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JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

APRIL 2001

Vol. 98 (1)

BOARD OF EDITORS Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

AJITH KUMAR

M.K. CHANBRASHEKARAN

T.C. NARENDRAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR R. GADAGKAR INDRANEIL DAS A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

A.R. RAHMAN I

J.S. SINGH R. WHITAKER

Assistant Editor GAYATR! WATTAL UGRA

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.518) using Word Star.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be acceptable if labelled free hand.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay nat Hist Soc. 92(1): 63-66 .

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors wiil be sent a free copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

HornbilS House, Editors,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Mumbai-400 023. Natural History Society

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON DISPLAYS AND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MAGPIE ROBIN COPSYCHUS SAULARIS (With one plate and two text-figures )

By Anil Kumar and Dinesh Bhatt 5

THE POPULATION DYNAMICS AND CONSERVATION OF GOLDEN LANGUR

By A. Srivastava, M. Baruah and S.M. Mohnot 12

STUDIES ON THE SYSTEMATICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRAWNS IN ASSAM ( With nine text-figures )

By N.K. Dutta 1 8

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT PARUS NUCHALIS IN GUJARAT AND RAJASTHAN

ByJ.K.Tiwari 26

SPECIES STATUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI (MUKERIl 1934), (CYPRINIFORMES:

CYPRINIDAE) WITH A SYSTEMATIC NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLAVATUS (MCCLELLAND 1845)

(With one plate and two text-figures )

By Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin 31

FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD BUFO MELANOSTICTUS SCHNEIDER (With one text-figure)

By Mercy Mathew and M.I. Andrews 38

TAXONOMIC POSITION OF THE INDIAN SPECIES OF GRASS FEEDING DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS ASSIGNED TO THE GENUS ALLOPHLEPS

(HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE)

(With five text-figures)

By C.A. Viraktamath and Pratap Chandra Dash 47

NOTES OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF CONCHYLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA (BOHEMAN) (COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE: CASSIDINAE)

(With four text-figures)

By Nilesh Rane, Sachin Ranade and H.V. Ghate 53

TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL (With one text-figure)

By Bharat Raj Subba and Tapan Kumar Ghosh 58

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPER GENUS GONIAGNATHUS (HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE) IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF FOUR NEW SPECIES (With sixty-five text-figures)

By Pratap Chandra Dash and C.A. Viraktamath 62

GARRA PERIYARENSIS , A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE, KERALA, INDIA ( With four text-figures)

ByK.C.Gopi 80

ON A NEW SPECIES OF HETEROGAMUS WESMAEL (INSECTA: HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA (With three text-figures)

By S.M. Kurhade and P.K. Nikam

84

TWO NEW SPECIES OF BULBOPHYLLUM THOUARS (ORCHID ACEAE) FROM

SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA ( With two text-figures)

By Muktesh Kumar and Stephen Sequiera 87

OBITUARY

Sidney Dillon Ripley II 1913-2001 92

REVIEWS

1 . CHECKLIST OF INDIAN MAMMALS

Reviewed by Meghana Gavand 94

2. PEOPLE, PARKS AND WILDLIFE: TOWARDS COEXISTENCE

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 94

3. THREATENED BIRDS OF THE WORLD

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 95

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . Occurrence of small Indian civet Viverricula indica, Family Viverridae, in the mid-hills of Himachal Pradesh

By M.L. Narang, Naim Akhtar and

Manoj Kumar 97

2. Wetting of nostril by jackal Canis aureus Linn., Carnivora, Family Canidae

By Raza H. Tehsin 97

3 . Sloth bear Melursus ursinus Shaw and power meter

By Raza H. Tehsin 98

4. New records and status of blackbuck Antilope cervicapra in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina

By Bruno Carpinetti 98

5. Incidence of an elephant calf Elephas maximus trapped between two tree trunks

By Niren Jain and R. Saandeep 99

6. A note on some food plants of the Malayan giant squirrel Ratufa bicolor in Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Jorhat, Assam

By P. Bujarbarua, D. Chetry, J. Das,

S.K. Sarma and P.C. Bhattacharjee 101

7. Burrow morphology of field rodents of Kymore Plateau, Satpura Hills By O.P. Dubey 103

BIRDS

8. The barheaded goose Anser indicus Latham in Bhavnagar, Saurashtra

By I.R. Gadhvi 106

9. More information on shikra Accipter badius (Gmelin) feeding on shortnosed fruit bats Cynopterus sphinx V ahl .

ByAshfaq Ahmed Zarri 106

1 0 . Predatory attack on bats by bam owl Tyto alba and shikra Accipiter badius in Tamil Nadu State, South India

By G. Agoramoorthy and Minna J. Hsu 107

11. A note on sarus crane Grus antigone mortality due to collision with high-tension power lines

By K.S. Gopi Sundar and B.C. Choudhury ... 108

1 2. Occurrence of great Indian bustard Ardeotis nigriceps at Hosur, Nashik district, Maharashtra

By B. Raha and Vibhu Prakash 110

13. Sighting of sociable lapwing Vanellus gregarius in Kachchh district, Gujarat

By Justus Joshua, S.F. Wesley Sunderraj,

V. Gokula, S.V. Subba Rao,

Pranita Narayanan and Rashmi Dinesan Ill

14. Occurrence of the white-winged black tern Chlidonias leucopterus in Kerala By P.K. Ravindran 112

15. Sightings of whitecheeked tern Sterna repressa, whitewinged black tern Chlidonias leucopterus and Saunders’s little tern Sterna saundersi at Porbander Coast, Gujarat

By B.M. Parasharya and

Aeshita Mukherjee 113

16. Red-winged crested cuckoo Clamator coromandus , an addition to the avifauna of Anaimalai Hills (Western Ghats) of Tamil Nadu

By A. Relton 114

17. Competition between jungle myna Acridotheres fuscus and lesser golden backed woodpecker Dinopium benghalense for a nest hole

By Aniruddha Jha 115

REPTILES

18. Further records of Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray) from the north bank of R. Brahmaputra, Assam

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 116

1 9. Distributional notes on the turtles of Western Myanmar

By Steven G. Platt, Saw Tun Khaing,

Win Ko Ko and Kalyar

117

20. Difference in breeding coloration in Calotes versicolor of the southern and northern Aravallis in Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma

AMPHIBIA

21. Occurrence of painted kaloula Kaloula taprobanica (Family Microhylidae) at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu

By Varad Giri, Vithoba Hegde and Vinod Patil

22. On the distribution of Ichthyophis bombayensis Taylor, 1960 (Family Ichthyophiidae) in Central Western Ghats By M.S. Ravichandran and

S.V. Krishnamurthy

23. Nine new records of amphibia (Anura) from Arunachal Pradesh, India

By Mohini Mohan Borah and

Sabitry Bordoloi

FISH

24. New record of Saurida wanesio Shindo & Yamada, (Osteichthyes: Myctophi formes: Synodidae) from the West Bengal Coast, with a note on Lutjanus sanguineus (Cuvier) (Osteichthyes: Perci formes: Lutjanidae)

By S. Kar and R.Chakraborty

25 . On the occurrence of Nemacheilus keralensis (Rita et al.) in Muvattupuzha river, Kerala, India

By K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju and M. John George

26. Fishes of Ramanadhi river in Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India By M. Arunachalam, A. Sankaranarayanan, J.A. Johnson, C. Vijayakumar,

A. Manimekalan, R. Soranam, A. Albin and P.N.Shanthi

INSECTS

27. Migration of Blue Mormon butterfly Papilio polymnester in Mumbai (Maharashtra)

By Naresh Chaturvedi and Vithoba Hegde ..

28. Forms of Danaus chrysippus Linn. (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Kumaon Himalaya

By Peter Smetacek

29. On the distribution of saturnid moths Sonthonnaxia maenas (Doubleday) and Loepa katinka (Westwood)

By Naresh Chaturvedi

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

30. Redescription of Schizomus buxtoni Gravely from Sri Lanka on the basis of syntypes deposited in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta by F.H. Gravely 1915

By D.B. Bastawade 1 33

31. Morphology of Eurycercus lamellatus (Muller), Chydoridae: Cladocera, from the high altitude wetlands of Sikkim, India

By K. Venkataraman 137

32. New record of the mud snail, Hydrobia (Mollusca: Gastropoda) from the mangrove habitat of Indopacific Region

By R. Sunil Kumar 142

33. Mangrove clam Geloina erosa (Solander,

1786) from Coringa (Godavari) estuary: A new record for Andhra Pradesh

By C. Srinivasulu 144

BOTANY

34. Two new plant records for India from Sikkim

By P. Singh and S.S. Dash 1 44

35. Yield response of Calophyllum inophyllum on introduction of red ants

By V. Kumaresan 148

36. On the distribution range of Bauhinia glauca glauca (Benth.) Benth. (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae) in India

By S . Bandy opadhy ay 149

37. On two species of Osbeckia Linn. (Melastomataceae)

By G.S. Giri and S.K. Mandal 150

38. First record of gum exudation from the gonda tree Cordia myxa Linn. (Family: Boraginaceae)

By Hamid A. Khan, B.B. Vashishtha and M. Mohibb E Azam 152

39. Distribution of Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt.

& McCann — A rare, endemic orchid of Western Ghats, India

By Vaishali C. Joshi, S. Rajkumar and

M.K. Janarthanam 153

40. New records of the Family Eriocaulaceae from Goa

By Vaishali C. Joshi, S. Rajkumar and

M.K. Janarthaman 155

4 1 . Note on Fimbristylis microcarya F. V. Muell . (Cyperaceae), a new distributional record to South India

By K. Indira and R.R. Venkata Raju 157

Cover photograph: King Cobra Ophiophagus hannah by Shekar Dattatri

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Editorial

Conservation of Snakes in India

111 1934, Malcolm Smith writes in his Introduction to Volume II of fauna of British india (the lizard volume): “The annual slaughter of reptiles for trade purposes is now enormous, and unless measures are taken to control it, certain species are in great danger of being exterminated.” Smith went on to quote a figure of 5,250,000 reptile skins exported from India in 1932 and 1933. Virtually nothing was done for the next forty years to stem the trade in reptile skins.

Skin Trade : In the late 1960s, snake skin exports peaked at an estimated 10 million skins per year. This figure was arrived at by putting a value of Rs. 10/- on each of the Rs. 107 millions worth of skins exported in 1967-1968. In 1978, in common Indian snakes, I wrote, “The snake skin industry means employment for the tribals, but as there is no control on numbers and season, and since the middlemen get the major profit at this end, it is both ecologically and economically unsound.” It wasn’t until 1975-1976 that most snakes received some paper protection. The Wildlife Act listed only the python in those days and it was the Export Policy for Wildlife Products, that finally began what was a long rocky road to protection with muscle. Eventually, all snakes found some form of protection under the Wildlife Act. It then took a lot of effort by State and Central Wildlife Staff, Customs and Police officers to finally bring the snake skin trade down to a cottage industry level trickle. An important factor was the comparatively low profits from snake skins. Smugglers are versatile and will shift focus from high-risk bulky items like snake skins, which don’t yield top returns, to other big earners like dope and tiger parts.

Snake Ecology. No one knows what the ecological implications of such a slaughter have been. But the removal of perhaps one billion rodent eating snakes and lizards in the forty years following Smith’s amazingly “hip” conservation message, cannot have helped Indian agriculture very much. In fact, it might be wildly surmised that we are only now recovering from the ecological disturbance of those decades, as snake populations reach former levels of abundance. (Ah, for a study of rat and snake ecology in India’s grain fields!).

Snakes in Cities'. Well, the reptile skin trade is fairly well under control (the few seizures of snake skins you read about in the papers these days means that there is still a small scale underground trade), but people still kill snakes just because they’re snakes. In the last two decades, the number of snake rescue services in cities in India has proliferated, following the example of our Madras Snake Park service begun in 1970. So in Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Baroda and Rajkot there are well known “snake people” who are on call to catch that snake which blundered into your house looking for a juicy rat. Yes, the English media, nature clubs for well-to-do city kids and the general concept of wildlife being “with it” has popularized snakes amongst Indian urbanites like never before. I’m not complaining, it’s just that there is no effort being made to take the same awareness into the countryside, where most of the snakes (and Indians!) live. Where are those grassroots nrogrammes for conservation in local languages?

Snakes in Villages : People in villages are scared of snakes, because they have a personal experience of someone known to them dying from snakebite. So what if they eat rats, “the only good snake is a dead snake.” We are hardly beyond the primitive state of 100 years ago, before there was an effective cure for snakebite. Antivenom serum is now- available in most major hospitals (in towns and cities), but is just as often not available in

the Primary Health Centres and Rural Clinics that serve rural people. No wonder there can be little headway with the message “snakes are friends of the farmer.” If it wasn’t for religious sentiment (mainly concerning cobras), snakes would be hunted out of existence as have most other life threatening wild animals. So we see that conservation of snakes in India is very much linked to awareness: knowing the few dangerous species and the effectiveness of antivenom. But it won’t work unless health authorities can guarantee adequate supplies of antivenom serum in rural dispensaries. And it has recently come to light that antivenom serum made using venom of snakes from one region of the country may not be effective against the bite of the same species in another region. No work has yet been done on this problem in India, but we recently found out that Indian made antivenom serum is quite useless against Sri Lankan Russell’s viper bite and the king cobra antivenom made in Thailand will not neutralize Indian king cobra venom. All this may seem a bit esoteric in a discussion about conservation of snakes, but it has always been a bit awkward to defend venomous snakes, especially if you can’t at least guarantee a cure for their bites!

Habitat loss and the Losers : Big, conspicuous snakes like the python and king cobra are often the first casualties of forest loss. They need the space, hiding places and prey base. But we are losing other smaller forest snakes at an undocumented but predictably rapid rate as their habitat is altered or disappears. Clearing forests raises the ground temperatures and dries out the soil, which spells death for most of the burrowing species like the shieldtail snakes. Many snakes of the Western Ghats again like the shieldtails, pit vipers and coral snake, plus a number of others like the pit vipers and trinket snakes of the Northeast, Andaman cobra and Cantor’s pit viper of the Andamans and Nicobars are endemics and have evolved to fit neatly into the conditions prevailing in the once pristine forests. It is our great loss that many of these are losing ground without anyone even noticing. Sri Lanka has similar problems and has lost over 80% of the country’s wet tropical forests and all the amazing biodiversity therein. Yet, in the tiny fragments remaining, field biologists with the Sri Lankan Wildlife Heritage Trust have discovered as many as 200 new species of frogs just in the last few years! This is an amazing revelation and points to the obvious likelihood that much biodiversity in our own dwindling rain forests (including new snakes) remains to be discovered.

The Survivors'. Humans have an uncanny knack of messing up natural systems, sometimes resulting in little twists of irony. Here’s one of them: by creating rice fields from forest land we make ideal conditions for rats with plenty of food, water and excellent housing in field bunds. At least three species of snakes, two of them venomous, are fine with this arrangement and quickly adapt to the new season of plenty. Rat snakes, cobras and in some areas kraits, all benefit from our farming methods and the numbers of these snakes are invariably much higher in agricultural areas than in their original “natural” habitat. A few other “minor players” like the rodent eating sand boas, plus the frog lovers such as the striped keelback and checkered keelback, must love us too as we provide them with unnatural concentrations of prey items. An unknown factor is, of course, the increasing chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Will snakes suffer the way India’s vultures have, once toxic levels reach intolerable concentrations?

No discussion of Indian conservation would be complete without mentioning the only ‘sustainable use of wild animals’ project in the country. The Irula Snake Catchers Cooperative Society, set up in 1978, has caught well over 75,000 snakes and produces most of the venom used for making antivenom serum. The happy note is that the snakes are released after four extractions, unlike other venom production units in the world, which

milk the snakes till they die (very prematurely). This is a model project wherein a tribe of expert snake catchers continues its traditional occupation, but not at the expense of the natural resource.

To sum up, India has done a pretty good job in clearing up its snake skin trade act, urbanites are starting to love snakes, but country people are still scared and negative about them. Teaching people to identify the dangerous ones and how to avoid and discourage them is vital, as is the publicity and distribution of the right antivenom serum.

Forest loss continues to be a very frightening comment on how we misuse our precious resources, which is resulting in the extinction of many taxa, including snakes, with no one to count the tragic losses. At the same time, there are a few hardy snakes which adapt to our monoculture mania. In a few decades, these may be the only ones left!

ROMULUS WHITAKER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

April 2001

Vol. 98

No. 1

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON DISPLAYS AND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MAGPIE ROBIN COPSYCHUS SAULARIS 1

Anil Kumar and Dinesh Bhatt2

( With one plate and two text-figures)

Key words: Visual displays, communication, Copsy chus saularis, flight display, tail posture, courtship display, threat posture

Animals convey information to members of their own and other species through a number of channels. Changes in posture and colours are their means of visual communication. In the present study, efforts have been made to characterize types of visual signals and their importance in the social life of a song bird, the Oriental magpie robin Copsychus saularis. Observations revealed that this bird uses a number of visual signals for communication. Display flights and tail postures are used by the male to attract females. Males perform various courtship ceremonies, stretching the head forward and downward in front of females, spreading their tail feathers, left-right movement of neck, stretching the beak skywards in an ecstatic posture, and other actions that eventually lead to coition. When an intruder arrives in the male’s territory it displays a threatening posture by raising its head and sleekening the plumage. Nestlings and fledglings use specific begging display by quivering their wings and demanding food. In addition, one type of resting and three types of sleeping postures have been observed.

Introduction

Physical display or posture is one of several means of animal communication, as a wider range of expression is possible by visual rather than vocal, chemical or tactile means. Birds are known to use visual signals (Collias 1943, Armstrong 1965, Butcher and Rohwer 1989). Special postures and movements are often used to display these signals. Many methods have been developed by birds for switching visual signals

‘Accepted May, 2000

department of Zoology & Environmental Science Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar 249 404,

Uttaranchal, India.

on and off by movements of the head, body, tail, wings and body feathers (Marler and Hamilton 1966). It is believed that species-specific morphological features of an animal may be ritualized (‘ritualization’ refers to the evolutionary modification of movements and structure to improve their signal function) and act as sign stimuli to which other members of the species respond instinctively (Krebs and Devies 1987). In the social context, these sign stimuli are termed ‘social releasers ’ e.g. the red spot on the bill of herring gull has all the characteristics of a sign stimulus. In ethological terms, the red spot of the bill releases the begging response of the chick (Tinbergen 1951).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 200 1

5

ON DISPLA YSAND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MA GPIE ROBIN

Visual displays or postures in birds perform a variety of functions. The head-up posture is frequently used in fighting and territorial defence in many passerine families (Marler 1961). Aggressive displays often involve an apparent increase in size (Tinbergen 1959, Marler 1961). The main weapons of many birds are the bill and wings, and these are often maximally presented to the opponent in a ‘head-forward’ posture (Andrew 1961). Many visual signals are directed partially or entirely towards members of the opposite sex, coordinating reproductive activities. The ornamentation of plumage is widely used by the buds to synchronize the reproductive process and mate acquisition (Mayr 1956, Butcher and Rohwer 1989). Colourful marks on various species, especially on the beak, are used by birds for parent- offspring recognition (Tinbergen 1959).

Despite the rich avifauna in the Indian subcontinent (about 1,228 resident species), our knowledge of displays and postures of Indian birds is scanty and based on fragmented observations made by ornithologists, naturalists and bird watchers (Ali 1996, Ali and Ripley 1998). According to Ali (1996), ‘our greatest need today is for careful and rational field work on living birds in their natural environment’. Thus, an attempt has been made to study the types of displays and postures and their sociobiological importance in the Oriental magpie robin Copsychus saularis.

Material and Methods

The Oriental magpie robin (Family Muscicapidae, Subfamily Turdinae) is a conspicuously pied black and white bird, distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent, up to about 2,500 m above msl, absent in arid areas and is divided into three races on minor size and colour differences. It is a common plains species, avoiding both dense forest and open bare plain and prefers groves and gardens. The male

is glossy black and white with graduated long, white tail, with two central pairs of black feathers. The black portions of the male are replaced by a brownish, slaty grey in female. It is one of the best songsters in a land where singing birds are scarce (Whistler 1949, Ali 1996).

Field observations were made from January 1995 to December 1998 on 33 individuals (24 males and 9 females) in and around Gurukul Kangri University campus, Haridwar (29° 55' N, 78° 8' E). The habitat was composed of gardens and crop fields, divided by hedges and tree rows, while houses/offices were often in close proximity. Data was collected by visiting each site once a week, between early morning and late evening, using a binocular (7 x 50). Displays were recorded with the help of SONY handicam video camera and Pentax still photography camera with telelens (300-600 mm). To determine the information conveyed by a signal, the circumstances in which the signal occurred were examined. The characteristics and components of different displays were defined, analyzing video films and still photographs.

Results

1. Flight display: An important display in this species. The male uses flight display in the early phase of the breeding season (i.e. March and April). When a male sees a female in his territory, he flies towards her. Before approaching her, he stalls in flight for a few seconds. In most cases (n=16), the flight display may last for 4-10 sec (x=7.38 ±0.46). However, in some cases (n=6) it can last for 20 sec (x= 18.83 ±0.55). This distinctive and conspicuous display flight has two components: undulating flight with fully spread wing and tail feathers (Plate 1, Fig. 1) and a highly varied, complex song to attract the female. The male also uses undulating flight with threat calls when predators (spotted owlet, snake, mongoose) appear in his territory.

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001

ONDISPLA YSAND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MAGPIE ROBIN

Kumar, Anil et al. : Copsychus saularis

Plate 1

Figs (1-4): Magpie robin Copsychus saularis , 1 : Flight display of male, 2. Tail display of male, 3. Head forward (threat) posture of male, 4. Resting posture during winter.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

1

ON DISPLAYS AND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MAGPIE ROBIN

Fig. 1: Courtship display, male magpie robin in front of the female

Fig. 2: Sleeping postures exhibited by magpie robin (a) Neck shrinking posture (b) Neck hanging posture

(c) Neck turning posture.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001

ONDISPLA YSAND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MA GPIE ROBIN

2. Tail posture: The male magpie robin uses this posture only until mating is completed. He sits on a horizontal perch and fans out his tail (Plate 1, Fig. 2) for about 5 sec. (x=5.09 ±0.35, n=22), to show the white tail feathers which are normally covered by the black, middle tail feathers. After returning to his normal position, he selects another branch and repeats the posture. The male repeats this posture 4-9 times (x=5.29 ±0.48, n=24) at a stretch. The male normally shows the dorsal side of his tail feathers. However, sometimes he also exhibits an anterio-ventral side. Most males (n=l 8) displayed the tail posture after pair formation, but in some cases (n=6) it was prior to pair formation and also when the territory owner saw a female approaching his territory.

3. Courtship display: A dance-like display performed by the courting male bird in the presence of a female. There are two types of courtship displays: (A) The male sits on a perch, stretches his head forward and downward, simultaneously displaying his tail feathers. He also moves his neck slightly to the right and left a number of times, simultaneously flapping his wings like a begging juvenile. (B) The male starts walking on a wall with his head towards the female. After walking about a metre, he halts, turns his head up and points his bill towards the sky (at about 60° to the horizontal plane) for 2-4 seconds (x=2.75 ±0.21, n=12), with his tail outspread. After this, he starts walking towards the female, finally performing the ‘A type’ display (Fig. 1). The ‘A type’ behaviour is more common than the ‘B type’.

4. Threat posture: When an intruder arrives in the territory of a male, the territory owner shows a specific threatening posture (Plate 1, Fig. 3) before chasing and fighting the rival. In this posture, the male turns his head up and sleekens the plumage, facing the rival. If the intruding rival does not escape immediately, a fight follows, in which the submissive individual delivers submissive calls.

5. Begging display: The nestlings and fledglings were observed using this display. It is interesting to note that the newly hatched young open their beaks after receiving even a slight jerk, caused by the perching of the parents on any branch of the nesting tree. However, once the nestlings open their eyes, they respond only after seeing the parents. After their wings develop, they shake them to make the display more effective. Begging display is generally accompanied by begging calls.

6. Resting posture: In winter, when the magpie robin rests in the day, it curls up its body and fluffs the body feathers into an almost spherical shape (Plate 1, Fig. 4). This posture is adopted by many bird species, to save body heat during winter.

7. Sleeping posture: The magpie robin was observed in three types of sleeping postures, i.e. neck hanging posture (NHP), neck turning posture (NTP), and neck shrinking posture (NSP) (Fig. 2). Most individuals (66.4%) use the NTP during sleep — the bird turns its neck so that its shape appears deformed. Predators cannot recognize the bird easily in this cryptic appearance. NHP and NSP also deform the shape of the sleeping bird, protecting it from predators. But NHP (28%) and NSP (5.6%) were used for short duration only. The bird may have been less comfortable in these postures.

8. Wing drooping display: In this display, the magpie robin stretches its tail upwards and then droops it in a few steps. Simultaneously, it droops its wings in the same sequence. This posture is observed during the post-breeding phase. Its biological significance, however, is not yet clear.

Discussion

It has been suggested that display flights are directed at females and associated with the male quality, or sometimes function in male-male

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

9

ONDISPLA YSAND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MAGPIE ROBIN

interactions to defend territory (Andersson 1982, McGregor et al. 1990). The magpie robin exhibits individual differences in song quality (Bhatt and Kumar 1998a b, Kumar 1999) and there are suggestions that these may be associated with variations in strength or fighting ability (Krebs and Devies 1987). When different males engaged in song production exhibit differences in song quality, the female has an opportunity to select a male that exhibits more strength through his song signal than other courting males. In the present study, the magpie robin used flight display in the presence of a female or predator. From this it can be inferred that flight display, like song, also helps the male to show his strength, to attract a female or repel predators. Flight displays have also been reported in other birds like the jay Garrulus glandarius. (Goodwin 1956), fantail warblers Cisticola juncidis (McGregor et al. 1990), and white-throated manakin Corapipo gutturalis (Davis 1982, Pmm 1986, Gaunt 1994). However, the acoustical features of the song/calls of these species are less varied than magpie robin. Therefore, in these birds with simple song/calls, the development of visual display for mate attraction is understandable, but in species like magpie robin where vocalization is complex and varied, the interpretation of the genesis of flight display is rather difficult. Observations revealed that the male used not only flight display, but also tail display to attract the female. Obviously, this bird has a good repertoire of both vocal and visual signals.

In almost all avian species, courtship behaviour is exhibited by males. The bird may reveal his gaudy nuptial plumage, spread his tail feathers, erect his crest or inflate brilliantly coloured patches, parade, dance, fly with dizzying aerobatics, sing his most fetching songs all this just to impress his prospective mate (Welty and Baptista 1988). Courtship stimulates sexual readiness, not only in the bird being

courted, but also in the courting bird, through self stimulation. This reciprocal stimulation may be the chief function of the mutual courtship ceremonies of many colonial birds such as gannets, gulls and penguins. Such stimulation commonly results in the increase of sex hormones in a bird’s body, which in turn intensifies courtship display (Welty and Baptista 1988).

The courtship display of magpie robin is simple and takes little time (16 ±3.2 sec, n=4). It is believed that species with complex songs and pronounced territories often have rather simple courtship displays, whereas species with small territories and simple or no songs generally have more elaborate courtship displays. It may be that pronounced territoriality and song serve, in part, to initiate pair formation and maintenance throughout the breeding period. When territories are small and/or songs are absent, displays seem to serve the function of pair bonding. In colonial birds, these displays may continue throughout the nesting cycle as a device to ensure individual recognition between the paired birds (Faaborg and Chaplin 1988).

The threat posture appears to help minimize the cost of territory defence by avoiding chasing/fighting the rival. Like the magpie robin, head-up posture is used by several species of birds for territory defence and fighting (Marler and Hamilton 1966). It has generally been observed that aggressive displays often involve an increase in apparent size. Larger animals dominate smaller ones in many species, and intimidating or repelling signals often maximize this particular property (Tinbergen 1959, Marler 1961). The ‘head-forward display’ is used not only for threatening, but also for pairing with females by many male finches (Hinde 1956).

Begging display is common in birds, and almost every avian nestling uses it to demand food from parents (McFarland 1995a, b, Alcock 1988). Our causal observations revealed that higher frequency of wing-movement (quivering)

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001

ON DISPLA YSAND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MA GPIE ROBIN

might stimulate parents to feed young ones more frequently as compared to low frequency quivering. In addition, it may strengthen the flight muscles of the wings. The inside of the beak of a magpie robin nestling is bright yellow, which helps parents locate the exact position of the nestlings’ mouths while feeding them in the dark environment of the nest hole/nest-box.

Refer

Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press, Bombay. 12th edn, xx+280pp.

An, S. & S.D. Ripley (1998): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Vol.8&9, 2nd edn.

*Alcock, J. (1988): Animal Behaviour: An Evolutionary Approach. Sinauer Associates Inc. Publishers, Sunderland, Massachusetts. USA.

Andersson, M. ( 1 982): Female choice selects for extreme tail length in a Widowbird. Nature 299 : 8 1 8-820. Andrew, R.J. (1961): The displays given by passerines in courtship and reproductive fighting. A review. Ibis 103A: 315-348.

♦Armstrong, E.A. (1965): Bird display and behaviour.

Dover Publications, New York.

Bhatt, D. & A. Kumar (1998a): Acoustic signals in birds: Songs and calls. Jour. Acoust. Soc. Incl. XXVI(3&4): 325 -337.

Bhatt, D. & A. Kumar (1998b): Singing behaviour in Oriental magpie robin Copsychus saularis. Ostrich 69 (No. 3 & 4): 242.

Butcher, G.S. & S. Rohwer (1989): The evolution of conspicuous and distinctive coloration for communication in birds. In: Current Ornithology Vol.

6 (Power, D.M. ed.), New York: Plenum Press, pp. 51-108.

Collias, N.E. (1943): Statistical analysis of factors which make for success in initial encounters between hens. Amer. Nat. 77: 519-538.

Davis, T.H. (1982): A flight-song display, of the White-throated manakin. Wilson Bull 94: 594-595. ♦Faaborg, J. & S.B. Chaplin (1988): Ornithology: An Ecological Approach. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs.

Gaunt, S.L., L.F. Baptista, J.E. Sanchez & D. Hernandez (1994): Song learning as evidenced from song sharing in two Hummingbird species ( Colibri coruscans and Colibri thalassimus). The Auk 111(1): 87-103. Goodwin, D. (1956): Further observations on the behaviour of the Jay Garrulus glandarius. Ibis 98: 1 86-219.

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof B.D. Joshi, Coordinator, Environmental Science and Dr. A.K. Chopra, Head, Dept of Zoology and Environmental Science for facilities to carry out this research. Financial assistance ffomDST (Project No. SP/S0/C03/96), Govt of India is also acknowledged.

: N C E s

Hinde, R.A. (1956): A comparative study of the courtship of certain finches (Fringillidae). Ibis 98: 1-23.

♦Krebs, J.R. & N.B. Devies (1987): An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology. Blackwell Scientific Publications, London.

Kumar, Anil (1999): Characteristics and significance of calls, songs and visual displays in two avian species viz. Copsychus saularis & Pycnonotus cafer. Ph.D. Thesis, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar, India. Marler, P. (1961): The evolution of visual communication. In: Vertebrate speciation, ed. Blair, W.F., University of Texas Press, Austin, USA. pp. 96-121 .

Marler, P. & J. Hamilton (1 966): Mechanisms of animal behaviour. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Mayr, E. (1956): Gesang and Systematik, Beitr. Vogelkunde 5: 112-117.

McFarland, D. (1995a): Displacement Activities. In: Animal Behaviour: Psychobiology, Ethology and Evolution, ELBS. The Bath Press, Avan,pp. 381-393. McFarland, D. (1995b): Ritualization and

Communication. In: Animal Behaviour: Psychobiology, Ethology and Evolution, ELBS, The Bath Press, Avan, 349-410.

McGregor, P.K., H.S. Clayton, U. Kolb, P. Stockley & R.J. Young (1990): Individual differences in the displays of Fan-tailed warblers Cisticola juncidis, association with territory and male quality. Ibis 132: 111-118.

Prum, R.O. (1986): The displays of the White-throated Manakin Corapipo gutturalis in Surinam Ibis 128: 91 - 102.

♦Tinbergen, N. (1951): The study of Instinct. Oxford University Press, London.

Tinbergen, N. (1959): Comparative studies of the behaviour of gulls (Laridae): A progress report. Behaviour 15: 1-70.

Welty, J.C. & L.F. Baptista (1988): The life of birds.

Saunders College Publishing, USA.

Whistler, H. (1949): A Popular Handbook of Indian Birds.

Oliver and Boyd Ltd., London. Pp 1 08.

* Original not referred.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

11

THE POPULATION DYNAMICS AND CONSERVATION OF GOLDEN LANGUR1

A. Srivastava2’3’ M. Baruah4 and S.M. Mohnot2

Key words: Endangered species, golden langur, demography, conservation, distribution

Localized distribution between River Manas in the east, Sankosh in the west and the Brahmaputra in the south have confined the golden langur {Trachypithecus geei), to an extremely small patch of forest bordering India and Bhutan, making it one of the most seriously endangered primates of India. Data on population dynamics collected in four years, 1994 to 1 997, from four focal groups inhabiting the rubber plantation of Nayakgaon, Assam, have been presented here. An average group size of 7.8 (range 7.0 to 8.4) individuals was recorded. Of the total 1 5 1 individuals counted, 27% were adult males, 48% were adult females and 23% were immature (juveniles and infants).

The adult sex ratio was 1.3 to 2.3 adult female for each adult male. The average group size and adult sex ratio of the golden langur declined during the study period. However, the number of births per female increased from 0.31 to 0.44/year. A low percentage of juveniles and infants suggest that the population is heading for a decline. The majority of the groups had more than one adult male, suggesting a promiscuous mating system. Small group sizes, isolated distribution, few infants and juveniles, and degrading habitat are all causes for concern. It is not clear from the available data if the increase in number of births per female per year is due to higher mortality of infants or due to greater access to mating partners. Nevertheless, these demographic trends indicate a population decline.

Introduction

Golden langurs ( Trachypithecus geei) are naturally found in a very small area bordering India and Bhutan. Its distribution lies north of the Brahmaputra river and is bounded on the east by the Manas river and in the west by the Sankosh river. Gee (1955) and Khajuria (1956, 1962) provided the first record of its morphology and distribution. However, the taxonomic status remained disputed until Biswas (1967) provided a detailed account. Although there have been several attempts to work out the true distribution range and total population, little information was generated on the distribution and status of this species in India and Bhutan (Gee 1961, Wayre 1968, Mukerjee 1978, Subba 1989, Choudhury 1992, Wanghuk 1995). Since 1994, extensive surveys have been conducted in northeast India

'Accepted July, 1999

department of Zoology, JNV University,

Jodhpur 342 005, Rajasthan, India.

3Present address: Indo-US Primate Project,

P.O. Box 74, Jodhpur 342 001 , Rajasthan, India.

4Wild Gras, Kaziranga, Bokaghat, Assam, India.

by the first author and the Indo-US Primate Project team to work out the status and distribution of primates. An intensive survey was carried out over 1 ,500 sq. km of forest in western Assam, for its distribution (Srivastava 1997). Most of these surveys provided information on distribution (Choudhury 1992, Subba 1989, MacKinnon 1991), total population (Wangchuk 1995), and group structure (Mukerjee and Saha 1974, Mukerjee et al. 1997). The species is placed under Schedule-I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972) and in Appendix-I of CITES. No serious attempt has been made to collect data on population dynamics so as to draw a conservation plan for this endangered species (Srivastava 1996). In order to fill this gap, the present study was carried out at Nayakgaon on selected groups of golden langur for over four years.

The present paper has two aims — to present the population dynamics of the selected groups in the study area and to discuss the long-term conservation strategies for this species in the light of demographic data.

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

POPULA TION DYNAMICS AND CONSER VA TION OF GOLDEN LANGUR

Study Area

There is a gurukul (traditional school) located 1 5 km east of Abhayapuri town in western Assam, surrounded by natural forest and rubber plantation. The second author was a permanent resident of this gurukul during the study period. Four groups of golden langur were initially identified during December 1994, and their home range, preferred roosting trees and feeding sites were observed. These groups dwell in the Abhaya Rubber Plantation, Nayakgaon Kokrajhar district, Assam, which covers 174 ha of rubber plantation and natural sal forest. The groups have been seen in the area since 1985, when rubber plantations were first started. It is quite likely that these groups lived here in the natural habitat

and continued to survive in the habitat altered from predominantly natural moist deciduous sal forest into rubber plantation. These groups are familiar with humans and come into regular contact with local residents and rubber tappers. Hunting is strictly prohibited, but natural predators are common in the area. Average tree canopy cover in the area is over 75% and average tree height is 20 ih. Langurs do not get feed from people and do not come to human habitation.

Study Methods

All individuals of the group were identified and focal groups were contacted many times during the census period to get perfect counts. As a rule, individuals moved in single file, and

Table 1

GROUP SIZE AND AGE-SEX COMPOSITION OF FOUR GOLDEN LANGUR FOCAL GROUPS BETWEEN

1994 AND 1997

Census Date

Group Name

Adult Male

Adult Female

Ad. Sex Ratio

UnID

Juvenile

Infant

Total

G. Total

December 15,1 994 SS

2

4

1:2

3

9

MF

2

5

1:2.5

-

-

-

7

NEC

2

5

1:2.5

-

-

1

8

NEM

1

2

1:2

-

-

1

4

28

March 11, 1995

SS

2

6

1:3

_

1

9

MF

2

5

1:2.5

-

-

1

8

NEC

2

4

1:2

-

-

-

6

NEM

2

4

1:2

-

-

4

10

BA

1

2

1:2 '

4

-

2

9

42

May 30, 1996

SS

2

4

1:2

.

1

2

9

MF

2

3

1:1.5

-

-

-

5

NEC

2

4

1:2

-

-

2

8

NEM

4

4

1:1

-

-

4

12

BA

3

2

1 :0.75

-

2

2

9

43

May 17, 1997

SS

2

5

1:2

-

-

2

9

MF

2

3

1:1.5

-

-

' 1

6

NEC

2

4

1:2

-

-

2

8

NEM

2

4

1:2

-

-

2

8

BA

4

2

1:0.5

-

-

1

7

38

Abbreviations: SS = South Side; MF = Middle Forest; NEC = North East Comer; NEM = North East Middle; BA = Bukanjhora Area: UnID = Unidentified

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

13

POPULA TION DYNAMICS AND CONSER VA TION OF GOLDEN LANGUR

therefore, almost 100% reliable counts could be obtained from a convenient observation post in the forest during group movement. When the focal groups were contacted, individuals were counted and classified as adult males, adult females, juveniles and infants. Infants were further classified as infant-I (fur colour orange) and infant-II (fur colour creamy- white). During December 1994, four groups were located, but in successive counts during March 1995, one additional group was also located. All groups located had their preferred roosting sites, and therefore it was not difficult to locate them again during the next census. The process was repeated in May 1996 and May 1997.

Results

During the December 1994 census, 4 groups were recorded. Group size and composi- tion with a total population between December 1994 and May 1997 are given in Table 1. In 1994, the smallest group contained 4 and the largest 9 individuals, with an average group size of 7 individuals. Out of a total of 28 individuals counted, 25% were adult males, 57% adult females, 1 8% immature (juveniles and infants), with a socionomic ratio of 4.6 : 1 (adult : immature). The adult sex ratio was 2. 0-2. 5 females to 1.0 male. The majority of groups had more than one adult male.

During the March 1995 census, an additional group was located besides the four

identified focal groups. This brought the total population to 42, with an average group size of 8.4 individuals. Of these, 21% were adult males, 50% were adult females, 19% were immature (juveniles and infants), with a socionomic ratio of 4 : 1 . The adult sex ratio was 2 to 3 females for each male. The same focal groups were recounted in May 1996 and in May 1997 to record the change in the population.

Between May 1996 and May 1997, the following changes were observed: The total population declined slightly from 43 to 38 individuals. The average group size declined from 8.4 to 7.6. Similarly, the adult sex ratio changed from 0.75-2 to 0.50-2.5 females for each male. A solitary male was also observed during the May 1997 census (Table 2). However, the sex ratio declined from 2.3 females, in Dec. 1994 to 1.5 in May 1997, the number of infants per female increased from 0.31 to 0.44/year. All births were observed during the monsoon, between July and October, and there was no birth peak.

Model of Golden Langur Population Dynamics: Census data can often be used to identify factors that may determine the abundance of species, which is clearly essential for the formulation of an effective conservation plan. In order to present our findings in a broader perspective, we used a published demographic model to prepare an effective conservation plan for this species. Instead of attempting to develop a species-specific life table analysis, we adopted

Table 2

VARIATIONS IN GROUP SIZE AND AGE/SEX COMPOSITION IN A POPULATION OF GOLDEN LANGUR

DURING 1994-97

Census Date

Total No. of Groups

Total No. Individuals

Average Group size

Adult Male

Adult Female

Juvenile Infants

% of Adults

December 94

4

28

7.0

7

16

5

82.1

March 95

5

42

8.4

9

21

8

71.4

May 96

5

43

8.4

13

17

13

69.8

May 97

5

38

7.6

12

18

8

78.9

14

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POPULA TION DYNAMICS AND CONSER VA TION OF GOLDEN LANGUR

a general model based upon the Leslie matrix and modified by Dobson and Lyles (1989). This model requires age-dependent estimates of survival and fecundity. This has been applied to several primate populations (Altmann et al.

1 985). As suggested by Dobson and Lyles ( 1 989), we avoid the complexity of a fully age-structured model by noting that like most primate species, golden langur females’ age at first reproduction, is approximately three times the average inter-birth interval. The average inter-birth interval recorded elsewhere for the same species was two years (Srivastava, A. unpubl. data). The population is divided into three stages: Infants = I; Juveniles = J; and Adults = A (also see Tables 2 and 3).

During the four years of this census, we have noted the changes in the structure of the study population, which fluctuated within the normal range. However, the higher proportion of adults in the population is a matter of great concern (Table 3). The proportion of adults in the population was nearly 70%, which indicates a mature population. This means that the study population will not have enough recruitment for the replacement of reproducing individuals in the coming years. The low percentage of juveniles and infants and high number of adults suggest that the population is declining. The majority of groups had more than one adult male, suggesting a promiscuous mating system. Decline in the number of females per male during the study period indicates loss of breeding opportunities.

After detailed analysis of a large data set

for primate populations, Dobson and Lyles ( 1 989) suggested an integrated model with two important conclusions:

1 . Primate populations will tend to collapse when the survival of adult females falls below 70% per interbirth interval.

2. Species that tend to live in aggregated groups with promiscuous mating will establish and maintain themselves at smaller population densities than species with more solitary and monogamous habit.

The golden langur does not meet both these criteria, and therefore, does not face immediate danger of extinction. However, if habitat loss continues at the same pace, this species will eventually lose its resource base and may go extinct, as already shown by the decrease in number of adult females to male from 2.3 in Dec. 1994 to 1.5 in May 1997. This is further supported by the fecundity data (Table 4). It is not clear whether the increase in number of births per female per year was due to higher infant mortality or to greater access to mating partners (increased males per female). Nevertheless, these demographic trends indicate a population decline.

Discussion

Golden langurs occupy moist evergreen, dipterocarp, riverine and moist deciduous forests. Their localized distribution between River Manas in the east, Sankosh in the west and Brahmaputra in the south confines them to a very small patch

Table 3

ADULT MALE-FEMALE SEX RATIO AND BIRTH RATE BETWEEN 1 994 AND 1 997

Census Date

Total No. of Groups

Adult male/ Adult female

Total Adult Males

Total Adult Females

Total Infants

Birth Rate (birth/female/year;

December 94

4

1 : 2.3

7

16

5

0.31

March 95

5

1 : 2.3

9

21

8

0.38

May 96

5

1 : 1.3

13

17

10

0.59

May 97

5

1 : 1.5

12

18

8

0.44

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15

POPULA TION DYNAMICS AND CONSER VA TION OF GOLDEN LANGUR

Table 4

GOLDEN LANGUR LIFE HISTORY DATA

Life History Parameters

Observed and/or estimated Values (explanation below)

Type of Population

Natural and Disturbed

Study Years

1994- 1997

Number Studied

28-43

Birth Season

July - October15

Inter birth interval

Two Years’5

Age at first reproduction

Six years3

Birth rate (birth/female/year)

0.31 -0.59

Survival to age 1

0.30 - 0.42a

a = based on Dobson & Lyles (1989) model. b = Srivastava, A. observations on free-ranging population of golden langurs.

of forest bordering India and Bhutan. Of the entire golden langur population, 93% is confined to these contiguous forests. However, remaining 7% population is found in several small isolated reserves (Srivastava 1997). Recent studies indicate that their distribution has been reduced significantly (Mukerjee and Southwick 1997) and their population consists of very small groups with a higher proportion of adults and very few juveniles and infants (Srivastava 1997). It has been estimated that there are not more than 1 ,500 individuals in India. A larger population exists in Bhutan, estimated at over 4,340 individuals, but these figures are based on an extrapolation from 58.5 sq. km. study area in Black Mountain National Park (Wangchuk 1995). The total known range of the golden langur in both Bhutan and India is less than 30,000 sq. km., and much of this is not suitable habitat (Mukerjee and Southwick 1997).

The low population size and group size of the golden langurs are comparable to some of the other critically endangered langurs of the world, such as the golden-headed langur ( T.frcinscoisi polio cephalus), Delacour’s langur (T. delacouri) (Nadler 1996) and the Tonkin

snub-nosed langur ( Rhinopithecus avunculus ) (Cox et al. 1994). For such small and fragmented groups, the chances of long-term survival are slim. Although, it has been suggested that this species is rarely seen in altered habitats, our observations in the rubber plantation suggest that the golden langur can survive and reproduce in altered habitats under protection. Therefore, it would seem unwise to expend all conservation efforts on a small number of sites. Instead, we suggest a balanced strategy giving equal weight to small, isolated, and altered habitats as well.

Since there is no hunting pressure and most people on either side of the international boundary respect primates in particular, the species has good chances of survival in the present habitat. We believe that a vigorous effort at conservation can protect the remaining habitats, and by upgrading the status of these habitats, isolated populations can be linked by forest corridors to prevent genetic fragmentation of the population.

Further studies on destruction of golden langur habitats are needed to estimate demographic rates and shapes of recruitment functions. How behavioural mechanisms affect the population dynamics remains a challenge.

ACKNO WLEDG EM ENTS

We thank the Forest Dept, of Assam, for permission to work. We are thankful to Mr. K.N. Deb and his family at Abhaya Rubber Plantations, Nayakgaon, Kokrajhar, Assam for their kind hospitality and logistic support, and to Prof. P.C. Bhattacharjee, Prof. Irwin Bernstein, Prof. Charles Southwick and Prof. John Oates for constant support. This research is a part of a cooperative program of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt of India and the US Fish & Wildlife Service (Grant Agreement No. INT/FWS-22).

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

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Refer

Altmann, J., G. Hausfater & S.A. Altmann (1985): Demography of Amboseli baboons. Am. J. Primatol.

8: 315-330.

Biswas, B. (1967): Authorship of the name Presbytis geei (Mammalia: Primates). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63(2): 429-431 .

Choudhury, A.U. (1992): Golden langur distribution confusion. Oryx 26: 172-173.

Cox, C.R., V.D. Vu, M.G. Pham & X.C. Le (1994): A Management Feasibility Study of Proposed Na Hang (Tonkin Snub-nosed Monkey) Nature Reserve, Tuyen Quang Province, Vietnam. IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

Dobson, A.P. & A.M. Lyles (1989): The population dynamics and conservation of primate populations. Conservation Biology 3(4): 362-380.

Gee, E.P. (1955): A new species of langur from Assam.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 252-254.

Gee, E.P. (1961): The distribution and feeding habit of Golden langur. Presbytis geei Gee (Khajuria, 1956).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(1): 1-12.

Khajuria, H. (1956): A New Langur (Primates: Colobidae) from Goalpara District, Assam. Annals and Magazine of Natural History 12(9): 86-88.

Khajuria, H. (1962): Further observations on the Gee’s langur, Presbytis geei Khajuria, H. 1956, with remarks on the classification of Indian Colobidae (Mammalia: Primates). Rec. Indian Mus. 58(2): 123-130.

MacKinnon, J. (1991): National Conservation Plan: Bhutan. Unpubl. report. Dept of Forestry, Thimphu, Bhutan.

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Mukerjee, R.P. ( 1 978): Further observations on the golden langur (. Presbytis geei Khajuria) with a note on the capped langur {Presbytis pileatus Blyth) of Assam. Primates 19(4): 737 -747.

Mukerjee, R.P. & S.S. Saha (1974): The golden langur {Presbytis geei Khajuria 1956) of Assam. Primates 15(4): 327-340.

Mukerjee, R.P. & C.H. Southwick ( 1 997): Present status of the golden langur in Assam, India. Asian Primates 6(3/4): 1-4.

Mukerjee, R.P., A. Srivastava, S.M. Mohnot, I. Bernstein & C.H. Southwick (1997). Population status of the golden langur {Presbytis geei ) in Assam. Am. J. Primatol. 42: 135.

N adler, T. K. (1996): Report on the distribution and status of Delacour’s langur {Trachypithecus delacouri). Asian Primates 6(1 /2): 1-4.

Srivastava, A. (1996): Conservation priorities of golden langur {Trachypithecus geei) Bihanga, B. Sarmah (ed.) Nature’s Foster Bongaigaon, Assam, pp. 27- 33.

Srivastava, A. (1997): Annual Report — III (Dec. 1996- Nov. 1997): Indo-US Primate Project. JNV University and US Fish & Wildlife Service, pp. 1 -24.

Subba, P.B. (1989): The status and conservation of the golden langur {Presbytis geei Khajuria, 1956) in the Manas National Park, Bhutan. Tiger Paper 16(4): 16-18.

Wangchuk, T. (1995): A census and the biogeography of golden langur {Presbytis geei) in Bhutan. Tiger Paper 22(3): 1-6.

Wayre, P. (1968): The golden langur and the Manas Sanctuary. Oryx 9: 337-339.

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17

STUDIES ON THE SYSTEMATICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRAWNS IN ASSAM1

N.K. Dutta2 ( With nine text-figures)

Key words: Caridina weberi de Man, Macrobrachium altifrons (Henderson),

M. cisscimensis (Tiwari), M. birmcinicum choprae (Tiwari), M. dayanum (Henderson),

M lamarrei (H. Milne-Edwards), M. malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards)

The family Atyidae (Decapoda : Crustacea) of Assam has Caridina weberi de Man of the genus Caridina and eight species of the genus Macrobrachium namely Macrobrachium altifrons (Henderson), M. assamensis (Tiwari), M. lamarrei (H. Milne-Edwards), M. malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards), M. menoni (Agarwal) and M. tiwari (Agarwal) of Family Palaemonidae recorded from different districts of Assam.

Introduction Results

The biology and fishery of prawns has gained considerable attention, due to their great economic importance. Prawns are caught round the year.

However, the peak catch shows a definite seasonal trend in commercially important prawn landing areas. In the north-eastern region of India in general and Assam in particular, the peak season is from September to February. Various authors reported on the taxonomy and distribution of freshwater, estuarine and marine pfawns (Henderson and Matthari, 1910; Tiwari, 1947;

Holthuis, 1950; Yaldwyn, 1955; Kunju, 1956;

Holthuis andRoas, 1965; Yaldwyn, 1966; George, etal. 1968; Koshy, 1969; Yaldwyn, 1971, 1973;

Agarwal, 1976). But in this context, there is little information on the freshwater prawns of Assam.

In view of this, the present study was undertaken.

Material and Methods

Prawns belonging to Family Atyidae and Palaemonidae were collected regularly in different districts of the state of Assam, and were obtained from fishermen’s catches. They were brought to the laboratory, cleaned and preserved in 8-10% formaline.

'Accepted June, 1998 2Masjid Road, Natun Sarania,

Gandhibasti, Guwahati 3, Assam, India.

The collection from Assam comprises of nine species.

Caridina weberi de Man 1892. (Fig. 1)

Collection localities; Goalpara district: Dipul beel. Id, 2?, TL 18-20 mm; Kamrup district: Jalukbari and Kulsi, 2 d, 19, TL 15-24 mm; Nowgaon district: Kolong R., 2d d, 3 9, TL 15-17 mm; Sibsagar district: Namdang R. and Joysagar 4d, 3 9, TL 17-18 mm.

Diagnostic features: Rostral formula (RF): 15-19/4; carapace pigmented. Apex of antennal scales, pointed to slightly oval; spines on the 5th peraeopod absent altogether, but spines present on the 3rd and 4th peraeopods. 1st peraeopod: carpus = chela, carpus > merus. 2nd peraeopod: merus = carpus, carpus > chela.

Maximum size 24 mm.

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Macrobrachium altifrons (Henderson)

(Fig. 2)

Fig. 2: Macrobrachium altifrons (Henderson)

Collection localities: Kamrup district: Sonapur, 2 d, 3 9, TL 43-46 mm.; Pandu, Maligaon, 8 d, 5 9, TL 44-47 mm; Goalpara district; Dhubri, 2 d, 3 9, TL 45-46 mm, Karbi Anglong district: Jamuna R., 2 d, TL 46 mm; Sibsagar district: Sibsagar market, 5 d , 6 $ , TL 43-45 mm.

Diagnostic features: RF 10-12/3; Ant. scale pointed. Apex horizontal to slightly upturned, convexity starts after l/3rd length of its origin; 3-4 teeth on carapace; teeth are sub-erect. 1st peraeopod: finger = 1/2 carpus; ischium, merus, palm and finger are hairy. 2nd peraeopod: unequal or subequal, palm > finger, palm broader than carpus, 2-3 blunt teeth with 6 tubercles on immobile finger, but in mobile fingers 3-4 unequal teeth at irregular intervals. Cutting edge of mobile fingers with 4 tubercles instead of 5 or 6.

Maximum size 47 mm.

Macrobrachium assamensis (Tiwari)

(Fig. 3)

Collection Localities: Kamrup district: Pagladia R. near Uttar Kuchi, Chowki and Nabasti, Id, 6?, TL 40-76.2 mm; Baralia R. near Rangia, 40d, 209, TL 42-73 mm; Kukurmara beel, 1 d, 9 9 , TL 43-68 mm; Tihu, Boko near Soigaon, Houli near Barpeta, Kulsi R., Deeper beel near Jalukbari and Guwahati,

32 d, 23 9, TL 31-71 mm; Sibsagar district Namdang R. Gaurisagar, 50 d, 45 9, TL 51-77 mm; Dibrugarh district: Dilli R. near Namrup, Dibru R. near Rajgarh, 25 d , 36 9 , TL 45-65 mm; Lakhimpur district. Dhokuakhana, 20 d, 15 9, TL 49-50 mm; Cachar district: Silchar, 5 d, 8 9, TL 42-45 mm.

Fig. 3: Macrobrachium assamensis (Tiwari)

Diagnostic features: RF 8-10/2-4; RL > Antennal scale. Antennal scale-oval, carapace highly pigmented. Wide gap between 1st & 2nd, 2nd & 3rd and 3rd & 4th teeth on dorsal edge of rostrum. Antennal scale somewhat conical to oval. 1st peraeopod: Carpus > chela. Carpus > merus. 2nd peraeopod: merus > carpus. Non- chelate leg: all segments hairy except merus; propodus = merus; 3 equal teeth on Im. F., and 1 large and 2 small teeth on M.F., apex of telson round to acute.

Maximum size 77 mm.

Macrobrachium birmanicum choprae (Tiwari) (Fig. 4)

Collection localities Kamrup district: Bijlee beel, 2d, 19, TL 95-110 mm, Brahmaputra R. 5d, 5 9, TL 85-165 mm, Darrang district: Jamuguri beel near Tezpur, Tezpur market, lOd, 15 9, TL 69-165 mm; Sibsagar district: Dekhow R. 22 d, 33 9, TL 65- 170 mm, Lakhimpur district. Dhokuakhana 5d, 8 9, TL 84-100 mm; Dibrugarh district Brahmaputra R. near Assam Medical College,

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SYSTEMA TICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRA WNS

24 d, 30 9, TL 79-167 mm; Cachar district: Karimganj 25 d, 24 9, TL 70-160 mm.

Fig. 4: Macrobrachium birmanicum choprae (Tiwari)

Diagnostic features: RF 11-12/4-5; Apex of antennal scales pointed; rostrum somewhat long depending on body size and protrudes in front of body, nearly reaching antennal scale. Carapace smooth in young ones, rough in adult and slightly pigmented. 1st peraeopod: exceeds Ant. scale by chela, 2/3rd of the carpus, carpus twice as long as chela, 2nd peraeopod: spinules larger only on undersurface of merus; ischium rod-like, not laterally grooved; merus = carpus > palm. One conical and one blunt tooth on M.F. with 4 to 5 tubercles. Apex of finger translucent.

Maximum size 170 mm.

Macrobrachium dayanum (Henderson) (Fig. 5)

Collection localities: Kamrup district: Pagladia R. Chowki & Naubasti, Raumari beel, Satdala beel, Rangagora near Changsari, Depargaon near Kumanadi R., Moranadi R. near Dimoo, Deeper beel near Guwahati, Kukurmara beel near Guwahati, Kapla beel, Boko near Soigaon, Jalukbari, Guwahati, Kulsi R. 37 c?, 24 9 , TL 26-92 mm; Darrang district: Jamuguri near Tezpur, Raumari beel, Mora Boroli R., Mongoldoi R. near Mongoldoi, Urang near Dhekiajuli, 2 Id, 189 TL 41-71 mm; Nowgaon district: Jagiroad, 13d, 209, TL 26-68 mm; Karbi-Anglong district: Kapili R., 2d, 49, TL 55-69 mm; Cachar district: Kaliganj, Karimganj, Silchar proper, 22 d, 28 9, TL 35-55 mm; Sibsagar district: Longsai beel, Pohugar near Gaurisagar, Namdang R. near Kaloogaon, Ranganadi R., Janji R., Kakodunga R., 43 d, 35 9, TL. 18-89 mm; Lakhimpur district: Corella beel, 7d, 9 9 , TL 26-75 mm; Dibmgarh district: Namrup, Dibrugarh proper near Brahmaputra R., 22 d, 20 9, TL 39-68 mm; Lakhimpur district: Dhakuakhana 12 d, 99, TL 37-52 mm.

Diagnostic features: RF 7-11/5-9; apex of ant. scale pointed. Cavity-between first and second teeth on ventral edge of rostrum. Cervical sulcus moderately developed, gastro-orbital carina well developed, Carapace highly pigmented. 1st peraeopod: merus = ischium; ischium, mems, palm and finger hairy. 2nd peraeopod: palm > finger, carpus = merus, ischium and palm-rod-like. Non- chelate legs: all segments hairy; ischium > carpus; Im. F. with 2-3 conical teeth having 7-8 minute spines. M.F. with 3 equal conical teeth having 5 minute spine-like processes.

Maximum size 92 mm.

Macrobrachium lamarrei (H. Milne-Edwards) (Fig. 6)

Collection localities: Kamrup district: Pagladia R., Deeper beel near Guwahati,

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Brahmaputra R. near Maligaon, Fancy Bazar, Guwahati, Bhalukmara beel, Kahikusi, Boko near Soigaon, Hatipara beel, Chetolijan near Nalbari, 21c?, 18$, TL 21-55 mm; Goalpara district: Dipo R., Dhubri, 10c?, 70$, TL 33-51 mm; Darrang district: Raumari beel near Tezpur, 7 c?, 5$, TL 36-42 mm; Nowgaon district: Nowgaon proper, 4c?, 10$. TL 36-44 mm; Cachar district: Karimganj, Silchar proper, Chatla, Hawar beel, near Silchar, 36c?, 67$, TL 35-65 mm.; Sibsagar district: Namdang R. near Kaloogaon, Bhougdoi R., Kakodunga R., Kaziranga 56c?, 40$, TL 17-58 mm; Dibrugarh district: Dibgrugarh proper near Brahmaputra R., 50 d, 43$, TL 40-57 mm; Lakhimpur district: Dhakuakhana, 10c?, 11$, TL 18- 30 mm.

Fig. 6: Macrobrachium lamarrei (H. Milne-Ed wards)

Diagnostic features: RF 7-11+4-8, carapace slightly pigmented. Apex of ant. scale slightly oval. Rostral length > Ant. scale, teeth on dorsal edge present throughout the rostrum; cervical sulcus well-developed, gastro-orbital carina (GOC) highly developed, adrostral sulcus not distinct. 3rd maxillipeds short, only base of dactylus hairy. 1st peraeopod: carpus = merus, finger = palm. 2nd peraeopod: merus > carpus. Ischium rod-like, Im. F. inwardly curved, teeth almost equidistant from each other. M.F.: 5 minute teeth. Carpus of second cheliped twice as long as chela. Chelate leg: teeth equidistant from each other.

Maximum size 65 mm.

Macrobrachium malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards) (Fig. 7)

Fig. 7: Macrobrachium malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards)

Collection localities: Kamrup dist: Brahmaputra R. near Maligaon and Fancy Bazar, Guwahati., 8c?, 7$ , TL 36-60 mm, Darrang dist: Brahmaputra R. near Tezpur, Orang near DekiaJuli, 1 1 c? , 9 $ , TL 42-48 mm; Cachar dist: Fakira bazar near Bilchar, 12c?, 10$, TL 45-58 mm; Sibsagar dist: DekhowR., Bhougdoi R., 12c?, 10$, TL 35-4 1 mm; Dibmgarh dist: Brahmaputra R., Naharkatia, 12c?, 13 $, TL 46-58 mm.

Diagnostic features: RF 8-11 + 1-3/4-7; apex of Ant. scale conical. Rostral length = antennal scale. On dorsal edge of rostrum, convexity starts behind orbit, becomes maximum above orbit, gradually declines, becomes straight and slightly upturned at the tip. 1st and 2nd proximal teeth and last two more widely spaced. 3rd maxilliped reaches l/3rd of ant. scale, dactylus and carpus hairy. 1st peraeopod: ischium < chela. 2nd peraeopod: ischium < merus, merus > carpus, finger > merus. Non-chelate leg: dactylus and propodus hairy.

Maximum size 60 mm.

Macrobrachium menoni (Agarwal)

(Fig. 8)

Collection localities: Kamrup district: Deeper beel, 8 c?, 5 $ , TL 32-33 mm.; Goalpara district: Dipo,. 1 c? , 1 $, TL 34-36 mm; Cachar district: Chatla Hawar beel, 8 km south of Silchar, 5 d , 3 $ , TL 62-67 mm.

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SYSTEMA TICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRA WNS

Fig. 8: Macrobrachium menoni (Agarwal)

Diagnostic features: RF 15-16/7-8; carapace slightly pigmented. Upper margin of rostrum with convexity just behind eye, concavity in front of eye; tip of rostrum horizontal or slightly inclined and lowered further. Ant. scale oval. 3rd maxilliped almost reaches tip of Ant. scale, carpus and dactylus hairy. 1st peraeopod: ischium=chela. 2nd peraeopod: merus < carpus, carpus twice the length of palm.

Maximum size 67 mm.

Macrobrachium tiwari (Agarwal) (Fig. 9)

Fig. 9: Macrobrachium tiwari (Agarwal)

Collection localities: Kamrup district: Maligaon near Guwahati, 2 d , 3 $ TL 56-58 mm; Goalpara district. Dipol 2 d1 , 4 $ , TL 32-33 mm,; Karbi-Anglong district: Jamuna R., 2d, 1 9, TL 36-39 mm.

Diagnostic features: RF 5-7/2-5; Carapace slightly pigmented. Apex of ant. scale slightly oval. Rostral length > Antennal scale, wide gap between 4th & 5th, 5 th & 6th rostral teeth and 6th & 7th rostral teeth, 3 teeth on carapace. Cervical sulcus highly developed, gastro-orbital

carina moderately developed, adrostral sulcus less distinct. 1st peraeopod: carpus > merus; propodus and dactylus hairy. 2nd peraeopod: carpus > merus > ischium, palm > finger. In Im. F. presence of tubercles with 3 equal teeth; 1-2 teeth on M.F. Non-chelate leg: 3rd, 4th, 5th propodus > merus.

Maximum size 58 mm.

Conclusions

These observations on the distribution and taxonomy of Atyidae and Palaemomdae of Assam reveal some interesting findings. The RF of Caridina weberi de Man was so far known as 15-17/4. The present study shows an increase to 15-19/4. The RF of Macrobrachium assamensis was 9-11/3-6, also all segments hairy, but present study indicates RF 8-10/2-4 and all segments, except merus, hairy. In ealier descriptions of the first peraeopod in M. dayanum (Henderson), merus was described as longer than ischium, the ischium and fingers with tuft of setae. But this study shows that merus is equal to ischium, and ischium, merus, palm and fingers are all hairy.

The RF of M. lamarrei (H. Milne-Edwards) was reported as 7-10+1-2/4-7, it is 7-11/4-8 in the present study.

In the chelate leg, particularly in the immobile fingers, wide gaps are found between 2nd & 3rd, 3rd & 4th teeth, but in this study, the teeth are found equidistant from each other.

The rostrum of M. birmanicum choprae (Tiwari) was so far found to be short and nearly reaching the antennal scale, but here the rostrum is somewhat long, depending on body size, and mostly protruding in front of the body. The spinules of the second peraeopod were recorded as larger on the underside of merus and carpus, but the present observation shows the occurrence of larger spinules only on the underside of the merus.

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Table 1

DISTRIBUTION OF THE DECAPOD CRUSTACEANS OF THE GENERA CARIDINA AND MACROBRA CHI UM IN ASSAM

Goalpara Kamrup Darrang Nowgaon Karbi-Anglong Cachar Sibsagar Lakhimpur Dibrugarh

SYSTEMA TICS AND DISTRIBUTION OFPRA WNS

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

23

SYSTEMA TICS AND DISTRIBUTION OFPRA WNS

The apex of the rostrum of M. altifrons (Henderson) was recorded as inclined downwards or horizontal, the convexity starting after %th the length from its origin and with 2 teeth on the carapace. In the present investigation, how-ever, the apex is horizontal to slightly upturned, and the convexity starts after l/3rd the length from its origin, with 3-4 teeth on the carapace.

The RF of M. menoni (Agarwal) was recorded as 15/8, but the present study extends its range to 15-16/7-8. From previous records, in M. malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards) RF was recorded as 9-11+1-2/4-7, but this study extends its range to 8-11+1-3/4-7. On the dorsal edge of the rostrum, according to previous study, convexity starts above the orbit, then gradually declines and straightens and becomes pointed at the tip; but here it is found that convexity starts behind the orbit, is maximum above the orbit, gradually declines, becomes straight and slightly upturned at the tip.

The RF of M. tiwari (Agarwal) was so far known as 5/5. The present study extends its range to 5-7/2-5. The palm of the second peraeopod was recorded as equal to finger, but here the palm is found to be longer than the finger. A key to the identification of the species discussed is given in Table 2.

The state of Assam can be divided into eastern and western zones, with Guwahati as the central zone. Upper Assam is the eastern zone, including Sibsagar, Lakhimpur, (Cachar is deleted as it is too far south) and Dibrugarh

Refe

Agarwal, P.C. (1976): Studies on the Systematics and distribution of Macrobrachium menoni (Agarwal) in Assam (unpublished). Dissertation submitted of M.Sc. Degree in Zoology, Zoology Department Guwahati University, Assam, India.

George, M.J., S.K. Banerji & K.H. Mahamed(1968): Size distribution and movementof the commercial prawns of the south-west coast of India. FAO. Fish Rep. 5 7(2). Henderson, J.R. & G. Matthari ( 1 9 1 0): On certain species

districts, from where large numbers of M. dayanum, M. assamensis, M. lamarrei and M. birmanicum choprae have been collected. From this collection it is assumed that such species are available both in lower and upper Assam. M. assamensis, M. dayanum and M. birmanicum choprae are also extensively recorded from Lakhimpur, where they were not previously recorded. Similarly, M. lamarrei, which was restricted to Kamrup and Cachar, has been extended almost uniformly over Assam covering all districts except Karbi Anglong. Goalpara and Karbi- Anglong districts were not recorded as sites for M. altifrons and M. tiwarii , hence they are new locality records. Similarly, Goalpara and Kamrup districts are new distribu- tional localities for M. menoni ; Cachar, Sibsagar and Dibrugarh for M. malcolmsonii and Kamrup, Nowgaon and Sibsagar for Caridina weberi respectively (Table 1).

Thus, from the previous and present studies, it is concluded that M. dayanum and M. lamarrei are extensively found in all districts and have cosmopolitan distribution in Assam, whereas other species are sparsely distributed.

Ackowledgements

I thank Prof. S.C. Dey, Zoology Department, Guwahati University for suggesting this interesting problem and for encouragement. I also thank Prof. U.C. Goswami, Guwahati University and Sri Rantu Mani Deka for encouragement.

iNCES

of Palaemon from South India. Rec. India Mus. 5: 277- 306.

Holthuis, L.B. (1950): The Palaemonidae collected by the Siboga and Snell ins expeditions with remarks on other species I. Sub-family Palaemoninae Siboga-Exped. 39a, 9:260.

Holthujs, L.B. & Roas, Jr. (1965): List of species of shrimps and prawns of economic value. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. 52:21.

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Koshy, M. ( 1 969): On the sexual dimorphism in the fresh water prawn Macrobrachium lamarrei (H. Milne- Edwards 1937) (Decapoda, Caridae). Crustacean 16(2): 185-193.

Kunju, M.M. (1956): Preliminary studies on the biology of the Palaemonid Prawn Leander styliferns, H. Milne- Edwards Crustacean 6(3): 404-441 .

Tiwarj, K.K. (1947): Preliminary description of two new species of Palaemon from Bengal. Rec. Indian Mus. 45(4): 329-331.

Yaldwyn, J.C. (1966): New records of prawn from the Chilka lake with notes on their distribution. Sci. & Cult. 32(7): 379-380.

Yaldwyn, J.C. (1955): Distribution of Indo-Burmese freshwater prawns of the genus Palaemon Fabricius its bearing on the Satpura hypothesis. Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 7 Symposium on organic Evolution: 230- 239.

Yaldwyn, J.C. (1971): Studies on the sexual dimorphism in the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium dayanum (Henderson, 1893) (Decapoda, Caridea), 1 . Crustacean 21 (I): 72-78.

Yaldwyn, J.C. ( 1 973): Studies on the sexual dimorphism in the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium dayanum (Henderson, 1893) (Decapoda, Caridea). Crustacean 24(2): 110-118.

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STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT PARUS NUCHALIS IN GUJARAT AND RAJASTHAN1

J.K. Tiwari2

Key words: White-naped tit, Parus nuchalis, status, endangered,

Rajasthan, Gujarat, India

This paper describes the status and distribution of the white-naped tit Parus nuchalis in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Results are drawn from surveys carried out in seven districts of Rajasthan and three districts of Gujarat. Habitat loss is described in detail. It is established that the grey tit Parus major and white-naped tit P. nuchalis are not mutually exclusive. Conservation measures to save the habitat of the endangered white-naped tit are also discussed.

Introduction

The white-naped tit Parus nuchalis , also known as the white-winged tit or white-winged black tit, is an endemic species in India with a disjunct and restricted range (Ali and Ripley 1987). It is known as Kabri ramchakli in Gujarati. Hussain et al. (1992), and Tiwari and Rahmani (1996) have described its recent distribution. Nesting and roosting behaviour of the species were studied while I was working with the Bombay Natural History Society on the Grassland Ecology Project, funded by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.

Not much is known about the white-naped tit. It was, therefore, necessary to investigate its present range of distribution to make a conservation action plan. This species has a limited geographic range, due to habitat destruction and invasion of exotic weeds into the thorn forest. The white-naped tit is on the checklist of threatened birds by Collar and Andrew (1988). Its patchy distribution in southern India may be due to fragmentation of scrub forest habitat by human interference. The current status surveys were carried out in Kutch, Palanpur (Banaskantha district), Taranga hills (Mehsana district), Gujarat and seven districts

'Accepted July, 1999

2 Assistant Manager, Wildlife and Environment, Sanghi Cements, Sanghipuram, Abdasa, Kutch, Gujarat 370 655, India. Present address: Seawater Farms Eritrea, P.O. Box 406, Massawa, Eritrea, East Africa.

of Rajasthan namely Pali, Jodhpur, Jalore, Sirohi, Ajmer, Jaipur and Nagaur. Short visits were also made to Jaisalmer, Barmer, Dausa and Bharatpur districts, to check the occurrence of the white-naped tit, but these trips were unsuccessful.

Methods

Several birdwatchers in Rajasthan and Gujarat were contacted and information gathered. Literature and maps were collected from various sources. The habitat of the white-naped tit, tropical thorn forests, was scanned with local assistants and birdwatchers.

Results

Gujarat survey

Kutch district : A major part of the Kutch district is still covered with tropical thorn forest, especially near Dhinodhar, Dayapar, Moti-Virani, Piyoni, Matano Madh, Khadir and Gugriana, where white-naped tits were sighted. These tits are common in Kutch district, wherever a healthy thorn forest cover (locally known as Rakhal = Reserve forest) is available. Detailed studies were started from January 1 990, around Fulay-Chhari; surveys were conducted in the thorn forests of Kutch (Tiwari and Rahmani 1996). During drought years, the tits were observed in vegetation covered stream beds and irrigated crop fields. This may have exposed the

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endangered tit to pesticides. The white-naped tit is patchily found in almost the entire Kutch, but is common nowhere. It prefers thorn forests with dead and decaying trees for roosting and nesting. The nest is located in holes prepared by the Mahratta woodpecker Picoides mahrattensis .

North Gujarat Survey

Banaskantha : Four white-naped tits were seen in the Balaram Reserve Forest and Jethi village near Palanpur city, north Gujarat, in May 1996. Balaram is located in the lush green Aravali hills. Banaskantha district was surveyed from 9 to 1 1 March, 1996, and a detailed survey was also carried out with S.N. Varu from 19 to 23 May, 1996. North Gujarat is dominated by dry deciduous forest. A 1,625 sq. km reserved forest area exists in Banaskantha district. The major protected areas lie in Baludhara, Jessore Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Balaram Reserve Forest and Ambaji Range Reserve Forest. Acacia leucophloea and Acacia nilotica trees, which are preferred by white-naped tits, grow along with Butea monosperma, Anogeissus, Moringa , Terminalia and Carrisa. Chitrasani is the nearest village where two white-naped tits were seen in a mixed flock of grey tit Parus major , small minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus, and white-eye Zosterops palpebrosa.

On September 11, 1996, two white-naped tits were observed in an Acacia nilotica plantation at Jethi railway station in Banas- kantha. Jethi village is about 15 km away from Balaram forest. River Jethi flows through the Balaram forest and supports a healthy, dry deciduous and tropical thorn forest habitat, with some undulating grassland, on the slopes of Ara- valli hills. These are ideal habitats for the green munia Estrilda formosa and white-naped tit.

The distance between Deesa and Abu Road is 80 km. White-naped tits were spotted in the scattered thorn forest of Beawar (Pali district, Rajasthan), which is 370 kms away from Deesa.

Forest fragmentation is evident, as several villages and towns are located here. Deforestation is mainly due to lopping of trees to feed cattle, and clearance of thorn forest for agriculture and residential areas. No white-naped tits were seen in Deesa and its vicinity, but they may occur in these areas in sites like Khera and Auwa where the thorn forest is healthy and relatively less disturbed. Salim Ali had collected white-naped tits from Deesa on January 10, 1931.

Mehsana district It occupies 9,027 sq. km in Gujarat. R.M. Simmons had sighted white-naped tits in July 1931, and again in February 1932 (Collar and Andrew 1988), at Taranga hills. S.N. Varu and I had surveyed the Taranga hills on May 21,1 996, but failed to spot any tits. However, the habitat is suitable, and they can occur. The following areas were surveyed on the way to Taranga hills: Netra, Thur hills, Dhori, Hantawada, Mumnavas, Punjpur, Aderan and Vijaran on State Highway No. 56, at Vijaran village. Several stone crushers and stone quarrying were observed; these take a heavy toll of the healthy tropical thorn forest. Taranga lies in the heart of the tropical thorn forest, which is protected by the people for religious reasons, making them a good habitat for wildlife. Two species, yellowthroated sparrow Petronia xanthocollis and brahminy myna Sturnus pagodarum , which compete with the white-naped tits, were sighted here.

Rajasthan survey

Pali district : This district was surveyed from 15 to 20 March, and again from 4 to 9 October, 1996. White-naped tits were seen at Bar village and in Sendra Reserve Forest on the Pali- Ajmer border, on October 7, 1996.

Important areas for the white-naped tit are near Beawar, Bar, Sendra and Amarpura to Ajmer which bear patches of tropical thorn forest. The Acacia leucophloea forest is fragmented by several small to large villages and croplands with

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

27

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT

the exotic mesquite or native Acacia forest. Several places in these hills, e.g. areas from Haripura to Bar are subjected to gypsum mining.

The forest from Bar (425.8 m) to Sendra (473.08 m) is ideal for white-naped tit. On Oct. 7, 1 996 two of them were observed in the Bar village forest, one of which was feeding on a caterpillar. From their calls arid yellow gape, they appeared to be one year old juveniles. In the evening, two were seen near Sendra village in a reserve forest. P. nuchalis is likely to occur in the following reserve forest areas of Sendra forest range.

Reserve Forest

Areas

1.

Chang Block

1,161 ha

2.

Borvad

989 ha

3.

Deepavas

411 ha

4.

Kalab Wildlife Range

2,035 ha

5.

Kuneja Wildlife Range

1,373 ha

6.

Majevela

345 ha

7.

Bar

90 ha

8.

Giri

212 ha

9.

Salarmal

187 ha

10.

Suniel

502 ha

11.

Kala Dunger

40 ha

12.

Babra

260 ha

13.

Birathia Modu

102 ha

14.

Kal Lambia Jod*

1,308 ha

15.

Aserlai Jod*

416 ha

16.

Ras

335 ha

17.

Bavra closure

89 ha

18.

Birathia Adi-dang

1 14 ha

Jod* = Grassland

Prosopis juliflora is a major problem in the forest plantation and in the grassland, which is locally known as beed.

Jalore district. It was surveyed on March 18-19, 1996 and October 3-5, 1996. Two white-naped tits were seen near Sunda-mata hill, which is in good condition, on October 4, 1996.

Ali (1987) described the white-naped and the grey tit as mutually exclusive. Except in the Kutch district, I have seen both these tits in the same patch of forest in many areas. R.M. Adam (1873) had obtained specimens of the grey tit and white-naped tit from the same patch of forest at Maroth in Nagaur district. This was confirmed

during the survey of Maroth, where I saw white-naped and grey tits in the same forest patch, at the following places:

1 . Balaram and Jethi forest of Banaskantha,

North Gujarat.

2. Sunda-mata hill, Jalore.

3. Maroth, Nagaur district.

4. Sambhar, Jaipur district.

Sirohi district. No white-naped tit was seen in the Sirohi district, which is barren and desolate in some parts, and extensively cultivated in others, with a variety of crops. The Aravalli range dissects this district. Recently spread exotics like Prosopis juliflora , Cassia torn, and Lantana camara are causing severe damage to the natural ecosystems of the Aravalli range and plains in Sirohi.

Mount Abu : The Abu hills were scanned for bird life in the first week of October 1996. Grey tits Parus major and yellowcheeked tits P. xanthogenys were seen in many areas, but white-naped tits were not seen on the Aravalli hills of the Abu range. Perhaps they do not ascend to that altitude (1,371 m) as other Paridae. Yellowcheeked tits were seen, on Adhar Devi areas, on October 2, 1996.

Jodhpur district. No white-naped tits were spotted in this desert district of Rajasthan. There is hardly any dense, tropical thorn forest in this area, except for a few isolated pockets, such as Machia Safari Park, Jodhpur and Har ki Bhakri near Luni. There are scattered Acacia trees in agricultural fields, but no Acacia leucophloea and .4. nilotica forests were seen.

Jaipur district. It was surveyed from September 11 to 12 and October 8 to 10, 1996. On October 9, 1996, two white-naped tits were seen in an Acacia nilotica and A. leucophloea mixed forest at Nasia (Old fort) near Kanota, 1 1 km away from Jaipur city. A very good plantation of Acacia forest can be seen on the hills near Nasia. There is a huge patch of exclusive Acacia leucophloea forest beyond Nasia towards Dudu. Good stands of Acacia trees

28

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT

can be seen in the agricultural fields. The hills beyond Kanota are devoid of tree cover. Spear grasses were present on the bare hills. About fifty camel cartloads of wood a day are brought from the villages, to sell in Jaipur. Stone quarrying was going on in the immediate vicinity of the white-naped tit habitat at Kanoda on National Highway No. 1 1 . The pressure on the existing habitat of the white-naped tit is evident. The species was reported from Jaipur district, by Santanu Kumar Singh at Banjar Bhumi near Jaipur in 1993 {pers. comm.).

Sambhar Lake City and environs

Sambhar lake : (26° 53’ N, 74° 54'-75° 14’ E) is the largest inland saline lake in India. The areas around Sambhar lake were surveyed on October 8 and 9, 1996. Jhapok and Guda areas were surveyed for the white-naped, but none were seen. The Devyani areas were surveyed on foot. Impenetrable thickets of Prosopis juliflora were seen on the periphery of the lake and its environs.

Nagore district : This district was surveyed on October 9, 1996. Six white-naped tits were seen in three different areas. Two each in Maroth, Panchotia near Nava Town, and Sambhar Saltworks reserve. The Sambhar forest ( 10 sq. km) is privately maintained by the Sambhar Saltworks authorities. It is about 4 km away from the Nava town of Nagore district. This patch of original Acacia leucophloea forest is at present under serious threat, due to tree cutting by the villagers. Two guards are appointed to look after this forest. Cattle grazing and lopping of trees was noticed. If not protected, this small forest tract, which still supports the endangered white-naped tit will soon disappear. R.M. Adam had collected the white- naped tit in Maroth, in 1873.

Ajmer survey

Ajmer is 482 m above msl. The white-naped tit survives in some isolated pockets of the tropical thorn forests in Ajmer district.

Apart from the present sight records from the Sendra area, other birdwatchers such as Harkirat Sanga have seen Parus nuchalis in at least three places, in Ajmer district (Table 1).

Table 1

SIGHT RECORDS OF PARUS NUCHALIS FROM AJMER DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN

Date

Place

Nos. sighted

Sighted by

October 7, 1996

Sendra

Reserve Forest

2

J. K. Tiwari

October 1 4, 1996

Kishangarh

2

J. K. Tiwari

April 7, 1994

Ravli

Todgarh

1

Harkirat Sanga

May 14, 1995

Nasirabad

2

Harkirat Sanga

January 20, 1996

Near Ramsar, Ajmer

1

Harkirat Sanga

The hills near Ajmer city are extensively planted with Prosopis juliflora. Sendra Reserve Forest near Beawar, and the entire hill range in Beawar is home to the white-naped tit. Depending on the habitat, the tits are sparsely distributed in Beawar and Sendra hills. The forested areas near Sendra, Beawar and Kishangarh should be protected by the Forest Department. Deforestation and overgrazing are two major problems in these areas.

Conservation

Observations on the status of the white-naped tit in Kutch, north Gujarat, and Rajasthan indicate that the survival of this endemic species is dependent on the conservation of the tropical thorn forest and protection of dead and decaying Acacia trees. The main causes of deforestation in Gujarat and Rajasthan are illegal charcoal making, gathering fuel wood, invasion by exotic plants and many forest bird species like white-bellied minivet ( Pericrocotus eiythropygius) into the tit habitat. Exotics like Prosopis juliflora and Lantana camara should be eradicated by allowing people to use them as

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

29

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT

Table 2

SIGHTINGS OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT IN GUJARAT AND RAJASTHAN

Date

Numbers

Place

Sighted by

May 14, 1994

1

Ravli Todgarh, Ajmer

Harkirat Sanga

April 7, 1994

2

Nasirabad, Ajmer

Harkirat Sanga

January 20, 1996

1

Ramsar, Ajmer

Harkirat Sanga

May 20, 1996

1

Balaram, north Gujarat

J.K. Tiwari & S.N.Varu

September 11,1 996

2

Jethi

J.K.Tiwari

October 4, 1 996

2

Sunda-mata, Jalore

J.K.Tiwari

October 7, 1 996

2

Bar, Pali distinct

J.K.Tiwari

October 7, 1996

2

Sendra, Ajmer district

J.K.Tiwari

October 9, 1 996

2

Maroth, Nagore district

J.K.Tiwari

October 9, 1 996

2

Panchota hill, Nagore district

J.K.Tiwari

October 9, 1 996

2

Sambhar Saltworks, Jaipur district

J.K.Tiwari

October 9, 1 996

2

Kanota, Nasia, Jaipur

J.K.Tiwari

October 1 4, 1 996

2

Kishangarh, Ajmer district

J.K.Tiwari

fuel wood and for charcoal making under the strict supervision of the Forest Department and with the help of the village headmen.

Acknowlegdements

I thank the Oriental Bird Club, UK and the Leica Camera Co. for providing funds to conduct this study. The Bombay Natural

History Society and the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service for the opportunity to work in the Bird Migration and Grassland Study projects in Kutch district. I also thank Tim and Carol Inskipp, Asad R. Rahmani, David Ferguson, M.K. Himmatsinhji, S.N. Vara, Aswin Pomal, Rakesh Vyas, Harkirat Sanga, Satish Sharma, Ravi Sanghi, Ganeshan, P.V. Reddy, Anupama and Shiva for their help.

Refer

Adam, R.M. (1873): Notes on the Birds of Sambhar lake and its vicinity. Stray Feathers 1 : 361-404.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1 987): The Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Vol. 9, pp 1 72-174.

Collar, N.J. & P. Andrew (Eds.) (1988): Birds to Watch. The I.C.F. world checklist of threatened birds. ICBP Tech. Publ. no. 8.

ENCES

Hussain, S. A., S. A. Akhtar & J.K. Tiwari ( 1 992): Status and distribution of White-winged Black Tit Parus nuchalis in Kutch, Gujarat, India. Bird Conservation International U.K. Vol. 2, pp 1 15 -122.

Tiwari, J.K. & A.R. Rahmani (1996): Current status and nesting behaviour of the White-winged Black Tit Parus nuchalis in Kutch, Gujarat, India. Forktail (12): 95-102.

30

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

SPECIES STATUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI (MUKERJI 1934), (CYPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE) WITH A SYSTEMATIC NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLA VA TUS (MCCLELLAND 1845)1

Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin2

( With one plate and two text-figures)

Key words: Poropuntius burtoni , P. clavatus, species validity

Poropuntius clavatus burtoni (Mukerji), originally described from Myanmar, has hitherto been considered a junior synonym of P. clavatus (McClelland). Based on detailed information from the type specimens and 19 specimens presently collected from the rivers of Ukhrul district of Manipur (Chindwin drainage), India, P. burtoni is now established as a valid species. The species differs from P. clavatus in having fewer lateral line scales (34-38 vs. 41-42), fewer predorsal scales (12-13 vs. 14- 15), fewer scale rows between dorsal fin origin and lateral line (6 vs.7), shallower body (26.3-29.4 vs. 29.5-32.9) and shorter dorsal spine length (22.6-28.5 vs. 28.9-3 1 .4). Poropuntius burtoni is endemic in the Chindwin-Irrawaddy drainage, whereas P. clavatus occurs in the Barak-Brahmaputra drainage.

Introduction

Mukerji (1934) described Barbus clavatus burtoni from Mali Hka river, Myanmar (Irrawaddy drainage). He distinguished it from P. clavatus clavatus in size, certain body proportions and coloration. Jayaram (1991) put them under Poropuntius Smith in the appendix while revising the genus Puntius Hamilton. Smith (1931) distinguished Poropuntius from Puntius in having pores on the snout, lower jaw with horny sheath and a rostral groove. According to Rainboth (1996), the genus Poropuntius is characterised by the presence of open pores on the snout and posteriorly serrated last dorsal spine. Jayaram (1981) did not recognise P. clavatus burtoni as a species, but considered it to be a Burmese form. Talwar and Jhingran (1991), while describing Puntius clavatus (McClelland), did not mention Mukerji’ s specimen.

In the present study, 19 specimens of Poropuntius were collected from Ukhrul district,

'Accepted April, 1999 department of Life Sciences,

Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003,

Manipur, India

Manipur (Chindwin drainage). These specimens agree with the description of P. clavatus burtoni . However, on detailed examination of the specimens of P. clavatus clavatus in the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) and typical specimens in the Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF), which were collected from the Barak drainage, notable differences were found. In view of the differences in morphology and drainages which the fishes inhabit, P. burtoni is considered here to be a valid species.

Material and methods

Specimens collected in the present study were deposited in MUMF. Type specimens of Poropuntius burtoni and other specimens of P. clavatus in ZSI and those in the MUMF wer£ examined. Measurements and counts follow Jayaram (1981). Body proportions are expressed as percentages of standard length (SL) and head length (HL). Lateral transverse scales were counted as those between the lateral line and dorsal fin origin (including mid-dorsal scale), and those between the lateral line and pelvic fin origin.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

31

STA TUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI WITH A NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLA V ATUS

Poropuntius burtoni (Mukerji 1934) (Plate 1, Fig. 1)

Barbus clavatus burtoni Mukerji, 1934, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(1): 64-67. Poropuntius clavatus Jayaram, 1991, Rec. zool. Surv. India. Occ. Paper 135: 178.

Local Name: Nung-nga (Manipuri); Rar, Ngapeila (Tangkhul); Aasho (Chakasang).

Material examined: Holotype, ZSLF 11437/1, 107.5 mm SL, Phungin Hka, tributary of Mali Hka River, Myitkyina dist., Upper Myanmar, Coll. R.W. Burton, no date; Paratype, ZSI FI 1462/1, 1 ex., 155.0 mm SL, same data as holotype; 8 exs., MUMF 2061-2068, 84.0-136.0 mm SL, Kongpu river, Bungpa, Ukhrul district, Manipur, Coll. L. Kosygin, 4.vi.l994, 1 ex., MUMF 2005, 95.0 mm SL, Laniye river near Jessami, Manipur-Nagaland state border, 2.ii. 1994; 5 exs., MUMF 2028-2032, 93.5-106.5 mm SL, Wanze stream, Khamsom, 20.v. 1994; 2 ex., MUMF 21 12-21 13, 39-40 mm

SL, Chal ou river, Thetsi, Manipur-Nagaland state border, l.vi.1994; 3 exs., MUMF 2195-2197, 27.5-109.0 mm SL, Tizu river at Akash Bridge, near Thetsi 1 5.viii. 1 994.

Diagnosis: A species of Poropuntius with 34-38 lateral line scales. 6/1/4 lateral transverse scales; 12-13 predorsal scales; body depth 26.3-29.8% of SL; dorsal fin height 22.6-28.5% of SL.

Description: D. iv, 8; P. i, 16; V. i, 8; A. iii, 6; C. 19; L.l. 34-38; L.tr. 6/1/4, Body compressed. Dorsal profile arched from snout tip to dorsal fin origin, then gently sloping down to caudal fin base. Head short, conical. Snout obtusely pointed, longer than eye diameter in adults. Its tip studded with small tubercles. Eye moderately large, not visible from ventral surface. Inter-orbital space convex, slightly greater than eye diameter. Mouth horse-shoe shaped, sub-inferior, cleft of mouth extending nearly to the level of anterior margin of the orbit. Barbels 2 pairs, one each of maxillary and rostral, both

Table 1

COMPARISON OF MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI AND P. CLA VATUS

P. burtoni

P. clavatus

ZSI FI 1462/1

Holotype

Paratype

Present study

ZSI FF

ZSIF

MUMF 2265-2267

ZSIF

ZSIF

1629

9936/1

1143/1

11462/1

N

1 19

1

1

3

In % of SL

Body depth

27.9

28.0

27.9(26.3-29.4)

32.9

31.8

30.1(29.5-30.5)

Head length

23.7

22.3

24.5(22.6-25.7)

22.6

22.6

22.3(22.1-22.6)

Predorsal length

47.4

47.1

49.1(46.7-50.8)

48.5

49.2

48.9(47.8-49.6)

Dorsal fin height

26.0

27.7

24.6(22.6-28.5)

31.4

30.9

29.1(28.9-29.8)

In % of HL

Head width

52.9

71.0

56.1(52.1-63.3)

58.2

51.8

58.8(55.9-61.3)

Head height at occiput

78.4

75.4

75.8(70.1-81.3)

80.0

75.0

77.8(74.3-80.8)

Snout length

29.8

31.9

32.1(29.8-35.1)

30.9

30.3

30.7(28.9-32.3)

Eye diameter

29.4

28.9

23.9(21.2-26.1)

29.1

30.4

27.5(26.9-28.4)

Interorbital space

33.3

34.8

32.8(28.9-34.9)

32.7

32.1

37.4(35.5-40.0)

Pectoral fin length

86.3

91.3

84.1(78.7-89.3)

96.4

100.0

96.2(95.2-96.9)

Counts

Pectoral fin rays

i, 16

I, 16

i, 16

i, 15

-

i, 14-15

Lateral line scales

35

34

34-38

42

41

41-42

Lateral transverse scales

6/1/4

6/1/4

6/1/4

7/1/4

7/1/4

7/1/4

32

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

STATUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI WITH A NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLAVATUS

W. Vishwanath et al. : Poropuntius spp.

Plate 1

Fig. 1: Poropuntius burtoni (Mukerji)

Fig. 2: Poropuntius clavatus (McClelland)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

33

STA TVS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI WITH A NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLAVATUS

as long as eye diameter. Scales large, 12-13 scales in front of dorsal fin origin. Lateral line complete. Dorsal spine strong, osseous, serrated posteriorly, its origin equidistant from snout tip and caudal fin base. Pectoral fins slightly shorter than head length, not reaching pelvic fin origins. Caudal fin forked.

Proportional measurements (in

percentage): Body depth 27.9 (26.3-29.4); head length 24.5 (22.6-25.7); predorsal length 49.1 (46.7-50.8); dorsal fin base length 14.9 (14.0-16.0); dorsal fin height 24.6 (22.6-28.5); and caudal fin length 27.4 (25.0-29.8)% of SL. Head width 56.1 (52.1-63.3); head height at occiput 75.8 (70.4-81.3); snout length 32.1 (29.8-35.1); eye diameter 23.9 (21.2-26.1); interorbital space 32.8 (28.9-34.9); pectoral fin length 84.1 (78.7-89.3); and caudal peduncle length 90.2 (85.5-98.0)% of HL. Dorsal fin height 88.8 (82.0-100.0)% of body depth. Caudal peduncle height 52.2 (48.9-58.8) % of its length.

Colour: Body silvery with darker dorsal surface. A few rows of scales are dotted with fine blackish pigment. All the fins light orange. Outer edge of caudal fin tipped with black.

Distribution: india: Manipur (Chindwin basin); Myanmar: Myitkyina District, Irrawaddy drainage.

Remarks: Mukeiji (1934) emphasised the size of the fishes while separating the Chindwin form of Poropuntius from the Brahmaputra form, i.e. P. clavatus clavatus of the genus. He reported that the maximum size of the Chindwin form was 172 mm SL and that of Brahmaputra, only 120 mm. Sen (1985) mentioned that the largest specimen recorded for the latter was 7 inches (=178 mm), while the specimens collected from Barak river (MUMF) measure about 195 mm in SL.

Thus, the comparative sizes cannot be the basis for separating the two forms. P. burtoni is distinguished from P. clavatus in having fewer lateral line scales (34-38 vs. 41-42); fewer

predorsal scales (12-13 vs. 14-15); fewer scale rows between dorsal origin and lateral line (6 vs. 7) shallower body (26.3-29.4 vs. 29.5- 32.9) and shorter dorsal fin height (22.6-28.5 vs. 28.9-31.4). Thus, P. burtoni is given specific status in the present study. Figs 1 and 2 compare the body depths and spine lengths of the two species.

Poropuntius clavatus (McClelland 1845) (Plate 1, Fig. 2)

Barbus clavatus McClelland, 1 845. Calcutta J. nat. Hist., 280, pi. 21 (type locality: Sikkim mountains on the northern frontier of Bengal).

Puntius clavatus : Menon, 1974, Inland Fisheries Soc. of India, Spl. Pub. 1:38.

Poropuntius clavatus : Jayaram, 1991, Rec. zool. Surv. India , 135: 172.

Local name: Nung-nga (Manipuri).

Material examined: 1 ex., ZSIFF 1629, 121.5 mm SL, Jatinda river, Assam, India, Coll. S.C. De, no date; 1 ex., ZSI F 9936/1, 124.0 mm SL, Karong, Naga Hills, Manipur, Coll. S.L. Hora, no date; 3 ex., MUMF 2265-2267, 168.8-195.5 mm SL, Barak river, Sekjang Tuifai, Manipur, India, Coll. Ch. Bashuda, 14.ii.1997.

Diagnosis: A species of Poropuntius with 41-42 lateral line scales; 7/1/4 lateral transverse scales; 14-15 predorsal scales; body depth 29.5-32.9% of SL; dorsal fin height 28.9-31.4 % SL.

Distribution: india: Assam, Manipur (Brahmaputra basin), Sikkim, West Bengal; Bangladesh.

Remarks: McClelland ( 1 845) described P. clavatus from Sikkim, India. Menon (1974) considered P. burtoni a junior synonym of clavatus and extended the distribution of the fish to Myanmar. However, from the present study it is clear that they are two distinct species. Thus, P. clavatus is distributed only in the north-eastern part of India and Bangladesh.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

35

STA TUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI WITH A NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLA VATUS

34.00

32.20

30.40

Q.

®

TJ

>»

X5

O

CD

28.60

26.80

25.00

80.0

□

□

1 -i 1 1 i

93.5 105.0 109.0 126.0 190.7

Standard length (mm)

H P. burtoni □ P. cfavatus

Fig. 1 : Relationship between body depth and standard length of P. burtoni and P. clavatus

31.40 h

29.52 -

27.64

25.76

23.88

22.00 L— L— 1 1 1 1

80.0 89.1 95.1 106.5 121.5 126.0 168.8

Standard length (mm)

■ P. burtoni □ P. clavatus

Fig. 2: Relationship between dorsal spine length and standard length of P. burtoni and P clavatus

36

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

STATUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI WITH A NOTE CWPOROPUNTIUS CLAVATUS

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. J.R.B. Alfred (Director), Mr. T.K. Sen and Dr. A.K. Karmakar of Zoological Survey of India, for permission to

Refer

Jayaram, K.C. (1981). Freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Handbook, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 475 pp.

Jayaram, K.C. (1991): Revision of the genus Puntius Hamilton from the Indian region (Pisces: Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae, Cyprininae). Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper 135 : 178.

Menon, A.G.K. (1974): A checklist of fishes of the Himalayan and the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Inland Fisheries Society India (Special publication No. 1 ), 136 pp.

McClelland, J. (1945 1 845): Description of four species of fishes from the rivers at the foot of the Boutan Mountains. J. Nat. Hist. Calcutta 5(1 8): 274-282, pi. 21.

examine the type and other specimens in the Museum; Dr. Maurice Kottelat of Switzerland, for literature and the Ministry of Environment & Forests, New Delhi (Project No. 114 1 / IF 131 97), for financial assistance.

ENC ES

Mukerji, D.D. (1934): Report on the Burmese fishes collected by Lt. Col. R.W. Burton from the tributary streams of Mali Hka River of Myitkyina District (Upper Burma) 2. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(1): 38-80. Rainboth, W. J. ( 1 996): Fishes of the Cambodian Mekong. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, 265 pp, 27 pis.

Sen, T.K. (1985): The fish fauna of Assam and the neighbouring northeastern states of India. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. paper 64: 216.

Smith, H.M. (1 93 1 ). Description of new genera and species of Siamese fishes. Proc. U.S. Natn. Mus. 79(7): 1-48. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and adjacent countries, Vol 1 , Oxford and IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 541 pp.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

37

FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD BUFO MELANOSTICTUS SCHNEIDER1

Mercy Mathew and M.I. Andrews2

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Bufo melanostictus, food, feeding habits

The food and feeding habits of Bufo melanostictus in the Kuttanad region of Kerala were studied. Arthropods formed a major food item while insects were the most favoured food of the species. The present study reaffirms that the toad is a useful anuran for controlling pests.

Introduction

The stomach contents of many anuran species have been examined to determine their role in an ecosystem. Though the food of several anuran species inhabiting temperate regions has been studied extensively (Drake 1914, Berry and Bullock 1962, Berry 1970, Blackith and Speight 1974, Strassman et al. 1984, Barrentine 1991, Evans and Lampo 1996, De Bruyn et al. 1996), the food and feeding habits of only a few tropical species have been investigated (Wadekar 1963, Isaac and Rege 1975, Nigam 1979, Mohanty-Hejmadi et al. 1979, Battish and Sandhu 1988, George and Andrews 1995).

In the Indian subcontinent, the food and feeding habits of toads were studied by some workers (Rangaswami and Channabasavanna 1973, Battish et al. 1989, Sreelatha et al. 1990). Except for the latter, no detailed work has been done on the food spectrum of Bufo melanostictus in Kerala. The present study was, therefore, undertaken to determine the food of B. melanostictus in the Kuttanad region of Kerala and its role as a biocontrol agent.

Material and Methods

Stomach content analysis of B. melanostictus was carried out from January 1991 to December 1992. A total of 213 toads (80 males

‘Accepted January, 2000

department of Zoology , Mar Thoma College,

Tiruvalla 689 103, Kerala, India.

and 133 females) were examined. Adult toads were collected at night from paddy fields and habitats in Kuttanad, a natural wetland of Kerala. They were killed immediately and preserved in 10% formalin. The toads were weighed and sexed in the laboratory. The stomach was excised from the toad and weighed. The weight of its contents were recorded separately. The contents were examined under a binocular dissecting microscope, sorted and preserved in 70% alcohol. Food items were identified and the number of individuals of each type were recorded. The correlation between the body weight and weight of gut contents was statistically analysed.

Results

The distribution of stomach contents of B. melanostictus (expressed as a percentage of total body weight) with respect to sex and month is shown in Table 1 . Female toads were found to consume more food than males except in September, November and December. The females collected in January, May and June were observed to have a higher percentage weight of stomach contents. Table 2 lists the classified food items of B. melanostictus and their economic importance. It is evident from the data obtained that the food of B. melanostictus consisted of invertebrates of 15 orders (Table 3). The toad mainly fed on arthropods. No vertebrate prey was found. Stomachs of 14 specimens examined were empty. Ant species dominated the diet (56.36%). Termites, though numerically abundant

38

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 200 1

FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD

Table 1

STOMACH CONTENTS OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS EXPRESSED AS PERCENT OF TOTAL BODY WEIGHT WITH RESPECT TO SEX AND MONTH

Month

Sex

Male (%)

Female (%)

January

2.48

6.34

February

3.35

3.81

March

2.3

3.22

April

2.78

3.2

May

6.2

7.62

June

2.63

5.49

July

1.58

2.69

August

1.41

1.77

September

3.65

1.8

October

1.81

3.75

November

2.75

2.29

December

3.6

2.84

(26.11%), were preferred by fewer toads. Coleopterans formed the next largest group (9.62%) (Fig. 1). Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Heteroptera, Diptera, Millipedes, Araneida,

molluscs and earthworms were also identified. A substantial amount of plant material was present in several stomachs. Miscellaneous items like sand, gravel, stone, hair, seed and flower bud were also recorded.

It is evident from the data that this toad fed on a variety of insects belonging to 1 5 families of the order Coleoptera. Phytophagous insect pests like Anoplogenius sp., Gonocephalum sp., Diocalandra fruminti, Rhynchaenus mangifera , Sipalus sp., Sternochaetus mangifera , Sitophilus oryzae , Onthophagus sp., Anomala chlorocarpa , Autoserica insanabilis , Anomala sp. and Adoretus sp. were recovered from the gut of B. melanostictus. It also fed on root pests like Cylas sp., Heteronychus lioderes , Anomala dussumeiri and Melanotus hirticornis , pests of tuber crops like Lema sp. and pests of stored grains like Aliphitobius piceus and Rhizopertha dominica. Predaceous beetles like Cicindella sp., Termitodiscus sp. and Luciola sp., and other

Opisthopora

Dermaptera

Orthoptera

Hemiptera

Lepidoptera

Coleoptera

Heteroptera

Hymenoptera

Dictyoptera

Isoptera

Diptera

Chilopoda

Diplopoda

Araneida

Pulmonata

Percentage

Fig. 1 : Annual consumption of food items by B. melanostictus

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

39

FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD

Table 2

FOOD SPECTRUM OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS

Classified food item

Number of individuals collected

Number of stomachs examined

Economic

importance

Annelida

Class: Oligochaeta Order: Opisthopora Family: Megascolecidae Megascolex sp.

9

7

Arthropods

Class: Insecta Order: Orthoptera Family: Tridactylidae

2

2

Family: Acrididae

Oxya hyla hyla

35

21

Very harmful to paddy

Oxya chinensis

33

30

Pest of rice and vegetables

Oxya sp.

10

7

Harmful to paddy

Hieroglyphus banian

35

31

Pest of paddy

Family: Gryllidae

Gymnogryllus sp.

19

11

Omnivorous

Gryllus sp.

25

20

Omnivorous

Family: Gryllotalpidae

Gryllotalpa sp.

25

18

Household pest, injurious to

Order: Hemiptera Family: Cercidae Leptocorisa acuta

22

10

cultivated plants Pest of paddy

Family: Delphacidae

Nilaparvata lugens

30

7

Pest of paddy

Family: Scutelleridae

Chrysocoris stollii

7

5

Pest of garden plants

Order: Coleoptera Family Carabidae Anoplogenius sp.

12

7

Paddy pest

Scarites sp.

18

13

Crop pest

Siggona sp.

5

4

Crop pest

Gnathophorus sp.

2

2

Civina sp.

2

2

Kareya sp.

2

2

Family: Tenebrionidae

Aliphitobius piceus

49

10

Pest of stored grains

Gonocephalum strigatum

36

15

Paddy pest

Gonocephalum sp.

133

38

Paddy pest

Family: Curculionidae

Rhynchaenus mangiferae

7

5

Mango pest

Diocalandra fruminti

29

12

Foliage feeding

Myllocerus pustulatus

13

5

Pest of vegetable and other plants

40

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1) APR. 2001

FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD

Table 2 (contd)

FOOD SPECTRUM OF B UFO MELANOSTICTUS

Classified food item

Number of individuals collected

N umber of stomachs examined

Economic

importance

Sipalus sp.

3

3

Crop pest

Xanthoprochilus sp.

5

5

Sternochetus mangifera

3

3

Nut weevil (mango pest)

Sitophilus oryzae

17

10

Stored product pest

Family: Apionidae

Cylas sp.

4

4

Grubs, pest of tuber crops

Family: Scarabidae

Hybosorus orientalis

10

6

Heteronychus lioderes

13

7

General root pest

Popillia sp.

17

5

Onthophagus sp.

22

9

Crop pest

Serica sp.

3

3

Crop pest

Heliocopris bucephalus

5

3

Anomala dussumeiri

12

5

Larval forms damage roots of

Anomala chlorocarpa

12

4

paddy and cereals Pest of cashew

Autoserica insanabilis

3

3

Pest of cashew

Family: Elateridae

Melanotus hirticornis

2

2

Larva feed on roots of plants and

Heteroderis sp.

2

2

pest of stored food grains

Attica sp.

1

1

Family: Chrysomelidae

Lema sp.

6

6

Pest of tuber crops

Family: Bostrichidae

Rhizopertha dominica

18

11

Serious pest of stored grains

Family: Cerambycidae

7

7

Family: Passalidae

Ophrigonius sp.

15

7

Family: Cicindellidae

Cicindella sp.

13

8

Predator

Family: Staphylinidae

Termitodiscus sp.

10

5

Predator

Family: Rutelidae

Anomala sp.

4

4

Adoretus sp.

7

5

Pest of garden plants

Family: Dasicillidae

3

3

Family: Lampyridae

Luciola sp.

3

3

Predator

Order: Heteroptera Family: Pentatomidae Scotinophora sp.

37

20

Pest of rice

Scotinophora bispinosa

7

7

Paddy pest

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001

41

FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD

Table 2 ( contd)

FOOD SPECTRUM OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS

Classified food

Number of individuals Number of stomachs

Economic

item

collected

examined

importance

Order: Hymenoptera Family: Formicidae Pheidologeton affinis

44

11

Pheidologeton sp.

45

20

Household pest

Oecophylla smciragdina

81

17

Household pest

Camponotus compressus

1319

50

Nuisance to trees

Camponotus sp.

1324

70

Household pest

Dictcamma sculptum

30

10

Diacammci vagans

9

7

nuisance to trees

Megachila sp.

225

70

Solenopsis geminata

13

7

Pest of vegetable

seedlings

Family: Mutillidae

Mutilla sp.

4

4

Order: Dermaptera Family: Forficulidae Forficula sp.

19

18

Order: Lepidoptera Caterpillar

5

5

Order: Dictyoptera Family: Blattidae Periplaneta americana

9

9

Household pest

Family: Blatellidae

Blatella germanica

6

6

Household pest

Order: Isoptera

Termite

1433

14

Household pest

Order: Diptera Family: Culicidae Anopheles sp.

24

18

Household pest - vector

Family: Muscidae

Musca sp.

10

10

Household pest - vector

Class: Myriapoda Order: Chilopoda Family: Scolopendridae Scolopendra sp.

10

10

Order: Diplopoda Family: Julidae

26

23

Class: Arachnida Order: Araneida Family: Lycosidae

l ainiij'. vojiuuv

Paradossa songossa

12

11

Biological control agent

Lycosa sp.

14

13

Biological control agent

Mollusca

Cryptozona sp.

6

6

42

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1) APR. 2001

FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD

coleopterans like Scarites sp., Siggona sp., Civina sp., Kareya sp. Gonocephalum sp., Gonocephalum strigatum, Myllocerus pustulatus , Xanthoprochilus sp., Hybosorus orientalis, Serica sp., Heteroderis sp., Attica sp., Ophrigonius sp. were also obtained from the gut content (Table 2).

Among the heteropterans, serious rice pests like Scotinophora bispinosa and another unidentified species of the same genus were found in the food contents of B. melanostictus (Table 2). Hymenopterans were well represented in the food contents. Among them, Pheidologeton affinis , Oecophylla smaragdina (household pest), Camponotus compressus , Camponotus sp., Diacamma vagans, Megachila sp., (tree pests) and Solenopsis geminata (vegetable seedling pest) constituted the major portion. A few ant parasites, genus Mutilla (Mutillidae) were also found.

The data obtained was statistically analysed and a strong positive correlation was found between body weight and gut weight, and between body weight and gut content weight. (Table 4).

Discussion

The present study reveals that B. melanostictus feeds on a wide range of organisms. The food of this toad consists of invertebrates; no vertebrate prey were found. The toad’s selection of these organisms is a chance factor. The representation of several orders and families of invertebrates from diverse habits like terrestrial, aquatic and agro-ecosystems showed the toad’s affinity to them. Feeding is evidently unselective in B. melanostictus , as animals with noxious protective and offensive mechanisms like centipedes, millipedes and spiders are frequently taken. Further, this toad is primarily insectivorous. No cannibalism was observed. Toads, however, are reported to be carnivorous

and cannibalistic by Noble (1918) and Sreelatha et al. (1990).

The food consumption of the toad is high in May- June and low in July-August. The high food consumption in May-June is because of greater reproductive activity in the monsoon season. The decline in the feeding rate in July- August can be attributed to the low availability of terrestrial insects during the monsoon.

The food spectrum obtained in the present study indicates that arthropods form the bulk of the diet of B. melanostictus. Among them, insects appear to be the most favoured. In the present study, Hymenopteran ants of family Formicidae were dominant in the diet of the toad, substantiating the works of Weber (1938) in B. marinus. Forge and Barbault (1980) in B. pentoni, Battish et al. (1989) in B. stomaticus , and Evans and Lampo (1996) in B. marinus.

It has been reported that, in terms of biomass, coleopterans were predominant in the food of B. melanostictus (Berry and Bullock 1962) and B. stomaticus (Battish et al. 1989). The consumption of large numbers of Coleoptera by Rana tigerina (=Hoplobatrachus tigrinus) during the pre-breeding period has been noted by Khan (1973). As is clear from the present study, B. melanostictus mainly feeds on terrestrial insects. Similar observation was made by Berry and Bullock (1962). This can be correlated with the prey availability in the toad’s habitat.

The present study shows that the seasonal variation in the food of B. melanostictus may be due to a seasonal change in the availability of prey. Similar observations were made by Brooks (1959), Berry (1965), Khan (1973) and Battish et al. (1989). According to Jenson and Klimstra (1966), Hedeen (1970) and Nigam (1979), anurans are opportunistic feeders. The more frequent occurrence of toads in vegetable gardens and orchards is due to the easy availability of prey. A correlation was also found between the abundance of toads and the ground

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

43

PERCENTAGE OF FOOD ITEMS RECOVERED FROM STOMACHS OF B UFO MELANOSTICTUS FROM JANUARY 1991 TO DECEMBER 1 992

FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001

FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD

Table 4

CORRELATION METRICES OF FEEDING ACTIVITY OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS

Correlation between

Females

Males

Body wt. vs Gut wt.

0.85**

0.68**

Body wt. vs Gut content wt.

0.61**

0.45**

Gut wt. vs Gut content wt.

0.92**

0.68**

** Significant for p <0.01

fauna. Strussmann et al. (1984) noted that although B. marinus ate most prey items in proportion to their abundance, positive selection was shown for ants and termites. In the present study, the dietary differences found between habitats may simply reflect the availability of prey.

The stones, leaves and other debris present in the gut of B. melanostictus might have been ingested incidentally with the prey. The presence of stones and vegetable matter in the gut of anurans has been reported earlier (Berry and Bullock 1962, Berry 1965, Battish et al. 1989, Sreelatha etal. 1990, George and Andrews 1995, Evans and Lampo 1996). Possibly, the stones and plant matter help to crush food items such as beetle carapaces in the stomach. Other objects like grain, seed and flower bud are probably mistaken for food.

The present study reaffirms that B. melanostictus is a natural predator of various

Refer

Abdulali, H. ( 1 985): On the export of frog legs from India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(2): 347-375. Barrentine, D. (1991): Food habits of Western toads ( Bufo boreas halophilus ) foraging from a residential lawn. Herpetol. Rev. 22(3): 84-87.

Battish, S.K., Anno Agarwal & Paramjit Singh (1 989): Food spectrum of the marbled toad Bufo stomaticus Lutken. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 22-31 . Battish, S.K. & J.S. Sandhu (1988): Food spectrum of the skipper frog Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider. Ann. Biol. ( Ludhiana ) 4(1 & 2): 14-19.

Berry, P.Y. (1965): The diet of some Singapore anura.

J. Zool. London. 144: 163-174.

insect pests, especially some serious crop pests. Though toads are known opportunistic feeders, their feeding on several phytophagous insect pests indicates their usefulness as biological control agents. This has been stressed by several earlier workers (Gadow 1901, Kadam and Patel 1960, Stiles etal. 1969, Fellow 1969). It has been reported that R. tigerina (=Hoplobatrachus tigrinus) (Abdulali 1985), B. stomaticus (Battish et al. 1989), B. melanostictus (Sreelatha et al. 1990), R. limnocharis ( =Limnonectes limnocharis ) (Sally et al. 1992) and R. hexadactyla ( =Euphlyctis hexadactylus) (George and Andrews, 1995) are significant in controlling agricultural pests. B. melanostictus feeds on insects, ants and spiders, some of which are beneficial. This toad may be considered useful for the control of pests and other harmful insects, playing an important role in the economy of nature.

Acknowledg ements

We are grateful to Dr. P.T. Cherian, Additional Director, Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, Chennai, Dr. T.C. Narendran, Professor of Zoology, University of Calicut, and Dr. George Mathew, Scientist, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala for the identification of insects.

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Berry, P.Y. (1970): The food of giant toad Bufo asper.

Zool. J. Linn. Soc. Lond. 49: 61-68.

Berry, P.Y. & J.A. Bullock (1 962): The food of common Malayan toad Bufo melanostictus Schneider. Copeia. 736-741.

Blackith, R.M. & M.C.D. Speight (1974): Food and feeding habits of the frog Rana temporaria in the bogland habitats in the west of Ireland. J. Zool. Lond. 172:61-69.

Brooks, G.R. (1959): A survey of the food habits of Rana catesbeiana from five different habitats. Virginia J. Sci. 10: 263.

De Bruyn, L., M. Kazadi & J. Hulselmans (1996): Diet of

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FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD

Xenopus fraseri (Anura: Pipidae). J. Herpetol. 30(1): 82-85.

Drake, C.J. (1914): The food of Rana pipiens Schreber. Ohio. Nat. 14: 257-269.

Evans, M. & M. Lampo (1996): Diet of Bufo marinus in Venezuela. J. Herpetol. 33(1): 73-76.

Fellow, A.G. (1969): Toads and Termites. Victorian Nat. 86: 136.

Forge, P. & R. Barbault (1980): Observations on the diet of two sympatric amphibians from Sahel of Senegal: Bufo pentoni and B. tomopterna. Bull. Jnt. London Afr. Noiri. Sero. Sci. nat. 40(3): 674-684. Gadow, H.C. (1901): The Cambridge Natural History.

Amphibians and Reptiles. Vol. VIII.

George, S. & M.I. Andrews (1995): Food and feeding habits of Rana hexadactyla Lesson in Kuttanad. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(2): 432-437.

Hedeen, S.E. (1970): The ecology and life history of the mink frog Rana septentrionalis Baird. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Minneapolis.

Isaac, S. & M.S. Rege (1975): Food of Rana tigerina (Daud). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(1): 143-157. Jensen, T.A. & W.D. Klimstra (1966): Food habits of the green frog Rana clamitans in Southern Illinois. Amer. Mid. Nat. 76: 169-182.

Kadam, M.V.B. & G.A. Patel (1960): Crop pests and how to fight them. Div. Pub. Govt. Maharashtra, Bombay. Khan, M.S. (1973): Food of Tiger frog, Rana tigerina (Daudin). Biologia 19: 1-2.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P., S.K. Dutta, B.K. Acharya & I. Khan (1979): Observations on food habits of three species of frogs. Proc. Orissa Assoc. Adv. of Sci.,

Abstract No. 6.

Njgam, H.C. (1979): Food and feeding habits of Rana tigerina in paddy belts of U.P. India. Geobios. 6(6): 241-244.

Noble, G.K. (1918): The amphibians collected by the American museum expedition to Nicaragua in 1 91 6. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 38: 31 1-347.

Rangaswami, H.R. & G.P. Channabasavanna (1973): Food and feeding habits of the toad Bufo melanostictus Schneider (Amphibia : Bufonidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(3): 558-563.

Sally, G., S. George, M. Oommen & M. Johnson ( 1 992): Food spectrum of the frog Rana limnocharis (Boie in Weighmann). J. Zool. Soc. Kerala. 2(1): 58-61 .

Sreelatha, K.S., P. Natarajan and S.D. Rita Klmari ( 1 990): Studies on the food and feeding behaviour of Bufo melanostictus Schneider. J. Ecobiol. 2(3): 21 3- 221.

Stiles, K.A., W.H. Robert & R.A. Boolotial (1969): College Zoology. Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 530.

Strussmann, C., M.B. Ribeiro Do Vale, M.H. Meneghini & W.E. Magnusson (1984): Diet and foraging mode of Bufo marinus and Leptodactylus ocellatus. J. Herpetol. 18: 138-146.

Wadekar, U.L. (1963): The diet of the Indian bull frog. Rana tigerina (Daud). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60(1): 263-268.

Weber, N. A. (1938): The food of giant toad Bufo marinus in Trinidad and British Guiana with special reference to the ants. Ann. Entomol. Soc. America. 31: 499- 503.

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TAXONOMIC POSITION OF THE INDIAN SPECIES OF GRASS FEEDING DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS ASSIGNED TO THE GENUS ALLOPHLEPS (HEMIPTERA : CIC ADELLID AE) 1

C.A. VlRAKTAMATH2 AND PRATAP CHANDRA DASH3 ( With five text-figures)

Key words: Taxonomic position, Deltocephaline leafhoppers, Deltocephalus

The genus Allophleps is redefined based on the specimen from Africa. The Indian species assigned to this genus are transferred to the genus Deltocephalus which is redefined along with a key to the Indian species. The following new combinations are proposed: Deltocephalus indicus (Pruthi) and D. menoni (Rao and Ramakrishnan). Allophleps delhiensis Rao and Ramakrishnan is treated as a major synonym of D. indicus.

Introduction

Bergroth (1920) described the genus Allophleps for his new species Allophleps inspersa from Kenya. Pruthi (1936) described Allophleps indicus from Lyallpur (Pakistan), thus recording the genus from the Indian subcontinent. Rao and Ramakrishnan (1990) provided the diagnosis of the genus based on the Indian species and added two new species, namely A. delhiensis and A. menoni from New Delhi. They also provided a key to the three known species from the Indian subcontinent.

During our studies of the Indian Deltocephalus , we discovered a number of speci- mens assignable to the three known species of Allophleps , but we realised that the species from the Subcontinent were misplaced in Allophleps. An examination of the authentically identified specimen of A. inspersa confirmed our doubt and we report here the results of our studies.

The abbreviations used for the depositories are as follows: BMNH - The Natural History Museum, London; NPC - National Pusa Collec- tion, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New

'Accepted August, 1998 department of Entomology,

University of Agricultural Sciences,

GKVK, Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka, India, department of Entomology,

Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneshwar 751 003, Orissa, India.

Delhi; UAS - Department of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore and ZSI - Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Allophleps Bergroth

Allophleps Bergroth 1920: 27. Type species: Allophleps inspersa Bergroth, by original designation.

Macropterous leafhoppers measuring more than 6 mm. Head slightly narrower than pronotum, longer medially than next to eyes. Vertex polished. Face slightly wider than long, shagreened, antennal ledge well developed, impinging slightly on clypeus, ocelli close to eyes. Pronotum with carinate lateral margins, transversely wrinkled, sparsely punctate, polished. Scutellum polished, area beyond impressed line transversely rugulose. Fore wing without accessory cells, outer ante-apical cell smallest, apically narrowed. Hind femoral spinulation 2+2+1.

Male pygophore with well developed anterior apodeme, a group of macrosetae on dorsal margin at the base of origin of anal segments; lobe narrowed with sclerotized bar along dorsal area, apex sclerotized, pigmented. Valve broad with a median angular projection on caudal margin. Subgenital plate triangular with outer marginal row of stout setae. Style with small preapical lobe, apophysis well developed, apex broadened with prominent crenulations.

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TAXONOMIC POSITION OF INDIAN DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS

Connective Y-shaped, arms well separated, stem distally bilobed. Aedeagus articulated with connective, shaft curved tubular, apex flared with large gonopore, ventral part produced into a bilobed process beyond gonopore, dorsal apodeme well developed.

Remarks: Oman et al. (1990) placed this genus under the tribe Fieberiellini. However, because of the well developed apophysis of style and Y-shaped connective with divergent aims, we place this genus in the tribe Euscelini.

Allophleps inspersa Bergroth, 1920 (Figs 1-5)

Allophleps inspersa Bergroth, 1920: 28.

Material examined: Tanganyika: 1 d*, Lake Nyassa, 1,600 ft (488 m), 34° 00' E, 9° 30' S, 28.viii.1959, Cambridge E. Africa Exped. B.M. 1960-50, Allophleps inspersa Bergr. Det. M.D. Webb, comp, with type (BMNH).

Indian species of Allophleps

The male genitalia and wing venation of the three species from the Indian subcontinent assigned to Allophleps are well illustrated by Pruthi (1936) and Rao and Ramakrishnan (1990), hence they are not illustrated here. A study of these species suggests that they belong to the genus Deltocephalus of the tribe Deltocephalini. The genus Deltocephalus is redefined here (Kramer 1971).

Deltocephalus Burmeister

Jassus subgenus Deltocephalus Burmeister, 1938: 15. Type species: Cicada pulicaris Fallen, type by subsequent designation by Kirschbaum, 1858: 356.

Moderately small, comparatively robust leafhoppers measuring 2.2-4. 1 mm. Head including eyes as wide as or slightly wider than pronotum, crown produced beyond eyes and bluntly angular at apex, anterior margin of crown

broadly and smoothly rounded to face, crown in lateral view usually distinctly inflated or convex. Ocelli marginal, small, and rather remote from eyes. Clypeal suture often obscure; clypellus quadrate with sides parallel. Fore wings long and extending well beyond abdomen or shortened and exposing apex of abdomen; in forms with shortened fore wings, the apical cells and each appendix are much reduced and at times rarely open basally, central cell divided or not, outer cell often reduced and sometimes absent.

Male pygophore simple, without prominent processes, but with macrosetae, anal collar with or without a simple process, subgenital plate triangular or rarely hemispherical, not produced into a membranous appendage. Valve and subgenital plates separate. Style with slender and more or less finger-like apophysis. Connective linear and fused with aedeagus; aedeagal shaft broadest in basal half and tapering distally to a slender upturned apex, extreme apex simple or slightly elaborated with small projections or minute teeth on distal margin below apex.

Remarks: The genus shares the characters of fused connective and aedeagus with Matsumuratettix Metcalf and Miradeltaphus Dash and Viraktamath among the Indian genera. It differs from Matsumuratettix in the shape of the aedeagus and from Miradeltaphus in having valves and subgenital plates separate. Dash and Viraktamath (1995) treated the genus Recilia Edwards as a subgenus of Deltocephalus and stated that most of the Indian species assigned to the genus Deltocephalus belong to this subgenus. However, the male genitalia of the following species are not known: brunnescens Distant, butleri Distant, campbelli Distant, coloratus Distant, deletus Baker and pulvisculus Distant and hence, they have not been assigned to any subgenus. The Indian species assigned to Allophleps agree with the characters of the genus Deltocephalus and hence, the following new combinations and a synonym are proposed:

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49

Figs 1-5: Allophleps inspersa Bergroth, 1. Male genitalia, lateral view; 2. Valve and subgenital plate, ventral view; 3. Style: 4. Aedeagus, lateral view; 5, Apex of aedeagal shaft, ventral view.

TAXONOMIC POSITION OF INDIAN DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS

Deltocephalus indicus (Pruthi 1936), Comb. nov.

Allophleps indicus Pruthi, 1936: 120. Holotype 9, Pakistan [ZSI, examined].

Allophleps delhiensis Rao and Ramakrishnan, 1990: 111. Holotype d*, India [NPC, examined ]. Syn. nov.

Material examined: Pakistan: Holotype $, 5411/H7, Lyallpur, Punjab (at light) 10.x. 1929, A. Rahman, Allophleps indicus sp. nov., H.S. Pruthi, det. Paratype d\ 5700/H7, data as in holotype (ZSI). India: Holotype d, Delhi, 30. iv. 1965, inside lamp dome, M.G.R. Menon Allophleps delhiensis sp. nov. Paratypes: 5 d data as for holotype of A. delhiensis (NPC).

Remarks: Female illustrated by Pruthi (1936: Plate IX, Fig. 3) clearly shows the reticulate venation on both clavus and corium of fore wing. However, the wing venation shown in the text- figure 132a (p. 120) does not show this. Apparently this wing was taken from a different specimen. In the type series, the holotype female (5411/H7) and the paratype male (5700/H7) and one female from the type locality (5697/H7) show reticulate venation, whereas another female from the type locality (5698/H7) does not show reticulate venation and also does not belong to this species. The principal difference suggested in the key by Rao and Ramakrishnan (1990) between indicus and delhiensis was reticulate venation though they mentioned slight differences in the structure of subgenital plates and apophysis of style. The latter varies with the orientation of the style while making the diagram. The structure attributed to subgenital plates in Fig. 132b by Pruthi (1936: 12) is probably part of the pygophore lobes. There is no difference in the structure of connective and aedeagus and therefore, delhiensis is here treated as a junior synonym of indicus.

Deltocephalus menoni (Rao and

Ramakrishnan, 1990), Comb. nov.

Allophleps menoni Rao and Ramakrishnan, 1990: 113. Holotype d\ India [NPC, examined].

Material examined: india: Holotype d\ Delhi, 30. iv. 1965, inside lamp dome, M.G.R. Menon (NPC). Paratypes: 5 d* data as for holotype (NPC). Other material: india: Karnataka: Id, Dharwar, 22.x. 1969, C.A. Viraktamath (UAS).

The following key will help in the identification of the known Indian species of Deltocephalus A

Key to the Indian species of Deltocephalus

1 . Fore wings with many accessory cross veins both

on clavus and corium or outer ante-apical cell narrowed and pointed at apex or divided into two or more cells 2

— Fore wing without accessory cross veins, outer

ante-apical cell neither narrowed and pointed at apex nor divided into two or more cells 4

2. Aedeagal shaft compressed and bifurcate 3

— Aedeagal shaft tubular and not bifurcate

pruthii Metcalf

3. Aedeagal shaft with a short tooth-like process

neargonopore

menoni (Rao and Ramakrishnan)

— Aedeagal shaft with longer caudally directed

process near gonopore indicus (Pruthi)

4. Head with red markings 5

— Head without red markings 6

5 . Vertex of head with four red spots, pronotum with

red stripes deletus Baker

— Vertex of head with a pair of longitudinal red

stripes between eyes, pronotum with black longitudinal lines coloratus Distant

6. Apex of hind tibia with a black patch; head,

thorax and fore wings with brown spots

pulvisculus Distant

4Dash and Viraktamath (1998) described 24 new species of Deltocephalus (that are not included in this key) and also gave a key to all the known species of Deltocephalus from India and Nepal.

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TAXONOMIC POSITION OF INDIAN DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS

— Apex of hind tibia not marked as above, other

characters not as above 7

7. Predominantly black or chocolate brown species 8

— Ochraceous or stramineous with fuscous or black

spots 9

8. Colour black with yellow transverse bands on

face, crown, pronotum and scutellum

banda (Kramer).

— Anterior half of vertex black with three white

spots, pronotum scutellum and fore wings chocolate brown prabha (Pruthi)

9. Fore wing with zigzag reddish-brown marking dorsalis Motschulsky

1 0. Head and thorax orange red or orange yellow with

or without a black spot on disc of vertex

porticus Melichar

— Head and thorax ochraceous or fuscous with or

without black markings 11

11. Vertex with prominent large black markings or

with marginal black band surrounding white spots 12

— Vertex with either fuscous or small black spots

or without any markings 14

12. Anterior margin of head with a black stripe

spotted with white; subgenital plates as wide as or wider than inner margin, apically strongly rounded distinctus Motschulsky

— Disc of vertex with one or more large black spots;

subgenital plates triangular 13

13. Vertex with one apical large black spot

butleri Distant

— Vertex with three black spots

maculatus (Pruthi)

14. Vertex with four small anterior fuscous spots,

with a longitudinal fuscous stripe on either side of median line and a transverse series of fuscous spots on pronotum, fore and mid-tibiae annulated with brown brunnescens Distant.

— Not with above combination of characters ... 15

15. Vertex with anterior marginal spots, anterior aspect of pronotum obscurely tuberculate, fore

wing pale ochraceous with white spots

campbelli Distant

— Not with above combination of characters ... 16

1 6. Aedeagal shaft short, stout at apical 0.33, dorsally upturned with ventral apical extension 0.66 as

long as shaft, dorso-apical angle spine-like

indicus (Rao)

— Aedeagal shaft not as above 17

1 7. Male subgenital plate strongly narrowed caudally,

lateral margin straight in distal 0.66, aedeagus with ventral margin widened in middle beyond gonopore then narrowed veinatus (Pruthi)

— Male subgenital plate gradually narrowed

caudally, lateral margin either straight or concave in apical 0.33; aedeagus with ventral margin not as above 18

1 8 . Aedeagus with ventral margin narrowly produced

beyond gonopore; pronotum with black transverse stripe bicolor (Pruthi)

— Aedeagus with ventral margin not as narrowly produced as above, straight or slightly curved; pronotum without a transverse black stripe

19

19. Fore wing greyish-white with costal and claval

margins and a median longitudinal band fuscous; male abdomen with basal apodemes broader than long fletcheri (Pruthi)

— Coloration not as above; abdominal apodemes

of male longer than broad 20

20. Aeadeagus with gonopore restricted to apex ....

hospes Kirkaldy

— Aedeagus with gonopore not restricted to apex

21

2 1 . Style with apophysis slender, laterally curved and

tapering caudally intermedius Melichar

— Style with apophysis rather robust, if slender then

straight 22

22. Aedeagal shaft slender, elongate, 1.5 times as

long as connective, strongly bisinuate

jagannathi Dash and Viraktamath

— Aedeagal shaft rather stout, shorter than 1.25

times length of connective, not bisinuate 23

23. Apophysis of style bidentate ventrally, basal

abdominal apodemes short, lobe-like

tareni Dash and Viraktamath

— Apophysis of style with a single ventral tooth

basal abdominal apodemes longer 24

24. Apex of aedeagal shaft acutely pointed in dorsal

aspect chhota (Pruthi)

— Apex of aedeagal shaft not acutely pointed

krameri (Rao and Ramakrishnan)

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for allowing one of us (CAV) to examine the type material of the leafhopper species described by Dr Hem Singh Pruthi and deposited under his care; Dr M.D. Webb, Natural

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TAXONOMIC POSITION OF INDIAN DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS

History Museum, London for sending the for his comments on the taxonomy of the Indian identified specimen of Allophleps inspersa and species of Allophleps.

References

Bergroth, E. ( 1 920): Hemiptera from British Africa. Arkiv Zool. 12: 1-30.

Burmeister, H.C.C. (1838): Rhynchota No. 2. Genera Insectorum iconibus illustravit et descriptsit, v. 1, pis. 6, 12, 14, 15.

Dash, P.C. &C.A. Viraktamath (1995): Two new species of grassfeeding leafhopper genus Deltocephalus ( Recilia ) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) from Orissa, India. Hexapoda 7: 71-78.

Dash, P.C. & C. A. Viraktamath ( 1 998): A review of the Indian and Nepalese grass feeding leafhopper genus Deltocephalus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) with description of new species. Hexapoda 10: 1-59.

Kirschbaum, C.L. (1858): Die Athysanus-Arten der Gegend von Wiesbaden. Der Wetteruischen Gesellschaft fur die gesammte Naturkunde zur Feier ihres funfzig-jahrigen Bestehens am 11. August 1958 vom Verein fur Naturkunde im Hezogthum

Nassau. 1858: 1-14.

Kramer, J.P. (1971): A taxonomic study of the North American leafhoppers of the genus Deltocephalus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae: Deltocephalinae). Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 97: 413-439.

Oman, P.W., W.J. Knight & M.W. Nielson (1990): Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae): A bibliography, generic check-list and index to the World literature 1956- 1985. CAB International Institute of Entomology, 368 pp.

Pruthi, H.S. (1936): Studies on Indian Jassidae (Homoptera). Part III. Descriptions of some new genera and species with first records of some known species from India. Mem. Indian Mus. 1 1 : 1 0 1 - 1 3 1 .

Rao, V.R.S. & U. Ramakrishnan (1990): Two new species belonging to the genus Allophleps Bergroth (Cicadellidae: Homoptera) from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 111-113.

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NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF CONCHYLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA (BOHEMAN) (COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE: CASSIDINAE)1

Nilesh Rane, Sachin Ranade and H.V. Ghate2 ( With four text-figures )

Key words: Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae, life cycle, Conchyloctenia nigrovittata , Ipomoea eriocarpa, tortoise beetle

The breeding of the rare tortoise beetle Conchyloctenia nigrovittata was observed under natural as well as laboratory conditions in Pune. The breeding period is July to October. The ootheca containing on an average 4 eggs, is deposited on the leaf of the host plant Ipomoea eriocarpa. The larvae are typically cassidine, with a flattened body and 16 pairs of lateral processes covered with spinules. The larvae undergo 4 moults and thus there are 5 larval instars. From the second instar onwards, they carry the moulted skin and faecal matter on the supra-anal processes. They pupate on the leaf surface. The pupa has a semicircular prothorax and 5 pairs of leaf-like lateral processes on the abdomen. It also carries the larval exuviae and a few threads of faecal matter. From the egg laying to the eclosion stage it takes around 30 days. The newly emerged imago is colourless, but develops its characteristic pattern of black patches within 3 hours, and its conspicuous red colour in 8-10 days. The imago requires about 6 to 10 days to reach sexual maturity.

Introduction

The genus Conchyloctenia Spaeth is distributed in India and Africa, except Madagascar (Maulik 1919, Borowiec 1994). In India, it is represented by one species, namely C. nigrovittata (Boheman), while there are 14 species in Africa (Borowiec 1994).

C. nigrovittata can be recognized because of its sub-oblong shape, bright red coloration and characteristic markings of black spots and patches. Another important character is that the claws are pectinate at the base on both sides. A detailed description is given by Maulik (1919) (Fig. 1).

Maulik (1919) recorded this insect from Surat (Gujarat), Nagpur (Maharashtra) and Calcutta (West Bengal). The only other record is from near Mysore (Borowiec 1990: based on a

'Accepted December, 1999 3Post-Graduate Research Centre,

Department of Zoology,

Modem College, Pune 41 1 005,

Maharashtra, India.

Fig.l: Conchyloctenia nigrovittata beetle with the general colour pattern.

(Punctation and costae not shown.)

specimen collected in 1953). Thus, C. nigrovittata has apparently not been reported from any part of India during the past 45 years. No information is available on its life cycle either. Even for the African species of Conchyloctenia

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NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTOR Y OF CONCH YLOCTENI A NIGROVITTATA

there is scanty information regarding bionomics of two species only (Borowiec 1994). We are, therefore, reporting this species from Pune (Maharashtra), along with notes on its life history, for the first time.

Conchyloctenia nigrovittata was first collected at the base of Parvati Hills in Pune, in July 1996. Later, in July 1997, we collected some tortoise beetle larvae near the Pashan lake. These larvae looked different from the ones we had seen and reared before. They had long thin threads of faecal matter attached to the supra-anal processes. We collected them with their food plant, which was identified as Ipomoea eriocarpa, and allowed them to grow, pupate and eclose under laboratory conditions. The beetle that emerged was C. nigrovittata. Within a month, we found a few different looking oothecae on Ipomoea eriocarpa in the same area. We reared 3 out of 4 oothecae in the laboratory, and the larvae that hatched out were easily identified as those of C. nigrovittata. During July-October 1999, we monitored several oothecae and larvae in the field, as well as under laboratory conditions, and observed the various instars, feeding, growth, moulting, pupation and eclosion. The beetles and larvae were maintained in ordinary one litre plastic [PET] jars covered with muslin cloth, at a constant temperature of 25 °C in a B.O.D. incubator, with a supply of fresh leaves of the host plant.

Observations

Ootheca. The ootheca is generally small (length 3.2 to 3.8 mm and breadth 2.2 to 2.5 mm), yellowish-brown (reddish-brown when fresh), somewhat elliptical, and is deposited on the upper or lower surface of the Ipomoea leaves. It is attached to the leaf with secretion from the accessory glands, as in other tortoise beetles. It is made up of three to four translucent membranes deposited over each other. The eggs

are deposited between the two inner membranes. The outermost membrane is a flap-like lid, attached only to one end of the ootheca. It has a characteristic pattern of fine, transverse ridges and can be lifted with forceps (Fig. 2). Each egg is green or greenish-yellow and is enclosed in a separate membrane of its own. There are usually 3 or 5 eggs per ootheca and these are deposited in two tiers. The average length of the egg is about 1 .2 mm and breadth about 0.4 mm. In the field, as well as under laboratory conditions, the larvae hatch in about 6 days.

Fig. 2: Ootheca showing the characteristic fold pattern (F) and ridges as seen from above.

Larvae: The first instar larva is very small (about 1.3 mm) and a translucent pale green. During the next 3 days, it grows to about 2.2 mm before moulting. The second instar larva grows from about 2.2 to 2.7 mm before undergoing the next moult in 3 to 4 days time. This third instar grows to a length of about 4 mm in 3 days before moulting. The fourth and fifth instar larvae grow to about 5.3 and 8.4 mm respectively and the duration of each of these instars is about 4 days.

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NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF C ONCHYLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA

Up to the third instar, the larvae are pale green without any pigment pattern. In the fourth instar, however, the larvae develop a pattern of fine black spots. This pattern becomes bold and prominent in the fifth instar.

The larvae are more or less flattened overall, but with a somewhat convex dorsal surface. The larval head is oval and brown due to chitinisation and it is covered with many long and short setae. There are five lateral ocelli on each side of the head. The mandibles are prominent and possess five denticles, which are heavily chitinised. The larvae carry faecal matter, in the form of fine greenish-black threads, on their supra-anal processes. These faecal threads are very long and in the second instar the length of such threads is almost three times that of the body length. The larvae also carry the exuviae of previous instars. There are 16 pairs of lateral processes, each of which is provided with spinules, as shown for the fifth instar larva

Fig. 3a: Fifth instar larva with typical lateral processes (LP) bearing spinules, spiracles (S) and supra-anal processes (SA).

(Figs 3a & b). This figure also shows other structures such as the spiracles, faecal matter and colour pattern. The ventral aspect of the larva has no colour pattern or other notable features.

The larvae feed on the upper surface of the plant. The first and second instars only scrape the surface of the leaf, but the later instars cut holes and skeletonise the leaves. Feeding stops when the larva is about to pupate. The larva then becomes immobile and pupates on the leaf by attaching itself with the help of the three anterior abdominal segments (which become somewhat thicker at this stage).

Pupa: The pupa is translucent greenish- yellow, with a pattern of black spots, and is about 8 mm long. It retains all the larval skins in a folded form on the processes of the last abdominal segment. It also carries a few threads of faecal

Fig. 3b: Complex exuviae (EX) and faecal matter (FM) carried by the fifth instar larva (detached and shown here).

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Fig. 4: Pupa showing pronotum (P), with a lining of spines anteriorly, and other thoracic segments. Abdominal segments with leaf-like lateral processes (LP), spiracles (S) and supra-anal processes (SA).

the middle of the leaf as other tortoise beetles do, they restrict themselves to the leaf border. The average length of 26 beetles studied was 8.9 and breadth 6. 1 mm.

The imago becomes sexually mature within 10 days and the female starts depositing oothecae within three to five days after mating. In the laboratory population in 1999, a single female usually deposited 3 or 4, sometimes 1 and rarely 5 oothecae per day, over a period of 1 0 days after mating. A total of 34 oothecae were deposited in 10 days. Hatching success was almost 95% under laboratory conditions, as there was no parasitisation by chalcid wasps, a phenomenon rather common in the oothecae of wild populations of tortoise beetles that we are studying (unpublished data).

Discussion

matter. The leaf-like lateral processes on the abdominal segments, spinules, and spiracles are clearly seen (Fig. 4). The five abdominal spiracles are very prominent, tubular and elevated. Each is surrounded by a dark area, the extent of which decreases posteriorwards. The antero-lateral leaf- like projections on the first to fifth abdominal segments have long, sharp spinules. The seventh segment has posteriorly directed processes while those on the eighth segment are somewhat ventrolateral.

Imago: The imago emerges from the pupa in about 5 days. The freshly emerged beetle is pale yellowish-green, translucent, and without black spots. Thin black elytral spots start appearing in about 20 to 30 minutes and become bold in about 2 to 3 hrs, to assume the typical pattern of the species. The insects first become yellowish-brown, then pinkish and finally deep red. The characteristic red colour appears after 8 to 10 days. The adult commences feeding within a few hours or may delay it up to 24 hrs. The species generally does not start feeding in

The life cycle of Conchyloctenia nigrovittata is completed in about 35 days. We have observed oothecae in natural condi- tions between July and October. The breeding season, therefore, appears to be the monsoon period.

The ootheca is recognisably different from those of the other common tortoise beetles, like Aspidimorpha miliaris (Fabricius) and A. sanctaecrucis (Fabricius), described earlier (Maulik 1919, Takizawa 1980, our own unpublished data). However, the ootheca of C. nigrovittata is similar to that of Aspidimorpha furcata (Thunberg) described by Takizawa (1980) and also studied in our laboratory. It is also much simpler in organization than that of A. miliaris or other complex oothecae described in considerable detail by Muir and sharp ( 1 904).

Overall, the larvae of C. nigrovittata are typical cassidine larvae and carry threads of faecal matter like the larvae of Aspidimorpha sanctaecrucis. However, in C. nigrovittata, the threads are thinner and fewer in number. The

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NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF C ONCHYLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA

larva is also somewhat similar to that of Aspidomorpha ( =Aspidimorpha ) tigrina , as described in Muir Sharp (1904). [This African species is now transferred to the genus Conchy loctenicr, see Borowiec, 1994.]

Carrying faecal matter is an interesting adaptation shown by the larvae and pupae of cassidine beetles. Takizawa (1980) even classified the various patterns of faecal matter carried by the larvae (filament type, shield type, spade type and mass type). Takizawa (1980) further attempted to find the relationship among the different tribes of the family Chrysomelidae, on the basis of oothecal structure, and larval and pupal characters.

It is said that the faecal shield protects the larvae from predators and, to a certain extent, from parasitoids. Use of waste matter by chrysomelid larvae has been the topic of interest for many workers. The reader is referred to an

Refer

Borowiec, L. ( 1 990): New records and synonyms of Asiatic Cassidinae (Coleoptera: Cassidinae). Pol. Pismo Entomol. 59: 677-711.

Borowiec, L. (1994): A monograph of Afrotropical Cassidinae (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Part 1 . Genus (Supplement): 1-276. (Wroclaw: Poland).

Maulik, S. (1919): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae (Hispinae and Cassidinae). Taylor and Francis, London. Muir, F. & D. Sharp (1904): On the egg cases and early

excellent discussion regarding these aspects by Olmstead (1994).

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. M.L. Cox (formerly of International Institute of Entomology, London, now Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International [CABI], Bioscience Centre U.K. at Egham, Surrey) and Professor Lech Borowiec, University of Wroclaw, Poland for confirming our identification. We are indebted to Prof. Borowiec for his constant help and encouragement. We thank Mr. Sagar Pandit for locating the breeding population this year and for his help in the field work, especially in identifying the plants. We thank the authorities of Modern College, for facilities and encouragement. Financial assistance under UGC Minor Research Project, F.No. 23-157 / 99 (WRO), to HVG, is also acknowledged.

ENC ES

stages of some Cassididae. Trans. Entomol. Soc. Lond., 1904 : 1-23.

Olmstead, K.L. (1994): Waste products as chrysomelid defences. In: Novel Aspects of the Biology of Chrysomelidae. Eds: Jolivet, P.H., M.L. Cox and E. Petitpierre, Kluwer Academic Publishing, The Netherlands. Pp. 31 1-318.

Takizawa, H. (1980): Immature stages of some Indian Cassidinae. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Ins. Matsum., n.s. 21: 19-48.

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57

TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL1

Bharat Raj Subba2 and Tap an Kumar Ghosh3 ( With one text-figure)

Key words: Mollusca, terrestrial, Nepal

Eleven species of terrestrial molluscs have been listed from 12 districts of Nepal. They represent 5 families under 3 orders. Of the eleven species, 6 belong to the Family Ariophantidae, 2 to Cyclophoridae and 1 each to Stenogyridae, Veronicellidae and Helicidae.

Introduction

Nepal is a landlocked Himalayan kingdom, situated between 80° 00'-88° 15' E, and 26° 30'- 30° 15' N. The country has been divided into 5 development regions, which are further divided into 14 zones, with 75 districts. Out of the total area of 1 ,4 1 ,000 sq. km, the majority is occupied by land.

A perusal of the literature reveals paucity of information regarding the terrestrial molluscs of Nepal. Godwin- Austen (1910) and Majupuria (1981-1982) have reported a few species of terrestrial and freshwater molluscs collected from Nepal and Kathmandu valley. This report is the second of a series on the molluscan fauna of Nepal, the first being on the freshwater molluscs from the same area (Subba and Ghosh 2000). The present work is an attempt to list the terrestrial molluscan species collected during a survey of 12 districts of Nepal. The surveys were initiated in 1 993, to identify and list the terrestrial as well as freshwater molluscan species of Nepal.

Material and Methods

A collection of terrestrial molluscs was made from various sites, representing humid, shady and rocky places in the forests, gardens,

'Accepted May, 1 999 department of Zoology, P.G. Campus,

Tribhuvan University, Biratnagar, P.B. No. 1 37, Nepal.

3P.G. Department of Zoology, T.M. Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 8 1 2 007, Bihar, India

fields, river banks, and around lakes and ponds. The 12 districts surveyed were Ilam, Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Dhankuta, Saptari, Udayapur, Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Kaski, Gulmi and Rupandehi, representing six zones (Mechi, Koshi, Sagarmatha, Bagmati, Lumbini and Gandaki) of eastern, central and western Nepal (Fig. 1). The shape, colour and habitat of the molluscan samples, from these collection sites, were recorded. For further morphological studies, specimens were preserved in 70% ethanol. Molluscan shells were washed and dried, and kept in plastic containers, or small vials with cotton, for identification.

Identifications were made with the help of literature, including Cooke et al. (1896) and Raut and Ghose (1984). All samples were sent to the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for confirmation of identification.

Results and Discussion

A total of 1 1 species of terrestrial molluscs were found from 7 eastern, 2 central and 3 western districts of Nepal. Out of the 1 1 species, 1 belongs to the order Soleolifera, 2 to Mesogastropoda and the remaining 8 to Stylommatophora (Table 1). Distribution pattern of the terrestrial molluscs in the 12 districts of Nepal has been shown in Fig. 1. Some information on their habitat and distribution is given below:

Cyclophorus fulguratus was recorded from different places in the Terai and Siwalik hills

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Fig, 1 : Distribution of terrestrial molluscs in Nepal

LAND MOLLUSCS OF NEPAL AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS

TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL

o.

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Lal-Lalitpur; Gul-Gulmi; Kash-Kashki; Rup-Rupandehi +: species presents, species absent

TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL

(Churia hills) up to 1,500 m. It prefers to inhabit old walls and stones covered with algae and moss, which is perhaps used as food. C. aurantiacus is larger than C. fulguratus. It was recorded from the Terai region, Churia hills (1,500 m) and Mahabharat hills (1,676 m), but is more common at Churia hills.

A good collection of Macrochlamys indica, M. tugurium and Bensonia nepalensis was made from the Mahabharat hills. These species were found in rocky or stony regions covered with algae and moss, hidden under stones and dry leaves during the dry season.

Oxytes sylvicola ranged from the Churia hills to the middle of the Mahabharat hills (1,658 m) of eastern and central Nepal. Stony places with decayed leaves seemed to be a suitable habitat.

Khasiella pansa was common at several places in the Terai, Churia hills and Mahabharat hills of eastern Nepal. It was not recorded from any of the districts surveyed in central and western Nepal. It generally climbs up shrubs and remains adhered to the under surface of green leaves. Cryptaustenia sp. was recorded from similar habitats in Kashki district, western Nepal. Interestingly, that was the sole record.

Achatina fulica, or large garden snail (giant African snail) was the largest terrestrial mollusc recorded. It is restricted to the humid subtropical areas of the Terai and lower part of

Refer

Cooke, A.H., A.E. Shipley & F.R. Reed (1 896): Molluscs, Brachiopods. In: The Cambridge Natural History, Vol. Ill Repr. (1968), S.F. Harmer & A.E. Shipley (eds), Macmillan & Co. Ltd, England. 459 pp. Godwin-Austen, H.H. (1910): Land and freshwater Mollusca of India including South Arabia, Baluchistan, Kashmir, Nepal, Burmah, Pegu, Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula, Ceylon and other islands of the Indian Ocean. Supplementary to Theobald and Hanley’s Conchologia Indica, 2. pi.

■

Churia hills, from eastern and central Nepal. This snail is notorious for its damage to vegetables and fruits.

Laevicaulis sp., a small slug, was recorded in the Terai of eastern Nepal, inhabiting nearby water sources such as fish ponds, reservoirs, water channels and paddy fields.

Anadenus sp., or Chiple Kira , one of the largest highland molluscs, was recorded from the Mahabharat hill range between 1,828 m and 2,735 m, from eastern and central Nepal. Its habitat is similar to that of Laevicaulis sp.

This survey gives some valuable information on the distribution of terrestrial molluscs in eastern, central and western Nepal. However, a district level survey of other regions of Nepal must be made, before any biogeographical conclusions are drawn.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. Basant Kumar Rai (S.P.), Gyaneshwar, Kathmandu, Dr. Madhav Kumar Shrestha, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Rampur, Chitwan and Mr. Gyan Kumar Lama (Ranger), District Forest Office, Pokhara (Kashki) for their co-operation during the survey. We also thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, for taxonomic identification and confirmation of our specimens.

•NCES

XI, London.

Majupuria, T.C. (1981-82): Wild is beautiful. Introduction to Fauna and Wildlife of Nepal. S. Devi, Gwalior, India, 507 pp.

Raut, S.K. & K.C. Ghose (1984): Pestiferous land snails of India. Ed. Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, India. 1 5 1 pp.

Subba, B.R. & T.K. Ghosh (2000): Some freshwater molluscs from eastern and central Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97(3): 452-455.

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61

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DELTOCEPH ALINE LEAFHOPPER GENUS GONIAGNATHUS (HEMIPTERA : CICADELLIDAE) IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF FOUR NEW SPECIES1

Pratap Chandra Dash3 and C A. Viraktamath2

( With sixty-five text-figures)

Key words: Leafhoppers, Goniagnathus , Indian subcontinent, new species, Cicadellidae

Five of the six valid species of the genus Goniagnathus Fieber known from the Indian subcontinent, namely G. appellans Baker, G. fumosus Distant, G. guttulinervis (Kirschbaum), G. nervosus Melichar and G. punctifer (Walker) are redescribed and illustrated. G. bifurcata Ahmed & Qadeer known from Karachi (Pakistan) is treated here as a junior synonym of G. guttulinervis (Kirschbaum). Four new species, namely Goniagnathus concavus sp. nov., G. quadripinnatus sp. nov., G. symphysis sp. nov., and G. syncerus sp. nov., have been described and illustrated. Three groups of species have been recognised in the genus Goniagnathus ; i) the guttulinervis group which includes guttulinervis (Kirschbaum), obfuscatus Linnavuori, pamp/c/ws Linnavuori, albomarginatus Linnavuori and hanifanus Dlabola, ii) the punctifer group including appellans Baker, concavus sp. nov., fumosus Distant, nervosus Melichar, punctifer (Kirschbaum), quadripinnatus sp. nov. and appendiculatus Linnavuori, and iii) the syncerus group including symphysis sp. nov. and syncerus sp. nov. A key to the species of Goniagnathus from the Indian subcontinent is also included.

Introduction

The deltocephaline genus Goniagnathus Fieber belongs to the tribe Goniagnathini and includes very distinctive leafhoppers having short and broad heads, male subgenital plates fused and the connective reduced and fused with the aedeagus. They are brown to dark brown, robust leafhoppers, breeding on grasses and herbs. The genus is known to occur in the Palaearctic (28 species), Afrotropical (13 species) and the Oriental regions (7 species). Linnavuori (1978), while revising the genus for the Afrotropical region, redefined the tribe as well as the genus. Distant (1908, 1918) added six species of Goniagnathus from the Indian subcontinent. However, Kumar (1983) transferred G. uniformis

'Accepted November, 1 998 ■Department of Entomology,

University of Agricultural Sciences,

GKVK, Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka, India.

^Present address: Department of Entomology,

Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneshwar 751 003, Orissa, India.

Distant to the genus Batracomorphus Lewis. Ahmed et ah (1988) described G. bifur catus Ahmed and Qadeer as a new species from Karachi (Pakistan). Rama Subba Rao (1994) recorded G. guttulinervis (Kirschbaum) from the Indian subcontinent, in addition to redescribing G. nervosus Melichar from Kerala, thus bringing the total number of species to seven.

The institutions from where the leafhopper study material was obtained, and their abbreviations, are as follows.

BMNH - The Natural History Museum, London, U.K.

NPC - National Pusa Collection, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.

MMB - Moravian Museum, Brno, Czech Republic

UAS - The University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore.

No attempts were made to redescribe Goniagnathus, as Linnavuori (1978) has given a detailed description. However, the following additional characters are noted. Hind tibial

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NE W DESCRIPTIONS

spinulation Rf 10±2, R2 10±2, R3 17-22. Platellae at apex of hind basitarsus are five in number, flanked by a spine on each side. Female seventh sternum broader than long, hind margin variously excavated in the middle or concave. The first pair of female valvulae has scale-like sculpturing. The second pair of valvulae bear prominent teeth on dorsal margin and with crenulate margin between teeth and ventroapical margin.

On the basis of the male genitalia, the species studied and recognised here can be divided into three groups.

1. The guttulinervis group: Male pygophore without dorsal appendage, lobes with numerous setae. Aedeagus complex, with a pair of ventral atrial processes exceeding the compressed, short, simple shaft. The group includes only G. guttulinemis (Kirschbaum) from India. However, the following species from other zoogeographical regions also belong to this group: G. obfuscatus Linnavuori, G. parvipictus Linnavuori, G. albomarginatus Linnavuori (all from Afrotropical region, Linnavuori 1978) and G. hanifanus Dlabola (from Iran, Dlabola 1981).

2. The punctifer group: Male pygophore lobe with dorsal appendage, setae sparse. Aedeagus with tubular shaft having apical and subapical elongate processes. This group includes G. appellans Distant, G. concavus sp. nov., G. fumosus Distant, G. nervosus Melichar, G. punctifer (Walker) and G. quadripinnatus sp. nov. from the Indian subcontinent. G. appendiculatus Linnavuori from the Afrotropical region (Linnavuori 1978) also belongs to this group.

3. The syncerus group: Similar to the punctifer group in pygophore structure, but the aedeagal shaft is shorter, widening caudally. The gonopore is surrounded by a short, sclerotized process. This group comprises of only two species, G. symphysis sp. nov. and G. syncerus sp. nov.

Key to species of Goniagnathus of the Indian subcontinent

(G. bicolor Distant is not included in the key)

1 . Male 2

— Female 10

2. Male pygophore without dorsal appendage

(Figs 1,60) 3

— Male pygofer with dorsal appendage (Figs 7,

14,21) 4

3. Aedeagus with a pair of ventral processes

exceeding shaft (Fig. 3) (Palaearctic and Oriental) G. guttulinervis (Kirschbaum)

— Aedeagus without ventral process (Fig. 63)

(India: Rajasthan) G. syncerus sp. nov.

