Ernst fJJayr Library of Comparative Zoology Harvard University MC2 LIBRARY JUL 3 0 2013 HARVARD UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY APRIL 2010 VOL. 107(1) JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 . Executive Editor Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai Copy and Production Editor Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc. Editorial Board Ajith Kumar, Ph. D. National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru Aasheesh Pittie, B Com. Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad C.R. Babu, Ph. D. Professor, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc. Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc. The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati Indraneil Das, D. Phil. Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia Y.V. Jhala. Ph. D. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program, Bengaluru, Karnataka T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc. Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala G.S. Rawat, Ph. D. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun K. Rema Devi, Ph. D. Zoological Survey of India, Chennai J.S. Singh, Ph. D. Professor, Banaras Hindu University Varanasi S. Subramanya, Ph. D. University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Hebbal, Bengaluru R. Sukumar, Ph. D. Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc. Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust, Tamil Nadu S.R. Yadav, Ph. D. Shivaji University, Kolhapur Senior Consultant Editor J.C. Daniel, M. Sc. Consultant Editors Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D. Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru Nigel Collar, Ph. D. BirdLife International, UK Rhys Green, Ph. D. Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun T.J. Roberts, Ph. D. World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc. Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu © Bombay Natural History Society 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above. VOLUME 107(1): APRIL 2010 CONTENTS HARVAnn editorial . UNtVETn 1 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA N. Baskaran, M. Balasubramanian, S. Swaminathan and Ajay A. Desai . 3 AN ANNOTATED AND ILLUSTRATED CHECKLIST OF THE OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA, WITH 21 NEW RECORDS FOR GUJARAT AND 13 NEW RECORDS FROM INDIA: PART 1 Deepak Apte, Vishal Bhave and Dishant Parasharya . 14 FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIALAND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR, DATIA, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA R.K. Garg, R.J. Rao and D.N. Saksena . 24 DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS IN THREE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN TAMIL NADU, INDIA V. Vanitha, K. Thiyagesan and N. Baskaran . 30 GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE PROSOPIS JUUFLORA SEEDS PASSED THROUGH GUT OF THE INDIAN WILD ASS EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR IN SALT DESERT OF INDIA Bitapi C. Sinha, S.P. Goyal and P.R. Krausman . 38 LIFE HISTORY OF ATTACUS ATLAS L. (LEPIDOPTERA: SATURNIIDAE) ON LITSEA MONOPETALA JUSS. IN NORTH-EAST INDIA B.N. Sarkar, B.C. Chutia, J. Ghose and A. Barah . 42 NEW DESCRIPTIONS RECORD OF THE GENUS SCHIZOPRYMNUS FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES Zubair Ahmad and Zaheer Ahmed . 45 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS 1. A note on distribution range of Hanuman Langur Semnopithecus entellus (Dufresne) and Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann) in Rajasthan Satish Kumar Sharma . 48 2. Sight record of the Indian Wolf Canis lupus pallipes in the river Gandak floodplains Sushant Dey, Viveksheel Sagar, Subhasis Dey and Sunil K. Choudhary . 51 3. Wildlife mortality from vehicular traffic in Sriharikota Island, southern India S. Sivakumar and Ranjit Manakadan . 53 BIRDS 4. Factors causing nest losses in the Painted Stork Mycterla leucocephala: a review of some Indian studies Abdul Jamil Urfi . 55 5. Partial albinism in Black Ibis Pseudibls papillosa Rajesh C. Senma and Chirag A. Acharya . 58 6. First record: selection of an electric pole as a roosting site by Black Ibis in North Gujarat region Rajesh C. Senma and Chirag A. Acharya . 59 7. Occurrence of the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps in Bikaner region of the Thar Desert Partap Singh, D.R. Saharan, Jitendar Solanki and S.P. Mehra . 59 8. Addition to the avifauna of the Indian subcontinent - “White-faced” Plover Charadrius dealbatusUom Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India Nikhil Bhopale . 60 9. First record of the Hume's Leaf-warbler Phylloscopus humel from Kachchh, Gujarat, India Nikhil Bhopale . 61 FISH 10. An observational note on Gangetic Latia Crossocheilus latius latius in Khoh river, Uttarakhand, India Vidyadhar Atkore . 62 INSECTS 11. A new record of larval host plant of Tawny Coster Acraea violae (Fabricius) Rudra Prasad Das, Arjan Basu Roy, Radhanath Polley and Goutam Saha . 63 12. A checklist of ants of Thirunelli in Wayanad, Kerala K.A. Karmaly, S. Sumesh, T.P. Rabeesh and Lambert Kishore . 64 OTHER INVERTEBRATES 1 3. First report on the occurrence of an economically important Spiral nematode Helicotylenchus multicinctus Cobb, from Goa I.K. Pai and H.S. Gaur . 68 14. Scolopendra hardwickei (Newport, 1844) feeding on Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853) in the scrub jungles of Pondicherry, southern India Utpal Smart, Prakash Patel and Pradeep Pattanayak ... 15. Architecture of abutting surfaces of the shells of acorn barnacles A. A. Karande and M. Udhayakumar . BOTANY 1 6. Andrachne telephioides L. (Phyllanthaceae) - an addition to the flora of peninsular India 68 M.M. Sardesai and S.Y. Chavan . Cover Photograph: Tiger Panthera tigris 70 By Sachin Rai ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt of India, FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL. 73 11 Editorial Are we saving tigers for Chinese consumers? Tiger is perhaps the most famous animal in the world. Everything about the tiger is written in superlative terms - its beauty, grace, aura, grandeur, strength, ecological role, iconic role, and even aphrodisiac potency of its body parts. Nothing is mundane about the tiger. Even some tiger conservationists consider themselves above all other conservationists. Earlier every tiger shot was a life-long memory of a hunter, now every tiger sighting by a tourist is a conversation topic among family and friends. Poaching of tigers makes