collection of 18,500 mammal skins and skulls. Most of the specimens were collected during the Mammal Survey of India undertaken by the Society from 1911 to 1928. The present note deals with the type specimens in the collections. The collection data has been transcribed from the labels. Chiroptera Pteropodidae Pteropodinae Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus Andersen, 1910 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 6: 623 Type: BNHM 1651, cotype , juvenile female, from “Chanda” (in Maharashtra, western India) at about 500 ft. 140 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1 ) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Date of collection: September 1908 Collector: Major A. Begbie Measurements: HB-153 mm, HF-17 mm Current Status: Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl, 1797). Wilson and Reeder (1993). Chiroptera Pteropodidae Pteropodinae Latidens salimalii Thonglongya 1972. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 153 Type: BNHM 1563, holotype from “High Wavy Mountains, Madura district. South India at about 2500ft. Date of Collection: 2 May 1948 (Registration - 1 1 June 1948) Collector: A. F. Hutton Current Status: Latidens salimalii Thonglongya, 1972. Bates and Harrison (1997). Remarks: Latidens salimalii is endemic to India. Chiroptera Hipposideridae Hipposideros hypophyllus Kock & Bhat, 1994. Senckenbergiana biol. 73(1-2) : 25-31 Type: BNHM 18363, paratype , female, from “Hanumanhalli, Kolar District, Bangalore, Karnataka, India”. Date of Collection: 7 March 1985 Collector: H.R. Bhat Current Status: Hipposideros hypophyllus Kock & Bhat, 1994. Bates and Harrison (1997). Carnivora Felidae Felinae Fells libyca Iraki Cheesman, 1921. Felis ocreata Iraki Cheesman, 1921. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc., 27: 331-332 Type: BNHM 5981 .paratype, male, from “Sheikh Saad” (Iraq). Date of Collection: 08-12-1916 Collector: Cox & R.E. Cheesman Current Status: Felis silvestris Schreber, 1775. Wilson and Reeder (1993). Remarks: Revised by Ragm & Randi (1986), who included libyca under silvestris . Snuthers (1983) & Meester etal. (1986) retained libyca as separate from silvestris. Artiodactyla Tragulidae Tragulus meminna Erxleben, 1777. Moschus meminna Erxleben, 1777. Syst. Regn. Anim., Mamm. 322. Type: BNHM 17180 topotype, female from “Kissaraing Island” (Mergui Arch., Burma). Date of Collection: 29 September 1921 Collector: C. Primrose Measurements: HB-370mm, Ear-32 mm, HF- 115mm, Tail-57mm Current Status: Moschiola memina (Erxleben, 1777). Wilson and Reeder (1993). Artiodactyla Tragulidae Tragulus javanicus lampensis , Miller, 1903 Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 16:42 Type:BNHM 17838, topotype , male from “Sullivan Islands” (Mergui District, Burma). Date of collection: 5 March 1922 Collector: C. Primrose Measurements: HB-459mm, Ear-34mm, HF-1 16mm, Tail-62mm Current Status: Tragulus javanicus (Osbeck, 1765). Wilson and Reeder (1993). June 4, 1 999 MEGHANA GA VAND NARESH CHATURVEDI Bombay Natural Histoiy Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 141 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Andersen, K. (1910): New Fruit-bats. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 6: 623-624. Bates, Paul J.J. & D.L. Harrison (1997): Bats of the Indian Subcontinent, pp. 258. Blandford, W.T. (1888-91): The Fauna of British India, Mammalia. Taylor and Francis, London 617 pp. Cheesman, R.E. (1921): Report on the Mammals of Mesopotamia: Collected by members of the Mesopotamian expeditionary force, 1915-1919. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27\ 323-346. Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-scott (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals. 810 pp. Kock, D. & H.R. Bhat (1994): Mammalia : Chiroptera- Hipposideridae Senckenbergiana biol. 73: 25-3 1 . Meester, J.A.J., I.L. Rautenbach, N.J. Dippenar & C.M. Baker (1986): Classification of southern African mammals. Transvaal Museum Monograph 27: 1 - 14. Ragni, B. & E. Randi (1986): Multivariate analysis of carniometric characters in European wild cat, domestic cat and African wild cat (genus Felis). Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 51 : 243-25 1 . Smithers, R.H.N. ( 1 983): The mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Republic of South Africa, 736 pp. Thonglongya, K. (1972): A new genus and species of Fruit Bat from South India (Chiroptera : Pteropodidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 151-158. Wilson, D.E. & D. M. Reeder (1993): Mammal species of the World. 1207 pp. 7. NIGHT HERONS AND LITTLE CORMORANTS IN THRISSUR, KERALA Night herons ( Nycticorax nycticorax ) and little cormorants ( Phalacrocorax niger) are communal nesting local migrants which usually build nests in trees that adjoin, or are actually standing in water bodies. These birds are seen in Southern India from November to February, their breeding season. When faced with water scarcity or disturbance of the nesting grounds, the birds are known to desert traditional nesting sites and move to other suitable places. But this year in Kerala, the birds were spotted in hundreds, nesting in tall mango and jackfruit trees in the densely populated Keerankulangara area of Thrissur town, Kerala. With no large water body nearby, the birds had to depend on the nearby ponds, water tanks and even local markets for their fish. Their cries and the stench of the droppings have made them a nuisance to the local residents who are even contemplating shooting them! The disturbance of their traditional breeding grounds like Kumaragam and adjoining areas could be the cause of this invasion. An inquiry into the cause and a speedy solution are necessary to ease the problems of the residents and also ensure the safety of the birds. March 30, 1998 LEELA MADHAVAN Department of Zoology, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), Chennai 600 059, Tamil Nadu, India. 8. GREY HERON WRESTING FISH FROM HERRING GULL On February 14, 1998, 1 saw something so unusual that it is worth reporting. Normally it is gulls that chivvy other birds and deprive them of their prey. On this occasion, the tables were effectively turned. My attention was drawn to a grey heron ( Ardea cinerea ), a herring gull ( Larus argentatus ) and a gullbilled tern ( Gelochelidon nilotica) in turmoil. At first I thought the heron was being harried, but it soon became apparent that it was the heron who was chasing the gull, who was being further harried and prevented from making a getaway by the tern chivvying it from above. The gull was weighed down by a fish in its beak. The skirmish continued for several minutes, the three birds in the air a few feet above the tidal mud. Finally, the gull let go 142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES of the prize and the heron settled to take over the prize before the gull could turn and retrieve it. Both the gull and the tern alighted on either side of the heron to watch it swallow the fish. March 4, 1 998 LA VKUMAR KHACHER 646, Vastuninnan, Gandhinagar 382 022, Gujarat, India. 9. ADDITIONAL SITE RECORDS OF BLACK STORK CICONIA NIGRA (LINN.) IN ANDHRA PRADESH Manakadan (1987) reported sighting of black stork Ciconia nigra (Linn.) near Rollapadu in Kurnool dist., Andhra Pradesh. As per the literature available, the distribution of this stork has not been reported from south of Maharashtra (Ali and Ripley, 1983) except for ManakadaiTs report from Andhra Pradesh, Perennou and Santharam (1990) from Tamil Nadu and Henry (1971) from Sri Lanka. We further add that the black stork has been recorded by us at various places in Andhra Pradesh on the banks of River Godavari and its branches in East Godavari dist. A pair was first sighted along the banks of River Gouthami near Ravulapalem in Jan. 1987. Subsequently, 4 birds were recorded near Mandapalli in Dec. 1989; 3 near Kumarajulanka in Dec. 1992 and 6 near Ravulapalem in Jan. 1995. These additional site records of black stork from Andhra Pradesh are worth noting. Acknowledgements We thank Prof. J.V. Ramana Rao for guidance and valuable comments, Dr. B.M. Parasharya for showing his interest in our findings and going through the manuscript, and the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi for financial assistance. March 1 7, 1 998 V. VASUDEVA RAO V. NAGULU C. SRINIVASULU Wildlife Biology Section, Department of Zoology, Osmania. University, Hyderabad 500 007, Andhra Pradesh, India. References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edn. Oxford, Delhi. Henry, G.M. (1971): A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Perennou, C. & V. Santharam ( 1 990): Status of some birds in southeastern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 306-307. Manakadan, R. (1987): The Black Stork Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus) in Kurnool district (Andhra Pradesh). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 675-676. 10. STEALING OF RED WATTLED LAPWING VANELLUS INDICUS (BODDAERT) AND YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING VA NELL US MALABARICUS (BODDAERT) EGGS BY COWHERDS During a study on the nesting habits of the redwattled lapwing Vanellus indicus (Boddaert) and the yellow-wattled lapwing V. malabaricus (Boddaert) at Brindavan and its environs at Kadugodi, located about 22 km from Bangalore, Karnataka, we observed that one of the reasons for loss of eggs in these species was the collection of eggs by cowherds. The local cowherds were observed searching for lapwing nests during the dry season. The nests could be JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 143 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES located by observing the parent birds, which were very vocal. After collection, the eggs were covered with cowdung, roasted in a fire made of dry twigs and eaten by the cowherds. Though other predators like dogs, mongoose, snakes and foxes were sighted in the nesting area, the cowherds alone caused a loss of 61% and 8% eggs of redwattled and yellow-wattled lapwings respectively, in the 19 and 10 nests observed for each species. April 2, 1998 K.V. SRINIVAS Department of Biosciences (Zoology), Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, (Deemed University), Whitefield Campus, Kadugodi, P.O. Bangalore 560 067 Karnataka, India. S. SUBRAMANYA HPHT Scheme, J Block, GKVK, University of Agricultural Sciences . Bangalore, Karnataka, India. 1 1 . A NOTE ON THE FEEDING OF LESSER COUCAL ( CENTROPUS TOULOU) In 1994, 1 had discovered a small breeding colony of lesser adjutant stork in Kahala village, about 48 km from Malda, West Bengal. On March 16, 1997, I was watching a parent bird feeding a rather large young one by regurgitation. I saw that some food had slipped to the ground from the nest. About 10 minutes later, when I reached the nest to identify that food item, I found that a lesser coucal Centropus toulou (identified by its small size and white tipped tail feathers) was feeding on the same item. In five minutes, it devoured about l/6lh to l/8lh of the morsel. Suddenly a village dog approached and the bird flew away. On a closer look, the food item was found to be a fish ( Mastacembelus armatus ). According to the handbook (Ali and Ripley 1987, Compact Edn. Oxford University Press, Bombay), the lesser coucal feeds almost entirely on grasshoppers, so fish is a new dietary item for this species. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the anonymous referee for commenting on an earlier draft and to my friend Subhasish Sengupta for typing this article. April 3, 1998 SAMIRAN JHA Green Peoples India Pranta Pally, P.O. & Dist. Malda, Pin 732 101, West Bengal, India. 12. OCCURRENCE OF THE YELLOWBROWED BULBUL HYPSIPETES INDICUS (JERDON) IN THE NALAMALLA HILLS, ANDHRA PRADESH The yel lowbrowed bulbul Hypsipetes indicus (Jerdon) is a common resident of Western Ghats affecting evergreen biotopes above 900 m (Ali and Ripley, 1 983) and has been recorded from the Eastern Ghats first by Taher et al. in 1 990 from Tirumala Hills (Taher and Pittie, 1 994). Santharam ( 1 992) reported it from Mamandur (Chittoor dist.) and Karthikeyan (1996, 1 997) at Kolli Hills (Tamil Nadu). These records indicate that the yel lowbrowed bulbul is more or less restricted in distribution to Western Ghats and has been occasionally reported from southern Eastern Ghats. We report its occurrence from the Nalamalla Hills further north from the hitherto reported range in Eastern Ghats. While birding at Umamahesharam near Mannanur in Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary (or Rajiv Tiger Reserve), Mahboobnagar dist. during April 1997, we came across a pair of yellowbrowed bulbul busily feeding. The species was easily identified, based 144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES on its conspicuous olive yellow above and bright yellow head and underparts. Earlier, we had an opportunity to observe this species at Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala). This is the first record of the yel lowbrowed bulbul Hypsipetes indicus from the Nalamalla Hills in Nagarjunasagar- Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh. Acknowledgements We thank Prof. J.V. Ramana Rao, for constant encouragement in our study. One of us Refer Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edn. Oxford, Delhi. Karthikeyan, S. ( 1 996): Bird-attracting trees and birds of Shevaroy and Kolli Hills. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 36(3): 49-5 1 . Karthikeyan, S. (1997): Yellowbrowed Bulbul Hypsipetes indicus (Jerdon) in the Kolli Hills (Tamil Nadu), (CS) acknowledges the fellowship granted by CSIR for his doctoral work. March 17. 1998 C. SRINIVASULU V. VASUDEVA RAO Wildlife Biology Section, Department of Zoology. Osmania Un ivevsity, Hyderabad 500 007, Andhra Pradesh. India. ENCES Eastern Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(3): 570-571. Santharam, V. (1991 ): Yellowbrowed Bulbul Hypsipetes indicus (Jerdon) in the Eastern Ghats. ,/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(2): 287-288. Taher, S.A. & A. Pittie ( 1 994): Additions to “A checklist of birds of Andhra Pradesh”. Mavura II: 1-5. 13. TERMITE ATTACK ON NEST MATERIAL LEADING TO DESERTION OF EGGS BY BIRDS A study was conducted on the nesting success of the birds at Brindavan and its environs, located about 22 km east of Bangalore, Karnataka. One of the factors responsible for the loss of eggs was found to be abandoning of eggs by parents subsequent to termite attack on nests of the singing bush lark Mirafra cantillans Blyth. blackbellied finch- lark Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli); pied bush chat Saxicola caprata (Linn.), and the large pied wagtail, Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. In all these birds, the termites destroyed nest material, as a result of which the eggs were buried in the encrusted mud. In the case of the singing bush lark and the large pied wagtail, the nesting parents made an unsuccessful attempt to incubate half exposed eggs, but later abandoned the nests. However, in the case of the blackbellied finch-lark, the parents continued to incubate the eggs, inspite of the nest material being attacked by termites. The nestlings were present in the nests and were being fed by their parents. Termite attack on nest material leading to desertion of eggs has not been reported earlier. April 2, 1998 K.V. SRINIVAS Department of Biosciences (Zoology), Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning (Deemed University), Whitefielcl Campus, Bangalore 560 067 , Karnataka, India. S. SUBRAM ANY A HPHT Scheme, J Block, GKVK, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore Karnataka, India. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 145 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 14. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD NECTARINIA ZEYLONICA While preparing an overview of the birds of Gujarat for the Dr. Salim Ali Centenary issue of the JBNHS , I was struck by how very little qualitative information existed on the natural history of our region. We really have very generalised knowledge of bird distributions; it therefore becomes all the more pertinent to suggest to friends, particularly those on weekend birdwatching excursions, to record all the birds they come across. I have been writing brief notes on seemingly small observations, which can indeed change many of our perceptions. We must be cautious in recording new species and not be casual about seemingly common-place species. I have been particularly careful to look at every sunbird coming my way and in doing so, have been rewarded with recording a purplerumped sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica in Ahmedabad on February 5, 1998. In my overview I had noted “Salim Ali has only a single unconfirmed sight record” and had gone on to suggest that “resident birdwatchers of Vadodara and Surat may well come across a good many more”. Unless seen in extremely even light, sunbirds do not reveal their scintillating colours, no doubt because the iridescence is due to refraction of sunlight rather than pigmentation. For Nectarinia zeylonica Ripley (1982) sums up: “Range — Peninsular India from Nasik in a line east to Jabalpur and east to East Pakistan at Dacca, south in Bombay (sight record for Panchmahals Dist., Gujarat...) MP., Orissa, Andhra to Goa, Mysore, Madras and Kerala...” Ahmedabad is way north of the believed range, though it is significant that the coastal plains north of Bombay have no limit indicated and I suspect this species is commoner than believed in southern and central Gujarat. By this note, I would like to convince amateur birdwatchers to scrutinise the common birds of their areas. Had I not, for example, paused to look at a small group of apparently purple sunbirds N. asiatica at the Centre for Environment Education (CEE), I would not have had the pleasure of seeing a bright male zeylonica. The sunbirds were fluttering under the shrubbery just outside the window — agitated perhaps, by some cat or snake. There were a couple of fully plumaged asiatica males contrasting nicely with the bird under review. Significantly, the purplerumped sunbird, according to Ali (1996) has no well defined nesting season, but I am tempted to believe that in the northern parts of its range, breeding coincides with the flowering of our native trees, shrubs and climbers as it does with the other three sunbirds of the genus Nectarinia-. the small N. minima , the maroonbreasted N. lotenia and the widespread purple N. asiatica. In conclusion, in Gujarat we need to keep a watch for minima and lotenia which, like the purplerumped sunbird, may be more widespread than hitherto believed. March 24, 1 998 LAVKUMAR KHACHER 646, Vastunirman, Ganghinagar 382 022, Gujarat, India. References Ali, Salim (1996): The Book of Indian Birds, 12th edn. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 354 Ripley. S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, p. 528. 146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97(1 ) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 15. WATER ACQUISITION STRATEGY ADOPTED BY GOLDFINCH ( CARDUELIS CARDUELIS) Water is an important requisite for survival. The daily intake of water depends on a wide range of environmental and physiological variables (Welty 1982). Grain eating birds gain little water from their food and are said to have the greatest need for water (Dorst 1974). Goldfinch are granivorous and mainly feed on seeds, especially of thistles ( Carduus spp.), sunflower ( Helianthus ) and zinnia ( Zinnia ) in hill station gardens, and seeds of the chenar tree ( Plcitanus orientalis ) in Kashmir (Ali & Ripley 1 983). Thus it has to fulfill its water requirements by drinking water regularly. Here I report my observation of goldfinch eating snow. They were seen on February 24, 1997, at 2800 m above msl, on the southern boundary of the Kedamath Wildlife Sanctuary on (30° 30’ N & 79° 15’ E). The Sanctuary remained snowbound from January to March. Goldfinch have been reported to be fairly common in the study area (Green 1985). Seven goldfinches were observed on a rhododendron (. Rhododendron arboreum) tree near a frozen ncilla (forest stream). They were seen feeding on the seeds of a dead thorny herb ( Mollina longifolici ) growing nearby. After a while, a few birds were observed chipping off the snow on the ground with their beaks and then consuming it. This method of consuming water in frozen form has been reported in other species such as starlings (Allard 1934), pine siskins ( Carduelis pinus ), redwing ( Turdus iliacus ), blackbird ( Turdus merula) and Bohemian waxwing (B omby cilia garrulus) (Wolfe 1997). March 12, 1998 R. SURESH KUMAR Wildlife Institute of India P.B. No. 18. Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttar Pradesh , India. References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Allard, H.A. (1934): How some birds satisfy thirst. Science 80: 116-1 17. Dorst, J. 1974): The Life of Birds. Columbia University Press, New York. Vol. 1 . Green, M..I.B. (1985): The birds of the Kedarnath Sanctuary, Chamoli district. Uttar Pradesh: Status and distribution. J. Bombay nett. Hist. Soc. 83(3): 603-617. Wolfe, D.F.G. (1996): Opportunistic winter water acquisition by Pine Grosbeaks. The Wilson Bulletin. Vol. 108(J): 186-187. Welty, J.C. (1982): The life of birds. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia. Third edition. 16. OCCURRENCE OF DRACO OR FLYING LIZARD DRACO DUSSUMIERI IN CHITTOOR DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH Two days (August 28-29, 1999) of the first Bird Banding Training Programme for the 1999-2000 season, organised by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), were spent in Talakona Reserve Forest (13°49’ N, 79° 13’ E), in the Palkonda hills of the Eastern Ghats com- plex. Talakona is c. 70 km northwest of Tirupati town in Chittoor dist., Andhra Pradesh. It is part of the 506 sq. km Sri Venkateshwara National Park. Within Talakona RF is a 5 sq. km sacred grove around the temple of Siddeswaraswamy. A perennial stream, Bugga Vagit, plunges 30 m, forming the Talakona or Papanasanam Waterfall, into a narrow valley supporting a belt of semi-evergreen riparian vegetation, along a length of at least 3 km, which is the distance from the temple to the waterfall (Anon., 1996). While returning from an early morning JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 147 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES birdwatching trek to the waterfall on August 28, 1 999, Aasheesh Pittie sensed a movement among the trees growing from the valley on his left and on looking saw a small object floating towards the trunk of a tree. He wondered whether it was a flying lizard. The orange coloured patagium was seen clearly. Before he could focus his bin- oculars on it, the lizard merged into the bark of the tree. A few steps ahead, S. Balachandran pointed out a male draco Draco dussumieri Dum. & Bibr., on the vertical trunk of an unidentified tree ( Mangifera indica ?), that grew from the valley below. The lizard was displaying by erect- ing a bright yellow flap of skin from the region of its throat. But for this flash of brilliant colour, it would have been difficult to spot the draco against the bark of the tree, as its camouflage was perfect. We spotted two more lizards while we stood there. One was on another tree about 5 m away and the other was on the same tree as the first lizard. All three were at eye level and we had a good view of them. Three to four liz- ards were also seen next morning in the same area. They were photographed and videographed by other members of the group. According to Daniel (1983) Draco dussumieri has a distribution that is “restricted to southwest India from the hills near Kanyakumari to the forests of Goa... All other species of the genus Draco occur in the eastern Himalayas and further east.” Though the lizard is listed in the publicity pamphlet on Sri Venkateshwara NP, brought out by the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department, this is the first docu- mentation of its occurrence in the Eastern Ghats, an interesting record for biogeographers of the Oriental Region. AcK.NO WLEDC. EM ENT We thank J.C. Daniel for encouraging us to write this note and for critically examining it. November 4, 1999 S. BALACHANDRAN Bombay Natural History Society Hombill House, S. B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. AASHEESH PITTIE 8-2-545 Road # 7, Ban jar a Hills, Hyderabad 500 034, Andhra Pradesh, India. References Anon (1996): Sacred and Protected Groves of Andhra Daniel. J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Pradesh. World Wide Fund for Nature-India, Bombay Natural History Society. Mumbai. Andhra Pradesh State Office, Hyderabad, pp 96. pp. x + 141 17. OCCURRENCE OF YELLOW-BELLIED PELAMIS PLATURUS (LINN.), REPTILIA : HYDROPHIDAE, IN COASTAL WATERS OFF DIGHA, WEST BENGAL A specimen of the yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus (Linn.) of 235 mm total length was caught in a dragnet by fishermen off Digha, West Bengal, from the Bay of Bengal on September 12, 1998. Although this species is common in the Indo- Australian seas (Smith, 1943), there is no mention of this species in the account of Ahmed & Dasgupta (1992), who listed the reptiles of West Bengal. A brief description of the specimen is given below: Pelamis platurus (Linn.) Anguis platurus Linn. 1766, Syst. Nat. ed. 12, p. 391. Material examined: New Digha Ghat, West Bengal, India; 1 2.ix. 1 998; coll. S. Mitra & 148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES S. Ghosh, MARC. Regn. No. 86. Diagnostic characters: Head narrow, snout elongated, body much compressed, tail laterally compressed, scales more or less hexagonal, 52 scale rows on thickest part of body, the lowermost rows with two small tubercles. Colour: Blackish brown above, ventral portion bright yellow, a narrow yellow ring just below head, another two on body. Tail with 10 cream-white stripes. Acknowledgements We thank J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological Survey of India for facilities and S. Ghosh, Digha Science Centre, for help in collecting the specimen. September 1, 1999 S. MITRA J. SARKAR, T.K. CHATTERJEE Marine Aquarium & Research Centre Zoological Survey of India, Digha, Midnapore 72! 428. References Ahmed, S. & G. Dasgupta (1992): Reptilia. In: State Fauna Series 3. Fauna of West Bengal. Part 2: 1 - 65. Ed. A.K. Ghosh. Zoological Survey of India. Calcutta. Smith, M.A. (1943): The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, including the whole of the Indo- Chinese region. Vol. III. Serpentes. Taylor and Francis. London, xii+583 pp. +1 map. 1 8. A RECORD AUDIO FEAT BY AN ANURAN While staying in a sanitarium near Igatpuri (Nashik dist, Maharashtra), in the late summer of 1993, I came across an interesting, non-stop audio feat by a frog. Unfortunately at that time, I could not identify the species, for it was calling from the middle of a large, extensive waterlogged patch which was almost inaccessible. But in later years I came across similar feats, first in August 1998, in the Pune University Campus and secondly from an inundated ditch atop a hill near Pune in June 1999. In the second instance I was able to catch the frog and identified it as the colourful fungoid frog {Ran a malabarica Bibr.) In the case of the Igatpuri frog, I first heard its shrill call on the evening of June 6, 1993. The previous two days had experienced heavy rainfall. The frog started calling at about 1745 his on June 6, and kept on calling till the early hours of the next day. It apparently stopped calling at about 0730 hrs, when the first rays of the rising sun reached the spot where it sat. I carefully listened and monitored the call for the next three days and arrived at some statistics. Every night the frog called continuously for almost 13 hours. The call can be transcribed as Oo-wak-wak wok! The call always started with a short and quick Oo followed by quick-repeated wak. The sound wak was repeated from one to twenty-six times in one go (average=7). The interval between two successive call series was just one or two seconds. On an average, the wak call was repeated 102 times per minute during the evening and midnight hours and 83.42 times per minute during the morning hours (average=-'96). The total number of times the syllable wak was uttered throughout the night (about 13 hours) was calculated to be around 78,000. The small creature also kept on calling during the daytime, but intermittently. The estimated day call figure came to around 18,000. Adding this figure to the night figure, it can be plainly stated that the frog uttered the call wak 96,000 times in 24 hours! Considering the small size of the animal, this was quite an extraordinary feat! December 10, 1999 SANJEEV B. NALAVADE 3, Rakhi Apartments, Rambaug Colony, Paud Road, Kothrud, Pune 411 038, Maharashtra, India JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 149 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 19. RANGE EXTENSION OF PANGIO GOAENSIS (CYPRINIFORMES : COBITIDAE) TO THE CHALIYAR DRAINAGE OF KERALA (With one plate) The elongate cobitid Cobitis pangia Hamilton 1822, described originally from northeastern Bengal, but later recorded also from Myanmar (Day, 1875-78), was placed in Acanthophthalmus (van Hasselt 1823) by Gunther (1868:370). A second species from India, was described by Tilak (1973) from a specimen 31.0 mm SL, collected from Golem river, Goa (15° 20’ N, 74° 16' E). Subsequently, Menon (1992) in a revision of the Indian Cobitidae, added another species A. longipinnis from Kharangpat lake, Manipur, India, bringing the total number of species of Acanthophthalmus in India to three. Kottelat (1987), showed that the genus name Acanthophthalmus was a junior objective synonym and revived Fangio Blyth 1860, for these fishes. In India, the genus has until now been recorded only from northeast Bengal and Goa. Its presence further south in Kerala is of ichthyological significance. Pangio goaensis (Tilak 1973) (Figs. 1 & 2) Acanthophthalmus goaensis Tilak (1972) Acanthophthalmus goaensis Menon 1992 Pangio goaensis Menon (1993) Diagnosis: Pangio goaensis is distinguished from the other species of Pangio known from India in having the dorsal fin origin located between the pelvic and anal fin origins, by the presence of a fringed flap on the outer side of each mental lobe, and by the presence of two longitudinal colour bands on the body (vs. dorsal fin origin above pelvic fin base in P. longipinnis ; and no fringed flap on outer side of mental lobes or longitudinal colour bands on the body of P. longipinnis or P. pangia ). Coloration: Ground colour of body (in alcohol) yellowish; two horizontal lateral bands, one along mid-lateral extending beyond eyes and bending to snout tip, one below dorsal running forward and meeting the band of the other side across the snout. A predorsal band which is broken down into spots before dorsal. Pangio goaensis is so far known only from the holotype, 31.0 mm SL, from Goa. The presence of this species in the drainage of the Chaliyar river, Kerala, extends its range of distribution to the west-flowing rivers of the Southern Western Ghats. There is no significant difference in any of the biometric characters studied except the length of the fins, which are observed to be longer than those described by Tilak (1973), for the holotype; this could be due to the smaller size of our specimens. The caudal fin of our specimens is, however, rounded and not emarginate as in the holotype. Acknowledgements We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India and the Officer in-Charge, ZSI/SRS, Dr. P. T. Cherian, for facilities. We also thank Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Scientist Emeritus, for critically going through the manuscript. July 14, 1999 K. REMA DEVI Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, 100, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India. K. G. EMILIYAMMA Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghat Regional Station, Kerala, India. R. S. LALMOHAN Conservation of Nature Trust, Calicut, Kerala, India. 150 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(-l) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES K. Rema Devi et al. : Pangio goaensis Plate 1 Fig.l. Lateral view of Pangio goaensis, 19.7 & 17.1 mm SL., F. 4493/ZSI/SRS. -f,K *- Fig.2. Dorsal view of Pangio goaensis, 19.7 mm SL JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 151 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Blyth, E. (1860): Report on some fishes received chiefly from the Sitang River and its tributary streams, Tenasserim Provinces. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 29(2): 138-174. Day, F. (1875-78): The Fishes of India; being a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Quaritch, London. Vol. 1 : text. 778 pp; Vol. 2: Atlas, 198 pi. Gunther, A. ( 1 868): Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum, 7: Catalogue of the Physostonii containing the families Heteropygii, Cyprinidae, Gonorhynchidae, Hyodontidae, Osteoglossidae, Clupeidae, Chirocentridae, Alepocephalidae, Notopteridae, Halosauridae. British Mus., London, xx + 5 1 2 pp. Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the River Ganges and its branches. Edin. & Lond. vii + 405 pp, 39 pi. Kottelat, M. (1987): Nomenclatural status offish names created by J.C. van Hasselt (1823) and of some cobitoid genera. Japanese J. fchthyol. 33 (4): 368-375. Menon. A.G.K. (1992): The Fauna of India and Adjacent Countries, Pisces, Vol. IV(2) Teleostei: Cobitoidea: Cobitidae, 1 12pp., pis. 1-10, Zoological Survey of India. Menon, A.G.K. (1993): Checklist of the Freshwater Fishes of India. Dept, of Environment & Forests, Govt, of India. Tilak, R. ( 1 972): A study of the freshwater and estuarine fishes of Goa. 1 . Acanthophthalmus goaensis a new cobitid from Goa, with notes on Zenarchopterus striga (Blyth). J. Ini. Fish Soc. India 4: 61-68. van Hasselt, J.C. (1823): Uittreksel uit een’ brief van Dr J.C. van Hasselt, aan den Heer C.J. Temminck. Allg. Konst-en Letter-Bode, voor het jar 1 823. 1 , Deel, (20): 315-317. 20. FISHES OF NAMBIYAR RIVER, KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) is located at the southernmost tip of the Western Ghats. Several streams originate and drain into the major east-flowing perennial river Tamiraparani. Johnsingh and Wickram (1987) reported freshwater fishes from the Kalakad- Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary with a notable exception on the Nambiyar river, a separate river basin with several tributaries in the KMTR. Documentation is needed due to the threats to the river system and fish fauna. The present survey is a study of the fish diversity in the Western Ghats streams under the Western Ghats Biodiversity Programme. Nambiyar river is one of the east-flowing rivers in Nanguneri taluka, Tirunelveli dist. , Tamil Nadu, forming a minor river basin. This river originates in the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats at 1650 m above msl in the Kalakad Reserve Forest. It is drained by two major tributaries viz., Thamarayar and Parattaiyar. The 48 km long river flows a distance of 9.6 km in the hilly regions before it confluences with the Bay of Bengal. The river has nine anicuts/weirs (check dams) and 40 wetlands. Due to multiple impoundments along its course, it reaches the Bay of Bengal only during monsoon. Fishes were collected from two sites, covering upstream and downstream regions in Nambiyar river, using various mesh sizes of monofilamentous gill nets, drag nets and scoop nets. The colour spots and other, important characters of the catch were noted, and the specimens preserved in 10% formalin. In larger specimens, 2-5 ml formalin was injected into the abdomen. In Nambiyar river, 14 species of 2 orders, 8 families and 13 genera were recorded (Table 1). All the species are known from the Western Ghats of South India (Talwar & Jhingran 1991), however, this is the first report on these fishes from the Nambiyar river system. Among the species caught, the air-breathing Channel sp. and JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000 153 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 FISH SPECIES AND THEIR CURRENT STATUS IN NAMBIYAR RIVER Fish Species I Order: Cypriniformes i. Family: Cyprinidae a Genus: Pun tins 1 . Punti us arenatus ( Day ) 2. Puntius cholo (Ham.-Buch.) b Genus: Amblypharyngodon 3. Amblypharyngodon microlepis (Bleeker) c Genus: Danio 4. Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland) d Genus: Esomus Esomus thennoicos (Val.) e Genus: Parluciosoma 6. Parluciosoma daniconius (Ham.-Buch.) f Genus: Garra 7. Garra mullya (Sykes) ii Family: Parapsilorhynchidae g Genus: Nemacheilus 8. Nemacheilus triangularis Day Current Status Not assessed Vulnerable Not assessed Low risk, near threatened Not assessed Low risk, neat- threatened Not assessed Not assessed Low risk, least concern Fish Species C urrent Status iii. Family: Cobitidae h Genus: Lepidocephalus 9. Lepidocephalus thermalis ( Val . ) Not assessed II Order: Siluri formes iv Family: Bagridae i. Genus: Mystus 10. Mystus armatus (Day) Not assessed v Family: Aplocheilidae j Genus: Aplocheilus 1 1 . Aplocheilus lineatus Not assessed vi Family: C'ichlidae k Genus: Oreochromis 12. Oreochromis mossambica (Peters) Not assessed vii Family: Belontiidae 1 Genus: Macropodus 13. Macropodus cupanus (Val.) Not assessed viii Family: Channidae m Genus: Channa 1 4. Channa punctatus (Bloch) Low risk, near threatened catfish Mystus armatus are of major importance for fishery. Other small species are of minor interest. Introduction of Oreochromis is a threat to the native fauna. The Nambiyar river is disturbed by anthropogenic activity, due to the pilgrim sites upstream, which is highly disturbed by the washing, bathing and other activities of the pilgrims and tourists. The headwater stream has midstory and overstory trees, but the lowland riparian vegetation has been altered by agricultural farms. Agricultural effluent is a major threat to the ecosystem in the lowland. Diversion of small streams for irrigation upstream is also a major threat to the stream habitats and fish fauna of the Nambiyar river. Acknowledgements M. Arunachalam thanks the Dept, of Biotechnology for financial assistance (No.BT/ R&D 19.06.93 dt. 28th March, 1996, Ministry of Science & Technology, Govt, of India). The authors are grateful to Mr. A. Vanarajan (Project Assistant - DBT) for his help during the survey. October, 1998 M. ARUNACHALAM, A. SANKARANARAYANAN, J.A. JOHNSON, A. MANIMEKALAN, R. SORANAM, P.N. SHANTHI, C. VIJA YKUMAR Sri Paramakalyani Centre for En vivo n m en tal Sci ences , Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Alwarkurichi 627 412, Tamil Nadu, India. 154 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1 ) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Johnsingh, A.J.T. & D. Wickram (1987): Fishes of Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991 ): Inland fishes of Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 526-633. Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., Vols. I & II\ ppl 1 58. 21. A PROFILE OF THE FOOD AND FEEDING OF HILLSTREAM TELEOSTS OF GARHWAL HIMALAYAS Hillstreams of the Garhwal Himalayas are either glacier- and snow-fed (mostly larger and perennial streams such as Yamuna, Tons, Bhagirathi, Alaknanda, Mandakini, Pindar), nonglacier- and/or spring-rain-fed. Almost all the hillstreams of the Garhwal Hills (especially in their meta- and hyporhithron zones) harbour abundant and diverse ichthyofauna, reflecting a diversity of habitat, food and location of migratory routes. Occupied Habitats The category of hillstream fishes, based on feeding habits, are: 1 . Surface feeders, e.g. Barilius bendelisis , B. vagra , B. bcirila, B. barna , Xenentodon cancila and Esomus dauricus. 2. Column feeders, e.g. Schizothoraichthys progastus , Puntius chola, P. sophore and P. sarana, and 3. Bottom feeders, e.g. Schizothorax plagiostomus , S. richardsonii , Garra spp., Crossocheilus latius latius, Glyptothorax spp. and Pseudecheneis sulcatus. There is no convincing method of differentiating the feeding sites from non-feeding sites. It may be indirectly inferred from observations on gut contents and seasonal variations of feeding. Das and Moitral (1963, 1965) classified the feeding habits of fishes from the Central Himalayan streams (including Garhwal Himalaya) as: i. Herbivorous (75% of food is plant material), ii. Omnivorous (plant and animal material approximately 50% each), and iii. Carnivorous (animal material constitutes over 75%). Later, two categories were added, Herbi-omnivorous (greater amount of plant material) and Carni-omnivorous (a greater amount of animal material). Twenty-seven teleost species from Garhwal Himalaya have been classified according to their feeding habits ( 1 993) (Table 1). According to to Nikolsky’s ( 1963) scheme, based on variation in the type of food consumed, most fishes from Garhwal rivers (especially the 27 reviewed in Table 1) are either euryphagic (take a wide variety of food items) or stenophagic (feed on few types of food) except a few, viz. Pseudecheneis sulcatus , Glyptothorax pectinopterus , G. conirostris, G. telchitta which feed only on a single category of food, e.g. larvae and nymphs of aquatic insects. Peculiar features and adaptations for food selection The basic morphology of the feeding apparatus, common to all teleosts, differs in form according to the species, and is adapted to a particular mode of feeding (Larkin 1979). The primary feeding adaptations of herbivore fish are structural in nature. Food capture by carnivores generally requires more elaborate techniques, as potential prey has its own behavioural and structural arrangements for avoiding capture. Hillstream fishes of Garhwal region live under ecological conditions that may be stressful and less favourable for optimal feeding. These fishes have evolved numerous adaptations to this environment, some of which affect their food gathering and feeding: JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 155 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 FEEDING HABITS AND BASIC FOODS OF SOME HILLSTREAM TELEOSTS Feeding habits Fish species Basic foods Special remarks Herbivorous Schizothorax richardsonii algae, diatoms and surface scraps of the bottom bottom feeder benthophagous and detritophagous S. plagiostomus *' " S. sinuatus 11 " Crossocheilus latius latius " " Garra gotyla gotyla " " G. lamta " " Labeo dyocheilus diatoms and algae bottom feeder L. dero " " Herbi -omnivorous Puntius chilinoides diatoms, algae, aquatic weeds insects and their larvae Tor spp. " Omnivorous Puntius ticto - - P. cliola - - Chagunius chagunio - - Barilius bendelisis - - B. barila - - B. barna - - C am i -o mn i vorou s Sch izo thorn i ch thys insect larvae, crustaceans pre-dominant - progastus but aquatic weeds and algae also present B. vagra " - Noemecheilus multifasciatus - N. rupicola - N. montanus - Carnivorous Pseudecheneis sulcatus aquatic insects, their larvae and nymphs bottom feeder and monophagic Glyptothorax telchitta " G. pectinopterus " G. conirostrus B. bola - - Mastacembelus armatus insects, larvae and nymphs; small sized fishes also present predator a) The mouth opening in the bottom feeders, bottom scrapers, burrowers and mud suckers ( Garra gotyla gotyla, G. lamtci , Schizothorax plagiostomus , S. richardsonii , Crossocheilus latius latius, Pseudecheneis sulcatus, Glyptothorax spp.) is wide and situated ventrally and subventrally instead of being terminal as in other teleosts. A hard scraping plate in the lower jaw, posterior to the mouth opening, helps in scraping the detritus. In Tor tor and Schizothoraichthys progastus , the mouth is suctorial and funnel-shaped, formed by the eversion and modification of lips. Mastacembelus armatus has an upperjaw and lip longer than the lower one, a well developed dental battery in both jaws, suitable for predation. b) Location of food depends on the sensory capabilities, of the fish. Vision is important in species with large prominent eyes, while the non-visual senses are important in fishes with reduced visual capability (Aleev 1969). This is common among fishes living at the bottom or in conditions of reduced light. Accordingly, the fish species are described as sight feeder (using visual stimuli while gathering food) and nose feeders (using olfactory cues for feeding). The strictly surface and column feeder carnivores (predators, piscivore and larvivore), and herbivorous fishes are sight feeders, whereas, bottom feeders 156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97(1) APR. 2000 ■ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES (detritophagous and mud suckers) are nose feeders (Table 1.) Based on the observation of the major gut contents and food preference under normal and, abnormal situations, the various food items may be described as: 1. Basic food - major part of gut contents throughout the year. 2. Secondary food - frequent in gut contents, but lesser than basic foods. 3 . Obligatory food - forced to take under stress and food scarcity. 4. Incidental food - of rare occurrence. Reduction in availability of ‘preferred’ prey resources Degradation of favourable feeding sites leads to adverse qualitative and quantitative impacts on the growth of planktonic and benthic communities. This causes in turn serious disruption of the food chain and the energy cycle in the early phases of the life cycle of omnivorous, herbi-omnivorous, carni-omnivo- rous and carnivorous fish species. Food availability, the nature of feeding grounds and stimuli-feeding responses are less compatible with the adaptations/specialisations for torrential rapids in the hillstreams, particularly in case of bottom dwellers and feeders; the water current Refer Aleev Y. G. (1969): Functional and gross morphology in fishes (Israeli Programme for Scientific Translation, Jerusaelum). Badola, S. P. (1993): Ecological studies on the ichthyofauna of some freshwater resources of Garhwal region, Ph. D. thesis, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal. has played a significant role in their evolution. Alterations in water quality are also brought about by the addition of silt, explosives, large rocks (a result of dam/barrage construction) as well as irrational fishing methods. Acknowledgements We thank Prof. Asha Chandola-Saklani, Head, Department of Zoology, HNB Garhwal University, for valuable discussions, Prof. M.K. Chandrashekaran and Prof. T. J. Pandian, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, kindly spared their time to give valuable suggestions. During first author’s visit to the Department of Animal Behaviour, School of Biological Sciences, under the DST’s ‘SERC Visiting Fellowship 1994-95’ (No. SR/VS/033), valuable help was granted. January 19, 1999 N. SINGH Zoology Department, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal 246 174. R. SUBBARAJ Department of Animal Behaviour, School for biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai 625 021, Tamil Nadu, India. E N C E S Das, S. M. & S.K. Moitra ( 1 963): Ichthyologicci 2: 107. Das, S. M. & S. K. Moitra ( 1 965): Ichthyologicci 4 : 1 07. Larkin, P. A. (1979): In\ Fisheries management, edited by H Clepper (Sport Fishing Institute, Washington). Nikolsky, G. V. (1963): The ecology of fishes (Academic Press, London). 22. A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE HOST-PLANTS OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA Indian Lepidoptera are comparatively well known. The early stages and biology of all species of economic importance are known, but little emphasis has been placed on the remaining species. These constitute the vast majority and are of significance in bio-diversity studies. The opportunistic rearing of eggs from gravid females and larvae discovered in the field JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 157 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES-, over a period of several years resulted in the discovery of the following, hitherto unreported, hostplants. This work was carried out in the Kumaon Himalaya in northern India, at an elevation of 1500 m above msl. The taxonomy of several groups of moths is in need of review. In cases such as the Spilarctia Butler species of the sagittifera Moore group (Arctiidae), and what was previously the Dasychira Steph. genus (Lymantridae), we have not assigned specific status. Rosa sp., mentioned as the hostplant of Eterusia Ieptalina Kollar, Dasychira inclusa Walker and Spilarctia multiguttata Walker, are hybrid tea roses rather than good species. In some cases, hostplants accepted in one part of the insect’s range are refused in other parts. Thus, freshly emerged larvae of Ambulyx liturata Butler (Sphingidae) did not accept Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus and Q. floribunda Lindley ex A. Camus (Fagaceae) in Kumaon, although it has been bred on Quercus Linn, in China by Mell (Bell and Scott 1937). The preference of most local Arctiinae for Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Bennet & Brown, Setaria megaphylla (Steud.) Dur. & Schinz, and Plantago major Linn, is of interest. Many well known European Arctiinae are extremely polyphagous, the larvae having accepted, in addition to the known hostplants, such diverse items as potatoes, apples and even bread! The same cannot be said of the Himalayan species, except perhaps members of the Spilarctia casigneta group. We did not get the opportunity to try Setaria megaphylla on Estigmene imbuta Walker, but there seems a likelihood that it will accept it as readily as Pouzolzia Gaud. It, however, did not accept Plantago major. Gardner (quoted by Sevastopulo 1949) notes that the larvae of Polytela gloriosae Fabr. (Noctuidae) feed on Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae, species of Zephyranthes Herb, being specially favoured. In our experience, they much prefer Gloriosa superba Linn, to Zephyranthes carinata Herb., for they will not touch the latter so long as even a stem of the former is available. We have also bred them on Zephyranthes Herb. All the following bred specimens are in our collection. We have followed Barlow (1982) in the arrangement of moth families. Lepidoptera Species Host Plant Species Family: Zygaenidae Tripanophora Camellia sinensis semihyalina Kollar (Linn.) Kuntze (Theaceae) Wisteria sinensis (Sims.) DC (Leguminosae) Pelargonium L’Herit (Geraniaceae) Eterusia Ieptalina Kollar Pyrus communis Linn. (Rosaceae) Rosa sp. (Rosaceae) Agalope bifasciata Hope Crataegus crenulata G. Koch (Rosaceae) Family: Limacodidae Darna ?cotesi Swinhoe Cyperus paniceus (Rottb.) Boeck. (Cyperaceae) Family: Bombycidae Bombyx huttoni Morus nigra Linn. Westwood (Moraceae) Family: Sphingidae Dolbina inexact a Walker Olea glandulifera Wall, ex DC (Oleaceae) Family: Notodontidae Chadisra bipars Walker Grewia optiva J.R. Drummond ex Burret (Tiliaceae) Family: Arctiidae Spilarctia sp. of the Dioscorca bulbifera sagittifera group Linn. (Dioscorcaceac) Cuscuta re flex a Roxb. (Convoh ulaceae) Strobilanthes dalhousianus (Nees) C.B. Clarke (Acanthaceae) Plantago major Linn. (Plantaginaceae) 158 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 97(1) APR 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Lepidoptera Species Host Plant Species Lepidoptera Species Host Plant Species Euproctis anguligera Butler Dasychira inclusa Walker Dasychira sp. Ilema nigritula Walker Family: Agaristidae Episteme adulatrix Kollar Family: Noctuidae Cocytodes coerulea Guenee Thysanoplusia orichalcea Fabricius Polytela gloriosae Fabricius Glochidion velutinum Wight. (Euphorbiaceae) Quisqualis indica Linn. (Combretaceae) Rosa sp. (Rosaceae) Bauhinia vareigata Linn. (Leguminosae) Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. (Dioscoreaceae) Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. (Dioscoreaceae) Bohemeria plalyphyila D. Don (Urticaceae) Lep id ium vi rgini cum Linn. (Cruciferae) Gloriosa superba Linn. (Liliaceae) preferred over Zephyranthes carina ta Herbet (Amaryllidaceae) Spilarctia multiguttata Walker Estigmene imbuta Walker Estigmene quadriramosa Kollar Pericallia galactina von. d. Hoev Pericallia imperialis Kollar Callimorpha plagiata Walker Macrobrochus gigas Walker Family: Lymantridae Euproctis latifascia Walker Euproctis plagiata Walker Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Bennet & Brown (Urticaceae) Set aria megaphylla (Steud.) Dur. & Schinz (Graminae) Rosa sp. (Rosaceae) Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. (Dioscoreaceae) Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Bennet & Brown (Urticaceae) Plantago major Linn. (Plantaginaceae) Taraxacum sp. (Compositae) Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Bennet & Brown (Urticaceae) Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Bennet & Brown (Urticaceae) Setaria megaphylla (Steud.) Dur. & Schinz (Graminae) Plantago major Linn. (Plantaginaceae) Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Bennet & Brown (Urticaceae) Setaria megaphylla (Steud.) Dur. & Schinz (Graminae) Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Bennet & Brown (Urticaceae) Lichens Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus (Fagaceae) Glochidion velutinum Wight. (Euphorbiaceae) Family: Epiplemidae Epiplema reticulata Moore Family: Pyralidae Agathodes ostentalis Huebner Family: Pieridae Pontia daplidice Linne Artogeia canidia Sparrman Family: Nymphalidae Symbrenthia lilaea Hewitson Precis iphita Cramer Pareba issoria Huebner Jasminum dispermum Wallich (Oleaceae) Erythrina suberosa Roxb. (Leguminosae) Lep id i urn virgin icu n 1 Linn. (Cruciferae) Lepidium virginicum Linn. (Cruciferae) Bohemeria platyphylla D. Don (Urticaceae) A echmanthera tomentosa Nees (Acanthaceae) Debregeasia longijolia (Burm. f.) Wedd. (Urticaceae) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1), APR. 2000 159 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Acknowledgements We thank Professor Y.P.S. Pangtey and Dr. B.S. Kalakoti, Department of Botany, Th. D.S.B. College, Nainital, who kindly identified some of the plants, and Dr. Poonam Mehrotra of the Department of Ecology of the same institution for her kind help with the bibliography. Refer Barlow, H.S. (1982): An Introduction to the Moths of South East Asia. Malayan Nature Soc., Kuala Lumpur. Bell, T.R.D. & F.B. Scott (1937): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Moths, Vol. V, October 27, 1 999 PETER SMETACEK RAJANI SMETACEK Jones Estate, Bhinital, Nainital, Pin 263 136, Uttar Pradesh, India. E N C E S Sphingidae, Taylor & Francis, London. Sevastopulo, D.G. (1949): A supplementary list of the foodplantsofthe Indian Bombycidae, Agaristidae and Noctuidae.J. Bombay ncit. Hist. Soc. 48: 265- 276. 23. ON THE PREDATION OF THE GIANT REDEYE GANGARA THYRSIS (FABRICIUS) (FAMILY : HESPERIIDAE; ORDER : LEPIDOPTERA) The Giant Redeye Gangara thyrsis Family Hesperiidae is not an uncommon butterfly in Bangalore. It is often seen in gardens around its food plants — Areca lutens, Cocos nucifera and other palms. Observations on the predators of the Giant Redeye were made on nine Areca lutens plants ranging in height from 1-4 m, and frequented by these insects. It was observed that the bonnet macaque ( Macaca radiata ) and the house crow ( Corvus splendens) fed on the larvae and pupae of the Giant Redeye. One individual of a troop of bonnet macaques which visited the premises where observations were made, systematically searched all the palms for larvae and pupae. The macaque searched the leaves rolled up by the larvae, opened them, and ate the larvae (which have long, loosely attached, white thread-like outgrowths amidst which are red spots). Similarly, the macaque opened the tubes made of palm fronds which conceal the pupae and ate the pupae. A house crow which visited the premises seemed to have noticed a pupa of the Giant Redeye. It gave up its efforts to procure the pupa as it was unable to balance itself on the slender palm fronds. A good half hour had elapsed before the bird returned and perched on the neighbouring Colocasia sp.(?) growing amidst the palms. From the new perch, it successfully ripped open the tube and swallowed the pupa whole. These are probably new records of predators of the Giant Redeye. May 25, 1999 S. KARTHIKEYAN 24, Opp. Banashankari Temple, S h a ka m b a ri n agar, 8th Block Jaycinagar P.O., Bangalore 560 082, Karnataka, India. 24. MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE COMMON MORMON PAPILIO POLYPES (FAMILY: PAPILIONIDAE) During February 1998, 1 was studying the polytes) was one of the species reared metamorphosis of different species of successfully. After a pupal period of ten days, a Papilionidae and Nymphalidae in my home female Common Mormon emerged from its laboratory. The Common Mormon ( Papilio chrysalis at about 0900 hrs. The Common 160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1 ) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Mormon is known to exhibit polymorphism, having three female forms. So I observed it carefully and found that it belonged to the stichius form which resembles the Common Rose ( Pachliopta aristolochiae). After spreading its shrunken and wet wings, I shifted the butterfly to dry its wings on to a lemon tree from which the caterpillar was collected. I kept watching continuously for about 30 minutes and took some photographs. During this time I noticed a male Common Mormon flying around the lemon tree. I took detailed notes and left the site. I visited the site again after 20 minutes and was astonished to find the newly emerged butterfly mating with the mature male Mormon. It was very interesting that the female Mormon had not even changed its position from where I had placed it initially. The marginal wing scales of the male Mormon were somewhat damaged and wing edges ruptured, indicating the extremity of its lifespan. The male and female were in the clasped posture for another 90 minutes, with both their wings spread. The male was inverted, suspended 25. MYCOPHAGOUS ARTHROPODS The native fungi and their associated arthropods are both very poorly known from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. To study the nature of fungal-arthropod interactions we have been documenting the arthropod fauna of the fungi of these islands. The arthropods so far collected on fungi from the Islands are represented by Coleoptera (including mycophagous staphy-linids and tenebrionids) and a couple of Acarina. The oyster mushroom Pleurotus sajor-caju is attacked by Scaphisoma sp. (Coleoptera) in the cropping chamber, when this mushroom is cultured indoors. List of Mycophagous arthropods from the Andaman Islands are as follows: from the copulatory organ of the female. The hind wing of the female remained on the upper side, overlapping the male’s wing. A white droplet of spermatozoa was observed on the wingbase of the male Mormon, perhaps splashed during the ejaculation. It was most surprising that the female became involved in mating immediately upon emergence, even prior to its first flight. Acknowledgements I thank my family for support and help in the rearing of butterflies. I especially thank Mr. Samarjit Paul for valuable information and help in specimen collection, and Md. Latif Hussain, for use of his computer. May 20, 1999 ARNAB BOSE c/o Assam Wood Industries North Bongaigaon, P.O. & Dist. -Bongaigaon, Pin 783 380, Assam, India. FROM THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS Insecta Coleoptera Ciidae Cis spp.* Erotylidae Spondotriplax andamana Arrow Scaphidiidae Scaphisoma sp. Staphylinidae Gyrophaena sp. Tenebrionidae Cryphaeus sp. (Toxicinae) Acarina Mesostigmata Uropodidae CylIibula?bordagei (Oudemans) Oribatada (=Cryptostigmata ) Parakalummidae Genus et sp. indet. ♦Four species, presently not identified, were recorded. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 161 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ACKNO WLEDG EM ENTS We thank Dr. A.K. Bandyopadhyay, Director, C.A.R.I. for encouragement and Drs. R.G. Booth and D. MacFarlane of the International Institute of Entomology, London, for identification. May 12, 1999 PRASHANTH MOHAN RAJ K. VEENAKUMARI Central Agricultural Research Institute Port Blair 744 103, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. 26. ON DAPHNIOPSIS TIBET AN A SARS, 1903, (CLADOCERA) COLLECTED FROM A HIGH ALTITUDE HIMALAYAN LAKE, INDIA {With seven text-figures) Four species of the genus Daphniopsis have so far been described, viz. D. pusilla, D. studeri , D. tibetana all by Sars (1903) and D. australis by Sergeev and Williams (1985). All the four species occur in saline water, among which D. tibetana is found in high altitude Himalayan saline lakes in India, Nepal, Tibet and Mongolia. After the original description of D. tibetana by Sars (1903) from Tibet, Brehm and Woltereck (1939) recorded the same species as Daphnia tibetana from Panggong Tso in Ladakh. The present report is a record of this species after a gap of five decades. A detailed description, and new morphological characters have been given, based on a few samples collected from Panggong Tso Lake. A few samples collected during one of the regular trips to high altitude Himalayan lakes by the Zoological Survey of India, Solan, at Panggong Tso lake on August 23, 1998, were sent to the author for identification. The sample consists of thousands of adult female Daphniopsis tibetana, as well as Cyclops ladacanuslfi) and Gammarus pulex{?). The materials used in this study include mature females as well as different pre-adult instars sorted from the collections. The lake Panggong Tso is in the Ladakh district of the western Himalayan region, at an altitude of 4241 m. It is an oligotrophic saline lake (pH 9.35). Other physico-chemical parameters were not recorded due to bad weather conditions. Description Daphniopsis tibetana Sars 1903 Daphniopsis tibetana Sars 1903. Acad. Asci. St. Petersb. 8 p. 171. Daphniopsis tibetana Brehm & Woltereck, 1939. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. 1-19. Female: Body size 2.62 mm; Body width 1.65 mm. Head wide and depressed, slightly produced near eye and ventral edge slightly concave. Rostrum prominent and blunt. Fornix extending in front and evenly arched. Eye moderately large, irregularly shaped, ocellus rounded and relatively large. Carapace without dorsal carina or a posterior spine and not denticulate. Body slightly compressed and oval, dorsal and ventral margins evenly arched (Fig. 1). Postero- ventral margin with numerous submarginal spines. In adult females, carapace slightly larger than wide. Antennules small, immovable, not projecting beyond rostrum, with terminal sensory papillae and subterminal seta. Antennae large, setal formula (0-0- 1-3/1 -1-3). Hepatic caeca large and coiled as in other daphnids. Trunk limb 2 (Figs. 2-6): external branch of endopodite bearing three slightly chitinised, subequal setae (Figs. 2, 6) gnathobase 18 setae, (Fig. 2) with a second seta different in structure (Figs. 3, 4) from the sensory papilla of gnathobase (Fig. 5). Postabdomen (Fig. 7) tapering distally, dorsal margin sinuate with 10-12 anal denticles. Ventral margin of the 162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97 (!) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1-5: 1. Dciphniopsis tibetana : female - lateral view; 2- Trunk limb II, 3-4. Second seta of gnathobase, 5. Sensory papilla of gnathobase. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97{I), APR. 2000 163 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES postabdomen with a series of small spines. Claws with proximal and middle combs of lateral setae. Abdominal process long. Males: Not found in the present study. Remarks: Michael & Sharma (1988), while compiling the Fauna of India, Cladocera, described Daphniopsis tibetana from the literature only since no material was available to them. However, Chiang and Du (1979) described D. tibetana from China with a maximum adult size of 2.30-2.90 mm, which is slightly larger than the present record of 2.62 mm. Sergeev and Williams (1985) separated D. australis, a new species, from D. pusilla in Australian salt lakes based on the trunk limb morphology, with a body size ofl.82±0.36 mm, which is relatively smaller than D. tibetana in this sturdy. Loffler (1969) studied the general limnology of 24 high altitude lakes of Khumbu area, Nepal and recorded three species of Cladocera among which D. tibetana is one. A decade after the visit of Loffler, Swar and Fernando (1979) recorded D. tibetana along with 22 other species of Cladocera from Pokhara Valley, Nepal. However, Dumont and Van der Refer Brehm, V. & R. Woltereck (1939): Die Daphniden der Yale-North India Expedition. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. 