4. Aedeagus with long processes; shaft rather

tubular, long and of uniform width 5

— Aedeagal shaft without any long process, constricted before apex (Figs 56, 57); gonopore surrounded by sclerotized rim ending in a lateral short projection (Fig. 55) (India: Gujarat,

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu

G. symphysis sp. nov.

5 . Pygophore lobe strongly narrowed caudally with

its appendage bordering caudo-dorsal margin only (Figs 7, 39) 6

— Pygophore lobe broad or broadened caudally,

with its appendage bordering both caudo-dorsal and caudal margins (Figs 21, 31) 9

6. Fused subgenital plates with concave caudal margin (Fig. 15); aedeagal shaft with a pair of ventral and a pair of dorsal processes at apical. 0.33 (Figs 17, 18) (India: Gujarat, Karnataka) G. concavus sp. nov.

— Fused subgenital plates either with truncate,

convex or obtusely rounded caudal margin; aedeagal shaft with lateral and dorsal or lateral and apical processes 7

7. Aedeagus with a pair of apical and a pair of rather asymmetrically curved processes arising at mid-length of shaft dorsally (Figs 41, 42); fused subgenital plates square tipped (Fig. 40) (India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Kerala; Sri Lanka) G. punctifer (Walker)

— Aedeagus with a pair of apical and a pair of

subapical processes; fused subgenital plates obtusely or convex ly rounded 8

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63

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

8. Fused subgenital plates broader at base than long, caudally convexly rounded (Fig. 46); apophysis of style with mesal lobe stouter and longer than lateral lobe (Fig. 47); lateral processes of aedeagal shaft stouter and longer than dorsal processes (Figs 48, 49) (India:

Orissa, Karnataka)

G. quadripinnatus sp. nov.

— Fused subgenital plate as long as broad basally,

narrowed caudally (Fig. 8), apophysis of style with equally developed lateral and mesal lobes (Fig. 9), lateral processes of aedeagal shaft slender and shorter than dorsal processes (Fig. 10) (India: West Bengal, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadweep Islands) G. appellans Baker

9. Fused subgenital plate with truncate hind

margin, style extending beyond this plate (Figs 22, 23); aedeagal shaft with a pair of forked apical processes (Fig. 25) (India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh) G. fumosus Distant

— Fused subgenital plate with caudal margin

slightly convex, medially notched (Fig. 32); styles not exceeding length of this plate; aedeagal shaft with a pair of dorsal, an unpaired ventral subapical process and a pair of basal prong-like processes (Fig. 33) (India: Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Pondicherry, Kerala; Sri Lanka) G. nervosus Melichar

10. Hind margin of seventh sternum concave (Fig. 28) or concavely excavated in the middle .... 11

— Hind margin of seventh sternum broadly

produced caudally with a median notch (Fig. 44) G. punctifer (Walker)

1 1 . Hind margin of seventh sternum moderately

concave; with a median notch (Fig. 37) 12

— Hind margin of seventh sternum deeply

concave/ without a median notch (Figs 28, 29) ?... G. fumosus Distant

12. Caudo-lateral angle of seventh sternum angular

(Figs 13, 58) 13

— Caudo-lateral angle of seventh sternum rounded

(Figs 5, 37, 50) 14

13. Hind margin of seventh sternum with a median

V-shaped excavation (Fig. 58)

G. symphysis sp. nov.

— Hind margin of seventh sternum with a median

C-shaped excavation (Fig. 13)

G. appellans Baker

14. Seventh sternum with median length

considerably shorter than lateral length 15

— Seventh sternum with median length as long

as lateral length (Fig. 37)

G. nervosus Melichar

15. Seventh sternum with a median V-shaped

excavation (Fig. 5)

G. guttulinervis (Kirschbaum)

— Seventh sternum medially roundly excavated with lateral margins sinuate (Fig. 50) quadripinnatus sp. nov.

Goniagnathus guttulinervis (Kirschbaum) (Figs 1-5)

Goniagnathus bifurcatus Ahmed and Qadir in Ahmed et al. , 1988: 16. syn. nov.

This species has been well described and hence only the illustrations of the male and female genitalia of the Indian population are included.

Material examined; india: Lakshadweep Is.: 16d, 20?, 13 nymphs, Minicoy, 164.1986, C.A. Viraktamath; Id, Bangaram, 14.1.1986, C. A. Viraktamath. Delhi: 1 5 d , 9 9 , New Delhi, 1968, H.M. Harris; Id, 7.vii.l972; 2d,

1 . viii. 1974; 3d, 1 9, 4.x. 1980, C.A.

Viraktamath. Maharashtra: 19, Dhond,

2. x. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath; 2d, 69, Igatpuri,

23. iv. 1980, C.A. Viraktamath. Gujarat: 19, Somnath, 29.L1981, C.A. Viraktamath; 19, Dandi-Navsari, 1 6.i. 1 98 1 , C.A. Viraktamath. Tamil Nadu: 19, Coimbatore, 14. viii. 1979, S. Viraktamath. Rajasthan: 2d, 2 9, Mt. Abu, 23-24. i. 198 1, C.A. and S. Viraktamath. Karnataka: 2d, Raichur, 25. vi. 1982,

S. Viraktamath (UAS).

Remarks: G. guttulinervis can be recognised by the absence of dorsal pygophore appendage, lamellate aedeagal shaft arising from the long basal atrium at mid-length and with long falcate appendage on ventral aspect. Synonymy of G. bifurcatus is based on the study of male genitalia given by Ahmed et al. (1988).

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65

Figs. 1-5. Goniagnathus guttulinervis (Kirschbaum): 1. Male pygophore; 2. Fused subgenital plate and apex of style; 3. Fused aedeagus and connective, lateral view; 4. Aedeagus and ventral process, caudal view;

5. Female seventh sternum.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Goniagnathus appellans Baker (Figs 6-13)

Goniagnathus obesus Distant, 1918: 43. Lectotype d, India (BMNH, examined).

Goniagnathus appellans Baker, 1924: 367, new name for Goniagnathus obesus Distant, 1918 not Jacobi, 1910.

Ochraceous with reddish tinge on the vertex, pronotum and scutellum. Anterior margin of vertex with black and reddish- brown transverse bands. Interrupted black facial pattern. Antennal pit black, clypellus, lora and genae with irregular black markings.

Vertex four times as wide as long. Forewing with inner anteapical cell open behind and outer anteapical cell divided with a cross vein.

Male genitalia: Pygophore with dorsal appendage stout, not exceeding caudo-dorsal margin, lobe caudally narrowed and obtusely rounded with short marginal setae. Fused subgenital plate as long as broad, caudally rounded. Apophysis of style bilobed with prominent scale-like sculpturing, inner lobe longer than outer. Aedeagal shaft tubular, elongate, of uniform width, slightly curved, with an apical pair of long, anteriorly directed processes and a shorter subapical pair of anterolaterally directed processes, gonopore small, apical; dorsal apodeme Q.33x as long as shaft and half as long as preatrium.

Female genitalia: Seventh sternum width 3.0 times the median length, hind margin sinuate with a median notch.

Measurements: male 5.4 (5. 1-5.9) mm long, 2.3 (2. 1-2.5) mm wide across eyes, female 5.6 (5. 3-6. 2) mm long, 2.3 (2. 2-2. 5) mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Lectotype d, left hand male of the two dissected males on the same card “Chikkaballapura, T.V. Campbell” “ Goniagnathus obesus Dist. Type” designated here (BMNH). Paralectotypes: 34 9d, with same data as in lectotype (BMNH).

Other material examined: india: Karnataka: 2$, Bangalore, 22.V.1991; Id, 1?,

23. x. 1991; 7d, 79, 3 .xii. 1991; 7d, 49, 1 . vii. 1 992; 4d, 1 9, 2.ix.l991; 29, 20.vii.1991; 10d, 49, 10. ii. 1992; 3c?, 99, 2.xi.l991; 49,

3. vi.l992; 19, 12.vii.1992, 1 9 , 6.xi.l991, Id, 30.vi.1992; 1 d, 25.vi.1992, all coll. P.C. Dash; 2d, 10. vii. 1982, H.V.A. Murthy; 3d, 49, 14. ix. 1925, T.V. Subramanian; Id, 49, 5. vii. 1977; Id, 12.vii.1979; 1, 24.L1977, all collected by students; 4d, 19, 8.iv.l976, B. Mallik; 3d, 22. iv. 1974; 2d, 21.ii.1976; 19, 1 1 .i. 1975; Id, 6.ix.l974; 2d, 21.1.1976; 19, 1 .ii. 1 974, all coll. C.A. Viraktamath; Id, 19, 12.V.1990, A.R.V. Kumar; 6d, 49, 26 km SE Bangalore, 6.ix.l992, P.C. Dash; Id, Nandi Hills, 1 7. vii. 1 992, P.C. Dash; 19, Dharwad, 22. iv. 1972; Id, 21. v. 1972; 6d, 29, 14- 30.viii. 1 972, all coll. C.A. Viraktamath; 4 d, 2 9, Raichur, 24. viii. 1982; Id, 25. vi. 1982, S. Viraktamath; 3d, 19, Raichur, 18-21. ii. 1976, C.A. Viraktamath; 2d, 4 9, Sidlaghatta, 9. viii. 1976, B. Mallik; 19, Id, Gulburga,

24. vii.1981; 1 9, 9.ix.l990, A.R.V. Kumar; 29, Bidar, 5. i. 1991, A.R.V. Kumar. Kerala: Id, Walayar, 1 5 .viii. 1 979, S. Viraktamath. Maharashtra: Id, 2 9, Nasik, 21.iv.1980, C.A. Viraktamath. West Bengal: 19,9. km E Kalimpong 1,768 m, 29.x. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath. Meghalaya: 1 9 , Nangpoh, 762 m,

4. xi.l981, C.A. Viraktamath. Lakshadweep Islands: 19, Minicoy, 16.1.1986, C.A. Viraktamath (UAS).

Remarks: The structure of aedeagus of G. appellans is similar to that of G. severus (Stal), but has completely fused subgenital plates. It is related closely to G. quadripinnatus sp. nov., from which it differs in the shape and size of the aedeagal processes and subgenital plate.

Goniagnathus concavus sp. nov.

(Figs 14-19)

Reddish-brown; anterior margin of the

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13. Female seventh sternum.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

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Figs 14-19: Goniagnathus concavus sp. nov.: 14. Male pygophore; 15. Fused subgenital plate; 16. Style; 17. Fused connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 18. Same, cephalic view; 19. Apex of aedeagal shaft.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

vertex ivory, with dorsal and ventral broken brown stripes. Fore wing venation mottled with white and brown. Legs transversely banded with dark brown, and bases of hind tibial spines black.

Vertex four times as wide as long. Forewing with inner anteapical cell closed behind by a cross vein.

Male genitalia: Pygophore longer than its height, dorsal appendage heavily sclerotised, black, not extending down caudal margin, setae slender, hair-like. Fused subgenital plate twice as broad as median length, caudal margin inwardly curved. Apophysis of style strongly bilobed apically. Aedeagus slender, tubular, distal 0.25 strongly dorsally recurved; a pair of dorsal and a pair of ventral processes on shaft at distal 0.33; gonopore caudal.

Female: Unknown.

Measurements: male 5.75 (5. 6-5. 9) mm long, 2.3 (2. 2-2.4) mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype d India: Gujarat: Ahmedabad, 27. i. 1981, C.A.

Viraktamath (UAS). Paratypes: india: Gujarat: Id1, Dandi-Navsari, 16. i. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath. Karnataka: 1 d, Bangalore, 916 m, 9.1.1980, A.R.V. Kumar (BMNH, UAS).

Remarks: This species differs from other species of Goniagnathus in having abruptly re- curved apex of aedeagal shaft and inwardly curved caudal margin of the fused subgenital plate.

Etymology: concavus refers to the concave hind margin of the fused subgenital plates of the male.

Goniagnathus fumosus Distant (Figs 20-29)

Goniagnathus fumosus Distant, 1918; 43. Lectotype d, India (BMNH, examined).

Coloration as described by Distant (1918).

Vertex six times as wide as long. Forewing with inner anteapical cell closed behind by a cross vein.

Male genitalia: Pygophore with dorsal appendage reaching ventral margin, lobe caudo- ventrally produced into an angular prolongation without setae. Fused subgenital plates rectangular with rounded lateral margin, twice as broad as long. Apophysis of style with stout, elongated inner lobe and slender, smaller outer lobe; inner lobe exceeding fused subgenital plates. Aedeagal shaft tubular, with a pair of forked apical processes, mesal fork directed anteriorly, lateral fork laterally; gonopore large, apical; dorsal apodeme 0.33x as long as shaft, half as long as preatrium.

Female genitalia: Seventh sternum 3.0 times as wide as median length, hind margin deeply concave.

Measurements: male: 6.7 (6.4-6. 8) mm long, 2.5 (2.4-2. 6) mm wide across eyes, female: 6.3 (5. 9-6. 7) mm long, 2.5 (2.4-2. 6) mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Lectotype d, left hand male of the two dissected males on the same card “Chikkaballapura, S. India, T.V.C.” “ Goniagnathus fumosus Dist. Type” here designated (BMNH). Paralecto types: 4d, 59, data as for lectotype; 2 9 , “Pusa Bihar, at light, TBF, l.vii.l4”(s*c) 19, “Allahabad, August 1911, A.D. Imms” (BMNH).

Other material examined: india: Karnataka: 2 9, Bangalore, (-).ix.l969, H.M. Harris; 1 9, l.iv.1980, C.A. Viraktamath. Tamil Nadu: 2d, 2 9, Trichy, 3-13.V.1989, K.R. Rao; 2d, Pudukottai, 26. i. 1985, K.R. Rao; Id, Kottampatty, 8.V.1984, K.R. Rao. Gujarat: Id, Junagadh, 30.1.1981, C.A. Viraktamath; 19, Sasan-Gir, 1 .ii. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath, Maharashtra: Id, 19, Dhond, 2.x. 1981, A.R.V. Kumar. Andhra Pradesh: Id, Hyderabad, 30.iv.1992, ex. paddy (UAS).

Remarks: This species can easily be recognised by the forked aedeagal processes, dorsal pygophore appendage caudally abruptly curved at right angles and by the extension of apophysis of style beyond fused subgenital plates.

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Figs 20-29: Goniagnathus fumosus Distant: 20. Forewing; 21. Male pygophore;

22. Fused subgenital plate and apex of style, specimen from Bangalore; 23. Apex of style, lectotype; 24. Style, specimen from Bangalore; 25. Fused connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 26, 27. Different views of apex of aedeagal shaft;

28, 29. Variation in the female seventh sterna.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Goniagnathus nervosus Melichar (Figs 30-37)

Goniagnathus nervosus Melichar, 1903: 180. Lectotype d, designated here by P. Lauterer, Sri Lanka (MMB, examined).

Reddish-brown, anterior margin of vertex ochraceous. Interrupted black fascia on face, vertex, pronotum and scutellum mottled with irregular reddish-brown spots. Forewing veins mottled with dark brown and white spots.

Vertex five times as wide as long. Forewing with inner anteapical cell closed behind by a cross vein.

Male genitalia: Pygophore constricted at mid-length and broadened caudally with a few hair-like setae apically, dorsal appendage entire caudal margin. Fused subgenital plate twice as broad as long, slightly convexly rounded with a median notch on caudal margin. Apophysis of style bilobed. Aedeagal shaft strongly curved caudo-dorsally and in apical 0.25 strongly curved anteriorly, with a basal pair of lateral short, stout processes at 0.25 distance, a slender elongate unpaired process on caudal margin directed caudo-dorsally at apical 0.33 and a pair of ventrally directed, slender processes arising subapically on anterior margin; gonopore large, apical; dorsal apodeme 0.25 as long as shaft, shorter than preatrium.

Female genitalia: Seventh sternum 2.5 times as wide as long, hind margin sinuate with a median notch.

Measurements: male: 6.3 (6. 2-6.4) mm long, 2.4 (2. 3-2. 5) mm wide across eyes, female: 6.4 (6. 1-6.5) mm long, 2.5 (2. 4-2. 6) mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Lectotype d, “Ceylon/ Peradeniya/ Marz 1902/leg. Dr. Uzel / DR MELICHAR” and “Transcriptio/ Goniagnathus d/ nervosus n.sp ./ L. Melichar det. 1903/P. Lauterer det. 1996” and “Lectotypus/ Goniagnathus d/ nervosus / Melichar 1903/ P. Lauterer design. 1996” (MMB).

Paralectotypes: Id, data as for lectotype, originally placed on the same block as lectotype, now separated and relabelled by Dr. P. Lauterer;

1 $ , “Ceylon/ Peradeniya/ Juni 902/ leg. Dr. Uzel/ DR MELICHAR” and other data as in lectotype;

2 fifth instar nymphs, data as for lectotype (MMB).

Other material: india: Karnataka: Id,

3 $ , Jog Falls (534 m), 1 7- 1 8.xi. 1 976, B. Mallik; 2d, 1 9,Mudigere, 21.V.1975; 1 d, 3 9, 6.ivl980; 2d, 3 9, 21-22.V.1976, C.A. Viraktamath and B Mallik; Id, Bangalore, 3.iv.l978, A.R.V. Kumar; 1 9, Biligirirangana Hills, 1 3.viii. 1 976, C.A. Viraktamath. Pondicherry: 2d, Mahe, 15. ix. 1979, A.R.V. Kumar. Maharashtra: Mahabaleshwar 1,381 m, 20.xi.1977, C.A. Viraktamath. Kerala: 2d, Kottayam, 25.iii.1977, B. Mallik (UAS).

Remarks: This species is related to G. concavus sp. nov., but differs from it in havmg an unpaired ventral process to aedeagus and longer dorsal appendage to the pygophore.

Goniagnathus punctifer (Walker)

(Figs 38-44)

By thoscopus punctifer Walker, 1858: 104. Lectotype d, India (BMNH, examined).

Goniagnathus spurcatus Melichar, 1903: 181. Lectotype d designated here by P. Lauterer, Sri Lanka (MMB, examined).

Coloration as described by Distant (1908) with the following additions: Ochraceous, irregular reddish-brown markings on vertex, pronotum and scutellum. Anterior margin of vertex yellow with faint brownish spots. Face with interrupted black fascia, eyes black with reddish-brown margin and stripes. Forewings ochraceous.

Vertex five times as wide as median length. Forewing with inner anteapical cell open behind.

Male genitalia: Pygophore caudally narrowed with an obtusely rounded caudal lobe having a few setae, dorsal appendage slender,

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

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Figs 30-37: Goniagnathus nervosus Distant: 30. Forewing; 31. Male pygophore; 32. Fused subgenital plate and apex of style;

33. Fused connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 34, 35. Variations in the caudal process of aedeagus in lectotype and paralectotype;

36. Aedeagal shaft, cephalic view; 37. Female seventh sternum.

NE W DESCRIPTIONS

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Figs 38-44: Gomagnathus punctifer (Walker): 38. Forewing; 39. Male pygophore; 40. Fused subgenital plate and style; 41 Fused connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 42. Fused connective and aedeagus, cephalic view,

43. Apex of aedeagal shaft; 44. Female seventh sternum.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

black, not reaching caudo-ventral angle. Fused subgenital plate twice as broad as median length, narrowed caudally with truncate apex. Style with bilobed apophysis, outer lobe slightly longer than inner. Aedeagal shaft slightly curved, with an apical pair of laterally directed processes, and a median pair of slightly asymmetrically curved processes on cephalic margin at mid-length; gonopore large, apical; dorsal apodeme less than half as long as shaft, shorter than preatrial extension.

Female genitalia: Seventh sternum three times as wide as long, hind margin broadly produced with a median notch.

Measurements: male: 5.7 (5. 1-6.4) mm long, 2.2 (2. 1-2.4) mm wide across eyes. Female: 5.9 (5. 6-6.4) mm long, 2.4 (2. 3-2. 5) mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Lectotype d, “ punctifer Walk” “Ind.” “684” here designated (BMNH). Lectotype d, “Ceylon VI/ Peradeniya (struck off)/ Colombo/ leg. Dr. Uzel/ DR MELICHAR” and “spurcatus/ det. Melicha” and transcribed labels “Transcriptio/ Goniagnathus/ spurcatus sp. n./L. Melichar det. 1903/ P. Lauterer det 1996” and Lectotypus/ Goniagnathus dl spurcatus Melichar 1903/ P. Lauterer design. 1996” and Goniagnathus dl punctifer! (Walker)/ P. Lauterer det. 1996” and Invent. C./ 3886/ Ent/ Mor. Museum, Brno” here designated by Dr. P. Lauterer (MMB). Paralectotype: 1 d, data as in lectotype, originally placed on the same block as lectotype, but now separated with inventory No. 3888/Ent, 1 9 , data as for lectotype, but with inventory no. 3887/Ent. (MMB).

Other material: india: Gujarat: 3d, 19, Sasan-Gir, 31. i. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath; 19, Ahwa, 17. i. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath; 19, Waghai, 18. i. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath. Maharashtra: 4d, 2 9, Poona, 7.xi.l991, C.A. Viraktamath; 19, Dhond, 2.x. 1981, A.R.V. Kumar. Mizoram: Id*, Aizawl, 18.i.l981, C.S.

Wesley. Karnataka: Id, Yellapur, 12.V.1982, C.A. Viraktamath; Id, Madhugiri, 6.vii.l980, A.R.V. Kumar; 1 9, Hiriyur, 13.viii.1978, C.A. Viraktamath; 2 9, Dharwar, 12.vii. 1970, C.A. Viraktamath; 19, Sirguppa, 21.1.1982, A.R.V. Kumar; 1 d, 1 9 , Mudigere, 6.iv. 1980, Freidberg, 1 d, 21. v. 1976, 3d, 19, 8. i. 1986, C.A. Viraktamath; Id, Gulbarga, 7.ix.l976, C.A. Viraktamath; 2d, Raichur, 12. v. 1992 and 24.vii.1992, S. Viraktamath. Kerala: 3d, 19, 17 km E Trichur, 8.i.l986, C.A. Viraktamath. Meghalaya: 19, Nongpoh, 762 m, 4.xi.l981, C.A. Viraktamath. Mizoram: Id, Aizawl, 8.xi. 198 1 , C.S. Wesley (UAS).

Remarks: This species is related to G. appellans and G. fumosus, but can be readily recognised by a pair of apical and a pair of rather asymmetrically curved processes arising at mid- length of the aedeagal shaft on dorsal aspect and the fused subgenital plates being square tipped.

Goniagnathus quadripinnatus sp. nov.

(Figs 45-50)

Ochraceous, faint reddish-brown band on anterior margin of vertex between ocelli. Eyes with reddish margin and stripes. Irregular reddish-brown patches on vertex, pronotum and scutellum. Fore wings ochraceous with distinct veins. Pronotum with four and scutellum with two longitudinal reddish stripes.

Vertex three times as wide as long. Forewing with inner anteapical cell closed behind by a cross vein.

Male genitalia: Pygophore elongate, caudally narrowed, dorsal appendage not exceeding caudo-dorsal angle. A few macrosetae at dorso-apical area. Fused subgenital plate broader than long, caudally convexly rounded. Apophysis of style bilobed, outer lobe shorter than inner, blunt. Aedeagal shaft tubular, curved dorso-anteriorly, with a pair of slender, elongate, apical and a pair of shorter, lateral, subapical

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

processes; gonopore large; dorsal apodeme 0.33 as long as shaft.

Female genitalia: Seventh sternum 3.3 times as wide as long, hind margin concave with obtusely rounded lateral margin and deeply notched in middle.

Measurements: male: 4.5 mm long, 1.9 mm wide across eyes, female: 5.1 (4. 3-5. 5) mm long and 2.2 (2. 0-2. 5) mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype d, india: Karnataka: Chikballapur, 3.viii.l976, B. Mallik (UAS). Paratypes: Id, data as in holotype; 2d, Bangalore, 214.1976, C.A. Viraktamath; Id, 7 km N Dodballapur, 1 8 . vii. 1977, C.A. Viraktamath; 1 d , Gulbarga, 20.viii. 1981, A.R. V. Kumar; Id, 1?, Dharwar, 25.vii.1972, C.A. Viraktamath; Id, 30.viii. 1972, Id, 22.iv.1972, C.A. Viraktamath. Orissa: 2d, Bhubaneswar, 13.vi.1993, P.C. Dash (BMNH, NPC, UAS).

Remarks: This species is very similar to G. appellans in the structure of male genitalia. However, it differs from apellans in having broader subgenital plate, dissimilar lobes of the apophysis of style and slender apical processes of the aedeagal shaft.

Etymology: quadripinnatus refers to the four apical processes of the aedeagus.

Goniagnathus symphysis sp. nov.

(Figs 51-58)

Ochraceous. Vertex with anterior margin yellowish, a black band touching ocelli, irregularly scattered minute reddish spots, coronal sulcus black. Eyes with ochraceous margin and reddish-brown stripes. Legs with irregular black markings. Forewing ochraceous with distinct greyish veins, claval, veins with irregular black spots.

Vertex 5.5 times as wide as long. Fore wing with inner anteapical cell closed behind by a cross vein.

Male genitalia: Pygophore elongate, caudal lobe produced conically, dorsal appendage

stout, black, a few setae on apical 0.33 of lobe. Fused subgenital plate broader at base than long, with caudal margin rounded. Apophysis of style deeply bilobed, outer lobe slender, more acutely pointed than inner lobe. Aedeagus short, stout, shaft constricted before apex and then broadened, dorsal apodeme 0.33 as long as shaft; gonopore large, round, margined by two sclerotized processes which do not meet apically.

Female genitalia: Seventh sternum width 2.7 times its length, hind margin strongly notched in middle.

Measurements: male: 5.6 (5. 3-5.9) mm long, 2.35 (2. 3-2.4) mm wide across eyes, female: 6.1 (5. 7-6. 7) mm long, 2.5 (2.4-2. 6) mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype d, india: Gujarat: Waghai, 1 8.i. 198 1 , C.A. Viraktamath (UAS). Paratypes: Id, data as for holotype; india: Gujarat: 2d, 19, Waghai, 18. i. 1981, S. Viraktamath (BMNH, NPC, UAS).

Other material: Maharashtra: 2d, Igatpuri, 23.iv.1980. Tamil Nadu: 1 d, Yercaud, 18. ix. 1978; 19, Shambaganur, 29.x. 1975; Id, 3 9, 30.x. 1975 all coll. C.A. Viraktamath. Karnataka: Id, Mudigere, 21.V.1975; Id, 19, 21.v.l976,B. Mallik; Id, Jog Falls, 18.xi.1976, B. Mallik; 2 d , Biligirirangan Hills, 1 3.viii. 1977, Id, 9.viii. 1977, coll. C.A. Viraktamath (UAS).

Remarks: This species can be easily distinguished by the absence of aedeagal shaft processes except for the marginal sclerotisation of gonopore.

Etymology: symphysis refers to two processes of the aedeagal shaft which appear glued together.

Goniagnathus syncerus sp. nov.

(Figs 59-65)

Coloration dark brown. Apical margin of head ivory with dorsal and ventral black transverse stripes. Face ochraceous with dark brown transverse stripes on fronto-clypeus. A few

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

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Figs 59-65: Goniagnathus syncerus sp. nov.: 59. Forewing; 60. Process of male pygophore; 61 . Fused subgenita! plate; 62. Style; 63. Fused connective and aedeagus, lateral view, 64. Fused connective and aedeagus, cephalic view; 65. Apex of aedeagal shaft.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

spots or stripes on genae, lora and clypellus dark brown. Thoracic pleurites with large black patches. Lateral margin of pronotum ivory with submarginal black longitudinal stripes. Forewings mottled with dark brown and white along veins. Fore and middle tibiae transversely banded with dark brown.

Vertex 4.5 times as wide as long. Forewing with inner anteapical cell closed behind by a cross vein, outer anteapical cell divided.

Male genitalia: Pygophore caudally truncate without dorsal appendage, with an oblique row of short bristles along caudo-dorsal margin, caudo-ventral angle with a short process. Fused subgenital plate broader basally, with caudal margin medially notched. Caudal margin of apophysis of style, slightly concave. Aedeagal shaft narrow at base, broadest at apical 0.66, with a pair of subapical, black, laterally curved processes, each process with a short basal tooth, dorsal apodeme half as long as shaft.

Female: Unknown.

Measurements: male: 5.3 mm long, 2.3 mm wide across eyes.

Material examined: Holotype d\ india: Rajasthan: Mt. Abu, 1,200 m, 24.i. 1 98 1 , C.A. Viraktamath (UAS).

Remarks: This species can be readily recognised by the distally widened aedeagal shaft.

Etymology: syncerus refers to the two horn-like aedeagal processes which are together.

Goniagnathus bicolor Distant

Goniagnathus bicolor Distant, 1918: 43. Lectotype 9, India (BMNH, examined).

Material examined: Lectotype 9, “Calcutta” “Distant Coll. 191 1-383” “ Goniagnathus bicolor Distant. Type” here designated (BMNH).

Remarks: Judging from the structure of female seventh sternum, this species may prove to be a synonym of G. fumosus.

Acknowledgements

Dr. M.D. Webb (BMNH) provided information on the type series of the species described by W.L. Distant. Dr Pavel Lauterer (MMB) designated the lectotypes for species described by Dr. L. Melichar on our request and compared some of the illustrations of the species sent to him with the type series of Goniagnathus under his care.

References

Ahmed, M., A. Qadeer & K.F. Malik (1988): Some new cicadellids from grasslands of Karachi, Pakistan (Homoptera : Cicadellidae). Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs No. 12 : 10-17.

Distant, W.L. (1908): Rhynchota Homoptera and Appendix (pt.) In : Bingham, C.T. (ed.): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma 4: xv+501 pp. Taylor and Francis, London.

Distant, W.L. (1918): Rhynchota Homoptera: appendix, Heteroptera: Addenda. In: Shipley, A.E. and G. A. K. Marshall, (eds). The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma 7: viii+210 pp. Taylor and Francis, London.

Dlabola, J. (1 98 1 ): Ergebnisse der Tschechoslowakisch- Iranischen Entomologischen Expeditionen nach

dem Iran (1970 und 1973). (Mit angaben iiber einige sammellesultate in anatolien) Homoptera: Auchenorrhyncha (II. Teil). Acta Entomologica Musei National Prague 40: 127-311.

Kumar, A.R.V. (1983): A Revision of Indian Batracomorphus Lewis (Homoptera : Cicadellidae: Iassinae). Thesis abstract, Mysore Agricultural Journal 9: 331.

Linnavuori, R. (1978): Revision of the Ethiopian Cicadellidae (Homoptera), Paraboloponinae and Deltocephalinae: Scaphytopiini and Goniagnathini. Revue de Zoologia Africane 92: 457-500.

Rama Subba Rao, V. ( 1 994): Description of new records of the genus Goniagnathus Fieber (Cicadellidae: Homoptera) from India. J. Bombay nat. Mist. Soc. 90(3): 524-526.

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GARRA PERIYARENSIS , A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE, KERALA, INDIA1

K.C. Gopi2

( With four text-figures)

Key words: Garra periyarensis sp. nov., cyprinid fish, Periyar, Kerala

A new cyprinid fish, namely Garra periyarensis , from the headwaters of the Periyar river in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, South India, is described. It is characterised by 37-39 scales on the lateral line, naked breast and belly, snout with a prominent tuberculated knob-like protuberance (antero-rostral lobe) differentiated from the tip of snout and 3-4 + 12-13 gillrakers on the first arch.

Introduction

The genus Garra Hamilton-Buchanan, of the Subfamily Garrinae, according to Talwar and Jhingran (1991), is represented by 21 species in the Indian subcontinent, including Garra menoni Rema Devi and Indra, 1986, described from Silent Valley, Kerala, India, synonymised by them (without any discussion) with Garra mullya (Sykes) and Garra kalakadensis Rema Devi, described subsequently from Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu (Rema Devi, 1992). Garra menoni has recently been treated as a valid species (Easa and Chand Basha 1995, and Easa and Shaji 1997). Shaji et al. (1997) have described Garra surendranathanii from Chalakudy, Periyar and Pamba river systems of Kerala, treating Garra menoni as a valid species. Thus, six species of Garra are so far known to occur in Kerala. They are Garra mullya (Sykes), G. gotyla stenorhynchus (Jerdon), G. hughi Silas, G. mcclellandi (Jerdon), G. menoni Rema Devi and Indra, and G. surendranathanii Shaji, Arun and Easa. Except for Garra hughi and Garra menoni , these species are already reported from the drainage system associated with the Periyar Tiger Reserve (Zacharias et al. 1996, Aru r\etal 1996).

'Accepted March, 1998

2Westem Ghats Field Research Station

Zoological Survey of India,

Calicut 673 002, Kerala, India.

During a faunistic survey of the watershed areas of Periyar river within the Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, India, two specimens of Garra were obtained, which appeared to be distinct from all the earlier known species of the genus. It is described here as a new species.

Material and Methods

The material examined were two specimens measuring 124.5 mm and 156.0 mm SL, collected by castnet from the Periyar river at Thanikkudy in the Periyar Tiger Reserve. Measurements were taken by dial calipers with an accuracy of 0.1 mm. Data are presented as percentages, with the range followed by the mean in parentheses.

Garra periyarensis sp. nov.

(Figs 1-4)

Diagnosis: A species of Garra having elongate and slender body with 37-39 scales on lateral line; breast and belly naked; a prominent, tuberculated, knob-like protuberance (antero- rostral lobe) on snout; 3-4 + 12-13 gillrakers on the first arch.

Holotype: ZSI, CLT (Zoological Survey of India, Calicut) No. V/F. 9426; 156.0 mm SL; Periyar river, Thanikkudy, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala State, India; coll. P.M. Sureshan, 7.xi.l996.

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5 mm

5 mm

Figs 1-4: Garra periyarensis sp. nov.

1. Lateral view; 2. Ventral view; 3. Head: Dorsal view; 4. Head: Ventral view.

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Paratype: One specimen, ZSI, CLT No. V/ F. 9427, 124.5 mm SL; same data as of holotype.

Description: Based on these two specimens (holotype and paratype),

D. 2/8, A. 2/5, P. 1/14, V. 1/7, L.l. 37-39, L tr. 5/1/4-5,

Predorsal scales: 10-11, Gillrakers: 3-4 + 12-13.

Body elongate and slender, dorsal profile gently rising anteriorly up to the origin of dorsal fin, and thereafter sloping straight to caudal base; ventral profile almost straight. Depth of body 17.67-17.76 (M=17.72)% SL*» length of head 21.41-23.21 (M=22.3 1)% SL, width of head 65.40-70.96 (M=68.18)% HL, height of head 57.79-58.68 (M=58.24)% HL. Snout obtusely rounded, tuberculated, tip marked off by a transverse groove and differentiated into a prominent, flexible and knob-like protuberance (antero-rostral lobe, Figs 1-4). Homy tubercles present on snout and cheek: small and underdeveloped, with scattered mucous pores on cheek in holotype (possibly female), but prominent and well-developed ones in paratype (possibly male). Length of snout including the lobe at tip 53.28-53.29 (M=53.29)% HL. Diameter of eye 22.49-23.05 (M=22.77)% HL and 60.19-61.6 (M=60.9)% interorbital width. Interoribtal region flat, its width 37.37-37.43 (M=37.4)% HL. Barbels two pairs, subequal, rostral shorter than eye and maxillary rudimentary. 3-4 + 12-13 gillrakers on the first arch. Length of mental disc 36.23-36.33 (M=36.28)% HL, width 65.82-66.67 (M=66.25)% width of head, length of disc 78.21- 83.33 (M=80.77)% its own width. Abdomen slightly rounded, vent much anteriorly located away from the origin of anal fin, distance from vent to anal origin 42.89-46.58 (M=44.74)% interdistance between anterior origins of pelvic and anal fins.

Caudal peduncle length 18.27-19.12 (M=18.7)% SL, 82.35-85.33 (M=83.84%) HL,

its least height 48.74-48.82 (M=49.28)% its own length.

Squamation: Tube bearing scales on lateral line 37-39, scales in transverse series from midline of back to abdomen 5/1/4-5 with 4.5 series from origin of dorsal to lateral line and 3- 3.5 between lateral line and origin of ventral fin, predorsal scales 10-1 1, circumpeduncular scales 12, breast and belly naked (Fig. 2), post-pelvic region scaly.

Fins: Dorsal origin nearer to the tip of snout than to base of caudal, over 1 1th scale of lateral line, dorsal margin of fin concave, its height more than length of head, 105.99-106.29 (M=106.14)% HL, 22.69-24.66 (M=23.68)% SL. Pectoral and pelvic fins subequal, smaller than head, length of pectoral 83.23-83.74 (M=83.49)% HL, length of pelvic 80.24-80.28 (M=80.26)% HL. Pelvic origin under 14th or 15th scale of lateral line. Anal origin opposite 27th scale of lateral line. Caudal deeply forked, longer than head, 114.88-115.57 (M=l 15.23)% HL, lobes pointed, the upper lobe longer than the lower one. Distance from tip of snout to anterior origin of fins: predorsal distance 42.76- 43.13 (M=42.95)% SL, prepelvic distance 44.36- 46.75 (M=45.56)% SL. Distance between anterior origins of fins: Pectoro-pelvic distance 24.23-24.73 (M=24.48)% SL, pelvic-anal distance 25.86-27.96 (M=26.91)% SL, 48.35- 50.23, (M=49.29)% in that between pelvic origin and caudal base.

Etymology: Name implies the Periyar river in which it occurs.

Coloration: In preserved state, upper half of body brownish-black, lower yellowish-brown, becoming yellowish- white beneath; an indistinct midlateral band from behind the gill-opening to the base of caudal fin; a faint black spot behind upper angle of gill-opening; dorsal and caudal fins dusky grey, and other fins lighter, shaded with yellowish-grey.

Distribution: Known so far only from the

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Periyar drainage at Thanikkudy, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala State, India.

Remarks: Garra periyarensis appears to be related to Garra mcclellandi (Jerdon), Garra hughi Silas and Garra surendranathanii Shaji, Arun and Easa with respect to the general characters, such as: more elongated body, higher count of scales on lateral line and more anteriorly located vent, away from the origin of anal fin. The new species, like the other three species, falls under the species-group ‘ yunnanensis complex’ of Menon (1964), which also has representatives in northeastern India, as far east as Yunnan, South China and Indo-China. The yunnanensis complex includes Garra yunnanensis (Regan) and G. gracilis (Pellegrin & Chevey) from China, G. naganensis Hora and Garra kempi Hora from Assam, India, and G. mcclellandi (Jerdon), G. hughi Silas and G. surendranathanii Shaji, Arun and Easa from the Western Ghats, India.

Refer

Arun, L.K., C.P. Shaji & P.S. Easa (1996): Record of new fishes from Periyar Tiger Reserve. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 103-104.

Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji ( 1 997): Freshwater fish diversity in Kerala part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Curr. Sci. 73(2): 180-182.

Easa, P.S. & S. Chand Basha (1995): A survey of the habitat and distribution of stream fishes in the Kerala part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Research report, No. 104. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala. 87 pp.

Menon, A.G.K. (1964): Monograph of the cyprinid fishes of the genus Garra Hamilton. Mem. lnd. Mus. 14(4): 173-260.

Rema Devi, K. & T.J. Indra (1986): Garra menoni, a new

Garra periyarensis differs from all the above species in the following combination of characters: a prominent, tuberculated knob- like protuberance on snout and absence of scales on breast and belly. It can easily be separated from G. mcclellandi, its closest relative in the Western Ghats, by the absence of scales on the ventral side and in the greater number of gill rakers and lateral line scales.

AcKNOWLEDG EM ENTS

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta and the Officer in charge, Western Ghats Field Research Station, Zoological Survey of India, Calicut, for encouragement and facilities. I also thank Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, Zoological Survey of India, Chennai for going through the manuscript and for suggestions to improve it.

ENCES

cyprinid fish from Silent Valley, Kerala, South India. Bull. Zool. Sur. India 5: 121-122.

Rema Devi, K. ( 1 992): Garra kalakadensis, a new cyprinid fish from Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. Rec. zool. Surv. India 91(2): 239-245. Shaji, C.P., L.K. Arun & P.S. Easa (1996): Garra surendranathanii, a new cyprinid fish from the Southern Western Ghats, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 572-575.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Vols. 1 , 2. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, India. 1 1 58 pp. Zacharias, V.J., A.K. Bharadwaj & P.C. Jacob (1996): Fish fauna of Periyar Tiger Reserve. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 39-43.

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ON A NEW SPECIES OF HETEROGAMUS WESMAEL (INSECTA: HYMENOPTERA : BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA1

S.M. Kurhade2 and P.K. Nikam3

( With three text-figures)

Key words: Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Heterogamus sp. nov. Heterogamus rugosus sp. nov. is illustrated and described.

Introduction

Wesmael (1838) erected the genus Heterogamus (Subfamily: Rogadinae), with Aleiodes (Heterogamus) crypticornis Wesmael as type species.

Only ten species of the genus Heterogamus are known worldwide (Shenefelt 1975), and only one species, Heterogamus percurrens (Lyle) = Rhogas (Heterogamus) percurrens Lyle (1921) is known from India.

A new species is described from material collected in Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India.

The new taxon has been compared with the known Indian species, Heterogamus percurrens Lyle.

Types are deposited in the Entomological collection of Department of Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad.

Heterogamus rugosus sp. nov.

(Figs 1-3)

Female: Length 4.4 mm (Fig.l). Head (Fig. 2) transverse, 1.6 x as wide as long; vertex shiny, rugosely, closely punctate, with pubescence; the distance between median ocellus and eye 0.5 x the interorbital distance; frons

'Accepted August, 1 998 department of Zoology,

New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ahmednagar 414 001 , Maharashtra, India.

3Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad 43 1 004, Maharashtra, India.

Figs 1-3: Heterogamus rugosus sp. nov. female 1 . Lateral view, 2. Head viewed from front,

3. Propodeum and first abdominal tergite

weakly rugose, closely punctate, with pubescence; face as wide as long, closely, shallowly punctate, with pubescence, slightly convex, medially elevated; clypeus small, convex, closely punctate, pubescent, as wide as long; antenna 2 + 42 segmented; scape 1.7 x as long as wide, closely punctate, with pubescence; pedicel as long as wide, finely, weakly punctate, with pubescence; antennal joint 1.6 x as long as wide; terminal segment conical, 1.6 x as long as wide; penultimate segment as long as terminal

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segment; malar space 2 x basal width of mandible, closely punctate, with pubescence; mandible unidentate, as long as own basal width; occipital carina present; temple as wide as length of the mandible, closely, shallowly punctate, pubescent; eye bare, 2.6 x as long as wide.

Thorax: 2.6 x as long as wide; pronotum rugosely, closely punctate, pubescent; mesoscutum shiny, rugosely, densely punctate, with pubescence; middle lobe without any groove; notauli not prominent; metanotum weakly rugose; scutellum densely punctate, with pubescence, convex; mesopleurum shiny, rugosely, densely punctate, pubescent; mesopleural furrow distinct, extending 0.6 x the length of mesopleurum; dorsal half of metapleurum rugosely, closely punctate, with pubescence, and ventral half closely punctate, with pubesence; propodeum (Fig. 3) rugosely, densely punctate, pubescent, weakly carinated. Hindleg coxa 2 x as long as wide, densely punctate, pubescent; trochanters I + II, 2.5 x as long as wide, closely punctate, pubescent; femur 5.6 x as long as wide, densely punctate, pubescent; tibia 1.3 x as long as femur, finely punctate, pubescent; tibial spur as long as width of tibia; tarsus 5-segmented, finely punctate, pubescent; basitarsus 0.4 x length of tibia. Fore wing 4.2 x as long as broad; stigma 5.8 x as long as wide; metacarpus 1 .3 x as long as stigma; second abscissa of radius 1.1 x as long as first abscissa; third abscissa of radius 4 x as long as first abscissa; three cubital cells present; second cubital cell with four unequal sides; cubitus 2.4 x as long as stigma, sclerotized throughout its length; medius 0.7 x as long as costa; basal 0.4 x length of medius; nervulus slightly inclivous, distad, 0.7 x the width of stigma; anal cell 22.5 x as long as wide; hind wing 5.3 x as long as broad; nervellus reclivous, basad, 0.3 x as long as submediella; basella 0.4 x as long as mediella, sclerotized; cubitella 0.9 x as long as mediella; subcostella 1.3 x as long as mediella;

metacarpella as long as subcostella; post nervellus 0.3 x as long as nervellus, opposite.

Abdomen: Spindle shaped, 3.5 x as long as wide, without median keel; first tergite 1 . 1 x as long as wide, apically, strigosely, closely punctate, pubescent on dorsolateral side, mid- dorsally coriaceous, closely punctate, pubescent; third tergite 0.7 x its own width, strigosely densely punctate, with pubescence; fourth tergite as long as wide at base, strigose, densely punctate, pubescent on mid-dorsal side, closely punctate, pubescent on dorsolateral side; fifth tergite strigose, densely punctate, pubescent; ovipositor 1 .4 x as long as width of coxa; ovipositor sheath as long as ovipositor, pubescent.

Yellowish-brown. Tip of mandibles brownish-black; veins, basal 0.6 of first tergite, mid-dorsolateral area of second tergite, mid- dorsal area of third and fourth tergites dark brown; ovipositor sheath blackish.

Male: Unknown.

Host: Unknown.

Holotype: Female: India: Maharashtra: Ahmednagar, 1 5 .viii. 1 989, Malaise trap, coll. S.M. Kurhade; antenna, wings and legs mounted on slides and labelled as above.

Paratypes: 22 females, data same as holotype except 10 females collected on 29.viii.1989

Discussion

The new species Heterogamus rugosus superficially resembles the only known species of the Indo-Australian region from India, namely Heterogamus percurrens Lyle (1921). The new taxon differs in having (i) mesoscutum shiny, rugosely, densely punctate (in H. percurrens mesonotum with a broad, longitudinal, faintly infuscated band inside each notaulus, and two narrow short ones on the mid lobe anteriorly), (ii) metanotum weakly rugose (in H. percurrens metanotum smooth), (iii) antennal joint 1 .6 x

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as long as wide (in H. percurrens about one third longer than broad), (iv) propodeum rugosely, densely punctate, pubescent, weakly carinated (in H. percurrens irregularly rugulose, with a median keel not percurrent), (v) stigma 5.8 x as long as wide, (vi) abdomen without median keel (in H. percurrens abdomen with the median keel), (vii) tergitesl-4 strigosely punctate and (viii) body length 4.4 mm (in H. percurrens body length just over 5 mm).

Acknowledgements

We thank the former Head of the Department of Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad for laboratory facilities. The first author thanks the Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ahmednagar for permission to carry out this work at Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad.

References

Lyle, G.T. (1921): On three new species of Indian Braconidae. Bull. Ent. Res. 12: 129-132.

Shenefelt, R.D. (1975): Braconidae 8, Exothecinae, Rogadinae, pp. 1 1 15-1262. Hymenopterorum catalogus, part 12, Dr. W. Junk, The Hague,

Netherlands.

*Wesmael, C. (1838): Monographic des Braconides de Belgique, Nouv. Mem. Sci. Bnixelles 11: 23-120.

* Original not referred.

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TWO NEW SPECIES OF B ULBOPHYLL UM THOUARS (ORCHID ACEAE) FROM SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA1

Muktesh Kumar and Stephen Sequiera2

( With two text-figures)

Key words: New species, Bulbophyllum , Southern Western Ghats, Kerala, India.

Two new species from Kerala, India, namely Bulbophyllum keralensis and Bulbophyllum josephi are described and illustrated.

Introduction

The genus Bulbophyllum Thou, is included in the subtribe Bulbophyllinae of the tribe Dendrobiae, Subfamily Epidendroideae, which forms one of the largest and most important groups of Orchidaceae (Misra 1997). This is perhaps the largest genus in the Orchid family, with about 1000 species distributed throughout tropical Africa and Asia, extend- ing to Australia, New Zealand, Japan and Korea (Santapau and Kapadia 1966; Seidenfaden 1973, 1979; Abraham and Vatsala 1981). The separation of the genus Cirrhopetalum Lindl. is still controversial, since the flowers of Cirrhopetalum and Bulbophyllum show similarity in fundamental characters. Recently, Garay et al. ( 1 994) revised the genus Cirrhopetalum and Bulbophyllum alliance and reinstated Cirrhopetalum as a separate genus.

From the Indian phytogeographic regions, 98 species and 2 varieties of the genus Bulbophyllum are known to occur among which 12 species have been recorded from Kerala. During the survey on the epiphytic flora of the Western Ghats, the authors collected two interesting species of Bulbophyllum from the

'Accepted April, 1999

:Botany Division, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, Thrissur, Kerala, India.

forests of Kerala. On critical examination these species are found to be new to the orchid flora, and are described and illustrated here.

Bulbophyllum keralensis Muktesh & Stephen sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

Bulbophyllum macraei affinis, sed in laminis ellipticis emarginatis, sepalo dorsali papillato, sepalis lateralibus liberis lineari-ovatis subulatis induplicatis papillatis, petalis ellipticis cuspidatis papillatis, stelidiis minutis 1.2 mm longis differt.

Typus: India: Kerala, Palghat district, Silent Valley National Park, Sispara, 1,800 m, Stephen 007857 KFRI; (Holotypus KFRI).

In general appearance this species resembles Bulbophyllum macraei (Lindl. Reichb. f.) (Jayaweera, 1981), but it differs in having elliptic, emarginate lamina; papillate dorsal sepal; linear-ovate, subulate, induplicate, papillate, free lateral sepals; elliptic, cuspidate, papillate petals and minute, 1.2 mm long stelidia.

Epiphytic pseudobulbous creeping herbs; pseudobulbs 1.2-2 x 0.5-0. 7 cm, ovoid, angled. Leaves petiolate, solitary, at the top of pseudobulb, lamina 1.8-6 x 0.8-2 cm, elliptic, emarginate, grooved along midrib, coriaceous. Inflorescence umbel or sub-umbel, peduncle 10- 12 cm, with 3 linear sterile bracts; floral bracts

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Fig. 1: Bulbophyllum keralensis Muktesh & Stephen sp. nov.

A - Habit; B - Single flower with floral bract; C - Flower front view; D - Lateral sepal; E - Dorsal sepal; F - Petal; G - Column with lip; H - Operculum; I - Pollinia.

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4-6 x 1-1.2 mm, ovate, acuminate; flowers 4-7, golden yellow with purple tinge, 28-32 x 5-7 mm; sepals dissimilar, dorsal sepals 7-9 mm long, 3. 2-3. 4 mm at the broadest point, ovate- lanceolate, acuminate, induplicate, papillate at the base, 5 -veined; lateral sepals 27-30 mm long, 2. 3-2. 6 mm broad, parallel, linear-ovate, subulate, 5-veined, free, induplicate, papillate; petals 4-6 x 2-3 mm, elliptic, slightly falcate, 3- veined, cuspidate, entire, slightly papillate; lip 4.6 x 1.2 mm, recurved, tongue shaped, obtuse, pouched, attached to the column foot; column 2.8 x 2 mm, broadly ovate; stelidia minute, 0.2 mm long; anther terminal; pollinia 4 in pahs, 0.4 x 0.25 mm; oval shaped; operculum 1 x 0.75 mm, broadly obovate.

Ecology: Epiphytic on moss covered tree trunks in the evergreen shola forests from 1,800 to 2,000 m.

Distribution: So far known only from Kerala - Silent Valley National Park (Palghat) and Wynaad

FI. and Fr.: August-September.

Other specimen examined: Kerala, Wynaad District, Pakshipadalam, 1,200 m, Stephen & Michael 008140 KFRI

Etymology: Named after the state of Kerala, where it was collected.

Bulbophyllum josephi Muktesh & Stephen sp.nov.

(Fig. 2)

Bulbophylum elegantulum et B. acutiflorum affinis sed in scapo 4-4.5 cm longo folio breviore, sepalo dorsali ovato-lanceolato acuminato induplicato, papillis dispersis, sepalis lateralibus oblongo-lanceolatis acutis papillatis, marginibus apice versus connatis, petalis oblongo-ovatis falcatis, apice apiculato, stelidiis longis angustis differt.

Typus : India: Kerala, Palghat district, Silent Valley National Park, Punnamala, 850 m.

Stephen 007521 KFRI (Holotypus - KFRI).

Allied to Bulbophyllum elegantulum (Rolfe) J.J. Sm. and Bulbophyllum acutiflorum A. Rich., but differs in having 4-4.5 cm long scape which is shorter than the leaf; ovate- lanceolate, acuminate, induplicate, dorsal sepal with scattered papillae, oblong-lanceolate, acute, papillate lateral sepals which are connate at upper edges, oblong-ovate, falcate petals with apiculate apex and long narrow stelidia.

Epiphytic pseudobulbous, creeping herbs; pseudobulbs 1-1.3 x 0.6-1 cm, ovoid; leaves solitary at the tip of the pseudo- bulb, lamina 3.7-4. 1 x 0.8- 1.2 cm, elliptic, emarginate, grooved along midrib, coriaceous; inflorescence umbel or sub-umbel, peduncle up to 5 cm with 1 or 2 sterile bracts; floral bracts minute, 3 mm long, ovate, acuminate; flowers yellow with violet specks, 10 x 3.5 cm, pedicel up to 6 mm long; sepals dissimilar, dorsal sepal 4.5 mm long, 1.5 mm broad; ovate- lanceolate, acuminate, induplicate, scattered papillae at the base, 5-veined; lateral sepals 9.5-10 cm long, 3 mm broad, oblong-lanceolate, acute, papillate; connate at upper edges; 5-veined; petals 3 x 1.6 mm, oblong-ovate, slightly falcate, apex apiculate, 3-veined, speckled with violet, lip tongue shaped, 2.8 mm long, recurved, attached to the column foot; column 1.5 x 1.5 mm, orbicular ovate; stelidia 0.7 mm long, anther terminal; pollinia 0.3 x 0.1 mm; operculum ovate orbicular; 0.5 x 0.4 mm.

Ecology: Epiphytic on tree trunks in evergreen forests at 900-1,000 m.

Distribution: Known so far only from the type locality.

FI. & Fr.: August-September.

Etymology: Named after Dr. J. Joseph, Former Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India, for his valuable contribution to the systematics of Indian orchids.

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Fig. 2: Bulbophyllum josephi Muktesh & Stephen sp. nov.

A - Habit; B - Single flower; C - Flower top view (dorsal sepal lifted); D - Dorsal sepal; E - Lateral sepals; F - Petal; G - Column with lip; H - Operculum; I - Pollinia.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. K.S.S. Nair, Director, KFRI, for facilities and encouragement, the Chief Conser-

Refer

Abraham, A. & P. Vatsala (1981): Introduction to Orchids. TBG & RI, Trivandrum. Pp 329-344. Garay, L., F. Hammer & E.S. Siegerist ( 1 994): The genus Cirrhopetalum and the genera of the Bulbophyllum alliance. Ind. J. Bot. 14(6): 609- 646.

Jayaweera, D.M.A. (1981): Orchidaceae. In: Dassanayake, M.D. and F.R. Fosberg (Eds): A revised Handbook to the flora of Ceylon 2. Pp. 4- 386, New Delhi.

vator of Forests (WL), Kerala Forest Department, for financial support and other facilities. We also thank Dr. Je F. Veldkamp, Leiden University, The Netherlands, for the Latin diagnoses.

ENCES

Misra, S. (1997): Bulbophyllum and allied genera in Orissa, India: Taxonomic review. J. Orch. Soc. India 11 (1-2): 51-59.

Santapau, H. & Z. Kapadia (1966): Orchids of Bombay, Government of India Press, Calcutta, pp. 193-200. Seidenfaden, G. (1973): Notes on Cirrhopetalum Lindl.

Dansk Bot. Ark. 20(1): 1-260.

Seidenfaden, G. (1979): Orchid genera in Thailand 8. Bulbophyllum Thou. Dansk Bot. Ark. 33(3): 1- 228.

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OBITUARY

Sidney Dillon Ripley II 1913-2001

L-R: Mary Livingston Ripley, ST). Ripley and Dr. Salim Ali in happier times

Ornithology of the Indian sub-continent has been dominated by personalities who were, in some way or other, giants of their own age out exploring the frontiers of the Empire. What started with A.O. Hume, that veritable politico-natural chronicler of a bygone era when style and elegance marked the distinctive individual stamp of the writer, has gradually evolved into the current crop of glossy pocket guides lacking in elegance and descriptive style.

Somewhere along the period not too long lost in our memory, and yet contemporary enough to relate to our own era, Sidney Dillon Ripley II, a rank outsider to the Raj legacy, teamed up with an Indian, Salim Ali to give the region’s most comprehensive ornithological tome. The Ali & Ripley duo straddled a transitional era when the ornithology of the region was being replaced from an enjoyably descriptive, delightfully rendered and immensely readable, though lengthy style to a spate of eco-statistical statements rendered in clinically scientific tomes on the one hand and quick- fix, over illustrated field guides with a bare minimum rendering in a telegraphic language on the other. And now the era of the last of the giants seems have come to an end in the passing away of Ripley in Washington on March 12, 2001.

Ripley, bom in New York on September 20, 1913, had an early exposure to natural history. His grandfather, Sidney Dillon, the first Board Chairman of the American Union Pacific Railroad, way back in the 1870s had acquired a 2,000 acre land in Litchfield, Connecticut, where the boy Ripley grew up to study nature. This early exposure later shaped his interest and career in ornithology. Soon after his graduation, his spirit of adventure enabled him to travel east on a year-and-a-half long expedition to New Guinea and Borneo studying and collecting zoological specimens. He obtained his doctorate in zoology from Harvard University and joined as an assistant curator of birds in the Smithsonian Institution where later he was to become the Secretary.

His association with the Indian subcontinent began with a short stint in the Allied Intelligence Unit based in then Ceylon during World War II. This opportunity enabled him to study the birds of not only the Indian subcontinent, but also of Thailand, Burma and China. It also brought him two close future companions — his wife Mary Livingston, a colleague in the services, and Salim Ali, both of whom he eventually outlived.

Ripley’s most productive years were to follow soon after his assuming the post of Professor of Zoology and the Director of Peabody Museum at Yale University. Most of his scholarly writings in natural history and ornithology, as well as the initial foundation for the long association with Salim Ali to write the ten-volume magnum opus the handbook of the birds of india and Pakistan were done in this period. Ripley’s name was already familiar to Indian ornithology through his a synopsis of the birds of india and Pakistan, published by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) in 1961, and revised in 1982.

His golden years were during his tenure as the Secretary of the prestigious Smithsonian Institution, Washington, a post he discharged admirably till his retirement in September 1984. Under his vision and leadership many an innovation was brought in the museum concept and the Smithsonian scaled the heights in Science, Technology, Culture, Arts and American history. For his contribution to American folk history Ripley was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honour of the United States in 1985.

Ripley’s close association with BNHS goes back to the time he was posted in Sri Lanka in the forties. His frequent official trips to India enabled him to spend time studying bird specimens in the BNHS collection and visit friend Salim Ali, an association which was to blossom in later years into a long lasting research collaboration between BNHS and the Smithsonian Institution. Ripley was instrumental in channeling Smithsonian funds to continue the BNHS/WHO Bird Migration studies, which enabled the Society to not only collect data, but also to encourage and train young Indian biologists in bird studies. He helped finance and take active part with Salim Ali in the field in joint ornithological expeditions to Simlipal, Orissa, Melghat, Maharashtra, Amnachal Pradesh and Bhutan Himalayas. These expeditions provided field data and helped both Ripley and Salim Ali to gather material for the handbook, apart from obtaining valuable museum specimens.

Ripley was literally a “towering” personality, with matching intellect, scholarship, wisdom, grace and a delightful sense of humour. As the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution he was constantly busy fulfilling his mandate and in the process, inevitably, he developed a reputation of being rather unapproachable, particularly to his staff and casual visitors. Being a fast track perfectionist himself, perhaps he was sometimes impatient with those who could not keep pace with him.

It was, however, a different story altogether when he was out on field trips in the Indian subcontinent. He was friendly and kind to the team members and always looked after their welfare. He didn’t spare himself any hard work and always toiled along with the others on manual chores — whether it was pitching tents, packing, carrying and loading enormous expedition luggage, or walking miles to collect specimens and finally skinning and preserving them. After a hard day’s work, it was always a treat to listen to the conversation between Ripley and Salim Ali under lamp- lit tents. The subjects covered would be varied and Ripley would regale the audience from a fascinating repertoire, laced with humour and excitement in equal measure.

It is indeed sad that the era of personalities seems to have ended and Ripley was perhaps one of the last of the giants in Indian ornithology. For his three daughters, Julia, Rosemary, Sylvia and 1 1 grandchildren, as well as a number of young ornithologists who had the good fortune to have known him closely, Sidney Dillon Ripley II will always be a pleasant memory — a Man for all Seasons.

S.A. HUSSAIN

REVIEWS

1 . CHECKLIST OF INDIAN MAMMALS by Nameer P. Ommer. Published by Kerala Forest Department, Kerala, 2000. Pp. 90 + xxv, (22 x 14 cm). Price not mentioned.

The CHECKLIST OF INDIAN MAMMALS by

Nameer P. Ommer is one of the most recent checklists of mammals of this country. It is quite comprehensive as it lists 417 species. Various naturalists have periodically studied the mammals of India, but their observations and results are scattered among various publications, journals and libraries. The information in this book has been painstakingly compiled from various sources. The primary sources of data are the book of Indian animals by S.H. Prater, 1971, with additions from the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society , which the author acknowledges as “the largest source of published information on Indian natural history.” Due to numerous changes in taxonomic and nomenclatural status of many mammals, the information obtained was updated with inputs

from MAMMALS FROM THE INDOMALAYAN REGION: A

systematic review (Corbett and Hill, 1992) and

THE CHECKLIST OF MAMMALS OF THE WORLD: A TAXONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHIC REFERENCE (Wilson and

Reeder 1993). The marine mammals are listed with references from marine mammals of the world (Jefferson et al. 1993).

At the beginning of the book, the reader is introduced to Class Mammalia. There is then a brief discourse on the history of Indian mammalogy. We are then apprised of the mammalian orders found in India. There are two tables, one listing the number of genera and

species per mammal family, and the other listing the number of endemic species per order with respect to the geographical region. After these preliminaries follows the checklist.

Ommer endeavours to provide us information on each species that has been listed, by mentioning the common name, vernacular name, geographical range within India and outside, and any bit of important information regarding nomenclature or distribution.

The overall impact of the book, however, is marred by a few omissions and errors. There is no precise mention of geographical range outside Indian limits for various Cetaceans, namely Platanista gangetica (p. 41), Sousa chinensis (p. 43) and the Sirenid, Dugong dugong (p. 48). Tibet has been mentioned as within Indian limits while describing Otocolobus manul (p. 39). This is partially compensated for by the thoughtful provision of two indices, one for scientific names and the other for common names.

The inclusion of names in vernacular dialect comes of use in the field when assistance from locals is required. Ommer has managed to restrict this checklist to a small slim volume, making it handy and fieldworthy. The checklist, therefore, is a useful reference for naturalists, students and laymen in their attempts to study Indian mammals.

■ MEGHANA GAVAND

2. PEOPLE, PARKS AND WILDLIFE: TOWARDS COEXISTENCE by Vasant Saberwal, Mahesh Rangarajan and Ashish Kothari. Orient Longman. Pp. 143,

(21.5 x 14 cm). Paperback price Rs. 150/-.

The tract for the time series, published wildlife, the latest addition of this series, written by Orient Longman, ‘attempts to provide by three eminently knowledgeable writers is a meaningful information, critical perspectives, small book of 143 pages which should be read and theoretical reflections on various themes of by anyone who is concerned with India’s contemporary concern’. People, parks and wildlife. It does not have glossy pages, with

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exquisite pictures of tigers or butterflies or panoramic views of forests of the Western Ghats, so it may not appeal to people with amateur interest in wildlife conservation, but for serious researchers, protected area managers, human right activists and socio-economists, it is a ‘must-read’ reading. Vasant Saberval is a former research associate at the Institute of Social and Economic Change and his interests are ecology and environmental politics, while Mahesh Rangarajan is a well-known political commentator. He is equally interested in ecology and the history of the conservation movement in India. Ashish Kothari is perhaps the most famous amongst the three, due to his prolific writing and high profile activism. A former lecturer in environmental studies at the Indian Institute of Public Administration, he is presently coordinating the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, on behalf of the Government of India. The book contains 8 chapters and 22 pages of notes and references. The main theme of the book is that long-term sustainability of the conservation movement in India is not possible without the involvement of

local communities living in and around protected areas. There should be a change in the vocabulary of conservation, from separation and exclusion of local communities to integration and inclusion. Besides saving threatened species and habitats, conservation should benefit local communities. “If isolationism worked in the past, it is doomed to failure in the long term. As human pressures and dissatisfaction grow, more fences will be broken down as the subsistence stakes rise, more forest guards will be beaten or killed as the economic stakes linked to the poaching of tigers, rhinos, bears and elephants increase, many more areas will be denotified at the instance of industrialists and politicians, supported by alienated village communities. Ultimately, if the Indian conservation movement cannot broaden its base beyond the middle class, it will simply collapse” (page 113).

The format and printing is excellent, I did not find any typos. But what is a South American macaw doing on the cover of a book that discusses the wildlife problems of India?

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

3 . THREATENED BIRDS OF THE WORLD by A. J. Stattersfield & D.R. Capper, (Project Managers and Senior Editors). BirdLife International and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona and Cambridge, UK, 2000. Pp. 852, (3 1 x 20 cms). Price not mentioned.

I could run out of superlatives to describe this book. Indian ornithologists and naturalists who are fortunate enough to read the books brought out by Lynx Edicions (handbook of the birds of the world, 6 volumes already published) and BirdLife International (putting biodiversity, together with birds and people) will understand my predicament in not being able to find adequate superlatives. I rate handbook of the birds of the world as perhaps the finest, most comprehensive bird book in the world, both in production value and scholarly up-to-date descriptions of birds. The present book is also of the same quality. Beside the two senior editors,

it has eight eminent ornithologists as additional editors. Maps, most of them having the latest distributional records, were supervised by Tim Morrisey along with three more people. The number of text contributors, evaluators, compilers and experts runs into hundreds. The book is based on historical and recent literature surveys, which can be judged by the reference section that runs into 48 pages. The work of 87 bird artists has been used in this profusely illustrated book. Each of the 1,186 threatened bird species is shown in its natural plumage. Donations for this book were made by hundreds of people and organizations, but the main

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contribution came from the 1 998 Birdwatching Fair, which raised US$ 200,000. In 1999, BirdLife International started a scheme for people to sponsor a particular species that also generated a lot of interest and funds. The information for Asian species is taken from the Asian Red Data Book Project, sponsored by the Environment Agency of Japan. Besides, RSPB, Wild Bird Society of Japan, Vogelbescherming of the Netherlands and NTT-ME (full form not given) and many others have also funded the project.

The book consists of nine major chapters, beginning with ‘Extinction risk and opportunities for action’, ‘Documenting extinction risk’, ‘Assessing extinction risk’, followed by ‘How to use this book’. The fifth chapter, which is the main body of the book, describes ‘Globally threatened species’. The sixth and seventh chapters describe Conservation Dependent, New Threatened and species of Least Concern. In the eighth chapter, Data Deficient, Not Evaluated and Extinct species are discussed. The final chapter lists species by territory. Although the whole book is worth reading, I particularly feel that the first three chapters should be read by anyone who is interested in bird conservation. BirdLife International and Lynx Edicions could bring out a separate supplement with these chapters, so that people like me who cannot afford the whole book can purchase the supplement. These chapters succinctly describe the problems birds are facing in the world.

BirdLife International and Lynx Edicions are to be congratulated for using the traditional bird classification and not Sibley and Monroe’s (used by Grimmett et al. in their book birds of the Indian subcontinent), so I find the book easy to use. For each of the 1,186 globally threatened species, common and scientific names, IUCN Red List Category, justification as to why the species is considered threatened, chief identication of the species, taxonomy, range and

population, ecology, threats, conservation, targets for conservation actions, references, and sponsors are given. Maps, tables, box items, headings, digits and arrows are all in colour.

My only negative feeling after reading this book is that so many bird species are facing extinction in the world. I think there is no country in the world that does not have threatened species. The book lists 225 countries (including many protectorates and territories e.g. Hongkong, Tristan da Cunha, Macua, etc.) with their threatened species. The book is so thorough that even the tiny Liechtenstein (65 sq. m) is listed, with its vulnerable population of com crake Crex crex. Even our two vulture species, once common, are included, as they have recently entered the threatened list.

After reading this book, I found an inner strength to re-dedicate my life for the protection of birds. I am sure others will have the same feeling. Nothing binds the world community more than a common cause — and for us the common cause is conservation. All over the world, birds are facing the same threats of habitat destruction, illegal hunting, invasive species, pollution, and so on. From the tiny Nukupu’u (Hemignathus lucidus ) of the Hawaiian Islands to our own handsome sarus crane ( Grus antigone), the problems are similar, and perhaps the solutions are also similar. The message of this book is that we all should work together to save the birds of the world.

We are fortunate that this marvellous book was gifted to the BNHS library by BirdLife International. It is an expensive book, so an average Indian birdwatcher and ornithologist would not be able to afford it. I think, to attract more members, we can very well publicize that one of the benefits of being a BNHS member is that you can see such wonderful books in the BNHS library! Any library would be proud to

have THREATENED BIRDS OF THE WORLD.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

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1. OCCURRENCE OF SMALL INDIAN CIVET VIVERRICULA INDICA FAMILY VIVERRIDAE, IN THE MID-HILLS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH

The small Indian civet Viverricula indica is a true civet (Viverrinae) found in the Indian subcontinent extending from east of the Indus river in Pakistan to the whole of peninsular India southwards to Cape Comorin. Eastwards, its range extends to Myanmar, southern China and the Malay countries. According to Prater (1965), it has been recorded from the Himalayan foothills, living in dry or moist conditions, but it keeps out of heavy forest and prefers long grass or scrub to live in. The species also favours irrigated forest plantations, but avoids highly settled cultivated areas as well as mountainous regions of Pakistan (Roberts 1977).

While working in Chail Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh, the carcass of a small Indian civet was found at village Chhot in April 1997. The village is located at an altitude of 1,600 m on the southern slopes of the Chail Wildlife Sanctuary, where the vegetation is dominated by bushes and grasslands. The animal seems to have died a natural death, as the body bore no marks of injury. The species was never observed alive in the Sanctuary, mainly because it is strictly nocturnal. Though omnivorous, there were no reports of it feeding upon fruit crops.

But there were definite reports of occurrence of another species of civet, the Himalayan palm civet Paguma larvata in and around Chail Wildlife Sanctuary. These animals are often killed by the farmers because of their frugivorous habit (Narang 1996).

The occurrence of small Indian civet in Chail Wildlife Sanctuary appears to be a stray incident. Nevertheless, it is perhaps the first record of this species occurring in the mid-hills of Himachal Pradesh.

Acknowledgement

We thank the G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora (UP) for financial assistance.

February 2, 2000 M.L. NARANG,

NAIM AKHTAR, MANOJ KUMAR Department of Silviculture & Agroforestry, University of Horticulture and Forestiy, Nauni, Solan 173 230, Himachal Pradesh, India.

References

Narang, M.L. (1996): Some notes on the Himalayan Palm Prater, S.H. (1965): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Civet Paguma larvata (Hamilton-Smith) Natural History Society, Bombay.

(Carnivora: Viverridae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Roberts, T.J. (1977): The Mammals of Pakistan. Ernest 93(1): 80-81. Benn. London and Tombridge.

2. WETTING OF NOSTRIL BY JACKAL CANIS AUREUS LINN., CARNIVORA, FAMILY CANID AE

In the Sumer region of Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, the summer is very severe and the day temperature can be unbearably high. During the end of May, a hot and dry wind blows constantly all day.

On May 29, 1999, I was sitting near a waterhole in a hide in Sumer. At 1425 hrs, a jackal waded into the water and started lapping it up. After drinking, it looked around, wet its tongue in the water and inserted the dripping

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tongue into its right nostril. It repeated the process four times. Then it wet its left nostril by inserting the wet tongue into it thrice. After this, it trotted away.

Due to severe heat and dry wind, the nostrils probably became dry and hard, causing discomfort and the jackal inserted its tongue into

the nostril to moisten the inner side of its nose. I took a photograph of the jackal wetting its nostril.

February 2, 2000 RAZA H. TEHSIN

38/106, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 004, Rajasthan, India.

3. SLOTH BEAR MELURSUS URSINUS SHAW AND POWER METER

The Sumer rest house, situated in the Kumbalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, is located in a secluded place away from Sumer village. About 100 m from the rest house there is a well, which provides water to the rest house and to two waterholes nearby. To pump water from the well, there is an electric motor, with the switch board and meter fixed in a small room over the platform of the well.

Except when visited by forest officers or tourists, the rest house remains unguarded, for fear of sloth bears. In summer, water is found at four places in the vicinity. Sloth bears occasionally visit the rest house after quenching their thirst from the waterholes nearby. Sometimes they also enter the rooms, possibly attracted to the food left behind by visitors. On

several occasions, I have seen sloth bear scats in the verandah and in the kitchen.

On one occasion, a sloth bear came to the waterhole near the well, and after quenching its thirst, climbed onto the platform, from where it apparently heard the humming sound of the meter. The bear possibly took it to be the humming of honey bees, for it broke open the door of the room and smashed the meter in search of honey. Instead of honey, it received a severe jolt from the electric current. The bear howled repeatedly for several minutes and then ran off.

February 18, 2000 RAZA H. TEHSIN

38/106, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 004, Rajasthan, India.

4. NEW RECORDS AND STATUS OF BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA IN BUENOS AIRES PROVINCE, ARGENTINA

Blackbuck was first introduced into Argentina for sport hunting in 1906, in La Pampa province. In 1912, there were further releases in Santa Fe, Cordoba and Buenos Aires provinces (Lever 1985). It became well established in these four localities, and lately in Entre Rios and San Luis provinces (Chebez 1994). The dispersal of the species has been assisted by translocation to new, previously uncolonized areas, mainly as a result of commercial interest from game ranches. Buenos Aires province manages blackbuck as a

big game species, and permits shooting to control populations and for the wild meat market. There is extensive evidence that blackbuck has a detrimental impact on native biota and agricultural produce (Navas 1987). However, there have been no substantial studies on the species distribution, population biology, or impact on local ecosystems of Argentina.

From 1995 to 1997, we made field surveys in the potential distribution range areas. We also compiled all the literature and unpublished

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information at the local Wildlife Department, to determine the current distribution and status of Antilope cervicapra in Buenos Aires province.

There are 1 1 game ranches (50% of the total legally established ranches) with blackbuck populations. The sport hunting season traditionally opens from March 1 5 and extends to December 3 1 , based on the notion that fawns are born in summer (January and February). Despite this, there are records from captive and wild populations about females giving birth throughout the year. 53 male trophies have been legally taken from game ranches in 1995, 44 in 1996 and 103 in 1997, most of them by foreign hunters. In 1997, there was at least one permit issued for commercial harvesting.

The previous record of distribution (Galliari et al. 1991) has now been expanded. We confirmed the occurrence of blackbuck at the Chascomus, General Belgrano, Castelli, Bahia Blanca and Guamini departments. Additionally, new records were made for the species at Pila, Dolores, Adolfo Alsina, Coronel Suarez and Coronel Dorrego departments. The biggest and

Refer

Chebez, J.C. (1994): Los que se van, especies argentines en peligro. Editorial Albatross SACI, Buenos Aires. Galliari, C.A., W.D. Berman & F.J. Goin (1991): Mamiferos. Comision de investigaciones cientificas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Situacion Ambiental de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. A-Recursos y rasgos

better established population has its nucleus in ‘La Corona’ and ‘La Guarida del Zorro’ game ranches, an area of approximately 12,000 ha, in General Belgrano near the Chascomus district boundary. In 1996, from preliminary line transect censuses, we estimated a population of above 6,000 animals, with a density of 0.56 individual per hectare. However, in 1997, the population was commercially harvested for the meat market, showing a marked decline since this event. We suggest further studies on the species’ impact on local biota, to stop uncontrolled translocations, and a closer monitoring of the effect of sport and commercial harvesting on the blackbuck.

We thank Claudio and Sergio Quagliata for their help in the field censuses and for access to their captive population.

March 2, 2000 BRUNO CARPINETTI

Direccion de Administracion de Recursos Naturales, Ministerio de Asuntos Agrarios de la Prov. de Bs. Aires, Calle 71 N 488, La Plata (1900), Argentina.

: n c e s

naturales en la evaluacion ambiental.

Lever, C.H. (1985): Naturalised mammals of the world.

Longmans Inc., New York, USA.

Navas, J.R. (1987): Los vertebrados exoticos introducidos en la Argentina. Rev. Mus. Arg. Cs. Nat., Zoologia 14: 7-38.

5. INCIDENCE OF AN ELEPHANT CALF ELEPHAS MAXIMUS TRAPPED BETWEEN TWO TREE TRUNKS

The first year is considered to be the most vulnerable stage in an elephant’s life, when mortality rate ranges from 10% to 30% (Douglas 1972, Barnett 1991). Annual mortality rate of elephant calves aged less than one year is reported to be 36% in Tsavo National Park, Kenya (Laws 1969). Studies on annual mortality

rate in Indian elephant calves (Elephas maximus , age <5 years), in Biligiri Rangan Temple Wildlife Sanctuary, South India, was reported to be 4-5% in female and 8-9% in male elephants (Sukumar 1989). Elephant calves are known to die of diseases, intra-specific fights, drowning in floods, landslides, tiger predation, snake bite poisoning,

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accidents (including falling off cliffs, bridges, into trenches, drains) in the wild (Asian Elephant Research and Conservation Centre (AERCC), unpublished data; Daniel 1998). About 9.5% of the 208 records, scanned from 1975-1994, of elephant calf deaths were accidental (AERCC, unpublished data).

Among the known causes of death, or near death situations due to accidents, getting trapped between tree trunks is very rare. We observed one such incident on the morning of May 4, 1999, during fieldwork under the Karnataka Tiger Conservation Project at Kaimara, Nagarhole National Park, South India: An elephant calf, estimated to be ten months old, was found trapped between two tree trunks (c. 30 cm diameter at breast height), which were less than 30 cm apart. The calf probably got trapped the previous night, since we heard elephants trumpeting in the area throughout the night and till the following forenoon.

The calf was exhausted and had blood trickling down its forehead. Amongst the many who had gathered there, four of us tried to release it by lifting and pushing it across the fork. We failed to lift the calf high enough to release it. In the process, the calf jerked itself free from us and relapsed into its original trapped position. As the elephant herd was moving closer, we fled the spot. Two kurubas (local tribesmen) bravely went back after some time and released the calf. It rested for about ten minutes after its release and then moved dizzily down to the nearby stream. After a couple of hours, the calf was no longer found in the vicinity and it was presumed to have rejoined its herd. Had the calf not been rescued, it is possible that it would have died of starvation, dehydration, predation, or injuries caused by the herd trying to extricate it. The tribesmen mentioned that it was the second such incident that they had witnessed, the first one being a few years ago in the forest adjoining the Park.

Two similar incidents are worth adding to this note. Mr. Kullayya, Mahout, Karnataka Forest Department, recollected a similar incident (pers. comm.) which had occurred a decade ago. The foreleg of an elephant calf (c. 5 years old) was trapped between the roots (diameter c. 30 cm) of a tree abutting a stream near Sunkadakatte Forest Rest House, Nagarhole National Park, the calf had a slip in the shoulder joint and its legs were swollen. The entangling tree root was cut to free the calf, which was later treated at the camp. Nevertheless, the calf could not recover and died after a month.

In 1997, according to Dr. Nanjappa {pers. comm.). Veterinary Officer, Karnataka Forest Department, the leg of an elephant calf (c. 2 years old) was trapped between boulders in the steep terrain of Maddur Range, Bandipur National Park. The incident was reported to the veterinarian two days later. The Forest Department personnel had to break the boulders to free the calf, which had a concussion and its legs were swollen. The calf was given fluid therapy, but it did not recover even after medical treatment and died the following day.

Though it is difficult to imagine that such incidents occur in the wild, we suggest that this could be considered as one of the causes of infant mortality among wild elephants.

ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS

We are grateful to Dr. Nanjappa and Mr. Kullayya of the Karnataka Forest Depart- ment, for sharing their experiences with us. We thank the Karnataka State Forest Department and the AERCC, Bangalore, for data on elephant calf mortality and Ms. Cheryl Nath for references.

April 14, 2000 NIREN JAIN

R. SAANDEEP P. Box No. 4, ‘ Vijayavana Mukrampady, Darbe, Puttur, Karnataka 574 202, India.

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References

Barnett, J. (1991): Disease and Mortality. In: The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Elephants (Eltringham, S.K., Consultant), Salamander Books Ltd. London, pp. 102-115

Daniel, J.C. (1998): The Asian Elephant: A Natural History, Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun.

Douglas, Hamilton I. (1972): On the Ecology and

Behaviour of the African elephant. Unpublished D. Phil thesis. University of Oxford, England.

Laws, R.M. (1969): The Tsavo Research Project. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility (Suppl.) 6: 495-53 1 . Sukumar, R. (1989): The Asian Elephant, Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp. xvii+255.

6. A NOTE ON SOME FOOD PLANTS OF THE MALAYAN GIANT SQUIRREL RATUFA BICOLOR IN GIBBON WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, JORHAT, ASSAM

The Malayan giant squirrel ( Ratufa bicolor ) is arboreal (Prater 1980). During our studies on plant-animal interaction with special reference to primates of Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS), Assam, we noted some interes- ting dietary habits of the Malayan giant squirrel. Gibbon WLS is a newly constituted sanctuary situated about 20 km southeast of Jorhat town in upper Assam and lies between 26° 40'-26° 45' N and 94° 20'-94° 25' E. Prior to its declaration as a sanctuary it was a reserve forest under the eastern Assam forest circle. The sanctuary is famous for its diversity in primate species, 7 non- human primate species being found within 19.5 sq. km fragmented forest habitat (Bujarbarua and Chetry 1999). All the records were made between October 1998-September 1999.

Ratufa bicolor fed on parts of 37 plant species in Gibbon WLS. Most of the food plants were identified on the spot, the unidentified specimens were collected and later identified in the herbarium of the Botany Department, Gauhati University, with the help of flora of assam (Kanjilal 1940). All the food plants are trees and are listed in Appendix I, with parts eaten by the squirrel.

The squirrel primarily fed on pericarp and sometimes on fruit pulp. In some cases, it consumed the seeds. The squirrel gnaws at the pericarp of the fruits and eats the cotyledons. Insect larvae (mainly those of ants) and small spiders are also eaten.

From our observations, Ratufa bicolor is certainly frugivorous. Morton (1973) has noted that among frugivorous birds there may be intense selection pressure, favouring the ability to exploit a wider variety of food in periods of fruit scarcity. The Malayan giant squirrel, which feeds mainly on fruits, probably experiences the same selection pressure, and may take to a broad array of foods during periods of fruit shortage.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr S.M. Mohnot, Director, Indo- US Primate Project for financial assistance, Dr A. Srivastava, Scientist, Indo-US Primate Project and Dr G.C. Sharma of Botany Dept, Gauhati University for valuable suggestions and the Department of Forests, Govt of Assam for permission to work in Gibbon WLS.

April 6, 2000 *P. BUJARBARUA,

**D. CHETRY, **J. DAS, *S.K. SARMA, **P.C. BHATTACHARJEE * Department of Botany, Gauhati University, Guwahati 14, Assam, India.

* * Department of Zoology, Gauhati University, Guwahati 14, Assam, India.

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Appendix - 1

Plant Species

Family

Parts Consumed

1.

Mangifera indica

Anacardiaceae

Pericarp

2.

M. sylvatica

”

”

3.

Drimycarpus racemosus

”

Entire fruit

4.

Spondias mangifera

”

Flower/Fruit pulp

5.

Bombax ceiba

Bombacaceae

Flower bud

6.

Canarium resiniferum

Burseraceae

Entire fruit

7.

Garuga pinnata

”

”

8.

Terminalia belerica

Combretaceae

”

9.

T. chebula

”

Pericarp

10.

T. myriocarpa

”

Inflorescence/Flower

11.

Tetrameles nudiflora

Datiscaceae

”

12.

Dillenia indica

Dilleniaceae

Juice of fleshy calyx

13.

Vatica lancaeifolia

Dipterocarpaceae

Seed

14.

Elaeocarpus floribundus

Elaeocaipaceae

Pericarp

15.

Sapium baccatum

Euphorbiaceae

Fruit pulp

16.

Bischofia javanica

”

Entire fruit

17.

Casanopsis indica

Fagaceae

Nut (Seed)

18.

Garcinia cowa

Guttiferae

Fruit pulp

19.

G. pedunculata

Gutti ferae

Fruit pulp

20.

Litsea polyantha

Lauraceae

Pericarp

21.

Cryptocarya sp.

”

”

22.

Duabanga sonneratioides

Lythraceae

Thalamus (ovule)

23.

Michelia montana

Magnoliaceae

Pericarp

24.

Dysoxylum binectariferum

Meliaceae

”

25.

Ammora wallichii

”

”

26.

Cedrella toona

”

»

27.

Chikrassia tabularis

”

”

28.

Artocarpus chaplasha

Moraceae

Juicy ovary

29.

A. heterophyllus

”

”

30.

Ficus benjamina

”

Entire syconia

31.

F. lepidosa

”

”

32.

Eugenia jambos

Myrtaceae

Fruit pulp

33.

E.jambolana

”

”

34.

E. kurzii

”

”

35.

Eucalyptus maculata

”

Bark

36.

Dendrobium sp.

Orchidaceae

Fruit

37.

Anthocephalus cadamba

Rubiaceae

Flower/Nectar

References

Bujarbarua, P. & D. Chetry (1999): Primate Sanctuary.

The Assam Tribune , August 21 .

Kanjilal, U.N. (1940): Flora of Assam Vol. I- IV, Omsons Publications, New Delhi.

Morton, E.S. ( 1 973): On the evolutionary advantages and

disadvantages of fruit eating in tropical birds. American Naturalist 107: 8-22.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 1 98- 199.

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7. BURROW MORPHOLOGY OF FIELD RODENTS OF KYMORE PLATEAU, SATPURA HILLS

( With four text-figures)

Study of the burrow morphology of major field rodents, namely lesser bandicoot Bandicota bengalensis (Gray), soft furred rat Millardia meltada (Gray) and field mouse Mus booduga (Gray) was undertaken in the Kymore Plateau of Satpura Hills. For this purpose, 24 active burrows of Bandicota bengalensis , 28 of Millardia meltada and 36 of Mus booduga were excavated over a large area. Their burrowing patterns (Figs 1, 2, 3 & 4), amount of soil excavated, number of burrow openings (emergency escape), burrow diameter and burrow depth (Table 1) were studied in harvested wheat fields.

Observations on active burrows revealed that each of these three rodents had a unique burrow pattern. That of B. bengalensis was

complicated, well architectured, and had distinct runways, of which some are interconnected, and with granaries entering into one or more strata of the soil (Prakash 1975, Jain 1985, Dubey and Thakur 1997). M. meltada had a simple and elongate single tier burrow system, whereas M. booduga had simple, shallow burrows. In most cases, the burrow entrance of B. bengalensis had a large heap of soil with large pebbles, while M. booduga had a smaller heap of soil with small pebbles before the burrow opening. In M. meltada burrows, the heap of soil was usually absent, but medium sized pebbles (Neelanarayanan et al. 1994) were used. Hoarding behaviour was also observed, which is a fairly common and characteristic feature to assure a continuous supply of food against seasonal fluctuation. In

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ME — MAIN ENTRANCE; FS — FOOD STUFF; Ee — EMERGENCY ESCAPE; EH — EAR HEAD; NC — NESTING CHAMBER

Fig. 2: Complicated burrow structure of Bandicota bengalensis in wheat field

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Table 1

OBSERVATIONS ON BURROWING BEHAVIOUR OF MAJOR RODENT SPECIES

Rodent Species

No. of buirows observed

MEAN

Amount of soil excavated (kg)

No. ofburrow opening (emergency escape)

Burrow diameter (cm)

Burrow depth (cm)

Bandicota bengalensis

24

50.86 ±4.49

3.9±3.28

7.5 ±5.08

55.85 ±34.03

(3.0-138.0)

(1-11)

(2.5-16.5)

(20.2-110.3)

Millardia meltada

28

2.03 ±1.34

2.0 ±1 .15

2.9 ±1 .36

22.57 ±6. 14

(0.5-3. 5)

(1-4)

(2. 1-4.2)

(15.0-30.2)

Mus booduga

36

0.98 ±0.72

1.2 ±0.40

2.4 ±0.33

17.39 ±3.36

(0. 1-2.7)

(1-2)

(2. 0-5.0)

(10.5-20.0)

Nos in parentheses indicate ranges

Fig. 3: Burrow structure of Millardia meltada in chickpea field

the lesser bandicoot and soft furred rat, hoarding is prevalent particularly in the pre-harvest period. On an average, 4.28 kg ears of wheat were

Fig. 4: Burrow structure of Millardia booduga in chickpea field

recorded from the burrow of B. bengalensis and 0.53 kg from M. meltada. Hoarding provides the young rodents with food at a short distance, which can be reached without exposure to predators.

Acknowledgement

I thank the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi for financing the All India Coordinated Research Project on Rodent Control.

January 4, 2000 O.P. DUBEY

Directorate of Extension, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur 482 004, Madhya Pradesh, India.

References

Dubey, O.P. & G.S. Thakur ( 1 997): Burrowing behaviour jA1N? A.P. ( 1 985): A note on the field rodents of Mandsaur

of major field rodents in harvested rice fields of district, Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Narmada Valley (India) J. ent. Res. 21(1): 89-91. 82(2): 397-401.

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Neelanarayanan, P., R. Nagarajan & R. Kanakasabai Prakash, I. (1975): The ecology and zoogeography of (1994): Burrow Morphology of field rodents of mammals, 467-498. In : Gupta, R.K. and I. Prakash,

Cauvery Delta. Rodent News letter, Jodhpur 18(3): (eds). Environmental Analysis of Thar Desert.

3-4- English Book Depot, Dehra Dun, UP, India.

8. THE BARHEADED GOOSE ANSER INDICUS LATHAM IN BHAVNAGAR, SAURASHTRA

Bhavnagar (21° 45' N and 72° 08' E) is located on the northeast side of peninsular Saurashtra, Gujarat state, along the coast of the Gulf of Khambhat. On the morning of December 27, 1998, my friend and I visited the Surka village pond for the census of winter migratory birds. The pond is 30 km to the west of Bhavnagar city. While watching waterfowl, we noticed a large bird with distinctive black bars across the nape, grazing along with a flock of mddy shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) on the bank of the reservoir. It was identified as a barheaded goose ( Anser indicus Latham). This is the first record of the barheaded goose from Bhavnagar

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. (Compact Edn) Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Pp. 82. Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1955): Birds of Saurashtra.

district. It is very rare in Saurashtra, where the first specimen recorded was from Jamnagar in 1951 (Dharmakumarsinhji 1955), while in January 1984 a flock of 22 barheaded geese were recorded in Mulidam, Surendranagar district (Raol 1988). Usually it is a winter visitor to northern and northeast India (Ali and Ripley, 1987).

April 13, 1999 I.R. GADHVI

Lecturer in Zoology, Sir P.P. Institute of Science, Bhavnagar University, Bhavnagar 364 002, Gujarat, India.

;nces

Times of India Press, Bombay: pp. 98-99.

Raol, L.M. (1988): Barheaded and Greylag geese from Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(2): 4 lb- 417.

9. MORE INFORMATION ON SHIKRA ACCIPTER BADIUS (GMELIN) FEEDING ON SHORTNOSED FRUIT BATS CYNOPTER US SPHINX V AHL .

With reference to the note by Manoj Muni and Vithoba Hegde (JBNHS, 1998, 95(2): 338-339) regarding the preying habits of shikra ( Accipter badius), I narrate my recent observation on the same habit recorded in the campus of Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India.

The predation by this bird on shortnosed fruit bats (Cynopterus sphinx ) seems to be a common phenomenon, though not reported earlier than Muni and Hegde (1998).

On the morning of October 1, 1998, the sky was dark and cloudy, and I was in the balcony of my hostel room, observing shortnosed fruit bats emerging from dried fronds of the palmyra

palm (Borassus flabellifer Linn.). This was due to the change in the intensity of light. This tree has been a roosting site of the bats for a long time.

As the bats started flying near the palm, I saw a juvenile shikra ( Accipter badius ) come out of the dried fronds of the palm with a bat in its talons. The bird sat on the nearby copper pod tree (Peltophorum pterocarpum ) and started tearing at the flesh of the bat. The bat was alive for about seventeen minutes while being eaten by the bird. At 1005 hrs, it started raining heavily, and I could not make any further observations.

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The next day, at 1 2 1 5 hrs, the sky was dark and overcast. With a camera in hand, I sat in the balcony to observe the behaviour of the shikra. The bats started emerging from the dried fronds of the palmyra palm. At the same time, four shikras arrived on the scene, one was a juvenile and the rest were adult. They started chasing the bats, but no capture was seen. This went on till 1510 hrs. Subsequently, rain once again forced

the bats to go back to their roosting site.

This observation, and that of Mum and Hegde (1998), shows that the shikra is a common predator of shortnosed fruit bats.

January 1,1999 ASHFAQ AHMED ZARRI Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

10. PREDATORY ATTACK ON BATS BY BARN OWL TYTOALBA AND SHIKRA ACCIPITER RADIUS IN TAMIL NADU STATE, SOUTH INDIA

Evidence of predators having a significant effect on bat populations is sparse. Few predators specialize on bats, but the largely anecdotal literature cites many occasional bat-eaters such as monkeys, racoons, opossums, cats, raptors, snakes, frogs, spiders and bats themselves (Altringham 1996). Avian predators such as owls, hawks and falcon are known to attack and feed on bats occasionally (Gillette and Kimbourgh 1970). Bats are particularly vulnerable to aerial predators when they leave their roosts or while feeding at night. India is home to about a hundred species of bats, and at least eleven species of avian predators have been observed to prey on bats occasionally in the past (Muni and Hegde 1998). Since July 1995, we have been conducting bat surveys in Nagai district, Tamil Nadu, India (Agoramoorthy and Hsu 1998). We observed three cases of predatory attacks on bats, two by a bam owl Tyto alba , and one by a shikra Accipiter badius. All three cases were observed in Tirunagiri village which is located near the town of Sirkali in Nagai district.

The first case of predatory attack by shikra was observed during the day near a bat roosting site. In the second and third case, the bats were attacked by bam owl while they were emerging at dusk, and while foraging at night.

Case 1: On August 2, 1995 at 1100 hrs, we studied a colony of 250 black-bearded tomb bats Taphozous melanopogon located in the

gateway of the Vishnu temple at Tirunagiri village, Nagai district. When a temple worker climbed on to the gateway, some bats flew into darker spots in the temple. Just then, one bat came outside and was immediately captured by a shikra that flew from the top of the temple gateway’s exterior and disappeared into the forest with its catch.

Case 2: A colony of 400 greater false vampire bats Megaderma lyra regularly roosted in an abandoned house at Tirunagiri village. On September 6, 1996, at 1 830 hrs, the false vampire bats emerged from their roost. One bat was seen isolated from a group of 20 individuals. Suddenly, a barn owl flew from the roof of the house, stooped 4 m downwards and then flew about 10 m in pursuit of the bat and caught it while the bat was in flight. The owl captured the bat with its beak and claws simultaneously, and apparently swallowed it in flight. The attack lasted about 6-7 seconds. The site where the owl rested earlier was checked, and pellets with skulls and bone remnants of rodents and bats were found.

Case 3: On September 26, 1996, at 2130 hrs, a male bam owl was seen resting on a palmyra palm tree Borassus flabellifer, about 7 m above the ground at Tirunagiri village. Approximately 10 m away from the owl, about 30 shortnosed fruit bats Cynopterus sphinx were flying and feeding on mahua Madhuca indica fruit. They were about 4 m above the ground while feeding.

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One shortnosed fruit bat moved from the group and came close to the palm tree where the owl was resting. Immediately, the owl swooped and captured the bat in flight and returned to the tree where it had been perching. It rested there with the bat for about 10 seconds, got a firm grasp on the bat with its feet, and flew away. The bat did not produce any screams audible to human ears.

In South Africa, Fenton et al. (1994) reported 59 attacks by diurnal raptors on bats and the predators included hobby falcon Falco subbuteo, African goshawk Accipiter tachiro and Wahlberg’s eagle Aquila wahlbergi. Similarly in south-eastern Australia, Speakman et al. (1994) released bats during daytime to test the predation rates, and observed 1 1 attacks by diurnal predatory birds. Shortnosed fruit bats Cynopterus sphinx usually produced shrill screams when we handled them in mist nets, but the bat attacked by the bam owl did not scream. However, Fenton et al. (1994) report that bats taken by raptors uttered screams clearly audible to human ears. Bat bones were seen in owl pellets, and African bam owls Tyto alba were reported to attack and

Refer

Agoramoorthy, G. & M.J. Hsu (1998): Occurrence of microchiroptera species in Nagai District of Tamil Nadu State, India. Zoos’ Print 13(4): 3-4.

Altringham, J.D. (1996): Bats. Biology and Behaviour.

Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Fenton, M.B., I.L. Rautenbach, S.E. Smith, C.M. Swanepoel, J. Grosell & J. Van (1 994): Raptors and bats: threats and opportunities. Anim. Behav. 48: 9-18. Gillette, D.D. & J.D. Kimbourgh (1970): Chiropteran mortality. In: About bats. Eds. Slaughter, B.H. and D.W. Waiton. Dallas, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, pp. 262-281.

Hill, J.E. & J.D. Smith (1984): Bats. A Natural History.

eat individuals of Rousettus aegyptiacus (Hill and Smith 1984). Although Speakman (1991) reported that bats made up only a small part of the diet of owls in Britain, Julian and Althringham (1994) predicted that individual owls could take large numbers of bats, and may influence the population size in bat colonies. Only two cases of bam owl predation have been observed during our study, and more data are needed to evaluate whether or not owl predation influences the population size of bats around Tirunagiri village in Nagai district, Tamil Nadu.

February 15, 1999 G. AGORAMOORTHY Bat Conservation Project, S.M. Govindasamy Nayakkar Memorial Foundation, 4 Thittai Road, Thenpaty 609 111, Nagai District, Tamil Nadu, India.

MINNA J. HSU Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan, Republic of China.

' n c e s

University of Texas Press, Austin, USA.

Julian, S. & J.D. Altringham (1994): Bat predation by a tawny owl. Naturalist 119: 49-56.

Muni, M. & V. Hegde (1998): Indian shikra preying on shortnosed fruit bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(2): 338-339.

Speakman, J.R. ( 1 99 1 ): The impact of predation by birds on bat populations in the British Isles. Mammal Rev. 21: 132-142.

Speakman, J.R., L.F. Lumsden & G.C. Hays (1994): Predation rates on bats released to fly during day- light in southeast Australia. J. Zool., Lond. 233: 318-321.

1 1 . A NOTE ON SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE MORTALITY DUE TO COLLISION WITH HIGH-TENSION POWER LINES

The sams crane ( Grus antigone) is the only of the Himalayas. Few long term studies have resident crane species breeding in India, south been carried out and information on its mortality

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is limited and scattered (Gole 1989, Parasharya et al. 1991). Largely, human pressure and associated changes in land use patterns, and intensification in agriculture are major threats to the cranes (Meine and Archibald 1996). Egg stealing, hunting, trade in live birds and death due to ingestion of pesticides by adult birds are the other known threats (Gole 1989, Muralidharan 1992, Sundar et al. in prep.). Mortality due to electrocution has been documented rarely (Parasharya et al. 1991) and its impact on sarus crane population dynamics is not quite clear.

During a survey in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh, from June to October 1998, to determine distribution and status of the sarus crane in India, we recorded three instances of crane mortality due to collision with high-tension electric cables. In Aligarh district, Uttar Pradesh, one adult female was found freshly killed in this manner near Shekha Jheel on June 24, 1998. The bird was one of a pair that the locals had seen for the past couple of years breeding in a nearby paddy field. The crane apparently came in contact with the wires over the paddy field while landing to roost for the night. The male stayed near the female body for a day (as in Ali and Ripley 1980) and then flew away. Another case was recorded in Mainpuri, Uttar Pradesh, on June 28, 1998. While carrying out a road transect near the Saman Bird Sanctuary, we saw two sarus cranes killed in the same way. These two birds had been partially eaten by vultures and the sexes could not be determined from the carcasses. In Aligarh, the survey revealed five cranes in the vicinity of the Shekha Jheel (over 1 5 kms) and 79 birds were counted in the Mainpuri road transect (covering 50 kms).

Bird collisions with power lines are a common phenomenon the world over, waterfowl and passerine birds having the highest known

collision rates (Cornwell and Hochbrum 1971, Morkill et al. 1990). Some authors have remarked that these mortalities are not biologically significant to bird populations (Stout and Cornwell 1976), but are detrimental to endangered bird species or for populations of birds which have high local concentrations (Morkill et al. 1990). Collision is a major cause of mortality in several crane species the world over. For example, the major cause for death of fledged adult whooping crane ( Grus americana) is found to be collision with high-tension power lines (Lewis 1986). Morkill et al. (1990) have found similar results in sandhill crane ( Grus canadensis ), having recorded 126 incidents of crane mortality between 1988-89. Records of red-crowned crane (Gmsjaponensis) populations from the 1950s onwards showed a stage of reduced growth rate, when 71% of 79 deaths in 1970-74 were due to collision with electric cables (Masatomi 1987).

While the trends in sarus crane morta- lity and repercussions on the local popula- tions are unclear from our data, it is one step towards long-term studies. The number of deaths seems quite low in the Mainpuri area, while it is a significant proportion of the total number of resident birds in the Aligarh district. Long-term collection of data in these localities over larger areas is necessary and may reveal the impact of such mortality on the populations of the sarus cranes. With the national power grid network and several state electrical corpora- tions planning expansion of high-tension power lines, their impact on large-bodied migratory and resident birds such as cranes can looked into, to avoid the major fly ways and migratory paths.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr S.K. Mukherjee, Director, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun; Dr R.L.

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Singh, CWLW, Uttar Pradesh; Dr Salim Javed, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh and Ms. Jatinder Kaur, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun.

April 13, 1999 K.S. GOPI SUNDAR

B.C. CHOUDHURY Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. #18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

References

Ali, S.& S.D. Ripley (1980): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2: Megapodes to Crab Plovers. Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Cornwell, G. & H.A. Hochbrum (1971): Collisions and wires — a source of anatid mortality. Wilson Bull. 83: 305-306.

Gole, P. (1989): The Status and Ecological Requirements of Sarus Crane: Phase I. Ecological Society, Pune, India.

Lewis, J.C. (1986)! The Whooping Crane. Audubon Report, National Audubon Society, Washington DC, USA. Pp. 658-676.

Masatomi, H. (1987): Population dynamics of Red-Crowned Cranes in Hokkaido since the 1 950 ’s. In: Harris, J.T. (ed.), Proceedings 1987 International Crane Workshop; Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province, China. Pp. 297-299.

Meine, C.D. & G.W. Archibald (1 996): The Cranes: Status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. Northern Prairie

Wildlife Research Centre Home Page.

Morkill, A.E. & S.H. Anderson ( 1 990): Effectiveness of marking powerlines to reduce sandhill crane collisions. Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Laramie, Wyoming, 102 pp.

Muralidharan, S. (1992): Poisoning the Sarus. Hornbill 1992(1): 3-7.

Parasharya, B.M., K.L.Mathew & D.N. Yadav (1991): Status and habitat preference of the Indian Sarus Crane in Gujarat, India. Unpublished report to Asia Crane Congress, Rajkot, Gujarat, India, 27 December 1 989.

Stout, I.J. & G.W. Cornwell ( 1 976): Nonhunting mortality of fledged North American waterfowl. J. Wild l. Manage. 40: 681-693.

Sundar, K.S.G., J. Kaur & B.C. Choudhury (in prep.): Survey to determine distribution and status of the Indian Sarus Crane ( Grus antigone antigone) in India. Unpublished report. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun.

12. OCCURRENCE OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS AT HOSUR, NASHIK DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA

Three great Indian bustards Ardeotis nigriceps were sighted by one of us (BR) at the Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL) complex at Hosur, 20 km from Nashik towards Dhulia, on National Highway 3 on September 2, 1998. On subsequent visits, a single bird was sighted on September 24, 1998, and three birds on September 25, 1998. The birds are seen regularly on the runway by the Air Traffic Control (ATC) staff (Mr. Kale pers. comm.). Two chicks were observed in 1998, while displaying males are regularly sighted in the monsoon. According to the ATC staff, a maximum of nine birds have been recorded in the area, since at least 1974 (Mr. Kale pers. comm.).

The HAL complex is a huge area, encircled by a 13.5 km perimeter wall. Most of the 14.3

sq. km area is open grassland, except for the small area occupied by the office and factory buildings. The HAL complex is largely used to repair military aircraft, which are test flown from a runway that almost bisects the grassland.

The area is gently undulating, dominated by the forbs of Borreria sp. and Boerhavia sp., and grasses of Chrysopogon sp. The vegetation height is about 1.5 m. There are a few scattered Acacia nilotica trees and Ziziphus bushes. There is no human activity except for the occasional flying military aircraft, and movement of security personnel between the outposts. There is no cattle grazing, while grass is burnt only along the runway by the authorities during summer. Good grass growth is observed within the inner perimeter wall, which is a high security area.

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But between the inner and outer perimeter walls and beyond the outer perimeter wall, the area has been denuded by livestock grazing.

There was no record of the bustard in Nashik district (Rahmani 1989), although it was recorded in the neighbouring districts of Ahmednagar and Dhulia. Rahmani (1989) mentions unconfirmed reports of its occurrence in Nashik district. We think it worth putting on record the first confirmed sighting of this highly threatened species from a hitherto unreported site.

The fact that these birds are present in the area at least since 1974, and the scientific community was oblivious to their presence, calls for renewed intensive efforts to identify areas where bustard populations are still present. This should give a better understanding of its status in the country. Constant monitoring of the

population will tell whether bustards are seen in this area throughout the year, or that they come only for breeding.

The only threat to the bustards in this high security area are flying aircrafts, but since the flight frequency is very low, the probability of an aircraft hitting a bustard is also low.

December 1, 1998 B. RAHA

Hemant Vihar, Plot No. 13, Vir Savarkar Nagar, Off Gangapur Road, Nashik 422 005, Maharashtra, India.

VIBHU PRAKASH Bombay Natural Histojy Society, Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. Present Address: 331, Rajendra Nagar, Bharatpur 321 001, Rajasthan, India.

Reference

Rahmani, A.R. (1989): The Great Indian Bustard. Final Report, Study of Ecology of certain endangered species of Wildlife and their habitats. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, 234 pp.

13. SIGHTING OF SOCIABLE LAPWING VANELLUS GREGAR1US IN KACHCHH DISTRICT, GUJARAT

While on a field trip to Lala Bustard Sanctuary, in Abdasa taluka, Kachchh district, we sighted a pair of sociable lapwing Vanellus gregarius on December 29, 1998 at 0900 hrs, feeding in a ploughed field close to Lala village. The birds were in non-breeding or winter plumage, and were foraging actively. The ploughed field was set amidst fallow land and degraded grassland. The birds had a very distinct white supercilium, a black eye-stripe extending to the nape, and a black crown. The upper part of the bird was ashy brown and the entire belly was white. The bill and legs were somewhat black. Our efforts to find the birds again the next day were in vain.

This species is threatened globally and

considered vulnerable (Collar et al. 1994). The last sighting in Kachchh was in August 1947 (G.M.B. Sparks, unpublished data; M.K. Himmatsinhji, pers. comm.). Dharmakumarsinhji (1956) has mentioned that it is an irregular visitor, not common and usually seen during the cold (winter) months. Ali and Ripley (1995) have also mentioned that it is a migrant, found in dry wastelands, ploughed fields and stubble. Collar et al. (1994) say that it uses grasslands and wetlands, including littoral habitats.

The sociable lapwing is said to breed in southeastern Russia and to migrate south to North Africa and India, including Kachchh and other parts of Gujarat (Dharmakumarsinhji 1956).

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Efforts are being made by us to look for this species in Kachchh, as part of a project on Conservation of the Rare and Endangered Biodiversity of Kachchh, Gujarat, funded by the Gujarat Ecology Commission.

March 22, 1999 JUSTUS JOSHUA,

S.F. WESLEY SUNDERRAJ, V. GOKULA, S.V. SUBBARAO, PRANITA NARAYANAN, RASHMI DINESAN

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D.Ripley (1995): A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian subcontinent. Bombay Natural History Society, Oxford University Press, Bombay, pp. 177.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crodby & A.J. Stattersfield (1 994):

Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Patwadi Naka, Bhuj (Kachchh), Gujarat 370001, India. Present Address: Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, 106, Opp. Chairman's Bungalow, GSFC Township, Fertilizer Nagar, Vadodara 391 750, Gujarat, India.

NCES

Birds to watch 2: The world list of Threatened Birds. BirdLife Conservation Series No. 4. BirdLife International, U.K. 407 pp.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1956): Birds of Saurashtra. Times of India Press, Bombay.

14. OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITE-WINGED BLACK TERN CHLIDONIAS LEUCOPTERUS IN KERALA

During our field trips in the Enamavu, Kole wetlands of Thrissur, Kerala, between September 12-15, 1998, Paul, P.M.K., C.K. Sujithkumar and I came across a few unfamiliar tern species feeding over the freshly drained paddy fields along with whiskered terns Chlidonias hybrida. Some of these were in partial breeding or post-breeding plumage, so that we could easily identify them as the white-winged black tern Chlidonias leucopterus.

On the evening of September 12, we saw at least three individuals (one adult and two juveniles) of this species feeding amongst a group of the whiskered terns. During flight, the black underwing coverts were the most noticeable feature of the adult bird. Mantle and back, black or blackish. Upper wing mostly smoky grey. Upper primaries deep ashy grey. A trace of whitish panel on upperwing coverts.

Forehead white. Hind crown and ear-coverts (behind eyes) black. A white collar on hind neck. Underparts wholly white. Under primaries grey. Rump and tail totally pure white. But the middle tail feathers were light grey. The shallow tail fork was sometimes visible (sometimes appeared nearly square). Bill black, legs and feet red. The red legs were occasionally seen as they trailed in feeding flight.

The mantle and back of the juveniles were dark brown; upper wing smoky grey; an indistinct paler panel on upperwing coverts. Underwing mostly whitish; no black on underwing coverts. The remaining features were similar to the adult.

The following afternoon, we observed the same number of birds feeding in the same area. But the underparts of the adult bird were quite different, being black mottled with white.

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On the last day at 1430 hrs, we could see two adults hawking their prey over the grassy paddy fields, somewhat like swallows. One of these had an entirely black head and body, except for the white forehead and little white blotches on the underparts.

There is no earlier published record of the white-winged black tern in Kerala.

January 11,1999 P.K. RAVINDRAN

Vallissery, P.O. Avinissery, Thrissur 680 313, Kerala, India.

15. SIGHTINGS OF WHITECHEEKED TERN STERNA RE PRESS A, WHITEWINGED BLACK TERN CHLIDONIAS LEUCOPTERUS AND SAUNDERS’S LITTLE TERN STERNA SAUNDERSI AT PORB ANDER COAST, GUJARAT

Porbander (21° 37' N, 69° 49' E), a small coastal town on the west coast of Gujarat, is an important area for birds. A wide intertidal zone, a muddy creek with mangroves encircling the town, extensive saltpans on the outskirts, fishing industry and a small (3.1 ha) bird sanctuary on the sewage dump are all bird habitats. Various tern species observed at Porbander during a few visits in 1997 are recorded here.

On June 17, 1997 we saw several terns slightly larger than the whiskered tern Chlidonias hybrida flying above the salt pans. An osprey Pandion haliaetus caught one of them and landed on a stone about 60 m from us. The other terns mobbed the osprey and landed nearby. Closer examination revealed that all the 35 birds were whitecheeked tern Sterna repressa in non-breeding plumage. A flock of 450 other terns was also seen pursuing each other with chirping calls.

The whitecheeked tern is known to breed on Vengurla Rocks off Malvan on the west coast, c. 16° N, 73° 30' E (Ali and Ripley 1983). It is common on the Makran and Sindh coasts of Pakistan, particularly from March to May, but there is no evidence of its breeding (Ali and Ripley 1983). However, a specimen was collected on June 12, 1973, at Bombay harbour (Menon 1974). This species has never been reported from Gujarat coast and hence, this is the first record.

Though it was June 17, we also recorded the gullbilled tern Gelochelidon nilotica (1), Caspian tern Hydroprogne caspia (2), whiskered tern Chlidonias hybrida (8) and Saunders’s little tern Sterna saundersi (2).

On April 27, we saw 3 whitewinged black tern Chlidonias leucopterus repeatedly flying over the waters of the bird sanctuary. Two birds had complete breeding plumage, whereas the third one still had some white patches on the black belly. These three terns were foraging along with 16 whiskered terns Chlidonias hybrida. The whitewinged black tern is a rare visitor to Assam, West Bengal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka (Ali and Ripley 1983). There have been three records of this species from Gujarat: twice from Jasdan (Shivrajkumar 1955) and once from Jamnagar (Mundkur 1987). Sighting of three birds from the Porbander coast indicates that the species occurs over a greater area of Gujarat state and is less vagrant than recorded (Ali and Ripley 1983). Sangha (1998) reported the species from Rajasthan, which further supports this view.

We also saw two flying Saunders’s little tern Sterna saundersi from a very short distance on April 27 and June 17. This tern is known to breed around Karachi (Pakistan), Kachchh, Okhamandal (India) and in Sri Lanka (Ali and Ripley 1983). The only record of its occur- rence in Gujarat is from Mithapur (Dharmakumarsinhji 1972). On Mundra coast,

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Kachchh, 5 pairs were incubating eggs and initiating nesting on April 17, 1986 (Taej Mundkur, pers. comm., Naik et al. 1991). The present record confirms its occurrence at Porbander, where the possibility of its breeding cannot be ruled out.

During our visit in January and April, the whiskered tern and gullbilled tem were common, whereas the Caspian tem was seen occasionally. Our records of terns on Porbander coast support the view of Khacher (1996) that “our knowledge of terns, especially the migratory and more

marine ones is comparatively meagre and more information is needed.”

March 22, 1999 B. M. PARASHARYA

* AESHITA MUKHERJEE AINP on Agricultural Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110, Gujarat, India. * Present address: National Tree Growers ’ Cooperative Federation Ltd., Anand 388 001, Gujarat, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. (Compact edn). Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Dharmakumarsinhji, S.S. (1972): Extension of breeding range and other notes on Blackshafted Little Tem Sterna albifrons saundersi (Hume). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(2): 420-422.

Khacher, L. (1996): The Birds of Gujarat — A Salim Ali Centenary Year overview. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 331-373.

Menon, P. (1974): Whitecheeked Tern Sterna repressa Hartert in Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71(3): 610.

Mundkur, T. (1987): The Whitewinged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus (Temminck) in Saurashtra,

Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 208.

Naik, R.M., M.S. Murthy, A.P. Mansuri, Y.N. Rao, R. Pravez, T. Mundkur, S. Krishnan, P.J. Faldu & T.S.V.R. Krishna ( 1 991): Final report to WWF-lndia sponsored research project on ‘Coastal marine ecosystem and anthropogenic presssure in the gulf of Kachchh.’ Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

Sangha, H.S. & Harshvardhan ( 1 998): Occurrence of the Whitewinged Black Tem Chlidonias leucopterus in Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(1): 113-114.

Shivrajkumar (1955): Occurrence of the Whitewinged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus (Temm.) in Saurashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53(1): 130.

16. RED- WINGED CRESTED CUCKOO CLAMATOR COROMANDUS ,

AN ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA OF ANAIMALAI HILLS (WESTERN GHATS)

OF TAMIL NADU

Raghupathy Kannan’s ‘Avifauna of Anaimalai Hills. (JBNHS 95(1): 193-214)’ does not include the red-winged crested cuckoo (Clamator coromandus). I have recorded the species at Top Slip (Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary) in January 1996, in Emmai Pallam, close to the road leading to Parambikulam in the Lantana camara undergrowth. In February 1997, my friends Dr and Mrs Eric Lott had seen the bird in Lantana camara bushes in Karian Shola

near the watch tower at Top Slip.

The species probably occurs in small numbers in this area. In January 1998, Dr. and Mrs. Eric Lott and I recorded a single bird in Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala.

December 4, 1998 A. RELTON

Honorary Wildlife Warden, Staff Advisor, Bishop Heber College, Tiruchirapalli 620 01 7, Tamil Nadu, India.

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17. COMPETITION BETWEEN JUNGLE MYNA ACRIDOTHERES FUSCUS AND LESSER GOLDEN BACKED WOODPECKER DINOPIUM BENGHALENSE

FOR A NEST HOLE

A year long survey of a garden of about 675 sq. m, in a thickly populated area at south Kolkata (=Calcutta), showed the presence of 32 species of birds which were attracted to the garden for shelter, nesting ground and food (Jha et al. 1997). Recently, a series of events over a few days led me to write this note.

During the middle of April, 1998 while observing the birds in the garden, I noticed a hole in a coconut tree ( Cocos nucifera ), about 6.5 m above the ground (probably made by woodpeckers in the previous year) from which twigs and strips of plastic sheet were hanging out. It appeared that a pair of jungle myna {Acridotheres fuscus ) had started building a nest a few days ago. The mynas collected and stocked nesting material for the following three days. To my surprise, on the fourth day I found some straw and plastic strips lying on the ground and saw the frontal part of a lesser golden backed woodpecker ( Dinopium benghalense) jutting out of the hole. It appeared that the woodpeckers had captured the nest of the jungle mynas. The events that followed in the next few days were even more interesting. Quite often, I saw a pair of woodpeckers occupying the nest. During the early hours of the day or afternoon, whenever the jungle mynas returned to their nest, they were chased away by the woodpeckers. After their departure, the woodpeckers quickly entered the hole and established their rights on the territory. A few minutes later, the jungle mynas would return again to observe the woodpeckers and their nest from neighbouring trees. They repeatedly

tried to re-enter the nest, but were vehemently opposed by the woodpeckers. These interactions continued for the next nine days.

One afternoon, I saw the climax of this fascinating drama. I found a large number of jungle mynas (about 25-30) screeching in the neighbouring trees. Suddenly, a few of them rushed inside the hole and forced the woodpecker out. In the meanwhile, a few mynas attacked the other woodpecker perched outside the nest, on the tree trunk. A fight ensued, and the woodpecker pair fell to the ground. The jungle mynas were so ferocious that it seemed as if they would kill the woodpeckers. The fighting continued for about 3-4 minutes, during which the harsh call of the jungle mynas filled the area. Suddenly, a small boy from the adjoining locality interfered in their fight with a stick. The fight stopped and the woodpeckers flew away. The jungle mynas too left the area.

The very next day, the hole was occupied by the jungle mynas again. In the following days I observed that they successfully nested, laid eggs, hatched chicks in the hole, and after completing their parental duties flew away with the two young ones. Interestingly, the woodpeckers were never seen anywhere near the trunk of that particular coconut tree again.

April 29, 1999 ANIRUDDHA JHA

Post Graduate Department of Zoology, Presidency College, 86/1 College Street, Kolkata 700 073, West Bengal, India.

Reference

Jha, A., S. Homechaudhuri & N.K. Sarkar (1997): A year-long survey of birds in a thickly populated area of South Calcutta. J. Beng. nat. Hist. Soc. (N.S.) 16(2): 11-18.

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18. FURTHER RECORDS OF PYXIDEA MOUHOTII (GRAY) FROM THE NORTH BANK OF R. BRAHMAPUTRA, ASSAM

The keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray, 1862) is known from many localities of north-eastern India (Bhupathy and Choudhury 1992, Choudhury 1993, 1996a, b, 1998). Barring one (Drupong Reserve Forest), all the recorded sites were on the south bank of the river. The recorded localities were North Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong (Choudhury 1993) of Assam, Khasi and Garo Hills of Meghalaya, Namdapha National Park and Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh (Bhupathy and Choudhury 1992), Tamenglong district, Manipur (Choudhury 1996b), Hailakandi district in southern Assam, near the Assam-Mizoram interstate boundary (Choudhury 1998), and Drupong Reserve Forest, Papum Pare district, Arunachal Pradesh (Choudhury 1996a). The record from Drupong is the only one from the north bank of the Brahmaputra river. Outside India, the species has been recorded in Indochina from Myanmar to Vietnam and also Hainan in China (Stubbs 1991).

I report two recent records from the north bank of the Brahmaputra river. On July 22, 1 998, a live turtle was caught by the forest staff near Potasali in Balipara Reserve Forest (26° 55' N, 92° 50' E), Sonitpur district, central Assam. The turtle was caught from the forest floor of the evergreen jungle, not far from the banks of the Jia-Bhoreli river, which forms the boundary of Nameri National Park. The terrain was flat, and the elevation c. 100 m above msl. I examined the specimen and then released it in Nameri National Park on July 31, 1998. It measured (in cm): straight line carapace length (SCL) 12.0; curved carapace length (CCL) 14.0; straight line

carapace width (SCW) 9.5; curved carapace width (CCW) 13.5 and shell height c. 5.0; plastron length - greatest (PL-gt) 12.4; plastron length - notch to notch (PL-nn) 11.8; plastron width 7.5. Weight 200 gm.

On July 31, 1998, I obtained a carapace with plastron of the same species from a roadside hotel at Sessa in West Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh. It was collected live near Sessa (27° 07’ N, 92° 33' E ) in Sessa Orchid Sanctuary in May- June 1998 and its flesh eaten. It was in the vicinity of wild banana trees near Sessa Nullah, but not near the water. The elevation of the place is about 1,000 m above msl, the maximum elevation record for the keeled box turtle in India so far. Measurements (in cm): SCL = 16.0 cm; CCL =17.5; SCW = 1 1 .6; CCW = 16.5; CH = c. 4.7; PL-gt = 14.3; PL-nn = 13.3; PW = 8.7. The plastron was conspicuously concave, indicating that it was a male.

The habitat in Sessa at around 1,000 m elevation is mostly tropical wet evergreen rainforest type, and the terrain mountainous, being part of the Eastern Himalaya. These records also extend the range of the species on the north bank by about 1 20 km westwards.

I would like to thank DFOs R.K. Das and M.K. Palit; Ratneswar Rai forest staff, Puma Bahadur Gurung of Sessa, Dr Anil Goswami and Bisoy Boro (driver).

June 30, 2000 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, c/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

References

Bhupathy, S. & B.C. Choudhury (1992): Turtle faunaof Choudhury, A.U. (1993): Keeled box turtle in Karbi Assam — Preliminary report. Wildlife Institute of India, Anglong — a new locality record. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

DehraDun. Soc. 90(3): 517.

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Choudhury, A.U. (1996a): Keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii Gray on the north bank of the Brahmaputra — A new record. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 97. Choudhury, A.U. ( 1 996b): The Keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii Gray — A new record for Manipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 590-591.

Choudhury, A.U. (1998): Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray) in southern Assam and Mizoram. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(3) : 511.

Stubbs, D. (1991): Tortoises and freshwater turtles: an action plan for their conservation. 2nd edn. IUCN, Gland.

19. DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES ON THE TURTLES OF WESTERN MYANMAR

At least 22 species of tortoises and freshwater turtles inhabit Myanmar, including six which are endemic (Iverson 1992, van Dijk 1997, Platt et al. 2000). However, the chelonian fauna of Myanmar is one of the least known in Asia (McCord 1997), and old fragmentary observations remain the principal source of information (Kuchling 1995, van Dijk 1997, Platt et al. 2000). Basic studies have not been undertaken and most distribution records originated prior to 1900 (van Dijk 1997). Species inventories of particular regions are essential for conservation, and acquiring baseline data on the occurrence even of common species is important (Dodd and Franz 1993, Oliver and Beattie 1993). We report recent distribution records of turtles in western Myanmar and discuss the significance of our findings.

Data on the occurrence of turtles in western Myanmar were gathered in conjunction with a tortoise survey of Shwe Settaw Wildlife Sanctuary (SSWS), conducted from August 3- 24, 1999 (Platt 1999). SSWS (20° 1 1' N, 94° 28’ E) was established in 1940 to protect Eld’s deer (Cervus eldi thamin) (Salter and Sayer 1986). It is located on the western edge of the central dry zone within the rain shadow of the Arakan Yoma Mountains (FAO/UNDP 1982). Consequently, mean annual rainfall is low (c. 90 cm) with an extended dry season from December through May. Except for major rivers, there are no permanent streams, and available surface water is extremely limited during much of the year (FAO/UNDP 1982).

The dry zone is characterized by deciduous

forest, locally known as Indaing, and dominated by fire-resistant trees such as Dipterocarpus tuberculatus , Shorea oblongifolia, Pentacme siamensis and Tectona hamiltoniana. Canopy height rarely exceeds 6 m, and the understorey consists of low shrubs and grass. Dense vegetation and stands of bamboo occur along ephemeral watercourses (FAO/UNDP 1982; Salter and Sayer 1986). Anthropogenic fires are common during the dry season (FAO/UNDP 1982; van Dijk 1994).

We interviewed SSWS personnel, villagers, hunters and turtle traders in the villages surrounding the sanctuary to obtain data on the turtle fauna of our study area. Local residents are generally an excellent source of information and shells are often sold to buyers who periodically visit the villages (Thirakhupt and van Dijk 1994). We measured carapace (CL) and plastron length (PL), and photographed available specimens. Voucher photographs were deposited in the Campbell Museum (CUSC), Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA. Taxonomy follows Ernst and Barbour (1989).

Cyclemys spp.

Three Cyclemys spp. were examined; two living turtles (CUSC 1797; CL = 19.4 cm, CUSC 1798; CL = 19.5 cm) and a carapace (CUSC 1770; CL = 20.4 cm). The specific identity of these specimens is not possible. Cyclemys dentata was reported from Myanmar (Iverson 1992). However, in a recent revision of the

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genus, Fritz etal. (1997) contend that C. dentata actually represents a complex of cryptic species, and the nominal species occurring in Myanmar is C. oldhamii. Our specimens were obtained from a trader in Padan village, who was unsure of their origin. These turtles were probably collected in Rakhine State (formerly known as Arakan), where the occurrence of Cyclemys has been verified (Iverson 1992, Platt 2000). Cyclemys inhabit deep pools in permanent streams (Thirakhupt and van Dijk 1994, Sharma 1998), a habitat generally absent in the dry zone. The posterior neural and costal scutes of one living turtle were discoloured and fused with no evident sutures. Similar shell anomalies among Terrapene Carolina were attributed to fire damage by Dodd et al. (1997).

Lissemys scutata

Approximately 15 Lissemys scutata , ranging in size from small juveniles to adults, were observed in an earthen pond ( c . 0.25 ha) at a pagoda on Mya Kyaing Taung [=Emerald] Mountain (20° 16.76' N; 94° 29.01' E). Pagoda visitors probably released these turtles into the pond, a common practice at Buddhist temples. One turtle (CUSC 1766; CL = 13.8 cm) was captured for identification and released. Another adult appeared to be completely white, but we were unable to discern the eye colour and determine if the turtle was a true albino. Seven additional living L. scutata (CUSC 1767; CL = 16.0 to 18.8 cm) were obtained from a trader in Padan village. According to the trader, L. scutata is common in nearby rice fields, irrigation ditches and ponds. Our observations constitute the first records of L. scutata from this region of Myanmar (Iverson 1992, van Dijk 1993).

Manouria emys

We examined the carapace of an adult

(CUSC 1764; CL = 44.2 cm) in Pyaw Bwe (20° 01.08' N, 94° 38.08' E), collected in May 1998 about 6.4 km southwest of the village. Villagers regard M. emys as extremely rare and that was the only specimen they had found in recent years. Residents of other villages that we visited had never encountered M emys. Given the dense human population and intensive hunting pressure (Platt 1999), few M. emys are believed to survive in this region. We also examined the plastron of an adult (CUSC 1765; PL = 35.0 cm) from Rakhine State at a trading establishment in Padan village. The plastron was uniformly dark in colour, with pectorals meeting at the midline, indicating the presence of subspecies M. emys phayrei in this region of Myanmar (Ernst and Barbour 1989). These specimens constitute the only recent records of M. emys from Myanmar. Theobald (1876) reported M. emys from Arakan (Rakhine) and Moulmain (Mawlamyaing). Earlier records are available from Tenasserim (Taninthayi) and the vicinity of Yangon (Iverson 1992). M. emys is regarded as rare and declin- ing throughout most of its historic range (Moll 1989).

Melanochelys trijuga edeniana

Four shells of this endemic subspecies were examined; two in Padaung (CUSC 1772; CL = 20.7 cm and CUSC 1773; CL = 15.8 cm), and one each in Padan village (CUSC 1771 ; CL = 12.2 cm) and Laybin (CUSC 1774; CL = 14.2 cm). Carapaces were dark brown with lighter keels, plastrons were black with prominent yellowish margins. Additionally, van Dijk (1994) obtained a shell (CL = 16.7 cm) from an unspecified village near SSWS Headquarters. These specimens represent the first records from western Myanmar (Iverson 1992). According to SSWS rangers, M. trijuga inhabits intermittent streams and is active during the wet season.

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Morenia ocellata

A carapace we photographed in Padan village (CUSC 1769; CL = 18.0 cm) constitutes the first record of M. ocellata from west central Myanmar. We also obtained a photograph (CUSC 1768) taken by U Hla Win (Deputy Director General; Department of Fisheries, comm.), of two juveniles in a market at Sittwe, the only location west of the Ayeyarwady river where M. ocellata has been previously collected (Iverson 1992). The records available suggest that M. ocellata is restricted to southern Myanmar (Iverson 1992). However, Kuchling (1995) found at a market in southern China M. ocellata that appeared to have been collected locally, and speculated that these turtles may be more widespread than suggested by earlier records.

Acknowledgments

Fieldwork in Myanmar was funded by grants from the Walt Disney Co. Foundation.

Refer

Dodd, C.K., Jr. & R. Franz (1993): The need for status information on common herpetofaunal species. Herpetol. Rev. 24(1)\ 47-50.

Dodd, C.K., Jr., R. Franz & S.A. Johnson (1997): Shell injuries and anomalies in an insular population of Florida box turtles (Terrapene Carolina bauri). Herpetol Nat. Hist. 5(1) : 66-72.

Ernst, C.H. & R. W. Barbour ( 1 989): Turtles of the world.

Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D. C. FAO/UNDP (1982): Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary: Report on a reconnaissance survey and evaluation, June 1982. UNDP/FAO Nature Conservation and National Parks Project. BUR/80/006. Field Report 9/ 82.

Fritz, U., M. Gaulke & E. Lehr (1997): Revision der stidostasiatischen Dornschildkroten-Gattung Cyclemys Bell, 1 834, mit Beschreibung einer neuen Art. SalamandYa 33 (3): 183-212.

Iverson, J.B. (1992): A revised checklist with distribution maps of the turtles of the world. Privately printed, Richmond, Indiana.

Assistance was provided by U Hla Win, U Maung Maung Tint, U Myint Shwe, U Soe Lwin, Daw Thin Thin Yu, Daw Lay Lay Khine, U Nyunt Hlaing, U Kyaw Tun Saung, U Aung Kyaw Soe, U Tun Kyaing, Bill Holmstrom, Bill Zovickian, John Behler and John Thorbjamarson. We thank Peter Paul van Dijk, Thomas Rhott and Steve Johnson for references, and the Dept of Forestry for permission to visit Shwe Settaw Wildlife Sanctuary. Comments from an anonymous reviewer on an earlier draft greatly improved the manuscript.

October 25, 2000 STEVEN G. PLATT

Wildlife Conservation Society, P.O. Box 9345, Siem Reap, Cambodia.

SAWTUNKHAING, WIN KO KO, KALYAR

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bldg. C-l, Aye Yeik Mon 1st Street, Yadanamon Housing Ave., Hlaing Township, Yangon, Myanmar.

ENCES

Kuchling, G. (1995): Turtles at a market in western Yunnan: Possible range extensions for some southern Asiatic chelonians in China and Myanmar. Chelonian Conserv. Biol 1(3): 223-226.

Mccord, W.P. (1997): Mauremys pritchardi, a new Batagurid turtle from Myanmar and Yunnan, China. Chelonian Conserv. Biol. 2(4): 555-562.

Moll, E.O. (1989): Manouria emys , Asian brown tortoise. In: The Conservation Biology ofTortoises. Swingland, I.R. & M.K. Klemens (eds). Occasional Papers of IUCN Species Survival Commission, No. 5. IUCN Publ., Gland, Switzerland, pp. 1 19-120.

Oliver, I. & A.J. Beattie (1993): A possible method for the rapid assessment of biodiversity. Conserv. Biol. 7(3): 562-568.

Platt, S.G. (1999): A tortoise survey of Shwe Settaw Wildlife Sanctuary, Myanmar. Unpubl. Report to Wildlife Conservation Society, New York.

Platt, S.G. (2000): An Expedition into central Rakhine State, Myanmar. Unpubl. Report to Wildlife Conservation Society, New York.

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Platt, S.G., Kalyar & Win Ko Ko (in press): Exploitation and conservation status of tortoises and freshwater turtles in Myanmar. In: van Dijk, P.P., B.L. Stuart and A.G.J. Rhodin (eds). Asian turtle trade: Proceedings of a workshop on conservation and trade of freshwater turtles and tortoises in Asia. Chelonian Research Monograph 2.

Salter, R.E. & J. A. Sayer ( 1 986): The brow-antlered deer in Burma — its distribution and status. Oryx 20(4): 241-245.

Sharma, R. C. (1998). Fauna of India - Reptilia (Testudines and Crocodilia). Vol. 1 . Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Theobald. W. ( 1 876): Descriptive catalogue of the reptiles of British India. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta.

Thirakhupt, K. & P.P. van Dijk (1994): Species diversity and conservation of turtles of western Thailand. J. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam 42(2): 207-259.

van Dijk, P.P. (1993): Myanmar turtles: Report on a preliminary survey of the Testudines of the Ayeyarwady Basin. Unpubl. Report to Turtle Recovery Program, The World Conservation Union- IUCN SSC Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group.

van Dijk, P.P. (1994): Report on a visit to Myanmar, 18-28 January 1994. Unpubl. Report to Turtle Recovery Program, The World Conservation Union-IUCN SSC Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group.

van Dijk, P.P. (1997): Turtle conservation in Myanmar: Past, present and future. In: Abbema, J.V. (ed.) Proceedings: Conservation, restoration and management of Tortoises and turtles - An international conference. New York Turtle and Tortoise Society and WCS Turtle Recovery Program, pp. 265-271.

20. DIFFERENCE IN BREEDING COLORATION IN CALOTES VERSICOLOR OF THE SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN ARAV ALLIS IN RAJASTHAN

( With one text-figure)

During the breeding season, the male Calotes versicolor acquires a brilliant crimson or scarlet colour on the forehead and shoulder parts of the body towards dorsal and ventral sides, and black patches upon the neck, cheeks and throat (the fauna of British india, Vol. 11, Smith 1935). During my field studies in the Aravalli hills, Rajasthan, I noticed a remarkable difference in the black patches of male Calotes versicolor at the northern and southern ends of the Aravalli range. Towards the extreme southern end in Udaipur district (23° 46' to 26° 2' N; 73° to 74° 35' E), in Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, forest areas of Jhadol, Ogna, Gogunda, Kotra, Khairwara and Udaipur Forest Ranges and the adjoining forests, individuals have black patches on their neck region, which just touch the swollen cheeks and at a distance from the tympanum (Fig. la). On the other hand, individuals confined to Nahargarh (26° 55'-27° 15' N’ 75° 45'-76° E) and Jamwa Ramgarh Wildlife Sanctuaries, nearly 25 km away from

Fig. 1: (a) Black patch on the neck of Udaipur specimen, (b) Black patch on the neck of Jaipur specimen

Nahargarh towards the eastern side (27° 0'-27° 15' N and 76°-76° 15' E), in Jaipur district, towards northern Aravalli, have broader black patches, which extend to the swollen cheeks. Tapering black patches extend forward and terminate at the base of the lower jaw, below the

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eyes. On the posterior, each patch touches the tympanum on both lateral sides (Fig. lb).

L ocalities of Udaipur zone and Jaipur zone are nearly 500 km apart. The two ends of the Aravalli show different environmental conditions and forest types. The southern end, clad with broad-leaved deciduous forests receives higher rainfall (650-800 mm), while the northern end

has dry deciduous and scrub forests and receives relatively low rainfall (400-600 mm).

May 24, 2000 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Range Forest Officer, Nahargarh Biological Park, 2, Suresh Nagar, Durgapura, Jaipur 302 018, Rajasthan, India.

21 . OCCURRENCE OF PAINTED KALOULA KALOULA TAPROBANICA (FAMILY MICROHYLIDAE) AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU

On January 28, 2000, we heard frog calls on the outskirts of Kodikkadu village, near Point Calimere ( 1 0° 1 8' N and 79° 5 1 ’ E), Tamil Nadu. The calls were coming from two temporary rain- water pools in the grassland, near some thorny bushes. The pools were separated by a bund with Thespesia populnea trees. Some of the roots of these trees were exposed, probably due to rain. While walking under these trees we saw a frog near one of the exposed roots, we caught and identified the species as the painted kaloula Kaloula taprobanica. When released on loose sand, it tried to sink into the soil, dislodging it by the sideways movements of its hind legs as de- scribed by Rajasingh 1972 (JBNHS 69(1): 193). On being handled, it inflated its body like a toad.

In the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection, there are two specimens collected by Dr. P.J. SanjeevaRaj in 1966 ffomTambaram. The present record is, therefore, a range extension.

Other amphibian species observed at Point Calimere were:

1. Hoplobatrachus tigerinus: Common, seen on the banks of temporary rainwater pools at night.

2. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis : Common, mostly in rainwater pools. Most of them were heard calling at night. They were also seen in Muniappan, a large freshwater lake in this area.

3. Tomopterna breviceps : Seen crossing a sandy road in the jungle near Ramarpadam.

4. Micro hy la rubra : Their calls were heard and the microhylids were seen in the grass near a temporary rainwater pool at the roadside at c. 1845 hrs.

February 14, 2000 VARAD GIRI,

VITHOBA HEGDE, VINODPATIL Bombay Natural History Society Hornbill House, S.B Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

22. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ICHTHYOPHIS BOMBA YENSIS TAYLOR, 1 960 ( FAMILY ICHTH Y OPHIID AE) IN CENTRAL WESTERN GHATS

Ichthyophis bombayensis Taylor 1960 was based on a unique type (BMNH 1888.6.11.2) collected by Gleadow from Surat, Gu jarat. Since the original description, this species has been reported from the central Western Ghats

(Balakrishna et al. 1982, Krishnamurthy and Katre 1993, Bhatta 1998, Pillai and Ravichandran 1999). However, while dealing with this species, Dutta (1997) has stated that “no other specimen of this species has been

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collected after Taylor’s description.” Hence, to confirm its present distribution, one specimen of this species represented in the collection of the Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Chennai and two in the collections of Kuvempu University, Karnataka (all collected from the Sringeri region of the central Western Ghats) were studied in detail. These specimens were also compared with related species, I. malabarensis and I. peninsularis sampled from the same locality to confirm its identification.

The morphometric details of the three species, I. bombayensis , I. malabarensis and I. peninsularis are compared in Table 1 . The three

Table 1

MORPHOMETRY OF ICHTHYOPHIS BOMBA YENSIS,

I. MALABARENSIS AND I. PENINSULARIS COLLECTED FROM THE SRINGERI REGION.

(all measurements are in mm)

Parameters I. bombayensis I. malabarensis I. peninsularis KUES VAG-9, VAG-25,

APODAOl ZSIM ZSIM

Loc. Sringeri Loc. Sringeri Loc. Neria

Total length

495.0

520.0

332.0

Tail length

19.0

19.5

12.0

Head Width

16.0

16.5

11.5

Snout length

11.0

10.0

7.3

Body Width

22.5

24.0

15.5

Eye to Tentacle

3.0

3.0

2.0

Tentacle to Nostril 6.0

6.0

4.0

Eye to Nostril

8.5

7.5

5.2

Eye to Eye

11.0

11.0

7.6

Snout tip to 1 st groove

24.0

20.0

15.0

Snout tip to 2nd groove

30.0

24.5

19.3

Body folds

380.0

370.0

360.0

Tail folds

17.0

17.0

17.0

Premaxillary-

maxillary

34-33

28-29

20-19

Prevomero-

palatine

33-32

29-30

18-18

Dentary

26-26

26-27

19-19

Splenial

8-8

7-7

4-4

specimens of I. bombayensis collected from Sringeri agree with the original description by Taylor (1960). Hence, its occurrence in the central Western Ghats (75° 15' 14" N, 13° 25' 05" E), at a distance of 900 km from the type locality, is confirmed.

Specimens examined: Regn No. KUES, APOD A- 1 [Kuvempu University, Environmental Science] I. bombayensis, Sringeri, Karnataka, 10.viii.1999, coll. S.V. Krishnamurthy; Regn No. VAG 12 ZSIM [Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, Madras(=Chennai)] I. bombayensis, Sringeri, Karnataka, 5.i. 1994, coll.

R. S. Pillai; Regn No. VAG 9 ZSIM I. malabarensis, Sringeri, Karnataka, 4.i. 1994, Coll. R.S. Pillai; Regn No. VAG 25 ZSIM. I. peninsularis, Neria, Karnataka, 4.vii.l992, coll. B.K. Sharath.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, ZSI, Dr. P.T. Cherian, Additional Director, ZSI, Chennai and Dr. R.S. Pillai for encouragement and K.V. Gururaja, K.G. Hemanth Rajkumar and A.H. Manjunatha Reddy for help in the field.

S. V.K. thanks the Department of Science and Technology (Govt of India) for a research grant (SP/SO/C-39/97).

August 17, 2000 M.S. RAVICHANDRAN Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, 100, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.

S.V. KRISHNAMURTHY Department of P.G. Studies and Research in Environmental Science, Kuvempu University, Jnanasahyadri, Shankar aghatta 577 451, Shimoga District, Karnataka, India.

References

Balakrishna, T.A., S. Katre & K.R. Gundappa ( 1 982): on the Indian subcontinent. Current Sci. 51 : 848-849.

Taxonomy and myogen patterns of some caecilians Bhatta, G.K. (1998): A field guide to the caecilians of the

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Western Ghats, India. Journal of Biosciences 23(1): 73-85.

Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka (Checklist and Bibliography). Odyssey Publishing House, Bhubaneswar, (4)+ xiii + 342 + xxii pp. Krishnamurthy, S.V. & S. Katre (1993): Amphibian fauna of Sringeri taluk (Chickmagalur District, Karnataka). Journal of Indian Institute of Science

23. NINE NEW RECORDS OF ARUNACHAL

Arunachal Pradesh in the Eastern Himalaya is one of the 18 global hotspots of biodiversity (Myers 1988). Amphibian habitats of East Kameng (26° 56'-27° 43' 30" N, 92° 36'- 93° 24' E) and West Kameng (26° 55'-27° 57’ N, * 92°-93° 15' E) districts in western Arunachal Pradesh were surveyed during 1997-99. West Kameng district has an area of 7,422 sq. km, with an annual precipitation of 1,709 mm at Bomdila (2,938 m above msl). East Kameng district covers 4,134 sq. km, with an annual precipitation of 2,212 mm at Seppa (2,317 m above msl).

The area is covered with mostly tropical and subtropical moist evergreen forests, with perennial torrential streams and rivers.

Amphibian surveys of Arunachal Pradesh are limited to the work of Annandale (1912) who reported amphibians from Siang district. Sarkar and Sanyal (1985) reported 14 species from Namdapha National Park. Chanda (1994) reported 22 species from Arunachal Pradesh. Bordoloi and Borah (1999) made a new record of a frog ( Hoplobatrachus crassus ) from Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, northeast India.

Amphibian habitats were visited during the day and at night. Tadpoles were collected and identified during the day, while adults were recorded at night. Due to restrictions on collection, toads and frogs were identified and released. Only when field identification was not possible, one or two specimens were retained.

73: 443-452.

Pillai, R.S. & M.S. Ravichandran (1999): Gymnophiona (Amphibia) of India — A taxonomic study. Rec. zool. Surv. India Occasional Paper 172, pp 1 1 7.

Taylor, E.H. (1960): On thecaecilian species Ichthyophis monochrous and Ichthyophis glutinosus with description of related species. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 40(4): 37-120.

AMPHIBIA (ANURA) FROM PRADESH, INDIA

These were preserved in 8% formalin and their morphometric data recorded.

Literature and material in the collections of the Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai and Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, were consulted for identification. A total of 20 species representing 5 families and 13 genera were recorded. Specimens have been deposited at the State Forest Research Institute, Arunachal Pradesh.

Class: Amphibia Order: Anura Family: Megophryidae Genus (1) Megophrys Kuhl & Van Hasselt, 1822

1. Megophrys parva (Boulenger, 1893) Specimen No. State Forest Research Institute (SFRI) V/A 2328

Locality: Sessa, Altitude 1 ,708 m above msl. Remarks: New record from Arunachal Pradesh.

One adult male specimen was collected near Sessa Orchid Sanctuary from a branch overhanging a stream. It was also recorded from Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhalukpung and Tenga Valley.

2. Megophrys lateralis (Anderson, 1871) Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2330 Locality: Pakhui, Altitude 216.7 m above

msl.

Remarks: New record from Arunachal

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Pradesh. Also recorded from Sessa, Pakhui and Tippi. Earlier recorded only from Assam. Specimen collected from tree trunk.

Family: Bufonidae Genus (2) Bufo Laurenti, 1868 3. Bufo melanostictus Schneider, 1799 Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2324 Locality: Widely distributed in both districts.

Remarks: Recorded from all localities surveyed, throughout the year. Breeding population was recorded from Tippi in December, the driest and coldest month of the year. (Precipitation 13.40 mm, Temperature max. 27 °C, min. 8.5 °C)

Family: Microhylidae Genus (3) Microhyla Tschudi, 1838 4. Microhyla ornata (Dumeril & Bibron, 1841)

Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2322 Remarks: New record from Arunachal Pradesh. Sighted at Bhalukpung, Khari, Sejusa and Tippi up to of 1,200 m above msl.

Genus (4) Uperodon Dumeril & Bibron, 1841

5. Uperodon globulosus (Gunther, 1864)

Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2331 Remarks: New record from Arunachal Pradesh, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhalukpung, Tippi and near Khari river. A burrowing species.

Family: Rhacophoridae Genus (5) Chirixalus Boulenger, 1890

6. Chirixalus vittatus (Boulenger, 1887) Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2332, 2333 Remarks: New record from Arunachal

Pradesh. Specimen compared with the descrip- tion in Khare and Kiyasetuo (1986). Specimen collected from vegetation near waterbody from Tippi. Also recorded from Bhalukpung, Sejusa,

Sessa and Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary.

Genus (6) Polypedates Tschudi, 1838 7. Polypedates leucomystax Gravenhorst, 1829 Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2320 Remarks: This species is widely distributed in both districts. Mostly collected from shrubs, logs and stones near aquatic habitats.

8. Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1834) Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2334 Remarks: New record from East and West Kameng. Less abundant than P. leucomystax. Found in the same habitat as P. leucomystax , up to 1,200 m above msl. In both disturbed and virgin forest.

Genus (7) Rhacophorus Kuhl & Van Hasselt, 1822

9. Rhacophorus maximus Gunther, 1858 Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2321 Remarks: A common Rhacophorid, found in trees and shrubs near aquatic habitats in most of the areas surveyed. Live coloration, light blue and bluish-green. Foam nests found on leaves and branches overhanging waterbodies.

Family Ranidae Genus (8) Amolops Cope, 1865

10. Amolops formosus (Gunther, 1875) Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2327 Remarks: New record from Arunachal Pradesh. Widely distributed in both districts. Collected from streams.

11. Amolops gerbillus (Annandale, 1912) Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2338 Remarks: Earlier recorded from eastern Arunachal Pradesh. New record from West Kameng district. Collected from a stream near Sessa Orchid Sanctuary.

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Genus (9) Euphlyctis Fitzinger, 1843 12. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider, 1799)

Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2316 Remarks: Widely distributed in both the districts. Recorded up to 2,743 m above msl in disturbed and undisturbed habitats throughout the year.

Genus (10) Hoplobatrachus Peters, 1863 13. Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon, 1853) Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2318 Remarks: Recorded for the first time in western Arunachal Pradesh. It inhabits low altitude areas such as Tippi and Bhalukpung.

14. Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Daudin, 1803)

Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2319 Remarks: Though distributed throughout India, it was not reported from Arunachal Pradesh. Common at low altitudes, sharing the habitat with other common frogs such as H. crassus and E. cyanophlyctis. During this survey, it was recorded from Tippi, Bhalukpong, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and paddy fields near Bharali river.

Genus (11) Limnonectes Fitzinger, 1843

15. Limnonectes laticeps Boulenger, 1882 Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2339 Remarks: First record from Arunachal Pradesh. Found buried in sand under stones, leaves and twigs. Recorded from Tippi, Bhalukpung, Pakhui, Sessa and Bharali river.

16. Limnonectes limnocharis (Boie in: Wiegman, 1835)

Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2317 Remarks: Widely distributed in both the districts, at all altitudes. Found near human habitation and in wetlands within undisturbed forests.

Genus (12) Paa Dubois, 1975 17. Paa liebigii (Gunther, 1860) Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2336 Remarks: New record from western Arunachal Pradesh. This frog has been recorded from pools with low temperatures from 2,743 m above msl.

Genus (13) Rana Linnaeus, 1758 18. Rana danieli Pillai & Chanda, 1977 Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2329 Remarks: Earlier reported fromNamdapha. During the present survey, it was recorded from the western districts. Tadpoles were collected from stagnant habitats shared by other common species such as E. cyanophlyctis and L. limnocharis.

19. Rana erythraea (Schlegel, 1837) Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2337 Remarks: New record from Arunachal Pradesh. Common in the eastern and western part of the state at low altitudes. Recorded from the banks of Bharali river, Tippi, Bhalukpung, etc.

20. Rana taipehensi Van Denburgh, 1909 Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2326 Remarks: First record from Arunachal Pradesh. Common at low altitudes. Recorded from paddy fields.

Acknowledgements

We thank the G.B. Pant Institute of Hima- layan Environment and Development, Kosi- Katarmal, Almora, Uttar Pradesh for financial support; M.L. Deuri, State Forest Research Insti- tute, Amnachal Pradesh for help; K. Haridasan, Scientist SD, SFRI for suggestions and S.K. Dutta, Professor, Utkal University, Indraneil Das, Associate Professor, Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak and S.K. Chanda, Deputy Director, ZSI, Kolkata, for identifications.

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August 1 7, 2000 MOHINI MOHAN BORAH

Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Cotton College, Guwahati 781 001, Assam, India.

Refer

Annandale, N. (1912): Zoological results of the Abor expedition (191 1-1912). I. Batrachia. Rec. Indian Mus. 8(1): 7-36.

Boulenger, G.A. (1890): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Batrachia. Taylor and Francis, London: xviii+541 pp.

Bordoloi, S.C. & M.M. Borah (1999): First record of Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon 1 853) from north eastern region in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 158-159.

Chanda, S.K. (1994): Anura (Amphibia) of North Eastern India. Mem. Zool. Surv. India. 18: 1-143.

Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka

SABITRY BORDOLOI E/5, Professor ’s Quaters, Dighalipukhuri East, Ambari, Guwahati 781 001, Assam, India.

ENCES

(Checklist and Bibliography). Odyssey Publishing House, Bhubaneswar. ix+ 1-342.

Khare, M.K. & Kiyasetuo ( 1 986): A new record of frog, Chirixalus vittatus (Boulenger, 1887) from north eastern hills of India. Zoologica orientalis. 3( 1 & 2): 47-49.

Myres, N. (1988): Threatened biotas: “hotspots” in tropical forests. The Environmentalist 8: 1 -20.

Pillai, R.S. & S.K. Chanda (1977): Two new species of frogs (Ranidae) from Khasi Hills, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(1): 136-295.

Sarkar, A.K. & D.P. Sanyal (1985): Amphibia. Rec. Zool. Surv. India 82 (1-4): 285-295.

24. NEW RECORD OF SAURIDA WANESIO SHINDO & YAMADA, (OSTEICHTHYES: MYCTOPHIFORMES: SYNODIDAE*) FROM THE WEST BENGAL COAST, WITH A NOTE ON L UT JANUS SANG UINE US (CUVIER) (OSTEICHTHYES : PERCIFORMES : LUTJANIDAE)

One specimen of Saurida wanesio Shindo & Yamada and two of Lutjanus sanguineus (Cuvier) were collected from a mini trawler, at the fish landing point in Maohana, Digha, West Bengal (21° 36' N, 87° 30' E), on November 26, 1996.

This is the first catch of Saurida wanesio from the West Bengal coast. Fischer and Whitehead (1974) noted its occurrence only in South and East China seas. Dutt and Sagar (1981), however, reported the species from Karwar, on the west coast of India. Talwar and Kacker (1984) also support the views of Dutt and Sagar (1981). Talwar et al. (1992) did not include the species in the fauna of west Bengal.

Hence, the present collection of S. wanesio is the first record from the West Bengal coast, and probably a new record from the east Indian waters.

Occurrence of Lutjanus sanguineus (Cuvier) in the coastal waters of West Bengal has been

*Same as Synodontidae

reported by Misra (1959) and its distribution in the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean is mentioned by Fischer and Whitehead (1974), but Talwar et al. ( 1 992) criticised these records as they are not based on material collected from the area.

Talwar et al. (op. cit.), therefore, did not include the species in the Fauna of West Bengal. The present report of the species L. sanguineus in the coastal waters of West Bengal, based on two specimens, supports the views of Misra (op. cit.), and Fischer and Whitehead (op. cit.).

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India for permission to carry out the work.

March 10,2000 S. KAR,

R. CHAKRABORTY Zoological Survey of India, F.P.S. Building, 27, J.L. Nehru Road, Kolkata 700 016, West Bengal, India.

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References

Dutt, S. & J.V. Sagar (1981): Saurida pseudotumbil, a new species of lizard fish (Teleostei: Synodidae) from Indian Coastal Waters. Indian. Nat. Sci. Acad. B 47, No. 6: 845-851.

Fisher, W. & P.J.P. Whitehead (eds) ( 1 974): FAO species identification sheets for fishery purposes. Eastern In- dian Ocean (fishing area 57) and Western Central Pacific (fishing area 71) (FAO : Rome). Vol. II and IV.

Misra, K.S. ( 1 959): An aid to the identification of the com- mon commercial fishes of India and Pakistan. Rec. Ind. Mus. 57: 1-320. (Published in 1962).

Talwar, P.K. & R.K. Kacker (1984): Handbook: Com- mercial Sea fishes of India. Edited by the Director, Zoological Survey of India, pp. 1-997.

Talwar, P.K., P. Mukherjee, D. Saha, S.N. Paul & S. Kar (1992): Marine and estuarine fishes. State Fauna Se- ries 3: Fauna of West Bengal, Part 2. pp. 243-342.

25. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF NEMA CHEIL US KERALENSIS (RITA ET AL .) IN MU V ATTUPU ZH A RIVER, KERALA, INDIA

Oreonectes ( Indoreonectes ) keralensis (= Nemacheilus keralensis) was described from Pampadumpara area of the Periyar river, south Kerala (Rita et al. 1 978). The fish has very narrow, ill-defined vertical bands from dorsal to ventral surface, often split below the lateral line into several streaks or spots, a black mark at dorsal fin origin and a narrow stripe, or two spots on base of caudal fin. It is endemic to Kerala (Talwar and Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1 999), recorded only from the high altitude areas of the Periyar river. Raju Thomas et al. (1999) recorded it from the Eravikulam National Park.

During our survey of the fish fauna of the Western Ghats in Kerala, we collected eight specimens of Nemacheilus keralensis from the Kaitapara area of Kaliyar tributary in the Muvattupuzha river (Idukki district). The water temperature at the collection sites was 16-21 °C, which may be crucial to its survival. While sampling, the velocity of the water was 32-41 cm/ sec. The stream was very small, 3-4 m wide and 1 5-20 cm deep. Gravel, cobblestones and rock were

the major components of the substrate at the collection site. The water was clear (DO value = 6.5-7 ppm).

We thank Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, ZSI, Chennai for confirming our identification; the US Fish and Wildlife Service for funds under the project “Ecology of hill streams of the Western Ghats with special reference to fish community”, sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt of India.

March 3 1 , 2000 K. RAJU THOMAS,

*C.R. BIJU Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

* Present address: Chemmandaparambil (H), P.O. Chembuchira 680 684, Thrissur district,

Kerala, India.

M. JOHN GEORGE Mar Thoma College for Women, Perumbavoor, Pin 683 542, Ernakulam district, Kerala, India.

References

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): Freshwater fishes of the Indian Region, Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi.

Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju, C.R. Ajithkumar & M. John George ( 1 999): Ichthyofauna of Eravikulam National Park with notes on trout culture in Rajamalai, Munnar, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 199-202.

Rita, S.D., P. Banarescu & T.T. Nalbant (1978): Oreonectes ( Indoreonectes ) keralensis — a new subgenus and species of loach from Kerala, India (Pisces, Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. 19: 185-188. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH, New Delhi.

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26. FISHES OF RAMANADHI RIVER IN KALAKKAD MUNDANTHIJRAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU, INDIA

Fish survey was carried out as a part of a research programme on the fish habitats and communities in Tamiraparani river basin of Western Ghats. Ramanadhi river has two tributaries which are dammed upstream. There are six man-made canals and 32 associated wetlands to form a sub-basin of the major Tamiraparani river basin. This is the first report on fishes from Ramanadhi in Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. Species recorded in the present work have already been recor- ded by earlier workers Johnsingh and Wickram (1987), Rema Devi et al. (1997), Arunachalam et al. (1997), Arunachalam and Sankaranarayanan (1998a, b) Arunachalam and Johnson (in press) and Arunachalam (2000) in Tamiraparani river and its sub-basins.

Ramanadhi river takes its origin in the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats at 1,572 m above msl (8° 50' 45M N, 77° 19' 15" E). After flowing about 8 km along the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, through thickly wooded forests, it emerges on the plains on the north-eastern side of Melakadayam village, Ambasamudram taluka, Tirunelveli district. After flowing another 7 km, it is joined by the Jambunadhi river and (now Veeranathi), flows through the plains for 12 km. It meets Gadana river to the northeast of Kila Ambur village in Ambasamudram taluka. The average rainfall is 1 83 mm (data of Public Works Department, Govt, of Tamil Nadu).