the front-page in daily newspapers. There are more books on tiger than any other Indian animal. There are tourist agencies that survive solely on tiger tourism. Such is the aura of this grand animal, and rightly so. For me, the tiger is a spirit, literally and figuratively, of Indian conservation movement - a flagship species. It is the animal which inspires many of us to save our wilderness. India has come a long way from the bad old days of tiger shooting as ‘sport’ to tiger tourism as a growing business. We even have a school of art based solely on tiger paintings. Instead of an ugly rug of a tiger skin or a decaying ‘trophy’ of a tiger head in some decrepit house of an aging former rajah or nawab, tiger paintings now proudly adore art galleries and board rooms of corporates. Visiting a tiger reserve is a fashion statement. India has 39 tiger reserves scattered all over the tiger’s range, covering about 40,000 sq. km of forest. Unfortunately, almost 50 per cent are in very bad shape, but they can be recovered with proper management. According to tiger experts, a male tiger requires about 100-160 sq. km territory and a tigress requires about 40-60 sq. km, which means we should have about 400 adult tigers and about 800 adult tigresses only in the tiger reserves. We also have about 100,000 sq. km forest, which can support tigers, may be in lower densities. In well-protected areas, such as the Corbett National Park, there are 20 adult and subadult tigers of both sexes per 100 sq. km. Similarly, in Kaziranga National Park the density is 26 tigers per 100 sq. km. Therefore, ideally India should have 2,400 to 3,000 tigers, perhaps more, as in good protected areas (e.g. Corbett, Kaziranga, Bandhavgarh, Ranthambore) tigers can live in much higher densities. We have less than 50 per cent of the rough estimated figures. Thanks to mismanagement, lack of funds and administrative support, and extensive poaching we have vast empty forests where the tiger and its prey have almost gone. Besides, our forests face constant threats of livestock overgrazing, encroachment, and mining. While mining, livestock grazing and encroachments can be stopped by strong administrative and legal measures, the invidious threat of poaching is much more difficult to control, particularly when the tiger moves out of the protective cover of a tiger reserve or a national park. As long as there is demand in China for tiger parts, tigers will be poached. With 60 per cent of world’s tigers in India, we have become the biggest supplier of tiger parts to the growing Chinese market. BINGOS (big international NGOs), donors and tiger conservationists frequently go through the ritual meetings and conferences where the issue of protecting tiger through training of staff, giving them more guns and boots (!), getting stakeholders support etc. are discussed on the well- trodden lines, but not many are willing to take up China. As long as we have demand of tiger parts in China, all wild tigers of the world will be under constant threat. We may have a million children writing to the Prime Minister of India to save the tiger, a retinue of celebrities endorsing tiger protection, large hoardings appealing to save our national animal, but a poacher is not going to listen to this; for him a dead tiger is money. The higher-up you are in illegal tiger trade, the more money you make. And as long as there are people willing to give any amount of money to have tiger-penis soup for purportedly aphrodisiac properties, as long as there are people willing to wear a tiger nail around their neck for good omen, and as long as there are people who consider tiger meat, fat and bones as cure-all, tiger poaching will continue. Before tiger hunting was banned in 1969, we used to have about 30 shikar companies exclusively for the so-called sport hunting of tiger in India. As one of India’s greatest living conservationists. Dr. M.K. Ranjitsinh tells that in his younger days, when one saw a tiger, it was shot, what else would one do? Now, when we see a tiger, we still shoot, but with a camera. When we Indians can change our way of living in one generation, from tiger hunters to tiger lovers, why can’t the Chinese stop using tiger parts? When they have death penalty for killing a Giant Panda - their conservation symbol - why can't they protect the tiger in their own country and stop smuggling of tiger parts from other tiger-range countries? 1 remember the old slogan of WildAid, “When the Buying Stops, the Killing Can Too”. This is the basic issue of tiger conservation. When the main problem lies in China, the solution also lies there. We have to see that consumption of tiger parts is stopped in China and other countries through strong legislative and administrative actions and national and international pressure - otherwise we will continue breeding tigers in India, spending crores of rupees and with great sacrifice by the local people (e.g. shifting villages), for the Chinese market. 'Guns and boots’ and well-intentioned petitions cannot save tiger as a free-ranging wild animal in India. Asad R. Rahmani 2 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010 3-13 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA N. Baskaran12, M. Balasubramanian13, S. Swaminathan4 and Ajay A. Desai15 'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India. 2Present address: Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Innovation Centre, First Floor, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560 012, Karnataka, India. Email: nagarajan.baskaran@gmail.com ^Present address: The Periyar Foundation, Thekkady 685 536, Kerala, India. Email: wildbala@gmail.com 4No. 5, Perumal Kovil Street. Porayar 609 307, Tamil Nadu, India. 