48: 159-172. Chiang, S. & N. Du (1979): Fauna of Sinica: Crustacea, Cladocera, Science Press, Academia Sinica, Peking, 297 pp. Dumont, H.J. & 1. Van der Velde (1977): Report on a collection of Cladocera and Copepoda from Nepal. Hydrobiologia 53(1): 55-65. Kokkinn, M.J. & N.D. Williams (1987): Is ephippial morphology a useful taxonomic descriptor in the Cladocera? An examination based on a study of Daphniopsis from Australian salt lakes Hydrobiologia 145: 67-73. Velde (1977) who surveyed the same area, could not collect D. tibetana from Nepal. The ephippial morphological studies conducted by Kokkinn and Williams (1987) found six morphotypes among the species of Daphniopsis in the salt lakes of Australia. However, in India no such studies have been undertaken due to the remoteness of the habitat where D. tibetana is found. Acknowledgements I thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director Zoological Survey of India for sending the lake collections to me for identification and facilities to conduct this study. I thank Shn A. Sivakumar, Technical Assistant, ICMAM Project, MBS, ZSI for typing the manuscript. August 6, 1998 K. VENKATARAMAN Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India, 100, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India. iNCES Loffler, H. (1969): High altitude lakes in Mt. Everest region. Verb. Internal. Verein. Linmol. 17: 373-385. Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India, Cladocera. (ed.) The Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 262 pp. Sars, G.O. ( 1 903): On the Crustacean Fauna of Central Asia. Part II. Cladocera Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Sci. St. Petersb. 8: 157-194. Sergeev, V. & W.D. Williams ( 1 985): Daphniopsis australis sp. nov. (Crustacea : Cladocera), a further daphniid in Australian salt lakes. Hydrobiologia 120: 1 19-128. Swar, D.B. & C.H. Fernando (1979): Cladocera from Pokhara Valley, Nepal with notes on distribution. Hydrobiologia 66 : 113-128. 27. INDIGOFERA MYSORENSIS ROTTLER EX DC. (LEGUMINOSAE : PAPILIONOIDEAE) - AN ENDEMIC SPECIES OF PENINSULAR INDIA FROM WEST BENGAL During a plant collection tour in Uttar branched, erect, sticky, villous undershrub were Dinajpur District, West Bengal, specimens of a collected from the deforested dry sandy areas of JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 165 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Hemtabad Forest Beat in Raiganj subdivision. These specimens were identified as Indigofer a mysorensis Rottler ex DC., a species that has hitherto been considered as endemic to the Deccan peninsula. Its known northern limit has been the Timpati Hills of Andhra Pradesh. It has not been collected from Orissa and southern West Bengal. This species is recorded here for the first time from a disjunct locality i.e. Hemtabad forest m Uttar Dinajpur, West Bengal. Indigofera mysorensis Rottler ex DC., Prodr. 2: 222. 1825; Baker in Hook. / FI. Brit. India 2: 102. 1876; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1: 313. 1918; Sanjappa inFasc. FI. India 21: 100, fig. 39. - 1995. Type: Ind. Orient., Mysore, Rottler s.n.. Herb. De Candolle 2: 222 (G - DC. microf.!). FI.: Sept. -Dec.; Fr.: Dec. -March. Distribution: Western Ghats (Nilgiri hills upto 1200 m); Chittoor, Cuddapah, Nellore and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh: Bangalore, Mysore, Mandya districts of Karnataka and Uttar Dinajpur district of West Bengal. Field notes: Bushy, viscid, undershrub; stem and branches pinkish; apices of leaflets and calyx with dark brown sticky glands, and leaves often stained with dark brown liquid. Specimen examined: West Bengal: Uttar Dinajpur, Hemtabad Forest Beat, Raiganj Subdivision; 25. i. 1997; S. Mitra 2887 A - C (CAL) February 3, 1999 S. MITRA S. BANDYOPADHYAY Botanical Survey of India Howrah 711 103, West Bengal India. A.K. SARKAR Department of Botany, University of Kalyani. Kalyani, Nadia, India. 28. RANGE EXTENSION OF NEPENTHES KHASIANA IN THE JAINTIA HILLS, MEGHALAYA ( With one text-figure ) The pitcher plant belongs to an interesting group of insectivorous herbs. Of the two genera, only one, i.e., Nepenthes is represented in India, and that too by one species N. khasiana Hk. f. which is confined to Meghalaya. In Meghalaya, it occurs only in the high rainfall southern facies of the plateau from 100-1500 m above msl, affecting both tropical evergreen and sub- tropical wet hill forest, often with patches of grass. So far, specimens have been collected from a few localities in the South Garo Hills and Jaintia Hills districts (Rodgers and Gupta, 1989). The pattern of distribution suggests that it occurs in East and West Khasi Hills district also. Maheskhola shown in East Khasi Hills by Rodgers and Gupta (1989) is actually on the South Garo Hills-West Khasi Hills border. In Jaintia Hills, it has been recorded from Jowai and Jarain. So far, Jowai formed the easternmost as well as northernmost recorded locality (25° 27' N, 92° 12' E). while Baghmara in South Garo Hills forms the westernmost (90° 40' E) although there are some reports from farther west also (90° 25' E). I report here a new locality in Jaintia Hills where I observed and photographed N. khasiana. On June 11, 1998 while driving from Guwahati to Silchar via Meghalaya, I noticed N. khasiana in a small area between Khlieriat and Umtra, 9 km from the former and 2 km from the latter, on the left side of National Highway 44 while coming from Khlieriat (25° 20' N, 92° 25' E) (Fig. 1 ). The plants were mostly on a steep slope alongside the main road. Among other notable plants was the bamboo orchid Arundina graminifolia. The elevation of the site is 1100 m above msl. Besides being a new locality, it is also an extension of the eastern limit. A cursory 1 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1 : Map of Meghalaya showing the localities of N. khasiana look indicated the presence of more than 30 pitcher plants on the roadside, and more must have been there. The Divisional Forest Officer (Wildlife), Jaintia Hills has already been approached for preserving the area as a ‘Sanctuary’. Perhaps this is the only known site of pitcher plants alongside a busy National Highway and there is potential for more visitors than in the Baghmara and Jarain Pitcher Plant Sanctuaries. It is hoped that this will help conservation by generating more interest in this rare plant. Nov. 11, 1998 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India , c/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India. Reference Rodgers, W.A. & S. Gupta (1989): The Pitcher Plant Hills, Meghalaya: lessons for conservation. (Nepenthes khasiana Hk. f.) Sanctuary of Jaintia J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 17-21. 29. SCLERIA LAXA R. BR. (CYPERACEAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA FROM NICOBAR ISLANDS ( With one text-figure ) During a survey of the grasslands of tall grasses and forbs along the banks of water- Nancowry group of islands, I located a scanty courses which turned out to be Scleria laxa R. Br., population of an interesting sedge, growing amidst a species not recorded so far from the Indian region. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 167 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1) APR. 2000 ' MISCELLANEOUS NOTES The genus Scleria Berg, holds over 200 species, of which about 21 species occur in mainland India (Santapau and Henry, 1994) and 10 in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands. S. laxa R. Br. is a remarkable species with very restricted distribution m Queensland, Torres Strait in Malesia and South New Guinea. The present collection from Teressa Is. in the Nancowry group is of much phytogeographic interest. The Nancowry group of islands, situated in the Nicobar district, between 7° 50'-8° 10' N lat. and 93° 30'-93°40' E long., consists of 8 to 9 far-flung islands with hills, ridges, dense forest and grassland. A striking feature of the plant cover here is the presence of large patches of grassland or heaths. The description of this species is already available in Kern (1974), and a brief note along with a line drawing is provided here, based on the recent collection. Scleria laxa R. Br., Prod. 240.1810; Kern, FI. Males. 7:748.1974. Annual. Culm slender, up to 40 cm high. Leaves linear, 1-3 mm wide. Inflorescence paniculate, of 3-4 fascicles. Peduncles slender, lateral ones longer. Glumes ovate, acute. Nuts globose, ivory-white, shining, longitudinally ribbed, tuberculate at apex, 1.0-1. 5 mm wide. Ecology: Grows along the margins of streams, in open grasslands in association with Phragmites karka Steud., Cyperus spp., etc. FI. & Fr.: January-March. Specimen examined: Nicobar dt.: Nancowry group of islands, Teressa Is., way to Alu rong at 3 km, + 50 m, 23.ii.1997, coll. P.V. Sreekumar 16726 (PBL). Acknowledgement I thank Dr. P.K. Hajra, Ex-Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for encouragement and facilities. November 15, 1998 P.V. SREEKUMAR Botanical Survey of India Andaman & Nicobar Circle, Post Box No. 692, Haddo, Port Blair 744 102, Andaman & Nicobar Is., India. References Kern, J.H. (1974): Cyperaceae in FI. Males. 7:748. Flowering plants in India. Publication & Santapau, H. & A.N. Henry ( 1 994): A Dictionary of the Information Directorate, New Delhi, Repr. 30. RHAPHIDOPHORA CALOPHYLLUM SCHOTT (ARACEAE) — AN ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF THE ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS ( With one text-figure) Specimens of the genus Rhaphidophora Hassk. in Indian herbaria were studied for a systematic revision of the Indian Araceae. An unidentified specimen collected on the Nicobar Islands was identified as Rhaphidophora calophyllum. The identity was later confirmed with the help of the protologue and type. It is reportedly distributed in northeast India, East Himalayas and also regions of Burma (Hooker, 1 893). It is recorded here for the Nicobar Islands. A detailed description and an illustration are provided. Rhaphidophora calophyllum Schott (in Bonplandia 5: 45. 1857, nom.), Prodr. 380. 1860; Engl. In DC., Monogr. Phan. 2: 242. 1879; Furtado in Gard. Bull. Straits Settlem. 8: 150. 1934; A.S. Rao & D.M. Verma in Bull. Bot. Surv., India 18: 31. 1976; Balakr., FI. Jowai 2: 560. 1983; Karth. etal., FI. Ind. Enum. Monocot. 3. 1989. Type: Sikkim, 3-5000 ft., without date, J.D. Hooker s.n. (K, photo!). R. lancifolia Schott (in Bonpandia 5: 45. 1857, nom.), Prodr. 380. 1860; Masters in Gard. Chron. 2: 611. 1874; Engl, in DC., Monogr. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 169 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Phan. 2: 241. 1879; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6: 545. 1893; Engl. & Krause in Engl., Pflanzenr. IV 23-B: 26. 1908. R. peepla Schott, Prodr. 380. 1860; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6: 545. 1893, excl. Wight, Icon. t. 780. 1844, non Pothos peepla Roxb., 1832; Engl. & Krause in Engl., Pflanzenr. IV. 23-B: 41. 1908. Climber; stems 0.6- 1.2 cm across, rooting at nodes; petioles 5.5-20 cm long, slender, channelled at base. Leaves 9.2-27 x 2-12 cm, falcately lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, cuspidately acuminate or caudate at apex, acute or rounded at base, unequal-sided, a little pendent, greenish brown when dry, coriaceous, or faintly coriaceous when young; primary nerves prominent on both surfaces. Peduncle 2-12.5 cm long. Spathe 5-10 x 3-6 cm, ovate-oblong, beaked, thickly coriaceous, green or orange outside, deep red inside. Spadix 3-7.5 cm long, white or green, yellowish on maturity, elongating to 10 cm in fruits. Ovaries ca 3 mm across; stigma raised, pulvinate (Fig. 1). FI. & Fr.: Sept.-June. Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Common. Extralimital: Bangladesh and Myanmar. Specimens examined: Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Great Nicobar Island): 31-32 km on Eastwest Road, inland hill forest, 100 m, 14.vi.1977, N. P. Balakrishnan 5757 (CAL). Arunachal Pradesh: Kameng Dist., Bompu hills, 2133 m, 28.iii.1957, G. Pamgrahi 6202 (ASSAM). Assam: Nougram Wood, 1500 m, 5 .xi. 1 87 1 , C.B. Clarke 16674 (CAL). Manipur: without precise locality, Dec. 1907, A. Meebold 7026 (CAL). Meghalaya: Khasia hills, 3000- 6000 ft., without date, J.D. H(ooker) & T. T(homson) s.n. (Acc. No. 498013; ASSAM); Khasia hills, 3000-6000 ft., without date, J.D. H(ooker) s.n. (Acc. No. 53842; MH); Khasia Fig. 1: Rhaphidophora calophyllum Schott: Habit hills, without date, J.D. H(ooker) 434 (CAL); Khasia hills, 3.xi.l871, C.B. Clarke 15923 (CAL); Khasia hills, 1881-82, G. Watt 5905 (DD); without precise locality, 1 5 .ix. 1 886, C.B. Clarke 44800; Khasia hills, Oct. 1890, D. Robester s.n. (Acc. No. 497983); without precise locality, 7.ix.l894, G.A. Gammie 486 (CAL); K & J hills, 5200 ft., 1 8.xii. 1915, Kanjilal 6412 (DD); Jowai, 26. v. 1956, R.S. Rao 2558; without precise locality, 27.ix.1956, coll. ? 3446 (CAL); K & J hills, Cheerapunji circuit house, Mawsmai falls, 19.xh.1956, coll.? 4817 (ASSAM); without precise locality, 23. i. 1957, G.K. Deka 5049, Cheerapunji, Mawsmai forest, 23. ix. 1958, G.K. Deka 17171 (CAL); Cheerapunji, 5. v. 1961, coll.? 24264; Sorarim, 17.x. 1967, A.S. Rao 37786 (ASSAM). Mizoram: Lushai hills, Jungh Valley, 30.iii. 1 899, A.T. Gage 15 (Acc. No. 498067; ASSAM). Sikkim: Balasan, 9.xi.l895, G. King s.n. (Acc. No. 498000); without precise locality, 30. v. 1951, T.T(homson) s.n. (Acc No. 498006; ASSAM); 3000-5000 ft., without date, J.D.H(ooker) 33, 303 (K, photo!). Tripura: 170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(1) APR. 2000 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Agartala, 10. iv. 1956, D.B. Deb 253; Kailasham, 16.viii.1960, D.B. Deb 2645 (CAL). W. Bengal: Darjeeling, Kodabari, 3000 ft., Aug. 1881, J.S. Gamble 9749 (ASSAM, DD). Acknowledgements We thank Dr. P. Daniel, Deputy Director, BSI, Coimbatore, for facilities and for his valuable comments on the original draft, the Director (K) and Dr. S.K. Murti, Indian Liaison Officer (K), for the photograph of the type and for literature. K. Sasikala the Director, BSI, Calcutta, for a research fellowship, the regional Deputy Directors for permission to consult the herbaria and loan of specimens, and Mr. R. Suresh, Senior Artist, BSI, Coimbatore, for the figure. November 15, 1998 K. SASIKALA E. VAJRAVELU Botanical Survey of India Southern Circle, TNAU Campus, Lawley Road P. O., Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 171 100 P ERRATA Vol. 96 No. 3, December 1999, pp. 448-449 refer to the following thirteen text-figures for Figs. 1-7: Copidognathus greeni sp. nov. 1. Idiosoma dorsal (E), 2. Idiosoma ventral (E), 3. GA of G, 4. Magnified view of Epimeral process, 5. Gnathosoma, dorsal view, 6. OC, 7. Magnified view of AD. rfOS Figs. 8-13: Copidognathus greeni sp. nov. 8. Gnathosoma, ventral view, 9. Chelicera, 10. Leg. I, 1 1. Leg II, 12. Leg. IV, 13. Leg. Ill (Telofemur-tarsus). TtOS CORRIGENDUM Reference is drawn to a recent note by Raju Thomas et al. (Distribution of Pangio goaensis (Tilak) Cypriniformes : Cobitidae in Manimala river, Southern Kerala, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 96(3): 479-480), in which the authors have referred to a paper by Rema Devi et al. which they presumed had appeared in J. South Asian nat. Hist. 1996, 3(1): 19-22, on their having seen the paper at the proof stage with the author. 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Corporate Member Within India (Firms & Other Industries) Rs. 1,000 Rs. 5,000 (annual) Free Free Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982 CONTENTS EDITORIAL 1 POPULATION DENSITIES OF THE BLACKNAPED HARE LEPUS N1GRICOLLIS NIGRICOLLIS AT ROLLAPADU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KURNOOL DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH ( With six text-figures ) By Ranjit Manakadan and Asad Rafi Rahmam 3 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE MALABAR GREY HORNBILL ( OCYCEROS GRISEUS) IN SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA ( With one text-figure) By Divya Mudappa 15 SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSITION AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN THE INDIAN TRANS-HIMALAYA By Charudutt Mishra 25 AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF CROCODILES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA ( With three text-figures) By Charles Santiapillai, Mangala de Silva, Sarath Dissanayake, B.V.R. Jayaratne and S. Wijeyamohan 33 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG FEMALE LION-TAILED MACAQUES {MAC AC A SILENUS) IN THE WILD ( With three text-figures) By Aj ith Kumar 42 SEASONAL CHANGES OF TROPICAL FOREST BIRDS IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS ( With seven text-figures) By E.A. Jayson and D.N. Mathew 52 PLOD l A INTER P UN C TELL A (HUBNER) (PHYCITIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA) AS A POTENTIAL PEST OF DRY FRUITS By S.P. Rad, H.R. Pajni and Neelima Talwar 62 FRESHWATER CLADOCERA (CRUSTACEA : BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS ( With one text-figure) By K. Venkataraman 67 LONGICORN BEETLES (CERAMBYCINAE, PRIONINAE : CERAMBY CID AE) OF BUXA TIGER RESERVE, JALPAIGURI, WEST BENGAL ( With twelve text-figures) By Dinendra Raychaudhuri and Sumana Saha 74 FISHES OF THE CYPRINID GENUS SEMIPLOTUS BLEEKER 1859, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM MANIPUR, INDIA ( With one text-figure and one plate) By Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin 92 FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF INDIAN BARBETS, MEGALAIMA SPP. ( With three text-figures) By Hafiz S.A. Yahya 103 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 117 REVIEWS 133 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 136 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-400 023. JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY MURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AUGUST 2000 Vol. 97 (2) f BOARD OF EDITORS > Editor J.C. DANIEL M.R. ALMEIDA AJITH KUMAR M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN T.C. NARENDRAN B.F. CHHAPGAR A.R. RAHMANI R. GADAGKAR J.S. SINGH INDRANEIL DAS A.J.T. JOHNSINGH Assistant Editor R. WHITAKER < GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS 1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere should not be submitted. 2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star. 3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. 4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be acceptable if labelled free hand. 5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus: Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66. Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 35-48. 6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important species discussed. 7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free copy of the Journal. 8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s. Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-400 023. Editors, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society /^\'T HS0^\ VOLUME 97 (2): AUGUST 2000 p£g f g gQQ) J Date of Publication: 1-8-2000 N. _ CONTENTS EDITORIAL 1 7 5 PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS OF WESTERN ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA ( With one text-figure ) Aparajita Datta 177 FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY IN THE CENTRAL HIMALAYAN HIGHLANDS ( With one text-figure) M.K. Pandit, Arun Bhaskar and Virendra Kumar 1 84 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS OF BUTTERFLIES IN THE PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA, INDIA ( With one text-figure) V.V. Sudheendrakumar, C.F. Binoy, P.V. Suresh and George Mathew 193 GROWTH PATTERN OF MANGROVES IN THE GULF OF KUTCH ( With three text-figures) H.S. Singh 202 THE STATUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY : HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA ( With two text-figures) Charles Santiapillai, Mangala De Silva and S.R.B. Dissanayake 208 AVIAN SPECIES INVOLVED IN POLLINATION AND SEED DISPERSAL OF SOME FORESTRY SPECIES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH M. L. Narang, R.S. Rana and Mukesh Prabhakar 2 1 5 STUDIES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RANA CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES (With one plate) Jinesh James, Thomas T. Valamparampil and Oommen V. Oommen 223 BURROW PATTERN OF INDIAN METAD MILLARDIA (RATTUS) MELTADA GRAY (With one text-figure) N. K. Pandey and A.S. Bhadauria 230 A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 38. PASSERINAE Saraswathy Unnithan 234 PITFALL TRAP SAMPLING OF TROPICAL CARABIDS (CARABIDAE : COLEOPTERA) — EVALUATION OF TRAPS, PRESERVATIVES AND SAMPLING FREQUENCY S. Vennila and D. Rajagopal 24 1 NEW DESCRIPTIONS BARILIINE FISHES OF MANIPUR, INDIA, WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES: BARI LI US LAIROKENSIS (With one text-figure) Laifrakpam Arunkumar and Hijam Tombi Singh 247 TWO NEW SPECIES OF COPIDOGNATHUS (HALACARIDAE : ACARI) FROM KERALA (With seventeen text-figures) TapasChatterjee 253 MONELATA COMPLETES, A NEW SPECIES OF DIAPRIIDAE (HYMENOPTERA : PROCTOTRUPOIDEA) FROM INDIA ( With four text-figures) K. Rajmohana and T.C. Narendran 260 A NEW SPECIES OF PONTIUS (CYPRINIDAE : CYPRININAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA ( With two plates) A.G.K. Menon, K. Rema Devi and W. Vishwanath 263 REVIEWS 1 . THE TIGER IS A GENTLEMAN Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 269 2. THE DANCE OF THE SARUS: ESSAYS OF A WANDERING NATURALIST Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 269 3. THE SERPENT’S TONGUE Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 270 4. THE FAUNA OF BANGALORE Reviewed by Meghana Gavand 270 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS 1. Distribution of chital Axis axis (Erxleben 1777) in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina By Bruno Carpinetti and Mariano L. Merino ... 271 2. Takin Budorcas taxicolor at Menla Reserve Forest (3,050 in), east Sikkim: A westward range extension and observations of unusual behaviour By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa 272 3 . First record of occurrence of albino crestless Himalayan porcupine Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758 (Rodentia : Hystricidae) in India By Ajov Kumar Mandal and M.K. Ghosh 274 4. First record of Gangetic river dolphin, Platanista gangetica at Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam By Mrigen Barua 275 BIRDS 5. A pied harrier ( Circus melanoleucos) roost in Sohagi-Barwa Wildlife Sanctuary, Maharajganj, Uttar Pradesh, India By Salim Javed 276 6. The greyheaded lapwing, Vanellus cine reus (Blyth) in Kaliveli Tank, Tamil Nadu By K.S. Gopi Sundar 277 7. Recent sightings of Vanellus gregarius (Pallas) at Tal Chhapar and Revasa, Rajasthan By Harkirat Singh Sangha 278 8. Additional sight records of slenderbilled gull Larus genei from Gujarat By B.M. Parasharya, K.L. Mathew, A.G. Sukhadia and Aeshita Mukherjee 279 9. Multiple brooding of the little brown dove Streptopelia senegalensis By M. John George 280 10. Ashy mini vet Pericrocotus divaricatus (Raffles) in Kanha National Park, Mandla District, Madhya Pradesh By Aasheesh Pittie and Amitabh Poddar 283 1 1 . Redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer feeding on tail of house gecko Hemidactylus Jlaviviridis By Satish Kumar Sharma 284 1 2. Comments on the bird list of Thattakad Bird Sanctuary, Kerala By V, Santharam 284 REPTILES 13. Ganges soft-shell turtle Aspideretus gangeticus predating on nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan By Gargi and Randheera Singh 285 14. Strange death of a snake By V.P.Ajith 286 AMPHIBIA 15. Size analysis and distribution of Jerdon’s bull frog Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon 1835) in Assam By S. Saikia, N.K. Choudhury, B. Hussain and S. Sengupta 286 FISHES 16. First record of the sunfish Ranzania laevis (Pennant) (Pisces : Osteichthyes : Perciformes : Molidae) from the West Bengal Coast By S. Kar, R. Chakraborty, S. Mitra and T. K. Chatterjee 288 17. Fishes of Chimmony and Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuaries, Kerala, India By K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju, C.R. Ajithkumar and M. John George 289 1 8. New records of fishes from the Western Ghats of Maharashtra By M. Arunachalam, A. Sankaranarayanan, J.A. Johnson, A. Manimekalan and R. Soranam 292 INSECTS 19. Mantid fauna of Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai, with some new records for Maharashtra State By Naresh Chaturvedi and Vithoba Hegde 295 20. Recent record of Creobroter apicalis Saussure (Insecta : Mantodea) from Pune, Maharashtra and Kumta, Karnataka By H.V. Ghate, Nilesh Rane and Sachin Ranade 297 21. Sisyphus longipes (Oliver) (Coleoptera : Scarabaeidae : Scarabaeinae) — A new record for Andaman Islands By K. Veenakumari and Prashanth Mohanraj 298 22. Large scale emergence and migration of the Common Emigrant butterflies Catopsilia pomona (Family : Pieridae) By A.M.K. Bharos 301 Cover photograph: Honeybees on Elephant Bamboo Flower K.C. Koshy OTHER INVERTEBRATES 23. Trididemnum Delia Valle 1 88 1 , an unrecorded genus of colonial ascidian from India By V.K. Meenakshi 302 24 . Range extension for Strombus plicatus sibbaldi (Sowerby) (Mollusca : Mesogastropoda : Strombidae) By Deepak Apte 304 25 . New record of Astenocypris papyracea (Sars 1 903), (Crustacea, Ostracoda) from West Bengal, India By K. Venkataraman 304 BOTANY 26. Some rare and uncommon legumes from Garhwal Himalaya By L.R. Dangwal and R.D. Gaur 309 27. Rediscovery of Wendlandia angustifolia Wight ex Hook. f. (Rubiaceae), from Tamil Nadu, a species presumed extinct By M.B. Viswanathan, E. Harrison Premkumar and N. Ramesh 311 28. Lactuca graciliflora DC. (Asteraceae) — An addition to the flora of Himachal Pradesh By M. Sharma and D.S. Dhaliwal 313 29. Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC., (Family: Asteraceae) — An interesting new record from Bijnor (U.P.), India By Athar Ali Khan 314 30. The identity of Hygrophila bengalensis Mandal etal., (Family: Acanthaceae) By S. Mitra and S. Bandyopadhyay 315 Editorial Forty million years ago, honeybees appeared on earth in the Eocene period. They acquired their social habit only 10 million years later. Honey bees are believed to have originated in Africa and later spread to Europe and to Asia. They were brought to the Americas and are now distributed all over the world. The true honeybees belong to the genus Apis Linnaeus of the family Apidae. Seven species of honeybees are known from the world. They are Apis clorsata Fabricius, Apis cerana Fabricius Apis florea Fabricius, Apis mellifera Linnaeus, Apis andreniformes Smith, Apis nigrocincta Smith and Apis koschenvnikovi Enderlein. Except for the last two, all are found in the Indian subcontinent. The bees arose from ancestors of Spheciformes, abandoned their predatory habit of feeding on insect larvae or spiders and shifted to phytophagy. By mixing pollen with nectar and honey or with floral oils, they prepared food for their larvae. In the cover photograph, two species of honeybees namely Apis dorsata dorsata Fabricius (larger form) and Apis cerana indica Fabricius (smaller form) are seen foraging on the flowers of the bamboo Ochlandra travancorica (Beddome), commonly known as irul, iral, or eeta in the local languages, as elephant bamboo and reed bamboo in English. It is endemic to the southern Western Ghats and grows at elevations of 1,000-2,500 m, as undergrowth in evergreen and semi- evergreen forests, commonly along the banks of rivers and streams. It is economically important, since its culms are used for paper pulp, mat making and basket weaving. The mats are used for making ply bamboo. It is also used in rural housing. The leaves are eaten by elephants. Apis dorsata is the largest honeybee in the world and is unfit for domestication. It builds its comb on inaccessible branches of trees. A comb may measure 1 to 5 metres in length. Each comb may contain 20-38 litres of honey, depending on its size. Apis cerana, the smaller bee, is a species suitable for apiculture. The subspecies Apis cerana indica Fabricius, known as the Indian honeybee, is seen in peninsular India. These bees are most active in foraging on flowers, usually at a temperature range of 25-28 °C and humidity of 70-80% R.H. The yield of honey is proportional to the availability of bee pasturage in the locality. According to recent information, the poison gland of Apis cerana contains a compound known as eicosenol in quantities larger than in other species of bees. It is probable that the bee uses this pheromone to mark the flowers rich in nectar, so that other bees of the colony can locate the flowers quickly; or this may be an alarm pheromone to alert the hive mates when an intruder comes to the hive. Strangely enough, while foraging on the flowers of Ochlandra travancorica, both species damage the anthers. T.C. NARENDRAN ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt, of India, FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL. JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY August 2000 Vol. 97 No. 2 PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS OF WESTERN ARUNACHAL PRADESH, NORTHEAST INDIA1 Aparajita Datta2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Abundance, Amnachal Pradesh, kaleej pheasant, Lophura leucomelana lathami , logging, northeast India, peacock-pheasant, Polyplectron bicalcaratum, red jungle fowl, Gallus gallus Relative abundance of three pheasant species was compared along trails, across recently logged forest, 20-25 years old logged forest, unlogged primary forest, a relatively disturbed primary forest and a mixed-species plantation in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, and Doimara and Papum Reserve Forests, Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India. The three pheasant species recorded were the red jungle fowl {Gallus gallus), black-breasted kaleej pheasant ( Lophura leucomelana lathami) and the grey peacock-pheasant ( Polyplectron bicalcaratum ). Overall pheasant abundance was highest in unlogged forest and low in all other strata. No pheasants were sighted in the plantation. All three species were most abundant in unlogged forest. The probable causes of the relatively low abundance of pheasants in logged and disturbed forests are discussed especially in relation to subsidiary impacts of logging such as increased human disturbance and hunting due to easier access through logging roads. Introduction During a six month study on the responses of arboreal mammals to selective logging in western Arunachal Pradesh, India, the relative abundance of three pheasant species was also recorded systematically along trails. The pheasant species were the red jungle fowl ( Gallus gallus ), black-breasted kaleej pheasant ( Lophura leucomelana lathami) and grey peacock- pheasant ( Polyplectron bicalcaratum). These species were compared across 5 categories of traits, i.e., plantation, semi-disturbed forests, old logged forests, recently logged and unlogged primary forests. ‘Accepted July, 1998 2 Wildlife Institute of India Post Bag 1 8, Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttar Pradesh, India. An earlier survey solely for pheasants in the same area reported the occurrence of the grey peacock-pheasant and the red jungle fowl (Kaul and Ahmed 1992). The kaleej was not sighted during that survey. The grey peacock-pheasant was encountered in densely forested areas with undulating terrain in the earlier survey. Its presence was mostly ascertained from calls. Kaul (1993) suggested that estimates of population densities of peacock-pheasant and red jungle fowl can be made from call counts in the Eastern Himalaya. Study Sites The study sites were located in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) and Doimara and Papum Reserve Forests (RF) in east and west Kameng district, western Arunachal Pradesh JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000 177 PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS (Fig. 1). Pakhui WLS covers an area of 862 sq. km and is bounded on the north and west by the Bhareli river, on the east by the Pakke river, and the south by the Nameri WLS and reserve forests of Assam. Doimara RF lies to the west of Pakhui WLS in west Kameng district, while Papum RF lies to the east, in east Kameng district. Both the RFs fall in the Khellong Forest Division and together cover about 300 sq. km. The area lies in the foothills of the Himalaya and the terrain is undulating and hilly. The altitude ranges from 200 to more than 1,500 m above msl. The vegetation is tropical, semi-evergreen, with moist areas near streams having a profuse growth of bamboo, cane brakes and palms. The forest has a typical layered structure with the major emergent species being Tetrameles nudiflora, Altingia excelsa and Ailanthus grandiflora. There is a distinct middle storey; the understorey is largely made up of shrubs such as Clerodendron . The forests are rich in woody liana and climber species as well as epiphytic orchids and ferns. The area has a great diversity of mamma- lian fauna. The ungulates found here include gaur ( Bos gciurus), sambar (Cervus unicolor ), barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjac) and