Fishes were collected from upstream, downstream and some associated wetlands using drag nets, monofilament gill nets and scoop nets. Colour, spots and other characters were noted and the specimens were then preserved in 10% formaline. Standard literature was referred for identification.

We recorded 25 species belonging to 18 genera and 10 families, representing 4 orders,

(Table 1). All the species are known from Tamiraparani river and its sub-basins (Rema Devi et al. 1997, Arunachalam 1998)

Table 1

FISH SPECIES RECORDED IN RAMANADHI RIVER AND ITS ASSOCIATED WETLANDS

Species

Status

I ORDER: CYPR1NIFORMES i) Family: Cyprinidae a) Genus: Puntius 1 . Puntius amphibius

n.a.

2. Puntius arenatus

n.a.

3. Puntius bimaculatus

n.a.

4. Puntius dorsalis

En

5. Puntius sarana subnasutus

n.a.

6. Puntius snphore

LRnt

b) Genus: Salmostoma 7. Salmostoma clupeoides

LRlc

c) Genus: Amblypharyngodon 8. Amblypharyngodon microlepis

n.a.

d) Genus: Danio

9. Danio aequipinnatus

LRnt

e) Genus: Esomus

10. Esomus thermoicos

n.a.

f) Genus: Parluciosoma

1 1 . Parluciosoma daniconius

LRnt

g) Genus: Garra 12. Garra mullya

n.a.

ii. Family: Balitoridae h) Genus: Bhavania 13. Bhavania australis

En

i) Genus: Nemacheilus

14. Nemacheilus triangularis

LRlc

iii) Family: Cobitidae j) Genus: Lepidocephalus

15. Lepidocephalus thermalis

n.a.

2. ORDER: SILURIFORMES iv. Family: Bagridae k) Genus: Mystus 1 6. Mystus armatus

n.a.

v. Family: Heteropneustidae I) Genus: Heteropneustes 1 7. Heteropneustes fossilis

Vu

128

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Table 1 (contd.)

FISH SPECIES RECORDED IN RAMANADHI RIVER AND ITS ASSOCIATED WETLANDS

Species

Status

3. ORDER: CYPRINODONTIFORMES vi. Family: Aplocheilidae m) Genus: Aplocheilus 1 8. Aplocheilus lineatus

n.a.

4. ORDER: PERCIFORMES vii. Family: Ambassidae n) Genus: Pseudambassis 1 9. Pseudambassis ranga

n.a.

viii. Family: Cichlidae o) Genus: Etroplus

20. Etroplus maculatus

n.a.

p) Genus: Oreochromis

2 1 . Oreochromis mossambica

Exotic

ix. Family: Gobidae q) Genus: Glossogobius 22. Glossogobius giuris

LRnt

x. Family: Belontiidae r) Genus: Macropodus 23. Macropodus cupanus

n.a.

xi. Family: Channidae s) Genus: Channa 24. Channa marulius

LRnt

xii. Family: Mastacembelidae t) Gen u s : Mastacembelus 25. Mastacembelus armatus

n.a.

n.a. - not assessed; LRnt - Lower Risk, near threatened; Vu - vulnerable; LRlc - Lower Risk, least concern; En - Endangered

The headwaters and the lowlands of Ramanadhi river are highly disturbed as the riparian forests are replaced by coconut and teak plantations by private owners inside the forest reserve area. Introduction of the exotic cichlid fish Oreochromis mossambica also threatens the fish fauna in the lowland.

Refer

Arunachalam, M., R. Soranam, JA. Johnson & M.A. Haniffa (1997): Fish diversity in Chittar river of Western Ghats. Int. J. Ecol. Env. Sci. Vol. 23. Arunachalam, M. & A. Sankaranarayanan (1998a): New records of fishes from Gadana river, south Tamil Nadu, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 267-268.

We could not observe a single specimen of Puntius arulius tambiraparniei in the Ramanadhi, though this endemic species is recorded in streams and rivers of Tamiraparani, Manimuthar, Servalar, Gadana and Chittar river basins (Rema Devi et al. 1997, Arunachalam et al 1997, Arunachalam, 1998).

Acknowledgements

M.A. is thankful for financial assistance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt of India (D.O. No. 30/20/9 RE dt. 23.2.98). JAJ thanks the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (C'SIR) for a Senior Research Fellowship (SRF No. 8/ 297 (9) /98 - EMR-I). We thank Dr. Melkani, Field Director, Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) and Mr. Somappan, Asst. Conservator of Forests, Kadayam Forest Range, Kadayam, for co-operation and Mr. A. Vanarajan (Technical Assistant) for help.

November 23, 2000 M. ARUNACHALAM, A. SANKARANARAYANAN, J.A. JOHNSON, C. VIJAYAKUMAR, A. MANIMEKALAN, R. SORANAM, A. ALBIN, P.N. SHANTHI Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences Manonmaniam Sundaranar University Alwarkurichi 627 412, Tamil Nadu, India.

ENCES

Arunachalam, M. & A. Sankaranarayanan (1998b): Fishes of Gadana river, Western Ghats of south Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 232-238. Arunachalam, M. (2000): Fish habitats and communities in Tamiraparani river, basin of Western Ghats (No. 30/20/97 RE. dt. 23.2.98), Second Progress report

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

submitted to Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt, of India, 34 pp.

Arunachalam, M. & J.A. Johnson (in press): A new species of Puntius Hamilton (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. & D. Wickram (1987): Fishes of Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 526-633.

Molur, Sanjay & Sally Walker (eds) ( 1 998): Report of the Workshop “Conservation Assessment and Management Plan for freshwater fishes of India.” Zoo Outreach Organisation, Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, India. 156 pp.

Rema Devi, K., T.J. Indra, M.B. Ragunathan, M. Mary Bai & M.S. Ravichandran (1997): Ichthyofauna of the Tamiraparani river system, Tamil Nadu. Zoo’s print 12(7): 1,2.

27. MIGRATION OF BLUE MORMON BUTTERFLY PAPILIO POLYMNESTER IN MUMBAI (MAHARASHTRA)

The presence of the Blue Mormon butterfly Papilio polymnester in and around Mumbai was recorded by W.F. Melvin at Sewree in March 1889 and A.E.G. Best (1951) at Tulsi lake. D.E. Reuben had observed them in 1960-62 and suggested that this butterfly appears seasonally in the Pali Hill (Bandra) area. Serrao (1978) observed a Blue Mormon flying east to west on September 23, 1970. He recorded a number of individuals flying in the same direction till end October, 1970. He also observed many Blue Mormons feeding on flowers till March 1971 in the Tulsi lake environs.

Haribal (1986) recorded a few sightings of these butterflies at the Indian Institute of Technology, Powai, Mumbai every year from 1978 to 1982. However, in all these sightings, they did not appear to be flying in any particular direction, except near Matunga station, where the butterfly was definitely flying westwards.

The first author (NC) saw them at Goregaon, Mumbai on September 15, 1999 around noon. The flight was rapid, at 30 m above ground level, and was westwards. A similar observation was made on September 18, 1999.

R E F E

Best, A.E.G. (1951): The Butterflies of Bombay and Salsette.J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50(2): 331- 39

Haribal, Meena (1986): Mormon butterfly and its status in and around Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Interestingly, the second author (VH) has seen another live specimen at Hombill House, Colaba, Mumbai on September 22, 1999, flying east to west. Earlier, this species was observed by the first author (NC) at Goregaon on August 28, 1995. A female Blue Mormon was sighted at Khar (Mumbai) in the first week of September (Isaac Kehimkar pers. comm.). The butterfly laid eggs on a Citrus plant.

From these observations, it is evident that the Blue Mormon is a seasonal migrant, and arrives in Mumbai during late August to September. As it is usually found in hilly regions around 350 m above msl, with heavy rainfall, it is possible that migration depends on good rainfall in Mumbai during August and September.

October 18,1999 NARESH CHATURVEDI

VITHOBA HEGDE Bombay Natural History Society Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

ENCES

83(3): 677.

Melvin, W.F. (1889): Papilio polymnester in Bombay.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 4: 157.

Serrao, J.S. (1978): Mormon butterfly and its status in Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(1): 241 .

130

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28. FORMS OF DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS LINN. (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE)

IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

The Plain Tiger, Danaus chrysippus Linn., is one of the commonest Indian butterflies, found throughout the plains, in degraded areas, semi- arid regions and even urban areas. It is not common in evergreen rainforest, and though it ascends to an elevation of 2,750 m in the Himalaya, it is not as common in the hills as on the plains.

Four forms of this butterfly occur in India. The typical form chrysippus Linn, is common everywhere. The form alcippoides Moore has most of the hindwing recto white. The form amplifascia Talbot has white spots of the pre- apical band on the forewing recto extending inwards to the discocellulars, while the form dorippus Klug lacks the white spotted black apex to the forewing recto. The three last forms have been recorded sporadically in India, although dorippus is the commonest or dominant form in parts of Africa, where D. chrysippus is widespread.

The form dorippus was thought to occur west of what is now Pakistan (Marshall & de Niceville 1883, quoted by Donahue 1962), but it has subsequently been recorded from Sri Lanka (Woodhouse and Henry 1942), Bengal (Best 1954), Bihar (Harman 1950), Rajasthan (Donahue 1962), Delhi (Ashton 1972), near Pune in Maharashtra (editorial note following Best 1954) and the submontane tract or Bhabar of Kumaon and Garhwal (Atkinson 1882). The record by Atkinson, who treated dorippus as a distinct species, is not entirely reliable. Though he asserted that his list was compiled on the basis of actual captures, an unusually large proportion of “records” have not been seen since and are probably misidentifications.

A female specimen of dorippus in good condition was recorded from Jones Estate near Bhimtal in Nainital district, Kumaon Himalaya

at c. 1,500 m on May 9, 1994. It has a forewing length of 36 mm, and is in my collection.

No previous or subsequent individuals of this form have been noted in the area. This is not unusual, since it is known to occur in drier regions (Wynter-Blyth 1957) and has hitherto not been recorded in the hills in India. Its appearance in the hills in a region of rather heavy rainfall (up to 2,000 mm annually) is very unusual.

However, April, May and part of June are generally very hot and dry, with the temperature touching 34 °C in the shade, even at 1,500 m in the Bhimtal valley, and 1994 was no exception, which might account for the presence of dorippus here.

The form alcippoides was considered “very rare” by Wynter-Blyth {op. cit.) as well as Evans (1932). There is a female specimen from Dehra Dun in the collection of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (Roonwal et al. 1 963) which appears to be the only known specimen from this area. A specimen of D. chrysippus with white streaks along the veins of the hindwing recto, recorded on May 15, 1975 in the same locality, i.e., Bhimtal valley, is in my collection. This specimen is an intermediate between typical chrysippus and alcippoides. Having recorded this intermediate form, it is not unlikely that true alcippoides will turn up in the Bhimtal valley sooner or later.

Larsen (1987) noted that the form with the white hindwings {alcippoides) became the predominant form in Malaysia and North Sumatra during the 20th century. It would be interesting to keep a check on D. chrysippus populations in India, to see whether the effects of the factors influencing the structure of the populations in southeast Asia extend as far as India, in which case alcippoides should begin

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to appear more frequently. If this is not so, the March 2, 2000 PETER SMETACEK

three uncommon forms will continue to be as Jones Estate, P. O. Bhimtal,

rare on the Subcontinent as they have been in Nainital 263 136.

the past. Uttaranchal, India .

References

Ashton, R. (1972): Butterflies of New Delhi (Papilionoidea). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 502- 509.

Atkinson, E.T. ( 1 882): Gazetteer of the Himalayan Districts of the North West Provinces of India, Vol. II, Chap. 2, Government Press, Allahabad.

Best, A.E.G. (1954): Occurrence of Danaus chrysippus var. dorippus at Dumdum Airport. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 218.

Donahue, J.P. (1962): Danaus chrysippus form dorippus in Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 312.

Evans, W.H. (1932): The identification of Indian Butterflies. 2nd edn. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Harman, A.C. (1950): Champaran Butterflies — North Bihar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 93-100.

Larsen, T.B. (1987): The Butterflies of the Nilgiri Mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera :

Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 291-31 6. Marshall, G.F.L. & L. de Niceville (1883): The Butterflies of India, Burmah and Ceylon. Vol. I, Calcutta. Repr. 1979, Today & Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers, New Delhi.

Roonwal, M.L., R.N. Mathur, G.D. Bhasin, P.N. Chatterjee, P.K. Sen-Sarma, Balwant Singh, A. Chandra, R.S. Thapa & K. Krishna (1963): A Systematic Catalogue of the Main Identified Entomological Collections at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Ind. For. Leaf. 121 (4) Ent. Part 31 ( Lepid .) 1295-1395.

Woodhouse, L.G.O. & G.H.R. Henry (1 942): The Butterfly Fauna of Ceylon, Colombo ( 1 st edn). Pp. xi v + 1 72 and 49 plates.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, 523 pp.

29. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SATURNID MOTHS SONTHONNAXIA MAENAS (DOUBLEDAY) AND LOEPAKATINKA (WESTWOOD)

While working on an Environmental Impact Assessment project at Kudremukh National Park (KNP), Mr. S.A. Hussain recorded two Saturnid moths, which were photographed by his colleagues and brought for identification. The moths were identified as Sonthonnaxia maenas (Doubleday) (syn. Actias maenas) and Loepa katinka (Westwood).

According to Arora & Gupta (Memoirs of the Zoological Survey of India, Vol. 16, Part 1,1979), the distribution of the moths Sonthonnaxia maenas and Loepa katinka is northeast India (Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh), Sikkim and West Bengal. S. maenas is reported from South Andamans, while L. katinka is also found in Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The present record of

these species from Kudremukh National Park (KNP), Karnataka is an extension in their distribution range, it is interesting to note that both the species are mainly found in the foothills of the Himalaya and areas of heavy rainfall like south Andaman and places in Tamil Nadu. Their occurrence in the KNP shows the geographical link in the faunal distribution.

Loepa katinka is also found in other parts of Karnataka. It has been photographed in Matheran (Maharashtra). (I. Kehimkar pers. comm.)

February 28, 2000 NARESH CHATURVEDI Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

132

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30. REDESCRIPTION OF SCHIZOMUS BUXTONI GRAVELY FROM SRI LANKA ON THE BASIS OF SYNTYPES DEPOSITED IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, CALCUTTA BY F.H. GRAVELY 1915

( With sixteen text-figures)

Schizomids are minute arachnids difficult to see with the naked eye. They are nocturnal and secretive in habit, and a difficult group to collect and study. There are about 5-6 species described from India (Bastawade 1985, 1992), 8 from Sri Lanka and 3 from Myanmar in the Oriental region. In 1872, Pickard-Cambridge described Schizomus crassicaudatus, the first species known from Sri Lanka. Subsequently, Pocock (1900) described S. suboculatus, Gravely (1911a, 1911b, 1912, 1915) described 5 species S. buxtoni , S. greeni , S. peradensis, S. vittatus and S. per plexus, and Fernando (1957) described S. formicoides.

The species described by Gravely (1911- 1915) were from his own collections of several male and female specimens from various localities in Sri Lanka. He designated these collections as syntypes and deposited them at the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta (=Kolkata).

I had the opportunity to study a few specimens of S. buxtoni Gravely and to prepare redescriptions and illustrations, which would facilitate future studies on this small, but most interesting invertebrate.

Schizomus buxtoni Gravely (Figs 1-16)

1915. Schizomus (Trithyreus) buxtoni , Gravely, Rec. Indian Mus. 11: 383-6.

General: Body colour yellowish-brown, darker on pedipalps and cheliceral fingers, but pale on distal digits of legs; sometimes with a greenish tinge on larger specimens (Gravely 1915). Dorsal body surface smooth on most of the anterior portions of propeltidium, but rough with microscopic suturous reticulation on

posterior portion. Pedipalps short and stout, not much expanded and produced on trochanters (Figs 6 & 10); male flagellum with a ventral longitudinal hyaline body (Figs 7 & 8).

Measurements (in mm): Female syntype, total length 4.86, cephalothorax 1 .78 long, 1 .008 wide; abdomen 3.08 long.

Cephalothorax: Propeltidium more than twice as long as wide, anterior margin acutely narrowed in a median process bearing a median seta, followed immediately by a pair of setae and subsequently with three lateral and two median pairs of setae (Fig. 1), eye spots absent, posterior portion rough with microscopic suturous reticulations; mesopeltidium much narrowed, not clearly seen; metapeltidium bearing a deep median notch on anterior portion (Fig. 1), with a pair of posterior setae. Anterior sternum with 8-9 setae plus a pair of long stemapophyseal setae from anterior margin, posterior sternum weakly sclerotised, bearing 5-6 setae.

Abdomen: All tergites and sternites smooth, sternite I with two anterior rows of 8 setae and a pair of lateral oblique rows of 7 setae (Fig. 13), sternite II-IX with a pair of lateral, 1 submedian lateral and 1 pair of anterior median setae each; setation on X-XII segments not clear. Tergites I- VII smooth, with a pair of median setae and tergites VIII-IX with a pair of median and lateral setae. Segment XII with only 4 dorsal setae clearly noticeable. Flagellum 0.342 mm long, most of the setae shaded or drooped (due to prolonged preservation) as in Fig. 14. Spermathecae with two pairs of spearheaded lobes, with undulating inner surface (Figs 15 & 16).

Chelicerae: Basal segment smooth, slightly depressed medially, fixed finger with

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Figs 1-8: Schizomus biixtoni Gravely d .

1. Cephalothorax, dorsal aspect; 2. Chelicera, promarginal aspect; 3. Chelicera, retromarginal aspect;

4. Tarsus, metatarsus I, dorsal aspect; 5. Femur IV, lateral aspect; 6. Palp, dorsal aspect;

7. Abdominal Segments IX-XII with flagellum, ventral aspect; 8. Segments X-XII for flagellum, lateral aspect.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4 minute teeth between two large outer teeth (Figs 2 & 3), movable finger with smooth serrula, with 12-13 minute teeth ridge and a tooth on lateral anterior margin (Figs 2 & 3), types of setae present Type 1-3, II-4, III-7, IV-4, V-3 and VI- 1.

Pedipalps: Short and stout, trochanter produced, but not acutely, bearing 6-7 spinose setae, femora rounded and anteroventrally knobbed with spines on exterior surface, patellae without spur, but with long pilose setae on ventromesal margins, a pair of longer plumose setae on distal end, tibiae not rounded, but almost pentagonal with many setae on dorsal and mesal surfaces, with a long seta on ventromesal surface, tarsus-basitarsus with several short and some long plumose setae, spur about 0.6 and claws about 1.2 times dorsal length of tarsus-basitarsus.

Legs: Leg I-IV as in Table 1, basitarsal- tarsal proportions as 22:3:4:4:5:5:13 (Fig. 4). Femora IV about 3.3 times long as deep.

Measurements (in mm): Male syntype total length 3.96, cephalothorax 1.88 long, 1.00 wide; abdomen 2.08 long.

Cephalothorax: Propeltidium 1.28, almost same as in female syntype, except 2 median and 2 lateral setae; mesopeltidium not very clear and very narrow, thus invisible, transparent due to long preservation; metapeltidium deeply notched medially (Fig. 9).

Abdomen: Tergites I-V each with a pair of median setae, tergites VI-VIII each with a

median pair and a lateral pair of setae, tergite IX less than half the length of tergite VIII and with a pair of median and two lateral pairs of setae. Segments X-XII telescoped, X with one mediolateral, 2 pairs of lateral setae; XI with 6-

8 ventral setae, dorsal setae not clear; XII with 2 pairs of strong dorsomedians, 2 pairs of short and stout laterals and 6 ventral setae. Male flagellum short, 0.414 long, and 0.27 wide, sphere shaped, knobbed with two lateral lobes, not much sclerotized and provided with a ventromedian, elongated along with ventral median line a semi-dumbbell shaped transparent hyaline piece (Figs 7 & 8), with 2d, 2dm, 2L and 3V setae. Legs: I-IV as in Table 2, basitarsal- tarsal proportions as 27:4:5:6:5:4:15 (Fig. 12), Femora IV 2.6 times as long as deep (Fig. 11), anterior sternum with 7 setae and a pair of long stemapophysial setae on anterior margin, posterior sternum with 5-6 setae.

Material examined: 19,1 d, from the type series deposited at National Zoological Collections, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta (=Kolkata).

Type Locality: i. Polonuruwa, North central Province, Sri Lanka (Ceylon), several

9 9 and d d collected from under rocks and leaves.

ii. Minneriya, North Central Province 3 9 9.

iii. Sigiri, Central Province many 9 9 and

dd.

Table 1

MEASUREMENTS (IN MM): FEMALE SYNTYPE S'. BUXTONI GRAVELY

Pedipalp

Legs I

II

III

IV

Coxa

0.67

0.51

0.52

0.36

0.36

Trochanter

0.34

0.36

0.36

0.23

0.27

Femur

0.43

1.10

1.08

0.99

1.22

Patella

0.54

1.39

0.54

0.32

0.34

Tibia

0.47

1.12

0.52

0.38

0.81

Tarsus

0.22

0.40

0.34

0.41

0.79

Basitarsus

0.61

0.36

0.40

0.50

Total

2.67

3.09

3.45

3.09

4.29

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16. Spermathecae (magnified), dorsal aspect.

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Table 2

MEASUREMENTS (IN MM): MALE SYNTYPE S. BUXTONI GRAVELY

Pedipalp

Legs 1

11

III

IV

Coxa

0.54

0.72

0.54

0.36

0.33

Trochanter

0.49

0.42

0.23

0.27

0.43

Femur

0.60

1.62

0.94

0.88

1.40

Patella

0.61

2.20

0.56

0.36

0.54

Tibia

0.54

1.55

0.65

0.4

1.10

Tarsus

0.56

0.52

1.00

0.27

1.90

Basi tarsus

0.43

0.36

0.45

Total

3.05

8.41

3.91

3.15

5.25

Distribution: North Central and Central Provinces of Sri Lanka only.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for the facilities to study the syntypes at ZSI, Kolkata.

I thank Drs R.C. Basu, A.K. Sanyal, and B. Biswas for their kind co-operation during the studies, the Officers-in-Charge of ZSI, Arunachal Pradesh Field Station, Itanagar, and ZSI, Western

Refer

Bastawade, D.B. (1985): The first report of the order Schizomida (Arachnida) from Southern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 689-691.

Bastawade, D.B. & T.K. Pal (1992): The first record of the Arachnid order Schizomida from Arunachal Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(1): 137. Fernando, E.F. (1957): A new species of Schizomus (Trithyreus) formicoides from Ceylon. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 10(12): 13-16.

Gravely, F.H. (1911a): Notes on Pedipalpi in the collection of the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 6: 33-38.

Regional Station, Pune for facilities and the Artist section, ZSI, WRS, Pune for preparing the ink- lined illustrations.

February 1 6, 2000 D.B. BASTAWADE

Zoological Survey of India, 251 , Western Regional Station, Vidyanagar, Sec. 29 Opp. Akurdi Railway Station, Rawat Road, Pune 411 044, Maharashtra, India.

ENCES

Gravely, F.H. (1911b): The species of Ceylon Pedipalpi.

Spolia Zeylanica 7: 135-140.

Gravely, F.H. (1912): Notes on Pedipalpi in the collection of the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 101-110. Gravely, F.H. (1915): Note on Pedipalpi in the collection of Indian Museum V, Tarterides collected by Mr. B.H. Buxton in Ceylon and the Malaya. Rec. Indian Mus. 77:383-386.

Pocock, R.I. (1 900): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Arachnida. Taylor & Francis xii + 279.

31. MORPHOLOGY OF EUR YCERCUS LAMELLA TUS (MULLER), CHYDORIDAE: CLADOCERA, FROM THE HIGH ALTITUDE WETLANDS OF SIKKIM, INDIA

( With thirteen text-figures )

Chydoridae is the largest family of the examined the phylogenetic relationships Order Cladocera, and is clearly defined amongst its members and established four morphologically and ecologically. Frey (1967) subfamilies, namely Eurycercinae, Sayciinae,

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Chydorinae and Aloninae, of which Sayciinae is not represented in the Indian subcontinent. The remaining three subfamilies, with more than 50 species, are represented in India. The subfamily Eurycercinae is represented by Eurycercus lamellatus reported from Manasbal lake, Kashmir (Michael and Sharma 1988).

Further, by examining the major characters of the genus Eurycercus from various parts of the world, Frey (1975) established three subgenera, namely Eurycercus , Teretifrons and Bullatifrons for the lamellatus , glacialis and macracanthus groups.

The present study reports the occurrence of Eurycercus lamellatus (Muller 1776) from three high altitude wetlands of west and east Sikkim. A brief description of its external morphology and thoracic limbs is given below.

Eurycercus lamellatus (Muller 1776)

Material Examined: 13 adult females and seven neonates from Changu lake (east Sikkim, 23. v. 1995), Sum Dung lake (East Sikkim, 29.xi.1995) and Tik Juk lake (west Sikkim, 19. xi. 1995) coll. Bhupendra Nath Roy, Tadong, East Sikkim.

Female: Body Size: 2.21 ±0.26 mm (n=9). Body width: 1.675 ±0.24 mm (n=9). Shape oval. Dorsal margin of carapace convex, ventral margin straight. Posterodorsal and posteroventral comers of carapace rounded (Fig. 1). Dorsal keel present, head keel absent. Labmm convex, trian- gular, with a blunt curve at the distal end (Fig.

2) . Antennules with sharp incision; sensory seta situated in the middle of anterior margin (Fig.

3) . Antennal seta 0-0-3/1-1-3. Eye larger than ocellus, ocellus small, situated at the base of the antennule. Midgut with single loop; caecum short. Carapace with row of setae on ventral margin and a row of small spinules at the end of ventral margin and posterior margin (Fig. 4).

Thoracic limb I: Bears 3 setae in the inner distal lobe (clasping hook) and 2 setae in the

outer distal lobe. The middle seta of the inner distal lobe is immovable, with a heavily chitinized hook. The inner distal lobe also bears proximal, marginal and distal spinules, and a group of grinding tubercles (Fig. 5).

Thoracic limb II: Size of scraping spine 2 and 3, 1 and 4, almost the same. Number of scraping setules 9-12 (Fig. 6).

Thoracic limb III, IV, V & VI (Figs 7-10): Thoracic limb III with 6 setae in the gnathobase, with 7 setae on the outer surface of the endite (Fig. 7). The middle one of the 3 feathered setae on the gnathobase near the sensilla is slightly shorter than the other 2 in the thoracic limb V. Limb IV with 8 soft and 9 gnathobasic setae, and limb V with 7 soft setae. Limb VI as in Fig. 10.

Postabdomen (Fig. 11): Concave abruptly beyond the distalmost tooth. Distal preanal spine much larger than others, gradual decrease in size towards proximal end. Claws with 2 basal spines, distal spine longer. Concave margin with setae. Head shield (Figs 12-13) length and width not equal. Median pore larger, oval, with a small lateral pore on either side (Fig. 13).

Remarks: In India, E. lamellatus was recorded from Manasbal lake, Kashmir (only 2 specimens from littoral zone, badly preserved and distorted) by Michael and Sharma (1988). A head shield of Eurycercus has been reported from Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh (central India), supposedly carried there by a river originating in the Himalaya (Adholia 1979, Fernando and Kanduru 1984). Sharma and Michael (1987) indicated that E. lamellatus is restricted to Kashmir (above 32° N); they also collected a specimen of Eurycercus from lower altitudes in the Jaintia hills, northeast India, from an abandoned paddy field. Dumont and Van de Velde (1977) collected a number of specimens of Eurycercus sp. in Tsho III loc. 1, which were sent to the late Dr. D.G. Frey for further study, who said that they represented an undescribed species.

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Figs 1-5: Eurycercus lamellatus, Female, 1. lateral view; 2. labrum; 3. antennule; 4. posteroventral comer;

5. thoracic limb (S-setule; SP-spinule).

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Figs 6-9: Eurycercus lamellatus, Female, 6. II thoracic limb; 7. Ill thoracic limb; 8. IV thoracic limb; 9. V thoracic limb (S - setule; GN - gnathobase).

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Figs 10-13: Eurycercus lamellatus, Female, 10. VI thoracic limb; 1 1. postabdomen; 12. head shield; 13. head pore.

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The present study on material collected from the eastern Himalayan region clearly shows no difference in trunk limb morphology of females. Unfortunately, no males were found. Since male morphology is considered decisive for the taxonomy of most Cladocera (Venkataraman 1995), efforts should be made to study the males of the present species from remote areas in the Himalaya.

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, for facilities; Mr. B.N. Roy and Dr. Tappa, Sikkim Govt College for collections.

July 14, 1999 K. VENKATARAMAN

Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India, 100 Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.

References

Adholia, U.N. (1979): Zooplankton of the River Betwa. Geo Eco. Trop. 3: 267 -27 1 .

Dumont, H.J. & I. Van de Velde (1977): Report on a collection of Cladocera and Copepoda from Nepal. Hydrobiologia 53: 55-65.

Fernando, C.H. & A. Kanduru (1984): Some remarks on the latitudinal distribution of Cladocera on the Indian subcontinent. Hydrobiologia 113 : 69-76.

Frey, D.G. (1967): Phylogenetic relationships in the Family Chydoridae (Cladocera). Proc. Symp. Crustacea Ernakulam, India (1965). Pt I, pp. 29-37.

Frey, D.G. (1975): Subgeneric differentiation within

Eurycercus (Cladocera, Chydoridae) and a new species from northern Sweden. Hydrobiologia 145: 29-33.

Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Indian Cladocera. Fauna of India Series. Ed. Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 262.

Sharma, B.K. & R.G. Michael (1987): Review of taxonomic studies on freshwater Cladocera from India with remarks on biogeography. Hydrobiologia 145: 29- 30

Venkataraman, K. (1995): The Cladocera males of Oriental region. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 378- 385.

32. NEW RECORD OF THE MUD SNAIL, HYDROBIA (MOLLUSCA ; GASTROPODA) FROM THE MANGROVE HABITAT OF INDOPACIFIC REGION

During an intensive survey of the macrobenthos of Cochin mangroves in Kerala by Sunil Kumar (1993), Hydrobia sp. was collected from the intertidal soil habitat. In the entire two-year period of study, large numbers of mud snails (Hydrobiidae) were found in the mangrove subsoil. Survey of the literature revealed that this occurrence of the mud snail, Hydrobia , is the first record from the Indian mangrove environment and from the mangrove systems of the Indo-Pacific region, including South Africa, Malaysia, Thailand, Australia, Japan and Hawaii.

The ecology and distribution of mud snails (Hydrobiidae) was worked on by Nicol (1936), Spooner and Moore ( 1 940), Newell ( 1 962, 1 965), Fenchel (1975a, b), Wells (1978), Barnes (1979), and Walters and Wharfe (1980). However, the

species has not been reported from the mangrove ecosystem.

In India, Pillai and Appukuttan (1980), while studying the molluscs in and around the coral reefs of the southeastern coast of India, compared the mangrove-associated molluscs of that area in Manauli Island with those of the mangrove forms of the East Indies (Cooman, 1969) and Western Indian Ocean (Taylor 1968). They stated that Indian mangroves have faunal elements from both eastern and western parts of the Indian Ocean. However, in their work there was no report on the distribution of the infaunal mollusc, Hydrobia.

A comparison of the mangrove molluscan fauna of south India with that of Malaysia (Berry 1963) and South Africa (Macnae 1963, Brown 1971) has been done by Kasinathan and

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Shanmugam (1985), who opined that south Indian and Malayan mangroves have a greater affinity for molluscan fauna than the mangroves of South Africa and south India. However, Hydrobia was not reported in the study.

Faunal surveys, including the molluscan fauna, have been carried out in different mangrove ecosystems of the Indo-Pacific region (Walsh 1967, Macnae 1967, 1968, Sasekumar 1974, Frith et al 1976, Wells 1983, Shokita et al. 1989, Omori 1989) including India (Sunil Kumar 2000). None of these epifaunal and infaunal studies on intertidal mangrove areas reported the occurrence of Hydrobia sp., except Sunil Kumar (1993), from Cochin. Hence, from the literature stated above, it is to be noted that

Refer

Barnes, R.S.K. (1979): Intrapopulation variation in Hydrobia. Sediment preferences. Estuar. cstl. Mar. Sci. 9: 231-234.

Berry, A.J. ( 1 963): Faunal zonation in mangrove swamps Bull. nat. Mus. Singapore, 32: 90-98.

Brown, D.S. (1971): The ecology ofGastropoda in a South African mangrove Swamp. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond. 39: 263-279.

Cooman, H.E. (1969): Biological aspects of mangrove molluscs in the West Indies. Malacologia 9(1): 79- 84.

Fenchel, T. (1975a): Factors determining the distribution patterns of mud snails (Hydrobiidae). Oecologia (Berl.) 20: 1-17.

Fenchel, T. (1975b): Character displacement and co- existence in mud snails (Hydrobiidae). Oecologia 20: 19-32.

Frith, D.W., R. Tantanasiriwong & O. Bhatia (1976): Zonation of macrofauna on a mangrove shore, Phuket Island, Southern Thailand. Phuket Mar. Biol. Center Res. Bull. 10: 1-37.

Kasinathan, R. & A. Shanmugam ( 1 985): Molluscan fauna of Pichavaram mangroves, Tamil Nadu. In: Proc. Nat. Symp. Biol. Util. Cons. Mangr. Pp. 438-443. Macnae, W. (1963): Mangrove swamps in South Africa.

J. Ecol. 51: 12-25.

Macnae, W. ( 1 967): Zonation within mangroves associated with estuaries in North Queensland. Estuaries 83: 432-441.

Macnae, W. (1968): A general account of the fauna and

Hydrobia was earlier reported from areas other than mangrove habitats. The occurrence of Hydrobia sp. in the Cochin mangrove soil is, therefore, the first record from Indian mangroves and from other mangrove environments of the Indo-Pacific region.

September 22, 1999 R. SUNIL KUMAR School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Tehnology,

Cochin 682 016, Kerala, India.

Present address: Department of Zoology, Catholicate College, Pathanamthitta 689 645, Kerala, India.

EN C E S

flora of mangrove swamps and forests in the Indo- West Pacific region. Adv. Mar. Biol. 6: 73-270. Newell, R. (1962): Behavioural aspects of the ecology of Hydrobia ulvae (Pennant), (Gastropoda, Prosobranchia). Proc. Zool. Soc. London 138: 49- 75.

Newell, R. (1965): The role of detritus in the nutrition of two marine deposit feeders, the prosobranch Hydrobia ulvae and the bivalve Macoma baithica. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 144: 25-45.

Nicol, F.A.T. (1936): The brackish water lochs of North Ulster. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 56: 169-195. Omori, K. (1989): Comparative study on benthic community structures in two mangrove swamps of Iriomote Island, Okinawa. Galaxea 8: 11-15.

Pillai, C.S.G. & K.K. Appukuttan (1 980): Distribution of molluscs in and around the coral reefs of the Southeastern coast in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 26-48.

Sasekumar, A. (1974): Distribution of macrofauna on a Malayan mangrove shore. J. Anim. Ecol. 43: 51-69. Shokita, S., J. Sanguansin, S. Nishijima, S. Soemodihardjo, A. Abdullah, M.H. He, R. Kasinathan & K. Okamoto (1989): Distribution and abundance of benthic macrofauna in the Funaura Mangal of Irimote Island, the Ryukyus. Galaxea 8: 1 7-30.

Spooner, G.M. & H.B. Moore (1940): The ecology of the Tamer Estuary VI. An account of the macrofauna of the intertidal muds. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 24: 283- 330.

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Sunil Kumar, R. (1993): Studies on the benthic fauna of the mangrove swamps of Cochin area. Ph.D. thesis. Cochin University of Science and Technology, India.

Sunil Kumar, R. (2000): A review on the biodiversity studies of soil dwelling organisms in Indian mangroves. Zoo ’s Print Journal 15(3): 221-227.

Talyor, J.D. ( 1 968): Coral reefs and associated invertebrate communities (mainly molluscs) around Mahe Seychelles. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (B) 254 : 129-206.

Walsh, G.E. (1967): An ecological study of a Hawaiian mangrove swamp. Estuaries 83: 420-43 1 .

Walters, G.J. & J.R. Wharfe (1980): Distribution and abundance of Hydrobia ulvae (Pennant) in the lower midway estuary, Kent. Journal ofMolluscan studies 46: 171-180.

Wells, F.E. (1978): The relationship between environmental variables and the density of the mud snail Hydrobia in a salt marsh. Journal ofMolluscan studies 44(1): 120-129.

Wells, F.E. (1983): An analysis of marine invertebrates distribution in a mangrove swamp in northwestern Australia. Bull. Mar. Sci. 33(3): 736-744.

33. MANGROVE CLAM GELOINA EROSA (SOLANDER, 1786) FROM CORINGA (GODAVARI) ESTUARY: A NEW RECORD FOR ANDHRA PRADESH

During a faunistic survey of Coringa (Godavari) estuary ( c . 16° 30’- 17° 00' N and 82° 14'-82° 23' E) in August 1999, 3 molluscan shells were collected which were identified as Geloina erosa (Solander 1786). The mangroves Avicennia marina , Exoecaria agallocha and Sonneratia apetala dominate the habitat from which the shells were collected. The anterio-posterior axis of the shell (bearing a distinct flexure extending from the umbo to the mid-posterior margin) ranged between 52 and 68 mm.

This species was reported as common along the mangroves of the Indian Ocean, extending its range further east into the Pacific Ocean (Prashad 1932). The information about its distribution in Indian waters is limited. Specimens were collected in the past from False

Point, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Mahanadi river (Mitra pers. comm.) and the Mandovi estuary (Ingole et al. 1994). The species has not been recorded from Coringa (Godavari) estuary and thus, constitutes a new record.

I thank Mr S.C. Mitra of the Mollusca Division, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for information on the distribution of the species and the Head, Department of Zoology, Osmania University for facilities. I acknowledge a Senior Research Fellowship from CSIR, New Delhi.

May 15, 2000 C. SRINIVASULU

Wildlife Biology Section, Department of Zoology Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007, Karnataka, India.

References

Ingole, B.S., L. Krishna Kumari, Z.A. Ansari & A.H. 338-339.

Parulekar( 1994): New record of Mangrove Cl am Prashad, B. (1932): The Lamellibranchia of Siboga

Geloina erosa (Solander, 1786) from the west Expedition. Systematic Part II. Pelecypoda. Exped.

coast of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2): Rep. No. 53, E.J. Brill, Leiden. Pp. 1-353.

34. TWO NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR INDIA FROM SIKKIM

( With two text-figures )

Botanical explorations undertaken in the state of Sikkim since 1980 have resulted in a collection of more than 19,000 field numbers in

the Herbarium of Sikkim Himalayan Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Gangtok. Study of some of these collections, resulted in identifying

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Fig. 2: Elymus thoroldianum (Oliver) G. Singh, A. Habit; B. Auricles; C. Spikelet; D. Lower glume; E. Upper glume; F. Lemma - lateral view; G. Palea; H. Stamen; I. Gynaecium

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two plants not known earlier from India. The two species are reported, described and illustrated here. The herbarium specimens are deposited in the Herbarium, Sikkim Himalayan Circle, BSI, Gangtok, (BSHC).

1. Hypericum ludlowii N.B.K. Robson in Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 41(1). 133. 1983. (Hypericaceae). Fig: 1.

Suberect herbs up to 10 cm high; stems terete, unbranched. Leaves opposite, up to 1 x 0.5 cm, oblong-ovate, rounded at base, entire at margins, obtuse at apex, glabrous above, puberulous and gland-dotted beneath. Flowers solitary, terminal, up to 7 mm across, bisexual, yellow, pedicels c. 2 mm long, glabrous. Sepals 5, c. 4x1 mm, linear- lanceolate, glandular-ciliate, acuminate at apex. Petals 5, c. 6x1.5 mm, lanceolate, entire at margins, acuminate at apex, glandular hairy near apex. Stamens 12, c. 6 mm long, anthers dorsifixed.' Ovary ovoid, c. 4 mm across, styles 3-4, connate, c. 2 mm long stigma capitate. Capsules not seen.

Specimens examined: North Sikkim: Yumthang, 26.vii.1989, N.R.Mandal 10085 (BSHC).

. Distribution: india: Sikkim (New report), Bhutan, China (Tibet).

Notes: This species is closely related to H. petiolulatum Dyer, but is different in being (i) a sparsely branched herb (ii) leaves elliptic, subsessile (iii) flowers solitary and (iv) sepals glandular ciliate, whereas the latter is (i) a much branched herb with (ii) ovate leaves, shortly petiolate, petiole up to 4 mm long, (iii) flowers 1-3 and (iv) sepals entire at margin or with a few sessile glands, but never glandular ciliate.

2. Elymus thoroldianum (Oliver) G. Singh in Taxon 32 (4): 640. 1983. Agropyron thoroldianum Oliver in Hook, Ic. PI. t. 2262. 1 893; Bor, Grasses Ind. 667. 1960. (Poaceae). Fig:2.

Tufted perennials up to 20 cm high, culms glabrous. Leaf sheaths glabrous on margins; leaf

blades up to 8 cm long, herbaceous. Spikes up to 4 x 1.5 cm, golden yellow, dense; axis tough, continuous. Spikelets solitary at each node of the spike axis, 3-4 flowered, breaking at maturity. Glumes lanceolate; lower glume c. 5.5 x 1.5 mm, upper glume c. 5 x 1 .5 mm, upper glume c. 5 x 1 .5 mm, gradually tapering into a short awn at apex, coriaceous, 3 -nerved, midrib pubescent. Lemma c. 8x3 mm, elliptic-lanceolate, 3 -nerved, silky villous with scattered long hairs on the midrib; awn 4-5 mm long, scabrid. Palea c. 7x2 mm, elliptic, long ciliate on the keels. Stamens 3, c. 2.5 mm long, anthers c. 1 .5 mm long. Ovary obovoid, c. 1.5 mm long, with a silky hairy appendage at apex; styles 2, stigma fimbriate.

Specimens examined: North Sikkim: Near Gurudongmar lake, 5,300 m above msl, 5.x. 1997, P.Singh & S.S.Dash 20050 (BSHC).

Distribution : india: Sikkim (new report), China (Tibet).

Notes: A rare grass, collected only from one site near the Indo-Tibetan border in Indian territory. It differs from other Indian species of Elymus in having spikelets solitary at each node, lemmas silky villous and anthers c. 1.5 mm long. This species was originally described under Agropyron from Tibet, but with the re-evaluation of generic limits in the tribe Triticeae, it is now placed under Elymus.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. N.R. Mandal, Scientist SD, BSI for allowing us to examine his collections, the Director, BSI, Kolkata for encouragement and Scientist SE, BSI, SHC, Gangtok for facilities.

February 27, 1999 P.SINGH

S.S. DASH Botanical Survey of India, Sikkim Himalayan Circle, Gangtok 737 103, Sikkim, India.

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35. YIELD RESPONSE OF CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM ON INTRODUCTION OF RED ANTS OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA

Calophyllum inophyllum Linn, is a broad leaved evergreen tree being cultivated for its oil yielding fruit. The oil extracted from the fruit has been used as fuel for rural chimney lamps. C. inophyllum bears flowers during April-May and August-September and the large clusters of fruit attain maturity 3-4 months after flowering. About 26-42% of the fruit between 1-2.4 cm in diameter are destroyed by the five striped palm squirrel Funambulus pennanti (Seshagiri Rao 1972). The squirrels make holes in the soft seed coat and consume the developing embryo. No biological method is known so far, that can prevent damage to the young fruit by squirrels.

The red weaver ant Oecophylla smciragdina Fb., prefers Calophyllum inophyllum as one of its host plants (Kumaresan 1998). Its pest control activity has been known for many years. It destroys borer grubs of beetles on date palm (Debach 1974), Levuana iridescens on coconut (Tothill et al. 1930), citrus shield bugs (Hill 1983) and rhinoceros beetles on coconut (Kumaresan 1996). Keeping this in mind, red ants were introduced on Calophyllum inophyllum to check the damage to fruit by squirrels.

Fifty Calophyllum inophyllum trees were selected and red ants were introduced on 25 trees. Twenty-five inflorescences were selected from each tree and tagged with numbers at the time of flowering. The number of flowers per inflorescence, number of young fruit in the cluster, number of young fruit damaged by squirrels were studied at flowering time, and the number of mature fruit in a cluster was recorded at harvest time for 3 years between April 1995 and December 1998 (Table 1).

The higher number of young fruit in trees

Table 1

YIELD RESPONSE OF CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM AFTER RED ANT INTRODUCTION

Treatment

Average No. of Flowers

No. of young fruits

No. of fruits damaged

No. of mature fruits

Antless tree

12

8

3

5

Tree harbouring

12

10

<1

9.4

red ants

harbouring ants may be due to the assistance of red ants in pollination. Fruit damaged by squirrels was less than one per cluster, and remained in the cluster for 3-5 days after the damage was caused.

The red ants bit invading squirrels and injected formic acid at the site of the bite. This annoying behaviour of the red ants kept squirrels away from the trees, thus reducing the fruit damage. The daily visits of squirrels ranged from 62 to 83 in ant-free and 26-42 in ant harbouring trees. The odour of the ants might also be responsible for decreased visits to the trees.

Red ants act as pollinators for Calophyllum inophyllum and increase fruit set at the flowering stage. In the later stages, they keep the squirrels away from the trees and help to decrease the damage to immature fruit. The red ants can therefore be used to get a good yield from Callophyllum inophyllum.

I thank Prof. R. Bothi, Head, Department of Botany, Vivekananda College, for encouragement and facilities.

November 7, 2000 V. KUMARESAN

Department of Botany, Vivekananda College, Agasteeswaram 629 701, Tamil Nadu, India.

References

Debach, Paul (1974): Biological Control of Natural Control, Cambridge University Press.

Enemies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Kumaresan, V. ( 1 996): Prevention of Rhinoceros Beetle

Hill, D.S. ( 1 983): Agricultural pests of Tropics and Their in Coconut Palms using Red Ants. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

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Soc. 93(2): 308-309.

Kumaresan, V. (1998): Host Plant Range of Arboreal Nestsing Red Weaver Ants in Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu (India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(1): 71-75.

Seshagiri Rao, D. (1972): A Hand Book of Plant

Protection, S.V. Rangaswamy and Co. Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore.

Tothill, J.D., T.H.C. Taylor & P.W. Paine (1930): The Coconut Moth in Fiji. A history of its control by means of parasites. Publ. Imp. Bur. Entomol. London pp. 269.

36. ON THE DISTRIBUTION RANGE OF BAUHINIA GLAUCA GLAUCA (BENTH.) BENTH. (LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) IN INDIA

Bentham (1861: 99) mentioned that Bauhinia glauca (Benth.) Benth. extends from “Khasia and Burma to Sumatra and Java”. The range of distribution was given on the basis of collections in the Hookerian and other herbaria in Kew, and notes and observations of J.D. Hooker on living flora of Sikkim and Khasia (see Bentham 1861, Preface: 1 1 *-13*). Baker (1878: 283), however, did not include Khasia in the distribution of B. glauca, although it is quite probable that he too had examined all the collections studied by Bentham in Kew, and had personal knowledge of J.D. Hooker’s notes and observations on the living flora of Sikkim and Khasia.

On the other hand, de Wit (1956: 490) and Larsen and Larsen (1973: 10; 1980: 184) again included Khasia, like Bentham, in the world distribution of the taxon. But in subsequent regional floristic studies, it was not recorded from Khasia, now in Meghalaya (Kanjilal et al. 1938; Haridasan and Rao 1985). Sanjappa (1992: 3) mentioned that B. glauca ssp. glauca is found in Meghalaya and Mizoram.

Dr. Sanjappa kindly informed me (1998 pers. comm.) that he had given the Indian distribution on the basis of Bentham (1861) and Fischer (1938). After going through the latter, I found that he had enlisted B. glauca on the basis of Gage ( 1 90 1 ) on the flora of South Lushai hills, now in Mizoram. Gage (1901: 342) reported, without a field number, his own fruiting collection of Bauhinia glauca Wall, from Helio hill, Lungleh, at 3,700 ft (1,128 m). Further, he

gave the distribution as ‘Burma; Malaya; China’ and stated that his collection was a decided northward extension for this species. From Holmgren et al. (1990: 172, 526), I found that

A. T. Gage’s collections are in CAL, but despite a thorough search there, I could not locate any fruiting collection of B. glauca from South Lushai hills by Gage without a field number. However, a fruiting collection with a duplicate (Helio hill, N.E. of Lungleh, South Lushai hills, 3,700 ft (1,128 m), 3.iv.l899, Gage 100- CAL) identified as Bauhinia glauca Wall, was actually found to be B. glauca ssp. tenuiflora (C.B. Clarke) K. & S. S. Larsen. In fact, all the relevant specimens ( Clarke 42304 D, 42342 B, Craib 111 , Deb 2439, Gage s.n., 100, Leslie 113, Meebold 6340, Mokim 35, 57, 259, Rao 8042, Watt 6915, Wenger 6 - all CAL; Kanjilal 5644 - DD) or their photographs ( Clarke 42304 E, 42342 A & C, Watt 6915 - all K, photo. - CAL) examined so far by me from Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland in northeast India, have been found to be spp. tenuiflora , except for the collection Rao 8042 - CAL, which comes close to the Chinese taxon

B. glauca ssp. hupehana (Craib) T. Chen (K. & S.S. Larsen pers. comm. 1997).

Recently, Larsen and Larsen (1996: 478) stated that ssp. glauca is distributed in south India, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java, but there is neither any collection nor any report of ssp. glauca from south India.

The label on the collection Heifer 1 864 - CAL of ssp. glauca showing the locality as

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‘Tenasserim and Andamans’ is ambiguous, because after the murder of Dr. Heifer by the aborigines in the North Andaman Is., his collections from Tenasserim and Andamans were unfortunately mixed up. Afterwards, all of them were labeled together as ‘Tenasserim and Andamans’. Thus, many of his Tenasserim plants have also been ascribed to the Andaman flora (Parkinson 1923, Introduction: xi). This particular specimen seems to me to be from Tenasserim, Myanmar (Burma) because no specimen of ssp. glauca has been collected from the Andamans since Heifer’s collection, more than a hundred years ago.

This circumstantial evidence shows that the inclusion of India in the distribution range of ssp. glauca is not based on firm ground. The true picture is likely to emerge only after the completion of floristic surveys in the

underexplored regions of northeast India and the Andaman and Nicobar Is.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. M. Sanjappa, Botanical Survey of India, for help and encouragement and the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew for photographs of some specimens from Kew. I also thank Prof. K. Larsen and S.S. Larsen, Aarhus University, Denmark for their comments on Rao’s collection, and Dr. Pieter Baas, Leiden University, Netherlands for presenting me a copy of Flora Malesiana.

March 3, 1 999 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.

References

Baker J.G. (1878): Leguminosae. In: Hooker, J.D., The Flora of British India 2: 56-306. L. Reeve & Co., London.

Bentham, G. (1861): Flora Hongkongensis. L. Reeve & Co., London.

Fischer, C.E.C. (1938): The flora of the Lushai hills. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 12(2): 75-161 .

Gage, A.T. (1901): A botanical tour in the South Lushai hills. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 1(13): 331-369.

Haridasan, K. & R.R. Rao (1985): Forest flora of Meghalaya. Vol. 1. Bishen Singh, Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Holmgren, P.K., N.H. Holmgren & L.C. Barnett, eds (1990): Index Herbariorum. Part 1. The herbaria of the world (8th edition). New York. Regnum Veg. 120.

Kanjilal, U.N., P.C. Kanjilal & A. Das (1938): Flora of Assam. Vol. 2. Govt of Assam, Shillong.

Larsen, K. & S.S. Larsen (1973): The genus Bauhinia in Thailand. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 25(1 & 2): 1-22.

Larsen, K. & S.S. Larsen (1980): Bauhinia. In: Aubreville, A. & J.F. Leroy (eds.), Flore du Cambodge du Laos etdu Vietnam 18: 146-210. Paris.

Larsen, K. & S.S. Larsen (1 996): Bauhinia. In: Kalkman, C. et al. (eds), Flora Malesiana Ser. I, 12(2): 442- 535. Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Parkinson, C.E. (1923): A forest flora of the Andaman Islands. Superintendent, Government Central Press, Simla.

Sanjappa, M. (1992): Legumes of India. Bishen Singh, Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

De Wit, H.C.D. (1956): A revision of Malaysian Bauhinieae. Reinwardtia 3(4): 381-539.

37. ON TWO SPECIES OF OSBECKIA LINN. (MELASTOMATACEAE)

In the course of taxonomic revision of Family Melastomataceae for the Flora of India Project, two new species, namely Osbeckia darjeelingensis Giri & Nayar and O. nayarii Giri

were described, based on some old material deposited in the Central National Herbarium (CAL) and the herbarium of the Eastern Circle, Botanical Survey of India (ASSAM). Additional

150

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collections of these species were made after a lapse of over 50 years from the adjacent areas. In this paper, the field status of both the species is discussed and descriptive notes are provided for identification.

Osbeckia darjeelingensis Giri & Nayar In: Bull. Bot. Surv. India 25(1-4): 241-243, Fig. 1. a-f (1983) 1985.

Branched shrubs, stem and branches hexangular, densely covered with short, rigid, appressed hairs. Leaves linear-lanceolate, 3-5 nerved. Inflorescence a condensed panicle, bracts broadly ovate, often appear in series. Calyx tubes (hypanthium) sparsely covered with gland tipped emergences, intersepalar emergences with a terete stalk, hairy along length and terminated by a strong bristle. Petals obovate, bright purple. Capsules enclosed by urceolate calyx-tubes.

Note: The description of O.

darjeelingensis was based on herbarium specimens collected during 1868-1910. The present collection was made during a survey of the phanerogamic flora of Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri district in December, along with flowers and fruits ( Chandra and Mandal 1105). The species was collected along with two other Melastomataceae species, namely O. malabathricum L. and O. nepalensis Hook. f. O. malabathricum is widely distributed throughout India, except in the arid zone, and O. nepalensis in the Eastern Himalayan ranges, extending to the northeastern states.

The present collection of O. darjeelingensis was made from a single undisturbed spot at a lower altitude than the previous records. Presently, the status of the species is indeterminate (presumed rare) and thorough search in range localities and effective measures for protection in the wild are needed. However, as the flowers and leaves of the species are very showy, it can well be introduced into

gardens to serve the dual purposes of ornamentation and ex situ conservation.

Specimens examined at CAL: West Bengal: Darjeeling Terai, 29.x. 1876 Gamble 20513; Darjeeling Terai, Gamble 28021; N. Bengal, Silligoree, 27.x. 1868, Kurz s.n.; Buxa Red., W. Duals, Jan., 1880, Gamble 7671; NEC Beat of Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri dist., 9.xii.l995, S. Chandra & S.K. Mandal 1105.

Sikkim: Sikkim Terai, Ribu s.n. (CAL); Mahanadi, Terai, 200-400 ft (61-122 m), 1 3 .xii. 1910, Ribu & Rhomoo s.n.-, Sikkim, J.D.H. s.n.\ locality not mentioned, Narayanaswami s.n.

Osbeckia nayarii Giri In: J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 4(2): 609. Fig. 1. A-E. 1983.

Branched herbs, stem and branches strongly quadrangular and distinctly winged at angles, glabrous. Leaves ovate-elliptic to ovate- lanceolate, 5 -nerved. Inflorescence axillary or terminal condensed panicle; bracts ovate, calyx tubes (hypanthium) urceolate, glabrous; intersepalar emergences rudimentary, as a simple hair. Petals ovate-oblong, pinkish-purple. Capsules enclosed by urceolate, glabrous calyx- tubes with a distinct long neck.

Note: O. nayarii was described on the basis of specimens collected in 1886-1938 mainly from Khasia hills of Meghalaya and surroundings. The collection from Bengal Orientale [Bengal Or.] (J.D.H. & T.T.) is probably from the northeastern part of West Bengal, adjacent to the Assam border. The last collection of the species cited below was made from Shillong at c. 1 ,200 m, in 1 986 during field study ( Pal s.n.). A recent personal communication from the Scientists in the BSI, Eastern Circle, Assam also says that a good population exists in the area of the last collection. In the present study, additional material collected by Dr. King’s collector in 1886, No. 239 (Acc. No. 171989) from Chittagong Hill Tracts,

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Bangladesh was also traced at CAL and identified as O. nayarii Giri, which extended its eastern distribution.

Specimens examined at CAL: india: Assam: Pantung Forest, 5.iv.l938, K. Biswas s.n.; locality not mentioned, Junkings s.n. Meghalaya: Khasia, ca 600 m, 14.ix.1886, Clarke 44776 A (Holotype); Ibid., Clarke 44776 B-D (Isotypes); Khasia, G. Mann s.n.; Shillong, ca 1,200 m, 7.V.1986, Pal s.n.; West Bengal: Bengal Or., ca 1,200 m, J.D.H. & T.T. s.n.

Bangladesh: Chittagong Hill Tracts, 1886, Dr. King’s collector No. 239.

AcKNOWLEDGEM ENT

We thank the Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium for facilities.

January 29, 1999 G.S. GIRI

S.K. MANDAL Botanical Survey of India Central National Herbarium, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.

38. FIRST RECORD OF GUM EXUDATION FROM THE GONDA TREE CORDIA MYXA LINN. (FAMILY: BORAGINACEAE)

Gonda Cordia myxa Linn. (Boraginaceae) is an important horticultural tree. Gonda is also reported to have medicinal and therapeutic value (Chopra et al. 1956). In this paper, we report for the first time gum exudation from Gonda tree. In December, 1994, 490 gm of the gum was collected from trees around Jodhpur. The gum was in the form of irregular broken tears of varying size, generally colourless, with a brittle, fractured surface. The sample was odourless, mucilaginous and tasted bland. The powder was white in colour. The gum was practically insoluble in alcohol and almost entirely soluble in twice its weight of water, yielding a highly viscous, slightly acidic solution. When diluted with more water and allowed to stand, the sample produced a negligible amount of gummy residue. It was distinguishable from the Indian gum described in the pharmacopoeia of india (Anon 1970): (i) it produced a greenish instead of blue colour on treatment with hydrogen peroxide and

Refe

Anonymous (1970): The Pharmacopoeia of India, Government of India, Ministry of Health, 2nd Edn, Publ. Manager of Publications, Delhi, p. 347.

benzidine, and (ii) it gave a white precipitate with lead acetate instead of no precipitate. Despite slight variations in its properties compared to Indian gum, the high solubility in water and attractive physical appearance of the Gonda gum may be exploited for use in various applications.

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr A.S. Faroda, Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur for his keen interest and encouragement.

February 27, 1999 HAMID A. KHAN,

*B.B. VASHISHTHA, M. MOHIBB E AZAM Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur 342 003, Rajasthan, India.

* Present Address: National Research Centre for Horticulture, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India.

ENCES

Chopra, R.N., S.L. Nayyar & I.C. Chopra (1956): Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi. Pp. 77.

152

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39. DISTRIBUTION OF OBERONIA BRACHYPHYLLA BLATT. & MCCANN — A RARE, ENDEMIC ORCHID OF WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

( With two text-figures )

Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann is one of the rare orchids listed in the red data book of Indian plants (Nayar and Sastry 1988). This tiny little orchid was described by Blatter and McCann (1931) from a detailed illustration prepared by T.R. Bell & Miss Bell, made from live specimens collected in North Kanara (Santapau and Kapadia 1966). Later, Santapau and Kapadia (loc. cit.) also collected it from North Kanara and reported it to be apparently endemic to North Kanara. Subsequent workers have recorded this species from other parts of Western Ghats. Joseph and Vajravelu (1976) reported it from Palghat district, Kerala. In 1 98 1 , Abraham and Vatsala reported it from Ponmudi, Kerala, which seems to be the southernmost recorded distribution of this orchid. Ansari et al. (1982) reported its distribution from North Kanara and Kerala, based on Santapau and Kapadia (loc. cit.), and Joseph and Vajravelu (loc. cit). But it is interesting to note that Vajravelu (1988), while discussing its distribution, has not taken North Kanara, Karnataka and Ponmudi, Kerala into account and mentioned only Hassan and Palghat districts. Ansari and Balakrishnan (1990) in their revision of Oberonia species mentioned only Maharashtra and Kerala as distribution centres. There is no mention of this species in flora of Maharashtra by Lakshminarasimhan (1996). During our floristic survey of endemic plants of Western Ghats, we collected this species from two more localities: 1. Molem-Anmode, Goa. 2. Agumbe, Shimoga district, Karnataka. While examining the specimens at MH, the specimens from Chikmagalur, Karnataka were also noticed. Thus, it was observed that the distribution of this species was relatively unknown.

Small size and the lack of frequent and intensive collections could be the reasons for very few collected specimens of this species, as a result of which its distribution appeared to be restricted and fragmented. Now it is apparent that the species is distributed more or less continuously along the Western Ghats (Fig. 1). The specimens collected by us have been deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of Botany, Goa University.

Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 257, t.2.1931; Sant. & Kapad., Orch. Bombay 57. 1966; Said. & Nicol., FI. Hassan Dist. 838. 1976; Abraham and Vatsala, Int. Orch. 416, f. 116. 1981. Ansari

Fig. 1 : Distribution of Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann in Western Ghats

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

et al., J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 3: 114. 1982; Manilal, FI. Silent Valley 296. 1988; Vajravelu, FI. Palghat 486. 1990; Ansari & Balakrishnan, Orch. Monog. 38. 1990.

FI. & Fr.: March- April.

Habitat: Epiphyte on Garcinia and Ziziphus spp.; on small twigs with moss, in open areas in evergreen forest patches.

Distribution: Western Ghats [Goa, Karnataka (N. Kanara, Shimoga, Chikmagalur, Hassan), Kerala (Palghat, Thiruvananthapuram district)]

Specimens examined: Molem-Anmode, Goa, Vaishali Joshi and S. Rajkumar 1528; Agumbe, Shimoga district, Karnataka, M.K. Janarthanam, Vaishali C. Joshi and S. Rajkumar, 14.iii. 1 998, s.n.\ Yelaneer Ghat, Chikmagalur,

Vajravelu, 25. ii. 1984 (MH); Mandampatty, Palghat, N.C. Nair 12.iv.1978, 56781 (MH); Mukkali, Palghat, Vajravelu 26.vii.1977, 49781 (MH).

Acknowledgements

We thank the Goa State Council for Science and Technology for financial assistance and the Deputy Director, MH, Coimbatore for permission to consult the Herbarium and Library.

April 1, 1999 VAISHALI C. JOSHI,

S. RAJKUMAR, M.K. JANARTHANAM Department of Botany, Goa University, Goa 403 206, India.

8 cm

Fig. 2: Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann A - habit; B - flower; C - dorsal sepal; D - lateral sepal;

E & F - petals; G - lip

154

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References

Ansari, R., N.C. Nair & V.J. Nair (1 982): An analysis of the lip of Oberonia in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 3: 113-119.

Ansari, R. & N.P. Balakrishnan (1990): A revision of Indian species of Oberonia (Orchidaceae) In: Orchid Monograph 4: 38.

Blatter, E. & C. McCann (1931): Revision of the Flora of Bombay Presidency (Orchidaceae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 252-260.

Joseph J. & E. Vajravelu (1978): First report of Oberonia

brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann and Smithsonia straminea Saldanha (Orchidaceae) in Kerala. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 20: 169.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry(1988): Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vol. 2.

Santapau, H. & Z. Kapadia (1966): The Orchids of Bombay. Government of India Press. Pp. 57.

Vajravelu, E. (1988): Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann. In: Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry. Red data book of Indian Plants Vol. 2.

40. NEW RECORDS OF THE FAMILY ERIOCAULACEAE FROM GOA

The species of the genus Eriocaulon, known as pipeworts, are commonly seen during the monsoon along wetlands and streams. These plants show very little variation in their vegetative characters, though floral variations which can be observed under the microscope are enough to segregate and identify the species. The first revision of this group in India was carried out by Fyson (1919-1921). This work is generally neglected as it was published in parts and the volumes are available in a few libraries only. This group was not represented by Dalgado (1898), published prior to Fyson (l.c.). Vartak (1966) reported only four species of Eriocaulon , all from outside the state of Goa, whereas Rao (1986) reported twelve species from Goa state. The latest revision by Ansari and Balakrishnan (1994) has clarity and is more authoritative. Cook (1996) provided keys based on floral characters, whereas Ansari and Balakrishnan (l.c.) relied more on seed characters. The specimens identified in the light of these recent works have added six new distributional records to the State of Goa.

The identification of the specimens was confirmed at Botanical Survey of India, Pune and MH, Coimbatore. The specimens have been deposited in the herbarium of Department of Botany, Goa University.

Eriocaulon fysonii Ansari & Balakr., Eriocaul. India 89. f. 28 1994; Cook, Aqua. Wetland PI. India 195. 1996; Lakshminarsimhan

in Sharma et al. , FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 752. 1996. Eriocaulon cuspidatum Dalz. var. bracteata Fyson in J. Indian Bot. 2: 318. 1921.

Note: Involucral bracts distinctly exceeding the head; seed appendages swollen at tip; found in puddles on lateritic plateaux; endemic to Western India.

Exsiccata : Goa, Lolium, M.K.

Janarthanam 6, 24.viii.1996, Goa, Lolium V.C. Joshi & S. Rajkumar, 950, 10.ix.1997.

Eriocaulon lanceolatum Miq. ex Koemick in Linnaea 27: 656. 1856; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 577. 1893; Cooke, FI. Bombay 3: 357. 1967 (reprinted); Kulkami, FI. Sindhudurg 474. 1988; Ansari & Balakr., Eriocaul. India 29. f. 6. 1994; Cook, Aqua. Wetland PI. India 196. 1996. Eriocaulon lanceolatum var. pilosum Moldenke in Phytologia 3: 164. 1949; Almeida, FI. Savant- wadi 2: 63.1990; Lakshminarsimhan in Sharma et al., FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 257. 1996.

Note: Scape and involucral bracts pilose; found in open grassy areas; endemic to South West India.

Exsiccata : Goa, Gotmode, opp. Nestle, M.K. Janarthanam & S. Rajkumar 860. 9.viii. 1997.

Eriocaulon palghatense Ansari & Balakr., Eriocaul. India 111. f. 37. 1994; Bhat, Ind. J. Forestiy 2(1): 103 -104. 1997.

Note : Minute black headed herb; found on open lateritic plateaux covered with grass; earlier known only from Kerala (Ansari & Balakrishnan

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1). APR. 2001

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

l.c.) and Udupi, South Kanara (Bhat l.c.).

Exsiccata : Goa, Vema, M. K. Janarthanam 36, 17.viii. 1996

Eriocaulon parviflorum (Fyson) Ansari & Balakr., Eriocaul. India 53. f 16. 1994; Cook, Aqua. Wetland PI. India 198. 1996;

Lakshminarsimhan in Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 754. 1996. Eriocaulon dianae var. parviflora Fyson in J. Indian Bot. 2: 260. 1921.

Note : Herb without rootstock and with boat shaped female sepals; found near streams in moist deciduous forests and puddles on lateritic plateaux; endemic to Central and Western India.

Exsiccata : Goa, Cotigao, V.C. Joshi & S. Rajkumar 487, 10.U997.

Eriocaulon quinquangulare L. Sp. PI. 87. 1753; Hook. f. FI. Brit India 6: 582. 1893; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 3: 361. 1967 (reprint); Kulkami, FI. Sindhudurg 475. 1988; Almeida, FI. Savantwadi 2: 65. 1990; Ansari & Balakr., Eriocaul. India 104. f 34. 1994; Cook, Aqua. Wetland PI. India 199. 1996; Lakshminarsimhan in Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 262. 1996.

Note: Vegetative parts often flushed with red, purple or pink; found in flooded paddy fields; distributed in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar and throughout India.

Exsiccata : Goa, Chandranath, M.K. Janarthanam 1474, 29.iii.1998.

Eriocaulon reductum Runland in Engl. Pflanzenr. 13: 113. 1913; Ansari & Balakr., Eriocaul. India 181. F. 65. 1994.

Cook (l.c.) treated E. reductum Runland conspecific with E. cinereum R. Br. But after observing a large number of specimens, we could distinguish E. reductum from E. cinereum. The former has sepals reduced to branched hairs, whereas the latter has linear subulate sepals. Hence, following Ansari & Balakrishnan (l.c.) E. reductum is dealt here as a distinct species.

Note: Puddles on lateritic plateaux; endemic to western part of peninsular India.

Exsiccata: Goa, Goa University Campus, V.C. Joshi & S. Rajkumar 958. 15.ix.1997.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Goa State Council for Science & Technology, Govt of Goa for financial assistance, and the authorities of BSI and MH for permission to consult their herbaria.

October 15, 1999 VAISHALI C. JOSHI,

S. RAJKUMAR, M.K. JANARTHANAM Department of Botany, Goa University, Goa 403 206, India.

References

Ansari, R. & N.P. Balakrishnan (1994): The Family Eriocaulaceae in India. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Cook, C.D.K. (1996): Aquatic and Wetland plants of India.

Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 385. Dalgado, D.G. (1898): Flora de Goa e Savantwadi. Imprensa Nacional Lisbon, 288 pp.

Fyson, P.F. (1919-1922): The Indian species of Eriocaulon. J. Indian Bot. I: 51-55, 2: 133-150, 192-207, 259-266, 307-320, 3: 12-18, 91-115.

Rao, R.S. (1986): Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadra & Nagarhaveli. Vol. 2, Botanical Survey of India. Vartak, V. D. ( 1 966): Enumeration of Plants of Gomantak, India. Pune.

156

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41. NOTE ON FIMBRISTYLIS MICROCAR YA F.V. MUELL. (CYPERACEAE), A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD TO SOUTH INDIA

( With one text-figure)

During a floristic survey of the aquatic angiosperm diversity of Andhra Pradesh, some rare and interesting specimens of Fimbristylis Vahl were collected. The present report decribes a rare and interesting taxon, which is identified as Fimbristylis microcarya F.v. Muell. The species has not been recorded from south India. Hence, it is reported as a new record. The voucher specimens were prepared according to Santapau (1955), and Jain and Rao (1977) and deposited in SKU herbarium, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur.

Remarks: Along the margins of lakes, streams, in waterholes and moist places.

FI. & Fr.: August-October.

Distribution: world: Australia, South and southeast Asia.

india: Maharashtra, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.

Specimen studied: Gandhipet

(Hyderabad), KI and NVN- 18766; Nirmal (Adilabad), MHR and KI 14472.

Note: Cook (1996) reported 3 stamens in Fimbristylis microcarya F.v. Muell., while Koyama (1985) noticed 2-3 stamens in his specimens. However, a single stamen was

Refer

Cook, C.D.K. (1996): Aquatic and wetland plants of India:

A reference book and identification manual for the vascular plants found in permanent or seasonal fresh water in the subcontinent of India south of the Himalayas. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Pp. 1-385.

Jain & Rao (1977): A Handbook of field and herbarium methods. Today and Tomorrow’s Publ. New Delhi.

The species can be distinguished from the closely allied species F. complanata (Retz.) Link by the following characters:

F. complanata (Retz.) Link

F. microcarya F.v. Muell.

Culms 20-90 cm long. Spikelets 5-8 mm long,

2 mm wide.

Glumes 2-3 mm long (excluding the cusp).

Style 1-1 .2 mm long.

Nuts 0.7-1 mm long, 0.5-0. 7 mm broad.

Nuts warty, rarely smooth.

Culms 10-39 cm long.

Spikelets very small 2-4 mm long, 1 mm wide.

Glumes 1 mm long (excluding the cusp).

Style 0.5-0.75 mm long.

Nuts 0.5-0. 6 mm long,

0. 3-0.4 mm broad.

Nuts with minute warts.

observed in our specimens.

Acknowledgement

We thank the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, for financial assistance.

March 24, 1999 K. INDIRA

R.R. VENKATA RAJU Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur 515 003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

en c ES

Koyama, T. (1985): Cyperaceae. In: Dassanayake, M.D. and F.R. Fosberg (eds), A revised handbook to the Flora of Ceylon, New Delhi. 5: 1 25-405.

Santapau, H. (1955): Botanical collector’s manual. A Handbook of instructions for the collection and preservation of plants for the use of the Botanical Survey of India. Min. Nat. Res. & Scient. Res, New Delhi. 61 pp.

see page 158 for text-figure

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

E. nut with style; F. nut.

158

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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL 1

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON DISPLAYS AND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MAGPIE ROBIN COPSYCHUS SA ULARIS ( With one plate and two text-figures)

By Anil Kumar and Dinesh Bhatt 5

THE POPULATION DYNAMICS AND CONSERVATION OF GOLDEN LANGUR

By A. Srivastava, M. Baruah and S.M. Mohnot 12

STUDIES ON THE SYSTEMATICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRAWNS IN ASSAM ( With nine text-figures )

ByN.K. Dutta 18

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT PARUS NUCHALIS IN GUJARAT AND RAJASTHAN

By J.K.Tiwari 26

SPECIES STATUS OF POROPJJNTIUS BURTONI (MUKERJI 1934), (CYPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE) WITH A SYSTEMATIC NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLA VA TUS (MCCLELLAND 1 845)

( With one plate and two text-figures)

By Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin 31

FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD BUFO MELANOSTICTUS SCHNEIDER ( With one text-figure)

By Mercy Mathew and M.I. Andrews 38

TAXONOMIC POSITION OF THE INDIAN SPECIES OF GRASS FEEDING DELTOCEPH ALINE LEAFHOPPERS ASSIGNED TO THE GENUS ALLOPHLEPS (HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE)

( With five text-figures)

By C.A. Viraktamath and Pratap Chandra Dash 47

NOTES OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF CONCHYLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA (BOHEMAN) (COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE: CASSIDINAE)

( With four text-figures)

By Nilesh Rane, Sachin Ranade and H.V. Ghate 53

TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL ( With one text-figure)

By Bharat Raj Subba and Tapan Kumar Ghosh 58

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 62

OBITUARY 92

REVIEWS 94

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 97

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by J. C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai - 400 023. website: www.bnhs.org;email: bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net.in

k* JOURNAL

]3, OF THE

^ BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AUGUST 2001 Vol. 98 (2)

/

BOARD OF EDITORS

Editor

*

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

AJITH KUMAR

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

T.C. NARENDRAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

A.R. RAHMANI

R. GADAGKAR

J.S. SINGH

INDRANEIL DAS A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

Assistant Editor

R. WHITAKER

GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA

4

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere should not be submitted.

2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using Word Star.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be acceptable if labelled free hand.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:

Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free copy of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society

VOLUME 98 (2): AUGUST 2001

Date of Publication: 1-8-2001

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL 1 59

ESTIMATING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES IN SEMI-ARID SARISKA VALLEY, WESTERN INDIA ( With three text-figures )

By Diwakar Sharma 161

DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS JERDON, 1 870 FROM NAGALAND, INDIA ( With four plates)

By J. Meren Ao and Sabitry Bordoloi 1 69

NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL RH1P1DURA AUREOLA IN MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

ByV.Gokula 179

SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM ( With one text-figure)

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 1 84

DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PRIMATES IN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK AND ADJACENT AREAS, KERALA, INDIA

By K.K. Ramachandran and Gigi K. Joseph 191

FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMACHEILIN AE REGAN (CYPRINIFORMES: BALITORIDAE) FROM MANIPUR ( With four text-figures and three plates)

By W. Vishwanath and Juliana Laisram 1 97

DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERATION OF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.

IN ALWAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN ( With three text-figures)

ByA.S. Yadav 217

FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PAN DA ,AILUR US FULGENS IN THE SING HA LI LA NATIONAL PARK, DARJEELING, INDIA ( With one text-figure)

By Sunita Pradhan, Gautom K. Saha and Jamal A. Khan 224

FRESHWATER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE WETLANDS OF INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN, HOWRAH, WEST BENGAL ( With one text-figure)

By K. Venkataraman and S.R. Das 231

SELECTION OF SUITABLE CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE ( With one text-figure)

By Aeshita Mukherjee, C.K. Borad, S.B. Patel and B.M. Parasharya 237

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS OPIUS WESMAEL (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE)

FROM INDIA ( With three text-figures)

By S.M. Kurhade and P.K. Nikam 242

ACHLYA DA YAL1, A NEW WATER MOULD FROM THE RIVER MUTHA ( With five text-figures)

By R.V. Gandhe, Kanchanganga Gandhe and M.J. Desale 246

A NEW GENUS MANGINA ALONG WITH THE TAXONOMY OF ARGINA HUBNER

(ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)

( With eleven text-figures )

By Amritpal S. Kaleka and Jagbir S. Kirti 250

A NEW FRESHWATER CYPRINID FISH ASPIDOPARIA FROM THE CHATRICKONG RIVER, MANIPUR, INDIA ( With two text-figures )

By Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath 254

A NEW SPECIES OF RHODODENDRON LINN. FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA ( With one text-figure)

ByG.D. Pal 258

REVIEWS

1 . EVALUATING EDEN SERIES NO. 3. WHERE COMMUNITIES CARE: COMMUNITY-

BASED WILDLIFE AND ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH ASIA

Reviewed by M. Zafar-ul Islam 262

2. NATURE’S SPOKESMAN: M. KRISHNAN AND INDIA’S WILDLIFE

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 263

3. FISH FAUNA OF MANIPUR

Reviewed by B.F. Chhapgar 264

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . Homosexuality in Asiatic lion: A case study from Gir National Park and Sanctuary

By B.P. Pati 266

2. Predation by leopard Panthera pardus in Majhatal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Himalaya

By Shomita Mukherjee and

Charudutt Mishra 267

3. A report on the food plants of Salim Ali's fruit bat Latidens salimalii

By Pramod Padmanabhan, E. Kunhikrishnan and Jomy Augustine 268

4. On the occurrence of the wild water buffalo Bubcilus arnee in the Barak valley districts of Assam

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 270

5. Occurrence of Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh

By H.S.A. Yahya 272

6. Stranded whales on the Gujarat Coast

By J.K. Tiwari and S.N. Varu 272

BIRDS

7. Dependency of fan-drying of darters A nhinga rufa and little cormorants Phalacrocorax

niger on incident sunlight By Gerald Dick and

Irene Wurdinger 273

8. White storks Ciconia ciconia on migration

By J. Mangalaraj Johnson 275

9. Distribution and nesting sites of the blacknecked stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus

By K.S. Gopi Sundar and Jatinder Kaur 276

10. Cinereous vulture Aegypius moncichus (Linn.), Family Accipitridae, in Karnataka

By S. Subramanya 278

11. First (?) sighting of crab plover Dromas ardeola and pied harrier Circus melcinoleucos in Raigad district, Maharashtra By Premsagar G. Mestri and

Satish A. Pande 278

12. Occurrence of lesser florican Sypheotides indica at Hosur, in Nashik district, Maharashtra

By B. Raha and Vibhu Prakash 279

13. Sighting of the whitetailed lapwing Vcinellus leucurus (Lichtenstein) in Thrissur district,

Kerala

By P.K. Ravindran 280

14. New site record of the Indian great black woodpecker Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield) from Andhra Pradesh By C. Srinivasulu, V. Vasudeva Rao,

G. Ravinder and V. Nagulu 280

15. Tree pie ( Dendrocitta vagabunda) in the arid Thar desert

By M. Zafar-ul Islam, Asad R. Rahmani

and Satish Kumar 281

16. Possible range extension of the peninsular Brooks’s flycatcher ( Musciccipci poliogenys vernayi) in Andhra Pradesh By Humayun Taher and K.C. Ramakrishnan 282

17. Range extension of southern blackheaded

munia Lonchura malacca malacca

By Satish Kumar Sharma 283

1 8. Additional list of the birds of Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh

By E.P. Eric D’Cunha and Rashid Ali 283

REPTILES

1 9. Memidactylus flaviviridis Ruppell feeding on

a gecko egg

By Satish Kumar Sharma

and Yogesh Sharma 287

20. Uropeltid snakes and their predators

By H.N. Kumara and M.S. Chaitra 288

AMPHIBIANS

2 1 . Leptobrachium smithi Matsui, Nabhitabhata & Panha, 1 999 (Anura: Megophryidae), a new

record for India By Saibal Sengupta,

Nripendra Kumar Choudhury and

Indraneil Das 289

22. Notes on Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson:

A critically endangered newt from Manipur By Keishing Selim 291

FISHES

23. New record of Cyprinid fish Labeo bata (Hamilton) from Chindwin drainage

By Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath 292

24. A new report of Horabagrus brachysoma Jayaram, Family Bagridae in Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka

By Anuradha Bhat 294

25 . Range extention of Mystus bleekeri (Day) to the freshwaters of Tamil Nadu and notes on its congeners in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka By K. Rema Devi, T.J. Indra and

M.B. Raghunathan 296

INSECTS

26. Resolution of the controversial western limit of the range of Delias acalis Godart (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)

By Peter Smetacek 298

27. American jointvetch Aeschynomene americana Linn. — A new larval food plant of Terias hecabe Linn.

By Naresh Chaturvedi and V. Shubhalaxmi ... 300

28. Migration of the Commander butterfly Limenitis procris (Cramer)

By Naresh Chaturvedi, Varad Giri and VithobaHegde 301

29. Diversity of butterflies near a pool in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai

By Anish P. Andheria 302

30. Some observations on larval and pupal dimorphism in the Common Nawab butterfly ( Eriboea athamus)

By R. Anuradha 303

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

31. Occurrence of Psechrus alticeps Pocock (Araneae: Psechridae) in Western Ghats,

Kerala with a redescription and notes on its habit and habitat

By K. Sunil Jose and P. A. Sebastian 304

32. Taxonomic status of the Bombay lugworm, Arenicola (Annelida: Polychaeta)

By B.F. Chhapgar and S.R. Sane 306

33. Ecological distribution and population structure of mud dwelling Edwardsia (Cnidaria: Actinaria) in a mangrove habitat of Cochin area, Kerala

By R. Sunil Kumar 308

34. First record of a ciliophoran Trichodina domerguei F. magna Lorn, 1960 from freshwater fish Pseudoapocryptus lanceolatus (Bloch and Schneider) from India

By P.K. Bandyopadhyay and G. Dash 311

BOTANY

35. A new combination in the genus Maytenus Molina (Family Celastraceae)

By R.P. Bhattacharya 315

36. On the number of fertile stamens in flowers of Bauhinia purpurea L. (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae)

By S. Bandyopadhyay 315

37. Interaction between Acanthus and sunbirds at Coringa in Andhra Pradesh

By A. Jacob Solomon Raj u 316

38. Floral biology and economic values of Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. in Mexico

By A. Jacob Solomon Raju and

Martha I. Vergara Santana 317

39. Thottea dinghoui Swarup, Family Aristolochiaceae, a new record for Tamil Nadu By V.S. Manickam, V. Sundaresan,

C. Murugan and G.J. Jothi 3 1 8

40. Occurrence of Nervilia aragoana Gaud

(Orchidaceae) on the Nallamalai hills. Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh By P. Dwarkan, C. Srinivasulu,

V. Vasudeva Rao and V.Nagulu 320

41 . Abnormal branching behaviour of wild date palm Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. (Palmae)

By Satish Kumar Sharma 321

42. An effective ethnobotanical medicine against hemiplagia

By Amit N. Gohil, Nirmal Kumar and

Rita N. Kumar 321

Cover: Bird paintings by Carl D’ Silva © BNHS

THE HOURS — From the painting by Arthur Hacker

IpCnnrs

The Hours meant to the Greeks not the divisions of the day, but those of the year. They were the goddesses of the seasons. They were responsible for the opening and closing of the doors of Olympus, for the education of children, and the general rules of human lives. It is why they always attend marriages, as we see in pictures. Modem painters represent them winged like butterflies, suggesting the flight of time, which would do as well for birds.

* * *

'SItmc

Why sitt ’st thou by that ruined hall,

Thou aged carle so stern and grey?

Dost thou its former pride recall,

Or ponder how it passed away?

“Know’st thou not me?” the Deep Voice cried;

‘‘So long enjoyed, so oft misused —

Alternate, in thy fickle pride,

Desired, neglected, and accused!

‘‘Before my breath, like blazing flax,

Man and his marvels pass away,

And changing empires wane and wax,

Are founded, flourish, and decay.

‘‘Redeem mine hours — the space is brief—

While in my glass the sand grains shiver And measureless thy joy or grief When Time and thou shalt part for ever! ”

Sir Walter Scott gives a fine sense of mystery and awe to the grim figure of old Father Time in this little poem. Time is always shown to us as an old man with an hour-glass and a scythe to suggest the passing of the hours and the reaping of Time’s harvest. Carle is an old-fashioned word still used in Scotland to denote an elderly and rather rough sort of man. Originally it meant simply man, and the Saxon name Carl, from which we get Charles, came from it.

Courtesv: The Children’s Encyclopedia. Vol. 5, Fleetway House. London

Editorial

Time-keeping by humans in social isolation

I would briefly report my experiments and experience. In a DST project, I had investigated how human beings keep track of time when they live in total absence of time cues, at the Department of Animal Behaviour and Physiology, at the Madurai Kamaraj University in 1987-96. Fourteen human subjects (nine males and five females) participated in sixteen marathon experiments each lasting for 15 to 41 days. They spent time in silence and self- selected light or darkness, in an isolation facility 7.62 m x 7.62 m, without windows, but with ducted cool air and ventilation, fitted with all day-to-day requirements such as kitchenette, refrigerator, bathroom, cot and mattress, sitting table, chairs, a bicycle ergometer, cassette tape recorder, tapes, reading and writing material. There were no cues about day/ night, and no personal contact. Most subjects cooked their own food; others were given food in bulk at irregular hours.

The following body functions were particularly investigated: i. sleep/wake, ii. rectal temperature, iii. estimation of presumed 2 hour intervals, iv. timing of menstrual cycle and v. meal timing. I briefly summarize our decade-long findings on human circadian rhythms in this bunker, i. Sleep/wake: All subjects underrated passage of time. In one dramatic case, a 24 year old female subject entered isolation on 4 May, 1989 and came out only or 8 June, 1989. She had been in social isolation for 35 calendar days, during which she went to sleep and woke up only 22 times. In her work diary, she had entered the date 26 May, 1989 on 8 June, 1989! Some of her ‘free-running’ subjective days could be 48 hours with sleep/wake ratios of 18:30 hours, ii. The rectal temperature rhythm (measured from nightly minimum to next nightly minimum) remained conservative and showed periods of 24.7 to 25.1 hours. Therefore the sleep/wake rhythm and the rectal temperature rhythm dissociate and drift apart, iii. The presumed 2 hour time estimation contracts and expands, like a time cystole, from values of 2 to 6 hours. The longer the subject stayed awake, the longer the estimated 2 hours, iv. Even though the female human subject went to sleep only 22 times in 35 days, the two episodes of her menstrual cycle were exactly 28 calendar days apart. The menstrual cycle is apparently not coupled to the sleep/wake clock, as is widely believed. This is a first report, v. Meal timings are coupled to the sleep/wake clock. Typically on days when subjects stayed up 30 hours, the time interval between breakfast and lunch would be 14 to 15 hours and the same between lunch and supper. These findings do not conform to intuitive expectations and have not yet been published. Working with human subjects is fun but arduous. A medical ethics committee (with a social worker, medical doctor, lawyer and psychiatrist) will scrutinize the details of planned experiments. India is the sixth country to have performed such experiments. None of the subjects in my experiments reported discomfort and only one experiment had to be discontinued owing to the subject contracting fever. One female subject participated in three experiments lasting 35, 39 and 41 days, setting up a world record.

was requested to write an editorial on ‘chronobiology’ by the Editor, I thought

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

August 2001 Vol. 98 No. 2

ESTIMATING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES IN SEMI-ARID SARISKA VALLEY, WESTERN INDIA'

Diwakar Sharma* 2

( With three text-figures)

Key words: Indirect estimates, direct estimates, dung decay, pellet groups, defecation

The population of the Indian crested porcupine ( Hystrix indica) was estimated over a period of 3 months (May-July 1 989) in semi-arid Sariska valley in the Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan. The methods included count of pellet groups in four transects each in three vegetation types, and direct counts of animals in a vehicle at night. The data collection using these two approaches was repeated 17 times. Calculation of density for indirect estimates involved data on the pellet decay rate and the defecation rate (of captive animals). The animal density was estimated to be 8.8 ±2.4 animals/ sq. km through direct count, while pellet group count provided an estimate of 12.4 animals/ sq. km with a variation of 0.9 to 24.9 animals/ sq. km in different habitats. The influence of some factors such as possible use of latrine sites and slow decomposition rate on density estimates are discussed.

Introduction

To estimate the population density of animals in the wild, quantifying faecal matter abundance, decay and defecation rate is considered to be useful and convenient (Neff 1968, Rowland et al. 1984). Although a number of studies have been conducted elsewhere (Putman 1984, Koster and Hart 1988), in India only a few studies have estimated the population of wild animals using this method (Sale et al. 1990, Dekker et al. 1991).

The Indian crested porcupine Hystrix indica Kerr is a nocturnal animal that reportedly

'Accepted January, 2001

2Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. # 18,Chandrabani Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttaranchal, India.

Present Address: Gujarat Ecological Society,

5, Golden Apartment, Subhanpura,

Vadodara 390 023, Gujarat, India.

feeds on crops (Alkon 1983, Gutterman 1987, 1988) and on the bark of trees (Choudhry and Ahmad 1975, Sharma and Prasad 1992). In spite of its economic importance, few estimates of its population density in the wild are available. Being nocturnal, small in size and shy of humans, it is hard to observe and very difficult to estimate its population. Therefore, methods involving indirect evidence can be very useful for estimation of its population. During the summer of 1988, the last of three consecutive drought years, comparatively large numbers of porcupines were seen in Sariska valley in the Sariska Tiger Reserve. This was a unique opportunity to estimate its population using direct sighting and faecal abundance.

The aim of this study was to estimate porcupine density using pellet group density, and to compare the results with that obtained using direct observations.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

161

ESTIMA TING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES

Study Area

Sariska Tiger Reserve (27° 20' N and 76° 25' E) is a dry deciduous forest (Champion and Seth 1968) located in the semi-arid tract of Rajasthan in western India. The weather is dry and hot during the day throughout the year, barring the monsoon when it is hot and humid. There are three distinct seasons: winter (November-February, with night temperature as low as 3 °C), summer (March-June, day

temperature up to 47 °C) and monsoon (July- October). Average annual rainfall is c. 650 mm, most of which falls between July and September.

The study was conducted between May and July 1989 in the Sariska valley (Fig. 1). The vegetation of the study sites consisted of Ziziphus scrubland, mixed woodland and Ziziphus woodland (Sharnia and Prasad 1992). The hills surrounding the valley had forests dominated by Anogeissus pendula and were little used by the porcupine (Sharma and Prasad 1992). There was

Fig. 1 : Sariska valley showing the study sites

162

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

ESTIMA TING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES

very little ground cover and litter in the three vegetation types during the study period.

The major mammals in the Sariska National Park include tiger ( Panthera tigris ), leopard ( P . pardus), nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus), sambar ( Cei~vus unicolor ), chital (Axis axis), wild pig (Sus scrofa) and four-homed antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis). The density of animals, particularly of ungulates, is higher in Sariska valley, due to better habitat, than in other areas of the Tiger Reserve.

Methods

Direct Density Estimates

Since porcupines are nocturnal, they were counted at night using vehicle transects (Rodgers 1991), along a 10 km long road (Sariska to Kalighati), in Sariska valley. In June and July, the census was done 1 7 times, between 2000 to 2030 hrs, by four observers, in a jeep driven at a uniform speed of 20 km/hr. The animals seen in the headlights of the vehicle were recorded. The field covered by the headlights was 1 0 m on either side of the road. Porcupine density (D) was calculated using the fixed- width transect method (Rodgers 1991).

N

D =

2.L.B

Where,

N = number of animals observed,

L = length of the transect in km, and B = width on one side of the transect in km.

Indirect Density Estimates

Porcupine density (N) based on pellet group count, defecation and decay rate was calculated using the following equation (Barnes and Jensen 1987)

Y.r

N =

D

Where,

Y = mean pellet group density (no./sq. km) r = mean decay rate per day D = mean defecation rate per day

Pellet group density: Porcupines defecate spindle shaped pellets, which are about 1-1.5 cm in diameter and 3-5 cm in length. The pellet number may range from 5-25 in a pellet group. Pellets groups were counted in strip transects in the three vegetation types, selected under stratified random sampling. Four strip transects 500 x 2 m were placed parallel to each other at 1 00 m intervals in each vegetation type (Fig. 1). Each transect was visited 17 times during May- June. The number of pellet groups that were available at the end of the study period after their accumulation and decay in each vegetation type was used to calculate the pellet group density i.e. the number of pellet groups per sq. km.

Pellet decay rate: Investigations of the decay rate of pellets were carried out from the first week of May 1989 to the second week of July 1989. Fresh pellet groups were located between May 10 and June 30. Eight groups of fresh pellets encountered were marked, counted and their condition monitored once a week. Two periods i.e. summer (May to mid-June) and pre-monsoon (mid- June to mid- July) were chosen to compare the seasonal decay rates.

The following equation was used (Barnes and Jensen 1987, Sukumar et al. 1991) to estimate the decay rate for pellet.

ln(Nt)-ln(Ntl) r =

t

Where,

r = mean decay rate of pellet groups per day,

N = number of pellet groups of one week,

N ] = the number of pellet groups of previous week, and t = time (in days).

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

163

ESTIMA TING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES

Defecation Rate: Two porcupines were observed in the National Zoological Park, New Delhi for 15 days, one in Sakkarbagh Zoo, Junagadh, for 19 days (in 1992) and another in Sayajibaug Zoo in Vadodara for 2 1 days (in 2000) and their pellet groups counted. The defecation rate was calculated as the number of pellet groups defecated per day.

Data was analysed using computer software. Non-parametric statistical tests were conducted for significance of results. Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to determine significance of variation among the three vegetation types, while Mann-Whitney U statistics were used to determine the significance of variation between the two seasons.

Table 1

DIRECT AND INDIRECT DENSITY ESTIMA1 uS FOR PORCUPINE IN DIFFERENT HABITATS

Vegetation type

Pellet

density

Animal

density

(No./km2)

Shrub

density

(No./km2)

Direct

Indirect

(No./ha)

Ziziphus

scrubland

9975

2.35 ±2.16

24.9

411 ±114

Ziziphus

woodland

350

6.56 ±1.04

0.9

137 ±63

Mixed woodland

5075

17.6 ±4.02

12.7

79 ±55

Average

5133

8.8 ±2.4

12.8

206 ±77

Results

Pellet Group Density

There was a significant difference in the pellet group density among the three vegetation types (K-W tests x2=16.15, p<0.001, n=34) (Table 1).

Pellet Decay Rate

The pellet condition was categorised into five age groups (Table 2). Pellets observed from June onwards (after pre-monsoon showers) also disintegrated through the same categories, but the decay was faster in the second category.

Results indicated a large variation in the

Table 2

PORCUPINE PELLET DECAY IN SUMMER (MAY TO MID-JUNE) AND PRE-MONSOON (MID-JUNE TO MID-JULY)

S. No.

Time (days)

Summer Pre-monsoon

Condition

1

< 1

< 1

Fresh, moist, covered with

2

1-7

1-7

mucous, intact. Intact, but dry.

3

8-30

8-15

Dry with cracks over

4

30-45

15-30

the surface; more than 75% pellets distinguishable. Cracks widen and colour

5a

5b

>45

30-45

becomes dark; about 50% or more still distinguishable. All pellets disintegrate. Less than 50% distinguishable.

decay rates of different pellet groups within a season. Trampling by large mammals such as wild pig, sambar, chital and nilgai accelerated the process. On the other hand the pellets not trampled by large mammals were present even 60 days after being defecated in a moist environment. No termite action was observed in summer.

The pellet decay rate is shown in Figs 2 and 3. Table 3 shows the decay rate for various pellet groups monitored during summer and pre-monsoon. The average decay rate during summer was 0.005 per day. This rate increased to more than twice, 0.011 per day during pre-monsoon. The difference in the mean decay rates between summer and pre-monsoon was significant (M-W tests Z = 2.31, 2 tailed p<0.02, n , = 27,19). For calculation of animal density, only the decay rate during summer (May- June) are considered, as pellet group densities were estimated only in this season.

Defecation Rate

In the wild, the pellets were spindle shaped and discrete; while in the New Delhi zoo the pellets in a group were not as discrete. In Sakkarbagh Zoo (Junagadh) and Sayajibaug Zoo

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Days

Pellet Group 1 — ►— Pellet Group 2 Pellet Group 3

Fig. 2: Decay rate of porcupine pellets during summer

Fig. 3: Decay rate of porcupine pellets during pre-monsoon

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Table 3

DECAY RATES OF VARIOUS PELLET GROUPS MONITORED DURING SUMMER AND PRE-MONSOON PERIODS

Pellet

Summer

(May to mid-June)

Pre-monsoon (mid-June to mid-July)

Group No. Pellet group size

Decay

rate

(per day)

Pellet

group

size

Decay

rate

(per day)

1

17

0.005

5

0.010

2

8

0.004

23

0.012

3

11

0.011

11

0.014

4

10

0.020

5

11

0.007

Mean

0.005

0.011

(Vadodara), because of near natural diet, the droppings were similar to those in the wild and were included for calculations. The diet (including access to water) in captivity is different from that in the wild, hence the defecation rates should be taken only as an approximation. If possible, the defecation rate should be estimated in natural or semi-natural conditions. Defecation rate of porcupine in captivity varied from once to thrice a day. The average defecation rate was 2 ±0.15 per day (n = 40).

Ai^imal Density

The results showed a difference between the direct and indirect estimates of density in each vegetation type (Table 1). The overall density estimated by direct observation was 8.8 ±2.4 animals per sq. km, while the estimate using indirect method was 12.9 animals per sq. km.

Discussion

The road used for vehicle census at night passed through three different vegetation types, each of which differed from the others in structure, composition, density and utility to the porcupine (Sharma and Prasad 1992). This resulted in variation in porcupine density among the vegetation types. Due to the impact of drought and livestock grazing, the vegetation along the

road was similar to that away from it. Therefore, it was presumed that porcupine movement and distribution along the roads would be similar to those away from the road. The small width (20 m) of the transect precluded the chances of missing animals on it. Within each vegetation type, density estimates from vehicle census at night had low variation, except in the case of Ziziphus scrubland. Further, the overall low variation in average density of the animals in the study area was considered good to compare indirect estimates with it.

The higher decay rate in pre-monsoon season (mid- June to July) was due to the action of dung beetles and termites. This started within a week after the first shower in the beginning of June. However, on hard (red soil) and bare ground the disintegration by termites took longer time.

Fresh pellets were not monitored after the onset of monsoon in July because of rapid disintegration. Often within a day or two about 50% or more of the pellets changed into an amorphous mass. Further, dense undergrov±h did not permit an easy search of fresh pellets. Since the weather is dry for 8 months, the data collected during this period is considered to be more useful.

The observed differences in density estimates for the two methods were perhaps related to the shrub cover in the three vegetation types. Earlier results (based on debarking, Sharma and Prasad 1992), show that the porcupines preferred mixed woodland, Ziziphus woodland followed by Ziziphus scrubland as habitats. One would, therefore, expect the animal abundance and pellet density to follow this pattern. While the direct counts conformed to this pattern, the pellet density and indirect counts followed the reverse trend. This suggests that while the porcupines preferred to feed in mixed woodland and Ziziphus woodland, they spent substantial time in the dense undergrowth of Ziziphus scrubland. In Ziziphus scrubland, the

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shrub density was the highest, followed by Ziziphus woodland and mixed woodland (Table 1). Dense shrub provides escape cover for the porcupine (Prater 1993).

This pilot study attempted to validate the methods used for indirect animal density estimates. Eberhadt and Etten (1956), Etten and Bennet (1965), Neff (1968) and Putman (1984) have comprehensively reviewed the limitations and sources of error in such a study. As revealed in this case, the differences in density estimates between direct and indirect evidence strongly emphasise the need for a proper stratification of habitat, preferably after reconnaissance, followed by adequate sampling (Grieb 1958). The results indicate that to estimate the population of nocturnal animals such as porcupine, one should study all habitats including those that may be avoided by the animal (Neu et al. 1974).

Even though most of these factors were taken into account (Sharma 1 989) the defecation behaviour of porcupine may have played an important role in the indirect density estimates. The droppings were clumped, and under natural conditions were observed at certain locations

Refer

Alkon, P.U. (1983): Foraging ecology of Indian Crested Porcupine {Hystrix indica ) in Negev habitats. Final Report. Israel Academy of Science. 14 pp.

Barnes, R.F.W. & K.L. Jensen (1987): How to count elephants in forest. IUCN African Elephant and Rhino Specialist Group Technical Bulletin I: 1-6. Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth ( 1 968): A revised survey of the forest types of India. The Manager of Publications, Govt, of India, Delhi, 404 pp. Choudhry, M.I. & A. Ahmad ( 1 975): Trials of poisonous gases and baits against porcupines. Pale J. For. 25(2): 46-50.

Dekker, A.J.F.M., S. Dawson & A. A. Desai (1991): An indirect method for counting Asian Elephants in forests. In: Censusing Elephants in Forest. Proceedings of an International Workshop. (Eds Ramaknshnan, U., J.A. Santosh, & R. Sukumar). Southern India, 2-10 January, 1991. Technical Report No. 2. Asian Elephant Conservation Centre

only, while in captivity the animals defecated in the corners of the cages. This indicates the possibility of use of latrine sites by these animals. If so, can this method be used for other animals that use latrine sites?

Moreover, the semi-arid climate seems to have played an important role in substantially slowing down the decay rate of pellets. Pellets of chital and sambar defecated in the previous year have been observed in Gir Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park in Gujarat by this author, indicating their slow decay rate in similar conditions. These aspects require more research and, perhaps, the inclusion of a correction factor in the calculation of densities in such conditions.

ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS

I thank the Chief Wildlife Warden, Rajasthan, for permission to work in the Sariska Tiger Reserve and Mr. H.S. Panwar, former Director, Wildlife Institute of India for logistic and financial support. Dr. Ajith Kumar, Dr. S.P. Goyal, M. V. Katti and T.R. Shankar Raman gave critical suggestions on the manuscript.

ENCES

of IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group, pp. 54-64.

Eberhardt, L. & R.C. Van Etten (1956): Evaluation of the pellet group counts for censusing deer. J. Wild l. Manage. 20: 70-74.

Etten, R.C. Van & C.L. Bennet (1965): Some sources of error in using pellet group counts for censusing deer. J. Wild l. Manage. 29: 723-729.

Grieb, J.R. ( 1 958): Wildlife statistics. Colorado Game & Fish Department. 96 pp.

Gutterman, Y. (1987): Dynamics of porcupine ( Hystrix indica) digging: Their role in the survival and renewal of geophytes and hemicryptophytes in the Negev Desert Highland. Israel J. Botany 36: 133-143.

Gutterman, Y. (1988): An ecological assessment of porcupine activity in a desert biome. In: Ecophysiology of desert vertebrates. Eds Ghosh, P.K. & I. Prakash, Scientific Publications, Jodhpur.

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Pp. 289-363.

Koster, S.H. & J.A. Hart ( 1 988): Methods of estimating ungulate populations in tropical forests. Afr. J. Ecol. 26: 117-126.

Neff, D.S. (1968): The pellet group count technique for big game trend, census and distribution: A review. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 597-614.

Neu, C. W., C.R. Byers & J.M. Peck ( 1 974): A technique for analysis of utilization availability data. J. Wildl. Manage. 38: 541-545.

Prater, S.H. (1993): The Book of Indian Animals. Fourth impression. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 2 1 5-2 1 7.

Putman, R.J. (1984): Facts from faeces. Mammal Review 14(1): 79-97.

Rodgers, W. A. (1991): Techniques for Wildlife Census in India — A field Manual. Wildlife Institute of India Dehradun. 82 p.

Rowland, M.M.,G.C. White &E.M. Karlen (1984): Use of pellet group plots to measure trends in estimates in deer and elk populations. Wild. Soc. Bull. 12: 147-155.

Sale, J.B., A.J.T. Johnsingh & S. Dawson (1990): Preliminary Trials with an Indirect Method of Estimating Asian Elephant Numbers. Report for IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group.

Sharma, D. (1989): Spatial and temporal patterns in debarking by Indian Crested Porcupine ( Hystrix indica Kerr) in Sariska National Park, Rajasthan. M.Sc. Dissertation, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, 88 p.

Sharma, D. & S.N. Prasad (1992): Tree debarking and habitat use by porcupine ( Hystrix indica Kerr) in Sariska National Park in Western India. Mammalia. 56(3): 351-361 .

Sukumar, R., K.S. Verman, J.A. Santosh & U. Ramakrishnan (1991): Methods of estimating elephant numbers: A review. In: Censusing Elephants in Forests. Proceedings of an International Workshop (Eds Ramakrishnan, U., J.A. Santosh, & R. Sukumar). Southern India, 2- 10 January, 1991, Technical Report No. 2. Asian Elephant Conservation Centre of IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group, pp 2-29.

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DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS JERDON, 1870 FROM NAGALAND, INDIA1

J. Meren Ao 2 and Sabitry Bordoloi3 ( With four plates )

Key words: Hyla annectans, ontogenic stages, normal development, Nagaland, laboratory condition, metamorphosis

Hyla annectans breeds during May to July in temporary rain pools, terraced fields and other waterlogged areas (depth 5-7 cm). Normal development has been studied from the egg through metamorphosis for four breeding seasons (1996-2000) under laboratory conditions. The time required for completion of a life cycle varies under different weather

conditions in the field. In the laboratory (16 days, 14 hours.

Introduction

Studies on the successive ontogenic stages, to record the normal developmental table, are important in understanding the ecology of a species and for planning conservation measures.

Various authors (Dutta and Mohanty- Hejmadi 1976, Mohanty-Hejmadi and Dutta

1977, Agarwal and Niazi 1977, Roy and Khare

1978, Mohanty-Hejmadi et al. 1979, 1980, Kiyasetuo and Khare 1986, Dutta et al. ( 1 990-9 1 ) have contributed to the study of normal developmental tables of Anuran amphibians in India.

In Nagaland (25° .15'-27° 4’ N, 93° 20'-95° 15' E), Hyla annectans is distributed along the Borail range at various altitudes 1,400-2,440 m above msl. Average atmospheric temperature during breeding season ranges from 16.5- 26.6 °C. Relative humidity ranges from 74.33- 81.63%. Precipitation ranges from 128.23- 428.33 mm. Water temperature varies from 14-28.5 °C. Breeding activity starts from the

'Accepted December, 2000

department of Zoology, Kohima Science College,

Kohima 797 00 1 , Nagaland, India

•Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology,

Cotton College, Guwahati 781 001 , Assam, India

22 °C) the frog completed its life cycle in 64

middle of April and lasts till July end. The frogs breed in water logged places like temporary ponds, rainpools, puddles and terraced paddy fields. Embryonic development was observed for a period of four breeding seasons (1996-2000). Laboratory rearing was carried out in the Department of Zoology, Kohima Science College, Kohima, Nagaland.

Methodology

Amplexing pairs were collected from the field and transferred to aquaria or glass containers with water, allowing only half of the body to be submerged. Amplexing lasts for 3-5 hours. Eggs are laid between 0100-0400 hrs in the aquaria as well as in the field. Development stages were fixed in 5% formaldehyde solution; measurements were taken from preserved specimens. Photographs for Plates 1-3 were taken from preserved specimens, while for Plate 4 live individuals were used.

Observations

Breeding activity starts from the middle of April (12.3-26.6 °C) with the males’ breeding call. Females appear only after one or two

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showers. In early May, amplexing pairs were collected and kept in glass containers or aquaria. Eggs were laid in batches in the field. In the aquarium, due to the absence of vegetation or other substratum, the jelly capsules of the eggs adhered together to form a single mass. The number of eggs laid by one female ranged from 590-650. Culture was maintained in clean enamelled trays and 100 fertilized eggs were stocked in each tray to avoid over-crowding. They were reared in the laboratory at 16-22 °C. Larvae were fed with Spirogyra, which is common in the breeding habitats. Tadpoles were staged according to Gosner (1960).

The no. of individuals per tray (Stocking number = 100) was reduced with progressive developmental stages.

Embryonic stage

Forty samples were measured to record the mean size of each stage (1-46).

Fertilization stages

Stage 1 : Fertilized egg (Age 0 hrs; length 1.52 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 1). The egg is spherical. The animal pole is pigmented dark brown, paling to white at the vegetal pole.

Stage 2: One cell stage (Age 0.55 hrs; length 1.52 mm). A lightly pigmented area, the grey crescent appears between the animal and vegetal pole towards the pigmented hemisphere.

Cleavage stages

Stage 3: Two cell stage (Age 1.50 hrs; length 1.52 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 2). The meridional cleavage furrow originating at the animal pole proceeds to the vegetal pole and divides the egg completely into two equal blastomeres.

Stage 4: Four cell stage (Age 2.20 hrs; length 1.52 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 3). The second meridional furrow, which starts at the animal pole, extends to the vegetal pole at a right angle to the first.

Stage 5: Eight cell stage (Age 2.45 hrs; length 1.52 mm). The third cleavage is latitudinal, slightly above the equator, which forms eight blastomeres. The four smaller micromeres of the animal pole are pigmented dark brown, whereas the four bigger macromeres of the vegetal pole are unpigmented.

Stage 6: Sixteen cell stage (Age 3.20 hrs; length 1.52 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 4). The cleavage furrow is vertical. First, the pigmented micromeres are divided into eight cells, resulting in twelve cells (i.e. 8 micromeres and 4 macromeres). This is followed by the division of the four unpigmented macromeres as the cleavage furrow reaches the vegetal pole, resulting in 16 cells altogether.

Stage 7: Thirty-two cell stage (Age 3.52 hrs; length 1 .56 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 5). The latitudinal cleavage furrows of the micromeres and macromeres bring about the formation of 16 micromeres and 16 macromeres.

Stage 8: Mid bias tula (Age 7-54 hrs; length 1.56 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 6). The number of cells increased to more than 64 cells. The blastomeres are more numerous and smaller than before. The surface of the animal pole resembles a cluster of beads.

Stage 9: Late blastula (Age 12.10 hrs; length 1.56 mm). The surface of the animal pole has a granular appearance, which gradually becomes smooth. The pigmented region extends over the vegetal pole, which marks the beginning of the epibolic movement of the micromeres onto the macromeres.

Gastrulation stages

Stage 10: Crescent dorsal lip (Age 15.05 hrs; length 1 .56 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 7). The dorsal lip of blastopore has formed and is crescent-shaped. The unpigmented zone of the vegetal hemisphere is reduced due to continued migration of the pigmented micromeres towards the vegetal pole.

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Ao, J. Meren et al. : Hyla annectans Jerdon

Plate 1

Fig. 1 Fertilized egg, Fig. 2 Two cell stage, Fig. 3 Four cell stage, Fig. 4 Sixteen cell stage, Fig. 5 Thirty-two cell stage, Fig. 6 Mid blastula. Fig. 7 Crescent dorsal lip,

Fig. 8 Horse-shoe shaped dorsal lip, Fig 9. Neural plate.

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Fig. 10 Closure of neural fold, Fig. 1 1 Neural tube. Fig. 12, 13 Tail bud stage, Fig. 14 Muscular response stage, Fig. 15 Opercular stage, Fig. 16 Opercular fold of embryo closed on right side,

Fig. 17 Operculum of embryo closed on left side

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Stage 1 1 : Horse-shoe shaped dorsal lip (Age 16.50 hrs; length 1.56 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 8). The epibolic migration of micromeres over the vegetal pole reduces the exposed area of unpigmented macromeres, which is surrounded by the lateral lips of the semicircular or horse- shoe shaped blastopore.

Stage 12: Small yolk plug { Age 26.10 hrs; length 1.56 mm). The ventral lip of blastopore shifts to the posterior end. The uninvaginated macromeres, surrounded by the blastoporal lips, protrude a little and constitute the yolk plug.

Neurulation stages

Stage 13: Neural plate (Age 34.30 hrs; length 1.6 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 9). The embryo is slightly elongated. The dorsal surface is flattened to form the neural plate, which is differentiated with the concentration of pigments along its borders.

Stage 14: Neural fold (Age 36.20 hrs; length 1.65 mm). The neural fold becomes distinct, with broad cerebral and nairow spinal cord regions of the neural plate. The neural folds gradually approach each other from blastopore to anterior region.

Stage 15: Closure of neural fold (Age 38.20 hrs; length 1.72 mm) (Plate 2, Fig. 10). The posterior end of the embryo becomes broader. The neural folds come closer and touch each other, both in the cerebral and spinal cord regions, forming a shallow neural groove, which is broader in the cerebral region.

Stage 16: Neural tube (Age 40.50 hrs; length 2.0 mm (Plate 2, Fig. 11) The neural folds have fused completely to form the neural tube, which is raised at the mid-dorsal ridge and demarcated by a darkly pigmented strand. The head and trunk are well marked. Gill plates appear as faint bulges. The increase in size of the embryo along with the associated vitelline capsule, is not accompanied by a similar increase in the length of the first envelope, and thus it

ruptures at the anterior end.

Stage 17: Tail bud stage (Age 42.50 hrs; Trunk 2.44 mm; Tail 0.47 mm) (Plate 2, Figs. 12, 13). Tail bud appears at the posterior end of the embryo. It is wider than long, directed dorso- posteriorly and marked off from the body by a ventral notch. Stomodeal groove depression is slightly marked by a darker area. Bulges of the gill plates are distinct.

Stage 18: Muscular response stage (Age 60.00 hrs; Trunk 2.71 mm; Tail 0.75mm) (Plate 2, Fig. 14). Head region is well defined, with optic bulges and bulges of the gill plates. Oral suckers are indicated by two heavily pigmented elongated areas joined medially by a narrow lightly pigmented band below the stomodeum. Stomodeal depression is seen between the oral suckers. Due to gradual elongation of the embryo, the tail starts curving laterally to right or left, within the contour of the vitelline membrane.

Stage 19: Heartbeat stage (Age 70.07 hrs; Trunk 3.10 mm; Tail 1.4 mm). Pulsation of heart is seen below and behind gill bud. Small pigmented depression at anterior end marks olfactory pit. Stomodeal depression becomes somewhat triangular. External gill buds prominent. Embryo coils to mechanical stimuli.

Stage 20: Gill circulation stage (Age 72.29 hrs; Trunk 3.28 mm; Tail 1.5 mm). Gills distinct, rudimentary branching at distal end. Oral suckers nipple-shaped. Stomodeal pit still a shallow triangular depression. Vitelline membrane becomes thin and weak. Anterior end of the head pressed against the vitelline membrane.

Post-embryonic development

Stage 21: Lama hatched (Age 102.29 hrs; Head and Trunk 3.2 mm; Tail 3.2 mm). The head causes a bulge in the vitelline membrane at the anterior end. At this point the membrane breaks and the larva emerges from the mass of jelly. Tail straight, tail fin dusky. Olfactory pit deepens, cornea begins to be transparent. Stomodeum now

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a deep triangular pit, whose opening is the larval mouth.

Stage 22: Tail fin circulation stage (Age 1 17.29 hrs; Head and Trunk 3.4 mm; Tail 3.6 mm). Tail fin circulation starts at base of anterior part of dorsal fin, just above the trunk. Mouth slightly wider. Upper and lower labial fringes develop, but without papillation.

Stage 23: Opercular fold stage (Age 143.59 hrs; Head and Trunk 3.6 mm Tail 4.5 mm) (Plate 2, Fig. 15). Operculum covers bases of external gills. Jaws not keratinised. Upper and lower labial fringes develop papillae and faint labial ridges. Pigmentation on tail begins, cloaca not opened.

State 24: Opercular fold of embryo closed on right side (Age 172.29 hrs; Head and Trunk 3.7 mm; Tail 5.0 mm) (Plate 2, Fig. 16). Operculum closed on the right side. Labial jaws form supra- and infra-rostrodont. A faint row of upper supra-angular keratodont develops. Other characters as in Stage 23.

Stage 25: Operculum of embryo closed on left side (Age 185.29 hrs; Head and Trunk 4.2 mm; Tail 6.0 mm) (Plate 2, Fig. 17). Operculum closed and gills disappear; oral suckers diminishing. Spiracle formed. Tail lightly pigmented. Anal tube opens, tadpole starts feeding.

Stage 26: Hind limb bud stage (Age 356 hrs; Head and Trunk 7.0 mm; Tail 10.0 mm) (Plate 3, Fig. 18). Appearance of hind limb bud at a groove between the belly wall and base of tail on either side of cloacal tail piece. Length of limb bud less than half its diameter. Dental formula becomes 1 : 1 + 1/3. Pigmentation spreads to dorsal and anal fins.

Stage 27: Length of limb bud equal to half its diameter (Age 420 hrs; Head and Trunk 7.8 mm; Tail length 13.0 mm). Length of limb bud equal to half its diameter. The patches of pigmentation in the tail fin spread considerably.

Stage 28: Length of limb bud equal to its diameter (Age 514 hrs; Head and Trunk 8.4 mm;

Tail 16.0 mm) (Plate 3, Fig. 19). Distal end of limb bud slightly conical.

Stage 29: Length of limb bud is equal to one and half times its diameter (Age 600 hrs; Head and Trunk 9.0 mm, Tail 18.0 mm). Distal end conical.

Stage 30: Length of limb bud is equal to twice its diameter (Age 684 hrs; Head and Trunk 11.0 mm, Tail 19.1 mm). Distal half of conical limb bud slightly bent ventrally. No pigmentation on limb bud.

Stage 3 1 : Foot paddle stage (Age 748 hrs; Head and Trunk 1 1.5 mm; Tail 20.1 mm) (Plate 3, Fig. 20). The distal end of limb bud is flattened mediolaterally to form a foot paddle. Knee bend is prominent. Light pigmentation starts at outer base of limb bud.

Stage 32: First indentation (Age 813 hrs; Head and Trunk 12.0 mm; Tail 23.0 mm). The margin of the foot paddle becomes slightly indented on the dorsal side, which marks the prominences of the future 4th and 5th toes.

Stage 33: Second indentation (Age 853 hrs; Head and Trunk 12.8 mm; Tail 24.5 mm) (Plate 3, Fig. 21). The margin of the foot paddle becomes indented on the ventral side, behind the prominence of 4th toe, which marks the 3rd, 4th and 5th toes.

Stage 34: Third indentation (Age 890 hrs.; Head and Trunk 13.2 mm; Tail 26.0 mm) (Plate 3, Fig. 22). The margin of foot paddle becomes indented, on the ventral side, behind the prominence of 3rd toe, which marks the prominence of 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th toes.

Stage 35: Fourth indentation (Age 936 hrs; Head and Trunk 13.4 mm; Tail 26.4 mm.) (Plate 3, Fig. 23). The margin of the foot paddle is indented behind the 2nd toe demarcating the prominence of the 1st toe. All the five toes are separated from each other.

Stage 36: Margin of 5th toe web directed towards the tip of 2nd toe (Age 1019 hrs; Head and Trunk 13.6 mm; Tail 27.2 mm) (Plate 3,

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Ao, J. Meren et al.’.Hyla annectans Jerdon

Plate 3

Fig. 18 Hind limb bud stage, Fig. 19 Length of limb bud equal to its diameter, Fig. 20 Foot paddle stage, Fig. 21 Second indentation, Fig. 22 Third indentation, Fig. 23 Fourth indentation,

Fig. 24 Margin of 5th toe web directed towards the tip of 2nd toe,

Fig. 25 Margin of 5th toe web directed towards prehallux.

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Ao, J. Meren et al. : Hyla annectans Jerdon

Plate 4

Fig. 26, 27 Cloacal tail piece reduced, Fig. 28 Both fore limbs emerged,

Fig. 29 Angle of mouth reached the middle of eye,

Fig. 30 Angle of mouth reached posterior margin of the eye, Fig. 3 1 Metamorphosed froglet.

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Fig. 24). The margin of the 5 th toe web is directed towards the tip of the 2nd toe.

Stage 37: Margin of 5th toe web directed towards the tip of 1st toe (Age 1084 hrs; Head and Trunk 13.7 mm; Tail 28.0 mm). The margin of the 5th toe web is directed towards the tip of the 1st toe. Pigmentation appears in the 4th and 5th toes along the foot. Toes are longer. A rudiment of prehallux is indicated by a light protuberance behind the 1st toe. Ventral surface of the foot is closer to the ventral fin.

Stage 38: Margin of 5th toe web directed towards prehallux (Age 1136 hrs; Head and Trunk 14.0 mm; Tail 29.00 mm). (Plate 3, Fig. 25). The margin of the 5th toe web is directed towards prehallux. Inner metatarsal turbercle appear as a small outgrowth. Pigmentation appears in 3rd, 4th and 5th toe along the foot.

Stage 39: Appearance of subarticular tubercles in the toes (Age 1210 hrs; Head and Trunk 14.3 mm; Tail 29.2 mm). Subarticular tubercles appear on the inner surface of the toes as light patches. The inner metatarsal tubercle becomes a small oval outgrowth.

Stage 40: Toe pads complete (Age 1274 hrs; Head and Trunk 14.4 mm; Tail 29.2 mm). Distal ends of the toes thickened. Subarticular tubercles are clearly elevated. The cloacal tail piece is not reduced.

Stage 41: Cloacal tail piece reduced (Age 1392 hrs; Head and Trunk 14.8 mm; Tail 30.0 mm. (Plate 4, Fig. 26, 27). The cloacal tail piece gets reduced and only a narrow strip remains over and in between bases of the thigh still attached with ventral fin distally. The fore limbs are visible through the skin. Green pigmentation of the dorsal surface begins. Tail not dark. Keratodonts start shedding. Oral papillae remain intact.

Stage 42: Both fore limbs emerge (Age 1422 hrs; Head and Trunk 14.5 mm; Tail 25.1 mm) (Plate 4, Fig. 28). Both fore limbs emerge, usually the right fore limb emerges first, followed after a few hours by the left. Resorbtion of the

labial fringe begins, however angular papillae still remain as a small tuft on both comers of the mouth, which starts widening. The homy beak is shed. Tail starts darkening. The angle of the mouth is level with the nostril. The cloacal tail piece disappears at this stage, leaving the cloacal aperture free below.

Stage 43: Angle of mouth between the eye and nostril (Age 1434 hrs; Head and Trunk 14 mm; Tail 16.0 mm). The widening angle of mouth has reached a point midway between nostril and the anterior margin of eye. The tail becomes still darker, the dorsal and ventral fins shrink and the length of the tail is reduced, but still longer than the extended hind limb.

Stage 44: Angle of mouth reached the middle of eye ( Age 1462 hrs; Head and Trunk 14.00 mm; Tail 5.0 mm (Plate 4, Fig. 29). The widening angle of the mouth has reached the level of the middle of the eye. Dorsal and ventral fins have disappeared. Tail resorbed considerably and is as long as the femur.

Stage 45: Angle of the mouth reached posterior margin of the eye (Age 1498 hrs; Head and Tmnk 13.5 mm; Tail 1.0 mm) (Plate 4, Fig. 30). The widening angle of the mouth has reached the posterior margin of the eye. The tail is resorbed to a small triangular stub.

Stage 46: Metamorphosed froglet (Age 1550 hrs; Head and Tmnk 13.5 mm; Tail 0.0 mm.) (Plate 4, Fig. 31). The triangular tail stub with dark tissue disappears completely.

Total time taken for completion of metamorphosis was 64 days 14 hours.

Discussion

Hamburger (1947), Gosner (1960), Rugh (1962), Nieuwkoop and Faber (1967) were referred for preparing the normal table. Gosner (1960) proposed 46 stages, with simplified criteria for staging developmental events in Pelobatids, Bufonids, Ranids and Hylids. In the

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DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS

present study, the development of Hyla annectans was divided into these 46 stages. Certain variations have been noted in the development of Hyla annectans.

Developmental, stages have been divided into fifteen major subheadings ( 1 ) Fertilization two stages (2) Cleavage seven stages (3) Gastrula three stages (4) Neurula four stages (5) Tail bud one stage (6) Muscular response one stage (7) Heart beat one stage (8) Gill circulation one stage

(9) Cornea becoming transparent one stage

(10) Tail fin circulation one stage (11) Operculum formation three stages (12) Hind limb bud five stages (13) Identation and development of toes ten stages (14) Cloacal tail piece reduced one stage (15) Metamorphosis climax five stages.

Characteristic features of development include the tail bud, initially indicated by a strong upward arching of the dorsum. Hatching of the

Refer

Agarwal, S.K. & I. A. Niazi (1977): Normal table of developmental stages of the Indian Bull frog Rana tigrina Daud. (Ranidae: Anura, Amphibia) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., India 47(B) II: 79-92.

Dutta, S.K. & P. Mohanty-Hejmadi (1976): Breeding and life history of the Indian Bull frog, Rana tigerina (Daudin). Prakruti-Utkal Univ. J. Sci. 13 (1&2): 51-59.

Dutta, S.K., S. Jena & P. Mohanty-Hejmadi (1990-91): Breeding and development of Ramanella variegata (Anura: Microhylidae). J. Zool. Soc. India (42-43): 55-76.

Gosner, K.L. (1960): A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification. Herpetologica 16: 183-190.

Jerdon, T.C., ( 1 870): Notes on Indian herpetology. Proc.

Asiatic Soc. Bengal 2: 66-85.

Kiyasetuo& M.K. Khare (1986): Annual breeding cycle and development of Rhacophorus leucomystax (Kiihl). Stud. Herpetol. Rocek (ed.) 41 7-422. Hamburger, V. (1947): A manual of experimental

embryos occur in stage 21, when the cornea just begins to be transparent. However, the cornea becomes fully clear only towards the end of stage 22 and beginning of stage 23. At stage 22, the circulation in the tail fin begins, but the tail fin is not transparent as in Gosner series and remains dusky. Narrow cloacal tail piece persists, in Gosner series - 41 which, however, disappears only in stage 42 when both forelimbs have emerged. Rostrodont and keratodonts are shed completely at stage 42.

Acknowledgement

This paper is dedicated to the memory of Late Prof. Mahendra Kumar Khare, who initiated research in Developmental Biology in the North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, Meghalaya, India.

ENC ES

embryology. University Press, Chicago. Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. & S.K. Dutta (1977): Breeding habits and development of Rana cyanophlyctis (Schneider). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 291- 296.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P., S.K. Dutta & S.C. Maluck ( 1 979): Life history of Indian Frogs II — the marbled balloon frog Uperodon systoma (Schneider). J. Zool. Soc. India 3I(1&2): 65-72. Mohanty-Hejmadi, P., S.K. Dutta & I. Khan (1980): Life history of Indian Frogs, III — The ornate frog Microhyla ornata. J. Zool. Soc. India 32(1-2): 43- 48.

Nieuwkoop, P.D. & J. Faber (1967): Normal table of Xenopus laevis (Daudin), North-Holland Publ. Co. Amsterdam.

Rugh, R. (1962): Experimental embryology. Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Roy, D. & M.K. Khare (1978): Normal table of development of Rana limnocharis. Proc. nat. Acad. Sci. India B 48(1): 5-16.

178

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BROWED F ANT AIL RHIPIDURA AUREOLA IN MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY'

V. Gokula* 2

Key words: White -browed fantail, Rhipidura aureola , foraging, breeding, nest-site characteristics

Nesting and nest-site selection of white-browed fantail ( Rhipidura aureola) were studied in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS), south India, during 1995-1997. In addition, foraging pattern was studied as it may also explain nest-site selection. A total of 73 foraging records were obtained with no reference to age and sex. Sallying was the predominant foraging manoeuvre used to catch insect food. A total of 24 nests were located on two tree species: Anogeissus latifolia (83%) followed by Elaeodendron glaucum ( 1 7%). The results indicated that the fantail did not select nest sites randomly in Mudumalai WLS, but had specific nesting requirements. It generally selected a patch with high tree density, with less to moderate ground cover to construct the nest.

Introduction

Nest-site selection involves discrimination among alternative sites that provide different sets of circumstances affecting survival and reproduction. Hence, it is an important decision to be made by birds. However, nest-site selection of the majority of bird species in India is poorly studied. An attempt was made to understand the nest-site selection of white-browed fantail (. Rhipidura aureola). Although the white-browed fantail is widely distributed in India, only the species description is given by All and Ripley (1987). No detailed information is available on its ecology. This study describes the foraging, nesting, breeding, and nest-site selection of the white -browed fantail in Mudumalai WLS during 1995-1997.

‘Study Area

The Mudumalai WLS is located at 1 1° 30' to 1 1° 39' N and 76° 27' to 76° 43' E in the Nilgiri district, Tamil Nadu. It has an average elevation of 1,000 m. The climate is moderate, and

'Accepted June, 2000

27/l 53 A, Gurumoorthy Nagar, Ammachattram (PO), Kumbakonam612 103, Tamil Nadu, India.

temperature varies from 14-17 °C during December-January and 29-33 °C during March-May. The annual rainfall, received in two periods, varies from 600 to 2,000 mm. The high rainfall period (June-August) is brought by the southwest monsoon, while the low rainfall period (September-November) comes from the northeast monsoon. The Sanctuary is drained mainly by the perennial river Moyar and partly by various seasonal rivers. In corresponding to the rainfall, the vegetation varies from thorn forest in the east to semi-evergreen forest in the west. Further details of the study area are given by Desai (1991).

The study was carried out in a 20 ha plot dominated by plant species such as Anogeissus latifolia , Acacia spp. (including A. chundra , A. leucophloea and A. ferrugine a), Ziziphus spp., Sapindus emarginatus, Phyllanthus emblica , Erythroxylum monogynum, Cassia fistula , Elaeodendron glaucan and Capparis spp.

Methods

Foraging ecology: Foraging records were collected at the study site during January to April (dry spell in 1995 and 1996) as the white-browed fantail breeds only during this period. Records

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NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BRO WED FANTAIL

were collected within the first four hours after sunrise. Only one foraging record (initial record) was taken from any individual encountered, as done by MacNally (1994).

For each foraging attempt the following were recorded :

(a) Height above ground level: ground, and at every 1 m interval up to 10 m.

(b) Foraging methods: 1. gleaning: a stationary food item is picked from its substrate by a standing or hopping bird; 2. probing: similar to gleaning, only the bird’s beak penetrates or lifts the substrate to locate concealed food; 3. pouncing: the bird flies from a perch and grabs the food item as it lands on the substrate; and 4. sallying or flycatching: a bird flies into the air to catch flying prey.

(c) Substrate: 1. ground, including debris, litter and grass; 2. trunk/main branches, the main axes of trees; 3. foliage, leaves including leaf blades and petioles; and 4. twigs, small branches <1 cm in diameter to which leaves were attached, and 5. air.

Nesting and Nest-Site Selection: A 20 ha plot was laid for nest-site selection studies. Searches were made on foot for nest structures by observing substrate suitable for nesting (ground, rock, holes etc.). A nest was corroborated if adults were observed performing breeding activities (nest building or renovation, incubation, feeding the young) in or adjacent to the nest. Regular visits were made to collect breeding information.

The method of determining nest-site selection followed are similar to the established ones by Bechard et al. 1990 and Hullsieg and Becker 1990. Variables were set at three levels. The shape and size (physical structure) of different nests were recorded. Among the variables “nest concealment” was estimated by viewing the nest from above or below or at nest level from a distance of 2m, 5m, 7m and 10m from all four cardinal points (Martin and Roper

1988). Concealment of the nest was estimated using abundance rating (0-4=very high, >4-8=high, >8-12=low and >12-16=very low).

The nest-tree or substrate variables were recorded to identify the key factor of the nest-plant that is responsible for supporting a particular species nest. It includes: 1 . tree species 2. tree height, and 3 . girth at breast height (GBH).

The nest-patch variables were measured within a 0.07 ha circular plot centred at the nest tree as suggested by Titus and Mosher ( 1 98 1 ). A “nest-patch” was defined as the area surrounding a nest tree, including vegetation and topographic features used by a nesting pair during the entire nesting season exclusive of foraging areas (Reynolds et al. 1982). This would help to identify the microhabitat required for nesting of bird species. The variables noted were: ground cover, shrub cover, canopy cover, distance to disturbance and road. Percentage of vegetation cover (shrub and ground) was visually estimated. The percent canopy cover immediately over the nest was measured using a hand mirror marked with a grid. The shaded area was estimated as canopy cover (Martin and Roper 1988).

To test for selection, all parameters except nest measurements were compared with similar measurements at randomly selected sites. The 20 ha plot laid for nest-searches in each habitat was divided into 80 grids (50 m x 50 m). Grids were plotted and numbered on an enlarged topographic map of the study area. 20 grids were selected from the 80 grids by using lot method. Once the approximate grid or site was located, the nearest tree or shrub was made the centre of a random plot. Except for nest measurements, all other variables (nest-tree and nest-patch) were enumerated from the plot.

Statistical Analyses: Univariate analyses of variances (ANOVA), Mann- Whitney U, and other simple statistics (Mean and SD) were used where appropriate (Sokal and Rohif 1981). Results are reported as significant if they are

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NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BRO WED FANTAIL

associated with a value of P<0.05. The SPSS software was used for data analysis.

Results and Discussion

Foraging Pattern: A total of 73 foraging observations were made. Present sample size was assumed to be sufficient, as 30 independent observations are recommended to represent the behaviour of a bird accurately by Morrison (1984). White-browed fantails used foraging manoeuvres namely sally, pounce and glean to catch insects (Table 1). Of the three manoeuvres, sally was predominant. Among different forms of sally, the fantail predominantly used sub- canopy sally. It foraged over a wide range from the ground up to 8 m above ground level. However, the majority of foraging attempts were made at 4-5 m above ground level (72%). Insects were largely caught in flight.

Breeding Biology: Breeding activity started soon after the blossom shower in April and extended to May. A greater number of active nests were seen during the first week of April (n=18), and these numbers decreased towards May. A fantail took four to five days to construct a nest (three cases). Mainly, they laid three eggs (n= 19), but clutch size varied from two to three eggs. The mean incubation period and nestling period were 14.5 ±0.53 (8 pairs) and 16.5 ±0.57

(4 pairs) days respectively.

Nest Morphology: The nests were neatly built, cup-shaped, and often placed on a horizontal fork. Only fine grass and rootlets were used as nesting materials. The structure of the nest was as recorded by Ali and Ripley (1987). The mean depth and diameter of the nests were 2.98 cm and 5.6 cm respectively (Table 2). Nests were placed at a mean height of 4.71 m from ground level, varying from 3 m to 5.67 m. Girth of the nest-plant varied from 57 to 167 cm. The nests were hardly visible from a distance as their size was very small and the colour merged with the tree colour.

Nest-Tree Selection: White-browed fantail used only trees for building their nest. Greater heights required may be the reason for this selection. Only two plant species were used and the majority of the nests were on Anogeissus latifolia (83%) followed by Elaeodendron glaucum (17%). All the nests were built only on twigs on the outer edge of the lower canopy. The selection of Anogeissus latifolia can be attributed to two factors: the colour of the nest is similar to the bark of the tree species, protecting it from predators, and A. latifolia was more abundant (5.2 /ha) than Elaeodendron glaucum (2.3 /ha) in the study area. In addition, the plant architecture (branching geometry) of these two tree species may also be a factor, as it gives

Table 1

FORAGING MANOEUVRES OF THE WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL

Foraging substrates (%) Air Ground

70 28.5

Foliage

1.5

Foraging height (%) G 0-1 m

28 11.5

>l-2m

9

>2-3m

8

>3 -4m 9.5

>4-5m

19

>5-6m >7-8m

13 2

Foraging method (%)

CS SS

BS

GS

GP

FG

3 56.5

10.5

19

9.5

1.5

G = Ground, CS = above canopy sally, SS FG = foliage gleaning

= subcanopy sally, BS = bush sally, GS = ground sally, GP = ground pounce.

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NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BRO WED F ANT AIL

Table 2

NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL

Variables

Mean (n = 24)

SD

Nest free height (m)

7.52

0.90

Nest tree GBH (cm)

98.85

31.10

Nest height (cm)

471.80

64.97

% Ground cover

46.00

19.97

% Shrub cover

25.75

14.60

% Shade over nest

83.00

16.23

Nest depth (cm)

2.98

0.11

Total nest diameter (cm)

5.60

0.13

Interior diameter (cm)

5.00

0.17

Distance to the next tree (m)

3.29

1.36

Distance to the road (m)

540.50

538.37

% Disturbance of nest free

0.00

0.00

Nest concealment

2.05

1.15

structural support to the nest.

Nest-Site Selection: The nest-site differed from the random site in the following aspects: ground cover (w=59.5 p<0.01), canopy cover (u= 52.5 p<0.01), tree GBH (F= 32.9 p<0.01) and tree density (F=10.3 p<0.01) (Table 3).

For nesting, the fantail generally selected a patch with high tree density, less canopy cover, and less to moderate ground cover. A patch with high tree density and less canopy cover was possible, as majority of the trees shed their leaves when this flycatcher nests. More potential nest sites near a nest may reduce predator efficiency, as predators would be forced to search more sites to find a nest (Martin 1988, Martin and Roper

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Bechard, M.J., R.L. Knight, D.G. Smith & R.E. Fitzner (1990): Nest sites and habitat of sympatric Hawks (Buteo spp.) in Washington. J. Field Ornithol. 61: 159-170.

Desai, A. A. (1991 ): The home range of elephants and its implications for management of the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 145-156.

Hullsieg, C. & D.M. Becker (1990): Nest site habitat selected by Merlins in southeastern Montana. Condor

1988). The tendency to choose patches with more trees may reflect this choice. In many cases, nests were built in exactly the same place or branch in subsequent years. Site-fidelity is advantageous to the bird as it becomes familiar with the area; this may enhance foraging success, predator avoidance, defence and other behaviour which contributes to reproductive performance (Newton and Wyllie 1992).

Table 3

COMPARISON OF NEST-SITE VARIABLES OF WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL WITH RANDOM SITES

Parameters

Nest-site (n = 24)

Random site (n = 20)

P

Tree Height

7.52 ±0.90

7.0 ±4.82

ns

Tree GBH

98.85 ±31.1

51.05 ±20.40

0.00

Tree Density

5.40 ±0.89

4. 15 ±2.03

0.00

Ground Cover

46.00 ±19.97

83.50 ±32.97

0.00

Shrub Cover

25.75 ±14.60

29.50 ±28.56

ns

Canopy Cover

37.20±16.34

78.50 ±22.95

0.00

Distance to Road

540.50 ±583.3

567.95 ±636.10

ns

ns = not significant. Details of the statistical tests are given in the text.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Director, Dr. Lalitha Vijayan, Principal Scientist, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Dr. Justus Joshua, Scientist, Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, and Tamil Nadu Forest Department for support and encouragement.

ENCES

92: 688-694.

MacNally, R. ( 1 994): Habitat specific guild structure of forest birds in southeastern Australia: a regional scale perspective. / Anim. Ecol. 63: 988-1001.

Martin, T.E. ( 1 988): Habitat and area effects on organiza- tion of forest bird assemblages: Is nest predation an important underlying influence? Ecology > 69: 74-84. Martin, T.E. & J.J. Roper (1988): Nest predation and nest-site selection of a western population of the Hermit Thrush. Condor 90: 5 1 -57.

Morrison, M.L. (1984): Influence of sample size and sampling design on analysis of avian foraging behaviour. Condor 86: 146-150.

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NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL

Newton, I. & I. Wyllie (1992): Fidelity to nesting territory among Sparrowhawks in three areas. J. Raptor Res. 26(3): 108-114.

Reynolds, R.T., E.C. Meslow & H.M. Wight (1982): Nesting habitat of coexisting Accipiter in Oregon. J. Wildl. Manage. 46: 124-138.

Sokal. R.R. & F.J. Rohif (1981): Biometry: The Principles and Practice of Statistics in Biological Research. 2nd edn, W.H. Freeman & Company. New York.

Titus, K. & J.A. Mosher (1981): Nest site habitat selected by woodland Hawks in the Central Appalachians. Auk 98: 270-281.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

183

SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM1

Anwaruddin Choudhury2

( With one text figure)

Key words: Turtles, tortoises, chelonians, conservation, Mizoram, northeastern India

During a survey in the northeastern Indian state of Mizoram, six species of turtles and tortoises were recorded. These are the elongated tortoise Indotestudo elongata, brown hill tortoise Manouria emys, Asian leaf turtle Cyclemys oldhamii, keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii , Indian roofed turtle Kachuga tecta and the Indian tent turtle Kachuga tentoria. Unidentified softshell turtles have also been recorded. Since this was the first survey, all records are new for the area. All species of chelonians are eaten by the local tribals, making conservation efforts difficult. However, some are protected in the notified wildlife sanctuaries and national parks. Expansion of human habitation, destruction of habitat for jhum (shifting cultivation as practiced by the hill tribes), and poaching for meat are the main conservation problems. The reported trade in turtle shells across the Indo-Myanmar international boundary is, however, going to become a matter of concern in the future. Recommendations have been made for conservation.

Introduction

The state of Mizoram (21° 58'-24° 30' N, 92° 16'-93° 25' E; area 21,081 sq. km) is located in the southern part of northeastern India (Fig. 1). Formerly referred to as the Lushai Hills of southern Assam, a part of the Himalayan system, the entire state is hilly. The terrain is dissected mostly by north-south flowing rivers making a series of parallel ranges. The highest ranges are towards the east, with the Phawngpui or Blue Mountain (2,157 m above msl) and Lengteng (2,141m above msl) peaks. The lowest elevation is in the riverbeds near the Assam-Mizoram and India-Bangladesh border (less than 1 00 m above msl).

The chelonian fauna of the state was virtually unknown, and the literature on the region as well as on India’s turtles and tortoises has virtually no reference to this area (Anderson 1871, Choudhury 1990, 1996a, b, 1998, Das 1985, 1990, 1991, 1995, Smith 1931).

The present account describes the records of turtles and tortoises discovered during my field

'Accepted November, 2000

2The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,

c/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati781 021, Assam, India.

survey (April 2000) in Aizawl, Mamit, Kolasib, Serchip, Lunglei, Lawngtlai and Saiha districts.

Abbreviations: SCL = straight carapace length, CCL = curved carapace length, SCW = straight carapace width, CCW = curved carapace width, CH = carapace height, PL = plastron length, PW = plastron width, SH = shell height.

Local names: Sartle (Mizo), Sattle (Lai or Pawi, especially in Lawngtlai and Saiha districts), and Seilka (Mara or Lakher, especially in Saiha district).

Study Area

The study sites were: Dampa Tiger Reserve, Dapchua village, Khawmawi village, Mampui village, Ngengpui village, Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary, Phura village, Palak Dil wetlands, Saiha, Sangau village, Thaltlang village and Phawngpui National Park (Fig. 1).

Dampa Tiger Reserve (500 sq. km), located in Mamit district, comprises of low hills with elevations of 150 to 1,000 m above msl. Vegetation is mostly tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen with bamboos. The fringe area is degraded due to currently used as well as abandoned jhums. Dapchua village is on the banks of the Tut (Gutur) river, a tributary of the

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SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM

Tlawng or Dhaleswari River, about 150 m above msl, also in Mamit district. On both sides of the river, hill ranges rise to over 500 m above msl.

Khawmawi (Lunglei district), and Ngengpui (Lawngtlai district) villages are on the valley (150 m above msl) of Ngengpui River, a tributary of the Kolodyne River, in the northern fringe of Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary. Some of the finest rainforests of Mizoram are still found in this area (elevation 100-500 m above msl). The Sanctuary is 1 10 sq. km in Lawngtlai district. Mampui village, not far from Ngengpui

Sanctuary, is also in Lawngtlai district, but much higher (1,000 m above msl). Some fine patches of evergreen forest amidst jhum is typical of the vegetation.

Phura village and Palak Dil wetlands are located in the southern part of Saiha district. The former is a valley (200 m above msl) surrounded by hills (>400 m above msl), and the latter a natural lake ( c . 1 sq. km at 300 m above msl). Some of the forest patches are still excellent, but jhum is widely practised here.

Saiha is the headquarters of Saiha district (1,100 m above msl) and is surrounded by degraded hillslopes with grass or scrub. Sangau (1,350 m above msl) and Thaltlang (1,300 m above msl) villages are near Phawngpui National Park (50 sq. km). The Park ranges from 1,100 to more than 2,000 m above msl, and has the highest peak in Mizoram (2,157 m above msl). Habitat in the lower areas (<1,600 m above msl) is tropical evergreen and higher up it is subtropical broadleaf. Towards east flows the Kolodyne River (c. 300 m above msl), which also marks the boundary between India and Myanmar at that stretch.

The climate of these areas is tropical monsoon with a hot and wet summer and a cool and usually dry winter. The temperature ranges from a minimum of 7 °C (December to early February) to a maximum of 34 °C (June to August) (extreme range: <5° to >36 °C). The annual rainfall ranges from 2,000 to 4,000 mm, about 75% of which falls in the monsoon (May to September). Winter rains are not uncommon.

Methods

Turtles and tortoises were searched for during foot transects along the existing paths and streams in the forests (totalling 61 km), and boat- transect along Ngengpui River and Palak Dil (2.5 km). Transect along roads (by vehicle) covered 1,847 km. Motor vehicle was used to reach

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SOME CHELON1AN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM

different sites. Specimens displayed outside the tribal huts (usually all trophies are displayed outside) were also located from a moving vehicle. Houses in select villages were randomly searched for any preserved shell or part thereof. All materials were personally examined, identified, photographed and measured as per standard procedure.

Results

Elongated tortoise Indotestudo elongata (Blyth 1853)

Seven preserved specimens were found and examined; two more were reported. The specimens were at Dampa Rengpui and Teirei villages on the outskirts of Dampa Tiger Reserve, Mampui village, Ngengpui-Khawmawi villages, Phura village and Sangau village. Two specimens were reported from Saiha town, but could not be examined. The measurements are given at Table 1 .

In areas closer to Mizoram, it has been recorded in Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh (Das 1995) and Hailakandi district of southern Assam (A. Choudhury, unpubl.). According to the collectors, it is widely distributed in bamboo forest and often caught in jhummed areas (after burning of vegetation). The sites of capture ranged from 150 to 1,000 m above msl (at Mampui).

Brown hill or Asian brown tortoise Manouria emys (Schlegel & Muller 1 840) Two preserved specimens were seen and examined, and one more reported. The specimens were at Phura and Sangau villages. One reported from Phura could not be examined. The Phura specimen was obtained around 1997 from the hill slope near Palak Dil. The Sangau specimen was obtained in the 1980s from the slopes near the Kolodyne River. The measurements are given in Table 2.

In areas closer to Mizoram, it has been recorded in Rangkhyang Reserve Forest of Bandarban in Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh (Das 1995) and Hailakandi district of southern Assam (Choudhury 1996b). According to the collectors, it is rare nowadays, as sheer size makes it a prized catch and also easy to spot in jhummed areas (after burning of vegetation). The sites of capture ranged from 150 to 500 m above msl (slopes near Sangau). (Regarding subspecies, see discussion).

Unidentified softshell turtles Trionychidae One preserved carapace seen at Thaltlang village. It was reportedly caught in Kolodyne River. At Palak Dil, more than one species of softshell, including large specimens, have been reported. Regularly caught by villagers at this large lake.

Table 1

MEASUREMENTS OF ELONGATED TORTOISE INDOTESTUDO ELONGA TA (IN CM)

Specimen/Site

SCL

CCL

sew

(gt)

CCW

(n-n)

PL

PL

PW

Remarks

1.

Dampa Rengpui

29.0

36.0

18.0

27.0

Nuchal small

2.

Teirei

16.5

19.5

12.5

18.5

16.5

14.5

10.5

Nuchal present

3.

Mampui

27.5

32.5

18.0

27.5

24.0

20.5

16.5

Nuchal prominent

4.

Ngengpui

29.2

34.0

19.2

29.5

Nuchal small

5.

Khawmawi

26.5

31.0

17.0

26.0

Nuchal absent

6.

Phura

27.0

31.2

18.5

27.0

Nuchal absent

7.

Phura

25.7

29.0

16.7

27.0

22.0

19.5

15.5

Nuchal absent. SH = 10.7

8.

Saiha

Not examined

9.

Saiha

Not examined

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Table 2

MEASUREMENTS OF BROWN HILL TORTOISE MANOURIA EMYS( IN CM)

Specimen/Site

SCL

CCL

sew

ccw

(gt)

PL

(n-n)

PL

PW

Remarks

01. Phura

54.0

59.0

36.5

59.0

53.0

49.0

36.0

SH= c. 23.0

02. Phura

Not examined

03. Sangau

38.5

44.0

27.5

43.0

CH= c. 13.5

In areas near Mizoram, there are records of the Indian softshell turtle Aspideretes gangeticus from the Barak river system, southern Assam, where it is among the common turtles locally caught and sold in the market. The major rivers of Mizoram such as the Tlawng (Dhaleswari) and Tuirial (Sonai) are tributaries of the Barak River. Other softshells recorded by me in southern Assam are the Indian peacock softshell A. hurum and Indian flapshell turtle Lissemys punctata.

Asian leaf turtle Cyclemys oldhamii Gray 1863

One preserved carapace examined at Ngengpui-Khawmawi villages. The measure- ments are given in Table 3.

Near Mizoram, it has been recorded in Chunoti, district Chittagong, Bangladesh and North Cachar Hills district of southern Assam (Das 1995). The sites of capture ranged from 150 to 300 m. The Indian population of Cyclemys are now referred to as C. oldhamii (Fritz et al. 1997).

Indian roofed turtle Kachuga tecta

(Gray 1831)

No specimen found, but a Forest Department document states 13 individuals counted during the wildlife census on April 31, 1993 in Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary.

Table 3

MEASUREMENTS OF ASIAN LEAF TURTLE CYCLEMYS OLDHAMII {m CM)

Specimen/Site

SCL

CCL

sew

CCW

01. Khawmawi

22.0

24.7

16.0

22.0

Indian tent turtle Kachuga tentoria

(Gray 1834)

Two preserved carapaces were seen at the Office of the Field Director, Dampa Tiger Reserve at West Phaileng. However, both the specimens were obtained from a truck which was carrying, among other things, a large number of turtle shells from Tripura to Champhai town, eastern Mizoram, for onward supply (to smuggle!) to Myanmar.

Keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii

(Gray 1862)

Three preserved specimens were seen, of which two were examined. These were at Teirei village, on the outskirts of Dampa Tiger Reserve, Dapchua village and at Sangau village. The Sangau specimen was obtained in the 1980s from the slopes near Kolodyne River (For measurements see Table 4).

A specimen was obtained in Hailakandi district, Assam, not far from the Assam-Mizoram border (Choudhury 1998). It has also been recorded in Manipur (Choudhury 1996d). The sites of capture ranged from 150 to 500 m (slopes near Sangau).

CONSERVATION

Problems

Habitat destruction: Habitat destruction by man due to jhum cultivation, expansion of agriculture in the valleys, clearance for settlement, encroachment of various kinds, felling of trees, poisoning and dynamiting the rivers for fish, are major threats to the habitat.

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Table 4

MEASUREMENTS OF KEELED BOX TURTLE PYXIDEA MOUHOTU{XN CM)

Specimen/Site SCL CCL SCW CCW PL PL PW SH Remarks

(gt) (n-n)

01. Teirei 16.7 19.0 12.0 18.0 16.2 15.7 10.2

02. Dapchua Not measured

03. Sangau 17.0 19.0 12.0 17.0 15.7 - 9.5 5.7

Poaching: Poaching of turtles is done mainly for the pot. But it is apparent that they are also smuggled out to Myanmar for China and the Far East, for use in traditional Chinese medicine. The past record of trans-shipment of shells from Tripura to Myanmar through Mizoram strengthens this possibility. Fortunately, due to insurgency by the Reang (or Bru) tribals in the north, the movement of civilian vehicles between Damchara in Tripura and Mizoram has almost ceased. All the tribes inhabiting Mizoram, namely Mizo, Lai (Pawi), Mara (Lakher), Chakma, Reang, and Hmar relish turtle meat and any specimen seen is caught for food. In Palak Dil and other lakes, turtles are fished by rod and line, while some Myanmarese come occasionally to the former lake to spear softshells. The villagers of Phura reported that the Myanmarese are expert at spearing turtles, and the local villagers do not protest as the catch is shared.

Other problems: Every year, afterburning the hill slopes for jhum (February- April), an unspecified number of turtles and tortoises are found either burnt or partly burnt. Some become easy target due to lack of cover. Larger species such as Manouria emys take shelter in small hill streams when the surrounding hillsides are burnt.

The ultimate cause of habitat destruction is, however, the very rapid growth of human population. In Mizoram, it grew from 0.33 million in 1971 to 0.69 million in 1991, i.e.,more than double in two decades! Since the majority of the rural population practices jhum as the main occupation, the large-scale destruction of natural habitat seems inevitable.

Conservation measures taken

Legal Protection: Aspideretes gangeticus, A. hurum and Lissemys punctata are accorded the highest protection under Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, while Indotestudo elongata and Manouria emys are protected under Schedule IV of the same Act. Most of the villagers are, however, unaware of this legal status. It is difficult to enforce the Act due to lack of information and ignorance.

Habitat Protection: Some of the habitats are under protected areas. However, they account for a meagre c. 4.8% of the total area of the State.

Of the six notified protected areas in Mizoram, three may not have sizeable chelonian populations due to their high elevation.

Discussion

The chelonians of Mizoram are poorly known. This report provides some baseline data. It seems that Indotestudo elongata is still fairly common and widespread. Manouria emys , which has become extremely rare in the north and central Mizoram is still found in the south where some good forest remains. All the species are reported for the first time from Mizoram.

Variation in nuchal among Indotestudo elongata is interesting. It is absent in three specimens and prominent in one. I have observed specimens in Dhubri and Bongaigaon districts of Assam, in which the nuchal was absent or very insignificant.

The specimen of Manouria emys examined at Phura resembled the subspecies emys in having

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large gulars that extend well beyond the carapace rim and also being relatively small in size. But interestingly, its pectorals do not resemble either of the subspecies. The scutes narrow towards the point. It resembles to some extent the Rangkhyang specimen (however, the scutes of pectorals narrow towards the contact point, but scarcely touch each other, Das 1995) as well as a specimen at Guwahati Zoo from northern Karbi Anglong (Choudhury 1996b,c). These are considered to be emys-phayrei intergrade (Das 1995). However, Anderson (in Das 1991) believed that both subspecies were inseparable. Anderson’s specimens from Naga Hills (Nagaland), the specimen at Guwahati Zoo from Karbi Anglong and the ones from Rangkhyang and Mizoram seemed to possess characteristics of both the subspecies. Bhupathy (1994) suggested a re-evaluation of its taxonomic status.

Poaching for meat, habitat destruction through jhum , and the trade across the international boundary seem to be the major threats. Even in protected areas, the chelonians are not completely secure due to the ignorance of the human population. The fringe villagers know that killing of elephant Elephas maximus or tiger Panthera tigris is prohibited, but are not so aware regarding chelonians.

RECOMMENDED CONSERVATION MEASURES

1. Creation of new Protected Areas: Some important habitats such as Palak Dil should be brought under the protected area network.

2. Extension of existing protected areas: Part of Ngengpui Reserve Forest should be added to the Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary.

3. Check on poaching and trade: Poaching of chelonians should be checked at this stage, at least in the protected areas. The anti-poaching staff should be motivated and made aware that besides the mega species such as elephant and

tiger, chelonians also need their attention. Awareness among villagers with the help of NGOs will also be useful.

However, the most serious is the reported trade in preserved shells across the international boundary for use in traditional Chinese medicine, which encourages poachers to deliberately search for chelonians. This needs to be monitored and checked, at least on the main trade routes such as Champhai.

4. Check on jhum \ While it is impossible to stop this practice, it can be reduced by introducing terracing, cash crops and horticulture.

5. Other measures: More detailed survey of the villages and the forest for further information on chelonians. Conservation education among locals, including the hill tribes of remote areas. Last, but not least, is the need to take up massive population control measures for the humans in the fringe areas. Considering the high literacy in the state, any awareness campaign should be smooth in comparison to other northeastern states.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following forest officials for their assistance during the study: N. Pradhan (ACF, HQ), L. Pachuan (FD, Dampa), P.C. Lianzuala (RO, Teirei), K. Hramzama (RO, Ngengpui) and his wife, the Reang Chowkidar of Dampa Rengpui, C.L. Buanga, C. Hranghimea, T. Zakiau, K. Kheilai, Khudu Ray, Laikung, Zarlansanga, Khaikhu, Lalnunzira, Sonadhar Saikia, Muankima, Rinsanga, Vanlalpeka, and other staff.

I also thank P. Rahlo and Mrs Nango of Phura, K.Vabeisia and Waukry of Palak Dil, Ms Bawitei of Lawngtlai, M. Goswami and John Paul at Aizawl from Mizoram. Jalal Mazumdar and Amaruddin of Bhaga Bazar, Dr Anil Goswami, Hakim Choudhury, and many others from Assam for their help.

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Refer

Anderson, J. ( 1 87 1 ): A list of the reptilian accession to the Indian Museum, Calcutta, from 1865 to 1870, with a description of some new species. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 40(2): 12-39.

Bhupathy, S. ( 1 994): The distribution of the Asian brown tortoise ( Manouria emys ) in India and the taxonomic status of subspecies. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(1) : 147-148.

Choudhury, A.U. (1990): Two freshwater turtles of the genus Kachuga from Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(1): 151-152.

Choudhury, A.U. (1996a): Distribution of Kachuga smithii (Gray) in Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(2): 301.

Choudhury, A.U. (1996b): Taxonomy of the brown hill tortoise Manouria emys (Schlegel and Muller) and its distribution in Indian subcontinent. Cheetal 35(3-4): 36-39.

Choudhury, A.U. (1996c): New localities for Brown hill tortoise Manouria emys (Schlegel and Muller) from Karbi Anglong, Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 590.

Choudhury, A. U. ( 1 996d): The Keeled box turtle Pyxidea

ENCES

mouhotii Gray — a new record for Manipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 590-591 .

Choudhury, A.U. (1998): Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray) in southern Assam and Mizoram. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(3): 511.

Das, I. (1985): Indian turtles: a field guide. WWF-India (Eastern Region), Calcutta. 1 1 9 pp.

Das, I. (1990): Distributional records for chelonians from northeastern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(1): 91-97.

Das, I. (1991): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of the Indian subcontinent. R & A Publishing Ltd, Portishead. 133 pp.