584 BC Camp, Belgaum 590 001, Karnataka, India. Email: ajaydesai.l@gmail.com We studied the activity patterns and feeding ecology of Asian Elephants Elephas maximus in deciduous and dry thorn forests of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, southern India. Over 20,000 instantaneous scan samplings on elephants revealed that 60% of the daylight hours were devoted to feeding. Feeding patterns were strongly bimodal, with peaks in the morning and evening. Elephants spent less time feeding during the dry season than in the wet season, both in dry deciduous and dry thorn forests. Feeding decreased with increasing ambient temperature and its influence is more pronounced during the dry season in all the habitats. The time spent on feeding was less in dry thorn (53%) than in dry deciduous forests (68%), attributed to higher ambient temperatures coupled with poor shade availability and higher human disturbances in dry thorn forest. The diet of elephants constituted more species of browse (59) than grass (29), but grass formed the bulk of the annual diet (84.6%) than browse (15.4%). Elephants fed on more diverse food plants during the dry than the two wet seasons, and in the dry thorn than dry deciduous forests, which is discussed in the light of availability of grass biomass. The proportion of browsing was significantly more during the dry season in dry thorn forest, coinciding with poor availability of grass. These observations indicate that grass forms the principal diet of elephants in this area. Key words: Asian elephant, Elephas maximus, activity, feeding, seasonal variation, temperature, browse, grass biomass INTRODUCTION Both living species of proboscideans, the Asian Elephant Elephas maximus and African Elephant Loxodonta africana, are well adapted to living in diverse habitats by exploiting a wide spectrum of plant species. Their physiological adaptations, like the large prehensile trunk, dentition and digestive system, which help to collect and process vast quantities of diverse plant food required to compensate for an extremely poor digestive ability and the nutritional demands of the elephant’s large body mass, are undoubtedly critical to the survival of the species (Sukumar 2003). However, such physiological adaptations alone are unlikely to be sufficient, especially in tropical ecosystems, which show large spatio-temporal variance in climate, and food quality and quantity. Additional behavioural adaptations may also be necessary for both the species to efficiently exploit the highly changing heterogeneous tropical environments. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR) in southern India, along with its adjoining contiguous areas in the Western and Eastern Ghats, supports the largest elephant population in Asia (Daniel el al. 1995). The Reserve encompasses a wide range of habitats ranging from semi-evergreen to tropical dry thorn forests and shows distinct seasonality - dry versus wet - making it an ideal system to study the effects of the spatial and environmental factors on the activity and feeding behaviour of the Asian Elephant. This paper documents the seasonal influences of ambient temperature and the availability of grass on the activity pattern and feeding behaviour of elephants in the tropical deciduous and dry thorn forests of NBR. Though the study was carried out over a decade back ( 1992-95), the findings are still important as there exist no detailed published data on the feeding ecology of elephants from optimal habitats (like Mudumalai, Bandipur, Nagarahole and Wayanad) of NBR. which support the major population of elephants in southern India. Additionally, it would provide baseline data to know the impact of the recent changes taking place on the vegetation physiognomy of elephant habitats due to proliferation of exotic weeds like Lantana camara and Eupatorium odoratum and the reported decline of preferred food plant species (Sivaganesan and Sathyanarayana 1995), and their impact on elephant feeding. STUDY AREA Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve ( 12° 15'- 10" 45' N;76°0'-77° 15' E), spread over an area of 5,520 sq. km is situated at the junction of three southern states — Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. It has an undulating terrain with an average elevation of 1 ,000 m above msl. Rivers such as Nugu. Moyar and Bhavani, and most of their tributaries, are perennial and drain the area. The Reserve has a diverse climate due to its FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE varied reliefs and topography. The temperature ranges from 7°C in December to 37°C in April, and receives rainfall both from the Southwest (May to August) and Northeast (September to December) monsoons. The mean annual rainfall varies from 600 (in the eastern side) to 2,000 mm (in the western side). The dry season is from January to April. Corresponding to the gradient in rainfall, the vegetation varies from southern tropical dry thorn forest in the east to moist deciduous forest in the west with dry deciduous forest in between the two forest types (Champion and Seth 1 968). NBR along with its adjoining natural habitats has remarkable faunal diversity and is well-known for supporting the largest population of Asian elephants with an estimated population of 5,750 individuals (Project Elephant 2007). Overgrazing by domestic cattle and firewood collection are serious problems in the eastern fringes of NBR (Baskaran etal. 2004). METHODS Grass biomass The abundance of grass, in terms of biomass, was estimated twice in a season for three seasons from stratified transects of one to two kilometres in dry deciduous (7 transects of total length of 10 km) and dry thorn forest (6 transects of total length of 10 km). The grass biomass could not be assessed in moist deciduous forest due to inadequate manpower. At 200 m intervals along these transects, two 1 sq. m quadrats were placed at a 5 m distance on either side of the transect. All the grass species were clipped at the ground level from each quadrat and weighed to estimate the grass biomass (wet weight). The biomass estimates using dry weight is more appropriate than wet weight method, due to varied water content in plant samples in different season. However, given the manpower and infrastructure facilities, dry weight method could not be used. Mean grass biomass for grazed and un¬ grazed (by domestic cattle) areas for each habitat was also estimated, as there were remarkable differences in grazing pressure across habitats. All transect were restricted to areas where direct observations on feeding of elephants was carried out. Activity and feeding behaviour Observations were made on elephant clans and bulls using instantaneous scan sampling method (Altmann 1974). Using radio-collared elephant clans and bull, a minimum of two clans and a bull were observed for a period of 2 days/ month. Non-collared elephant clans and bulls were also observed, especially during months when radio-collared elephants were not recorded within a habitat. Daylight hours from 06:00 to 18:00 hrs were divided into 1 2 one-hour blocks for sampling and an attempt was made to sample each one- hour block at least once a month. Scan sampling was made at 15-minute intervals (four scans per hour) presuming that this interval would rule out over-sampling of any particular behaviour. Observations were made on foot (ground) or from a tree, depending on the topography, wind direction and