wild pig ( Sus scrofa). Elephants were sighted several times in the sanctuary, and once in the plantation. Carnivore fauna includes the tiger ( Panthera tigris ) leopard (P. pardus ), clouded leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa), smaller cats and several civet species. Three primate species namely, rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatto), Assamese macaque (M. assamensis) and the capped langur ( Semnopithecus pileata) and four squirrel species, the Malayan giant squirrel ( Ratufa bicolor), Pallas red-bellied squirrel ( Callosciums erythraeus ), hairy-bellied squirrel ( Callosciums pygerythrus) and Himalayan striped squirrel ( Tamiops macclellandi) are the most commonly encountered mammals. A total of 256 bird species have been recorded from the area (Singh 1991, 1994, Datta et al. 1998). Description of Census Trails Plantation - Trail 1, Seijusa-Monai (Papum RF): Trail walks totalled 34.5 km. A logging road was used for the census. The altitude ranged from 400 to 500 m above msl. The plantation was mixed; the major species were Terminalia myriocarpa, Duabanga grandiflora, Phoebe goalparensis , Bombax ceiba, Gmelina arborea and the exotic Tectona grandis. This plantation borders the reserve forests of Assam. There are settlements surrounding this area with patches of cultivation and degraded forest. The total area covered by the plantation is c. 3-4 sq. km. Semi-disturbed forests - Trails 2 & 3, Khari (Pakhui WLS): A total of 30.94 km was walked in this habitat. The two trails identified for monitoring were replicated 7 times each. These were elephant trails/paths at 450 to 550 m above msl. The trails were adjacent to steep gullies and nalas\ canes and palms were abundant, bamboo clumps occurred along the slopes. Cane extraction on a commercial basis occurred till 1991. Cane-cutters occasionally enter the forests from the adjacent reserve forests of Assam. The area is adjacent to Nameri WLS, Assam, and lies in the southern part of the sanctuary. It has not undergone selective felling in the past. Old logged forest - Trail 4, Seijusa- Khari (Pakhui WLS): Census walks totalled 27 km. A trail of 2.7 km was replicated 10 times at altitudes ranging from 550 to 800 m above msl. A patrolling trail cut by the Forest Department staff in 1 994 was used. An area of c. 4 sq. km had been selectively felled when the Pakhui Sanctuary was a reserve forest, prior to 1978. This area also lies in the extreme southeastern part of the sanctuary near the Arunachal Pradesh-Assam border. Several colonizing species such as Bauhinia purpurea and Mallotus sp. common in secondary forests, occurred here. 178 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS s O Q JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 179 Fig. 1 : Map of the Study area PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS Recently logged forest - Trails 5, 6 & 7, Tipi, west of Bhareli river (Doimara RF): A total of 53.28 km was covered in this habitat. Three trails varying in length from 1.7 to 3 km were replicated 8 times each. The altitude ranged from 500 to 850 m above msl. The area is close to Tipi with a human population of about 900. Logging operations were active along two of the trails and had concluded in the third trail. A few small labour camps occurred in the logged forest sites. Elephants and small trucks were used to transport the logs to the two . sawmills and one plywood mill nearby. Due to the presence of both reserve forests and a sanctuary on all sides, the forests in this region are contiguous. The Bhareli river and Tezpur- Bomdila highway act as the boundary between Pakhui WLS and Doimara RF. Unlogged primary forest - Trails 8, 9 & 10, Tipi, east of Bhareli river (Pakhui WLS): Census walks totalled 4 1 .4 km. The three trails were located near the southwest boundary of the sanctuary across the River Bhareli from Tipi. Two existing patrolling trails were used and one additional trail had to be cut for the census walks. A vast portion of the central and northern parts of the sanctuary is quite inaccessible due to the dense vegetation, hilly terrain and the lack of trails. The sole village, Mabusa, to the south of the sanctuary, has been relocated outside the boundary of the sanctuary. One or two settlements are present near the northern boundary. The Bhareli river acts as a barrier to human disturbance, though occasionally local tribals may cross over. Therefore, most of Pakhui WLS, except a small strip to the south, has excellent undisturbed primary forest. Methods Five habitats were selected, based on their logging history. The trails in the different habitats were so selected as to be similar in general vegetation type (though abundances of various species and composition differed somewhat), rainfall and altitude. Ten trails, adding to a total of 187.12 km, were walked in five habitats, each being replicated 6-10 times during the study period from December 1995 to April 1996. All trails were walked in the morning, and the calls and sightings of pheasants were recorded. Relative pheasant abundance was compared using a simple measure of encounter rate; numbers seen/ heard per km. Both calls and direct sightings were used in the calculation of encounter rates. Since sightings were few, statistical comparisons were not made. Encounter rates were simply calculated by dividing the total number of calls and sightings in each habitat by the total distance walked in each habitat. Results and Discussion Three pheasant species were recorded, namely, the red jungle fowl ( Gallus gcillus ), black-breasted kaleej pheasant (Lophura leucomelana lathami) and the grey peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron bicalcaratum). All three species were recorded in unlogged and logged forest. Only the peacock-pheasant was heard in semi-disturbed forest along the trails, though the red jungle fowl was heard/seen there otherwise. The red jungle fowl and peacock- pheasant were also recorded in the old logged forest. No pheasant species were recorded in the plantation. Partridges were also sighted twice in the unlogged forest but could not be identified. The white-cheeked partridge ( Arborophila afrogulciris) has been reported earlier (Singh 1 994). Overall abundance of pheasants was highest in unlogged forest (0.70/km), n = 29 (calls and sightings). All other habitats had much lower abundance (Table 1). Though the peacock-pheasant was never sighted, vocalization confirmed its presence in all the habitats except the plantation. It was the most abundant in unlogged forest (0.34/km, n = 14 calls), followed by semi-disturbed forest (0.16/km, n = 5 calls). They were heard only 180 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UNLOGGED FORESTS Table 1 ENCOUNTER RATES OF PHEASANTS IN THE FIVE STRATA Unlogged Forest Semi-disturbed Forest Old logged Forest Logged Forest Plantation Overall 0.70/km 0.16/km 0.11/km 0.11 /km _ Red jungle fowl 0.10/km - 0.07/km 0.09/km - Kaleej pheasant 0.26/km - - 0.02/km - Peacock- pheasant 0.34/km 0.16/km 0.04/km * - * Heard call once, but not during trail walk once each in the old logged forest and in logged forest. This species was very vocal, calling frequently from 0600 hrs onwards. Within India, the peacock-pheasant occurs only in the northeast, and is generally found in dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forest. Like the kaleej, it prefers to be near water, especially in the breeding season (Johnsgard 1986). The species reportedly thrives under conditions of secondary forest succession (Johnsgard 1986), but is highly vulnerable to snaring (Baker 1930). Feathers of a dead bird were found in Khari; trapping and snaring occurs occasionally. Remains of peacock-pheasants have been seen elsewhere in Arunachal Pradesh (Athreya and Karthikeyan, unpubl. data; Kaul and Ahmed 1992 \pers. obs. 1996; Rashid Raza, pers. comm. 1995; Vidya Athreya, pers. comm. 1995). A freshly killed specimen of peacock-pheasant and several traps for pheasants were seen in West Khasi and Garo hills in Meghalaya (A. Christy Williams, pen’, comm. 1995). Kaleej pheasant was sighted only in unlogged forest and heard once each in old logged forest and in logged forest. Kaleej was sighted on ten occasions and a call was heard once in unlogged primary forest (0.26/km). The kaleej has an overall wide distribution and survives well in a variety of disturbed and undisturbed habitats and reportedly withstands hunting pressure fairly well (Bump and Bohl 1961) . This is not borne out by the present observations, since kaleej were sighted only in unlogged forest. It is, however, not very vocal, and overall abundance may thus have been underestimated. All literature pertaining to this species cites the importance of proximity to water (Baker 1930, Ali and Ripley 1983, Johnsgard 1986). Ample rock cover and proximity to water are reported to be major requirements for nesting (Johnsgard 1986). Red jungle fowl was recorded in three habitats during the trail walks. This species was marginally more abundant in unlogged forest (0.10/km) than logged forest (0.09/km) and old logged forest (0.07/km). Red jungle fowl occurs in a wide range of habitats, and is reportedly more common in secondary forests associated with abandoned clearings, or edges of bamboo forest (Johnsgard 1986). During this survey, it was found to be marginally more abundant in unlogged forest than logged and old logged forest. This could be related to more intense hunting for pheasants in the logged areas or to their being shy of human presence. The dissimilar calling patterns of these pheasant species could have biased the observed encounter rates. In addition, the main calling period for all these species is from March to May (Johnsgard 1986). Kaul & Ahmed (1992) sighted/heard more red jungle fowl than peacock-pheasant and attributed this to their more noisy habits, and propensity for feeding at the edges of roads. During this study, I used only the existing small trails in the forest which were different from the ones used in the earlier survey (Kaul and Ahmed 1992), hence red jungle fowl were probably encountered less during this study. The peacock-pheasant was the most commonly encountered pheasant because of its frequent JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000 181 PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UN LOGGED FORESTS vocalization early in the morning. These birds remain in dense undergrowth and are great skulkers (Ali and Ripley 1983), therefore direct sightings are rare. The kaleej pheasant does not have a regular calling pattern and usually calls only when flushed. Therefore, its abundance may have been underestimated. Unlike the red jungle fowl, kaleej are said to be usually silent during the day (Ali and Ripley 1983). It is surprising that there were so few encounters with pheasants in the logged forest, old logged forest and semidisturbed forest despite the fact that all three sites had a profusion of bamboo clumps in some areas, whereas bamboo was not recorded in the vegetation plots in unlogged forest. According to Ali and Ripley ( 1 983), all the 3 pheasant species discussed here are partial to bamboo seeds. But mass flowering of bamboo is sporadic, and therefore the presence of bamboo may not be important to pheasant abundance. These birds are largely omnivores, feeding on grain, seeds, tubers, insects, small snakes and lizards. Insect abundance was not estimated for a comparison of food availability between these areas, but reduced insect abundance in logged forest has been reported (Johns 1986). Canopy cover and degree of disturbance may be more important in affecting pheasant abundance. Canopy cover, tree density and basal area were reduced in logged forest and plantation (Datta and Goyal 1997). Johns (1989) found that terrestrial birds are more severely affected by logging because of the effects of microclimatic changes on the leaf litter fauna which were entirely absent from recently logged forest. Physiological considerations (heat and water balance) may be more important in determining the movement patterns of understorey birds than local food abundance (Kan* and Freemark 1983). Habitat changes, such as destruction of understorey, affect all pheasants (Gaston 1982). The reduced canopy cover and tree density in logged forest and plantation definitely changes the microclimate in the understorey due to increased insolation. Semi-disturbed forest and old logged forest, though similar in canopy cover and tree density to unlogged forest, were subject to human disturbance in the form of occasional cane-cutters from Assam. There are also stray reports and evidence of trapping of pheasants by local tribals in this area. Katti et al. (1992) reported that hunting by the tribals is more severe in the foothill forests near villages. This, coupled with increase in non-tribal populations and road construction in and around reserve forests (logged areas) results in more disturbance. Pheasants and other large birds such as hornbills are worst affected by hunting (Katti et al. 1992). Johns (1986, 1989) states that partridges (Phasianidae) do not survive logging successfully, though the effects on pheasants are not mentioned. Wilson and Johns (1982) found that the great argus pheasant (Argusianus argus) was most abundant in unlogged primary forest, in reduced numbers in 3-5 years old logged forest, and totally absent from disturbed, recently logged forests and plantation. Therefore, reduced pheasant abundance in logged and disturbed forests and a total absence in the plantation seems to be caused by a combination of modified habitat, human presence and the consequent trapping and snaring of these terrestrial birds. There is also a possibility that the observed pattern is due to these birds being shy of human presence in logged and disturbed forests, the birds’ greater alertness because of occasional trapping by the local labour and tribals. Therefore, even though logging may not directly affect them, the construction of roads in logged areas leads to increased accessibility to local people for hunting. The movement of people and presence of labour camps during and after logging operations results in disturbance. The unlogged primary forest, on the other hand, is little disturbed by hunting or human presence, consequently birds are not shy and can be sighted 182 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000 PHEASANT ABUNDANCE IN SELECTIVELY LOGGED AND UN LOGGED FORESTS or heard at closer quarters. The greater numbers of pheasants encountered in unlogged primary forest, despite the dense vegetation and lower visibility, is indicative of the importance of such habitats to pheasants, rather than modified habitats. Acknowledgements This work was carried out during field work for a project funded by the Wildlife R EFE Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition, Oxford University Press, Bombay. * Baker, E.C.S. (1930): Game birds of India, Burma and Ceylon. Vol 3. John Bale and Son, London. *Bump, G. & W.H. Bohl (1961): Red jungle fowl and kaleej pheasants. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report, Wildlife No. 62. Datta, A. & S.P. Goyal (1997): Responses of arboreal mammals to selective logging in western Arunachal Pradesh. Draft report submitted to Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. Datta, A., P. Singh, R.M. Athreya & S. Karthikeyan ( 1 998): Birds of Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in western Arunachal Pradesh. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 38(6): 91-96. Gaston, A.J. (1982): Surveys, census, monitoring and research: their role in pheasant conservation. In: Savage, C. (Ed.) Pheasants in Asia, 1982. Proceedings of the 2nd International Pheasant Symposium, Srinagar, Kashmir, pp. 33-39. Johns, A.D. (1986): Effects of selective logging on the ecological organisation of a peninsular Malaysian rainforest avifauna. Forktail 1: 65-79. Johns, A.D. ( 1 989): Recovery of a Peninsular Malayasian ■ Institute of India and I thank the Director, WII for facilities provided. I thank the Arunachal Pradesh Forest Department, for permission to work in the field, especially Shri D.N. Singh (DFO, Pakhui WLS), Shri Oni Dai (DFO, Khellong Forest Division) and Shri Pratap Singh (DCF, Itanagar) for help and support during field work. Helpful comments on the manuscript were given by Rashid Raza and Charudutt Mishra. ENC ES rainforest avifauna following selective timber logging: the first twelve years. Forktail 4: 89-106. Johnsgard, P.A. (1986): The pheasants of the world. Oxford University Press. Karr, J.R. & K.E. Freemark ( 1 983): Habitat selection and environmental gradients: dynamics in the ‘stable’ tropics. Ecology 64: 1481-1494. Katti, M., P. Singh, N. Manjrekar, S. Mukherjee & D. Sharma (1992): An ornithological survey in eastern Arunachal Pradesh, India. Forktail 7: 75-89. Kaul, R. (1993): Pheasant surveys in Arunachal Pradesh, India. The WPA Journal XVII & XVIII, 1 992-1993. Kaul, R. & A. Ahmed ( 1 992): Pheasant studies in northeast India, Arunachal Pradesh. Unpublished report. Singh, P. (1991): Avian and mammalian evidences in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in East Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal Forest News 9(2): 1-10. Singh, P. (1994): Recent bird records from Arunachal Pradesh. Forktail JO: 65-104. Wilson, W. & A.D. Johns (1982): Diversity and abundance of selected animal species in undisturbed forest, selectively logged forest and plantations in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biol. Conserv. 24: 205-218. * Not seen in original JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 183 FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY IN THE CENTRAL HIMALAYAN HIGHLANDS' M.K. Pandit, Arun Bhaskar and Virendra Kumar* 2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Himalaya, Goriganga valley, flora, diversity, endangered species An extensive and intensive survey of the floral diversity of the Goriganga valley in the Central Himalayan ranges was carried out. About 1,081 species of flowering plants belonging to 496 genera and 1 16 families were recorded. A number of plant taxa were found endemic to the area. The valley was extremely rich in orchid species. Studies showed that a number of plant species, represented by small population sizes recorded earlier, were found no more in the valley. It was concluded that increasing biotic pressures would severely jeopardize the biological wealth of this valley if conservation management plans are not implemented. Introduction Himalaya, the youngest mountain system of the world, constitutes an important bridge between floras of northwestern and western Asia, Europe and southern peninsular India on the one hand and the eastern Malesian, northeast Asian, Sino-Japanese and northern Tibetan areas on the other. The Himalayan uplift that took place in a series of orogenies brought about a corresponding change, not only in the climatic profile along the altitudinal gradient, but also in the edaphic factors of these uplands (Kumar and Subramaniam 1985). These changes influenced and paved the way for the immigration of plant species from far off regions, east and west, their establishment in the ecosystems, and speciation and extinction during various geological ages. The trend of colonization and formation of stabilized communities followed by speciation in the Himalaya continued even in the Modern Age (Raina et al. 1978, Kumar 1983). Phyto- geographically and ecologically, it is, therefore, one of the most complex biomes in the Indian 'Accepted April, 2000 2Centre for Inter-disciplinary Studies of Mountain & Hill Environment, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Marg, New Delhi 1 1 0 02 1 . subcontinent with marked east-west and south- north transitions. It serves as a biological platform for overlapping Indo-Chinese and Middle Asiatic amphitheatres (Puri et al. 1983). The geophysical features of the Himalayan region are marked by geological instability, leading to an active process of erosion, massive moraine deposits, precariously perched glacial lakes, avalanches, mudflows, high snowfall and monsoon precipitation. Besides, the biological components, both terrestrial and aquatic, constitute an intricate ecological system of this region. The serai plant communities on the newly stabilized debris fans, in the lower reaches, and moraines in the higher valleys, hold the debris masses, which would otherwise end up in stream and river channels, thereby disrupting the ecological balance of the riverine and riparian ecosystems (Kumar et al. 1993). The keystone plant species in various ecosystems in the region are essential for maintenance of their structure and function, including prevention of soil loss and regulation of hydrological cycle (Ehrlich and Mooney 1983). The vegetation cover provides the human population with vital life support and socio-economic security. Timber, fish and medicinal herbs are primary resources for the human population living in these Himalayan highlands on a marginal economy. 184 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY Though studies on the flora of Goriganga valley have been conducted by earlier workers like Sahni and Raizada ( 1 955), Rao ( 1 959), Nair (1966), Arora and Prasad (1980), Pant and Naithani (1981), Rawat (1982), Kalakoti and Pangtey (1982), Kalakoti et al. (1983), Malhotra and Balodi ( 1 984 a,b,c,d,e), Malhotra and Balodi (1985), Malhotra etal. (1985), Seidenfaden and Arora (1982) and Balodi (1988), they have concentrated only on specific localities or taxa. A comprehensive account of the floristic aspects was not available. This study attempts to present an integrated account of the floristic composition of the valley and changes in recent years. Study Area Fig. 1 depicts the study area and location of the Goriganga valley. The valley forms the easternmost part of the Kumaon Himalaya in the vicinity of the Indo-Nepal border. The valley lies between 79° 58' 50" to 80° 29' 36” E long, and 29° 45' 3” to 30° 18' N lat. The Goriganga valley is bounded in the north by the Tibetan plateau and in the east by the Panchachuli ridge, which separates it from the adjoining Dhauliganga valley. The Nanda Devi massif lies northwest, while the Nandakot-Bankatiya ridge marks the western boundary. Kalsin Danda (ridge) marks the southern boundary. The Goriganga river originates from Milam glacier (3,600 m) and traverses a distance of 100 km before merging with River Kali at Jauljibi (600 m). The Goriganga valley, with a catchment area of 2,230 sq. km covers sub-tropical to alpine climatic zones, which coincide with the Lesser, Greater and Tethyan Himalayan geological domains. The Lesser Himalayan area, south of Munsyari also known as Goriphat, is spread from Jauljibi to Madkot and has the largest human population, with a density of 15 individuals per sq. km. This area is intensively terraced for agriculture and has a rich cultural and ethnic diversity. It enjoys a hospitable climate, numerous freshwater streams, and also harbours a rich and diverse vegetation cover and wildlife. The Greater Himalayan domain, beginning from Munsyari upstream to Rilkot, is characterised by a harsher climate, narrow valleys, deep gorges and steep slopes prone to massive landslides and avalanches. This area is thickly forested with moru oak ( Quercus floribunda), kharsu oak (Q. semeccirpifolia) and mixed broad-leaf coniferous forests. These forest types harbour a rich diversity of economically important species, like timber-yielding trees, medicinal herbs and plants of horticultural value. In the past, this inhospitable terrain had no permanent human settlements, and even today it remains more or less uninhabited. The region lying beyond the Greater Himalaya, the Tethys, is characterised by gentle relief, w'ide U-shaped valleys with huge moraine deposits along the river and stream channels having low gradient. The winters are much prolonged with minimum temperature falling to -20 °C, and a high frequency of avalanches. However, the mineral rich moraine deposits, numerous streams and brooks, and gentle gradient of the area offered habitable terrain to earlier human settlers from across the border — the Tibetan highland. They brought with them different social and cultural norms and a different ethnic stock, and occupied the territory extending all along the Tethyan belt in the Himalayan region. Material and Methods The plant collections were made during different treks and expeditions to the Milam glacier, Mandakani valley, Sera gad, Rachi gad, Goshi gad, Chhiplakot areas, and the Goriganga valley proper, over a period of two years, in different seasons. The plant specimens were identified with the help of floras and checklists from previous explorations of this area. Some specimens were compared with the type specimen JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 185 FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY LOCATION i Of ' KUMACN Nanda Devi (E)/>$ 7.434 m X Pass ▲ Peak o- River International Boundary — State Boundary District Boundary Basin Boundary Villages 5000 m 0 5 10 Km Jauljibi 600m Fig. 1 : Location map of Goriganga basin showing major tributaries and places 186 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY at the herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun. An inventory was prepared after plant collection, recording and authentication of species. Results and Discussion Taxonomic Diversity: A total of 1,081 species of flowering plants were recorded (of the more than 3,000 in Himalaya and 20,000 in India). These belong to 496 genera (out of the 2,917 in India) and 116 families (out of the 327 in India). Out of 1 1 6 families represented in the valley, 100 are dicots and the rest are monocots, the ratio of monocot to dicot species is 1:4.41 (192 monocots, 850 dicots). The predominant families and the number of genera and species represented by them in the valley are given in Table 1 . Among the angiosperm genera, each of the following were represented by 10 or more species: Potentilla (19), Saxifraga (19), Astragalus (13), Gentiana (13), Pedicularis (13), Saussurea ( 13), Sedum (13), Corydalis (11), Stellaria (11) and Rubus (10). Table 1 PREDOMINANT FAMILIES, THEIRGENERA AND SPECIES IN GORIGANGA VALLEY Family Genera Species Asteraceae 39 83 Orchidaceae 36 69 Rosaceae 19 69 Poaceae 35 58 Fabaceae 24 55 Ranunculaceae 13 50 New Records of Plant Species: During the past 20 years, many new species have been recorded from the Goriganga valley which are either new records for West Himalaya or Kumaon Himalaya. Malhotra and Balodi (1985) reported Salix lindleyana var. microphylla and Epilobium trilectorum , which are new records for India. Balodi and Malhotra (1984) for the first time recorded Ribes griffithii from West Himalaya. Anemone trullifolia , Aconitum atrox. Delphinium viscosum and Saussurea polystephoides are the new records for west Himalaya reported by Rawat ( 1 982). Similarly, there have been new records for northwest Himalaya from Goriganga valley: Crassocephalum crepedioides by Kaiakoti and Pangtey (1982), Oxalis tetraphylla by Kaiakoti et al. (1983), and Elatostemma sessilis by Malhotra and Balodi (1985). We also recorded these taxa in Goriganga valley. The most striking feature of the flora of this area is the number of new records for Kumaon Himalaya. Rawat (1982) reported a number of new species from Goriganga valley which are as follows: Aconitum atrox , Anemone elongata , Beibersteinia odora , Briza media , Chrysoplenium carnuosum , Hedinia tibetica , Potentilla fruticosa var. rigida, P. nivea var. himalaica , Polygonatum graminifolium, Sibbaldia cuneata var. micrantha and Stellaria depauperata. Arora (1980) reported a number of new species of orchids, namely Dendrobium porphyrochilum , Eria muscicola , E. reticosa , Gastrochilus acutifolius , Kingidium deliciosum , Malaxis rheedi , Oberonia caulescens , O. griffithiana, Ponerorchis nana and Thelasis longifolium. Our field studies confirm the presence of all these orchid species in various habitats of the valley. This concentration of orchid species is an unusual feature of western Himalaya, where orchids are not found with such frequency and abundance as in the eastern Himalaya. Sahni and Raizada (1955), during their expedition to Panchachuli, made new records for the Kumaon Himalaya, namely Anemone tetrasepala , Ranunculus laetus and Salix oxycarpa. Generally, intensive exploration of inhospitable areas leads to the discovery of new plant species. Some of the potential areas in Goriganga valley, which are likely to harbour new plant species are the Ralam valley, Chhiplakot range, Gwars (meadows) in the JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000 187 FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY Panchachuli and Bankatiya ranges and forests around Bogudiyar. Endemism: There are nearly 30% dicots endemic to the Himalaya (Puri et al. 1983). Some of the endemic Himalayan plant taxa which are also present in the Goriganga valley are Meconopsis aculeata, Ougeinia oojeinensis , Cortia lindleii , Nardostachys jatamansi , Aechmanthera gossypiana, Hemiphragma heterophyllum , Picrorhiza kurrooa , Falconeria himalaica, Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis , Dodecadenia grandiflora , Eria occidentalis and Flickingeria hesperis. The most interesting of these is Falconeria himalaica , a rare plant, which was recorded near Munsyari and has a very limited distribution, i.e. only in the Garhwal and Kumaon Himalaya. Monotypic Genera: Goriganga valley abounds in monotypic genera, which are as follows: Asperugo procumhens (Boraginaceae), Boeninghausinia albiflora (Rutaceae), Circaester agrestis (Circaesteraceae), Falconeria himalaica and Hemiphragma heterophyllum (Scrophulariaceae), Cortia lindleii (Apiaceae), Parochetus communis , Ougeinia oojeinense (Fagaceae) and Oxyria digyna (Chenopodiaceae). The presence of endemic species and monotypic genera indicates active processes of speciation in this region. Moreover, the majority of these species are polyploids (Kumar and Subramaniam 1985), clearly pointing out their neo-endemic nature (Lewis 1972). Epiphytic Flora: Angiospermic epiphytes occurring in the valley mostly belong to the families Orchidaceae and Asclepiadaceae. There are 42 epiphytic orchid species, which are described later in this paper. Other epiphytic flora of the valley includes Hoya lanceolata and H. longifolia. There is an abundance of epiphytic ferns too. Lycopodium annotinum , Polypodium linearis , P. flocculosum are mainly found near Bogudiyar. The richness of the epiphytic flora in the valley seems to be a result of the geophysical environment, marked by the presence of numerous streams, river channels and warm temperate conditions at lower elevations, giving rise to high humidity in which epiphytes thrive. Parasitic Flora: Parasitic flora in the valley belongs to the families Loranthaceae, Orchidaceae and Orobanchaceae. Partial parasites of family Loranthaceae are Korthalsella opuntia on pine ( Pinus roxburghiana) (at Kanar), Scurrula elata on Rhododendron arbor eum (at Rathi, Bogudiyar and Mandakani valley), Viscum album on pine and toon ( Cedrela toona ) (between Madkot and Baram), and V. articulatum (around Gandhura and Madkot). The orchids Corallorhiza trifida (a root parasite) and Gastrodia orobanchoides (a total plant parasite) were recorded from Martoii grasslands and Bhakuna forest in the Mandakani valley, respectively. Obligate parasitic herbs such as Orobanche cernua , O. epithymum (at Milam) and O. solmsii (at Burphu) on the roots of Thymus serpyllum were also recorded. Insectivorous Flora: Rao (1959) recorded a population of the insectivorous Pinguicula alpina from Martoii, but only a small patch was observed during the present survey. Similarly, Utricularia kumaonense was recorded around Saba Udiyar near Pilti gad bridge by Pant and Naithani (1981). However, this plant could not be found during our surveys in the valley, indicating the possibility of threats to its survival. Such pressures could prove fatal to a species, particularly with small population size, restricted distribution and smaller niche width (Pandit and Babu 1998). Orchid Flora: The orchids are one of the largest families of flowering plants in the world, but their distribution is restricted. The family is rich in species diversity, but the population sizes are very small. The reasons for their restricted distribution and small populations are the epiphytic habit of the majority of species and their host preference, though not host specificity. These characteristics make them highly 188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY vulnerable to destruction. The felling of even a single tree