Das, I. (1995): Turtles and tortoises of India. WWF-India & Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Fritz, U.W.E, Maren Gaulke & Edgar Lehr (1997): Revision der siidostasiatischen Dornschildkroten- Gattung Cyclemys Bell, 1 834, mit Beschreibung einer neuen Art. Salamandra 33(3): 183-121.

Smith, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I. Taylor & Francis, London, 1 85 pp.

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DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PRIMATES IN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK AND ADJACENT AREAS, KERALA, INDIA1

K.K. Ramachandran and Gigi K. Joseph2

Key words: Distribution, demography, Macaco, silenus , Trachypithecus johnii, Macaca radiata, Semnopithecus entellus

Distribution and demography of all diurnal primates were studied in Silent Valley National Park and adjacent areas for a period of three years from 1993 to 1996. Fourteen troops of lion-tailed macaque, eighty-five troops of Nilgiri langur, fifteen troops of bonnet macaque and seven troops of Hanuman langur were observed. Of these, the Nilgiri langur was randomly distributed, whereas the lion-tailed macaque troops were confined to the southern sector of the Park. Bonnet macaques and Hanuman langurs were occasional visitors, especially during summer and northeast monsoon in the southwestern fringes of the National Park. Demographical studies revealed that the Silent Valley forest remains one of the most undisturbed viable habitats left for the endemic and endangered primates of the Western Ghats like the lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur.

Introduction

India is well known for its rich primate fauna with as many as 15 species. These include seven macaque, five langur, two loris, and one ape species (Agrawal, 1998). The highest number of primate species in India is seen in the northeastern states, where 10 species occur in sympatry (Molur et al 1998). The distribution of these primates very often extends to the Southeast Asian countries like Bangladesh, Myanmar, Indonesia, Thailand and South China. But the two endemic primates of the Western Ghats, namely lion-tailed macaque ( Macaca silenus ) and Nilgiri langur ( Trachypithecus johnii ), exist in the wild only in the south Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Slender loris ( Loris tardigradus), Hanuman langur (Semnopithecus entellus) and bonnet macaque ( Macaca radiata) are also distributed in the state of Kerala.

In the last two centuries, up to 1970, extensive forest destruction for plantations and

'Accepted August, 2000

2Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala 680 653, India.

agriculture, and poaching severely affected the primate population in the Kerala part of the Western Ghats. However, the inclusion of vast stretches of forests in the protected area network, and the implementation of the Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1972, has helped to restore populations to some extent in many areas. Silent Valley National Park is still among the least disturbed evergreen forests in the country and it is important to estimate and monitor the primate populations there.

A number of studies have mentioned the status and distribution of primates in Silent Valley forests (Daniel and Kannan 1967, Kurup, 1975 1978, Roonwal and Mohnot 1977, Green and Minkowski 1977, Ali 1985, Easa et al.

1997) . But it was Vijayan and Balakrishnan (1977) who first studied the mammalia exclusively in the rainforest ecosystem of the Silent Valley, in connection with a study on the impact of the hydroelectric project on wildlife. Later, Balakrishnan (1984) documented the need for conserving these rainforests, as it formed an important habitat of many larger mammals. Though some recent studies (Ramachandran 1990, Joseph 1998, Joseph and Ramachandran

1998) have described the distribution, status and

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demography of lion-tailed macaque, no detailed work was done on other primates, especially after the declaration of the National Park in 1984. The present paper deals with the distribution and demography of all diurnal primates in Silent Valley National Park and adjacent areas.

Study area

The Silent Valley National Park is situated in Palghat district, Kerala (11° 3' to 11° 13' N and 76° 2 T to 76° 35' E). It is one of the core areas of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The ^National Park extends over 90 sq. km and has pure evergreen vegetation. Kunthipuzha, a tributary of Bharathapuzha, originating from the northeastern hill ranges of the National Park, drains the area. The altitude varies between 658 to 2,383 m. Silent Valley forests receive some of the highest rainfall in the entire Western Ghats, with an average of 6,000 mm per year. The annual mean temperature is c. 20 °C.

The highly diverse flora of Silent Valley consists of 966 species belonging to 134 families and 559 genera (Manilal 1988). This comprises 701 dicotyledons and 265 mono- cotyledons. The five dominant families recorded are: Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Fabaceae, Rubiaceae and Asteraceae. Relative abundance of certain species in specific patches has resulted in the formation of certain tree associations. Six distinct tree associations can be distinguished in the Valley, and they are:- i) Cullenia exarillata-Palaquium ellipticum , ii) Palaquium ellipticum-Mesua ferrea, iii) Mesua ferrea-Calophyllum elatum , iv) Palaquium ellipticum-Poeciloneuron indicum, v) Calophyllum elatum-Ochlandra sp. vi) Poeciloneuron indicum-Ochlandra sp. Among these, the first three tree associations are restricted in the southern sector, whereas the rest of them are confined to the central and northern parts of the National Park (Aiyar 1932).

Methods

Distribution and demography of primates were studied in the National Park and adjacent areas for three years from 1993 to 1996, as part of the endangered primate research project. The National Park and the adjacent areas, were stratified into 12 major blocks of average 10 sq. km area. As the troops of each primate species were not randomly distributed in the highly undulating terrain, line transect method of estimating the animal population (Burnham et al., 1980) was found unsuitable. So total count and sweep sampling methods were used (NRC 1981, Whitesides et al. 1988). Repeated surveys were conducted on foot in each of the blocks to count troop size, structure and sex ratio. Individuals of each species were classified into five categories based on the morphological differences as recorded in literature (Poirier 1969, Roonwal and Mohnot 1977, Kumar 1987, Joseph 1998).

Results

Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus)

Fourteen troops of lion-tailed macaque were identified from Silent Valley National Park and adjacent areas (Table 1). The troops tended to be distributed towards the southern side of the Park, in specific tree association areas such as Cullenia-Palaquium , Palaquium-Mesua and Mesua-Calophyllum prevailing in the evergreen habitat. They were seen in Sairandri, Puchappara and Nilikkal sections within the Park and Panthenthod section of the Attappady reserve forests. A preference for altitudes between 700 and 1,500 m was observed. A total of 275 individuals were observed with an average troop size of 19.64 individuals. The troop size varied from 9 to 36 individuals. The population consisted of more adults (53%) than immatures (47%). The adult sex ratio (1:5.63) was strongly in favour of females (Table 2).

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Table 1

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF PRIMATE COMMUNITY IN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK AND

ADJACENT AREAS

Species

Number of troop sightings

Total

individuals

sighted

Number of troops estimated

Estimated

population

size

Average troop size

Troop size range

LTM

1,793

6,398

14

275

19.64

9-36

NL

1,410

5,418

85

501

5.89

1-14

BM

66

531

15

192

12.8

5-30

HL

25

63

7

24

3.4

1-6

LTM = Lion-tailed macaque, NL = Nilgiri langur, BM = Bonnet macaque, HL = Hanuman langur

Nilgiri langur ( Trachypithecus johnii)

Unlike the lion-tailed macaque, the Nilgiri langur had a wide range of distribution from 400 to 2,300 m elevation in and around the Silent Valley National Park. Though there is variation in the tree associations of different locations, the distribution of this arboreal species was observed in all tree associations of the Park A total of 5,4 1 8 individuals, from 1,410 troop records were observed (Table 1). Eighty-five troops were identified from the overall troop sightings. A total of 501 individuals were observed with an average troop size of 5.89 individuals. Of these, 20.16% were adult males and 40. 12% were adult females. The gender of 5.19% of the adults could not be determined, and the rest of the population constituted immature langurs. The adult male-female ratio estimated was 1:1. 99.

Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata)

Most of the bonnet macaque sightings were concentrated in the southern fringes of moist

deciduous forests bordering the National Park. However, they were observed in the evergreen areas inside the Park during the summer and northeast monsoon. Bonnets were sighted in Sairandri, Aruvampara, Punnamala, Parathod, Panthenthod, Chembotty, Nilikkal, and Walakkad areas. A total of fifteen troops were identified, having 192 individuals altogether (Table 1). The average troop size was 12.8 individuals, varying from five to thirty individuals. Percentage composition of adult males was 11.45% and of the adult females 3 1 .25%. The adult male-female ratio was 1 :2.72 (Table 2).

Hanuman langur ( Semnopithecus entellus ) Hanuman langur troops were commonly seen in the moist deciduous forests of Mannarghat Forest Division bordering the southern region of the National Park. Many a time, they were seen foraging solitarily or along with Nilgiri langurs in the evergreen areas,

Table 2

AGE-SEX COMPOSITION OF PRIMATES IN SILENT VALLEY

Species

Adult male

Adult female

Unidentified adult

Immature

Adult male-female ratio

LTM

22

124

_

129

1:5.63

NL

101

201

26

173

1:1.99

BM

22

60

52

58

1:2.72

HL

5

9

1

9

1:1.8

LTM = Lion-tailed macaque, NL

= Nilgiri langur, BM

= Bonnet macaque, HL =

Hanuman langur

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especially in October and November. Their occasional visit to the evergreen forests was found to be limited to the peripheral regions of Cullenia-Palaquium tree association patches, notably in the Nilikkal area. Once a solitary Hanuman langur was sighted in the Aruvampara region east of Kunthipuzha river. Out of the total sightings, seven troops were identified having 24 individuals (Table 1). Average troop size estimated was 3.4 individuals. Among the total individuals observed 20.8% were adult males and 37.5% were adult females (Table 2). The percent composition of immature was 37.4%, while the gender of 4.1% of the adults could not be determined.

Discussion

The study reveals the existence of a healthy population of lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur thriving in the Silent Valley National Park and adjacent areas. The extensive habitat continuity of the evergreen forests with least human interference help to establish an interbreeding primate population. Most of the lion- tailed macaque troops in the Western Ghats exist as small populations due to extensive fragmentation of the rainforest habitat. These small populations often undergo random shifts in size naturally or due to human influence. Such events can cause a dramatic shift, and can be destructive to the population, even leading to local extinction. Out of the total population of lion-tailed macaque, the Kerala part of Western Ghats holds more than 50% and the rest is shared between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Kumar et al. , 1995). The Silent Valley population having 14 troops with 275 individuals remains one of the most important populations in its entire range. Modelling and simulation exercises were done using the same data, and it was found that the population is viable, facing no serious threats in the next 100 years (Lacy et al. 1996).

Though a healthy viable population of lion-tailed macaque is present in the study area, its distribution is more common in the Cullenia-Palaquium tree association areas, which provides ample food supply throughout the year. The Poeciloneuron-Ochlandra association patches in the higher elevations lack many of the food species of the highly arboreal lion-tailed macaque. This may be the reason for its absence in the upper reaches of Silent Valley National Park. Though the major ecological niche of the Nilgiri langur is the high altitude (1,600-1,900 m) montane shola, they have survived well in the low altitude (400- 800 m) evergreen, semi evergreen and even moist deciduous habitats adjacent to the National Park. This is the most common folivorous primate distributed throughout the Park, irrespective of the various tree associations.

The primate community in Silent Valley constitutes four diurnal species, of which the bonnet macaque and Hanuman langur are not very common inside the Park. Bonnets are occasional visitors, preferring the summer and post monsoon, as there is higher availability of food in the evergreen areas during these seasons. The summer months have abundant Syzygium fruits, while in the monsoon, there is cauliflorous flowering of Cullenia exarillata, which was observed to be a favourite food item for all the four primates and the Malabar giant squirrel, Ratufa indica. Hanuman langur troops were common in the Mannarkad Reserve Forest bordering the western region of the Park, their range extends from the lower altitude moist deciduous areas to the comparatively high altitude evergreen areas. During the Cullenia flowering season, Hanuman langur has been reported from the Park for the first time. Many a time, Nilgiri langurs were sighted along with the Hanuman langur troops in moist deciduous areas. There is, therefore, a need for genetic studies to verify whether both interbreed in the southwestern region of the National Park.

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Attappady Reserve Forest (RF), located adjacent to the National Park, has low lying evergreen forests with great conservation value. The present study reveals a population of lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur and bonnet macaque thriving especially in the Panthenthod areas which is part of the Attappady RF. This area suffers more human interference than other areas inside the National Park. Trapping of nine lion-tailed macaque individuals from a troop inhabiting these areas by Muduga tribals during the study period itself is a clear instance of poaching. The whole area of Silent Valley

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Agrawal, V.C. (1998): Faunal diversity in India: Mammalia. In: Faunal Diversity in India. Alfred, J.R.B., A.K. Das & A.K. Sanyal (Eds.), Envis Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 459-469.

Aiyar, T. V. V. ( 1 932): The sholas of the Palghat division — A study in the ecology and silviculture of the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats. Indian Forester 58: 4 1 4-432.

Ali, R. (1985): An overview of the status and distribution of the lion-tailed macaque. In: The Lion-tailed Macaque: Status and Conservation. Heltne, P.G. (ed.), Alan R. Liss, New York. pp. 1325. Balakrishnan, M. (1984): The larger mammals and their endangered habitats in Silent Valley forests in South India. Biol. Conserv. 29(3): 277-286.

Burnham, K.P., D.R. Anderson & J.L. Laake (1980): Estimation of density from line transect sampling of biological populations. Wildl. Monogr. 72: 202. Daniel, J.C. & P. Kannan ( 1 967): Status of Nilgiri langur (. Presbytis johnii) and lion-tailed macaque ( Macaca silenus ) in South India, Report. Bombay Natural History Society, pp. 1-9.

Easa, P.S., S. Asari & S.C. Basha (1997): Status and distribution of the endangered lion-tailed macaque (. Macaca silenus) in southern Western Ghats, India. Biol. Conserv. 80: 33-37.

Green, S. & K. Minkowski ( 1 977): The lion-tailed monkey and its South Indian rainforest habitat. In: Primate Conservation. Prince Rainier III and G.H. Bourne (Eds) New York, Academic Press, pp. 289-337. Joseph, G.K. (1998): Ecology of lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) in tropical forests of Southern Western Ghats, India. Ph.D. thesis, FRI Deemed

National Park is treated as ‘core zone’. There is a need for demarcating a buffer zone for the Park, which should also include the floristically and faunistically rich Attappady RF, particularly the Panthenthod area.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. J. K. Sharma, Director, KFRI for encouragement and the Wildlife Wing of the Kerala Forest Department for funding the primate research project in Silent Valley National Park.

ENCES

University, Dehra Dun.

Joseph, G.K. & K.K. Ramachandran (1998): Recent population trends and management of lion-tailed macaque ( Macaca silenus) in Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, India. Indian Forester 124: 833-840. Kumar, A. ( 1 987): The ecology and population dynamics of the lion-tailed macaque ( Macaca silenus) in South India. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge. Kumar, A., S. Molur & S. Walker (1995): Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) Population and Habitat Viability Analysis Workshop-Report. Zoo Outreach Organisation, Coimbatore.

Kurup, G.U. (1975): Status of Nilgiri langur, Presbytis johnii , in the Anamalai, Cardamom and Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 283-292.

Kurup, G.U. (1978): Distribution, habitat and status survey of the lion-tailed macaque, (Macaca silenus) (Linnaeus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 321-340. Lacy, R., J. Ballou & S. Molur ( 1 996): Small population biology and the tools of recovery. In situ report. Zoos ' Print 1 1 : 9-23 .

Manilal, K.S. (1988): Flora of Silent Valley. The Mathrubhumi Press, Calicut, pp. 1-398.

Molur, S., P.O. Nameer & S. Walker (Eds) (1998): Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshop Report: Mammals of India. Zoo Outreach Organisation/CBSG, India, Coimbatore. National Research Council (NRC) (1981): Subcommittee on Conservation of Natural Populations, Committee on Nonhuman Primates. Techniques for the Study of Primate Population Ecology. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

Poirier, F.E. (1969): The Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johnii)

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DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PRIMA TES

troop: Its composition, structure, function and change. Folia primat. JO: 20-47.

Ramachandran, K.K. (1990): Feeding and ranging patterns of lion-tailed macaque in Silent Valley National Park. In: Ecological studies and long-term monitoring of biological processes in Silent Valley National Park. KFRI Research Report, pp. 109-133.

Roonwal, M.L. & S.M Mohnot (1977): Primates of South Asia: Ecology, Sociobiology and Behaviour.

■ ■

Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Vijayan, V.S. & M. Balakrishnan (1977): Impact of hydroelectric project on wildlife. Report of the first phase of study. KFRI Interim Research report.

Whitesides, GA, G.H. Oates., S.M Green & R.P. Kluberdang (1988): Estimating primate from transect in a West African Rain Forest. A composition of techniques. J. Anim. Ecol. 57: 345-367.

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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMACHEILINAE REGAN (CYPRINIFORMES : BALITORIDAE) FROM MANIPUR1

W. VlSHWANATH AND JULIANA LAISRAM2

{With four text-figures and three plates )

Key words: Fish, Nemacheilinae, Manipur.

Subfamily Nemacheilinae of Manipur State, India, is represented by 12 species, belonging to 3 genera, namely Acanthocobitis Peters and Neonoemacheilus Zhu & Guo with 2 species each and Schistura McClelland with 8 species. Diagnostic characters of the species, colour patterns, updated geographical distribution, detailed morphometric data, and illustrations are given based on fresh specimens collected from the State. N. assamensis (Menon) and

S. nagaensis (Menon) are treated as valid identification of species are also provided.

Introduction

Fishes of the Subfamily Nemacheilinae Regan (Cypriniformes: Balitoridae) are small sized loaches inhabiting benthic zones of fresh, well aerated hill stream waters of Asia, Ethiopia and Europe. The group is characterised by an elongate, rounded body, a subterminal mouth, presence of prepalatine, 3 pairs of barbels:

2 rostral and 1 maxillary, 1 simple ray each in pectoral and pelvic fins, and absence of spine under or before eye (Nelson 1994). Menon (1987) recognized 2 genera, namely Triplophysa and Noemacheilus under this subfamily. However, Kottelat (1990) while revising the nemacheilines of Southeast Asia, recognised as many as 31 genera.

Manipur, with its numerous hill streams, is rich in loach fauna. The western side of the State is drained by the Barak and its tributaries, which form the Brahmaputra basin. The central plain is drained by the Imphal River and its tr ibutaries, which finally form the Manipur River, which then flows out of the State to join the Chindwin in Myanmar. The river Tizu and its tributaries, and the Chatrickong drain the northern and central part of Ukhrul district respectively, and then enter Myanmar to join the 'Accepted September, 2000

department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.

species here. Distribution map and key to

Chindwm. The Maklang and Namya Rivers draining the southern part of Ukhrul district, the Lokchao draining the Chandel district and several other streams draining the eastern part of the State join the Yu River, a tributary of the Chindwin in Myanmar. Chaudhuri (1912) described Nemacheilus (now Schistura) manipurensis from Ukhrul district. Hora (1921 ) described N. kanjupkhulensis, N. prashadi and N. sikmaiensis (all currently in the genus Schistura ), while reporting on the fish and fisheries of Manipur. His report from the state also included N. botia (now Acanthocobitis ), but the place of collection was Ghaspani, Nagaland. Subsequent reports on the fishes of the state by Hora (1936), Menon (1953) and Menon (1954) did not add any more nemacheilines to the list.

Menon’s (1987) revision of family Homalopteridae (now Balitoridae) also reported Noemacheilus peguensis (now Neonoemacheilus ) and N. vinciguerra (now Schistura ) from the state.

Most of the data presented by previous workers on this group of fishes of Manipur suffers from certain drawbacks: (1) they did not have fresh specimens for examination. Many specimens were in bad shape (e.g. Neonoemacheilus peguensis). Types of Schistura sikmaiensis , in ZSI have been lost, and a neotype from Myitkyina, Myanmar had to be designated (Kottelat, 1990). Moreover, in these specimens, some characteristic colour patterns are lost due

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1 . Acanthocobitis botia, 2. A. zonalternans. 3. Neonoemacheilus assamensis , 4. N. peguensis, 5. Schistura kanjupkhulensis, 6. S. manipurensis, 7. S. nagaensis, 8. S. prashadi, 9. S. scaturgina, 10. S. sikmaiensis, 1 1 . S. vinciguerra and 12. Schistura sp.

Fig. 1: Map of Manipur showing distribution of nemacheiline fishes

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Fig. 2: Mouth and lips of nemacheiline genera: a. Neonoemacheilus , b. Acanthocobitis and c. Schistura.

to long preservation. (2) The descriptions were based on 1-4 specimens, e.g., 1 for N. peguensis, 2 each for S. kanjupkhulensis and S. prashadi , 3 for S. sikmaiensis etc. (3) Type localities are not clearly stated, leading to confusion in the distribution in different drainage basins. (4) The morphometric data is inadequate. (5) There is no proper illustration for some species (N. assamensis, N. nagaensis).

In the present work, 164 specimens in MUMF (Manipur University Museum of Fishes, Manipur University) and a few in ZSI (Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata), collected from Manipur and its adjoining areas were examined. Moiphometric measurement followed Kottelat (1990). The collections include 3 genera, namely Acanthocobitis Peters and Neonoemacheilus Zhu & Guo with 2 species each, and Schistura McClelland with 8 species. N. assamensis (Menon) and S. nagaensis (Menon) are treated here as valid species. A. botia (Hamilton) is reported from the state. Systematic accounts are presented; a key to the species and a distribution map (Fig. 1) have also been provided.

Abbreviations used: MUMF= Manipur University Museum of Fishes; ZSI = Zoological Survey of India; WV = W. Vishwanath, WM = W. Manojkumar, HL = H. Lilabati, LK = L. Kosygin, KS = K. Selim, WJ = W. Jayadev, KN = K. Nebeshwor, SB = S. Bijoy, Unreg. = Unregistered, R = River, Str. = Stream. Under head ‘Material examined1 of every species, the MUMF registration number, followed by number of specimens examined, standard length of fish,

site and date of collection are given.

Systematic Account

Key to the Genera of Nemacheilinae Regan in Manipur

la. Mouth hypertrophied, lips forming a preoral cavity; lower lip in the form of two thick pads,

interrupted in the middle (Fig. 2a)

Neonoemacheilus

lb. Mouth not hypertrophied, lower lip not in the

form of two thick pads (Fig. 2b & 2c) 2

2a. A conspicuous black spot at the upper extremity of caudal base, no transverse black bar at the

base of caudal fin (Fig. 3a) Acanthocobitis

2b. No black spot at upper extremity of caudal base, a black transverse bar at the base of caudal fin (Fig. 3b) Schistura

Acanthocobitis Peters Acanthocobitis Peters, 1861: 712 (type species: A. longipinnis Peters). Kottelat, 1990 (revision). Banarescu & Nalbant, 1995: 432 (generic classification)

Diagnosis: Nemacheiline genus,

recognised by a comparatively deep body which is compressed posteriorly; compressed head, nostrils close together, the anterior one without a barbel-like prolongation; large imbricate scales

Fig. 3: Coloration on caudal base: a. Acanthocobitis and b. Schistura.

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with small focus; scales absent on head and reduced on chest; upper lip usually with papillated pad, with a broad median interruption; dark transverse bands or irregular markings or regularly arranged spots on body; a conspicuous black spot at upper extremity of caudal base, lateral line complete or incomplete; males with a suborbital flap or a suborbital groove.

The counts are as: D. iv, 9Vi-\2Vz, A. ii- lh, 5'/2, C. /9+8/P. 11-13, V. 7-8.

Key to species:

la. Lateral line complete; branched dorsal rays \2Vz A. botia

lb. Lateral line extends up to middle of dorsal fin; branched dorsal rays 9 V2- 1 0 V2 . . A. zonalternans

Acanthocobitis botia (Hamilton)

(Plate 1, Fig a)

Cobitis botia Hamilton, 1822: 350 (type locality: Ganges)

Acanthocobitis botia : Kottelat, 1990 (revision)

Material examined: MUMF, 6, 43.4-62.8 mm, Jiri R., LK and SB, January, 1998. MUMF 3015. 1,62.8 mm, KN. 5.V.1999

Diagnosis: In addition to the key characters, other diagnostic characters are: dorsal profile slightly convex anteriorly and concave posteriorly, pectoral fin extends to more than half of the distance between pectoral and pelvic fin origins. Pelvic fin origin under 3rd-4th branched dorsal fin ray. Dorsal fin inserted slightly ahead of middle of body. Head rounded, eyes on dorsal half of head. Body covered with scales. Lateral line complete. Caudal fin slightly emarginate.

Colour: A distinct, thin, dark line above lateral line; 8-10 elongate vertical blotches on body, shapes variable. 10-11 black patches ('saddles’ as mentioned by Kottelat, 1999) on back, extending towards lateral line alternate with the blotches. Dorsal fin with 5-6 horizontal series of black spots, caudal fin with 7-8 vertical

series, V-shaped, pointed posteriorly.

Distribution: River Indus, Pakistan to Mae Khlong of Thailand, through Ganga, Brahmaputra, Chindwin, Irrawady, Sitang and Salween basins.

Remarks: Morphometric data given in Table 1. The species is represented only in the collections from Barak and its tributaries (Brahmaputra basin) and not from the Chindwin basin of the State. Hora (1921) included the species in the list of fishes collected from Manipur. However, collection site was Ghaspam, a village in Nagaland, in the Brahmaputra basin.

Acanthocobitis zonalternans (Blyth) (Plate 1, Fig. b)

Cobitis zonalternans Blyth, 1860: 172 (type locality: Tenasserim Province, Myanmar)

Acanthocobitis zonalternans-. Kottelat, 1990: 35, figs. 11a, 17, 18 (revision); Banarescu & Nalbant, 1995: 433 (general classification and diagnostic characters).

Material examined: MUMF 3016, 6, 38.6-44.9 mm, Lokchao river, Moreh, WV & party, 25.iii.1999.

Local name: Ngatup

Diagnosis: In addition to key characters, diagnostic characters are: pectoral fin extends to almost 2/3rd the distance between pectoral and pelvic fin origins. Pelvic fin originates behind 4th-5th branched dorsal fin ray. Dorsal fin origin slightly ahead of middle of body. Body and belly with embedded scales. Lateral line incomplete, reaching middle of dorsal fin base. Caudal fin emarginate.

Colour: Body light brown with 12-13 vertical bars of variable shape, extending from back to middle of body . Dorsal black patches 1 0- 13, extending to lateral line, alternating with vertical bars. Bars and patches thinner anteriorly.

Distribution: india: Chindwin basin in Manipur to Mae Khlong and Tapi basins of Thailand, through Sitang and Salween basins.

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Table 1

MORPHOMETRY OF A. BOTIA AND/1. ZONALTERNANS (IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL, IN MM)

A. botia (N=7)

A. zonalternans (N=6)

Mean

Range

S.D.

Mean

Range

S.D.

Standard Length

43.4-82.8

38.6-44.9

Depth of Body

20.9

18.0-24.4

1.9

19.8

17.9-22.0

1.3

Lateral Headlength

24.5

22.8-25.3

0.9

24.2

23.2-25.6

0.9

Dorsal headlength

21.9

20.8-23.0

0.8

21.6

20.9-22.7

0.6

Head depth (at nape)

15.0

14.1-15.8

0.5

15.5

14.2-17.3

0.9

Head depth (at eye)

12.6

11.7-13.4

0.6

12.7

12.2-13.9

0.6

Snout length

9.7

9.0-10.9

0.6

9.1

8.1-10.2

0.7

Eye Diameter

5.8

5. 3-6.0

0.2

5.1

4.4-5. 8

0.5

Interorbital width

6.5

5.9-12

0.5

7.7

6. 7-8. 5

0.6

Maximum head width

15.3

14.5-16.6

0.6

14.8

13.5-15.3

0.7

Head width (at nares)

9.5

8.6-11.2

0.9

9.6

9.0-10.1

0.3

Mouth gape width

6.0

4. 8-7.4

0.8

5.9

5. 1-6.4

0.4

Internarial width

5.6

5. 1-6.0

0.4

5.7

4.7-7. 1

0.8

Length of caudal ped.

13.0

11.5-14.4

0.9

13.5

11.4-16.4

1.6

Height of caudal ped.

12.8

12.2-13.4

0.4

12.9

12.0-14.4

0.8

Body width (dorsal origin)

14.5

13.1-16.1

0.9

13.4

11.9-14.0

0.7

Body width (anal origin)

9.3

8.3-10.2

0.6

9.6

* 8.5-10.8

0.8

Height dorsal fin base

21.2

19.5-23.3

1.5

20.0

19.0-20.8

0.8

Height of dorsal fin

21.0

16.9-24.1

2.2

22.2

21.1-23.6

1.0

Length of pectoral fin

20.8

19.5-22.1

1.0

22.4

21.0-24.4

1.2

Length of ventral fin

16.5

15.3-17.4

0.7

18.6

16.8-20.5

1.5

Length of anal fin

8.1

7. 5-8. 8

0.6

8.7

7.6-10.2

0.9

Length of upper caudal lobe

23.8

22.4-25.2

1.0

25.9

24.4-28.2

1.2

Length of lower caudal lobe

22.9

21.4-23.9

0.9

25.9

24.4-28.2

1.2

Predorsal length

44.9

42.2-46.8

1.4

47.6

45.1-49.0

1.4

Pre pelvic length

52.9

51.9-54.7

0.9

55.1

53.9-57.4

1.3

Pre anal length

79.4

77.9-80.4

1.0

79.0

77.8-83.1

1.7

Pre anus length

73.9

72.7-75.8

1.0

73.5

71.5-75.7

1.5 .

Remarks: Morphometric data are given in Table 1. Hora (1921) reported the fish to be plentiful in Manipur Valley. However, now it occurs only in the streams draining into the Yu River (tributary of Chindwin). Kottelat’s (1990) inclusion of Brahmaputra in the distribution of the species needs confirmation. None of the material he examined, as listed on pp. 36-38 was from the said basin.

Neonoemacheilus Zhu & Guo Neonoemcicheilus Zhu & Guo, 1985: 321 (type species: Nemacheilus labeosus Kottelat). Kottelat, 1990 (revision). Banarescu & Nalbant, 1995; 436 (generic classification)

Infundibulatus Menon, 1987: 177 (type species: Nemacheilus peguensis Hora, new subgenus of Nemacheilus (Bleeker)

Diagnosis: A nemacheilme genus with hypertrophied lips forming a preoral cavity. Lips with transverse ridges, flat, lower lip in the form of two thick pads, interrupted in the middle. Scales imbricate; Lateral line complete. Body with 13-21 dark brown transverse bars; suborbital flap in males. Body slender, dorsal profile arched, ventral more or less straight, compressed moderately before dorsal fin origin, more compressed behind. Head comparatively deep. Mouth ventral, placed behind tip of snout. Lips broad, processus dentiformes moderately

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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN

developed. Barbels 3 pairs; inner rostral reaches corner of mouth, outer rostral and maxillary slightly longer. Anterior nostril opens obliquely in front side of a flap-like tube. Body covered with scales, absent on ventral surface. Lateral line complete.

The counts are: D. iv, 8 14-9 Vi; A. iii, 514; C. /9+8/; P. 11-12; V. 7-9.

Key to Species

la. Branched dorsal fin rays 814, head depth

12. 9.(1 1.8-1 3.7)% of SL; body with 13- 17 dark brown transverse bars N. assamensis

lb. Branched dorsal fin rays 914; head depth

14.3 (13.4- 15.0)% of SL; body with 20-21 dark brown transverse bars N. peguensis

Neonoemacheilus assamensis (Menon) (Plate 1, Fig c)

Noemacheilus assamensis Menon, 1987; 179 (type locality: Pagladia River, Assam)

Material examined: MUMF 3011, 11, 35.1-43 mm, Jiri R., tributary of Barak R., Jiribam, WV & party, December, 1997.

Local name: Ngatup

Diagnosis: Species with 814 branched dorsal fin rays; a conspicuous pad on tip of snout overhanging mouth, width of mouth 53.4-55.6% of head width; head depth 54.1-66.7%, interorbital space 16.3-25.3% of HL; 13-17 dark brown transverse bars on body. Pectoral fin reaches midway to base of pelvic, the latter just reaches anus or a little beyond. Anus situated nearer to anal fin than to origin of pelvic fin.

Mouth semicircular, situated a little behind the snout (Fig. 2a). Upper lip thin, moderately hypertrophied, a pad-like structure in the middle. Body covered with scales except head, but more sparsely between pectoral fins. Scales minute, oval-shaped with large focus (Fig. 4a). Lateral line complete with 80-85 pores.

Sexual dimorphism: Males with well developed suborbital flap and breeding tubercles on pectoral fin (Figs 4b, 4c)

Colour: Body creamish- white with 13-17 light brown transverse bars extending from back to 2/3rd of flank, not reaching ventral surface, interspace wider. Width of bar increases with size of fish. A dark bar, fainter in the middle, present on caudal base. All fins hyaline. Snout with 4 transverse stripes. Dark brown triangular spot on occiput, a small dark spot between the nares.

Distribution: india: Pagladia R., Assam, Jiri R., Manipur (both of Brahmaputra basin).

Remarks: Morphometric data given in Table 2. Menon (1987) described the species based on a single specimen. Although he mentioned a paratype, he did not provide an illustration. Kottelat (1990, p. 72) distinguished the species from N. peguensis by its smaller number of branched dorsal fin rays and slender caudal peduncle. However, he could not describe the species due to paucity of material. Banarescu & Nalbant (1995) made no mention of the species. In the present study, 1 1 examples of the fish from Jiri R. of Manipur were examined. The species is redescribed here.

Fig. 4: Different body parts of Neonoemacheilus assamensis: a. Scales from above pectoral fin, b. suborbital flap in males, c. breeding tubercles on pectoral fins of male

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Neonoemacheilus peguensis (Hora) (Plate 1, Fig d)

Nemachilus peguensis Hora, 1929: 320, pi. 14, figs. 1, 2 (type locality: Pegu Yoma)

Neonoemacheilus peguensis : Kottelat, 1990: 75, fig 45 (revision, holotype examined) Material examined: MUMF 3012, 1, 40.7 mm, Imphal R. WJ, 3.iii.l999; MUMF 3013, 2, 49.9-62.9 mm, Iril R., LK, March, 1999. Local name: Ngatup Diagnosis: A species with broad lips, mouth width 66.7-70.7% of head width; branched dorsal fin rays 9Vi\ no pad on ventral surface of snout tip; head deeper 68.6 (67.8- 69.1)% of head length; interorbital width 28.5

(24.6-31.0)% of head length; 20-21 dark brown transverse bars on body.

Sexual dimorphism: Males have a well developed suborbitai flap.

Colour: Body creamish-white, 20-21 thin transverse dark brown bars extending from back to 2/3rd of flank. Fins with no markings. Occiput with dark dots.

Distribution: india: Iril and Imphal rivers (in Manipur Valley), Namya R., a tributary of Yu river of Myanmar (all of Chindwin basin); Myanmar: Pegu Yoma (Irrawady basin).

Remarks: Morphometric data given in Table 2. The specimens under examination are N. peguensis as they agree well with the

Table 2

MORPHOMETRY OF N. A SSA MENSIS AND N. PEGUENSIS ( IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL IN MM)

N. assamensis (N=l 1 ) N. peguensis (N=3)

Mean

Range

S.D.

Mean

Range

S.D.

Standard Length

35.1-43.8

40.7-62.9

Depth of Body

17.0

15.5-19.5

1.17

18.2

17.0-20.2

1.4

Lateral headlength

23.7

22.8-24.8

0.58

23.4

22.9-24.1

0.5

Dorsal headlength

20.8

19.2-22.3

0.82

20.9

19.4-21.9

1. 1

Head depth (at nape)

12.9

11.8-13.7

0.65

14.3

13.4-15.0

0.7

Head depth (at eye)

10.2

9.3-10.9

0.46

11.9

11.6-12.4

0.4

Snout length

8.3

7.4-9.0

0.46

10.1

9.4-10.7

0.5

Eye Diameter

5.8

5.4-6. 7

0.27

5.0

4. 6-5.4

0.3

Interorbital width

4.5

3. 6-5. 2

0.48

6.0

5. 2-6. 9

0.7

Maximum head width

12.9

11.8-13.7

0.65

14.0

13.8-14.3

0.2

Head width (at nares)

8.1

7.0-8. 9

0.51

8.2

4.8-10.3

1.4

Length of caud.ped.

13.4

12.3-14.6

0.57

13.2

12.8-13.4

0.3

Height of caud. ped.

9.7

9.1-10.3

0.43

11.1

10.3-11.6

0.6

Body width (dorsal origin)

12.1

10.1-13.4

0.88

13.7

12.0-15.1

1.3

Body width (at anal origin)

7.9

6. 7-9. 3

0.86

8.2

6.8-9. 2

1.0

Height dorsal fin base

15.7

13.9-16.9

0.70

17.6

15.8-19.1

1.4

Height of dorsal fin

20.4

19.5-23.0

1.19

19.6

18.0-20.6

1.1

Length of pectoral fin

22.1

21.1-23.0

0.63

19.8

18.1-21.6

1.4

Length of ventral fin

16.8

15.9-17.7

0.66

15.8

14.6-16.7

0.9

Length of anal fin

8.1

6. 4-9. 7

0.96

8.2

8. 0-8. 6

0.3

Length of upper caudal lobe

23.9

22.8-26.1

1.06

24.5

24.0-24.8

0.3

Length of 1 ower caudal lobe

25.1

23.9-27.2

0.90

24.3

23.7-25.3

0.7

Predorsal length

44.7

43.6-50.4

1.90

50.0

49.1-50.5

0.7

Pre pelvic length

52.5

49.7-56.8

1.91

55.3

53.9-57.2

1.4

Pre anal length

78.6

76.4-80.8

1.27

79.0

78.4-79.9

0.6

Pre anus length

67.7

64.9-70.9

2.01

68.1

65.8-69.8

1.7

Width of mouth in % of HW

53.3

53.4-55.6

1.06

68.9

66.7-70.7

2.1

Head depth as % of HL

61.9

54.1-66.7

3.89

68.8

68.5-69.1

0.2

Interorbital width

21.9

16.3-25.3

2.72

28.7

24.6-31.5

2.9

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description of the holotype by Kottelat (1990), who described the species partially from the specimen which was in very bad shape (as his photograph shows). Menon (1987) noted that the species had a cup-shaped (labial structure) with a greatly hypertrophied upper lip. Kottelat (1990), on the other hand, wrote that the lips are thick. Both the authors showed a cup-shaped mouth with greatly hypertrophied lips (Menon’ s pi. 6, fig. 8; Kottelat’s fig. 45), which were the reproductions of Hora’s (1929) drawings. The present specimens (Fig. 2a) do not have such a structure.

Schistura McClelland

Schistura McClelland, 1838: 944, 947 (type species: S. rupeculci McClelland); Kottelat, 1990: 90 (revision): Banarescu & Nalbant, 1995: 438 (generic classification).

Diagnosis: Mouth wider than long, lower lip medially interrupted, but not forming two lateral triangular pads; a black bar (sometimes dissociated) on caudal fin base; 2 black marks along the base of dorsal fin; body with black transverse bars, split in many. Posterior nostril prolonged into a tube in some. Sexual dimorphism not seen in most species; pectoral fin rays may be ossified and covered with breeding tubercles in males. Body covered with embedded scales.

The counts are: D. ii-iii, 7‘/2-91/2, A. ii-iii, 5/4, C/8-9+7-8/, P. 9-12, V. 6-8.

In all the species found in Manipur, the following observations were made. Branched dorsal fin number is an important specific character. Dorsal fins are inserted midway between tip of snout and caudal fin base, except in S. prashadi where they are inserted slightly ahead. Anterior nostrils are pierced obliquely in the front side of a flap-like nasal tube. There are 3 pairs of barbels, inner and outer rostrals and a maxillary. Processus dentiformes are developed in all the species except in S. prashadi in which it is reduced. A black spot is present at the base

of first few dorsal rays, except in S. scaturigina.

Local name: Commonly called Ngatup in Manipur; Moremlei, Khirilei or Hankorkhai in Tangkhul dialect.

Key to species

1 . Branched dorsal rays 914 S. prashadi

Branched dorsal fin rays 714-814 2

2. Branched dorsal rays 714, lateral line incomplete

3

Branched dorsal rays 8 14, lateral line complete or incomplete 4

3 . Body with 8- 1 1 broad transverse bars with narrow

interspace S. kanjupkhulensis

Body with 17-21 narrow irregular bars, often breaking up into mottles, sometimes plain and dusky S. man ipu re ns is

4. Lateral line incomplete. 11-12 broad transverse

bars with narrow interspace S. nagaensis

5. Transverse bars in two rows, one extending from back to lateral line, alternating with another from lateral line towards belly, no black spot at base

of first few dorsal fin rays S. scaturigina

Transverse bars regularly arranged, black spot present at base of first few dorsal fin rays 6

6. Transverse bars 9, depth of body 14.6% of SL

Schistura sp.

Transverse bars more than 9, depth of body 15.7- 18.2% of SL 7

7. 17-20 transverse bars extending from back to

belly, interspace of similar width

S. sikmaiensis

Transverse bars wide in caudal peduncle, gradually narrowing antenorwards, bars broken up into characteristic reticular network in front of dorsal fin origin S. vinciguerra

Schistura kanjupkhulensis (Hora)

(Plate 2, Fig. a)

Nemacheilus kanjupkhulensis Flora, 1921 : 202, pi. 10, figs. 4, 4a (type locality: Yairibuk, Manipur).

Nemacheilus kanjupkhulensis: Menon, 1987: 115 (diagnosis and description)

Schistura kanjupkhulensis: Kottelat, 1990: 131 (revision); Banarescu & Nalbant, 1995: 439, fig. 10 (generic classification and illustration)

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W. Vishwanath et al. : Acanthocobitis sp. and Neonoemacheilus sp. Plate 1

Figs a-d: a. Acanthocobitis botia (MUMF 3015), 62.8 mm SL; b. A. zonalternans (uncatalogued), 42. 1 mm SL;

c. Neonoemacheilus assamensis (MUMF 3011), 38.8 mm SL; d. N. peguensis (MUMF 3012), 41.7 mm SL

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W. Vishwanath et al. : Schistura sp.

Plate 2

Figs a-d: a. Schistura kanjupkhulensis (MUMF 2040), 45.0 mm SL; b. S. nagaensis (MUMF 2074), 41.4 mm SL; c. S. manipurensis (uncatalogued) 54.0 mm SL; d. Schistura sp. (MUMF 3009), 54.0 mm SL

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Material examined: Unreg. 5, 30.3-49.8 mm, Chakpi stream, WM, 12.xi.1992; unreg. 1, 36.0 mm, Maklang R., KS, 25.iv.1995; 3007, 3, 42.5-46.3 mm, Khujairok, WV & party, March, 1998.

Diagnosis: Schistura with 714 branched dorsal fin rays, 8-1 1 broad black bars on body alternating with narrower and pale yellow interspace; body depth 17.1 (15.0-19.3)% of SL. Caudal fin truncate.

Sexual dimorphism: Not known.

Colour: Body yellowish with 8-11 broad brown transverse bars, alternating with narrow interspace. Bands usually not broken up. Caudal base with a continuous darker bar. A dark spot at base of first few dorsal rays. Distinct series of longitudinal dark spots in upper 2/3rd of dorsal fin, another fainter one near outer border. Caudal fin with 2-3 irregular vertical bands. Fins and some parts of body orange in live condition.

Distribution: india: Chindwin basin of Manipur.

Remarks: Morphometric data given in Table 3. Distributed in the streams of the Manipur central valley and of those draining into the Yu R. of Myanmar. Menon (1987) described Noemacheilus (now Schistura) nagaensis from Tizu R., Nagaland. Kottelat (1990) doubted its validity and recorded it as synonymous with S. kanjupkhulensis with a question mark. The species is considered valid in this work, it is discussed in detail and described.

Schistura manipurensis (Chaudhuri) (Plate 2, Fig c)

Nemachilus manipurensis Chaudhuri, 1912: 443, pi. 40 fig. 4, pi. 41 fig. 1 (type locality: Manipur)

Noemacheilus manipurensis : Menon, 1987: 121, pi. 12 fig. 4 (diagnosis and description)

Schistura manipurensis : Kottelat, 1990: 156, fig. 114, 115 (revision)

Material examined: Unreg., 3, 29.3- 40.3 mm, Chapki Str., WM, 16.ix.1992; MUMF 2079, 1, 56.5 mm, Challou R., Thetsi, LK, 2.vi.l994; MUMF 2155-59, 5, 38.0-56.0 mm, TizuR., 1 5 . viii. 1 994, MUMF 2201,9,35.0-55.0 mm, Tizu R., 17.vi.1997, MUMF 2272, 1, 54.3 mm, Str. NearTolloi, 12.xi.1997; Unreg., 7, 30.2- 59.2 mm, Challou R., Chingal, 30.iv.1995; Unreg., 6, 35.0-51.2 mm, Wanze Str., Khamsom, 8.i. 1 996; all LK, Unreg., 1, 56.4 mm, Chatrickong R., KS, 6.vi. 1 996; MUMF 3001 , 6, 35.4-59.8 mm; Khujailok, WV & party, March, 1998.

Diagnosis: Schistura with 7% branched dorsal rays, males with suborbital flap, processus dentiformes reduced, lateral line incomplete, extending up to pelvic origin, a dark spot at base of first few dorsal fin rays, body with dark thin bars, usually broken up, may be plain dusky, caudal fin slightly emarginate to truncate.

Sexual dimorphism: Males with a large suborbital flap.

Colour: Body pale yellowish, with 17-21 thin transverse bars, irregular, extending from back to caudal base, a black spot at base of first few dorsal rays. Dorsal fin with 2 horizontal bars, one in the middle and another near outer border, caudal with irregular transverse bars.

Distribution: india: Chindwin basins of Nagaland and Manipur.

Remarks: Chaudhuri (1912) reported the type locality as Manipur, Assam, without mentioning the drainage. Manipur was a part of Assam in British India. Now it is a State of the Indian Union. Flora (1921) obtained the information from Dr. Annandale and reported that the fish was collected by Rev. Pettigrew from Ukhrul district. All the streams and rivers in the district belong to the Chindwin basin. Specimens examined by Menon (1987) and Kottelat (1990) were also from the same basin. Thus, distribution of the species in Brahmaputra basin as reported by them is not valid. Morphometric data given in Table 4.

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Schistura nagaensis (Menon)

(Plate 2, Fig b)

Noemacheilus nagaensis Menon, 1987; 1 17 (type locality: Phodung R., tributary of Tizu R., Nagaland).

Material examined: MUMF 2074-78, 5, 31.5-41-0 mm, Challou R, Thetsi, 2.vi.l994; MUMF 2218-32, 15, 31.5-50.0 mm, Wanze stream, Khamsom, 2. i. 1995; MUMF 2270-71, 2, 50.0-54.0 mm, Str. Near Tolloi, 12.xi.1997; Unreg., 3, 47.8-48.0 mm, Momo stream, Tusom CV, 2.iii. 1 998 (all Coll. LK); ZSIF 10061, 2, Zu zeti Str. (Lamr), Nagaland, JH Hutton, 1927.

Diagnosis: Schistura with 1XA branched dorsal fin rays, 9-11 broad, dark, transverse bars on body, alternating with narrower white/pale

yellow interspace; body depth 14.6 (13.9-15.3)% of SL. Caudal fin truncate, lateral line incomplete.

Sexual dimorphism: Not known.

Colour: Body yellowish- white with 9-11 broad, dark brown, transverse bands alternating with narrow interspace. Caudal base with a dark continuous bar. Black spot at the base of first few dorsal rays, horizontal dark bar near outer border of dorsal fin. '

Distribution: india: Tizu River and its tributaries in Nagaland and Manipur (Chindwin basin).

Remarks: Morphometric data given in Table 3. Menon (1987) described the fish based on 14 specimens from Phodung River, a tributary

Table 3

MORPHOMETRY OF 5. KANJUPKHULENSIS AND 5. NAGAENS IS (IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL IN MM)

S. kanjupklrulensis (N=l 1 )

S.

nagaensis (N=25)

Mean

Range

S.D.

Mean

Range

S.D.

Standard Length

42.6-46.3

33.4-44.6

Depth of Body

17.1

15.0-19.3

1.8

14.6

13.9-15.3

1.1

Lateral headlength

22.0

21.2-22.5

0.6

22.7

20.9-24.3

1.3

Dorsal headlength

19.5

19.0-19.8

0.4

20.3

19.2-21.6

0.9

Head depth (at nape)

14.8

1 1 .9-20.2

0.2

11.6

9.4-12.9

0.7

Head depth (at eye)

10.0

9.3-10.8

0.6

10.2

9.6-10.8

0.6

Snout length

8.8

8. 2-9.2

0.4

8.7

8. 1-9.0

0.4

Eye Diameter

3.1

2. 8-3.3

0.2

4.2

3.4-5. 1

0.3

Interorbital width

5.5

5. 2-5. 8

0.2

5.1

4. 9-5.2

0.3

Maximum head width

14.6

14.4-14.8

0.2

13.7

12.8-14.4

0.7

Head width (at nares)

10.0

9.3-10.6

0.5

9.0

8. 1-9.9

0.7

Mouth gape width

7.7

7. 4-8.0

0.2

6.1

5. 4-6.6

0.5

Internarial width

3.8

3. 8-3. 9

0.0

4.1

3. 4-4. 5

0.5

Length of caudal peduncle

14.5

13.8-15.1

0.5

14.3

14.1-14.4

0.1

Height of caudal peduncle

12.2

11.7-12.6

0.4

11.1

10.8-11.4

0.2

Body width(at dorsal origin)

13.3

11.3-14.8

1.5

11.8

11.3-12.1

0.4

Body width (at anal origin)

9.0

8. 2-9.5

0.6

8.7

8. 4-8. 9

0.2

Predorsal length

52.0

51.2-52.8

0.5

51.7

50.6-52.9

0.9

Prepelvic length

53.2

51.6-54.9

1.4

53.2

52.7-53.9

0.5

Pre anal length

76.5

74.6-78.0

1.4

77.2

76.5-78.6

1.0

Pre anus length

75.3

74.5-77.7

1.4

74.1

72.5-75.9

1.4

Length of upper caudal lobe

18.7

17.7-19.3

0.7

18.4

15.9-20.7

1.2

Length of lower caudal lobe

19.6

19.0-20.0

0.4

19.2

17.7-20.7

1.2

Length of pectoral fin

18 .0

17.1-19.0

0.8

18.4

17.5-19.8

1.0

Length of ventral fin

15.5

14.5-16.2

0.7

16.8

16.5-17.4

0.4

Length of anal tin

11.3

10.6-11.9

0.5

12.9

12.6-13.1

0.2

Length of dorsal fin base

13.7

13.2-14.3

0.7

16.2

15.7-16.8

0.5

Height of dorsal fin

13.9

11.4-15.5

0.5

16.1

15.0-18.3

1.6

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Table4

MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF MA NIPURENSIS AND SCHISTURA SP. (IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL IN MM. )

S.

manipurensis

(N=39)

Schistura sp. (N=l)

Mean

Range

S.D.

Standard Length

35.4-59.8

54.0

Depth of Body

15.9

14.2-17.7

1.1

14.6

Caudal length

21.4

19.5-22.5

1.0

—

Lateral headlength

20.2

1 1 .6-22.9

0.9

20.7

Dorsal headlength

19.3

18.4-20.1

0.6

20.6

Head depth (at nape)

12.5

12.3-12.7

0.1

11.9

Head depth (at eye)

10.2

9.8-10.9

0.4

9.8

Snout length

8.7

8.4-9.0

0.2

8.5

Eye Diameter

3.1

22-2.1

0.5

3.3

Interorbital width

7.8

7.0-8. 5

0.5

5.7

Maximum head width

16.0

13.8-18.4

1.5

13.0

Head width (at nares)

11.2

10.5-11.7

0.4

9.1

Mouth gape width

6.9

6. 5-7.4

0.3

7.0

Intemarial width

5.7

4.5-6. 1

0.5

2.8

Length of caudal

peduncle

12.1

11.6-13.4

0.6

15.4

Height of caudal

peduncle

11.7

11.0-12.3

0.5

11.5

Body width

(at dorsal origin)

11.7

9.9-13.1

1.1

11.3

Body width

(at anal origin)

7.7

7. 1-8.4

0.4

7.6

Predorsal length

52.8

50.6-54.5

1.3

50.2

Prepelvic length

49.7

48.3-50.3

0.7

51.7

Pre anal length

78.2

77.5-78.8

0.5

75.6

Pre anus length

74.4

72.5-76.0

1.3

71. 1

Length of upper

caudal lobe

21.4

19.5-22.7

1.0

19.4

Length of lower

caudal lobe

20.9

19.1-22.6

1.1

19.6

Length of pectoral fin

19.0

17.9-20.4

0.8

17.6

Length of ventral fin

18.3

16.9-19.5

0.7

15.9

Length of anal fin

10.4

8.4-12.6

1.4

13.5

Length of dorsal

fin base

11.0

10.2-12.1

0.6

11.7

Height of dorsal fin

13.4

11.5-15.0

1.6

13.1

of Tizu River, Nagaland, collected by J.H. Hutton in March, 1927. He separated the species from S. kanjupkhulensis (Hora) as having 8 vs 7 branched dorsal rays. Two of Hutton’s specimens (ZSIF 10061) collected from Zu Zeti Str., (tributary of Tizu R., near Myanmar border) in 1927 were examined and found to have 8V2 branched dorsal rays. We observed certain

differences between S. kanjupkhulensis and S. nagaensis (mean ±S.D.) in respect of depth of body (19.1 ±1.8 vs. 14.6 ±0.6); depth of head (14.8 ±0.2 vs. 1 1.6 ±1.6) and mouth width (7.7 ±0.2 vs. 6. 1 ±0.5)% of SL. These differences were not noticed by Menon (1987) because of the wide range in his data, probably because he also examined small (juvenile), old and badly preserved specimens.

Menon’s (1987) statement that S. nagaensis replaces N. kanjupkhulensis in Nagaland drainage into the Brahmaputra system needs reconsideration. In fact, Tizu River (type locality of S. nagaensis) originates in the Tuensang District of Nagaland. It then forms the interstate boundary between Nagaland and Manipur and finally flows into the Chindwin in Myamar. Thus, the species under description is a Chindwin form and not Brahmaputra form as reported by Menon (op. cit.), which confused Kottelat (1990).

Schistura prashadi (Hora)

(Plate 3, Fig a)

Nemachilus prashadi Hora, 1921: 203, PI. 10 fig. 2 (type locality: Thonagpal tank, Thoubal and Sikmai streams, Manipur).

Noemacheilus prashadi : Menon, 1987: 127 (diagnosis and description).

Schistura prashadi : Kottelet, 1990: 191 (revision); Banarescu & Nalbant, 1995: 440 (generic classification). Kosygin & Vishwanath, 1998: 243 (report from Nagaland)

Material examined: MUMF 296, 6, 48.7- 53.1 mm, Chakpi stream at Mombi, WM, 12. xi. 1992, MUMF 2070-73, 4, 34.0-36.5 mm, Challou R. Thetsi, 2.vi.l994, MUMF 2268, 1, 49.0 mm, Wanje Str., Khamsom, 5 . ii. 1 997, Unreg., 3, 48.6-59.5 mm, Momo stream, Tusom CV, 2.iii. 1 998, all by LK; Unreg., 2, 43.2-52.3 mm, Chatrickong R., KS, 2.ii.l997.

Diagnosis: Schistura with 9!4 branched dorsal rays, complete lateral line, a distinct black

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spot at base of first few dorsal rays, complete or slightly broken black caudal bar, colour pattern consisting of transverse bars laterally, reticulated spots dorso-laterally, and 1-2 V-shaped dark trans- verse bars on caudal fin, the tips pointing towards body. Caudal fin forked, lateral line complete.

Sexual dimorphism: Males with

suborbital flap, its edge with tubercles, pectoral rays with tubercles on dorsal surface.

Colour: Body yellowish- white with 10-12 dark brown bars extending from slightly above the lateral line towards the level of paired fin origins. Irregular or reticulated spots present from back to lateral line. Caudal bar darker, complete or slightly interrupted. Dorsal fin with black spot at base of first few rays, two horizontal dark bars in the middle. Two V-shaped vertical dark bars on caudal fin, one in the middle and another near posterior margin, apex of both pointing towards body.

Distribution: India: Chindwin basin of Manipur.

Remarks: Morphometric data given in Table 5. All the specimens examined had 9!4 branched dorsal rays as observed by Kottelat ( 1 990). Hora (1921) and Menon ( 1 987) reported only 8, which needs examination. The species is not represented in our collections from Brahmaputra basin so far.

Schistura scaturigina (McClelland)

(Plate 3, Fig b)

Cobitis scaturgina McClelland, 1839: 308, 443, pi. 53, fig. 6 (type locality: Ganga ?)

Noemcicheilus scaturigina’. Menon, 1987: 86, pi. 3, figs. 2, 3; pi. 13, figs. 8, 9 (diagnosis and description)

Material examined: MUMF 3008, 1, 41.00 mm, Tuivai R., HL. March 1997.

Diagnosis: Schistura with 814 branched dorsal rays, elongated head, snout and pectoral fin, no black spot at base of first few dorsal fin rays, caudal fin forked.

Sexual dimorphism: Unknown.

Colour: Body yellowish-white with 12 transverse triangular bars extending from lateral line downward. Bars tend to break up anteriorly. Back and dorsolateral sides with irregular spots and bands. Black bar at base of caudal fin interrupted. Dorsal fin dusky, caudal fin with 2- 3 irregular transverse dark bands.

Distribution: india: Ganga and

Brahmaputra basins.

Remarks: Morphometric data given in Table 5. The present specimens agree with the description by Menon (1987) except for the missing black spot at base of dorsal fin rays. Although Menon’s (1987) drawing of the species (PI. Ill Fig. 20) shows the spot, his photograph in pi. XIII Figs. 8, 9 do not show clear dark spots. The specimen examined was from Tuivai R., a tributary of the Barak (Brahmaputra basin). The fish is very similar to S. prashadi in its general body shape and coloration. We agree with Banarescu and Nalbant (1995) in including both the species in the Scaturigina group.

Schistura sikmaiensis (Hora)

(Plate 3, Fig c)

Nemacheilus sikmaiensis Hora, 1921:201, PI. 9 fig. 4, PI. 10 fig. 1 (type locality: Sikmai stream near Pallel, Manipur)

Noemacheilus sikmaiensis'. Menon, 1987: 125, PI. 3 figs. 4, 5 (diagnosis and description)

Schistura sikmaiensis’. Kottelat, 1990 (revision).

Material examined: Unreg., 16, 31.2-69.0 mm, Chakpi stream, Mombi (tributary of Manipur R, WM, 16. ix. 1992; MUMF 2150- 2154, 5, 43.0-56.0 mm, Challou R., Thetsi, LK, 1 5 . viii. 1 994; MUMF 3003, 1, 92.3 mm, LeimatakR., WJ& SB, 17.V.1999; MUMF 3004, 1, 56.8 mm, Moreh, WV & party, 24.iii.1999; MUMF 3005, 1, 74.1 mm, Litan Str., KS, 25.ih.1999.

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W. Vishwanath et al. : Schistura sp.

Plate 3

Figs a-d: a. Schistura prashadi (uncatalogued), 59.2 mm SL; b. S. scaturigina (MUMF 3008), 41.0 mm SL; c. S. sikamaiensis (uncatalogued), 42.1 mm SL; d. S. vinciguerrae (uncatalogued), 68.2 mm SL

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Table 5

MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF S. PRASHADI AND S'. SCATURIGINA (IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL IN MM.)

Schistura prashadi

S. scaturgina

(N:

= 16)

(N— 1 )

Mean

Range

S.D.

Standard Length

34.0-59.5

41.0

Depth of Body

20.7

19.2-24.1

1.8

19.0

Lateral headlength

22.9

22.2-24.3

0.6

24.7

Dorsal headlength

20.2

19.3-20.9

0.6

22.2

Head depth (at nape)

14.9

12.6-17.2

1.2

13.9

Head depth (at eye)

12.3

11.5-14.2

1.0

10.6

Snout length

8.7

7. 6-9. 5

0.7

10.1

Eye Diameter

4.8

4.2-5. 2

0.3

4.6

Interorbital width

6.2

5. 6-7.0

0.5

5.6

Maximum head width

14.4

13.3-15.9

0.9

15.2

Head width (at nares)

9.5

9.3-10.0

0.2

8.4

Intemarial width

5.2

5. 1-5.4

0.1

5.4

Length of caudal peduncle

14.8

13.6-17.1

1.3

12.0

Height of caudal peduncle

11.0

10.1-11.7

0.5

11.2

Body width (at dorsal origin)

14.5

13.8-15.2

0.6

15.9

Body width (at anal origin)

9.2

8.7-10.2

0.5

8.8

Predorsal length

46.4

44.7-47.6

1.1

50.7

Prepelvic length

53.6

52.6-55.6

1.0

54.4

Pre anal length

76.2

74.2-77.4

1.1

79.8

Pre anus length

71.3

69.2-76.6

1.6

71.2

Length of upper caudal lobe

23.2

22.6-23.8

0.5

Length of lower caudal lobe

23.1

22.3-23.8

0.5

.

Length of pectoral fin

22.4

21.6-23.1

0.6

22.7

Length of ventral fin

18.0

16.9-18.7

0.7

19.0

Length of anal fin

14.1

13.5-14.6

0.5

18.8

Length of dorsal fin base

19.0

17.7-20.2

0.9

15.9

Height of dorsal fin

18.9

16.4-20.6

1.4

20.5

Diagnosis: Schistura with blunt, rounded head and snout, no processus dentiformes, 17- 20 transverse bars on body extending from back to belly, interspace of similar or slightly smaller width, black caudal bar complete, a black spot on the base of first few dorsal rays. Body elongate, tubular in front of dorsal fin, compressed behind,

head slightly depressed. Caudal fin deeply emarginated or forked, lateral line complete.

Sexual dimorphism: Males with

suborbital flap.

Colour: Body light brown with 1 7-20 dark olivaceous transverse bars extending from back to belly, interspace with similar or slightly smaller width. A dark, complete bar on caudal base. A black spot at base of first few dorsal fin rays. Dorsal fin with 2 horizontal dark lines in the middle. Other fins dusky. Body and fins orange in live fish.

Distribution: india: Brahmaputra basin in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur; Chindwin basin in Manipur; Southwest Yunnan and Myanmar in the vicinity of Myitkyina and Putao.

Remarks: Morphometric data are given in Table 6. The species is very widely distributed, i.e., both in the Barak and Chindwin basins of Manipur. Kottelat (1990) doubted the identity of specimen reported by Menon (1987) from JBrahmaputra basin. The present description is based on both Barak (Brahmaputra) and Chindwin basins of these States.

Schistura vinciguerrae (Hora)

(Plate 3, Fig d)

Nemachilus multifcisciatus (non Day, 1978): Vincigerra, 1890: 337 (Meekalan, Thagata Juva).

Nemachilus vinciguerrae Hora, 1935: 62, pi 2 fig. 12 (type locality: Meekalan, Burma).

Noemacheilus vinciguerrae: Menon, 1987: 134, pi. 4 fig. 3 (diagnosis and description).

Schistura vinciguerrae : Kottelat, 1990: 218, pi. 5. figs. 164, 165 (revision).

Material examined: MUMF 2180-2189, 10, 65.0-79.5 mm; Wanze stream, Khamsom, LK, 2. i. 1995; Unreg., 10, 43.3-57.4 mm; Maklang R., KS, 25.viii.1995.

Diagnosis: Schistura with 8 'A branched dorsal fin rays, distinctive colour pattern: dark.

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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN

Table 6

MORPHOM ETRIC DATA OF SCH1STURA SIKMAIENSIS AND S. VINCIGUERRA

(IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL IN MM)

S. sikmciiensis (N=24)

■S.

vinciguerra (N=20)

Mean

Range

S.D.

Mean

Range

S.D.

Standard length

31.2-92.3

43.3-79.5

Depth of body

16.6

15.7-17.4

0.5

17.6

16.9-18.2

0.5

Lateral headlength

24.0

23.4-24.6

0.5

22.8

21.3-24.2

1.2

Dorsal headlength

22.0

21.7-22.3

0.3

19.1

18.2-19.9

0.7

Head depth (at nape)

13.9

12.6-14.9

0.2

12.8

11.9-13.8

0. 8

Head depth (at eye)

12.0

11.2-12.4

1.1

10.5

8.7-12.0

1.6

Snout length

10.8

10.0-11.6

1.8

8.0

7. 5-8.4

0.4

Eye Diameter

3.5

3.0-3. 9

0.4

3.8

3. 0-4. 6

0.7

Interorbital width

6.0

5. 2-6.6

0.2

5.8

5. 7-6.0

0.1

Maximum head width

16.4

14.8-18.0

1.3

13.5

12.9-14.5

1.1

Head width (atnares)

12.3

10.2-14.3

1.8

9.7

9.6-10.0

0.2

Mouth gape width

8.7

7. 6-9. 8

0.9

6.4

5. 9-6. 7

0.4

Intemarial width

4.8

4. 2-5. 8

0.5

4.2

3. 8-4. 8

0.4

Length of caudal peduncle

11.9

11.2-12.5

0.8

14.5

13.9-14.8

0.4

Height of caudal peduncle

13.8

12.8-14.0

0.5

13.7

12.6-14.7

0.9

Body width (at dorsal origin)

15.1

13.7-16.5

1.2

13.4

11.7-14.5

1.2

Body width (at anal origin)

9.8

8.3-11.2

1.2

9.0

7. 9-9. 6

0.8

Predorsal length

51.6

50.7-52.5

0.8

50.0

48.3-51.8

1.4

Prepelvic length

55.4

54.9-55.8

1.4

54.3

52.4-55.5

1.4

Pre anal length

79.5

77.9-81.0

1.4

80.3

80.0-80.7

1.3

Pre anus length

73.2

71.8-74.6

1.2

74.0

73.5-74.4

0.4

Length of upper caudal lobe

19.9

18.6-21.1

1.3

21.7

20.3-23.3

1.2

Length of lower caudal lobe

19.3

18.2-20.4

1.2

22.6

21.7-23.1

1.3

Length of pectoral fin

16.0

14.5-17.4

1.2

19.5

18.4-20.1

0.8

Length of ventral fin

14.1

13.8-14.4

0.5

17.0

16.4-17.7

0.5

Length of anal fin

11.8

10.7-12.6

0.8

14.1

12.7-15.5

1.1

Length of dorsal fin base

16.1

15.5-16.6

1.3

16.0

14.8-16.7

0.9

Height of dorsal tin

16.7

14.6-18.7

2.0

15.5

12.9-16.9

1.9

wide transverse bars with wide interspaces behind, gradually narrower in front; 2-3 bars united dorsally in front of doral fin, usually forming reticulations. Caudal fin forked, lateral line complete.

Sexual Dimorphism: Not known.

Colour: Body yellowish, with 10-16 dark transverse bars, as wide as interspace in caudal peduncle, gradually narrow anteriorly. Bars unite dorsally in front of dorsal fin origin, usually reticular. A. black spot at base of first few dorsal rays; one horizontal dark band across dorsal fin and 2 V-shaped bars across the caudal fin.

Distribution: india: Origin of Challou River (near Sirohi Hills), a tributary of Tizu

River; Maklang andNamya Rivers all Chindwin headwaters in Manipur; Irrawady and Salween basins in Myanmar and Irrawady basin in China.

Remarks: Menon (1987) examined 6 specimens from Manipur, which were probably obtained by a field worker (who came to Manipur in 1985) from M. Gonchandra Sharma, who was collecting fish from Tarest stream, which drains the Ukhrul and Chandel Districts and joins the Yu river (tributary of Chindwin in Myankar). Kongan thana is a small village in the eastern part of Ukhrul District. Namya River, like Taret stream flows into Yu river. Thus, Menon’ s (1987) and Horn’s (1937) references of the locality in Myanmar are wrong.

214

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

FISHES OF THESUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN

Schistura sp.

(Plate 2, Fig d)

Material examined: MUMF 3009, 1 male, 54.0 mm, tributary of Irang R. at Langkha, MG, 1989.

Diagnosis: An elongated form of Schistura , its body depth at dorsal origin 14.6% of SL, ventral profile flat and straight, short fins, 8V2 branched dorsal ray, male with suborbital flap, complete lateral line, 9 broad transverse dark bands extending from back towards belly, broader dorsally, tapering gradually, a black spot at base of first few dorsal rays, caudal fin forked.

Sexual dimorphism: Only one specimen, probably male, was available for examination. It has a prominent suborbital flap.

Colour: As in diagnosis. In addition, body dark brown from back to lateral line, pale yellowish ventrally. Caudal fin with irregular horizontal dark bands.

Refer

Banarescu, P.M. & T.T. Nalbant (1995): A generical classification of Nemacheilininae with description of two new genera (Teleostei: Cypriniformes: Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. «Grigore Antipa» 35: 429-496.

Blyth, E. ( 1 860): Report on some fishes received chiefly from the Sitang River and its tributary streams, Tenasserim Provinces. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 29: 138-174.

Chaudhuri, B.L. (1912): Description of some new species of freshwater fishes from north India. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 437-444, pis. 38-41.

Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches. Constable, Edinburg & Hurst, Robinson and Co., London, 405 pp. 39 pis.

Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some observations on those of Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus. 22: 166-214, pis. 9-12.

Hora, S.L. (1929): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum, XVII. Loaches of the genus Nemacheilus from Burma. Rec. Indian Mus. 31: 31 1-334, pis. 14-15. Hora, S.L. (1935): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum, XXIV. Loaches of the genus Nemacheilus from eastern Himalayas with description of a new species from Burma and Siam. Rec. Indian Mus. 37: 49-

Distribution: Manipur: Lankha stream, tributary of Irang (Tamenglong District).

Remarks: The specimen does not match any known species of Schistura. It is elongated, its fins short and with a characteristic colour pattern. Pending collection and observation of more specimens, new specific status cannot be given. Morphometric data given in Table 4.

AcKNOWLEDG EM ENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr. Maurice Kottelat, Switzerland for literature. Dr. K.C. Jayaram, Chennai for encouragement, to WM, WJ, HL, LK, KS, KN for collecting specimens and to the Director, ZSI, Kolkata, for permitting examination of specimens. The first author thanks the Ministry of Environment and Forests (Scheme No. 1 141/IFD/97) for financial support.

:NCES

67, pi. 3.

Hora, S.L. (1936): On a further collection of fish from the Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus. 38: 317-331 .

Hora, S.L. (1937): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum. XXXII. On a small collection offish from the Upper Chindwin Drainage. Rec. Indian Mus. 39: 33 1 -350. Kosygin, L. & W. Vishwanath (1998): A report on fish diversity of Tizu River, Nagaland with some new records. Ecol. Env. & Cons. 4(4): 243-247. Kottelat, M. ( 1 990): Indochinese nemacheilines, a revision of Nemacheilines (Pisces: Cypriniformes) of Thailand, Burma, Laos, Cambodia and southern Viet Nam. Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfiel, Munchen. 262 PP-

McClelland, J. ( 1 938): Observations on six new species ofCyprinidae with an outline of a new classification of the family. J. Asiat Soc. Bengal 7(2): 941-948. pi. 55.

McClelland, J. (1939): Indian Cyprinidae, Asiat.

Research. 19(2): 217-471, pi. 37-58.

Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish fauna of Manipur, Assam. Rec Indian Mus. 52: 21- 26.

Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 987): The fauna of India and the adjacent countries, Pisces. IV, Teleostei-Cobitidae. Part I. Homalopteridae, Zoological Survey of India,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

215

FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN

Calcutta, x + 259 pp, 1 6 pis.

Menon, M.A.S. ( 1 953): On a small collection of fish from Manipur, Assam. Rec. Indian Mus. 50\ 265-270. Nelson, J.S.( 1 994): Fishes of the World, 3rd edn, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 600 pp.

Peters, W. ( 1 86 1 ): Zwei neue Gattungen von Fischen aus dem Ganges, welche in Jahre 1847 von Hr. Westermann in Kopenhagen dem zoologischen Museum Obersandt worden waren. Monatsber.

Konigl. Preuss. Akad. wiss. Berlin 1861(2): 712-713.

Vinciguerra, D. (I860): Viaggio di Leonardo Fea. In: Birmania e regioni vicini. XXIV. Pesci Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor Nat Genova (2)9: 129-360, pis. 7-11.

Zhu, S. -Q. & Guo Q. -Z. (1985): Description of a new genus and a new species of nemacheiline loaches from Yunnan Province, China (Cypriniformes: Cobitidae). Acta Zootax. Sinica 10: 321-325 [Chinese, English summary].

216

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2), AUG. 2001

DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERATION OF HOLOPTELEA INTE GRI FOLIA PLANCH.

IN AL WAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN1

A.S. Yadav2

( With three text-figures )

Key words: Age structure, grazing, natural regeneration, samara, seedling population

Studies indicate that the distribution of Holoptelea integrifolia (Family: Ulmaceae) is restricted to hilly areas and reserve forests of Alwar district, Rajasthan. Although this species produces an enormous number of fruits (samara) per unit area, only a fraction of them form seedlings. Dry spells and high temperature in the monsoon, low temperature and soil moisture content in winter, dry and hot summer, and grazing adversely affect seedling survival. Observations from the four study sites (Dhobighatta hills, Sagar hills,

Garvaji, R.R. College campus) in Alwar district, Rajasthan indicate that natural regeneration

of H. integrifolia is taking place only in areas biotic disturbances.

Introduction

Holoptelea integrifolia grows in northeast Rajasthan and is reported to be the tallest tree in the region (Sharma and Tiagi, 1979). Unfortunately, despite being a fast growing, local tree species, it has not found use in afforestation. The extensive felling and lopping of H. integrifolia trees for timber and firewood has reduced its distribution in Alwar district, Rajasthan. It is, therefore, imperative to analyse the factors that are responsible for the poor regeneration of H. integrifolia.

Study Area

Four sites were selected to study the natural regeneration of Holoptelea integrifolia. Two of these sites were located in hilly areas. The first site was an east facing slope at Dhobighatta hills,

6 km from Raj Rishi (R.R.) College, a highly disturbed area subjected to tree felling, and grazing by cows and goats. Wrightia tinctoria

'Accepted January, 2001

department of Botany

Govt. R.R. College, Alwar 3 1 0 001 ,

Rajasthan, India.

which are partially or fully protected against

and Butea monosperma (Table 1) dominated the plant community. H. integrifolia grew from the base to the middle of the hill slope. Most of them were young and produced as a result of coppicing of the felled trees. The soil was shallow, sandy loam mixed with gravel and small stones (Table 2). The second site was a northeast-facing slope at Sagar hills, about 5 km from R.R. College. It was declared a reserve forest by the Govt, of Rajasthan in 1984. Since then, it is fully protected with no major biotic disturbance. It is dominated by Wrightia tinctoria and Anogeissus pendula bushes (Table 1). H. integrifolia grew from the base to the middle of the hill slope. The soil type is similar to that of Dhobighatta hills (Table 2).

The other two sites were situated in plain areas, the first was the campus of R.R. College, surrounded by a high wall from all sides. The college campus was an orchard previously surrounding the palace of the Maharaja of Alwar, which was later rented to the Govt, of Rajasthan to house the R. R. College. The orchard was abandoned for 50 years, and is now converted into a forest dominated by H. integrifolia (Table 1). It is partially disturbed as about 10 buffaloes, 6 cows and 50 goats are allowed to

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

217

DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA TION OF HOLOPTELEA

INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.

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218

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200/

DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA TIONOF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.

Table 2

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FOUR STUDY SITES

Site

pH

E.C.

Organic Carbon (%)

Phosphorus kg/ha

Potassium kg/ha

Dhobighatta hills

7.8

0.38

0.45

63

240

Sagar hills

8.0

0.50

0.13

54

260

R.R. College campus

7.8

0.30

0.40

72

High

Garvaji

7.9

0.30

0.42

18

High

graze and trees are felled for timber and firewood. The soil is deep, well developed sandy loam (Table 2). The second site was located at the base of the hills near the Garvaji temple, 14 km from Alwar city. Adhatoda vasica dominated the plant community here (Table 1). The site is highly disturbed by tree felling and heavy cattle and goat grazing.

Material and Methods

The distribution of Holoptelea integrifolia in Alwar district was studied by visiting important locations in all the subdivisions and consulting the forest range officers of Alwar district. Its natural regeneration was studied in the four selected study sites in different locations. The density and frequency of H. integrifolia and its associated shrubs and trees was estimated at all four sites by laying 15 quadrats of 10 m x 10 m each. The circumference of the plants was measured at a height of 1 m for trees and just above the ground for seedlings and saplings.

From a known cohort of one year old plants, it was observed that the maximum circumference of a year old plant was 1 .08 cm. Therefore, three age groups of H. integrifolia were identified in a population. One year old plants with 1 cm circumference, saplings with 1 to 3 1 .5 cm and trees with 31.5 cm girth (Saxena etal. 1978).

The samara is a one seeded, dry, indehiscent, winged fruit. The production per plant was estimated by laying down 20 quadrats oflOmx 10m each, for each study site when the fruit was almost mature in the last week of

March, 1998. The number of samara per fertile plant were estimated as follows:

Total samara production =

No. of primary branches per fertile plant x No. of secondary branches per primary branch x No. of tertiary branches per secondary branch x No. of samara per tertiary branch.

Further observations were taken from three study sites — Dhobighatta hills, Sagar hills and R.R. College campus. The number of samara present on the soil surface was estimated by laying down 20 quadrats of 1 m x 1 m after its dispersal was almost over in the last week of April, 1998. Monsoon set in the last week of June in 1998, and after 10 days of sufficient rainfall, the number of established seedlings were estimated by laying down 20 quadrats of 1 m x 1 m in all the three study sites.

Survival of established seedling populations of H. integrifolia was studied at R.R. College and Sagar hills. Seedling establishment was almost negligible at Dhobighatta hills. Since seedling density was very low at R.R. College, four permanent quadrats of 1 m x 1 m were laid down where the density of H. integrifolia seedlings was maximum, whereas five permanent quadrats of 1 m x 1 m were laid down at random at Sagar hills where seedling recruitment was uniform and good throughout.

The physico-chemical parameters of all the four study sites were analysed by taking five soil samples from each site at random, from an area of 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm. Soil samples from each study site were mixed and analysed at the Soil Testing Laboratory, Agriculture Department, Govt, of Rajasthan, Alwar. To evaluate the effect

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 1

219

DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA TION OF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRI FOLIA PLANCH.

Table 3

SAMARA (FRUIT) PRODUCTION BY HOLOPTERA INTEGRIFOLIA (±S.E)

Site

Plants /1 00 sq. m

Fertile Plants /1 00 sq. m

No. of samara per plant (xlO3)

No. of samara /100 sq. m (xlO3)

Dhobighatta hills

3.1 ±0.4

1.5 ±0.47

3

4

Sagar hills

17.3 ±1 .3

0.6 ±0.1 5

9

5

R.R. College campus

1 1.4 ±1.3

0.7 ±0.2

19

13

Garvaji

1.4 ±0.1

1.2 ±0.18

273

328

of soil moisture content on seedling survival, five soil samples were taken from 0- 1 0 cm depth from the vicinity of the permanent quadrats whenever required. The soil moisture content was estimated by the method of Mishra (1968).

Results

Distribution: H. integrifolia grows in most parts of Alwar district (Fig. 1) It is particularly abundant in the hilly tracts. Since it is not a climax species, it grows in deforested areas, treefall gaps and along water channels in the Sariska Tiger Reserve. The highest density of H. integrifolia was observed at Sagar hills, whereas the lowest was at Garvaji (Table 1).

Samara production and dispersal: 85%, 48%, 3.5% and 6% plants of H. integrifolia were fertile at Garvaji, Dobhighatta hills, Sagar hills and R.R. College respectively (Table 3). Maximum samara production per plant was at Garvaji, whereas it was very low at Sagar hills and Dhobighatta hills (Table 3). Number of samara reaching the soil surface after dispersal was highest at Sagar hills and lowest at Dhobighatta hills (Table 4).

Establishment and survival of seedlings: H. integrifolia seedlings established well at Sagar

hills, but almost negligibly at Dhobighatta hills (Table 4). Only 5% and 46% seedlings survived at R.R. College and Sagar hills respectively beyond the first week of establishment. Seedling population experienced less mortality from August to December 1998. An increase, however, was observed in January 1999, at both the study sites. All the seedlings at R.R. College died by January 1999, while 20 seedlings / 1 00 sq. m survived up to June 1999 at Sagar hills (Fig. 2).

Age structure: Age-structure analysis of H. integrifolia populations showed that the one year age group was present only at Sagar hills (Fig. 3). The saplings were present in all the study sites except Garvaji where both seedlings and saplings were absent. Among the other three study sites, R.R. College had the highest, i.e. 4.4 saplings /1 00 sq. m, followed by Sagar hills where 2.4 saplings / 100 sq. mwere recorded. The maximum density of the tree age group was 7 trees /1 00 sq. m at R. R. College.

Discussion

The Alwar district survey suggests that H. integrifolia grows luxuriantly around Alwar and Rajgarh towns, and deforested areas protected by the forest department. It is also found

Table 4

REGENERATION POTENTIAL OF HOLOPTERA INTEGRIFOLIA / 1 00 SQ. M

Study Site Samara reaching No. of seedlings No. of seedlings survived after

soil surface established one year

Dhobighatta hills 360 Negligible Nil

Sagar hills 2,810 1,070 20

R.R. College campus 2,108 386 Nil

220

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA TION OF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.

Fig. 1: Map of Alwar district showing the distribution of H. integrifolia

growing along roadsides, railway lines and around human habitations in hilly regions. It is almost absent in the plains of Behror, Tijara, Kishangarh and a part of Luxmangarh subdivisions (Fig. 1).

The high percentage of fertile plants in Garvaji and Dhobighatta hills and low percentage at Sagar hills and R.R. College, suggests that grazing by goats and cattle destroy the seedlings and saplings in these formerly disturbed areas. The samara production per plant was maximum at Garvaji site because all the fertile plants were full grown trees, whereas it was less at R.R.College, a large number of fertile plants being younger. In hilly areas, samara production was low due to the stunted growth of the trees.

Of the total samara production per unit area, only a small fraction reached the soil surface at Dhobighatta hills and R.R.College, may be

due to the open habitat where seeds are widely dispersed by wind. However, more than 50% of samara produced per unit area reached the soil surface at Sagar hills because of the small size of the site, northeast direction of the slope and hills surrounding the western and northern sides.

Percentage of seedlings established per unit area of the soil surface was very low, suggesting that a large number of seeds were eaten by goats, rodents and red ants. Some might have been washed away by the rains. This was confirmed experimentally in August 1998, with 9 samples, each with 50 samara, placed at different locations at R.R. College. After 4 days it was observed that 24% samara were damaged, their seeds removed by rodents or damaged by small red ants. After 10 days, the rest of the seeds were lost. They might have been washed away in the rains which continued for three days. Loss of seeds due to heavy rain has been reported for other tree species (Dagar et. al. 1978). The poor establishment of seedlings at R.R. College may also be due to the destruction of all the seeds of a tree by some insect. Whitefly epidemic in H. integrifolia has been reported by Mishra and Mishra (1995). However, at Sagar hills about 40% of seeds reaching the soil surface were established as seedlings (Table 4). This may be due to the protection of the site against grazing, absence of rodents and other seed predators, as large numbers of healthy seeds were present at the commencement of rains. The loss of samara due to monsoon run off may be prevented by small stones, pebbles and shrubs.

Seedling survival was very low in all the three study sites, as only a few seedlings survived over a year at Sagar hills. The mortality rate was highest in the dry periods of the rainy season when the soil moisture was very low (Table 5) and the soil surface temperature was above 41 °C at R.R. College. It was observed that most of the seedlings died due to permanent wilting. However, seedling mortality rate was less at

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221

DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA TION OF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.

July Months June

Fig. 2: Survival of seedling population of H. integrifolia at R.R. College campus (O O) and Sagar hills (• •)

Sagar hills, perhaps due to the protective shrub cover like Wrightia tinctoria and Adhatoda vasica. Second to the monsoon, the seedlings experienced greatest mortality in January, when the soil moisture was low and temperature dropped below 4 °C. This is in conformity with the high seedling mortality due to low soil moisture and low temperature in other tree species (Tripathi

Table 5

SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT (%) OF R.R. COLLEGE CAMPUS AND SAGAR.HILLS

Observation Periods

Sagar hills

R.R.College Campus

24 hours after rainfall on 17th July, 1998

13.5

11.6

7 days after rainfall on 24th July, 1998

2.6

3.8

In dry winter season on 2 1st February, 1999

5.90

4.2

and Khan 1992, Rao et. al. 1997).

The age-structure of H. integrifolia population at different sites suggests that its natural regeneration is taking place only at Sagar hills and R.R. College campus because the former is fully and the latter partially protected against biotic disturbance. Seedlings and saplings were absent at the overgrazed Garvaji and Dhobighatta hills, indicating the role of biotic disturbance in regeneration of H. integrifolia. This was confirmed when it was noticed that H. integrifolia is not preferred by grazing animals, but in the absence of green vegetation, goats and cattle grazed on it. It may be concluded that some seedlings of H. integrifolia may be damaged by the trampling of cattle. This tree species grows at places beyond

222

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Age groups

Fig. 3: Population age-structure of H. integrifolia at (A) Dhobighatta hills (B) Sagar hills (C) R.R. College campus and (D) Garvaji.

the reach of man or grazing animals, such as crevices of rocks, on steep slopes and among thorny bushes. It was concluded that the natural regeneration of H. integrifolia is adversely affected by both abiotic and biotic factors, and takes place only in areas which are partially or fully protected against grazing.

Acknowledgements

I thank the University Grants Commission, Central Regional Office, Bhopal for financial support, and Prof. O.P. Toky, Department of Forestry, Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar for valuable suggestions.

Refer

Dagar, J.C., V.P. Singh & L.P. Mall ( 1 978): Regeneration in Plants growing on eroded soil. Annals of Arid Zone 17: 68-74.

Mishra, R. (1968): Ecology Work Book. Oxford and I.B.H. Publ. Co., Calcutta, pp. 121.

Mishra, R.M. & R.K. Mishra (1995): Whitefly epidemic in Holoptelea integrifolia forest in Kanpur Zoological Park, Uttar Pradesh. Indian Forester 121 : 55-58.

Rao, P., S.K. Barik, H.N. Pandey & R.S. Trjpathj (1997): Tree seed germination and seedling establishment in tree-fall gaps and understorey in a subtropical forest of northeast India. Australian J. Ecology 22: 1 36-145.

ENCES

Saxena, A.K., Uma Pandey & J.S. Singh ( 1 978): On the Ecology of Oak Forests in Naini Tal hills, Kumaon Himalayas. In: Glimpses of Ecology. Eds. J.S. Singh and B. Gopal. International Scientific Publications, Jaipur, 167-180.

Sharma, S. & B. Tiagi (1979): Flora of northeast Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 383.

Tripathi, R.S. & M.L. Khan (1992): Regeneration pattern and population structure of Trees in sub-tropical Forests of northeast India. In: Tropical Ecosystems: Ecology and Management. Eds. K.P. Singh and J.S. Singh. Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi, pp. 431-441 .

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FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS IN THE SINGHALILA NATIONAL PARK, DARJEELING, INDIA'

Sunita Pradhan, Gautom K. Saha* 2 and Jamal A. Khan3 (With one text-figure )

Key words: Red panda, Ailurus fulgens , diet, eastern Himalaya, temperate

zone, subalpine zone

Food habits of the red panda in the Singhalila National Park (SNP) were investigated at three sites from 1994 to 1996, by examining 1,250 droppings or faeces. Red panda was found to consume two species of bamboo, Arundinaria mating and A. aristata, which dominated the understorey of SNP, along with seasonal supplements of some fruits and shoots of the above mentioned bamboo species. However, the composition of the diet differed between the sites. The difference in their dietary composition in relation to the

overall ecology of the red panda in the SNP Introduction

The red panda belongs to the Order Carnivora, but interestingly subsists on a herbivorous diet, specifically on bamboo leaves. Although the modifications of dentition and skull structures have typical herbivorous features, the digestive system is ill-adapted for proper utilization of its low nutrient diet of bamboo (Roberts and Gittleman 1984, Bleijenberg and Nijboer 1989). The gut is short and simple, typical of the carnivores, and devoid of cellulose digesting microbes (Roberts and Gittleman 1984, Schaller et at. 1985). As a result, the red panda consumes a large amount of bamboo to fulfill its energy requirement (Oftedal et at. 1989). The red panda has evolved a physiological adaptation of lowering the metabolic rate to cope with low nutrient diet, reducing energy expenditure for maintenance and reproduction (McNab 1989). This evolutionary strategy results in a long

'Accepted July, 2000

2P.G. Department of Zoology,

Daijeeling Government College,

Darjeeling 734 1 0 1 , West Bengal, India, department of Wildlife Sciences,

Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

needs further investigation.

gestation period, low fecundity and slow postnatal growth, which place constraints on the rapid propagation of its population (McNab 1989). Moreover, the bamboo mass flowers periodically, and dies after the seeds are produced (Janzen 1976). The panda faces scarcity of food during the flowering stage of the bamboo. This paper presents preliminary findings on the food and feeding habits of red panda studied during a research project (1993-1996) in the Singhalila National Park (SNP), Darjeeling, eastern Himalaya, India.

Study area

The SNP (87° 59'-88° 53' E; 26° 31 '-27° 31' N) ranges from 2,400 to 3,600 m above msl, encompassing the temperate zone and subalpine zones. The moist temperate climate of SNP varies with altitude. The observed summer temperature ranged from 7 to 17 °C, and winter temperature dropped as low as 1 °C in the temperate zone. Average summer and winter temperature in the subalpine region were 7 °C and 1 °C respectively. Mean annual rainfall was 350 cm and average humidity ranged from 83% to 96%.

The intensive study area comprised of three sites (Fig. 1). Sites 1 and 2 represented the

224

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FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS

BataseA Kaiyakatta A^ Gairibons1

= -MR ROAO

* METALLED ROAD

-unmetalled ROAD

- “BRIDLE PATHS

“INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY

-STATE BOUNDARY

PhatakA

A

Tumling

-•••-BOUNDARY BETWEEN CORE AND BUFFER ZONE A ’ s SETTLEMENTS

Fig. 1: Singhalila National Park, Darjeeling, India.

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FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS

temperate zone, and Site 3 the subalpine zone. Trees such as Quercus spp. dominated the temperate zone, Arundinaria maling being dominant in the understorey. In the higher reaches of the temperate zone, Quercus spp. were scarce, and the vegetation was dominated by Sorbus , Acer and Vitex. The understorey was composed of both Arundinaria maling and A. aristata. The subalpine zone had a prominent association of trees such as Abies densa , Betula utilis and Rhododendron spp., with an understorey of A. aristata.

Methods

Red panda food habits and nutritional status of food plants were investigated by the following methods:

Phenology of the food plants: In order to investigate the availability of cover and food resources in the study area, phenological studies were undertaken (Pradhan 1999). The fruiting seasonality of the food plants is presented here. Phenology and recruitment rates of the two bamboo species were studied in sixty 1 sq. m plots, thirty each for the two species. Initially, all the bamboo culms in the 1 sq. m plots were counted and monitored monthly. When the shoots appeared, they were counted and labelled. After that, all the labelled shoots were monitored to assess their survival and death.

Faecal analysis: Red panda pellets were collected monthly, broken and macroscopically examined. While the leaves of the two bamboo species could be identified macroscopically, the shoots of both the species were not identifiable. The fruits and berries consumed were identified from the seed remains, undigested skin of the fruits and even sheaths, which survived digestion. Each food item was expressed by its frequency of occurrence and by percent volume, computed for each season from the entire study area. Thus, the diet spectrum of red panda was also

investigated for the three study sites within two broad vegetation zones — the temperate and subalpine zones separately. The difference in intake of two bamboo species was tested using Mann- Whitney U test following Fowler and Cohen (1986).

Nutritional analysis: Leaves of both species of bamboo, of all age classes ( 1 year, 2 year, and >2 years), were collected every month for a year. Fruits of Actinidia strigosa, Sorbus microphylla and Rosa spp., and shoots of both bamboo species were collected during their season of emergence. All the plant samples were dried to a constant weight at 55 °C and ground in Willey’s mill prior to analysis. Hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin were determined following Goering and Van Soest (1970), using Fibertech System. Crude protein was determined following Allen (1989).

Results

A total of 1,250 pellets were examined. It was found that the red panda in the SNP consumed both the species of bamboo. The difference between the intake of the leaves of the two species was, however, not statistically significant (Mann- Whitney; z = 0.24, df = 12, p = 0.813). Along with the bamboo leaves, some seasonal fruits and shoots of the bamboo species were also consumed by the red panda.

Availability and distribution of food: The bamboo species A. maling , locally known as maling had an average height of 4.9 ±0.80 m and a diameter of 1.5 ±0.73 cm. The average number of nodes was 22 with an average sheath length of 22 cm. A. aristata , locally known as ratonigalo was shorter, with an average height of 3.9 ±0.053 m. The average number of nodes was 22; average sheath length 12.81 cm. A. aristata had a higher density of culms than A. maling.

A. maling was the dominant bamboo

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FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS

between 2,600 m to 3,100 m in the study area. A. aristata was found from 2,850 m, but actually dominated the understorey from 3,150 m to 3,600 m. Shoots of A. moling appeared annually between early June and October, whereas the shoots of A. aristata emerged from late June to October. The recruitment rate of bamboo (A. maling and A. aristata ) was low, with an average of 1.92 /sq. m, out of which only 0.98 / sq. m remained intact. Of the bamboo shoots monitored, 48% were eaten by insects and other animals, and 9.8% were broken accidentally. The bamboo shoots collected by the locals was 10.96 kg/family.

In the temperate zone, the fleshy fruit of Actinidia strigosa , a creeper was found to be an important component of the red panda’s post-monsoon diet. A. strigosa was found between 2,800 m and 3,100 m in the study area. A. strigosa started fruiting from September, matured around October, and the fruits lasted till November. The fruits of A. strigosa had a thin skin and were sweet when ripe, they were much sought after by the locals to add flavour to their liquor. An estimated amount of approximately 3.75 kg/family was collected by the locals during its fruiting season. Sorbus microphylla started fruiting from June to July and was found from 3,200 m to 3,600 m. Rosa sericera , a shrub in disturbed areas, fruited from June to November.

Seasonal variation in diet: The diet of the red panda in SNP varied seasonally (Table 1). In pre-monsoon, its diet was a combination of 52% A. aristata and 48% A. maling leaves by volume. In the monsoon, it fed on A. aristata and A. maling leaves, bamboo shoots and traces of an unidentified fruit. In post-monsoon, food variety increased with the availability of fruit resources in the forest. Red panda was found to consume A. aristata leaves (45%), A. maling leaves (35%), fruits of Actinidia strigosa (13%) bamboo shoots (6%), Sorbus microphylla and Rosa sericera in trace amounts. The winter diet consisted of A. aristata leaves (53%) and A. maling (47%).

The overall intake of A. aristata varied from 34.86% to 53% (x = 45.97%), while A. maling varied from 36.18% to 48.16% (x = 41.97 %), and the rest (x = 1 1.82%) consisted of fruits and bamboo shoots. No evidence of large scale camivory was found in the faecal pellets, except for a few bird feathers.

Feeding ecology in the three study sites: The diet showed seasonal differences in proportions of different food items consumed at the three study sites (Table 2). At Site 1, it comprised of A. maling leaves (100%) in the premonsoon and winter seasons. In the monsoon, it fed on A. maling leaves (61 %), bamboo shoots (38%) and unidentified fruit (1.1%). The post-monsoon diet was composed of A. maling leaves (70%), A. strigosa fmits (20%)

Table 1

INCIDENCE OF FOOD ITEMS IDENTIFIED IN 1 ,250 RED PANDA DROPPINGS BY NUMBER OF DROPPINGS AND % VOLUME (IN BRACKETS) IN SINGHAL1LA NATIONAL PARK

Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Winter

Food items (Mar-May) (June-Aug) (Sept-Nov) (Dec-Feb)

Arundinaria maling

295

(48.16)

98

(36.18)

120

(34.57)

85

(47.0)

Arundinaria aristata

385

(51.84)

80

(34.86)

105

(44.70)

112

(53.0)

Bamboo shoots

0

(0)

53

(28.58)

22

(6.23)

0

(0)

Actinidia strigosa

0

(0)

0

(0)

27

(13.33)

0

(0)

Sorbus microphylla

0

(0)

0

(0)

0.6

(0)

0

(0)

Rosa sericera

0

(0)

0

(0)

1.0

(trace)

0

(0)

Unidentified fruit

0

(0)

0

(0)

10

(trace)

0"

(0)

Total number of droppings

632

188

235

195

Trace = less than 1 .00%

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FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA , AILURUS FULGENS

Table 2

SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF FOOD ITEMS IN RED PANDA DROPPINGS BY NUMBEROF DROPPINGS AND % VOLUME (IN BRACKETS) FROM THREE STUDY SITES IN SINGHALILA NATIONAL PARK

Site 1 Site 2 Site 3

Food items

PR

MN

PM

W

PR

MN

PM

W

PR

MN

PM

W

Arundinaria maling

122

68

90

52

156

42

35

33

0

0

0

0

(100)

(60.6)

(70)

(100)

(45.5)

(38.8)

(33.8)

(41)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

Arundinaria aristata

0

0

0

0

111

38

24

35

270

42

85

77

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(54.4)

(46)

(44)

(59)

(100)

(74.6)

(91)

(100)

Bamboo shoots

0

30

8

0

0

24

9

0

0

10

7

0

(0)

(38.3)

00)

(0)

(0)

(15.3)

(2.2)

(0)

(0)

(25.3)

(6.7)

(0)

Actinidia strigosa

0

0

0

0

0

0

9

0

0

0

0

0

(0)

(0)

(20)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(20)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

Sorbus microphylla

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

0

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

G-73) (0)

Rosa sericera

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(trace)

(0)

Unidentified fruit

1

8

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

(trace)

(1.1)

(trace)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

(0)

Total droppings

122

68

97

52

240

79

53

65

270

42

85

77

Trace = less than 1 .00%

PR= Pre-monsoon, MN=Monsoon, PM = Post-monsoon, W = Winter

and bamboo shoots (10%).

At Site 2, red panda was found consuming A. aristata (54%) and A. maling (46%) leaves in premonsoon, and about the same proportion of the same leaves in winter. Tne monsoon diet was composed of A. aristata leaves (46%), A. maling leaves (39%) and bamboo shoots (15%), while the postmonsoon diet was A. aristata (44%), A. maling (34%) leaves, A. strigosa (20%) and bamboo shoots (2%).

At Site 3, the diet consisted entirely of A. aristata leaves (100%) during premonsoon and winter. In the monsoon, the pellets were found to have A. aristata leaves (75%) and bamboo shoots (25%). Postmonsoon samples of Site 3 consisted of A. aristata leaves (91%), bamboo shoots (6.7%), S. microphylla (1.73%) and R. sericera in trace amounts of 0.57%.

Nutritive value of the food plants: A. maling leaves were found to have higher cellulose and lignin content (40.12% of the dry matter) than A. aristata (31.83%). The crude protein and lignin content of A. maling leaves

was 15.1 % and A. aristata leaves was 14.2%. Fruits of A. strigosa seem to be nutritionally richer, with high and crude protein, and low cellulose and lignin content, as compared to S. microphylla and R. sericera (Table 3).

Discussion

Macroscopic examination of faeces, as done in this study, has also been used successfully by Reid et al. (1991), and Yonzon and Hunter (1991) in describing the red panda’s diet. Red panda consumed both the species of bamboo present in the SNP, which formed the chief food, Table 3

PROTEIN, HEMICELLULOSE, CELLULOSE AND LIGNIN CONTENT (% DRY MATTER) OF THREE FRUITS EATEN BY THE RED PANDA IN SINGHALILA NATIONAL PARK

Fruit Crude Hemicellulose Cellulose+lignin

Protein

Actinidia strigosa

10.63

8.00

20.59

Sorbus microphylla

4.38

2.54

41.00

Rosa sericera

8.88

1.95

28.01

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especially during the premonsoon and winter periods. Seasonal fruits such as A. strigosa and S. microphylla, and bamboo shoots supplemented the diet of bamboo leaves during the monsoon and the postmonsoon period. The monsoon and postmonsoon coincided with the period of birth and rearing of the young of red panda. Earlier studies specify leaves and shoots of Sinamndinaria fangiana, and shoots of Fargesia spathececi to be taken in the Wolong Nature Reserve (China), (Schaller et cil. 1985, Johnson et al. 1988, Reid et al. 1991) and a species of bamboo locally known as jhapra in the Langtang National Park, Nepal (Yonzon and Hunter 1991). Fruits and berries of Sorbus spp., Maddenia hypoleuca , Cotoneaster moupinensis , Clematoclethera tiliaceae , Rubus mesogaeus , R. pdeatus , Ribes moupinense , Pninus vaniotti and P. brachyoda and even mushrooms are reported to be taken by the red panda in the wild (Johnson et al. 1988, Reid etal. 1991,Yonzon and Hunter 1991).

Feeding ecology in the three study sites

of SNP: The amount of A. aristata leaves taken by the red panda in the SNP was slightly higher than A. maling , although the difference is not statistically significant. It was not possible to say how particular they were about selecting the bamboo species. Red panda was found to be consuming mainly A. maling leaves in Site 1, the dominant species in the area, as A. aristata was found only in patches above 2,850 m. At Site 2, both A. maling and A. aristata leaves were consumed because of the increasing availability of A. aristata as compared to that in Site 1. At Site 3, the diet was solely composed of A. aristata leaves, the dominant bamboo species of the area.

The giant panda selected Sinarundinaria sp. over Fargesia sp. in the Choushuigou study area in China, where both species were easily accessible, perhaps due to the higher protein, other nutrients and less cellulose, lignin and better balance of essential amino acids in Sinarundinaria sp. (Schaller et al. 1985).

However, the pandas in Jiuzhaigou (China) and elsewhere subsisted entirely on the Fargesia sp. which was regarded an adequate food (Schaller etal 1985).

The topography of the study area was such that the two species of bamboo were not equally abundant in any of the three sites. A. maling dominated Site 1. At Site 2, both A. maling and A. aristata were found. A. aristata dominated Site 3. From the results of Site 1 and Site 3, it could be tentatively said that the red panda was consuming the species of bamboo most easily available. Investigation of the food quality of plants ascertained that A. aristata leaves had higher levels of protein, less of cellulose and lignin as compared to A. maling. However, not much could be inferred about the food preference on the basis of nutrient content, as A. maling and A. aristata leaves were taken in almost equal quantity at Site 2. Moreover, A. maling and A. aristata leaves seemed an adequate diet at Site 1 and Site 3 respectively.

Fruits of A. strigosa formed an important supplement to the red panda diet. However, more can be said of the selection of fruits only by comparing the preference and avoidance of other fruits found within a site rather than between sites. For example, within Site 1 and Site 2, other fruits, which the red panda may have consumed, were Holbellia latifolia and Sorbus cuspidata. But faecal examinations showed that these fruits were not taken, despite their abundance. The nutritional analysis of other fruits was beyond the scope of the present study.

Both species of bamboo have been affected by intensive cattle grazing, and they were also found to have low recruitment rate. The bamboo shoots of both A. maling and A. aristata were not only eaten by other wild animals, but also harvested by the locals. All these factors could have an effect on their growth dynamics and need further studies. A. strigosa is also harvested by the locals in significant quantity.

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This study finally reveals that the diet of the red panda in the temperate zone consisted of A. maling and A. aristata leaves and shoots, and fruits of A. strigosa, whereas in the subalpine zone, A. aristata leaves, shoots and fruits of S. microphylla and R. s eric era were consumed. The difference in the dietary composition in relation to the overall ecology of the red panda in the Singhalila National Park needs further study.

Acknowledgements

The field study was funded by the Wildlife Circle, Department of Forests, Government of

West Bengal and implemented by the P.G. Department of Zoology, Darjeeling Government College. We thank Dr. E. Sharma for facilities to carry out the nutritional analysis of the food plants at G.B. Pant Institute for Himalayan Research and Development, Sikkim Unit. Dr. Angela R. Glatston, Dr. Prahlad B. Yonzon, Mr. Miles Roberts, Dr. A.R. Rahmani, Dr. M. Coulter, Dr. S. Javed, Dr. S. Kumar, Sarala, Nakul, Iyatta, Tehmina and Rana for their help and support during the entire tenure of this study. Comments of the referees have helped immensely to improve the manuscript.

Refer

Allen, S. (1 989): Chemical analysis of ecological materials.

Blackwell Scientific Publications, London. Pp. 368. Bliejienberg, M.C.K & J. Nijboer (1989): Feeding herbivorous carnivores. In: Red panda Biology (Glatston, A.R. ed.) SPB Publishing, The Hague, Netherlands, pp. 41-50.

Fowler, J. & L. Cohen ( 1 986): Statistics for Ornithologists. BTO Guide No. 22.

Goering, H & P. Van Soest(1970): Forage fiber analysis (apparatus, reagents, procedure and some applications). In: Agricultural Handbook, 379: 1-20. U.S. Dept. Agriculture.

Janzen, D. (1976): Why bamboos wait so long to flower.

Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 7: 347-91.

Johnson, K.G., G.B. Schaller & H. Jinchu (1988): Comparative behaviour of red panda and the giant pandas in the Wolong Reserve, China. J. Mammal 69(3): 552-564.

McNab, B.K. ( 1 989): Energy expenditure in the Red panda. In: Red panda Biology (Glatston, A.R. ed.) SPB

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Publishing, The Hague, Netherlands, pp. 73-78. Oftedal, O., K.J. Fulton & S.D. Crissey ( 1 989): Bamboo as a source of digestible energy for red pandas. Int. Theriol. Congr. (Abstract) Rome, August 1989. Pradhan, S. ( 1 999): Studies on some aspects of the ecology of the red panda ( Ailurus fulgens , Cuvier 1 825) in the Singhalila National Park, Darjeeling, India. Ph.D. thesis. North Bengal University, India.

Reid, D.G.,H. Jinchu & Y. Haung(1991): Ecology of the red panda Ailurus fulgens in the Wolong Reserve, China. J. Zool. Lond 225: 347-364.

Roberts, M.S. & J.L. Gittleman (1984): Ailurus fulgens. Mammalian species. The American Society of Mammalogists 222: 1 -8.

Schaller, G.B., H. Jinchu, P. Wenshi & Z. Jing (1985): The giant pandas of Wolong. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Pp. 298.

Yonzon, P.B. & M. Hunter (1991 ): Conservation of the Red panda, Ailurus fulgens. Biological Conservation 59: 1-15.

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FRESHWATER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE WETLANDS OF INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN, HOWRAH, WEST BENGAL1

K. Venkataraman2 and S.R. Das3

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Cladoceran fauna, Indian Botanical Garden, West Bengal India

The Indian Botanic Garden located on the northern bank of the river Hooghly, Howrah district, West Bengal consists of twenty-five wetlands of varying sizes. To study the Cladoceran fauna, four perennial lakes and ponds were selected. The survey was repeated for three different periods: April 1 994, September 1 994 and March 1 995. Of the 38 species of Cladocera, belonging to 6 families and 24 genera, recorded in the present study, three are new records to West Bengal and one — Diaphanosoma leuctenbergianum, is a new record to India. All the four species have been described in detail to facilitate identification. Except for a few species of Cladocera, most Chydorids occur in wetlands with specific macrophytes. The association between Cladocera and macrophytes suggests a specific interrelationship, which is yet to be established.

Introduction

The Indian Botanic Garden located on the northern bank of the River Hooghly, Sibpur, Howrah district. West Bengal, is a unique repository of valuable and rare plant species, with a mosaic of twenty -five wetland areas covering 1 1 ha. These lakes are interconnected by an operational subterranean flushing system linked with the Hooghly river on the southeast (Fig 1). The physico-chemical nature of these wetlands and their effects were studied by Singh and Ghosh (1985). An attempt to study the fauna of the wetland has been initiated by the Botanical Survey of India and the Zoological Survey of India, under the directive of the Ministry of Environment & Forests. Of these twenty-five wetlands, most of the perennial lakes are used for fish culture regularly. To study the biodiversity of the wetlands, four perennial fish culture lakes and temporary ponds each were selected. The

'Accepted June, 1999

2Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India,

1 00 Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028,

Tamil Nadu, India.

3Zoological Survey of India, ‘M’ Block, New Alipore, Kolkata Pin 700 053, West Bengal, India.

diversity of crustacean zooplankton, especially Cladocera, is being dealt with here.

Material and Methods

A total of 8 wetlands, four perennial (fish culture) lakes: 1 ) Dhobi 2) Kings 3) Leeram and 4) Prain lake and four temporary ponds: 1) Sector 12 pond, 2) Lotus pond at sector 11,3) Sector 9 pond and 4) Sector 8 pond were selected for the present study (Fig. 1 ). Three surveys were conducted in different seasons: April 19-22,

1994, September 27-30, 1994 and March 8-10,

1995. All the perennial lakes and temporary ponds harbour macrophytes such as Eichhornia crassipes and Microcystis auriginosci among others. The electrical conductivity was 1530 to 5200 p mhos and the pH 8. 2-8. 7. Aquatic plants harbour a variety of fauna, including zooplankton such as Cladocera. The zooplankton samples were collected using a hand net (45 cm diameter) and a throw net (45 cm diameter) with muslin cloth ( 1 20 pi mesh size). The net was dragged through the macrophytes, slightly agitating the water column without stirring the mud. Samples

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FRESHWA TER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTA CEA : BRANCHIOPODA)

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

Fig, 1 : Map of wetlands of Indian Botanical Garden showing the Cladocera collection spots

FRESHWATER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA)

were preserved in the field and the Cladoceran species were identified as per Michael and Sharma (1988) using a monocular microscope in the laboratory.

Results

A total of 38 species of Cladocera belonging to 6 families and 21 genera were recorded in the present study (Table 1). Species such as Pseudosida bidentata Herrick, 1884, Latonopsis australis Sars, 1888, Diaphanosoma volzi Stingelin, 1905, Diaphanosoma leuctenbergianum Fischer, 1854, Moina brachiata (Jurine, 1820) Bosmina longirostris (O.F. Muller, 1776), Pleuroxus similis Vavra, 1900, Alonella excisum (Fischer, 1854), Chydorus ventricosus Daday, 1898, Dadaya macrops Daday, 1898, Alona kwangsiensis Chiang, 1963 and Notalona globulosa Daday, 1 898 were found to occur only during one survey or in one wetland. The rest of the cladocerans were recorded during two surveys or in more than two wetlands. Among all the species, Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars 1885 was found during all the three surveys in seven wetlands and Diaphanosoma excisum Sars 1885, Macrothrix spinosa King, 1853, Chydorus sphaericus (O.F. Muller, 1776) and Alona karua King, 1 853 were recorded in all the three surveys in five wetlands. The following four species are new records for West Bengal:

Diaphanosoma volzi Stingelin, 1905

Material examined: Several females from Lotus pond (Sector 2, 27.ix.1994).

Female: Body size: 0.73 mm. Head rounded and small, eye relatively large. Carapace straight on ventral margin, duplicature forming a wide angle, posteroventral carnor rounded without denticles except for a long spine on the posterior margin. Postabdomen with three long and sharp pointed basal spines.

Remarks: New record to West Bengal. The material collected in the present study agrees with the description of D. aspinosum by Chiang (1956) from China and by Idris (1983) from Malaysia.

Diaphanosoma leuctenbergianum Fischer, 1854

Material examined: Several females from Dhobighat fish pond (Sector 24, 8.iii.l995).

Female: Body size: 1.20 mm. Head large, without rostrum. Eye large, situated close to the ventral margin. Carapace almost oblong in outline, posterior end abruptly truncate. Posterodorsal corner of valves almost ending in a right angle. Posteroventral comer with variable number of cilia followed by delicate cilia. Antenna reaching beyond the posterior margin of valve. Postabdomen narrow with fine setules. Claw with three basal spines, decreasing in size proximally.

Moina brachiata (Jurine, 1820)

Material examined: Several females from Lotus pond (Sector 2, 27.ix.1994).

Female: Body size: 1.27 mm. Head large with medium sized eye situated closer to the dorsal margin than to the ventral side. Antennules long with sensory setae located at 1/3 the distance from head. Carapace almost round with distinct reticulations. Ventral margin of valves with long and short setae increasing in size posteriorly. Postabdomen large with long bidentate tooth and 13 feathered teeth. Claw with large pecten of 10 to 14 teeth.

Alona kwangsiensis Chiang, 1963

Material examined: Several females from Dhobighat Fish pond (Sector 24, 27.ix.1994).

Female: Body size: 0.45 mm. Shape oval in outline, maximum height slightly before middle from anterior end. Valves with a series of setae, district lines and polygonal patterns.

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FRESHWATER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRA NCHIOPODA)

Table 1

OCCURRENCE OF CLADOCERANS OF INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN WETLANDS, HOWRAH

WETLANDS

SLNo. Name of the Species

N1

N2

N3

N4

N5

N6

N7

N8

ARTHROPODA

CRUSTACEA

CLADOCERA

FAMILY: SIDIDAE

1 . Pseudosida bidentata

.

.

_

_

.

_

1,2

2. Latonopsis australis

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

3. Diaphanosoma excisum

2

-

-

-

1,2,3

3

1,2

3

4. Diaphanosoma sarsi

2

-

-

-

3

1,3

-

2

5. Diaphanosoma brachyurum

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

2,3

6. Diaphanosoma volzi*

-

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

7 . Diaphanosoma leuctenbergianum * *

-

-

-

3

-

-

-

-

FAMILY: DAPHNIIDAE

8. Simocephalus vetulus

-

-

-

3

3

3

-

1,3

9. Simocephalus exspinosus

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

1 0. Simocephalus serrulatus

-

-

-

-

3

-

-

3

1 1 . Ceriodaphnia cornuta

1,2

-

2

1,2

2,3

2,3

1

3

1 2 . Scapholeberis kingi

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

3

FAMILY: MOINIDAE

13. Moinamicrura

-

-

-

3

3

3

1

-

14. Moina brachiata *

-

2

-

-

-

■ -

-

-

FAMILY: MACROTHRICIDAE

1 5 . Macrothrix spinosa

-

1

2

3

-

2

-

3

1 6 . Macrothrix triserialis

-

1

2

-

2

-

-

-

1 7 . llyocryptus spinifer

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

FAMILY: BOSMINIDAE

1 8 . Bosmina longirostris

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

FAMILY: CHYODORIDAE

Subfamily: Chydorinae

1 9. Pleuroxus similes

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

20. Alonella excisum

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3

2 1 . Chydorus sphaericus

-

1,2

-

2

2

3

-

1,2,3

22. Chydorus barroisi

-

-

-

2

2

-

-

2

23. Chydorus reticulatus

-

-

2

-

-

3

-

1,3

24. Chydorus ventricosus

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

25. Dunhevedia crassa

-

-

-

1,2,3

2

1,3

-

1

26 . Pseudochydorus globosus

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

1

27. Camptocercus australis

-

-

-

2,3

2

-

-

■

28. Dadaya macrops

2

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FRESHWA TER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRAN CHIOPODA )

Table 1 (contd)

OCCURRENCE OF CLADOCERANS OF INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN WETLANDS, HOWRAH

WETLANDS

SI. No.

Name of the Species

N1

N2

N3 N4

N5

N6

N7

N8

Subfamily: Aloninae 29. Alona karua

1

3

1,2

1,3

1

1,2,3

30.

Alona pulchella

-

-

2

-

-

1

3

31.

Alona verrucosa

-

-

2,3

2

-

-

1,3

32.

Alona costata

-

-

2

-

3

-

-

33.

A Iona kwangsiensis *

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

34.

Alona davidi

-

-

2

2

-

-

2

35.

Alona rectangula

-

-

3

2

-

-

3

36.

Kurzia longirostris

-

-

2

-

-

-

3

37.

Oxyurella singalensis

-

3

-

-

-

-

1,3

38.

Notalona globulosa

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

1= April 1 994, 2 = September 1 994, 3 = March 1 995 Surveys

N1 = Sector 12 Pond; N2 = Lotus Pond; N3 = Sector 9 Pond; N4 = Dhobighat Fish Pond;'N5 = Prain lake; N6 = Leeram lake; N7 = Sector 8 Pond; N8 = Kings lake. (* New record to West Bengal; ** New record to India)

Ventral margin of valves with a series of setae, posteroventral comer rounded with five denticles attached marginally up to one third of the posterior region, followed by a row of small spines running the apex of rostrum. Postabdomen with distinct preanal and postanal comers and obtusely rounded dorsal margin. About 7-8 denticles attached submarginally followed by 3 groups of spines along the anal groove up to the preanal comer.

Discussion

Out of the 38 species of Cladocera collected during the present study, four species namely Diaphanosoma volzi, D. leuctenbergianum , Moina brachiata and Alona kwangsiensis were reported for the first time from West Bengal while D. leuctenbergianum is a new record from India. Venkataraman (1993) recorded 57 species of Cladocera from West Bengal, which is more than half the number recorded in India (93 species, Michael and Sharma 1988).

In the present study, the occurrence of all the cladoceran species except Diaphanosoma excisum, D. brachyurum, D. leuctenbergianum ,

Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Moina micrura , Bosmina longirostris and Ilyocryptus spinifer with specific macrophytes suggests a mutual relationship. Even though a specific association between cladocerans and aquatic macrophytes is yet to be established, Synerholm (1974) observed that the diversity of Cladocera is affected by the presence or absence of these plants. Moreover, Whiteside and Hermsworth (1967), and Quade (1969) considered that the distribution of Cladocera is controlled by habitats and macrophytes rather than by lake types. However, Freyer (1968) has stressed the importance of the relationship between aquatic macrophytes and feeding habits, morphology and distribution of Cladocera. Such a trend was observed in the present study where species of Simocephalus were always found to attach themselves, by their anterodorsal carapace, to the leaf or stem of the aquatic plant Hydrilla sp. and filter the food particles present in the water. Likewise, many other species of chydorids were found to associate with a variety of aquatic macrophytes Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratioties, Lemna sp., Nymphaea sp., Nelumbo sp., Ceratophyllum demersum, Vallisneria spiralis, Hydrilla sp.,

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FRESHWA TER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRA NCHIOPODA )

Colocasia sp. etc. which are to be completely understood.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for work facilities. We also thank Dr. N.C. Nandi for his cooperation during

Refer

Chiang, S.C. (1956): Some species of Diaphanosoma (Cladocera) from Wuchang, China. Acta hydrobiologia Sinica 2: 314-3 1 2.

Freyer, G. (1968): Evolution and Adaptive Radiation in the Chydoridae (Crustacea: Cladocera): A study in comparative Functional Morphology and Ecology. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Loud. (B) 254 : 223-385.

Idris, B.A.G. (1983): Freshwater Zooplankton of Malaysia (Crustacea: Cladocera) PenerbitUniversiti Pertanian Malaysia, 153 pp.

Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India and Adjacent countries, Indian Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Cladocera) (Ed) Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 262 pp.

Quade, H.W. (1969): Cladocera fauna associated with aquatic macrophytes in some lakes in northeastern

the field work. Dr. L.K. Banarjee and Dr. Venu of Botanical Survey of India are gratefully acknowledged for encouragement and Shri S.K. Das, Sr. Zoological Assistant, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for his support in the field. Excellent typing of this paper by Shri A. Sivakumar is also gratefully acknowledged.

ENCES

Minnesota. Ecology 50: 1 70- 1 79.

Singh, J.N. & M.K. Ghosh (1985): Chemical Nature of Flooghly (Ganga) River water and an assessment of their impact on the Eco-pedon system of Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 26(1- 2): 45-51 .

Synerholm, C.C. (1974): The Chydorid Cladocera from surface lake sediments in Minnesota and North Dakota. M.Sc. Thesis. University of Minnesota, USA, 73 pp.

Venkataraman, K. (1993): The freshwater Cladocera of southern West Bengal. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 9: 19- 24.

Whiteside, M.C. & R.V. Hermsworth (1967): Species diversity in Chydorid (Cladocera) Communities. Ecology 4: 664-667.

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SELECTION OF SUITABLE CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE'

Aeshita Mukherjee, C.K. Borad, S.B. Patel and B.M. Parasharya* 2

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Grus antigone antigone , census method, noon count, night roost, population density, paddy crop, summer months, reservoirs

An estimation of the population size of the Indian sarus crane Grus antigone antigone was done in the summer of 1997 and 1998. A total of 432 and 457 cranes were counted, in the 526 sq. km area of Kheda district, Gujarat, during hot hours (1200-1600 hrs) in 1997 and 1998 respectively. Night roost count at reservoirs (548) was higher than the day roost count. Results suggested that for accurate population estimation, the night roost count is better, but time and man power requirements can be a limitation. For a large scale census, the day roost count at reservoirs and their environs could be better.

Introduction

Estimation of avian population is the basic requirement to initiate any study leading to their conservation. Qualitative statements regarding status and distribution do not give a true picture of the population size, irrespective of the species studied. To decide conservation management strategies, it is necessary to estimate the actual population size at a given site at the right time. With a drastic reduction in its distribution range and a total of 1 2,000 individuals worldwide (Gole 1989, 1991), the Indian sarus crane Grus antigone antigone is now considered as a globally threatened species (Meine and Archibald 1996). Despite several limitations in the census method, attempts have been made to estimate the sarus crane population in Gujarat State (Vaishnav 1985) and its distribution range in India (Gole 1989). In Kheda district, the sarus crane density on a fixed route had been attempted (Parasharya et al. 1996) along with population estimation. Here we have attempted to estimate the sarus crane population in Matar tehsil of Kheda district to supplement the above study during summer in two successive years.

'Accepted March 1999

2AINP on Agricultural Ornithology,

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand 388 1 10, Gujarat, India

We attempted to determine the total population using two different methods. This paper describes the merits and demerits of both the methods selected for determining the sarus crane population and density.

Material and Methods

The census was done during the summer months April, May and June 1997 and May 1998. Cranes encountered along the road and in and around reservoirs were counted within the four hour period of 1200-1600 hours (hot hours) in one day. If an area was left uncovered during the stipulated time period, it was completed on the next day. The cranes concentrated chiefly around five major reservoirs. Hence, the maximum crane count around any of these reservoirs, in a particular month, was taken into consideration during the census of 1997. At the same time, care was taken to ensure that the crane population in the adjacent area was counted as a separate population. Cranes sighted within 800 m on either side of the road were also counted. The presence and growth stage of paddy crops around the census area were noted to understand the crane distribution pattern. During 1998, counts were done only on 24-25 May.

Night roost counts were attempted at 16 reservoirs from May 17-24, 1998. Unlike the

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CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARDS CRANE

noon count, in which one person could count cranes on several reservoirs in a four hour period, it took one person to estimate the roosting cranes at a particular reservoir in one night. Thus, the three individuals involved could survey only three reservoirs in a single day. All the cranes present in the reservoir and the ones arriving were counted till it was totally dark. The sun set at 1912-1916 hours during the count period.

Study Area

The study was conducted in a 526.03 sq. km area spread over Matar, Khambhat and Petlad tehsil of Kheda district, Gujarat. Major reservoirs, at which the study was conducted, along with the main roads, are shown in Fig. 1. The study area has the benefit of well established branching canals terminating in reservoirs. The landscape is plain, low lying and suitable for paddy crop ( Oryza sativa ) cultivation during monsoon due to irrigation facilities. During the southwest monsoon (July to September), the whole area gets flooded and remains so till late September. In the summer (April to June), the reservoirs retain some water, at least at miniumum level. Depending on local conditions, paddy crop is grown in the command area of some reservoirs even in summer. The temperature reaches 45.6 °C, particularly in May.

Results

Population estimation during hot hours in summer: The sarus crane population in the study area (526.03 sq. km) in 1997 was 432, while in 1998 it was 457 (Table 1), and had a density of 0.82 /sq. km to 0.87 /sq. km cranes respectively. The difference in the numbers sighted between the two years was negligible. Moreover, this was the minimum population estimated, as only the actually seen cranes were counted.

Table 1

POPULATION ESTIMATION OF SARUS CRANE DURING NOON HOURS OF SUMMER MONTHS IN

KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT

No. of cranes observed

Sites

1997

1998

1. Bhanderaj (R)

76

79

Suuounding area

3

4

2. Narda (R)

135

0

Surrounding area

17

21

3. Gobrapura (R)

0

0

Surrounding area

40

138

4. Daloli (R)

65

105

Surrounding area

6

8

5. Traj (R)

44

0

Surrounding area

9

1

6. Pariej (R)

0

0

Surrounding area

2

6

7. Kanewal (R)

0

0

Surrounding area

23

15

8. Others (R)

12

80

Total

432

457

During both years, the crane number was highest in Narda-Gobrapura and its surrounding complex, proving it to be an important area (Table 1). Bhanderaj and Daloli also supported a high number of cranes. Though Kanewal and Pariej were the largest reservoirs, the number of cranes present here were insignificant, as both the reservoirs have a very great water depth and lack suitable roosting sites. They are also subject to continuous human interference, especially disturbance from fishing.

The cranes which concentrated at the Narda reservoir and its environs in 1997 shifted to Gobrapura in 1998. Similarly, the cranes at Traj and its environs shifted to Machhial. Both the shifts were within 5-6 km, and were probably due to changes in the water level of the reservoir and the paddy crops around it. The crane count, at the five reservoirs, was fairly high and constant during the study period.

All these reservoirs are situated within a range of 5-15 km from each other, but still hold a distinct population, suggesting that sarus cranes are highly sedentary and restricted in their activity around a particular reservoir.

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CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE

In the summer, due to heat and stress, the cranes concentrated around the reservoirs in large flocks, which aided the census. However, the paddy crops growing around the reservoirs also provided a suitable protected habitat from the heat, which was evident from the count in the surrounding area.

Population estimation during night roosting in summer: As it was a dry period, all the cranes converged to the reservoirs for roosting. Sixteen reservoirs spread over the study area were monitored to count the roosting sarus population, hence no flock was missed from the total estimate. A total of 548 sarus crane were counted, giving a density of 1 .04 /sq. km during a night roost count.

About 65% of the cranes concentrated chiefly around 4 major reservoirs, the Daloli, Gobrapura, Narda and Machhial (Table 2). The area important for day roosting, was also found significant for night roosting. Another important site was Bhanderaj, which had 24% of the sarus cranes at night. 1 1 % were distributed in 8 small reservoirs.

Three reservoirs, though they had sufficient water, were not used by the cranes. The sarus cranes numbers at a particular reservoir were determined by its water level and suitable, safe roosting sites. At Barson-Baroda the cranes roosted in the shallow waters of the river basin. It was the only site of the riverine area that we examined for the night roost. The number of cranes estimated during the night roost was 1 6% higher than the count during the day roost.

Discussion

During summer, the water was available only in the reservoir or in the paddy crops growing around the reservoirs. To avoid heat stress, the cranes flocked in the reservoirs or in the paddy crop, enabling an almost accurate population estimation. To avoid the heat stress

Table 2

POPULATION ESTIMATION OF

ROOSTING SARUS CRANE, DURING SUMMER, IN KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT

Site

Crane number

Bhanderaj

133

Narda

51

Gobrapura

60

Daloli

152

Traj

00

Pariej

02

Kanewal

04

Tranja

02

Salla

12

Naghrama

04

Heranj

00

Khandhli

00

Garmala

02

Machhial

92

Vasai

09

Barson-Baroda

25

Total

548

of summer, the sarus cranes are known to flock in the wetlands (Ramachandran and Vijayan 1994, Mukherjee et al. 1999, in press).

In summer, the cranes move far off for foraging during the morning and evening hours, but they returned to the reservoirs from 1200 hours onwards (Mukherjee et al. 1999). Once at the reservoir, the cranes did not show any movement for four hours and hence, the chances of count duplication were negligible. Four hours are sufficient to travel across the study area to estimate the population in the reservoir and along the route. Two persons with a vehicle needed two days to complete the count in the 526.03 sq. km area. Hence, sarus crane census during hot hours (1200-1600 hours) in the summer is ideal. Limited man power and time frame placed restrictions on the size of the area which could be surveyed.

The cranes utilised the summer paddy crops during the hot hours, both as foraging and roosting ground leading to a dispersed distribution, which subsequently caused underestimation of the population size. During

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CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE

the summer of 1997, paddy was grown around most of the reservoirs making accurate counts difficult. However, in 1998, the cultivated area was limited, hence counting was easy.

In 1998, along with the day roost counts, night roost counts were made to overcome this drawback. For accurate population estimate, we made night roost counts in all the 16 reservoirs. The crane count during night roost was certainly higher than the day roost count. However, the one person to one reservoir ratio is time consuming and requires more man power. Our night roost counts could be accurate, as we were familiar with the study site and with the direction of the arriving cranes. Night roost counts can possibly be difficult in an unknown area, but in the present case, they were more accurate than the day roost count.

There was a difference of only 91 cranes in the counts by two methods. This indicates that the sarus is sedentary, does not show frequent movements and prefers the same area for day and night roosting. At least in the summer, cranes hardly dispersed 5-6 km from the reservoir. They also had an affinity for the water bodies for roosting. The same was seen around Bhanderaj, the only reservoir which ultimately attracted cranes from all over the area. Thus, the study highlighted the importance of these wetlands for

Refer

Gole, P. (1989): The status and ecological requirements of sarus crane, Phase-I, Paper presented in the Asian Crane Congress at Rajkot, Gujarat, India.

Gole, P. (1991): Welfare of the tallest flying bird in the world. J. Ecol. Soc. 4: 29-42.

Meine, C.D. & G. W. Archibald (eds) ( 1 996): The Crane: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.

Muicherjee, A., C.K. Borad & B.M. Parasharya ( 1 999): Diurnal use of the reservoirs by the Indian Sarus Crane ( Grus antigone ) during summer months. Zoos ’ Print J. 1 4(7): 72-74.

Mukherjee, A., C.K. Borad & B.M. Parasharya (in press): The factors affecting distribution of the Indian Sarus

the protection and conservation of the sarus crane.

It is worth noting that in the 526.03 sq. km of the study area, paddy was the only crop grown during monsoon. It was also grown in patches around reservoirs during summer. All the wetlands retained some level of water even in summer. However, only a few reservoirs were used by the cranes for roosting. Crane distribution was patchy, indicating that the presence of water in the reservoirs or in the paddy crop around reservoir are not the only factors responsible for the crane abundance / distribution. Gole (1989) had developed a formula to estimate crane population based on crane density derived through road transect and total wetland area separately. On the contrary, our study revealed that even though several wetlands existed, some were not utilised by cranes. Therefore, the earlier report by Gole (1989) may represent an inaccurate count. Recently, Mukherjee et al. (in press) had established a positive correlation between sarus crane abundance and percentage land under irrigated paddy crop, as well as visibility index / openness of the habitat. However, we found that in summer, factors like flocking, availability of paddy crop and time of the day influenced the crane numbers counted.

ENCES

Crane Grus antigone antigone (Linne.) in Kheda district, Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Parasharya, B.M., A.D. Patel, S.B. Patel & R.B. Chauhan ( 1 996): Sarus crane population decline: A result of conflict with human interest. Proceedings of the Salim Ali Centenary Seminar on Conservation of Avifauna of Wetlands and Grasslands, Mumbai, India (under preparation)

Ramachandran, N.K. & V.S. Vijayan (1 994): Distribution and general ecology of the sarus crane ( Grus antigone ) in Keoladeo National Park. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2): 211-223.

Vaishnav, H. A. (1 985): Crane survey in Gujarat. Hornbill 1985(4): 38-40.

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS OPIUS WESMAEL (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA'

S.M. Kurhade2 and P.K. Nikam3

( With three text-figures)

Key words: Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Opiinae, Opius ( Utetes ) sp. nov. Op ins ( Utetus ) fischeri sp. nov. is described and illustrated.

Introduction

Wesmael (1835) erected the genus Opius (Subfamily: Opiinae) with the type species Opius pallipes Wesmael, which was designated as the type by Muesebeck and Walkley (1951). Fischer (1964, 1965) revised the genus entirely. The taxonomy of this genus was also attempted by Fischer (1971, 1972) and Marsh (1974).

Fischer (1988) divided Opius into three subgenera (namely Aulonotus Ashmead, Utetes Foerster and Gastrosema Fischer), and also provided a key to the groups and species of Utetes for the Indo- Australian and Ethiopean regions.

In the present work, Opius ( Utetes ) fischeri sp. nov. is described on the material collected in India: Maharashtra: Ahmednagar.

The new taxon runs close to Opius ( Utetes ) buloloensis Fischer and has been included in the key to the species of alutaceus group of Opius ( Utetes ) by Fischer (1988). This key, which is originally in German, has been provided here in English.

Types are deposited in the Entomological collection of the Department of Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad.

'Accepted August, 1998 department of Zoology,

New Arts, Commerce and Science College,

Ahmednagar 414 001, Maharashtra, India, department of Zoology,

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad 431 004, Maharashtra, India.

Key to the species of subgenus Utetes

Foerster group O. alutaceus by Fischer (1988)

1. Mesoscutum mainly sparsely pubescent, lateral

lobe appears almost bare 2

— Mesoscutum bare, except along the notauli,

pubescent 10

2. Clypeus 3x as broad as long; ovipositor sheath of female as long as abdomen, the projecting part of the ovipositor longer than half the abdomen,

3.5 mm, South Africa

O. trichomaticus Fischer

— Clypeus almost 1 .7x as broad as long; ovipositor sheath of female almost as long as the first tergite 3

3. Head and face with small hairs, hair punctures

not recognisable, r3 2x as long as r2 4

— Head and face with dense and small punctures

and small hairs; r3 1.5-1.66x as long as r2 9

4. First tergite 1 .2x as long as wide basally, 2.3 mm,

New Guinea O. gregori Fischer

— First tergite 1 .5x as long as broad or longer ... 5

5. Head, thorax and abdomen yellowish-red, 2.7 mm, New Guinea.... O buloloensis Fischer

— Head, thorax and abdomen differently coloured 6

6. Body yellowish-brown, 5.7 mm, India:

Maharashtra O. fischeri sp. nov.

— Body completely dark or thoracic divisions black

and abdominal divisions white 7

7. r2 1.5x as long as cubital; first tergite 1.5x as long as broad, basally, longitudinally striate as a

rule, 2.3 mm New Guinea

O. gregoriformis Fischer

— r2 1 .7x as long as cubital or longer; first tergite

2x as long as broad, basally, longitudinally striate or not 8

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8. r2 2.2x as long as cubital; head and thorax completely black, legs yellow; first tergite black,

rest brown, 2.5 mm, New Guinea

O. neogregori Fischer

— r2 1 .7x as long cubital; head and anterior part of thorax red; legs black and anterior half of the

abdomen white, 2.0 mm, New Guinea

O. albipus Fischer

9. Thorax 1.5x as long as high; first tergite 1.5x as

long as broad basally, 3.0 mm, Philippines

O. pilosidorsum Fischer

— Thorax 1 .3x as long as high; first tergite as long

as wide basally, 2.1 mm, New Guinea

O. arcithorax Fischer

1 0. Second tergite rugose or striated 11

— Second tergite smooth 13

11. r2 arising from behind the middle of the stigma,

3.5 mm, Zaire O. prophylactius Fischer

— r2 arising from before the middle of the stigma 12

12. r2 about one third longer than cubital, second

tergite striate; ovipositor projects out slightly, 2.6 mm. New Hebriden O. cheesmanae Fischer

— r2 almost 2x as long as cubital; ovipositor sheath

about one third of the body length, 2.1 mm, Madagascar O. alutaceus Granger

13. Thorax 1.7x as long as high, 3.4 mm, S. Africa O. extendithorax Fischer

— Thorax 1.25-1.33x as long as high 14

14. r2 2 x as long as cubital, 3.8 mm, Philippines . O. infernalis Fischer

— r2 almost 1.5x as long as cubital 15

15. Mesoscutum strongly continuously punctate; notauli distinct; middle lobe separated; thorax

1 .25x as wide as long, 3.4 mm, Taiwan

cf. O. fulvifacies Fischer

— Mesoscutum punctate; notauli with small

punctures; mesoscutum as long as broad, 1 .9 mm, Madagascar O. mediorufiis Granger

Opius ( Utetes ) fischeri sp. nov.

(Figs 1-3)

Female: Length 5.7 mm. (Fig. 1). Head (Fig. 2) 0.5x as long as wide; vertex smooth, sparsely pubescent; ocelli in triangle, with broad base, on a black oblong spot; ocello-ocular distance same as inter-ocellar distance; frons

narrow, smooth, pubescent; face 0.7x as long as wide, convex, depressed medially, shiny, moderately punctate, pubescent; clypeus 2x as wide as long, convex, shiny, moderately punctate, pubescent; clypeal fovea distinct; malar space 0.6x width of mandible; mandible 1.6x as long as wide, bidentate; eye 1 .5x as long as wide, bare; interorbital distance 0.8x as long as height of the eye; antenna 2 + 47 segmented; scape 1 .lx as long as wide, smooth, weakly punctate, pubescent; pedicel 0.8x as long as wide, smooth, weakly punctate, pubescent; penultimate segment 1.5x as long as wide; terminal segment 2.5x as long as wide; first flagellar segment 1 .lx as long as wide; second flagellar segment 0.7x as long as first; occiput not margined.

Thorax: 2.3x as long as wide; pronotum shiny, very weakly punctate, pubescent; mesoscutum shiny, convex, very weakly, shallowly punctate, pubescent; notauli distinct, transversely crenulated; scutellum shiny, convex, weakly punctate, pubescent, apex elevated mid-dorsally; propleurum, smooth, shiny, very weakly punctate; mesopleurum smooth, shiny, closely punctate, pubescent; mesopleural suture distinct; mesopleurum rugosely, closely punctate,

Figs. 1-3: Opius (Utetes) fischeri , sp. nov., Female, 1. Lateral view; 2. Head (frontal view);

3. Propodeum and first abdominal tergite.

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pubescent; propodeum (Fig. 3) irregularly reticulate, basal 0.4 rugose, pubescent, spiracle rounded. Hind leg coxa 2.7x as long as wide, sparsely punctate, pubescent; trochanter I 1 .4x as long as wide, trochanter II 3x as long as wide; femur 3.8x as long as wide, slender, long, closely punctate, pubescent; tibia 17x as long as wide, closely punctate, pubescent; tibial spur 0.25x as long as basitarsus; basitarsus 0.4x as long as tibia; claw bifid. Fore wing 3.3x as long as broad; stigma 5.7x as long as wide; metacarpus 1.5x as long as stigma; first abscissa of radius 0.5x as long as second; apical abscissa of radius 5x as long as first; second cubital cell with four unequal sides; first intercubitus 2.2x as long as second intercubitus; costa 2.4x as long as stigma; medius 1.7x as long as basal; discoideus 0.6x as long as medius; nervulus slightly inclivous, distad, 1 .2x as long as width of stigma; subdiscoideus 0.4x as long as submedius; brachius 3. lx as long as nervulus; margin with fine bristles; hind wing 5x as long as broad; subcostella 1 .2x as long as radiella; mediella 6.7x as long as basella; nervellus slightly inclivous, 2.9x as long as submediella; cubitella 1. lx as long as mediella; margin with fine bristles.

Abdomen: 4.5x as long as wide; first tergite 2x as long as apical width, strigose, weakly punctate, pubescent; second tergite as long as apical width, strigose, pubescent; third tergite 0.9x as long as wide, strigose, weakly punctate, pubescent; remaining tergites smooth, moderately punctate, pubescent; ovipositor 5.7 mm.; ovipositor sheath as long as ovipositor, with stiff bristles throughout the length.

Yellowish-brown. One oblong spot on vertex, stigma, veins, tips of mandibles and ovipositor blackish-brown; first tergite towards apical region, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh tergites on mid-dorsal side and ovipositor sheath reddish-brown.

Male: Unknown.

Host: Unknown.

Holotype: Female: India: Maharashtra: Ahmednagar, 5.x. 1989. On wing, Coll. S.M. Kurhade; antenna, legs and wings mounted on slides and labelled as above.

Paratypes: 3 females, data same as holotype.

Etymology: The species has been named fischeri in honour of Dr. Maximillian Fischer, a well known taxonomist of Braconidae.

Comments: In accordance with the key to the Indo-Australian and Ethiopian species of the Opius ( Utetes ) alutaceus group by Fischer (1988) the new species, Opius {Utetes) fischeri resembles Opius {Utetes) buloloensis Fischer (1988) in the characters: (i) mesoscutum pubescent, (ii) notauli distinct,

(iii) ovipositor long, (iv) face pubescent and (v) first tergite longer than apical width; but it differs from it in the following characters:

(i) body 5.7 mm (in buloloensis body 2.7 mm),

(ii) head 0.5x as long as wide, (in buloloensis 0.55x as long as wide), (iii) clypeus 2x as wide as long (in buloloensis 1.4x as wide as long),

(iv) antenna 2 + 47 segmented, (v) propodeum irregularly reticulate, (vi) ovipositor long and (vii) body yellowish-brown (in buloloensis body yellowish-red).

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. S.D. Kalyankar, the former Head, Department of Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad for laboratory facilities. The senior author wishes to thank the Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ahmednagar for permission to work at Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad.

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References

Fischer, M. (1964): Die Opiinae der nearktischen region (Hymenoptera : Braconidae). I. Teil. Pol. Pismo Entomol. 34: 197-530.

Fischer, M. (1965): Die Opiinae der nearktischen region (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). II Teil. Pol. Pismo Entomol. 35: 3-212.

Fischer, M. (1971): Index of Entomophagous insects. Hymenoptera, Braconidae, World Opiinae, International Organisation of Biological Control, Le Francois, Paris, 189 pp.

Fischer, M. (1972): Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Opiinae, I, - Das Tierreich 91 , pp. 485-486.

Fischer, M. (1988): Beschreibungen von Opiinen-Wespen;

Besonders Aus Neu Guinea (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Opiina e),Linzerbiol. Beitr. 20(2): 847- 917.

Marsh, P.M. (1974): New combinations and new synonyms in North American Braconidae (Hymenoptera). Ent. Soc. Wash. Proc. 76: 286.

Muesebeck, C.F.W. & L.M. Walkley (1951): Family Braconidae, pp. 90-104, Hymenoptera of America North of Mexico, synoptic catalog. U.S. Dept. Agr. Monogr. 2: 184.

Wesmael, C. (1835): Monographic des Braconides de Belgique. Nouv. Mem. Acad. Sci. R., Bruxelles 9: 1-252.

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ACHLYA DAYALI , A NEW WATER MOULD FROM THE RIVER MUTHA1

R.V. Gandhe, Kanchanganga Gandhe and M. J. Desale2 ( With five text-figures )

Key words: new species, Achlya dayali , comparison

Achlya dayali , a new species of Achlya, has been isolated from the River Mutha and compared with its allied species A. racemosa.

Introduction

Aquatic fungi were isolated from the Rivers Mula and Mutha. A total of 1 1 genera, and 24 species were isolated from the different established sampling stations on the rivers. Amongst all the genera, the genus Achlya with its 13 species was dominant and isolated frequently from all the stations. A. dayali is described here as a new species, it broadly resembles T racemosa Hildebrand (Coker 1923, Johnson 1956), but differs in developing short or long stalked oogonia and only one or two centric oospores. (Coker 1923; Johnson 1956; Sparrow 1960, 1968, 1973; Dayal and Thakurji 1969; Howard 1971; Dick 1973; Dayal andUsha Kiran 1988) The new species described here was isolated only from the Vitthalwadi sampling station, on the Mutha, in July.

Material and Methods

Five sampling stations were established on River Mutha for regular collection of water samples every fortnight. These were Khadakwasla, Vitthalwadi, Garware College, Bal Gandharva bridge and Sangam bridge. Zoosporic fungi were isolated from these samples by baiting (Butler 1907). Mixed cultures were purified by the hyphal tip technique. Temperature of the

'Accepted March, 1999

2 Postgrad Li ate Research Centre,

Department of Botany,

Modem College of Arts, Science and Commerce.

Pune 41 1 005, Maharashtra, India.

water samples was measured directly, whereas pH and DO were measured as per standard procedures (APHA 1992).

Achlya dayali sp. nov.

(Fig. 1-5)

Growth in culture moderately dense, hyaline, developing into a colony of 1 cm diameter within a week. Hyphae stout at the base, 85.2 pm thick, tapering gradually at the tips, often sparingly branched.

Zoosporangia abundant, elongated, cylindrical, rounded or tapering at the tips, almost the same size as the hyphae, rarely a little larger, 28.4 pm to 48.0 pm in diameter, twisted like a cork screw, often more sporangia developed very closely below the first one. Zoospores 9.3 pm in diameter, forming an irregular mass, which slowly enlarges; spores released singly or in groups. Gemmae few, mostly terminal, slightly swollen.

Oogonia abundant, scattered all over the culture, 31.2 pm to 46.8 pm in diameter, often racemosely developed, on long slender stalks, rarely on short stalks of the main hyphae, spherical, sometimes curved; oogonial wall smooth or inconspicuously pitted at the contact of antheridium. Eggs spherical, one or two per oogonium, 18.7 pm to 28.7 pm in diameter, centric, majority of oogonia with a single egg occupying almost entire space.

Antheridial branches often androgynous, long, occasionally short, developed from the long stalks of oogonia, may be coiled, very often single

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Figs 1-5: Achlya dayali sp. nov.:

1. Thallus showing oogonia with monoclinous androgynous antheridia; 2. Development of zoosporangia (note twisted sporangia); 3. Segmented gemmae; 4. Long stalked oogonia with androgynous antheridia; 5. Oogonia with curved stalk (note antheridial cell projections and centric oospores).

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Table 1

COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF A CHLYA RACEMOSA AND ACHLYA DA YALI

Hyphae

Sporangia

Zoospores

Oogonia

Oospore

A. racemosa 30-90 pm, usually

Hildebrand 25-36 pm

200-900* 15-45 pm, usually 300-400 * 25-35 pm

8-12 pm

30-1 10, usually 40-80

1 5-38 pm, usually 23-29; 1-10 in number, usually 2-6

A. dayali sp. nov. 85.2 pm

28.4-48.0 pm

9.3 pm

31.2-46.8 pm

18.7-28.7 pm;

1 or 2 in number

antheridium about the oogonium. Conspicuous fertilization tube may be present. No epigynous antheridia were observed.

Isolated from Mutha river, July 1 995, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

Latin Diagnosis

Mycellis in semmine opium tenuibus, hyphis ramosis porrectis usque ad 1.0 cm in diametrum. Hyphis primarilis in basi 85.2 pm diam. Sporangiis copiosis, attenatis sine cylindractis ad basim saepicus lateroribus, 28.4 pm to 48.0 pm in diametrum, basi proliferantibus, apice dehiscentibus et in sphaerula dispositis. Gemmae pancis, variiae, natu majoriibus valde variae. Oogoniis copiosis, globosis, autellipticis natis ex primarilis hyphis in ramulis lateralibus longis curvis aut raro rectis, oogoniis ipsis 3 1 .2 pm to 46.8 pm in diametrum tunica crassa non-punctata, oosporiis numero 1-2, globosis, 18.7 pm to 28.7 pm in diametrum,

Refer

Apha, Awwa & Wee (1992): Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. Amer. Health Assoc. Publ. New York. 1 8th edn.

Butler, E.J. (1907): An account of the genus Pythium and some Chytridiaceae. Mem. Dept. Agri. India, bot. ser. 1: 1-160.

Coker, W.C. (1923): The Saprolegniaceae with notes on other water moulds. Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Pp. 201 .

Dayal, R. & Thakurji ( 1 969): Studies in aquatic fungi of Varanasi II. A new species of Achlya with notes on

guttulis olivaceosis centrice dispositis; tunica crassa, hyalina. Antherididiis pancis diclinibus and androgenibus.

Hab ad terram humosam in rivi Mutha, July 1995, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

Etymology: The species is named in honour of Prof. R. Dayal who has published a monograph on zoosporic fungi of India.

Discussion

Achlya dayali , described here as a new species, showed important and major differences from its closest allied species A. racemosa. It is described as a new species on the basis of the differences given in Table 1 .

Acknowledgement

We thank Dr. C. Manoharachary, Professor, Mycology and Plant Pathology, Osmania University for valuable suggestions.

■NCES

other species. My copath et. Phytopath Appl. 3: 98- 102.

Dayal, R. & Usha Kiran (1988): Zoosporic fungi of India.

Inter India Publication, New Delhi, 297 pp.

Dick, M.W. (1973): Saprolegniales. In: The Fungi. An Advanced Treatise. (Eds: Ainsworth, G.C., F.K. Sparrow and A.S. Sussaman,) Academic Press, New York and London. Vol. 4B, pp. 1 13-144. Howard, K.L. (1971): Oospore types in the Saprolegniaceae. Mycologia Vol. 63: 679-686. Johnson, T.W. Jr. (1956): The genus Achlya morphology

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and taxonomy. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1 80 pp.

Sparrow, F.K. (1960): Aquatic Phycomycetes. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 1187.

Sparrow, F.K. Jr. (1968): Ecology of freshwater fungi. In: The Fungi. An Advanced Treatise (Eds: Ainsworth,

G.C. and A.S. Sussaman) Academic Press, New York. Vol. 3: 95-105.

Sparrow, F.K. Jr. (1973): Mastigomycotina (Zoosporic Fungi). In: The Fungi. An Advanced Treatise (Eds: Ainsworth, G.C., F.K. Sparrow and A.S. Sussaman) Academic Press, New York and London. Vol. 4B. pp. 61-73.

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A NEW GENUS MANGINA ALONG WITH THE TAXONOMY OF ARGINA HUBNER (ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA) 1

Amritpal S. Kaleka and Jagbir S. Kirti2

( With eleven text-figures)

Key words: Argina , Mangina , genitalia, congeneric

The taxonomy of genus Argina Hubner has been revised by incorporating the male and female genital features of the type species astrea (Drury). Another Indian species argus Kollar, earlier described under Aigina Hubner, has been found non-congeneric on the basis of its genital structures. A new genus Mangina has, therefore, been proposed for argus Kollar. The new genus is closely allied to Argina HQbner.

Introduction

According to Hampson’s key (Hampson 1 894), two species namely cribraria Clerck and argus Kollar are referred to genus Argina Hubner. The specific status of these two species was confirmed from the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun and Natural History Museum, London. Watson et al. ( 1 980) observed that Phalaena astrea Drury is the oldest of junior subjective synonyms of Phalaena cribraria Clerck, and made it available as a subjective replacement name for the former species i.e. Argina cribraria Clerck which is also the type species of Argina Hubner. A critical study of the structures of male and female genitalia reveal that the species argus Kollar is not congeneric with the type species astrea (Drury) of genus Argina Hubner. Thus, the status of this species is not stable under genus Argina. Accordingly, a new genus Mangina has been proposed for this species, and the justification has been given.

Taxonomic Descriptions Genus Argina Hubner Hubner, 1818, Verz. bekr. sch., 1818 : 167.

Type Species: Argina astrea (Drury).

'Accepted January, 1999 department of Zoology,

Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India

Distribution: Throughout India, Africa, Mauritius, China, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, New Guinea and Australia.

Diagnosis: Labial palpus upturned, extending well beyond lower level of frons, third joint short. Antenna ciliated in both sexes. Fore wing with veins R2 and R3 from areole formed by anastomosis of R3 and R4; M, arising from upper angle of cell; veins M2, M3 and Cu, from close to lower angle of cell. Hindwing with vein Sc + R, originating from before middle of cell; M, from upper angle of cell; M2, M3 and Cu, from or near the lower angle of cell; in male, hindwing with a fold on inner margin containing a glandular patch near base with a tuft of long hair beyond it, tomus produced. Hind tibia with a pair of terminal spurs. Male genitalia with uncus moderately long, tip with an acute spine; fenestrula prominent; tegumen with both its arms wide; almost of same length as vinculum; saccus more or less developed; valva long; sacculus well marked; costa slightly defined; valvula curved, extending well above cucullus; cucullus flap-like, with longitudinal rows of sclerotized lines and large number of denticles; juxta with two parallel sclerotized flaps, joined together at tip, aedeagus with its anterior end balloon-shaped; vesica with 3-4 patches of denticles and spines representing comuti. Female genitalia with corpus bursae large, membranous; three rounded signa present; ductus bursae short and broad, heavily sclerotized: papilla analis triangular, setose with short and long setae.

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Argina astrea (Drury)

(Figs 1-5)

Phalaena astrea Drury, 1773, III. Exot. Ins. 2: 11; Hmpsn., 1894, Moths Ind. 2: 51; Phalaena cribraria Clerck, 1764, Icon. Inst, rariorum, 2: 54; Argina guttata Rambur, 1859, Lep. And. 2: 229; Argina notata Butler, 1877, Trans. Ent. Soc. 1877 : 365.

Material examined: Himachal Pradesh: Solan, 2.vi.l994, Id, 1?; Punjab: 7.ix.l991, 1 d, 2 9 9; 1.x. 1991, 3 dd. Uttar Pradesh: Dehra Dun, 13.x. 1991, 1 d, 1 9; Kempty Falls, 20. ix. 1995, 1 d; West Bengal: Kurseong, 28. iv. 1995, Id, 19; 29. iv. 1995, 6 dd. Coll. Amritpal Singh.

Distribution: Recorded throughout India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, Mauritius, New Guinea.

Remarks: Holloway (1988) described and illustrated Argina astrea (Drury) in detail, including its genital structures and synonymized cribraria Clerck under it. Thus, the description of the species is omitted. However, the male and female genitalia have been illustrated here for comparison with the type species argus (Kollar) of the new genus M angina.

M angina gen. nov.

Type Species: Argina argus Kollar.

Distribution: Throughout India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.

Diagnosis: Labial palpus upturned, suipassing lower level of frons. Antenna simple, ciliated in both sexes. Forewing rather short and broad; veins R2 from short areole formed by anastomosis of R3 and R4; R5 from common stalk of R3+4; M arising from upper angle; M2 from above lower angle; Cu, before lower angle of cell; Cu2 beyond middle of cell. Hindwing with vein Sc + R( originating before middle of cell; Rs and M, from upper angle of cell; M2 and M3 from lower angle of cell; Cu, well before lower angle of cell; in male, tornus produced and glandular

patch near base, with a tuft of long hair beyond it. Hind tibia with a terminal pair of minute spurs. Male genitalia with uncus long and curved, gradually narrowing towards tip, sickle-shaped; fenestrula rounded; tegumen well developed, inverted V-shaped, almost double length of vinculum; vinculum small and narrow, well sclerotized; saccus narrow, knob-like; valva long and narrow; sacculus broad and distinct; costa narrow; cucullus and valvula not marked, distal end bifurcated with paired spines on each tip: ampulla well sclerotized, broad at base, tip sharply pointed, setose, inner arm extends into fused cucullus and valvula. Aedeagus long and narrow, anterior end broad, both of its walls equally sclerotized, distal end with a sclerotized patch; vesica armed with a large number of fine denticles. Female genitalia with corpus bursae large, oval and membranous, a pair of semicircular signa present; ductus bursae broad, highly sclerotized; accessory sac present; anterior apophyses shorter than posterior apophyses, apices rounded and narrow; papilla analis broad and rounded, setose with micro and macro setae.

Mangina argus (Kollar) comb. nov.

(Figs 6-11 )

Kollar, 1844, Hiige’s Kaschmir, 4: 467; Moore, 1882, Lep. Ceyl. 2:105, Hmpsn. 1894, Moths Ind. 2: 51

Genitalia: As described for genus diagnosis.

Material Examined: Himachal Pradesh: Nauni, l.viii.1994, 1 d; Sikkim: Namchi, 2. v. 1995, 1 d; Manipur: Ukhrul, 20. ix. 1994, 1 d; Meghalaya: Jowaii, 30. ix. 1994, 1 $; Cheerapunjee, 2.x. 1994, 1 ?; Uttar Pradesh: Dehra Dun, 18.x. 1991, 2 9 $; Kempty Falls, 4.vi.l993, 2 dd, 19; West Bengal: Kurseong, 28.iv.1995, Id, 3 9 9; Coll. Amritpal Singh.

Remarks: As mentioned earlier, argus Kollar fails to conform to the description of genus Argina Hiibner and is also non-congeneric

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Figs 1-5: Argina aslrea (Drury): 1-4. Male genitalia; 5. Female genitalia

Abbreviations: AED: Aedeagus, ANT.APO: Anterior apophyses, CO: Costa, CRN: Cornuti, CRP.BU: Corpus Bursae, CU: Cucullus, DU.BU: Ductus Bursae, DU.EJ: Ductus ejaculatorius, JX: Juxta PAP. A: Papilla Analis, PO.APO: Posterior apophyses, SA: Saccus, SIG: Signum, SL: Sacculus,

TG: Tegumen, TRA: Transtilla, UN: Uncus, VES: Vesica, VIN: Vinculum, VLA: Valvula

with an allied genus Utetheisa Hiibner, and other genera of Subfamily Arctiinae. Thus, a new genus Mangina is suggested for this species and the diagnosis of the new genus and its type species Argina argus Kollar is given. The present and correct status of the species becomes Mangina argus (Kollar) comb. nov. The new genus Mangina is closely allied to Argina Hiibner with respect to wing maculation, wing

venation, presence of glandular patch and tomus of hindwing, and a pair of tibial spurs. The unique morphological features particularly the genital structures, namely uncus, valva and aedeagus of male genitalia and corpus bursae, ductus bursae and signa of female genitalia of the type species argus make it totally different from the type species astrea Drury of genus Argina Hiibner.

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Figs 6-11: Mangina argus (Kollar) comb, nov.: 6-10. Male genitalia; 1 1 . Female genitalia.

Abbreviations: ACC. SC: Accessory sac, AED: Aedeagus, AM: Ampulla, ANT.APO: Anterior apophyses, CO: Costa, CRN: Cornuti, CRP.BU: Corpus Bursae, DU.BU: Ductus Bursae, DU.EJ: Ductus ejaculatorius, JX: Juxta, PAP.A: Papilla Analis, PO.APO: Posterior apophyses, SIG: Signum, SL: Sacculus,

TG: Tegumen, TRA: Transtilla, UN: Uncus, VES: Vesica, VIN: Vinculum, VLV: Valva

Acknowledgements Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata and the

Natural History Museum, London. Financial We thank the authorities of the National assistance provided by CSIR, New Delhi is also Museum at Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun; gratefully acknowledged.

References

Hampson, G.F. (1894): Fauna of British India, Moths, including Ceylon and Burma. Vol. 2: 1-609. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London, 609 pp.

Holloway, J.D. (1988): Moths of Borneo-<5 C.A.B.

International Institute of Entomology, London,

101 pp.

Watson, Allan, D.S. Fletcher & I.W.D. Nye (1980): The generic names of the World-2 Noctuoidea, 228 pp.