visibility. Care was taken to ensure that the target animal or target group did not detect the observer’s presence. During the sampling, animals were systematically scanned and information such as age, sex and activity (feeding, resting, moving and others) were recorded. If the animal was feeding, data on plant species eaten was also recorded. Additionally, the ambient temperature was recorded at every 30-minute intervals using digital thermometer at the observation site. Data analyses The frequency of activities and plant species eaten was estimated season-wise for each habitat. The data blocks in the morning (06:00-08:00 hrs) and evening ( 16:00-18:00 hrs) were less compared to other sample blocks primarily due to delay in radio-locating the animals because of weather conditions (mist, rain, etc.) and the remoteness of certain areas. Since the activity of elephants changes according to daylight hours (McKay 1973), any bias in observation at particular hours of the day would result in over- or under-estimation of a particular activity. To standardize such bias, the percentages of various activities/hour was derived from observed hourly- pooled data, and from this percentage, the mean time spent on various activities (weighted average) was calculated for the season. Data on activity pattern and grass, and browse ratio collected from the radio-collared tuskless bull, a habitual crop raider, were not included into the analysis, as its activities and feeding habits were skewed due to crop raiding behaviour. However, its data on food species eaten were included into the analysis mainly to capture the wide spectrum of food species eaten by elephants in this area. All the data were analyzed using non-parametric statistical tests and analyses were done using 'Statistical Package for Social Studies’ (Norusis 1990). Kruskal- Wallis’ one-way ANOVA and the Man-Whitney U tests were used to test the differences in activity pattern. Chi-square analysis was used to test the differences in the selected browsing and grazing plant species. The relationship between ambient temperature and activities (feeding and resting) was tested using Spearman Rank Correlation. RESULTS Overall time activity pattern Overall, during daylight hours, elephants showed two peaks in feeding, one in the morning (06:00-09:00 hrs) and 4 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE another in the evening ( 1 5:00- 1 7:00 hrs) (Fig. 1 a). Time spent on resting was more around midday than in mornings and evenings. Elephants frequently engaged in other activities such as mud-bath, sand-bath, salt-licking and play during 14:00-16:00 hrs. As the temperature increased from morning with a peak between 12:00 and 13:00 hrs, resting became more common. However, comparisons of feeding and resting with ambient temperature, with pooled data over habitats and seasons, showed no significant correlation. Overall, the activity budget revealed that elephants spent 60% of the daylight hours (06:00-18:00 hrs) on feeding and 20% on resting. Time spent on moving was 14% and 6% on other activities Seasonal difference in time activity in different habitats Dry deciduous forest: During the dry season, elephants showed a bimodal feeding activity with a peak each at 07:00 hrs and 18:00 hrs in dry deciduous forests (Fig. lb). Elephants mainly rested during midday between 1 1 :00 and 14:00 hrs. Feeding decreased significantly with increasing ambient temperature (r = - 0.7671, df= 12, P = 0.01), while resting increased positively (r = 0.8581, df = 12, P = 0.01 ). Movement was mostly restricted to the mornings and evenings. Unlike the dry season, elephants spent a minimum of 50% of time on feeding in all the hours of day during the first wet season, and resting being considerably less (Fig. 1 c). Feeding and resting showed no significant correlation with temperature during the first wet season, as the ambient Table 1 : Time spent (%) in various activities by elephants in the different habitats in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Habitat and Season Annual Activity Dry First Second wet wet Dry deciduous (n = 4603) (n = 3310) (n = 3203) (n= 11,116) Feeding 59.55 72.25 72.16 67.99 Moving 11.54 11.06 12.06 11.55 Resting 24.49 12.02 10.57 15.69 Others 4.42 4.66 5.2 4.76 Moist deciduous in 00 n e (n = 221) (n = 0) (n= 256) Feeding 22.2 60.0 - 41.10 Moving 33.12 26.37 - 29.74 Resting 31.21 9.23 - 20.22 Others 13.46 4.4 - 8.93 Dry thorn (n = 2715) (n = 819) ( n = 5562) (n = 9096) Feeding 47.08 57.63 52.35 52.35 Moving 17.21 12.14 15.46 14.94 Resting 29.55 13.77 24.26 22.33 Others 6.16 16.45 7.92 10.18 temperature during this season was relatively lower than the dry season. During the second wet season, the pattern of elephant activities observed was similar to the first wet season (Fig. Id), but resting positively increased with temperature (r = 0.5874, df - 12, P = 0.04), as ambient temperature increased gradually in this season unlike the first wet season. Activity budget data show that in dry deciduous forest, elephants spent a major part (68%) of the annual daylight hours feeding (Table 1 ). However, time spent on feeding and resting varied among the three seasons. During the dry season, elephants fed for significantly less time than the first (M-W U = 14475, P = 0.01 ) and the second (M-WU= 14503, P = 0.01) wet seasons. Time spent on resting was significantly more during the dry season than the first (M-W U = 15402, P = 0.01) and second (M-W U=14864.5, P = 0.01) wet seasons. Moist deciduous forest: In moist deciduous forest, the activity pattern shown (Fig. le) for the first wet season was based on a small number of observations (n = 221) collected over a short period of three days in a disturbed area around human settlements, and may therefore not accurately represent a picture for the entire season. Similarly, as the observations made on elephants were limited during dry season ( n = 35) and nil during second wet season, the time activity pattern of elephants could not be constructed. Dry thorn forest: The pattern of elephant feeding and resting observed in thorn forest during the dry season was similar to the pattern observed in dry deciduous forest (Fig. lf-h), but there was a sharp rise in time spent on movement between 11:00 and 12:00 hrs. The peak temperature recorded during midday hours coincided with peak resting time. Resting increased positively with temperature (r= 0.7273, df = 11, P = 0.01), while feeding decreased (r = - 0.7091, df = 11, P = 0.01). During the first and second wet seasons, the activities observed among elephants were similar, except