destroys many well-established orchid individuals, if not species (Kumar et al. 1993). Goriganga valley harbours a rich wealth of orchid flora. There are nearly 69 species, of which 43 (68%) are epiphytic and only a small number are terrestrial, with a few of these being lithophytes (Table 2). About 55-60% of the species are concentrated in the stretch between Balmara, Baram, Goshi gad, Sera gad and Madkot (600- 1 ,200 m). Epiphytic orchids require high relative humidity for growth and survival. Such a high concentration of orchids in this stretch of Goriganga valley is due to its high relative humidity. The various species are usually seen on pine, banj oak ( Quercus leucotrichophora), toon, mawa ( Engelhardtici spicata ) and rhododendrons. Many of these have preference for a particular tree species. The orchid laden trees chiefly occur between 800 m and 1,500 m. Most of these trees Table 2 EPIPHYTIC ORCHIDSPECIESANDTHEIR LOCATIONS IN GORIGANGA VALLEY Plant species Area Acampe rigida Goshi gad Aerides multiflorum Kanar Bulbophyllum affine Rachi gad fan B. careyamun Rachi gad fan B. cylindraceum Rachi gad fan B. polyrhizum Daphia Dhura B. replans var. acuta Gandhura West B. secundum Gandhura West B. cf. yokunense Daphia Dhura Coelogyne cristata Daphia Dhura C. fimbriata Daphia Dhura C. ovalis Goshi gad C. stricta Seraghat Cymbidium hookerianum Daphia Dhura Dendrobium amoenum Goshi gad D. denudans Seraghat D. herbaceum Goshi gad D. porphyrochilum Daphia Dhura D. primulinum Daphia Dhura Erin excavata Gandhura E.fava Madkot E. muscicola Kanar E. occidentalis Daphia Dhura colonise boulder deposited fans of various channels draining into Goriganga mainly on its left bank. The right bank offers little scope for such trees and orchids to grow, because of steep, exposed slopes where humidity is very low. The one exception to this is Gandhura Reserve Forest block between Balmara and Bangapani, on the right bank of Goriganga, where the trees support many orchid species. The left bank also has highly humid, suitable habitats for orchids to colonise trees. Notable niches of this 'orchid-tree association’ are located mainly in the Daphia Dhura reserve forest block and catchments of Goshi gad, Rachi gad and Sera gad. These niches are narrow, with areas varying from 0.5 to 1.0 sq. km. Such microhabitat and niche specificity makes orchid species vulnerable to extinction in the event of small perturbations in their habitat (Reid and Miller 1989). Most of the orchid species represented in the valley have phyto-geographical links with those of northeast Himalayan and Sino- Himalayan region. Seidenfaden and Arora ( 1982) have pointed out that the orchid flora of Goriganga valley is being depleted rapidly by the destruction of the natural habitat on an exponential scale. This means a total extinction of epiphytic orchid species with an irretrievable loss of genetic diversity. Ever-increasing biotic pressure by deforestation has added to this malady. Seidenfaden and Arora (1982) have strongly recommended this area for the establishment of an orchid sanctuary. Considering the fact that such orchid habitats are few and far between in the northwest Himalaya, this recommendation needs to be urgently considered and implemented. Terrestrial orchids grow in the valley in areas with high relative humidity (70-85%). Moist, thick oak-rhododendron leaf litter, and the alpine meadows of Martoli and Ralam, where there is adequate water supply, are the natural habitats of terrestrial orchid species. These orchids form the ground vegetation in thick JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2). AUG. 2000 189 FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY forests of oak (morn, kharsu and banj) and burans (. Rhododendron arboreum ), and on rocks covered with thick layers of moss. Many orchid species were found between Raragari and Bogudiyar, and many more in the Madkani Reserve Forests and meadows of Panchachuli. During 1 980s, ten new orchid species were reported from this area (Arora 1980), which is indicative of its unexplored biological diversity. In some localities, under intense biotic pressure, it is likely that many species have already become extinct which perhaps were never recorded (Kumar et al. 1993). There is also every possibility that biological speciation might be arrested in the changed environment due to increasing biotic pressures. Due to all these negative impacts, a number of orchid species have already become rare (17% of the total species) and have been placed in the Red data book (Nayar and Sastry 1987, 1988, 1990). Orchids are important not only from the botanical point of view but also for their high medicinal and ornamental value. Some, like Dactylorhiza hatagirea, are of great medicinal value (Kumar 1986, Chopra et al. 1992). Endangered Flora: Topographical varia- tion and diverse microclimatic conditions have led to the formation of many specialised ecological niches and habitats in the Himalayan highlands (Pandit and Babu 1998). Such niches are inhabited by a number of orchid species in the Goriganga valley. Many new species have been recorded in the valley since 1 950 by various workers, described earlier, but these species are represented by small populations in a particular habitat. Many of these taxa are endemic to this region, a common feature of the Himalaya (Kumar 1968). Deforestation at lower limits, over-grazing and indiscriminate collection of medicinal plants in the higher reaches has led to irretrievable loss in the genetic diversity of the Himalaya (Pandit and Babu 1998). Our observations based on field surveys and earlier studies of Arora (1980), Pant and Naithani (1981) and Malhotra and Balodi (1984 a,b,c,d,e), show that several species are rarely seen in the valley, though these were well represented earlier. Table 3 shows some of the species with an endangered status and restricted distribution in the Goriganga valley. Table 3 PLANT SPECIES OF RESTRICTED/RARE OCCURRENCE IN GORIGANGA VALLEY Botanical Name Place restricted to Aconitum deinorrhizum Saba Udiyar, 4,000 m Aconitum heterophyllum Milam, 3,600 m Arctium lappa Ralam, 3,000 m Briza media Ralam, 3,400 m Cassia leschenaultiana Bui-Ralam, 1 ,500 m Christolea himalayensis Ralam glacier, 4,300 m; Untadhura 4,500 m Codonopsis ovata Ralam, 3,000 m Cornus macrophyllus On way to Bui, 1 ,500 m Cymbidium hoo/cerianum Daphia Dhura, 1 ,600 m Cypripedium himalaicum Bhujani gad, 3,000 m Elsholtzia ciliata Ralam, 2,000 m Eulophia ucbii Gargia, 900 m Falconeria himalaica Panchachuli, 3,800 m; Munsyari, 2,700 m Gentiana dentosa Ralam, 4,000 m Goodyera fusca Bazarganga- Ralam, 4,000 m Hypericum monanthemum Ralam, 4,000 m Inula grandiflora Ralam, 4,000 m Meconopsis aculeata Ralam, 3,200 m Nomocharis nana Ralam, 3,800 m Oberonia wightiana Daphia Dhura, 2,000 m Orchis habenarioides Ralam, 3,500 m Podophyllum hexandrum Ralam, 3,200 m Rheum moorcroftiana Chhirthi, 3,000 m Saussurea bracteosa Ralam, 3,600 m Saxifraga flagellaria On way to Bui, 1 ,500 m Sedum heterodontum Ralam, 2,900 m S. hookeri Ralam, 4,000 m Smithia ciliata Bui -Ralam, 1,500 m Utricularia kumaonense Pilti bridge-Saba Udiyar, 3,000 m Vigna capensis Bui-Ralam, 1,800 m The valley also provides specific habitats to many plant taxa, which are included in the list of ‘Threatened Plants of India’ by Jain and Sastry (1980). These endangered or threatened species are: Aconitum deinorrhizum , A. heterophyllum , Ajuga brachystemma , Carex atrata , Cerastium, thorns onii , Corallorhiza 190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORJGANGA VALLEY trifida, Cypripedium cordigerum , C. himalaicum , C. insigne, Dactylorhiza hatagirea. Ephedra gerardiana, Eulophia dabia , Gastrodia orobanchoides , Gentiana kurroo , Herminium duthiei, Hoya longifolia, Kobresia duthiei , Lilium polyphyllum, Nardostachys grandiflora , Orchis habenarioides , Podophyllum hexandrum, Polygonatum gramini folium, P. verticillatum. Rheum australe and L/o/a kunawarensis. However, some of these plant species are represented by reasonably good population sizes, albeit in areas less frequented by humans and where biotic disturbances are few. The local villagers have been using these species Refer Arora, C.M. (1980): New records of some orchids from northwest Himalaya-VI. Indian J. For. 3: 78-79. Arora, C.M. & R. Prasad (1980): New or little known plants from Kur.iaon Himalaya-II. Indian J. For. 3: 372-373. Balodi, B. (1988): Introductory note on the ethnobotany ofGori valley. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 12: 453-455. Balodi, B. & C.L. Malhotra ( 1 984): Ribes gnffithii Hook, f. — A new record for western Himalaya. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 5: 985. Chopra, R.N., S.L. Nayar& I.C. Chopra (1992): Glossary of Indian medicinal plants. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi. Ehrlich, R.H. & H.A. Mooney (1983): Extinction, substitution and ecosystem services. BioScience. 33: 248-254. Jain, S.K. & A.R.K. Sastry (1980): Threatened plants of India. A State-of-the-Art report. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. Pp. 48 Kalakoti, B.S. & Y.P.S. Pangtey (1982): Crassocephalum crepidiodes (Benth.) S. Moore — A new record forKumaon Himalaya. Indian J. For. 5: 324. Kalakoti, B.S., Y.P.S. Pangtey & G.S. Rawat (1983): Oxalis tetraphylla Cav. — A new record for North- eastern Himalaya. Indian J. For. 6: 168. Kumar, V. (1968): Cytogenetic studies on the Trans- Himalayan genera of Tribe-Polygonatae. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Delhi, Delhi. Kumar, V. (1983): Pleistocene glaciation and evolutionary divergence in Sino-Himalayan rhododendrons. Proc. Inti. Congr. Genetics. New Delhi. Abst. No. 787. Kumar, V. ( 1 986): Uttarakhand biosphere reserve. M&B sustainably over centuries. At places some critically endangered species have been brought under cultivation. One important example is that of Dactylorhiza hatagirea , now cultivated by the villagers of Milam (3,380 m). Such local efforts need to be made for other species, and may prove to be the best insurance against their extinction. Acknowledgements We thank the National Hydro-electric Power Corporation Ltd., New Delhi, for assistance and hospitality during field surveys, and Dr. Ajay Jain for his help. E N C E S Programme, Dept, of Environment, Govt, of India. Kumar, V. & B. Subramaniam (1985): Chromosome atlas of flowering plants of the Indian subcontinent. Voi. 1. Dicotyledons. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Kumar, V., A. Bhaskar. M.K. Pandit & Y. Kumar (1993): Environmental sensitivity of Himalayan river basins. 2. Process and patterns of geophysical, biological and socio-economic environment in natural and disturbed ecosystems of Goriganga basin. CISMHE, University of Delhi, New Delhi. Lewis, H. (1972): The origin of endemics in the California flora. In: Taxonomy, Phyto-geography and Evolution (ed.) D. H. Valentine. Acad. Press, N.Y. Pp. 179-189. Malhotra, C.L. & B. Balodi (1984a): A new species of Eulophia R.Br. (Orchidaceae) from Gori valley. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 26: 92-94. Malhotra, C.L. & B. Balodi (1984b): A new species of Corallorhiza Gangebin from Gori valley. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 26: 108-109. Malhotra, C.L. & B. Balodi (1984c): A new variety of Bulbophyllum reptans (Lindl.) Lindl. from Gori valley. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 26: 110-111. Malhotra, C.L. & B. Balodi (1984d): Salix lindleyana Wall, ex Anderss. var. microphylla Anderss. — A new record for India. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 26: 132. Malhotra, C.L. & B. Balodi ( 1 984e): Three new records of Epilobium species from Kumaon. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 26: 472-473. Malhotra, C.L. & B. Balodi (1985): Two new plant records for Northwestern Himalaya./ Econ. Tax. Bot. 7: 585-587. Malhotra, C.L., C.M. Arora & B. Balodi (1985): New JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 191 FLORAL DIVERSITY OF GORIGANGA VALLEY or little known plants from Kumaon. Indian J. For. 8: 72-73. Najr, N.C. (1966): Two interesting orchids from northwest Himalaya. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63: 461-462. Nayar, MLP. & A.R.K. Sastry (1987): Red data book of Indian plants. Vol. 1. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 367. Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1988): Red data book of Indian plants. Vol. 2. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 268. Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1990): Red data book of Indian plants. Vol. 3. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 271. Pandit, M.K. & C.R. Babu (1998): Biology and conservation of Coptis teeta Wall. — an endemic and endangered medicinal herb of Eastern Himalaya. Environ. Conserv. 25: 262-272. Pant, P.C. & B.D. Naithani (1981): Plant exploration in Ralam valley, Kumaon Himalayas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 113-124. Puri, G.S., V.M. Meher-Homji, R.K. Gupta & S. Puri (1983): Forest ecology. Vol. I. Phytogeography and forest conservation. 2nd Edn. Oxford & IBH Publ. Co., New Delhi, pp 543. Rao, T.A. (1959): Report on a botanical tour to Milam glacier. Bull . Bot. Surv. Ind. I: 97-120. Raina, B.N., B.M. Hukku & R.V.C. Rao (1978): Geological features of the Himalayan region, with special reference to their impact on environmental appreciation and environmental management. Natl. Seminar on Resources Development and Environment in the Himalayan Region. Department of Science & Technology, New Delhi, India, pp 1-19. Rawat, G.S. (1982): Studies on high altitude flowering plants of Kumaon Himalayas. Ph. D. Thesis. Kumaon University, Nainital, India. Reid, W. V. &K.R. Miller (1989): Keeping options alive: the scientific basis for conserving biodiversity. World Resources Institute. Washington, DC, USA, pp 28. Sahni,K.C. & M.B. Raizada (1955): Observations on the vegetation of Panch Chulhi. Indian For. 81: 300- 317. Seidenfaden, G. & C.M. Arora (1982): An enumeration of the orchids of north-western Himalaya. Nord. J. Bot. 2: 7-27. ■ no 192 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000 HABITAT ASSOCIATIONS OF BUTTERFLIES IN THE PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA, INDIA1 V.V. SUDHEENDRAKUMAR, C.F. BlNOY, P. V. SURESH AND GEORGE MATHEW2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Lepidoptera, diversity, habitats, forest, Kerala, Parambikulam Sanctuary Habitat associations of 124 butterfly species were determined by analysing species records from five habitat types in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. The butterflies recorded belonged to 75 genera and 9 families. The families Nymphalidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae and Satyridae were represented by the maximum number of species. Thirty-three species were present altogether in all the habitat types in the sanctuary. Fifteen species were found to be habitat specific, namely Papilio buddha, Pathysa antiphates , Pachliopta pandiyana , Pantoporia ranga , Pareronia Valeria hippia , Zipoetis saitis, Oriens concinna , Virachola perse ghela , Zesius chrysomallus in the evergreen forests and Jxias marianne , 1. pyrene , Colot is etrida , C. danae , C. fausta , Ypthima ceylonica ceylonica in the dry deciduous forests. Tropical wet evergreen forests possessed the greatest butterfly diversity in Parambikulam, followed by semi-evergreen and moist deciduous habitats. Significant reduction in butterfly diversity was observed in both dry deciduous habitats and teak plantations. Out of the butterflies recorded, 1 0 species are narrow endemic to Western Ghats and 1 8 species have protected status. Introduction Among invertebrates, butterflies are suitable for ecological studies, as the taxonomy, geographic distribution and status of many species are relatively well known. These insects, which are mostly phytophagous, serve as primary herbivores in the food chain and are also useful as pollinators of many angiosperms. As many butterflies are good bio-indicators of the environment, they can be used to identify ecologically important landscapes for conserva- tion purposes. Habitat is the single most important requisite for the proliferation and conservation of a butterfly species (Gilbert and Singer 1975, New 1990-92). All species prefer particular habitats, closely related to their life history: breeding behaviour, larval and adult food resources, etc. In many tropical countries, the rapid destruction of forest wealth has severely affected these butterfly habitats, which are slowly ‘Accepted August, 1 999 2Division of Entomology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, Trichur, Kerala, India. changing into hostile environs (Wells et al. 1983). The process has diverse ecological consequences. Many species, which were once common, have become rare. This in turn adversely affects the diversity and abundance of plant species dependent upon them. The identification of important landscapes and their conservation is, therefore, very important. The butterfly fauna of India is quite well known (Evans 1932, Talbot 1939, 1947, Wynter-Blyth 1957, Larsen 1987, 1988). However, very few studies were conducted in the Western Ghats of Kerala (Fergusson 1891, Fraser 1930, Mathew and Rahmathulla 1993, Palot et al. 1997). An attempt is made here to discuss the habitat preferences of butterflies in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, an important tropical forest location in Kerala. Study Area Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Fig. 1), a part of the Western Ghats, is situated in the Palghat district, Kerala (76° 35' E and 76° 50' E and between 10° 20' N and 10° 26' N). It opens up as a wide valley between the Nelliyampathy JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 193 HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES ranges in the north and Anaimalais in the south. The Sanctuary has a total area of 270 sq. km and a mean elevation of 600 m above msl. The vegetation is highly complex, a combination of Malabar and Deccan elements (Sebastine and Ramamurthy 1966). Different natural habitats include 1 ) the west coast tropical evergreen forest, 2) west coast semi-evergreen forest, 3) south Indian moist deciduous forest, and 4) south Indian dry deciduous forest. The man-made habitats include plantations of teak and eucalyptus covering 90 sq. km and 3 sq. km respectively, and small patches of bamboo and reeds. About 28 sq. km of the Sanctuary are occupied by the reservoir. The microhabitats in the Sanctuary include marshy fields or vayals and banks of rivers and streams. Material and Methods As part of a study on the diversity of a selected group of insects during 1995-97, observations were made by laying belt transects in the Karienshola (evergreen forests), Ammakundu (moist deciduous forests), Thekkady-Keerappady (dry deciduous forests) and Thunacadavu (teak plantations) areas from June 1996 to May 1997. These sites were chosen as representatives of the habitat types in the study area. Each transect was covered twice in a month, between 1000 hrs and 1400 hrs, and observations including the identity of the butterflies encountered were recorded. Sample specimens were collected only if they were needed for identification. Occasional observations were made in other parts of the Sanctuary like Poopara, Orukombankutty, Kuriarkutty, Velayudhankayi, Seechali and Thellikkal. The identification was done with the help of butterfly collections in the Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, the National Collections at the Zoological Survey of India and the Pusa Collections, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, and with reference to Wynter-Blyth (1957) and D’Abrera (1982, 1985, 1986). Based on their occurrence in different habitats, the butterflies were categorised as follows: 1 . Common (C) - Present in 4 or more habitats 2. Uncommon (UC) - Present in 2-3 habitats 3. Rare (R) - Present in 1 habitat only Results Butterflies of 124 species, belonging to 75 genera and 9 families were collected and identified. A list of species with their habitat associations is given in Table 1. Most of the butterflies collected belonged to Nymphalidae (28 species), Piendae (22 species), Lycaenidae (20 species), Satyridae (16 species) and Papilionidae (15 species). Butterfly associations in different habitats in the study area are discussed below. Tropical evergreen forests: In Parambi- kulam, such forests are seen in Karianshola, Pulikkal, Karappara and Orukomban areas. Small patches of evergreen forests also occur at Kanmala- gopuram and Shettiwaramalai. Butterflies like Papilio buddha , P. pans, Pathysa antiphates. Idea malabarica malabarica , Vindula erota saloma , Parthenos sylvia virens etc., are seen in the forest canopies of this habitat. The understorey is occupied mostly by shade loving species that are excellent mimics of their surroundings like Lethe rohria neelgheriensis, Ypthima spp. and Melanitis spp. Species like Cethosia nietneri mahratta, Cupha erymanthis maja , Catopsilia spp., Papilio helenus , Tagiades litigiosa and Celaenorrhinus ambareesa are observed in forest clearings formed as a result of tree fulls. Semi-evergreen forests: Semi-evergreen forests appear where evergreen forests merge into moist deciduous forests. The vegetation is a combination of both evergreen and moist deciduous elements. Butterflies present here are common to both evergreen and moist deciduous forests. Species like Papilio helenus , Char axes 194 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000 HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES Table 1 DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES IN VARIOUS HABITATS IN THE STUDY AREA Table 1 (contd.) DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES IN VARIOUS HABITATS IN THE STUDY AREA Family /Species Habitats Family / Species Habitats PAPILIONIDAE EVG SEV MDF DDF PLN EVG SEV MDF DDF PLN Graphium sarpedon J. iphita pluvialis * * * * * teredon Felder * * * * * Fruhstorfer G. agamemnon Linnaeus * * * * * Kaniska canace viridis G. do son eleius Evans * * * Fruhstorfer * * Moduza procris Cramer * * * * Pachliopta aristolochiae Neptis hylas varmona Linnaeus * * * * + Moore * * * * * P. hector Linnaeus * * * * * N. jumbah jumbah Moore * * * * P. pandiyana Moore * Pantoporia hordonia Stoll * * * Papilio polytes thesus P. ranga (Moore) S Cramer * * * * * Parthenos sylvia virens P. demoleus Linnaeus * * * * * Moore * * P. paris tamilana Moore * * * Phalanta phalanta Drury * * * P. buddha Westwood * Tanaecia lepidea miyana P. helenus Linnaeus * * * * Fruhstorfer * * * P. polymnestor parinda Vanessa cardui Linnaeus * * * Moore * * * * * Vindula erota saloma P. dravidarum Swinhoe * * * * Wood-Mason * * AMATHUSIIDAE Pathysa antiphates Discophora lepida lepida (Fabricius) *S Moore * * Troides minos Cramer * * * *S * SATYRIDAE NYMPHALIDAE Lethe rohria neelgheriensis Cethosia nietneri mahratta Guerin * * * * Felder * * * L. europa Fabricius * * Charaxes bemardus imna Melanitis leda leda Drury * * * * Butler * * M. phedima varaha Moore * * * * Cirrochroa thais thais Mycalesis anaxias anaxias Fabricius * * * Hewitson * * * Cupha erymanthis maja M. igilia Fruhstorfer * * * Fruhstorfer * * * M. patnia junonia Butler * * * Ariadne ariadne indica M. perseus Fabricius * * * Moore * * * * * M. mineus polydecta A. merione merione Cramer * * * * Cramer * * * * * M. vis ala Moore * * * Polyura athamas athamas Orsotriaena medus Drurv * * * * mandat a Moore * * * Euthalia lubentina arasada Ypthima ceylonica ceylonica Fruhstorfer * * * Hewitson * E. aconthea meridionalis Y. baldus madras a Evans * * * * * Fruhstorfer * * * Y philomela Linnaeus * * * Hypolimnas bolina Y. huebneri Kirby * * * * * Linnaeus * * * * Zipoetis saitis Hewitson * H. misippus Linnaeus * * * * ACRAEIDAE Junonia orithya swinhoei Acraea terpsicore Linnaeus* * * *S Butler * * * * DAN AIDA E J. lemonias Linnaeus * * * * * Danaus genutia genutia J. hierta Fabricius * * * * * Cramer * * * * * J. almana Linnaeus * * * * D. chrysippus chrysippus J. atlites Linnaeus * * * * Linnaeus * * * * * JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 195 HABIT A TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES Table 1 (contd.) DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES IN VARIOUS HABITATS IN THE STUDY AREA Table 1 (contd.) DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLIES IN VARIOUS HABITATS IN THE STUDY AREA Family /Species Habitats Family /Species Habitats EVG SEV MDF DDF PLN EVG SEV MDF DDF PLN Euploea core core Cramer * * * * * Virachola perse ghela Idea malabarica (Fruhstorfer) S malabarica Moore * * Discolampa ethion Parantica aglea aglea vavasanus Fruhstorfer * * * * Cramer * * * * * Euchrysops cnejus cnejus P. nilgiriensis Moore * * * Fabricius * * * * Tirumala limniace Jamides alecto (Felder) * * * * leopardus Butler * * * * J. celeno (Cramer) * * * * * PIERIDAE J. bochus bochus Cramer * * Appias libythea libythea Loxura alymnus Cramer * * * Fabricius * * * * * Neopithecops zalmora A. lyncida latifascia Moore * * * * * dharma Moore * * A. albinadarada Felder * * Spindasis vulcanus A . indr a shiva S winhoe * * * vulcanus Fabricius * * * Anapheis aurota S. schistacea schistacea Fabricius * * * * Moore * * * Catopsilia pomona Talicada nyseus nyseus pomona Fabricius * * * * * Guerin * * C. pyranthe Linnaeus * * ★ * * Udara akasa Horsfield * * * Cepora nerissa phryne Zesius chrysomallus Fabricius * * * * Hubner *S C. nadina remba Moore * * Zizina otis decreta Butler * * * * Colotis fausta (Olivier) * HESPERIIDAE C. etrida Boisduval * Badamia exclamationis C. danae Fabricius * Fabricius * * * Delias eucharis Drury * * * * * Celaenorrhinus leucocera Eurema laeta laeta Kollar * * Boisduval * * * * * C. ambareesa Moore * * * * E. hecabe Linnaeus * * * * * Hasora chromus chromus E. blanda Boisduval * * * * * Cramer * * * E. brigitta rubella Wallace * * * * Iambrix salsala luteipennis Hebomoia glaucippe Plotz * * * australis Butler * * * * * Oriens concinna El. * Ixias pyrene sesia Linnaeus * Odontoptilum angulata /. marianne Cramer * Felder * * * Lepiosia nina nina Potanthus pava pava Fabricius * * Fruhstorfer * * * Pareronia Valeria hippia Pelopidas subochracea Fabricius *S subochracea Moore * * LYCAEMDAE Spialia galba Fabricius * * * Caleta caleta Hewitson * * * * Tagiades litigiosa Castalius rosimon Moschler * * * * (Fabricius) * * * * * Taractrocera ceramas Celastrina lavendularis * * * ceramas Hewitson * * * Moore Telicota ancilla bambusae C her it r a freja (Fabricius) * * * Moore * * * * Chilades pandava Abbreviations: EVG - Evergreen; SEV - Semi-evergreen; pandava Hors field * * * MDF - Moist Deciduous Forest; DDF - Dry Deciduous Forest; Curelis dentata dentata PLN - Teak Plantation; S - : Single observation during the entire Moore * * * study period 196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 197 1. Thunacadavu; 2. Sungam; 3. Thellickal; 4. Karianshola; 5. Thekkadi; 6. Elathodu; 7. Kuriarkutty; 8. Orukombankutty; 9. Poopara; 10. Karimalagopuram; 1 1. Parambikulam; 12. Muduva colony; 13. Vengolimala; 14. Pillakkal; 15. Seechalipallam; 16. Keerappadi; 17. Ponnamudi; 18. Kottayali; 19. Muthuvarachal; 20 Puliyalapara; 21 . Anappady; 22 Vengoli; 23. Veyakkadamudi; 24 Padippara; 25 Thoothampara. HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES bernardus imna, Cirrochroa thais thais, Tanaecia lepidea miyana, Polyura athamas athamas , Phalanta phalanta , Hypolimnas spp., Neptis spp. and Junonia spp. are commonly found here. Besides a few species of Papilio paris tamilana , Vindula erota saloma and Parthenos sylvia virens are also occasionally sighted. The understorey species are more or less same as in the evergreen forest habitat. Moist deciduous forests: In the Sanctuary, such forests cover 60 sq. km area. They are mostly encountered along the ridges and lower slopes. Several species of butterflies which are generally common in the study area like Neptis hylas varmona , Ariadne ariadne indica, Papilio demoleus , Euploea core core , Tirumala limniace leopardus , Junonia spp., Pachliopta spp. etc are encountered in this habitat. Species like Charaxes bernardus imna , Polyura athamas athamas , Appias lyncida latifascia, and Tanaecia lepidea miyana are occasionally sighted here during June-July. The forest understorey species showed remarkable seasonal variation in this habitat. Species like Eurema hecabe, E. blanda, Ypthima baldus madrasa and Y. huebneri are seen throughout the year. During June-July species like Melanitis leda leda, M. phedima varaha, Mycalesis igilia , /. patnia junonia and M. perseus can also be sighted. Dry deciduous forests: This type of forest is seen in the Thekkady-Keerappady region, and constitutes only 15 sq. km. The climate is extremely dry with very low rainfall. The forests are mainly thorny bush and scrub jungles. These forests are seen only in a small patch, and the butterfly fauna here is unique and varied. Canopy species include Danaus chrysippus, Hebomoia glaucippe australis and Cepora nerissa phryne , along with Catopsilia spp., Junonia spp. and Appias spp. A single specimen of Troides minos was also sighted in January. This habitat harbours the most distinctive understorey fauna in the Sanctuary. Species like Ixias marianne, /. pyrene sesia, Colotis fausta , C. danae , C. etrida and Ypthima ceylonica ceylonica are confined to this habitat. Species like Leptosia nina nina , Ypthima baldus madrasa , Y. huebneri and Eurema spp. are also common. Teak plantations: The teak plantations here are in a state of reversion. Deciduous species like Cassia fistula , Cordia dichotoma , Bute a monosperma , Grewia tiliaefolia and Randia spp. appear, intermingled with teak trees. The butterfly community is a mosaic, with species from moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forests dominating. Species like Neptis jumb ah jumbah , Vindula erota saloma , Papilio helenus , Tanaecia lepidea were recorded during the wet months. Understorey fauna also shows similar affinity to moist deciduous forests, with species like Melanitis leda leda , Mycalesis mineus polydecta, Ypthima spp. and Eurema spp. Vayals or marshes: Butterflies which prefer bright sunlight and open areas inhabit this habitat. Danaid butterflies like Timmala limniace leopardus , T. septentrionis dravidarum , Parantica aglea aglea, P. nilgiriensis and Nymphalids like Junonia atlites , J. iphita pluvialis, Euploea core core and Pierids like Eurema spp. and Appias spp. are common. Aggregations of mud puddling butterflies of the species Appias indra shiva, A. libythea libythea, Cepora nadina remba , Graphium sarpedon teredon and J amides spp. are characteristic of vayals. Small scale population build-up of Tirumala limniace leopardus , T. septentrionis dravidarum , Parantica aglea aglea, Danaus chrysippus, D. genutia genutia and Euploea core core were also seen in summer. Banks of rivers and streams: Two major river valleys, the Parambikulam and the Sholayar are present in the Sanctuary. These two rivers converge at Orukombankutty and flow into the main Chalakkudy river. Species like Kaniska canace viridis, Graphium sarpedon teredon, Caleta caleta, Castalius rosimon, Discolampa ethion vavasanus and Jamides spp. were recorded 198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES from the banks of these rivers and streams. Protected and endemic butterflies: Eighteen species recorded in this study come under the protected category as per the Indian Wildlife Act, 1972 (Table 2). Among them, the Lycaenid CastaJius rosimon rosimon , the Nymphalid Hypolimnas misippus , and the Papilionid Pachliopta hector come under Schedule I of the Act. The rare species include the Satyrid Mycalesis igilia , the Hesperid Odontoptilum angulata, the Danaids Parantica nilgiriensis and Idea malabarica malabarica. The Papilionid Papilio dravidarum and the Lycaenid Zesius chrysomallus are considered very rare. Out of the 23 species, which are endemic to different biogeographic regions, 10 species are narrow endemics of Western Ghats and another 10 are endemic to south India and Sri Lanka, while the remaining 3 are endemic to Sri Lanka and the Indian subcontinent. Discussion The butterflies recorded from Parambikulam represent all the major families, with Nymphalidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae, and Satyridae and Papilionidae dominating, followed by Hesperidae and Danaidae. Acraeidae and Amathusiidae are represented by only one species each. Altogether, 124 butterflies were collected and their habitat preferences recorded. Of them, 10 species are narrow endemic to Western Ghats. Eighteen species have protected status as per the Indian Wildlife Act, 1972 (Anon., 1990). Some interesting and rare species such as Discophora lepida, Pathysa antiphates , Papilio buddha , Pantoporia ranga, Pareronia Valeria hippia and Charaxes bernardus imna were recorded. The only representative of Acraeidae in south India, Acraea terpiscore has also been recorded from the Parambikulam forests. With regard to the distribution, evergreen forest was found to be the most species-rich habitat (117 species). This was followed by semi- evergreen forests (108 species) and moist deciduous forests (95 species). Teak plantations were found to be inhabited by 57 species, which means that there is substantial reduction in butterfly diversity in this altered environment. Dry deciduous forest habitat, which covers only 5.26% of the sanctuary area, harbours the least number (41 species). Parambikulam contains a number of different habitats and climate zones, as diverse in form and structure as wet evergreen forests and dry deciduous forests, which may account for the high species richness for butterflies. The number of species collected from Parambikulam ( 1 24) is higher than that from Silent Valley ( 1 00) (Mathew and Rahmathuila, 1993) and Periyar Tiger Reserve (119) (Palot et al ., 1997). Endemism in the fauna is also higher in Parambikulam (23 species) than in Silent Valley (13 species) and Periyar (19 species). Among the butterflies recorded, 60 species are considered common in the sanctuary. These include 33 species observed in all the habitats studied, and 27 species present only in the four habitats. 