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A NEW FRESHWATER CYPRINID FISH ASPIDOPAR1A FROM THE CHATRICKONG RIVER, MANIPUR, INDIA1

Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath2 ( With two text-figures)

Key words: Aspidoparia, new species, Manipur

The freshwater cyprinid genus Aspidoparia Heckel distributed in India and west Asia, is represented by two species in India, namely /f morar (Hamilton-Buchanan) and A.jaya (Hamilton- Buchanan). This paper describes A. ukhrulensis from the Chatrickong river draining the southeastern part of Ukhrul district, Manipur. The species is characterised by 14 rows of scales in front of the dorsal fin; lateral line scales 35-37; pectoral fin I, 12-13; pharyngeal teeth 2 rows, lateral scale count from lateral line to ventral fin 2; absence of barbels; deciduous moderate scales. It has smaller head width, and less height at occiput. This species differs from A. morar and A.jaya in having fewer lateral line scales. A key to identification of the genus is provided.

Introduction

The genus Aspidoparia was erected by Heckel ( 1 843) to accomodate A.jaya and A. morar , both described by Hamilton-Buchanan (1822) from India. Two species of the genus have been recognised so far: A. morar (Hamilton) and A. jaya (Hamilton), both from India. The relationships of Aspidoparia have been discussed by Howes (1979) based on osteological characters. This genus is Oriental, but is also represented in west Asia (Kottelat 1984). A new species of Aspidoparia is described from the Chat ickong river, flowing through Chatric village in Ukhrul district, Manipur, India. The Chatrickong is formed by two important rivers Khunukong and Sanalok, which meet at Dha- ado and flow as Chatrickong for about 5 km in the Indian region, then on to Myanmar, finally joining the Chindwin drainage.

During a survey on June 6, 1996, we collected 4 specimens from the lower course of Chatrickong in Ukhrul district, which is the waterhead of the Chindwin drainage in eastern

'Accepted April, 1999

department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.

Manipur. This report describes a new species of Aspidoparia. Notes on A. morar and A. jaya, and a key to the genus Aspidoparia are also provided.

Material and Methods

The specimens were collected by side tracking, locally known as Kongkakhai, on the side of the lower course of the river. The fishes were fixed and preserved in 10% formalin. The type specimens are deposited in the Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF); measurement and counts follow Jayaram (1981). The body proportions are expressed as percentage of Standard Length (SL) and Head Length (HL). Lateral transverse scales were counted as scales between lateral line and dorsal fin origin, and also from lateral line to the base of the ventral fin origin.

Aspidoparia ukhrulensis sp. nov.

(Figs 1-2)

Local name: Boikisi.

Holotype: MUMF 1025, 75.1 mm SL, Chatrickong river, Ukhrul district, Manipur, 150 km from Imphal, India. 6.vi. 1996, coll. Keishing Selim

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Fig. 1 : Aspidoparia ukhrulensis sp. nov.

Paratype: MUMF 1026, 1027, 1028 (3 specimens), 69.5-76.7 mm SL. Data same as holotype.

Key to the species

a. Lateral line scales 52-60; anal fin with

7 branched rays, pharyngeal teeth in two rows A. jay a

b. Lateral line scales 38-42; anal fin with

9 branched rays, pharyngeal teeth in three rows A. morar

c. Lateral line scales 35-37; anal fin with 9 branched rays, pharyngeal teeth in two rows A. ukhrulensis

Description

D ii, 7; P i, 12-13; V i, 7; A iii, 9; PDS 14; LI. 35-37; Ltr 5/1/3; C 19 (10+9). Body elongate and subcylindrical; abdomen rounded. Head length short compared to depth of body, mouth small and inferior, jaws short, no barbels. Lower jaw curved without any lip, pharyngeal teeth in two rows. Dorsal fin inserted opposite to the origin of pelvic fin and nearer the base of the caudal fin. The first simple dorsal ray is strong, osseous and not serrated posteriorly. Pectoral fms long and pointed posteriorly, their length longer than the dorsal height, not reaching the pelvic fin base. Pelvic fins do not reach anal fin base. Vent opens at the base of anal fin. Scales moderate and deciduous. There are 5 rows of scales between the dorsal fin origin and the lateral

line and 2 rows from the lateral line to the base of ventral fin. Lateral line is complete with 35- 37 scales and is slightly curved. Caudal fin forked with lower lobe longer than the upper.

Proportional Measurements: Body depth 26.85-28.48, Head length 21.15-23.30, Caudal length 24.36-27.10, Predorsal length 54.82- 56.32, Dorsal fin height 20.00-20.90, Pectoral fin length 23.70-24.74, Pelvic fin length 15.53- 16.29, Anal fin height 13.66-14.73, Caudal peduncle length 13.42-14.11, Caudal peduncle depth 10.90-11.21 in SL. Head width 49.69- 50.00, Head height at occiput 75.46-80.00, Eye diameter 30.86-32.51, Interorbital space 33.33- 36.80, Pectoral length 96.36-100.09, Snout length 24.53-27.87 in HL.

Colour: Back silvery-white and belly pale

white.

Habitat: Found only at the lower course of the river where the current was slow. It does not come upstream where the current is strong, preferring pools with sandy bottom.

Etymology: The species is named after the type locality, Ukhrul district, Manipur.

Distribution: Chatrickong river, Ukhrul district, Manipur, India.

Remarks: Aspidoparia ukhrulensis differs from A. morar (Ham.-Buch.) in having fewer lateral line scales (35-37 vs. 38-42); fewer predorsal scales (14 vs. 17-18); pharyngeal teeth 2 rows vs. 3 rows; lateral transverse scale count from lateral line to the base of ventral fin 2 vs. 3. It also differs from A. jay a in lateral line scale count, 35-37 vs. 52-60. We feel that A.jaya and A. ukhrulensis are different species as the lateral line scale variation range differs vastly. Hence, physical examination was not done in A. jay a. Only that of A. morar was done for comparison.

Aspidoparia jay a (Ham.-Buch.)

Cyprinus jaya Ham.-Buch., 1822, Fish of Ganges: 333, 392 (type locality: northern Bihar)

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Fig. 2: Drainage map of Manipur showing the collection site

Material examined: None. (Description after Talwar & Jhingran, 1991)

Diagnosis: A species of Aspidoparia with anal fin having 7 branch rays; pharyngeal teeth in two rows; lateral line scales 52-60.

Distribution: india: Gangetic provinces and Assam; Nepal and Bangladesh.

Remarks: The species differs from A. morar in branched anal rays 7 vs. 9; lateral line 52-60 vs. 38-42; pharyngeal teeth 2 rows vs 3 rows.

Aspidoparia morar (Ham.-Buch.)

Cyprinus morar Ham.-Buch., 1822, Fish of Ganges: 264, 384, pi. 31, fig. 75 (type locality: Yamuna river and Tista river).

Material examined: MUMF/888-90, 88.5-138.4 mm in SL, 26.ii.1997, Leimatak river.

(

Table 1

COMPARISON OF MORPHOMETRIC DATA AND COUNTS OF A. UKHR ULENSIS SP. NOV. WITH THOSE OF A. MORAR FROM MANIPUR

Characters Holotype

MUMF/ 1025

A. ukhrulensis

Paratype MUMF/ 1026-28 A. ukhrulensis

Paratype MUMF/ 888-90 A. morar

Head length

21.70

21.15-23.30

19.24-22.20

Body depth

27.82

26.85-28.48

25.53-27.75

Caudal length

24.36

24.36-27.10

27.02-27.55

Predorsal length

56.32

54.82-56.32

53.82-59.26

Dorsal fin height

20.90

20.00-20.90

27.23-24.83

Pectoral fin length

23.70

23.70-24.74

22.48-24.83

Pelvic fin length

16.51

15.53-16.51

14.01-16.55

Anal fin length

In % of HL

14.51

13.66-14.73

13.80-14.39

Head width Head height

49.69

49.69-50.00

50.00-65.40

at occiput

75.46

75.46-80.00

73.00-100.0

Eye diameter

32.51

30.86-32.51

29.66-38.38

Interorbital space

36.38

33.33-36.80

27.96-45.97

Pectoral fin length

100.09

96.36-100.09

100.11-100.54

Snout length

Counts

24.53

24.53-27.87

25.00-30.33

Dorsal fin

ii, 7

ii, 7

ii, 7

Pectoral fin

i, 13

i, 12-13

i, 14

Ventral fin

i, 7

i, 7

i,7

Anal fin

iii, 9

iii, 9

iii, 9

Caudal fin

19

19

19

Barbels

nil

nil

nil

Lateral line scales Lateral transverse

35

35-37

38-42

scales

5/1/2

5/1/2

5/1/3

Predorsal scales Pharyngeal

14

14

17-18

teeth rows

2

2

3

Diagnosis: The species is characterized by nine branched anal rays; pharyngeal teeth in three rows. Lateral line complete with 38-42 scales.

Distribution: india: North India. Iran, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand.

Remarks: It differs from A. ukhrulensis in the number of predorsal scales 17-18 vs. 14; lateral line scales 38-42 vs. 35-37; lateral transverse scales 5/1/2 vs. 5/1/3; pharyngeal teeth 3 rows vs. 2 rows.

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References

Hecicel, J.J. (1843): Ichthyologie. In: J. von russegger, reisen in Europa, Asien and Africa mit bosonderer rucksicht auf naturwissen chaftliche, verhanaltnisse der betrefjfenden lander, untemommen in den jahren 1 935 bis 1 84 1 part 2 stugart, E schweizerbart.

Hamilton-Buchanan, F. (1822): An account of fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches. Archibad Constable and Company, Edinburgh, London, VIII+405, 39 pis.

Howes, G.J. ( 1 979): Notes on the anatomy of the cyprinid fish Macrochirichthys mcicrochinAS (Valenciennes) 1844 with comments on Cultrinae (Pisces,

Cyprinidae) Bull. Br. Mus Nat. Hist. (Zool.). 36(3): 147-200.

Kotellat, M. ( 1 984): Review of the species of Indochinese freshwater fishes described by H.R. Sauvage. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris. (4) 6(A3): 791-822. Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma & Sri Lanka, a handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 437-444.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 1 1 58.

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A NEW SPECIES OF RHODODENDRON LINN.

FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1

G.D. Pal2

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Rhododendron, new species, Arunachal Pradesh

A new species of Rhododendron is described with illustrations. A comparative table of taxonomic characters is also appended here to distinguish the new taxon from the closely

related species.

During plant explorations in the Lower Subansiri district, Arunachal Pradesh, an interesting species of rhododendron was collected in Tale Valley at 3,200 m altitude. It is an extremely elegant epiphytic shrubby species that grows among moss, lycopods and various lichens on fallen tree trunks. Its yellow funnel- campanulate flowers remain above the surrounding mossy carpet and its charming beauty at once catches the botanist’s eye. The plant as a whole attains only half a metre in length, of which the lower creeping parts remain covered with moss and only the upper dichotomies with leaves are erect. A critical study of the specimens and scrutiny of the literature revealed it to be a new species, which was confirmed by Dr. H.H. Davidian of Royal Botanical Garden, Edinburgh, U.K.

The new species is placed under the subsection: Lepidota, section: Rhododendron of the subgenus: Rhododendron. Cullen (1983) recognized the subsection: Lepidota

(Hutchinson) Sleumer [Bot. Jahrb. 74:53 1 . 1949] as a small group of three species namely R. lepidotum Wall. ex. G. Don, R. lowndesii Davidian and R. cowanianum Davidian distributed mainly in the Himalayas. The subsection is characterized by: small shrubs or

1 Accepted October, 1 999

:Botanical Survey of India

Arunachal Field Station

Itanagar 791 111, Arunachal Pradesh, India

shrublets up to 2 m; lower surface of leaves with broad translucent scales; inflorescence terminal, 1-5 flowered; calyx deeply 5-lobed; corolla usually lepidote outside; stamens 10 and actinomorphically arranged; ovary lepidote; style impressed, short and sharply deflexed.

Rhododendron nayari sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

R. lowndesii Davidian affine, sed fmticosis epiphyticis; foliis coriaceis, glabris, marginibus integribus, valde recurvatis; floribus solitariis, pedicellis 6-8 mm longis; calyces lobis oblongo- spathulatibus, 6-10 mm longis; corollis campanulatis, apicibus loborum manifeste incisuratis; capsulisque oblongo-ellipsoides differt.

Holotypus: Arunachal Pradesh, Lower Subansiri district, Tale Valley, 3,200 m, 17. iv. 1980, G.D. Pal 77690 A (CAL). Isotypi / hid., G.D. Pal 77690 B; Ibid ., G.D. Pal 77690 C & D (ARUN).

Small decumbent, epiphytic shrublets up to 50 cm tall, profusely branched; branches mostly dichotomous, woody, terete, 2-4 mm across; younger parts densely brownish or ferrugineo-brownish pilose, older parts become glabrate, rough; bark thin, grey or ashy-grey; leaf-scars prominent. Leaves whorled, 4-8 together, rarely ternate, crowded at the apices of branches, lower leaves deciduous; elliptic to

258

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cm

Fig. 1 : Rhododendron nayari sp. nov.

A. Habit; B. Leaf (lower surface); C. Calyx; D. Corolla; E & F. Bracts; G-I. Stamens; J. Gynoecium; K. Capsule; L. Flower; M. Flower split open; N. Bud (enlarged, lower view).

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elliptic-oblong, rarely obovate, (10 to) 16-20 (to 25) x (4 to) 8-1 1 (to 13) mm; acute to subrounded at base; obtuse or subrounded at the club-shaped mucronate apex; margins entire, strongly recurved, loriform setose; lateral nerves 6-8 on either side of midrib, hardly conspicuous; coriaceous, glabrous; upper surfaces dark green, sparsely lepidote or not, turn dark brown; lower surfaces dull green, profusely lepidote with scales, become light brown or grayish-brown on drying; scales golden-brown, nearly uniform, circular in outline, sunken in pit, shortly stalked, central part flattened, rim broad, translucent; petioles (1.5 to) 2.5-5 (to 6.5) mm long, ferrugineo-brownish pilose, often intermixed with a few scales; sometimes sessile scaly leaves appear in between whorl of leaves; scaly leaves lanceolate or narrowly oblong, 6-15 mm long, ciliate. Winter buds ovate; bud-scales imbricate. Flower solitary, terminal; pedicels 6-8 mm long, densely ferrugineo-brownish pilose and lepidote; bracts in series, imbricate, often cover the lower half of pedicels, reddish, coriaceous, broadly oblong to suborbicular, (2 to) 4-5 (to 7) x (2 to)

4- 4.5 (to 6) mm, rounded at mucronate apex, dorsally glabrous, ventrally glabrous or finely whitish tomentose at apices, ciliate. Calyx deeply

5- lobed. yellowish; tube about 2 mm long, ferrugineo-brownish pilose and lepidote at very

base; lobes unequal, oblong-spathulate, 6-10 x 4.5-6 mm, membranous, glabrous, rarely with a few scales on dorsal surface, filiform-acicular ciliate at apical margin. Corolla yellow, campanulate or funnel-campanulate; tube 7-9 mm long; lobes broadly obovate-oblong to suborbicular, 6-9 x 8-12 mm, distinctly notched at apex; corolla-tube and crest of lobes dorsally covered with golden-brown, translucent, domed scales; scales sparse or even absent towards margin; pits shallow. Stamens 10; filaments unequal, 5-8 mm long, Actinomorphically arranged, brownish pilose at or near the middle; anthers black, oblong, 2.5-3 x 1.5 mm, emarginated at apex, bilobed, each lobe opens by a large, terminal, oblique pore. Ovary ellipsoid, 5-locular, about 3 x 2.5 mm, densely lepidote with scales; scales absent at base; style impressed into the top of ovary; de flexed at or above the middle, glabrous; stigma swollen, consisting of five fleshy lobes. Capsules oblong- ellipsoid, 6.5-7 x 3.5-4 mm, lepidote with scales when young; older capsules glabrate, rugose, breaking into five strong, woody, straight valves, placenta not separating from central axis; seeds fusiform, about 4 mm long, unwinged and without a distinct tail.

Type: Arunachal Pradesh, Lower Subansiri district, Tale Valley, 3,200 m,

Table 1

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF RHODODENDRON LOWNDESI I AND R. NA YARI

Rhododendron lowndesii Davidian R. nayari sp. nov.

1 . Small lithophytic, creeping, pubescent shrublets, 1 .

about 10 cm high.

2. Leaves thin, pubescent; margins 2.

slightly crenate, hairy.

3. Inflorescence 1 -2 flowered; pedicels 2. 5-4.3 cm long. 3.

4. Calyx-lobes ovate or ovate-oblong, 2. 5-3. 5 mm long 4.

5. Corolla rounded or bell-shaped, red-spotted or 5.

streaked; lobes rounded without notch.

6. Ovary cone shaped; style short, much curved. 6.

7. Capsules cylindric, c. 5 mm 7.

Small epiphytic, decumbent, glabrous shrubs, about 50 cm high.

Leaves coriaceous, glabrous; margins entire, strongly recurved, lori form-setose.

Flower solitary, terminal ; pedicels 6-8 mm long. Calyx-lobes oblong-spathulate, 6- 1 0 mm long. Corolla campanulate or funnel-campanulate, yellow; lobes prominently notched at apex.

Ovary ellipsoid; style about 5 mm long, slightly deflexed after anthesis at or above the middle. Capsules oblong-ellipsoid, 6.5-7 mm.

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17. iv. 1980, G.D. Pal 77690 A (Holotype CAL). Isotypes: Ibid., G.D. Pal 77690 B; Ibid., G.D. Pal 77690 C & 77690 D (ARUN).

FI. & Fr.: March-May.

Ecology: Grows on tree trunks in moist, shady places at higher elevations and is associated with various species of mosses, lycopods, lichens and bamboos.

Rhododendron nayari sp. nov. is closely allied to R. lowndesii Davidian, but the former can be easily distinguished by glabrous, coriaceous leaves with loriform-setose margin; solitary, terminal flower with smaller pedicel; large, oblong-spathulate calyx-lobes; corolla- lobes distinctly notched at apex and oblong- ellipsoid capsules (Table 1).

The specific epithet of this beautiful rhododendron is given in honour of Dr. M.P.

Nayar, Ex-Director, Botanical Survey of India for his valuable contribution to the understanding of the taxonomy of Indian plants.

ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS

I thank the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for all facilities and encouragement. Sincere thanks to Dr. H.H. Davidian, ‘Specialist in Rhododendron’, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh for confirmation of the new taxon. I also thank Dr. G.S. Giri, Scientist-SE, Central National Herbarium, Howrah, for kindly going through the manuscript and providing line drawings, and Dr. V.J. Nair for providing the Latin diagnosis of the new species.

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REVIEWS

1. EVALUATING EDEN SERIES NO. 3. WHERE COMMUNITIES CARE: COMMUNITY-BASED WILDLIFE AND ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH ASIA by Ashish Kothari, Neema Pathak and Farhad Vania. Published by Russel Press, Nottingham, UK. Published in 2000. Pp. xv+222. Price not mentioned.

The conservation of biodiversity and its judicious use is especially important in sustaining the livelihood of poor households across the world. Despite its critical importance, we continue to lose biodiversity at an alarming rate. For example, forests are being destroyed at the rate of an acre a second (World Bank), with unimaginable loss of biodiversity and serious erosion of income of the rural poor. Several factors contribute to the destruction of biodiversity — lack of clear property rights, distorted markets and prices, lack of appreciation of the value of biodiversity, poor management, paucity of financial resources, and general development pressures. The need to address these factors to conserve our biodiversity resources is great. Several successful examples at balancing biodiversity conservation with economic modernization exist at the national level. Conventions on Biological Diversity and the Global Environment Facility provides important means by which to share such examples across countries and scale them up rapidly. By bringing together a large body of policy makers, academics and representatives from the private sector and society, I hope that this book will provide the opportunity to exchange innovative solutions among development practitioners across the Subcontinent. Furthermore, to identify practical and workable solutions to sustainably manage this critical resource.

Kothari et al. deal with the above points in different case studies. In this book, there are eight case studies from India, three from Nepal, two from Pakistan and five from Sri Lanka. Seven case studies were carried out as part of

the Review, on the basis of the following criteria: coverage of a range of (a) countries in the region; (b) ecosystem types; (c) ethnic communities; (d) initiatives, including government, NGO and community-led; and (e) availability of an active partner at the site or nearby.

The book is structured as follows: introductory chapter explains the background and objectives of the Review, and the methodology and definitions used; Chapter 2 provides an ecological and socioeconomic profile of South Asia; Chapters 3 to 8 provide descriptions of the history and current status of wildlife/biodiversity conservation in general, and Community-based Wildlife Management (CWM) in particular, in the six countries; Chapter 9 draws out the major ecological, economic, social, and policy-level impact of CWM in the region; Chapter 10 is a detailed regional analysis of the issues arising out of CWM, experiences in these countries, and challenges facing the future of CWM; Chapter 1 1 highlights next steps at local, national, and regional levels.

The book also gives an overview of the studies on community-based wildlife management, or rather, community-based conservation. Out of the 25 biodiversity hot spots in the world, India is one of the megadiversity countries and has the second largest human population. The case studies show how community-led conservation is important to biodiversity for long term conservation. For instaj e, in Keoladeo National Park (India), the management plan was prepared after discussion with the concerned communities living on the fringes of the Park. In Jigme Dorji National Park

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and Royal Manas National Park (Bhutan), the WWF had undertaken socioeconomic surveys and made management plans, with the help of the local communities. Forest Conservation and agro-biodiversity revival at Jardharaon. Uttar Pradesh (India), through the Chipko movement, the famous Himalayan struggle to protect natural forests against timber contractors and other forces of destruction.

The authors are of the opinion that, even today, the Governments and even some development organizations dictate most of the terms of biodiversity conservation with or without the consent of concerned communities. Conservationists have realized that without the full participation of local communities,

biodiversity conservation will get nowhere. Despite this realization, even today, the amount of resources spent by many development organizations on community consultations and community involvement in most projects remains inadequate. Do we have adequate community involvement in biodiversity conservation? This book is worth reading, to realise the importance of community participation in biodiversity conservation and wildlife management. The book is produced by Kalpavriksh (India) in collaboration with the International Institute of Environment and Development (UK).

■ M. ZAFAR-UL ISLAM

2. NATURE’S SPOKESMAN: M. KRISHNAN AND INDIA’S WILDLIFE: Edited by Ramachandra Guha. Published in 2000. Oxford University Press. (22.5 x 14.5 cm), pp. 291. Price Rs. 595/-.

Some people say that it is not proper to review a book about your life-long hero, as objectivity is lost, but I will review this book, no matter what people say. I am proud to say that I am one of the many Indian naturalists who grew up cherishing M. Krishnan’s highly readable newspaper column ‘Country Notebook’. I do not remember when I first read his column in ‘The Statesman’, perhaps it was in 1964, when I was 14 years old, but what I do remember clearly is that I used to look forward to the otherwise rather sedate and boring The Statesman which carried Krishnan’s fortnightly column. I still have old clippings from the late 1960s and 1970s.

M. Krishnan was not only an extraordinary naturalist and photographer, he was a philosopher, poet, art critic, translator, literary historian, Tamil litterateur, essayist and an artist. He was also a cricket buff! He had written columns on the Madras Test Match in 1952, for The Statesman. No doubt, with such varied

talent, Krishnan was abrasive and opinionated, though not arrogant, according to people who knew him personally.

Nature’s spokesman is edited by another fan of Krishnan, well-known environmental historian Ramachandra Guha. After a brief introduction, which Guha calls ‘The Worlds of M. Krishnan’, he presents a selection of 68 essays. It must have been extremely difficult for Guha to select these essays from the hundreds scattered in Madras Mail , The Statesman , The Hindu , The Indian Express , The Illustrated Weekly of India , Shankar 's Weekly and others, since each piece needs to be leisurely savoured. I recommend this book for the field, where it should be read unhurriedly, beside a fireplace, in some remote, forest guesthouse, perhaps under a lantern! Only then may the reader appreciate the beauty of sentences like: ‘unpredictable exuberance of the mighty Brahmaputra’ (p. 153), ‘it is easy to be solemnly pompous over a pledge of commitments’

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(p. 193), ‘charming confidence that animals in a sanctuary often develop towards humanity’ (p. 212), the list is endless as the book is full of such unforgettable sentences. Writing about the antics of the members of the Indian Board for Wildlife during the discussion on commercial exploitation of captive crocodiles in his article ‘Captive-bred mugger (p. 193-195), he writes “I could not argue the point... as by that time people were getting visibly restive. The aroma of lunch, being laid out in the next room pervaded the air, and as an experienced ethologist I knew how futile, even dangerous at times, gustatory arousal and its consummation.”

To modify Orwell, all articles are good, but some are better than others. My favourites

are: ‘The Shawk’ (pp 35-36) about the two Egyptian vultures which come daily to Tirukkalukunram, near Mahabalipuram, which shows Krishnan’s sense of humour, and ‘Ecological patriotism’ (pp 250-255). The latter, I think, should be compulsory reading for all conservationists and forest officers. Reading this article I found that, like 35 years ago, when I used to sit with a dictionary to comprehend M. Krishnan’s writing, I still had to use a dictionary to understand words such as ‘desideratum’ (p. 251) which means something wanted or needed. Do I need to write more about the value of this book?

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

3. FISH FAUNA OF MANIPUR, by W. Vishwanath. Manipur Association for Science & Society (MASS), Imphal. Published in 2000. Pp. viii + 143, 6 plates. (21 x 13.5 cm), price Rs. 100/- or $ 6; library edition price Rs. 350/- or $ 10.

In the last two decades, there has been a spate of books on Indian fish taxonomy. While these dealt with fishes from all over India — and even neighbouring countries — there is a new star on the horizon. The ‘Seven Sisters’, as our northeastern states are known, are a far cry from the national mainstream, what with vast distances, logistic constraints and a beautifully quaint culture. It was, therefore, a surprise to me to come across one of the best written treatises on fish taxonomy from one of these distant states, namely Manipur. The excellent work is by Dr. W. Vishwanath, a protege of Dr. K.C. Jayaram, who is himself the author of two outstanding fish books. May their tribe increase and flourish!

This compact booklet — it has 143 pages — covers 167 species. Manipur, though politically a part of India, borders on Myanmar (Burma) and has the advantage of having an admixture of typically Indian fish fauna in its Barak-Brahmaputra drainage in its western half

and the Imphal-Chindwin drainage in its eastern half. Thus, many of its fishes, though known in Myanmar, are the basis of new geographic records from India.

The book starts with brief but necessary notes on Manipur’s geomorphology, water resources, biogeography and history of fish taxonomy in the region. Although Manipur is considered a ‘developing’ state, the author has consulted the latest taxonomic classifications of Eschmeyer (1990), Kottelat (1990), Rainboth (1991), Nelson (1994), Banarescu & Nalbant ( 1 995) and Banarescu & Herzig-Straschil ( 1 995), so that the classification in the book is up to date.

Vishwanath has taken great care to go through the proofs for the main section (page 26 onwards); I could locate only one mistake on page 47 where “paired fish lateral” is given (It should be “paired fins lateral”). However, it is in the general coverage, and more so the Systematic Index (S.I.) where he has slipped up badly. Thus, page 10 has as many as five spelling errors in the

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technical names, namely Coelecathimorpha instead of Coelacanthimorpha, Tetrapods (should be Tetrapoda), Chimaeriform(e)s (e missing), Rajiform(e)s (e missing), Coelac(a)nthiformes (a missing); on page 1 1 Sc(h)ilbeinae (h missing). On page 12, the Family Nandidae is wrongly shown as an Order, Cic(h)lidae (h missing) and Anbantidae (should be Anabantidae); on page 13 standard lenght, dorsal fin lenght (instead of length); on page 21 berdmorrei (only one ‘r’); on page 22 Tros(c)hel (c missing); on page 23 N. viridescens (should be viridiscens ), H. fossilis bloch (instead of Bloch), Exoceotoidei (should be Exocoetoidei). On page 23, the Suborder Belonidei is wrongly given as Belonidae. On page 24, Johnius Blochl (‘1’ is superfluous, also the subfamilies Badinae and Nandinae are wrongly given as Badidae and Nandidae, Family Cichlidae is wrongly spelt as Chiclidae, while on page 125 it is spelt Ciclidae.

The top lines on many pages in the Systematic Index are missing, e.g., Subfamily Cobitinae (p. 85), Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.- Buch.) (p. 88), Subfamily Bagrinae (p. 90),

Mystus bleekeri (Day) (p. 93), Suborder Beloidei (p. 113), Subfamily Apocheilinae (p.114), Subfamily Mastacembelinae (p. 117), Suborder Tetraodontoidei (p. 133) and Subfamily Tetraodontinae (p. 133).

There are many slips in the pagination too. Thus, C. chitala is shown in the Systematic Index (S.I.) as on page 28, whereas it is actually on page 29. Similar errors are: genus Aorichthys Wu (S.I. page 91, actually 90); A. aor (Ham.- Buch.), genus Batasio Blyth and B. tengara (Ham.-Buch.) (S.I. 92, actually 91), Family Siluridae (S.I. 94, actually 93), genus Wallagoi Bleeker (S.I. 96, actually 95).

But these errors and aberrations are only minor irritants and do not detract from the otherwise excellent publication. Accurate line drawings are given for each genus so as to acquaint the novice of the shape of the fish. Photographs are also given of 66 representative fishes. The price for the library edition is rather stiff, at Rs. 350/-.

■ B.F. CHHAPGAR

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1 . HOMOSEXUALITY IN ASIATIC LION: A CASE STUDY FROM GIR NATIONAL PARK AND SANCTUARY

The Asiatic lion {Panther a leo persica ) is a social animal and its natural sexual behaviour is in general restricted to heterosexualism, but there are a few exceptions. The heterosexual behaviour of Asiatic lions of the Gir Protected Areas (PA) is recorded and described in detail by Joslin (1973) and Sinha (1987). In 1982, Chauhan reported homosexuality (lesbianism) in the Asiatic lioness of Gir. But homosexuality in male Asiatic lions, which are prime territorial males, has never been recorded before in detail with photographic evidence.

A pair of prime territorial males about 6 to 7 years, from Khokhra, showed this unusual behaviour when they were not with females. This dominant pair hold a territory of about 70 sq. km, which falls in Sasan (Amritvel, Gebi-amba, Bavalbalachowk, Kankai naka area) and Dedakadi range (Pilipat, Kadeli, Ratanguna area) of the western part of Gir PA, for the last one and a half years. This area has four prime females with cubs. The Khokhra males have an established record of mating with three females of the Khokhra territory, of which two females now have four cubs.

Homosexual activity among these two males was first observed by a group of trackers in November 1999, for five days continuously, and later in December 1999, for three days. The method of mounting, time taken during mounting, repulsive action after mounting seen in the Khokhra males is similar to heterosexual mating.

Only the larger male would mount the smaller one, which showed a subserviant attitude

Refer

Joslin, Paul ( 1 973): The Asiatic lion: a study of ecology and behaviour. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Edinburgh. Sinha, S.P. (1987): Ecology of wildlife with special

and played the role of the receptive partner. The smaller male rarely growled, unlike the larger during mating. Each mounting lasted for about 12 to 23 seconds and the gap between two incidents varied from 4-12 minutes. The frequency of mating increased during the morning and evening hours. Of the 45 mountings observed, the smaller male showed repulsive action in four cases, which may be due to the actual anal penetration during mating. During the homosexual activity period, the animals avoided food, but changed their area, which is unusual during heterosexual mating.

The areas in which the Khokhra males move have a low female population, and most of the females are engaged in rearing cubs. Due to overlapping of territories, there is increasing pressure on the males to protect their territories from other males. There is also a possibility that the Khokra females are mating with other males. November and December are the peak period for mating of lions in Gir PA. All these factors may have contributed to the unusual sexual behaviour observed.

Acknowledgements

I thank the trackers of Gir PA and Shri Chaitanya Joshi and Shri Kautilya P. Bhatt for their help in field observation.

April 14, 2000 B.P.PATI

Dy. Cons elevator of Forests, Wildlife Division , Sasan, Gir 362 1 35, Gujarat, India.

ENCES

reference to the lion (P anthem leo persica) in Gir Wildlife Sanctuary. Ph.D. Thesis, Saurashtra University Rajkot.

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2. PREDATION BY LEOPARD PANTHERA PARDUS IN MAJHATAL HARS ANG WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, WESTERN HIMALAYA

We analysed leopard {Panther a pardus) scats to get an indication of its food habits in Majhatal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary (MHWS: 76° 55'-77° 5' E and 3 1° 1 5'-3 1° 1 8' N), Himachal Pradesh. The scats were collected between November 1992 and May 1993. MHWS is located in the middle Himalaya, with an altitude from 575 m to 1,985 m above msl. The area has a subtropical monsoon climate. Himalayan chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) and ban oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) forests, and subtropical Euphorbia scrub are the major vegetation types (Champion and Seth 1968).

Besides leopard, mammalian predators in the area are jungle cat ( Felis chaus), Himalayan black bear ( Selenarctos thibetanus), and Himalayan yellow-throated marten {Martes flavigula). Lammergeier {Gypaetus barbatus ) is a potential avian predator. The potential prey base in MHWS includes barking deer {Muntiacus muntjac), wild pig {Sus scrofa) and sambar {Cemus unicolor ), besides goral Nemorhaedus goral. Goral is the most abundant, followed by barking deer. Wild pig and sambar are very rare. During this 6 months study, there were more than 300 sightings of goral, about of 10 barking deer, 1 of sambar and none of wild pig (Mishra 1993, Mishra and Johnsingh 1996). Although there are sampling biases in this information (e.g. very little sampling in the low-lying areas of the Sanctuary, which are used more by sambar and wild pig), we think that it does give a rough indication of the relative abundance of wild ungulates. Relatively large groups (>20) of rhesus macaque {Macaca mulatto) and common langur {Presbytis entellus ) were seen repeatedly in the area, though we do not have any abundance estimates. Though porcupine ( Hystrix indica) was never seen, probably because of its nocturnal habits, indirect evidence and local information indicated that it was common. Both porcupine

and rufous-tailed hare ( Lepus nigricollis ruficaudatus ) damage crops in the villages and are known to be fairly common. One hundred and six species of birds were identified during the study, including nine species of pheasants (Mishra 1 997).

MHWS has 17 villages with a human population of about 750. Livestock rearing is one of the main occupations besides cultivation. The potential prey base for leopard includes livestock (goat, sheep, cattle, buffalo) and village dogs.

Forty-seven leopard scats were collected from areas between 1,400-1,950 m above msl. All scats were washed in running water, over a sieve, and oven dried at 60 °C. Of these, 17 scats were analysed at the field station, for which no standardized procedures were followed. Prey remains such as hair, claws and hooves were examined. Hairs were viewed under a compound microscope at lOOx magnification and were identified by comparing them with reference slides. The remaining 30 scats were analysed using techniques standardised by Mukherjee et al. (1994). Twenty hairs were picked per scat and identified by the medullary method.

The results are summarised in Table 1. Cattle remains were found in 33% of the scats followed by langur (30%), goral (30% and dog (23%). Remains of buffalo, rodents, goat and hare occurred in less than 15% of the scats. Fifty percent of the scats contained the remains of a single prey species, 33% contained 2 prey species, and 17% contained 3 prey species. The mean number of species per scat was 1.6. We found remains of birds in 3 of the 1 7 scats analysed at the field station. Remains of buffalo, cow, goat, goral and rodents were noted in one scat each.

Although the sample size is inadequate to comment on leopard diet, some interesting trends are indicated. Remains of domestic and wild animals are represented in almost equal numbers of scats (23 and 24 respectively). This indicates

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Table 1

PERCENT OCCURRENCE OF PREY REMAINS IN LEOPARD SCATS ( 1 0, 20 AND 30; CUMULATIVE) FROM MAJHATAL HARSANG WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, INDIA

Prey species

1 0 scats

20 scats

30 scats

Cattle

30

25

33

Langur

40

30

30

Goral

10

20

30

Dog

30

25

23

Buffalo

30

20

13

Rodents

10

10

10

Goats

0

10

10

Hare

0

0

3

Unknown

0

5

6

high predation on domestic animals, despite there being seemingly abundant wild prey, especially goral. Buffalo remains in the diet indicate scavenging by the leopard — there was high winter mortality among buffaloes during the study period. Local information confirmed that there is no actual predation on buffalo, though cattle are frequently killed.

Our results indicate relatively high predation on goral (Table 1). In another goral area, in Rajaji National Park in the Shiwalik Hills of northwest Himalaya, we had found a total absence of leopard predation on this species (Mukherjee, unpubl. data), where it was among the less abundant species and occurred in more

difficult terrain than the other prey. The majority of prey in Rajaji was formed by the more abundant chital {Axis axis). In MHWS, we did not find any remains of barking deer, wild pig, sambar, rhesus macaque, or porcupine, in any of the scats. Except for the last two, these species are uncommon in the study area. It is worthwhile to note the high levels of predation on common langur and a complete lack of it on rhesus macaque. The trend in Rajaji was similar, with no predation on the rhesus macaque, further data on which is yet to be published.

Acknowledgements

The second author thanks the Himachal Pradesh Forest Department for cooperation and permission to work, and Hira Singh for valuable field assistance.

April 14, 2000 SHOMITA MUKHERJEE Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box #18, Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

CHARUDUTT MISHRA Centre for Ecological Research and Conservation, 3076/5, IV Cross Gokulam Park, Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India.

References

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth ( 1 968): A revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of Publications, Govt of India, Delhi.

Mishra, C. (1993): Habitat use by goral {Nemorhaedus goral bedfordi ) in Majhatal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary, Himachal Pradesh, India. M.Sc. Thesis submitted to Saurashtra University, Rajkot, India.

Mishra, C. (1997): Pheasants and other birds of Majhatal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary, Himachal Pradesh,

India. Forktail 12: 1-6.

Mishra, C. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1996): On habitat selection by the goral Nemorhaedus goral bedfordi (Bovidae, Artiodactyla). Journal of Zoology, London, 240\ 573-580

Mukherjee, S., S.P. Goyal & R. Chellam (1994): Standardisation of scat analysis techniques for leopard (Panthera pardus) in Gir National Park, Western India. Mammalia, 58:139-143.

3. A REPORT ON THE FOOD PLANTS OF SALIM ALLS FRUIT BAT LA TIDENS SALIM ALII

A team of researchers visited the only on March 23, 1999, as part of the biodiversity known roosting cave of the highly endangered assessment programme of Meghamalai region, and endemic bat Latidens salimalii Thonglongya, The cave is situated in a deep gorge in a valley,

268

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near a stream inside the Kardana Coffee estate, right down the Mettala peak (9° 42' N and IT 24' E) at 460 m above msl. Coffee and other trees constitute the vegetation surrounding the cave, which serves as a night roost or resting place while feeding (Bates et al. 1994). The day roost is not known.

In 1972, Kitty Thonglongya described a new genuis of bat Latidens salimalii (Salim Ali’s fruit bat) endemic to south India, based on one specimen collected by Angus Hutton from High Wavy mountain in 1948. Hutton erroneously identified it as Cynopterus sphinx sphinx ( Vahl.). Muni and Thomas rediscovered this rare bat in April 1993 (Bates et al. 1994), in their preliminary survey of bats of High Wavy mountain. They collected six specimens and gave morphometric and anatomic details of this endemic species. L. salimalii is a medium sized fruit bat with an average forearm length of 67.3 mm. It is similar to Cynopterus sphinx in size, but without an external tail. The characters are well described in Bates and Harrison (1997). This bat is listed by IUCN as critically endangered (list 1), with small distribution area, decline of habitat and small population (Baillie and Groombridge 1996). It has entered the Guinness Book of World Records ( 1 993) as one of the three most rare bats of the world. The distribution is presently believed to be restricted to a small population in High Wavy mountain. No information is available on its food or on any other ecological aspects. Latidens is closely allied to the southeast Asian genus Penthetor Anderson 1912 in general similarity of cheek teeth, and to Thoopterus Malsche, 1899 on account of similarities in skull morphology (Bates et al. 1994). Penthetor is known to feed on a wide variety of hard fruits and seeds from forest trees (Mickleburgh et al. 1992) and Thoopterus has been observed feeding on wild figs (Bergmans and Rozendaal 1988).

Just a few weeks prior to our visit, some other researchers had visited this cave and tried assessing the population using nets and visual

observation (Arogyamoorthy pers. comm.). During this visit, we identified 2 fig and 3 other tree species from fruit parts present in the faecal heaps on the floor of the cave. The species identified were Ficus beddomi , Ficus macrocarpa , Diospyros ovalifolia , Prunus ceylanicus and Eleocarpus oblongus. All these trees were fruiting around the cave. This is the first report of the food plants of this endangered fruit-eating bat. According to the locals, the bats live there round the year, which implies that food was available throughout the year from fruiting trees in the surrounding forest and estates. Thus, survival of this endangered species, in its sole known habitat, is linked with the survival of these fruiting trees.

Along the valley, tree felling still continues as part of the coffee estate management. In some areas, patches are being replanted by Eiythrina sp. and Silver Oak Grevillea robusta, which are of no use to the bat. If the authorities with the help of the coffee estate management do not take immediate steps to conserve the food plants, the future of this endemic and endangered bat, whose specific name honours a great ornithologist, is in peril. Though access to High Wavy mountain is restricted, habitat destruction and some level of predation by local workers (Bates et al. 1994) also pose a serious threat to the species.

April 8, 2000 PRAMOD PADMANABHAN Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur (PO), Bangalore 560 064, Karnataka, India. E. KUNHIKRISHNAN Department of Zoology, University College, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.

JOMY AUGUSTINE Department of Botany, St. Thomas College, Pala, Kottayam, Kerala, India.

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References

Baillie & B. Groombridge (1 996): 1 996 IUCN Redlist of Threatened Animals. The IUCN Species Survival Commission, Gland and Washington. 368 pp.

Bates, P.J.J., D.L. Harrison, N.M. Thomas & M. Muni (1994): The Indian fruit bat Latidens salimalii Thonglongya, 1972 (Chiroptera: Pteropidae) rediscovered in South India. Bonner. Zool. Beitr. 45(2): 89-98.

Bates, P.J.J. & D.L. Harrison (1997): Bats of Indian sub- continent. Harrison Zoological Museum, Kent, 258 pp.

Bergmans, W. & F.G. Rozendaal (1988): Notes on collection of fruits from Sulawesi and some off-lying islands (Mammalia, Megachiroptera). Zool. Verb. Leiden. 248: 3-74.

Mickleburgh, S.P., A.M. Hutson & P.A. Racey (1992): Old world fruit bats: Action plan for their conservation. IUCN, Gland. 252 pp,

Thonglongya, K. (1972): A new genus and species of fruit bat from South India (Chiroptera: Pteropidae). J. Bombay ncit. Hist. Soc. 69(1): 151-158.

4. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE WILD WATER BUFFALO BUB ALUS ARNE E IN THE BARAK VALLEY DISTRICTS OF ASSAM

(With one text figure)

The Asiatic wild water buffalo Bubalus arnee Kerr {bub alls Linn.) is in need of urgent conservation attention. Even stray information of both past and present distribution has become extremely important. An account of its status in northeastern India, the only stronghold of the species in the world, is given in Choudhury (1994). Here I report its past occurrence in the Barak Valley of southern Assam, comprising the districts of Cachar, Hailakandi and Karimganj (Fig. 1).

There is no mention of the wild buffalo in the literature of this area, except for a remark in Choudhury (1997a). During various field trips for primates and birds in the 1980s, I received a few reports about the occurrence of wild buffalo, but could not verify them. However, it was during a survey of grasslands as part of the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritisation Project (BCPP) in 1997 (Choudhury, 1997b) that I got concrete reports and could personally verify them. While many of the specimens were found to be mis- identifications of the gaur Bos gciurus, three horns of Bubalus arnee were examined and measured. Subsequently, only the reports of these reliable observers, who did not confuse gaur with buffalo, were accepted. The records are listed chronologically:

Late 19th Century: (a) I got reports from Karimganj district (A. Mumm Mazumdar, ex-hunter, Hailakandi, pers. comm.) about the availability of horns. Two horns were examined, a male and a female, near Badarpur. However, both were shot from Jabda haor - Andhari beel area (24° 55' N, 92° 30' E) of Katigora, Cachar district, in the latter half of the 1 9th century by the late Hamidur Raza Choudhury. The specimens were magnificent animals (Table 1). (b) One shot dead in 1885-90 from beel no. 18 near Hasiura (revenue villages: Rajyeswarpur pt VII & VIII) (24° 35' N, 92° 37' E) by Kutumia Choudhury, who was among the first settlers in Hasiura. The horn was preserved till 1940s (A. Majid Choudhury, Hasiura village, pers. comm.).

Table 1

MEASUREMENTS (IN CM) OF HORNS OF WILD WATER BUFFALOES EXAMINED IN BARAK VALLEY DISTRICTS

Sp-1

(0

Sp-2

(m)

Sp-3

(m)

Maximum spread

121.5

129.5

—

Tip to tip (span)

91.0

61.5

—

Sweep (across forehead)

242.0

317.0

—

Girth at base

32.0

50.0

44.5

Maximum length of a single horn

110.0

148.0

122.0

Sp (Specimen)- 1 & 2: Jabda haor - Andhan areas, Cachar district; Sp-3: Mahmodpur, Hailakandi district; Sp-3 was only horns without the skull; (m) = Male; (f)= Female.

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Early 20th Century: The first authentic report, received during this study, was from Mahmodpur Village (24° 30' N, 92° 37' E) in Hailakandi district (A. Majid Choudhury, Hasiura village, pers. comm.). A bull had been shot near Itala beel at the turn of the 20th century, and its horns have been well preserved. The measurements of this magnificent specimen are given in Table 1.

1950: Two buffaloes were seen wallowing m a small pool, west of Bhaga Bazar (24° 30' N 92° 48' E) in Cachar district (Sharifunnessa Mazumder, 85 yrs, Bhaga village, pers. comm.). This old lady had fled her village during the post-partition riots and had taken shelter in the jungle when she saw the animals.

1950s: A few were seen till about 1955 in Bagchara (24° 12' N, 92° 30' E) and other areas of Innerline RF, Hailakandi district (Haji A. Haq Laskar, local leader, Nitainagar village, pers. comm.).

1960s: One bull was seen in mid-1960s at

Kuarthol, near Lonai (24° 30' N, 92° 40' E; outskirts of Katakhal RF, Hailakandi district) (Harun Rashid Laskar, Hasiura village, pers. comm.). This was the last confirmed record of the wild buffalo in the Barak Valley districts.

After talking to old hunters and others who gave this invaluable information, I surmised that the wild buffalo existed in the Barak Valley districts till late 1950s. Stray animals were reported till about the late 1960s. No report of any surviving animal has been received after that, indicating its extinction from the area. The last of the animals reported were from Innerline RF of southern Hailakandi and southern Cachar, Katakhal RF of southeastern Hailakandi and in the low hills and valleys of southeastern parts of Karimganj and adjacent areas of Hailakandi. Because of the lack of vast stretches of grassland as are found in the Brahmaputra valley, the animals were possibly never abundant in the area. The buffaloes of Jabda haor complex vanished in the early decades of the 20th century.

Expansion of lowland paddy cultivation in the floodplains, poaching for meat and sport (shot at Jabda by a rich landlord, notified by the British regime) and encroachment in the low hills and valleys of the southern forested tract have resulted in the gradual decline of the small population of wild buffalo in the area.

Acknowledgements

For their help, I thank A. Munim Mazumdar, Romu, Sajjad, Babu, Rose, Mukut, Raju, Munni, late Humon Mia, Kubad Mia, son of late Asan Mia of Srigouri, son of Haji Safar Ali of Mahmodpur. Special thanks to Abdul Majid Choudhury of Hasiura (N. Jashnabad) for providing the first authentic information.

July 23, 2000 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY The Rhino Foundation, C/o The Assam Co. Ltd,

Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

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References

Choudhury, A.U. (1994): The decline of the wild water buffalo in northeastern India. Oryx 28(1): 70-73. Choudhury, A. U. ( 1 997a): Checklist of the mammals of Assam 2nd edn. Gibbon Books & ASTEC, Guwahati.

Choudhury, A.U. (1997b): Survey of grasslands in some parts of central and southern Assam: to assess their biodiversity and socio-economic problem. Unpubl. Report. WWF-India NE Regional Office. Guwahati.

5. OCCURRENCE OF INDIAN PANGOLIN MANIS CRASSICA UDA TA IN ALIGARH, UTTAR PRADESH

Neither of the two pangolins reported from the Indian subcontinent are known to occur in Aligarh area. The Indian pangolin Manis crassicaudata is reported from peninsular India, while the Chinese pangolin M. pentadactyla occurs in northeastern India. Therefore, it was quite surprising that a pangolin was sighted in Aligarh (27° 29’ to 28° 1 1 ’ N and 77° 29’ to 28° 39’ E) in May 1997. The animal was captured and subsequently killed by the inhabitants of a local village called Barola Jafrabad 3 km from the Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) campus. The pangolin was identified as Manis crassicaudata from the measurements noted below by the AMU Museology Department where it is now on display.

Date of collection Total length Length of head Tail

Forelimb

Hindlimb

Width:

Centre

Shoulder

Lower (hind) Portion

15. v. 1997 105 cm

10.5 cm

50.5 cm

8.5 cm + 5.5 cm (claw) 7 cm + 0.75 cm (claw)

48 cm

47.5 cm 50 cm

I thank Dr. Abdur Raheem, Lecturer, Department of Museology, AMU, for providing detailed measurements.

July 27, 2000 H.S.A. YAHYA

Department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

6. STRANDED WHALES ON THE GUJARAT COAST

In this note, we report six stranded whales seen between 1983 to 1998. We had personally seen four specimens in Kutch district. There are reports of cetaceans, dolphins, porpoises and whales in the waters of Gujarat. Whales, when seen dead in deep waters, are brought to the coast by inquisitive fishermen, or by the natural force of tides. The reports of such dead whales in the newspapers attract hundreds of people to see these gigantic marine mammals.

S.no.

Place

Date 8c year

Remarks

1.

Ashaimata

April 1983

15.24 m

2.

Sindhrodi

March 1984

15.24 m

3.

Kalumbhar Island

August 1988

8.38 m*

4.

Bhadreshwar coast

February 1 977

13.72 m

5.

Ganga creek

July 1997

6.10 m

6.

Jakhau coast

July 1998

4.27 m

♦Blue Whale

It seems that most of the stranded whales seen in Gujarat coast are the blue whales Balaenoptera musculus ; sometimes sperm whales Physeter catodon may also be observed, e.g. specimen No. 6 seen on Jakhau coast.

The cause of death of the whales is not known. Interestingly, three specimens out of the six were seen from February to April and the remaining from July to August.

April 8, 2000 J.K. TIWARI

Sea Water Farms Eritrea, P.O. Box 406,Massawa, Eritrea, E. Africa

S.N. VARU

Junavas, Temple Street, Madhapur, Kutch 370 020, Gujarat, India.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7. DEPENDENCY OF FAN-DRYING OF DARTERS ANHINGA RUFA AND LITTLE CORMORANTS PHALACROCORAX NIGER ON INCIDENT SUNLIGHT

( With one text-figure)

The spread-wing posture of cormorants and darters has long been the subject of scientific investigation (Kortlandt 1940, Clark 1969, Curry-Lindahl 1970). The main hypotheses in connection with this behaviour are that it is

i. balancing posture (Stabler 1957);

ii. intraspecific signal of successful fishing (Jones 1978); iii. aid to thermoregulation (Curry- Lindahl 1970, Hennemann 1982) or iv. wing drying strategy (Kortlandt 1940, Winkler 1983).

Strong support for the now generally accepted theory of wing-drying is provided by the fact that the plumage of both the cormorant and the darter is water absorbent for efficient underwater swimming through reduced buoyancy (Ruke 1968, Siegfried et al. 1975, Hennemann 1984). On the assumption that the spread-wing posture, which enlarges the area for absorption of solar radiation, does serve to dry the wings, the question arises: How do the birds dry their wings in the shade, or in the absence of direct sunlight? This study analyzes behavioural adaptation in these circumstances.

The study was carried out in the Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India. The area has a typical dry tropical monsoon climate (Ewans 1989, Scott 1989). Observations of spread-wing behaviour of little cormorants Phalacrocorax niger, and darters Anhinga rufa, were made from October 26 to November 2, 1990, during calm weather. Binoculars (10x40) and a compass were used to determine the orientation of the birds to incident sunlight. Birds were noted as being exposed to the sun or as sitting in the shade: periods when there was no sun (before sunrise and after sunset) were also noted. Steady spread-wing posture and active fanning (“fan-drying”) spread-wing posture were treated as separate. Ambient temperature was

measured with a black thermometer (bimetal) in direct sunlight. Statistical analyses of the birds’ orientation to the sun followed standard methods (Schmidt-Koenig 1975, Fowler and Cohen 1986, Brown and Downhower 1988).

Spread-wing behaviour was shown by both species during daylight, mainly in the available direct solar radiation, which facilitates wing drying. The orientation of birds sitting or perching was not random, as the alignment of their backs and wing surfaces showed a highly significant correlation towards the sun (Rayleigh’s test (Schmidt-Koenig 1975): a = 0.67; p<0.01; n = 70 for the little cormorant; a = 0.84; p<0.01; n = 38 for the darter). In the weak morning light before 0700hrs, and in the flat evening sun after 1700 hrs (Fig.l), only one cormorant and twenty-five darters (21.3% of’ 122 observations) showed the spread-wmg posture.

30 October 1990

Fig. 1: Ambient temperature

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fan-drying was observed more frequently in the late afternoon than in the rest of the day. There were significant differences (x2 - 10.8; p<0.01 ; df = 1 ; n 30) for both species combined, between times before and after 1600 hrs. Fan-drying was also more frequent in the absence of incident sunlight (after sunset), as well as when birds were in the shade (x2 = 13.4; p<0.01 ; df = 1 ; n =27). A two by two contingency table x2' test showed highly significant (x2 = 52.1; p<0.01; df = 1; n = 111) associations between spread-wing posture and direct exposure to sun, and fan-drying and no direct sun exposure.

Wing flap frequency during fanning was higher (t = 5.54; p<0.01; df = 64, Student’s t-test) for the little cormorant at 3.3 beats per second (n = 14) than for the darter at 2.4 beats per second (n = 52).

There is now general agreement that sunning behaviour and the dark colour of the plumage of darters and cormorants serve to dry the wings (Simmons 1986). The spread-wing posture has, indeed, been described as the wing-drying posture in response to the “wings wet” stimulus (Kortlandt 1940). Darters and cormorants extract full advantage from the heat absorbing qualities of their black plumage by increasing the area exposed to the sun, thus facilitating evaporation (Lustick et al. 1978, 1980). Wing-drying has been suggested, in the American darter (Anhinga anhinga), as a rapid thermoregulatory mechanism for re-establishment of a layer of air next to the skin to conserve metabolic heat (Hennemann 1982). The drying function of the spread-wing posture of little cormorants in Sri Lanka as a means of regaining airworthiness has also been emphasized (Winkler 1983).

Several studies show that darters and cormorants orient to the wind when this is strong (Siegfried et al ., 1975, Hennemann 1984, Winkler 1983). Orientation to the wind can be

interpreted as a strategy to relieve the bird of the necessity of fanning its wings (Kortlandt 1940). In the absence of windy conditions, however, most species orient themselves perpendicularly to the incident radiation (Anhinga anhinga : Hennemann 1982;

Phalacrocorax niger , P. fuscicollis , P. carbo ; Winkler 1983; P. harrisi, P. auritus : Hennemann 1984; P. capensis, P. neglectus , P. lucidus , P. africanus : Siegfried et al., 1975). The results of the present study show a significant correlation of directional orientation to the sun in calm weather and thus confirm the importance of direct sunlight for heat absorption and wing-drying.

In contrast to the relative volume of literature on the spread-wing posture, fan-drying has been the subject of little study and is mentioned only anecdotally (e.g. Portielje 1927, Winkler 1983, Hennemann 1984, Simmons 1986). Fanning was not observed very often in the present study, but when it was, it was almost exclusively in the shade or after sunset. This strongly suggests that lack of solar radiation, which is necessary for drying the wings, is compensated for by the active convection induced by fanning. It had also been postulated elsewhere (Hennemann 1982) that Anhinga fan wings and tail in preference to holding them steady under conditions of low solar radia- tion. In addition, it was shown by van Rhijn (1977) that herring gulls (Larus argentatus ) improved evaporation by actively shaking their feathers.

The higher frequency of wing flaps, of the little cormorant seems to be correlated with its smaller body size compared to the darter (cf. Campbell & Lack 1985).

ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS

The management of the Keoladeo Ghana National Park, and especially Bholu Khan,

274

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

are thanked for their administrative support and intellectual guidance. We also acknowledge the critical revision of a former draft of the manuscript as well as the correction of the English language by Dr. T. Wilson.

Refer

Brown, L. & J.F. Downhower (1988): Analyses in Behavioral Ecology. Sinauer. Assoc., Sunderland, Mass.

Campbell, B. & E. Lack (eds.) (1985): A Dictionary of Birds. Poyser, Calton.

Clark, G.A. (1969): Spread-wing postures in Pelecaniformes, Ciconiiformes, and Falconiformes. Auk 56:136-139.

Curry-Lindahl, K. (1970): Spread-wing postures in Pelecaniformes and Ciconiiformes Auk 87: 371-372. Ewans, M. (1989): Bharatpur bird paradise. Witherby, London.

Fowler, J. & L. Cohen (1 986): Statistics for Ornithologists. BTO Guide No. 22, Tring.

Hennemann, W.W. (1982): Energetics and spread-winged behaviour of Anhingas in Florida. Condor 84: 91-96.

Hennemann, W.W. (1984): Spread-winged behaviour of double-crested and flightless cormorants Phalacrocorax auritus and P. harrisi : wing drying or thermoregulation? Ibis 126 : 230-239.

Jones, P. A. ( 1 978): A possible function of the 4 wing-drying’ posture in the Reed Cormorant Phalacrocorax africanus. Ibis 120: 540-542.

Kortlandt, A. (1940): Eine Ubersicht der angeborenen Verhaltungsweisen des Mittel-Europaischen Kormorans {Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis [Shaw & Nodd.]), ihre Funktion, ontogenetische Entwicklung und phylogenetische Herkunft. Arch. Neerl. Zool. 4:

8. WHITE STORKS CICONIA

Migrating white storks Ciconia ciconia stop over to rest near Udayampatti village, about 5 km from Kalainzar Karunanidhi (KK) Nagar, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu. I have been seeing them here for the last 11 years. The area is roughly bounded by road from KK Nagar to Pudukkottai on the east, by the curving irrigation channel in the north and west. It extends to the south over and beyond the fallow and agricultural

July 17, 2001 GERALD DICK

Institut fur Oko-Ethologie, Altenburg 47, A-3573 Rosenburg, Austria IRENE WURDINGER Universitdt Hildesheim, Marienburger. Platz 22, D- 32 Hildesheim, Germany.

NCES

401-442.

Lustick, S., B. Batterby & K. Kelty ( 1 978): Behavioral thermoregulation: Orientation toward the sun in Herring Gulls. Science 200: 81-83.

Lustick, S., M. Adam & A. Hinko (1980): Interaction between posture, color and the radiative heat load in birds. Science 208: 1052-1053.

Portielje, A.F.J. (1927): Zur Ethologie bezw. Psychologie von Phalacrocorax carbo subcormoranus (Brehm). Ardea 16: 107-123.

Ruke, A.M. (1968): The water repellancy and feather structure of cormorants, Phalacrocoracidae. J. Exp. Biol. 48: 185-189.

Schmidt-Koenig, K. (1975): Migration and Homing in Animals, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. Scott, D.A. (ed.)( 1 989): A Directory of Asian Wetlands, IUCN Gland.

Siegfried, W.R., A.J. Williams, P.G.H. Frost, & J.B. Kinahan (1975): Plumage and ecology of Cormorants. Zool. Africana 10(2): 183-192. Simmons, K.E.L. ( 1 986): The sunning behaviour of birds, The Bristol Ornithological Club, Bristol.

Stabler, R. (1957): Cormorants and Shags “drying” their wings. Brit. Birds 50: 447-448. van Rhijn, J.G. (1977): Processes in feathers caused by bathing in water. Ardea 65: 126-147 Winkler, H. (1983): Das Fliigelspreitverhalten der Mohrenscharb q Phalacrocorax niger. J. Orn. 124: 177-186.

CICONIA ON MIGRATION

lands. A railway line runs parallel to the irrigation channel for some distance. The railway crossing, a roadside temple and tile factory chimneys far beyond in the southeast are unmistakeable landmarks. On the ground, the area appears as a loose rectangle, widening in the south, with a cart road running west to Vadugapatty. It is about 9 sq. km of mildly undulating, scrub jungle (about 30%) with grass

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Appendix

S.No.

Year

Date of arrival

Date of Departure

Numbers

Remarks

1.

1988

19.10.88

20.10.88

120+

2.

1988

24.11.88

26.11.88

280+

Heavy Storms Preceded Rain

3.

1989

26.10.89

27.10.89

60+

4.

1989

28.1189

29.11.89

40+

5.

1990

21.10.90

24.10.90

150+

6.

1991

28.10.91

30.10.91

40+

7.

1992

4.12.92

7.12.92

200+

Heavy Storm

8.

1993

21.10.93

23.10.93

50+

Continuous Rains

9.

i 993

25.1 1.93

27.11.93

300+

Heavy Storm preceded Rains

10.

1993

30.11.93

3.12.93

150+

11.

1994

26.10.94

28.10.94

90+

12.

1995

did not visit

13.

1996

did not visit

14.

1997

16.10.97

28.10.97

250+

Early Rains Heavy Storm

Preceded Rains

15.

1998

2.11.98

4.11.98

300+

Heay Storms Preceded Rains

16.

1998

20.11.98

21.11.98

90+

and sparse trees Azadirachta indica , Prosopis the total sometimes reaching 300, but leave juliflora , Acacia leucophloea and A. nilotica. together as a group. They keep moving while White storks are seen here from the foraging, with about 8 m in between individuals.

beginning of the northeast monsoon. They arrive The slush and waterlogging, grazing sheep, cattle in the afternoon or evening, and depart in the or buffaloes do not bother them.

night or early morning. Reaching in a downpour,

often along with a storm, they depart when the April 24, 1999 J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON rain stops and the sky clears. They generally land 80, Rajaram Salai, K.K. Nagar,

in small, unnoticeable groups of ten to twenty, Tiruchirapalli 620 02 1 , Tamil Nadu, India.

9. DISTRIBUTION AND NESTING SITES OF THE BLACKNECKED STORK EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIA TICUS

The blacknecked stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus is threatened due to habitat loss and it is feared to have become very rare. In recent literature, concerned individuals have attempted to highlight the decline of this species and it is suggested that this species be placed in Category I of CITES (Rahmani 1989, Elliott 1992). The species is largely well-dispersed and rarely seen in groups. The ecology of the blacknecked stork is not clearly understood and information on its distribution and nesting is sparse and scattered. During a survey to assess the status of the sarus crane in India (May 1998 to March 1999), we had an excellent opportunity to record sites where the blacknecked stork feed and breed. This

information is presented in Table 1.

Gujarat: Though known to be inhabiting inland wetlands, four birds were seen by the sea in Gujarat (Table 1). It was not clear if they had nested in the immediate vicinity or not. All the birds were resting on a dry sandy bank in the afternoon.

Haryana: Storks have not been previously reported from Bhindawas in Haryana. The locals have not seen the species breeding in the area, even though the lake has a large heronry, and several large trees in and around the lake. Sultanpur in Jajjar district of Haryana has been facing drought for the past three years continuously and water birds were not seen.

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Table 1

RECORDS OF BLACKNECKED STORK (EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIA TICUS) SIGHTINGS BETWEEN MAY 1 998 AND MARCH 1 999

State

District

Date of Sighting

Place

Number

Comments

Gujarat

Jamnagar

25.ii.1999

Jodiya Creek

4

Two adults and twojuveniles

Haryana

Rohtak

1 6. vi. 1 998

Bhindawas

4

Two pairs

Rajasthan

Banswara

5.ii. 1 999

Haro Dam

1

—

Bharatpur

23.V.1998

Keoladeo NP

3

All adults

Uttar Pradesh

Kheri

3. vii. 1 998

Dudwa NP

3

Two adults and one juvenile.

Bahraich

27.i. 1 999

Road to Lakhimpur

1

Adult in uncultivated Field. (27° 57' N; 81° IT E)

Rai Bareli

28.i. 1 999

Samaspur

5

Two adults and three sub-adults.

Aligarh

1 3.ii. 1 999

Shekha

4

All adults.

Etawah

15.ii 1999

Near Etawah

2

Adults feeding in an inundated wheat field. i'26°46' N; 79° 7' E)

West Bengal

Jalpaiguri

1 8. i. 1999

Chapramari

3

All adults, roosting on a tree.

Rahmani (1989) reports a couple of birds from this site.

Rajasthan: The Bharatpur population has been well monitored. During our observation, one of the blacknecked storks caught hold of a dabchick ( Podiceps ruficollis ) and proceeded to thrash it around for a while before swallowing it whole.

Uttar Pradesh: Always been known to be the stronghold for this species and our observations corroborate this view. Samaspur was seen to be a nesting site for the storks, previously unknown (Rahmani 1989). There were three sub-adults with two parent birds in a bird sanctuary. The parents were guarding the young ones by standing on either side of them. When approached, the adults uttered a loud call and took flight, followed by the sub-adults. An hour later, in another part of the sanctuary, they were seen again, sitting on the ground flanked by the parent birds.

Northeast: There are few records and the status is unclear. In Chapramari, West Bengal, the storks have been recorded breeding regularly and the forest staff of the Sanctuary offers protection to the nesting birds.

Others: We also visited several wetlands in Jammu, Punjab, Maharashtra, Bihar, Orissa

and Madhya Pradesh, but did not sight any blacknecked storks.

Rahmani (1989) and Lopez & Mundkur (1997) have records from the Asian Census dating from 1989 and the trend is one of decline in sight records of the species. It is perhaps time to take stock of all available information regarding the blacknecked stork and initiate a conservation plan to save the species.

Acknowledgments

The fieldwork was made possible through funding by the Wildlife Institute of India under the Sarus Crane Project and we thank Mr. S.K. Mukherjee and Mr. B.C. Choudhury for facilities. The Chief Wildlife Wardens of all the States were very helpful during the entire period of the survey and we thank them for permission to visit protected areas. We thank Sapna, Anil, Rajiv, Bivash, Purushottam and Surender for assistance during fieldwork.

April 7, 1999 K.S. GOPI SUNDAR

JATINDER KAUR Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. 18, Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

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References

Elliot, A. (1992): Family Ciconiidae (Storks) In: Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 1 . Eds. del Hoyo, J.A. Elliott & J. Sargatal. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

Lopez, A. & T. Mundkur (Eds) (1997): The Asian Waterfowl Census 1994-1996. Results of the

Coordinated Waterfowl Census and an Overview of the Status of Wetlands in Asia. Wetland International, Kuala Lumpur. Pp. 98-108.

Rahmani, A.R. (1989): Status of the Blacknecked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in the Indian subcontinent. Forktail 5: 99-1 10.

10. CINEREOUS VULTURE AEGYPIUS MONACHUS (LINN.), FAMILY ACCIPITRIDAE, IN KARNATAKA

On December 15, 1998 while on a visit to Harangi Dam, close to Kushalnagar in the Coorg district of Karnataka, a largish vulture was observed soaring over the western edge of the dam area. On approaching to have a closer look, its very dark chocolate brown underparts with pale feet and a smaller (unfeathered) head indicated it to be a cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus. The bird was observed for about 10 minutes. Later, the bird pulled its wings somewhat closer to its body and sailed overhead, as it glided towards the southeastern region of the barrage and disappeared from sight. Kushalnagar region comes within the eastern dry zone of Coorg district. The area where the bird was sighted was dry and open with scattered trees.

The cinereous vulture is widely distributed in central Asia, but in India it is mainly a winter visitor to the north and northwest (as far as

Refer

Baker, E.C.S. (1910): Notes on the occurrence of Vultur monachus in Calcutta. Rec. Indian Mus. 5: 81 . Choudhury, A. (1986): Occurrence of Cinereous Vulture {Aegypius monachus) in the lower altitudes in Assam (India). TigerPaper 13(2): 32.

Choudhury, B.C. (1990) Capture of Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in Karimnagar district, Andhra

Dhulia district in Maharashtra) (Ali and Ripley 1987). Occasional individuals have been sighted in Assam (Choudhury 1986) and Calcutta (=Kolkata) (Baker 1910) in the northeast. Although very rare, the species has been sighted in South India, once each in Nellore and Karimnagar districts of Andhra Pradesh (Perennou and Santharam 1990, Choudhury

1990) and in Pathanamthitta, Kerala (Kumar

1991) . The present sighting is the first record of the species in Karnataka, and hence, is of interest.

March 24, 1999 S. SUBRAMANYA

PHT Scheme, 'J ' Block, University of Agricultural Sciences, G.K.V.K. Campus, Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka, India.

ENCES

Pradesh. Mayura 7 & 8: 49-50.

Kumar, R.S.S. (1991): Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus (Linn.) in Pathanamthitta. Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 111 Perennou, C. & V. Santharam ( 1 990) Status of some birds in southeastern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 306-307.

1 1 . FIRST (?) SIGHTING OF CRAB PLOVER DROMAS ARDEOLA AND PIED HARRIER CIRCUS MELANOLEUCOS IN RAIGAD DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA

On November 22, 1998 a flock of six crab plovers ( Dromas ardeola ) was seen on the sandy beach of Agardanda village near Murud-Janjira,

Taluka Murud, Raigad district in the Konkan area of Maharashtra. Probably the same flock was sighted again on December 20, 1998 on the

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Agardanda village creek during low tide. The distance between the nearest crab plover, a loner, and the small boat carrying the observers, was about 50 m. During 20 minutes of observation, three small crabs were eaten by a single crab plover. The crab plover was seen making a sudden rush at the crab, stabbing and lifting it up in the beak, shaking it vigorously and dropping it in the mud before eating it. It was observed that the crab plovers preferred to fly close to the sea surface. The bird had a characteristic call, Twell-tak, Twell-tak while on the wing.

In the morning between 0645 and 0930 hrs of the same day, at Dighi village, Taluka

Shriwardhan, Raigad district, we also sighted a pair of pied harriers ( Circus melanoleucos) on a mangrove mudflat. The harriers were soaring at a low height. At their approach, common sandpipers, greenshanks and redshanks took flight. On March 13-14, 1999, a pair of pied harriers was seen on the same mudflat in Dighi village.

February 21, 2000 PREMSAGAR G. MESTRI

SATISH A. PANDE C/9 Bhosale Park, Sahakar Nagar No. 2, Pune 4/1 009, Maharashtra, India.

12. OCCURRENCE OF LESSER FLORICAN SYPHEOTIDES INDICA AT HOSOR, IN NASHIK DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA

A lesser florican Sypheotides indica was sighted by one of us (BR) at the Hindustan Aeronautical Limited (HAL) complex at Hosor, 20 km from Nashik towards Dhulia on National Highway 3 on September 24, 1998. An adult male in full breeding plumage was observed performing display jumps on September 25, 1998 on a subsequent visit. (For a description of the HAL complex see Raha and Prakash, JBNHS 98(1 )\ 110-111).

The bird was recorded as common, and probably present throughout the year in Nashik and Ahmednagar during the 1 9th century (Hume and Marshal 1879; Sankaran et al. 1992). There were very few confirmed sightings of this bird in Maharashtra during a recent survey (Sankaran et. al. 1992), and none from Nashik district. We think this first confirmed sighting of the highly threatened species from an unreported site is worth recording.

The only threat to the lesser florican in this high security area are aircraft in flight, but since the flight frequency is very low, the probability of a hit is also low.

We thank HAL for permission to visit their complex. We thank Mr. Nag, Horticulturist for arranging all permits required to see the florican and Mr. Kale and Mr. Patnaik at the Air Traffic Control tower, HAL for their hospitality and sharing their natural history notes of the area with us.

December 1, 1998 B. RAHA

Hemant Vihar, Plot No. 13, Vr. Savarkar Bagar, Off Gangapur Road, Nashik 422 005, Maharashtra, India.

VIBHU PRAKASH Bombay Natural History Society, 331 , Rajendra Nagar, Bharatpur 321 001, Rajasthan, India.

References

Sankaran, R., A.R. Rahmani & U. Ganguli-Lachungpa 89(2): 163-179.

(1992): The Distribution and Status of the Lesser Hume, A.O. & A.H.T. Marshal (1879): The game Florican Sypheotides indica (J.F. Miller) in the birds of India, Burmah and Ceylon. Publ. by

Indian subcontinent. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. authors, Calcutta. BNHS, Mumbai.

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13. SIGHTING OF THE WHITETAILED LAPWING VANELLUS LEUCURUS (LICHTENSTEIN) IN THRISSUR DISTRICT, KERALA

During frequent visits to Enamavu Kole wetlands of Thrissur district, Kerala, N.K. Sathyan and I had an opportunity to observe an adult whitetailed lapwing Vanellus leucunis , a species vagrant to South India, The bird was seen on December 5, 6, 8, 14 and 25, 1998.

The adult Vanellus leucurus was more or less the same size as yellow wattled lapwing Vanellus malabaricus. The upperparts including head (except for the pale forehead and throat) were uniformly muddy brown. The breast was a little brown-tinged grey, or clear grey. Rest of underparts were white. Some narrow black and white bands were seen along the edge of the closed wings. The closed wing tips and bill were black. During early sightings, the long legs were bright orange-yellow, but later they became clear yellow. The dark eyes were very prominent on the pale face. In flight, pure white tail, broad white wing band and black primaries confirmed

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Ali, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press, Madras.

our identification. The under primaries were black and rest of underwing was white. The bird kept to the margins of the wetland. The feeding style was like that of other lapwings.

According to Ali and Ripley (1987) there is no record of this species from the extreme south of the Indian peninsula except Mysore. Baker and Inglis (1930) stated, “a winter visitor according to Stuart Baker, straggling as far south as Mysore.” Salim Ali (1969) and Neelakantan et al. (1993) did not include the whitetailed lapwing as they did not come across it anywhere during their survey of Kerala. Therefore, this new record from Kerala can also be considered a southern range extension of the species in South India.

April 7, 1 999 P.K. RAVINDRAN

Vallissery, P.O. Avinissery, Thrissur 680 313, Kerala, India.

ENCES

Baker, H.R. & C.M. Inglis ( 1 930): The Birds of Southern India, Government Press, Madras. Pp. 385-386. Neelakantan, K.K., C. Sashikumar & R. Venugopalan (1993): A Book of Kerala Birds, WWF-India, Thiruvananthapuram.

14. NEW SITE RECORD OF THE INDIAN GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER DR YOCOPUS JA VENSIS (HORSFIELD) FROM ANDHRA PRADESH

The Indian great black woodpecker Diyocopus javensis (Horsfield) is a local resident species distributed along the Western Ghats, from Surat Dangs to the hills of Tamil Nadu (Ali and Ripley 1987). It is also reported from Bastar (Ali, 1951), Jyothimamidi (Ripley et al, 1988) and Udanti (Bharos, 1992). Bharos (1992) opined that the sightings of this species are probably under the influence of climatic conditions and local movements.

We report sightings of the Indian great

black woodpecker from Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary (c. 19° 5' to 19° 20' N & 78° 32' to 79° 12' E), Adilabad district, Andhra Pradesh. The senior author first sighted an individual busily drumming on a teak trunk, in the teak Tectona grandis dominated mixed forest near Rampur on February 16, 1997. Subsequently, the species was sighted twice (February 28, 1998, September 26, 1998) from the same area. The literature does not report this species from the Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh. However, it may occur

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sporadically between the Eastern Ghats and Satpura Hills.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Forest Department, Andhra Pradesh for a grant through the Andhra Pradesh Forestry Projects — Biodiversity Projects. We also thank the Chief Wildlife Warden, Andhra Pradesh for facilities. One of us (CS) acknowledges a Research Fellowship from CSIR, New Delhi.

March 27, 1999 C. SRINIVASULU,

V. VASUDEVA RAO, *G. RAVINDER, V. NAGULU Wildlife Biology Section, Department of Zoology, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007, Andhra Pradesh, India. * Range Forest Officer (Wildlife), Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Jannaram, Adilabad Dist., Andhra Pradesh, India.

References

Ali, S. ( 1 95 1 ): Discovery of the so-named ‘ Malabar’ Black Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield) in Bastar (East Madhya Pradesh). J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 49(4 )■ 787-788.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edn. Ox. Univ. Press, New Delhi.

Bharos, A.M.K. (1992): Occurrence of the Indian Black Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 255.

Ripley, S.D., B.M. Beehler & K.S.R. Krishna Raju (1988): Birds of Vishakapatnam Ghats, Andhra Pradesh, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 540-559.

15. TREE PIE (DENDROCITTA VAGABUNDA) IN THE ARID THAR DESERT

In January 1998, while studying the Houbara bustard Chlamydotis undulata in the Thar desert of Rajasthan, we visited Dhanana, about 110 km west of Jaisalmer city. Dhanana is an extremely arid area with sand dunes all around. Large trees, except for a few khejri Prosopis cineraria trees, are absent. Beyond this village there is no human habitation, as it is close to the international border. There was a small Border Out Post (BOP) of the Border Security Force, atop a large sand dune. In the BOP area, there were three neem trees ( Azadirachta indica). We reached Dhanana at about 1330 hrs, the temperature was about 36 °C. We were surprised to see a tree pie Dendrocitta vagabunda on one of the neem trees. This bird has not been reported here earlier.

The tree pie is usually found in forest plantations, secondary jungle, cultivation, human

habitation, and gardens (Ali and Ripley 1983). Owing to the development of the Indira Gandhi Nahar Project and agriculture in the Thar desert, tremendous changes are taking place in the avifaunal composition of the Thar (Rahmani 1997). New forest birds can now be seen in the plantations developed on either side of the canal. However, Dhanana is located at least 150 km from the nearest canal plantation. Therefore, its presence in this extremely arid region is worth recording.

April 6, 1999 M. ZAFAR-UL ISLAM

ASAD R. RAHMANI Bombay Natural Histoiy Society, Hornbill House, Mumbai 400 023.

SATISH KUMAR Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202 002.

References

Ali, SAlim & S.D. Ripley ( 1 983): Handbook of the Birds Rahmani, A.R. ( 1 997): The effect of Indira Gandhi Nahar

of India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Pp Project on the Avifauna of the Thar Desert.

378-379. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(2): 233-266.

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16. POSSIBLE RANGE EXTENSION OF THE PENINSULAR BROOKS’S FLYCATCHER {MUSCICAPA POLIOGENYS VERNA YI) IN ANDHRA PRADESH

On Februaiy 14, 1999, while bird watching at the Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad, during the Birdwatchers’ Society of Andhra Pradesh Project on the Survey of Protected Areas, we observed a small brown flycatcher in an Acacia bush at about 1 .29 m. We got a good view of the bird for over 1 0 minutes through a 1 0 x 40 power binocular and noted the description as follows: olive brown upperparts with a greyish wash on the head. Tail brown. Fulvous throat, breast and underparts.

We referred to the pictorial guide to the birds of the Indian subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1983) which was handy and identified the bird as the Brooks’s flycatcher ( Muscicapa poliogenys ) from the description.

Back home, we consulted the compact

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (Ali

and Ripley, 1987), for the range of this species, “The Eastern Ghats from northern Orissa (Mayurbhanj) to northeastern Andhra Pradesh (Vishakapatnam district); from the plains (± 600 m -Ed.) to 1000 m.” Hyderabad city is at 540 m. A CHECKLIST OF BIRDS OF ANDHRA PRADESH (Taher and Pittie 1989), mentions only the Eastern Ghats as its range.

The Vernay Scientific Survey team had collected specimens of this bird at Anantagiri and Sankrametta in Vizagapatnam district. The bird was recorded as “Very common at Sankrametta and Anantagiri where these birds were breeding in April and May (La Personne). This new form of resident flycatcher of very limited distribution is one of the most interesting discoveries of the Vemay Survey.” (Kinnear and Whistler 1933). Price (1979) had trapped and released this species

at Lamas inghi in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh and he notes these as “Common resident”.

The only other flycatcher with which this bird can be confused is the female Ticked’ s blue flycatcher ( Muscicapa tickelliae) which, however, has an orange-rufous throat and blue tail. The bird we saw clearly had a brown tail, and thus could not have been a female Tickell’s blue flycatcher. The brown flycatcher ( Muscicapa latirostris) has a conspicuous white throat, while this bird had a fulvous throat. In all respects, the bird we saw resembled closely the Brooks’s flycatcher.

This, then, is an interesting sighting and can be an extension of the range of this species. It will be interesting to know if other sightings have been reported from this region, or adjacent areas, especially at lower heights than previously reported.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. Siraj A. Taher, President, Birdwatcher’s Society of Andhra Pradesh for his help and advice in preparing this note.

March 24, 1 999 HUMA YUN TAHER

2-B Atlas Apartments Road No. 10, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034, Andhra Pradesh, India.

K.C. RAMAKRISHNAN Power Plant Dynamics Group BHEL, Corporate R & D Division Vikas nagar, Hyderabad 500 093, Andhra Pradesh, India.

References

Kinnear, N.B. & H. Whistler ( 1 983): The Vernay Scien- Price, Trevor D. ( 1 979): The seasonality and occurrence tific Survey of Eastern Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. of Birds in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh.

Soc. 36: 83-84. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 415.

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17. RANGE EXTENSION OF SOUTHERN BLACKHEADED MUNIA LONCHURA MALACCA MALACCA

On November 2, 1998, a small flock of seven southern blackheaded munia {Lonchura malacca malacca ) was seen among thickets of Typha angustata , in a nullah bed, nearly 600 m away downstream of Velania dam in Jhadol Tehsil, Udaipur district, Rajasthan. The flock was observed for five minutes from a distance of c 10 m. The munias were in black and white plum- age, with white underparts. The flock moved along the nullah among Typha thickets.

Jhadol is situated in the southernmost part of Rajasthan near the Gujarat border. It falls in the high rainfall zone of Rajasthan, the average rainfall being nearly 600 mm per annum.

According to Ali and Ripley (1983), the subspecies L. m. malacca is found in the Indian

Peninsula from Raipur, Pachmarhi and Bombay south to Kanyakumari and Sri Lanka. But Jamdar (1998) has recently recorded this sub- species for the first time from Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Bharatpur is in the eastern part of the state while Jhadol is situated in the extreme southern part. These recent sightings of this subspecies from two different parts of the state suggest a northward extension of its range.

June 12,1999 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Range Forest Officer, Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuaiy, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of Jamdar, N. (1998): Southern Black-Headed Munia India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford Lonchura malacca malacca in Keoladeo National Park,

University Press, New Delhi. Bharatpur, Rajasthan. JBNHS95(3): 509-10.

1 8. ADDITIONAL LIST OF THE BIRDS OF KANHA NATIONAL PARK,

MADHYA PRADESH

Kanha National Park (KNP), situated in the Mandla and Balaghat districts of Madhya Pradesh, lies in the Maikal hills of the Central Indian highlands (22° 17' N, 80° 30' E). The total area of 1,945 sq. km comprises of the core area (940 sq. km) and a buffer zone (1,005 sq. km). Though the Park is well known for its abundance of large mammals and attracts thousands of tourists from all over the world, very little attention is focused on the rich diversity of birds. No serious ornithological field work has been done, considering its strategic location in the Satpuras, which are an important transit zone in Central India for migratory birds.

A systematic list of Kanha Tiger Reserve was first published by Newton et al. ( 1 986). This

list also gives a brief account of the topography, habitats and climate of Kanha along with maps of the Park. It contains 225 species, including resident and migratory birds. The present study provides additions to the list of Newton et al. (1986). In all, 35 new species are added, mainly migrants or stray species, based on our field observations and records from December 1986 to June 1998.

The nomenclature and taxonomic arrangement follows Ripley (1982), but no subspecific identifications have been made. To give this list continuity with the earlier one (Newton et al. 1986), we have used the same abbreviations for habitat and migratory status.

Additional abbreviation used: (R): Banjar

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river, which was frequently visited. The river is an important landmark, as it forms the southwest boundary of the buffer zone of KNP, (S): Stray species or stragglers; (EDC, RA): Initials of authors, given for specific records.

Habitats: (M): Valley Meadow, (Saif): Sal Forest with Flemingia , (Salb): Sal forest with bamboo, (Mx): Mixed forest, (D): Dadar meadow, (N): Nullah or Stream, (T): Open water or tank, (C): Buffer zone farmland.

Migratory Status: [R]: Resident, observed in every month of the year, [W]: Winter visitor, observed only between October and April, [w]: Winter and Summer visitor, observed only between October and July, [B]: Breeding, observed at nest, as fledglings or carrying nesting material.

Systematic list

ARDEIDAE

Little green heron Ardeola striatus. (N) [w] Surwahi nullah, April 1997. Also seen at Kisli anicut, Ganghar nullah in the first week of May 1997 (EDC).

Black bittern Ixobrychus flavicollis : (R) [W] Banjar river (Mocha) a solitary bird, March 1990 (EDC). Another solitary bird on Banjar river in March 1996 (RA).

CICONIDAE

Painted stork Mycteria leucocephala: (T) [W] Phoota talao, Kanha. A single bird seen in January 1992. The bird stayed for 8 days only (RA).

Openbill stork Anastomus oscitans (T, M) [w, B] Phoota Talao, Kanha, December 1998. Sondhar meadow March 1998 (RA). Sondhar tank, February 1998 (EDC). A large nesting colony of these birds exists in village Tarka near Bamhri Banjar (86 birds were seen in July 1997 with 31 nests; more nests were under construction). Nesting activity initiated around the first week of July; nesting observed in the same area since July 1987.

ANATIDAE

Greylag goose Anser anser : (T) [W] 14 birds seen at Sondhar tank in December 1996. A flock of 34 birds seen again at Sondhar tank in December 1997 (RA).

Brahminy duck Tadorna ferruginea : (R) [W] A pair seen in Banjar river, Mocha, March 14, 1990 (EDC). Also reported by locals in winter, further up the river.

Comb duck Sarkidiornis melanotos : (T) [W] A flock of 14 birds seen in Bishanpur tank in January and February 1998 (RA).

ACCIPITRIDAE

Bonelli’s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus. (M)

[S] Soaring over Kanha meadows. 5 different sightings in January-February 1998 (RA).

Booted hawk-eagle Hieraaetus pennatus. (M) [S] Only one sighting of an exhausted looking bird atop Bombax ceiba on Kanha meadows in January 1998 (RA).

Greyheaded fishing eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus : (T) [W] Only one sighting at Shravantal, January 1994 (RA).

Osprey Pandion haliaetus : (R, C) [W] One sighting in the buffer zone in Mocha village in February 1998 and also sighted once over Banjar river in Mocha (RA).

TURNICIDAE

Button quail Turnix tanki. (Mx) [W] A dead bird found in Mocha village, possibly dropped accidentally by a bird of prey in January 1998 (EDC). Also a small flock in Mocha village was seen on January 31, 1998 (EDC). D’Abreu (1935) records it as a resident for erstwhile Central Provinces, now Madhya Pradesh (MP).

GLAREOLIDAE

Small Indian pratincole Glareola lactae :

(T) [W] 3 birds in flight over Rhonda tank, February 5, 1997 (Toby Sinclair, pers. comm.)

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Both D’Abreo (1935) and Hewetson (1955) recorded it as seen on major river banks in central India. The bird appears to be a resident in MP, with considerable local movements.

CHARADRIIDAE

Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius :

(R) [w] Banjar river. Mocha. A small flock in March 1992 (EDC), a few birds also seen on Banjar river in March 1997 (RA). D’Abreu (1935) and Hewetson (1955) recorded it as a breeding bird for central India with fairly widespread distribution.

Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos : (N) [S?] Only one sighting in Kanha nullah on way to Link No. 09 in January 1998 (EDC). This is the only sighting of the species from December 1986 to June 1998. Definitely not a common visitor.

LARIDAE

Indian river tern Sterna aurantia : (T) [W] Only one sighting near Kanha anicut in January 1995 (RA). Very rarely seen outside the Park, not as abundant and common as recorded by D'Abreu (1935) and Hewetson (1955).

COLUMBIDAE

Little brown dove Streptopelia senegalensis: (M, C) [W] Absent in winter, but returns around March-April. Several sightings on Kanha meadows and in the buffer zone (EDC, RA).

Indian plaintive cuckoo Cacomantis

passerinus : (M, Saif, Mx, C) [w, B?] A common cuckoo that arrives just before the monsoon (May). Heard and seen in the core areas as well the buffer zone. Sighted every summer from 1987 (EDC). Possibly breeds here in summer. D’ Abreau (1935) records it as a resident bird for Central Provinces and states that the bird was observed with eggs taken from the nest of Franklin’s wren warbler.

STRIGIDAE

Scops owl Otus scops : (Saif, Mx) [W?] The unmistakable call is heard regularly in the night from March onwards. Rescued a chick from Kipling Camp in Mocha, buffer zone in May 1997 (RA). An adult bird was rescued from crows, near Kanha Museum, in May 1996 (EDC). Possibly breeds here in summer.

Forest eagle-owl Bubo nipalensis : (Saif) [S?] A single bird seen in dense sal forest near Sondhar in Mukki range in February 1994 (RA). Essentially a dweller of dense forest from Hima- layas to northeast India and resident in the Western Ghats and southeastern Ghats. Perhaps this record from Kanha is the only one for central India.

Spotted owlet Athene brama : (Mx) [R, B] A resident pair seen in Mocha village in an old banyan tree. This pair was also seen with chicks in April 1991, sometimes near Khatia gate in the evenings, perched on overhead electrical cables (EDC). One sighting near Kanha meadows (RA).

Mottled wood owl Strix ocellata. (Mx) [W?] A pair was seen and heard during one winter November 1994 to January 1995, in Mocha village (EDC). This is the only record that we have around Kanha. It is very interesting to note that it is a resident around Bandhavgarh National Park, which is just a hundred miles to the northeast of Kanha, where it is seen throughout the year.

CAPRIMULIDAE

Common Indian nightjar Caprimulgus asiaticus : (Mx) [w] Seen and heard in and around Morcha village in the summer, from April on- wards. A bird with 3 eggs seen near Mocha village in May 1 996, in relatively open, rocky land (EDC).

ALCEDINIDAE

Lesser pied kingfisher Ceryle rudis : (R, T) [S?] A pan seen in Kanha anicut in February 1995 (RA). One bird seen at least on 4/5 occasions

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around Banjar river in Mocha village. Seems to be fairly common in the jheels and tanks of Mandla district. Probably avoids heavy forest.

MEROPIDAE

Chestnutheaded bee-eater Merops leschenaulti : (M) [S?] A flock of 8/10 birds seen in May 1994 at Bhapsa Behra meadows near Link No. 8/9 junction. Also seen in May 1995/ 1996. In May 1996, the birds stayed for more than 15 days (passage?). Not recorded by D’Abreu (1935) or Hewetson (1955) for Central India. This record from Kanha may be the first from Madhya Pradesh.

Bluebearded bee-eater Nyctyornis athertoni : (Saif) [S?] A single record of a solitary bird perched on a tree on Kanha Ghat in February 1995 (Shahid Ali, pers. comm.).

PICIDAE

Heartspotted woodpecker Hemicircus canente : (Saif) [S?] A single sight record (Belinda Wright, pers. comm.). D’Abreu (1935) and Hewetson (1955), reported it as rare, found only in Bastar and Chanda in Central Provinces.

ALAUDIDAE

Short-toed lark Calandrella cinerea: (M) [w, S?] A single bird recorded from Kanha meadows near Phatyak nullah on April 8, 1993 (Shahid Ali, pers. comm.).

CAMPEPHAGIDAE

Smaller grey cuckoo-shrike Coracina melaschistos: (Saif, Mx) [W, S?] A pair seen near Kope Dhubri in sal forest on February 3, 1998. D’Abreu (1935) mentions one record from Chikaldara. The present record from Kanha is perhaps the only one from Madhya Pradesh.

PYCNONOTIDAE

Black Bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis:

(Saif, Mx) [S?] A single bird seen in mixed Sal

forest on Aurai road on February 3, 1998 (RA). D’Abreu (1935) mentions about one record of this bird from Chikaldhara.The present record from Kanha is perhaps the only record of this species from Madhya Pradesh.

MUSCICAPIDAE

Brown flycatcher Muscicapa latirostris.

(Mx) [w, B] Observed parents feeding two fledgelings in a nest on Woodfordia fruticosa , in May 1987 in Mocha village (EDC). Ripley (1982) mentions a disjunct population of the species in the Vindhya Ranges. D’Abreu (1935) records it as a resident.

Pied chat Oenanthe picata. (M) [W] A solitary bird often seen on Kanha meadows during winter. Recorded in December 1997 - January 1998 (RA).

Smallbilled mountain thrush Zoothera

dauma: (Mx, D) [W, S?] Solitary bird sighted at Bijadadar on April 5, 1996. Another was seen at Bamhnidadar on April 6, 1 996 (EDC). A passage migrant?

NECT ARINIID AE

Yellowbacked sunbird Aethopyga

siparaja: (Mx) [W] A regular winter visitor, but not many seen. A pair was sighted in February 1992; one male observed in February 1993/94/ 96. January 1995, February-March 98. Normally their arrival coincides with the flowering of Woodfordia fruticosa whose flowers are laden with nectar in the morning.

EMBERIZIDAE

Ortolan bunting Emberiza hortulana : (N) [S?] A single bird seen on Patak nullah near Kanha meadows, in December 1994 (Shahid Ali, pers. comm.). Only a couple of sightings of this bird have been recorded so far from India. Ripley (1982) records it as a vagrant.

Most of the birds recorded were stragglers or rare winter visitors to Central India. No major

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fieldwork was done, and most of the records are a result of opportunistic bird watching. Some of these birds have not been recorded previously by either D’Abreu (1935) or Hewetson (1955). Species recorded here but not mentioned by D’Abreu (1935) or Hewetson (1955) are given in the following table.

The sightings of the last six species in Kanha National Park given in Table 1 is of certain interest. The forest eagle-owl ( Bubo nipalensis ) is a resident of Himalayas, southern Western Ghats and southern Eastern Ghats, and inhabits dense evergreen and moist-deciduous forest (Ripley 1982). The present record is the only one from central India from a moist deciduous forest. The chestnutheaded bee-eater {Merops leschenaulti) is also a bird of the hills of the north and northeast India, Eastern and Western Ghats complex. But our recent records show that the birds pass through central India regularly in summer (passage migrant?), suggesting the possible migration of the northern population to the south during winter. The yellowbacked sunbird ( Aethopyga sipcircijci) is another interesting record from Kanha. D’Abreu (1935) recorded it from Balaghat, and Hewetson (1955) never saw it anywhere in Madhya Pradesh (MP). Our observations show that it is a regular winter visitor from the Himalayas, possibly to

Refer

D’Abreu, E. A. (1913): The Occurrence of the Himalayan yellowbacked sunbird, Aethopyga seheriae in the Central Provinces and extension of its habitat.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22(2): 392-393.

D’Abreu, E.A. (1935): A list of the birds of the Central Province. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 95-116.

Table 1

BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED IN KANHA TIGER RESERVE NOT RECORDED IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCES BY D’ABREU (1935) [*] OR IN MADHYA

PRADESH BY HEWETSON ( 1 995)[+]

Black bittern

Ixobiychus flavicollis +

Greylag goose

Anser wiser +

Bonelli’s eagle

Hieraaetus fasciatus +

Booted hawk eagle

H. pennatus +

Osprey

Pandion haliaetus +

Forest eagle owl

Bubo nipalensis +

Chestnutheaded bee-eater

Merops leschenaulti +*

Black bulbul Smallbilled mountain

Hypsipetes madagascariensis +*

thrush

Zoothera dauma +*

Yellowbacked sunbird

Aethopyga siparaja +*

Ortolan bunting

Emberiza hortulana +*

other places in east MP, apart from Kanha. D’Abreu (1913) published a note in the JBNHS on a bird he shot in Balaghat, as the range extension of the Himalayan yellowbacked sunbird ( Aethopyga seheriae). The ortolan bunting ( Emberiza hortulana) is definitely a straggler, as there have been only two or three previous records from India (Ripley 1982).

November 9, 1999 E.P. ERIC D’CUNHA

RASHID ALI Village-Mocha, P.O. Kisli 481 768, Dist. Mandla, Madhya Pradesh, India.

ENCES

Hewetson, C.E. (1955): Observation of the bird life of Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 595- 645.

Newton P.N., Stanley Breider & Guy Norman (1986): The birds of Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(3): 477-498.

19. HEMIDA CTYLUS FLA VIVIRIDIS RUPPELL FEEDING ON A GECKO EGG

According to Daniel (1983), and Tikader and Sharma (1992), the northern house gecko ( Hemidactylus flaviviridis Ruppell) is primarily insectivorous. Occasionally, it is known to

become cannibalistic (Daniel 1983).

On April 22, 2000, at about 0730 hrs, a northern house gecko was seen by us on a bathroom wall in D.B.N. Hostel, University of

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Rajasthan, Jaipur, with a spherical white egg in its mouth. From its colour, size and general appearance, the egg looked like that of H. flaviviridis. The gecko was moving upwards and after about 2.5 m, it broke the eggshell with two or three blows. The empty eggshell was then thrown away. The gecko positioned itself right below the flowing yolk and started licking it up from the lower-most point, gradually moving upwards. While it was licking the yolk, another gecko appeared and approached it, but was chased away. It consumed the entire yolk within seven minutes. The gecko then moved to another wall.

The empty eggshell was c. 1 1 mm in diameter. After watching this strange behaviour, we examined all baths and toilets minutely. Many geckos were seen on the walls. Many eggs of

house geckos were also seen below various hideouts in ones and twos. The area was apparently a favourite breeding site of the geckos. The egg was perhaps lifted from one of the clutches from the same locality.

Feeding on gecko eggs by H. flaviviridis is an unusual behaviour for this species, hence worth placing on record.

January 18, 2001 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Range Forest Officer, Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. YOGESH SHARMA Department of Botany University of Rajasthan, Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan, India.

References

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles, Bombay Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma (1992): Handbook of Indian

Natural History Society, Bombay. 1 -1 41 pp. Lizards. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 1 -241 pp.

20. UROPELTID SNAKES AND THEIR PREDATORS

Birds are among the many predators of uropeltid snakes. Rajendran (1985) has reported predation by domestic fowl, turkey, guinea fowl, peafowl, owls and wild pigs on uropeltids exposed by digging earth. We have observed some new predators as described below.

I. The house crow ( Corvus splendens ) was seen to prey on Uropeltis ellioti at Matighatta in Hassan district of Karnataka State, on August 15, 1999 at 1440 hrs, in a coconut and areca farm. It had just rained and the soil was wet. We observed the snake crawling on open ground, between the areca palms. A house crow swooped down and pecked at the snake, but did not attempt to take it away. The snake immediately coiled itself around one of the areca palms and tried to burrow into the soil, but the crow did not allow it to do so. When the crow moved off

on being disturbed by the crowd of people watching, the snake took the opportunity and disappeared into the soil

II. Two other instances are from Anaimalai hill ranges, Tamil Nadu.

(a) On August 21. 1998 at 1810 hrs, in the forest fragment of Varatuparai, we observed a Malabar whistling thrush ( Myiophonus horsfieldii) preying on Uropeltis ocellatus. We were sitting among the tea bushes adjacent to a patch of forest, when we saw a snake come out of the soil, near the base of a tea bush ( Camellia thea). A thrush flew down and sat on a branch of the tea bush, just above the snake, and watched it. A few seconds later, the thrush caught the crawling snake at the mid-body with its beak. It carried the snake into another tea bush and started tearing open the body. All this

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while, the snake tried to escape by lashing at the bird with its head and tail, but was unsuccessful. The bird killed and pecked it to pieces, swallowed the smaller pieces and carried off a larger one.

(b) The Puthuthotam estate (10° 20' N and 76° 58' E) is situated outside Valparai, a hill station, which has coffee (Coffea arabica) and tea cultivation, and a patch of forest. The forest patch is one of the medium size forest fragments on the Valparai plateau (Kumar et al. 1995). The Pollachi- Valparai road passes through the Puthuthotam estate. Accidental killing of animals by vehicles on the road is very high in such patches (Kumara et al 2000 and Vijay Kumar et al. in press). During maintenance operations on this road and a roadside drainage system, from August to September 1998, many Uropeltid snakes were killed. Vehicular traffic and domestic fowl killed other snakes as well,

that came on to the road. In one hour, domestic fowl were seen to eat up to 5 snakes.

The total number of deaths observed in a 300 m distance dug at Puthuthotam was 67 Uropeltis ocellatus , 9 other Uropeltid species and one Melanophidium punctatum.

Digging continued in the area, but we saw only one or two animals along a stretch of 1 00 to 200 m. This indicates a localized distribution of these snakes in clumps. Uropeltis ellioti is a common snake in western and southern Karnataka, especially on agricultural land. We have also seen many snakes killed during soil filling in agricultural land.

June 1, 2001 H.N. KUMARA

M.S. CHAITRA Biopsychology Laboratory, University of Mysore, Mysore 570 006, Karnataka, India.

References

Kumar, A., G. Umapathy & A. Prabhakar ( 1 995): A study on the management and conservation of small mammals in fragmented rain forests in the Western Ghats of South India: A preliminary report primate conservation. 16: 53-58.

Kumara, H.N., A.K. Sharma, A. Kumar & M. Singh (2000): Road kills of wild fauna in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, India, Lessons for

conservation and management. Biosphere Conservation 3(1): 41 -47.

Rajendran, M.V. (1985): Studies in Uropeltid snakes. Publications Division Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, pp. 132.

Vijay Kumar, S.P., K. Vasudevan, & N.M. Ishwar (in press): Herpetofaunal mortality due to vehicular traffic in the Anainialai hills. Southern Western Ghats. Hamadryad.

21 . LEPTOBRA CHIUM SMITHI MATSUI, NABHITABHATA & PANHA, 1999 (ANURA: MEGOPHRYIDAE), A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

Leptobrachium smithi Matsui et al (1999) was described on the basis of megophryid anurans from Thailand that were hitherto referred to as Leptobrachium hasseltii Tschudi, 1838 (Frost 1985, Taylor 1962, van Kampen 1923, Zhao and Adler 1993: 116). This latter species was once considered widespread, with Java in the Greater Sundas, Republic of Indonesia, as the type locality (Iskandar 1998 for colour photograph; Dubois and Ohler 1998 for review). L. hasseltii was reported from

Meghalaya State in northeast India by Pillai and Chanda (1979).

A recent collection of Leptobrachium from Chandubi in the Mayeng Hill Reserve Forest (25° 48'-25° 55' N, 91° 21’-91° 32' E), altitude c. 90 m above msl, and Garbhanga Reserve Forest (55° 26' N, 91° 37-91° 49' E), both localities within Kamrup district, Assam State, northeast India matches the description of L. smithi in the following characters: a moderate-sized species (male SVL 30.2-52.0 mm; n = 8; female SVL

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Table 1

DATA ON MEASUREMENTS AND OTHER DETAILS OF ADULT LEPTOBRA CHIUM SMITH I FROM ASSAM

Regn No

Sex

SVL

IMT

Dorsum Tuberculate

CND 7971

F

71.65

2.30

-

CND 7973

M

37.95

1.15

-

CND 7974

M

42.10

1.15

-

CND 7976

M

40.65

1.25

+ (faint at posterior)

CND 7977

M

40.50

1.15

+

CND 6921

M

30.20

1.15

-

GRB 6981

F

59.85

1.70

+

GRB 6982

M

52.20

1.65

-

GRB 6983

M

42.60

1.65

-

Acronyms: F = female; SVL = snout-vent length; IMT = greatest length of inner metatarsal tubercle;

- = absence; + = presence. All measurements in mm.

59.85 and 71.65 mm; n = 2; additional details in Table 1); upper half of iris scarlet; small inner metatarsal tubercle (metatarsal tubercle to SVL ratios 0.027-0.039; mean 0.032); dorsum typically smooth (although a third of our sample show faint tubercles on the posterior end of dorsum); white spots on sides of body and on thigh; dark spots on ventrum; absence of dark markings on dorsum; and rows of dermal ridges on dorsal surface of limbs absent. All specimens referred to were deposited in the Zoological Museum, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati, with the exception of one (ZSI A9135) that was deposited in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

We examined another example of this species, collected from the Khasi Hills (ZSI uncat.; detailed sampling data unavailable) that was registered as L. hasseltii.

Based on the known distribution of Leptobrachium hasseltii , Matusi et al. (1999) restricted the species to the Sundas. Therefore, it is inferred that earlier records from India

(cf. Chanda 1994, 1995; Dutta 1997) are based on L. smithi. We confirm the removal of hasseltii from the amphibian fauna of northeast India on the basis of the specimens we report herein. The range extension now being reported suggests the occurrence of L. smithi in regions intervening between northeast India and Thailand, especially Myanmar, whose amphibian fauna is poorly known. Indeed, Matsui et al. (1999) suspected the occurrence of Leptobrachium smithi in the southern part of this country, on the basis of the description of L. hasseltii by Annandale (1917).

We thank the Assam Forest Department for permission to conduct herpetological studies in the state. Dr. Shyamal Kumar Chanda, ZSI, for curatorial help and Patrick David, Walter Erdelen and Tony Whitten for literature.

Acronyms used: CND = Chandubi, Mayeng Hill Reserve Collection (Arya Vidyapeeth College Museum, Guwahati); GRB = Garbhanga Reserve Forest Collection (Arya Vidyapeeth College Museum, Guwahati); ZSI = Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata; SVL = snout- vent length.

July 1 1 , 2000 SAIBAL SENGUPTA

Department of Zoology, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati 781 016, Assam, Inda.

NRIPENDRA KUMAR CHOUDHURY Department of Zoology, D.K. College, Mirza, Assam, India.

INDRANEIL DAS Institute of Biodiversity and En vironmen tal Conservation , Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.

References

Annandale, N. (1917): Zoological results of a tour in the northeast India. Mem. Zool. Surv. India 18(2): vi +

Far East. Batrachia. Mem. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 6: 32; maps a-w.

1 19-1 15; PI. V-Vl. Chanda, S.K. (1995): Anuran (Amphibia). In: Fauna of

Chanda, S.K. (1994): Anuran (Amphibia) fauna of Meghalaya. Part 1 . Vertebrates. State Fauna Series

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4. pp: 455-482. A.K. Ghosh (Ed.) Zoological Survey of India. Calcutta.

Dubois, A. & A. Ohler (1998): A new species of Leptobrachium ( Vibrissaphora ) from northern Vietnam, with a review of the taxonomy of the genus Leptobrachium (Pelobatidae, Megophryinae). Dumerilia 4(1): 1-32.

Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka (Checklist and bibliography). Odyssey Publishing House, Bhubaneswar. (4) + xiii + 342 + xxii pp.

Frost, D.R. (Ed) (1985): Amphibian species of the world. A taxonomic and geographical reference. Allen Press, Inc. and Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, (iv) + 732 pp.

Iskandar, D.T. (1998): Amfibi Jawadan Bali. Puslitbang Biologi- LIPI and GEF- Biodiversity Collections Project, Bogor, xviii + 1 1 7 pp; 26 pi. English edition, 1998. The amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology- LIPI and

GEF- Biodiversity Collections Project, Bogor. Xix + 1 17 pp: 26 pi.

Matsui, M.J., J. Nabhitabhata & S. Panha (1999): On Leptobrachium from Thailand with a description of a new species (Anura: Pelobatidae). Japanese J. Herpetol. 18(1): 19-29.

Pillaj, R.S. & S.K. Chanda (1979): Amphibian fauna of Khasi Hills, Meghalaya. Rec. zool. Surv. India 75: 383-395.

Taylor, E.H. (1962): The amphibian fauna of Thailand. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 63(8): 265-599: errata (= 1 P)-

van Kampen, P.N. (1923): The Amphibia of the Indo- Australian Archipelago. EJ. Brill, Leiden, xii + 304

pp.

Zhao, E.M. & K. Adler (1993): Herpetology of China. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Contributions to Herpetology, No. 1 0, Oxford, Ohio 522 pp + 48 pi. + 1 folding map.

22. NOTES ON TYLOTOTRITON VERRUCOSUS ANDERSON: A CRITICALLY ENDANGERED NEWT FROM MANIPUR

The newt Tylototriton verrucosus was described by Anderson in 1 87 1 from a specimen collected from Yunan region. The species is locally known as Lengva (Tangkhul) and Hangoi mamei panba (Manipuri). It is the only species of tailed amphibian recorded so far from India. Fully mature males measure 145-170 mm, while females measure 150-200 mm. The head is as broad as it is long and has an inverted V-shaped prominent ridge. The limbs are short, with four digits in the forelimbs and five digits in the hind limbs. The tail with its upper margin shaip edged is as long as the head and body together. The legs appear to be weak and their movement on land is sluggish. The body is dark brown above with a tubercle, two rows of porous knob-like prominent glands on either side of the vertebral ridge. Each row has 15-20 glands. The anal opening is a longitudinal slit with a slightly swollen rim. The species does not show sexual dimorphism, but during the breeding season females can be easily recognised by their distended body and swollen vent.

Habitat: Their favourite habitats are pools, ditches, ponds and paddy fields, and they have a habit of hiding under rotten leaves, in rock pools, roots and dead tree trunks near water. They are also found in small streams fringed with vegetation. At the onset of monsoon, they come out of their hiding places to the water for mating. They are active throughout the monsoon until winter sets in. During winter, they hide in the burrows of rats and in other safe places till the next monsoon. The eggs are laid on water bodies and tadpoles hatch out within a few days, maturing within a month or two. The species was found at high altitude where the climate is cold.

Distribution: Nepal, Sikkim, Darjeeling and Amnachal Pradesh. In Manipur, it is found only in Ukhral and Senapati districts. In the late eighties, this species was abundant in Ukhrul and Mao areas. In Ukhrul district, it used to be found in places like Ngaimu, Pushing, Ukhrul, Hundung, Phungcham, Shihai Shiroi, Khangkhui, and Nungshong. But recent surveys

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in these areas show that the species is now much reduced. In Mao area in Senapati district, as reported by the local people, it is hardly seen nowadays.

Tylototriton vernicosus is listed under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 Schedule I as an endangered species, and also in the Wildlife Protection Act, Manipur Rules 1974 as a protected species. Increasing human demands on forest resources and cultivable land, fishing with chemicals have contributed to the diminishing

population throughout its natural habitats in Manipur. It is also eaten by the locals in the area. No effective action has been taken to check the reduction of Lengva in Manipur, and if no attempt is made to preserve the species, this only tailed amphibian will soon become extinct in this State.

July 5, 2000 KEISHING SELIM

Langol Housing Complex, Type III / E-I, Imphal 795 004, Manipur, India.

23. NEW RECORD OF CYPRINID FISH LABEO BATA (HAMILTON) FROM CHINDWIN DRAINAGE

The fish fauna of Manipur is of great interest as it is drained by two important rivers, the Barak-Brahmaputra and Chindwin-Irrawady systems. The western half of the state is drained by the Barak-Brahmaputra system, whereas the Chindwin-Irrawaddy system drains the eastern half, including the central valley. The Chindwin- Irrawaddy system is entirely separated by high mountain ranges from the watersheds of the Barak-Brahmaputra (Chaudhuri 1919). Chatrickong river is formed by two streams, namely Sanalok and Khunukong. Khunukong originates from the western part of the majestic Shiroi peak and flows southeast to join Sanalok, while Sanalok originates at the foothills of the highest peak Khayangphung (2,833 m) of the district which lies near the Indo-Myanmar border, and flows southwards to meet Khunukong. The river then flows as Chatrickong for about 5 km, and enters Myanmar where it is called Nam Panga (Myanmarese) and flows to the east and then turns southward to meet the Chindwin.

Jayaram (1981, 1999), Talwar and Jhingran (1991) do not mention the availability of this fish from the Chindwin drainage of Myanmar. Jayaram (1981) recorded 26 valid species from southeast Asia. Sen (1985) reported the fish from Assam and the northeastern states

of India that include Brahmaputra drainage, but did not mention the specific locality of the collection. Burman (1988) recorded it from Tripura. During our ichthyofaunal collection from 1996-98, five specimens were collected from the Chatrickong river. The species is reported for the first time from Chindwin drainage.

The fish were collected with the help of cast net, side-tracking of rivers and also by ‘khaishang5 — a unique indigenous method of catching migratory fishes on their way back from smaller hillstreams after breeding. This technique is commonly used in southeastern Ukhrul district in Manipur. The fish were preserved in 10% formaline. The types have been deposited in the Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF).

Material examined. MUMF/1587, 118.1 mm SL, MUMF/1588, 110.4 mm SL, MUMF/1589, 92.6 mm SL, Chatrickong river at Sanalok, 150 km from Imphal, 6.vi.l996; 2 unregistered specimens 98.5-108.2 mm SL, 20.viii. 1 998, coll. Keishing Selim.

Diagnosis: D. ii, 10; P. i, 13-15; V. i, 8; A. ii, 5-6; L.trs. 6/1/4; LI. 40-41; predorsal scales 14-15. The species is characterised by a lower lip slightly fringed, folded back and joined to isthmus by a narrow bridge; small tubercle above

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mandibular symphysis; irregular black blotch present on 4th-6th scales of lateral line.

Colour: Dorsal half of flanks golden yellow; inner half of flanks and belly silvery. An irregular black blotch on 4th-6th scales of lateral line. Faint blotch on caudal peduncle. Pelvic and anal fins dark with orange red tip.

Habitat: Mostly found in the plains course of the river. It moves upstream during the breeding season, which starts from April and returns to the lower course of the river after breeding.

Distribution: India: widely distributed: Bangladesh and Nepal.

Remarks: Talwar and Jhingran (1991) listed 3 1 species of Labeo in the Indian region. However, Jayaram and Dhas revised the genus and listed 28 species in eight complexes (Jayaram 1999). The species is common in the Indian region. In Manipur, about seven species of Labeo were found, including Labeo gunius and L. rohita.

Labeo bata was one of the common species caught in the Chatrickong river during the monsoon. During the breeding season, the fish moves in shoals upstream. It is esteemed in the region for its taste and is highly priced.

The fish migrate upstream from April to July and return from August to November. In

Refer

Barman, R.P.K. (1988): On collection of fishes from river Gumati, Tripura, northeast India. Occasional paper No 1 19. Zool. Surv. of India.

Chaudhuri, B.L. (1919): Report on small collection offish from Patao on northern frontier of Burma. Rec. Indian Mus. 16(4): 271-282.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India, Pakis- tan, Bangladesh, Myanmar & Sri Lanka — a hand book. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta: 475 pp.

other seasons, it was not present, as reported by fishermen. Being a migratory fish, it is mostly caught by ‘khaishang’, an indigenous technique practised in the region for catching migratory fishes. In the absence of specimens from the river system in Myanmar, study of fishes from the Chindwin headwaters of the Ukhrul district gives a picture of the Chindwin fauna. Labeo bata is recorded for the first time from the Chindwin drainage. As it migrates from the Myanmar side to the waterheads of Chindwin drainage, it is likely that it may also be distributed in Myanmar.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India, New Delhi (Project scheme: No. 14-36-95-NAB/RE) for financial assistance. We also thank the Head, Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University for laboratory facilities.

July 6, 2000 KEISHING SELIM

WAIKHOM VISHWANATH Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Imphal, India.

ENC ES

Jayaram, K.C. ( 1 999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian region, p. 55 1 , pi XVIII. Narendra Publishing House Delhi (India).

Sen, T.K. (1985): The fish fauna of Assam and the neigh- bouring northeastern states of India. Misc. pub!., Occ. paper 64.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991 ): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. / : 1-541 .

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24. A NEW REPORT OF HORABAGRUS BRACHYSOMA JAYARAM, FAMILY B AGRIDAE IN UTTAR A KANNADA DISTRICT, KARNATAKA

( With one text-figure)

The catfish Horabcigrus brachysomci Jayaram, Family Bagridae, has been reported in the Kerala Western Ghats. It was first described as Pseudobagrus brachysomci by Gunther in 1 864, and by Day in 1865 ( Proc . zool. Soc. Lond. p. 290, Malabar, ii, p. 185, pi. xiii, fig. 2), from Cochin as Pseudobagrus chryseus. In later publications, Day ( 1 889) refers to it as Macrones chiyseus. The species of the genus Macrones are identical to the Indian species of Mystus. They are characterised by the presence of 15 or less anal fin rays, eyes placed much above the angle of the mouth (invisible from the ventral surface), barbels longer than head, the pelvic fin far from the anal fin, and a moderately long adipose fin. On the other hand, M. clvyseus is characterised by the presence of an anal fin with 26-28 rays, the eyes being placed in line with the angle of the mouth so that it is visible from the ventral surface, the barbels not extending beyond the head and the pelvic fin reaching the anal fin.

Because of these anomalies, M. chiyseus was separated from the Mystus group and for some time, it was placed in the genus Pseudobagrus as P. brachysoma (Jayaram 1952). P. brachysoma is the only species of the genus from the Indian subcontinent, while the other species of the genus are Chinese. A comparison of specimens of P. brachysoma with other specimens of Pseudobagrus showed that they are not congeneric, so P. brachysoma was given a new generic rank and named as Horabagrus (Jayaram 1955).

The species Horabagrus brachysoma has a moderately elongated, compressed body with a large head and a wide subterminal mouth. The eyes are large, inferior and visible from the ventral side. The dorsal fin, consisting of the

rayed fin with 5-7 rays, possesses a hard spine and is separated from the softer smaller adipose dorsal fin. It also has four pairs of barbels: one nasal, two mandibular and one maxillary. (Jayaram 1981)

This species has, till date, been reported from Neyyatinkara backwaters (near Trivandrum), its southernmost limit, to regions near the Karnataka border, the northernmost limit.

Field surveys were conducted in the river systems of Uttara Kannada district, located in northern Karnataka. Uttara Kannada (13° 52' to 15° 30' N and 74° 5' E), forms part of the northern extent of the Western Ghats (Fig. 1). This region has many perennial and temporary streams and rivers. The fish diversity of the four main west flowing rivers, Sharavati, Aghanashini, Bedti and Kali, were studied. Collections were made using gill nets, cast nets and drag nets. Samples were collected from six sites in each of these four rivers from January 1997 to January 1999.

During a recent survey, fresh samples of Horabagrus brachysoma have been collected at the rivers Kali and Aghanashini near the downstream reaches of these river systems. The species (H. brachysoma) in the River Kali was first recorded at Kadra (74° 20’ E, 14° 53' N, about 100 m above msl). The habitat at this site consists of smooth flowing runs, the riparian vegetation here is mostly composed of long stands of bamboo and species of Terminalia. The site at Kadra is very close to the Kaiga Dam Project and forms part of the reservoir. As a result, the water here is regulated. Local villagers revealed that the species is found in this region, but is rarer than other Bagrids. The first collections were made in March 1998. In April 1998, we

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Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka

collected one more specimen from the downstream reaches of the river Aghanashini at Hulidevarakodlu (74° 40' E, 14° 24' N, about 500 m above msl). The River Aghanashini is subjected to much less human disturbance than the River Kali. The study area near Hulidevarakodlu is pristine, with thick evergreen forests of Terminalia , Eugenia hyneana , Callophyllum spp., Mangifera indica, and Pongamia forming the riparian vegetation.

Two more specimens were collected in January 1999, one at the same site on the River Kali (at Kadra) and one at Kirtigadde (74° 36.5' E, 14° 26' N, about 500 m above msl), 1 km down- stream of Hulidevarakodlu. The morphometric details of the specimens are given in Table 1 .

Horabagrus , listed as endangered, has been recorded earlier only in Kerala. This report on the presence of Horabagrus brachysoma in Uttara Kannada is important since it extends the known geographical range from Kerala to regions much further northwards along the Western Ghats. Though it has not yet been reported from southern Karnataka, our findings suggest the possible occurrence of the species all along the hill streams of the Western Ghats.

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC DETAILS OF THE SPECIMENS (IN CM)

Parameter Specimen

measured from Kadra

Specimen

from

Kirtigadde

Specimen from Kadi's

Total length

14.4

19.9

21.2

Standard length

11.8

16.2

17.4

Head length

3.2

4.2

4.8

Body depth

3.1

4.5

5.2

Length of snout

1.2

1.9

2.1

Eye diameter

0.65

0.9

1.0

Interorbital distance

1.8

2.6

3.0

Length of barbel: nasal barbel

1.6

2.1

2.3

maxillary barbel

2.1

2.8

2.4

outer

mandibular barbel

2.2

25

2.6

inner mandibular barbel

1.2

1.7

1.8

Predorsal distance

4.2

6.4

6.5

Postdorsal distance

7.8

9.5

11.2

Distance from pectoral fin base to pelvic fin base

3.9

4.2

4.5

Distance from pelvic fin base to anal tin base

1.0

1.4

11.4

Length of caudal peduncle

1.6

2.3

2.2

Height of caudal peduncle

1.3

1.9

2.0

Height of dorsal tin

1.8

3.6

3.7

Length of pectoral tin

2.5

3.1

3.6

Length of pelvic tin

1.5

2.1

2.2

Length of anal tin

2.8

4.1

4.6

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Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. K.C. Jayaram for confirming the identification, and Prof. Madhav Gadgil for help and encouragement. I thank the Karnataka Forest Department and the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India for financial assistance to facilitate the fieldwork.

This work would not have been possible without the assistance of Sridhar Patgar, Vamana

K. Harikantha and Sridhar B. Harikantha. The fieldwork was done with Prakash Pandit of the Dr. A.V. Baliga College for Science and Arts; special thanks are due to him for his active participation.

April, 1999 ANURADHABHAT

Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India

References

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Fishes 1: xiii+548

pp.

Jayaram, K.C. (1952): Taxonomic notes on the fish Pseudobagrus chryseus Day, 1 865. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 12(5): 980-983.

Jayaram, K.C. (1955): The Palearctic element in the fish fauna of peninsular India. Bull. Natl. Inst. Sci. India 7: 260-265.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981 ): Freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, and Sri Lanka. Hand Book of ZSI, Calcutta. No. 2, XI 1 + 475 pp.

25. RANGE EXTENSION OF MYSTUS BLEEKERI (DAY) TO THE FRESH WATERS OF TAMIL NADU AND NOTES ON ITS CONGENERS IN TAMIL NADU AND SRI LANKA

Day (1875-78) named the specimens from River Hooghly, Calcutta Macrones bleekeri (now Mystus bleekeri) which Bleeker in 1853 had identified as belonging to the species keletius (Valenciennes, 1839: type locality -

Pondicherry). Though both the species bear lateral stripes on the body, they differ in several characters. In bleekeri , the occipital process is twice as long as broad and reaches the basal bone of dorsal; adipose dorsal base is long, commencing just behind last dorsal ray, its base being 2.4 times the rayed dorsal; maxillary barbels are long, reaching the anal fin, whereas in the latter, the occipital process is narrow, being 3 times as long as broad at the base and does not reach the basal bone of dorsal; adipose dorsal base is shorter being 1 . 1 times the rayed dorsal base, with wide interdorsal space; maxillary barbels are shorter, reaching only the middle of pelvic fin (Day, op. cit. ; Misra 1976). M. bleekeri (Fig. 1) also differs from the widely distributed striped catfish vittatus (Bloch 1797) by its longer adipose dorsal and less number of

gill-rakers on the lower arm, 9-11 vs. 22-27 (Sharma and Dutt 1983).

The distribution of bleekeri is stated to be north India, with Mahanadi as its southern limit (Menon 1999; Jayaram 1999). However, Sharma and Dutt (op. cit.), reported it from peninsular India (Andhra Pradesh: Guntur). Recently, the species was reported from Neyyar river in Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala by Raju et al. (1999), and Ponmudi, also in the same district (Cherian et al., in press).

This report is based on collections made during paddy field ecosystem studies by the third author. Ten specimens ranging in length from 59 to 122 mm SL were collected during May- October 1999, from Singapemmal Koil paddy field in Chengleput district. This extends its distributional range to Tamil Nadu.

Jayaram (op. cit.) listed 19 species of Mystus from the Indian subcontinent, of which, with the recent inclusion of microphthalmus (Day) from Manipur, 14 species are represented in Indian territory. With the exception of this

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species and tengara (Hamilton) [tengara has been synonymised with vittatus by Sharma and Dutt (op. cit.), but kept separate by Menon (op. cit.) and Jayaram (op. cit.)], all the remaining 12 species are known from peninsular India. Of these, four species namely krishnensis Ramakrishnaiah, malabaricus (Jerdon), oculatus (Valenciennes) and punctatus (Jerdon) are endemic to the Peninsula, mostly restricted to the hill streams of the Western Ghats. With the recent addition of malabaricus from the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Anaimalai Hills, and the present addition of bleekeri from the fresh waters of Chennai, nine species are recorded from Tamil Nadu. It is worth mentioning here that montanus (Jerdon), recently reported from Javadhi Hills of Eastern Ghats (Rema Devi, 1992), is also found in the Tamil Nadu part of tfye Anaimalais, Western Ghats.

Three species of Mystus , namely gulio , keletius and vittatus (Deraniyagala 1952; Pethiyagoda 1991) are known from Sri Lanka. However, there seems to be some discrepancy in the record of keletius in Sri Lanka. Though the figure accompanying the description in Munro (op. cit.) is that given by Day (op. cit.), the description of adipose dorsal fin is a feature typical of cavasius. Besides, for several other characters given, the range covers both the species. However, the photograph captioned as keletius ( p. 150), accompanying the description by Pethiyagoda (op. cit.) is that of cavasius. Also, as evidenced by the same photograph, cavasius is characterised by a long, adipose dorsal commencing immediately after the rayed dorsal, which is triangular, long and pointed, with a concave margin; smaller head, deeper body and absence of lateral stripes, whereas keletius has a smaller adipose dorsal, with a wide interspace between it and the rayed dorsal, which is low and with a somewhat rounded margin. Other known differences are: the number of branched rays

in the pectoral and anal fins, the maxillary barbel length and body proportions.

Day (op. cit.) originally reported keletius from Sri Lanka, which has been followed by subsequent workers. Pethiyagoda (op. cit.) in his description of the species (p. 149) lists cavasius as one of the names applied to it in Sri Lanka probably because of “confused identity”. He also mentions that it attains a length of 18 cm, whereas it is known from literature that keletius is a smaller species, reaching only 12 cm in length. From the photographs of the Sri Lankan species it is certain that cavasius is present in Sri Lanka. It is also inferred that, including cavasius , four species are known from Sri Lanka (overlapping characters of both the species given in literature), and if keletius is a mistaken identity for cavasius , then three species cavasius , gulio and vittatus are present. Interestingly, these three species inhabiting swampy lowlands are very widely distributed in the Indo-Malayan region. None of the hill stream catfish in India are represented in Sri Lanka.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological Survey of India, and Dr. P.T. Cherian, Addnl Director, Southern Regional Station, ZSI, Chennai, for facilities. Dr. Cherian also for critical examination of the manuscript. Our grateful thanks to Dr. A.G.K. Menon, Scientist Emeritus for encouraging us and providing literature.

February 1, 2000 K. REMA DEVI,

T.J. INDRA, M.B. RAGHUNATHAN Zoological Sui'vey of India, Southern Regional Station, 100 Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.

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References

Cherian, P.T., T.J. Indra, K. Rema Devi, M.B. Raghunathan & V.M. Sathjshkumar (in press): On the Ichthyofauna of Trivandrum Dist., Kerala, India. Zoological Survey of India. 20 pp.

Day, F. (1875-78): The fishes of India, being a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. William Dawson & Sons London, 778 pp., 195 pis. Deraniyac. \LA, P.E.P. (1952): A coloured atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon (1), fishes. National Mus. Ceylon Colombo. 149 pp., 34 pis.

Jayaram, K.C. ( 1 999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian Region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 551 pp., XVIII pis,

Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 999): Check List - Freshwater Fishes of India. Zool. Surv. India, Occ. paper No. 1 75, 366 pp.

Misra, K.S. ( 1 976): The Fauna of India and the Adjacent Countries. Pisces. (2nd edition). Vol. Ill, Teleostomi: Cypriniformes: Silurii. Zoological Survey of India. Calcutta. 367 pp., XV pis.

Pethiyagoda, R. (19^1): Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. 362 pp.

Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju & C.R. Ajith Kumar ( 1 999): Mystus bleekeri (Day) — An addition to the fish fauna of Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3) : 482-483.

Rema Devi, K. ( 1 992): On a small collection of fish from Javadhi Hills, North Arcot District, Tamil Nadu. Rec. zool. Surv. India 91(3-4): 353-360.

Sharma, S.V. & S. Durr (1983): Taxonomic studies on four species of the genus Mystus Scopoli, 1777 (Siluriformes: Bagridae) Rec. zool. Surv. India 81: 33 1 - 344.

Editor’s Note: With reference to the note Thomas K.P. et al. (1999): Additions to the fish fauna of Pambar River, Kerala, Vol. 96(2) it has been pointed out by Dr. K. Rema Devi that there is a variation in the scalation of the middorsal streak in Garra hughi, which has been overlooked by the authors. Also. Horalabiosa joshuai as already been reported from Kerala (Rema Devi, K. & A.G.K. Menon (1994), Rec. zool. Surv. India, 94(2- 4): 247-251).

26. RESOLUTION OF THE CONTROVERSIAL WESTERN LIMIT OF THE RANGE OF DELIAS ACALIS GODART (LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE)

The western limit of the distribution of the Redbreast Jezebel Delias acalis pyramus Wallace has been the subject of some controversy. Evans (1932) gave a range of Shimla (Himachal Pradesh) to Burma (=Myanmar). Subsequent authors, including Wynter-Blyth (1957) and Lewis (1973) gave a range of Nepal to Assam, Burma, Malaysia and the Eastern Ghats of India for the species.

Wynter-Blyth (op. cit.) noted “Evans (op. cit.) gives Shimla as a locality for this butterfly, but this is not confirmed by the fauna of British india nor has the author any record of its capture there. If his record is correct, it will presumably also be found in Garhwal and Kumaon.”

Recently, I have seen this butterfly on five occasions in Kumaon. The first time was on November 9, 1997 in a garden in the H.M.T. Colony in Ranibagh near Haldwani at an

elevation of approximately 450 m. The butterfly was attracted to poinsettia blooms ( Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch) and settled for over a minute, allowing itself to be observed well. However, it was not possible to observe the recto surface and the diagnostic red basal area on the hindwing recto. It might therefore have been the Redbase Jezebel Delias pasithoe L., although this is unlikely.

The next sighting was in Jones Estate in the Bhimtal valley on April 21, 1 998 at an eleva- tion of 1,500 m. A rather worn specimen was attracted to blossoms of Bauhinia vcireigata L. By a stroke of luck, it sailed across a terrace below me, so it was possible to clearly see the red basal area on the hindwing recto. It was certainly Delias acalis.

The third sighting was 1 0 km north of the town of Rudrapur in the Terai, at an elevation of

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c. 450 m on March 7, 1999. The specimen was seen flying about at tree top level in the manner typical of the genus. It crossed the road occasionally, but did not settle. Again, it might have been either acalis or pasithoe , since the recto surface was not visible from below.

The fourth specimen was a female that settled on a flowering buddleia bush ( Buddleja L.) on March 9, 1999 in Jones Estate, within a hundred metres of where the second individual was sighted nearly a year before. The specimen is now in my collection. The forewing length is 43 mm and the expanse 90 mm. This is the first specimen recorded from Kumaon, and is in good condition.

The fifth record was on December 1, 1999 when an individual was flying along the motor road 200 m from where the first record was sighted in Ranibagh in 1997. Since it was flying slowly, it was possible to see the diagnostic red basal patch on the hindwing recto.

I am quite certain that this species was not present in this area during the last 20 years and my late father did not record it either in the course of collecting and observing butterflies in the area since 1949. It is such a conspicuous butterfly that it could not have been overlooked, even by a casual collector.

Therefore, it has moved into the area recently. Three definite and two probable records within three years, where it was not recorded for over 50 years, implies that the recent records are members of a breeding population rather than mere stragglers from Nepal. The sightings follow the emergence pattern observed by Bailey (1951) in Nepal, i.e., November-December; March- April and again the following March and December. Although the monsoon brood noted by Bailey (op. cit.) has not been recorded in Kumaon so far, this is probably because of the limited period of activity of butterflies during the monsoon, as well as because I hardly travel to low elevations during that season. If one considers

that this species is not a known migrant, nor for that matter is any Indian member of the genus, the possibility of the present records being merely stragglers is unlikely. I might add that during the 1980s and early 1990s, I was on the road much more often to Haldwani and other adjoining low areas than during the later 1990s, hence the possibility of encountering these butterflies was greater in the past than during the last few years when they have actually been recorded.

According to Sevastopulo (1973), the larval hostplant is probabl; Loranthus L., of which four species occur below 1,500 m in Kumaon (Osmaston 1927).

The above observations resolve the problem of Evans’ (op. cit.) record of the butterfly from Shimla. Being at the western extremity of its range, this limit is evidently flexible. The factors influencing the expansion and contraction of its range have not been understood, but in certain years, such as during 1997, 1998 and 1999, the range is extended westward. For most of the 20th century, this butterfly was unable to extend its range west of Nepal. But now, factors being conducive, it has extended its range to Kumaon and possibly even further westward along the Himalaya. The material upon which Evans (op. cit.) based his record from Shimla was evidently a part of such an expansion in range as is being witnessed at present. One or more specimens were taken at Shimla, in much the same manner as the specimens reached Jones Estate recently. Subsequently, the range contracted and no more records were forthcoming, hence the controversy.

There is also a controversy regarding the occurrence of this butterfly in the Eastern Ghats where it is said to be very rare (Wynter-Blyth, op. cit.). According to Evans (op. cit.), the subspecies kandha Doherty occurs in the Madras Presidency. Alan Sharman (in litt . ), who collected and lived in the Eastern Ghats until the 1960’s failed to find it there. Other recent

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workers have also not found it. Perhaps the factors leading to the recent expansion of this insect’s range westward along the Himalaya will also cause it to be met in the Eastern Ghats, too.

For the future, it would be best to amend the distribution of this butterfly to read “Extends its range westward along the Himalaya in certain years from Nepal to Kumaon and probably as far as Himachal Pradesh.”

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Alan Sharman for his notes, which he kindly made and sent me, and to the anonymous referees for their valuable suggestions.

March 2, 2000 PETER SMETACEK

Jones Estate, Bhimtal,Nainital, Uttar Pradesh 263 1 36, India.

References

Bailey, F.M. (1951): Butterflies from Nepal, Part 1.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50 : 64-87.

Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies. 2nd ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Lewis, H.L. (1973): Butterflies of the World. Harrap, London.

Osmaston, A.E. (1927): A Forest Flora for Kumaon.

Government Press, Allahabad.

Sevastopulo, D.G. (1973): The Food-plants of Indian Rhopalocera. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 156- 183.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

— ANEW

27. AMERICAN JOINTVETCH AESCHYNOMENE AMERICANA LINN.

LARVAL FOOD PLANT OF TERIAS HECABE LINN.

While working on the butterflies of the Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), Mumbai, we came across a plant with a glandular hispid stem. At first, it appeared to be an insectivorous plant. We collected and identified it as Aeschynomene americana Linn. The Common Grass Yellow butterfly Terias hecabe Linn, lays eggs on this plant. We also collected a caterpillar feeding on the plant. The caterpillar pupated later, and the butterfly that emerged was identified as Terias hecabe Linn.

Aeschynomene americana (Linn.), commonly known as sensitive plant or American jomtvetch, is a native of tropical America (Maheshwari and Paul 1975) and was introduced into India recently. It was first reported from Hazaribagh (Chatterjee 1960) and subsequently near Ranchi (Maheshwari and Paul 1975), both in Bihar State. Chandrabose and Srinivasan (1976) have reported this species from Kerala, Quilon district, Perundanaruvi. However, according to them it is a native of the West

Indies. In the flora of Maharashtra, Almeida (1999) has mentioned that the species has so far been collected from Thane and (the erstwhile) Colaba districts of Maharashtra. The present record is from Goregaon (East), in the vicinity of the SGNP. It is interesting to note that this intruder has come closer to the National Park area as the earlier distribution as recorded in the flora of Maharashtra is Khopoli and Vashi areas. Unless precautions are taken, it will become a major intruder into the area and disturb the growth of the native flora. I (NC) have observed that Hyptis suaveolens , commonly known as vilayati tulsi, has become a major threat to low growing plants like Smithia sensitiva and Cassia tora , Cyanotis and Commelina spp. which once grew profusely. However, both these plants i.e. Aeschynomene americana and Hyptis suaveolens are useful to butterflies, as the former is a new larval food plant for the Common Grass Yellow and the latter a source of nectar for many butterflies.

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ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS

We thank Mr. M.R. Almeida for identification of the plant and Mr. M.O. George for typing the manuscript.

Refer

Almeida, M.R. (1999): Flora of Maharashtra, Vol. 2, Oriental Publications, Mumbai, pp. 457. Chandrabose, M. & S.R. Srjnivasan (1976): Notes on some rare and interesting plants from South India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 18: 236-238.

November 24, 1 999 NARESH CHATURVEDI

V. SHUBHALAXMI Bombay Natural Histoiy Society, Horn bill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

ENCES

Chatterjee, D. (I960): Record of Aeschynomene americana Linn. Science & Cult 25: 488-489. Maheshwari, J.K. & S.R. Paul (1975): The Exotic Flora of Ranchi J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 165.

28. MIGRATION OF THE COMMANDER BUTTERFLY LIMENITIS PROCRIS (CRAMER)

In the forenoon of November 5, 1999, the first author (NC) observed a Commander Butterfly feeding on flowers of Ixora outside Hombill House. I waited for some time to see whether the butterfly was in the vicinity and would return to feed on these flowers. However, there was no trace of the butterfly till evening. Subsequently, in the third week of November, I saw two of these butterflies feeding on Lantana flowers near Churchgate Station, Mumbai.

On November 25, 1999, one of us (VG) collected a caterpillar of the butterfly from a kadamb tree Anthocephalus cadamba growing within the boundary of Hornbill House. The caterpillar pupated on November 25, 1999 and the butterfly emerged on December 3, 1999. On a closer look at the kadamb tree, we found three more caterpillars, which were 3rd instars and pupated on December 12, 1999.

Earlier, a BNHS member, Mr. Kiran Srivastava informed us about the sighting of a Commander butterfly near Colaba Woods on December 28, 1998. According to him, the

butterfly seemed to have escaped from a predator, as the right hindwing was completely missing.

I have been monitoring butterfly migration in Mumbai and its vicinity over the last 1 0 years and have not come across the Commander butterfly in the city area. According to Wynter- Blyth (1957), this butterfly is a denizen of, though not exclusively confined to, thickly forested areas receiving heavy or moderate rain at an elevation of 305 to 1,220 m

It is interesting to note their presence in an urban built up area with heavy vehicular traffic. As these butterflies are seen only for a short time, they were possibly on migration. Though many Nymphalids are known to migrate, Williams (1930) does not mention this butterfly.

December 17, 1999 NARESH CHATURVEDI

VARAD GIRI VITHOBA HEGDE Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

References

Williams, C.B.(1 930): The Migration of Butterflies, Oliver Wynter-Blyth (1957): Butterflies of the Indian region,

and Boyd, Edinburgh: Tweeddale Court, London, The Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,

pp. 1-473. PP- 180.

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29. DIVERSITY OF BUTTERFLIES NEAR A POOL IN THE S ANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI

Along with three others, I visited the Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), Mumbai, on December 5, 1999. We had planned to sit near a shallow pool created by a natural dyke on the adjoining BNHS land. Apart from this pool, most of the streams and puddles in the area dry out by November end. The water body, approximately 12 sq. m in area and one metre in depth, is situated on a rocky bed at the base of a valley. The surrounding hills rise about 15 m above the pool. The neighbouring forest is tropical, moist, semi evergreen, typical of SGNP. Although the stream is dry, the pool is fed by ground water that trickles through cracks in the adjoining rocks, forming a wet patch of c. 4 sq. m, that is coated with algae and moss. The terrain in the immediate vicinity is rocky, topped with a carpet of dry leaves of Bombax ceiba, Garuga pinnata and Pongamia pinnata. This leaf litter ensures that the moisture stays trapped even during the hot hours of the day, inviting a variety of Lepidoptera.

We reached the site at 0900 hrs and stayed till 1115 hrs. In this short span of time, 35 species of butterflies belonging to five families visited the wet portion surrounding the pool, for mud-puddling. The butterflies landed directly on the wet patch or on the surrounding leaf litter.

I have been visiting SGNP for over a decade, but have never seen such a diverse gathering of butterflies at a single site. Among the most abundant species were the Commander, Common Leaf Blue, Common Sailor, Chocolate Pansy, Common Leopard, and Psyche (more than 15 individuals each), while the least common were the Gaudy Baron, Silverstreak, Common Silverline, Longbanded Silverline, Grey Pansy and Common Hedge Blue (one each).

Butterflies observed at SGNP:

Papilionidae (Papilioninae)

1 . Common Mormon ( Princeps polytes)

Pieridae (Pierinae)

2. Psyche ( Leptosia nina)

3. Pioneer {Anaphaeis aurota)

4. Common Wanderer ( Pareronia Valeria)

5. Yellow Orangetip {Ixias pyrene)

6. Great Orangetip ( Hebomoia glaucippe)

Pieridae (Coliadinae)

7. Common Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona)

8. Three Spot Grass Yellow ( Eurema blanda)

Lycaenidae (Theciinae)

9. Common Leaf Blue ( Amblypodia anita)

10. Silverstreak ( Iraota timoleon)

1 1 . Common Silverline ( Spindasis vulcans)

12. Longbanded Silverline {Spindasis lohita)

Lycaenidae (Polyommatinae)

13. Opaque six-line (Nacaduba beroe)

14. Common Cerulean {J amides celeno)

1 5 . Pea Blue ( Lampides boeticus)

16. Dark Cerulean {J amides bochus)

17. Common Pierrot {Castalius rosimon)

18. Grass Jewel ( Zizeeria trochilus)

19. Common Hedge Blue {Acetolepis puspa)

Nymphalidae (Styrinae)

20. Dark Brand Bushbrown {Mycalesis mineus)

Nymphalidae (Nymphalinae)

21. Common Leopard (Phalanta phalantha)

22. Chocolate Pansy {Precis iphita)

23. Lemon Pansy {Precis lemonias)

24. Grey Pansy {Precis atlites)

25. Great Eggfly {Hypolimnas bolina)

26. Common Sailor {Neptis hylas)

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27. Common Sergeant (Parathyma perius)

28. Commander ( Moduza procris)

29. Red Baron (Symphaedra nais)

30. Gaudy Baron ( Euthalia lubentina)

Nymphalidae (Danainae)

3 1 . Common Crow ( Euploea core)

32. Plain Tiger ( Danaus chrysippus)

33. Glassy Tiger ( Parantica aglea)

34. Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace)

Hesperiidae (Pyrginae)

35. Small Common Flat ( Sarangesa dasahara )

February 14, 2000 ANISH P. ANDHERIA 2, Sagar building, V.P.Road, Andheri (West), Mumbai 400 058, Maharashtra, India.

30. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON LARVAL AND PUPAL DIMORPHISM IN THE COMMON NA WAB BUTTERFLY (ERIBOEA A THAMUS)

The life cycle of Eriboea athamus has been studied by T.R. Bell (1909). The variations observed in the larval and pupal coloration during my studies on this species are given below.

Egg: According to Bell (1909), the butterfly lays its eggs only on the upper side of the Acacia spp. leaf in a sunny place. I noted that the eggs were laid on both the upper and lower surfaces of the leaflet. About five eggs were laid on each plant. The eggs hatched after 4 days and measured about 0. 1 mm in diameter.

Larva: When the larva has just hatched, it is pale, transparent yellowish-brown in colour, measuring about 0.4 mm in length with a dark, coffee brown head bearing four minute horns. Within four hours of hatching, the colour starts turning light green as they start feeding on the Acacia leaves.

Two types of larval coloration were observed. In the first type, segments 4-11 had a yellow band, unlike the white one described by Bell. Again, the broad bands on segment 6, 8 and 10 are yellow, bordered anteriorly with black, while Bell observed white bands with a black anterior border.

The second type had three broad, dark yellow bands on segments 6, 8 and 1 0, bordered by a black band. Also, the narrow, horizontal yellow band on segment 3 had a black outline. Thin yellow lines alternated with the yellow bands.

Pupa: Similarly, dimorphic forms of pupa were observed. Bell (1909) recorded yellow or light green pupa, with white stripes, spots and bands. The pupa of the first type of caterpillar observed was light green, whereas the pupa of the second type was dark green with prominent white spots, bands and lines. In both cases, none of the pupae were yellow.

Habits: The resting habit of the larva has been observed by Bell (1909) “When the larva grows too large for one bed, it makes another, soon requiring 3 or 4 or more leaflets to rest upon”. During the present study, it was observed that the larva never needed another leaflet to rest upon. It remained on the same leaflet until pupation. According to Bell (1909), it returns to the same silk bed after feeding. Another interesting habit observed in the caterpillars reared in captivity was that they removed their own faecal pellets with their mouth, if the pellet came in the way, or if it was still attached to the anal region. When teased it moves with a halting motion spreading abundance of silk (Bell 1909).

The feeding habit of the larva is different. It begins feeding on a single leaflet eating on one sub-leaf of a leaflet. It starts at the nodal end of the sub-leaf, returning just above the same position till the sub-leaf is completely eaten or becomes “sickle shaped”

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Acknowledgement March 28, 2000 R. ANURADHA

Bombay Natural History Society I sincerely thank Mr. Naresh Chaturvedi, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Curator, BNHS, who guided and encouraged me Mumbai 400 023,

to submit this paper. Maharashtra, India.

Reference

Bell, T.R. (1909): Common Butterflies of the Plains of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19: 660-662.

3 1 . OCCURRENCE OF PSECHRUS ALTICEPS POCOCK (ARANEAE: PSECHRIDAE) IN WESTERN GHATS, KERALA WITH A REDESCRIPTION AND NOTES ON ITS HABIT AND HABITAT

( With one text-figure)

Psechridae is one of the less studied families of Araneae. Till the seventies, only two species, Psechrus alticeps Pocock and Fecenia travancoria Pocock were recorded from India. Later, Tikader (1977) described Psechrus nicobarensis from Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Though the family does not show much species diversity, it is one of the most common spiders in the forests of Ernakulam district in Kerala. In the fauna of British india Pocock (1900) gives only a brief description of the species, which we found to be highly inadequate for identification. Hence a redescription of Psechrus alticeps Pocock is attempted here, with notes on its habit and habitat. Earlier, it was reported from Trivandrum (Ferguson 1906) and Cochin (Gravely 1922). We extend its distribution to three new areas in Kerala: Bhoothathankettu, Thattakkad Bird Sanctuary and Munnar.

Psechrus alticeps Pocock (Fig. la-g)

1 899. Psechrus alticeps Pocock, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 751

1900. Psechrus alticeps Pocock, Faun. Brit. India, Arachnida : 211

Specimens examined: 4 9 9, Id*,

Bhoothathankettu 3.iv.2000; 3 $ 9, Thattakkad Bird Sanctuary 5. i. 2000; 2 9 9, Munnar 3.ii.2000, Habitat: Moist evergreen forest, Coll: K. Sunil Jose.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, cephalic region highly elevated, with posterior region flat and low. Carapace broader posteriorly. Eyes encircled by black base. Ocular quadrangle longer than wide. Eyes of posterior row recurved and anterior row procurved. Laterals larger than middle eyes in the anterior row, while in the posterior row, eyes more or less equal in size. Space between two rows of eyes broad. Clypeus moderately high. Chelicerae dark brown, strong, provided with boss, armed apically with four teeth on the inner margin and three teeth on the outer margin. Lateral sides of carapace bears a broad, longitudinal, yellowish patch with midregion of carapace darker. Fovea longitudinal, deep, situated posteriorly. Sternum heart shaped, clothed with fine hairs. Legs markedly long, slender, hairy with transverse bands. First leg nearly six times the length of carapace. First leg longer than other legs, third leg the shortest. Leg formula 1423. Tibia of first leg bears three pairs of ventral spines. Male palp as in Fig lg.

Abdomen: Elongated, subcylindrical,

304

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Fig. 1 : Psechms alticeps Pocock: (a) Dorsal view of the female, legs omitted, (b) Epigyne, (c) Labium and maxillae (d) Cribellum (e) Chelicerae (f) Internal genitalia (g) Male palp.

clothed with fine hairs. Broadest at the middle, narrows posteriorly. Dorsal surface usually yellowish to dark brown with posterior area darker. In younger individuals, dorsum- of

abdomen variegated with black patches laterally. Ventral surface uniformly brown except a conspicuous midventral longitudinal white line. Cribellum large, divided transversely as in

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Fig. Id. Epigyne and internal genitalia as in Fig. lb and If.

Measurements (in mm): Total length 24, Carapace 10 L & 7 W; Abdomen 15 L & 9 W. Legs I: 55, II: 45, III: 32 & IV: 46. Measurements (in mm) of original type: Total length 15, Carapace 6.5 L, and Leg I: 49 L.

Distribution: india, Kerala: Ponmudi and Trivandrum (Ferguson 1906); Cochin (Gravely 1922), Bhoothathankettu, Thattakkad Bird Sanctuary, Munnar.

Habit and Habitat: Psechrus alticeps Pocock is a large, diurnal spider, spinning large sheet-like horizontal webs of 30-60 cm diameter. The spider remains upside down below the web, which is constructed among herbs or dark hollows at the base of large forest trees. It seems to prefer dark, shady and cool areas for web construction. The spider is very agile and escapes into the safety of its retreat at the slightest disturbance, which makes it very difficult to catch. Sometimes aggregates of many webs can be seen. Young individuals are more yellowish in colour, while older ones are usually more dark

Refer

Ferguson (1 906): Travancore State Manual / : 160 Gravely, F.H. ( 1 922): Common Indian Spiders. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 1 047.

Pocock, R.I. (1899): Diagnosis of some new Indian Arachnida. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 751.

brown. Unlike those of Araneidae, the web of P. alticeps is usually untidy, with many irregular threads below the sheet. It is permanent, not reconstructed each day. This species has not been reported from outside Kerala, the moist evergreen environment of which is presumed to be required for its survival.

Acknowledgement

We thank Principal, Rev. Fr. George Koyikara CMI, Sacred Heart College, Thevara, Kochi, Kerala, for facilities.

*K. SUNIL JOSE, P. A. SEBASTIAN Department of Zoology, Sacred Heart College, Thevara, Kochi, Kerala 682013, India, * Present address: Department of Zoology , HSS of Jesus, Kothad, Kochi, Kerala 682027, India.

ENCES

Pocock, R.I. (1900): Fauna of British India, Arachnida.

Taylor and Francis, London: 21 1.

Tikader, B.K. (1977): Studies on spider Fauna of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Rec. zool. Surv. India 72: 208.

32. TAXONOMIC STATUS OF THE BOMBAY LUGWORM, ARENICOLA (ANNELIDA: POLYCHAETA)

In 1951, Mr. R.G. Dandekar, then Junior Research Assistant at the Taraporevala Aquarium, collected lugworms (Arenicola) at Haji Ali bay (opposite the race course, near present Shiv Sagar) off Darya Mahal, the palace of the erstwhile Maharaja of Gwalior.

As he was transferred to another post in the Fisheries Department, he could not follow up on publishing his findings, and Mr. M.R.

Ranade, then Senior Research Assistant at the Aquarium, published a short note (Ranade 1952). It is surprising that Ranade claimed that he had “discovered well-developed specimens of Arenicola...” .

It appears that, around the same time or a little later, Dr. K.K. Nail* of the Wilson College also collected specimens from the same locality (Dr. S.P. Karmarkar, pers. comm.).

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Subsequently, P.V. Wagh, a student of this college started visiting the Taraporevala Marine Biological Station (attached to the Taraporevala Aquarium and affiliated to the University of Bombay) to meet one of his colleagues who was doing her postgraduate work there. PVW and MRR joined hands and the former dissected specimens of Arenicola collected by Dandekar.

The two, in association with Dr. H.G. Kewalramani, then Curator of the Aquarium published a paper to the effect that the Arenicola of Bombay was a new species, and named it A. bombayensis. Prior to publication, the three had asked Dr. G.P. Wells, an authority on Arenicola species of the world (Wells 1955), for his comments. Despite Wells’ opinion (G.P. Wells pers. comm.) that the moipho logical characters of the Bombay Arenicola were not significantly different enough to warrant creation of a new species, they went ahead and created a new species.

The Bombay Arenicola resembles Arenicola cristata Simpson in having 17 chaetiferous segments, 1 1 pairs of gills, and the first pair of nephridia being situated on the fifth segment. The only difference is that A. cristata has six pairs of nephridia, while the Bombay Arenicola has seven, and that the Bombay Arenicola had (according to Kewalramani et al. 1959) many statoliths while A. cristata has only one inside a closed statocyst.

Kewalramani et al. (1959) based their arguments on Berkeley and Berkeley’s (1939) contention (for B. and B.’s creation of their new species A. glasseli), namely “the smaller size (of the sexually mature individuals), the presence of only 16 setigerous segments and 10 pairs of branchiae and particularly, the presence of seven pairs of nephridia, all of which are constant in the material, seem to sufficiently differentiate it from ,4. cristata to necessitate the establishment of a new species.”

The creation of Bombay Arenicola as a new species rested mainly on Wagh’s dissection where

it was claimed that the statocyst in the new species consisted of many statoliths, whereas A. cristata and A. glasseli (related species) had a single statolith. Subsequent dissections of specimens of Bombay Arenicola have, however, shown that it has a closed statocyst with a single statolith and that Wagh must have, inadvertently or otherwise, crushed the statocyst so as to find many statoliths.

In view of these subsequent findings that both the Bombay Arenicola and A. cristata have a closed statocyst with a single statolith, the only difference between the two species is that the number of nephridia in the Bombay Arenicola is seven pairs, against six pairs in A. cristata, indeed a minor one. A. glacialis Murdoch too resembles these two species in having 17 chaetiferous segments and 1 1 pairs of gills, but differs in having an open statocyst with many statoliths and with six pairs of nephridia, the first pair being on the fourth segment. A. glasseli Berkeley and Berkeley, while resembling A. cristata in having a closed statocyst with a single statolith and with seven pairs of nephridia, of which the first pair is on the fifth segment, differs in having only 1 6 chaetiferous segments and 10 pairs of gills. It is therefore felt that A. bombayensis does not have the status of a separate species and is, in fact synonymous with A. cristata.

Authors’ Note.- Our findings and conclusions are based, apart from study of material examined subsequently, on first-hand observation as one of us (BFC) was at the Taraporevala Aquarium from 1951 to 1965, while SRS is an ex-student of Wilson College.

July 27, 2000 B.F. CHHAPGAR

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Mumbai 400 023.

S.R. SANE

‘Sachetan 60, Pestom Sagar, Chembur, Mumbai 400 089, Maharashtra, India.

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References

Berkeley, E. & C. Berkeley (1939): On a collection of Polychaeta chiefly from the west coast of Mexico. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. XI: 321-346.

Kewalramani, H.G., P.V. Wagh & M.R. Ranade ( 1 959): Taxonomy of the Lugworm found off Bombay. Journ. Zool. Soc. India 11(2): 109-1 15.

Ranade, M.R. (1952): Occurrence of Arenicola in Bombay. Curr. Sci. 21: 165.

Wells, G.P. (1955): Reports on the Lund University Chile Expedition 1 948-49. A preliminary account of the Arenicolidae (Polychaeta). Acta Univ. LundN.F. Avd. 250 8: 1-6.

33. ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION AND POPULATION STRUCTURE OF MUD DWELLING EDWARDS! A (CNIDARIA: ACTINARIA) IN A MANGROVE HABITAT OF COCHIN AREA, KERALA

Mangrove areas are a characteristic coastal ecosystem in tropical and subtropical regions and the intertidal zone of this dynamic ecosystem supports a variety of animals such as molluscs, crustaceans, polychaetes and other taxonomic groups. Cochin mangroves are located along the lower part of the Cochin estuary (9° 52'- 10° N and 76° 15'-76° 22' E). Most of the available information on the genus Edwardsia is descriptive (Athalye and Gokhale 1998), while details of the distribution pattern and population structure are scarce. The present paper describes the ecological distribution and abundance of a burrowing sea anemone Edwardsia sp. from the intertidal areas of the mangrove ecosystem in Guntu Island, Cochin.

A well established fringing mangrove area located in the lower reaches of the Cochin estuary was selected for the study. Mangroves are dominated by Avicennia officinalis , Bruguiera sp., Acanthus ilicifolius and Clerodendrum inerme. Less dominant and scattered species include Acrostichum aureum and Rhizophora apiculata. Sediment samples were collected at low tide from the exposed intertidal area by using a box corer (120 sq. cm area) up to 15 cm depth. Triplicate samples were made from three tidal zones — low tide, mid tide and high tide levels for two years ( 1 989-9 1 ). Samples were pooled and sieved through a 0.5 mm mesh sieve, and the animals remaining in the sieve were collected. Sea anemones were

sorted out for further study. Ecological parameters of the study area were also determined. Water characteristics, namely salinity, temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen (Strickland and Parsons 1972) and sediment characteristics, namely sand, silt and clay percentages (Krumbein and Pettijohn 1938) and organic matter concentration (Walkley and Black 1934) were estimated.

Water Characteristics: The water characteristics of the study area are given in Table 1. The most important varying ecological factor was salinity, which varied from 1.2 to 28.7 ppt. The temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH varied from 29.5 to 33.5 °C, 1.6 to 5.4 ml/1 and 6.2 to 7.6 respectively.

Sediment characteristics: The sand, silt and clay contents of the substratum are given in Table 2. The entire study area, irrespective of the three tidal levels, was composed of sandy type sediment, with organic matter content varying from 0.6 to 1.53%.

Population density: The population density of Edwardsia sp. is given in Table 1 . Total density was higher (364/0.1 sq. m) in the high tide zone, followed by mid tide zone (275/0.1 sq. m) and low tide zone (1 1/0. 1 sq. m). The monsoon ( June- September) and post-monsoon (October- January) periods showed the highest population density.