for an unusually longer time (>55%) spent in resting in the morning hours (06:00- 07:00 hrs) observed during second wet season (November and December), which is similar to that observed in the early dry season (January). No significant correlation was observed between ambient temperature and feeding, and resting during first and second wet seasons. Data on activity budget showed that annually, elephants in thorn forest devoted significantly less time for feeding and more time for resting compared to dry deciduous forest (Table 1 ). On a seasonal basis, elephants in thorn forest also spent significantly less time on feeding (M-W U = 3838, P = 0.03) and more on resting during the dry season than the first wet season (M-W U = 2936, P = 0.01). The time spent on various activities did not vary much between the dry and J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 5 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE (a) Overall (n = 20,468) 34 o 30 * = 26 * Cj 77 “ S Cj 18 ^ Hours DUD Feeding I I Moving ^HRestiug ^3 Others -Q-Temperature (c) Dry deciduous: first wet season (n =3310) 34 u' o 30 «’ 26 * Oj V ffu -- s a j 18 *- Horns DIIIIIFeedmg I I Moving IB Resting ^3 Otliers Temperature 100 5 60 eu " 40 a> ■ 20 (b) Dry deciduous: dry season (« = 4603) ri m 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 lr Hours (Ml Feeding CZ] Moving Ml Resting E3 Others — j-Temperature (d) Dry deciduous: second wet season (n = 3203) 34 o o 30 Z 26 « a> 77 e a> 18 llllllllFepdino I I Moving Hours IRestme I Others —O-Temperature (e) Moist deciduous: first wet season (« = 221) (f) Dry thorn: dry season (« = 2715) 28 o 26 * 24 * 22 “ 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 Hours EIID Feeding I I Moving Hi Resting CS Others — j-Temperature (g) Dn thorn: first wet season (« = 819) 34 o O 30 Z 26 « 0> -- g a> 18 Hours mnn Feeding I 1 Moving ■■Resting ^3 Others — Q-Temperature _ 100 £ 80 5 60 eu 4/1 40 3 20 i 1 J n 1 H 4 1 1 it J II 11 34 cj o 30 Z s 26 « 11 5 18 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Hours IIMD Feeding I I Moving HH Resting i— i Others —o-Temperature (h) Dry thorn: second wet season (« = 5562) _100 £ 80 S 60 J* 40 s 20 E-h 0 l ■i \\ ft 1 1 M : I l' \ 1 1 24 * = 20 « Of 16 g 0> 12 M 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Hours mnn Feeding I I Movin g HI Resting E3 Others -3-Temperature Fig. 1 : Season-wise diurnal activity pattern of elephants in different habitats of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve 6 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE second wet seasons, but there were significant variations in resting (M-W U = 4581, P = 0.01) and moving (M-W U = 5500, P = 0.01 ) between the wet seasons. Grass biomass In dry deciduous forest, mean grass biomass varied significantly across the three seasons (K-W-/2 = 32.1122, P = 0.0001 ) (Table 2). The biomass was significantly higher during the second wet season (921 gm/m2) as compared to the dry (573.9 gm/m2, M-W U = 1 838.5, P = 0.000 1 ) and the first wet (618.1 gm/m2, M-W U = 3033, f’ = 0.0014) seasons, and in the first wet season as compared to the dry season (M-W U=2039. 5, P- 0.0002). Similarly, in thorn forest, grass biomass varied significantly across the three seasons (K-W- X2 = 1 02.46, P = 0.000 1 ), and was significantly higher during the second wet season (524.1 gm/m2) than the dry ( 1 56.9 gm/m2. M-WU = 781.5,/> = 0.000 1 ) and the first wet (405 gm/m2. M-W U = 2263.5. P = 0.003) seasons. The grass biomass in the first wet season was also significantly more than in the dry season (M-W U= 1088, P = 0.0001 ). Sampling was not carried out in moist deciduous forest due to manpower constraints as mentioned under methods. The observed variation in biomass between dry and wet seasons could marginally be due to variation in water content in grass samples. The areas under cattle grazing had significantly lower grass biomass in the dry deciduous forest during the dry season (un-grazed = 725 gm/m2 and grazed =188 gm/m2, M-W U = 220, P - 0.0002) and in second wet season (ungrazed = 1019 gm/m2 and grazed = 520 gm/m2, M-W U = 388.5, P = 0.0016). However, the influence of grazing was statistically insignificant in dry deciduous during the first wet season (un-grazed = 677gm/nr and grazed = 600 gm/m2, M-W U = 51 1 , P - 0.10), and in all the seasons in dry thorn forest (dry season ungrazed = 190 gm/m2 and grazed = 152 gm/m2, M-W U = 318.5, P = 0.23; first wet: ungrazed = 420 gm/m2 and grazed = 390 gm/m2, M-W U = 426.5, P = 0.34; second wet season ungrazed = 528 gm/m2 and grazed = 480 gm/m2, M-W U = 238.5, P = 0.69). Browse and grass ratio in the diet Out of 10,743 feeding observations (viz., 7,003 in dry deciduous, 153 in moist deciduous and 3,587 in dry thorn forest), grazing and browsing constituted 84.6% and 15.4%, respectively. Grass dominated the diet of elephants during all the seasons in dry deciduous and dry thorn forests, indicating the importance of grass in the diet of elephants in this region. Browsing was more during the dry season in dry deciduous (15.1%) and dry thorn (47. 1%) forests than during the wet seasons (Table 2). The percentage of grazing and browsing varied significantly across seasons in dry deciduous (X2 = 148.64, df - 2, P - 0.00001) and dry thorn forests (yf- 554.24, df= 2, P = 0.00001). Elephants fed significantly more on grass and less on browse in dry deciduous than in dry thorn forest in all the seasons (dry season - X2 - 459.43, df = 1, P = 0.00001; first wet season - %2 = 6.37, df - 1, P = 0.01 and second wet season - %2 = 65.71, df - 1, P = 0.00001), indicating the importance of grass in dry deciduous forest. Species composition in the diet Overall, 83 plant species eaten by elephants were recorded from 11,186 feeding scans. Feeding scan observations (n = 443) made on the habitual crop raiding bull were also included in this analysis to know the diversity of food plants eaten by elephants. Of the 83 plant species, 59 were browse species (trees, shrubs, herbs and bamboo), and the rest (24) were grass species (Appendix 1). Among the 24 grass species, six constituted more than 75% of the total diet ( Themeda cyrnbaria 39.5%, Heteropogon contortus 13.4%, Themeda triandra 10.9%, Bothriochloa sp. 7.3%, Aristida adscensionis 2.4% and Cymbopogon flexuosus 2.3%). Among the 59 browse species, Acacia intsia , bamboo spp. and Kydia calycina were the most important, and contributed 5.4, 4.4 and 1 .8%, respectively to the total diet. Table 2: Grass biomass (gm/sq. m) and grass: browse ratio in the diet of elephants in dry deciduous and dry thorn forests