49 species are considered uncommon as their distribution is limited to 2 or 3 habitats. The distribution of 15 species restricted to a particular habitat are considered rare, which include 9 species observed exclusively in evergreen forests viz., Papilio buddha , Pathysa antiphates , Pachliopta pandiyana , Pantoporia ranga , Pareronia Valeria , Zipoetis saitis , Oriens concinna, Virachola perse and Zesius chysomallus . Six species viz., Ixias marianne , /. pyrene \ Colot is etrida, C. fausta , Ypthima ceylonica are observed exclusively in the dry deciduous habitat. Most of the butterflies observed in the vayals and the banks of rivers and streams are common species. Significant variation was observed in habitat preference between the butterflies in the forest understorey and forest canopy. Forest understorey species like Lethe rohria, Ypthima ceylonica , Ixias pyrene , Colotis fausta showed JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 199 HABITA TASSOCIA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES Table 2 LIST OF RARE AND ENDEMIC BUTTERFLIES RECORDED FROM PARAMBIKULAM FAMILY/SPECIES STATUS ENDEMISM Papilionidae Troides minos Cramer Western Ghats Pachliopta hector Linnaeus Protected, Schedule I South India & Sri Lanka P. pandiyana Moore Western Ghats Papilio buddha Westwood Protected, Schedule II Western Ghats P. dravidarum Wood-Mason Very rare Western Ghats P. polymnestor parinda Moore Peninsular India & Sri Lanka Pteridae Appias libythea libythea Fabricius Protected, Schedule IV Appias lyncida latifascia Moore Protected, Schedule 11 A. albinadarada Felder Protected, Schedule 11 Western Ghats A. indra shiva Swinhoe Protected, Schedule II Cepora nadina rernba Moore Wettest rainforests Delias eucharis Drury South India & Sri Lanka Nymphalidae Cirrochroa thais thais Fabricius Only in wettest rainforests South India & Sri Lanka Cethosia nietneri mahratta Felder Only in wettest rainforests South India & Sri Lanka Euthalia lubentina (Cramer) Protected, Schedule IV Hypolimnas misippus Linnaeus Protected, Schedule I Neptis jumbah jumbah Moore Protected, Schedule I Part he nos sylvia Moore Protected, Schedule II Tanaecia lepidea miyana Fruhstorfer Protected, Schedule II Pantoporia ranga Moore Protected, Schedule II Amathusiidae Discophora lepida lepida Moore Protected, Schedule 11 South India & Sri Lanka Satyridae Mycalesis anaxias anoxias Hewitson Protected, Schedule II M. igilia Fruhstorfer Rare Western Ghats M. patnia junonia Butler South India & Sri Lanka Ypthima ceylonica ceylonica Hewitson South India & Sri Lanka Zipoetis saitis Hewitson Protected, Schedule II Western Ghats Acraeidae Acraea terpsicore Linnaeus Sri Lanka & Indian Subcontinent Danaidae Parantica nilgiriensis Moore Rare Western Ghats Idea malabarica malabarica Moore Rare Western Ghats Lycacnidae Caslalius rosimon rosimcn Fabricius Protected, Schedule I Euchrysops cnejus cnejus Fabricius Protected, Schedule II Sri Lanka & Indian Subcontinent Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus Fabricius S. schistacea schistacea Moore South India & Sri Lanka Udara akasa Horsfield Sri Lanka & Sri Lanka Zesius chrysomallus Hubner Very rare Sri Lanka & Indian Subcontinent Hesperidae Odontoptilum angulata (Feld.) Rare Western Ghats Oriens concinna Elwes Protected, Schedule IV 200 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000 HA BIT A TASSOCJA TIONS OF BUTTERFLIES remarkable habitat specificity compared to forest conopy species like Cirrochroa thais, Papilio demoleus, Delias eucharis, and Hebomoia glaucippe . This may be the reason why canopy butterflies (barring a few species) are common in the Sanctuary. The habitat association of butterflies discussed here is based on the observed distribution in various habitats. One of the reasons for a species’ association with a particular habitat could be the presence of its host plants. For example, the papilionid Pachliopta pandiyana recorded from the evergreen forest habitat can survive only on the habitat-specific evergreen shrub, Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Hou (Aristolochiaceae). Similar ecological data for other butterfly species could help to interpret their habitat associations precisely. The presence of a rich butterfly fauna in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary is indicative of the diverse habitats in the Sanctuary, Refer Anonymous (1 990): The Indian Wildlife Act (Protection), 1972. Nataraj Publishers, Dehra Dun, pp. 86. D’abrera, B. ( 1 982, 1 985, 1 986): Butterflies of the Oriental Region. Parts I, II & III, Hill House, Australia. Evans, W.H. ( 1 932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 464 pp. Fergusson, H.S. (1891): A list of the butterflies of Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 6: 438-448. Fraser, F.C. ( 1 930): A note on some Malabar Lepidoptera. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 260-261. Gilbert, L.E. & M.C. Singer (1975): Butterfly ecology. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 6: 365-397. Holloway, J.D., A.H. Kirk-Spriggs & C.Y. Khen ( 1 992): The response of some rain forest insect groups to logging and conversion to plantation. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Bond. B. 335: 425-436. Palot, M. Jafer, G. Mathew & V.J. Zacharias (1997): Butterflies of Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala (India). Adv. For. Res. India. 27: 188-204. Larsen, T.B. (1987): The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 26-54; 84(2): 291-316; 84(3): 560-584. Larsen, T.B. (1988): The butterflies of the Nilgiri which help in the proliferation and abundance of butterfly species. Holloway et al. (1992) observed that conversion of forests to plantation and other man-induced disturbances lead to reduction in the diversity of lepidopterans, both in species richness and in taxonomic and biogeographic quality. Parambikulam, with a variety of vegetation types, climatic zones, and remarkable endemism, must be given top priority for the conservation of its rich biodiversity. AcKNOW LEDG EM ENTS This work was carried out as part of a project funded by the Kerala Forest Department (Wildlife Wing). We thank the Wildlife Warden and his staff, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, for cooperation; the Director, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi for encouragement and facilities and experts from the ZSI and IARI for identification. EN C E S mountains of southern India (Lepidoptera : Rhopalocera). / Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 26-43. Mathew, G. & V.K. Rahmathulla (1993): Studies on the butterflies of the Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, India. Entomon 18(3 & 4): 185-192. New, T.R. (1990-92): Conservation of butterflies in Australia. J. Res. Lepid. 29(4): 237-253. Sebastine, K.M. & K. Ramamurthy (1966): Studies on the flora of Parambikulam and Aliyar submergible areas. Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 8: 169-182. Talbot, G. (1939): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma - Butterflies Vol. 1, Repr. 1975, Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 600. Talbot, G. (1947): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma — Butterflies Volume II, Reprint Edition (1975), Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 506. Wells, S.M., M.R. Pyle & Mark M. Collins (1983): The IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. IUCN. Switzerland, 623 pp. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, 523 pp. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 201 GROWTH PATTERN OF MANGROVES IN THE GULF OF KUTCH1 H. S. Singh2 ( With three text-figures) Key words: Mangroves, Gulf of Kutch, Avicennia marina, growth pattern In the past, mangroves were tall, over 14 m in height in Gujarat State. Eleven core species were recorded in the literature, but during an extensive survey of the tidal forests of Gujarat from 1994 to 1999, only eight species, with the dominant Avicennia marina , have been encountered. Most mangroves are now shrubby, with an average height of 2 m, while A. marina attains moderate height along creeks and towards the sea. Heights of dominant trees in the Gulf of Kutch were normally 5 to 7 m, rarely exceeding 9 m in western mangroves. Stump and stem analysis of A. marina on Pirotan Islands (Marine National Park, Jamnagar) and in western mangroves (Kutch), revealed that four growth rings were formed annually, as against two rings in trees, especially conifers. Extreme summer and winter are not suitable for photosynthesis of A. marina in the Gulf of Kutch, and are non-growth periods. Studies in other parts of the world indicate that photosynthesis of A. marina ceases below 13 °C and above 35 °C, with peak production between 20 °C and 27 °C. Two nongrowth periods alternating with the growth periods explain the formation of more than two rings a year. Introduction The Gulf of Kutch (22°15' N to 23°40’ N and 68°20' E to 70°40' E), Gujarat State, is located in western India. Jamnagar and Rajkot districts of Saurashtra to the south and Kutch district in the north constitute the boundary of the Gulf. The Gulf has an area of 7,350 sq. km, the east- west length is about 170 km and width 175 km at the mouth. The southern part of the Gulf has a network of 42 islands (bets) with coral reefs and rich marine life. The average annual rainfall in the region ranges from 400 to 600 mm, with about 14 rainy days, mostly from the SW monsoon, which breaks over Saurashtra and Kutch in the end of June and continues to the end of September. Air temperature ranges from 7.8 °C in January to 44.8 °C in May. The water temperature generally varies from 15 °C to 35 °C. However, local increase above 35 °C is recorded in summer in 'Accepted April, 2000 2Gujarat Ecological Education and Research Foundation, Indroda Park, Sector 9, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India. isolated water pools in the intertidal area. Evapo-transpiration in Kutch is very high and annual ratio of precipitation to evapo- transpiration ranges between 0.3 and 0.5. The humidity in Kutch varies from 50% during November-December to 80% during SW monsoon (Singh et al. 1999). There is no perennial river in Saurashtra and Kutch, and discharge of rainwater through seasonal monsoon rivers is reduced due to the construction of dams. Tide amplitude in the Gulf is recorded varying from 3.0 m to 6.0 m. Water salinity in the mangrove creek normally varies from 37 ppt to 44 ppt and still higher salinity is recorded in summer in pools of water in the hyper-saline zone. Low rainfall, extreme temperature, salinity and tide amplitude are limiting factors for the development of mangroves (Singh 1999). The pH value of creek water ranges between 7.7 and 9.1 in western mangroves (Singh et al 1999). Average pH value of the mangrove soil at Pirotan was 8.4 (8.1 to 8.9). Average organic carbon was 0.43%, whereas available phosphorus and potash content was 33.3 kg/ha and 4.0 kg/ha respectively (Singh 1999). 202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 GROWTH PA TTERN OF MANGROVES Mangroves in Gujarat: Gujarat State has notified a total area of 1,324 sq. km in Kutch, Jamnagar and Rajkot districts in the Gulf of Kutch as mangrove forests, locally called Cher. Using remote sensing technology, the Forest Survey of India (FSI), Dehra Dun in 1997 and 1999, estimated a mangrove cover of about 991 and 1,03 1 sq. km respectively in Gujarat, second only to the Sunderbans in West Bengal. The Gujarat Ecological Education and Research (GEER) Foundation, Gandhinagar made an independent study in 1999 using IRS LISS-111 data of 1998, and interpreted forest cover on a scale of 1 : 50,000. This provided an accurate estimate of 938.4 sq. km (874.4 sq. km in the Gulf of Kutch) mangrove cover. Western mangroves in Abdasa and Lakhpat taluka, known as Indian deltaic mangroves, are the largest tidal forests in Gujarat. Part of the mangroves in and around Kori creek were destroyed by the cyclone that hit Gujarat and the coast of Pakistan in May 1999. Floral diversity and height of mangroves decreases as one moves away from the equatorial region, and hence diversity of mangroves in Gujarat is poorer than in other mangroves of the country. Thirteen core mangrove species have been recorded on the western coast of India. Eleven species, belonging to seven genera and five families were recorded in Gujarat (Chavan 1985, Kothari 1991), nine of them in the Gulf of Kutch. Avicennia officinalis , A. marina , A. alba , Aegiceras corniculatum , Ceriops tagal , Rhizophora mucronata , Bruguiera gymnorrhiza , Sonneratia apetala, Acanthus ilicifolius , R. apiculata and B. cylindrica were species recorded in Gujarat. Singh (1999) could record only eight species in Gujarat as R. apiculata , Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and B. cylindrica were not encountered in the two years study. At present, only seven core species of mangroves grow in the Gulf of Kutch. Avicennia marina dominates the forests of Gujarat, constituting the majority of mangrove trees in the State, which are shrubby with low height, but A. marina attains good height along the creek and seaward. Methods Growth pattern of mangroves in the Gulf of Kutch was not studied in the past, except that the height of mangroves was recorded in some areas. To understand tree development pattern at good sites in the Gulf, the literature including records of the Forest Department were studied, and height of trees was measured at a few sites while the author was serving as Conservator of Forests, Marine National Park. Tree diameter and height relationship, and heights and corresponding diameters of Avicennia marina were recorded on Pirotan, its neighbouring bets and in western mangroves in Kutch. Studies on A. marina by the Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology (GUIDE), Bhuj on western mangroves were also consulted (Singh et al. 1999). Girth at breast height (gbh) and height of Avicennia trees were measured in landlocked mangroves at Shravan Kavadiya to understand growth pattern in the past. While carrying out this exercise, distinct growth rings were observed on a tree stump. Thus providing an idea to conduct stump and stem analysis of trees to understand growth pattern. Stem and stump analysis was hence, done at Pirotan Island and in western mangroves near Siyadinar. 15 trees at Pirotan and 5 trees in western mangroves were cut for this purpose. Thousands of tall trees had died in the cyclones of 1 998 and 1 999, only dead trees were cut, at 20 to 50 cm above ground level, depending on the tapering of the stump. Four radii were drawn on the stump and each radius was measured at intervals of 10 growth rings, and the average diameter was estimated. Results and Discussion Mangrove trees with a height of 14 m have been recorded in the past (Chavan 1985). JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000 203 GROWTH PA TTERN OF MANGROVES Landlocked mangroves at Shravan Kavadiya in fringes of Banni grassland are tall. This land was part of the Gulf in the historic past. A small patch of old mangroves in about 0.7 ha survived till the cyclone that occurred in June, 1998. About 36 trees with tops broken still survive on the site. The average height of dead trees measured about 18.0 m in 1999. This reveals that mangroves in the Gulf were extensive and taller than those in existing forests. Various studies indicated that geomorphological and climatic changes had made an impact on mangroves in the region. Presently in Gujarat, mangroves are shrubs with an average height of 2 m, but they attain good height along the creek and seawards. Rhizophora mucronata occurs only on the islands in the Marine National Park; its average height is 3.5 m. Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras corniculatum are also shrubs about 1.2 to 1.4 m high; they occur only on the bets in the Park. The height of the tallest Ceriops tagal at Pirotan was 2.9 m. Acanthus ilicifolius is a shrub growing in the estuarine areas of south Gujarat. Sonneratia apetala occurs in the estuary of the Tapti, where trees exceed 6 m height in restricted areas. Avicennia alba is a small tree, while A. marina is the tallest tree in the mangroves in Gujarat. Old trees of A. marina were observed in 1994, and most of them had broken tops. Their height was between 5.0 and 7.2 m on Chhad and Zindra bet. Good cher forest, regenerated after destruction of old mangroves on Pirotan and Bhensbid, had an average top height of 4.4 m (3.6 to 5.4 m) in 1994, which increased to 5.3 m (4.0 to 6.0 m) in 1999. Measurements of dominant trees at Pirotan revealed that a plantation of 1983 attained top height of 3.2 m in 15 years. Singh (1999), conducted surveys of western mangroves at five sites (Medi creek, Laki creek, Jakhau, Mundra, Kori creek), and reported that density of trees (height of 75 cm) ranged from the lowest 792 trees/ha at Laki to a maximum of 1900 trees/ha at Kori creek. Tree height in the area ranged from 0.75 to 10.0 m. Trees at Medi post were taller, with a mean height of 3.7 m and shorter at Jakhau with a mean height of 2.2 m. In all the five stations, heights in the range of 1.6 to 3.0 m were greater in number followed by 1.0 to 1.5 and 3.0 to 4.5 m classes. The tallest trees with heights of about 10.0 m were recorded at Carissod creek. Trees up to 9.0 m were measured in Kav creek in the forest of Medi post. Many trees in the height class of 6.0 to 7.5 m were measured in Kori, Medi and Laki creeks. At Mundra and Jakhau, tree height did not exceed 6.0 m. The maximum number of trees above 6.0 m was recorded in the forest of Medi post. Mean gbh in the western mangroves was estimated from 31 cm at Mundra to 37 cm at Medi, Maximum and minimum gbh recorded was 15 cm at Navinal creek and 2.25 m at Laki creek. Trees with gbh of 21 to 40 cm predominated at all sites, followed by the 4 1 to 60 cm class (Singh et al., 1999). Average height and gbh of 17 tall (dominant) trees in Jakhau forest were estimated at 5.3 m (4.0 and 6.9 m) and 43.6 cm (27 and 66 cm), respectively (Singh 1999). Stump and Stem Analysis: As mentioned earlier, growth rings on stumps of Avicennia marina are as distinct as those of any coniferous tree growing in the temperate region. The author, along with the Conservator of Forests, Marine National Park, his staff, and scientists of GEER Foundation, initiated an exercise on one of the bets (Pirotan) in the Park. On small stumps, number of rings (light or dark) was exceptionally high, which made the investigators sceptical. Trees were cut in an area which was regenerated after 1982 to confirm findings. There were no mangroves on the site before the plantation in 1983. Study revealed that the number of growth rings (dark or light) was almost double the age of plantation. This was confirmed from other areas also. This finding appeared to have no explanation. Local watchmen and fishermen 204 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000 GROWTH PA TTERN OF MANGROVES informed us that the cher forests remain green and luxuriant during monsoon and in late winter or early summer. They become dull and pale green at the peak of winter and summer. This probably means that there are two good growth periods in a year, with two non-growth periods. Mangroves in similar climatic conditions in Australia and America respond to temperature stress by decreasing their structural complexity i.e. decreased tree height, leaf area index, leaf size and increased tree density (Lugo and Zucca, 1977). Mangroves growing in the environment prevailing in the Gulf are less tolerant to low temperature. McMillan (1971) reported that high water temperature could also be a limiting factor. Hutching and Saenger (1987) concluded in their study that for Australian mangrove species, growth ceases below 1 5 °C with peak production occurring between 20 °C and 27 °C. Avicennia marina , classed by them as a cool temperate species, commences leaf production above 12 °C with peak production at around 20 °C. MacNae (1963), found that A. marina occurs in southern Africa in the areas where mean air temperature does not fall below 13 °C. Various studies have shown that for most mangrove species, photosynthesis declines sharply above 35 °C (Pernetta, 1993). In the Gulf of Kutch, temperature difference is very high. In summer, air temperature increases above 40 °C and soil temperature above 35 °C. Thus, growth (photosynthesis) of Avicennia species in the Gulf remains very low during summer (May-June) due to high temperature, increased salinity and high water current and also during extreme winter, (December-January) due to low temperature. On the basis of the above, it appears that there are four periods in a year differentiating distinct growth seasons. The above analysis explains that there are two non-growth periods in mangroves in the Gulf, i.e. extreme summer and winter. This finding is not conclusive, but forms the basis for further study on the growth pattern of A. marina in the subtropical region. It is assumed here that four growth rings are formed annually. The growth pattern of A. marina on the basis of stump and stem analysis is discussed below. Data on 1 5 trees at Pirotan and 5 trees in western mangroves have been analysed. Trees were cut at a height of 20 to 50 cm above ground level, depending on stem form near the ground. The growth pattern of Avicennia trees at good sites along the creek or seawards is given in Tables 1, 2 and 3, and Figs 1, 2 and 3. These show that Avicennia marina attains 4.9 m height and about 31 cm girth at stump in 20 years at Pirotan. The growth pattern has been extrapolated up to 22 years tree age, but could not be done beyond this due to non-availability of old trees in the area. This analysis is site and situation specific and may differ from other areas. Mangroves in Jakhau (Siyadinar) are some of the good tidal forests in Kutch. Large numbers of big trees died in the cyclone in May 1999. Five dead trees were cut to carry out stump analysis. Two dark and two light rings were considered as one year’s growth. Trees were cut at 50 cm from the ground and rings were counted along four radii on each stump. Table 2 gives the results of graphic analysis of average age and corresponding diameter. Stump analysis revealed that A. marina has an average diameter of 1 1.0 cm at stump (50 cm above ground) in 25 years and 22.5 cm in 50 years near the creek. Conclusion The Gulf of Kutch is not a true tropical region, and climatic conditions are not ideal for mangroves as in the Sundarbans and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Most of the mangroves in the Gulf of Kutch and other parts of Gujarat are shrubby, but A. marina attains moderate height at good sites near the creek and seawards. The top canopy of mangrove trees is usually damaged as a result of high winds and cyclones. Although mangroves in the Gulf were JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 205 GROWTH PA TTERN OF MANGROVES Table 1 GROWTH PATTERN OF AVICENNIA Age in years Girth at stump (cm) 2 NA 4 5.0 6 6.5 8 9.5 10 15.5 12 21.0 14 24.0 16 26.5 18 29.5 20 31.0 22 32.0 Table 2 GROWTH PATTERN OF AVICENNIA Age in years Height (cm) 2 60 4 90 6 120 8 180 10 270 12 350 14 390 16 430 18 470 20 490 22 510 Table 3 GROWTH PATTERN OF AVICENNIA Age in years Ave. diameter at stump (cm) 5 2.0 10 4.1 15 6.5 20 8.7 25 11.0 30 13.0 35 16.0 40 18.7 45 20.5 50 22.5 55 24.0 60 25.5 65 26.5 Age-height relationship at Pirotan Girth-height relationship at Pirotan Fig. 2: Growth pattern of Avicennia Age-diameter relationship in western manaroves (Kutch) Age (Years) Fig. 3: Growth pattern of Avicennia 206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 GROWTH PA 'TTERN OF MANGROVES tall in the past, their height now rarely exceeds 9.0 m. On an average, the diameter of A. marina increases 0.45 cm (0.4 cm to 0.5 cm) per year at good sites in the Gulf of Kutch. This study revealed that distinct rings are formed as a result of change in temperature and other climatic conditions. Photosynthesis is at a maximum during monsoon and moderate summer, and is Refer Chavan, S.A. (1985): Status of mangroves ecosystem in the Gulf of Kutch, Forest Department. Hutching P. & P. Saenger (1 987): Ecology of mangroves. University of Queensland Press St. Lucia, Australia, pp. 388. Kothari, M.J. & K.M. Rao (1991): Environmental impact on mangroves in Panchavaram. Indian Forester 119(9): 773. Lugo, A.E. & C.P. Zucca (1977): The impact of temperature stress on mangrove structure and growth. Trop.Ecol. 18: 149-161. MacNae, W. (1963): Mangrove swamps in South Africa. J. Ecol 5 J:\-25, McMillan, C. (1971): Environmental factors affecting seedling establishment of the black mangrove on low or almost absent in extreme winter and summer. Light and dark rings on stumps are certainly related to growth variation. Unlike two- ring formation in a year in most trees, especially in temperate forests, there are four growth rings in A. marina. Findings in this paper add to our knowledge of mangrove development in the Gulf of Kutch, laying the basis for further studies. ;nces the Central Texas Coast. Ecology 52: 92.7-930. Pernetta, John C. (1993): Mangrove Forests, climate change and sea level rise. Hydrological influences on community structure and survival, with examples from the Indo-West Pacific. RJCN: 5 -7, Singh, H.S. (1999): Mangroves in Gujarat - Current status and strategy for development. Gujarat Ecological Education and Research (GEER) Foundation, Gandhinagar: Pp. 12-15 and 33-39. Singh, Y.D., D. Vijay Kumar, S.F. Wesley Sunderaj, Justus Joshua (1999): An ecological study of Kachchh mangroves and its associated fauna with reference to its management and conservation Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology (GUIDE), Bhuj (interim report): 42-44. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2). AUG. 2000 207 THE STATUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA' Charles Santiapillai, Mangala De Silva* 2 and S.R.B. Dissanayake3 ( With two text-figures) Key words: Mongooses, Herpestidae, Herpestes, carnivores, Ruhuna National Park Three species of mongoose occur in Ruhuna National Park, namely Herpestes edwardsii, H. smithii and H. vitticollis. They are mostly solitary and diurnal carnivores that inhabit a variety of habitats ranging from moist riverine forests to arid open grasslands. Ninety-six individuals were recorded from 86 observations, during a transect study carried out between October 1991 and September 1993, in which a total of 34 days were spent in Block 1(141 sq. km) of the Park. The most conspicuous and abundant species is the ruddy mongoose (H. smithii ), while the grey mongoose (//. edwardsii ) is rare. The stripe-necked mongoose (H. vitticollis) is the largest species associated with moist areas. The mongooses were found to be active throughout the day, but had two peaks of activity: a major one in the morning (0800 hrs) and a minor one in the late evening (1700 hrs). It is estimated that there could be at least a minimum of 370 ruddy mongoose, 100 stripe-necked mongoose and 30 grey mongoose in Block I, giving a crude density of 2.6, 0.7 and 0.2 per sq. km respectively. The sympatric occurrence of these three species of small carnivores underlines the ecological richness and diversity of the Park. Introduction Of the 12 species of mongoose that belong to the genus Herpestes worldwide, 4 occur in Sri Lanka, namely the Indian grey mongoose (. Herpestes edwardsii ), ruddy mongoose (H. smithii ), Indian brown mongoose ( H.fuscus ) and stripe-necked or badger mongoose (H. vitticollis). All but the brown mongoose occur in the Ruhuna National Park. Mongooses were at one time included under the family Viverridae, but subsequently assigned a separate family, Herpestidae by Pocock (1939). The presence of distinct herpestine and viverrine fossils in the lower and mid-Miocene of Europe indicates that these two groups might have diverged from one another very early (Fetter 1969). Herpestids are long-bodied, short-legged, terrestrial carnivores characterized by highly developed anal scent glands (Corbet and Hill 1992). They are never blotched or spotted, and their coats are normally grizzled and coarse in texture (Kingdon 1977). ‘Accepted March, 1999 department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 3National Wildlife Training Centre, Giritale, Sri Lanka. Another peculiarity is that in all Asian Herpestes , the males have one chromosome less than the females: 2n = 35 in males, and 36 in females (Fredga 1 972). Petter ( 1 969), on the basis of tooth structure has shown the genus Herpestes to be the least modified from the primitive miacid-type carnivore from which the viverrids and herpestids had evolved. Mongooses occupy a variety of habitats ranging from densely forested hills to open arid areas. They usually live in holes in the ground or hollow trees. They seldom climb trees (Lekagul and McNeely 1977). They are known to prey on snakes, even venomous ones such as the cobra ( Naja naja). While mongooses are less sensitive than most mammals to snake venom, they are not completely immune to it (Prater 1971). Mongooses being predominantly diurnal, are a common feature of the wildlife seen in the national parks in Sri Lanka. Nevertheless, there has been no attempt at serious research on mongoose in Sri Lanka, and much of what is known about their biology is still derived from the observations of Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972), and Phillips (1984). Hence, this 208 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 STATUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK preliminary study was undertaken to obtain information on the diversity, abundance and activity of mongooses in the Ruhuna National Park, given the need to know their current status, if measures aimed at their conservation are to be appropriate and effective. Study Area The observations on mongooses were carried out in Block I ( 14 1 sq. km) of the Ruhuna National Park (1,268 sq. km), situated on the southeast coast of Sri Lanka (Fig. 1). Block I is characterized by a large number of freshwater tanks (man-made ponds and lakes), and brackish lagoons. The main vegetation cover is woody, mostly thorn-scrub, where the canopy is below 5 m in height, but forest trees occur in clumps within the scrub, and as continuous cover inland from the coast (Mueller-Dombois 1972). The Park lies in a transition zone between the single wet season experienced on the east coast and the double peak of precipitation found along the south coast of the island (IUCN 1990). The mean annual temperature is 27 °C, and the main dry season extends from May to September. The Park receives less than 1,000 mm of rain per year. For details regarding the flora and fauna of the Park see Balasubramaniam et al. (1980), and Santiapillai et al. (1981). Material and Methods Block I has a good network of motorable roads, designed to take visitors past all the major water-holes and grazing grounds. Between October 1991 and September 1993, 34 days were spent observing the mongooses in the Park. Observations were carried out twice a day between 0630 hrs and 1830 hrs, along the network of roads, starting from the Palatupana bungalow near the Park entrance to the Yala bungalow in the north, along the coast, passing most of the water-holes and grasslands and from there back to Palatupana via Heenwewa through largely scrub and forest. An area of approximately 14 sq. km was intensively searched for mongooses (Fig. 1). Most of the animals were recorded as they crossed the road. In open grasslands, and around water-holes, they were recorded from larger areas, due to clear visibility. At every sighting, the species was identified and its number, locality, habitat, time and activity recorded. All observations were made with the naked eye or a pair of 8 x 40 binoculars, from a vehicle driven at about 7 km per hour. Results and Discussion A total of 94 mongooses were recorded during 86 observations. Of the three species of mongoose in the Park, the grey mongoose (Herpestes edwardsii ) was the least common with only 3 individuals, recorded on two occasions (Table 1). Of the other two species, 13 stripe-necked or badger mongoose ( H . vitticollis ) were observed on 12 occasions. The ruddy mongoose ( H . smithii) was the most conspicuous and numerically abundant species in the Park with 78 recordings. It is surprising that the brown mongoose ( H.fuscus ) which is so common along the southwest coast of Sri Lanka up to Tangalle, does not occur in the Park. Herpestes smithii The ruddy mongoose identified easily in the field by its black-tipped, upwardly pointed tail, is one of the most successful and adaptable small carnivores in the Ruhuna National Park. It occupies a wide variety of habitats such as thorn-scrub, forest, coastal sand dunes, and the ‘villu’ grasslands. While in Wilpattu National Park it is reportedly associated with permanent water (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1 972), in Ruhuna National Park, it inhabits a variety of habitats and is not exclusively associated with water- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 209 STA TUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK Memk ganga Pannagamuwal — -q Fig. 1 : Map of Block I of Ruhuna National Park (RNP), Sri Lanka showing the location of the main water-holes. 