The occurrence of the mud dwelling, burrowing sea anemone Edwardsia was earlier

308

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Table 2

SEDIMENTS CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY AREA (ALL VALUES ARE IN %)

Tidal Zone

Sand

Silt

Clay

Organic

Matter

High tide zone

March 1990 87.22 10.38

2.40

1.33

Mid tide zone

88.76

7.62

3.62

0.76

Low tide zone

86.34

5.19

8.47

0.72

High tide zone

September 1 990 85.86 4.97

9.17

0.78

Mid tide zone

80.92

11.38

7.70

0.95

Low tide zone

85.69

11.56

2.75

0.60

High tide zone

January 1991 88.76 3.31

7.93

1.53

Mid tide zone

77.24

2.66

20.10

1.40

Low tide zone

79.67

9.02

11.31

1.10

reported from mangrove soil habitat (Nandi and Choudhury 1983, Athalye and Gokhale 1998) and non-mangrove (Parulekarl968, England 1989) areas within India. None of these studies described the ecological distribution and population structure in detail.

The present study revealed that, in general, the pre-monsoon period (February-May) had the lowest population of sea anemone compared to monsoon and post-monsoon periods. There was striking variation in the population density throughout the study period. The substantial fluctuation in salinity did not affect the population structure of Edwardsia sp., which suggests its eury haline nature.

The sea anemone showed maximum population density in the high tide level area compared to the mid and low tide level areas of the intertidal zone. The low tide zone seems to be unfavourable for the occurrence of sea anemones. This variation in the population density may be related to the tidal inundation

Refer

Athalye, R.P. & S. Gokhale (1998): Macrobenthos from the mudflats of Thane creek, Maharashtra, India.

J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 95 : 258-266.

England, K.W. (1989): Description of two new mud

process and the nature of the substratum. The high tide zone was exposed all the time, except during high tide, while the low tide zone was almost submerged irrespective of the tidal rhythm. The mid tide zone is exposed to a medium extent. The texture of the sediment was more or less similar, sandy type mixed with mangrove detritus, in all the tidal zones. The slightly more consolidated and water-free substratum of the maximum exposed area of the high tide zone, followed by the mid tide zone, appears to be favourable for the occurrence and burrowing of Edwardsia sp. These zones may also provide more suitable ecological niches than the waterlogged sediment of the low tide zone.

The high abundance and occurrence of sea anemone in the high tide zone is due to the adaptations of the species to flooding and desiccation, which enables it to overcome the peculiar environmental changes (i.e the ability to tolerate salinity changes and behavioural and physiological responses, especially respiratory adaptation during the periodic exposure of the area in connection to the tidal cycle) of the intertidal area and thrive there.

Literature survey revealed that the occurrence of Edwardsia sp. in Cochin mangroves is a new record for Kerala.

May 12, 2000 R. SUNIL KUMAR

School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin 682 016, Kerala, India. Present Address: Department of Zoology, Catholicate College, Pathanamthitta 689 645, Kerala, India.

iNCES

dwelling actiniids from Maharashtra, India: Edwardsia athalyei sp. nov. and Acontiactis gen. nov. gokhaleae sp. nov. and a note on Edwarsioides mammillata (Bourne, 191 6) (Cnidaria: Actinaria).

310

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Indo-Malayan Zoology (6): 141-158.

Krumbein, W.C & FJ. Pettijohn (1938): Manual of sedimentary petrography. Appleton Century- Crofts, New York, 459 pp.

Nandi, S. & A. Choudhury(1983): Qualitative studies on the benthic macro fauna of Sagar Island, intertidal zones, Sunderbans, India. Mahasagar 16(3): 409-414.

Parulekar, A. (1968). On a new species of sea anemone

from Maharastra, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65(3): 590-595.

Strickland, J.D & T.T. Parsons ( 1 972): A manual of sea water analysis. Bull. Fish Res. Bd. Canada 167: 310 pp.

Walkley, A. & I. A. Black (1934). An estimation of the Degtjareft method for determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. 37: 29-38.

34. FIRST RECORD OF A CILIOPHORAN TRICHODINA DOMERGUEI F. MAGNA LOM, 1960 FROM FRESHWATER FISH PSEUDO APOCRYPTUS LANCEOLATUS (BLOCH AND SCHNEIDER) FROM INDIA

( With one plate and one text-figure)

Trichodina domerguei f. acuta f. n. was found by Lom on the body surface (skin, fins and occasionally gills) of Cyprinus carpio , Perea fiuviatialis , Lucioperca lucioperca, Leucaspis delineatus , Rhodeus sericen. On the skin of tadpoles of several species of frogs, it was identified as Trichodina domerguei f. latispina Dogel, 1940. The freshwater fish Pseudo apocryptus lanceolatus (Family Gobidae) were examined from September, 1999 to January, 2000 for ciliophoran parasites, and the host fish was found to be infested with a European tricho- dinid Trichodina domergueri f. magna Lom, 1960.

Trichodinid ciliophorans are known to be dangerous ectoparasites of fishes, causing damage to the gills. In highest degree of infestation, hypersecretion of mucus occurs. In spite of this, erosion of proliferation of the branchial epithelium and occasional haemorrhage occurs. We confirm the existence of an introduced European trichodinid ciliophoran Trichodina domerguei f. magna Lom, 1960 in India.

Host fishes Pseudo apocryptus lanceolatus (Bloch and Schneider) were collected live, brought quickly to the laboratory and gill smears were made on grease-free slides. Smears containing the trichodinid ciliophorans were separated and impregnated with 2% silver nitrate solution. The impregnated slides were exposed to ultraviolet rays for about 25 minutes.

Photomicrographs were taken to study morphological variation in the population of the trichodinid. Measurements are given in microns. The terminology and detailed structure of the various parts of the adhesive discs are after Lom (1958), Wellborn (1967), Arthur and Lom (1984), Vanas and Basson (1989, 1992).

Trichodina domergui f. magna Lom, 1960 (collected from India)

(Plate 1, Figs 1-4)

Material examined: (G/23/99) in the collection of the author. Denticle drawings and description based on Vanas and Basson (loc. cit). Blade broad. Apex rounded, parallel with border membrane. Tangent point narrow, pointed at the same level as distal surface. Anterior margin takes a sudden turn to form a notch-shaped structure, occasionally crossing Y-axis (Fig. Id). Anterior and posterior margins not parallel. Posterior margin of the blade forming deep semilunar depression, slightly above apex. Blade connection thin and short. Central part well developed, angular, fitted tightly with preceding denticle. In most specimens, central part extends almost entirely beyond Y-axis. Ray connection broad. Rays stout, occupying the Y-axis (Fig. la-d). Tips of rays blunt, turned towards Y-l axis (Fig. lb). Central area with distinct clear portion having argentophilic granules.

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Table 1

BIOMETRICAL DATA (IN jiM) OF TRICHODINA DOMERGUEI F. MAGNA LOM. 1 960

Trichodina species

Trichodina domerguei f. magna Lom. 1 960 collected from India

Trichodina domerguei f. magna Lom. 1 960

Host

Pseudoapocryptus lanceolatus

Nemachilus barbatulus. Tinea tinea

Locality

Midnapore,

West Bengal, India

Bohemia

Area of infestation

Gill filaments

Skin

Diameter of body

35.9-42.8 (39.8 ±1.7)

97-98(82-111)

Adhesive disc

29.6-34.7 (32.7 ±1.6)

70-76(62-82)

Denticulated ring

19.9-25.5 (21. 6 ±1.9)

45-49 (41-55)

Central area

10.7-15.8 (12.7 ± 1.5)

-

No. of denticles

18-22 (22.6 ±1.7)

27 (25-31)

No. of radial pins on denticle Dimensions of denticle

6-7 (6.7 ±0.9)

13-14

Length of blade

3.57-4.1 (3.91 ±0.2)

7-8

Width of central part

1. 6-2.0 (1.8 ±0.9)

4-4.5

Total length of denticle

4. 9-5. 8 (4.9 ±0.7)

17

Length of thorn

2.7-4. 1 (3.1 ±0.4)

5-7

Width of border membrane

3. 1-4.1 (3.6 ±0.4)

5-6.5

Adoral ciliary spiral

375°-390°

-

Incidence

5 of 12(41.6%)

-

Fig. 2: Comparison of denticles of: (a-b) Trichodina domerguei f. magna found from (c-d) Pseudoapocryptus lanceolatus with the same reported by Lorn in 1 960

The population of trichodinids studied by us has been identified as Trichodina domergui f. magna Lom, 1960 after escaning the adhesive disc structure. But the biometrical data does not fall within the reported range of Trichodina domergui f. magna. (Table 1). The specimens found on Pseudoapocryptus lanceolatus were compared with the trichodinids inhabiting freshwater fishes, and it was noted that the blades of both the specimens are curved in the same direction. Anterior and posterior margins of both blades of the specimens are not parallel. The apex in both the specimens almost touches the Y-axis. The posterior margin also forms a deep semilunar curve with Y-axis. The central part is short, triangular in both the specimens. The rays are short with blunt end and directed towards the geometrical centre of adhesive disc. Moreover, no differences in morphology and denticle structure of both the specimens have been noticed. Considering all these factors, we may conclude that the specimen examined is Trichodina domergui f. magna.

312

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Dash, G.: Trichodina domerguei

Plate 1

Fig. 1-4: Photomicrographs of Trichodina domerguei infecting Pseudoapocryptus lanceolatus

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November 22, 2000 P. K. BANDYOPADHYAY Parasitology Laboratory, Dept of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235,

West Bengal, India.

Refer

Arthur, J. R. & J. Lom (1984): Some Trichodinid ciliates (Protozoa: Peritrichida) from Cuban fishes with description of Trichodina cubanensis n. sp. from the skin of Cichlasoma tetracantha. Trans. Am. Micros. Soc. 103 : 172- 184.

Lom, J. (1958): A contribution to the systematics and morphology of endoparasitic trichodinids from amphibians, with a proposal of uniform specific characteristics. J. Protozool. 5: 215-263.

Lom, J. (1960): Ectoparasitic Trichodinids from freshwater fish in Czechoslovakia. Vest. Cs. Spool. Zool. 25: 215-228.

G. DASH

Dept of Fish Pathology and Microbiology, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Science, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India.

NCES

Vanas, J. G. & L. Basson (1989): A further contribution to the taxonomy of the Trichodinidae (Ciliophora: Peritricha) and a review of the taxonomic status of some fish ectoparasitic trichodinids. Syst. Parasitol. 14: 157-179.

Vanas, J. G. & L. Basson (1992): Trichodinid ectoparasites (Ciliophora: Peritrichida) of freshwater fishes of the Zambesi River system, with a reappraisal of host specificity. Syst. Parasitol. 22: 81-109.

Wellborn, T. L. Jr. (1967): Trichodina (Ciliata: Urceolariidae) of freshwater fishes of the southeastern United States. J. Protozool. 14: 399-412.

35. A NEW COMBINATION IN THE GENUS MAYTENUS MOLINA (FAMILY CELASTRACEAE)

Lourteig & O’Donell (De Natura 1, 1955, 188) correctly transferred the genus Gymnosporia Hook. f. to Maytenus Molina due to the presence of erect shrubs or trees with spines, cymose flowers and ovary confluent with the disc. While working on the flora of bihar, it was found that Haines (Bot. Bihar & Orissa 188. 1921) described a variety under Gymnosporia rufa Wall. var. latifolia Haines, which is now required to be transferred to the genus Maytenus Molina. Therefore, the new combination is given below:

Maytenus rufa (Wall.) Hara var. latifolia (Haines) R.P. Bhattacharya, comb. nov.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, and Dr. V. Mudgal for their kind help and encouragement.

March 31,1999 R.P. BHATTACHARYA Botanical Survey of India, Indian Botanic Garden, Shibpore, Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India. Address for Correspondence : Kelomal Santoshini High School, P.O. Kelomal, Dt. Midnapur, Pin 72 1 627, West Bengal, India.

36. ON THE NUMBER OF FERTILE STAMENS IN FLOWERS OF BAUHINIA PURPUREA L. (LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE)

On the morning of November 11, 1998, I casually plucked a few flowers from two trees of Bauhinia purpurea L. cultivated side by side on the banks of the river Hooghly, opposite the Public Relation Officer’s quarter in Division 4

of the Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah. They had white petals tinged pink, with a reddish colour on some of the veins, and one of them had, surprisingly, 2 fertile stamens instead of the usual 3. I kept a close watch on the flowers

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of the two trees for the next few days and found that they had (2-) 3 fertile stamens. Further, a reduced stamen of varying size was also seen in some of the flowers with both 2 or 3 fertile stamens.

This is a new record for Bauhinia purpurea. The voucher specimens collected from

the two trees (12.xi.1998, Bandyopadhyay 101, 102) have been deposited in CAL.

March 3 1 , 1 999 S. BANDYOPADHYAY Botanical Survey of India P.O. Botanic Garden Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.

37. INTERACTION BETWEEN ACANTHUS AND SUNBIRDS AT CORINGA IN ANDHRA PRADESH

Acanthus ilicifolius L., (Acanthaceae) commonly called the spiny, or hollyleaf mangrove, is the best-known species in a closely related group of ground flora mangroves. It is reported to be able to cope with almost all conditions within the mangrove. It occurs typically on littoral margins as a sprawling, vine- like shrub. Usually associated with freshwater influence, it is common in the upper and middle reaches of estuarine rivers and other areas in Coringa, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Acanthus leaves are yellow-green with a margin that is usually, but not always serrate, and prickly. The leaf is glossy, stiff, oblong and lobed, with a short petiole. The flowers are blue with a purple hue. They secrete nectar from a ring at the base of the ovary. The large trilobed lower lip of the corolla forms a landing stage for pollinators. The four stamens surrounding the style have strong filaments, which can only be forced apart by large and powerful biotic vectors. When this occurs, pollen is shed from the anthers onto the vector’s body; the receptive stigma also gets powdered with pollen. In effect, self- or cross-pollination takes place. The separated staminal filaments gain their original position when the insect departs. The flowers receive multiple visits because of their original viability and shape. It seems that this floral mechanism is intended for multiple visits so that the legitimate pollinators can effect pollination.

The sunbird species, namely, Nectarinia asiatica and N. zeylonica , and also large carpenter bees of the genus Xylocopa forage for the nectar of Acanthus flowers. The birds land on the flowering branch and insert their bill through the staminal column surrounding the style, while the bees use the lower lip of the corolla for landing before probing the flowers like sunbirds. However, sunbirds regularly visit the flowers till they are available. The birds exhibit territoriality by chasing away the intruding bees to exploit the floral source profitably.

Acanthus grows abundantly in the area and serves as a potential nectar source for the sunbirds for 3-4 months from May to August. The interaction between Acanthus flowers and sunbirds is symbiotic, and ensures the survivsl of both partners in the mangrove habitats. However, the occurrence of sunbirds is also dependent on plant species that bloom (and provide nectar to birds) outside of the flowering season of Acanthus , as appears to be in the case of Leonotis nepetifolia (Aluri and Reddi 1994; Aluri 1998).

June 14, 1999 A. JACOB SOLOMON RAJU Department of Environmental Sciences, A ndhra Un iversitv, Vishakhapatnam 530 003, Andhra Pradesh. India.

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References

Aluri, R.J.S. (1998): Correspondence between sunbirds and Leonotis (Lamiaceae). Newsletter for Bird Watchers 35:79-80.

Aluri, R.J. S. & Reddi, C.S. (1994): Pollination ecology and mating system of the weedy mint Leonotis nepetifolia R.Br. in India. Proc. Indian Nat. Sci. Acad. B60: 255-268.

38. FLORAL BIOLOGY AND ECONOMIC VALUES OF HYPTIS SUA VEOLENS (L.) POIT. IN MEXICO

The genus Hyptis with about 400 species (Hickey and King 1988) is a member of the Subfamily Nepetoideae, Tribe Ocimeae, Subtribe Hyptidinae (Cantino et al. 1992)/ It is Neotropical with only a few weed species extending into the Palaeotropics. Brazil, with over 250 species, is considered the centre of diversity for this genus, with most of them growing as narrow endemics. In Mexico, there are 32 species out of which 22 are endemics (Ramamoorthy and Elliott 1993). H. suaveolens has wild and cultivated forms. The wild form is a weedy species and widespread in Mexico, extending its distribution to the Far East of Palaeotropics. The cultivated forms are confined to Mexico. Both forms flower from September to October. The wild flowers are violet with a nectar guide on the upper lip and have anthers and stigma concealed in the carina-like central lobe of the lower lip, set up under tension for explosive release. Foraging bees cause the tense carinal lobe to reflex and explosively release the sex organs, and effect sternotribic pollination (Aluri 1990). The wild form largely differs from the cultivated ones in plant height, stem colour, calyx size, flower colour, manner of carinal lobe releasing the sex organs, seed colour, etc. The cultivated forms are distinguishable into two varieties: i. white flowers with violet nectar guide and ii. white flowers lacking nectar guide. The first form exhibits characters intermediate between the wild and the second form. However, both the cultivated forms release the anthers and stigma passively from the carinal lobe, and contain larger fruiting calyx, requiring an

external agent for seed dispersal. The white form with the nectar guide is found in some provinces of Mexico, while the other is completely confined to the State of Colima. There are no reports on the occurrence of cultivated forms of H. suaveolens elsewhere.

Close examination of the wild and cultivated forms shows that the cultivated forms might have originated from the wild due to continuous isolation under human care without sexual reproduction with their natural populations. Although there are morphological and functional differences in the three flower forms, they mate well with each other. The foraging bees also do not discriminate between the violet and white flowers and forage alternately between them, transferring pollen from one form to another throughout their flowering season.

H. suaveolens is locally known as kChia’ or ‘Chan’. Its seeds are used in sauces, and as a thickening agent in the preparation of cookies and biscuits. A traditional drink is also prepared with the seed flour mixed with ice water and honey. It is good for digestion and has a cooling effect on the stomach. ‘Chan’ ice is also sold in the market. The seeds yield 18-23% protein and 13-23% oil content, indicating their high nutritive value. The oil is u$ed in cooking and is an excellent preservative for colours. The leaves are used as an appetisers, to combat indigestion, stomach pain, nausea, flatulence and cold, for wound healing and skin infections. The leaves also yield an essential oil, which inhibits the growth of fungi such as Candida albicans and Helminthosporium oryzae, and bacteria such as potato pathogenic bacteria (Pandey et al. 1981,

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1982; Singh et al. 1983; Tiwari et al 1987; Fun and Svendsen 1990; Rojas et al. 1992).

Preliminary research on food and medicinal value of H. suaveolens shows that the weed can be best exploited as a new potent food crop by developing countries, which have food grain crises, and as a potent antifungal and antibacterial agent. The results of our field studies are encouraging to include H. suaveolens in the list of new crops. The cultivated forms are particularly suitable as they have a larger fruiting calyx in which the seeds are retained for a longer time, facilitating harvest. Further, the wild and cultivated forms during their flowering phase sustain a variety of bees, especially the honeybee Apis mellifera, which voraciously gathers pollen and nectar exhibiting fidelity. Therefore, the potential of H. suaveolens for agricultural use

Refer

Alurj, R.J.S. ( 1 990): The explosive pollination mechanism and mating system of the weedy Hyptis suaveolens (Lamiaceae). PI. Sp. Biol. 5: 235-241 .

Cantino, P.D., R.M. Harley & S.J. Wagstaff (1992): Genera of Labiatae: Status and Classification. In: Advances in Labiate Science. (Harley, R.M. & T. Reynolds, eds.) Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London. Pp. 511-522.

Fun, C.E. & A.B. Svendsen (1990): The essential oil of Hyptis suaveolens Poit grown on Arubs. Flav. Fragr.

J. 5: 161-163.

Hickey, M. & C. King (1988): 100 Families of flowering plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pandey, D.K., A. Asthana, N.N. Tripathi & S.N. Dixit (1981): Volatile plant products vis-a-vis potato pathogenic bacteria. Ind. Perfumer 25: 10-14. Pandey, D.K., N.N. Tripathi, R.D. Tripathi & S.N. Dixit (1982): Fungitoxic and phytotoxic properties of the

seems great, as it is a low-water user and can grow on moist to dry soils.

The research was supported by the funds from Consejo Nacional De Ciencia y Technologia of Mexican Government through CGDIC of the University of Colima, Colima, Mexico. The study was conducted at Colima during September- October 1996.

June 14, 1999 A. JACOB SOLOMON RAJU Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Vishakhapatnam 530 003, Andhra Pradesh, India. MARTHA I. VERGARA SANTANA Herbario-Hortorio Division, CGDIC, University of Colima, Colima, Mexico.

iNCES

essential oil of Hyptis suaveolens. J. Plot. 89: 344-349.

Ramamoorthy, T.P. & M. Elliott (1993): Mexican Lamiaceae: Diversity, Distribution, Endemism, and Evolution. In: Biological Diversity ofMexico: Origins and Distribution. (Eds. Ramamoorthy, T.P., Robert Bye, Antonio Lot & John Fa) Oxford University Press. New York. Pp. 5 1 3-539.

Rojas, A., L. Hernandez, R. Pereda-Miranda & R. Mata ( 1 992): Screening for antimicrobial activity of crude drug extracts and pure natural products from Mexican medicinal plants. J. Ethnopharm 35: 275-283. Singh, S.P., S.K. Singh & S. C. Tripathi ( 1 983): Antifungal activity of essential oils of some Labiatae plants against dermatophytes. Ind. Perfumer 27: 171-173. Tiwari, R., K. Drxrr & P.S. Upadhyay ( 1 987): Fungitoxicity in leaves of some higher plants against some storage fungi. Nat. Acad. Sci. Letters 10: 419-421 .

39. THOTTEA DINGHOUI SWARUP, FAMILY ARISTOLOCHIACEAE,

A NEW RECORD FOR TAMIL NADU

( With one text-figure)

While botanizing in the Kalakad- specimen, which showed close affinity to Thottea Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in barberi (Gamble) Ding Hou. was collected. On Agastyamalai hills, Tamil Nadu, an interesting comparing the specimen with the descriptions

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig.l: Thottea dinghoui Swarup, a. Habit; b. Flower; c. Sepal; d-f. Stamen (adaxial, abaxial and lateral views); g. Pistil; h-i. Ovary (longitudinal and transverse sections); j. Capsule.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in literature and specimens in MH, it was identified as Thottea dinghoui Swarup, a new species from Kerala, hitherto unrecorded from Tamil Nadu.

The description and illustration of the species are given, along with distribution, ecology and phenology. The voucher specimens are deposited in the St. Xavier’s College Herbarium (XCH), St. Xavier’s College, Palayamkottai.

Thottea dinghoui Swarup In: Blumea 28 (1983): 407-411

Erect herbs, 30-50 cm tall; stem rusty, pubescent. Leaves alternate, elliptic- oblanceolate, margin entire, apex acute, base acute to slightly obtuse, densely villous below, less so above, nerves prominent, c. 5 pairs, 9- 1 7 x 3-8 cm; petiole up to 1 cm long. Inflorescence radical, c. 8 cm long; peduncle up to 0.5 cm long. Flowers 7-10, alternate, pale yellow; bracts and bracteoles small. Calyx 3-lobed, free, ovate-elliptic-orbicular, apex acute, base cuneate, hairy without, glabrous within, up to 5 mm long. Corolla 0. Stamens many, 15-20, in two whorls; filament short, connate at base, anther 2-celled, glabrous. Ovary oblong, c. 1 cm long, hairy; ovules numerous, in axile placentation; style short. Stigma 3-6 lobed. Capsule hairy, up to 5 cm long, quadrangular, pale pink. Seeds many.

Distribution: Prior to the present finding, reported only from Idukki district, Kerala. Probably endemic to southern Western Ghats, India.

Remarks: Extremely rare species, growing in the evergreen forests as undergrowth.

FI. & Fr.: August-December.

Material examined Tamil Nadu: Tirunelveli district, Sivasailam, V.S. Manickam 16673, 17174 (XCH). Kerala: Idukki district: C.N. Mohanan, Kulamavu 74117, 81603 (MH), A.G. Pandurangan, Meenmutty-Kulamavu 76679 (MH), Mount Calvary 79233 (MH).

Note: Thottea dinghoui Swamp is closely allied to Thottea barberi (Gamble) Ding Hou and Thottea siliquosa (Lamk.) Ding Hou, but differs in the habit, inflorescence and leaf morphology.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. V. Chelladurai, Research Officer, Survey of Medicinal Plants Unit, Cen- tral Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, Palayamkottai and Dr. R. Gopalan, Bota- nist, Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, for information, identification and helpful sugges- tions. We also acknowledge financial assistance from the University Grants Commission.

June 14, 1999 V.S. MANICKAM

V. SUNDARESAN C. MURUGAN G.J. JOTHI

Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, St. Xavier’s College, Palayamkottai 627 002, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, India.

40. OCCURRENCE OF NERVILIA ARAGOANA GAUD. (ORCHIDACEAE) ON THE NALLAMALAI HILLS, EASTERN GHATS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

During a survey of medicinal plants of the Nallamalai Hills, Eastern Ghats, Andhra Pradesh, we collected specimens of an interesting ground orchid that was examined and identified as Nervilia aragoana Gaud. A survey of the literature revealed its presence in the hilly tracts

of Western Ghats, Himalayas and Eastern Ghats. It has been reported to occur in Rampa Hills, Eastern Ghats, Andhra Pradesh (Gamble 1967). However, there exists no report of it's occurrence from the Nallamalai Hills (Ellis 1968, 1987; Krishna Mohan 1985; Raju and Pullaiah 1995).

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Hence, this is a new distributional record from Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. The voucher specimens have been deposited in R.R.C. (Ay.) Herbarium, Vijayawada (F. No. 3772, 12.xi.1998, near Pedda Manthanalamma area, Kurnool District, Andhra Pradesh, coll. P. Dwarkan, Srinivasulu, Vasudeva Rao, Nagulu).

Acknowledgements

Grants extended by Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, New Delhi and Andhra Pradesh Forest Department, Hyderabad, to conduct field studies, are

acknowledged. One of us (CS) acknowledges the grant of a fellowship grant to him by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi.

June 26, 1 999 P. DWARKAN

Regional Research Centre (Ayurveda), Vijayawada 500 010, Andhra Pradesh, India.

C. SRINIVASULU, V. VASUDEVA RAO, V. NAGULU Wildlife Biology Section, Department of Zoology, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007, Andhra Pradesh, India.

References

Ellis, J.L. (1968): The flora of the Nallamalais on the Eastern Ghats of India -1 : A Preliminary list. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10(2): 149-160.

Ellis, J.L. (1987): Flora of Nallamalais. Vol. I. Botanical Survey India, Calcutta.

Krishna Mohan, P. (1985): Flora of Prakasam District,

Ph.D. Thesis, Andhra. University, Visakapatnam. Gamble, J.S. (1967): Flora of the Presidency of Madras.

Vol. III. Botanical Survey India, Calcutta.

Raju, R.R.V. & T. Pullaiah (1995): Flora of Kurnool. Bishen Singh & Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

41 . ABNORMAL BRANCHING BEHAVIOUR OF WILD DATE PALM PHOENIX SYL VESTRIS ROXB. (PALMAE)

During a survey of the forest areas of Deola Forest Range in Udaipur district, I came across a wild date palm ( Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.) with abnormal branching. The tree was growing in an agricultural field, nearly 2 km away from Akyawar Forest Nursery, towards the western side on Udaipur-Sirohi Road. This young tree had 125 shoots of different sizes in the basal region. Nearly each leaf of the basal region had produced a shoot. These shoots looked like a circular fence around the main trunk. Basal leaves of all the surrounding shoots

had also produced several shoots. I am observing this tree since 1993, and it is still producing new shoots.

It is, perhaps, the wild date palm having the largest number of shoots in Rajasthan, and is hence worth placing on record.

June 1 4, 1 999 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer, Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India.

42. AN EFFECTIVE ETHNOBOTANICAL MEDICINE AGAINST HEMIPLAGIA

This article deals with the ethnobotanical use of three medicinally important plants used by the local vaidya of Khatana village against the dreaded disease hemiplagia, i.e. paralysis.

Khatana village lies in Dharampur taluka, Valsad district, south Gujarat, on the northwest side of the Western Ghats (20° 5’ N; 73° 7' E). It is about 8 km away from Dharampur on its east.

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The plants used are as under:

(1) Moringa concanensis Lam.

Local name: Kadvo Saragvo

Family: Moringaceae

It is a tall tree with a rough, greyish-brown

trunk.

Used part: Splintered bark of stem.

(2) Blumea eriantha DC.

Local name: Kapur Family: Asteraceae

It is a strong aromatic herb, flower heads with yellow florets in axillary and/or terminal, paniculate cyme.

Used part: Extract of fresh flowers.

(3) Mentha piperita Linn.

Local name: Peppermint

Family: Lamiaceae

It is an aromatic perennial herb.

Used part: Extract of fresh flowers. Treatment: The oil is extracted from the fresh flowers of Blumea eriantha and Mentha piperita , and mixed in almost equal proportions. It is then massaged for about half an hour on the paralysed part. Later, the splintered bark of

Moringa concanensis is tied tightly on to the massaged part for about an hour. This treatment is very effective in giving relief from pain, enabling the patient to move the paralysed part freely. Many patients from Pune, Mumbai, Nasik (Maharashtra), Vadodara, Ahmedabad (Gujarat), and other parts of nearby states visit this place for Hemiplagia treatment.

ACKNO WLEDG EM ENTS

We thank the Gujarat Forest Department, Gandhinagar, for financial assistance and Dr. D.A. Raval, Principal, N.V. Patel College of Pure and Applied Sciences, Vallabh Vidyanagar, for facilities.

March 3 1 , 1 999 AMIT N. GOHIL,

NIRMAL KUMAR, RITA N. KUMAR N. V. Patel College of Pure & Applied Sciences, Vallabh Vidyanagar 388 120, Gujarat, India.

n a m

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EDITORIAL 159

ESTIMATING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES IN SEMI-ARID SARISKA VALLEY, WESTERN INDIA ( With three text-figures)

By Diwakar Sharma 161

DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS JERDON, 1 870 FROM NAGALAND, INDIA ( With four plates )

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NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL RHIPIDURA AUREOLA IN MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

ByV. Gokula 179

SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM ( With one text-figure)

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DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PRIMATES IN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK AND ADJACENT AREAS, KERALA, INDIA By K.K. Ramachandran and Gigi K. Joseph 191

FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMACHEILINAE REGAN (CYPRINIFORMES: BALITORIDAE) FROM MANIPUR ( With four text-figures and three plates)

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DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERATION OF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.

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FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS IN THE SINGHALILA NATIONAL PARK, DARJEELING, INDIA ( With one text-figure)

By Sunita Pradhan, Gautom K. Saha and Jamal A. Khan 224

FRESHWATER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE WETLANDS OF INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN, HOWRAH, WEST BENGAL ( With one text-figure)

By K. Venkataraman and S.R. Das 231

SELECTION OF SUITABLE CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE { With one text-figure)

By Aeshita Mukherjee, C.K. Borad, S.B. Patel and B.M. Parasharya 237

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 242

REVIEWS 262

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 266

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Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 35-48.

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Editors,

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society

VOLUME 98 (3): DECEMBER 2001

Date of Publication: 1-12-2001

EDITORIAL

CONTENTS

INDIAN WILD ASS (. EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR) IN THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH,

GUJARAT, INDIA (With two text-figures)

By H.S. Singh 327

ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EAGLE (AQUILA NIPALENSIS) SUMMERING IN MONGOLIA AND WINTERING IN TIBET ( With one text-figure)

By David H. Ellis, Stacie L. Moon and Jon W. Robinson 335

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF ANNANDALE’S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS ( ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE) NEAR KOLKATA, WEST BENGAL ( With one plate)

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TRANSLOCATION OF RHESUS MACAQUES FROM AIRFORCE STATION, GURGAON (HARYANA) TO THE NATURAL FOREST OF FIROZPUR-JHIRKA, HARYANA,

INDIA

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By Ekwal Imam, Iqbal Malik and H.S.A. Yahya 355

NOTES ON THE POLYGONACEAE OF SIKKIM

By S.S. Dash and P. Singh 360

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON THE CONTACT CHEMORECEPTORS ON THE PALP-TIP OF ORYCTES RHINOCEROS L. (COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEIDAE)

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By A. Mini 364

MIST-NET CAPTURE AND FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BAT (CHIROPTERA: PTEROPODIDAE) CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL.)

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N. Gopukumar Nairand R. Subbaraj 373

FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE

ANTIGONE (LINN.) IN KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT ( With one text-figure)

By Aeshita Mukherjee, C.K. Borad, B.M. Parasharya and V.C. Soni 379

ELYTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOSYSTEMATIC SIGNIFICANCE IN ENTIMINAE (CURCULIONIDAE: COLEOPTERA)

( With two plates and thirty-seven text-figures)

By V.V. Ramamurthy 385

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF HORALABIOSA SILAS FROM A KERALA STREAM OF THE WESTERN GHATS ( With two text-figures)

By J.A. Johnson and R. Soranam

392

ON THE INDIAN SPECIES OF TRICHOMALOPSIS CRAWFORD (HYMENOPTERA:

CH ALCIDOIDEA : PTEROMALIDAE)

( With thirty-seven text-figures )

By P.M. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran 396

SOME NEW CHIRONOMIDAE FROM SOUTH AND MIDDLE ANDAMAN ISLANDS,

INDIA (DIPTERA: CHIRONOMIDAE)

( With four text-figures)

By Girish Maheshwari and Geeta Maheshwari 406

A NEW SPECIES OF MOTH UNDER GENUS LEMYRA (ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)

( With eight text-figures )

By Amritpal S. Kaleka 422

ISEILEMA JAIN I AN A (FAMILY POACEAE) — A NEW GRASS SPECIES FROM COASTAL TAMIL NADU, INDIA ( With one text-figure)

By P. Umamaheswari and P. Daniel 425

REVIEWS

1 . THE BIRDS OF ASSAM

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 428

2. FORESTRY FOR TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT

Reviewed by S. Asad Akhtar 429

3. A BIBLIOGRAPHIC INDEX TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

Reviewed by Ranjit Manakadan 430

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) feeding on lichens

By P. Bujarbarua and J. Das 432

2. Predation by tiger Panthera tigris Linn, on gaur Bos gaurus H. Smith in Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh

By M.K.S. Pasha, Qamar Qureshi,

K. Sankar and G. Areendran 432

3 . The echolocating role of eyes in insectivorous bats

By M.K. Chandrashekaran 434

4. The Malabar spiny dormouse Platacanthomys lasiurus in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu

By V. Meena 438

5 . The wild elephant Elephas maximus in Mizoram

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 439

BIRDS

6. On little grebes Tachybaptus ruficollis breeding near K. Karunanidhi Nagar, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu

By J. Mangalaraj Johnson 441

7. Iris coloration in the large egret Casmerodius albus and median egret Mesophoyx intermedia (Family Ardeidae)

By V. Guruswami 442

8 . Sighting of the black stork Ciconia nigra and lesser adjutant-stork Leptoptilos javanicus at Nagarhole National Park, Karnataka

By Anish P. Andheria 443

9. Long-billed vulture Gyps indicus indicus nesting on trees in the Thar desert, Rajasthan

By Manoj Kulshreshtha 446

10. Grey-headed lapwing Vanellus cinereus (Blyth) (Family: Charadriidae) in Kerala

By P.K. Ravindran and P.O. Nameer 450

11. Feeding habits of the white-breasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis (Linn.)

Family Alcedinidae

By H.S. Yahya 451

12. Large grey babbler ( Turdoides malcolmi ) trapped for the table

By A. M.K. Bharos 452

13. Malabar whistling-thrush Myiophonus horsfieldii in the Gir Forests, Saurashtra, Gujarat

By B.P. Pati 452

14. Male breeding plumage of the bay a weaver Ploceus philippinus travancoreensis Whistler

By Saraswathy Unnithan 453

15. Sighting of ortolan bunting Emberiza hortulana Linn, in Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary, Kachchh, Gujarat

By Justus Joshua, S.F. Wesley Sunderraj and

V. Gokula 453

REPTILES

16. Occurrence of Cnemaspis kandiana (Kelaart), Family Gekkonidae, in Amboli, Maharashtra

By Varad Giri and Vithoba Hegde 454

1 7. A note on the ectoparasitic ticks of reptiles from southern Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 455

AMPHIBIANS

18. On the natural history of Bufo parietalis Boulenger, 1882, Amphibia: Family Bufonidae

By Savitha N. Krishna and

Sharath B. Krishna 456

19. Distribution of Bufo stomaticus Liitken, Amphibia: Family Bufonidae, in Assam, northeast India

By N.K. Choudhury, M.F. Ahmed and S. Sengupta 457

FISHES

20. Taxonomic variation in Schistura vinciguerrae (Hora, 1 935) from the Basistha river, a new record from Assam, India

By Purnima Das Bora, Sabitry Bordoloi and Amalesh Dutta 459

21. On Pseudosphromenus sp. (Pisces: Belontiidae) from south India with remarks on the authorship of P. dayi

By P.T. Cherian, K. Rema Devi and T.J. Indra 461

22. The fish fauna of Bharathapuzha river,

Kerala

By A. Bijukumar and S. Sushama 464

INSECTS

23. Occurrence of chilli gall midge, Asphondylia capsici Barnes (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera) in south Andamans, Andaman Islands

By G. Shyam Prasad and H.R. Ranganath .... 468

24. Overwintering population of Danaus (Salathura) genutia in Tiger Valley in Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai, Maharashtra

By Meena Haribal 469

25 . On Hestiasula brunnerianci Saussure (Insecta: Mantodea) from Pune, Maharashtra

By H.V. Ghate, Sachin Ranade,

Rajpreet Kaur and Rahul Marathe 473

26. Redescription of Amorphoscelis annulicornis Stal (Insecta: Mantodea) from Maharashtra By H.V. Ghate, Sachin Ranade,

Abhay Soman, Rajpreet Kaur,

Rahul Marathe and T.K. Mukherjee 476

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

27. New records of Holothurians (Echinodermata: Holothuria) from Andaman and Nicobar

Islands

By Sarang Kulkarni, Ajai Saxena and

B.C. Choudhury 480

28. New record of Macrobrachium dayanum Henderson, 1 893 from a freshwater ecosystem of Tripura, India

By S. Banik and Saumen Chakrabarti 481

29. The Gastropod Stenothyra ornata Annandale and Prashad 1921, a new record from River Ganga in Bihar

By Ravindra Kumar Sinha and

Gopal Sharma 485

30. New records of the clam Cyrena ceylonica (Chemnitz), Mollusca: Family Cyrenidae, in Andaman Islands

By K. Madhu and Rema Madhu 488

BOTANY

31. Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Schumach.) J. Leon (Leguminosae: Papilionoideae) — a new record for the Eastern Ghats

By K. Sri Rama Murthy, S. Sandhya Rani and T. Pullaiah 488

32. On the type of Bauhinia wrayi Prain (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae)

By S. Bandyopadhyay 490

33. On Heifer’s collection of Piper ribesioides Wall, from the Bay Islands, India

By Sam P. Mathew and Susan Abraham 491

34. New record of Nervilia aragoana in Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 493

35. Rediscovery of Hemiorchis pantlingi (Zingiberaceae) from Sikkim Himalaya

By S.Z. Lucksom 493

36. Arisaema echinatum (Wall.) Schott — an addition to the Araceae of Peninsular India

By K. Sasikala, E. Vajravelu and P. Daniel .... 495

37. Two new additions to the sedges, Family Cyperaceae, of Andhra Pradesh

By K. Indira and R.R. Venkata Raju 497

38. Food value of some edible ferns from Dharan, southeastern Nepal

By D.K. Subba, B.K. Rai and

Min Raj Dhakal 499

Cover Photograph: Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra by K.C. Dey

Editorial

Destroying by protection

WE ALL KNOW that habitat destruction and mismanagement, poaching, illegal trade, and corruption are playing havoc with Indian wildlife, but not many may know that misguided sentiments are also destroying many wildlife species. For instance, millions of birds are caught every year for religious people to release on auspicious occasions! Many species are dying as a consequence of over-protection of other species. The great Indian bustard is one of the unfortunate examples.

Besides suffering from poaching and massive habitat destruction, the great Indian bustard now faces another challenge - increasing numbers of blackbuck and a backlash from the local people. Wherever measures have been taken to protect the bustard and its habitat, the greatest benefit has gone to blackbuck. In Karera Bustard Sanctuary, the blackbuck increased from 50-60 in 1982 to nearly 700-800 in 1992; in Nannaj Bustard area near Solapur, they increased from 100-120 in 1982 to nearly 700 in 1997; in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary they increased from 17 in 1985 to 400-500 in 2000. Besides, the blackbuck has increased in many areas in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, thanks to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and peoples’ cooperation. But farmers are not happy, and rightly so. Unlike the bustards, the blackbuck is not harmless to humans. It relishes what the farmers grow, but the farmers obviously do not relish this. The result is a backlash against the conservation movement. We have seen villagers turning from active support of bustard conservation to fierce opposition to any conservation action. Which poor farmer would tolerate destruction of his crops season after season? The consequences are clear. No bustard is left in Karera Bustard Sanctuary; three bustards poisoned in Sorsan Bustard Area in Baran in Rajasthan; 15-20 left in Rollapadu, compared to 60- 1 00 fifteen years ago; no bustard seen for the last three years in Rannibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary (10-12 in mid 1980s). Now you camiot talk of bustard conservation in many rural areas in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Are the people against the bustard and conservation in general? Surprisingly, no. They do want to protect bustards - at one time Karera became important because of this species. Rollapadu came into the limelight, and tourists visit Nannaj to see the bustard. But farmers do not want their crops destroyed by the bustard’s companion species, the blackbuck. Fair enough. Would city-based animal rights activists allow their potted plants or costly bonsais to be destroyed by stray cows? And remember, the activists’ survival does not depend on ornamental plants and kitchen gardens, while the poor farmer’s yearly earning could be eaten away overnight by a herd of blackbuck.

What is the solution? Translocation — the farmers suggest; culling — the rational scientists and wildlife managers recommend; introduction of a predator of blackbuck, change in cropping pattern, crop compensation - the animal rights activists suggest. Perhaps all these measures apply at different levels in different areas, but the end solution is controlling the number of blackbuck. Translocation of medium-sized antelopes is not impossible (South Africans are expert in catching and translocation of ungulates so we can learn from them) but are we not ‘translocating’ the problem instead of solving it? The idea of introduction of a predator (wolf) seems exciting and media-friendly to novice wildlifers, but wolves are already present in most of the blackbuck-problem areas. In case they are not present, where will we bring them from? The wolf itself is rare. Another, more pertinent, question is: will

increase in wolf population control the number of blackbuck? Armchair animal lovers, ‘educated’ by the sight of a cheetah chasing an impala or a pack of lions bringing down a wildebeest in the Serengeti plains, think that predators control the population of prey, but this is not true in most cases. Ecology tells us that it is the other way round - the population of prey determines how many predators an area can support. The Rollapadu grassland has a pack of 9 wolves, while Nannaj has a pack of 10-12 animals. They have not been able to control the galloping blackbuck numbers. Our studies indicate that each pack requires at least 20 sq. km of good habitat with a large prey base (wild and domestic). Like any predator, the wolf is highly territorial, so the resident pack will chase out introduced wolves. Moreover, shepherds would not like the introduction of wolves, as they would not want to lose more valuable sheep or goats. Therefore, translocation of wolf to control blackbuck numbers is out of the question.

Another suggestion is to change the cropping pattern. This is not easy. Market forces, personal requirements, rainfall, soil and water conditions determine the crop pattern - not the blackbuck! Moreover, it is not only feeding on the crop but also thrashing by territorial bucks that does considerable damage to standing crop. Crop compensation appears to be a solution to some people. First of all, it is not easy to quantify the crop damage. Even if we are able to do so, who will pay the compensation? The state forest departments are already starved of funds. Nearly 40% of the posts are vacant due to paucity of funds. Should we divert scarce resources to pay compensation running to millions of rupees? Secondly, for how long and how big an area should compensation be given? Thirdly, it would lead to massive corruption, with rich influential farmers cornering the compensation in connivance with forest guards, leaving poor, disgruntled farmers nursing more resentment against the conservation movement. Lastly, is crop compensation a long-term solution?

What do other countries do when faced with a similar situation? The United Kingdom has an intensively managed countryside with a long history of predator control. Fortunately, predator control to increase the population of common ‘game’ species for pleasure shooting has been outlawed or severely curtailed, but such control does take place even now, when the survival of a rare species is involved. The red deer is a problem animal in many nature reserves of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). The RSPB recommends regular culling of red deer at many of its reserves. For instance, the population of capercaillie, a large handsome grouse inhabiting old forest with thick underbrush, is fine-tuned to its natural habitat. Increasing numbers of red deer destroy the underbrush, resulting in the decline of capercaillie. Putting up a deer fence was found not to be the solution. The fence is not easily visible to these highly excitable terrestrial birds, and when disturbed they fly directly into it. More than 16% of collisions of capercaillie, black grouse and red grouse are fatal. As predators often remove the casualties quickly, the true fatality figure is probably much higher. The only long-term solution is to reduce the number of red deer by culling. This recommendation has come from a bird conservation organization with more than a million members. In the United States, control of deer numbers is a regular management practice. In none of the countries has controlled culling resulted in the extinction of any ungulate. Only in our country, any talk of culling problem animals sends animal rights activists into paroxysms. Interestingly, culling of blackbuck to reduce crop damage was practiced earlier in our country. The Raja of Wankaner, a former estate in Gujarat, had fixed a quota of blackbuck that had to be culled to prevent excess damage to crops in his region.

Based on its scientific research, the Bombay Natural History Society feels that the time has come to control the locally abundant populations of certain species such as nilgai, wild boar and blackbuck. The forest department should take up controlled culling under strict supervision. At the same time, we should also develop the technique of capture and translocation, natural birth control and crop aversion technology. Our detailed scientific studies in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary have shown that blackbuck numbers should be kept at less than 100 in this Sanctuary. If we neglect the crop damage problem further, we will not only lose species such the great Indian bustard but also the support of a very large rural constituency. The ultimate sufferer will be the conservation movement in India.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

December 2001

Vol. 98

No. 3

INDIAN WILD ASS {EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)

IN THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA1

H.S. Singh2

( With two text-figures)

Key words: Indian wild ass, Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

The Little Rann of Kutch is a unique saline desert and is synonymous with the Indian wild ass, locally called ghor khar. The numbers of this only population of Equus hemionus khur Lesson in the world, declined consistently as a result of disease and habitat loss before the declaration of the area as a Sanctuary. Though original habitat continued to be lost due to invasion of Prosopis chilensis, grazing, salt-works and encroachment, the wild ass population increased consistently after 1976. As per various estimates and censuses in the past, the population decreased from 3,000-4,000 in 1946, to a few hundreds in 1963. But a reverse trend set in after 1976, when the number increased from about 720 in 1976 to about 2,940 in 1998. The rate of population growth of this species was about 4.8% per year during the last decade and wild asses started dispersing to new areas away from the Sanctuary in the Great Rann of Kutch and Bhal regions. Wild asses were also seen in the Kala Dungar area of the Great Rann, Bhal region and in areas of Rajasthan bordering Gujarat. This paper deals with the population trend, distribution, migration and population characteristics of the wild ass. Encounters in different habitat types revealed that though the barren Rann does not provide food and water, it is an important habitat for the wild ass. Attempts were also made to study the habitat utilisation pattern and management problems of the Sanctuary for conservation of the wild ass in the region.

Introduction

There are three species of wild ass in the world, one in Africa and two in Asia. The African species has two subspecies, whereas the two Asian species are classified into eight surviving subspecies: Equus hemionus hemionus , E. h. luteus , E. h. kulan , E. h. khur , E. h. onager , E. kiang kiang , E. k. holclereri and E. k. polyodon (Shah 1993, Ryder and Chemnick 1990). The Indian wild ass ( E . h. khur Lesson

'Accepted February, 2001

:Gujarat Ecological Education and Research Foundation, Indroda Park, Sector 9, Gandhinagar 382 009, Gujarat, India.

1 827) is one of the five surviving subspecies of E. hemionus and is endemic to the Rann of Kutch. During the 20th Century, the Indian wild ass had a fairly wide distribution in the dry regions of northwest India and west Pakistan. The wild ass of Sind (E. h. khur) was hunted by the great Moghul Emperor Akbar, on the banks of the Sutlej river in 1571 (Rao 1957). The wild ass population declined gradually over the centuries, but there was a drastic reduction between 1960 and 1969, due to an outbreak of the South African Horse Sickness and the arthropod-borne Surra disease (Gee 1963). The species is now in the Red Data Book as per the IUCN Threat Criteria.

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INDIAN WILD ASS (EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)

Study Area

The Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat State, is an unique saline desert, synonymous with the Indian wild ass, the only gene pool of E.h. khur in the world. To conserve this animal, an area of 4,954 sq. km in the Little Rann, its fringe areas and some beyts (islands) in the Great Rann of Kutch were declared as the Wild Ass Sanctuary in 1973. Kutch, Banaskantha, Mehsana, Surendranagar and Rajkot districts, and Gulf of Kutch constitute the boundaries of the Sanctuary. Recognising its uniqueness and ecological significance, the area has been listed by the Government of India, among the first 13 areas identified for conservation as Biosphere Reserves, which is pending with the Gujarat State Government for a final declaration as the Little Rann Biosphere Reserve.

The Rann is characterized by a dry tropical climate with a brief erratic monsoon, hot summer and cold winter. The silt-laden inundation from rivers like the Banas, Saraswati, Rupen, and several small seasonal streams, along with high tides from the Gulf of Kutch through Surajbari creek, have contributed significantly towards the formation of this saline flat. The Little Rann gets flooded under 0.5 m to 1.0 m water every monsoon. Though a major part of the Rann changes into dry mudflats after November, numerous water bodies support a large number of resident and migratory birds in winter.

The Sanctuary is classified into: (i) the Rann (3,464 sq. km), (ii) beyts (185 sq. km), and (iii) fringe areas (1,304 sq. km). Seventy- four elevated plateaus or islands (locally called beyt) were identified through remote sensing, of which 5 1 beyts were vegetated, whereas the rest were barren. The area of the beyts varies from 4.7 ha — beyt Panchham to 3,050 ha — beyt Pung. Six beyts have an area of over 1,000 ha. Nanda is the only beyt with human habitation and cultivation. About 33% of the beyt area is under Prosopis chilensis , while herbaceous vegetation constitutes 23% of the net area.

Methods

The GEER Foundation conducted a comprehensive ecological study in the Wild Ass Sanctuary from November, 1997 to February, 1999. The author coordinated the study and the paper is primarily an analysis of the field data collected by the scientists and research assistants during this study. The Rann, fringe area, beyts of the Sanctuary and Khadir beyt were surveyed. Remote sensing study was carried out to know the vegetation cover and habitat conditions.

The Sanctuary area was divided into three regions and seven zones - south fringe, eastern fringe, northern fringe, western fringe, creeks, beyts and part of the Sanctuary in the Great Rann. Vehicular and foot transects were done to collect evidence of the occurrence of wild ass. Dung was recorded in all the transects. Locals were questioned to collect more information.

An 18 day count of the wild ass in and around the Little Rann was done in November, 1998. The Great Rann and other habitats were also surveyed to estimate the dispersed population. Data from the wild ass census by the Gujarat Forest Department on January 28 - 29, 1999 was also used. To count wild ass, the Sanctuary and its fringe areas were divided into three regions- (i) Halwad-Dhrangadhra region : fringe zones in Surendranagar and Mehsana district, the Rann and beyts near the boundaries of two districts; (ii) Radhanpur region : fringe zone in Banaskantha, the Rann and bets of the Little Rann and Great Rann of Kutch near the boundary of Banaskantha district; and (iii) Bhachau region : both sides of Surajbari-creek, fringe area of Rajkot and Kutch districts, the Rann and beyts near Kutch and Rajkot districts.

Wild asses were counted on some of the important beyts in the rainy season in 1998 to study the breeding area. Pung, Dhut, Nanda, Shedwa, Mardak, Fatehgadh, Nada, Khadir and other beyts in the Great Rann were surveyed extensively in November-December, 1998.

328

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INDIAN WILD ASS (EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)

Observations were made up to the border of Rajasthan and Pakistan.

Results and Discussion

Population Trend: Ali (1946) estimated the wild ass population between 3,000 and 4,000 in the Little Rann. In 1960, he estimated a population of about 2000 khurs. In 1958 and 1960, the arthropod borne Surra disease caused by Trypanosoma evansi had taken its toll (Gee 1963). InNovember-December, 1961, some wild asses died in an outbreak of South African Horse Sickness, reducing the population to 870 individuals in 1962 (Gee 1963). The Gujarat Forest Department recorded 362 wild ass in 1969 in an aerial survey. Since then, the Gujarat Forest Department has conducted four censuses and found that the population increased consistently from 720 in April 1976, to 1,989 in April 1983, 2,072 in March 1990, and 2,839 in January 1999. The comparatively low increase from 1983 to

1990 was probably due to a severe drought from 1985 to 1987.

The GEER Foundation conducted systematic counting of wild ass in and around the Little Rann in November 1998, up to 5-10 km from the Sanctuary boundary. A total of 2,446 animals were counted, not including the wild ass inhabiting the Great Rann and the outer zone beyond 10 km from the boundary. Partial counting was done in and around Khadir, Tragdi, Fatehgadh, Nada and other beyts in the Great Rann. Two groups were also counted near Nalsarovar and Dhandhuka-Dholera Highway in Ahmedabad district. On the basis of partial counting, reports of forest officials and locals, it was estimated that over 490 wild asses were dispersed in the Great Rann and in outer areas beyond 10 km south from the boundary of the Sanctuary, up to Dhandhuka (Bhal region). Thus, the total population estimated by the Foundation in November, 1998 was 2,940. The Little Rann and its surrounding zones had not

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329

INDIAN WILD ASS (EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)

experienced severe drought as in 1987. This is one of the main reasons for the consistent rise in population at 4.8% per year (1990-1998). The Gujarat Forest Department census in January, 1999 estimated the population at around 2,900.

Population Distribution: The study estimated a total of 1,780 wild ass in Dhrangadhra-Halwad region, 590 in Bhachau and 570 in Radhanpur. It was noted that 390 to 490 wild asses stayed beyond 10 km from the boundary of the Sanctuary. Also, about 70% of the total population is found in Dhrangadhra/ Halvad zone (eastern and southern fringes along with Rann, beyts and other areas near these fringes). Distribution pattern also revealed that the dispersed population was on the rise.

Distribution of wild ass population varied from season to season as wild asses congregated in the fringe areas and on the beyts during monsoon. Although their movement was restricted during monsoon, they were observed moving from beyt to beyt and from fringe to beyt wading in shallow water. Three hundred and fifty-eight wild asses congregated on Pung beyt and its neighbouring beyts during monsoon in October 1997. This is because groups from fringe areas moved to the beyts during the breeding season. Ali (1946) also mentioned congregation of about 200 wild ass on Pung beyt. The area- wise distribution of wild ass is given in Table 1.

Dispersal/Migration: In 1976, the wild ass was restricted to a 5 km belt from the Sanctuary fringe (Shah 1993). Animals migrated to areas beyond 1 0 km from the southern Rann fringe in 1989. South-eastern fringes are rich in food and water resources — maximum concentration of population and dispersal was observed in the peripheral villages in these fringes. People believe that wild asses started moving away from the Sanctuary after the 1987 drought. During our survey, 38 individuals were seen on Khadir, Bangara and Kakidiya bets northwest of Khadir, and over 60 wild asses were estimated on and around Khadir beyt. The local

people confirmed that wild ass was not seen in this area 15-20 years ago, but is consistently seen in increasing numbers now. During the same period (November-December, 1998), 53 wild asses were encountered in part of the Sanctuary in the Great Rann (26 in Fatehgadh, and 27 in Nada and other beyts near Rajasthan). Eighteen wild asses were also seen in March, 1999 on Tragadi beyt which is located about 1 5 km west of Dholavira (Khadir). Dr. Ketan Tatu (pers . comm.) observed a herd of twelve wild asses in Kala Dungar area in the western part of the Great Rann in February, 2000; and the villagers have seen this group for the last 3-4 years. He photographed these animals as part of evidence for a study of GEER Foundation in the Great Rann. Three wild asses (two adults and one foal) were seen at the Rajasthan border area. Border Security Force (BSF) personnel claimed to have seen a group of 9 individuals in Rajasthan. A track from Bela to Tuta towards the Pakistan border indicated that animals visited the border, which was confirmed by the BSF personnel.

Some wild asses had migrated out of the Sanctuary to Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary and Bhal area. Sightings were also made near Dhandhuka- Dholera highway. A group of 1 8 wild asses was recorded near Kalatalav in the monsoon of 1998, south of Nalsarovar and another group of

Table 1

AREA-WISE POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN NOVEMBER, 1998

Area

Population

Percentage (%)

Rann

688

23.4

Beyts in the Rann

541

18.4

Fringe areas

(vegetated zone in fringe

up to 1 0 km from boundary)

1,271

43.2

Dispersed population beyond 1 0 km from boundary of Sanctuary

(estimate)

440

15.0

Total

2,940

100.0

Note: Wild ass population on beyts was 488 individuals in the Little Rann and 53 individuals in the Great Rann.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200 1

331

International Boundary ■ District Boundary Location • Medium Concentration Zone

State Boundary District Headquarters © High Concentration Zone — Low Concentration Zone

INDIAN WILD ASS ( EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)

6 animals was seen near Devadthal during the same period. It was also seen near the Limbdi- Vadodara highway. The wild ass census and this survey established the fact that wild ass had dispersed northwards to the Rajasthan and Pakistan border, Dhandhuka-Dholera highway and to the south of Limbdi-Bagodara national highway in the south and Malia in the west.

Population Characteristics: Mating and foaling in the Little Rann occur during monsoon (July-October), which is also a period of vegetation growth. All births are single. Male foals are weaned at 1-2 years of age, while female foals continue to remain with mares for longer periods (Shah 1993).

Of 2,446 wild asses counted in and around the Little Rann, there were 637 males, 1,402 females and 407 foals. It is possible that some of the subadult males could not be distinguished from females and hence the male population was underestimated. But this observation confirms the finding of Shah (1993) that the male:female ratio was 1:2 in the Sanctuary.

Drought certainly affects reproduction. The area did not face severe drought after 1987, therefore the population consistently increased from 2,072 in 1990 to 2,940 in 1998. Out of 407 foals counted in November 1998, 267 were bom in the monsoon of 1998. Thus, foals constituted 1 6.6% of the total population of wild ass (young foals 10.5%). It is difficult to distinguish a one- year foal from a subadult. Thus, some young of the previous year could not be included in the list of the foals. In addition to the 267 foals in and around the Sanctuary in 1998, about a dozen foals were seen in the outer zones in the Great Rann, Rajasthan and Bhal region in the same year. Thus, it may be concluded that more than 275 foals were bom in 1998.

Large herds of wild ass were recorded at Visnagar 89, Kopami 86, between Kanach and Thala Rann 70, Kidi 68 and Degam Rann 61. Nearly 60% of the total were recorded in small to medium groups of 3-20 or 21-40, and 36% in

large groups (41 to 90). About 1.8% wild asses, mainly males, were single, whereas 1.5% of the total population were seen in pairs.

Habitat Utilisation: Habitat utilisation pattern of wild ass in and around the Sanctuary zone was studied separately. The pattern changed when peripheral villages were included with the Sanctuary for analysis. Daytime distribution of wild asses in and around the Little Rann in November, 1998 up to about 10 km from the boundary is given in Table 2.

Analysis of the data showed that over 40.0% of all the animals sighted were recorded in the barren Rann, which does not support vegetation. The percentage came down to 29.3% when the population in the fringe areas

Table 2

HABITAT-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF WILD ASS IN THE SANCTUARY IN NOVEMBER, 1 998

Habitat type No.

of wild asses

Percentage

Rann

716

29.3

Grass/Swflefto/herbaceous cover

660

27.0

Sparse Prosopis cover in grassland

690

28.2

Moderate to dense Prosopis cover

229

09.3

Cultivated fields

151

06.2

Total

2,446

100.0

outside the Sanctuary

was also

counted

with that of the Little Rann. This proves beyond doubt that, although a large area of the Rann does not provide food, it does provide space for resting and movement. Vegetation types, grass Suaeda types and Suaeda with sparse Prosopis cover were other preferred habitats of the animal.

Forage, water and safe area for breeding and resting are important habitat components for the wild ass. Preference for different habitats differs in all three seasons, though habitats of sparse and medium Prosopis cover were used in all seasons in the day as well as at night (Shah, 1993). Distribution pattern will be different, as animals from fringe areas move to agricultural fields at night during winter and summer in search of food and water.

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Population Management: The population of wild ass in the Little Rann for long term conservation needs to be well above 2,500 as prescribed by the IUCN/SSC Equuids Specialist Group (Duncan 1992), the minimum viable population for areas where population is confined to one location. Population of wild ass in and around the Sanctuary has already crossed this number. Animals make regular raids in crop fields in winter and summer, causing resentment among farmers. Farmers regularly complain and demonstrate against the loss of crops (cotton, wheat, gram) and this problem is increasing due to increase in population of wild ass, bluebull, and wild boar in and around the villages.

Although the khur population is increasing gradually, it may ultimately reach the levels estimated by Ali (1946) in the near future and would become difficult to manage in the limits of the Sanctuary due to the changed conditions. Original vegetation of grass/herbaceous land and sparse thorn forest of indigenous species is now being invaded by Prosopis chilensis in major parts of the vegetated zone. This has reduced the availability of food. Moreover, disturbance due to salt panning and transport, target practice by the Indian Army, and livestock grazing, have added to the factors responsible for habitat degradation. It is difficult to maintain the original carrying capacity of the area without improving the habitat and conservation status of the Sanctuary.

As the area has not faced a severe drought or disease after 1987, the population of wild ass has grown annually. Growth trend in the last decade revealed that this annual rate of growth may be the upper limit of population increase for wild ass in the Little Rann, given the long gestation period and other reproductive characteristics. If this trend continues with the absence of a severe drought or disease, the population may exceed 4,000 by 2010 AD. The trend also indicates that the maximum increase of population would be in peripheral villages and

dispersal zones, leading to migration into new areas of the Great Rann, Bhal and desert parts of Rajasthan. Bhal may support no more than a moderate population of wild ass, as man- wildlife conflict would become serious when the population increases. Beyts and fringe areas support a good number , by accommodating more wild asses in new areas in the Great Rann. Wild ass has already reached the Rajasthan-Pakistan border area. Hence, the Thar Desert in Rajasthan may prove to be important in accomodating excess populations. The time has come to explore the possibility of development of the Thar Desert near the border as an alternative site for the Indian wild ass. As these animals were found in historical times in the desert, their natural dispersal into the original habitat should not be a problem.

Conservation Strategy

In the absence of a settlement and demarcation of the Sanctuary, adequate protection could not be enforced, which resulted in legal disputes and conflicts as various stake-holders claimed right of use of areas. Settlement work is under progress, but it needs to be completed without further delay. Salt preparation continued in the Sanctuary and expanded to new areas in the absence of regulations. About 28.6 lakh tonnes of salt was produced annually (in 1996) and the leased out area in the Sanctuary increased from 166 sq. km in 1973 to 461 sq. km in 1995. Over one thousand vehicles ply everyday in the salt production season, causing serious disturbance to wildlife. Salt panning — salt ponds created for evaporation — should be restricted and regulated within demarcated zones with fixed transport routes. The Army continues to use an extensive leased area of 217 sq. km near Tikar for target practice. Movement of tanks and army activities should be restricted in the demarcated zone. They should not use the beyts as targets, but erect concrete pillars (Singh et al. 1998/

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Invasion of Prosopis chilensis should be controlled on beyts and in fringe areas. Original habitat conditions should be restored by uprooting this species from some of the areas faster than its invasion rate of 677 ha/year. High density of cattle dung (334/ha) was observed on the northern fringe, followed by 276/ha on the western fringe, 274/ha in western creek area, 194/ha on beyts and 170/ha on the southern fringe (Singh et al. 1998). Cattle dung density was high in all the zones, indicating intense grazing. Critical habitats, especially those important for breeding, need to be protected from cattle grazing.

Disturbance in the Sanctuary and expansion of agriculture resulted in the movement of wild ass from the Sanctuary to crop

Ali, S. (1946): Indian wild ass. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46(3): 472-477.

Duncan, P. (1992): Zebras, Asses and Horses. An action plan for the conservation of wild equids. IUCN/SSC Equuids Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland, pp. 36. Gee, E.P. (1963): The Indian wild ass: A survey. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60(3): 517-529.

Rao, H. Srinivasa (1957): History of our knowledge of the Indian fauna through ages. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54(2): 251-280.

fields. The conflict between wildlife and local people is increasing in the fringe area due to crop raiding by wild ass. Land use patterns will change rapidly after irrigation of land from the Narmada canal, which is likely to cause some impact on the ecology of the Sanctuary and its surrounding areas. This should be studied properly by carrying out an environmental impact assessment. Environmental education, habitat improvement and ecodevelopment programmes could be long- term strategies of conservation.

There is no harm in capturing some animals straying into villages to meet the demand of zoological parks. Simultaneously, efforts must be made to find alternative sites for wild ass in the Great Rann, Thar Desert and Bhal area as part of the long-term conservation strategy.

ENCES

Ryder, G. & L. Chemnick (1990): Chromosomal and molecular evolution in Asiatic wild asses. Genetica 83: 67-72.

Shah, N. V. ( 1 993): The ecology of wild ass in Little Rann of Kutch. Ph. D. thesis, M.S. University, Baroda, Gujarat State, pp. 1 83.

Singh, H.S., R. Pravez, V.C. Soni, N.V. Shah & B.H. Patel (1998): Ecological Study of the Wild Ass Sanctuary. Gujarat Ecological Education and Research Foundation, Gandhinagar: 116-129.

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ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EAGLE {AQUILA NIPALENSIS) SUMMERING IN MONGOLIA AND WINTERING IN TIBET1

David H. Ellis2, Stacie L. Moon3 and Jon W. Robinson4 ( With one text-figure)

Key words: Aquila nipalensis , migration, satellite telemetry, steppe eagle

An adult female steppe eagle {Aquila nipalensis Hodgson) was captured and fitted with a satellite transmitter in June 1995 in southeastern Mongolia. In fall, it traveled southwest towards India as expected, but stopped in southeastern Tibet and wintered in a restricted zone within the breeding range of the steppe eagle. In spring, the bird returned to the same area of Mongolia where it was captured. These observations, though derived from the movements of a single bird, suggest three things that are contrary to what is generally believed about steppe eagle biology. First, not all steppe eagles move to warmer climes in winter. Second, not all steppe eagles are nomadic in winter. Finally, because our bird wintered at the periphery of the steppe eagle breeding range in Tibet, perhaps birds that

breed in this same area also winter there. If

The summer and winter ranges of the western race of the steppe eagle {Aquila nipalensis orientalis) have been mapped (Cramp and Simmons 1980). These birds breed from eastern Europe to eastern Kazakhstan and Kirgizia, and winter almost exclusively in Africa. Important migration concentration zones have been located (Welch and Welch 1991) and the migration of 10 birds has been followed by satellite (Meyburg and Meyburg 1995).

Less is known of the migration patterns and winter distribution of the eastern race {A. n. nipalensis) (Welch and Welch 1991, Watson 1997: 213). Thousands have been documented moving east-west at mid elevations paralleling the southern slopes of the Himalayas (Fleming 1983, Welch and Welch 1991). There is also some documentation of a trans-Himalayan migration. One was found dead on the south col of Mt. Everest at about 7,925 m (Singh 1961). Many birds have been seen traversing mountain passes

'Accepted June, 2000

:USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Centre, HCR 1 Box 4420, Oracle, AZ 85623, USA.

?7004 Old Chapel Drive, Bowie, MD 207 1 5, USA.

4Ratheon ITSS, Code 935, Building 28, Room W1 92, NASA-Goddard Space Centre, Greenbelt, MD 2071 1 , USA.

), not all steppe eagles are migratory.

in Nepal, with a maximum of about 100 birds per hr on 24 October (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985) and nearly 8,000 seen at one location in less than three weeks (de Roder 1989). Davis and Glass (1951) reported that steppe eagles were seen daily for a two-week period in October at Chihkiang (27.3° N, 110.1° E), Hunan, China.

The eastern race winters broadly across the Indian subcontinent, with a disjunct population in central and southern Myanmar (Smythies 1953, Cramp and Simmons 1980, Welch and Welch 1991). Some birds are mentioned wintering as far north as Nepal (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985). With recent deforestation, the species’ wintering range may be expanding southward into and beyond peninsular Malaysia (Helbig and Wells 1990). These authors reported the first observation in Selangor (03 .5° N, 1 0 1 .2° E) in 1987. Further south, they reported single immatures in Singapore and Borneo. Stragglers have been previously reported from Hong Kong, Tenasserim (southern Myanmar: 12.1° N, 99.0° E) (Smythies 1953, King and Dickinson 1975), Viet Nam, and Thailand (Meyer de Schauensee 1984).

To improve our understanding of the migratory movements of eastern steppe eagles,

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we captured an adult female in 1995. This paper reports the movements of that bird over a 15- month period as revealed by satellite telemetry. Satellite monitoring of long-distance movements of flighted birds using the Argos Data Collection and Location System began in 1984 (Strickwerda et al. 1986) and is routine today, with transmitter packages (unfortunately dubbed Platform Transmitter Terminals, PTTs) as small as 30 g (and sometimes smaller). These PTTs, with careful programming, can provide data intermittently over the course of a year or more (see overview of system specifications in Meyburg et al. 1995).

Methods

As part of a larger study of raptors in Mongolia, in 1995 we focused on finding a steppe eagle eyrie with thermocompetent young, so we could capture and radio tag an adult without jeopardizing the young. We had originally planned to tag a fledgling. However, steppe eagles, which are migratory in Mongolia, nest much later than saker falcons ( Falco cherrug) and golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ), the primary objects of our study. The result was that during our May to mid- July surveys we were unable to find any nests with young large enough to safely outfit with a backpack harness (it is unsafe to place an adult-size harness on a downy chick).

After one month of searching, on June 26, we found a nest with chicks old enough to survive a mild night without being brooded. The three nestlings were about three weeks of age (based on photos of similarly developed golden eaglets). Although the chicks were much too young to harness, we returned at dusk that same night for an attempt to capture one of the adults. The adult male (dark morph) was roosting on a large boulder c. 100 m east of the eyrie: the adult female (pale morph) was on the nest with her chicks. Our plan was to wait until midnight and

then try for the male first. Failing that, we would try and capture the female on the nest. From an earlier attempt to capture another roosting male, we knew that these birds would perch in one spot at dusk. Then, after it became too dark for us to see, they would fly to another location. This may be a predator avoidance adaptation of a species that very often roosts on or near the ground, and is thereby highly vulnerable to mammalian predation.

We began our capture attempt from camp, 1. 5-2.0 km from the nest. All three persons in the team changed to dark clothing. It was a calm, starlit, moonless night. At 2330 hrs, we began our approach. Without headlights, we very slowly drove our motor vehicle, a Russian (UAZ) four- wheel drive, to within about 70 m of the nest. Then we propped open the hood, directing the engine noises toward the cliff. Next, we adjusted the throttle to about 1,500 rpm so the noise of our on-foot approach would be masked by the engine noises. We circled the hill so our approach would be from the darkest part of the sky. As we began the final approach to the male’s roost, the capture person pulled wool leggings over his shoes and moved forward, holding a large (9V) battery-powered flashlight with strobe capability. When we were within 1 5 m, we began searching the boulder tops with the flashlight, but the male was gone.

Next, we began our approach on the female. At 60 m, we gave a slow series of eagle owl ( Bubo bubo) hoots to encourage the female to stay on the nest and defend her young. At 10 m the lead person began to strobe the eagle at frequent intervals, to confuse the bird and to illuminate the cliff top. At 3 m, we could see two young in front of the adult, so we concluded that one must be beneath her. When 70 cm away, the flashlight was dropped and the lead person pounced on the eagle, pushing her, breast forward, into the nest but very quickly pulling her legs back beneath her tail so she could not damage the third chick with her talons. After

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700 0 700 1400 Kilometers

Fig. 1: Year-round (June 1995 to September 1996) movements of an adult steppe eagle.

Numbers in parentheses following some dates indicate the number of satellite fixes for each location. Each fix is based on two (and usually more) location estimates. If the number of fixes is not provided for points along the migration route, assume one. Number of fixes is also not provided for termini and stopover locations wheie veracity of location is established by many points.

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the female was lifted from the nest, we checked the chicks and saw that none were wounded during the struggle.

During the night, we attached the PTT, then socked the eagle to release her in the morning. By 0545 hrs on June 27, we were preparing the eagle for release. We cleaned her soiled ventral plumage with a water gun (Super Soaker), then decided to also wet her dorsal surface to discourage flight. In the 13lh century C.E., Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, illustrated the ancient falconry technique of wetting a restive falcon’s plumage to inhibit bating — a falconry term for a raptor’s attempt to fly free (Wood and Fyfe 1969). At c. 0700 hrs, we placed her on the nest near the eaglets and sprayed her with more water. Then, with her legs still stretched out behind and a loose layer of paper over her head, we released her and crept silently to the car. We rolled the car, with engine off, down the hill away from the eyrie, then at 0741 hrs drove the car over the horizon: the female was still on the nest. At 1040 hrs, we returned to the area and using a telescope from a distant vantage point saw the female standing on the nest near her young.

Wishing to see if the eagle was encumbered by the harness, we returned at about 1400 hrs on June 28. The female was shading her chicks and allowed us to closely approach the eyrie before she flushed. When she flew, the radio was visible on her back, but she flew without any noticeable impediment.

The PTT used in the study was a 95 g unit manufactured by Microwave Telemetry, Inc. It measured 94 x 33 x 30 mm with a rearward projecting 216 mm antenna. The harness was a fall-free, crossed double loop of Teflon-coated nylon ribbon ( 1 3 mm wide) as described by Olsen et al. (1992 and unpubl. data). The PTT was programmed for four different transmission “seasons” as follows: Season 1, June 25 to September 1, 8 hrs on each 4.6 days; Season 2, September 1 to December 15, 8 hrs on each 1.6

days; Season 3, December 15 to February 1, 8 hrs on each 4.6 days; Season 4, February 1 to exhaustion, 8 hrs on each 2.6 days.

Results

For presentation here, we divided our location data points (fixes) into two quality classes. Higher quality fixes are believed to be within 1 km of the true location. Lower quality fixes (i.e. data derived from fewer or weaker signals), while of uncertain accuracy when treated individually, often provide very good approximations of the true location when two or more fixes are in one small area.

From our single PTT, we obtained 461 fixes of which 53 (12%) were high quality. The data track in Fig. 1 provides much useful information and some surprises. First, the wintering area used by our bird, extreme eastern Tibet, is north of the known wintering range for this subspecies in eastern Asia. Inskipp and Inskipp (1985) reported steppe eagles wintering in Nepal, but we know of no prior record of steppe eagles wintering in Tibet.

Our bird spent the period from November 4 to March 7 in the pre-cordilleran plateau between the Mekong and the Yangtze rivers. Although the summering area of this eagle in Mongolia was an area of high volcanic hills scattered across a level steppe at about 1,350 m elevation, her wintering area was a region of high ridges (up to about 4,000 m) and valleys (as low as 2,700 m) dominated by alpine meadow soils and covered with subalpine scrub and cold steppe with few forest patches. Nearby peaks rise to 4,300-4,600 m. Judging by elevation, the winter climate in Tibet would have been at least as harsh as if the bird had remained on the summering area in Mongolia.

Movements of the bird in her wintering area are also of interest. She arrived in the general area between October 28 and October 3 1 , and settled into a rather restricted zone for

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several days. Then she moved south approximately 100 km to spend the remainder of the winter in a narrow corridor about 300 km long. Although this area is large compared to the home range of a breeding eagle, it is small when compared to the movements of steppe eagles wintering in Africa (Watson 1997). There, they charac-teristically make repeated long distance movements as they search for termites which appear after rainstorms. Watson (1997: 99) placed the steppe eagle in the group of raptors characterized by nomadic, wide-ranging winter movements in search of abundant, but transient food. Our bird’s movements were much more focused, suggesting that it was surviving on a food supply very different from that used by steppe eagles wintering in Africa.

Another temporal feature of interest is that the fall migration was more leisurely than the spring migration. The bird departed from the breeding area sometime after noon on October 14, and traveled rather leisurely for four days to an area about 600 km southwest. She remained there from October 18 to 21 or 22, then traveled rapidly for the last 10 days of October. Her general wintering area was about 1,350 km southwest of the fall “staging area” and about 2,000 km from the breeding area. Here again, the eagle paused for a few days (October 3 1 to November 4) and then moved south to the zone where she spent the winter (November 4 to March 7). Her northward journey began between March 7 and 9. By March 26, the bird arrived in the region where it had been captured the previous summer. No staging or stopover sites were observed on the northward trek. Gross rate of travel comparisons using median dates of arrival and departure are as follows:

Fall migration (total distance: 1,800 km), 20 days (October 14 !4 to November VA)\ 90 km/ day.

Spring migration (total distance: 2,200 km) 1 6 Vi days (March 8 to March 24!4): 133 km/day.

Discussion

From this single bird, we leam: first, that although steppe eagles purportedly wander widely in winter, our eagle’s winter range was restricted. Second, the winter range of the eastern race of the steppe eagle is purported to be India and Burma, with some birds in Nepal and stragglers south into peninsular Malaysia. Our bird wintered in extreme eastern Tibet at the periphery of the known breeding range of the steppe eagle. The steppe eagle is described as being entirely migratory (Cramp and Simmons 1980: 218, Welch and Welch 1991, Clark 1992), but because our bird wintered where or near where Tibetan birds breed, it is likely that some Tibetan birds winter in this same area and are, as a result, non-migratory. We urge that these novel ideas be explored by the deployment of more satellite transmitters on adult eagles in Mongolia and Tibet.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the support of NASA- Goddard Space Flight Center and USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center for primary funding of our efforts. Patrick Coronado and William Campbell coordinated funding at NASA. P. Tsengeg and Merlin Ellis participated in the expedition, and Catherine H. Ellis assisted in all aspects of processing the manuscript.

References

Clark, W.S. (1992): The taxonomy of steppe and tawny Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons (Eds.) (1980): Handbook of eagles, with criteria for separation of museum the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, specimens and live eagles. Bull. Brit. Ornith. Club Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.

1 12(3): 150-157. Davis, W.B. & B.P. Glass (1951): Notes on eastern Chinese

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birds. Auk 68: 86-91.

de Roder, F.E. (1989): The migration of raptors south of Annapurna, Nepal, autumn 1985. Forktail 4: 9-17.

Fleming, R.L. Jr. (1983): An east-west Aquila eagle migration in the Himalayas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 58-62.

Helbig, A.J. & D.R. Wells (1990): Steppe eagles in Peninsular Malaysia in 1987. Dutch Birding 12: 77- 79.

Inskipp, C. & T. Inskipp (1985): A guide to the birds of Nepal. Tanager Books, Dover, NH USA.

King, B.F. & E.C. Dickinson (1975): A field guide to the birds of South-East Asia. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, MAUSA.

Meyburg, B.U. & C. Meyburg (1995): Tracking the migrations of 30 raptors by satellite. J. Raptor Res. 29: 62.

Meyburg, B.U., J.M. Mendelsohn, D.H. Ellis, D.G. Smith, C. Meyburg & A.C. Kemp (1995): Year-round movements of a Wahlberg’s eagle Aquila wahlbergi tracked by satellite. Ostrich 66: 135-140.

Meyer de Schauensee, R. (1984): The birds of China. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, U.S.A.

Olsen, G.H., D.H. Ellis, S.E. Landfried, L.J. Miller, S.S. Klugman, M.R. Fuller & C.H. Vermillion (1992): Behaviour of Sandhill Cranes harnessed with different satellite transmitters. Proc. North Am. Crane Workshop 6: 50-56.

Singh, G. (1961): The eastern steppe eagle [Aquila nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson)] on the south col of Everest. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 270.

Smythies, B.E. (1953): Birds of Burma. Second Edition. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, U.K.

Strickwerda, T.E., M.R. Fuller, W.S. Seegar, P.W. Howey & H.D. Black (1986): Bird-borne satellite transmitter and location program. Johns Hopkins A PL Tech. Digest 7:203-208.

Watson, J. (1997): The golden eagle. T. and A.D. Poyser, London, UK.

Welch, G. & H. Welch (1991): The autumn migration of the Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis. Sandgrouse 13: 24-33.

Wood, C. A. & F.M. Fyfe (Eds.) ( 1 969): The art of falconry: being De Arte Venandi Cum Avibus of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, USA.

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BREEDING ECOLOGY OF ANNANDALE’S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS (ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE) NEAR KOLKATA, WEST BENGAL1

Kaushik Deuti2

( With one plate)

Key words: Amphibia, Chirixalus simus , arboreal foam-nest, breeding ecology, insolation, desiccation

The breeding ecology of the Annandale’s tree frog ( Chirixalus simus) was studied in a 340 sq. m marsh at Rajpur, West Bengal. The results showed that the species is an early breeder, breeding in the first month of monsoon. Most foam-nests are constructed on grass, in the first two weeks,

6-58 cm above standing water and contain 153-234 eggs. The size of the foam-nests depends on their position on the grass where the frogs mate. The nests are located 10-807 cm away from dry land. It has been speculated that different species of the genus show a preference for land over water for constructing foam-nests.

Introduction Material and Methods

Chirixalus is a genus of small to medium- sized Old World tree frogs (Anura: Family Rhacophoridae) widely distributed from Japan to India and is known from nine nominal species (Frost 1985). Although there are some accounts on the morphology of the genus, not much is known about the reproductive biology. Most Chirixalus species are believed to construct arboreal foam-nests, from which tadpoles drop into ponds and ditches soon after hatching. Chirixalus nongkhorensis of Thailand and China constructs foam-nests on the surface of pond water (Duellman andTrueb 1986). C. idiootocus of Taiwan lays eggs on land, near the edge of water without making a foam-nest. Hatching is apparently stimulated by rain and tadpoles spend a typical aquatic life in ponds or rain pools (Kuramoto and Wang 1987). Ecological data on the breeding habits of the genus Chirixalus is lacking. In this paper, I report the breeding ecology of Chirixalus simus during June to September 2000, at a site near Kolkata, West Bengal, India.

‘Accepted July, 2001

2Zoological Survey of India, Prani Vigyan Bhavan,

535, M-Block, New Alipore, Kolkata 700 053,

West Bengal, India.

The study site was located in a marshy area at Rajpur (22° 20' N, 88° 35' E), South 24 Parganas district, West Bengal, 6 km south of Kolkata in September, 1999 (Deuti et al. 2000). A plot of 340 sq. m (20 x 17 m) was marked off. The plot has a waterhole of 24 sq. m (6 x 4 m) in one comer with grass ( Saccharum spontaneum), banana (Musa paradisiaca) plantations on two sides, a village road on the third and a high concrete boundary wall of a residential building on the fourth. The plot, including the waterhole, dries up completely during summer, and the grass is cropped short by grazing cattle. With the advent of monsoon, the plot gets waterlogged, the grass grows up to 2 m and flowers. The frogs, which hide in the sheaths of the banana plants during summer, arrive at the plot to feed and breed on the grass, constructing foam-nests.

Throughout the monsoon, from mid- June to mid- September, the plot was visited twice a week and the number of foam-nests, their measurements, distance from dry land, height above ground and water-level, and maximum depth of water in the plot were measured. Daily atmospheric temperature, relative humidity and rainfall data were obtained from the Alipore meteorological station, Kolkata, and the data on

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number of foam-nests and depth of water in the plot were tabulated with the weather parameters (Table 1). The mating calls were recorded and photographs of breeding pairs and foam-nests taken. The plot was sampled every three days to allow the foam-nests counted earlier to dissolve and let the tadpoles escape into the water. This prevented re-counting and measuring of the same foam-nests. Some foam-nests were collected during different times of the breeding season to determine the clutch-size.

Results

In 2000, the monsoon commenced a little late in southern West Bengal. There was negligible rain from mid- June to mid- July, the plot remained dry and there was very little water in the waterhole. Only a few individuals of Hoplobatrachus tigerinus were heard calling at the plot on June 22, when there was a sudden cloud burst, producing 69 mm of rain, but they could not breed as the rain water quickly seeped into the ground. On July 7, 2-3 male Polypedates

maculatus arrived at the plot and started calling, but no females were sighted. The first week of July was dry, without any precipitation. From July 9, it rained daily and by July 11, it was apparent that the monsoon had finally set in. Water started accumulating in the plot from July 12. By July 14 there was 5 cm of water in the plot and the first males of Chirixalus simus had arrived and started calling. The first females arrived only on July 16.

On July 17, four pendulous foam-nests were observed on the grass (Table 1). When the water level at the plot increased to 1 1 cm on July 22, due to substantial rain everyday, the breeding activity of the frogs peaked to 34 foam-nests, gradually decreasing to none by August 18. Due to heavy precipitation each day, the water level increased further to 42 cm and 58 cm on July 24 and July 26 respectively. However, the number of foam-nests decreased to 1 1 and 6, respectively. As the water level at the plot decreased during the next two weeks to 26 cm by August 13, the frogs constructed fewer numbers of foam-nests. After that as the water-level decreased further to

Table 1

BREEDING PATTERN OF CHIRIXALUS SIMUS AT THE STUDY PLOT

Date of Observation

Max depth of water (cm)

Number of foam-nests

Rainfall on previous day (mm)

Max & Min. temp, on previous day (°C)

Max & Min R.H. on previous day (%)

1 4.07.2000 (first frog arrived)

5

0

16.0

32.2-25.9

97-75

17.07.2000

6

4

11.1

32.8-27.0

97-73

19.07.2000

8

9

34.6

27.1-24.9

98-74

22.07.2000

11

34

25.7

27.0-26.4

98-85

24.07.2000

42

11

62.8

27.4-24.9

98-76

26.07.2000

58

6

12.4

29.9-25.4

97-76

29.07.2000

39

3

7.0

32.3-26.0

98-69

02.08.2000

33

2

13.0

32.5-25.2

97-75

07.08.2000

28

1

31.7

34.3-27.9

97-72

10.08.2000

30

1

11.3

32.4-27.5

94-73

13.08.2000

26

1

29.9

28.3-26.3

98-92

18.08.2000

23

0

56.3

32.9-26.2

98-79

25.08.2000 (froglets seen on grass)

15

0

0.2

34.0-27.2

94-67

30.08.2000

0

0

0.4

32.4-27.5

95-75

02.09.2000

22

0

20.5

31.8-25.3

98-70

08.09.2000

38

0

11.2

30.0-26.1

98-87

14.09.2000

13

0

0.2

32.4-26.2

97-71

342

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BREEDING ECOLOGY OF AN NAN DALE'S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS

Deuti, Kaushik: Chirixalus simus Plate 1

Fig. 2: Chirixalus simus at Rajpur, West Bengal

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0 cm (no standing water at all) on August 30, there were no more foam-nests. Tiny froglets (snout-vent length: 9 mm) were seen clambering on to the grass on August 25, tadpoles of the first foam-nests had metamorphosed. In September, there was some more rain and the water level at the plot increased to 38 cm on September 8, but though other atmospheric conditions were suitable for breeding, no more foam-nests were constructed. The breeding was over by mid-August, though some males were still calling in the plot till mid-September.

Of the 72 foam-nests observed, 22 were measured. Length of the foam-nests varied from 5. 2-7. 3 cm (X= 6.06, SE =±0.15), breadth from 1.9-3. 6 cm (X= 2.77, SE= ±0.10) and thickness from 1.6-2. 8 cm (X= 2.27, SE= ±0.08). The foam-nests were constructed on grass, 17-89 cm above the land (X= 48.61, _SE= ±4.87) and 5-64 cm above the water level (X= 31.5, SE= ±3.91). The depth of the water in the plot ranged from 4-46 cm(X= 17.1 1, SE=±2.76). The foam-nests were constructed 1 0-807 cm from the nearest dry land (X= 231.9, SE= ±35.81). Six foam-nests collected contained 192, 164, 212, 234, 216 and 153 (X= 195) eggs.

Discussion

From these observations, it is apparent that Chirixalus simus is an early breeder. Breeding activity starts with the arrival of the monsoon and continues for about one month, but most of the breeding and foam-nest construction occurs within the first two weeks. Thereafter, 1-2 foam-nests may be constructed. The frogs exhibit sporadic rain linked breeding (i.e. they breed sporadically after heavy rains). Anurans in tropical areas breed only when the rainfall is sufficient to provide oviposition sites (Duellman and Trueb 1986). In C. simus , some rain (11-63 mm) is required to initiate breeding activity, as there must be some standing

water (4-46 cm) at the base of the grass for construction of the foam-nests. It was observed that temperatures of 25-33 °C and relative humidity of 73-98% are required for breeding. The measurements of the foam-nests depend on then- position on the grass where the frogs mate and lay eggs. The clutch size varied from 153-234 eggs.

Foam-nest construction has evolved independently in five anuran families: Leptodactylidae, Myobatrachidae, Rhacophoridae, Hylidae (in a few species) and Hyperolidae (in a single species, Opisthothylax immaculatus). Foam nesting species have evolved from aquatic to terrestrial environments. This route may have been through the evolution of a foam-nest (Heyer 1 969) whose main function seems to be that of protecting eggs and larvae against desiccation (Hodl 1986), and thermal damage as white foam reflects heat (Gorzula 1977). In the light of this information, I speculate that the construction of foam-nests in Chirixalus has evolved mainly for protection against desiccation and insolation of eggs and embryos. The route from aquatic to terrestrial habitats in the different species of the genus Chirixalus has progressed from C. nongkhorensis of Thailand which constructs foam-nests on the surface of water, through C. simus and C. dudhwaensis of India, which construct foam-nests hanging from grass over temporary water to C. vittatus of Myanmar and Thailand, which constructs gelatinous foam-nests on the surface of grass blades growing at the edge of water, ultimately to C. idiootocus of Taiwan, which lays eggs on land near water without forming a foam-nest.

Acknowledgements

I thank Ananda Banerjee and Sayantan Biswas for help during field work, Sushil Dutta for suggestions, Indraneil Das and Pranjalendu Ray for comments on the manuscript.

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Refer

Deuti, K., S. Biswas, M.F. Ahmed & S.K. Dutta (2000): Rediscovery of Chirixalus simus Annandale, 1915 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Assam and West Bengal, eastern India. Hamadtyad 25(2): 215-217.

Duellman, W.E. & L. Trueb (1986): Biology of amphibians. Me Graw-Hill, New York, 670 pp.

Frost, D.R. (Ed.) (1 985): Amphibian species of the World. Allen Press Inc and the Association of Systematics Collection, Lawrence Kansas, 732 pp.

Gorzula, S. (1977): Foam nesting in Leptodactylids - a possible function. Brit. J. Herp. 5: 657-659.

ENCES

Heyer, W.R. ( 1 969): The adaptive ecology of the species groups of the genus Leptodactylus (Amphibia: Leptodactylidae). Evolution 23: 421-428.

Hodl, W. (1986): Foam-nest construction in South American Leptodactylid frogs. In: Studies in Herpetology (Ed. Rocek, Z.). Prague, pp 565- 570.

Kuramoto, M. & C.S. Wang ( 1 987): A new Rhacophorid tree frog from Taiwan, with comparisons to Chirixalus eiffingeri (Anura: Rhacophoridae). Copeia 1987(4): 931-942.

346

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A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 39. PLOCEINAE AND ESTRILDINAE1

Saraswathy Unnithan2

(Contd from JBNHS 97(2): 234)

This part covers 386 specimens belonging to 23 species and subspecies up to Synopsis no. 1978a, in the handbook (Vol. 10, p. 120) and 2 extralimitals. We do not have specimens for 2 subspecies in the Collection.

1957 Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linnaeus) (Philippines, errore - Ceylon). Baya weaver 3: 67

55: 29 males, 20 females, 6 unsexed.

1 Simla Hills, 1 Kesarvala, Dehra Dun, 4 Jagadri, Ambala, 2 Delhi, Meerut, 1 Bharatpur, 1 Hamavas lake, Pali Dt, 1 Chobari, Bhachan Dt, Kutch, 4 Changalra, 1 Bhuj, 2 Cambay City environs, Gujarat, 1 Mumbra, 1 Wada, 1 Thana, 1 Andheri, 1 Santacruz, 1 Borivli, 1 Caves, Salsette, 2 Powai lake, 1 Tulsi lake, 2 Jogeshwari caves, Salsette, 1 Karjat, 3 Poona, Deccan,

1 Satara, 1 Molem, Goa, 1 Karwar, 2 Kalai, Trichinappally, 1 Kurumba patty, Salem Dt, 3 Kumbum Valley, Kurnool Dt, 2 Kondila, Khandhara, 1 Barkul, Chilka lake, 1 Baramba, Orissa, 1 Dodi, Malwa, Bhopal, 2 Sonarpur,

2 Rudrapur, UP, 1 Calcutta market, 2 Baghownie, Tirhut.

Out of the 29 males, 1 5 are in full breeding plumage. One male in the month of May from Baghownie Tirhut, one in June from Poona, one each in July from Karwar, Karjat, Borivli, Andheri, 2 from Kalai, 1 from Trichinappally, 2 from Jagadri; in August 1 male each from Rudrapur, Meerut and Simla Hills and in September 2 males from Changarla Bhuj are breeding males.

'Accepted March, 2000 :Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Regn. No. 21228, an unsexed specimen from Poona presumably kept as a cage bird from 1958 to 1959, is very dark on the whole with an almost black head.

Measurements on p. 350.

1958 Ploceus philippinus travancoreensis Whistler (Kottayam, Travancore). Baya weaver

3: 67

2: 1 female, 1 unsexed.

1 Cherpu, Trissur, 1 Kuttani, Trivandrum, Kerala.

Measurements on p. 350.

The British Museum (Natural History), Tring, U.K. has five specimens, four males (1 juvenile) and a female, collected by Salim Ali and N.G. Pillai during the Travancore State Ornithological Survey in 1933. The localities are 1 Wadakkancheri, Trissur, 2 Backwaters, Kottayam, 1 Kuttani, 1 Cattle farm, Trivandrum.

The type specimen is a male moulting into breeding plumage (see note on page 453).

1959 P.p. burmanicus Ticehurst (Akyab).

Baya weaver 3: 70

13:9 males, 3 females, 1 unsexed.

2 Calcutta market, 1 Manjhaul, Monghyr Dt, Bihar, 1 Crawford Market (from Nepal), 1 Hasimara, 1 Rajabhatkawa, Duars, Jalpaiguri Dt, 1 Ronikata camp, Goalpara, 1 Dibrugarh, Assam, 1 Maymyo, Mandalay Dt , U. Burma , 1 Ngaphaw, Prome Dt , 3 Mindon Chaung, Thayetmyo Dt , C. Burma.

Most of the specimens of this group were wrongly identified.

There are four breeding males, one each from Maymyo (22.viii.1913), Calcutta market (5.vi. 1900), Calcutta market (no date, brown bill) and Jalpaiguri (vi.1918). Three of them have black bills. All have golden yellow crown, but

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A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

do not have yellow breast like phillippinus. Yellow and deep brown streaks on the back of the nominate race is replaced by fulvous and brown streaks. The statement in the handbook (Vol. 10, p. 93) that the normal breeding plumage is largely suppressed, seems to be incorrect.

Measurements on p. 350.

1960 Ploceus megarhynchus

megarhynchus Hume (Terai = Kaladoongi [sometimes Kaladhungi], below Naini Tal). Baya weaver 3: 69

23: 13 males, 9 females, 1 unsexed.

6 Bilaspur, 3 Rudrapur, Kumaon, 6 Calcutta market, 6 Crawford market, 1 Bombay zoo, 1 Agia, near Goalpara, Assam.

Regn. No. 19708, a male from Calcutta market has a blackish-brown gorget at the breast.

Larger with bigger bill than philippinus, back dark brown, rump deep yellow and lower back with brown and yellow streaks. Whole underpart, from chin to vent, is deep golden yellow. In non-breeding plumage very similar to philippinus except for larger size and bill. philippinus has head finely and sharply streaked and in megarhynchus the streaks are very faint.

Measurements on p. 350.

1960a P.m. salimalii Abdulali (Bhutan Duars). Finn’s baya 3: 69

6: 3 males, 3 females.

3 Bhutan Duars, 2 Rajabhatkawa Duars, 1 Hasimara T.E., Jalpaiguri.

The key in the handbook (Vol. 10, p. 93) separating the two races seems to be incorrect, refer JBNHS, 57: 660. A female Regn. No. 6930, 26. vi. 1925 has sharply streaked head like philippinus , but the larger bill makes it megarhynchus.

Measurements on p. 350.

1961 Ploceus benghalensis (Linnaeus) (Benghala). Black-breasted weaver 3: 72

24: 12 males, 10 females, 2 unsexed.

1 Chak Sukkur, 1 Jagadri, Ambala, 6 Rudrapur, Kumaon, 1 Sonaripur, Kheri Dt,

1 Sait, Kaira Dt, 1 Ajwa, Baroda, Gujarat, 4 Bombay market, 4 Patancheru, Medak Dt, Andhra Pradesh, 1 Benares, 1 Tirhut, 1 Darbhanga, 1 Mongyr Dt, 1 Margherita, Assam.

Measurements on p. 350.

The British Museum (Natural History), Tring has 94 specimens in their Collection including a breeding male from Bhandup, collected by A.O. Hume, the only record of this species for Bombay (=Mumbai). 20 male specimens are in full breeding plumage, 3 with white throat and face. Their localities extend from Upper Sind and NW India to Dibrugarh and Manipur (18 specimens).

There is confusion regarding the male breeding plumage of the species (JBNHS, 96: 187-194), and to clarify the issue DNA fingerprinting was carried out. I collected birds from Dehra Dun, Banaras, Bihar and Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh and worked out their molecular systematics in Dr. Lalji Singh’s laboratory at the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, with some very interesting results, which will be published separately.

1962 Ploceus manyar flaviceps Lesson (Pondicherry). Streaked weaver 3: 73, 74

11:9 males, 2 females.

2 Bahawal Nagar, Bahawalpur, 4 Jagadri, Ambala, 3 Rudrapur, Kumaon, 2 Bombay market.

Three males are in full breeding plumage. Heavy streaks on the breast are characteristic of this species.

Measurements on p. 350.

1963 Ploceus manyar peguensis Baker

(Pegu) . Streaked weaver 3:75

8: 5 males, 2 females, 1 unsexed.

1 Ragagon, 3 Dibrugarh, 1 Assam, 2 Kamaing, U. Burma l Prome, C. Burma.

No breeding male among them. As the key in the handbook (Vol. 10, p. 98) suggests these birds are appreciably darker than flaviceps.

Measurements on p. 350.

348

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A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

EL Ploceus hypoxanthus hymenaicus Deignan, Central Siam. Golden weaver bird

2: 1 male, 1 female.

The male is in non-breeding plumage. Both collected by J.K. Stanford from Prome, Burma on January 20, 1929.

Measurements on p. 351.

1964 Estrilda amandava amandava (Linnaeus). (Eastern India, restricted to Calcutta, West Bengal, by Baker). Red munia 3: 96

29: 18 males, 7 females, 4 unsexed.

1 Pithoro, Sind, 1 Jagadri, 1 Ambala, Punjab, 2 Delhi, 3 Meerut, 3 Hamawas lake, Pali Dt, 2 Jajja Abbasian, Bahawalpur, 4 Bhavnagar, Gujarat, 1 Murbad Road, Thana, 3 Bombay market, 2 Utnoor, Asifabad, Hyderabad, 2 Band, Orissa, 1 Chota Dungar, Basfar Dt, 1 Jaithari, Bhopal St, 1 Sarun, Bengal, 1 Goalpara, Assam.

Measurements on p. 351.

EL Amandava amandava flavidiventris (Wallace) (Timor & Flores). Burmese red munia

2: 1 male, 1 unsexed.

Both collected by J.K. Stanford from Henzada district of Burma in 1931.

1965 Estrilda formosa (Latham) (India).

Green munia 3: 94

12: 5 males, 4 females, 3 unsexed.

1 Ganga Sagar, 2 Dediapada, Palanpur State, Gujarat, 2 Chikalda, Berar, 1 Kolkas, Melghat, Amravati, 1 Bailadila, Bastar district, 2 Sankrametta, 1 Valasapalli, Sileru, Vizag, 1 Cage bird (Bombay market), 1 no locality.

According to the handbook (Vol. 10, p. 103) and Grimmet et al. birds of the Indian subcontinent, p. 827, females have fewer, obsolete bars or less prominent grey and white barrings.

We have five specimens (two males, two females and one unsexed) in adult plumage. The females and males are very similar in plumage including the blackish grey and white barring of the flanks. 42 specimens were examined in the Natural History Museum at Tring (British Museum). The barring on the flanks of 5 females

is as bright as those of the males. All of them cannot be wrongly sexed birds and further research is required to reach a conclusion regarding their plumage.

Measurements on p. 351.

1966 Lonchura malabarica malabarica (Linnaeus) (India). White-throated munia 3: 89

45: 22 males, 17 females, 6 unsexed.

3 Chitral, 1 Campbellpur, 1 Ambala, Punjab, 1 Hushwar Bagh, 2 Sitoni, Gidam, Kalat, Baluchistan, 1 Karachi, 1 Harunabad, Bahawalpur, 1 Delhi, 1 Meerut, 1 Kanpur, 2 Hamawas lake, Pali district, 1 Bharatpur, 1 Gwalior, 2 Jaithari, Bhopal, 1 Chanduva, 1 Bhuj, Kutch, 1 Bodeli, Baroda district, 1 Bhavnagar, 1 Golana, Camba, 1 Nasik, 1 Borivli, 1 Santacruz, 1 Juhu Salsette, 1 Sion mudflats, 1 Colaba, 3 Bombay, 1 Uran, Bombay harbour, 2 Satara, 1 Cumbum valley, Kumool district, 2 Kodura, S. Cuddappa, 1 Wangalu Tank, Kavur, Nellore, AP, 1 Madras market, 1 Trichinapally, 1 Sarun, Bengal, 1 Nahar, Madhubani, 1 Wahir, 25 m SW of Khojdar.

Larger size, light brown upperparts and a buff throat separate these birds from striata which also has a whitish rump, but blackish-brown upper parts.

Measurements on p. 351.

1967 Lonchura striata acuticauda (Hodgson) (Nepal). White-ramped munia 3:84

18: 8 males, 8 females, 2 unsexed.

1 Ranibaug, Kumaon 1 Karnprayag, Garhwal, 1 Hai Bum, 1 Honka, W. Bhutan, 3 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 2 Dibragarh, Assam, / Singaling , Kyaukse district , 1 Loi Wong , 1 South Shan States , 2 Thayetmyo , 1 Pyaung chaung , / Hurran village , Thayetmyo district , l Maymyo, Mandalay district , 1 Kyibin, Henzada district, Burma.

The fine streaks on the abdomen which separate this race from the rest are very faint or absent in some specimens. But it is not difficult to tell them apart in hand from striata , semistriata and fumigata with white abdomens.

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A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

Table 1

MEASUREMENTS OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BNHS

Wing (mm)

Bill (mm)

Tarsus (mm)

Tail (mm)

Males

1 957 philippinus (29)

1 957-1 959 Ploceus philippinus subsp.

67-76 av. 71.2 15.5-18 av. 16.7

(IH 70-77 from skull 17-20

1 9-22 av. 20.6 19-22

41-50 av. 45.4 43-52)

1 959 burmanicus (9)

71 -76 av. 74 (IH 72-78

16.8-18.3 av. 17.5 from skull 18-20

21-23.2 av.21.8

46-52 av. 48.8 49-53)

Females

philippinus (2 1 )

60-69 av. 63.8 (IH 66-74

14-2-17.2 av. 15.4 from skull 17-20

18- 21.5 av. 19

19- 22

40- 49 av. 41.6

41- 51)

1 958 travancoreensis (1 )

66

(IH 73

14

from skull 20

20.5

20

42

-)

burmanicus (3)

69,70,71 (IH 70-76

17.5, 17.7, 18.9 from skull 17-19

20.6,21.5,22.5

44,46, 48 44-49)

Males

1 960 megarhynchus (12)

1 960 and 1 960a P. megarhynchus subspp.

75-82 av. 78.5 19.3-21.7 av. 19.2

(IH 69-80 from skull 22-23

22-25 av. 23.7 25

49-60 av. 55.3 56-60)

1960a salimalii (3)

76, 77, 83 (IH 80-82

17.5,17.9,21.5 from skull c. 20

22, 22.5 (2) 23-26

50, 52, 59 57-59)

Females

megarhynchus (9)

70-78 av. 74.1 (IH 66-74

17-20.8 av. 18.8 from skull 21

21-24 av. 22.7 24

48-55 av. 51.6 54)

salimalii (3)

70, 74, 77 (IH 76-77

17.5,18.5, 19.5 from skull c. 20

21.7,22,22.5

23-24

44,53,54 c. 55)

1961 Ploceus benghalensis

Males 12

63-72 av. 68.9 (IH 69-75

15.5-17.5 av. 16.4 from skull c. 16

19.2-21.5 av. 20.6 c. 21

39-45 av. 41.5 38-45)

Females 9

67-71 av. 68.7 (IH 65-72

13.5-16.7 av. 15.4 from skull c. 16

1 8.5-22 av. 20 c. 21

40-43 av. 41 38-45)

Males

1 962 flaviceps (7)

1 962-63 Ploceus manyar subspp.

71-74 av. 72 15.5-17.5 av. 16.4

(IH m/f 66-72 from skull c. 1 8

1 9.5-21. 4 av. 20.6 21-22

43-46 av. 44.7 41-44)

1 963 peguensis (5)

68-73 av. 71.6

15.5-16.7 av. 16.2

19-22 av. 20.9

43-48 av. 45.6

Females flaviceps (2)

68,70

(IH as in 1962)

15,16

20,21

40,43

peguensis (2)

66,70

15.5,16.3

18.7 (2)

38,42

350

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A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

Table 1 ( contd .)

MEASUREMENTS OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BNHS

Wing (mm)

Bill (mm)

Tarsus (mm)

Tail (mm)

EL Ploceus hypoxanthus hymenaicus

Male (1)

69

14.5

20.5

54

Female (1)

70

14.2

20.5

52

1 964 Estrilda amandava

Males (17)

46-49 av. 47.6 (IH 47-50

9-10 av. 9.3 from skull 9-1 1

13-15 av. 13.6 12-13

33-39 av. 36.1 35-40)

Females (7)

46-50 av. 47.2 (IH 47-50

8. 5-9. 8 av. 9.2 from skull 9-1 1

13-14.5 av. 13.7 12-13

33- 38 av. 35.2

34- 39)

EL Amandava amandava flavidiventris

Male (1)

45

7.5

12.5

36

1 965 Estrilda formosa

Males (5)

47-49 av. 48 (IH 46-51

8.5-10.5 av. 9.8 from skull 10-11

13-15 av. 13.8 13-15

35-38 av. 36 34-39)

Females (4)

47-49 av. 48 (IH 46-50

8.9-10 av. 9.3 from skull 10-11

13.5-14 av. 13.8 13-15

36-38 av. 36.5 35-39)

1 966 Lonchura malabarica malabarica

Males (22)

52-58 av. 54.6 (IH 53-58

8.5-11 av. 9.8 from skull 10-11

13-15 av. 13.8 13-15

36-53 av. 44.8 39-56)

Females (17)

52-56 av. 54 (IH 53-57

9-10 av. 9.7 from skull 10-11

13-14.5 av. 13.6 13-15

36-48 av. 43.5 41-50)

1 967-1 970 Lonchura striata subspp.

Males

1 967 acuticauda (8)

50-55 av 51.5 (IH 49-55

9.6-10.5 av. 10.2 from skull c. 12

13.5-15 av. 14 14-15

37- 44 av. 39.4

38- 46)

1968 striata (11)

52-54 av. 53 (IH 51-56

10.5-12 av. 11.1 from skull 12-14

13.5-14.5 av. 13.8 13-14

35-40 av. 37.5 35-42)

1 969 fumigata (2)

50,51

(IHm/f 48-51

9.6, 10

14, 14.5 13-14

38,41

42-45)

1 970 semistriata (5)

47-50 av. 48.8 (IHm/f 48-51

9.2-1 lav. 10.2

12.5-15 av. 13.8 13-14

32-38 av. 35 38-40)

Females acuticauda (8)

48-54 av. 51 (IH 51-54

10-11.3 av. 10.5 from skull c. 12

13- 14.2 av. 13.8

14- 15

38-44 av. 40.1 c. 40)

striata (7)

51-56 av. 53.5 (IH 53-57

10.5-1 1. 6 av. 11.2 from skull 12-14

13.5-15 av. 14.2 13-14

36-40 av. 38.5 35-39)

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A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

Table 1 ( contd .)

MEASUREMENTS OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BNHS

Wing (mm)

Bill (mm)

Tarsus (mm)

Tail (mm)

Females fumigata ( 1 )

51

10.5

13.5

42

semistricita (4)

47-49 av. 48.2

10-10.6 av. 10.2

13-14av. 13.5

32-40 av. 35.2

1 97 1 , 1 972 Lonchura kelaarti jerdoni

Males (3)

56, 57 (2) (IH 56-59

12.2, 12.5, 12.7 from skull 13-14

13.8, 14, 15 14-15

35,37 (2) 37-43)

Females (4)

55-57 av. 55.7 (IH 57-59

1 1-12 av. 11.5 from skull 13-14

14-15 av. 14.4 14-15

36-40 av. 37.2 36-39)

Males

1 974 punctulata (28)

1 974-75 Lonchura punctulata subspp.

52-57 av. 55.7 10-12 av. 11

(IH 54-58 from skull 12-13

1 l-16av. 14.6 14-16

34-42 av. 37.2 32-45)

1975 subundulata (3)

53,55,56 (IH measurements

7.5, 11.7(2) as in 1974)

14.4, 15.5(2)

34 (2), 40

Females

punctulata (15)

54-59 av. 55.2 (IH 53-59

9.5-12 av. 11.3 from skull 12-13

14.5-16.5 av. 15.3 14-16

33-40 av. 36 33-45)

subundulata (3)

53 (2), 55

10.5,10.8(2)

14.5,14.9,15

32,35,39

Males

1977 atricapilla

1976-78 Lonchura malacca subspp.

53 (2), 54, 55 10,10.5 (2), 1 1

(Baker m/f 53-59)

13.7,16(3)

31, 32 (2), 33

1978 malacca (11)

Females atricapilla (1)

50-59 av. 55.4 (IH 55-59

55

10.5-12 av. 11.6 from skull 13-14

11

15-16.5 av. 15.8 c. 16

15.2

30-39 av. 33 32-39)

34

malacca (3)

55, 59, 60 (IH 53-56

11.4,11.6,12.5 from skull 13-14

15.5, 16(2) c. 16

31, 33, nil 31-36)

1 978a Padda oryzivora

Male (1)

68

(I H m/f 66-69

15

from skull 17-18

19

18-19

42

46-47)

352

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A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

Furthermore, fumigata and semistriata are smaller.

Measurements on p. 351.

1968 Lonchura striata striata (Linnaeus)

Isle of Bourbon, errore = Ceylon. White-rumped munia 3: 83

22: 11 males, 7 females, 4 unsexed.

2 Mahal, Surat Dangs, S. Gujarat, 1 Ratory, Malad, 2 Trombay Is., 1 Thana Hills, Salsette,

1 Panvel, 1 Valpoi, Goa, 1 Santgal, N. Kanara,

2 Mercara, Coorg, 1 Kumili High Range, Kerala, 1 Manalur, Palni Hills, 2 Chettiri Range, Salem district, 1 Sankrametta, 1 Dharakonda, Upper Sileru, Vizagapatom, 1 Badrama, Bamra, 1 Ranipathar, Phulbani district, Orissa, 1 Bhopalpatnam, 1 Barsur, Bastar district, MP, 1 No locality (cage bird).

The distinct streaks on the back, larger size and heavier bill separates this race from semistriata and fumigata.

Measurements on p. 351.

1969 Lonchura striata fumigata (Walden) (South Andamans). White-rumped munia 3:83

5 : 2 males, 1 female, 2 unsexed.

2 Long Island, 1 Bakurtala, Middle Andaman, 1 Pochang, 1 South Andaman.

Appreciably larger in hand than semistiiata. Streaks on upper parts very faint, also pale fringes of breast feathers very faint or absent.

Measurements on p. 351, 352.

1970 Lonchura striata semistriata (Hume)

Nicobars. White-rumped munia 3: 84

10: 5 males, 4 females, 1 unsexed.

4 Camorta, Nicobar, 6 Car Nicobar.

All ten specimens were collected by the late Humayun Abdulali in 1966 and 1976. They are smaller than the birds of the other 3 races. Pale rufous fringes of the breast feathers form a scale-like pattern and streaks are clearly visible on the back.

Measurements onp. 351, 352.

1971, 1972 Lonchura kelaarti jerdoni (Hume) (Wynaad). Black-throated munia 3: 88

8: 3 males, 4 females, 1 unsexed.

1 Bombay market (No locality), 2 Bhatkar, Karwar, 1 Santanpara, Cardamom Hills, 2 Tenmala, 1 Travancore, 1 Sankrametta, Vizag.

Measurements on p. 352.

1973 Lonchura kelaarti kelaarti (Jerdon) (Ceylon). Black-throated munia 3: 89

nil.

1974. Lonchura punctulata punctulata (Linnaeus) (Asia = Calcutta). Spotted munia 3:91

57: 29 males, 15 females, 13 unsexed.

2 Kulu, 1 Basantpur, Bhajji, 2 Simla, 1 Simla Hills, 1 Solan, Bhagat, 1 Kalka, 1 Kandaghat, Patiala, NW Himalayas,

1 Ranigarh, Naini Tal, 1 Bhuguwda, Nepal,

2 Dediapada, Rajpipla, Gujarat, 1 Bijwar, Indore, 1 Sonawani, Balaghat, 2 Raipur, Melghat, Berai , 1 Golapalli, 1 Bailadila, Bastar, 1 Daulatbad, Aurangabad, 2 Padgha, Thana Dt, 2 Manaun Is., 2 Kalyan, Thana, 2 Mud Island, 1 Santacruz, Salsette, 1 Jogeshwari caves, 3 Pali Hill, Bandra, 5 Andheri, 1 Panvel, 1 Khandala, 2 Ratnagin, 1 Bhatkal, N. Kanara, 1 Nenmara, Cochin, 1 Kodaikanal, 2 Perumalmalai, Palni Hills, 1 Manalur, Palni Hills, 1 Kottagiri, Ooty, 1 Palkonda Hills, S. Cuddapda, 1 Koduru, Cuddapda district, AP, 2 Nilgiri, 4 Keonjhargarh, Orissa.

Measurements on p. 352.

1975 Lonchura punctulata subundulata (Godwin-Austen) (Manipur Valley). Spotted munia 3: 92

8: 3 males, 3 females, 2 unsexed.

3 Dibrugarh, 1 Sonarupa Sanctuary, 1 Darang, Ranikalta camp, Goalpara, Assam, 1 Chimakothi, W. Bhutan, 2 Kanaung, Henzada district , Burma.

The key in the handbook (Vol. 10, p. 113) says that the nominate race distributed in the greater part of India has fulvous undertail coverts and thus can be separated from subundulata of NE with almost white undertail coverts. In the museum specimens, this difference is not observed and they were separated based on the localities. We have only eight specimens of

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A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

subundulata, three of them collected in 1901, one each in 1910, 1949, 1968 and two in 1930. Only 4 specimens are in adult plumage. With such a small sample, it is difficult to make any serious studies. However, these birds seem to be comparatively smaller than the nominate race.

The four specimens have brown scaling as mentioned by Grimmett et. al in birds of the Indian subcontinent (1998), p. 829. But older specimens of the nominate race also have brown instead of black scaling.

Measurements on p. 352.

1976 Lonchura malacca rubroniger (Hodgson) (Nepal). Black-headed munia 3:81

nil

1977 Lonchura malacca atricapilla

(Vieillot). (Les Grandes - Indes’, restricted to Lower Bengal by Robinson & Kloss). Black-headed munia 3:81

6: 4 males, 1 female, 1 unsexed.

1 Sadiya, Upper Assam, 2 North Lakhimpur, 1 Lakhimpur, 1 Guilong, Nr. Cachar, l Maymyo, Burma.

Measurements on p. 352.

1978 Lonchura malacca malacca

(Linnaeus). (“China, Java and Malacca” err ore = Belgaum, restricted by Baker 1926). Black-headed munia 3:78

20: 1 1 males, 4 females, 5 unsexed.

1 Thana, 2 Colaba, 3 Darmatar creek, Kolaba district, 1 Ratnagiri, 1 Karwar, 3 Belgaum, 1 N Kanara, 1 Thattakkadu, 1 Devikulam, 1 Karimulakkunnu, Travancore, 1 Periakulam, 2 Kodaikanal, TN, 1 South India, 1 No locality (Nellore AP?).

L.m. atricapilla with its chestnut upper belly and sides can easily be separated from the nominate race having the above mentioned parts white and also larger size.

Measurements on p. 352.

1978a Padda oryzivora (Linnaeus) (Java). Java sparrow

1 male, from Singapore.

Measurements on p. 352.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. Robert Prys-Jones, Head of Bird Group, and Mr. Mark Adams, Curator, Birds, British Museum (Natural History), Tring, U.K. for permitting me to work in their collection and for help and assistance during my visits. My son Sandeep Unnithan helped in taking down notes and photographs of specimens in the British Museum. I am indebted to Mr. J.C. Daniel for his valuable suggestions after going through the manuscript.

354

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001

TRANSLOCATION OF RHESUS MACAQUES FROM AIRFORCE STATION, GURGAON (HARYANA) TO THE NATURAL FOREST OF FIROZPUR- JHIRKA,

HARYANA, INDIA1

Ekwal Imam2, Iqbal Malik 3 and H.S.A. Yahya2 ( With two text-figures )

Key words: Translocation, Macaca mulatto , monkey menace

The occurrence of monkeys in human habitations has created enormous problems in recent years in different parts of India. During the present study, a group of troublesome monkeys in the vicinity of Gurgaon Air Force Station (GAFS) were translocated on an experimental basis. Of the 28 monkeys counted during June 1998, in the GAFS area, 22 were caught and translocated successfully to the natural forest of Firozpur-Jhirka (Aravali Range, Haryana), where adequate food and shelter was available. The release area was revisited in March 2000 to ascertain the status of the released monkeys. It was heartening to see them well settled in their new habitat.

Introduction

Approximately 48.5% of the 0.3 million rhesus macaques of north India are living in human habitations (Southwick and Siddiqi 1994), resulting in conflict and competition for space and food between man and monkey. The troops invade settlements, often damaging human property. The harassed humans resort to hitting or shooting the monkeys. Consequently, monkey groups become more aggressive, and increasing number of monkey bites are reported.

Monkeys are an integral part of India’s rich biodiversity. It is, therefore, our foremost duty to minimise the man-monkey conflict. Of all the non-destructive control measures, translocation is one of the most successful methods of rehabilitating a troublesome population to an area where it can resettle (Southwick et al. 1 984, Forthman 1986, Strum and Southwick 1986, Else 1991, Imam 1991, Malik & Johnson 1991 & 1994, Siddiqi & Southwick 1993, and Imam & Malik 1997). Recently, Yahya and Imam (2001) translocated 18 monkeys from the Aligarh

'Accepted February, 2001

2 Department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

?Vatavaran, 540, Asiad Village, New Delhi 1 10 049, India.

Muslim University campus in Aligarh. However, the world’s largest translocation of 600 monkeys, to the forest patches of Mathura district, from Vrindaban (Mathura-UP, India) was carried out during 1997 (Imam et al. in press). These successful translocation programs motivated us to adopt the same technique to solve the GAFS monkey problem.

Trapping and Releasing sites

Gurgaon Air Force Station is situated 28 km south of New Delhi in Gurgaon, Haryana (28° 37' N, IT 04' E). The campus includes a hospital, kitchen and mess, residences, offices, and plantations of some common trees such as Eucalyptus spp., Acacia catechu , Albizzia lebbek , Azadirachta indica , Zizyphus mauritiana, Dalbergia sissoo , Ficus bengalensis , F. religiosa , Prosopis juliflora and Tamarindus indica.

The release site, Firozpur-Jhirka, (27° 47' N, 76° 59' E), near the Jhir Mandir, has a pond and perennial nullah with a fairly good forest patch on either side of the nullah. Acacia leucophloea, A. catechu , Anogeissus pendula, Ailanthus excelsa, Azadirachta indica , Zizyphus mauritiana , Balanites aegyptica , Butea monosperma , Casearia elliptica, Cassia fistula , Emblica officinalis ,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001

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TRANSLOCA TION OF RHESUS MACAQUES

Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus tomentosa , F. bengalensis , F. religiosa, Lannea coromandelica , Sterculia urens, Terminalia tomentosa , Prosopis juliflora , Tamarindus indica and Tectona grandis were the common trees at the site.

Methods

A preliminary survey was conducted from May 23-30, 1998 to estimate the population, activity sites and night shelters of the monkeys inside the GAFS premises. The monkeys were lured with food to facilitate counting.

The forest area of Firozpur-Jhirka (situated about 1 00 km south of Delhi in the Aravali range, Haryana) was surveyed to locate a suitable release site (Fig. 1). Availability of food, water, shelter, cultivation and proximity to human habitation were considered while selecting the sites for translocation. The monkeys were then trapped with the help of a portable iron trapping cage, of 2mx2mx2m size with a heavy sliding door (Fig. 2), installed at night. The door was tied with a pulley, operated by a man hidden in a drum 20 m away, with an eye-hole to help him observe the monkeys coming inside the cage. The monkeys were trapped using banana and roasted gram as bait all day long, between June 3 and 6,

76° 78°

1 . Gurgaon Airforce Station; 2. Firozpur-Jhirka Patch

Fig. 1 : Trapping and translocation sites of rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta in Haryana

1998, at alternate sites. To avoid group fission, we tried trapping an entire group from one site on the same day. The trapped monkeys were then transferred into a holding cage 0.5mx0.5mx 0.5 m in size, and finally into a releasing cage of 5mx2.5mx2.5m, which were transported by a mini truck. All the cages were provided with food and water. The monkeys were released near trees at the translocation site early in the morning between 0200 and 0300 hrs.

Results and Discussion

Out of 28 rhesus macaques, 22 were trapped. The first trapping was undertaken near the GAFS mess kitchen, where 3 adult males, 4 adult females and 5 immatures were trapped. The next day, 3 adult males, 4 adult females and 3 immatures were trapped from the tube-well building early in the morning. We were unable to trap any monkeys that evening, as they had become wary of us and left the area. The trapped monkeys were transported the same night and released near large, shady trees at the chosen site to avoid stress and mortality, which the hot summer days might have caused. Sufficient gram, vegetables, banana and other fruits were placed at the release sites, as an immediate supply of food. This practice was continued for a week to acclimatise them to the new area.

To ascertain if the monkey population had settled in the Firozpur-Jhirka forest, the area was revisited on March 17, 2000. Two groups of 12 and 8 were seen near the temple. Since this area had no resident rhesus macaques groups earlier, and no other monkeys had been released ther£ earlier, it was assumed that the groups observed were the ones released in June 1998. The temple priest and local people also confirmed this assump- tion. The first author visited GAFS the next day, and found that except for 4 new infants no other monkeys had joined the population of the area.

The monkey menace seems to have started with the forced restriction of large populations

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Fig. 2 : Trapping cage (a) baited with open door (b) trapped monkey

TRANSLOCA TION OF RHESUS MA CA QUES

of rhesus macaques from their natural habitats to urban areas due to intensive urbanisation and expansion of agriculture. The 1978 ban on the export of primates from India and protection provided by the local people has also helped the population grow locally. In the absence of natural predators, in many places the monkey groups have increased beyond the carrying capacity of the area (Southwick and Siddiqi 1988). The GAFS had a similar problem, where the group was confined to a localised area and exposed to continuous contact with humans. Besides monkey bites and the unbearable nuisance, there may be a possible transmission of certain pathogens (e.g. Shigella, Salmonella) from monkey to man and vice versa (Shah and Southwick 1965, Tiwari and Shukla 1984).

The present translocation was a small attempt to reduce man-monkey conflict and rehabilitate the urban monkeys in their natural habitat. The post translocation visit to GAFS and Firozpur-Jhirka revealed that translocation of rhesus macaques was a successful attempt in this case.

During the last visit it was observed that translocation of monkeys has been a great relief to the residents and officials of GAFS. After a

Refer

Else, J.G. (1991): Nonhuman primates as pests. In : Primate response to environment change. (Eds.: Box, H.O.), Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 156-165. Forthman-Quick, D.L. (1986): Controlling primate pests: The feasibility of conditioned taste aversion. In: Current perspectives in primate social dynamics. (Eds.: Taub D.M. & F. A. King), Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Pp. 252-273.

Imam, E. (1991): Translocation: A proposal for the conservation and management of rhesus monkey in Aligarh district. Zoos’ Print 8: 3-4.

Imam, E. & I. Malik (1997): Translocation of monkeys from National Zoological Park, New Delhi to Tughlaqabad Fort, south Delhi. A report submitted by Vatavaran to National Zoological Park, New Delhi. Imam, E., H.S.A. Yahya & I. Malik (in press): A successful mass translocation of commensal Rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatto in Vrindaban, India. Oryx.

gap of 20 months, it was found that the translocated monkeys were doing well in their new locations.

The rhesus is not endangered in India, but is in a vulnerable position, as it is strongly commensal/semi-commensal and is capable of causing considerable damage to crops and other property, resulting in conflict with man. In India, 86% of the total rhesus macaque populations reside near human habitations (Southwick and Siddiqi 1994), and their conservation depends on a cordial relationship with man. The present study revealed that translocation of monkeys from GAFS has helped reduce this conflict. We believe that rhesus translocation has much to offer as it helps to design management plans for other primate species.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Gurgaon Air Force Station authorities for financial support, without which the project would not have taken place, and Mr. Ajay and Osman for their help in trapping the monkeys. El thanks Dr. M. Khalid Saifullah for going through the manuscript. We also thank the anonymous reviewers of the manuscript.

iNC ES

Malik, I & R.L. Johnson (1 991 ): Trapping and conservation: development of translocation in India. In: Primatology today. (Eds.: Eharar, A., T. Kimmura and M. Iwamoto), Elsevier Publications, Amsterdam, pp. 63-64.

Malik, I & R.L. Johnson (1994): Commensal rhesus in India: the need and cost of translocation. Rev. Ecol. (Terre vie): Tome, 49(3): 233-243.

Shah, K.V. & C.H. Southwick (1965): Prevalence of antibodies to certain viruses in sera of free-living rhesus and captive monkey. Ind. J. Med. Res. 53: 488-500.

* Siddiqi, M. F. & C.H. Southwick (in press): Translocation of monkeys in India. In: Conservation and Management of Primates. (Eds.: Else, J.G. & P.C. Lee), Binghamton, Sunny Press.

Southwick, C.H., M.F. Siddiqi & R. Johnson (1984): Subgroup relocation of rhesus monkey in India as conservation measures. Amer. J. Primatol. 6: 428. Southwick, C.H. & M.F. Siddiqi (1988): Partial recovery

358

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TRANSLOCA TION OF RHESUS MA CA QUES

and new population estimation of rhesus monkey population in India. Amer. J. Primatol. 16 : 187-197.

Southwick, C.H. & M.F. Siddiqi (1994): Primate commensalisms: the rhesus monkey in India. Rev. Ecol. (Terre vie) 49: 223-23 1 .

Strum, S.C. & C.H. Southwick (1986): Translocation of primates. In: Primates: The road to self-sustaining population. (Ed: Benirscke, K.), Springer-Verlag, New York,pp. 949-957.

Tiwari, J.P. & L.K. Shukla (1984): Microbiological investigation of rhesus macaque, Macaca mulatto, in

an urban setting in Uttar Pradesh, India. In: Current Primate Research. (Eds.: Roonwal, M.L., S.M. Mohnot and N.S. Rathore), University of Jodhpur, India, pp. 497-499.

Yahya, H.S.A. & E. Imam (2001): Translocation of Rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatto from University Campus, AMU, Aligarh to semi-natural forest of Jawan, Aligarh (UP). Unpublished report submitted to the Dept of Wildlife Sciences, AMU, Aligarh, India.

* Original not seen.

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359

NOTES ON THE POLYGONACEAE OF SIKKIM1

S.S. Dash and P. Singh2

Key words: Polygonaceae, Aconogonon, Persicaria, Sikkim

The paper provides notes on species of Aconogonon and Persicaria in Sikkim. Two new combinations, one under Aconogonon and another under Persicaria , are proposed.

Aconogonon (Meisn.) Rchb.

The genus is mainly distributed in Asia and North America, and comprises of c. 15 species, of which 1 1 species occur in the Himalayan region. The first record of Aconogonon from Sikkim was made by Griffith who collected A. molle (D. Don) Hara (as Polygonum molle D. Don) and A. rude (as Polygonum rude Meisn.) in the early 19th century from somewhere in Sikkim and Bhutan. J.D. Hooker collected 4 species, namely A. campanulatum (Hook.f.) Hara, A. molle (D. Don) Hara, A. hookeri (Meisn.) Hara, and A. polystachyum (Meisn.) M. Krai (all under Polygonum) from different parts of Sikkim during his tour in the area between 1848-49. At present, 7 species have been recorded from Sikkim. Only A. hookeri (Meisn.) Hara is restricted to Sikkim, Bhutan and southeast Tibet, all other species are widely distributed in Himalayas. Their altitudinal preferences are from warm temperate to alpine regions of the state. A. paniculatum (Bl.) Haraldson sometimes grows as low as 1,300 m, and the most alpine species is A. hookeri (Meisn.) Hara, which is found up to 5,000 m.

With 7 out of 11 Himalayan species, Sikkim is relatively rich in Aconogonon. This makes an interesting comparison with 5 species and 5 varieties from Nepal (Hara 1982), 4 species from Himachal Pradesh (Chowdhery and Wadhwa 1984) and 5 species and 3 varieties from Bhutan (Grierson and Long 1983).

Study of the available material of Aconogonon at BSHC poses the problem of species delimitation. In recognizing species, we have

'Accepted March 4, 1999

:Botanical Survey of India, Sikkim Himalayan Circle, Gangtok 737 103, Sikkim, India.

followed Hara (1982) to a great extent. However, his placement of Aconogonon polystachyum (Meisn.) M. Krai under Persicaria is being contested here, due to the presence of characters like flowers in branching racemose panicles, campanulate and exserted from bracts, which favour its retention under Aconogonon. The treatment of A. rude (Meisn.) S.S. Dash & P. Singh as a distinct species is favoured by the characters mentioned in the following key and in Table 1 .

Key to the Species of Aconogonon la. Plants dwarf, unbranched, only with radical

leaves, cauline leaves absent or rarely 1-2

Aconogonon hookeri

b. Plants shrubby with much branched stem, radical

leaves absent, cauline leaves present 2

2a. Perianth spreading, cleft nearly to the base.... 3 b. Perianth campanulate, cleft up to 2/3 down ... 6 3a. Flowers more than 4 mm across, panicles dichotomously branched, achenes without

baccated perianth, enclosed in perianth

A. polystachyum

b. Flowers less than 4 mm across, panicles thyrsiform, achenes with baccated perianth,

slightly exserted from perianth 4

4a. Plants glabrous, leaves turn black when dry ....

A. paniculatum

b. Plants pubescent or densely hairy, leaves not

black when dry 5

5a. Plants strigose hairy, nodes with reflex ed hairs, venation of perianth reticulate A. rude

b. Plants whitish villous, stem densely appressed hairy with silky white hairs, nodes without deflexed hairs, venation of perianth parallel ....

A. molle

6a. Leaves ovate-elliptic, acute at apex, 1-3 x 0.8- 1.5 cm, sessile or subsessile, inflorescence

360

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(3). DEC. 2001

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A. campanulatum (Hook.f.) Hara

Flowers pinkish or pinkish-white, perianth 5, oblong, ca 5 mm, parallel veined, stamens 8, anthers dorsifixed, ovary trigonous.

Achenes trigonous, pale yellow, slightly winged, exserted from perianth.

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Achenes trig< brown, shinii not winged.

A. polystachyum (Meisn.)M. Krai

Flowers creamy white, perianth 5, unequal, 2+3, outer obovate-oblong, inner obovate- spathulate, ca 4x4 mm, parallel veined, stamens 8, anthers dorsifixed, black, ovary trigonous.

Achenes trigonous, brown, shorter than perianth, enclosed or exserted from perianth.

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Achenes trigonous, exserted from perian with baccated perian

/f. paniculatum (Bl.) Haraldson

Flowers white, perianth 5, ovate-oblong,

2x1 mm, divided up to base, parallel veined, stamens 8, arises from a basal disc, anthers basifixed.

Achenes trigonous, with baccated perianth, exserted on maturity, turn black when ripe.

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7. Achenes tri always with b perianth, exse from perianth maturity

362

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200/

NOTES ON THE POL YGONA CEAE OF SIKKIM

Table 2

COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF PERSICARIA BIRMANICA AND P. PRAETERMISSA

Persicaria birmanica (Gage) S.S. Dash & P. Singh

Persicaria praetermissci (Hook.f.) Hara

1 . Stems spineless, glabrous or minutely pubescent.

2. Leaves deltoid, 3-6 x 1-3 cm, hastate at base, hastate lobes do not come down to petiole.

3. Ochrea glabrous.

4. Inflorescence rachis glabrous.

5 . Perianth segments 5 .

6. Stamens 8.

7. Ovary trigonous, styles 3,

1 . Stems with regular rows of hooked spines.

2. Leaves linear, 3-8 x 0.7-1 .5 cm, hastate at base, hastate lobes come down to petiole.

3. Ochrea hairy.

4. Inflorescence rachis glandular-hairy.

5. Perianth segments 4.

6. Stamens 5.

7. Ovary biconvex, globose, styles 2, branched.

terminal, 1-4 cm long, perianth 1 .5-3 mm across,

achenes not winged A. tortuosum

b. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate at apex, 5-12 x 2-5 cm, distinctly petiolate, inflorescence axillary and terminal, 4-10 cm long, perianth

4-5 mm across, achenes slightly winged 7

7a. Leaves fulvous tomentose beneath

A. campanulatum var. campanulatum

b. Leaves pubescent beneath

A. campanulatum var. oblongum

The taxonomic decision of keeping A. rude as a distinct species necessitates the proposal of a new combination as follows:

Aconogonon rude (Meisn.) S.S. Dash & P. Singh comb. nov.

Polygonum rude Meisn. in DC. Prodr. 14(1): 137.1856; Hook.f. FI. Brit. India 5 :49. 1 886. Aconogonon molle (D.Don) Hara var. rude (Meisn.) Hara in FI. E. Him. 68. 1966 (as Aconogonum).

Distribution: india: Assam, Sikkim. Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Indo-China, north China.

Persicaria Mill.

Gage (1903) described Polygonum

Refei

Chowdhery, H.J. & B.M. Wadhwa (1984): Flora of Himachal Pradesh, Polygonaceae 2: 607- 623.

Gage, A.T. (1903): A census to Indian Polygonums.

Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 2: 371-452.

Grierson, A.J.C. & D.G. Long (1983): Flora of

birmanicum Gage based on collection from Myanmar (Burma). Cave in 1 9 1 5 collected it from Namchi (Sikkim). Stewart (1930) while dealing with Polygonaceae (as Polygoneae) of eastern Asia considered Polygonum praetermissum Hook.f. as a variable species and merged Polygonum birmanicum Gage under it. However, these two species come within the circumscription of the genus Persicaria and can be separated on the basis of the characters shown in Table 2.

It is clear from Table 2 that Polygonum birmanicum Gage needs to be given specific status under the genus Persicaria. A new combination is proposed here:

Persicaria birmanica (Gage) S.S. Dash & P. Singh comb. nov.

Polygonum birmanicum Gage in Rec. Bot. Surv. India 2: 412. 1903.

Distribution: india: Sikkim. Myanmar

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Botanical Survey of India for encouragement and Deputy Director, BSI, Sikkim Himalayan Circle, Gangtok for facilities.

ENCES

Bhutan, Polygonaceae 1(1): 153-175.

Hara, H., A.O. Chater & L.H.J. Williams (1982): An enumeration of the flowering plants of Nepal. Polygonaceae 3: 172-180.

Stewart, A.R. (1930): The Polygoneae of Eastern Asia: Cont. Gray. Herb. 80: 1-129.

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SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON THE CONTACT CHEMORECEPTORS ON THE PALP-TIP OF ORYCTES RHINOCEROS L. (COLEOPTERA: SC ARAB AEIDAE) '

A. Mini2

( With two plates)

Key words: Oryctes rhinoceros L., palp-tip sensilla, contact chemoreceptors, blunt-tipped pegs, pointed-tipped pegs, ball-in-socket type pegs, cuticular structures, digitiform sensilla

The terminal segment of the maxillary and labial palpi of Oryctes rhinoceros L. has an apical cluster of peg-like sensilla, which bear three morphologically distinct types of pegs, which are described and discussed. Morphology of the digitiform sensillar field, occupying a proximal position on the terminal palpal segment laterally, is also described. The studies concerning the

functional modalities of the sensilla are based

via Scanning Electron Microscope analysis.

Introduction

Studies conducted by the author reveal that the extirpation of the extreme apex of the terminal palpal segments of Oryctes rhinoceros L. males renders them incapable of releasing courtship and copulatory behaviour upon contacting the female, whereas contact activation of sexual behaviour was found to be the rule in normal males. Deliberate exploration of the female’s body surface employing the palpal tips was found to be a consistent component of the courtship behavioural sequence of the male. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) observations of the palpal tips revealed the presence of an apical cluster of peg-like sensilla, surrounded by numerous variously modified cuticular structures and at least some of these palp-tip sensilla are associated with the perception of a certain sexually activating stimulus. The studies also indicate the activating stimulus to be of the nature of a female contact sex pheromone (data to be published). Palpal sensilla, functioning as contact chemoreceptors, have been identified in a number

'Accepted August, 1 999

department of Zoology, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan 731 235, West Bengal, India.

on the interpretation of structural data obtained

of insect species (Frings and Frings 1949, Haskell and Mordue 1969, Haskell and Schoonhoven 1969, Klein and Muller 1978, Altner and Prillinger 1980). There are also numerous reports on palpal contact chemoreceptors playing a significant role in feeding behaviour (Blaney and Chapman 1970, Bemays et al. 1972, Blaney et al. 1973, Mitchell and Schoonhoven 1974), and some reports on their role in host-seeking behaviour (Mclver and Charlton 1970). However, though the male palpi making deliberate contacts with the female’s body during close-range sexual interactions have been reported in a number of beetles (Selander 1964, Mathieu 1969, Barak and Burkholder 1977), the functional significance of palpal involvement in sexual behaviour is not yet adequately established. Sex recognition via chemosensory filtration through the palpi has been suggested in some blister beetles (Mathieu, 1969). Perception of certain female pheromones via the palpi, facilitating copulation, was speculated for Attagenus megatoma Casey (Barak and Burkholder 1977).

The present study is an attempt to infer the probable functions of the palp-tip sensilla of O. rhinoceros L. by interpreting the structural data obtained via SEM analysis. The primary

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objective is to corroborate the inference that at least a few of the sensilla on the palpal tips are capable of perceiving a contact chemoreceptive stimulus. This is the first report of its kind on

O. rhinoceros L., and also provides a morpho- logical base for further electrophysiological studies.

Material and Methods

The maxillary and labial palpi of 3 5 -day- old male and female adults of O. rhinoceros L. were analysed, and photomicrographs taken, under a SEM.

Results

The apical cluster of peg-like sensilla on the terminal segment of the maxillary and labial palpi of the male and the female (Plate 1, Figs 1-4) revealed three morphologically different types of sensilla. Of these, the blunt-tipped pegs revealing an apical pore surrounded by movable cuticular processes, and the pointed-tipped pegs disclosing an apical pore on the tip of an eversible papilla, are similar to some of the contact chemoreceptors reported in other insects, while the ball-in-socket type pegs, far less numerous than the other types, are mechanoreceptors, and exhibited prominent sexual dimorphism in arrangement. The peg cluster is surrounded by four basic types of cuticular structures - (1) Open pores of varying sizes representing openings of cuticular glands and/or some cuticle sensillum. Pores bearing (2) a ball-like structure or (3) a dome-shaped spine or (4) a sickle-shaped body. The latter three types are probably mechanoreceptors. Though the shape of the same type of sensilla appeared different under different angles of observation, their apical features provided fairly reliable and easily detectable diagnostic criteria (Plate 1, Fig. 2; Plate 2, Fig. 5). The sensillar types thus recognised were:

1 . Ball-in-socket type pegs (BSP) were the most conspicuous and least frequent sensilla, occupying the periphery of the cluster. In the male palpi, they showed a noticeable tendency to congregate towards the upper half of the cluster, which was more obvious in their maxillary palpi (Plate 1 , Fig. 1), perhaps due to a greater number of sensilla than in the labial palpi (Plate 1, Fig. 3). In the females, however, the BSP encroached the lower half as well, to varying extents (Plate

1, Fig. 2, 4). Apical phase of the BSP disclosed a cavity bearing a ball-like structure at its centre, presenting a characteristic ball-in-socket appearance (Plate 2, Fig. 7, 8). Between this ball and the rim of the sensillum was a deep groove, of variable width, completely obliterated in some (Plate 1, Fig. 2), whereas others revealed a wide-open groove (Plate 1, Fig. 4). Certain fibre-like processes traversing this groove, between the ball and the rim, were observed in some BSP sensilla (Plate 2, Fig. 7, 8). The number of such connections per sensillum varied from one to four. A small slit splitting the apical rim into a discontinuous ring and forming a dimple-like depression on the side-wall, just below the apex, was another common characteristic (Plate 2, Fig. 7, 8).

(2) Blunt-tipped cylindrical pegs (BTP) had an apical diameter of about 3.13 jam (Plate

2, Fig. 10, 11). A magnification of 10,000x disclosed a slit-like apical pore bordered by a few lobe-like structures in some (Plate 2, Fig. 10) while numerous finger-like processes, apparently closing over an apical pore, were visible in others (Plate 2, Fig. 1 1).

(3) Pointed-tipped conical pegs (PTP) had an apical diameter of about 0.98 |am. At 1 0,000x, some of the PTP revealed a simple terminal pore at the tip of an apical papilla. This papilla exhibited a variable morphology ranging from a small protuberance (Plate 2, Fig. 12) to a larger funnel-shaped membranous pouch (Plate 2, Fig. 13). No such papilla was, however, visible in the remaining PTP under the same magnification

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(Plate 2, Fig. 16), but a higher magnification of 15,000x revealed a large slit-like aperture at the tip of these ‘non-papillate’ sensilla (Plate 2, Fig. 17).

The sensilla were arranged in a cluster, with more or less uniform spacing, and the entire cluster was sometimes found as being depressed into the palp-tip (Plate 1, Fig. 2), while it remained everted in others (Plate 1, Fig. 1). The rather circular, and obviously retractile cuticle bearing the cluster revealed an irregular papillate texture, different from the smooth cuticle immediately surrounding it (Plate 1, Fig. 2), and the cuticular surface beyond this smooth area was rough with scaly protuberances (Plate 1, Fig. 3).

The smooth cuticle surrounding the peg- cluster revealed four types of cuticular structures, which were of consistent occurrence, but of inconsistent distribution pattern (Plate 1, Fig. 3). They were (1) Open pores (PO) of varying size, ranging from punctiform pores hardly visible at 600x to those of about 4.2 pm diameter (Plate 2, Fig. 14). (2) Pores bearing a ball-like body at their centre (PB) (Plate 2, Fig. 15). Fibre-like connections extending between this ball and the rim of the pore were observed in some (Plate 1 , Fig. 4). (3) Pores bearing sharp-tipped, dome- shaped, spine-like structure (PD) (Plate 1, Fig. 3; Plate 2, Fig. 18). (4) Pores bearing sickle- shaped bodies with pointed or irregular- shaped tip (PS) (Plate 1, Fig. 3; Plate 2, Fig. 19).

Apart from the apical cluster and surrounding cuticular structures, the terminal palpal segments revealed another prominent sensillar zone, slightly concave and rather oblong, situated latero-dorsally towards its base. It consisted of a dense array of finger-shaped (digitiform) sensilla, each positioned within a correspondingly shaped mesh formed by the surface cuticle (Plate 2, Fig. 6). The proximal end of the mesh was generally slightly tapering, compared to the rather blunt distal end. At 5,000x the sensilla disclosed at their distal end a minute,

subapical protuberance (Plate 2, Fig. 9). The meshy surface cuticle further disclosed a few scattered pores, some of them displaying tubular extrusions, sometimes in the form of tortuous tubes, as being extruded out of, or lying in close association with them (Plate 2, Fig. 6).

Discussion

In external morphology, the BSP sensilla are similar to the “mechanosensory nipples” of Ips typographic L. (Hallberg 1982) as well as the mechanosensory “Ball-in-tee” companiform sensilla (Zacharuk 1985). Accordingly, the ball- like structure is the distal end of a central peg positioned within the outer cuticular socket, the former containing within it the sensory element called the tubular body. The above authors do not mention the fibre-like connections radiating between the ball and the socket apically in some of the BSP. Though the number of these connections was found to vary, the presence of four with a more or less symmetrical positioning (Plate 2, Fig. 7) seems to be typical. Whether the absence of such connections in some BSP is due to loss by accident, or reflective of a difference in the physiological state of the sensillum is not clear. That the apical groove of the BSP can remain open or closed to varying extents indicates that these connecting processes are flexible. This suggests their function in the opening and closing of this groove and/or in deflecting the central peg, the latter ability being regarded as a general requisite for mechanoreceptor sensilla (Zacharuk et al. 1977, Honomichl and Guse 1981). Like the mechanosensory nipples of I. typographies L., the BSP also occupy a peripheral position in the terminal cluster. By correlation of structure and function, a mechanosensory function can be attributed safely to the BSP sensilla.

The significance of sexually dimorphic pattern of distribution of the BSP is uncertain, though it suggests a sex-related difference in their

366

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Mini, A.: Oryctes rhinoceros L. Plate 1

Figs 1-4: Scanning Electron micrographs of the Palp-tip sensilla of O. rhinoceros. The arrows indicate BTP (Blunt-tipped peg), arrow-heads the PTP (Pointed-tipped peg) and the arrow-tails, the BSP (Ball-in-socket peg). 1. Maxillary palp-tip cluster of the male - everted condition (lOOOx); 2. Maxillary palp-tip cluster of the female - retracted state (lOOOx); 3. Labial palp-tip cluster of the male with surrounding cuticular structures (600x); 4. Labial palp-tip cluster of the female with a few cuticular structures (lOOOx).

PB1 - Pore with ball showing fibre-like processes; PB2-Pore with ball showing no fibre-like process, PC-Papillate cuticle; PD-Pore with dome-shaped spine, PO-Open pore, PS-Pore with sickle-shaped body, RC-Rough cuticle.

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For caption of Plate 2 see page 369

Mini, A.: Oryctes rhinoceros L.

Plate 2

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Plate 2: Figs 5-19: Scanning Electron Micrographs of different sensilla and cuticular structures on the terminal palpal segment of O. rhinoceros ; 5. Part of a maxillary palp-tip sensillar cluster showing the BTP, PTP and BSP, indicated as in Fig. 1; the large pit represents a shed sensillum (3000x); 6. Digitiform sensillar field of a maxillary palp (600x); 7. BSP showing fibre-like connections (8000x); 8. BSP having no fibre-like connections (8000x); 9. A few digitiform sensilla (5000x); 10. BTP showing lobe-like structures around the apical pore ( 1 0,000x); 1 1 . BTP showing finger-like processes presumably closing over the apical pore (10,000x); 12. PTP showing apical papilla as small protuberance bearing the apical pore (10,000x); 13. PTP showing fully everted funnel-shaped apical papilla bearing the apical pore (10,000x); 14. Open Pore (5000x); 15. Pore with ball (5000x); 16. PTP showing no apical papilla (10,000x); 17. “Non -papillate” PTP showing a large aperture apically (15,000x); 18. Pore with dome-shaped spine (5000x); 19. Pore with sickle-shaped body (2000x).

B-Ball, CM-Cuticular mesh, CP-Cuticular pore, D-Depression, DS-Digitiform sensillum; FC-Fibre-like connections; PR-Protuberance; S-Socket; SL-Slit; TS-Tortuous secretion.

function. Perhaps a greater density of these sensilla towards the ‘upper’ part of the apical phase, as found in the male, may be serving to provide a more intense sensory input during palpation. The significance of the individual variation observed with respect to the number of BSP on the maxillary palpi (6-8) against a fixed number of them in the labial palpi (4) is not known. In I. typographus L. the maxillary and labial palpi possess an equal number (2) of mechanosensory nipples (Hallberg 1982).

According to the classification of Snodgrass (1935), the BTP as well as the PTP sensilla are basiconic. As per the typology of Altner (1977), they appear to be uniporous, both revealing an apical pore under the SEM. Presence of a single pore at the tip is a common characteristic of contact chemoreceptive sensilla (Altner 1977, Altner and Prillinger 1980, Zacharuk 1980, 1985). The BTP sensilla with cuticular modifications surrounding the apical pore seem to be uniporous sculptured sensilla (UPS) as described by Zacharuk (1980), and resemble in this respect the electrophysiologically established contact chemoreceptive peg-like sensilla on the palp-tip of Colorado potato beetle larvae ( Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) possessing ‘villi-like structures’ presumably surrounding the sensillar entrance (Mitchell and Schoonhoven 1974) and the contact chemoreceptive uniporous peg sensilla in the antennae of Tenebrio molitor L. larvae, which

sometimes revealed ‘finger-like projections’ surrounding the pore (Bloom et al. 1982a). That the cuticular processes of BTP were found to converge apically in some (Plate 2, Fig. 1 1 ) while moved apart, appearing as lobes in some others (Plate 2, Fig. 10) suggests that they can open and close. Zacharuk (1980) has pointed out a similar condition in the villi-like processes of the taste receptors of L. decemlineata Say (Mitchell and Schoonhoven 1974).

The apical ‘molting pore’ of aporous sensilla can often.be mistaken as the apical pore of uniporous sensilla under the SEM (Zacharuk 1985). Molting pore is the opening through which the dendritic sheath was shed during the previous molt, and is non-permeable (Zacharuk et al. 1977, Bloom et al. 1982b). Whereas some of the uniporous sensilla showed certain apical sculpturing around the pore, no such modifications are reported in non-permeable molting pores (Zacharuk 1985). The apical molting pore of the blunt-tipped peg sensilla in the antennae of T. molitor L. larvae (Bloom et al. 1982b) does not show any cuticular modifications, contrary to the apical pore of their uniporous peg sensilla (Bloom et al. 1982a). The available data, thus, suggests that the presence of cuticular modifications is implicative of a permeable pore, while their absence may indicate either a permeable pore or a molting pore. Thus, the apical pore of BTP sensilla is most probably a permeable pore, though Transmission Electron

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SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES CWORYCTES RHINOCEROS

Microscopic studies on its internal ultrastructure are necessary to conclude upon this point.

Terminal papilla as observed in the PTP sensilla of O. rhinoceros during the present study are also reported on the basiconic pegs of Tettigonia viridissima L. (Henning 1974) and some contact chemoreceptive sensilla of Apis mellifera L. (Whitehead and Larsen 1976). In the latter, same kind of sensilla are tipped with either a pore or a papilla, and the papilla is thought to represent either some exudate formed at the tip as reported by Dethier (1972) on the labellar contact chemoreceptor hairs of Phormia regina Meigen, or some eversible membrane-like structure. In the present study, the apical papilla of PTP sensilla exhibited an obviously eversible character, as could be evidenced from a series of micrographs depicting different stages of its eversion. The large slit-like aperture seen at the tip of the ‘non-papillate’ PTP sensilla is seemingly the result of the tucking-in or retraction of the apical papilla. A possible mechanism for the opening and closing of the apical pore is thus envisaged. The terminal pore of the chemoreceptor sensilla on the maxillary palp of Locusta migratoria L. is capable of being closed and opened in response to feeding (Bemaysetfl/. 1972).

Of the cuticular structures surrounding the peg cluster, the pores bearing ball-like structure (PB) are similar to the ‘mechanosensory cuticle sensilla’ present on the palpal tips of I. typographies L. (Hallberg 1982). As in the BSP, fibre-like connections could be observed radiating between the ball and the rim in some, but not all, of these PB. The striking resemblance between the BSP and the PB in apical morphology is not surprising, in view of a common mechanosensitive function. The pores bearing dome-shaped spine (PD) and those bearing sickle-shaped irregular body (PS) disclosed no visible pores under the SEM. They are most probably mechanoreceptive like the majority of aporous sensilla (Zacharuk 1985).

Functional identity of the open pores (PO), however, is quite uncertain at present. There are three possibilities regarding this: (a) They may be representing certain ‘cuticle sensilla’ characterised by the absence of any outer cuticular structures, like the single-pore contact chemoreceptors on the maxillary palp-tip of Agrion puella and Ischnura elegans (Bassemir and Hansen 1980), or the canal sensilla on the tarsal pulvillus of Schistocerca gregaria Forskal (White and Chapman 1990). (b) They may be the openings of cuticular glands, perhaps of different types depending on the difference in pore size. Barbier et al. (1992) reports similar openings on the terminal segment of maxillary palpi in Semiadalia undecimnotata Schn., where the larger openings found among the gustatory receptors on the distal surface are of ductless glands, while the small openings on its lateral sides are of glands with ducts. Such openings are also present over the entire body and appendages of adult males and females. In

0. rhinoceros L. also the PO like structures are of wider distribution, as could be detected on the cephalic capsule, prothorax, pygidium and elytra of both sexes (author’s unpublished data), (c) Some of the PO may be representing cuticle sensilla, and others, the gland openings.

Digitiform sensillar fields comparable to those in O. rhinoceros L. are present in a corresponding position in adult Dermestes maculatus De Geer (Honomichl and Guse 1981),

1. typographies L. (Hallberg 1982) and Ctenicera destructor Brown (Zacharuk et al. 1977). In T. molitor L., adult digitiform sensilla are distributed in a scattered fashion (Honomichl and Guse 1981). In O. rhinoceros L., digitiform sensillar field occur on both the maxillary and labial palpi, as also in Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins (Whitehead 1981) but in I. typographic L. they are lacking in the labial palpi (Hallberg 1982).

The cuticular pores scattered over the digitiform sensillar field of O. rhinoceros L.

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SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES CWORYCTES RHINOCEROS

apparently correspond to the dermal gland openings occuring in association with the digitiform sensilla of Dermestes (Honomichl and Guse 1981). Presence of associated tubular extrusions appropriating with the pore diameter provides solid evidence for the glandular function of these pores in O. rhinoceros L. In S. undecimnotata Schn. also, a similar tortuous cylinder escaping out of the labellar gland opening was visualised under the SEM (Barbier et al. 1992). Digitiform sensilla of C. destructor Brown reveal a molting pore near their tip at 12,000x magnification (Zacharuk et al 1977). The sub-apical protuberance appearing invariably in all the observed digitiform sensilla of O. rhinoceros L. at 5,000x might be representing a molting pore.

In spite of superficial homologies, there can be considerable difference in internal ultrastructure between the digitiform sensilla of different species, e.g., between those of Dermestes maculatus De Geer (Honomichl and Guse 1981) and C. destructor Brown (Zacharukk et al 1977), which were considered as thermoreceptors and mechanorceptors respectively. The present data

Refer

Altner, H. (1977): Insect sensillum specificity and structure: an approach to a new typology. In: Olfaction and Taste VI, (Eds.: LeMagnen, J and P. MacLeod). 6: 295-303.

Altner, H. & L. Prillinger (1980): Ultrastructure of invertebrate chemo, thermo and hygroreceptors and its functional significance. Int. Rev. Cytol 67: 69- 139.

Barak, A.V. & W.E. Burkholder (1977): Behaviour and pheromone studies with Attagenus elongatulus Casey (Coleoptera: Dermestidae). J. Chem. Ecol. 3:219-237.

Barbier, R., A. Ferran, J.L. Lannic & M.R. Allo (1992): Morphology and ultrastructure of integumentary glands of Semiadalia undecimnotata Schn. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Int. J. Insect Morphol.

& Embry ol 2: 223-234.

Bassemir, U. & K. Hansen (1980): Single-pore sensilla of Damselfly larvae: representatives of

phylogenetically old contact chemoreceptors? Cell

is not sufficient to derive the function of the sensilla in Oryctes rhinoceros L.

The present studies provide morphological evidence for the presence of two types of contact chemoreceptors, comprising a major portion of the palp-tip cluster, of which at least one is presumably associated with the perception of aphrodisiac contact sex pheromone. Further TEM as well as electro-physiological studies may serve to confirm the present findings.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Prof. V.C. Joy, Department of Zoology, Visva-Bharati University for his help and advice, and for laboratory facilities. I am thankful to the Head of the Department for facilities. I thank Prof. V.K.K. Prabhu for his helpful comments. Technical guidance and help from Dr. Sreekanta Chakravarty, USIC, Burdwan University in preparing the Scanning Electron Micrographs is gratefully acknowledged. I am grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi for financial assistance in the form of a Young Scientist Fellowship.

iNCES

Tissue Res. 207: 307-320.

Bernays, E.A., W.M. Blaney & R.F. Chapman (1972): Changes in chemoreceptor sensilla on the maxillary palps of Locusta migratoria in relation to feeding. J. Exp. Biol. 57: 745-753.

Blaney, W.M. & R.F. Chapman (1970): The function of the maxillary palps of Acrididae (Orthoptera). Entomologia exp. Appl. 13: 363-376.

Blaney, W.M., R.F. Chapman & A. Wilson (1973): The pattern of feeding in Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera, Acrididae). Acrida 2: 1 1 9-137. Bloom, J.W., R. Y. Zacharuk & A.E. Holodniuk ( 1 982a): Ultrastructure of the larval antenna of Tenebrio molitorL. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae): structure of the trichoid and uniporous peg sensilla. Can. J. Zool. 60: 1528-1544.

Bloom, J.W., R.Y. Zacharuk & A.E. Holodniuk ( 1 982b): Ultrastructure of the larval antenna of Tenebrio molitorL. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae): structure of the blunt-tipped peg and papillate sensilla. Can.

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SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON ORYCTES RHINOC EROS

J. Zool. 60: 1545-1556.

Dethier, V.G. (1972): Sensitivity of the contact chemoreceptors of the blowfly to vapours. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA. 69: 2189-2192.