of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (grass biomass not assessed in moist deciduous forest due to inadequate manpower) Season Dry deciduous Moist deciduous Dry thorn Grass biomass/m2 (n = 254) Grass: browse ratio (n = 7003) Grass: browse ratio (n= 153) Grass biomass/m2 Grass: browse ratio (n= 251) (n = 3587) Dry 573.9 85: 15 78: 22 156.9 53: 47 First Wet 618.1 92: 8 3169 405.0 89: 11 Second Wet 921.0 95: 5 - 524.1 88: 12 Annual 720.2 91: 9 54: 46 352.0 74: 26 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 7 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE In dry deciduous forest, 36 species of food plants were recorded from 7,003 feeding observations (Appendix 1 ). The number of grass species eaten (13) was less than browse species (23). The tall grass T. cyrnbaria alone contributed 62.8% of the diet and T. triandra 17.1%, other grass species formed <5%. Bamboo (4.4%) and K. calycina (2.9%) were the two major browse species (Table 3). Seasonal use of these food plants varied considerably, but the tall grass T. cyrnbaria was always the principal diet during all the seasons (Table 3). The proportion of the top four species (T. cyrnbaria, T. Triandra, bamboo and C. flexuosus) and the rest of the browse and grass species (pooled separately as other browse Table 3: Major food species eaten (%) by elephants in different habitats in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Food species Season Annual Dry First wet Second wet Dry deciduous (n = 2510) (n = 2236) (n = 2257) (n = 7003) Bamboo spp. 6.9 3.1 3.1 4.4 Cymbopogon - 2.4 8.0 3.4 flexuosus Themeda 71.4 70.9 45.2 62.8 cyrnbaria Themeda 12.2 14.8 24.8 17.1 triandra Other 8.2 4.9 1.9 5.1 browse spp. Other 1.3 3.8 17.0 7.2 grass spp. Moist deciduous (n= 9) (n= 289) (n = 71) (n = 369) Bamboo spp. - 34.9 25.4 32.20 Curcuma spp. - 6.9 45.1 14.30 Helicteres isora - 4.2 - 9.75 Cyrtococcurn - 12.8 - 11.60 patens C. flexuosus - 4.8 7.0 5.14 T. cyrnbaria - 8.0 1.4 6.50 Other 22.2 17.3 21.1 11.55 browse spp. Other 77.8 11.1 - 8.96 grass spp. Dry thorn (n= 1430) (n = 497) ( n= 1887) (n= 3814) Acacia intsia 27.3 10.1 8.8 15.9 Bothriochloa sp. 4.9 72.8 20.2 21.3 Heteropogon 30.1 11.5 48.8 36.9 contortus Other 24.2 1.4 5.6 12.0 browse spp. Other 13.4 4.2 16.6 13.9 grass spp. and other grass spp.) utilised varied significantly among seasons (*2 = 1 1 18.87, df = 10, P = 0.01). In moist deciduous forest, 22 species of food plants were recorded from 369 feeding observations. The diet of elephants was dominated by browse species both in terms of number of species (15) and bulk (67.8%) (Appendix 1). Bamboo (32.2%), Curcuma sp. (14.3%), Helicteres isora (9.75%) and Dioscorea sp. (2.16%) were the major browse plants of elephants in this habitat (Table 3). Short grass, Cyrtococcurn patens, contributed a major part (11.6%) followed by T. cyrnbaria (6.5) and C. flexuosus (5.14%). Other grass and browse species contributed very little to the total diet. Seasonal use of these food plants varied significantly between the first and the second wet seasons (X2= 83.57, df - 1,P = 0.01 ). In dry thorn forest, 56 species of food plants were recorded from 3,814 feeding observations (Appendix 1). Elephants fed on more number of browse species (41) over grass (15) in this habitat. However, in terms of bulk, browse constituted only 27.9% of the overall diet, while grass species contributed 72.1% (Table 3). Among the grass species, H. contortus (36.9%) and Bothriochloa sp. (21.3%) were important. Elephants ate the thorny shrub A. intsia more (15.9%) among the 41 browse species in this habitat. The percent composition of each species in the diet of elephants varied among the seasons (%2= 1525.33, df = 16. P = 0.01). Elephants ate more diverse food species during the dry season in dry deciduous (19 species) and dry thorn (42 species) forests than during the wet seasons (first wet: 17 and 9 spp. and second wet: 18 and 25 spp. respectively in dry deciduous and dry thorn forests). The number of species eaten was also greater in the dry thorn forest (56 spp.) than in the dry deciduous (36 spp.). DISCUSSION Overall, elephants showed bimodal feeding peaks, one in the morning and another in the evening, while at midday almost equal time was devoted for feeding and resting, which is similar to the pattern observed on African elephants (Wyatt and Eltringham 1974; Guy 1976; Kalemera 1987) and Asian elephants (McKay 1973; Vancuylenburg 1977; Easa 1989). Ambient temperature influences feeding activity significantly in dry deciduous and thorn forests more in the dry season than wet seasons. This is reflected in the bimodal feeding pattern and the significant negative correlation obtained between feeding and temperature during the dry season. Ambient temperature influences the body temperature of both the Asian and African elephants (Elder and Rodgers 1975; Weissenbock 2006). The most likely reason for the afternoon 8 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE inactivity is heat avoidance rather than sleep due to the poor thermoregulatory capacity of the large body mass (low surface-to-volume ratio) and the absence of sufficient sweat glands in their skin (Wyatt and Eltringham 1974;Hiley 1975). The overall feeding time (60%) estimated in this study is comparable to 65% reported in Asian elephants in Parambikulam (Easa 1989), but low compared to 74% reported in Mudumalai (Sivaganesan and Johnsingh 1995), and Idukki (Vinod and Cheeran 1997) wildlife sanctuaries in India and >75% in Sri Lanka (McKay 1973; Vancuylenberg 1977). The variation in feeding time, in NBR between Sivaganesan and Johnsingh (1995) and the present study is likely due to differences in sampling area (habitat) and time of observation, as elephants spent more time feeding in dry and moist deciduous forests than in dry thorn forest (as recorded in this study). In most secondary forests, direct observation on elephants is difficult especially during midday resting, which mostly take place in dense undergrowth and thick canopied shady areas like riverine and stream beds. Inadequate observations during such midday resting hours and pooling of such data without standardization would result in bias towards feeding activity. Thus, the observed difference in feeding time estimated by Sivaganesan and Johnsingh (1995) and this study could be due to any or a combination of the above-mentioned reasons. The same reasons could also be attributed for the higher feeding time (>75%) estimated by McKay (1973), Vancuylenberg (1977), and Vinod and Cheeran 1997 (Idukki). Elephants spent significantly less time feeding