210 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 ST A TUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE) INRUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK Time (hours) Fig. 2: Frequency of mongooses sighted per unit time period at different hours. Table 1 SPECIES DIVERSITY AND ABUNDANCE OF MONGOOSES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK Species H. edwardsii H. smithii H. vitticollis Total October 1991 _ 3 1 4 January 1992 - 18 2 20 March 1992 2 12 5 19 June 1992 - 4 - 4 January 1993 1 7 1 9 March 1993 - 14 4 18 April 1 993 - 2 - 2 September 1 993 - 18 - 18 Total 3 78 13 94 holes. Observations point to its essentially solitary nature; 92% of the animals observed were solitary, while pairs accounted for 8%. The pairs observed were adult males and females. No young were seen during the survey. The ruddy mongoose appears to have a restricted home range, within which it usually follows the same route. The size of its range depends on habitat and prey availability. In East Africa, Taylor (1970) estimated the range of the slender mongoose ( H . sanguineus) to be about 1 sq. km, while in Hawaii, Tomich (1969) estimated the range of the male and female small Indian mongoose (H. auropunctatus) to be 2.0 and 0.5 sq. km respectively. The ruddy mongoose is an effective and audacious predator that forages alone, never in a group. For food and feeding habits see Phillips (1984) and Prater (1971). Herpestes vitticollis The stripe-necked or badger mongoose, readily identified by its characteristic black neck- stripe, is the largest of all mongooses in Asia. Essentially a forest animal, rarely encountered far from water. All the observations of this species were made in moist areas and in the vicinity of the River Menik Ganga. It is the most solitary among all species of mongoose. The only stable social unit consists of the mother and her offspring. Although the badger mongoose can be encountered at any time of the day, it appears to be most active in the early hours between 0700-0900 hrs. It is catholic in its diet. According to Phillips (1984), it takes not only small mammals and large prey like the black-naped hare ( Lepus nigricollis ), mouse deer ( Tragulus meminna ) and jungle fowl (G alius lafayetti ), but also freshwater crabs, frogs, and fish that occur in swamps or slow moving streams. Ramachandran (1985) has recorded this JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 211 ST A TUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY: HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK mongoose scavenging a tiger kill. The mongoose can be seen examining the river banks and other damp areas for crabs and frogs (Table 2). Table 2 FOOD PREFERENCES OF THE MONGOOSES IN RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK Food items H. smithii H. edwardsii H. vitticollis root . + _ fruits - + - berries - + - carrion + + - termites - + - beetles - + + gaibs - + + snails + - - lizards + . + + snakes + + + ground birds + + + bird's eggs + + + jungle fowl - - + rats + + + mice + + + shrew + + + mouse deer - - + hare - - + freshwater crabs - - + freshwater fish - - + frogs - - + Total 9 14 15 Source: Phillips ( 1 984), and information from Park authorities (+ indicates an item eaten by the species) Herpestes edwardsii The grey mongoose is identified by its silver-grey, pepper-and-salt speckled pelage and the whitish tip (never black) of its long tail. It is associated with open areas, cultivated fields, grasslands and scrub, but not forest (Prater 1971). It is mostly solitary and diurnal. Active, particularly in the early mornings between 0800 and 0900 hrs, it tends to use tracks and is often seen crossing the roads. The normal gait is a quick trot. A cautious animal, it moves constantly, examining the surroundings for food. It is often seen in close proximity to termite mounds, which are plentiful across much of the Park. Termite adults are not an important food item, but larval forms are preferred on account of their high fat content. The grey mongoose appears to rely on larger prey such as ground birds and their eggs, lizards, small snakes, insects, grubs and to a lesser extent, fruits, berries and roots (Phillips 1984). In India, it has been observed to chase the hare (Lepus nigricollis) and run away with a dead cattle egret ( Bubulcus ibis ) that had been left to lure Indian foxes out of the den (Johnsingh 1978). It will kill and devour any small snake. It was also observed digging into water buffalo dung in search of beetles and termites. Activity pattern Mongooses are solitary predators that hunt by day and by night, and can be seen crossing the road at any time of the day. Fig. 2 represents the frequency of mongooses (all three species) sighted per unit time period at different hours. 25% of the sightings were between 0800 and 0900 hrs, while over 50% of the sightings were made between 0600 and 0900 hrs. They were mostly encountered in and around the water-holes. About 80% of the observations in the Park were made in the ‘villu’ grasslands around the water-holes. The mongooses are diurnal in Ruhuna National Park. There are essentially two peaks of activity: a large one in the morning at about 0800 hrs and another small one late in the evening about 1700 hrs. These two peaks of activity refer to foraging and hunting; mongooses hunt actively during early morning and late evening. The early morning activity coincides with the basking time of most small reptiles, such as lizards and snakes. The period of diurnal activity is interrupted by one or more short resting periods. In southwest Spain, Palomares and Delibes ( 1 993) found that the Egyptian mongoose (//. ichneumon ), which is also diurnal devotes about 75% of its daytime to resting. At mid-day, most of the mongooses retreat into the forest or 212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 STA TUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY : HERPESTIDAE) IN RU HUN A NATIONAL PARK near the river to escape the heat. The usual sleeping and resting areas are the termitaries and other natural crevices in the rocky areas of the Park which afford protection from the largest predator, the leopard (Panthera pardus ), and from inclement weather. Given that underground dens and thickets fulfill both requirements, Palomares and Delibes (1993) recommend that habitats having such dens and thickets should be protected to guarantee the conservation of mongooses. Number and Density On the basis of the restricted home ranges of mongooses, and their association with water- holes, we estimate that at least 37 ruddy mongoose, 10 badger mongoose and 3 grey mongoose reside within the area covered by the transect, which amounts to roughly 14 sq. km, bearing thorn-scrub vegetation that is typical of the Park. This translates into a population of 370 ruddy mongoose, 100 badger mongoose, and 30 grey mongoose, in Block I (141 sq. km) of the Ruhuna National Park, giving crude density values of 2.6, 0.7 and 0.2 per sq. km for the three species respectively. These density values must be treated with extreme caution, as they were based on the animals observed in the transect, and not on any rigorous mark-release-recapture study. In any case, they represent the minimum crude densities of the three species in the Park. In Puerto Rico, the density of the small Indian mongoose ( H . auropunctatus ) in sugarcane plantations (where it was introduced to kill snakes) became as high as 250 per sq. km (Piementel 1955). At such high density, the mongoose became a pest. But in the wild, mongooses do not occur in high densities. Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972), observed the ruddy mongoose (//. smithii) to be the most numerous species in Wilpattu National Park, in northwest Sri Lanka. The same appears to be true for Block I of the Ruhuna National Park, in southeast Sri Lanka. It is interesting to note that although both Parks support only three species of mongoose, they occur in different combinations: H . smithii , H. edwardsii and H.fuscus in Wilpattu, and H. smithii , H. edwardsii and H. vitticollis in Ruhuna. The stripe-necked mongoose replaces the brown mongoose in Ruhuna. Furthermore, while H. fuscus is the rarest of the three species in Wilpattu (Eisenberg and Lockhart, 1972), in Ruhuna, H. edwardsii is the least common. Conclusion The biological richness and diversity of Block I of Ruhuna National Park is reflected by the number of carnivore species it supports. The fact that three species of mongoose are sympatric in the area, points to the existence of a much larger community of animals supporting them. Of the three species, the most abundant and conspicuous is the ruddy mongoose. The three species are catholic in their diet and appear to have restricted home ranges. All three species appear active during the day and may extend their activity period to the evenings as well. The three species of mongoose are legally protected in Sri Lanka. The principal threat to them comes from the use of toxic agro-chemicals in farming areas that surround the protected areas. Strictly controlled use of such poisons in and around livestock areas, particularly near wildlife reserves, is needed. At the same time, in areas of high predation by mongooses, the losses should be offset by some sort of compensation by the Department of Wildlife Conservation to ensure that man and mongoose coexist peacefully. References Balasubramaniam, S., Ch. Santiapillai & M.R. Chambers utilisation by the spotted deer Axis axis (Erxleben, (1980): Seasonal shifts in the pattern of habitat 1777) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 213 STA TUS OF MONGOOSES (FAMILY : HERPESTIDAE) IN RUHUNA NA TIONAL PARK Spixiana3 : 157-166. Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indomalayan Region: A systematic review. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Eisenberg, J.F. & M. Lockhart (1972): An ecological reconnaissance survey of Wilpattu National Park, Ceylon. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 101: 1-118. Fredga, K. (1972): Comparative chromosome studies in mongooses, I. Hereditas 71: 1-74. 1UCN (1990): IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas, IUCN, Gland. Johnsingh, A.J.T. ( 1 978): Some aspects of the ecology and behaviour of the Indian Fox — Vulpes bengalensis (Shaw). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 397-405. Kingdon, J. (1977): East African Mammals. An Atlas of Evolution in Africa. Volume III A. Carnivores. Academic Press, London. Lekagul, B. & J.A. McNeely (1977): Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. Mueller-Dombois, D. (1972): Crown distortion and elephant distribution in the woody vegetations of Ruhuna National Park, Ceylon. Ecology 53(2): 208- 226. Palomares, F. & M. Delibes ( 1 993): Resting ecology and behaviour of Egyptian mongooses ( Herpestes ichneumon) in southwestern Spain. J. Zool. Lond. 230: 557-506. Petter, G. (1969): Interpreation evolutive des caracteres de la denture des viverrides africains. Mammalia 33: 607-625. Phillips, W.W.A. (1984): Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon. Wildlife & Nature Protection Society, Colombo. 2nd edn. Piementel, D. ( 1 955): Biology of the Indian mongoose in Puerto Rico. J. Mammal 36: 62-68. Pocock, R.I. (1939): The Fauna of British India: Mammalia. Primates and Carnivora. London. Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Ramachandran, K.K. (1985): A note on the scavenging behaviour of stripe-necked mongoose on Tiger’s kill. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 182-193. Santiapillai, Ch., M.R. Chambers & S. Balasubramaniam (1981): A preliminary study of bark damage by cervids in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Spixiana 4(3): 247-254. Taylor, M. (1970): Locomotion in some East African viverrids. J. Mammal. 51: 42-51 . Tomich, P.Q. (1969): Movement patterns of the mongoose in Hawaii. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 576-584. 214 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000 AVIAN SPECIES INVOLVED IN POLLINATION AND SEED DISPERSAL OF SOME FORESTRY SPECIES IN HIMACHAL PRADESH1 M.L. Narang, R.S. Rana and Mukesh Prabhakar2 Key words: Pollination, Bombax ceiba Linn., Celtis australis Linn., seed eaters, Pycnonotidae Studies on avian species involved in pollination and seed dispersal of some forestry species have been carried out since 1994 in the University campus at Nauni, Solan in Himachal Pradesh. During the study, 31 species of birds belonging to 13 families and 4 orders were recorded interacting with 28 species of trees and shrubs. Of the 31 species of birds recorded, 10 were involved in pollination alone, another 10 contributed to pollination and seed dispersal, while 8 species were involved in seed dispersal only. The remaining 3 species, all parakeets, were found to be seed eaters, though two of them were involved in pollination. Our study revealed that relative abundance of bulbuls (Family: Pycnonotidae) was very high, as nectarivores and as seed dispersal agents, followed by mynas (Family: Sturnidae). The members of the family Pycnonotidae are, therefore. important agents in cross pollination and also in Introduction The 1 ,200 species of birds found in India constitute an important component of our agro- and forest ecosystems. It is well recognised now that birds play an important role in shaping our economy. Realising the importance of birds for an agricultural country like India, Salim Ali (1936) laid the foundation of economic ornitho- logy. The literature on economic ornithology as reviewed by Mehrotra and Bhatnagar ( 1 979), and recently by Dhindsa and Saini (1994), suggest that the role of birds in relation to agriculture and horticulture has received the attention of many workers (Mason and Lefroy 1912, Hussain and Bhalla 1937, Mukherjee 1969-76, Toor and Ramzan 1974, Mathew et al. 1980, Narang and Lamba 1984 and Narang 1986). Scientists working under the All India Network Programme (AINP) on Agricultural Ornithology have also contributed to the subject. However, the role of birds in pollination and seed dispersal of various forestry species has received little attention from Indian ornithologists so far. The literature on pollination by birds was reviewed by Subramanya 'Accepted October, 1999 2Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni-Solan 173 230, Himachal Pradesh, India. seed dispersal. and Radhamani (1993). According to them, the role of birds in pollination was studied by Singh 1929, Ali 1932, Kannan 1980 and Davidar 1985. Several publications on birds feeding on wild fruits are available (Ali 1931, Faruqui etal. 1960, Howe and Estabrook 1977, Shahabuddin 1993, Balasubramanian 1995, 1996 and Rajsekhar 1995). This work was aimed to (i) study the bird species involved in the pollination of Bombax ceiba Linn, and the seed dispersal of Morus alba Linn., Celtis australis Linn, and a shrub Coriaria nepalensis Wall., and (ii) to record in general the bird species involved in pollination and seed dispersal of some important forest trees/shrubs. Material and Methods The study initiated in 1994 was carried out at the Naum campus of the University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan (30° 50* N, 77° IT E and 1,250 m above msl). The campus is spread over an area of 550 ha, most of it under agroforestry ecosystems. Approximately 200 species of trees and shrubs have been recorded from the campus so far (Sindhi 1996). The study area was visited twice a week in the morning for one hour and tree-bird JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 215 A VI AN SPECIES INVOL VED IN POLLINA TION AND SEED DISPERSAL interactions recorded using 7x50 field binoculars. Ten trees each of Bombax ceiba (Linn.), Morus alba Linn, and C eltis australis Linn, were identified as study sites. Record of birds with remarks, whether feeding on nectar or fruit, was maintained for each tree/shrub and for each visit. Data pertaining to bird species diversity per tree/ shrub and their relative abundance was also recorded. Results and Discussion A total of 31 species of birds (Table 1) belonging to 13 families and 4 orders were recorded interacting with 28 species of trees and shrubs (Table 2). Out of the 31 species of birds recorded, 1 0 were involved in pollination alone, 10 contributed to pollination and seed dispersal, while 8 species were agents of seed dispersal only (Table 1). The slatyheaded parakeet Psittacula himalayana was recorded to be a seed eater, whereas the Alexandrine parakeet Psittacula eupatria and plum-headed parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala, though contributing to cross pollination, did not contribute to seed dispersal, and were found to be seed eaters. Birds as pollinators: During the present study, 22 species of birds were recorded sipping nectar from 1 1 tree species, 2 shrubs and 2 ornamental plants (Table 3). While doing so, the bill and forehead of the bird gets smeared with pollen. The birds feeding on nectar, therefore, contribute to the cross pollination of trees, shrubs and ornamental plants visited by them. A total of 58 bird species belonging to 16 families and 4 orders have been recorded as flower birds (Subramanya and Radhamani 1993). During this study, 9 more have been recorded as pollinators, taking the total to 67. Nearly 70% of the bird species frequented more than one species of plant for nectar (Table 3). The semal tree Bombax ceiba Linn., which flowers during March-April, was the most preferred tree species. A total of 19 species of birds were observed sipping nectar on semal Table 1 BIRD COMMUNITY VISITING FOREST SPECIES FOR NECTAR (N) AND FRUITS (F) Bird species Common Name Scientific Name N/F Alexandrine parakeet Psittacula eupatria N & F(P) Plum-headed parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala N & F(P) Slatyheaded parakeet Psittacula himalayana F(P) Asian koel Eudynamys scolopacea F Great barbet Megalaima virens F Bluethroated barbet Megalaima asiatica F Eurasian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus F Spot-winged starling Saroglossa spiloptera N Chestnut-tailed starling Sturnus malabaricus N Common myna Acridotheres tristis N&F Jungle myna Acridotheres fuscus N&F Redbilled blue magpie Urocissa erythrorhyncha N&F Large-billed crow Corvus macrorhynchos N&F Rufous treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda F Grey treepie Dendrocitta formosae F Himalayan bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys N&F Redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer N&F Black bulbul Jungle babbler Hypsipetes madagascariensis Turdoides striatus N&F N&F Redbilled leiothrix Leiothrix lutea F Rufous sibia Heterophasia capistrata N Flycatcher Muscicapa sp. N Grey-hooded warbler Seicercus xanthoschistos N Dark-throated thrush Turdus ruficollis F Great tit Parus major N Purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica N Crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja N Oriental white-eye Zosterops palpebrosus N&F House sparrow Passer domesticus N Russet spairow Passer rut Hans N Common rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus N&F F(P) : Seed eater (Table 4), followed by coral tree Erythrina indica Lamk., which attracted 11 bird species. Woodfordia floribunda Salisb., which flowers during April-May, was visited by 8 bird species. During this period, the forehead of oriental white- eye Zosterops palpebrosus was found smeared with brown pollen grains, the result of its feeding on the nectar of Woodfordia floribunda Salisb., during which the pollen was brushed on to the forehead. Another ornithophilous tree Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. was visited by 5 bird 216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 A VIAN SPECIES INVOL VED IN POLLINA TION AND SEED DISPERSAL Table 2 SPECIES OF PLANTS VISITED BY BIRDS FOR NECTAR (N) OR FRUITS (F) Plant species Family N/F Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl . Bignoniaceae N Bombax ceiba Linn. Bombacaceae N Ehretia acuminata R.Br. Boraginaceae F Bauhinia variegate Linn. Caesalpiniaceae N Coriaria nepalensis Wall, (shrub) Xylosma longifolium Clos. Coriariaceae F (off season flowering plant) Woodfordia floribunda Flacourtiaceae N Salisb. (shrub) Hibiscus mutabilis Linn. Lythraceae N (ornamental plant) Malvaceae N Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae F Ficus palmata Forsk. Moraceae F Ficus religiosa Linn. Moraceae F Moms alba Linn. Moraceae F Eucalyptus globulus Labi 11 Myrtaceae N Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Papilionaceae N Erythrina indica Lamk. Papilionaceae N Ougenia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Papilionaceae N Punica granatum Linn. Punicaceae N Crataegus crenulata Roxb. Prunus cerasoides D. Don. Rosaceae F (off season flowering plant) Rosaceae N Pmnus sp. Rosaceae N Pyms pashia Buch.-Ham. ex Rosaceae N D. Don N&F Rosa moschata Hook, (shrub) Rosaceae F Rubus ellipticus Smith (shrub) Leptodermis lanceolatus Rosaceae F Wall, ex DC (shrub) Rubiaceae N Osyrus arborea (Wall.) ex DC (shrub) Santalaceae F Solatium nigmm Linn. Solanaceae F Grewia optiva Drumm. ex Burr. Tiliaceae F Celtis australis Linn. Urticaceae F species. The small bird community of this species could be attributed to its small population in the study area. Kannan (1980) discovered that flower nectar is an important item of the sunbird’s diet. During the present study, purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica, a summer migrant in the University campus, was seen to visit 9 species of bird flowers. The crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja was recorded frequenting two species of ornamental plants, namely Hibiscus mutabilis Linn., Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl., a climber and Woodfordia floribunda Salisb., a shrub. Crimson sunbirds were, however, partial to the nectar of ornamental plants, which they were observed sipping through the regular flower opening, and had also adopted a short cut method to reach the nectar. Even the unopened flowers of Hibiscus mutabilis Linn, were robbed of their nectar by these birds. A few species of trees/shrubs flower during September-November, when the breeding season of birds is over. The Oriental white-eye Zosterops palpebrosus, a specialized nectar-feeder, was observed visiting Leptodermis lanceolatus Wall., a shrub that flowers after the birds’ breeding season. It also visited Prunus cerasoides D. Don., a plant flowering outside the breeding period, for nectar. The Himalayan bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys, a non-specialized nectar-feeder, was also recorded frequenting the plants of Prunus cerasoides D. Don. for nectar during its non- breeding period in September-October. Kannan (1980) has termed the Nectariniidae (sunbirds), Zosteropidae (white- eyes), Irenidae (leafbirds) and Dicaeidae (flowerpeckers) as specialized nectar-feeders among Indian birds. Out of these, sunbirds and white-eyes are the important flower birds (i.e. flower visitors) of the study area (Table 3). Leafbirds are not represented in the study area, and flowerpeckers are rare during the flowering period. Amongst the non-specialized nectar- feeders, bulbuls (Pycnonotidae) especially the Himalayan bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys, were found to be the prominent nectar-feeders, followed by mynas and starlings (Stumidae). Birds as seed dispersal agents: As per our study, 21 bird species belonging to 10 families were observed feeding on the fruits of 14 plant species, which include 5 shrubs and a herb (Table 5). Out of the 21 avian species observed feeding on fruits, 3 species of parakeets were found to be seed eaters and did not help in seed dispersal. The two resident species of parakeets i.e. Psittacula eupatria and Psittacula cyanocephala were recorded as feeding on and rendering JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 217 A VI AN SPECIES INVOL VED IN POLLINA TION AND SEED DISPERSAL Table3 FLOWER BIRDS OF THE STUDY AREA AND PLANT SPECIES VISITED BY THEM Bird species Plant species visited Common Name Scientific Name Alexandrine parakeet Psittacula eupatria Bombax ceiba Linn. Plum-headed parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala Bombax ceiba Linn. Spot-winged starling Saroglossa spiloptera Bombax ceiba Linn. Woodford ia floribunda Salisb. Chestnut-tailed starling Stumus malabaricus Bombax ceiba Linn. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Common myna Acridotheres tristis Bombax ceiba Linn. Erythrina indica Lamk. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Jungle myna Acridotheres fuscus Bombax ceiba Linn. Erythrina indica Lamk. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Large-billed crow Corvus macrorhynchos Bombax ceiba Linn. Erythrina indica Lamk. Redbilled blue magpie Urocissa erythrorhyncha Bombax ceiba Linn. Himalayan bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys Bombax ceiba Linn. Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Erythrina indica Lamk. Prunus cerasoides D. Don. Pninus sp. Xylosma longifolium Clos. Redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer Bombax ceiba Linn. Eiythrina indica Lamk. Black bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis Bombax ceiba Linn. Erythrina indica Lamk. Jungle babbler Turdoides striatus Bombax ceiba Linn. Eiythrina indica Lamk. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Rufous sibia Heterophasio capistrata Bombax ceiba Linn. Erythrina indica Lamk. Flycatcher Muscicapa sp. Bombax ceiba Linn. Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Grey-hooded warbler Seicercus xanthoschistos Ougenia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Great tit Parus major Bombax ceiba Linn. Purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica Bombax ceiba Linn. Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Erythrina indica Lamk. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Prunus sp. Bauhinia variegata Linn. Piinica granatum Linn. Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl. Crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja Hibiscus mutabilis Linn. Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl. Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. 218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 A VIA N SPECIES IN VOL VED IN POLLINA TION A ND SEED DISPERSA L Table 3 (contd.) FLOWER BIRDS OF THE STUDY AREA AND PLANT SPECIES VISITED BY THEM Bird species Plant species visited Common Name Scientific Name Oriental white-eye Zosterops palpebrosus Bombax ceiba Linn. Erythrina indica Lamk. Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Ougenia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Prunus cerasoides D. Don. Prunus sp. Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Leptodermis lanceolatus Wall. House sparrow Passer domesticus Bombax ceiba Linn. Erythrina indica Lamk. Russet sparrow Passer rutilans Bombax ceiba Linn. Common rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Table 4 RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF BIRDS ON FOUR PLANT SPECIES Bird species Relative abundance (%) Common Name Scientific Name 1 2 3 4 Alexandrine parakeet Psittacula eupatria 3.22 - *.656 - Plum-headed parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala 6.17 - *5.45 - Asian koel Eudynamys scolopacea - 2.08 - - Bluethroated barbet Megalaima asiatica - - 4.19 - Eurasian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus - - - 3.17 Spot-winged starling Saroglossa spiloptera 1.46 - - - Chestnut-tailed starling Sturnus malabaricus 2.05 - - - Common myna Acridotheres tristis 2.66 - 26.18 23.80 Jungle myna Acridotheres fuscus 2.71 14.58 - 7.93 Redbilled blue magpie Urocissa erythrorhyncha 1.14 8.33 - - Large-billed crow Corvus macrorhynchos 11.20 - 16.36 - Grey treepie Dendrocitta formosae - - 7.27 - Himalayan bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys 21.47 20.83 21.44 20.63 Redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer 5.18 16.66 2.72 3.17 Black bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis 14.34 1 6.66 4.03 6.34 Jungle babbler Turdoides striatus 5.13 - - 11.11 Redbilled leiothrix Leiothrix lutea - 2.08 - - Rufous sibia Heterophasia capistrata 3.25 - - - Rufous treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda - - 5.75 14.28 Flycatcher (unidentified) 999 0.61 - - - Darkthroated thrush Turdus ruficollis - 4.16 - - Great tit Parus major 4.61 - - - Purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica 4.14 - - - Oriental white-eye Zosterops palpebrosus 3.07 - - 9.52 House sparrow Passer domesticus 1.53 - - - Russet sparrow Passer rutilans 6.06 - - - Common rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus - 14.58 - - 1 . Bombax ceiba Linn. 2. Morns alba Linn. 3. Celtis australis Linn. 4. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. *Both the species of parakeets are seed eaters JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 219 A VI AN SPECIES INVOL VED IN POLLINA TION AND SEED DISPERSAL Table 5 AVIAN SPECIES INVOLVED IN SEED DISPERSAL Bird species Plant visited Common Name Scientific Name * Alexandrine parakeet Psittacula eupatria Celt is australis Linn. *Plum-headed parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala Celtis australis Linn. * Slaty headed parakeet Psittacula himalayana Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. Asian koel Eudynamys scolopacea Morns alba Linn. Great barbet Megalaima virens Ficus religiose Linn. Bluethroated barbet Megalaima asiatica Ficus religiosa Linn. Celtis australis Linn. Eurasian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus Coriaria nepalensis Wall . Common myna Acridotheres tristis Celtis australis Linn. Ficus religiosa Linn. Ficus palmata Forsk. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Solatium nigrum Linn. Jungle myna Acridotheres fuscus Morns alba Linn. Ficus religiosa Linn. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Redbilled blue magpie Urocissa erythrorhyncha Moms alba Linn. Rubus ellipticus Smith Large-billed crow Corvus macrorhynchos Celtis australis Linn. Rufous treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda Celtis australis Linn. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Grey treepie Dendrocitta formosae Celtis australis Linn. Himalayan bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys Celtis australis Linn. Moms alba Linn. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Ficus religiosa Linn. Grewia optiva Drurnm. ex Burr. Ficus palmata Forsk. Crataegus crenulata Roxb. Redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer Moms alba Linn. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Grewia optiva Roxb. Osyrus arbor ea (Wall.) ex DC Celtis australis Linn. Black bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Morns alba Linn. Celtis australis Linn. Ficus religiosa Linn. Rosa moschata Hook. Ehretia acuminata R.Br. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Jungle babbler Turdoides striatus Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Redbilled leiothrix Leiothrix lutea Moms alba Linn. Dark-throated thrush 7 urdus ruficollis Morns alba Linn. Ficus religiosa Linn. Oriental white-eye Zosterops palpebrosus Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Common rosefinch Carpodacus eiythrinus Moms alba Linn. * Three species of parakeets are seed eaters 220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 A VIA N SPECIES IN VOL VED IN POLLINA TIONAND SEED DISPERSA L unviable the seeds of Celtis australis Linn. The third species Psittacula himalayana, a winter migrant was recorded to be a seed eater of Pyrus pashia (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.). The remaining 1 8 avian frugivores contributed to seed dispersal. The true role of these birds in plant propagation could not be assessed, as the viability of seeds passed out by the birds was not tested. Maximum bird density was recorded on mulberry trees Morus alba Linn, which were visited by 9 bird species in April (Table 4). The red colour of the ripening fruits is probably the reason for high density and diversity of birds, as fruit colour is one of the factors determining fruit choice by birds (Wheelwright and Janson 1985). Mulberry fruit, which constitutes an important food item for birds in the study area, ripens at the same time as the breeding season of birds. Fruit of khirak Celtis australis Linn, starts maturing in August-September. During the early period of ripening, it is eaten by parakeets and barbets. But it is during the winter (December- January) when insect food is reduced, that these trees are visited by 10 species of avian frugivores (Table 4). Maximum species diversity was exhibited on these trees during the winter months. Celtis australis Linn, is thus an important fruit crop that sustains 10 species of avian frugivores for nearly half the year. All but the two species of parakeets bring about seed dispersal of this species. Another forestry species in the study area which is predominantly dispersed through an avian frugivore, the black bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis, is Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Black bulbuls feed almost exclusively on the ripe R E FE Ali, S. ( 1 93 1 ): The role of sunbirds and flowerpeckers in the propagation and distribution of tree parasite Loranthus longiflorus Desr. in the Konkan (W. India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 144-149. Ali,S. (1932): Flower-birds and bird-flowers in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 573-605. Ali, S. (1936): Economic ornithology in India. Curr. Sci. fruits of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. during December-February. Amongst the shrubs, Coriaria nepalensis Wall, was the most preferred. Nine species of avian frugivores were recorded visiting it for fruit during April-May (Table 4). The seeds of this shrub species are, therefore, dispersed mainly by birds. The results of our study show that the relative abundance of Himalayan bulbul and black bulbul was very high, both as a nectarivore and as a seed dispersal agent (Table 4). Relative abundance of Himalayan bulbul was highest as a nectarivore in respect of Bombax ceiba Linn, and as a frugivore in respect of Morus alba Linn. The Himalayan bulbul was the second most abundant on Celtis australis Linn, and also on Coriaria nepalensis Wall. (Table 4). Similarly, the black bulbul was the second most abundant species as a nectarivore of Bombax ceiba Linn, and as a frugivore of Morus alba Linn. Redvented bulbul was an agent of pollination as well as seed dispersal, but its abundance was poor. Overall, the 3 species of bulbuls were agents of pollination of 6 tree/shrub species and seed dispersal of 1 1 tree/shrub species. Common myna Acridotheres tristis, though it was the most abundant frugivore on Celtis australis Linn, and also on Coriaria nepalensis Wall., was not recorded on Morus alba Linn, and its abundance was poor as a nectarivore. The abundance of other members of the family Stumidae was also poor, both as nectarivore as well as frugivore. The members of the family Pycnonotidae are, therefore, important agents in cross pollination and also in seed dispersal. ENCES 4: 472-478. Balasubramanian, P. (1995): Animal activity and seed dispersal of Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) hid. J. For. 18(3): 201-204. Balasubramanian, P. (1996): Interaction between fruit- eating birds and bird-dispersed plants in the tropical dry evergreen forests of Point Calimere, South India, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 221 A VIA N SPECIES IN VOL VED IN POLL IN A PI ON A ND SEED DISPERSA L J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 428-441 . Davidar, P. (1985): Ecological interactions between the mistletoes and their avian pollinators in South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 45-60. Dhindsa, M.S. & Harjeet K. Saini (1994): Agricultural ornithology: an Indian perspective. J. Biosci. 19(4): 391-402. Faruqui, S.A., G. Bump, P.C. Nanda &G.C. Christensen ( 1 960): A study of the seasonal foods of the Black Francolin, the Grey Francolin and Common Sandgrouse in India and Pakistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 354-361. Howe, H.F. & G.F. Estabrook (1977): On intraspecific competition for avian dispersers in tropical trees. American Naturalist, 7/7:817-832. Hussain, M.A. & H.R. Bhalla (1937): Some birds of Ly allpur and their food. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39: 831-842. Kannan, P. (1980): Nectar feeding adaptations of flowerbirds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (Suppl): 1036-1050. Mason, G.W. & H.M. Lefroy (1912): The foods of birds in India. Mem. Dep. Agric. India ent. Ser. 3: 1- 371. Mathew, D.N., T.C. Narendran & V.J. Zacharfas ( 1 980): A comparative account of the food habits of some species of birds affecting agriculture. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (Suppl): 1 178-1 197. Mehrotra, K.N. & R.K. Bhatnagar (1979): Status of economic ornithology in India, ICAR, New Delhi. Pp. 1-79. Mukherjee, A.K. (1969-76): Food habits of the waterbirds of Sunderbans, 24-Parganas district, W.B., India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vols. 66, 68, 72 & 73. Narang, M.L. (1986): A contribution to the food habits of Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus (Dumont). Ind. J. Ecol. 13(1): 38-45. Narang, M.L. & B.S. Lamba (1984): A contribution to the food habits of some Indian Mynas (Aves). Rec. zool. Surv. India, Misc. Publ., Occ. Paper No. 44: 1-76. Rajaseichar, B. (1995): Observations of frugivory on Michelia nilagirica - A shola forest tree. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 35(5): 85-88. Shahabuddin, C. (1993): Avian frugivory of Persea macarantha, an evergreen tree species, Peechi- Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 33(2): 20-21 . Sindhi, S. ( 1 996): Diversity and economic utility of flora ofNauni, district Solan, M. Sc. Thesis. College of Forestry, Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry, Solan (Himachal Pradesh). Singh, T.C.N. ( 1 929): A note on the pollination of Erythrina indica by birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 460- 462. Subramanya, S. & T.R. Radhamani ( 1 993): Pollination by birds and bats. Curr. Sci. 65(3): 201-209. Toor, H.S. & M. Ramzan (1974): Extent of losses to sunflower due to Roseringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri at Ludhiana (Pb.). J. Res. Punjab Agric. Univ. 11: 197-199. Wheelwright, N.T. & C.H. Janson ( 1 985): Colours of fruit displays of bird dispersed plants in two tropical forests. American Naturalist 126: 777-799. ■ ■ ■ 222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 STUDIES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RAN A CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES1 Jinesh James, Thomas T. Valamparampil2 and Oommen V. Oommen3 ( With one plate) Key words: Rana curtipes, development, metamorphosis, labial teeth, tadpoles The development of the labial teeth row structure of anuran tadpoles of the temperate regions has been studied. However, similar studies on tropical species are scant. The present study is an attempt to describe the ontogeny of the labial teeth row structure of Rana curtipes , an endemic species of the Western Ghats of India. R. curtipes tadpole has the highest reported number of labia! teeth rows, with marginal teeth, among tropical frogs. Introduction The teeth of frogs function primarily to grasp prey, or to position it for swallowing. Their distribution is known to be variable even among closely related groups (Altig 1970). The oral armature of the larvae differs from that of the adults, as they differ in feeding habits. The ontogeny of the labial teeth row structure of anuran tadpoles inhabiting temperate regions has been studied by several workers (Taylor 1942, Zweifel 1964, Altig 1970, Lee 1976, Webb and Korky 1977, Hero 1990 and Davies 1992). However, our knowledge of the Indian amphibians is scant. Rao (1914), Lobo (1961), Chari (1962), Daniel (1975), Inger et al. (1984) and Sekar (1990a) have given brief notes on the mouth parts of Indian amphibians. Agarwal and Niazi (1980), and Dutta and Mohanty-Hejmadi (1983) have reported the ontogeny of the teeth row structure in Rana tigerina (now Hoplobatrachus tigerinus). The present paper describes changes in the teeth row structure of Rana curtipes tadpoles during metamorphosis. Material and Methods Fertilized eggs collected from natural habitat ‘Accepted July, 1999 3 Department of Zoology, S.B. College, Changanacherry, Kerala 686 101 , India. 3 Department of Zoology, University of Kerala, Karyavattom, Thiruvananthapuram 695 581 , Kerala, India. were used for the study. Freshly collected eggs were divided into groups of 50 and transferred to a large aquarium (maintained at a photoperiod of 1 2L: 1 2D at 29 ±2 °C) containing fresh pond water. After hatching, the tadpoles were divided into groups of 10 to avoid overcrowding, and reared in an aquarium of the same size (Group A). Water was changed every second day, and the tadpoles were fed ad libitum with boiled spinach. The developing eggs and embryos were observed under binocular microscope to note morphological changes at one hour intervals. Embryos and larvae were staged according to Gosner (1960) system for Rana pipiens. Tadpoles of earlier stages were preserved in 5% and later in 10% formaldehyde. Morphological features of the oral armature were studied, and the teeth row formula was determined as per Altig (1970) modified by Webb and Korky (1977), to introduce the “marginal teeth”. Tadpole stages from feeding stage onwards were collected from a natural habitat near Thekkady (76° 50 'E, 9° 45 'N), Kerala (Group B). Twenty to thirty tadpoles were examined at each developmental stage. Results The number of teeth rows changed with growth. The tadpoles collected from swift waters (stream) had more teeth rows than those reared in the aquarium. A list of teeth row formulae of tadpoles reared in the aquarium at 29 ±2 °C, and those collected from a stream, have been presented in Tables 1 and 2. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 223 THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RANACURTIPES J£7?£>6W TADPOLES Table 1 LABIAL TEETH ROW FORMULA OF RANA CURTIPES TADPOLES Stages Group A Reared in aquarium Formula Percent Group B Collected from natural habitat (stream) Formula External gill stage Without teeth Not collected One external gill l/0/2(l) 53 Not collected covered stage l/0/3(l) 47 Operculum 1/0/20) 20 Not collected complete stage 2(2)/0/2(l ) 53 Feeding stage 2(2)/0/3(l) 3(3)/0/3(l) 27 59 3(3)/0/3(l) 3(3)/0/4(l ) 41 3(3)/0/4(l) Prelimb stage 4(3-4)/0/4(l) 20 4(3-4 )/0/4(l) 5(3-5)/0/4(l) 46 5(3-5)/0/4(l) 5(3-5)/0/5(l) 26 5(3-5)/ 1/5(1) 5(3-5)/0/6(l ) 8 6(3-6)/l/6(l) Limb bud stage 5(3-5)/ 1 /5( 1 ) 14 6(3-6)/l/6(l) 6(3-6)/0/6(l) 30 7(3-7)/2/6(l) 6(3-6)/l/6(l) 36 8(3-8)/3/7(l ) 7(3-7)/l/6(l) 20 8(3-8)/4/8(l) Foot paddle stage 7(3-7)/2/6(l ) 27 9(3 -9 )/ 4/7 ( 1 ) 9(3-9)/4/8(l ) 8(3-8)/3/7(l) 7(3-7)/2/7(l ) 34 8(3-8)/4/8(l ) 8(3-8)/3/6(l) 39 9(3-9)/5/7(l ) Foot stage 7 (3 -7 )/2/7 ( 1 ) 22 9(3-9)/5/8(l) 1 0(3-1 0)/5/8(l) 8(3-8)/2/8(l ) 8(3-8)/0/7(l) 56 9(3-9)/2/7(l) 8(3-8)/2/6(l) 22 9(3-9)/3/8(l) Well developed 7(2-7)/0/7(l) 36 9(3-9)/4/8(l) 1 0(3-1 0)/3/8(l ) 8(3-8)/0/7(l) hindlimb stage 8(3-8)/0/6(l ) 31 9(2-9)/0/8(l) 8(2-8)/0/6(l) 33 9(3-9)/0/8(l) One forelimb stage 7(1 -7)/0/4( 1 ) 61 10(2- 10)/ 1/8(1) 1 0(3-1 0)/l/8(l) 9(3 -9)/0/6( 1 ) 8(2-8)/0/6(l) 39 8(2-8)/0/7(l) Both limb and 5( 1 -5)/0/3( 1-3) 8 7(1-7 )/0/6( 1 ) 5(1 -5)/0/3(l-3) tail stage 4(1 -4)/0/3(l -3) 32 4(1 -4)/0/2( 1 -2) 4(1 -4)/0/2(l-2) 33 3(1-3 )/0/3 ( 1 -3 ) Froglet stage 3(1-3 )/0/2( 1 -2 ) Without labial 27 Without labial teeth teeth Hatching and external gill stage: The stomodaeum, at the anterio-ventral region, was a deep oval pit at the time of hatching. At the external gill stage, it consisted of a pair of oval, black, non-serrated beaks without labial teeth and papillae. However, small indistinct ridges could be seen on the lateral and ventral margins, foreshadowing the labial teeth and papillae. One external gill covered stage: Tadpoles reached one gill covered stage with widened mouth, and a single row of papillae on the sides of the upper and lower jaws. The edges of the lower jaw had a single row of papillae, the anterior edge of the upper jaw lacked papillae. The beaks became weakly serrated. At this stage, 53% of the tadpoles reared in the aquarium at 29 ±2 °C, had a teeth row formula of l/0/2(l) and 47% had l/0/3( 1 ); with a combined formula of 1/ 0/2-3(l) (Table 2). There was only one uninter- rupted row in the upper jaw. The number varied from 2 to 3 in the lower jaw, the first being inter- rupted by a medial gap. Marginal teeth were absent. Operculum complete stage: At this stage, 20% of the tadpoles examined had l/0/2(l) (Table 1), 53% had 2(2)/0/2(l), and 27% had 2(2)/0/3(l) formulae. The first row in the upper, and the second and third in the lower jaw, when present, were uninterrupted. However, the first row in the lower, and the second in the upper jaw, were centrally broken. In the majority of tadpoles, teeth in the two jaws were weakly developed. The combined teeth row formula was 1-2(2)70/2-3(1). Feeding stage: A single row of labial papillae appeared around the lateral and posterior margin of the anterio-ventral mouth. The second continuous row of teeth in the upper jaw appeared for the first time. The third and fourth rows of ventral jaw were poorly developed; marginal teeth were not present at this stage. The teeth row formula varied from 3(3)/0/3(l) to 3(3 )/0/ 4(1), in two groups of tadpoles, and thus the combined formula 3(3)/0/3-4(l) was the same for both groups. 224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2), AUG. 2000 THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RAN A CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES James, Jinesh et al. : Rana curtipes Plate 1 Fig. 1 : a. Mouth parts of a tadpole of Rana curtipes at foot paddle stage (stage 34). b. Marginal teeth of a tadpole of R. curtipes at foot paddle stage (stage 34). LT - labial teeth, MT - marginal teeth. 226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RAN A CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES Table 2 COMBINED LABIAL TEETH ROW FORMULA OF RAN A CURTIPES TADPOLES Stages Group A Reared in aquarium Group B Collected from natural habitat (stream ) General combined formula External gill stage Without teeth Not collected Nil One external gill covered stage l/0/2-3(l) Not collected l/0/2-3(l) Operculum complete stage l-2(2)/0/2-3(l) Not collected l-2(2)/0/2-3(l ) Feeding stage 3(3)/0/3-4(l) 3(3)/0/3-4(l) 3(3)/0/3-4(l) Prelimb stage 4-5(3-5)/0/4-6(l) 4-6(3-6)/0- l/4-6(l) 4-6(3-6)/0- l/4-6(l ) Limb bud stage 5-7(3-7)/0- 1/5-60) 6-9(3 -9)/ l-4/6-8(l) 5-9(3-9)/0-4/5-8( 1 ) Foot paddle stage 7-8(3-8)/2 -3/6-70) 8-1 0(3-1 0)/3-5/7-8(l) 7-1 0(3-1 0)/2-5/6-8( 1 ) Foot stage 7-8(3-8)/0-2/6-7(l ) 8-1 0(3-1 0)/2-4/7-8(l) 7-1 0(3-1 0)/0-4/6-8(l ) Well developed bindlimb stage 7-8(2-8)/0/6-7(l) 8-1 0(2-1 0)/0-l/7-8(l) 7-1 0(2-1 0)/0- l/6-8(l ) One forelimb stage 7-8(1 -8)/0/4-6(l) 7-9(1 -9)/0/6-7(l) 7-9(1 -9)/0/4-7(l) Both limb and tail stage 3-5(1 -5)/0/2-3( 1-3) 3-5(l-5)/0/2-3(l-3) 3-5(1 -5)/0/2-3(l -3) Froglet stage Nil Nil Nil Prelimb stage: The teeth row formulae of the tadpoles reared at 29 ±2 °C were 20% 4(3- 4)/0/4(l), 46% 5(3-5)/0/4(l), 26% 5(3-5)/0/5(l) and 8% 5(3-5)/0/6(l). The last row of the lower jaw in 70% of the tadpoles was poorly developed. The combined formula 4-5(3-5)/0/4-6(l) indicated that, of 4 to 5 rows in the upper jaw, the first two rows were uninterrupted, marginal teeth were absent and in the lower jaw the teeth rows varied from 4 to 6, with the first row uninterrupted. Two rows of submarginal papillae could be seen on the sides of the upper and lower jaws. The combined teeth row formula, 4-5 (3-5)/0/4-6(l), of tadpoles reared in the lab indicates the presence of a maximum of five rows in the upper jaw and six rows in the lower jaw. The combined teeth row formula of tadpoles collected from the stream was 4-6(3-6)/0-l/4- 6(1). One row of marginal teeth was observed for the first time in 40% of the tadpoles. Limb bud stage: In this stage of development, Group A had 14% 5(3-5)/l/5(l), 30% 6(3-6)/0/6(l), 36% 6(3-6)/l/6(l) and 20% 7(3-7)/ 1/6(1) labial teeth row formulae. Group B tadpoles varied widely in the number of teeth rows at this stage (Table 1). One row of marginal teeth appeared for the first time in tadpoles reared in the aquarium. Another characteristic was the development of two to three rows of sub-marginal papillae on the sides of both jaws. The lower and upper beaks were strong, serrated and keratinized. As in some of the previous stages, the last row of labial teeth in the lower jaw was poorly developed, or incomplete. The combined teeth row formula was 5-7 (3-7)/0-l/5-6(l) in Group A and 6-9(3-9)/l -4/6-8( 1 ) in Group B. Foot paddle stage: The combined teeth row formulae of Group A [7-8 (3-8)/2-3/6-7( 1 )] and Group B [8- 1 0(3- 1 0)/3-5/7-8( 1 )] indicated that maximum upper labial, lower labial and marginal teeth appeared for the first time in this stage. Maximum upper labial teeth rows in Group A were 8 and in Group B10. Similarly, the maximum marginal teeth rows observed in Group A were 3. In Group B, the minimum and maximum marginal teeth rows were 3 and 5 respectively (Plate 1). All the rows of teeth in JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 227 THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RANA CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES the upper and the lower jaws were well developed. Foot stage: In Group A tadpoles, 22% had 7(3-7)/2/7(l), 56% had 8(3-8)/0/7(l) and the remaining 22% had 8(3-8)/2/6(l) formulae. Thus, 78% of tadpoles of Group A at this stage had 8 rows in the upper jaw. Another feature at this stage was the reduction in marginal teeth. 56% in Group A had completely lost their marginal teeth. Likewise, in Group B, the majority had less than 4 rows of marginal teeth. A comparison between foot paddle and foot stages indicates that while there was an increase in the percentage of labial teeth row number in foot stage, a decrease in marginal teeth row number also occurred in both groups of tadpoles at the foot stage. Well developed hindlimb stage: All the tadpoles of Group A and a number of tadpoles in Group B had lost their marginal teeth. Second labial teeth row became broken in 69% of tadpoles. Thus, reduction or shedding of labial teeth had started at this stage. None of the tadpoles had the full complement of teeth at this stage. One forelimb stage: Teeth row formula varied from 7(1 -7)/0/4( 1 ) to 8(2-8)/0/6(l) in Group A tadpoles. The combined formula of Group B was 7-9(l-9)/0/6-7(l). In the majority of tadpoles, both upper and lower jaw had intermittently broken labial teeth rows. The shedding of labial teeth had already started prior to this stage. The rows of sub-marginal papillae were absorbed, and limited to the comers of the mouth. The number of papillae decreased in the lower jaw. The horny beaks, both upper and lower, became thick, colourless or white, except at the edges where they were black at this stage. Both limb and tail stage: In both groups of tadpoles, the combined teeth row formula was the same, 3-5(l-5)/0/2-3(l-3). All the rows in the upper and lower jaws were interrupted with lost teeth, and limited to the comers of the mouth. The labial fringes, which were present on the lateral sides of mouth in the previous stages, were absorbed and papillae were seen in small clusters at the comers of the mouth. The homy beaks disappeared. The mouth widened, and the comers reached the level of the posterior margin of the eyes. Discussion The present study shows that there are variations in the development of labial teeth row structure in tropical anurans. The number of teeth rows changes with the stage of development, and for each stage there are individual variations. Table 1 indicates that labial teeth appear at the one external gill covered stage, and reach a full complement of rows at the foot paddle stage. Labial teeth rows maintain this full complement up to the well-developed hindlimb stage. Before the onset of metamorphosis, labial teeth begin to shed and disappear with the completion of metamorphosis. Dutta and Mohanty-Hejmadi (1983) reported a similar pattern in Rana tigerinci (now Hoplobatrachus tigerinus). Further, the present study shows that the teeth rows in the upper jaw vary from 1 to 10. Similarly, the labial teeth rows in the lower jaw vary from 2 to 8. The combined teeth row formula for Rana curtipes according to Rao (1914) is 6-8(4-8)/6-8(l), and Sekar (1990b) is 7(3-7)/5-8(l) or 7(4-7)/5-8(l). The present observation agrees with the views of Rao (1914) and Sekar (1990b) in the maximum number of rows and nature of the first row in the lower jaw. The present study established that Rana curtipes tadpoles have marginal teeth, which make their first appearance in the prelimb stage (Table 2), reach a maximum at the foot paddle stage, and begin to disappear at the foot stage. The number of marginal teeth varies from 0 to 5 in Rana curtipes. Similar findings have been reported in R. pustulosa (Taylor 1942), R. tarahumarae (Zweifel 1955) and R. macroglossa (Volpe and Harvey 1958). But none have reported 228 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 97(2). AUG. 2000 THE LABIAL TEETH ROW STRUCTURE IN RANA CURTIPES JERDON TADPOLES the presence of marginal teeth in a tropical anuran. Some differences were also found in the number of teeth rows between aquarium reared tadpoles, and those collected from their natural stream habitat. The tadpoles developed in the aquarium differ significantly from those collected from streams in the number, pattern and percentage of occurrence of labial and marginal teeth rows. In Rana curtipes , 10 rows of labial teeth in the upper and 8 rows in lower jaw indicate that the species has the largest number of labial teeth rows among tropical frogs. Labial teeth row formulae reported by Inger et al. ( 1 984) for R. temporalis [2(2)/0/2( 1 )], R. beddomi (now Refer Agarwal, S.K. & I. A. Ntazi (1980): Development of mouthparts in the tadpoles of Rana tigerina Daud. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci .) 89(2): 127-131. Altig, R. (1970): A key to the tadpoles of the continental United States and Canada. Herpetologica 26: 180- 207. Chari, V.K. (1962): A description of the hitherto undescribed tadpole and some field notes on the fungoid frog, Rana malabarica Bibron. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 59(1): 71-76. Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the amphibians of western India. Part 3.7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2): 506-522. Davies, M. ( 1 992): Early development of Limnodynastes terraereginae and L. fletcheri (Anura : Leptodactylidae : Limnodynastinae). Trans. R. Soc. S. A list. 116(4): 117-122. Dutta, S.K. & P. Mohanty-Hejmadi (1983): Ontogeny of teeth row structure in Rana tigerina tadpoles. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 517-528. Gosner, K.L. (1960): A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification. Herpetologica 16: 183-190. Hero, J.M. (1990): An illustrated key to tadpoles occurring in the central Amazon rainforest, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. AmazonianaXI(2): 201-262. Inger, R.F., H.B. Shaffer, M. Koshy & R. Bak.de (1984): A report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from the Ponmudi, Kerala, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(2): 406-427. Lee, J.C. (1976): Rana maculata Brocchi, an addition to Indirana beddomii) [4(4)/0/4( 1-2)] and R. keralensis (now Limnonectes keralensis) [2(2)/0/3], by Chari (1962) for R. malabarica [170/2(1)] and by Sekar (1990b) for Rhacophorus malabaricus [6(3-6)/0/3( 1 )], were less than those of Rana curtipes. The maximum number reported for R. tigerina (now Hoplobatrachus tigerinus), by Dutta and Mohanty-Hejmadi (1983), was 5(2-5)/0/(l-3). The above observations reveal that Rana curtipes has the largest number of labial teeth rows among tropical anurans and the number of teeth rows changes with the development of tadpoles. ENCES the herpetofauna of Belize. Herpetologica * 32: 211- 214. Lobo, L. ( 1 96 1 ): Some observations on the metamorphosis of the frog Rana curtipes Jerdon. Zoologica: New York Zool. Soc. 46:10: 103-104. Rao, C.R.N. (1914): Larva of Rana curtipes Boul. Rec. Ind. Mus. 10: 265-267. Sekar, A.G.( 1 990a): Observations on the developmental stages of tadpoles of the Malabar gliding frog Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura : Rhacophoridae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 223-226. Sekar, A.G. (1990b): Notes on morphometry, ecology, behaviour and food of tadpoles of Rana curtipes Jerdon 1853 .J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 312- 313. Taylor, E.H. (1942): Tadpoles of Mexican anura. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 28: 37-55. Volpe, E.P. & S.M. Harvey (1958): Hybridization and larval development in Rana palmipes Spix. Copeia 1958: 197-207. Webb, R.G. & J.K. Korky ( 1 977): Variation in tadpoles of frogs of the Rana tarahumarae group in western Mexico (Anura : Ranidae). Herpetologica 33: 73- 82. Zweifel, R.G. ( 1 955): Ecology, distribution and systematics of the Rana boylei group. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 54:207-292. Zweifel, R.G. (1964): Distribution and life history of a central American frog, Rana vibicaria. Copeia 1964(2): 300-308. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2). AUG. 2000 229 BURROW PATTERN OF INDIAN METAD MILLARDIA (RA TTUS) MEL TAD A GRA Y 1 N.K. Pandey and A.S. Bhadauria2 ( With one text-figure) Key words: Burrow pattern, Millar diet meltada, brood chamber, emergency openings, hoarding behaviour, bolt run Burrow pattern in Millardia (Rattus) meltada Gray was studied by excavating ten burrows every alternate month in 1992. Measurements of the burrows were recorded and found to be as follows: average length 106.2 cm, breadth 45.8 cm, depth 38.1 cm and diameter of burrow openings 3.6 cm. The average number of brood chambers (1.13), food chambers (1.13), surface openings (2.73), emergency openings (0.78), and rats (3.17), per burrow, were also noted. Hoarding behaviour was studied by collecting food materials, the average being 50.12 gm per burrow. M. meltada was found to have a very simple burrow structure with no boltruns. A hole covered with a thin layer of soil at the distal end was used during emergency. The burrows had one to four openings at the surface, with a heap of excavated soil near one of the openings. The burrows were deeper in summer than in winter. Introduction Rats are unwelcome associates of mankind from time immemorial. They cause enormous losses to agricultural crops at every stage, from production to consumption. According to one estimate, rats inflict damage of 6 to 10% on standing crops and 5 to 15% in storage (Jain and Tripathi, 1988). Besides feeding voraciously, they contaminate the food material with their droppings, urine and hair. Rats are carriers of many diseases that afflict humans and domestic animals. Most of the rat species construct burrows and thus threaten conservation work. The Indian desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon) unearths about 17,000 kg soil per hectare, which is blown away by strong wind, increasing the area of sandy waste and barren land (Prakash, 1976). Little information is available on the burrow pattern in different rat species, which is of importance in rodent pest management. Hence, the present study was undertaken. 'Accepted February, 1999 department of Entomology, C.S. Azad University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur 208 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. Study Area The burrow pattern of Indian metad, Millardia (Rattus) meltada was studied by digging burrows on five agricultural research farms viz. Students Research Farm, Research Farm, Oilseed Research Farm, New Dairy Farm and Vegetable Research Farm of this University and five villages viz. Gangpur, Gambhirpur, Prempur, Singhpur and Bairy-Akbarpur located in the development block Kalyanpur, Kanpur Nagar (U.P.). Most of the study area was under various cropping system. The main crops grown were cereals, pulses, oilseeds and vegetables. Material and Methods The test species was identified at the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Burrows of Millardia meltada were unearthed in 1 992 and ten burrows studied in alternate months. The morphometries of the burrows, i.e. their openings, length, breadth, depth and number of internal structures, like brood chambers, storage/ food chambers, boltruns, escape holes (emergency openings), number of animals and quantity of hoarded material were recorded. The 230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2). AUG. 2000 BURROW PA TTERN OF INDIAN METAD burrows generally had 1-4 openings on the burrow surface. Live burrows were identified by closing them in the evening and examining them the next day. Open burrows with freshly excavated soil were considered live. Atmospheric temperature, relative humidity and rainfall were recorded to correlate the burrowing pattern with the meteorological conditions. Results and Discussion The structure of a M. meltada burrow is depicted in Fig. 1 and its measurements are presented in Table 1. The average length, breadth, depth and diameter of burrow openings were 106.2 cm, 45.8 cm, 38.1 cm and 3.6 cm respectively. The average number of brood chambers (1.13), food chambers (1.13), surface openings (2.73), emergency openings (0.78) and metads (3.17) were noted. The hoarded food material (average 50.12 gm per burrow) was generally present in the channels of the burrows; specialised food chambers were also noted in some cases. No boltruns were recorded in any burrow. M. meltada made very simple burrows with a depth of 32.7 to 47.5 cm. The length and breadth ranged from 89.1 to 124.9 cm and 32.9 to 68.3 cm, respectively. The burrows had one to four clear openings and a heap of soil near one of them. Females lived with young ones in a burrow during parturition. The litters formed separate burrows when they could move and feed freely. Solitary females were found with an average of 2.7 young ones in a burrow. Females were observed placing smooth grasses in the brood chambers. There were no boltruns in the burrow channels. Interestingly, in some cases the long, upwardly directed branches of the burrow channels ended in a very thin layer of soil at the surface. The metads were observed running out suddenly from these burrows by remov- ing the thin soil layer in one stroke. These structures formed emergency openings or escape holes. Escape holes were observed in some burrows with an average of 0.78 escape holes per burrow. The burrows were deeper during the summer, the mean depth being 40.6 cm in April and 47.5 cm in June and comparatively shallow during the winter (33.8 cm and 32.7 cm in Surface opening Emergency opening Brood chamber Food chamber Heap of excavated soil Fig. 1: Burrow pattern of Millardia ( Rattus ) meltada Gray JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 97(2), AUG. 2000 231 BURROW PA TTERN OF INDIAN METAD W *o «* 00 2? 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