Frings, H. & N. Frings (1949): The Loci of contact chemoreceptors in insects. A review with new evidence. Amer. Midi. Nat. 41: 602-658.

Hallberg, E. (1982): Sense organs in Ips typographus (Insecta: Coleoptera). Fine structure of the sensilla of maxillary and labial palps. Acta zool. (Stockh). 63: 191-198.

Haskell, P.T. & A.J. Mordue (Luntz) (1969): The role of mouth part receptors in the feeding behaviour of Schistocerca gregaria. Entomologia exp. Appl. 12: 591-610.

Haskell, P.T. & L.M. Schoonhoven (1 969): The function of certain mouth part receptors in relation to feeding in Schistocerca gregaria and Locust a migratoria migratorioides . Entomologia exp. Appl. 12: 423- 440.

Henning, B. (1974): Morphologie and histologie der Tarsen von Tettigonia viridissima L. (Orthoptera: Ensifera). Z. Morphol. Tiere. 79: 323-342.

Honomichl, K. & G.W. Guse (1981): Digitiform sensilla on the maxillary palp of Coleoptera III. Fine structure Tenebrio molitor L. and Dermestes maculatus De Geer Acta Zoologica 62: 17-25.

Klein, U. & B. Muller (1978): Functional morphology of palp sensilla related to food recognition in Gryllus bimaculatus (Saltatoria, Gryllidae). Ent. Exp. & appl. 24: 291-295.

Mathieu, J.M. ( 1 969): Mating behaviour of five species of Lucanidae (Coleoptera: Insecta). Can. Ent. 101: 1054-1062.

McIver, S.B. & C.C. Charlton (1970): Studies on the

sense organs on the palps of selected culicine mosquitoes. Can. J. Zool. 48: 293-295.

Mitchell, B.K. & L.M. Schoonhoven (1974): Taste receptors in Colorado beetle larvae. J. Insect Physiol. 20: 1787-1793.

Selander, R.B. (1964): Sexual behaviour in blister beetles (Coleoptera: Meloidae). I. The genus Pyrota. Canad. Ent. 96: 1037-1082.

Snodgrass, R.E. (1935): Principles of Insect Morphology, McGraw Hill, New York.

White, P.R. & R.F. Chapman (1990): Tarsal chemoreception in the polyphagus grasshopper Schistocerca gregaria: behavioural assays, sensilla distribution and electrophysiology. Physiol. Entomol. 15: 105-121.

Whitehead, A.T. (1981): Ultrastructure of sensilla of the female mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosa Hopkins (Coleoptera: Scolitidae). lnt. J. Insect Morphol. Embryol. 10: 19-28.

Whitehead, A.T. & J.R. Larsen (1976): Ultrastructure of the contact chemoreceptors of Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Int. J. Insect Morphol. Embryol. 5: 301-315.

Zacharuk, R.Y. (1980): Ultrastructure and function of insect chemosensilla. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 25: 27- 47.

Zacharuk, R.Y. (1985): Antennae and Sensilla. In: Comprehensive Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, 6, Nervous System: Sensory (Eds.: Kerkut, G.A. and L.I. Gilbert) Pergamon Press, 1-69.

Zacharuk, R.Y., P.J. Albert & F.W. Bellamy (1977): Ultrastructure and function of digitiform sensilla on the labial palp of a larval elaterid (Coleoptera). Can. J. Zool. 55: 569-578.

372

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MIST-NET CAPTURE AND FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BAT (CHIROPTERA: PTEROPODIDAE) CYNOPTER US SPHINX (VAHL.)1

P.T. Nathan2, D.P. Swami Doss2, S.S. Isaac2, J. Balasingh2, K. Emmanuvel Rajan3,

N. Gopukumar Nair3 and R. Subbar aj

( With three text-figures )

Key words: Cynopterus sphinx , mist-netting, foraging pattern, reproductive cycle, body mass

The present paper addresses the abundance, composition, reproductive status and body mass of adult males and females of the Indian short-nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx captured by mist- netting. Both sexes exhibit peak foraging activity once before midnight, followed by another small foraging bout before dawn. Reproductive activity occurred twice in a year and the body

mass cycle of females showed a predominantly Introduction

In an animal population, the location, numbers, density, age and sex composition alter at different times of the year because of differential death rates, and other factors such as migration. This variation also depends on interaction with other factors such as food availability, predator pressure, inter- and intraspecific competition.

Alcock (1989) reported that mark and recapture studies are useful, in mobile animals, to study behaviour such as dispersal, migration, and foraging patterns. Chiropterans (both micro- and mega-) can be captured with mist-nets while they forage (Gaisler 1973, Heidman and Heany 1989). Mark and recapture studies were done by Fleming (1988), and by Kunz and Brock (1975) to observe activity patterns and social behaviour. Cosson (1995) reported megachiropteran flight activity level under forest canopy in South Cameroon by mist-net studies.

'Accepted January, 2001

Research and P.G. Department of Zoology,

St. John’s College, Palayamkottai 627 002, Tamil Nadu, India. ■Department of Animal Behaviour and Physiology,

School of Biological Sciences,

Madurai Kamaraj University,

Madurai 625 021 , Tamil Nadu, India.

imodal pattern.

In the present study, the abundance, composition, reproductive status, foraging activity and body mass of adult male and female Indian short-nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx were assessed, in relation with habitat and seasons through mist-netting.

Methods

The study was earned out from October 1995 to September 1997 in South India (8° 44' S, 77° 42* E). Nylon mist-nets of 9 m x 2.6 m with a mesh size of 38 mm were used to capture the bats from dusk to dawn, for 76 nights, at 23 different roosting and feeding areas (Avinet- dryden NY 13053 - 1103, USA). The mist-nets were placed away from illuminated areas so that the bats could not see them. The nets were set up as recommended by Kunz and Brock (1975) at 4 m above ground level. They were tied about half an hour before sunset and removed at 0600 his. The bats, which were trapped in the mist-net were removed immediately with gloved hands and placed in cloth bags, measured and released.

Whenever a large number of bats were captured within a short duration, they were placed in a holding cage with fruit to calm them down. Forearm length (using 150 mm vernier calipers) and body mass (using 100 g Salter

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001

373

FIELD OBSER VA TIONS ON THE SHOR T-NOSED FR UIT BA T

spring balance), were measured. Also, the sex and reproductive condition (testes size in males, palpation in females) were determined. The captured bats were marked with a necklace (Balasingh et al. 1 992) with ten different coloured beads representing numbers 0 to 9. The necklace was secured around the bat’s neck, by crimping it with a copper ring, with long-nose pliers.

Recaptures were made periodically by repeated mist netting at different times over the season at the same study site. By comparing the data collected while marking with that of the recapture, the differences in their reproductive condition, forearm length and body mass could be analysed.

Results

A total of 1,393 bats were captured, of which 1,289 were Cynopterus sphinx. The captured bats were categorized as adult females,

adult males, and juveniles. Peak foraging activity occurred during 2200 to 2300 hrs, followed by another small foraging bout during 2400 to 0500 hrs (Fig. 1). The year-round mist-netting programme revealed that C. sphinx emerges at 1815 hours at dusk and returns to day roost at 0515 hours.

No significant difference in body mass was observed in male bats, but two predominant peaks were obtained in females, one in March and another in July. This increase in body weight can be attributed to pregnancy (Fig. 2a, b). Male and female body weight over the seasons is significantly different (df=l,22; F=8.88; P=0.007).

There are two peak reproductive periods in a year, in March and in July. During these months, most of the captured females were pregnant and lactating, while the captured males had prominent testes (Fig. 3). During the study period, the recapture rate was 2.71% and in all

Time (h)

Fig. 1: Foraging pattern of Cynopterus sphinx. (The number of bats captured during every hour is the X ±SD of cumulative values of number of bats captured in hourly durations throughout the year)

374

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001

Body mass (g) S Body mass (g)

FIELD OBSER VA TIONS ON THE SHOR T-NOSED FR UIT BA T

(a) 54

52

50

48 h 46 44

42 V 40

N

M

M

Months

60 58 56 54 52 - 50 - 48 46 44 42 40

N

M

Fig. 2:

) J F M A Months

Seasonal changes in the body mass of Cynopterus sphinx a) Male, b) Female

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001

375

FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BA T

Months

Fig. 3: Reproductive status of Cynopterus sphinx \

the recaptured bats (21 bats) the necklace was intact. Both male and female bats were recaptured (Table 1).

Discussion

The year round captures of bats, banding and recapture data shows the distribution, foraging time and reproductive periods of Cynopterus sphinx.

Most of the mist-netted bats were C. sphinx , indicating that this species flies 2 to 4 m above ground level. The body weight of both the sexes changes seasonally. The foraging pattern was observed indirectly from the rate of mist-net capture at every hour from dusk to dawn. Peak captures were observed between 2200 to 2300 hrs, suggesting a predominant foraging activity period. The second, smaller peak at 0400- 0500 hrs, may be return flights from the foraging

= lactating

: pregnant

3 LlLLIIUJ not pregnant

M J J A S

ring different months compiled values for 2 years

area. Bimodal activity patterns are generally characteristic of insectivorous species. By contrast, unimodal patterns are dominant among frugivorous and nectarivorous species (Fleming 1982).

The maximum and minimum number of C. sphinx captured in a single night occurred in September and October respectively, even though fruiting was scarce in this period in our study area. There were only a few large Polyalthia trees with plenty of fruit, which attracted a large number of C. sphinx in and around Site I. The large number of C. sphinx netted from Site I indicates that fruit bats are easily attracted to any rarely occurring fruit during lean periods. The lowest capture normally occurred in places where there was no fruit. A detailed study on the flowering, fruiting and availability of food items during different months has already been carried out by Raj an et al. 1999.

376

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001

FIELD OBSER VA TIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BA T

Table 1

MARK AND RECAPTURE DATA OF CYNOPTERUS SPHINX

s.

No.

Tag

No.

Sex

Status of C. sphinx at the time of capture

Status of C. sphinx at the time of recapture

Maximum

Distance

Site

Date

Age

Rep

FA

B.Wt.

Site

Date

Age

Rep

FA

B.Wt.

1.

367

F

A

11.x. 1996

JU

NP

59.3

32.4

A

1 1 .xi.l 996

SA

NNP

64.5

36

2.

822

F

B

19.viii.1996

A

NP

67.7

35

C

29.xii.1996

A

NP

68.1

45

1 km

3.

387

F

C

2.xi.l996

SA

NNP

62.4

35

C

29.xii.1996

SA

NNP

66.7

43

—

4.

818

M

C

2.xi.l996

A

TP

68.1

55

C

29.xii.1996

A

TP

68.1

51

—

5.

252

F

C

2.xi.l996

SA

NNP

63.3

39

C

29.xii. 1996

SA

NNP

66.4

35

—

6.

43

M

D

17. xi. 1995

SA

TNP

67.0

44

I

7.iv.l997

A

TP

68.1

48

400 m

7.

4

F

D

17. xi. 1995

A

NNP

67.3

42

I

7.iv.l997

A

NP

67.4

50

400 m

8.

6

F

D

1 7.xi. 1 995

SA

NNP

67.2

44

I

7.iv. 1 997

A

NP

69.1

51

400 m

9.

8

F

D

1 7.xi. 1 995

SA

NNP

68.3

46

I

7.iv.l997

A

NP

66.2

45

400 m

10.

796

M

A

8.viii.l996

A

TNP

66.0

54

A .

2.V.1997

A

TNP

66.4

49

—

11.

21

M

E

27.xii.1996

A

TNP

66.2

48

D

1 l.v.1997

A

TNP

67.5

49

—

12.

839

M

A

8.viii. 1 996

A

TNP

65.7

47

C

24.vi.1997

A

TP

70.5

51

7 km

13.

30

F

F

12.iii. 1 997

SA

TNP

66.2

45

A

30.vi.1997

A

TP

69.4

50

1 km

14.

120

M

A

2.V.1997

JU

GU

62.7

32

A

22.vii.1997

SA

TNP

70.3

44

—

15.

701

F

G

1 l.iv.1996

A

NNP

69.0

52

J

30.vii. 1 997

A

NP

70.6

66

4 km

16.

887

M

D

28.ii.1996

A

TNP

65.6

45

J

30.vii. 1 997

A

TNP

69.5

50

500 m

17.

99

F

H

7.iv.l996

SA

NNP

65.3

44

J

30.vii. 1 997

A

NP

66.7

48

50 m

18.

91

F

H

7.iv.l996

A

NP

70.1

54

I

31. vii. 1997

A

PRG

67.3

59

—

19.

89

F

H

7.iv.l996

SA

NNP

69.2

46

I

31. vii. 1997

A

LAC

71.6

45

—

20.

66

M

D

17.xi.1995

A

—

67.5

47

I

31. vii. 1997

A

TP

70.4

52

400 m

21.

77

M

D

1 7.xi. 1 995

A

—

66.8

46

I

31. vii. 1997

A

TP

69.3

42

400 m

22.

79

F

H

7.iv.l997

A

NP

71.1

49

1

15.ix.1997

A

NP

71.3

45

—

23.

260

M

H

31 .vii.1997

A

TP

65.5

47

1

15. ix. 1997

A

TNP

66.6

43

—

24.

239

F

1

30.vii. 1 997

JU

NP

65.6

34

I

1 5.ix. 1 997

SA

NNP

65.8

32

250 m

25.

70

F

J

7.iii. 1 996

A

NP

69.6

59

I

1 5.ix. 1 997

SA

NP

71.6

46

200 m

26.

86

M

H

7.iii. 1 996

A

TP

65.4

49

I

15. ix. 1997

A

TP

72.8

49

—

27.

231

F

H

31. vii.1997

A

NP

72.8

52

I

15. ix. 1997

A

NP

72.8

49

—

28.

259

M

H

3 1 .vii . 1 997

A

TP

69.2

49

I

15. ix. 1997

A

TP

69.2

47

—

29.

271

F

K

4.viii.l997

A

NP

69.1

43

I

15.ix.1997

A

NP

69.2

46

400 m

30.

246

M

H

31. vii. 1997

SA

TNP

67.9

39

I

15. ix. 1997

A

TP

64.5

45

—

31.

214

F

I

31. vii. 1997

SA

NNP

70.5

46

I

15.ix.1997

A

NNP

70.5

41

250 m

NNP- Nipples not prominent, NP- Nipples prominent, TP- Testes prominent, TNP- Testes not prominent,

PRG- Pregnant, LAC- Lactating, A- Adult, SA- Subadult, JU- Juvenile, FA- Forearm length, B.Wt.- Body weight

Compared to other species of bats in the study area, C. sphinx seemed to emerge from and return early to its roosts. The recapture of C. sphinx was not high because of our choice to erect mist-nets in the same site during the whole year. Our mist-netting experience for one year confirms that C. sphinx remembers capture sites and avoids flying into the same nets again.

The mist-netted samples from different

places helped us to assess the distance traveled and the areas visited by the bats during foraging. In one such recapture, we caught a male bat 7 km away from the original banding site. Normally, males do not travel such long distances (Marimuthu et al. 1998). The flight could have been exploratory.

The poor condition of bats in the dry season by reducing net energy intake and reducing fat

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001

377

FIELD OBSER VA TIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BA T

stores could be an adaptation to reduce energy consumption during the lean time (Freed 1981, Noberg 1981). That is, individuals may let their weight drop in the dry season to reduce absolute energy requirement. Fleming (1988) reported that body mass in adults of both sexes of Carollia perspicillata changed seasonally. Adult C. perspicillata were generally lighter in the dry season than in the wet season. In male C. sphinx , no significant variation in body mass was observed during the year. Unlike the new world bats and temperate bats, generally no significant variation in body mass has been observed among tropical bats in an annual cycle, as seasonal changes in climate and food abundance are not marked in the tropics. This study corroborates the data collected during histological studies on

Refer

Alcock, J. (1989): Animal behaviour. 4th edn. Sinaver Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts, 596 p. Balasingh, J., S. Suthakar Isaac & R. Subbaraj (1992):

A convenient device for tagging bats in the field. Bat Res. News. 33(1): 6.

Cosson, J.F. (1995): Captures of Myonycteris torquata (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) in forest canopy in South Cameroon. Biotropica 27: 395-396.

Fleming, T.H. ( 1 982): Foraging strategies of plant visiting bats. In: Ecology ofbats. (Ed. Kunz, T.H.), Plenum Publishing Corp., New York.

Fleming, T.H. (1988): The short-tailed fruit bat, a study in plant animal interactions. University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.

Freed, L.A. (1981): Loss of mass in breeding wrens: Stress or adaptation? Ecology 62: 1 179-1186.

Gaisler, J. (1973): Netting as a possible approach to study bat activity. Period. Boil. 75: 129-134.

Heidman, P.D. & L.R. Heaney (1989): Population biology and estimates of abundance of fruit bats (Pteropodidae) in Philippine submontane rainforest.

J. Zool. (Lond) 218: 565-586.

Krishna, A. & C.J. Dominic ( 1 984): Reproductive cycle in the male fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl 1 977).

the breeding habits of C. sphinx (Krishna and Dominic 1984, Sandhu 1986).

The capture of lactating mothers, immediately followed by capture of volant juveniles in mist-nets, shows that the young ones are “guided” by the mother bats during initial foraging attempts (Radhamani 1996). We observed that when individual volants are removed from the nets, they make distress calls, attracting the attention of several mother bats of the same species.

Acknowledgements

NG is grateful for financial assistance from CSIR through a Senior Research Associateship.

ENCES

Lynx 22: 19-26.

Kunz, T.H. & C.E. Brock (1975): A comparison of mist- nets and ultrasonic detectors for monitoring flight activity ofbats. J. Mammalogy 56: 907-91 1 . Marimuthu, G., K.E. Rajan, A. John Koil Ral, S. Suthakar Isaac & J. Balasingh (1998): Observations on the foraging behaviour of a tent roosting Megachiropteran bat Cynopterus sphinx. Biotropica 30: 321-324.

Norberg, R.A. (1981): Temporary weight decrease in breeding birds may result in more fledged young. Amer.Nat. 775:838-850.

Radhamani, T.R. (1996): Behavioural diversity of a few species of South Indian bats. Ph.D. Thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, India.

Rajan, K.E., N.G. Nair & R. Subbaraj (1999): Seasonal food preference of the Indian short nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 24- 27.

Sandhu, S. (1986): Observations on the reproduction and associated phenomena in the male fruit bat. Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in central India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 135-142.

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FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE (LINN.) IN KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT1

Aeshita Mukherjee2, C.K. Borad2, B.M. Parasharya2 and V.C. Soni3

( With one text-figure)

Key words: Distribution, paddy crop, sarus crane, Grus antigone antigone , visibility index, Kheda district

573 individuals of the sarus crane Grus antigone antigone were counted in an intensive ground survey, carried out in Kheda district, Gujarat, during August 1998. There was a distinct difference in the crane abundance amongst the tehsils (subdivisions) of Kheda district. Crane distribution in the district was determined by the physical structure of the habitat. The factors determining distribution within the district were (a) Pattern, height and water requirement of the crops, particularly the percentage of irrigated land for paddy crop (r = 0.47). (b) Standing water body with vegetation, (c) Visibility index or openness of the landscape (r = 0.46) influenced by vegetation height and density.

Introduction

The sarus crane Grus antigone antigone is restricted to a few northern and western states of India (Ali and Ripley 1983). Though once widespread, its population is now chiefly concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh (Gole 1989). Earlier, two large-scale attempts were made to estimate the sarus crane population in Gujarat State (Vaishnav 1985) and in the whole country (Gole 1989). In both cases, the population size was estimated on the basis of a few actual counts, local inquiry, and presence of wetland and cropped area available. Since no intensive survey of a single district was done, the actual head counts are not available, and factors affecting distribution are not known. The relative abundance of the sarus crane in different tehsils (subdivisions) of Kheda district was determined and the percentage of land under paddy crop was considered as a factor affecting distribution

‘Accepted February, 2000 :AINP on Agricultural Ornithology,

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand 388 1 10, Gujarat, India.

■ Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University,

Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat, India.

(Parasharya etal. 1989, 2000). To determine and assess the factors affecting distribution of the sarus crane within a district, the present study was taken up. The species is currently categorized as globally threatened, due to rapid population decline and other threats (Meine and Archibald 1996). The present study was, therefore, warranted to identify the factors determining its distribution in Kheda district, which holds the largest crane population in Gujarat State (Parasharya et al. 1996), and ultimately to develop a management strategy.

Study Area

Kheda district is situated in central Gujarat, an area of 7,194 sq. km, which is 3.7% of the total area of Gujarat. The district lies between two major rivers, Mahisagar on the eastern and Sabarmati on the western side. To the north is the boundary with Sabarkantha district. Ahmedabad district lies to the west and Panchmahal and Baroda on the eastern side. The southern boundary is attached to the Gulf of Khambhat. It is mamly plain, except for a small hilly area in Kapadvanj and Balasinor tehsils. The region has fertile g oradu soil with alluvial, loamy sand.

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Fig. 1: Distribution of the Indian sarus crane in the tehsils of Kheda district, Gujarat

The district comprises of ten tehsils, a major area has canal irrigation, whereas in Kapadvanj and Balasinor tehsils, rain-fed farming is practiced. The total cultivated area is 6,58,495 ha (Director of Agriculture, Ahmedabad). The cropping pattern is as follows: During the monsoon, paddy (1,41,672 ha), pearl millet (1,45,916 ha) and tobacco (92,972 ha) are the major crops. Area under paddy in different tehsils is given in Table 1. In winter, wheat (60,335 ha) is the major crop. In summer, paddy and pearl millet were grown in irrigated areas.

The district is semiarid, with a tropical monsoon climate. The southwest monsoon

arrives in the third week of June to September. The average maximum temperature recorded during May was 41.6 °C and during December 28.9 °C. The average minimum temperature recorded during January was 10.3 °C and during June 27.6 °C. Annual rainfall of the district was 557 mm in 1998.

Material and Methods

Sarus crane count was made from August 3 to 29, 1998 in different tehsils of Kheda district. The census route was decided on the basis of the tehsil road maps, ensuring that at least 75% of each tehsil was covered while traveling 250 km.

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Table 1

SARUS CRANE SIGHTINGS IN KHEDA DISTRICT DURING AUGUST 1 998 AND FACTORS AFFECTING ITS DISTRIBUTION

Tehsil

Survey dates

Number of cranes

% land under paddy

% land under irrigation

Visibility

Index

August

Actually

Claimed by

1998

Seen

Local people

Anand

11-14

27

51

2.81

42.71

2

Balasinor

18-22

16

6

11.98

0.03

4

Borsad

15-16

2

2

32.91

20.23

1

Kapadvanj

8-15

44

42

7.63

0

3

Khambhat

7

53

49

31.65

48.79

5

Mahemadabad

25

14

44

0.01

2.33

2

Matar

4-7

166

246

42.73

36.84

4

Nadiad

26-29

84

47

32.58

12.82

3

Petlad

17-18

31

25

38.41

33.1

2

Thasra

20-24

136

97

22.04

18.85

3

Total

573

627

This study was carried out in monsoon, particularly in August. The census time was decided on the basis of the following reasons. During the southwest monsoon, entire fields are inundated. Monsoon is also the breeding season of the crane, so they are distributed in suitable breeding habitats. Secondly, the crop height is low, and hence it is easy to locate the cranes from a long distance. Census was avoided on rainy days (Table 1).

We drove at slow speed, recording the cranes sighted. Their numbers were confirmed using 10 x 50 binoculars. Periodically, the vehicle was stopped to scan the area for cranes. The locals were questioned for their estimates of population size, and their perception about the presence of the crane.

Since the vegetation varied in each tehsil, the visibility ranged from 50-800 m from either side of the road. The distance at which the cranes were sighted varied in different tehsils, depending on the vegetation profile and the crop pattern. Based on this, a visibility index (range 1-5) was developed. The visibility index (V.I.) based on detectability range from the road was as follows: distance of visibility in metres;

0-50 = 1; 50-200 = 2; 200-500 = 3; 500-700 = 4; > 700 = 5. Data on the cropping pattern and land under irrigation was collected from the District Statistical Officer, Kheda district. Correlation analysis (Steel and Torrie 1980) was performed to test the impact of factors affecting crane distribution.

Results

The cranes were recorded in all the 10 tehsils of Kheda district. However, their number varied. A total of 573 cranes were actually sighted. However, the locals claimed a total of 627 cranes to be existent in this area. Census across Kheda district (Table 1 , Fig. 1 ) shows that the maximum number of cranes were sighted in Matar (166), Thasra (136) and Nadiad (84) tehsils. Some cranes were sighted in Borsad (2), Mahemadabad (14) and Balasinor (16) tehsils also. No trend could be established between the actual number of cranes sighted and the number claimed by the local people. However, the total number claimed was slightly higher than the actual sightings. The difference is too small to investigate further.

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When the number of cranes sighted was correlated with the percent land under irrigated paddy and canal irrigation, and visibility index, a positive correlation (r = 0.47 d.f. 8, P> 0.05) was established between the crane number and the percent land under irrigated paddy. The paddy fields act as temporary wetlands and thus resemble the true wetland habitat of the cranes. Very weak positive correlation (r = 0.25 d.f. 8, P> 0.05) was observed between the crane number and the percent land under canal irrigation. This association was relatively weak compared to the foimer one, as several crops other than paddy which are not preferred by the sarus crane were included in this category. Some of the tehsils did not show a positive correlation at all, which compelled us to test an additional factor.

Visibility index and the distribution of crane in each tehsil showed a better correlation (r = 0.46 d.f. 8, P> 0.05). This suggested that an open habitat was required for the existence of crane. While conducting the census, we realised that the presence of inundated paddy and the land being under irrigation were not the only factors affecting the distribution of sarus crane. The height and density of the hedges of the crop field, and the type of crop grown, negatively affected the ability to detect the cranes. Hence, such areas were scanned more carefully. Tehsils with such a habitat had relatively few cranes. This confirmed non- preference of sarus cranes for habitat with high vegetation density and low visibility index (V.I. 1 and 2, i.e. detectability range up to 200 m). Therefore, a positive correlation between the visibility index and crane number can be deduced from our observations.

Discussion

Sarus crane distribution in the tehsils of Kheda district was patchy, depending upon the suitability of habitat. Even within a tehsil, the

distribution was not uniform. A total of 573 cranes were sighted in the district. Eight tehsils were intensively surveyed, though relatively less effort was made in Mahemadabad and Khambhat tehsils. With an equal effort in these two tehsils, actual sightings would have certainly been higher.

This study was carried out in August, which is also the beginning of the crane’s breeding season (Ali and Ripley 1983, Gole 1987, 1989 Parasharya et al. 1989), for which the cranes disperse over the agricultural landscape, particularly in the paddy growing areas. Due to the wide dispersal of the cranes and the crop growth, fewer cranes could be detected from the moving vehicle. Even in open habitats, cranes could be detected only up to 800 m on either side of the road. Hence, in tehsils like Matar, Thasra and Khambhat, several cranes may have been missed. It can be presumed that the actual number of cranes in Kheda district is much higher than the number reported here. Recently, Mukherjee et al. (1999) have established that for sarus crane census, summer is the most suitable period. Using two different census techniques, day and night roost count, the sarus crane population was estimated to be 457 to 548 in a 527 sq. km area around Matar tehsil alone (Mukherjee et al. 2001). In view of these results, if census in all the 10 tehsils of Kheda district is made during summer, a true picture of population size can be obtained. Summer census would also indicate relative improvement in the population estimation over monsoon, the cranes’ breeding season.

Parasharya et al. (1989, 2000) estimated 1,508 sarus cranes in Kheda district, based on information collected through the Village Level Workers (VLW) of the state agricultural department. The crane numbers claimed by the local people during the current census are comparable with the numbers claimed by the VLW in 1989. The state forest department had

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estimated 2,741 sarus cranes in Kheda district during 1984 (Vaishnav 1985). However, the season of census and technique was different. Compared to the population size projected earlier, the current figure of the crane sightings was certainly lower. An alarming decline in the distribution range and population size of the sarus crane was also reported earlier (Gole 1989). Density estimate of the sarus crane in Matar tehsil of Kheda district in August 1989 and 1995 on a fixed route had shown a decline of 15% of the population. Due to the restricted distribution, and reported rapid decline in the population, the sarus crane is categorized as a globally threatened bird species (Meine and Archibald 1996). A systematic census effort is urgently required.

That the sarus crane is a true wetland bird, is supported by the distribution pattern observed in different tehsils. Large manmade reservoirs linked with canals are abundant in Matar and Thasra tehsils, in which the highest number of cranes was estimated. The paddy fields are considered as temporary wetlands (Scott 1989, Gopal 1995). In the absence of natural wetlands, the sarus crane preferred and survived well in the paddy fields of Kheda district (Parasharya et al. 1989, 2000). Considering the per-centage of land under paddy crop as an index, we found a moderate positive correlation with the crane number in different tehsils. The sarus preferred paddy to other irrigated crops, so a weaker correlation was found with percent land under canal irrigation compared to the percent land under paddy crop. Inundated paddy fields are temporary wetlands, which provide feeding and breeding requirements of the cranes. The paddy crop usually does not grow above the height of the cranes; hence, it does not impede visibility and permits vigilance against predators. Such a situation is not found in other cereal crops like

pearl millet and maize. The sandhill crane Grus canadensis also prefer cereal crops shorter than their own height (Sugden et al. 1988). Moreover, in paddy crop there is minimum human disturbance compared to other crops; this could be one of the reasons that paddy is preferred over other crops.

Visibility index of the tehsil (in effect, openness of the habitat) was another important factor determining the distribution of cranes. As in Borsad and Petlad tehsils, very high vegetation density (revealed from the V.I.) was the major limiting factor for crane distribution. A combination of high V.I. with greater percent land under irrigated paddy resulted in a greater number of crane sightings, showing that both the parameters determine habitat preference of the sarus crane.

In open habitat, it is convenient for the cranes to take off or to land. Greater height of the field hedge hampers their movement. Moreover, within dense vegetation, vigilance against predators is very poor. The whooping crane Grus americana also avoids areas with obstructions to visibility (Armbruster 1990). It can be concluded that the sarus crane is dependent upon the agricultural landscape, and its relative distribution was governed by the percentage of land under inundated paddy and the openness of the habitat.

Acknowledgements

This work has been partially financed by the GEER Foundation, Gandhinagar. The help received from Shri N.A. Thakore, Shri P.D. Chavda and Shri Shailesh Parmar is gratefully acknowledged. We thank Dr. P.R. Vaishnav and Dr. J.S. Patel for their help in the statistical analysis of the data.

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Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Rjpley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan (Compact Edn.). Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Armbruster, MJ. ( 1 990): Characterization of habitat used by Whooping Cranes during migration. Biological Report 90(4): 1-16. U.S. Dept. Interior, Washington.

Gole, P. (1987): Observing the Sarus. In: Proceedings of the 1983 International Crane Workshop, Bharatpur (Eds.: Archibald, G.W. and R.F. Pasquier). International Crane Foundation, Bababoo, USA. Pp. 107-114.

Gole, P. (1989): The status and ecological requirements of Sarus Crane, Phase-I. Paper presented in the Asian Crane Congress at Rajkot, Gujarat, India.

Gopal, B. (1995): Handbook of Wetland Management. WWF-India, New Delhi.

Meine, C.D. & G.W. Archibald (Eds.) (1 996): The Cranes: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.

Mukhjerjee, A., V.C. Soni & B.M. Parasharya (1999): Diurnal use of reservoirs by the Indian Sarus crane ( Grus antigone ) during summer months. Zoos ’ Print J. 14(7): 72-74.

ENCES

Mukherjee, A., C.K. Borad, S.B. Patel & B.M. Parasharya (2001 ): Selection of suitable census method for the Indian sarus crane Grus antigone antigone. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 98(2): 237-241. Parasharya, B.M., K.L. Mathew & D.N. Yadav ( 1 989): Status and habitat preference of Indian sarus crane in Gujarat, India. Paper presented in the Asia Crane Congress at Rajkot, Gujarat, India.

Parasharya, B.M., K.L. Mathew & D.N. Yadav (2000): Population estimation and general ecology of the Indian Sarus Crane Grus antigone antigone in Kheda district, Gujarat. Pavo 38: 25-34.

Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989): A Directory of Asian Wetlands.

IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. Steel, R.G.D. & J.H. Torrie (1980): Principles and Procedures of Statistics: A biometrical approach, 2nd edition. Mc-Graw-Hill Kogakush Ltd., London. Sugden, L.G., R.G. Clark, E.J. Woodsworth & H. Greenwood ( 1 988): Use of cereal fields by foraging Sandhill Cranes in Saskatchewan. J. Appl. Ecol. 25: 111-124.

Vaishnav, H.A. (1985): Crane survey in Gujarat. Hornbill 1985(4): 38-40.

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ELYTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOS Y STEM ATIC SIGNIFICANCE IN ENTIMINAE (CURCULIONIDAE: COLEOPTERA)1

V. V. Ramamurthy2

( With two plates and thirty-seven text-figures)

Key words: Elytral vestiture, biosystematics, Curculionidae, Entiminae,

SEM investigations

Studies on the entimine weevil genera, namely Myllocerus Schoenherr of Otiorrhynchini, Tanymecus Germar, Burmanicus Supare, Krauseus Supare and Lepropus Schoenherr of Brachyderini, demonstrated that the elytral vestiture consists predominantly of flat scales, which overlap each other on the intervals of elytra, while the less predominant erect/sub-erect ones are elongate, found lining the striae or in the middle of intervals. There is enormous morphological diversity in the elytral vestiture and yet there is consistency at different hierarchical levels denoting its diagnostic value. It is concluded that elytral vestiture can help a taxonomist to take confident taxonomic decisions on the species diagnosis, revisions at generic and other levels, and monophyletic nature of taxa. Scanning electron microscope investigations have corroborated this conclusion. Incidentally, it has been shown that gold coating impairs the results as it defaces the finer structures.

Introduction

The Curculionidae are one of the largest group of weevils which, with their destructive potential, are capable of inflicting great economic damage to man. Entiminae is one such subfamily, containing many economically important genera. Many of these are large, complex, and perplexing to taxonomists; thus there is a need to identify additional taxonomic characters of diagnostic value. In 1916, while concluding his notes on the Indian Curculionidae, Marshall emphasized this and spelt out the importance of superficial hairs and scales, as these exhibit structural and morphological diversity. He also mentioned that comparatively little attention has been paid by systematists to the structure of scales, though these often exhibit good specific and even generic characters. Some attempts were made to study this character on the elytra referred to as “elytral vestiture” (Ramamurthy and Ghai 1988, Supare

'Accepted January, 2000 division of Entomology,

Indian Agricultural Research Institute,

New Delhi 1 10 012, India.

et al. 1990, Ramamurthy et al. 1992, and Poorani and Ramamurthy 1997). The present study is an attempt to integrate these findings, corroborate the same with Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) investigations, and evaluate its utility in diagnostics.

Material and methods

The specimens selected for the study were examined under magnifications ranging from 6x to 160x. The elytral vestiture was studied in situ to know the type and arrangement, and to select characters for detailed examination. The Wild M8 Stereo Zoom Microscope was used for this. To study the details of the scales, the elytra was scratched with a minuten pin on to a cavity slide containing a drop of ethyl alcohol (mixed with glycerol to avoid instant drying). Gentle stirring with the minuten helped separate the scales. These were then covered with a cover-slip and examined under Leitz Ortholux II Interference Phase Contrast Microscope at magnifications from 200x to 400x. The illustrations were made using a drawing tube fitted with a mirror camera

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lucida. The microphotographs were made with a Wild MPS 45 microphotoautomat. SEM studies were done in a Carl Zeiss Digital Scanning Microscope, model DSM 962, capable of high resolution image storage, real time image processing and image recording on digital media, integrated with arrangements for critical point drying and gold coating. The key parameters namely magnification, micron marker bar, accelerating voltage and working distance are indicated in the data field in the pictures.

Results

The preliminary examination of the superficial clothing in Curculionidae showed that the elytral vestiture is striking, consistent and diagnostically significant. At magnifications from 6x to 5 Ox, this vestiture was seen in the form of scales, setae, hairs and fine pubescence, of which the scales are most apparent, as they cover the whole elytra, making it squamose and with various colour patterns (eg. Myllocerus discolor Fabricius, Plate 1, Figs 1, 2). In the subfamily Entiminae, the intervals of the elytra are almost always carpeted by these overlapping scales, which are always predominant, and supplemented with more or less regular rows of the less predominant elongate, erect or sub-erect scales. These frequently furnish excellent generic and/or specific characters (Plate 1, Fig. 3).

The predominant scales overlap each other, entirely cover the intervals and extend to the brim of the punctation of striae. These scales are always very flat, ovate or circular, rarely elongate oval, with or without pedicel, ridges or grooves, densely or sparsely clothed with short or long, thin or thick, straight or wavy hairs; in some the ridges extend beyond the apical margin too (Plate 1, Fig 4; Figs 11,13,15, 17, 18, 20, 25, 27, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 38, 39, 41, 43, 46). The less predominant are short or long, erect or sub-erect, recumbent or sub-recumbent, based on the angle

with which they are attached to the surface of elytra. But they are always elongate, and mostly found on either margins of intervals lining the striae or in rows in the middle of intervals (Plate 1, Fig 4; Figs 12, 14, 16, 19, 21-24, 26, 28, 31, 33, 36, 37, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47). Marshall (1916) used the term setae for them, but they are also scales in the true sense. The morphological diversity of these scales varies between species, genera and tribes, as explained below.

In Myllocerus pallipes (Roelofs), the scales on the intervals are broadly ovate, disc-like, extremely convex, with margins inverted, pedicel distinct, ridges 6-8 (Fig. 11). The scales on the strial margins are elongate, short, conical, pedicel broad and distinct, grooves 3-4 (Fig. 12). All these agree with other species of Myllocerus Schoenherr. M. procerus Faust is characterized by the presence of discal spots, ovate or round shape, straight apical margin, with pedicel, ridges 8-10 (Figs 17, 18). The scales on the strial margins are elongate, spindle-shaped, with their apices curved (Fig. 26). Closely related species, namely M. dentifer Fabricius and M. discolor (Boheman) have an elytral vestiture as detailed below: in dentifer , scales on the intervals circular, with pedicel, apex straight, ridges 7-8 (Fig. 13), scales on the strial margins conical, grooves 4-6 (Fig. 14), while discolor has ovate scales with pedicel, apex narrowed and pointed, ridges 8-9 (Fig. 15), of which those on the strial margins are elongate, conical, curved, with 2-3 grooves (Fig. 16).

In Tanymecus Germar, species differ in having their flat scales clothed with thick, thin, long or short hairs and with or without pedicel (Figs 20-25, 27-29). T. mandibularis Marshall (Fig. 29), hirticeps Marshall (Fig. 25), chloroleucus (Wiedemann) (Fig. 27) and circumdatus (Wiedemann) (Fig. 20), all have their flat scales on the intervals ovate, with distinct, rounded pedicel, clothed with a few thick, short hairs (Fig. 29), thick, long hairs (Figs 25, 27) or dense, thin, short hairs (Fig. 20). In

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Ramamurthy, V.V.: Elytral vestiture

Plate 1

Figs 1-6: Elytral vestiture of Entiminae (for details see text)

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Ramamurthy, V.V.: Elytral vestiture

Plate 2

Figs 7-10: Elytral vestiture of Entiminae (for details see text)

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Figs 11-47: Elytral vestiture of Entiminae (for details see text)

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these, the scales lining the strial margins are conical, curved or straight, with an indistinct or distinct pedicel (Figs. 21-24, 28). Burmanicus Supare and Krauseus Supare have similar scales, except for the absence of hairs on flat scales, ovate or round, characteristic with peripheries distinctly demarcated, median area raised, surface reticulately smooth, with a distinct, rounded pedicel (Fig. 30, 32), their scales lining the strial margins/ middle of intervals conical, without a distinct pedicel (Figs 31, 33). In Krauseus , these scales are broadly ovate, rather disc-like, with base slightly narrowed with a distinct rounded pedicel, apex fringed with very thin, delicate hairs, median area with 13-15 ridges, some of these projecting slightly beyond apical margin (Fig. 34), other scales conical, but truncate at apex, base with a very small, indistinct pedicel, with 6-8 grooves (Fig. 19).

In Lepropus Schoenherr, the species oculatus (Heller) and gestroi (Marshall) have their flat scales subrectangular to subovate (Fig. 35), or ovate, narrowed at the base with a short, rounded pedicel, with 7-10 ridges (Fig. 38), while the elongate ones are curved, with or without pedicel, with 3-5 ridges (Fig. 36) or without any ridges (Fig. 37). In Brachyaspistes Schoenherr, these flat scales are ovate, subovate, subcircular with irregular impressions (Figs 43, 46), longer than broad, somewhat angular, with a raised boss in the middle, with irregular criss- cross impressions (Fig. 41), their scales on the strial margins elongate, gradually broadened towards apex, with 4-5 ridges and a pedicel (Figs 40, 42), curved, with a short pedicel, with 3-5 ridges (Figs 44, 47) or hairs or setae (Fig. 45).

SEM investigations on Brachyaspistes femoralis Fahraeus indicate that the flat scales are subcircular, their median area raised, and with irregular impressions (Plate 2, Fig. 7) and those on the strial margins characterized by 3-5 ridges. Likewise, Lepropus chrysochlorus (Wiedemann) has its scales ovate, with 8-15

ridges (Plate 1, Fig 6; Plate 2, Fig. 8), of which the ridges are clear in non-coated specimens (Plate 2, Fig. 8), while in coated specimens they get smothered, concealing the breaks in the ridges (Plate 1, Fig. 6). The basic green morph of L. lateralis (Fabricius) has their predominant scales subcircular with irregular, very fine ridges, less predominant ones curved, elongate, broader at apex than at base, with a pedicel, with 4-5 ridges (Plate 2, Fig. 9). The grey morph of L. lateralis showed similar scales except for the ridges becoming much finer (Plate 2, Fig. 10). When coated with gold for SEM, these fine ridges tend to get camouflaged, indicating that a gold coating may give misleading results in case of fine differences (Plate 1, Fig. 5).

Discussion

It can be concluded that entimine genera of different tribes have variations in elytral vestiture which confirm their placement at different suprageneric levels. In a complex genus like Myllocerus , it has been established that by utilizing this single character we can identify some species such as procerus. Elytral vestiture could be used to distinguish very closely related borderline species like dentifer and discolor, which are otherwise inseparable with customary taxonomic characters. It has been demonstrated that this character can aid revisions at generic level, like the synonymy of Hyperstylus Roelofs with Myllocerus (Ramamurthy et al. 1992), distinction of Tanymecus , Krauseus and Burmanicus (Supare etal. 1990), Tanymecus vs. Esamus Chevrolat (Ramamurthy and Ghai 1991), and Lepropus vs. Brachyaspistes (Ramamurthy et al. 1998). SEM studies have corroborated the authenticity of these taxonomic decisions. Incidentally, it was established that given certain conditions, there is no need to gold- coat the specimens, which defaces the finer features of the elytral vestiture. The present study confirms the findings of Lacordaire (1863) and

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others, that the elytral vestiture can be renewed by the insect after they have been rubbed off, form a regular pattern, these are powdery secretions, their structure is specific, and is of great biosystematic significance, especially in Subfamily Entiminae of Curculionidae.

Acknowledgements

I thank Mr. Gunter Winters of Zeiss, Germany and Dr. J. Poorani for their help in the SEM pictures and the Head, Division of Entomology, IARI, for facilities.

References

Lacordaire, T. (1863): Histoire naturelle des Insectes.

Genera des Coleopteres, 6. Roret, Paris, (iv) + 637 pp. Poorani, J. & V.V. Ramamurthy (1997): Weevils of the genus Lepropus Schoenherr from the Oriental region (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Entiminae). Oriental Ins. 31: 1-82.

Ramamurthy, V.V. & S. Ghai (1988): A study on the genus Myllocerus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Oriental Ins. 22: 377-500.

Ramamurthy, V.V. & S. Ghai ( 1 99 1 ): On the synonymy of Indomecus Pajni & Gandhi with Tanymecus Germar and on the status of Esamus Chevrolat (Insecta, Coleoptera, Curculionidae: Brachyderinae). Reichenbachia Museum Tierkunde Dresden 28 (29):

149-152.

Ramamurthy, V.V., P.N. Britto & R.K. Anand (1992): Further taxonomic studies on Myllocerus with synonymy of Hyperstylus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Oriental Ins. 26: 119-152.

Ramamurthy, V.V., J. Poorani, C. Devakumar & Prem Dureja (1998): Cuticular hydrocarbons and biosystematics of entimine weevil genera Lepropus Schoenherr and Brachyaspistes Fahraeus (Curculionidae: Coleoptera). Entomon 23 (4): 25 1 - 257.

Sup are, N.R., S. Ghai & V.V. Ramamurthy (1990): A revision of Tanymecus from India and adjacent countries. Oriental Ins. 24: 1-126.

■ ■ ■

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A NEW SPECIES OF HORALABIOSA SILAS FROM A KERALA STREAM

OF THE WESTERN GHATS1

J.A. Johnson and R. Soranam2

( With two text-figures)

Key words: Horalabiosa , Panniyar stream, Kerala

A new species Horalabiosa arunachalami was collected from a stream in Santhamparai hills, Western Ghats, Kerala. It is distinguished from other species of the genus in having 2 simple and 8 branched dorsal rays, and a poorly developed callus pad. It differs from H. joshuai in the absence of scales in the predorsal region, and differs from H. palaniensis in having fewer scales

on the ventral side.

Introduction

The genus Horalabiosa Silas is represented by two species in India, which are endemic to the east flowing streams of the southern Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu. A very unique character of these fishes is the presence of a callus pad on the ventral side. External morphology seems closely related to the genus Garra Hamilton, but differs widely from it in the mouth shape, position and presence of post-labial callus pad in the mental region. Silas (1953) described Horalabiosa joshuai from the upper reaches of Tamiraparani river at Singampatti, Tamil Nadu. Later, it was synonymised with the genus Garra (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Subsequently, Rema Devi (1992) redescribed the species after collecting a good number of specimens of H. joshuai from various altitudes in the headwaters of Tamiraparani. Recently, Rema Devi and Menon (1995) added one more species, i.e. H. palaniensis from Palani hills, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu. During the present survey under the Western Ghats fish biodiversity programme, a new species of Horalabiosa was collected from Panniyar stream, Santhamparai hills of Idukki district, Kerala.

'Accepted June 1998

2Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 627. 41 2, Tamil Nadu, India.

Study Area

Panniyar is a tributary of the major west flowing river, Periyar. The Panniyar stream originates from Santhamparai hill region of Idukki district, Kerala and drains into the Ponmudi reservoir. The sampling site is located between Pooparai (4 km from Santhamparai) at an altitude of 912 m above msl (9° 82' N; 77° 15' E). It is a third order stream mainly with large boulders and a rocky bed. There are 5-10 pools and 2-3 riffles in a 100 m stretch. Water temperature is 17 °C and air temperature is 23 °C. The natural riparian vegetation has been altered completely with the introduction of cardamom and tea plantations. Scattered old growth forests provide an instream cover of 30%. Cover refers to hiding cover for fish. It can be on, in, next to, or overhanging the water, if it is close enough to provide protection for fish (Armantrout 1992). Canopy cover (60-70%), mostly understorey and cardamom plantation, extends to the stream side in some areas.

Material and Methods

Fishes were collected using gill nets, drag nets and scoop nets. All specimens are preserved in the Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Alwarkurichi, Tamil Nadu, India. The morphometric measurements

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Fig. 1 : Lateral view of Horalabiosa arunachalami , Holotype 54 mm SL

were studied using standard methods (Hubbs and Lagler 1964).

Horalabiosa arunachalami sp. nov.

(Figs 1-2)

Holotype: ZSI/SRS F. 5324, 54 mm standard length from a tributary of Panniyar str eam, above Ponmudi reservoir at Santhamparai hills, Idukki district, Kerala, India. Alt. 912 m, 9° 82’ N; 77° 15' E, Coll. M. Arunachalam, J.A. Johnson and R. Soranam, 16.V.1996.

Paratypes: 7 specimens, SPKCES F. 2, 25 to 30 mm SL collected from the same locality on the same day. All have been preserved in Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University.

Materials examined: ZSI/SRS F. 3909 - Holotype H. palaniensis 77.0 mm SL, Palani Hills, Western Ghats. H. joshuai 10 exs., 70 to 45 mm SL, type locality Manimuthar, Tamiraparani river, Tirunelveli district, from our own collections and the specimens are preserved in SPK Centre for Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Alwarkurichi, Tamil Nadu.

Diagnosis

horalabiosa arunachalami is distinguished from the other two known species

by its 2 simple and 8 branched rays in the dorsal and poorly developed post-labial callus pad. Additionally, it is distinguished from H. joshuai by the absence of predorsal scales and by having a larger eye (eye diameter 3.62 vs. 4.81 in HL). H. arunachalami differs from H. palaniensis , in having very few scattered scales on the ventral side and a larger head (Head length 3.63 vs. 4.24 in SL).

Fig. 2: Ventral view of head of Horalabiosa arunachalami

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Description

D.2/8; P.1/13; V.l/7; A.l/5; C.19; L.l. 34-35; L.tr.3.5, 2.5. Predorsal scale absent. Body moderately elongate; dorsal profile slightly compressed, its depth 5.42 (4.88-6.28) in SL; head somewhat depressed, rounded anteriorly, its length 3.63 (3.33-4.20) in SL. Eye large, lateral in position, not visible from ventral side, its diameter 3.62 (3.25-3.75), interorbital width 2.41 (2.20-2.60), snout length 2.93 (2.72-3.25) in length of head. Rostral groove in front of the mouth well developed and separate upper lip from the rostrum; lips thick, fleshy and continuous at angles. Post-labial callus pad thin, poorly developed, with minute papillae. The rostral and maxillary barbels are well developed, maxillary barbels are longer than rostral and extend beyond the post-orbit of eye. Dorsal fin originates well before the origin of pelvic fin and it is inserted midway between the tip of the snout and base of caudal fin.

Fins: Pectoral fin oval, horizontally placed, its length 4.93 (4.28-5.50) in SL; 1.36 (1.22-1.62) in HL. Pelvic small, not reaching

vent, its length 5.72 (5.05-6.3) in SL; 1.57 (1 .37-1 .85) in HL. Vent situated close to the anal fin, distance from vent to anal fin 3.70 (2.80-4.05) in distance from pelvic fin. Lateral line complete, with 34-35 scales. For further morphometric data, see Table 1.

Colour: Body light greenish-yellow, darker above. Ventrally dull white. No markings on the body. After preservation, body light yellowish- brown and ventrally pale yellow.

Etymology: Named in the honour of Prof. M. Arunachalam, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, in appreciation of his interest in various aspects of stream fishes.

Discussion

The known species of Horalabiosa joshuai and palaniensis are exclusively from eastward flowing streams of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu. The new species H. arunachalami represents the fauna from a westward flowing stream of the Western Ghats, Kerala, which is of special interest, showing the distribution of the genus Horalabiosa in the southern part of the

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF H. ARUNACHALAMI SP . NOV. COMPARED WITH//. JOSHUAI AND H. PALANIENSIS

Morphometric Characters Proportions

H. arunachalami sp. nov. Present (n=8)

H. joshuai type locality (n=10)

H. palaniensis Holotype

Range

Mean

Range

Mean

Standard length / Body depth

4.88-6.28

5.42

4.66-6.57

5.52

5.83

Standard length / Head length

3.33-4.20

3.63

3.04-3.92

3.57

4.24

Head length / Eye diameter

3.25-3.75

3.62

3.66-5.75

4.81

5.78

Head length / Interorbital width

2.20-2.60

2.41

2.20-2.87

2.50

2.64

Head length / Snout length

2.72-3.25

2.93

2.80-3.28

3.11

5.56

Head length / Pectoral fin

1.22-1.62

1.36

1.08-1.53

1.27

1.21

Head length / Pelvic fin

1.37-1.85

1.57

1.30-1.76

1.50

1.51

Standard length / Pectoral fin

4.28-5.50

4.93

3.83 -5.00

4.53

6.42

Standard length / Pelvic fin

5.05-6.30

5.72

4.60-5.38

5.07

6.09

Standard length / Predorsal distance

1.80-2.07

1.92

1.89-2.03

1.98

1.98

Pelvic to vent / Distance to anal fin Length of caudal peduncle/

2.80-4.05

3.70

2.60-3.33

2.98

4.36

Height of caudal peduncle

1.33-2.00

1.54

1.25-1.60

1.46

1.64

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Western Ghats. Moreover, the species coexists with other bottom-dwelling fishes like Garra , Homaloptera and Noemachilus species.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. P.T. Cherian, Officer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India

Refer

Armantrout, B. ( 1 992): Condition of the World’s aquatic habitats. Theme 1 Summary. World Fisheries Congress, Athens, Greece, May 1992.

Hubbs, C.L. & K.F. Lagler (1964): Fishes of the Great Lakes region. Univ. Mich. Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 213 pp.

Rema Devi, K. (1992): Fishes of Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, India. Rec. Indian Mus. 92(1-4 ): 193-209.

Rema Devi, K. & A.G.K. Menon (1994): Horalabiosa

(ZSI), Southern Regional Station, Chennai for permission to examine the specimens in the station and Dr. K. Rema Devi, ZSI, for her help in identification. One of the authors, J. Antony Johnson (8/297(9)/98-EMR-I-SPS) is grateful to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, for a Senior Research Fellowship.

ENCES

palaniensis , A new cyprinid fish from Palani Hills, Western Ghats, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91: 110-111.

Silas, E.G. (1953): New fishes from the Western Ghats, with notes on Puntius arulius (Jerdon). Rec. Indian Mus. 51: 27-38.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and Adjacent Countries. Oxford and IBH Publication Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, xvii + 541 pp.

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ON THE INDIAN SPECIES OF TRICHOMALOPSIS CRAWFORD (HYMENOPTERA : CHALCIDOIDEA : PTEROMALIDAE)

P.M. SURESHAN2 AND T.C. NaRENDRAN3 ( With thirty-seven text-figures)

Key words: Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae, Trichomalopsis new species

The Indian species of Trichomalopsis Crawford are reviewed. These include T. apanteloctena (Crawford) and T. deplanata Kamijo & Grissell and six new species T. acarinata sp. nov., T. nigra sp. nov., T. ovigastra sp. nov., T. thekkadiensis sp. nov., T. neelagastra sp. nov., and T. travancorensis sp. nov. A key to the Indian species of Trichomalopsis is also provided.

Introduction

Trichomalopsis Crawford, a species-rich genus of Pteromalidae, is best known from Europe and North America. As currently understood, the genus is composed of nearly three dozen species, largely Holarctic and Oriental (Kamijo and Grissell 1982). Graham (1969) provided the most recent key to European and North American species. Kamijo and Grissell (1982) worked on the Oriental species associated with rice fields. Boucek (1988) synonymised Metadicylus Girault under Trichomalopsis.

During our studies on the Indian Pteromalidae, a large number of specimens belonging to Trichomalopsis were collected mainly from Kerala. The studies revealed 8 species, which include T. apanteloctena (Crawford) and T. deplanata Kamijo & Grissell, already known from the region, and 6 new species. Besides describing the new species, a key to the Indian species of Trichomalopsis is also provided.

The terminology generally follows that of Graham (1969). In addition, the antennal fimicle segments are numbered FI through F6 and gastral tergites T1 to T6, beginning with the first

'Accepted October, 1 998 Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghats Field Research Station,

Calicut 673 002, Kerala, India, department of Zoology, University ofCalicut,

Kerala 673 635, India.

after the petiole and the last before epipygium. The following abbreviations are also used: OOL - Ocellar ocular distance; POL - Posterior ocellar distance; SMV - Submarginal vein; MV - Marginal vein; PMV - Postmarginal vein; and STV - Stigmal vein.

The type specimens are kept in the collections of the Western Ghats Field Research Station, Zoological Survey of India, Calicut.

Trichomalopsis Crawford Trichomalopsis Crawford, 1913, Proc. U.S. natn. Mus., 45: 251 (type species: Trichomalopsis shirakii Crawford).

Eupteromalus Kurdjumov, 1913, Russk. Ent. Obozr., 13:12 (type species Pteromalus nidulans Thomson)

Nemicromelus Girault, 1917, Descr. Hym. Chalcid. Var. Observ ., V: 4 (type species: Merisus subapterus Riley)

Metadicylus Girault, 1926. Insecutor, Inscit menstr., 14: 71 (type species Metadicylus australiensis Girault)

Key to the Indian species of genus Trichomalopsis Crawford

1 . Lower margin of clypeus incised medially (Fig.

3); head in dorsal view thick, 1.85 to 1.95x as broad as long (Fig. 2); occipital carina strongly

curved medially (Fig. 1)

apanteloctena (Crawford)

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— Lower margin of clypeus only weakly

emarginate (Figs 4, 20); head not very thick in dorsal view; if thick (1 .9 to 2x as broad as long) then lower margin of face as in Fig. 4; occipital carina not strongly curved medially as above 2

2. Lower margin of face on either side of clypeus

curved and projected below level of lower margin of clypeus (Fig. 4); head 1 .9 to 2x as broad as long; flagellum in female stout (Fig. 5) deplanata Kamijo & Grissell

— Lower margin of face not projecting below level

of lower margin of clypeus; head 2 to 2. lx as broad as long; flagellum not stout 3

3 . Gastral petiole almost as long as nucha, weakly sculptured (Figs 13, 16); propodeum with post spiracular sulcus without transverse ridge; legs with coxae not concolorous with thorax,

yellowish-brown or brownish-yellow 4

Gastral petiole strongly transverse and unsculptured; post spiracular sulcus with a distinct transverse ridge; legs with coxae mostly concolorous with thorax 5

4. Pronotal collar weakly and irregularly margined or immargined; scape 0.9x eye length; pedicel plus flagellum almost as long as head width; T1 of gaster reaching only a little more than one third length (Fig. 18); temple length 0.5x eye length; head and thorax greenish-black with

metallic reflection; antennae paler

acarinata sp. nov.

— Pronotal collar weakly but sharply margined

except at sides; scape as long as eye; pedicel plus flagellum 0.84x head width; T1 reaching almost half length of gaster (Fig. 14); temple narrow, length 0.4x eye length; head and thorax black with little reflection; antennae darker nigra sp. nov.

5. Gaster oval; ovipositor sheaths strongly protruding (Fig. 24); head in dorsal view with temples rounded (Fig. 19); median area of propodeum broad (Fig. 23); 1 .3x as

broad as long; plicae not very sharp

ovigastra sp. nov.

— Gaster more elongated (Figs 9, 30, 37),

ovipositor sheaths not strongly protruding as above; head in dorsal view different (Figs 6, 26, 32) with temples not much rounded; median area of propodeum less broad, 1.1 to 1 ,2x as broad as long; plicae more sharp 6

6. Propodeum with plicae very sharp, reaching tip of nucha; nucha more constricted; median carina strong (Fig. 8); T1 of gaster reaching only one third of length (Fig. 9); head in dorsal view with temples shorter (Fig. 6), length 0.5x eye length; pronotal collar irregularly margined ..

thekkadiensis sp. nov.

Propodeum with plicae not sharp as above, at least slightly incomplete towards the end of nucha (Figs 29, 35); median carina not very strong; temples longer, 0.7x as long as eye (Figs 26, 32); T1 occupying little beyond or before half length of gaster (Figs 30, 37); pronotal collar weakly but more regularly margined ... 7

7. Gaster (Fig. 30) 1.8x as long as broad and longer than thorax; T1 occupying little less than half length, with only slight metallic blue gloss dorsally; nucha less convex in profile (Fig. 27);

scape little shorter than eye (0.9x)

travancorensis sp. nov.

— Gaster (Fig. 37) 1.6x as long as broad, and as

long as thorax; T1 occupying little beyond middle with bright metallic blue gloss dorsally; nucha more convex in profile (Fig. 33); scape as long as the eye neelagastra sp. nov.

Description of species

Trichomalopsis apanteloctena (Crawford) (Figs 1-3)

Trichomalopsis apanteloctena Crawford, 1911. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus., 39: 618.

Eupteromalus parnarae Gahan, 1919. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus., 56: 522.

The species can be identified by the following characters: Lower margin of clypeus rather deeply incised medially (Fig. 3); striation

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on clypeus extending to lower margin of eyes and to malar sulcus; both mandibles with four teeth; head thick in dorsal view, 1.85 to 1.95x as broad as long (Fig. 2); occipital carina sharp, in posterodorsal view strongly curved medially (Fig. 1). Antennae with combined length of pedicel and flagellum in female 0.8 to 0.93 x and in males 0.95 to 1.05x width of head. Pronotal collar indistinctly margined. Forewing with MV 1.55 to 2.1 x STV. Gaster 1.7 to 2x as long as broad.

Material examined: 8 Females, Kerala: Sreekariyam (Trivandrum), 25. ii. 1989; 7 Females, Shertallai, 27.ii.1989; 1 Male, Kappil (Trivandrum), 26.ii.1989; 9 Females, 1 Male, Tenjipalam (Malappuram), ?.xi.l988; 2 Females, Attingal, 23. ii. 1989; 2 Females, Ernakulam, 9.ii. 1989; 6 Females, Kovalam, 24. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Ochira (Quilon), 26.ii.1989; 3 Females, Valayar, 27. ii. 1989; 3 Females, Tenjipalam, 24. xi. 1988; 1 Female, Pamba, 21. xi. 1997; 1 Female, Kadakattupara (Malappuram), 9.xi.l988; 1 Female, Chavara, 22. ii. 1989; 2 Females, Silent Valley, 9.xii.l997; 5 Females, Elamathkavalai (Shertallai), 27. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Kazhakuttom, 25. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Varkala, 26.ii.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.

Distribution: India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,), Bangladesh, Korea, Malaysia, China, Japan, Taiwan, Philippines and Formosa.

Biology: Reared from Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), Pelopidas mathias (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Hesperidae) in India.

Trichomalopsis deplanata Kamijo & Grissell (Figs 4 & 5)

Trichomalopsis deplanata Kamijo & Grissell, 1982: Kontyu 50: 84.

The diagnostic characters of the species are: Length 1. 5-2.4 mm. Head in front view transverse, 1.3x as broad as high; lower margins of face on either side of clypeus curved and

projecting below lower margin of clypeus (Fig. 4); clypeus with lower margin weakly emarginate; both mandibles with four teeth; striae of clypeus extending almost to lower margin of eyes and to malar sulcus. Antennal toruli situated distinctly above level of lower edge of eyes; scape much shorter than eye length, almost reaching lower edge of median ocellus; flagellum stout (Fig. 5); combined length of pedicel and flagellum about 0.8x width of head. Pronotal collar not margined anteriorly. Propodeum with median carina not very strong; plicae sharp throughout; spiracular sulcus with a transverse ridge at middle. Forewing with MV 1.45 to 1.85x STV and little longer than PMV. Gaster ovate, about as long as thorax; 1.3 to 1.4x as long as broad; T1 occupying one-third length of gaster or more.

Material examined: 5 Females, 1 Male, Kerala: Ranni, 24. xi. 1988; 2 Females, Tenjipalam (Malappuram), ix.1988; 1 Female, Thekkady, 14. ix. 1986; 1 Female, 1 Male, Vayalar, 27. ii. 1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.

Distribution: India (West Bengal, Kerala), Japan, Korea, China.

Biology: Reared in India from Tachimd puparium on paddy.

Trichomalopsis thekkadiensis sp. nov.

(Figs 6-11)

Female: Length 1.6-2. 7 mm. (Holotype 2.4 mm). Bluish-green with metallic gloss; bronze- like gloss on thorax. Antennae with scape and pedicel testaceous, flagellum pale brown. Coxae concolorous with thorax, remainder of legs testaceous with tips of tarsi brown. Tegulae testaceous; wings hyaline; veins pale yellow.

Head (Fig. 6): Width 1 .2x thorax; in dorsal view width 2x length and in front view width 1.3x height; POL 1.3x OOL; temple length 0.5x eye length; strongly converging behind eyes; eyes separated by 1 .4x their height; malar space length

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Figs 1-3: Trichomalopsis apanteloctena (Crawford) Female: 1. Head in posterodorsal view,

2. Head in dorsal view, 3. Head in front view;

Figs 4-5: Trichomalopsis deplanata Kamijo & Grissell Female: 4. Head in front view, 5. Antenna; Figs 6-11: Trichomalopsis thekkadiensis sp. nov. Female: 6. Head and part of thorax in dorsal view,

7. Antenna, 8. Propodeum, 9. Gaster in dorsal view, 10. Forewing venation, 1 1. Male antenna;

Figs 12-14: Trichomalopsis nigra sp. nov. Female: 12. Antenna, 13. Propodeum and petiole,

14. Gaster in dorsal view;

Figs 15-16: Trichomalopsis acarinata sp. nov. Female: 15. Body in profile, 16. Propodeum and petiole

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0.7x eye length; clypeus weakly emarginate anteriorly, striated, striae extending near lower margin of eyes; head otherwise moderately reticulate, finer on lower part. Antennae (Fig. 7) inserted above lower margin of eyes; scape almost as long as eye, ahnost reaching just above median ocellus; pedicel twice as long as wide; combined length of pedicel and flagellum 0.9x head width; club as long as 2.5 preceding segments combined.

Thorax: (Fig. 6) raised reticulate, length 1 ,7x width; pronotal collar irregularly margined. Mesoscutum width 2.4x length. Scutellum 1.2x as wide as long, similarly sculptured as on mesoscutum. Propodeum (Fig. 8) relatively long, about as long as scutellum medially; median area raised reticulate, sides finely reticulate; plicae strong, complete; median carina distinct; nucha highly constricted; callus sparsely hairy. Forewing (Fig. 10) with basal part bare; MV about 1 .5x STV and very little longer than PMV. Relative lengths of SMV, MV, PMV and STV as 37: 13: 12.5: 8.5.

Gaster (Fig. 9): Length 1.6x width; slightly longer than thorax; T1 occupying about one third length of gaster.

Male: Length 1.7-2 mm. Similar to female but differs in having short gaster and antenna with longer pubescence.

Material examined: Holotype: Female, India, Kerala, Thekkady, 12.V.1986, Coll. T.C. Narendran & party. Allotype: Male, Kerala, Tenjipalam(Malappuram), 24.xi.1988, Coll. P.M. Sureshan. Paratypes: Kerala: 5 Females, Kayamkulam, 2 1 .ii. 1 989; 5 Females, Varkala,

26. 11. 1989; 3 Females, Vayalar, 27. ii. 1989; 9 Females Kappil (Trivandrum), 26.ii.1989; 2 Females, Neendakara, 22.ii.1989; 4 Females, Ranni, 24.xi.1988; 3 Females, 1 Male, Tenjipalam (Malappuram), 24.xi.1988; 3 Females, Emakulam,

9.11. 1 989; 1 Female, Kovalam, 24. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Edakkara, (Malappuram), 24.iv.89; 1 Female, Sreekariyam, 25. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Madappally (Calicut), 30.x. 1988; 2 Females,

Attingal, 23.ii.1989; 1 Female, Parambilpeedika (Malappuram), 10. xi. 1988; 1 Female,

Elamathkavala (Shertallai), 27.ii.1989; 2 Females, Kazhakuttom, 25.ii.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.

Remarks: This species closely resembles T. shirakii Crawford, but differs from it as follows: 1. temple length 0.5x eye length (in shirakii temple length one quarter or slightly more of eye length) 2. scutellum longer than mesoscutum, 1.2x as wide as long (scutellum as long as mesoscutum and slightly transverse in shirakii ) 3. propodeum without a deep fovea behind spiracle; nucha half as long as propodeum and not well defined in front (propodeum with a deep fovea behind spiracle, nucha little shorter than half length of propodeum and well defined in front in shirakii) 4. propodeum with bronze- like gloss like other areas of thorax (propodeum without such gloss in shirakii).

Trichomalopsis nigra sp. nov.

(Figs 12-14)

Female: Length 1.5-2 mm (Holotype 2 mm). Blackish to bluish-black with slight metallic reflection; scape pale brown on basal two third, tip of scape and remainder of antenna dark brown. Legs testaceous except base of hind coxae blackish; tarsi darker at tip. Tegulae pale brown; wings hyaline; veins pale yellow.

Head: Width 1.2x thorax; in dorsal view width 2. lx length and in front view width 1.4x height; temple length 0.4x eye length; POL 1.3x OOL; eyes separated by 1 .54x their height; malar space 0.7x eye length; clypeus anteriorly weakly emarginate, striate; head otherwise moderately reticulate; Toruli separated by half their diameter, placed only slightly above lower edge of eyes; scape (Fig. 12) as long as eye, reaching level of vertex; combined length of pedicel and flagellum 0.84x head width; second anellus a little longer than first, club a little shorter than 3 preceding segments combined.

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Thorax: Length 1.4x width; pronotal collar sharply margined, except at sides, with broad smooth strip posteriorly. Mesoscutum width 2.4x length, moderately reticulate. Scutellum convex, longer than mesoscutum; frenal furrow vague. Metanotum with area between hind margin of scutellum and dorsellum narrow with several longitudinal carinae. Propodeum (Fig. 13) with median area reticulate as on scutellum; median carina weak; plicae not sharp; nucha convex; spiracular sulcus shallow, without transverse ridge; callus moderately hairy. Forewing with basal cell and vein bare. Relative lengths of SMV, MV, PMV and STV as 26: 1 1 : 10.5 : 7.

Gaster: Petiole (Fig. 13) as long as nucha, weakly sculptured; gaster shorter than thorax (Fig. 14), length 1.4x width; T1 occupying almost half length.

Male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype: Female: India, Kerala, Shertallai (Kanhikuzhy),

27.11.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan. Paratypes:

Kerala: 2 Females, Sreekariyam, 25. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Kayamkulam, 2 1 .ii. 1 989; 1 Female, Ochira, 26. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Chungathara (Malappuram), 24.iv.1989; 2 Females, Attingal, 23. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Elamathkavalai

(Shertallai), 27.ii.1989; 1 Female, Kovalam,

24.11.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.

Remarks: This species closely resembles T. oryzae Kamijo & Grissell but differs from it in having antennal toruli placed only slightly above lower margin of eyes; scape as long as eye; FI narrower than pedicel; second anellus not much longer than first; malar space 0.7x eye length; eyes separated by 1.5x their height; mesoscutum width 2.4x length; gaster with T1 occupying almost half length (in oryzae toruli distinctly above lower edge of eyes; scape 0.83 to 0.92x eye length; FI slightly wider than pedicel; second anellus much longer than first; malar space only 0.45x eye length; eyes separated

by 1 .25x their height; mesoscutum twice as broad as long and T1 occupying more than one third length of gaster in oryzae ).

Trichomalopsis acarinata sp. nov.

(Figs 15-18)

Female: Length 1.3 -2.0 mm (Holotype 1.6 mm). Head and thorax dark green; thoracic dorsum with slight bronze-like gloss; gaster dark brown. Scape yellowish-brown, darker at tip; remainder of antenna dark brown. Legs yellowish- brown with coxae darker. Tegulae pale brown; wings hyaline; veins pale yellowish-brown.

Head (Fig. 15): Width 1.3x thorax; in dorsal view width 2. lx length and width 1.3x height in front view; POL 1.3x OOL; temple length half of eye length; malar space 0.6x eye length; eyes separated by 1.3x their height; clypeus striated, anterior margin weakly emarginate; toruli placed only a little above lower margin of eyes; scape (Fig. 17) 0.9x eye length, reaching level of vertex; pedicel plus flagellum almost equal to head width; club a little shorter than 3 preceding segments combined.

Thorax (Fig. 15): Length 1.5x width; pronotal collar weakly margined or immargined. Mesoscutum width 2.3x length. Scutellum less convex, similarly sculptured as on mesoscutum; frenal groove vague. Metanotum with area between hind margin of scutellum and dorsellum very narrow with longitudinal carinae. Propodeum (Fig. 16) with median area similarly sculptured as on scutellum; median carina weak; plicae not sharp; spiracles oval; postspiracular sulcus without transverse ridge; callus moderately hairy. Forewing with relative lengths of SMV, MV, PMV and STV as 14.5 : 6 : 5 : 4.5.

Gaster: Petiole (Fig. 16) almost as long as nucha, sculptured; gaster (Fig. 18) ovate, length 1.5x width; T1 occupying little more than one third length.

Male: unknown.

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Material examined: Holotype: Female: India, Kerala, Calicut University Campus, 2. v. 1986, Coll. T.C. Narendran & party; Paratypes: Kerala: 5 Females, Kayamkulam, 21.ii.89; 3 Females, Neendakara, 22. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Attingal, 24. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Chavara, 22.ii.1989; 1 Female, Vazhani, 7.ii.l989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.

Remarks: This species closely resembles T. nigra (also described) but differs from it by the combination of characters given in the key. It also resembles T. oryzae Kamijo & Grissell in the nature of gastral petiole, propodeum etc., but differs in having pronotal collar not margined; temple length half of eye length; toruli placed only slightly above lower edge of eyes; club more than twice as long as wide; second anellus little longer than first, and mesoscutum width 2.3x length (in oryzae pronotal collar weakly but clearly margined, except at sides; temple length one quarter of eye length; club twice as long as wide; toruli placed distinctly above lower edge of eyes; second anellus much longer than first and mesoscutum twice as broad as long).

Trichomalopsis ovigastra sp. nov.

(Figs 19-25)

Female: Length 1 .8-2.4 mm (Holotype 2. 1 mm). Body dark brownish-green with metallic gloss. Antennae brown with scape paler in basal two thirds. Coxae concolorous with thorax, fore and mid coxae partly brownish; remainder of legs yellowish-brown. Tegulae brown; wings hyaline; veins pale brown.

Head (Figs 19, 20): Width 1.2x thorax; in dorsal view width 2x length and in front view width 1 .3x height; temple length 0.5x eye length, rounded posteriorly; POL 1.4x OOL; eyes separated by 1 .4x eye height; malar space length 0.7x eye length; clypeus striate; head otherwise moderately reticulate. Antennae (Fig. 21) inserted below middle of face; scape just shorter

than eye (12: 11.5), reaching beyond median ocellus; pedicel plus flagellum length 0.9x head width.

Thorax: Length 1.8x width, in profile thoracic dorsum evenly and weakly curved; pronotal collar anteriorly margined, posteriorly with smooth strip. Mesoscutum width 2.3x length, moderately reticulate. Scutellum wider than long (1.3x), slightly convex; frenal area slightly depressed. Propodeum (Fig. 23) medially 0.9x length of scutellum; median area broad, 1 .3x as broad as median length, raised reticulate; median carina weak; nucha coarsely reticulate, occupying one third length of propodeum; plicae sharp; post spiracular sulcus with a transverse ridge; spiracles elongate oval; callus moderately hairy. Forewing (Fig. 22) length 2.5x width; basal cell with a few scattered hairs at distal end. Basal vein bare; costal cell with a single row of hairs on upper half, which is complete distally; MV 1.7x STV and as long as PMV. Relative lengths of SMV, MV, PMV and STV as 30 : 12.5 : 12.5 : 7.5.

Gaster (Fig. 24): Ovate, length 1.3x width (without ovipositor sheath); ovipositor sheaths strongly protruding.

Male (Fig. 25): Length 1.6 mm. Resembles female, but differs in antennae being slender and gaster shorter.

Material examined: Holotype: Female: India, Kerala, Vayalar, 27.ii.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan. Allotype: Male, data same as holotype. Paratypes: Kerala: 3 Females, data same as that of holotype; 1 Female, Elamathkavala (Shertallai), 27. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Akalam (Trivandrum), 25. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Attingal, 23.ii.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.

Remarks: This species closely resembles T. lasiocampae (Graham) but differs from it in having pronotal collar regularly margined even at sides; median area of propodeum 1 .3x as broad as long; median carina weak; PMV as long as MV, head and thorax bronze green, flagellum

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Figs 17-18: Trichomalopsis acarinata sp. nov. Female: 17. Antenna, 18. Gaster in dorsal view;

Figs 19-25: Trichomalopsis ovigastra sp. nov. Female: 19. Head in dorsal view, 20. Head in front view, 21. Antenna, 22. Forewing venation, 23. Propodeum, 24. Gaster in dorsal view, 25. Male antenna;

Figs 26-31: Trichomalopsis travancorensis sp. nov. Female: 26. Head in dorsal view, 27. Thorax and gaster in profile, 28. Antenna, 29. Propodeum, 30. Gaster in dorsal view, 31. Forewing venation;

Figs 32-37: Trichomalopsis neelagastra sp. nov. Female: 32. Head in dorsal view, 33. Thorax and gaster in profile, 34. Antenna, 35. Propodeum, 36. Forewing venation, 37. Gaster in dorsal view.

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not stout (in lasiocampae collar irregularly margined except at sides, median area of propodeum 1 . 1- 1 .2x as broad as long and median carina distinct; PMV slightly shorter than MV; flagellum stout and thorax bright bluish-green).

Trichomalopsis travancorensis sp. nov.

(Figs 26-31)

Female: Length 1.6-2. 3 mm. (Holotype 2.3 mm). Head and thorax dark green with bronze- like gloss dorsally; gaster brown with slight bluish gloss dorsally on T1 ; Antennae brown with scape testaceous on two third part. Coxae concolorous with thorax; middle coxae brown; legs otherwise testaceous. Tegulae brown; wings hyaline; veins pale brown.

Head (Fig. 26): Width 1.14x thorax, in dorsal view width 2x length, in front view width 1.2x height; POL 1.4x OOL; temple length 0.7x eye length, slightly acuminate posteriorly; eyes separated by 1 .4x their length; malar space length 0.6x eye length; clypeus with anterior margin weakly emarginate. Scape (Fig. 28) 0.9x eye length; pedicel plus flagellum length 0.9x head width; club a little longer than two preceding segments combined.

Thorax (Fig. 27): Length 1.6x width, moderately curved in profile; pronotal collar sharply margined almost throughout with smooth strip posteriorly. Mesoscutum width 2.2x length, moderately reticulate. Scutellum wider than long, less convex; frenal area distinct. Propodeum (Fig. 29) with median area 1.2x as broad as long; median carina weak; plicae not reaching tip of nucha; nucha moderately convex; callus moderately hairy; postspiracular sulcus with transverse ridge. Forewing (Fig. 31) with basal cell and vein bare; MV 1 .9x STV and 1 .3x PMV. Relative lengths of SMV, MV, PMV, and STV as 30 : 14 : 11 : 7.5.

Gaster (Fig. 27, 30): Ovate elongate; length 1.8x width; longer than thorax; petiole

strongly transverse; T1 making up just less than half length (0.43x).

Male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype: India, Kerala, Female, Attingal, 23.ii.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan. Paratypes: Kerala: Calicut: 1 Female, Kazhakuttom, 25.ii.1989; 2 Females, Shertallai, 27. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Vayalar, 27. ii. 1989; 1 Female, data same as holotype; 2 Females, Kappil (Trivandrum), 26. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Konni,

27. xi.1988; 1 Female, Aakalam (Trivandrum), 25.ii.1989; 1 Female, Emakulam, 9.ii. 1989; Coll. P.M. Sureshan; 1 Female, R.E.C. Calicut,

28. xi.1985, Coll. T.C. Narendran.

Remarks: This species resembles T. dubius (Ashmead) in head shape, nature of antenna and propodeum, but differs in having scutellum moderately convex; propodeum with median carina less sharp; gaster longer than thorax (in dubius scutellum flattened, propodeum with distinct sharp median carina and gaster about as long as thorax). Closely resembles T. neelagastrci sp. nov. (also described) but differs from it in the combination of characters given in the key.

Trichomalopsis neelagastra sp. nov.

(Figs 32-37)

Female: Length 2-2.4 mm. (Holotype 2.3 mm). Head and thorax dark bluish-green with bronze-like gloss; gaster dark bluish-green; T1 with strong metallic blue gloss. Antennae brown with paler scape. Coxae concolorous with thorax, remainder of legs testaceous. Tegulae testaceous; wings hyaline; veins pale brownish-yellow.

Head (Fig. 32): Width 1.2x that of thorax; in dorsal view width 2x length and in front view width 1.3x height; temple 0.7x eye length; POL 1.5x OOL; eyes separated by 1.5x their length; malar space 0.6x eye length; clypeus with anterior margin weakly emarginate; head moderately reticulate. Toruli placed above lower margin of eyes; scape (Fig. 34) as long as eye,

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reaching level of vertex; combined length of pedicel and flagellum 0.9x head width.

Thorax (Fig. 33): Length 1.6x width; pronotal collar anteriorly margined throughout. Mesoscutum width 2.2x length. Scutellum less convex, wider than long, similarly sculptured as on mesoscutum; frenal area indicated. Propodeum (Fig. 35) with median area 1.2x as broad as long; median carina weak; plicae moderately strong; nucha convex; post spiracular sulcus with transverse ridge. Forewing (Fig. 36) with MV 1.8x STV and 1.5x PMV. Relative lengths of SMV, MV, PMV and STV as 41 : 15 : 10 : 8.5.

Gaster (Figs 33, 37): Ovate, length 1.7x width; as long as thorax; T1 occupying 0.54x length of gaster.

Male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype: India, Kerala, Female: Sreekariyam (Trivandrum), 25. ii. 1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan; Paratypes: Kerala: 1 Female, Kayamkulam, 2 1 .ii. 1989; 1 Female, Kappil (Trivandrum), 26.ii.1989; 1 Female, data same as holotype; 1 Female, Chavara, 22. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Elamathkavala

Refer

Boucek, Z. (1988): Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). CAB International Wallingford, U.K. Pp. 1-831.

Crawford, J.C. (1911): Descriptions of new Hymenoptera.

I. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 39: 617-623.

Crawford, J.C. ( 1 9 1 3): Descriptions of new Hymenoptera.

No. 6. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 45: 241-260.

Gahan, A.B. (1919): Report on a small collection of Indian parasitic Hymenoptera. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 56: 513-524.

Girault, A. A. (1917): Descriptiones Hymenopterorum Chalcidoidicarum variorum cum observationibus V.

1 6 pp. Glenndale, Md. (privately printed).

(Shertallai), 27.ii.1989; 1 Female, Emakulam, 9.ii.l989; 1 Female, Tenjipalam (Malappuaram), 16.X.1988, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.

Remarks: This species generally resembles T. caricicola (Graham), but differs in having temple 0.7x eye length; mesoscutum width 2.2x length, moderately reticulate; MV about 1.8x STV and 1.5x PMV; T1 occupying 0.54 x length of gaster (in caricicola temple about one quarter the length of eye; mesoscutum about twice as broad as long and finely reticulate; MV about 1.5-1.6x STV and PMV subequal to MV and T1 occupying rather less than half length of gaster).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. K. Kamijo, Bibai, Hokkaido, Japan for providing type material of the Oriental and Japanese species of Trichomalopsis and literature. P.M. Sureshan thanks the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata and the Officer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghats Field Research Station, Calicut, Kerala for facilities and encouragement.

ENCES

Girault, A. A. ( 1 926): Notes and descriptions of Australian Chalcid flies IV (Hymenoptera). Insecutor Inscit. menstr. 14: 58-73.

Graham, M.W.R. de V. (1969): The Pteromalidae of north- western Europe (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea) Bull. Br. Mus. (nat. Hist.) Ent. suppl. 16: 1-908. Kamijo, K. & E.E. Grissell (1982): Species of Trichomalopsis Crawford (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) from Rice paddy, with descriptions of two new species. Kontyu, Tokyo 50(1) : 76-87. Kurdjumov, N. (1913): Notes on Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Russk. Ent. Obozr. 13: 1-24.

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SOME NEW CHIRONOMIDAE FROM SOUTH AND MIDDLE ANDAMAN ISLANDS, INDIA (DIPTERA: CHIRONOMIDAE)1

Girish Maheshwari2 and Geeta Maheshwari3

( With four text-figures)

Key words: Diptera, Chironomidae, Andaman Islands, India

Little information is available on the Chironomidae of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Two new genera, namely Indoaxarus gen. no\., Andamanus gen. nov. and one new species Lindebergia kadamtullaensis sp. nov. are being described.

Introduction

Lindebergia Tuiskunen is a monotypic genus, based on a single male specimen, L. bothnica Tuiskunen. The taxonomic status of the genus was doubtful. Its independent taxonomic status is being established by cladistic analysis in this paper. A new species L. kadamtullaensis sp. nov. is also described. Two new genera and species namely Andamanus manii gen. nov., sp. nov. and Indoaxarus santokhi gen. nov., sp. nov. are also being described from Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The structure and terminology of Saether (1980) has been followed.

Subfamily: Orthocladiinae Genus Andamanus gen. nov.

Diagnosis: Habitat: Intertidal zone along the shoreline. Medium sized, pedicel rounded with two setal patches, antennal ratio 0.531, coronal suture incomplete, antepronotal lobes with dorsal notch, acrostichals absent, costa not extending beyond the tip of R4 5. Claws curved, pulvilli absent, spermatheca single with neck, ramus weak and short, intergonocoxal membrane present, gonapophysis VIII is divided into dorsal

'Accepted May, 1999

:School of Entomology, St. John’s College,

Agra 282 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

'Department of Zoology, B.S.A. College,

Mathura 281 004, Uttar Pradesh, India.

ventral and median lobes. Cercus setose and triangular.

Andamanus manii gen. nov. sp. nov.

(Figs la-e)

Description: Female Imago: Total body length 2.51 mm; wing length 1.88 mm.

Antenna: Scape poorly developed; pedicel rounded with two setal patches, anterior setal patch with 6-7 setae and posterior with 5-7 setae. Length/width of lst-4th flagellomeres: 0.136/ 0.033; 0.077/0.025; 0.077/0.022; 0.154/0.022 mm. First flagellomere larger than 2nd and 3rd, with two beaded structures, two whorls of setae, one on each. Second and third flagellomeres conical, each with a single whorl of 5-8 setae. Ultimate flagellomere beaded, broad based with a whorl of three setae on distal end. Antennal Ratio (AR) 0.531.

Head: Coronal suture incomplete, 0.109 mm long; temporal setae 20, frontal tubercle absent, eyes bare, bean-shaped, with weak dorsal extension. Length and width of clypeus 0.060 and 0.065 mm, clypeus bears 28 setae. Maxillary palps with five palpomeres, length/width: 0.026/ 0.021; 0.039/0.034; 0.104/0.030; 0.113/0.026; 0.217/ 0.017 mm. Tentorium tube, sieve tube, sieve pore present, cornua blunt, orifice rounded; labial lonchus elongated with rounded proximal end. (Fig. la)

Thorax: Antepronotal lobe reaching the projection of scutum, joining medially with a

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narrow notch, bare. Dorsocentralis 18-20 in a single row. Acrostichals absent, scutellum with 11-13 scutellars.

Wings: Subcosta short, ending before Rj, R, ending distal to r-m , R2+3 very weak. Costa not extending beyond the tip of R4+5. Squama not fringed (Fig. lc).

Legs: Fore tibial apex with a blunt scale, spur absent, claws curved. Mid tibial apex with two combs, dorsal complete with a single spur, ventral with a peg-like spur. Length of spurs 0.040 and 0.018 mm. Hind tibial apex with a single comb including 0.063 mm long spur. Pulvilli and empodium absent.

Female Genitalia: Spermatheca single, elongated, with neck, spermathecal duct opens independently into spermathecal eminence. Notum

Fig. lb: Andamanus manii: Anteropronotum lobe

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0.2 mm

Fig. lc: Andamanus manii: Wing

FORE LEG

MID LEG HINDLEG

0.02 mm

Fig. Id: Andamanus manii: 9 legs (First row: tibial apex, second row: fifth tarsal)

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Table 1

MEASUREMENTS OF LEGS (IN MM) AND LEG RATIO (LR) OF ANDAMANUS MANII

Fe

Ti

Ta,

Ta:

Ta?

Ta4

Ta5

LR

p,

0.872

0.631

1.095

0.5568

0.445

0.363

0.159

1.735

p„

1.063

0.963

0.681

0.3891

0.340

0.200

0.113

0.707

p;

0.927

0.877

0.436

0.263

0.204

0.136

0.090

0.497

elongated, ramus weak and short. Labia elongated with microtrichia. Postgenital plate broad, rounded. Intergonocoxal connective membrane present. Gonapophysis VIII setose divided into dorsal, ventral and median lobes. Gonocoxal apodeme extending to proximal end of coxostemapodeme. Cercus setose and triangular (Fig. le).

Type locality: Mayabunder, Middle Andaman; Andaman and Nicobar Is.; India.

Etymology: Named after Prof. M.S. Mam, the founder of School of Entomology.

Holotype: 1 9 Mayabunder, Middle Andaman, 21.xii.1983, Coll. G. Maheshwari. Deposited in the collection of School of

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Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra; India, (Regn. No. Ch. 21).

Paratype: Regn. No. Ch. 21a, one 9 , same data as holotype.

Systematics: The new genus Andamanus resembles the genus Halocladius Hirvenoja from the coastal brackish waters of the Holarctic Region. It also has certain affinities with Cricotopus v.d. Wulp and Paracladius Hirvenoja. Halocladius , Cricotopus and Paracladius can be distinguished from Andamanus gen. nov. by the presence of a decumbent dorsocentralis. Paracladius can be separated by prealars not extending anterior to level of median anepistemum II and bare mediolongitudinal area of tergite. Cricotopus and Halocladius can also be distinguished from Andamanus gen. nov., by hairy eyes. Female of Andamanus gen. nov. can be identified by a combination of characters: scape poorly developed, coronal suture incomplete, frontal tubercles absent, eyes bare, sieve pores present, antepronotal fused dorsally, subcosta short and ending before R, , pulvilli and empodium absent, spermatheca single, elongated with spermathecal neck.

Remarks: Adults were found gyrating on the water surface in the intertidal zone.

Subfamily: Orthocladiinae Genus Lindebergia Tuiskunen

Lindebergia Tuiskunen, Ann. ent. Fenn. 50:121

Diagnosis: Lindebergia Tuiskunen is a monotypic genus known only for L. bothnica. A single adult male was collected from the northern shore of the Gulf of Bothnia, Finland. It is characterised by 13 flagellomeres, sensilla chaetica on flagellomere 2, 3 and 13. Eyes bare without dorsomedial extension. Palp without sensilla clavata. Squamae bare. Pulvilli small. Pars ventralis present, gonostylus narrow without crista dorsalis, broad megaseta present.

Lindebergia kadamtullaensis sp. nov.

(Figs 2a-f)

Description: Male Imago: Body length 2.39 mm, wing length 1.397 mm, wing width 0.397 mm, body length : wing length is 1 .7 1 : 1 .0.

Antenna: Scape well developed and bare, pedicel covered with microsetae, flagellum with 13 flagellomeres, a median groove extends between 3rd and ultimate flagellomeres, distribution of setae from 1st to ultimate flagellomeres is 2-4, 9-11, 10-11, 10-12, 11-13, 8-10, 10-12, 1 1-13, 7-10, 10-11, 9-11, 10-12 and 75-85 respectively. Length and width of pedicel 0.88 and 0.114 mm. Length and width of flagellomeres 1st- 13th (in mm): 0.047, 0.025; 0.018, 0.025; 0.025, 0.025; 0.025, 0.022; 0.025, 0.023; 0.029, 0.020; 0.031, 0.018; 0.033, 0.018; 0.035, 0.018; 0.036, 0.016;-0.036, 0.014; 0.036, 0.016; 0.321, 0.016. Antennal ratio (AR) 0.853.

Head: Coronal suture complete, 0. 1 66 mm long, frontal tubercle present, temporal setae 5 (2 frontals, 3 post orbitals). Eyes bare without dorsal extension. Length and width of clypeus 0.051 and 0.099 mm respectively, with 18-22 setae. Maxillary palp with five palpomeres, length and width of palpomeres: 0.018, 0.014; 0.033, 0.020; 0.073, 0.018; 0.121, 0.16; 0.11, 0.016 mm respectively. Tentorium arm tubular, anterior tentorium pit and sieve pores absent; stipes narrow, cornua blunt and curved, orifice not seen, labial lonchus elongated and porous (Fig. 2a).

Thorax: Antepronotal lobes meeting dorsally, antepronotal 3-5; scutal tubercle absent, acrostichals absent; dorsocentralis in two rows, 8-12 in each row. Scopula thoracalis present; prealars not seen, humerals 2-4; scutellars in two rows, 5-7 in each row. Preepisternals 7-9; anepistemals 2-3; median anepistemal II absent.

Wings: Arculus bare, sensilla

campaniformia present, alula poorly developed. Costa extending well beyond the tip of R4+5; subcosta short, reaching the middle of R2+3; R,

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proximal to Cu}; R2+3 terminates near R4+5; R4+5 terminates slightly distal to Cu}; r-m proximal to cubital fork; Cu2 curved sharply (Fig. 2b).

Legs: Fore femur with a scale at distal inner margin; tibia with a single spur (0.054 mm long), comb absent. Empodium absent, claws slightly curved. Middle tibia with two spurs, outer spur 0.023 mm and inner spur 0.019 mm long. Pulvilli, arolium and empodium absent. Hind tibial apex with a row of 1 2- 1 5 strong setae, each tibia with two spurs, inner 0.020 mm and outer 0.054 mm long (Fig. 2c).

Male genitalia: Anterior end of abdominal segment VIII strongly narrow, posterior end broad, typically triangular. Anal tergal band V-type, reaching the base of aedeagus. Superior

volsella almost tongue shaped, setose. Pars ventralis very well developed with 6-8 marginal setae. Anal point broad, reaching the middle of gonocoxite. Gonostylus short, folded anteriorly and of peculiar shape (distal end broad with crista dorsalis), distal end rounded and broad. Crista dorsalis and megaseta present; megaseta rod shaped. Paraphallic ratio 2.62.

Female Imago: Total body length 2.58 mm, Head length 0.173 mm.

Antenna: Scape well developed, pedicel covered with microtrichia. Flagellum with five flagellomeres, each bearing 3, 4, 6, 5, 8 setae respectively.

Head: Coronal suture complete, 0. 159 mm long. Frontal tubercle present, temporal setae

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FORE LEG

Spur

Fig. 2c: Lindebergia kadamtullaensis : <3 Legs (First row: tibial apex, Second row: fifth tarsal)

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Fig. 2e: Lindebergia kadamtullaensis: $ Legs (First row: tibial apex, Second row: fifth tarsal)

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4-6; eyes bare without dorsal extension. Maxillary palps five. Tentorial arm tubular, sieve pore absent, stipes narrow, cornua blunt and curved.

Thorax, Wing and Legs: Same as male.

Female genitalia: Spermatheca single, situated in abdominal segment VII, almost oval, with a distinct neck; spermathecal duct straight.

Notum very well developed. Ramus forked at anterior margin of tergite IX, extending posteriorly to labia. Coxostemapodeme S-shaped. Labia comma shaped, covered with microtrichia. Spermathecal duct opens into spermathecal eminence without any modification. Gonocoxal apodeme straight. Gonapophyis VIII well developed, divided into dorsal and ventral lobes,

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Table 2

MEASUREMENTS OF LEGS (IN MM) AND LEG RATIO (LR) OF LINDEBERGIA KADAMTULLAENSIS

Fe

Ti

Tai

Ta,

Ta?

Ta4

Tas

LR

p,

0.5527

0.713

0.363

0.218

0.150

0.081

0.072

0.51

p.

0.540

0.577

0.277

0.140

0.104

0.063

0.065

0.48

p;

0.572

0.690

0.395

0.195

0.159

0.077

0.075

0.57

setose. Gonocoxite IX lobe shaped, covered with microtrichia. Postgenital plate triangular, bears setae. Gonostylus IX not visible, cercus flap-shaped, covered with microtrichia and macrotrichia.

Type locality: Kadamtulla seashore, Middle Andaman; Andaman and Nicobar Is.; India.

Etymology: Named after the site of collection, Kadamtulla.

Holotype: 1 9 Kadamtulla, Andaman and Nicobar Is., Coll. G. Maheshwari; deposited in the collection of School of Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra, India. Regn. No. Ch. 22.

Paratypes: 1 d, 3 9 9, (Regn. No. Ch. 22a, Ch 22b, Ch. 22c and Ch. 22d respectively) data same as holotype.

Systematics: The validity of the genus was not certain so far (Tuiskunen 1984). By describing one more species, Lindebergia kadamtullaensis , from the shore of Kadamtulla, Middle Andaman, from 2 male and 3 female specimens, the genus can be given validity. L. kadamtullaensis sp. nov. is closely related to L. bothnica , but can be distinguished by straight broad gonostylus with crista dorsalis and rod-shaped megaseta, pars ventralis long, broad anal point and strong triangular abdominal segment VIII. Female genitalia are described in detail.

Ecology: All specimens were collected from the rocky shoreline near Kadamtulla guest house, using Diptera net having a mesh size of 50-80|ii. One female was collected using an aspirator. Immature stages of the species are not known.

Subfamily: Chironominae Tribe: Chironomini Genus Indoaxarus gen. nov.

Diagnosis: Habitat: Coastal ponds and lakes. Medium sized, scape poorly developed, eleven flagellomeres, male antenna poorly plumose, frontal tubercle absent, antepronotal lobe bare and fused medially. Squamae bare, sensilla campaniformia present, r-m oblique, cubital fork distal to r-m. Foretibial apex with blunt scale, empodium serrated; middle tibial apex with two combs, each with movable spine. Anal tergal bands V-type, phallapodeme subulate, anal point T-shaped, strongly curved ventrally, superior volsella S-type, inferior volsella bearing falciform setae, median volsella lobe-like. Gonostylus directed posteriorly, crista dorsalis and megaseta absent.

Etymology: Since the material was collected from India and bears close affinities to Axarus , the genus has been named Indoaxarus.

Indoaxarus santokhi sp. nov.

(Figs 3a-d)

Description: Male Imago: Medium sized, total length 3.017 mm, wing length 2.183 mm, wing length: wing width 4.56: 3.61.

Antenna: Scape poorly developed; flagellum with 1 1 flagellomeres; flagellum poorly plumose; 2nd to 10th flagellomeres almost equal, distribution of setae on flagellomeres, 5-6, 8-9, 9-10, 9-11,9-10, 10-11, 10-11, 10-11, 1-9, 9-11, 3-5; ultimate flagellomere with 40-50 bristles. Last flagellomere longer than combined length

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of rest of flagellomeres. A median groove present from first to last flagellomere. Length and width of pedicel 0.09-0. 13 mm respectively. Length and width of flagellomeres, 1st - 1 1th: 0.088, 0.033; 0.029, 0.033; 0.025, 0.033; 0.033, 0.029; 0.025, 0.029; 0.025, 0.029; 0.029, 0.029; 0.02, 0.029; 0.025, 0.025; 0.025, 0.025; 0.564, 0.025 respectively. Antennal ratio (AR) 1.714.

Head: Coronal suture complete, 0.234 mm long; temporal setae 14-16 (including post orbitals), frontal tubercle absent; eyes bare; clypeus with 14 clypeals, length/width 0.065, 0.082 mm respectively. Maxillary palps with five

palpomeres, average length/width of palpomeres 0.032/0.21; 0.037/0.26; 0.104/0.026; 0.084/ 0.021; 0.151/0.016 mm respectively. Tentorium arm tube-like, posterior tentorial pit distal, sieve pore absent, anterior tentorial pit well developed, stipe tubular, length and width 0.087, 0.021 mm respectively. Cornua blunt, orifice oval, labial lonchus elongated with rounded proximal end. (Fig. 3a)

Thorax: Antepronotal lobe reaching the projection of scutum, meeting medially, bare; scutal tubercle present, bare; acrostichals four; dorsocentralis eight in a single row; humeral one;

0.08 mm

Fig. 3a: Indoaxarus santokhi : Head

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prealars two, scutellars 7-9, preepistemals 6-8; anepisternal suture complete; anepistemal 1-3.

Wing: Squamae bare, tegula small and triangular with a single seta; brachiolum with micro trichia and two setae; humeral plate square with microtrichia; scopula alaris covered with dense macrotrichia; axillary sclerites (III) with 2-3 setae, venarum ratio (VR) 0.408, sensilla campaniformia present; costa extends up to tip of R4+5; subcosta terminates distal to r-m; radius with 12-14 setae, Rj and R^ bare, R^ terminates near Rt , R4+5 straight, making a round with costa, R4+5 bare; r-m, oblique, media straight, ends distal to Cu]5 m-cu absent, cubital fork distal to r-m, Cu2 straight. (Fig. 3b)

Legs: Fore leg elongated, tibial apex with a blunt scale, first tarsal longer than tibia; fifth tarsal with a pair of highly curved claws. Empodium serrated and elongated; middle tibial apex with two combs, each with movable spine; dorsal scale present. Hind tibial apex bears dorsal and ventral combs (30-34 and 14-17 setae respectively), each containing a spur; ventro-lateral margin with pectinate scale, with two tiers of serrated structures (Fig. 3c).

Male Genitalia: Anal tergal bands V-type, reaching the base of anal point, lateral sternapodeme slightly curved, transverse sternapodeme broad; phallapodeme subulate.

coxapodeme straight, anal point broad distally, bare; T-shaped, very strongly curved ventrally, aedeagal setal patch with 11-16 setae; superior volsella S-type, bare, reaching up to 5/6th length of inferior volsella. Inferior volsella elongated lobe-shaped, bearing falciform setae. Median volsella broad, rounded, lobe-like, bearing microtrichia, reaching middle of inferior volsella. Gonocoxite with broad base, triangular in shape; gonostylus directed posteriorly, narrow base, elongated, pointed distally, distal inner margin with 13-17 subulate setae. Crista dorsalis and megaseta absent. Paraphallic ratio 0.32 (Fig. 3d).

Type locality: Port Blair, South Andaman; Andaman and Nicobar Is.; India.

Etymology: Named after Dr. Santokh Singh, one of the pioneers of high altitude entomology.

Holotype: d labelled Port Blair, Pond near Fire Brigade Station, 29.xii.1983, Coll. G. Maheshwari. Deposited in the collection of School of Entomology. St. John’s College, Agra, India (Regn. No. Ch. 23).

Paratypes: 4 d'd', (Regn. No. Ch. 23a-d) data same as holotype.

Systematics: Indoaxarus gen. nov. resembles Axarus Roback and Xenochironomus Kieffer. Xenochironomus can be distinguished by antepronotal lobes dorsally separated, scutum

0.15mm

Fig. 3b: Indoaxarus santokhv. Wing

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Spine

HINDLEG

Fig. 3c: Indoaxarus santokhi : <? Legs (First row: tibial apex, Second row: fifth tarsal)

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Table 3

MEASUREMENTS OF LEGS (IN MM) AND LEG RATIO (LR) OF INDOAXARUS SANTOKHI

Fe Ti Ta, Ta, Ta3 Ta4 Ta5 LR

P, 0.636 0.463 0.831 0.418 0.340 0.236 0.118 1.79

P, 0.640 0.590 0.309 0.159 0.068 0.127 0.063 0.52

Pj 0.613 0.531 0.295 0.304 0.127 0.063 0.055 0.55

tubercle absent, squama fringed, pulvilli present, superior volsella very short, median volsella absent, gonostylus medially broadened. Genus Axarus can be diagnosed by antepronotal lobes dorsally wide apart, scutum tubercle absent, anal lobe of wing absent, squama not fringed, pulvilli present, superior volsella flap-like, with forked and expanded microtrichia, median volsella absent. As apparent from the above discussion, the genus Indoaxarus has its own peculiarities and independent status.

Ecology and distribution: Indoaxarus was collected from a coastal pond in Port Blair (South Andaman Islands), while Axarus inhabits littoral and sublittoral soft sediment of rivers and lakes. Xenochironomus are obligate miners of fresh water sponges.

Phylogenetic considerations: In order to determine the validity of a newly proposed taxon above the species level, a cladistic analysis should be done. We have studied the phylogenetic position of the new genus within Family Chironomidae. The polarity of the characters have been determined by the following Out Group Comparison Method (Wiley 1981).

Previous investigations have not explicitly discussed the relationship of Lindebergia with the other Chironomidae. The genus is monobasic, in Subfamily Orthocladiinae, pars ventralis is present only in Lindebergia and some Limnophyes. This shows that the character is synapomorphic. The present analysis evaluated 12 characters and eight taxa, including a generalized outgroup based largely on the Simulidae and Ceratopogonidae. Most multistate characters such as 1, 5 and 6 are coded as additive, as outgroup comparison permitted

Table 4

CHARACTERS AND ALTERNATE STATES USED IN CLADISTIC ANALYSIS

1.

Antenna

0.

d* antenna plumose

1.

<S antenna poorly plumose

2.

<S antenna pilose

2.

Coronal suture

0.

Coronal suture complete

1.

Coronal suture incomplete

2.

Coronal suture very poorly developed.

3.

Median volsella

0.

Median volsella absent

1.

Median volsella present

4.

Eyes

0.

Eyes bare

1.

Eyes hairy

5.

Maxillary palp

0.

Maxillary palp with 4 palpomeres

1.

Maxillary palp with 5 palpomeres

2.

Maxillary palp with 3 palpomeres

6.

Antepronotal lobes 0.

Antepronotal lobes fused medially

1.

Antepronotal lobes with median notch

2.

Antepronotal lobes separated

7.

Supra-alars

0.

Supra-alars absent.

1.

Supra-alars present

8.

Squamae

0.

Squama not fringed

1.

Squama fringed

9.

Pulvilli

0.

Pulvilli absent

1.

Pulvilli present

10.

Post genital plate

0.

Weakly developed

1.

Well developed

11.

Spermathecae

0.

Without microtrichia

1.

With microtrichia

12.

Spermathecal duct

0.

Spermathecal ducts without bulb before common opening.

1.

Spermathecal ducts with bulb before common opening.

(0 = plesiomorphic; 1 , 2 apomoiphic)

logical arrangement in linear transformation series. Homoplasy is exhibited by characters 7, 8, 9. In case of Indoaxarus and Axarus , symplesiomorphy is shown by characters 4, 5 and 7. Autapomorphies, certain characters of male genitalia, such as volsella, provide no information

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Table 5

MATRIX OF CHARACTERS AND ALTERNATE STATES USED IN THE CLADISTIC ANALYSIS (M=MALE,

F=FEMALE, ?=UNKNOWN)

Taxon/Characters

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12'

Out group

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Indoaxarus

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

?

7

7

Axarus

0

?

0

0

1

2

1

1

1

?

7

9

Xenochironomus

0

0

0

0

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

0

Andamanus

0

1

?

0

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

Halocladius

0

0

0

1

2

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

Cricotopus

0-2

0-1

0

1

0

l

0

1

0-1

0-1

1

1

Semaphoront

M

M+F

M

M+F

M+F

M+F

M+F

M+F

M+F

F

F

F

about relationship and were therefore excluded from the analysis. Character analysis resulted in a single tree with a few steps (Fig. 4).

Abbreviations used: Ar = Arolium, PM1- PM5 = Palpomeres 1-5, O = Orfice, La = Labia, PTP = Post tentorial pit, TN = Tentorium, OV = Outer verticals, CP = Cibarial pump, B = Brachiolum, Scf = Sensilla campaniformia, CO = cornua, Sq = Squama, A = Anal, Ti = Tibia, Tal-Ta5 = Tarsal 1-5, Sea = Spermatheca, ScN = Spermathecal Neck, Sc Duct = Spermathecal duct, No = Notum, GCa = Gonocoxapodeme, Coa =

Coxastemapodeme, PGP = Post genital |>late, CE = Cercus, Gp VIII = Gonapophysis VIII, Ra = Ramus, SPE = Spermathecal eminence, FT gj Frontal tubercle, Aed = Aedeagus, ATB = Anal Tergal band, PV = Pars Ventralis, SVo = Superior volsella, MS = Mega Seta, CD = Crista dorsalis, CS = Coronal suture, T = Tentorium, VC = Ventral Comb, DC = Dorsal Comb, Em = Empodium, AP = Anal Point, MVo = Median volsella, I Vo = Inferior volsella, TSA = Transverse stemapodeme, LSA = Lateral stemapodeme, R = radius, C = Costa, Sc = Subcosta, RM = Radiomedian.

ANDAMANUS

INDOAXARUS

AXARUS

Fig. 4: Hypothesized phylogenetic relationship of new genera, Indoaxarus and Andamanus

with other Chironomidae

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References

Saether, O.A. (1980): Glossary of chironomid morphology terminology (Diptera: Chironomidae). Ent. Scand. Suppl. 14: 1-51.

Tuiskunen, J. (1984): Lindebergia bothnica gen. n., sp. n.

(Diptera: Chironomidae). Ann. Ent. Fenn. 50 : 121-122. Wbley, E.O. ( 1 98 1 ): Phylogenetics, the Theory and practice of phylogenetic systematics. J. Wiley & Sons, New York xv + 439 pp.

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A NEW SPECIES OF MOTH UNDER GENUS LEMYRA (ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA) 1

Amritpal S. Kaleka2

( With eight text-figures)

Key words: Lemyra , L. stigmata , L. wernerthomasi, L. walkeri sp. nov.

A new species walkeri of genus Lemyra Walker (Family Arctiidae, Lepidoptera) has been described and illustrated. It is closely allied to Lemyra stigmata Moore.

Introduction

The genus Lemyra Walker was proposed as a monotypic genus by Walker in 1856 with the type species extensa from Sulawesi (Celebes). Hampson ( 1 894, 1901) has not included this genus in his publications. The type species of the genus has been studied in detail by Holloway (1988). Werner Thomas (1990) listed three Indian species i.e. nigrifrons Walker, stigmata Moore and khasiana Thomas under this genus. Werner Thomas {pers. comm.) indicated that Lemyra Walker would be revised to include a number of species, currently placed under Spilosoma Steph. He was revising this group when he died on February 28, 1 99 1 . However, Kishida et al. ( 1 992) listed these species under genus Lemyra in their publication moths of nepal. In the present work, two Indian species, namely stigmata Moore and walkeri sp. nov. have been studied.

The validity of the new species has been confirmed by comparing it with an allied species of genus Lemyra, and those of Spilosoma. The species stigmata was studied by Inoue (1993), while comparing it with a new species wernerthomasi from Taiwan. Thus, only walkeri is described and illustrated here in detail.

Lemyra walkeri sp. nov.

(Figs 1- 8)

Head with vertex and frons furnished with

'Accepted October, 1 999

department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India.

pale buff scales, lower half of frons clothed with black scales. Antenna with scape having pale buff scales, flagellum black. Eyes golden-brown, bearing black spots. Labial palpus porrect, reaching lower level of frons and clothed with black scales.

Thorax, collar and tegula covered with pale buff scales; vertex of thorax with dorsal median black streak; pectus black in front. Forewing with ground colour pale buff, with a black, short streak in cell and points on costa and cell, spots below cell and on vein 1A; a medial series of spots angled on medial nervure, then strongly incurved with short streak on inner margin; a postmedial series of short oblique streaks on either side of veins from apex, excurved below median nervure; submarginal spots on either side of veins M2, M3 and Cu^ maculation much stronger on underside; vein M2 arising from just above lower angle of cell; Cut from before lower angle; Cu2 from well beyond middle of cell. Hindwing with ground colour whitish buff, a discoidal spot; submarginal spots on Rs and each side of M2, Cu2 and 1 A; underside discoidal spot not visible, submarginal series prominent; vein Sc + R, originating from well beyond middle of cell; Rs from just before upper angle of cell; M, from upper angle; M2 and M3 from lower angle of cell; Cu, from before lower angle of cell. Legs with forecoxae dressed with black scales on underside; femora crimson dorsally, fore femur black ventrally, whereas mid and hind femora fringed with pale yellow scales on underside; fore and midtibia and tarsi yellow; hind tarsi fuscous, with rows of tarsal spines on inner side; outer tibial spurs more than half length of inner ones.

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Figs 1-8: Lemyra walkeri n. sp., 1. Forewing, 2. Hindwing, 3-8. Male genitalia

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Abdomen covered with crimson scales and long, whitish hairs; ventral side bearing pale yellow scales, dorsal, lateral and sublateral series of black spots. Male genitalia with uncus of moderate length, broad at base, curved, tapering towards distal end, tip blunt, visible as pointed in lateral view, dorsally setosed; a slightly developed acrotergite; tegumen well developed, inverted V-shaped, slightly longer than vinculum; vinculum broad, U-shaped; saccus small. Valva simple, basal half broad; sacculus and costa slightly marked; a medial triangular setose projection on costal side; upper half narrow, cylindrical; valvula and cucullus fused into a nearly straight tip; juxta large, distinctly visible into two parts, basal broad and distal bifurcated U-shaped structure, transtilla small, broad at base. Aedeagus long and slender; tip rounded, slightly curved at distal end, both of its walls equally sclerotized; vesica armed with a patch of comuti arranged in a typical manner, a sclerotized patch above these, with triangular sharply pointed spines. Female genitalia not examined.

Wing Expanse (Half): Male, 22 mm. Material Examined: Holotype: Male, Arunachal Pradesh, West Kameng district, Bomdila, 2,600 m, 10.ix.1994, Coll. A.P. Singh. Paratype: 2 Male, Arunachal Pradesh: West Kameng district, Bomdila, 2,600 m, 1 l.ix.1994, Coll. A.P. Singh.

Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh. Remarks: The new species walkeri is closely related to Lemyra stigmata Moore,

Refei

Hampson, G.F. (1894): Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma, Moths, 2: 1-609. Taylor and Francis Ltd., London.

Hampson, G.F. (1901): Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalaenae in the British Museum 3 : 1 -690, London. Holloway, J.D. (1988): Moths of Borneo, 6: 1-101. CAB International Institute of Entomology, London. Inoue, H. (1993): A new species of genus Lemyra Walker from Taiwan (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae: Arctiinae) Nachr. Entomol. Ver. Apollo Frankfurt/Main N.F.

however, it differs from stigmata in having heavier maculation and wing venation as vein M2 originates from just above lower angle and Cu, from before lower angle of cell in fore wing; hindwing with vein Rs arising from just before upper angle of cell and Cu1 from before lower angle; male genitalia with valva having triangular medial projection; aedeagus short, without any sclerotized projection at distal end; juxta also differs in shape. The species under reference is also clearly distinct from wernerthomasi in wing maculation, shape of valva and aedeagus.

Etymology: The name pertains to the eminent lepidopterist, F. Walker.

Abbreviations used: 1 A = First anal vein, 2 A = Second anal vein, AED = Aedeagus, CO = Costa, CRN = Comuti, CUj = First cubital vein, Cu2 = Second cubital vein, DU.EJ = Ductus ejaculatorius, F = Frenulum, JX = Juxta, M, = First median vein, M2 = Second median vein, M3 = Third median vein, R, = First radial vein, R2 = Second radial vein, R3 = Third radial vein, R„ = Fourth radial vein, Rc = Fifth radial vein, Rs = Radial Sector, SA = Saccus, Sc = Subcosta, Sc + R, = Stalk of Sc + Rl, SL = Sacculus, TG = Tegumen, TRA = Transtilla, UN = Uncus, VIN = Vinculum, VLV = Valva.

Acknowledgement

I thank CSIR, New Delhi for financial assistance.

ENCES

13 (la): 351-354.

Kishida, Y., S. Sugi & H. Yoshimoto (1992): Moths of Nepal 13(2), Part 1: 72-75. Japan Heterocerists’ Society, Tokyo, Japan.

Thomas, Werner (1990): Die gattung Lemyra (Arctiidae, Lepidoptera) Nachr. Entomol. Ver. Apollo, Frankfurt Suppl. 9: 1-83.

Walker, F. ( 1 856): List of the specimens of Lepidopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum 7: 1508-1786.

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ISEILEMA JAINIANA (FAMILY POACEAE) — A NEW GRASS SPECIES FROM COASTAL TAMIL NADU, INDIA1

P. Umamaheswari2 and P. Daniel3 ( With one text-figure)

Key words: Iseilema jainiana , new grass, Gulf of Mannar

A new grass, Iseilema jainiana , from the Gulf of Mannar coast in Tamil Nadu, is described

and illustrated.

Iseilema jainiana sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

I. laxum Hack, affinis, sed spiculis involucrorum curtioribus (c. 3.5 mm longis); gluma inferam oblonga, curtiora (c. 3 mm longa) et 5-7 nervata; gluma superam oblongo-elliptica et curtiora ( c . 3.5 mm longa); spiculis sessilium, gluma inferam, gluma superam et lemmate curtiore (respecte c. 3 mm, 2.8 mm, 3 mm et 1 1 mm longo), et granis curtioribus differt.

Typus: india: Tamil Nadu, Tuticorin district, Gulf of Mannar coast, Kanyakumari - Thiruchendur highway, between Karaichuthu and Padakkapathu diversion, on elevated ground, c. 40 m, 26.i.l996, P. Daniel & P. Umamaheswari 107240 (CAL, holotypus; MH, isotypus).

Annual; culms tufted, erect, c. 60 cm, glabrous. Leaves linear, acuminate, 3-15 x 0.2- 0.4 cm, glabrous, glandular or scabrid towards the base; ligules with a fringe of hairs, c. 0.4 cm wide; sheaths 2-6 cm long, glabrous, purplish near the node. Panicles up to 15 cm long; spathe boat-shaped, 0.8-2 cm long. Involucral spikelets 4, whorled, staminate, lanceolate, acute, c. 3.5 x 1 mm; pedicel terete, c. 1 mm long, ciliate at the base; lower glume oblong, obtuse, c. 3x1 mm, keeled, bearded on the keel; nerves 5-7, prominent; upper glume oblong or elliptic, obtuse

'Accepted November, 1 999

’Botany Department, Sri Sarada College,

Salem 636 016, Tamil Nadu, India.

-’Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India.

or subacute, c. 3.2 x 1 mm, 3-nerved; lemma linear-oblong, toothed, as long as the upper glume, membranous, hyaline, palea absent. Lodicules 2, truncate. Stamens 3; anthers c. 1.7 mm long. Pedicellate spikelets 2, staminate, elliptic, acute, c. 3.5 x 0.9 mm; pedicel c.

1.5 mm long, glabrous; lower glume oblong or elliptic, obtuse, c. 3.5 x 1 mm; nerves 9, prominent, ridge-like beneath; upper glume oblong, abruptly acute, c. 3x1 mm, 3-nerved; lemma linear, as long as the upper glume, membranous, hyaline. Stamens 3; anthers 2-

2.5 mm long. Sessile spikelet lanceolate-ovate, c. 3 x 0.5 mm, awned; lower glume lanceolate- ovate, bifid, c. 2.8 x 1 mm, keeled, minutely ciliolate; nerves 2, faint; upper glume oblong- ovate, shortly mucronate, c. 3 x 0.8 mm, 1 -nerved; lemma awn-like, c. 11 mm long, hyaline for c. 1.5 mm at the base, geniculate, purplish-brown for c. 4.5 mm, stramineous for c. 5 mm; palea oblong, obtuse, c. 2 x 0.6 mm, hyaline. Ovary ellipsoid or oblong, c. 0.8 mm long; styles 2, c. 1.2 mm long; stigmas 2, c.

3.5 mm long, plumose, brownish. Grains ellipsoid, cuneate at the base, c. 1.5 x 0.5 mm, yellowish.

FI. & Fr.: December- January.

Habitat: Open dry coastal plains, on red soil, rare.

Distribution: Gulf of Mannar coast, Tamil

Nadu.

Iseilema jainiana is allied to I. laxum Hack., but differs from it as shown in Table 1.

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

G. Stamens and lodicules, H. Lower glume of pedicellate spikelet, I. Upper glume of pedicellate spikelet, J. Lower glume of sessile spikelet, K. Upper glume of sessile spikelet, L. Lemma of sessile spikelet,

M. Palea of sessile spikelet, N. Pistil, O. Grain

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Table 1

COMPARISON BETWEEN 1SEILEMA LAXUM AND ISEILEMA JAINIANA

Character

I. laxum Hack.

I. jainicina sp. nov.

1. Involucral

c. 4.5 mm long

c. 3.5 mm long

spikelets 2. Lower glume

ovate, c. 4.2 mm

oblong, c. 3 mm

long, 7-9 nerved

long, 5-7 nerved

3. Upper glume

lanceolate or ovate,

oblong or elliptic,

c. 4 mm long

c. 3.2 mm long

4. Sessile spikelets

c. 5 mm long

c. 3 mm long

5. Lower glume

c. 5 mm long

c. 2.8 mm long

6. Upper glume

c. 4.5 mm long

c. 3 mm long

7. Lemma

c. 14 mm long

c. 1 1 mm long

8. Grains

c. 2 mm long

c. 1.5 mm long

Etymology: This species is named after Dr. S. K. Jain, former Director, BSI, Kolkata, who has contributed greatly to the study of Poaceae of India.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, BSI, Kolkata, for facilities, Dr. V.J. Nair, former Deputy Director, BSI, Coimbatore, for confirming the taxonomy and providing the Latin diagnosis, and Mr. R. Suresh, Sr Artist, BSI, Coimbatore, for the illustration. This study is part of a project on the angiosperm flora of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve funded by the MoEF, Govt of India, for which P. Umamaheshwari thanks the Ministry.

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REVIEWS

1 . THE BIRDS OF ASSAM, by Anwaruddin Choudhury. Published in 2000 by Gibbon Books & WWF-North-East Regional Office, Guwahati. (25.5 x 19 cm), pp. 240. Price Rs. 575/-.

Natural History, especially ornithology, is a subject in which amateurs have played a major role in its advancement. Much before ‘professional’ ornithologists with M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees came on to the scene, Indian ornithology, as elsewhere, was dominated by highly interested, and extremely meticulous, dedicated amateurs. E.C.S. Baker who pioneered the work on the birds of northeast India was a police officer, while A.O. Hume, the father of Indian ornithology, was a civil servant. After Independence, Dr. Salim Ali, who also was a thorough scientist with no great university degrees, dominated Indian ornithology. It is difficult to place Dr. Anwaruddin Choudhury in any category. He has an M.A. in Geography, Ph.D. in Primatology, works in the Assam Civil Service and is a naturalist by heart. He is the founder Chief Executive of The Rhino Foundation for Nature, a non-governmental organisation in northeast India, and is at present the Director of Tea for Assam State. He is a prolific writer, with more than 300 articles and research papers, eight books and monographs. Anwar is interested in wildlife and nature photography, cartography, philately and drawing.

It is a pleasure to review Anwar’s recent book the birds of assam, a boon for those interested in the birds of this region, as it gives up-to-date information on them. All the birds recorded or reported within the geographic limits of Assam have been listed. The book starts with a brief Introduction, which tells us the aim and scope of the book, nomenclature used, and keys and abbreviations. It is followed by succinct chapters on ‘History of Ornithology’, ‘Bird Migration’ and ‘Birds in Different Habitats’. I found the third chapter very informative as it gives the extent of different forests types in Assam, important grasslands, rivers and

wetlands. The fourth chapter ‘Birds and Man’ discusses birds useful or harmful to man; hunting, trapping and the famous Jatinga bird migration. The fifth and sixth chapters ‘Selected species accounts’ and ‘Notes on some other species’ which contain English, scientific and Assamese names, distribution in and outside Assam, ecology, historical status, and current population and conservation requirements, are the backbone of the book. Distribution maps of each species and beautifully crafted line diagrams of birds, all by Anwar, embellish the species account. The seventh chapter lists all the 820 species and subspecies reported from Assam. In 1990, Anwar had published a ‘Checklist of the Birds of Assam’ which included 946 species and subspecies. However, this book has mainly species, with a few exceptions where two or three subspecies occur within Assam. Anwar has used Ali & Ripley’s classification, but has also included new English names (e.g. woolly-necked stork for white-necked stork, short-toed snake eagle for short-toed eagle). In the appendices, he has given lists of ornithological and conservation bodies, journals and newsletters, good bird watching areas, national parks and sanctuaries of Assam, and major wetlands and tanks of Assam. The bibliography contains 286 references. The book ends with an index of English and scientific names. In a nutshell, nothing that makes a good scientific book is missed. The only drawback is the picture quality, though the original pictures must have been good. The printing is substandard.

Anwar’s book is a valuable addition to the ornithology of Assam, and will remain so for many years till he updates it. I wish we had such books from the other states of India.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

428

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2. FORESTRY FOR TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT by R. S. Shukla ‘Greener’. Published in 2000 by Wheeler Publishing, Allahabad. (16.1 x 24.1 cms), pp.xvii + 274. Paperback edition price Rs. 250/-.

Comprising of 12 chapters, the book covers the anthropological and demographic aspects of the main tribes of India, forest types, constitutional provisions, tribal economy and various tribal beneficiary schemes. Aspects like Forestry for Tribal Development, Distribution of Forests and Tribals in India, Distribution of Wildlife and Tribals in India, religion, myths, customs and social organization; Culture and Art of Tribals have also been covered. Forest policy and legislation, five year plans and tribals, forest products, shifting cultivation and tribals, and their dependence on the forest have been discussed in some detail. The chapter on medicinal plants is especially interesting.

The importance of tribals and their societies is acknowledged constitutionally and the creation of the Ministry of Tribal Development will give an impetus to tribal welfare. This subject is now a part of the curriculum of the Forest Services. The description of tribal life and folklore makes for valuable reference material within the covers of a book. The author has rightly pointed out that forestry programmes have to be in consonance with the socioeconomic fabric of tribal culture. Emphasis should be on empowerment, security and opportunity to tribals to help strengthen their symbiotic relationship with their habitat.

The life of tribal communities like the Santhals, Todas and Nagas have been highlighted with interesting insights into their culture and folklore. Tribal population in various States is also enumerated, districtwise, like in Gujarat, which is home to one of the most ancient tribes, the Bhils, in the country, and the largest tribal group in the State.

The wealth of information, especially anthropological details are interesting and informative. The book will be useful for anthropologists, administrators, policy makers, environmentalists and organizations concerned with tribal welfare. It provides in-depth knowledge on forests and environment in the context of tribals and will be relevant to any concerned citizen with sensitivity towards the disadvantaged. The present effort should also help sensitize the Forest Department to the plight of tribals at the receiving end of development projects. This is a welcome departure from the British legacy, which continued till the late 1970s and which laid emphasis on rigid attitudes and policing of forests rather than a sensitive approach to human problems.

Unfortunately, the editing leaves much to be desired. In Chapters like ‘Distribution of Wildlife’ and ‘Tribals in India’ a cursory and casual approach to the topic is apparent as indicated by a number of wrong spellings, like paradeet for parakeet, holock for hoolock, Valvador for Velavadar and incorrect information like the wild ass is found only in the Rann of Kutch, when it is also found in Ladakh. IUCH for IUCN, Permitive Tribes for Primitive Tribes! Similar howlers occur in the Chapter on ‘Medicinal plants’. Such glaring mistakes, which occur throughout the book, reflect badly on the editors. At times, the book drifts and jars the reader who is suddenly confronted with an irrelevant statement in the midst of a well- structured paragraph. Moreover, topics included with obvious lack of expertise gives a feeling that it is an attempt to flesh out the book.

■ S. ASAD AKHTAR

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REVIEWS

3. A BIBLIOGRAPHIC INDEX TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT by Aasheesh Pittie. Produced by the compiler (2001). CD Rom containing approximately 18,000 references to publications on the ornithology of the Indian region — accessed by a retriever version of the bibliography (database) software Papyrus. Price: Rs. 1,000/- for institutions and Rs. 500/- for individuals. For details email aasheesh@vsnl.net.in or write to 8-2- 545, Road No. 7, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034.

I felt a little odd and thought the task too dry when I was asked to write a review of a compact disc, and that too one that comprised almost entirely of bibliographic records. However, there was no option, as I work in the ENVIS (Environmental Information System) Centre at the BNHS, a project of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, which maintains its own database on Indian ornithology and inland wetlands.

The compact disc, which is to be downloaded into one’s computer (12.2 MB hard disc space), is the work of Aasheesh Pittie, a birder of the Birdwatchers’ Society of Andhra Pradesh and a member of the BNHS. The keyword-based database contains about 18,000 references of publications on the ornithology of the Indian region and is intended to facilitate literature search for those interested in birds. The product has come out after more than two decades of work, and for those who are not aware of it, Aasheesh had brought out a bibliographic index of the papers of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (Volumes 1-90) and 10 volumes of Stray Feathers in book form in 1995. Additionally, he indexed Volumes 20 to 31 of the Newsletter for Birdwatchers, which were brought out as an issue of the Newsletter (Vol. 34, No. 3) in 1994.

A major problem that confronts computer users is the plethora of software programmes in the market — one could be very literate in one and a total loss with another. Added to this is the release of new versions of the same product every few years — money for the software

manufacturers, but headaches for users. Additionally, there is the problem of the two operating systems, DOS and Windows. People used to Windows tend to look down on or are wary of DOS based operating software since one has to learn, remember and type in commands to work on them. Being used to a Windows based database programme, I felt a little nervous about trying out Aasheesh’ s DOS based software, but found it very user friendly and soon got the hang of it, as Aasheesh had assured in his introduction to the bibliographic index.

One of the problems of the existing bibliography software is the absence of an automatic warning system to let one know if a record has been entered twice — we find this a problem at ENVIS. I got a case of double entry the first time I tried a retrieval of records from Aasheesh’ s database, which was intimated to him. However, I expect duplication of records to be less of a problem with Aasheesh’s database as he has almost single-handedly entered the records himself and is known for his meticulousness. To test the efficacy of the software, I gave retrieval commands for my own papers. A search for ‘florican’ did not list my papers among the 10 others, but ‘Manakadan’ churned out the two that I have published. Why? However, a similar search for ‘ AnseF and ‘Manakadan’ brought out my record of the sighting of the greater white-fronted goose Anser albifrons in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh.

This database of 1 8,000 odd entries covers the published work of the Indian region covering Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,

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Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, and also Tibet. More than 600 different journals, newsletters, etc., have been covered. Also books, theses, unpublished reports, and chapters from books, papers and Internet reports. References are indexed on keywords and can be retrieved on the basis of authors, countries, sites, scientific names (currently used), group or family names of birds (herons, raptors) but not on the basis of common names such as little egret, biological characteristics (breeding, feeding, etc.) and ornithological subjects (bird watching, checklist, catalogues, etc.) — what more can one want?

Aasheesh cautions that some of the references may not be accurate as their source is ‘second-hand’, having been taken from the reference sections of various publications. While processing queries for our own database at ENVIS, we have, on a number of occasions, come across wrongly cited references, sometimes even the journal in which the paper was published is incorrect! Indian birders tend to give the reference section of their papers the least importance, a major headache for other researchers and database managers [and

editors!]. So users of Aasheesh’s database (and our ENVIS Centre’s database), please do not get puzzled if you sometimes do not find the paper in the journal cited!

I applaud Aasheesh for the hard, painstaking work he has put into this endeavour. Being in the same field, I know how tedious, boring and eye-straining it is with databases, and like Aasheesh said, “a puzzlement to his family”. I guess the cutting of the CD is as good as a healthy, bonny baby after all the labour pains! This is a landmark achievement in Indian ornithology. The BNHS too has had plans to bring out the key word based ornithological bibliographic database available at our ENVIS Centre in a CD form, but Aasheesh is the early bird who caught the worm!

Tailpiece: After one punches the exit option for the programme, a message is flashed across the monitor. Why do I mostly get “Don’t worry — everyone has days like this! ’’Does the programme also make astrological forecasts or mind read, or is this the ‘fate’ of database personnel?

■ RANJIT MANAKADAN

■ ■ ■

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1. HOOLOCK GIBBON (HYLOBATES HOOLOCK) FEEDING ON LICHENS

During the behavioural studies of hoolock gibbon ( Hylobates hoolock) in the Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) and Borajan Reserve Forest (now WLS), in the upper Assam forest circle (India), we observed gibbons feeding on lichens, growing on the bark of trees. The forest may be categorized under Tropical Evergreen to Semi-evergreen and Moist Dipterocarp types. Gibbons are known to be frugivorous (Chivers 1984). Our study reveals that lichens constituted 2.7% of the hoolock gibbon’s diet in Gibbon WLS and 1% in Borajan WLS, during the pre- monsoon months (March to May) in 1999.

The identification of lichens is currently underway, but the types were confirmed as typical foliose and fructose.

This study was funded by the Indo-US Primate Project, JNV University, Jodhpur.

August 28, 2000 P. BUJARBARUA

Department of Botany, Gauhati University, Guwahati 781 014, Assam, India.

J. DAS

Department of Zoology’, Gauhati University, Guwahati 781 014, Assam, India.

Reference

Chivers, D.J. ( 1 984): Feeding and ranging of Gibbons, a summary. In: The Lesser Apes, Evolutionary and Behavioural Biology. (Eds: Preuchoft, H., D.J. Chivers, W.Y. Brokelman andN. Creel) Edinburg University Press, Edinburg, pp. 267-284.

2. PREDATION BY TIGER PANTHERA TIGRIS LINN. ON GAUR BOS GAURUS H. SMITH IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE, MADHYA PRADESH

During a study in Pench Tiger Reserve (PTR), Madhya Pradesh on gaur (Bos gaurus) by the Wildlife Institute of India, predation on gaur by carnivores was observed from 1996 to 1999. The PTR (78° 55' E to 79° 35' E and 21° 8' N to 22° N; 757.85 sq. km) lies in the southern lower reaches of Satpura hill ranges in Madhya Pradesh and comprises of the Sanctuary, National Park and Reserved Forests. The vegetation falls under Tropical Moist Deciduous and Tropical Dry Deciduous types (Champion and Seth 1968). The terrain is undulating, with hillocks and ravines, varying from 220 m to 650 m.

Between February 1996 and September 1999, 76 kills of wild ungulates were located in PTR. Of these, only 5 were of gaur — two yearlings, two bulls and one cow (Table 1). All were tiger (Panthera tigris ) kills, except one yearling male gaur in 1996, whose predator could not be ascertained, as the kill was 4-5 days old and no tracks or other signs were seen. Three

adult gaur kills had deep puncture marks, either on the hind or forelegs or both, or on the throat. In two of the adult bulls killed, the cervical vertebrae were broken. The yearling gaur had bites on both the throat and the nape. No signs

Table 1

GAUR ( BOS GAURUS) KILLS IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE

Date

Age & Sex

Predator

No.

Remarks

10.04.1996

Yearling

(Male)

Unknown

1

14.04.1997

Yearling

(Male)

Tiger

1

(Infected)

Foot and Mouth Disease

26.04.1997

Bull

(4-5 years)

Tiger

1

10.05.1997

Bull

(5-6 years)

Tiger

1

13.06.1997

Cow

(4-5 years)

Tiger

1

Pregnant (7-8 months old foetus recovered from the womb on post-mortem)

Total

5

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of severed tendons, suggesting biting of hock and hamstring, were recorded in any of the gaur kills.

On two occasions, the tiger was sighted feeding on gaur kills (April 26 and May 10, 1997). The flesh from the rump was consumed in both the kills. To determine how the prey was killed, the kill sites, carcasses and tracks were examined. In both cases, the gaur was chased by the tiger for about 75-100 m before it was finally brought down. At places, the muddy ground had been churned, and had several deep hoof marks, indicating that the animal had struggled for survival. The gaur killed on May 10, 1997 had defecated and urinated at one place, during the chase.

Several hunters and naturalists have described the hunting technique of the tiger. It is known to prefer the throat for killing prey larger than itself (Sunquist 1981, Karanth 1993). For smaller animals, it attacks the nape, resulting in a broken neck or dislocation of head from the vertebral column (Schaller 1967, Sunquist 1981, Karanth 1993).

Karanth (1993) observed bites on the nose of some gaur carcasses in Nagarhole National Park, Karnataka. Schaller (1967) reported that an adult gaur bull killed by a tigress in Kanha, Madhya Pradesh had deep canine marks on the back of the neck and throat. He also found a gaur calf kill with canine punctures in the nape and at the base of the skull and claw marks on the rump.

Refer

Brander, A.D. (1923): Wild animals in central India.

Edward Arnold Co., London, pp. 246.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of the Forest Types of India. Government of India, pp. 404.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983): Large mammalian prey-predators in Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 1-57. Karanth, K.U. (1993): Predator-prey relationships among the large mammals of Nagarhole National Park (India). Ph.D. dissertation, Mangalore University, Mangala

Biting through the hock and hamstring of large prey like cattle, buffalo and gaur by tiger are reported (Brander 1923). But in PTR no such evidence was found on gaur kills. The tiger is also known to break the cervical vertebrae of large prey like cattle or buffalo (Brander 1923).

Tiger ( Panthera tigris), leopard ( Panthera pardus) and dhole ( Cuon alpinus ) are the major predators found in PTR. The tiger is known to be the key predator of gaur (Johnsingh 1983, Karanth 1993, Rice 1986, Schaller 1967). The same holds true for the study area. Leopard is also known to predate on calves and yearlings of gaur, but no such incident was noticed in PTR.

The puncture marks on the fore or hind legs of gaur in PTR could have been wounds inflicted by the tiger to prevent the escape of the prey, rather than to hock and hamstring. This would also facilitate hunting large prey and help to avoid injury to the tiger. Since there were no claw or canine marks detected on the nape of the two gaur bull kills in PTR, the cervical vertebrae could have broken under the impact of their large body weight when the bulls succumbed and fell to the ground.

November 21, 2000 M.K.S. PASHA,

QAMAR QURESHI, K. SANKAR, G. AREENDRAN Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani , Dehra Dun, Uttaranchal, India.

ENCES

Gangothri, India.

Rice, C.G. (1986): Observations on predators and prey at Eravikulam National Park, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(2) : 283-305.

Schaller, G.B. (1967): The deer and the tiger: A study of wildlife in India. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 370.

Sunquist, M.E. (1981): The social organisation of tigers ( Panthera tigris ) in Royal Chitwan National Park. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 336. Pp. 1-98.

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3. THE ECHOLOCATING ROLE OF EYES IN INSECTIVOROUS BATS

{With one plate)

The power of flight and ability to echolocate prey are responsible for the tremendous evolutionary success of bats. They skilfully navigate in pitch darkness over hill and dale, dextrously hunting for insects within brambles, thicket and bushes. D.R. Griffin coined the term ‘echolocation’ in 1944, to describe the method of self-information in which one organ emits a sound signal (the sonar apparatus) and another organ of the same animal receives it (radar mechanism). There are two suborders of bats: 1) the echolocating Microchiroptera and 2) the fruit and flower- visiting Megachiroptera or flying foxes of the Old World. Echolocating bats not only ‘locate’ a target, but also analyze its features; for example they distinguish prey from non-prey, and smooth from rough surfaces for landing. Since the term echolocation does not describe the full capacity of this acoustic information system, Neuweiler (1990) suggested the term ‘audification’ which is analogous to visualization.

The power of echolocation has conferred such advantages and glamour to microchiropteran bats, that extensive work has been done on this aspect. But surprisingly little is known about the precise use of their eyes in vision and prey capture. The only reference that Altringham (1996) makes to the function of vision in prey capture is that of Bell (1985) who discovered that the Californian leaf-nosed bat Macro tus calif ornicus, a gleaner, used prey- generated sound and low intensity echolocation in localizing its prey. Under laboratory conditions, when the illumination was matched to bright moonlight, the bats located their prey by echolocation in only one third of the time “relying on vision for the remainder in the absence of prey movement and sound” (Altringham 1996). Larger carnivores such as the Australian ghost bat Macroderma gigas, the

Indian false vampire Megaderma lyra and Cardioderma cor , also have relatively large eyes, compared to exclusive insect feeders such as Hipposideros speoris and H. bicolor . There are, of course, many cues that hearing m microchiropteran bats is much more efficient than vision. One convincing morphological cue is that the auditory regions of the brain of insect eating bats are disproportionately larger than the optic regions, and are apparently specialized to receive, process, store, and retrieve information about the environment from soft echoes.

We have investigated the foraging strategies, ‘best hearing frequencies’ (BHF), and echolocation of eight species of insectivorous bats of Madurai (9° 58' N; 78° 10' E) (Neuweiler 1984; Neuweiler et al., 1984; Habersetzer and Marimuthu 1986; Link et al., 1986; Neuweiler et al., 1988) Tadarida aegyptiaca, Taphozous kachhensis, Taphozous melanopogon, Rhinopoma hardwickei, Pipistrellus mimus , Pipistrellus domeri, Hipposideros speoris and Hipposideros bicolor. We have not conducted specific experiments on the role of eyes in flight; landing or prey captures in any of the species of bats we studied. Extensive data on the biology, chronobiology, (Subbaraj and Chandrashekaran 1978; Marimuthu et al ., 1978) behaviour (Chandrashekaran and Marimuthu 1987; Radhamani et al . , 1990), and ecology of Hipposideros speoris , Taphozous melanopogon , Taphozous kachhensis , and Rhinopoma hardwickei have been published. Taphozous kachhensis and Hipposideros speoris do perceive colours (Sripathi 1982, Joshi and Chandrashekaran 1985) and so do four other species of microchiropteran bats (Hope and Bhatnagar 1979a, 1979b). The Madurai bats forage as efficiently on new moon nights and during a lunar eclipse as they do on full moon

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Chandrashekaran, M.K.: Hipposideros bicolor

Plate 1

Fig. 1: A male adult Hipposideros bicolor (Note the very small eyes. This bat emits ultrasonics of a frequency of 155 kHz pure tone for echolocation and can hunt for insects in bramble and thicket.)

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nights (Usman et al. 1981).

In field ethological studies on foraging in bats, it is difficult to create conditions of absolute darkness, as there is some light even on new moon nights. In fact, in our experiments on foraging by microchiropterans, the bats were attracted to insects that swarmed around an artificial (petromax) light source in the open, enabling bat counts. Which is why it becomes difficult to rule out with utmost certainty the possibility of participation of vision in prey capture. However, Marimuthu and Chandrashekaran (unpublished) demonstrated that Hipposideros speoris could catch prey in an absolutely dark cave. The two species of hipposideridbats which inhabit adjacent caves in Madurai in the Samanar Hills complex have the smallest eyes among the insectivorous bats of Madurai (Plate 1, Fig. 1), which interestingly emit the highest frequency of ultrasonic pulses. H. speoris emits pure tone of ca 132 kHz and H. bicolor of 155 kHz.

The account that follows describes a chance discovery, which is nevertheless valuable. G. Marimuthu was feeding bats held captive in activity cages (Marimuthu et al. 1978) inside a natural cave, 40 m from the cave mouth. The cave was absolutely dark at this place, hence he used a battery-operated torch, tied to the head, with a ‘safe’ red light of more than 610 nm. He was holding a live cockroach with a pair of forceps (from which the elytra, wings, cuticle and innards had been removed) when he had turned the torch off. Suddenly, he felt a jerk on his hand. Surprised, he switched on the torch to find the cockroach missing. On searching, he found a bat hanging from the ceiling of the cave chewing up the snatched cockroach. The free-flying bat had wrenched the wriggling cockroach off the forceps. This prey capture in darkness was obviously accomplished solely by means of echolocation in which H. speoris employs CF/FM signals of 5-10 msec of pure tone of ca 132 kHz terminated by a brief FM sweep (Neuweiler et al ., 1984).

Reverting to the role of the eyes,

insectivorous bats like Hipposideros speoris and Rhinopoma hardwickei, are known to ‘sample light’ 10-15 minutes prior to synchronized exodus, which coincides with sunset in Madurai (Marimuthu et al. 1981). When the twilight intensity falls below 0.3 lux (which is roughly the intensity of moonlight) the bats fly out. In adult mammals, the retinal photoreceptors are the only known route for light perception, and therefore blinding in a squirrel Funambulus palmarum and the mouse Mus booduga, resulted in free-running circadian rhythms (Navaneethakannan and Kumaraswamy, 1987). We have further shown that the circadian rhythms in the activity of Hipposideros speoris entrains to daylight of intensities which are 5 to 30% of starlight (0.002 lux) for ca 90 min every 24 hrs (Joshi and Chandrashekaran 1982). In laboratory experiments with//, speoris we also demonstrated that brief flashes of light of 0.5 msec shifted the circadian rhythm as a function of phase (Joshi and Chandrashekaran 1984).

On the basis of our findings, we conclude that the eyes of insectivorous bats such as Hipposideros speoris may not be very efficient in prey capture as they are small. The recurrent ‘sampled’ light pulses at the cave mouth, of a few minutes, that the bats are exposed to every 24 hrs, entrain their biological clocks. We further propose that it is not unlikely that the eyes play a crucial role as photoreceptors in this circadian entrainment.

Acknowledgements

I thank G. Marimuthu for help in performing the arduous experiments inside a natural cave in Keela Kuyil Kudi rock complex.

June 5, 2000 M. K. CHANDRASHEKARAN Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, P.O. Box 6436, Jakkur, Bangalore 560 064, Karnataka, India.

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References

Altringham, J.D. (1996): Bats: Biology and Behaviour. Oxford University Press. Oxford, New York, Tokyo. Pp. 253.

Bell, G.P. ( 1 985): The sensory basis of prey location by the California leaf-nosed bat, Macrotus californicus. (Chiroptera: Phyllostomatidae ).Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 16: 343-347.

Chandrashekaran, M.K. & G Marimuthu (1987): Sighting of a colony of the Indian false vampire bat, Megaderma lyra. Bat Research News. 26: 12.

Habersetzer, J. & G. Marimuthu (1986): Ontogeny of sounds in the echolocating bat Hipposideros speoris. J. Comp. Physiol. A 158: 247-257.

Hope, G.M. & K.P. Bhatnagar( 1979a): Electrical response of bat retina to spectral stimulation: comparison of four microchiropteran species. Experientia 35: 1 1 89- 1191.

Hope, G.M. & K.P. Bhatnagar (1979b,): Effect of light adaptation on electrical responses of the retina of four species of bats. Experientia 35: 1191-1193.

Joshi, D. & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1982): Daylight dimmer than starlight entrains the circadian rhythm of a bat. Naturwissenschaften 69: 192.

Joshi, D. & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1984): Bright light flashes of 0.5 msec reset the circadian clock of a microchiropteran bat. J. Exp. Zool. 230: 325-328.

Joshi, D. & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1985): Spectral sensitivity of the photoreceptors responsible for phase shifting the circadian rhythm of activity in a bat. J. Comp. Physiol. A 156: 189-198.

Marimuthu, G., S. Rajan & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1981): Social entrainment of the circadian rhythm in the flight activity of the microchiropteran bat, Hipposideros speoris. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 8: 147-150.

Marimuthu, G., R. Subbaraj & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1978): Social synchronization of the activity

rhythm in a cave-dwelling insectivorous bat. Naturwissenschaften 65: 600.

Navaneethakannan, K. & P. Kumarasamy (1986): Absence of extraretinal photic entrainment in a diurnal squirrel Funambulus palmarum and a nocturnal mouse Mus booduga. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 24: 730-73 1 .

Neuweiler, G. (1984): Foraging, echolocation, and audition in bats. Naturwissenschaften 71: 446-455.

Neuweiler, G. (1990): Auditary adaptations for prey capture in echolocating bats. Physiol. Rev. 70: 615- 641.

Neuweiler, G., A. Link., G. Marimuthu & R. Rubsamen (1988): Detection of prey in echo-cluttering environments. In: Animal Sonar Processes and Performances [Eds: Nachtigal, P.E. & P.W.B Moore (NATO Series)], New York, Plenum Press. Series A: Life Sciences: 156: 613-616.

Neuweiler, G., Satpal Singh & K. Sripathi (1984): Audiograms of South Indian bat community. J. Comp. Physiol. A 154: 133-142.

Radhamani, T.R., G. Marimuthu & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1990): Relationship between size and carrying infants by hipposiderid mother bats. Curr. Sci. 59: 602-603.

Sripathi, K. (1982): Light relations of the circadian rhythm in the tropical bat Tap hozous nudiventris kachhensis Dobson 1872 under semi-natural and laboratory conditions. Ph.D. thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai.

Subbaraj, R. & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1978): Pulses of darkness shift the phases of a circadian rhythm in an insectivorous bat. J. Comp. Physiol. A 127: 239-243.

Usman, K., J. Habersetzer., R. Gopalakrishnaswamy & K. Paramanandam (1980): Behaviour of bats during a lunar eclipse. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 7: 79-81.

4. THE MALABAR SPINY DORMOUSE PLATACANTHOMYS LASIURUS IN MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU

The Malabar spiny dormouse Platacanthomys lasiurus has been reported by Prabhakar (1997) in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu at 650 m; Ganesh (1997) in the Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu at 1,100 m; Sankar (1996) in Upper Bhavani Hills at 2,000 m and also by Jayson and Christopher (1995) in Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala at 600 m elevation.

The Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Nilgiri district, Tamil Nadu (11° 32'- 11° 43' N; 76° 22'-76° 45' E), with an altitude range of 350-1,266 m above msl. It bears vegetation types varying from Moist Deciduous and Semi-evergreen in the Benne forest, through Dry Deciduous Forest over most of the Sanctuary to Dry Thom in Moyar.

The ecology and distribution of small

438

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mammals in the different habitats of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, was studied in 1997. Small mammals were trapped in Sherman traps placed on the ground in the chosen study grids, baited with coconut. The Malabar spiny dormouse was recorded at an elevation of 1,000 m in the semi- evergreen forest of Benne, in May. One individual was captured, preserved and later identified. Its morphometric measurements were: head-body

Refer

Ganesh, T. (1997): The Malabar Spiny Dormouse ( Platacanthomys lasiurus) in the Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(3): 561.

Jayson, E.A. &G. Christopher (1995): Sighting of Spiny Dormouse {Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth, 1 959) in Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Trivandrum District,

length 12.6 cm; tail length 13.5cm; hind foot length 2.5 cm; weight 82g (live individual).

January 1 1 , 200 1 V. MEENA

No. 1 Ragavendra Apartments 4 Kandasamy Gramani Street, Chandrabagh Avenue Extension, Mylapore, Chennai 600 004, Tamil Nadu, India.

,NC ES

Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(2): 258. Prabhakar, A. (1997): New records of the Spiny Dormouse {Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth) in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(1): 1 5 1 .

Sankar, K. (1996): Islands in the Western Ghats. Science Reporter 33(6): 9-13.

5. THE WILD ELEPHANT ELEPHAS MAXIMUS IN MIZORAM

( With a text-figure)

The Asian elephant Elephas maximus Linn, is distributed in northeastern India in 14 discrete populations (Choudhury 1999). The populations in Mizoram and Tripura were treated as a single one, with probable movement through Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. A field trip was made in April 2000 (for 14 days) to assess the status of elephants in Mizoram. During this trip, all the known sites were visited and the Forest Department officials, local hunters/ poachers and other tribal villagers were interviewed. The state of Mizoram (21° 58'-24° 30' N, 92° 16'-93° 25' E) (area 21,081 sq. km) (Fig. 1) was referred to in the past as the Lushai Hills of southern Assam. The entire area is hilly, being part of the Himalaya-Arakan mountain chain. The terrain is dissected mostly by north- south flowing rivers, which make a series of parallel ranges. The highest ranges are towards east with Phawngpui or Blue Mountain (2,157 m above msl) and Lengteng (2,141m above msl) peaks. The lowest evaluation is in the riverbeds

near Assam-Mizoram and India-Bangladesh border (less than 100 m above msl).

Till the 1950s, the elephant was widespread all over the state, especially in the north, west and south (source: local reports by villagers, and A. Laskar, S. Laskar, pers. comm.). However, it was never common in recent memory, as its meat was relished by all the tribes (Mizo, Lai or Pawi, Mara or Lakher, Bru or Reang, Chakma, and Hmar) and it was regularly hunted. In the 1 960s, when insurgency started, modem firearms became easily available, resulting in a phenomenal increase in poaching. At the same time, ivory also became an important target (especially for sale in southeast Asia markets to buy arms). With the gradual increase in human population, the destruction of forest through felling and jhum (shifting cultivation) has also increased. By the 1970s, the main elephant strongholds remained only in the western and southern areas, with small populations elsewhere. By 1980s, the northern elephant population was reduced to stray

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Fig. 1 : Map of Mizoram showing the current distribution of elephants |y and occasional migrants from Bangladesh (+)

individuals with no future, while the western and southern populations were confined to a few pockets (A. Laskar, pers. comm.). In the 1990s, the elephant survived only in three areas, with a few stray animals in other areas. In the mean time, the human population of Mizoram grew from

3,32,000 (0.33 million) in 1971 to 6,86,000 (0.69 million) in 1991, i.e. more than double in two decades, indicating a phenomenal corresponding increase in jhum cultivation.

The main elephant population is now confined to Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary (110 sq. km), Lawngtlai district in the far south, and Dampa Sanctuary and Tiger Reserve (500 sq. km), Mamit district in the west. In 1996, a census party of the Forest Department located only four elephants in part of Dampa. Unfortunately, a makhna from this population died in 1998 due to accidental strangulation near Lallen. While sliding down a slope, its head got sandwiched between two tree trunks from which it could not recover itself (Jain and Saandeep 2001). These animals occasionally cross over to Bangladesh also'. Local reports indicate that more than 10 elephants were present in the early 1980s. At that time, there was a lone bull at Bolung (S. Laskar, pers. comm.) northeast of Dampa.

Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary and adjacent southern areas have the largest population of elephants in Mizoram now: however, only of eight animals. Old villagers of Ngengpui and Khawmawi report that there were more than 20 animals in the early 1980s. These elephants move out of the Sanctuary to the Ngengpui Reserved Forest (Lunglei district) as well as unclassed forests near Mampui.

The third group in the state is in Saiha district, around Palak Dil (Dil = lake). Only three are surviving from what was a fairly large population of at least 50 in the 1970s. According to the elders of Phura village, most of them were shot dead for meat and tusks by extremists. The surviving three cause much damage to standing paddy at Phura valley, but the villagers (Mara or Lakher tribe) do not retaliate, in consideration of the very low population and a vanishing heritage.

Stray elephants, often in small herds, have been reported from the forests northwest of Tlabung (Demagiri) in Lunglei district and Parva

440

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in Lawngtlai district. These are occasional immigrants from Bangladesh, especially during the paddy season.

These are no reports of occurrence of elephants in recent years from Aizawl, Serchhip, Kolasib and Champhai district.

From the above account, it seems that the total number of elephants in Mizoram is only 14, with some seasonal migrants from Bangladesh. Their chances of long-term survival in the wild in Mizoram are bleak, as the existing herds are not only very small, but also severely fragmented, with no possibility of contiguity.

Habitat destruction and poaching continue to be major threats. The decrease of population in Ngengpui (from 10 in 1993 to 8 in 1997) indicates unreported poaching. Protection measures in Dampa and Ngengpui should be strengthened. Part of Dampa is now virtually out of bounds due to insurgency by the Bru (Reang) militants. Palak Dil and adjacent forests (about 40 sq. km) should be declared as a wildlife sanctuary (it is also the largest lake in Mizoram). To avoid inbreeding and maintain genetic quality, translocation of one or two elephants from Assam

(where troublesome elephants are occasionally captured) or Meghalaya to Dampa and Ngengpui could have solved the problem, but the prevailing situation makes it unlikely in the near future. With better protection, Dampa and Ngengpui could support larger populations. Conservation education among the local villagers, with the help of NGOs, is also strongly recommended.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following for their assistance during the study, N. Pradhan (ACF), L. Pachuan (FD, Dampa), K. Hramzama (RO, Ngengpui) and his wife, C. Buanga, C. Hranghimea, T. Zakiau, K. Kheilai, K. Ray, Laikung, Zarlansanga, Khaikhu, Lalnunzira, S. Saikia, Muankima, Rinsanga, Vanlalpeka (all of Forest Dept), P. Rahlo, Ms. Bawitei, M. Goswami, J. Paul, Alok, J. Mazumdar, Arnar, A. Goswami and Hakim.

April 6, 2001 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

References

Choudhury, A.U. ( 1 999): Status and Conservation of the Jain, Niren & R. Saandeep (2001 ): Incidence of an elephant

Asian elephant Elephas maximus in north-eastern calf Elephas maximus trapped between two tree

India. Mammal Review 23(9): 141-173. trunks. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 98(1): 99-101 .

6. ON LITTLE GREBES TACHYBAPTUS RUFICOLLIS BREEDING NEAR K. KARUNANIDHI NAGAR, TIRUCHIRAPALLI, TAMIL NADU

Little grebes Podiceps ( =Tachybaptus ) ruficollis were common around Trichinopoly in the 1930s. One Mr. C. McConway had collected over one hundred eggs, and washed them (with Vim and Monkey brand soap) to find out whether the brown coloration on the eggs was original or acquired. He reported that the coloration was no indication of incubation stage (Baker & Inglis 1930. The Birds of Southern India, p. 485). Sixty to seventy years later, they are still common,

despite the developmental changes in their habitat. At the onset of the southwest monsoon, when the ruddy brown earth is carried into ponds by rainwater and settles at the bottom, the pond water becomes clear. Little grebes arrive noiselessly during cloudy afternoons in hundreds, and run on this clear water surface, beating their wings. They stay on, breed and leave in mid- January. The three main water bodies frequented by the little grebes are Vadugapatty Periakulam,

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Table 1

TEN YEAR COUNTS OF LITTLE GREBE POPULATION AND NESTS

Year/Month Population Size Year/Month No. of Nests

1. 1989 July

150+

2. 1990 August

280+

3. 1991 August

210+

4. 1992 July

180+

5. 1993 August

250+

6. 1994 August

330+

7. 1995

No arrivals

8. 1996

...

9. 1997 July

300+

10. 1998 July

300+

No count

1 992/September

68

1 993/September

116

1994/September

128

1997/October

108

1 998/October

126

Senkulam and Sathanur Kulam. The total water spread of the three tanks is 8.2 sq. km with 1 .4 sq. km sheltered bush margins. My counts of birds and nests during the last 10 years are given in Table 1.

One pair of little grebe had built their nest in a well 3 m in diameter, close to Olaiyur railway crossing, adjoining the irrigation canal. The water level of the well would rise and fall, depending on the level of the canal water. Though

the floating nest of the grebes was first found accidentally in September 1995, I checked and saw the nests each year. One nesting a year was observed in the southwest monsoon.

June 12, 1999 J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON

80, Rajaram Salai, Kalaigner Karunanidhi Nagar, Tiruchirapalli 620 021, Tamil Nadu, India.

7. IRIS COLORATION IN THE LARGE EGRET CASMERODIUS ALBUS AND MEDIAN EGRET MESOPHOYX INTERMEDIA (FAMILY ARDEIDAE)

The Simpson Industrial Estate, Sembium, in the northern part of Chennai (Madras), is a well- known heronry in Tamil Nadu, India. Species that breed in the confines of the Estate are the large egret Casmerodius albus , median egret Mesophoyx intermedia , little egret Egretta garzetta , black- crowned night-heron Nycticorax nycticorax , little cormorant Phalacrocorax niger and Indian shag P. fuscicollis.