during the dry season compared to the first and second wet seasons in dry deciduous forest, and the first wet season in dry thorn forest. These may be attributed to higher ambient temperatures and poor shade availability as shown by studies on savannah elephants in Africa (Guy 1976; Barnes 1979) and the Asian Elephant (McKay 1973; Vancuylenberg 1977). Elephants in dry thorn forest spent significantly less time on feeding during the second wet season than the first wet season, even though climatic conditions were ideal in thorn forest during the second wet season with lower ambient temperatures than in the first wet and dry seasons. A possible reason could be the higher availability of grass (the principal food of elephants - discussed further on) during the second wet season than in the other seasons as shown by grass biomass results. With an increase in food abundance, elephants could reduce overall feeding time through higher intake rate as reported elsewhere in African elephants (Guy 1975). Conversely, the lower time spent on feeding in the dry thorn forest, despite less biomass of food in this habitat (than in the dry deciduous forest), could be a result of exposure to higher ambient temperature, coupled with poor shade availability and greater human disturbance. Barnes (1983) states that the time spent on feeding may depend not only on the quality of food, but also upon the cost (e.g., heat stress, disturbance) imposed in its acquisition. Thus, feeding time seems to vary between areas, influenced by factors such as food availability, ambient temperature and human disturbance. Browse and grass ratio in the diet Extensive variation in the proportion of grass and browse consumption by elephants in different areas has raised questions as to whether the Asian Elephant is primarily a grazer or browser. Given that Asian elephants inhabit a wide range of habitats from rainforest (a predominantly browse- dominated habitat), to savanna (a predominantly grass dominated habitat), there is bound to be a significant variation in the grass and browse ratio in the elephant diet. Browse dominates the diet of elephants in rainforests of Malaysia (Olivier 1978), northeastern India (Sukumar et al. 2003) and in Bihar, central India (Daniel et al. 1995), and also in relatively low rainfall degraded areas in the Eastern Ghats of southern India (Sukumar 1990; Rameshkumar 1994; Daniel et al. 2006, 2008). On the other hand, grass dominates the diet of elephants in grass-dominated habitats of Sri Lanka (McKay 1973), deciduous forests of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Sivaganesan and Johnsingh 1995) and mixed forests (evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist and grasslands) of Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary (Vinod and Cheeran 1997). Similarly, African elephants also showed wide variations in grass and browse consumption (Buss 1961; Field 1971; Beekman and Prins 1989; Kalemera 1989; Viljoen 1989; White et al. 1993) according to the habitats they occupy. In this study in NRB, the diet of elephants was found dominated by grass (84.6%), consistent with the observations of Sivaganesan and Johnsingh (1995) for the same area. Seasonal variations in grazing and browsing by elephants have been related to changes in the chemical composition of food plants (Field 1971; Olivier 1978; Sukumar 1989; Sivaganesan and Johnsingh 1995). Increased browsing during the dry season and grazing during the wet seasons have been related to higher level of crude protein. Since an elephant’s daily requirement is 0.3 gm of digestible protein/kg of body weight (McCullagh 1969), a marginal increase in browse consumption would be sufficient to meet this requirement. Excessive protein intake is also undesirable, as nitrogen excretion requires more water, which may be in short supply (Sukumar 1990). Grass contains more carbohydrates (53%) than browse (49%) (Field 1971), and is also more accessible to all the age classes of elephants. Therefore, elephants need not selectively feed on protein- rich browse during the dry season, but a marginal increase in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 9 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE browsing would perhaps be sufficient to compensate for the lower intake of protein from the consumption of low-protein grass during the dry season. This means that when browse and grass are equally available, elephants could predominantly feed on grass with a marginal increase in browse during the dry season to meet the optimum requirements as recorded in dry deciduous forest in this study. In this study, an almost equal consumption of browse (47%) and grass (53%) by elephants in dry thorn forest during the dry season coincided with the significantly lower grass biomass. For example, from the second wet season to the dry season, the grass biomass dropped from 524 gm/m2 to 157 gm/m2. Elephants were seen scraping the short grass with their forefoot toenails in this season as grass height was too short (<10 cm) to be grasped by the trunk. Very low consumption of grass by elephants despite high crude protein during the first wet season in ‘short grass browse dominated habitat’ of Sathyamangalam Forest Division was also attributed to poor grass growth (Sukumar 1989). Therefore, the increase in browse consumption by elephants in dry thorn forest during the dry season could not be taken only as browse preference due to high protein content, but as an alternative to inadequate grass resources. In the dry deciduous forest, the browsing rate doubled during the dry season but its percentage was still much less than that of grass, supporting the earlier hypothesis. Similarly, the reason for the consumption of more diverse food plants during the dry season than in the wet season, and likewise, in the dry thorn than in the dry deciduous forests could be due to lower availability of grass. The larger number of food species consumption by elephants reported from the high rainfall browse dominated habitats of Asia (Olivier 1978; Chen et al. 2006; Himmelsbach et al. 2006; Roy et al. 2006; Canrpos-Arceiz et al. 2008) and Africa (White et al. 1993) further suggests the above reasoning that elephants in the absence of sufficient grass availability would go for more diverse food species. This could be the effect of secondary compounds from browse plants as reported (Clauss et al. 2003). Although studies on stable carbon isotope ratios in the bone collagen of Asian elephants state that browse is more important than grass for elephants (Sukumar et al. 1987; Sukumar and Ramesh 1992, 1995), browse was not preferred by elephants over grass in the study area. Cerling etal. (1999), through isotopic analysis from modern and fossil proboscideans, showed that extinct elephants (those that survived from Pliocene or Miocene up to almost 1 million years ago) were predominantly grazers, and the modern elephants are predominantly browsers, but with grazing dominating the diet of elephants in some regions in Africa and Asia. This study (Cerling et al. 1999) for the modern Asian species used the findings from Sukumar and Ramesh (1992. 