Ali and Ripley (1987) mentioned the coloration of the iris of the median egret as lemon-yellow, and that of the large egret as yellow for race alba and bright lemon-yellow for modesta. Roberts (1991) stated it as yellow in the median egret, but did not describe the colour of the iris in large egret. Brown et al. (1982) described it as ruby for the median (race:

brachyrhyncha) and brilliant red for the large egret (race: melanorhynchos).

During 1996-97, about 50 pairs of large egrets bred in Simpson Estate. In the early part of the breeding season in November, the birds sported black bills, flesh coloured tibia, orbital skin ranging from bright yellowish-green through bright bluish-green to dark bluish-green. The colour of the iris was yellow in all the birds. By January 4, 1997, the bills of the birds had started yellowing at the base, the colour of the orbital patch and tibia regressed. During this period, one of the birds of a pair was recorded to have a red iris. However, the iris reverted to yellow again after three weeks.

In mid-February, most of the birds were feeding chicks in various stages of growth.

442

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During this time, five birds started courtship display. Of these, two had a pale red iris. The bills were black, the orbital skin bright green, and the tibia pale flesh coloured. The other three birds had a pale orange iris, the orbital skin and bill coloration was as in the other two, but the tibia was bright flesh coloured. Two of the birds with orange irises paired off and started nesting. It was noted that the pale red or pale orange colour of the iris persisted in bright sunlight and in the shade. In earlier observations of 10-30 breeding median egrets, from 1991 to 1996, the iris under bright or diffused sunlight was light orange to bright red in some of the birds. But when in shade (as when the bird ducks to accept nest material from the mate), the iris reverts back to the normal yellow colour.

Change in iris coloration has been recorded for certain egret species elsewhere. Hancock and

Kushlan (1984) mention a brief ruby-red flush of the iris (from yellow) prior to egg-laying in the large egret in Australia and North Africa. They do not mention iris colour change in the median egret, but report it in the little egret Egretta garzetta (turns red during the height of courtship) and the grey heron Ardea cinerea (changes from deep yellow to deep orange). My observations on the change in iris colouration in the large and median egrets are interesting, as it has not been reported for the median egret, or for E. garzetta or A. cinerea in India. The significance of the changes in iris coloration, the colour variations under shade and sunlight, and why they do not appear in all individuals of a colony, is yet to be known.

March 27, 1999 V. GURUSWAMI

Simpson Estate, Chennai 600 001, Tamil Nadu, India.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1 987): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Pp.18.

Brown, L., E.K. Urban & K. Newman (1982): The Birds of Africa. Volume I. Academic Press,

London. Pp.178-179.

Hancock, J. & J. Kushlan (1984): The Herons Handbook. Croom Helm. London. Pp.288. Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan. Volume I. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Pp.89-92.

8. SIGHTING OF THE BLACK STORK CICONIA NIGRA AND LESSER ADJUTANT-STORK LEPTOPTILOS JA VANICUS AT NAGARHOLE NATIONAL PARK, KARNATAKA

Nagarhole National Park (NP) (643 sq. km), along with the Bandipur Tiger Reserve (875 sq. km) and Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (325 sq. km) to the southeast and the Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary (350 sq. km) to the southwest, form a part of Nilgiri biosphere, the largest protected forest tract in peninsular India. The bird life in this region is impressive, due to a dense forest cover interspersed with innumerable rivulets that feed the Kabini river. The existing bird list has nearly 270 species (Anon 1987), and during my visit to the National Park between January 12-14, 1999, 1 sighted 97 bird species.

On the last morning of my stay at the

Kabini River Lodge at Karapur village, located about 8 km to the east of Sunkadakatte Forest Rest House, Nagarhole National Park, I decided to take a jeep ride into the Park. After about 15 minutes from the Bisalvadi waterhole, the jeep reached a rivulet amidst a very dense forest tract. While scanning the banks for waders, I observed two large birds, the lesser adjutant-stork Leptoptilos javanicus and black stork Ciconia nigra. The scarlet red beak and legs of the C. nigra were perfectly illuminated by the sun and the white underparts were unmistakable. I observed the birds for a good 1 5 minutes before returning to the lodge. On mentioning -the

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sighting to Mr. Sarath, the chief naturalist, Kabini River Lodge, I gathered that though L. javanicus had been occasionally sighted, no one had ever come across a Ciconia nigra, in spite of a close vigil by many visiting field biologists and naturalists.

Although the lesser adjutant-stork has been sighted in the Western Ghats on several occasions (Anon 1987, Ali 1969, Baker 1935, Jerdon 1839- 1840), its true status and movement within the biogeographic zone is not clear. However, reports of its breeding in Periyar Tiger Reserve have confirmed the existence of a small viable population in south India.

According to Ali and Ripley (1987), C. nigra is a winter visitor to west Pakistan, north India from Baluchistan, Sind, North West Frontier Province and Punjab through Nepal (to

c. 900 m alt.) and the Gangetic plain to eastern Assam, south through Rajasthan to about Kutch and northern Gujarat. It is considered to be rare in Deccan, south of c. 18° N. (Sholapur district). However, there are sporadic records of the bird from peninsular India, as can be seen from Table 1.

In the light of the above mentioned records, one can safely conclude that, for reasons not yet clear, there seems to be a distinct southward movement of the bird, which a few decades ago was never known to even stray into these areas. Madsen (1988) speculated that this may be due to the severe drought in the north. However, this southward movement may have been forced upon the species by the loss of precious habitat in Pakistan, West, North and Northeastern India (Khachar 1976, Khacher 1986, Himmatsinhji

Table 1

SIGHT RECORDS OF BLACK STORK IN PENINSULAR INDIA

Name of area

District

State

No. of. Storks

Date

Source

Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary

Bhopal

Madhya Pradesh

NM

6 Mar. 1994

Misra, 1994

Kanha National Park

Mandla

Madhya Pradesh

1

Jan. 1995

Andheria, 1 995

Gir Sanctuary

Junagadh

Gujarat

11

NM

Baskaran 1995

Shindovani Lake

Pune

Maharashtra

6

NM

Naik, 1989

Januna Lake

Buldana

Maharashtra

5

Winter 1990

Sawji, 1990

Rollapadu

Kumool

Andhra Pradesh

2

Nov. 1985

Manakadan, 1988

Rollapadu

Kumool

Andhra Pradesh

6

Dec. 1985

Manakadan, 1988

Bolarum

Hyderabad

Andhra Pradesh

1

5 Apr. 1987

Kanniah & Ganesh, 1 990

Parambikulam

Wildlife Sanctuary

Palakkad

Kerala

1

14 Feb. 1984

cf. Neelkantan et. ai, 1 983

Parambikulam

Wildlife Sanctuary

Palakkad

Kerala

1

16 Feb. 1986

cf. Neelkantan

Chamravattom

Malappuram

Kerala

1

7 Jan. 1987

cf. Neelkantan et. al. , 1 983

Malampuzha reservoir

Palakkad

Kerala

11

16 Feb. 1987

cf. Neelkantan et. al., 1993

Periyar Tiger Reserve

Idukki

Kerala

1

24 Feb. 1987

cf. Neelkantan et. al., 1993

Walayardam

Palakkad

Kerala

7,8, 14

12, 16, 25, Jan.

cf. Neelkantan et. al., 1 993

1991 resp.

Walayar

Palakkad

Kerala

14

8 Jan. 1994

Praveen, 1997

Near Munnar

Idukki

Kerala

1

4 Feb. 1997

Prasad, 1997

Kaliveli Tank

—

Pondicherry

1

30 Jan. 198

Perennou &

and 5 Feb. 1988

Santharam, 1 990

Helawe & Bagura plane

Kumana

Sri Lanka

1

20 Mar. 1938

Phillips, 1940

Madangiri Salt Work

Uttar Kannada

Karnataka

3

13 Dec. 1987

Madsen, 1988

Gothehalli Village

Belgaum

Karnataka

2

26 Feb. 1994

Sant, 1994

(NM: Not Mentioned)

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1985, Pandey 1989, Buckton and Morris 1990, Sivasubramanian 1992, Barman and Talukdar 1995, Gandhi 1995, Barua et. al. 1997), where it is known to exist in greater numbers.

There is also a remote possibility of some individuals straying from their normal course during migration to the Subcontinent from Eastern Europe. However, it would be difficult to ascertain this.

Considering these facts, I sincerely appeal to all field biologists and bird watchers to keep a close watch on the movements of the stork, so that we can make a concerted effort at protecting the new emerging haunts of Ciconia nigra in South India. Also, we need to step up our efforts to ascertain the true status of Leptoptilos javanicus within the Western Ghats range.

Refer

Ali, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Ali. S & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Andheria, A.P. (1995): A checklist of birds of Kanha National Park, 19-21 Jan. 1995. Unpublished. Anonymous (1987): A preliminary checklist of birds of Nagarhole and environs. Unpublished. Wildlife Dept., Karapur, Jungle Lodges and Resorts Ltd.

Baker, E.C.S. (1935): The nidification of birds of the Indian Empire, 4. London: Taylor & Francis.

Barman, R. & B.K. Talukdar (1995): New record of Black Stork Ciconia nigra in Deepoor Boel, Assam. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 35: 15.

Barua, M., G.C. Chettri & P. Bardoloi (1997): Endangered birds sighted in Pobitora Sanctuary. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 37: 109.

Baskaran, T. (1995): An audio guide to the birds of southern India, and notes on Night herons and Black storks. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 35: 50.

Buckton, S. & P. Morris (1990): India and Nepal, December 1989 - June 1990. Unpublished.

Gandhi, S.S. (1995): New and rare sighting of Black stork near Dehra Dun (UP). Newsletter for Birdwatchers 35: 97-98.

Himmatsinhji, M.K. (1985): The Black stork in Kutch: old record confirmed. J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 403. Jerdon, T.C. (1839-1840): Catalogue of the birds of the peninsula of India, arranged according to the modem system of classification; with brief notes on their habits

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. S. Subramanya, University of Agriculture Sciences, Gandhi Krishi Vigyan Kendra Campus, Bangalore, for providing vital references and deliberating on the initial manuscripts. His interest in this article has been inspirational throughout. I also thank Mr. Samba Kumar, Program Officer, Wildlife Conservation Society India Program, Bangalore, for information on various locations in the Park.

July 8, 1999 ANISH P. ANDHERIA

2, Sagar Building, V. P. Road, Andheri, Mumbai 400 058, Maharashtra, India.

ENCES

and geographical distribution, and description of new, doubtful and imperfectly described species. Madras J. Lit. Sci. 10: 60-91, 234-269; 11: 1-38, 207-239; 12: 1-15, 193-227.

Kanniah, P. & T. Ganesh ( 1 990): Occurrence of the Black stork Ciconia nigra near Hyderabad. Mayura 7 & 8: 46-48.

Khachar, Shivrajkumar (1976): Occurrence of the Black stork ( Ciconia nigra) in Saurashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 390-391.

Khacher, L. (1986): The White and Black storks.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 26(3 & 4): 12-13. Madsen, S.T. (1988): Black storks in Nepal and India.

Oriental Bird Club Bull. 1 1 : 34-35.

Manakadan, R. (1988): The Black stork Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus) in Kurnool District (Andhra Pradesh). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 675-676.

Misra, M.K. (1994): Stork watching at Ratapani.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 34: 1 1 8.

Naik, S. (1989). Black Storks ( Ciconia nigra) near Pune.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 29(7 & 8): 1 . Neelkantan K.K., C. Sashikumar & R Venugopalan (1993): A book of Kerala Birds WWF-1, Kerala State Committee. Pp. 11-12.

Pandey, S. (1989): Black stork. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 29(1 & 2): 9.

Perennou, C. & V. Santharam (1990): Status of some birds in southeastern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 306-307.

Phillips W.W.A. (1940): The occurrence of the Black stork

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( Ciconia nigra ) in Ceylon. Ibis 4(1 4th series): 333-334. Prasad, A. (1997): Black stork in Kerala. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 37: 65.

Praveen, J. (1997): Storks of Walayar. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 37: 9.

Ramani, R. (1985): Black storks. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 25(3 & 4): 15.

Sant, N. (1994): Sighting of Black stork near Belgaum.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 34(2): 39.

Sawji, P.G. (1990): Black storks in Maharashtra.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 30(11 & 12): 1 1 . Sivasubramanian, C. (1992): Indian Skimmer Rynchops albicollis Swainson and Black stork Ciconia nigra (Linn.) — new additions to the avifauna of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89: 252-253.

9. LONG-BILLED VULTURE GYPS INDICUS INDICUS NESTING ON TREES IN

THE THAR DESERT, RAJASTHAN

( With one plate and one text-figure)

There are two subspecies of longbilled vultures Gyps indicus in the Indian subcontinent, differentiated on the basis of their distribution, nesting habits and physical features. The long- billed vulture (Gyps indicus indicus) is distributed south of the Gangetic plain, except extreme southwest India and Ceylon. The Himalayan long-billed vulture (Gyps indicus tenuirostris) is found in the Gangetic plain north to and along the lower Himalayas through Nepal, Bengal and Assam, where it is very common and in eastern Assam and Bangladesh (Ali and Ripley 1987).

Nest-site selection is the main behavioural difference between the two subspecies. The long- billed vulture nests on ledges of cliffs and hill forts, while the Himalayan long-billed vulture nests on trees in small colonies (Roberts 1991). The breeding season for both ranges from November to end of February, or latest up to March.

The long-billed vulture has been observed nesting on cliffs in many areas of Rajasthan, while the Himalayan long-billed was reported breeding in Ambala district, Haryana (Jones 1916). When I found five nests of the longbilled in Nagaur district, Rajasthan in May 1994 on Prosopis cineraria trees, I assumed that they were nests of the Himalayan long-billed vulture, because the species is already reported from Ambala in the adjoining state of Haryana (Jones

1916) and the nests were on trees. I took some photographs and made notes on the bird and nest (Plate 1, Fig. 1).

I came across another nest of the same bird in December, 1997 near Saanchu in Bikaner, Rajasthan (Fig. 1). The nesting bird was paler and the neck of the subadult was covered with whitish down. The neck of the bird guarding the nest was partially covered with down. One was sitting on the same tree and the other on another tree some 15 m away. The feathers on the legs extended well below the knee joints. The bill and cere had a yellow horn-like colour.

The nest was placed on the highest crotch of a Prosopis cineraria tree about 8 m from the ground, and was open from all sides. It measured 68 cm x 90 cm and had a depth of 103 cm. The measurement of only one nest was taken, after the juvenile had left it.

The nest materials were twigs of Capparis decidua , Prosopis cineraria , Acacia arabica , Brassica campestris stubble from a nearby field and some pieces of cloth. The tree on which the nest was placed was surrounded at its base by Capparis decidua , Prosopis juliflora and an unidentified thorny bush which grows to 2 m. All the five nests were on Prosopis cineraria trees growing in about one sq. km area.

This subspecies was confirmed by John Schmitt, a bird artist from USA, with the help of a photograph of the longbilled vulture on its nest.

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Fig. 1: Long-billed vulture Gyps indicus on a nest in Rajasthan

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Fig. 1 : Map of Rajasthan showing breeding locations of Gyps indicus indicus as barred area

These observations are interesting, as there are no breeding records of the Indian long-billed vulture from the Thar desert. Also, this subspecies has never been reported nesting on trees so far. Although Mathews (1918) has once reported long-billed vulture nesting on peepal {Ficus religiosa) trees from Lucknow district (Uttar Pradesh), he did not describe the features differentiating the two subspecies and used the Latin name Gyps indicus. It is possible that he observed the Himalayan long-billed vulture {Gyps indicus tenuirostris) which also breeds in the study area. I hope this information will be useful for birdwatchers interested in raptors and

inspire them to examine vulture nests in the desert carefully.

Nesting of long-billed vulture {Gyps indicus indicus) on trees has also been sighted by H.S. Sangha and Harshvardhan ( pers . comm. ) on a Khejri tree near Talchhapar Sanctuary in Churn district, and by Rishad Naoroji {pers. comm.) in Kodamdesar in Bikaner district.

Acknowledg ements

I thank Rishad Naoroji for comments and for sending the photograph taken by me to John Schmitt for identification. I also thank Dr. Asad

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Rahmani for constant encouragement; H.S. February 26, 2001 MANOJ KULSHRESHTHA Sangha and Harshvardhan for sharing their ‘Snehdeep’ B-3 3 Sethi Colony,

observations with me and M. Zafar-ul Islam for Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan,

help in collecting references. India.

References

Ali S. & S.D. Ripley (1987) Compact handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp.76.

Jones, A.E. (1916): Gyps tenuirostris (Hodgson), the Himalayan longbilled vulture breeding near Ambala,

Punjab. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24(2)\ 358, Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, Vol. I. Oxford University Press, Karachi. P.172.

Mathews, W.H. (1918): Note on the longbilled vulture {Gyps indicus)J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 187.

10. GREY-HEADED LAPWING VANELLUS CINEREUS (BLYTH) (FAMILY CH ARADRIID AE) IN KERALA

The Kole wetland is a vast water body spread over 13,000 ha in Thrissur and Malappuram districts, Kerala. It is located between 10° 20'-10° 40' N and 75° 58'-76° 11’ E. The Kole wetland is inundated round the year. During November to February, different parts are under paddy cultivation, which is done after draining off the water into a network of canals throughout the wetland. The water in the fields is brought to the desired level, and one crop of rice is cultivated annually.

On January 28 and 30, 1999, around 1500 hrs we saw a lapwing in Enamavu area in the Kole wetland. Interestingly, it was located in a small patch of about 0.5 ha of unculti- vated area, surrounded by paddy, c. 3 km off the main road and c. 500 m from the mud-topped road used by the farmers. The reason for not planting paddy in this area could not be ascertained.

Among the various species of birds present in the wetland, the ‘unidentified lapwing’ caught our attention. On closer examination through binoculars, we were able to describe the bird both in the sitting posture and in flight as follows: upper parts, excluding head and neck uniformly brown, head and neck grey with a brown tinge, chin and throat whitish, breast ashy grey, bordered by a black pectoral band across, rest of under parts white. Rump, upper tail

coverts and tail white, with a broad black subterminal band. Black band on the tail could be seen when the bird flicked its tail while at rest. Tip of the wings black. Bill bright yellow with black tip, legs yellow, iris red with narrow yellow eye-ring, yellow thickening near the base of the bill seen at close range. The bird was identified as the grey-headed lapwing ( Vanellus cinereus).

In flight, the white tail with black subterminal band, and black tipped wings with broad white wing bands and a dark pectoral band across the neck are Conspicuous. Under primaries were mostly black and rest of underwing white. From a distance, the bird could be confused with white-tailed lapwing ( V. leucurus ), but the black tipped yellow beak, dark pectoral band, and the black subterminal band on the tail distinguished it from the white- tailed lapwing. The grey-headed is also larger than the white-tailed, and also larger than the redwattled lapwing (V. indicus).

The bird seemed to be very shy and flew away at the slightest disturbance. As it was about to take off, it made a low pitched, single note kek.

The first author had seen a white-tailed lapwing ( V. leucurus) from Enamavu Kole lands in December 1998. In February and March 1999, grey-headed lapwing was present in a particular

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area in this wetland. The sighting of an adult grey-headed lapwing from Kerala assumes significance as Ali and Ripley (1987) give the southern most distribution range as north Bihar. They also state that “a large proportion of our visitors are young birds without pectoral band”.

July 9, 1999 P.K. RAVINDRAN

Vallissery, P.O. Avinisseiy Thrissur 680 313, Kerala.

P.O. NAMEER

Dept of Wildlife Sciences, College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, P.O. Vellanikkara, Thrissur 680 654, Kerala.

Reference

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp 211-212.

11. FEEDING HABITS OF THE WHITE-BREASTED KINGFISHER HALCYON SMYRNENSIS (LINN.) FAMILY ALCEDINIDAE

The white-breasted kingfisher is well known for its versatile food and feeding habits (Ali and Ripley 1970, Mukherjee 1975, Yahya and Yasmeen 1991, Knowles andNitchen 1995). However, it was quite interesting to observe three white-breasted kingfishers join a mixed hunting party of insectivores and hunt with them.

On June 18, 1999, 1 was following a mixed hunting party near Muthanga in Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala (1 1° 35’-l 1° 55’ N and 76° 02'- 76° 27' E). The Sanctuary is dominated by Moist Deciduous Forest with thick bamboo groves at many places. The Muthanga Forest Range of this Sanctuary adjoins the Bandipur (Karnataka) and Mudumalai (Tamil Nadu) National Parks at a place called Trijunction. After good rainfall in the morning, several species of birds were feeding in a teak ( Tectona grandis) dominated patch of the forest. The party included the greater racket-tailed drongo ( Dicrurus paradis eus), bronzed drongo ( D . aeneus) common woodshrike ( Tephrodornis pondicerianus ), Loten’s sunbird ( Nectarinia lotenia ), gold-fronted chloropsis ( Chloropsis aurifrons), white-cheeked barbet (Megalaima viridis ), scarlet minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus), velvet-fronted nuthatch (Sitta frontalis ), lesser golden-backed woodpecker ( Dinopium

benghalense) and several species of warblers. The

birds were moving from one area to another m a typical wave (Yahya 1990) of insectivores. It was still cloudy and windy at 1240 hrs, when I heard the calls of a white-breasted kingfisher among the birds, and on scanning the flock, found that three birds had joined the party.

The kingfishers, perched above and below the teak foliage, made frequent sallies like any other fly-catching bird, and hunted with the party for the next 90 minutes. During this period, they also called frequently. In fact, it was their typical loud calls kilililia kalililia ... which first attracted my attention. Initially, I thought the white- breasted kingfisher had just appeared on the scene, and may have some other interest in the area (such as a nest), but their constant following and hunting with the party demonstrated their expertise as insectivores. I have never seen this species following a mixed hunting party before, nor is any such record available in the literature. One of our research scholars, Sajeev T.K, in Anaimalai Hills, also saw this phenomenon recently.

August 6, 1999 H.S. YAHYA

Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh,

India.

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References

Ali, Salim & S.D. Ripley (1970): Handbook of Birds of India and Pakistan Vol. 4. Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Knowles, L.J. & J.W. Nitchen (1995): Kingfishers of the World. Times Book International, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur.

Mukherjee, A.K. (1975): Food habits of the water birds of the S underban, 24 Parganas District; West

Bengal, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2): 4 1 8- 422.

Yahya, H.S.A. (1990): Habitat preference of birds in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala. Indian Journal of Forestry 12 (4): 288-295.

Yahya, H.S.A. & S. YASMEENH991): Earthworm a diet of Whitebreasted Kingfisher. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(3): 589.

12. LARGE GREY BABBLER (TURDOIDES MALCOLMI) TRAPPED FOR THE TABLE

It was not surprising to find the large grey babbler Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes) listed as a bird that needs conservation, in a brochure issued by the Birdwatchers’ Society of Andhra Pradesh. The present status of this species, which is described as common in Deccan Plateau, now calls for its conservation. Factors that have contributed to its destruction in Deccan Plateau cannot be analysed here, but one of the major factors, which might have lead to its decline in Chhattisgarh State, is intensive trapping. The large grey babbler is commonly served instead of quail in roadside hotels, as the incident related below will confirm.

One of my junior officers had brought a bagful of quail. Luckily, before his departure, the

so-called quail were examined, and to our utmost surprise, they were in fact large grey babblers tied in bunches by the legs. Their tail feathers had been pulled out and wings broken. The birds were photographed and later released into the bush.

Large grey babblers are commonly sold and served as quail, and customers in their ignorance, relish the babblers. No helping hand has come forward to save them.

April 7, 1999 A.M.K. BHAROS

B-101, Gayatrinagav, PO Shankerncigcir, Raipur 492 007, Chattisgarh, India.

1 3 . MALABAR WHISTLING-THRUSH MYIOPHONUS HORSFIELDII IN THE GIR FORESTS, SAURASHTRA, GUJARAT

A Malabar whistling-thrush Myiophonus horsfieldii (Vigors) was seen continuously for a week from April 7 to 15, 1998 in the Gir Forests, Saurashtra. It used to arrive at a spot on the riverbed near Nanava Ness at around 0700 hrs daily, and feed on insects off cow dung, river cliffs, riverbed, dry leaves, humus and on the bark of trees. It was not shy and allowed observers to approach even to about 3 m. When disturbed, it flew away, uttering a low whistle. The thrush was easily identified by its blue black colour, glistening cobalt blue on the forehead and shoulders, and its black bill and legs. The bird

was photographed for record.

The northernmost record of the Malabar whistling- thrush is south Rajasthan and its presence in the Gir is an extension of its range into the Saurashtra peninsula. Its occurrence in the dry deciduous forests of the Gir is also an unusual change from the usual habitat of Evergreen and Moist Deciduous Forests.

April 16, 1999 B.P.PATI

Deputy Conservator of Forests Wildlife Division Sasan, Gir, Saurashtra, Gujarat, India.

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14. MALE BREEDING PLUMAGE OF THE BAYA WEAVER PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS TRA VANCOREENSIS WHISTLER

The HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

Pakistan Vol 10, p 93 (1974) by Salim Ali and Dillon Ripley, mentions that the male breeding plumage of Ploceus philippinus travancoreensis is largely suppressed as in the eastern race burmanicus and further investigation is necessary.

During my visit to the British Museum (Natural History), Tring, U.K., I examined the 5 specimens of travancoreensis in their collection. The type specimen is a male collected by Salim Ali on February 19, 1933 from Kottayam, Kerala. The bird was moulting into breeding plumage. The forehead and part of the crown has deep bright yellow feathers and the hind crown, nape and neck still have black feathers. From this observation I presumed that travancoreensis males would have bright yellow breeding plumage like the nominate race philippinus. I contacted a seasoned birdwatcher Mr. C. Sashikumar from Kerala in July 2000 for a report on the male breeding plumage of travancoreensis . He was unsuccessful in obtaining the information due to failed breeding

season of the birds in 2000, but he observed 30 nests of travancoreensis on coconut trees at Pattanur, Kannur district, Kerala on August 5, 2001. All the males had bright yellow crown, nape and breast, and yellow and brown streaks on the back. The male breeding plumage in P.p. travancoreensis is as bright as in P.p. philippinus and not suppressed at all.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. Robert Prys-Jones, Head of Bird Group, British Museum (Natural History), Tring, U.K. who personally handed over the type specimen of travancoreensis to me in the absence of the Curator, Mr. Mark Adams. I am indebted to Mr. C. Sashikumar for observing and reporting the breeding plumage of P.p. travancoreensis.

November 9, 2001 SARASWATHY UNNITHAN Bombay Natural History Society Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

15. SIGHTING OF ORTOLAN BUNTING EMBERIZA HORTULANA LINN. IN NARAYAN S AROVAR SANCTUARY, KACHCHH, GUJARAT

We saw an Ortolan bunting Emberiza hortulana Linn, near Mudia village, and between Sanandro and Khadak villages during a winter avifaunal survey (Nov-Dec 1998) in Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary, Kachchh district. In all, we had five sightings, of which on four occasions only one bird was seen, while on one occasion four birds (1 male and three females) were seen.

The Ortolan bunting is among the most colourful buntings in India, and can be identified easily by the presence of three yellow moustachial stripes on the throat. Of these, one broad stripe runs down the throat, starting from the base of

the lower mandible. The other two, one on either side, run backwards from the base of the lower mandible, below the eye, towards the wings. All these stripes terminate within the ashy grey patch which extends from below the throat to the point where the belly starts, and also behind the neck. These stripes are pale yellow in the female bird and bright yellow in the male. The ring around the eye is creamy yellow and the bill bright orange. Only the Ortolan and grey-necked buntings ( Emberiza buchanani) have the eye ring. The latter has been reported as common and abundant during winter in Kachchh

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(Ali 1945, Khacher 1996).

Two solitary birds were seen in a grassy patch next to fallow land in undulating areas, feeding on grass seeds along with the tawny pipit (Anthus campestris) and house sparrows {Passer domesticus). The other three sightings were in grassy patches on stony hill slopes under Acacia Senegal forest with Euphorbia nuvulia , Salvador a oleoides or S. persica association. Each time the bird was disturbed, it immediately flew for cover, most often into Euphorbia or Salvador a.

In India, the Ortolan bunting has been recorded as a vagrant on spring migration, twice in Gilgit, once each in Kashmir and Delhi (Ali and Ripley 1983). It was recorded only once in the Little Rann .of Kutch Sanctuary in Kachchh

district (Dharmakumarsinhji 1977) and in Hingolgadh in Rajkot district, Gujarat (Khacher 1996).

Extralimitally, it breeds in the western Palaearctic from the Altai and Iran, west to Scandinavia and Spain. It winters from Mediterranean to Senegal and Somalia, Arabia and Iran (Ali and Ripley 1974). This is an additional record for India and only the second one, after more than 20 years, from Kachchh.

June 12, 1999 JUSTUS JOSHUA

S.F. WESLEY SUNDERRAJ V. GOKULA Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Patwadi Naka, Bhuj (Kachchh), Gujarat 370 001, India.

References

Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch. Oxford University Press, Bombay. 175 pp.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1974): Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Vol. 1 0. Oxford University Press, Bombay. 334 pp.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): A Pictorial Guide to the

birds of the Indian subcontinent. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 165 pp.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1977): Ortolan Bunting (Emberiza hortulana Linn) in Kutch, Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74\ 179.

Khacher, L. ( 1 996): The birds of Gujarat — A centenary year overview. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 331-373.

16. OCCURRENCE OF CNEMASPIS KANDIANA (KELAART), FAMILY GEKKONIDAE, IN AMBOLI, MAHARASHTRA.

On August 8, 2000, while searching for amphibians at about 2230 hrs near an abandoned house in Amboli (15° 55' E, 73° 55' N), Maharashtra, we saw a gecko moving on the wall. Another specimen of the same species was seen in our hotel room the same night. The latter specimen was collected and brought to the BNHS and was identified as Cnemaspis kandiana (BNHS Regn. No. 1446). Only two specimens of this species were recorded during this survey. We visited the area again between October 10- 12, 2000. During this visit, we sighted a large number of C. kandiana in the forest and inside

houses. In the forest, they were mostly found on trees, under rocks and among the leaf litter. They frequent houses and were mostly seen on walls. During the day, they were seen basking or chasing each other, and during the night, they were mostly seen feeding on insects attracted towards a light source. C. kandiana was the most commonly seen gecko at Amboli among the 29 specimens recorded in two hours in the morning, in the Nature Park, an area of c. 1 km patch of forest developed by the Forest Department.

According to Smith (1935), the range of this species is Sri Lanka and the hills of southern

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India as far north as 12°. It is also recorded from Thailand (Taylor 1963; Cox etal. 1998), Sumatra (De Rooij 1915), the Mentawei Islands (Dring etal., 1990; Smith, 1926) and both the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Das 1999). In Maharashtra, Humayun Abdulali (1955) had recorded this species (BNHS Regn. No. 70) from Mahabaleshwar (17° 56’ E, 73° 42’ N) and Yellapur, North Kanara (14° 59' E 74° 46' N). It was also included in the list of reptiles of Maharashtra by Daniel (1974) and the list of turtles and lizards by Nalawade (1998).

Though this is not a range extension of this species, their abundance at Amboli is noteworthy.

We are thankful to Mr. Sameer Kehimkar, who helped us during one of the surveys.

September 3, 2001 VARAD GIRI

VITHOBA HEGDE Bombay Natural History Society Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road , Salim Ali Chowk, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

References

Abdulali, H. (1955): Extension of range of lizard Cnemaspis kandiana (Kelaart). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53(1): 134.

*Cox, M.J., P.P. Van Dijk, J. Nabhitabhata & K. Thirakhupt ( 1 998): A photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd., London. 144 pp.

Daniel, J.C. (1974): Reptiles. In: Maharashtra State Gazetteer. Pp. 371-387.

Das, Indraneil (1999): Biogeography of the amphibians and reptiles of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In: Tropical island herpeto fauna. Origin, current diversity and conservation. (Ed: Ota, H.), Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, pp. 43-77.

*De Rooij, N. (1915): The reptiles of the Indo-Australian

Archipelago. I-Lacertilia. Chelonia, Emydosauna. E.J. Brill, Leiden, xiv + 384 pp.

*Dring, J.C., C.J. McCarthy & A.J. Whitten (“1989” 1 990): The terrestrial herpetofauna of the Mentawei Islands, Indonesia. Indo-Malayan Zool. 6:119-1 32. Nalawade, S. (1998): Turtles and lizards of Sahyadri.

J. Ecol. Soc. Pune 11: 38-40.

*Taylor, E.H. (1963): The lizards of Thailand. Univ.

Kansas Sci. Bull. 44: 687-1077.

*Smith (1926): Spolia Mentawia: Reptiles and amphibians Ann. & Mag. nat. Hist. Ser. 9, 18: 76-81.

Smith, M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. II Sauria, Taylor and Francis, London. 73+440 pp.

*Original not seen.

17. A NOTE ON THE ECTOPARASITIC TICKS OF REPTILES FROM SOUTHERN RAJASTHAN

Very little is known about ticks that live as Sharma ( JBNHS 94(3): 573-55) has reported parasites on reptiles of southern Rajasthan. Aponomma gervaisi infesting Varanus

Table 1

PARASITIC TICKS COLLECTED FROM REPTILES KILLED ON THE KOTRA-PALIYAKHEDA AND JHADOL-GORANA ROAD

SI. No. Locality

Year Host

Parasitic Tick

Site of Attachment

1 . Jhameri Reserve Forest, Range Jhadol (T)

2. Kirat Reserve Forest, Range Jhadol (T)

3. Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary

4. Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary

5. Gujari-ki-Nal Forest, Range Jhadol (T)

1994 Python molurus

1 994 Geochelone elegans

1 995 G. elegans

1 996 P. molurus*

1 997 P. molurus

Amblyomma javanense A. clypeolatum A. clypeolatum A. javanense A. javanense

Dorsum Near tail base Near base of neck Near cloaca Ventrum

*A live specimen was removed from the road and released in a safer locality inside the Sanctuary

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

bengalensis in Udaipur district, Rajasthan.

To know more about the ticks of reptiles of southern Rajasthan, many reptiles killed on the Kotra Paliyakheda and Jhadol-Gorana road in Udaipur district, Rajasthan were examined and the ticks collected. The samples were sent to the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, for identification. Besides Aponomma gervaisi on Varanus bengalensis , two other species of ticks were also recorded (Table 1).

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. A.K. Sanyal, Scientist ‘E’ and Officer-in-charge, Acarology Section, ZSI, Kolkata for identification of the ticks.

September 3, 2001 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Range Forest Officer (Wildlife), Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan.

1 8. ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BUFO PARIETALIS BOULENGER, 1 882, AMPHIBIA: FAMILY BUFONIDAE

Bufo parietalis was described by Boulenger (1882) from the south Indian state of Kerala. The only record of the species from Karnataka is that of Daniels (1992), who reported one adult from the evergreen forest leaf litter in Charmadi Ghats. This is the first report of populations of the species from Karnataka. We discuss the new range in Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka, its call, habits, food and breeding season.

The Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka (12° 15' N; 75° 33' E) on the western slope of the Western Ghats ranges from 125 m above msl at Subramannya to 1 ,400 m above msl at Kumaraparvatha. The vegetation is Semi- evergreen with high canopy cover. However, due to selective felling 25 years ago, the forest is secondary. Though there is an annual harvest of cane and other minor forest produce, there are no human settlements within the forest. The day temperature ranges from 26-29 °C and the night temperature at 2000 hrs is around 18 °C in the post monsoon season. The annual monsoon rainfall totals 400 cm. A few showers are received in November and January. This tropical rain forest supports many perennial hill streams with rocky puddles, which are often used by the toad for breeding.

We surveyed the forest for amphibians in 1998-2000 by walking along six well spaced

transects. Transects were placed in three altitudinal classes. A total of 2 1 km were walked in 18 months.

This large, terrestrial and crepuscular forest toad has prominent parotid ridges. The parotid glands are enlarged during the breeding season. The dorsal surface is black, the skin rough and irregularly folded. Supraorbital, postorbital and parietal ridges are contiguous. Ventrally, it is white with dark brown speckles.

Altitudinal preferences: The rainforest toad population was unevenly distributed within the forest and seemed to have altitudinal preferences. In the study area, they were observed to occur between 150 m and 360 m above msl. However, elsewhere in India, they occur at 500 m above msl or more (Daniels 1992).

Morphometries: The average snout to vent length (SVL) of male toads measured 62.55 mm (N=22) and of females 96.41 mm (N=l 8). The toad was previously known to reach 85 mm (Daniel 1963), while the largest we recorded was 105.6 mm.

Habits: We observed that the toad goes into dormancy during the peak monsoon months (June to August) and breeds in February (Table 1).

Feeding: The toads were seen catching and eating low flying and crawling insects such as fruitflies {Drosophila melanogaster), ants and grasshoppers. The fecal contents revealed

456

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Table 1

ACTIVITY PATTERN OF BUFO PAR1ETALIS IN PUSHPAGIRI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KARNATAKA

Months

Activity

Time (hrs)

Feb.-Mar.

Calling chorus, aggregation,

1830 to 0545

breeding

(Daily)

Apr.-May

Feeding, resting in water

1900 to 2400 (once in 7- 10 days)

Jun.-Aug.

Dormancy

—

Sep. -Jan.

Feeding

1 840 to 0600 (Daily)

fruitflies as the principal constituent of the diet, along with ants and cockroaches. A 30.5 mm cockroach wing was observed in the excreta of a female toad (105.6 mm SVL).

Calling: During the breeding season, hundreds of male toads called in chorus. The call was loud, harsh and aggressive, and given in series of 1 1-1 8. The low tone call resembled that of the pond heron ( Ardeola grayii) — kwak kwak kwak kwak. The number of calls varied from 11- 28 per minute.

Breeding: Not much is known of the breeding season of these toads. In Silent Valley, it breeds during December (Daniels 1992). We observed breeding from February to March. More than 200 calling males gather around the puddles of the perennial slow streams that flow under

the canopy cover. All the puddles (n=8) measured 2-3 m in width with 30 cm deep clear water, and plenty of decaying vegetation. The water temperature was 28 °C. After the initial calling, amplexus was observed in more than 50 frogs. The amplexus remained for more than 12 hrs, and continued even during the day in the water. A clutch-size of approximately 200 eggs was observed in two cases.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. Shivanna Hassan, Deputy Conservator of Forests, Karnataka Forest Department, for permission to undertake the study. We acknowledge Prof. Hegde, Vice Chancellor, University of Mysore and Prof. Cletus D’ Souza for encouragement. The study was funded through the India Programs of the Wildlife Conservation Society, New York.

March 2 1 , 200 1 SAVITHA N. KRISHNA SHARATH B. KRISHNA Department of Biosciences, University of Mysore, Hemagangothri, Hassan, Karnataka 573 220, India.

References

Boulenger, G.A. (1882): Catalogue of the Batrachia Salientia s. Ecaudata of the British Museum. 2nd Edn. London.

Daniel, J.C. (1963): Field guide to amphibians of western

India, Part 1, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 434- 435.

Daniels, R.J. Ranjit (1 992): Range extension in some south Indian amphibians. Hamadryad 17: 40-42.

19. DISTRIBUTION OF BUFO STOMATICUS LUTKEN, AMPHIBIA: FAMILY BUFONIDAE, IN ASSAM, NORTHEAST INDIA

Bufo stomaticus Liitken (Anura: Bufonidae) is a tropical and subtropical species occurring in a variety of conditions from warm, humid, mixed forests to almost perennially arid, stony places, supporting only scattered shrubs and grasses. However, its abundance is greater in regions experiencing dry and wet seasons supported by a

monsoon climate (Auffenberg and Rehman 1 997). Liitken originally described Bufo stomaticus from Assam (Dutta 1 997), but did not specify a locality. Later, it was described as a common species from the Indian subcontinent (Lower Bengal: Annandale 1909; Maharashtra: Yazdani and Mahabal 1976; Himachal Pradesh: Tilak and

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Mehta 1977; Gujarat: Sarkar 1984; Orissa: Dutta 1988; Bihar, Karnataka, Jammu & Kashmir: Sekar 1991; West Bengal: Sarkar et al. 1992; Andhra Pradesh: Sarkar et al. 1993; the Ganga Basin: Chanda 1991; Nepal: Zug and Mitchel 1995; Rajasthan: Sharma 1999). Subsequent investigations have failed to record this species from Assam. A recent review on geographic variation ( Auffenberg and Rehman 1 997) also did not include specimens from its type locality. This communication deals with the distribution of Bufo stomaticus in Assam and its comparison with the geographic variations observed by Auffenberg and Rehman (1997).

The study is based on 17 specimens collected between 1998-2000 from Orang National Park (92° 15'-92° 30’ E and 26° 30'-26° 40' N, district Darrang), Kuriahmari (a riverine island of the Brahmaputra, 91° 09'-91° 18' E and 25° 59'-26° 05' N, district Nalbari), Baghbor (90° 55' E and 26° 10' N, district Barpeta) and Balipara Reserve Forest (92° 39'-92° 51' E and 26° 53'-27° 01' N, district Sonitpur). All specimens are housed in the Museum of Arya Vidyapeeth College (KUR 6988-89, BGB 6991-6995, ONP 10-17 and BLP 3008) except two that are registered in ZSI, Kolkata (A9098-99). Specimens were collected by hand and morphometric measurements were taken with dial Vernier calipers. We analysed and performed student t-test for five characters which were:

SVL - Snout vent length

VTYD - Vertical tympanum diameter: greatest vertical diameter

PAL - Parotid gland length: greatest anterio-posterior length of parotid gland

PAW - Parotid gland width: greatest transverse distance of parotid gland.

TL - Tibia length: distance between posteriormost part of tarso-metatarsal to anteriormost part of articulation between tibia and femur.

Bufo stomaticus was found to be abundant in and around human habitation in the districts

of Barpeta, Nalbari, Darrang and Sonitpur in Assam. All localities are on the north bank, except Kuriahmari, which is an island in the middle of the River Brahmaputra. No collection/ observation could be made on the south bank, despite active searches. It appears that the Brahmaputra acts as a barrier in distribution. The habitat of B. stomaticus is moist, thick broadleaf matted grass with occasional scrubs. It was found to be synotopic with the more common B. melanostictus in Orang National Park (NP) and Baghbor. However, no B. melanostictus could be found in Kuriahmari. Both B. stomaticus and B. melanostictus were recorded as human commensal, but in Orang NP and Baghbor, B. stomaticus seemed to prefer less disturbed areas than B. melanostictus. Balipara forms the extreme east of its range of distribution. The species is included in the checklist of Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary (95° 15’- 90° 20' E and 26° 15'-26° 26' N, district Dhubri; Datta et. al. 1998), but this requires further confirmation from specimens.

As in all bufonid species, the SVL of the female of Bufo stomaticus is statistically (P>0.0 1 ) larger than the males. The proportional length of other characters in male and female do not show significant variation except PAW (Table 1 ). Our observation is in conformity with that of Mahapatro and Dash (1991), and Auffenberg and Rehman (1997) except for PAW.

The mean value of VTYD standardized against SVL (SVL/VTYD) is 15.62. The Assam set is comparable to Orissa (19.91, Auffenberg

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS (MM)OF MALE AND FEMALE BUFO STOMA TICUS FROM ASSAM

Parameter

Male

Female

SVL

56.91

67.48

VTYD

3.74

4.07

PAL

15.05

16.70

PAW

9.20

10.68

TL

21.61

24.04

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and Rehman 1 997) and appears to be a distinct geographic morphocline representing north- eastern India.

The mean value of parotid gland length (PAL) standardized against SVL (SVL/PAL) is 4.00. Auffenberg and Rehman ( 1 997) considered the central Indo-Gangetic-Indus river plains’ populations (SVL/PAL 4.17) which represent the average condition with respect to PAL. That the proportionate parotid gland length tends to decrease in all directions from this central area is supported by our observation.

The mean TL standardized with SVL (SVL/TL) is 2.74. There occurs a distinct geographical morphocline from Kumaon Himalayas all along the Gangetic plain where

Refer

Annandale, N. (1909): Notes on Indian Batrachia. Rec.

Indian Mus. 3: 282-286.

Auffenberg, W. & H. Rehman (1997): Geographic variation in Bufo stomaticus, with remarks on Bufo olivaceus : Biogeographical and systematic implications. In: Biodiversity of Pakistan (Eds: Mufti, S.A., C.A. Woods, S.A. Hasan). Pakistan Museum of Natural History, Islamabad, Florida Museum of Natural History. Gainsville. Pp. 351-372. Chanda, S.K. (1991): Amphibia: Faunal Resource of Ganga. Part I. Zoological Survey of India, pp. 51- 57.

Chanda, S.K. (1994): Anura (Amphibia) of northeast India.

Mem. Zool. Surv. India 18: 1-143.

Datta, S., J.M. Datta & M.P. Phukan (1998): Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary (A documentation of its biodiversity) Nature’s Beckon. Dhubri. 45 pp. Dutta, S.K. (1988): First record of Bufo stomaticus and Bufo fergusonii from Orissa, with comments on their distribution. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(2): 439-440.

Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka (Checklist and Bibliography). Odyssey Publishing House, Bhubaneswar, India. 342+xxii pp.

the value gradually decreases. The Assam set value is again different from the populations from central and eastern India.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Indraneil Das, S.K. Dutta and S.K. Chanda for their suggestions and the Assam Forest Department for logistic support.

August 1 7, 200 1 N. K. CHOUDHURY

M.F. AHMED S. SENGUPTA Zoology Department , Ary a Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati 781 016, Assam, India.

ENCES

Mahapatro, B.K. & M.C. Dash (1991): Breeding behaviour and morphometric relation of Bufo stomaticus Liitken (Anura: Amphibia). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 20-25.

Sarkar, A.K. ( 1 984): Ecological studies on the amphibians of Gujarat. Bull. Zool Surv. India 6(1-3): 87-93. Sarkar, A.K. M.L. Biswas & S. Ray (1992): Fauna of West Bengal: Amphibia. In: State Fauna Series, Zoological Survey of India, 3(2): 67-100.

Sarkar, A.K., P.K. Chandra & S. Ray (1993): Fauna of Andhra Pradesh: Amphibia. In: State Fauna Series, Zoological Survey of India, 5(1): 65-87.

Sekar, A.G. (1991): Distribution of amphibian fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 125 127. Sharma, S.K. (1999): Some new distribution sites of Amphibians in Rajasthan. Frog leg 3: 1 -2.

Tilak, R. & H.S. Mehata (1977): Report on a collection of amphibians from district Kangra, Himachal Pradesh. Newsl. Zool. Surv. India 3(4): 196-198. Yazdani, G.M. & A. Mahabal (1976): Amphibians of Poona. Newsl. Zool. Surv. India 2(4): 138-139. Zug,G.R. &J.C. Mitchel(1995): Amphibians and reptiles of Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Asiatic Herpetol. Res. 6: 172-180.

20. TAXONOMIC VARIATION IN SCHISTURA VINCIGUERRAE (HORA, 1935) FROM THE BASISTHA RIVER, A NEW RECORD FROM ASSAM, INDIA

The hill streams of Assam harbor varied Several workers have studied the fish fauna of fauna, which has not yet been fully assessed, the hill streams of Assam, namely Hora (1935),

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sen (1985) and Menon (1987). The river Basistha (26° 10'-26° 45' N and 90° 30' 92° 55' E) is located near Guwahati at an altitude of 80 m above msl. The river originates from Meghalaya and enters Assam near the Basistha temple.

S. vinciguerrae was first recorded by Hora (1935) from S. Shan State, Myanmar. Menon (1987) reported this species from Manipur. Das and Bordoloi ( 1 997) recorded it from the Basistha river, Assam. The present paper gives a taxonomic description based on fifteen specimens collected from this river during 1997-2000. Differences from the earlier descriptions have been discussed.

Specimens were collected from the intermediate zone of the river and were preserved in 8% formalin. Live coloration was recorded before preservation. Description was compared with that in Talwar and Jhingran (1991) and Jayaram (1999). It was confirmed at the

Zoological Survey of India, Shillong. All measurements are in mm.

Description: Body marked with several vertical bands. Band anterior to the dorsal fin broken up into a number of narrow bands. Three to four complete bands up to base of caudal fin. Well-marked short prominent vertical band at base of caudal fin and two V-shaped bands at forked end of caudal fin. Dorsal fin with one or two rows of spots, anal and pelvic fins with one row each. Live specimens show pink coloration on the tips of barbels, dorsal fin, anal fin, pectoral fin, and pelvic and caudal fins from April to October. The colour disappears gradually after the breeding season and on preservation.

The size range recorded during the present investigation was 48 to 60 mm (standard length). Detailed body measurements are given in Table 1. Body elongated and sub cylindrical: Dorsal profile is slightly sagging, but ventral surface is

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF NEMACHEILUS VINCIGUERRAE (HORA, 1935) FROM THE BASISTHA RIVER, ASSAM

Specimen number

Range

Mean

Character (in mm)

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

XI

XII

XIII

XIV

XV

Min.

Max.

(X)

Total Length (TL)

73

73

73

70

67

67

66

65

64

64

62

62

62

60

60

60

73

65.86

Standard Length (SL) 60

60

60

57

54

54

54

53

53

52

49

50

50

48

48

48

60

53.46

Fork Length (FL)

68

68

67

65

61

61

62

60

59

59

55

57

57

56

55

55

68

60.66

Length of Head

14

13

13

13

12

12

13

12

12

12

11

12

12

11

12

11

13

11.4

Head Depth

7

8

8

7

7

6

7

7

7

7

6

7

6

6

6

6

8

6.8

Head Width

11

10

9

9

8

9

9

9

9

8

7

8

8

8

8

7

11

8.66

Depth of Body

11

13

10

9

9

11

9

10

10

9

8

9

8

9

8

8

13

9.53

Length of Caudal

Peduncle

9

9

9

8

8

8

8

8

8

9

8

8

7

7

7

7

9

7.93

Depth of Caudal

Peduncle

8

7

7

7

6

6

7

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

8

6.4

Eye Diameter

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2.0

Snout Length

7

7

6

6

6

5

6

6

6

6

5

6

6

6

6

5

7

6.0

Post-Orbital Length

7

7

6

7

6

7

7

7

7

6

5

6

6

6

6

5

7

6.4

Pre-Dorsal Length

30

30

30

28

27

27

27

26

26

26

24

25

25

24

24

24

30

26.6

Pre-Pelvic Distance

33

32

32

30

29

28

29

29

30

28

26

28

27

26

26

26

30

28.86

Pectoral Fin Length

13

12

12

12

12

10

12

11

11

12

11

13

11

11

10

10

13

11.53

Pelvic Fin Length

12

11

11

10

11

9

11

10

10

10

9

11

10

10

10

9

12

10.33

Anal Fin Length

11

10

10

10

9

9

10

8

9

9

9

10

9

9

9

8

11

9.4

Dorsal Fin Length

13

12

12

12

12

12

11

12

12

12

11

13

10

12

11

11

13

11.8

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at the same level as the rounded belly. Range in total length was 60 to 73 mm. Body depth was 4.6-6.33 in standard length. Head depressed. Head length 4.0 - 4.5 in standard length. Eyes small, placed high up and not visible from the under side of the head. Eye diameter 5. 9-6. 5 in head length. Nostrils close to each other. Mouth semicircular, lips moderately fleshy, upper lip faintly notched and lower lip interrupted in the middle. Well developed maxillary, rostral and mandibular barbels.

Caudal fin forked, both the lobes equal but the upper lobe sometimes slightly more slender than the lower lobe. Caudal peduncle 5.77-7. 14 in standard length. Height of caudal peduncle 7.50-9.00 in standard length. Lateral line complete.

Schistura vinciguerrae ( Hora 1935) was earlier known as Nemacheilus vinciguerrae. The type locality reported by Hora was S. Shan State, Burma (presently Myanmar). In India, the species was first recorded by Menon (1987) from Chindwin drainage, Irrawaddy and Salween river basins in Manipur. The present record extends the range of this fish westward to Guwahati in Kamrup District, Assam. Distinguishing characters mentioned in Talwar and Jhingran

Refer

Das, P. & S.C. Bordoloi (1997): Fish fauna of a torrential river (Basistha) in Kamrup district, Assam, India.

J. Inland. Fish. Soc. India 29(1): 54-58.

Hora, S.L. (1935): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum XXIV Loaches of the genus Nemacheilus from Eastern Himalaya, with the description of a new species from Myanmar and Siam. Rec. Ind. Mus. 37(1): 49-67.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The fresh water fishes of the Indian region. Pp. xviii + 55 1 Narendra Publishing House,

21 . ON PSEUDOSPHROMENUS SP. SOUTH INDIA WITH REMARKS

(1999) were Diii 8; Aii 5; Pi 11; Vi 6. These characters were found to be Dii 8; Aii 5; Pi 9- 1 1 ; Vi 5-6 in the present investigation. A slight variation was also noted in the length of caudal peduncle, which was 5.77-7.14 in standard length as compared to 6. 1-6.8 recorded by earlier workers. Similarly, height of the caudal peduncle was found to be 7. 5-9.0 in standard length instead of 7. 7- 8. 8 recorded earlier.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. (Ms.) Nivedita Sen, Sr. Scientist, ZSI, Shillong for confirmation of identification of the species.

July 14, 2001 PURNIMA DAS BORA

Department of Zoology, Dhing College, Nagaon, Assam, India. SABITRY BORDOLOI Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Cotton College, Guwahati 781 001 , Assam, India. AMALESH DUTTA Department of Zoology, Gauhati University, Guwahati 781 014, Assam, India.

sNCES

New Delhi, India.

Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The fauna of India and the adjacent countries, Pisces 4. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. x + 259.

Sen, T.K. (1985): The fish fauna of Assam and the neighbouring North Eastern States of India. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper 64: 1-216.

Talwar, P.K. & A. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., N. Delhi. Vol. 1 & 2, pp. 1 158.

(PISCES: BELONTIIDAE) FROM N THE AUTHORSHIP OF P. DAYI

The genus Pseudosphromenus is of occurring in peninsular India and Sri Lanka, and ichthyological significance since it includes two the latter restricted to Kerala. P. cupanus was species, P. cupanus and P. dayi , which are described by Cuvier and Valenciennes in 1831 confined to the Indian subcontinent, the former from Arian Coupam, Pondicherry on the east

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coast, while Day in 1865 distinguished dayi from among specimens of cupanus from Kerala, based on a specimen having a different colour pattern, one spine less on the dorsal fin and one ray less in the anal fins. Later, Kohler (1908) proposed the name P. cupanus var. dayi to accommodate this species, which he considered a variety of cupanus. Though endemic to Kerala and a popular aquarium fish, there has been no uniformity of opinion on the taxonomic status of this species. Thus, it was overlooked by Jayaram (1981) and considered a synonym of P. cupanus by Talwar and Jhingran (1991). Menon (1999) based on authentic reports by aquarists, placed it as a distinct species in his checklist of the fresh water fishes of india. In his recent book, Jayaram (1999) also remarks that it is considered a separate species by aquarists.

The two species were collected during faunistic surveys by teams of the Zoological Survey of India. P. cupanus was collected from both the eastern (Pondicherry) and western (Kerala) regions and P. dayi from Trivandrum, Kerala. A

comparative study was carried out to observe intraspecific variations, if any, in cupanus from the eastern and western regions and also to ascertain further distinguishing characters of dayi.

Morphometric characters were taken with dial calipers with an accuracy of 0.02 mm. The body proportions are given in Table 1 with the mean followed by the range in parentheses.

The following materials were examined.

P. dayi : 10 exs., 18-22 mm SL, F. 5529 ZSI/SRS, Poikat, Varkala, Trivandrum district, Kerala, 3.iv.l998, P.T. Cherian and party.

P. cupanus : 10 exs. 24-37 mm SL, F. 5528, ZSI/SRS, Poikat, Varkala, Trivandrum district, Kerala, 3.iv.l998, P.T. Cherian and party; 7 exs., 23-3 1 mm SL, F. 3945, ZSI/SRS, Kakayanthope, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, 1 9.iii. 1 992, K. Ramachandia Rao.

Meristic details: P. dayi: from Kerala: D. XIII-XV /5; P. 10; V. 1/5; A.XVII-XVIII /10; C. 1 3; L.l. 26-28; L.tr. 10-11; predorsal scales 18-20.

P. cupanus: from Kerala: D.XIII-XIV /6; P.10-12; V. 1/5; A.XVII-XVIII /11;C. 13; L.l.

Table 1

COMPARISON OF BODY PROPORTIONS OF PSEUDOSPHROMENUS SPECIES

P. dayi

P. cupanus (From Trivandrum)

P. cupanus (From Pondicherry)

SL/HL

2.84 (2.72-3.00)

2.97 (2.71-3.41)

2.93 (2.75-3.09)

SL/BD

3.27 (3.07-3.43)

3.10(2.78-3.51)

2.87 (2.75-2.95)

SL/Predorsal distance

2.12(2.01-2.27)

2.20 (2.07-2.53)

2.06(1.98-2.17)

SL/Postdorsal distance

1.82(1.73-2.11)

1.81(1.71-2.10)

1.93(1.81-2.42)

SL/Pre Pelvic distance

2.62 (2.50-2.79)

2.64 (2.42-3.08)

2.67 (2.55-2.75)

SL/Lt. of Pectoral fin

4.38(4.00-5.21)

4.50 (4.15-5.14)

4.17(3.91-4.57)

SL/Lt. of Pelvic fin

3.96(3.33-4.46)

4.08(3.59-4.49)

3.67(3.09-4.42)

SL/Lt. of Anal fin

6.23 (5.44-6.90)

5.99 (5.24-6.67)

6.35(5.65-7.00)

SL/Lt. of Caudal fin

2.55(1.99-2.97)

2.49(1.70-3.00)

2.92 (2.82-3.14)

HL/ED

3.31 (2.87-3.37)

3.75(3.48-4.27)

3.41 (3.18-3.68)

HL/Snout length

4.38(4.06-4.66)

3.98 (3.48-4.14)

4.37(4.21-4.70)

HL/I.O.W.

3.67 (3.47-3.89)

3.65 (3.47-3.98)

3.45(3.08-3.60)

Snout/ED

0.74 (0.64-0.82)

0.94 (0.87-1.12)

0.78 (0.66-0.84)

l.O.W./Ed

0.88 (0.77-0.97)

1.03 (0.92-1.14)

1.09 (0.92-1.71)

BD/Width ofbody

1.72(1.64-1.84)

1.86(1.73-1.97)

1.94(1.86-2.03)

BD/Ht. of dorsal fin

1.64(1.21-1.83)

1.62(1.27-1.98)

1.82(1.71-1.95)

HL/Lt. of pectoral fin

1.54(1.40-1.76)

1.51 (1.44-1.61)

1.42(1.30-1.56)

Lt. of Caudal fin/HL

1.14(0.81-1.43)

1.21 (0.99-1.66)

1.01 (0.87-1.07)

Anal fin base/Dorsal fin base

1.22(1.13-1.33)

1.21 (1.13-1.33)

1.34(1.24-1.44)

SL = standard length; HL = head length; BD = body depth; Lt. = IOW = inter orbital width; Ht. = height.

length; ED = eye diameter;

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27-31; L.tr. 10-12; Predorsal scales 18-2p.

P. cupanus : from Tamil Nadu: D.XIII-XIV /6; P.10-1 1; V. 1/5; A.XVIII-XIX / 1 0- 1 1 ; C . 1 3 ; L.l. 29-30; L.tr. 11-12; Predorsal scales 18-20.

A comparison of the meristic characters of P. dayi and P. cupanus shows little difference, but for the lesser number of branched soft rays of dorsal (5 vs. 6) and anal fins (10 vs. 11) in dayi (Day op. cit). However, in two specimens of cupanus, the branched rays numbered 10. Other differences observed are given below.

Apart from its characteristic colour markings, dayi is a smaller species with a larger head and eye and a rounded body. The cupanus from the east coast has a much deeper and more compressed body with smaller caudal and larger paired fins than in the population from the east coast (Table 1). Also, the predorsal distance is slightly greater in cupanus from the east coast, the dorsal originating further back. Besides, in this cupanus from Pondicherry, the inter-orbital width is narrower, the eyes being placed closer together on a more compressed head, whereas in the specimens from Kerala the inter-orbital width is more and the head is broader (Table 1 ). Another interesting feature is the difference in the relative width of the maxilla, which is very narrow in dayi . Difference in width of maxilla was observed within the cupanus species. In two specimens dissected, one with a broader and another with a narrower lip, the former turned out to be a male. Besides, the specimens of both the species from Kerala were darker than cupanus from Tamil Nadu, in keeping with the thick canopy-covered darker waters of the west, in contrast to the bright sunlit waters of the plains in the east.

The authorship of P. dayi has been much debated. According to Kottelat (1994), “Engmann (1909) is therefore technically author of the name Polyacanthus cupanus var. dayi as he is responsible for the conditions which make it available” However, Engmann (1909), while referring to Kohler’s recommendation to name the species

P. dayi , stated that he preferred to call it “ Polyacanthus cupanus var. von Malakka ”, awaiting reports of examination of the specimens by scientists. Besides, he considered dayi a junior synonym of cupanus. Hence, by no stretch of the imagination can Engmann be considered tech- nically the author of the name P. cupanus var. dayi.

Kohler (1908) while reporting the species considered it a variety of P. cupanus. Referring to its first description of P. cupanus by Day ( 1 865), he recommended the varietal name dayi. Since Day’s original description of the species adequately distinguishes it from others, especially its closest relative cupanus , Kohler’s naming the species (which Day had not done) calling attention to the description of the species by Day, validates the naming, and Kohler technically the author of the species name dayi. There are many instances in taxonomic literature where only one or two differences in the characters of a described species are given to separate a related species or its variety and giving it a new name which has remained valid through the years. In this instance, the author’s name has been resolved as valid since the species was first named, the merits or demerits of subsequent discussions by later authors on the subject are not mentioned.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological Survey of India for facilities. Dr. A.G.K. Menon being the pivotal force in our ichthyological studies deserves our sincere thanks.

March 24, 200 1 P.T. CHERI AN

K. REMA DEVI T.J. INDRA Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, 100, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 023, Tamil Nadu, India.

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References

Cuvier, G. & A. Valenciennes (1831): Histoire naturelle des poisons, Paris Strasbourg. 7: xxix + 531 pp., pis. 170-208.

Day, F. (1865): Fishes of Malabar. Bernard Qwaritch, London, xxxii + 294 pp.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sri Lanka: A handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, xxii + 475 pp, 13 pis.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 551 pp, XVIII pis.

KOhler, W. (1908): Untersuchungen liber das Schaumnest und den Schaumnestbau der Osphromeniden. Blatter fur Aquarien - und Terraienkunde 19: 392-396.

Kottelat, Maurice (1994): Authorship and dates of publication of Pseudosphromenus dayi (Pisces: Belontidae). J. South Asian nat. Hist. 1(1): 31-33.

Menon, A.G.K. (1999): Checklist, Freshwater Fishes of India. Zoological Survey of India, Occ. Pap. No. 175: 366 pp.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2 vols., xix +1158 pp.

22. THE FISH FAUNA OF BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA

In Kerala, 44 rivers and an elaborate network of their tributaries harbour a rich and diverse fish fauna. Ichthyofaunal investigations in Kerala, which began with the outstanding works of Jerdon (1849) and Day (1865, 1878), were followed by several other researchers (Pillay 1929, Mukerji 1931, Hora and Law 1941, Hora and Nair 1941, Hora 1942, Silas 1950, 1951, 1952, Rajan 1955, Rema Devi and Indra 1986, Shaji and Easa 1995, Shaji et al. 1995, Easa and Shaji 1996, 1997, Biju et al 1999a, b). Yet, the fish diversity in the larger rivers of Kerala remains to be investigated in detail.

Bharathapuzha (Nila) is the longest river in Kerala and the second largest on the southwest coast of India. There are no records of the fish diversity of this river, which is currently under severe ecological degradation due to human impacts. This paper documents the diversity and status of fish fauna of this river system.

The Bharathapuzha river originates from the Anamalai Hills in the Western Ghats at 1 ,964 m above msl, and flows through Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, and Palakkad, Malappuram and Thrissur districts, Kerala and finally meets the Arabian Sea at Ponnani. In Kerala, it has a total length of 209 km and a basin area of 4,400 sq. km (CWRDM 1991). Its main tributaries are the Gayatripuzha, Chitturpuzha (Kannadipuzha

or Amaravathipuzha), Kalpathipuzha and Thuthapuzha. From the confluence of Kalpathipuzha and Chitturpuzha at Parali, the river is named Bharathapuzha.

The river basin can be divided into three physiographic zones: the coastal belt, the midland and the highland. The fish survey was conducted in the midland zone. The undulating midland with laterite formation is characterised by a number of elas or small, cultivated watershed areas. A number of low laterite hills in this region are interspersed with paddy fields, coconut and areca nut groves and of late, with plantations of cash crops (CWRDM 1991).

Fish samples were collected from March 1997 to March 1999, from different locations in the midland region of the river from Parali to Thirunavaya using cast nets, scoop nets and gill nets of varying mesh size. Conventional methods such as sieving through cloth were also used. Uniform fishing efforts were maintained at all the stations and similar types of nets were employed. The pigmentation was recorded in fresh fishes, which were then fixed in 5% formalin. The works ofDay(1865, 1878), Jayaram (1981), Fischer and Bianchi (1984) and Talwar and Jhingran (1991) were referred for identification. The species were categorised into rare, very rare and abundant, based on the catch data.

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Sixty-one species of fishes, belonging to 1 1 orders, 30 families and 50 genera were recorded for the first time from the Bharathapuzha river (Table 1). The results show that despite extensive environmental degradation such as sand mining, rock blasting, pollution and siltation, the river has rich and diverse fish resources.

Of the 61 fish species recorded, Batasio travancoria and Tetraodon travancoricus are endemic to Kerala, while Corica soborna, Chela dadyburjori and Lepidocephalus guntea are new records. Barilius bendelisis was reported to occur widely except in Kerala (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). This study confirms its presence in the State. Among the 61 species of fish collected, 24.59% are very rare while 31.15 % are rare.

Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis , Batasio travancoria , Hypselobarbus curmuca , Mystus malabaricus and Tetraodon travancoricus are endangered, and Puntius sarana subnasutus, Tor khudree, Heteropneustes fossilis , Mystus montanus , Anabas testudineus, Parambassis thomassi and Macrognathus guentheri are vulnerable, according to IUCN criteria (Molur and Walker 1998).

The major Indian carps Catla catla , Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala, and Labeo fimbriatus cultivated in the Malampuzha dam located in the upper reaches of the river, escaped to the lower reaches, have established good populations there. Similarly, the presence of a larger number of exotic fish such as Oreochromis mossambica in the river is a matter of concern to the native fish stock.

Species such as Megalops cyprinoides , Chanos chanos , Microphis cuncalus , Ambassis commersoni, Terapon jarbua, Megalopsis cordyla, Leiognathus guentheri , Lutjanus argentimaculatus , Gerres filamentosus , Scatophagus argus, Liza tade, Glossogobius giuris, Cynoglossus macrostomus and Euryglossa orientalis are primarily estuarine fishes collected from the freshwater regions of the river. Of these, Gerres filamentosus ,

Glossogobius giuris , Lutjanus argentimaculatus and Megalopsis cordyla migrate from the saline waters to about 85 km upstream and were collected from Lakkidi region.

Studies are warranted to realise the impact of check-dams on the migration of fishes, as more check-dams are coming up in the river. Both Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis and A. bicolor bicolor are catadromous and the adult eels probably migrate to the deep ocean for spawning; the returning glass eels (larvae) and elvers (young ones) try to migrate far upstream where they grow for many years (Wickstrom pers. comm.). Considerable reduction in the population of eels indicates the need to study the impact of check- dams. Further, installing a suitable kind of eel ladder at every dam in the river is also indicated.

Flow regulation by means of check-dams, pollution (mainly agricultural and sewage), sand and clay mining, destruction of natural pools and unscientific fishing methods are the major threats to fish fauna in the river. Some conservation measures are suggested to preserve the ichthyofauna.

1. Fishing by poisoning and dynamiting should be banned.

2. The existing natural pools, which are the breeding centres of the fishes should be protected from fishing. Fish sanctuaries or aquatic biodiversity management zones could be set up.

3. There should be measures to control the pollution of the river, especially from agricultural sources.

4. Regulation of mesh size of nets to prevent large-scale death of juvenile fish in the nets.

5. Assessment of the population density and habitat requirements of fishes in the river.

6. Detailed investigations on the impact of check-dams on the natural migration of the fishes.

7. Assessment of extent of damage done by the increasing population of exotic species to the indigenous stock of the river.

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Table 1

LIST OF FISHES COLLECTED FROM LIST OF FISHES COLLECTED FROM

BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA

Species

Status

Species

Status

Order: ELOPIFORMES

Order: SILURIFORMES

Family: Megalopedae

Family: Bagridae

1.

Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet)

VR

27.

Batasio travancoria Hora & Law

VR

28.

Mystus cavasius (Hamilton-Buchanan)

A

Order: ANGUILLIFORMES

29.

M. malabaricus (Jerdon)

R

Family: Anguillidae

30.

M. montanus (Jerdon)

A

2.

Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis (Gray)

VR

31.

M. oculatus (Valenciennes)

A

3.

A. bicolor bicolor McClelland

R

Family: Siluridae

Order: CLUPEIFORMES

32.

Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)

R

Family: Clupeidae

33.

Wallago attu (Schneider)

A

4.

Corica soborna (Hamilton-Buchanan)

R

Family: Heteropneustidae

Order: GONORHYNCHIFORMES Family: Chanidae

34.

Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

R

5.

Chanos chanos (Forsskal)

VR

Order: CYPRINODONTIFORMES Family: Hemiramphidae

Order: CYPRINIFORMES

35.

Hyporhampus limbatus (Valenciennes)

A

Family: Cyprinidae Subfamily: Cyprininae

Family: Belonidae

6.

Catla catla (Hamilton-Buchanan)

A

36.

Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton-Buchanan)

A

7.

Cirrhinus mrigala mrigala (Hamilton-Buchanan)

R

Family: Aplocheilidae

8.

Hypselobarbus curmuca (Day)

VR

37.

Aplocheilus lineatus (Arnold)

A

9.

Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch)

R

10.

L. rohita (Hamilton-Buchanan)

R

Order: SYNGNATHIFORMES

11.

Puntius amphibius (Valenciennes)

A

Family: Syngnathidae

12.

P . filamentosus (Valenciennes)

A

38.

Microphis cuncalus (Hamilton-Buchanan)

VR

13.

P. parrah (Day)

A

14.

P. sarana subnasutus (V alenciennes)

A

Order: PERCIFORMES

15.

P. ticto (Hamilton-Buchanan)

R

Family: Ambassidae

16.

P. vittatus (Day)

A

39.

Ambassis commersoni Cuvier

VR

17.

Tor khudree (Sykes)

VR

40.

Parambassis thomassi (Day)

A

Subfamily: Cultrinae

Family: Teraponidae

18.

Chela dadyburjori Menon

R

41.

Terapon jarbua (Forsskal)

VR

19.

Salmostoma boopis (Day)

R

Family: Carangidae

Subfamily: Rasborinae

42.

Megalopsis cordyla (Linnaeus)

R

20.

Amblypharyngodon microlepis (Bleeker)

A

21.

Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton-Buchanan)

A

Family: Leiognathidae

22.

Danio malabaricus (Jerdon)

A

43.

Leiognathus blochii (Valenciennes)

VR

23.

Esomus danricus (Hamilton-Buchanan)

A

24.

Parluciosoma daniconius

Family: Lutjanidae

(Hamilton-Buchanan)

A

44.

Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskal)

R

Subfamily: Garrinae

Family: Gerreidae

25.

Garra mullya (Sykes)

A

45.

Gerres filamentosus (Cuvier)

R

Family: Cobitidae

Family: Scatophagidae

VR

26.

Lepidocephalus guntea (Hamilton-Buchanan) A

46.

Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus)

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Table 1 (contd.)

LIST OF FISHES COLLECTED FROM BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA

Species Status

Family: Cichlidae

47. Etroplus maculatus { Bloch) A

48. E. suratensis (Bloch) A

49. Oreochromis mossambica (Peters) A

Family: Mugilidae

50. Liza tade (Forsskal) VR

Family: Gobudae

51. Awaousgutum (Hamilton-Buchanan) A

52. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton-Buchanan) R

53. Sicyopterus griseus (Day) VR

Family: Eleotrididae

54. Eleotris sp. VR

Family: Anabantidae

55. Anabas testudineus (Bloch) R

LIST OF FISHES COLLECTED FROM BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA

Species Status

Family: Channidae

56. Channa marulius (Hamilton-Buchanan) R

Family: Mastacembelidae

57. Macrognathus guentheri ( Day) A

58. Mastacembeles armatus (Lacepede) A

Order: PLEURONECTIFORMES Family: Cynoglossidae

59. Cynoglossus macrostomus Norman VR

Family: Soleidae

60. Euryglossa orientalis (Bloch & Schneider) R

Order: TETRAODONTIFORMES Family: Tetraodontidae

61 . Tetraodon travancoricus Hora & Nair R

A = abundant; VR = very rare; R = rare

8. Fishing at the onset of monsoon, the breeding season, should be controlled.

9. Biodiversity monitoring and awareness programmes highlighting the need to protect the river and its biodiversity for the inhabitants of over 140 villages in the river basin.

Acknowledgements

The study was funded by the University Grants Commission (SRO). Thanks are due to Dr. P.S. Easa and C.P. Shaji, Kerala Forest

Refer

Buu, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajith Kumar (1999a): Fishes of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Palakkad district. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96: 82-87.

Buu, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajith Kumar (1999b): Distribution of fish in the Manjeswaran River, Kasaragod (Kerala). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96: 159-160.

CWRDM (1991): Water Resources Development of Bharathapuzha Basin. A Status Report. Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode, Kerala, 88 pp.

Day, F. (1865): The Fishes of Malabar. Bernard Quaritch,

Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala for their creative comments and suggestions on an early draft of the paper.

September 22, 1 999 A. BIJUKUMAR*

S. SUSHAMA Department of Zoology, N.S.S. College, Ottapalam 679103, Kerala, India. * Present Address: State Committee on Science, Technology & Environment, Sasthra Bhavan, Pattom, Trivandrum 695 004,

Kerala, India.

ENCES

London, 293 pp.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India: Being a Natural History of Fishes Known to Inhabit the Seas and Freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Today and Tomorrow’s Book Agency, New Delhi, 778 pp + 198 pis.

Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1996): Freshwater fishes of Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 304 -306.

Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1997): Freshwater fish diversity in Kerala part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Curr. Sci. 73: 180-182.

Fischer, W. & G. Bianchi (1984): FAO species

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200 J

467

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

identification sheets for fishery purposes. Western Indian Ocean (Fishing Area 5 1 ). FAO, Rome, 570

pp.

Hora, S.L. (1942): A list of fishes of Mysore State and the neighbouring hill ranges of the Nilgiris, Wyanad and Coorg. Rec. Ind. Mus. 44: 193-200.

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The freshwater fishes of Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 233-256.

Hora, S.L. &K.K. Nair( 1941): New records of freshwater fishes from Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 387-393.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Freshwater Fishes of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka — A Handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, xii + 475 pp.

Jerdon, T.C. ( 1 849): On the freshwater fishes of southern India. Madras J. Lit. Sci. 15: 302-346.

Molur, S. & S. Walker (1998): Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshops. Report. Freshwater Fishes of India. Zoo Outreach Organisation, Coimbatore. Tamil Nadu, 156 pp.

Mukerji, D.D. ( 1 93 1 ): On a small collection of fish from Bhavani river (S. India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 162-171.

Pillay, R.S.N. (1929): A list of fishes from Travancore.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-379.

Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fish from the headwaters of the Bhavani river, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53:44-48.

RemaDevi, K. &T.J. Indra (1986): Fishes of Silent Valley.

Rec. zool. Surv. Ind. 84: 243-257.

Shaji, C.P. & P.S. Easa (1995): Freshwater fish diversity in Wyanad, Kerala, South India. J. Zool. Soc. Kerala 5: 30-36.

Shaji, C.P, P.S. Easa & S. Chand Basha (1995): Freshwater fish diversity in Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92: 360- 363).

Silas, E.G. ( 1 950): On a collection of fish from Travancore.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 792-797 .

Silas, E.G. (1 95 1 ): On a collection of fish from Anamalai and Nelliampathy hill ranges (Western Ghats) with notes on its zoogeographical significance. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 670-681.

Silas, E.G. (1952): Fishes from the high ranges of Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 323-330. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1 991 ): Inland Fishes of India and Adjacent Countries. Vols. 1 & 2 Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi, ix-xix + 1 097 pp.

23. OCCURRENCE OF CHILLI GALL MIDGE, ASPHONDYLIA CAPSICI BARNES (CECIDOM YIID AE : DIPTERA) IN SOUTH ANDAMANS, ANDAMAN ISLANDS

The chilli gall midge, Asphondylia capsid Barnes is a serious pest of chillies and bell pepper, with the potential to reduce the yield by infesting fruiting parts. Ayyanna and Raghavaiah (1990) reported the occurrence of this pest on chillies at Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh, leading to deformation of the flower buds and bud-drop to the extent of 6.5%.

During 1998 and 1999, from September- January, we noticed the pest on the bell pepper grown in our experimental plots. Damage of up to 28 % was recorded. The attacked flowers malformed into galls, dried up and dropped to the ground. The infected flowers when dissected showed pale orange maggots 3 mm long. The malformed buds were incubated in plastic containers over sand to facilitate pupation and emergence of adult A. capsid. The adult midge was dark, reddish-brown, mosquito-like, measur- ing 3 mm in length. During the course of rearing,

two unidentified hymenopterous parasitoids were also obtained, which had parasitized the larvae and pupae. Tomar et. al ., (1997) reported Eurytoma sp., Dinarmus sp. and Bracon sp. parasitizing A. capsid larvae and pupae.

This is the first report of the pest from Andaman Islands.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. S. Suresh, Division of Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore,for identifying the pest. We are also grateful to the Director, CARI for facilities.

May 26, 2000 G. SHYAM PRASAD

H.R. RANGANATH Central Agricultural Research Institute, P.B. 181, Port Blair 744 101, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India.

468

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Ayyana, T. & G. Raghavaiah (1 990): Occurrence of Chilli midge Asphondylia capsici Barnes at Bapatla in Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh. Indian Cacao, Arecanut and Spice Journal 13(3): 106.

Tomar, R.K.S., H.S. Yadav & R.K. Agarwal (1997): Parasitoids of Chilli gall midge, Asphondylia capsici and their role in Chilli ecosystem. Indian J.Ent. 59(2): 173-178.

24. OVERWINTERING POPULATION OF DANAUS (SALATHURA) GENUTIA IN TIGER VALLEY IN SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI, MAHARASHTRA

(With one text-figure)

Many species of butterflies migrate from cold temperate regions of the northern latitude to warmer regions during fall, and move north during spring (Williams 1930). The Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) of North America is one of the best studied for its migratory behavior (Urquhart 1976, 1978; Urquhart and Urquhart 1979; Brower 1995). Mark, Release and Recapture (MRR) studies showed that the migrating Monarchs reached Sierra Madre Occidentale mountains in Northern Mexico where they hibernate in millions. At the onset of spring they move northwards and lay eggs on milkweed plants in the southern USA. The next generation from these eggs moves to breed further north (Brower 1995).

Most of the butterflies from the northeastern North America overwinter in Sierra Madre Occidentale and Alpha in Mexico. But the populations west of the Rockies congregate in huge numbers on the West Coast in California, in places such as the Monterey Peninsula. Urquhart (1965) defined two types of colonies in California, a transient roosting colony of short duration and a long-term roosting colony. Individuals of short term roosting colonies leave the roosting site under suitable conditions to take nourishment, but do not come back to the same site, while long-term roosting colonies stay in the roosting sites for a long period of time. Unlike some hibernating organisms that do not move, overwintering butterflies are free flying individuals in reproductive diapause, although

some females may be gravid (Ackery and Vane- Wright 1984). Some species congregate at overnight roosting sites, particularly in cold and windy weather. This is defined as nocturnal, communal or gregarious roosting behaviour (Ackery and Vane-Wright 1984). Such butterflies leave the site in the morning and may not return to the same spot the next day. Migration of the Danainae butterflies, especially Tirumala, Euploea, Danaus and Parantica , has also been recorded in India and elsewhere in south and southeast Asia (Williams 1930; Chaturvedi 1998 and references therein). Other observers at the beginning of the 20th century have described gregarious or nocturnal roosting behaviour for Tirumala hamata in Queensland, Australia (McNeill 1937), Tirumala petivarana in E. Africa (Poulton 1934), and Danaus genutia in Hongkong (Kershaw 1905-1907). Although migration of danaids has been described in India, it was presumed that the migratory population dispersed with the local population. Also, there was no evidence of overwintering populations.

On March 3, 1992, in the company of Ulhas Paralkar, Amar Mehta, and others in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, near Tulsi dam, in Mumbai, Maharashtra, I came upon a huge congregation of Common Tiger Danaus (Salathura) genutia butterflies, near the water filtration system outlet between the pipelines. As we approached, the butterflies resting on the ferns and bamboo clumps were disturbed and flew all around us in a thick cloud. This location will now

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be referred to as Tiger Valley. Observations within about 300 m along the stream suggested that males were more common than females. We had no net to facilitate marking, but took photographs and noted whether they were moving in any particular direction. As it was late on a hot afternoon, most of the butterflies were resting, and when disturbed they would fly around for a very short time before settling back on the leaves, twigs or elsewhere. Bamboo clumps accommodated larger numbers and as many as 32 were seen at one time on a bamboo shaft about 1 cm thick and 1 m tall. I estimated more than 30,000 butterflies at that site. We decided to return to the Valley the subsequent week, to determine if the butterflies were still there and if so to carry out Mark, Release and Recapture (MRR) studies.

During the next few weeks, Ulhas Paralkar, Amar Mehta and I returned on weekends to Tiger Valley between March and July 1 99 1 , to conduct MRR studies. We made 1 1 trips during this study period. The markings were carried out around 1 100 hrs to 1300 hrs. We painted the butterflies with either different coloured paints or nail polish (white or blue oil paints and pink nail polish), preferably on both the hind-wings, as these can

be seen easily even when the butterfly is resting. On each occasion we marked them with a different colour, so that the area of marking and colour code was unique for a given date. When a marked butterfly was recovered, we marked it again with the day’s code to determine the recovery number. During initial releases, we noted the direction in which they flew off. Later we discontinued this recording, as there was no particular directional flight. The condition of each butterfly was also noted.

Table 1

THE RESULTS OF MRR STUDIES OF D. GENUTIA IN SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI

Date of marking

Captured

Males Females

Recoveries

8.iii. 1 992

0

0

_

1 5.iii.l 992

76

29

0

5.iv.l992

32

52

0

25.iv.1992

49

47

0

3.V.1992

27

42

5

lO.v.1992

59

77

3

24.V.1992

58

48

7

31.V.1992

22

40

3

7.vi.l992

29

44

9

1 4.vi . 1 992

21

74

8

26.vii.1992

0

0

0

373

453

Fig. 1 : Results of MRR studies of Danaus genutia in Tiger Valley, Sanjay Gandhi National Park

470

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A total of 826 butterflies were marked, of which 373 were males and 453 females. 35 butterflies were recaptured, of which two were recaptured twice (Table 1, Fig. 1). During the first two weeks, none were recaptured. Most of the recoveries were after 7 to 2 1 days after the day of marking. Seven butterflies were recovered after 35 days. One individual was recorded after 49 days and again 63 days later (Table 2). We captured significantly higher number of females than the males except on the first day when we captured more males (Wilcoxon’s paired rank test t = 2.547, p =<0.0 1 ). Initially the butterflies were in fair condition, but by May and June the females in particular seemed worn out. We also observed that most of the males captured during the last two weeks of June looked newly emerged or fresh. Fifteen marked butterflies were also observed in the area, but could not be caught as they were in an inaccessible area. On our last visit on July 26, 1992, no butterflies remained in Tiger Valley.

We arrived at the study location in the afternoons, as we had to walk at least 7 km to reach it. At this time, the butterflies were mainly resting. We also observed courtship display and several mating pairs. A few butterflies were observed feeding on moist earth, particularly after the burning of the undergrowth in June. Only one tree Wrightia tinctoria was flowering during the first week of April. Several Danainae were seen feeding on its blossoms. About 500 m away,

Table 2

FREQUENCY OF RECOVERY OF DANA US GENUTIA

Recovered after days of marking

Number

0

1

7

9

14

9

21

3

28

2

35

7

42

1

49

2

56

0

63

1

near the overflow of the dam there were patches of Heliotropium indicum where a few Common Tigers were also seen feeding, but no marked individuals were observed in these patches.

To determine whether the butterflies left this location at any other time of the day, and if so, when and in which direction, one evening, we reached Tiger Valley at about 1730 hrs, caught a few specimens, and kept them in a bag, to release them in the morning. The next day, we reached the valley at about sunrise and released the butterflies. We stationed ourselves at various places to record the direction of flight, and to see if the roosting butterflies left the site in the morning. The released butterflies flew in a somewhat southerly direction for less than a few hundred metres and remained on the top of the canopy until the sunlight reached the Valley. As the sun reached the canopy, they started fluttering and moving slowly towards the upper end of the canopy where they basked, and after about an hour, when the temperature rose, they slowly started moving down. By about 1030 hrs they all seemed to be settled and resting. One of their major activities was basking. The sunlight reached the Valley in spots and its intensity varied in the canopy. The butterflies generally preferred shade. There was a dense growth of fern in the Valley in the flowing water, and many butterflies were seen sitting on them. The major plants in the area were identified as Macaranga peltata. Ficus sp. Adina cordifolia , Caryota urens, Putranjiva roxburghii , and Mangifera indica.

The high recovery of marked butterflies (4-5%) suggests that this population was quite stable. We did not recover any butterflies in the first three visits since we started marking (Table 1 ). This could be explained by the low probability of recapture when the numbers were high or that the population was not stable at that time (moving out of the area and being replaced by a fresh group of butterflies). But, as we did not see any movement in the congregation site, the latter

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explanation seems unlikely. Also, the recovery seemed to increase later. Although there were butterflies at various heights, up to about 15 m, our captures were mostly from butterflies roosting on the ferns, and easily reachable. The results suggest that the butterflies remained at or near the site where they were captured initially. Thus, it seems likely that this population was an overwintering population, which at the onset of monsoon or a suitable season dispersed to breed. Host plants such as Ceropegia sp., Marsedenia spp. (I did not record any larvae on these plants) were very few in the Park and could not support the whole population. This suggests that this large population could not have bred in the Park and would have to disperse outside the Park to breed. In Mumbai, although Chaturvedi (1979, 1998) and I have observed migration of other danaids in fairly large numbers, such numbers of D. genutia have not been seen. There is a possibility that the butterflies arrived in smaller numbers and assembled here. During October and November we generally observe movements of butterflies from north to south, and northward migration is observed at the onset of monsoon from July onwards (Chaturvedi 1998 and MH pers. obs.). No migratory movements are observed during March to June. So why did the butterflies select this place? Is it a traditional hibernating spot unknown so far? A worker at the filtration plant, when questioned, said that he had not seen large congregations of these butterflies earlier. Amar Mehta and Ulhas Paralkar visited the site again in 1993, but did not find the butterflies. They noticed that the undergrowth had been cleared. It seems that the butterflies chose this site as it was cool and moist even in summer, with a continuous supply of water from the filtration plant to provide ideal conditions for overwintering. I have seen relatively large numbers of danaids, especially Euploea core and E. klugii in the region but no congregation.

There is no earlier record of overwintering populations in the Park or elsewhere in the country. In fact, no such phenomenon has been recorded for any other danaid in the Eastern Hemisphere. Climatic conditions in the Eastern Hemisphere are very different from those in the Western Hemisphere. The Common Tiger butterflies are found throughout the Indian subcontinent from southern Kashmir eastward to China and south. Thus, it seems possible that the northern population would migrate south to escape the cold and dry weather of north India. If these butterflies are from the population in north India, we may consider them overwintering butterflies during dry months. The butterflies caught in the beginning were already a few days old and had lived for at least four months. Therefore, we suggest that these butterflies dispersed to breed when the conditions improved in monsoon. Unfortunately, we did not conduct any studies to find out the reproductive condition of these butterflies in their overwintering sites, but have evidence that they mated when they were at the site. Further study to answer these questions is impossible, as the site has already been destroyed and it is possible that the butterflies have found another similar site.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the authorities of the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, particularly Mr. Palimkar, for permission to conduct the study. Dr. Alan Renwick for reviewing the earlier versions of this manuscript. Lastly, Ulhas Paralkar and Amar Mehta, who accompanied me to the study site and without whose help, I guess, I would not have been able to perform the MRR studies.

June 12, 2001 MEENA HARIBAL

Boyce Thompson Institute, Tower Road, Ithaca NY 14850, USA.

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References

Ackery, P.R. & R.I. Vane-Wright (1984): Milkweed Butterflies, their Cladistics and Biology. British Museum (Natural History) Cornell University Press, Ithaca New York.

Brower, L.P. (1995): Understanding and misunderstand- ing the migration of the Monarch butterfly (Nymphalidae) in North America: 1857-1995. J. Lepidopterists ’ Soc. 49: 304-385.

Chaturvedi, N. ( 1 979): Southward migration of Euploea core (Cramer) at Khandala, Western Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 554.

Chaturvedi, N. (1998): Northward migration of the common Indian Crow Euploea core (Cramer) in and around Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90: 115-116.

Kershaw, J.C. (1905-1907): Butterflies of Hongkong. Kelly and Walsh Limited, Hongkong, Shanghai, Singapore and Yokohama, 184 pp.

Poulton, E.B. (1933): The gregarious resting habits of Danainae butterflies in Australia: Also Heliconine and Ithiomiine butterflies in tropical America. Proc. Entomol. Soc. London 7: 64-67.

Poulton, E.B. (1934): The Danainae butterflies Tirumala petiverana bl-Hew., assembling for the night on leaves

trees at Kilossa, T.T., E. Africa. Proc. Entomol. Soc. London 8: 145.

McNeill, F.A. (1937): Notes on the gregarious resting habitats of the Danainae butterfly, Danaus melissa hamata W.S. Macleay, in Whitsunday Islands off East coast of Queensland. Proc. Entomol. Soc. London J2: 102.

Urquhart, F.A. (1965): Monarch butterfly ( Danaus plexippus ) migration studies: autumnal movement. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Ontario, Toronto 49: 16.

Urquhart, F.A. (1976): Found at last: The Monarch’s winter home. National Geographic Magazine, Washington DC 150: 160-173.

Urquhart, F.A. (1978): Monarch migration studies news of Lepidopterists Society 1976 (1): 6.

Urquhart, F.A. & N.R. Urquhart (1979): Vernal migration of Monarch butterfly (. Danaus plexippus. Lepidoptera: Danaidae) in North America from the overwintering site in the neo-volcanic plateau of Mexico. Canadian Entomologist, Ottawa 93 : 41 - 47.

Williams, C.B. (1930): The Migration of Butterflies, Oliver and Boyd, London.

25. ON HESTIASULA BR UNNERIANA SAUSSURE (INSECTA: MANTODEA) FROM PUNE, MAHARASHATRA

( With three text-figures)

On August 19, 1998, we first collected a colourful male specimen of a preying mantis on the campus of Pune University. Additional specimens, two males and three females, were collected in Pune during 1998-2000. All the mantids were collected live and maintained in the laboratory to observe food, feeding and general behaviour. Only four specimens have been preserved.

The important diagnostic characters of this mantis were as follows: External spines of the fore tibiae numerous, closely set (Family Hymenopodidae). Frontal sclerites without wing- like keels, eyes within circumference of head (Subfamily Acromantinae). Middle and hind femora without any significant lobe, disc of frontal sclerite smooth, superior border of fore

femora strongly arched and foliaceous (hence the genus Hestiasula). The species H. brunneriana was confirmed by the characteristic pattern of bold black blotches on the inner face of fore femora (3 blotches on the superior margin and one black spot near the spine in the middle of the fore femur) (Mukherjee et al. 1995).

Major taxonomic characters of this species are already given by Mukherjee et al. (1995). However, variations that we found in the two female specimens collected at Dapodi (27.iii.2000 and 2.iv.2000 specimens) are:

1) The costal area of the forewing was brownish opaque in two females and brownish- green in one male. Even in the live specimen, the brownish colour was evident in these two females as against the distinct green in others

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Figs 1-3: 1 . Frontal view of the head of female, note the long bilobed tubercle (T) on the vertex; 2. Frontal view of the head of male. Note the comparatively small tubercle (T);

3. Inner face of femur, note the specific pattern of 3 black blotches and a spot FB: Femoral brush, CG: Claw groove, T: Tubercle, FS: Frontal sclerite

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Table 1

MORPHOMETERY (IN MM) OF HESTIASULA BRUNNERIANA

No.

Total

Length

Fore

Wing

Hind

Wing

Length

Head

Breadth

Prozona

Metazona

Fore

coxa

Fore

femur

Fore

tibia

Sex

1

21

20.5

19

2

4.2

1.7

1.7

5.6

6.5

3.3

Male

2

25

24

21

2.3

4.4

2

2

6

7.5

4

Female

3

23

21

18

1.9

4

1.7

1.7

5

6

3

Male

4

22

21

18

1.7

4

1.7

1.7

4.8

6

3

Male

5

27

23.5

20

2

4.2

1.9

1.9

6

7

3.5

Female

6

23.5

22

19

2.2

4.2

2

2

6

7

4

Female

(costal area said to be greenish opaque for the species). 2) Mid and hind legs are not annulated brown, but are translucent with prominent black annulations. 3) The inner face of the fore femur normally has three black patches on superior edge and one black spot just above the spines in the middle of the femur. In one female (specimen no. 5), the right fore femur has the usual pattern, while on the left fore femur there is only a single patch on the superior edge (this is certainly an aberration). The usual spot above the spines, in the middle of the femur, is present.

Except for the black patches, the inner face of the fore femur is crimson in all the specimens we have observed — a feature not reported for the species. There are also small white patches encircled by black, just behind the mid and hind- coxa. These patches are near the thoracic spiracles.

The male and female can be easily differentiated by the prominent bilobed tubercle on the vertex in the female; this tubercle is 3 times longer than the simple tubercle of the male. This is an important sexual dimorphic character, apart from the anal styles, which are present in the male only (Figs 1 & 2).

These small mantids are active fliers. The opaque green colour of the costal area of the forewing is very prominent. The brownish coloration may be a seasonal variation, which we have noted in many other mantid species. The wings of the live mantid are shining. The crimson inner face of the fore femur, with its pattern of black patches (Fig. 3), is highly prominent when

the insect moves one of those foliaceous fore femurs and it is distinctly different from the brownish colour of the outer face of the fore femur.

In captivity, these mantids readily accepted small moths attracted to the light at night. Presumably this is why these mantids are attracted to the fluorescent light. Even houseflies and small cockroaches ( Supella sp.), provided in captivity, were readily eaten.

Hestiasula brunneriana is hitherto known only from Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, and West Bengal in India. Elsewhere, it is known from Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Neither Nadkerny (1965), Mukherjee and Hazra (1983), nor Mukherjee et al. (1995), have recorded this species from Maharashtra. Thus, its occurrence in Pune, Maharashtra, is a range extension of this species to western India, as the previous records are confined to the eastern parts of India.

The female H. brunneriana (specimen no. 6) deposited an ootheca, containing fertilized eggs, on April 5, 2000. It was 9 mm long, 5.5 mm broad, and 4.8 mm high. The ootheca carried a 7 mm long, thin thread-like process. The nymphs hatched out in 26 days on May 1, 2000. This species, therefore, seems to breed in summer.

Material examined: Male, 1 9.viii. 1 998, University Campus, Pune, coll. Rahul Marathe; Female, 23.iii.1999, Kothrud, Pune, coll. Anand Padhye; Male, 3 .iii.2000, Dapodi, Pune, coll. Rajpreet Kaur; Male, 3. iii.2000, Dapodi, Pune, coll. Rajpreet Kaur; Female, 27. iii.2000, Dapodi,

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Pune, coll. Rajpreet Kaur; Female, 2.iv.2000, Dapodi, Pune, coll. Rajpreet Kaur.

All the mantids were collected when attracted towards fluorescent light.

Acknowledgments

We thank Prof. Madhav Gadgil, IISc, Bangalore, for financial assistance under a DBT Project to carry out biodiversity research in Modern College and Mr. Ashok Captain for enlightening us on the mantids he has seen and

photographed. We also thank Dr. T.K. Mukherjee (Hooghly Mohsin College, W. Bengal) and Dr. A. K. Hazra (ZSI, Kolkata) for encouragement and help. We are indebted to the authorities of Modem College, for facilities and encouragement.

October 14, 2000 H.V.GHATE

SACHIN RANADE RAJPREET KAUR RAHUL MARATHE Department of Zoology, Modern College , Pune 411 005, Maharashtra, India.

References

Mukherjee, T.K. & A.K. Hazra (1983): On a small collection of Mantidae (Dictyoptera) from Maharashtra, India, with the description of a new species. Rec. zool. Surv. India 80: 459-465.

Mukherjee, T.K., A.K. Hazra & A.K. Ghosh ( 1 995): The

mantid fauna of India (Insecta: Mantodea). Oriental Ins. 29: 185-358.

Nadkerny, N.T. (1965): A note on the mantids and tettigonids in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 76-83.

26. REDESCRIPTION OF AMORPHOSCELIS ANNULICORNIS STAL (INSECTA: MANTODEA) FROM MAHARASHTRA

( With two plates)

Recently, two specimens of a very interesting mantis were collected at Pune, and subsequently two in Tadoba (Chandrapur), Maharashtra State. The mantis was easily placed in the Family Amorphoscelidae because of a set of characteristics as follows: i. short, squarish, tuberculate pronotum (Plate 1, Fig 1). ii. femur and tibia without spines (except a single discoidal spine on femur, Plate 1, Fig. 2) and iii. anal cerci racket-shaped due to expanded distal segment.

In India, there is only one genus under this family, namely, Amorphoscelis of which there are only 3 known species (Mukherjee etal. 1995). The species A. annulicornis Stal was diagnosed by the presence of tubercles on anterior and posterior borders of the pronotum, and the colour pattern of the body. This mantis is supposed to be a common bark dwelling species, occurring in almost all the warmer parts of India. Although there is a report

of the genus Amorphoscelis from Andheri, Bombay (Nadkerny 1965), there is no previous record of A. annulicornis from Maharashtra (Mukherjee et al. 1995), hence this report.

A brief description of the species is given by Mukherjee et al. (1995). Some additional taxonomic features and photographs of this mantis are given here, which will help to identify it. Except for one specimen which is dark brown, all the specimens are brown with brownish-black marks on the fore wings.

Redescription: Head triangular, dark brown with black dots on vertex. Vertex tuberculate with distinct lobulations; lateral lobes cone-shaped, apex of the cone facing posterior side. Frontal sclerite transverse; eyes dorsoventrally flattened, black; antennae thin and longer than body, each segment basally yellowish and apically black; antennal segments increase in length gradually from base to apex and possess a few setae.

476

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Ghate, H.V. et al. : Amorphoscelis annulicornis

Plate 1

Fig. 1 : Head and prothorax

Fig. 2: Foreleg

C: Coxa, F: Femur with single discoidal spine, L: Lateral lobe of vertex, M: Metazona, P: Prozona, T: Tarsal segments, V: Vertex

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Ghate, H.V. et air. Amorphoscelis annulicornis

Plate 2

Fig. 3: Lateral view of the nymph, note the characteristic single forefemoral spine (arrow) and racket shaped cerci at the tip of abdomen (double arrow)

/

/

Fig. 4: Dorsal view of nymph, note the peculiar arrangement of abdominal segments and dorsal colour pattern. Also note the annulations on legs and wing buds

478

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Table 1

MORPHOMETRY OF AMORPHOSCELIS ANNULICORNIS

Sr. No

Total

length

Fore

wing

Hind

wing

Head

length

Head

breadth

Pronotal

length

Coxa

Femur

Tibia

Antenna

1

16.5

14

12

1.7

4.5

1.9

2.5

3

0.6

_

2

16.5

14

13.5

1.4

3.9

1.6

2.5

3

0.6

19

3

17

16.5

15

1.7

3.9

1.7

2.4

3

0.5

22

4

17.5

15.5

14.8

1.8

3.8

1.5

2.4

2.8

0.6

-

All measurements are in millimetres

Pronotum tuberculate; prozona and metazona not clearly demarcated, though with a thin carina on the metazona. Forewings opaque brown with darker spots and patches; hindwings with costal area opaque brown, rest of wing shining transparent, with brownish tinge.

Forelegs short; coxae yellowish-brown, internally basally black; forefemur with characteristic single discoidal spine; conspicuous setae present along the ventral edges of femur; median internal area of the femur (except borders) black; base of the femur also black, which is a variation from the character described by Mukheijee et al. (1995); tibiae and tarsal segments setaceous; tibiae yellowish with three black bands or rings, or sometimes (2 specimens) with small black spots without forming rings (again a variation, the earlier description indicates black tibiae with yellow bands). Metatarsus with three black rings or bands; each tarsal segment with basal and apical black band. In case of mid and hindlegs, coxae shining black (variation, as the bases of the coxae have been described as pale); trochanter and femur yellowish-brown, setaceous. Femora and tibiae of mid and hindlegs triannulated because of dark coloured rings.

Abdominal segments dorsally brownish, ventrally shining black and hairy; cerci hairy and racket- shaped due to the enlarged distal segment; total length of cercus in one specimen 2.25 mm, the enlarged last segment 0.85 mm long.

All four examples male, attracted towards fluorescent tubelight, from which they were collected. The locality and other data are as follows:

1 . 24.iv. 1 999, near Vanaz factory (Paud road, Pune), coll. Abhay Soman; 2. 15.ix.1999, Dapodi, Pune, coll. Rajpreet Kaur; 3. 7.xii.l999, Tadoba, Chandrapur, coll. Rahul Marathe; 4. 9.i.2000, Tadoba, Chandrapur, coll. Rahul Marathe.

In addition to adults, we have recently collected one final instar nymph (total length 1 5 mm) of A. annulicornis in Pune, 30.iii.2000, very close to Modem College, coll. J.K. Kadav.

Morphometry: Measurements of important body parts of all four specimens are given in Table 1 .

Acknowledgments

We thank Prof. Madhav Gadgil, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, for financial assistance under the DBT Project on biodiversity research in Modem College, Pune. Rahul Marathe thanks Dr. Milind Watve, Garware College, Pune, for a research fellowship for field work in Tadoba. We also thank the authorities of Modem College for facilities and encouragement.

July 3, 2000 H.V.GHATE

SACHIN RANADE ABHAY SOMAN RAJPREET KAUR RAHUL MARATHE

Department of Zoology, Modern College, Pune 41 1 005, Maharashtra, India.

T.K. MUKHERJEE Dept of Zoology, Hooghly Mohsin College, P.O. Chinsurah, Hooghly 712 010, West Bengal, India.

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References

Mukherjee, T.K., A.K. Hazra& A.K. Ghosh (1995): The Nadkerny, N.T. (1965): A note on the mantids and mantid fauna of India (Insecta: Mantodea). Oriental tettigonids in the collection of the Bombay Natural Ins. 29: 1 85-358. History Society. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 76-83.

27. NEW RECORDS OF HOLOTHURI AN S (ECHINODERMATA: HOLOTHURIA) FROM ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

(With two text-figures)

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands spread out in the Bay of Bengal between 6° 45'- 13° 45' N and 92° 15'-94° 15’ E, have one of the richest coral reef formations with fringing reefs on the eastern side and barrier reefs on the western side. The present communication deals with new records of holothurians from these islands. The coral reefs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands offer ideal habitats for littoral sea cucumbers and other echinoderms. There have been several reports (Theel 1882, Koehler and Vaney 1908, James 1969, 1983 andShastry 1998) on the echinoderms from these islands.

During a coral reef survey of the Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Wandoor (South Andaman), by night and day SCUBA diving, interesting species were collected. The holothurians were preserved in 10% formalin, identified with the aid of keys formulated by James (1969) and Kulkarni (1996). For examining spicules, tissues from different parts of the body were cut and dissolved in a concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide. The spicules were then observed under a microscope and drawn to scale.

Two species of holothurians are recorded for the first time from the Islands. The characteristics of these species are given below.

Family: Stichopodidae Hackel, 1896 Genus: Thelenota Clark 1921 Thelenota ananas (Jaeger, 1833)

Material: Twins Is., 12 m, Rutland Is. 7 m, Boat Is. 9 m depth.

Description: Tentacles 20, length 300 to

i .. i

0.1 mm

Fig. 1 : Spicules of Thelenota ananas

425 mm and width ranging from 1 00 mm to 1 50 mm. Dorsal and ventral sides well differentiated. Ventral pedicles arranged irregularly. Shape of body sub-rectangular and elongated, characterized with numerous pointed papillae, which are large, conically compressed with their bases united, giving a semistar-like appearance all over the body. Mouth surrounded by 1 8 to 24 tentacles, papillae. Dorsal papillae double and united at the base to give a star-like appearance. Ventral pedicles arranged irregularly. Live specimens light maroon in colour with an interstitial black zone between the papillae. Spicules (Fig. 1) consist of simple and dichotomously branched rods. Some rods smooth and curved.

Habitat: Sandy bottom and coral rubble.

Family: Synaptidae Burmeister, 1837 Genus: Euapta Ostergren, 1898 Euapta godeffroyi Semper, 1898

Material: Grub Is. 6 m, Jolly Bouys Is. 14 m depth.

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Fig. 2: Spicules of Euapta godeffroyi

Description: Length of live specimen 1.75 m, 40 cm when contracted. Body is soft, sticky flexible and highly extensible. 18 pinnule tentacles with digits united by a web in each tentacle. Body surface covered with several rows of closely packed white papillae, giving it a striped appearance. Gonads consist of a number of tubules.

Pale brown in colour with large dark brown bands, equally spaced across the dorsal side. Ventral side pale brown. Spicules present as anchors and anchor plates. Anchor plates narrow

at posterior end, more or less circular with about 7 large holes and 3 small holes at the handle side. There is an identical bridge near the handle for the attachment of the anchor. Anchors small, on the vertex of the anchor are two dents. Flukes of the anchor smooth and of equal size (Fig. 2).

Habitat: Sea grass beds, coral boulders.

Acknowledgement

We sincerely thank S.K. Mukherjee, Director, Wildlife Institute of India for extending support and facilities.

October 1 0, 2000 S ARANG KULKARNI*

AJAI SAXENA B.C. CHOUDHURY Wildlife Institute of India, PB No. 18, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

* Present Address: Reef watch Marine Conservation, Priyanka Bldg, Ground Floor , 50 St. Paul ’ s Road, Bandra (W), Mumbai 400 050, Maharashtra, India.

References

James, D.B. (1969): Catalogue of echinoderms in the reference collections of the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute. Bull. Cent. Mar. Fish. Res. Inst. 7: 61-62.

James, D.B. (1983): Sea cucumbers and sea urchin resources and beche de mer industry. In: Mariculture potential of Andaman and Nicobar Islands — an indicative survey. CMFRI Bull. 34: 36-43.

Koehler, R. & C. Vaney (1908): Echinoderms of the Indian Museum Part IV. An account of the littoral Holothuroidea collected by the R.I.M.S. Investigator, 55 pp. Calcutta.

Kulkarni S.A. (1996): The holothurian fauna of Agatti atoll (Lakshadweep, India). M.Sc. thesis submitted to Goa University, Goa, pp. 1 -56.

Shastry, D.R.K. (1998): Some Echinodenns new to Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park with two new records for India. In: Sym. Proc. Islands Ecosystem & Sustainable Development (Eds: Gangwar, B. & K. Chandra). Publ. by Andaman Sci. Assoc, and Dept of Science & Technology, A & N Administration, Port Blair: 133-138.

Theel, H. ( 1 882): Report on the holothurians dredged by H.M.S. Challenger. Zool. 7: 1-176.

28. NEW RECORD OF MA CROBRA CHIUM DA YANUM HENDERSON, 1893 FROM A FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM OF TRIPURA, INDIA

(With one plate)

Studies on prawns are important from an ASFA 1998). Knowledge of their ecological aquaculture view point (Thakur et al. 1994, niche conditions is also needed to clearly record

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the nature of their distribution, (FAO 1985, Qureshi 1994, ASFA 1998).

A description of Macrobrachium dayanum Henderson 1893, with its niche characteristics, i.e. physico-chemical factors of water, occurrence of several phyto- and zooplanktonic food biota, preference for macrophyte substrata and seasonal abundance of M. dayanum are given.

This work was carried out in a freshwater wetland ecosystem in Agartala (23° 50' 15" N, 90° 15' 45" E), Tripura, from March 1996 to February 1998. The mean depth of the study site varied from 0.63 ±30 cm during winter to 130 ±33 cm in monsoon. The littoral zone supports a number of macro vegetation species. Fish are cultured in this wetland by stocking with fry and fingerlings of Indian major carps for a seasonal period.

This study is based on live specimens of M. dayanum collected weekly from the roots of the hydrophytes in the littoral zone.

Samples of plankton and water were collected from the periphery of the prawn sampling zones. Physico-chemical parameters of water, i.e. temperature, transparency, pH, free carbon dioxide, dissolved oxygen, bicarbonate, dissolved organic matter, chlorinity, salinity, silicate, phosphates and nitrates were analysed adopting the methodology of APHA (1995). The physico-chemical parameters data were pooled into a mean value (Table 1) describing the limnological feature of the studied wetland. The works of Ling (1969), Kurian and Sebastian (1986) and Jalihal et al. (1988) were consulted for taxonomic identification of the prawns.

Rostrum curved upwards, rostral formula 9/6 (dorsal / ventral) in most cases and 8-9 / 5-6 in a few individuals; arrangement of dorsally placed rostral teeth not uniform; 5th walking legs of the same length as the fourth; 2nd chelae of adult male equal or subequal; fingers of the 2nd chelae grooved longitudinally with velvety hairs in the groove; walking legs covered with velvety hairs; walking legs as well as dorsal body

Table 1

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FRESHWATER WETLAND

Physico-chemical factors

Range

Mean

±S.D.

Water temperature (°C)

15-30

24.5

5.12

Transparency (cm)

13-19

16.33

2.42

pH

7.4-7. 6

7.46

Q.07

Bicarbonate (ppm)

106-127

118.33

7.52

Dissolved oxygen (ppm)

5-7

6.16

0.68

Silicate (ppm)

4-8

5.83

1.34

Chlorinity (ppm)

10-30

20.00

8.16

Salinity (ppt)

0.01-0.03

0.02

0.01

Phosphates (ppm)

0.3-0.4

0.35

0.05

Nitrates (ppm)

0.3-0.4

0.33

0.04

surface with brown stripes; eggs brownish,

small

(<0.70 mm) (Plate 1,

Fig. 1)

Body length (male)

=

4^

VO

1

bo

cm

Body length (female) =

4. 5-6. 4

cm

Body width (proximal) =

0.7-1. 2

cm

Body width (distal)

=

0. 2-0.4

cm

Length of 2nd walking leg =

2. 3-4.0

cm

Phytoplankton: The dominant

phytoplanktonic species were Chlorella vulgaris , Cymbella , Ceratium hirundinella, Nietzschia commutata , Euglena acus , Phacus pleuronectes etc. Of these, Chlorella vulgaris was the most dominant. The peak abundance of the algae was in winter.

Zooplankton: Rotifers ( Brachionus , Keratella, Lecane , Euchlanis ), Cladocerans ( Ceriodaphnia , Bosmina) and Copepods (Cyclops, Eucyclops) were recorded. Of these, rotifers were dominant both qualitatively as well as quantitatively. Among all genera, Brachionus was the most dominant. The peak abundance of rotifers was in winter.

Preference for plant substrata: Although M. dayanum was observed all along the periphery of Ipomea aquatica and Eichhornia crass ipes, maximum density (65 individuals per litre of water) was recorded from the roots of the latter.

Seasonal abundance of prawn: During the two-year study period, M. dayanum exhibited highest density in winter and lowest in summer.

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Banik, S. et al. : Macrobrachium dayanum

Plate 1

Fig. 1 : Macrobrachium dayanum a. Male, b. Female

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The prawn species occurred under certain limnological conditions which shows that it is highly specific in regard to seasonal abundance and species specific in regard to substrata selection (Banik 1996). Though recorded in a freshwater lentic ecosystem in the present study, M. dayanum Henderson, 1893, is basically of marine origin and probably entered freshwater habitat by migrating via a riverine system (Tiwari 1955, Kurian and Sebastian 1986). Though it was known earlier from some states of India (Tripathi 1992, De 1996), it is reported here from Tripura and also from northeast India (ASFA 1998) for the first time. This report also confirms its cosmopolitan distribution (FAO 1985, Thakur etal. 1994, ASFA 1998).

Acknowledgements

We thank T. Rajyalakshmi and S. Ayyappan, Director, CIFE, Mumbai for cooperation. We also thank the Head, Department of Life Science, Tripura University for laboratory facilities and the UGC (Sanction No. F.3-52/93 SR-II) and ICAR (Sanction No. F. 4(44)/97-ASR- I) for financial assistance.

December 26, 1998 S. BANIK

SAUMEN CHAKRAB ARTI Fisheries & Limnology Research Unit, Department of Life Science, Tripura University, Agartala 799 004, Tripura, India.

References

APHA (1995): Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. American water works Association and water pollution control Federation, Washington.

ASFA (1998): Aquatic sciences & fisheries abstract, FAO, Rome.

Banik, S. & S. Kar (1995): New records of sessile rotifers from freshwater fishponds of Tripura. Proc. Indian Nat. Sci. Acad B 61(3): 225-230.

Banik, S. (1996): New records of sessile rotifers from freshwater fish ponds of Tripura, II. Proc. Indian Nat. Sci. Acad B 62(2): 111-116.

De, D.K. (1996): Identifying characters, morphology and life cycles of commercially important freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergi. Special Publ. CICFRI, 8-19.

FAO (1985): A bibliography of the fishery resources of the Indo-Pacific region. FAO Fish. Circ. 785, FAO, Rome.

Jalihal, D.R., S. Shenoy & K.N. Sankolli (1988): Freshwater prawns of the genus Macrobrachium Bate. 1868 (Crustacea, Decapoda, Palaemonidae)

from Karnataka, India. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ paper No. 112 : 7-74.

Kurian, C.V. & V.O. Sebastian ( 1 986): Prawns and prawn fisheries of India. Hindustan Publishing Corp. (India), Delhi, 297 pp.

Ling, S.W. (1969): The general biology and development of Macrobrachium rosenbergi (De Man). FAO Fisheries. report 57(3): 589-606.

Qureshi, T.A. (1994): Results of studies on freshwater prawns farming in India. AFSIB, Special Publ No. 10, Mangalore, 43-48.

Tiwari, K.K. (1955): Distribution of the Indo-Burmese freshwater prawns of the genus Palaemon (Fabr.) and its bearing on the Satpura hypothesis. In: Symposium on Organic Evolution. Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 7: 230-239.

Thakur, N.K., R. Tiwari & M.M. Joseph (1994): Freshwater prawn farming in India. AFSIB Special Publ. No. 1 0, Mangalore, 1 1 3, pp.

Tripathi, S.D. (1992): Status of freshwater prawn fishery and farming in India. In: Silas, E.G. (Ed.), Freshwater prawns. Kerala Agri. University. Pp. 42-49.

29. THE GASTROPOD STENOTHYRA ORNATA ANNANDALE AND PRASHAD 1921, A NEW RECORD FROM RIVER GANGA IN BIHAR

( With one text-figure)

The gastropod Stenothyra ornata from a brackish-water pool near Calcutta, has Annandale and Prashad 1921, originally known been recorded for the first time from the

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freshwater zone of River Ganga at Sultanganj (771 km from the sea) in Bihar. The species is characterized by spines on the whorls, which are keeled in the middle.

Family Stenothyridae (Mollusca: Gastropoda) is distributed from Iran to Indonesia, from Australia to the Philippines and Japan, and Western Pacific Islands (Rao 1989). Neubert (1998) first recorded the genus Stenothyra from the Arabian Peninsula. Stenothyra arabica has been collected from several localities in Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman. Two genera, namely Stenothyra Benson 1856 and Gangetica Ancey 1890 are included in this family (Neubert 1998).

In May, 1998 two live specimens of Stenothyra ornata Benson were collected from submerged vegetation in the littoral zone of River Ganga at Sultanganj, 25° 15' N and 86° 44' E, (771 km from sea) near Bhagalpur, Bihar, while assessing the habitat preference of the Ganges river dolphin vis-a-vis biological diversity of River Ganga.

Diagnosis: The shell is conoidal ovate and brownish. Apex acutely pointed, with 5 whorls. Shell imperforate. Spiral whorls distinctly keeled in the middle, keel continues on to body whorl. Spiral rows of blunt, flattened homy and blackish spines on last two whorls in the region of the keel; spines directed towards apex.

Measurement of one of the shells by ocular micrometer (except length of the shell and breadth of the body whorl) is as follows:

Length of shell ... 4.5 mm

Breadth of body whorl 3.0 mm

Length of 1st whorl 50 p

Length of 2nd whorl 200 p

Length of 3rd whorl 275 p

Length of 4th whorl 525 p

Length of 5 th whorl 1975 p

Size of aperture 1 150 x 1300 p

Height of a spine 125 p

The first two whorls are minute, the third onwards are broad and somewhat band-shaped. Viewed from the dorsal side, the body- whorl is sub-quadrate, ventrally it appears somewhat ovoidal, with the inverted apex sharply truncated. The mouth of the shell is minute, oblique and regularly subcircular. The rim of the mouth does not project at all and the shell is not umbilicate (Fig. 1).

Affinities: Annandale and Prashad (1921) remarked that the species Stenothyra ornata is closely allied to Stenothyra deltae (Benson) and S. echinata, but is distinguished by the larger and more acute spire, form of the body whorl, keeled nature of the whorls, sculpture and by the comparatively shorter and more circular mouth.

Annandale and Prashad (1921) revised the genus and recognized twelve species. They stated that these small water-snails, the shell of which is rarely more than 5 mm long, are found mainly in brackish water. A few make their way far inland, but it is doubtful whether any species exists only in fresh water. However, Stenothyra foveolata Benson was the only species known from the River Ganga at Sakrigali (5 km downstream of Sahibganj, Bihar), a distance of 650 km from the sea and about 466 km above the extreme tidal influence, but it may occur lower down as well as in the Gangetic delta (Annandale and Prashad 1921). Rao (1989) reported that the Family Stenothyridae is mainly estuarine and so far none of the species except Stenothyra deltae are reported from freshwater in India. However, distribution of S. deltae has been recorded up to Chandpal Ghat, Calcutta, in the tidal zone (Rao 1989). Annandale and Prashad (1921), however, reported that they were not aware of the location of the types, S. deltae , but the specimens in the Indian Museum are represented from Port Canning, Calcutta (Chandpal Ghat), Patna and Bhagalpur.

The species of Stenothyra frequent submerged vegetation or stones covered with

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Fig. 1: Stenothyra ornata Annandale and Prasad, 1921, a. Ventral view, b. Dorsal view

algae and scrape them for t he minute organisms that form their food. Their mobile and extensible snouts enable them to feed easily on the algae that grow on the shells of their companions and even from their own shells.

Stenothyra ornata may be one of the marine elements of the Ganga. However, it is not certain if the species has existed from the origin of the river or has entered the freshwater zone from the estuarine zone along with ships. Nevertheless, it has completely adapted itself to the freshwater zone of the river. Unless collected and sorted carefully, it is difficult to isolate the animal from the submerged vegetation due to its minute size. It can be confused with juveniles of other gastropods.

Refer

Annandale, N. & B. Prashad (1 921 ): The Indian molluscs of the estuarine subfamily Stenothyrinae. Rec. Ind. Mus. XXII: 121-133, pi. XVI.

N eubert, E. ( 1 998): Annotated checklist of the terrestrial and freshwater molluscs of the Arabian Peninsula

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. Fred Naggs of British Natural History Museum, London for his help in identifying the specimen. The financial assistance to research biodiversity of the Ganga by the Biodiversity Support Programme, a USAID funded Consortium of World Wildlife Fund, the Nature Conservancy, and World Resources Institute is duly acknowledged.

September 6, 2000 RAVINDRA KUMAR SINHA

GOPAL SHARMA Environmental Biology Laboratory Department of Zoology, Patna University, Patna 800 005, Bihar, India.

NCES

with descriptions of new species. Fauna of Arabia 77:333-461.

Rao, N. V. ( 1 989): Handbook of Freshwater Molluscs of India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 289

pp.

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30. NEW RECORDS OF THE CLAM CYRENA CEYLONICA (CHEMNITZ), MOLLUSCA: FAMILY CYRENIDAE, IN ANDAMAN ISLANDS

The literature available on the molluscan resources of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is scant except for the few reports of Melvil and Abercrombie (1893), Setna (1933) and Rao (1939). The present study reports the occurrence of Cyrena ceylonica (Chemintz) in Andaman Islands. In Sri Lanka, it was recorded by Preston (1915). This black-shelled clam, locally called chippi , is abundant in mangrove creeks and inlets, usually buried in the muddy substratum. It is collected live along the coastal habitats during low tide by handpicking by the tribals and local villagers, for whom it is a cheap source of animal protein. The shells are used in several lime-based industries in these islands. The clams are also uti-lised as broodstock diets for prawns and fishes in hatcheries and in aquaria due to their easy availability, palatability and hardiness in confinement.

On an average 100 specimens from each location in the South, Middle and North Andaman were collected and identified from Preston (1915) and also by consulting molluscan specialists of Vizhinjam Research Centre of Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute. Samples are kept in the museum of the Fisheries Science Division, CARI, Port Blair.

Refer

Melvil, J.C. & A. Abercrombie ( 1 893): Notes on a collection of the marine shell from Andaman Islands. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond. 2: 164-172 & 220-229.

Preston, H.B. (1915): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Mollusca Vol. IV, Publ. Today and Tomorrows Printers, New Delhi,

Out of seven species of Cyrena , namely Cyrena ceylonica , C. impress a, C. sinuosa , C. bengalensis , C. tennentii , C. proxima and C. galatheae occurring in different parts of the world, only C. galatheae has been reported earlier in Nicobar Islands (Preston 1915). The distribution range of Cyrena ceylonica has been stated as tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, America, Australia and Oceania. This is the first record of the occurrence of Cyrena ceylonica in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, CARI for facilities, and Dr. Kumara Swami Acharya, Senior Scientist, Vizhinjam Research Centre, CMFRI, Trivandrum, Kerala for help in identification. We also thank the staff who extended co- operation and assistance in the field.

August 26, 2000 K. MADHU

REMA MADHU Fisheries Science Section, Central Agricultural Research Institute, P.B. No. 181, Port Blair 744 1 01, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.

iNCES

pp 202-204.

Rao, H.S. (1939): Consolidated report on the shell fisheries in Andamans during the years 1 930-1 935. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 1 30 pp.

Setna, S.A. (1933): The Andaman shell fishery. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(1): 94-100.

3 1 . ALYSICARPUS OVALIFOLIUS (SCHUMACH.) J. LEON (LEGUMINOSAE: PAPILIONOIDEAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR THE EASTERN GHATS

( With one text-figure)

While working on the Leguminosae of an interesting plant from Nallamalai hills, Eastern Ghats, peninsular India, we collected Andhra Pradesh. On comparison with the

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Fig. 1: Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Schumach.) A. Twig; B. Bracteole; C. Calyx; D. Standard petal; E. Wing petal; F. Keel Petal; G. Staminal column; H. Pistil.

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literature, it was identified as Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Schumach.) J. Leon, which has not been reported from the Eastern Ghats. Hence, the present collection of Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Schumach.) J. Leon is a new record for Eastern Ghats. The specimen has been deposited in the herbarium of the Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University (SKU), Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh. A detailed description and an illustration are given to facilitate identification.

Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Schumach.) J. Leon. In: Bull. Jard. Bot. Etat. Brux. 24: 88. 1964; Sanj. & Bhatt. In: J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 254. 1978. Hedysarum ovalifolium Schumach. Beskr. Guin. PI. 359. Desmodium ovalifolium (Schumach.) Walp., Rep. 1: 737, 1842.

Annual erect or prostrate herb, up to 50 cm height, branchlets glabrous, striate, branches rooting at nodes with longer internodes. Stipules lanceolate, 0.6- 1.3 cm long, striate, acuminate. Petiole 0.5-1 cm long, furrowed on the upper side. Leaves unifoliate, apex acute and mucronulate, base sub-cordate, margin entire, puberulous on the nerves beneath. Inflorescence terminal or leaf opposed, in lax racemes usually with 6-7 pairs of flowers, peduncle 2-3 cm long, pedicel 1 mm long, bracts 4-5 x 1-2 mm, ovate to lanceolate. Calyx tube 8- 1 2 mm long, puberulous, teeth 3-4.5 mm long.

Standard pink, 4-5 x 3-4 mm long, wings purplish, keels pale pink. Stamens diadelphous (9+1), staminal sheath 4 mm long, filaments 3 mm long. Ovary pubescent, 5 x 1 mm, style 3 mm long, bearded with long hairs. Pod 1-2.5 x 0.2-0. 3 cm, joints 5-7, flattened, 2-3 mm long, puberulous; seeds brown, ellipsoid, compressed with reddish bald patches.

Flowering: August- September.

Fruiting: September-December.

Specimens examined: Upper Ahobilam TP & KSM 14206, Bogada RF Nallamalais KSM 17629.

Distribution: india: Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh.

extralimital: Pakistan, Afghanistan, Madagascar, Sumatra, Tropical Africa, China, Indonesia.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. D.S. Pokle of Aurangabad for identification. The first author (KSM) is grateful to the DOEF and CSIR, New Delhi, for providing junior and senior research fellowships.

June 5, 2000 K. SRI RAMA MURTHY

S. SANDHYA RANI T. PULLAIAH Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur 515 003, Andhra Pradesh.

32. ON THE TYPE OF BAUHINIA WRA YI PRAIN (LEGUMINOS AE : CAESALPINIOIDEAE)

Larsen and Larsen (in FI. Males. 12(2): 529. 1996) cited King's Coll 5243 (K) as the holotype of Bauhinia wrayi Prain, but this is contrary to Art. 9. 1 of ICBN (Tokyo Code, 1994), because a number of collections (Perak: Kunstler 2238, 2466, 4049, 5243; Scortechini 1652; Wray 1934, 2782. Selangor: Kunstler 8758) were cited (with the sign of examination) in the protologue of B. wrayi Prain (in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 66(2):

191. 1897), and these should be treated as syntypes (see Art. 9.4 of ICBN, Tokyo Code, 1994). Thus, the selection of Kunstler 5243 (K) as the lectotype of B. wrayi Prain by de Wit (in Reinwardtia 3(4): 518. 1956) is in accordance with the rule (see Art. 9.9 of ICBN, Tokyo Code, 1994). In this connection, I would like to point out that the Larsens had accepted de Wit’s lectotype earlier. This can be evidenced by their

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own annotation (in 1983) on a determination slip affixed to King’s Coll. 5243 in CAL, on which they annotated ‘Iso-lectotype! (de Wit, Reinwardtia 3: 518, 1956)’.

Furthermore, Kunstler was one of the collectors of King (see Stafleu and Cowan, Tax. Lit. 2: 545. 1979, 2nded.), and on the 12 relevant sheets (type herbarium - CAL), with the field numbers 2238, 2466, 4049, 5243 & 8758, printed herbarium labels with the inscription "Coll. H. Kunstler ’ or "Dr. King ' s Collector ’ (also in print) had been randomly attached. So, it seems that the sheets in K may also have the same type of

labelling as in CAL. Under these circumstances, it is quite probable that the specimen cited by Larsen and Larsen as the holotype ( King ’s Coll. 5243 - K) is not the same lectotype specimen (Kunstler 5243 - K) selected by de Wit, unless one of them had changed Kunstler into King ’s Coll, or vice versa intentionally.

November 2, 1 999 S. BANDYOPADHYA Y Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.

33. ON HELFER’S COLLECTION OF PIPER RIBESIOIDES WALL, FROM THE BAY ISLANDS, INDIA

The history of botanic explorations of the Andaman Islands dates back to 1791, when Colonel Kyd of the East India Company gardens at Calcutta visited these islands to procure timber trees. Subsequently, Dr Heifer, a Russian geologist who visited these islands to explore their mineral wealth in 1834, made extensive collections of plant material. Unfortunately, he was killed by the aborigines of North Andamans, and most of the specimens he had collected earlier from Tenassarim (Myanmar) got mixed up with those he collected from the Andamans, causing much confusion in their geographical location. Most of the species collected by him were collected again by later botanists and their occurrence in the Andaman Islands was confirmed. However, a few specimens are yet to be obtained, and their existence among the islands of Andamans is unconfirmed.

The tropical rain forests of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are known to possess many rare and potentially useful wild relatives of economically important plant species such as wild rice ( Oryza indandamanica Ellis), wild tea (Camellia kissi Wall.) and wild nutmeg (Myristica andamanica Hook. f.). Wild occurrence of popular cultivars like coconut

palm (Cocos nucifera L.) and betel vine (Piper betle L.) among the islands of the Andamans are indicators on their point of origin. Many of them are promising in the field of modern agriculture and traditional systems of medicine. Piper ribesioides Wall., a species allied to Piper cubeba L. f. collected by Dr. Heifer in 1 834 was deposited at Kew with the locality mentioned as Tennassarium/Andamans (sic). The occurrence of this species in Andaman Islands was doubtful till its recent discovery from the Mount Harriet hill ranges and collections made by one of the authors (S.P. Mathew 20558 PBL & K). During the present floristic survey, this species was found growing along the edges of the Semi- evergreen Forests of Mount Harriet, the highest peak in South Andamans near the Wright Myo village.

Piper ribesioides Wall., PI. As. Rar. 1 .19. t. 9. 1830; DC. in Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 75: 322. 1849 & Prodr. 16 (1): 342. 1869: Hook. f. , FI. Brit. India 5: 81. 1886; Ridly, FI. Mai. Penin. 3: 34. 1927. P. sumatranum C. DC., Prodr. 16 (1): 343. 1869; Hook, f., 1. c. 81.

Dioecious woody lianas; main stem c. 6 cm across, bark greyish, lenticellate with nodal annular rings, nodes swollen. Leaves 10-17 x

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6-9 cm, ovate to oblong-ovate or rarely lanceolate, deeply cordate at base, acute or shortly acuminate at apex, coriacious, 8 to 9 nerved; petiole c. 6 cm, more or less robust. Female spikes c. 6 cm long. Drupes up to 6 mm across, globose on stout peduncles up to 2.2 cm long, orange turning red in colour, very pungent; pedicels up to 1 cm long.

Status: Very rare, most probably endangered.

Distribution: Malay Peninsula and Andaman Islands.

Habitat: Semi-evergreen Forest at an altitude of 50-60 m in humus-rich soil. Usually associated with tall forest trees like Terminalia spp.

FI. & Fr.: October-March.

Conservation Status: No intensive measures were adopted for in situ conservation. A few plants have been introduced in the field gene bank established at the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute under an ex situ conservation programme of the Andaman species undertaken by the Institute.

Specimen examined: South Andamans, Wright Myo, 22.V.1990, S.P. Mathew 20558 (PBL & K).

Though the genus Piper L. is well represented in the tropical and subtropical regions, it is rather poorly represented in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Based on the literature survey and herbarium specimens at PBL & CAL, there are only six species known to occur among the Islands. There are a few vegetative specimens from the Nicobar Islands deposited at PBL & CAL identified as Piper clypeatum Wall. However, the occurrence of this taxon is uncertain, due to the non-availability of their flowering and fruiting specimens. Hooker included Piper ribesioides Wall, under the taxonomic section cubeba. The dioecious nature, presence of solitary spikes, peltate female bracts and pedicellate fruits made Hooker

suggest that Piper ribesioides Wall, may be another form or a genetic variant of Piper cubeba L. f. This species also resembles Piper pedicellosum Wall, ex DC, another endangered species recorded from the Andaman Islands, of which there are a few old specimens at CAL. Hooker suggested that Piper ribesioides Wall, can be easily distinguished from the former by the larger size of leaves, petioles and pedicels. However, a thorough and detailed taxonomic study is required to make a conclusion, which is not possible due to the lack of adequate herbarium specimens. The specimen collected from Mount Harriet by one of the authors (S.P. Mathew 20558) was compared with the specimens at Kew and was found similar to Piper sumatranum C. DC., but this has been merged under Piper ribesioides Wall. The ripened fruits of Piper ribesioides Wall, are known to be used by the local people for treatment of mouth ulcer.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr.N. P. Singh, former Liaison Officer (Botanical Survey of India), Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England for confirming the identity of the specimens. One of us (SPM) thanks the Director, Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute for encouragement. Financial assistance provided to Prof. Susan Abraham by the Department of Science and Technology, Govt, of Kerala is gratefully acknowledged.

April 22, 2000 SAM P. MATHEW

Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram 695 562, Kerala, India.

SUSAN ABRAHAM Environmental Resources Research Institute, Peroorkkada, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.

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34. NEW RECORD OF NERVILIA ARAGOANA IN RAJASTHAN

During a field survey on August 24,1993, in Sitamata Sanctuary in Chittorgarh district of Rajasthan, I came across many plants of Nervilia aragoana between Bhagya Baori and Sitamata Temple under huge crowns of Madhuca indica , Mangifera indica , and Buchnania lanzan. Nervilia aragoana is a terrestrial orchid with a single, simple, orbicular leaf, raised on a long stalk. Its leaf has a cordate base, ribbed lamina and wavy margins. This plant grows in fairly good numbers in the plain areas along the nullahs.

No earlier literature on the flora of Rajasthan (Mehta 1979; Sharma andTiagi 1979;

Refer

Mehta, M.R. (1979): Flora of Mount Abu. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, Rajasthan.

Sharma, S. & B. Tiagi (1979): Flora of Northeast Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, Ludhiana. Shetty, B.V. &R.P. Pandey(1983): Flora of Tonk District. Botanical Survey of India.

Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1987): Flora of Rajasthan. Vol. I.

Shetty and Pandey 1983; Shetty and Singh 1987, 1991, 1993; Singh 1983) has recorded Nervilia aragoana from the State. Thus, the present record of the species is the first from Sitamata Sanctuary as well as Rajasthan State.

I thank Mr. U.M. Sahai, Conservator of Forests, for facilities.

June 14, 1999 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Range Forest Officer (Wildlife), Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India.

ENCES

Botanical Survey of India. Pp. 1-451.

Shetty ,B.V. & V. Singh (1991): Flora of Rajasthan. Vol.

II. Botanical Survey of India. Pp. 453-860.

Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1993): Flora of Rajasthan. Vol.

III. Botanical Survey of India. Pp. 861-1246.

Singh, V. (1983): Flora ofBanswara, Rajasthan. Botanical

Survey of India.

35. REDISCOVERY OF HEMIORCHIS PANTLINGI (ZINGIBERACEAE) FROM SIKKIM HIMALAYA

( With one text-figure)

During a recent floristic survey of South Sikkim, I came across an interesting species of Hemiorchis Kunz. On examination, the plant was identified as Hemiorchis pantlingi King. The plant was rediscovered after a gap of about one hundred years. The voucher specimens are deposited in the herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India, Gangtok, Sikkim.

The description of the species, along with a diagram (Fig. 1), is given below:

Hemiorchis pantlingi King: In: Mitra J. N., Flowering Plants of India, Vol. 1 Monocotyledons: 249-250.1958.

7.5-16 cm tall, erect, succulent, pubemlous,

perennial herb, conspicuously green, leaves absent. Rhizome stout, much branched, creeping. Stem 4-5 cm long, erect, covered with 3-4, 2-3 cm long, oblong-ovate, creamish-purple, minutely puberulous, stem-clasping, sheathing leaves. Inflorescence 3.5-9 cm long, terete, minutely pubemlous; Peduncle 0.5- 1.5 cm long; Raceme 3-7.5 cm long, with 2-5 sessile flowers. Floral bracts small, membranous and deciduous. Calyx (3) tubular, 1-1.5 cm long, pubemlous outside, free arm shallow, triangular in shape. Corolla 1.5- 1.6 cm long, tubular below, limbs divided above into 3 dissimilar lobes; dorsal lobe 1-1.8 x 0.4- 0.6 cm, elliptic-oblong, distinctly 3-nerved,

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Fig. 1: Hemiorchis pantlingi King, A. Whole plant; B. Tubular calyx; C. Single flower;

D. Lateral view of a single flower; E. Dorsal petals; F. Lateral petels; G. Lateral petaloid staminodes; H. Stamen; I. Style, stigma, ovary with stylodes; J. Plan view of lip; K. Side view of lip

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mucronate tip fleshy, externally puberulous, translucent-white suffused with purple; lateral lobes 0.9- 1.1 x 0.3-0. 5 cm, elliptic-oblong, distinctly 3-nerved, spreading. Lateral staminodes petaloid 0.8-0. 9 x 0.6-0.65 cm, obovate, obtuse, slightly and unequally bilobed, basal end with 2 reddish-purple secreting glands, base united to form a short spur. Lip c. 1 .2 x 1 .2 cm in diameter. When flattened, cupular, fleshy, orange-yellow with reddish-purple dots and streaks, the median vein thickened from base, and forms a blunt projection in front, deep orange in colour. Stamen 6-7 mm long, curved, anthers at right angles to it; Anther cell c. 4 x 2 cm long, oblong, contiguous, connective narrow, not produced. Style c. 2.1 cm long, slender, translucent- white, glabrous, passing through the furrow of anther or connective of anther. Stigma small, sub-globose. Ovary c. 3.5 mm long, ribbed, minutely hairy, with 2 stylodes c. 3.8 mm long crowning the ovary, 1 -celled with many ovules, with parietal placentation.

Flowering: April

Altitudinal Zones: 300-500 m.

Distributional Status: Rare

Remarks: It grows on the burnt Sal forest floor.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Mr. T.R. Sharma, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests - cum - Secretary, Forest Department, Government of Sikkim, for permission to carry out the field survey. I especially thank Dr. P.M. Singh, Scientist SD, Botanical Survey of India, Gangtok, for valuable suggestions.

October 15, 1999 S.Z. LUCKSOM

Jt Director Environmental and Eco-Tourism, Department of Forests, Environment & Wildlife, Government of Sikkim, Deorali 737 1 02, Gangtok, Sikkim, India.

36. ARISAEMA ECHINA TUM (WALL.) SCHOTT — AN ADDITION TO THE ARACEAE OF PENINSULAR INDIA

( With one text-figure)

While revising the genus Arisaema Mart for a study on the Araceae of India, it was found that the material of an Arisaema species at Madras Herbarium (MH), collected in the Silent Valley on the Western Ghats, Kerala, had been wrongly determined as A. erubescens (Wall.) Schott. Critical examination revealed that it is A. echinatum (Wall.) Schott. The identity was later confirmed with the help of the protologue and type. Arisaema echinatum is known to occur in Manipur, Meghalaya and Sikkim in India, and also in Bhutan, China and Nepal. It is recorded here from Kerala for peninsular India. A detailed description is provided.

Arisaema echinatum (Wall.) Schott in Schott & Endl., Melet. Bot. 1: 17. 1832; Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6: 506. 1893; Engl., Pflanzenr.

(IV. 23 F) 73: 181. 1920; D. Chatterjee in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 8: 124. 1955; Hara, FI. E. Himal. 2: 152, t. 20, f. c-d, 351, f. 55m. 1971; Pradhan, Himal. Cobra-lilies: 90. 1990. Arum echinatum Wall., PI. Asiat. Rar. 2: 30, t. 136. 1831; Wall., Numer. List No. : 89 1 6. 1 848 ; Engl, in DC., Monogr. Phan. 2: 555. 1879. - Type: Nepal, Sheopore, 1821, Wall., Numer. List No. 8916 (CAL, K, MH microfiche!).

Dioecious, rarely monoecious, cormous herb; corm 2-5 cm across, depressed-subglobose. Cataphylls 1-2, 2.5-22 cm long, obtuse, membranous. Leaf solitary; petiole 12.5-46 cm long, cylindric, pale green, streaked with reddish- brown, glaucous; leaflets 6-1 1, radiate, subsessile, 4.5-30 x 0.7-4 cm, oblanceolate to oblong- lanceolate, attenuate or subacute at the base,

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1mm

^ G

Fig. 1: Arisaema echinatum (Wall.) Schott: A. Habit; B. Bisexual spadix; C. Staminate spadix; D. Staminate flower; E. Pistillate flower; F. Apex of spadix-appendix; G. Sterile flower

496

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undulate along the margins, caudate-acuminate at the apex, deep green above, pale green with streaks and glaucous beneath; midnerve broad at the base, narrowing towards the tip; lateral nerves slender, 10-14 on each side, obliquely ascending from midnerve, continuous to form intra-marginal nerves. Peduncle solitary, 7-35 cm long, green, streaked with reddish-brown, enclosed by the petiole and then exserted. Spathe 9.5-27 cm long, green, striped with white, brown or purple inside, dull white outside, glabrous; tube 3-6 x 1.5-2 cm, cylindric, convolute, green- and-white striped outside, dark purple striped inside, spreading at the mouth; limb 3-7 x 2.5- 5 cm, ovate-lanceolate, vaulted, abmptly tapering into a long slender pendulous 5-15 cm long tail. Spadix included, cylindric, erect, hardly exserted beyond the mouth of the tube. Pistillate spadix 4-7.5 cm long; pistillate flower-portion 0.7-

1.5 cm long, dense, with a few sterile flowers above (or none) along with a few staminate flowers; pistillate flowers many, 1.5-2 x 1.7-1. 8 mm; ovary 1.5-1. 7 x 1.5- 1.8 mm, subglobose, green, streaked; ovules 2-3, basal; style minute; stigma discoid, white, viscid. Sterile flower- portion c. 1 cm long; sterile flowers 1-3.5 mm long, subulate, bifurcate, purple at the apex. Staminate spadix 4-6.5 cm long? staminate flower-portion 1.5-2 cm long; staminate flowers many, sparse; filament 0.1 -0.5 mm long; anthers 1 -5, 2-lobed, purplish brown, dehiscing by a pore; lobes 0.4-0. 7 x 0. 5-0.9 mm, globose or depressed- subglobose; connective beaked. Appendix 2.5-

4.5 x 0. 5-0.9 cm, cylindric or slightly

compressed, light green, streaked with purple, swollen at the base, contracted in the middle, rugose or echinate with white bristle, 0.07- 0.2 cm long, round margins crenate at the apex. Appendix of staminate spadix distinctly stipitate; stipe c. 0.5 cm long. Berries c. 0.6 cm long.

Fi. & Fr.: Feb. -July.

Note: Easily distinguished by its densely echinate spadix-appendix apex. Commonly called the spiny cobra-lily (Pradhan l.c.). Berries of Arisaema spp. are bird-dispersed (Ridley 1930). This species may have been dispersed by birds internally.

Specimen examined: Kerala: Palakkad district, Silent Valley R.F., 900 m, 22. iv. 1980, V.J. Nair 67259 (CAL, MH). Manipur: Mao, 6,500 ft (1975.25 m), ll.ii.1954, S.C. Sinha 1873 (CAL). Meghalaya: Khasia hills, Dumpep, 30.v. 1911,//. Burkill & S.C. Banerjee 34249 (CAL). Sikkim: North district, Tallam Samolong, 25.vii.1986, D.C.S. Raju & S. Singh 6124 (SHC).

Acknowledgement

K. Sasikala thanks the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, for a research fellowship.

April 22, 2000 K. SASIKALA

E. VAJRAVELU P. DANIEL Botanical Survey of India Southern Circle, Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India.

Reference

Ridley, H.N. (1930): The dispersal of plants throughout the World. L. Reeve & Co. Ltd, Ashford, Kent. Pp. 396.

37. TWO NEW ADDITIONS TO THE SEDGES, FAMILY CYPERACEAE,

OF ANDHRA PRADESH

( With one text-figure)

During an exploration on aquatic and the authors encountered two interesting taxa wetland angiosperm diversity in Andhra Pradesh, which, on critical examination, were identified

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Mariscus sumatrensis (Retz.) Raynal is akin to M. by the following characters:

Mariscus paniceus (Rottb.) Vahl Plants not stoloniferous.

Leafy bracts 3-5.

Spikes subsessile or nearly so, rays when developed up to 4 cm long.

Spikes 8-15 x 4-6 mm, densely bearing c. 150 spikelets.

Glumes ovate-lanceolate, 2.5-3 x 1.4- 1.7 mm, obscurely 2-nerved on each side of the keel. Stamens 2, rarely 3.

Achenes elliptic-long, 1.8-2. 2 x 0.6-0. 8 mm.

paniceus (Rottb.) Vahl, but it can be distinguished

Mariscus sumatrensis (Retz.) Raynal Plants stoloniferous but subrigid.

Leafy bracts 3-10.

Spikes umbellate with elongated rays, rays 3-15, the longer ones up to 8 cm long. Spikes 2-40 x 6-10 mm, densely bearing c. 40 spikelets.

Glumes lanceolate-oblong to ovate-oblong 3-3.5 x 1 mm, faintly multi-nerved.

Stamens 3.

Achenes linear-oblong, 1.8-2. 2 x 0.5 mm.

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as Mariscus sumatrensis and Kyllinga hyalina. These two taxa have been reported from Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu states by earlier workers. The present report from Andhra Pradesh is, therefore, a range extension.

Intensive ecofloristic surveys were conducted in the ponds, ditches, canals, streams and waterlogged areas in the state, to collect specimens. For taxonomic study, herbarium specimens were prepared using standard methods. Collections were made to understand the influence of climatic factors on certain key characters of the taxa. The specimens were deposited in Sri Krishnadevaraya University Herbarium (SKU), Anantapur.

Mariscus sumatrensis (Retz.) Raynal

Mariscus sumatrensis (Retz.) Raynal, Adansonia 15: 1 10. 1975; T. Koyama, Gard. Bull. Singapore 30:154. 1977. Kyllinga sumatrensis Retz., Obs. Bot. 4:13. 1786. type Sumatra wennerberg. Mariscus sieberianus Nees (Linnaea 9:286. 1835, nom. nud.) ex. Clarke in Hook, f , FI. Brit. India. 6:122. 1893. Fig. 1.

Annual herbs. Culms up to 80 cm tall. Leaves shorter than culms, herbaceous; bracts 3-10. Inflorescence open, simple, rays 3-15. Spikes cylindrical, spikelets linear to linear-lanceolate. Glumes lanceolate-oblong to ovate oblong. Nuts lmear-oblong, straw coloured.

Remarks: Rare in marshy areas along the streams.

FI. & Fr.: August-November.

Distribution: extralimit al: Tropical Old World, Introduced in the West Indies, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, india: Andhra Pradesh (Cuddapah district, restricted to Lankamala waterfalls), Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka,

Maharashtra, Sikkim.

Specimens examined: Near Lankamala waterfalls, (CDP), MHR & KI 14904.

Kyllinga hyalina (Vahl) T. Koyama

Kyllinga hyalina (Vahl) T. Koyama, J. Jap. Bot. 51 (10): 313. 1976. Cyperus hyalinus Vahl Enum. PI. 2:239. 1806. Pycreus pumilus Clarke in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India. 6:591. 1893; Fischer 1625 (1130).

Annual herbs. Culms 6-20 cm tall. Leaves shorter than, to slightly overtopping, the culms, thinly herbaceous; bracts 3-6. Inflorescence open and lax, umbelliform with elongated rays, rays 2-6. Spikelets ovate to elliptic. Glumes ovate. Nuts elliptic to broadly elliptic, brown.

Remarks: Sporadically occurring in open forests, especially during rainy season.

FI. & Fr.: August-November.

Distribution: extralimital: Tropical East Africa, Massacres Is., Indochina, Malesia and Northern Australia.

india: Andhra Pradesh (Cuddapah), Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.

Specimens examined: Lankamalleswaram east (CDP), SRS & KI 13152.

Acknowledgements

K. Indira thanks the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, for financial assistance.

April 22, 2000 K. INDIRA

R.R. VENKATA RAJU Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur 515 003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

38. FOOD VALUE OF SOME EDIBLE FERNS FROM DHARAN, SOUTHEASTERN NEPAL

Within the next three decades, the world the demand of its increasing population (Myers will have to double its food production to meet 1999) and meet the health requirements of

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human beings. This is a real challenge. Recent technological advances (Leisinger 1999) and exploitation of unknown or neglected food resources from nature may solve this problem. Nature has endowed us with abundant plant resources. In comparison to the plethora of flora at our disposal, the numbers that have been exploited directly to fulfil human requirements is comparatively small. Ferns and their allies are but a few of them. Some ferns have always been used for culinary purposes, the demand being fulfilled from wild sources. A generic term used in Nepal for all the edible ferns is ‘ niuro ’ or ‘ niguro ’ (Gurung 1984).

Ferns and their allies are among the green vegetables available in the vicinity of Dharan, mainly in the monsoon. Their most common use is as green vegetables. Tender varieties in particular are pickled and sometimes fermented for “ gundruk ”, a preparation leafy vegetable indigenous to Nepal (Karki 1986). Less often, edible fern is sun dried and preserved. In some parts of the country, succulent parts of the plant are simply crushed or squashed and eaten, probably to quench summer thirst.

Vegetables are used for organoleptic reasons. That they also contribute significantly towards a balanced nutrition through synergistic interactions among food components, unfortunately, very often goes unnoticed. Although much work has not been done on edible ferns, they could be as valuable as any

conventional vegetable (Anon. 1982). The present work attempts to estimate the nutrient contents of some edible ferns growing naturally in and around Dharan, Nepal.

‘ Niguros ’ are generally available from June to September. All the samples were collected when the plants were tender, from forest areas in and around Dharan. Edibility of the ferns was confirmed from local collec- tors and vegetable markets of Dharan, where they are often displayed for sale. Identity of plants was confirmed from the National Herbarium and Plant Laboratory, Godavari, Kathmandu, Nepal. The freshly collected samples (about 1 kg each) were carefully packed in polythene bags and sent to the laboratory for chemical analysis.

The plants were prepared and parts unsuitable for culinary purposes were removed, to obtain data as relevant as possible to kitchen protocol.' Soil and dirt were meticulously removed. Representative samples were taken for determining moisture, while the remaining were finely shredded and dried in a hot air oven at 110 °C (Rangana 1986). Dried samples were powdered in a mortar, dried once again at 1 1 0 °C, packed hot in clean, screwtop glass containers, and reserved in a desiccator. All subsequent analyses were carried out using the reserved powders, which were thoroughly dried using IR radiation before weighing them for analyses.

Table 1

PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS FERNS AND FERN ALLIES FROM DHARAN, NEPAL

(PER 1 00 G EDIBLE PORTION)

Item

Moisture

(g)

Carbohydrate

(g)

Crude protein (g)

Crude fat (g)

Total ash (g)

Diplazium esculentum Swartz

90.10

4.9

3.4

0.2

1.4

D. maximum (D.Don.) C. Chr.

91.36

4.452

3.01

0.108

1.07

Ophioglossum vulgatum Linn.

92.21

3.356

2.47

1.00

0.964

Sterochlaena palustris (Burm.) Bedd.

91.17

4.982

2.99

0.07

0.778

Tectaria macrodonta (Fee) C. Chr.

91.48

4.186

2.90

0.295

1.139

500

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Table 2

ASH COMPONENTS OF VARIOUS FERNS AND FERN ALLIES FROM DHARAN, NEPAL (PER 1 00 G EDIBLE PORTION)

Item

Acid-

insoluble (g)

Ash

Acid- soluble (g)

Calcium

(mg)

Iron

(mg)

Diplazium esculentum Swartz

-

-

-

2.77

D. maximum (D. Don.) C. Chr.

0.0649

1.005

17.24

0.84

Ophioglossum vulgatum Linn.

0.0647

0.899

36.31

7.01

Sterochlaena palustris (Burm.) Bedd.

0.0857

0.702

9.59

0.92

Tectaria macrodonta (Fee) C. Chr.

0.0735

1.066

16.63

4.95

Particulars of the parameters and the assessment methods used were as under:

Parameter

Crude Protein

Crude fat Ash

(Total and

acid-insoluble)

Moisture

Carbohydrate

Iron

Calcium

Method

Rangana 1986; Kjeldahl method Pearson 1976; Solvent extraction Rangana 1986

Rangana, 1986; IR method Horwitz 1980; By difference Rangana 1986;

Colorimetric method Horwitz 1980;

AOAC method, titrimetric

Proximate analysis of the collected samples showed favourable comparison with other conventional vegetables. The results of proximate analysis and various ash components of the

samples are presented in Tables 1 and 2, whereas Table 3 is a compilation from earlier publications. Mudambi and Rajagopal (1990) had analysed a number of leafy vegetables, the composition of which is given in Table 3.

Comparison of Tables 1, 2 and 3 shows that the food values of the above five species of pteridophytes average those of conventional vegetables. In general, Ophioglossum vulgatum and Tectaria macrodonta are the prized ones. They excel other varieties not only in terms of quality, but also in organoleptic values. Besides, they have curiosity value and so they sell more. Moreover, the amino acid profile of ferns is reported to be similar to spermatophytes in terms of type and abundance, the sequence in decreasing order being arginine, lysine, tyrosine, methionine, tryptophan and cysteine (Meyer, 1960).

However, nutritional value notwith- standing, these wild vegetables cannot be expected to contribute much to our dietary

Table 3

PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF *N. IGURO' AND CONVENTIONAL LEAFY VEGETABLES (PER 100 G EDIBLE PORTION)

Protein

(g)

Fat

(g)

Carbohy drate (g)

Moisture

(g)

Crude Fibre (g)

Minerals

(g)

Calcium

(mg)

Vit.C

(mg)

Green leafy

1. 8-4.4

0. 1-1.7

1.4-12.5

75.9-95.2

-

0.6-2.7

-

-

vegetables*

Niguro**

4.4

0.2

4.2

88

1.8

1.3

30

4.8

Sources; * Mudambi and Rajagopal (1990) ** Anonymous (1986)

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requirements unless mass cultivated, and no such efforts seem to have ever been made. What comes to the market is directly from the wild, and this trend is likely to continue, unless further research to cultivate and exploit them is conducted.

The present work is still fragmentary. The data obtained by chemical analysis is not necessarily relevant to intricate biological systems of nutrition and absorption. But emphasis must be placed on bio-availability. For instance, protein must be further assayed to determine the digestibility and indispensable amino acid profile. Minerals are available only in the absence of interfering entities such as oxalates and phylates. Vitamin profile, crude fibre content and toxic principle(s), if any, are other important aspects that must be thoroughly researched before popularising wild plants for edible purposes.

Refer

Anon. (1982): Wild edible plants of Nepal. Bull. Dept. Med. PI. Nepal 9: 105-259.

Gurung, V.L. (1984): Ferns. In: Nepal: Nature’s Paradise. (Ed.: Majupuria, T.C.), Craftsman Press, Bangkok. Pp. 194-211.

Horwitz, W. (Ed.) (1980): Official Method of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. (1 3Ul edn.), AOAC, Washington, DC.

Karkj, T.B. (1986): Gundruk. In: A Concise Book of Indigenous Fermented Foods in the ASCA Countries. (Ed.: Saono, S.), The Govt, of Australia, Canberra, Australia. Pp. 67.

Leisinger, K.M. (1999): Biotechnology and food security.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. Tilakman Shreshtha (Asst. Dean, CCT, Dharan) for providing analytical facilities. We also thank Dr. Dilip Subba (Chairman, Food Technology Instruction Committee) for his wise counsel and support, and Mr. Naresh Thapa (National Herbarium, Kathmandu) for identifying the collected samples.

October 15, 1999 D.K. SUBBA

B.K. RAI

Department of Food Technology, Central Campus of Technology, Hattisar, Dharan, Nepal. MIN RAJ DHAKAL Dept, of Botany, P.G. Campus, Biratnagar, Nepal. Present Address: Department of Botany, T.M. Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 812 007, Bihar, India.

ENCES

Curr. Sci 76: 488-500.

Meyer, L.H. (1960): Food Chemistry. CBS Publishers and Distributors. Pp. 139.

Mudambi, S.R. & M.V. Rajagopal (1990): Fundamentals of Foods and Nutrition. 3rd edn. Wiley Eastern Ltd. Pp. 228.

Myers, N. (1999): The next green revolution: Its environmental underpinnings. Curr. Sci. 76: 507-513. Pearson, D. (1976): The Chemical Analysis of Foods. 7“' ed. Churchill Livingstone. Pp 14.

Rangana, S. (1986): Handbook of Analysis and Quality Control for Fruit and Vegetable Products. 2nd edn. Tata McGraw Hill. Pp 2 1 -24, 1 26- 1 27.

ERRATA

Vol. 98(2), p. 288. The 2nd author Yogesh Srivastawa was inadvertently printed as Yogesh Sharma. The error is regretted.

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EDITORIAL . 323

INDIAN WILD ASS ( EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR ) IN THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA ( With two text-figures)

By H.S. Singh 327

ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EAGLE ( AQUILA NIPALENSIS) SUMMERING IN MONGOLIA AND WINTERING IN TIBET (With one text-figure)

By David H. Ellis, Stacie L. Moon and Jon W. Robinson 335

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF ANNANDALE’S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS (ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE) NEAR KOLKATA, WEST BENGAL (With one plate)

By Kaushik Deuti 341

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 39. PLOCEINAE AND ESTRILDINAE

By Saraswathy Unnithan 347

TRANSLOCATION OF RHESUS MACAQUES FROM AIRFORCE STATION, GURGAON (HARYANA) TO THE NATURAL FOREST OF FIROZPUR- JHIRKA, HARYANA, INDIA (With two text-figures)

By Ekwal Imam, Iqbal Malik and H.S. A. Yahya 355

NOTES ON THE POLYGONACEAE OF SIKKIM

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SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON THE CONTACT CHEMORECEPTORS ON THE PALP-TIP OF ORYCTES RHINOCEROS L. (COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE)

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MIST-NET CAPTURE AND FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BAT (CHIROPTERA: PTEROPODIDAE) CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL.)

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By P.T. Nathan, D.P. Swami Doss, S.S. Isaac, J. Balasingh, K. Emmanuvel Rajan,

N. Gopukumar Nairand R. Subbaraj 373

FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE (LINN.) IN KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT (With one text-figure)

By Aeshita Mukheijee, C.K. Borad, B.M. Parasharya and V.C. Soni 379

ELYTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOSYSTEMATIC SIGNIFICANCE IN ENTIMINAE (CURCULIONIDAE: COLEOPTERA)

(With two plates and thirty-seven text-figures)

By V.V. Ramamurthy 385

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 392

REVIEWS 428

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 432

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