1995). Although the bone samples for the analysis by Sukumar and Ramesh ( 1992, 1995) were collected from the dead elephants in the Nilgiri-Eastern Ghats region, details such as where these elephants predominantly ranged and what proportion of the samples came from the elephants that ranged in the grass or browse dominated habitats are unknown. A more detailed stable carbon isotope study with sufficient samples from individuals with known ranging history would shed better light on these aspects of elephant ecology. However, Olivier (1978) argued that the trend in body size and dental features suggest that elephants are highly adapted to grass feeding and thus can cope up with an abrasive, nutritionally poor diet of high fiber and low protein. Because of seasonal variations in grass availability, he believed that they must be able to switch over alternatively to browsing. Such a trend indicates that elephants may be basically grazers, but their ability to survive in rain forests and deserts indicate that they are highly adapted, being also able to exploit browse in the absence or insufficient grass supply. Overall, our findings support Olivier (1978) and show that grass forms the principal diet of elephants in this part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank US Fish and Wildlife Service for funding the study and the State Forest Departments of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala, for permitting us to undertake the study in their states. We extend our sincere thanks to Mr. J.C. Daniel the Principal Investigator of the Project and former Director of Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, for his consistent support. We thank R.F.W. Barnes, visiting scholar Division of Biological Sciences, University of California and Dr. Guha Dharmarajan, Perdue University, Indiana, USA, for their valuable comments on the manuscript. REFERENCES Altmann, J. 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(1989): Habitat selection and preferred food plants of a J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 11 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE desert-dwelling elephant population in the northern Namib desert. South West Africa/Namibia. Afr. J. Ecol. 27: 227-240. Vinod, T.R. & J.V. Cheeran (1997): Activity time budget of Asian elephants (Elephas maxmimus L.) in Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, South India. Indian Forester 123: 948-951. Weissenbock, N.M. (2006): How do elephants deal with various climate conditions? Previous results, recent data and new hypotheses. Pp. 217-224. In: Proceeding of International Elephant Conservation and Research symposium. October 21-22, 2006, Copenhagen Zoo, Denmark. White, L.J.T., E.G.C. Tutin & M. Fernandez (1993): Group composition and diet of elephants Loxodonta africana cyclotis Matschie 1900, in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. Afr J. Ecol. 31: 181-199. Wyatt, J.R. & S.K. Eltringham (1974): The daily activity of elephants in Rwenzori National Park, Uganda. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 12: 273-289. Appendix 1: Food plants (%) in diet of elephants in different habitats in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve S. No Plant species DDF (n = 7003) MDF (n = 369) TF (n = 3814) Overall (n = 11186) Browse species 1 Acacia chundra 0.55 0.18 2 Acacia ferruginea 0.26 0.08 3 Acacia intsia 0.02 0.27 15.8 5.44 4 Acacia leucophloea 0.57 0.19 5 Acacia suma 0.05 0.01 6 Achyranthes aspera 0.15 0.05 7 Aerva lanata 0.02 0.001 8 Albizia amara 1.31 0.44 9 Albizia lebbeck 0.27 0.001 10 Bamboo spp. 4.44 32.2 1.75 4.44 11 Bauhinia racemosa 0.04 0.6 0.23 12 Boerhavia diffusa 0.02 0.001 13 Capparis sepiaria 0.02 0.001 14 Catunaregam torulosa 0.05 0.01 15 Commiphora caudata 0.02 0.02 0.02 16 Curcuma spp. 14.3 0.47 17 Cynotis sp. 0.05 0.01 18 Dalbergia latifolia 0.02 0.001 19 Dalbergia sissoides 0.02 0.001 20 Desmodium triquetrum 0.01 0.001 21 Dichrostachys cinerea 0.07 0.02 22 Dioscorea sp. 2.16 0.07 23 Diospyros montana 0.05 0.01 24 Eriolaena quinquelocularis 0.19 0.26 0.12 25 Ficus benghalertsis 0.49 0.08 26 Ficus sp. 0.1 0.05 0.17 27 Ficus virens 0.02 0.01 28 Furcraea foetida 0.07 0.02 29 Givotia rottleriformis 0.05 0.05 0.08 30 Gmelina arborea 0.01 0.001 31 Grewia glabra 0.47 0.001 32 Grewia hirsuta 0.04 0.05 0.18 33 Grewia orbiculata 0.13 0.13 34 Grewia tiliaefolia 0.14 0.81 0.13 35 Hardwickia binata 1.62 0.05 36 Helicteres isora 0.01 9.75 0.33 37 Ipomoea sp. 1.08 0.68 0.26 38 Kydia calycina 2.87 0.54 1.81 39 Lagerstroemia lanceolata 0.02 0.27 0.02 40 Laggera alata 0.27 0.001 12 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE Appendix 1: Food plants (%) in diet of elephants in different habitats in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (contd.) S. No. Plant species DDF (n = 7003) MDF (n = 369) TF (n - 3814) Overall (n= 11206) 41 Malvastrum coromandelianum 0.02 0.001 42 Mangifera indica 0.02 0.01 43 Mimosa pudica 0.54 0.01 44 Mimusops sp. 0.15 0.05 45 Olea dioica 0.27 0.001 46 Phyllanthus emblica 0.08 0.02 0.06 47 Pleiospermium alatum 0.02 0.001 48 Pongamia glabra 0.02 0.01 49 Pterocarpus marsupium 0.02 0.001 50 Randia dumetorum 0.14 0.18 0.15 51 Solarium sp. 0.29 0.18 52 Strychnos potatorum 0.39 0.01 53 Syzygium cuminii 0.02 0.01 54 Tamarindus indica 0.78 0.26 55 Tectona grandis 0.65 1.89 0.49 0.64 56 Terminalia tomentosa 0.01 0.001 57 Zizyphus mauritiana 0.78 0.26 58 Zizyphus oenoplia 0.02 0.001 59 Zizyphus xylopyrus 0.05 0.55 0.22 Unidentified browse spp. 0.25 1.35 0.55 0.39 Grass species 60 Apluda mutica 0.31 0.27 2.14 0.93 61 Aristida adscensionis 6.92 2.36 62 Bothriochloa sp. 21.3 7.27 63 Chrysopogon sp. 1.23 0.42 64 Cymbopogon flexuosus 3.35 5.14 2.27 65 Cymbopogon sp. 0.15 0.05 66 Cyperus sp. 0.05 0.01 67 Cyrtococcum patens 11.6 0.38 68 Digitaria sp. 1.55 0.68 1.2 69 Eragrostiella bifaria 0.1 0.03 70 Eragrostis tenuifolia 0.89 0.56 71 Heteropogon contortus 1.32 36.9 13.4 72 Imperata cylindrica 2.71 0.08 73 Oplismenus compositus 0.04 0.26 0.11 74 Oryza granulata 0.14 0.08 75 Panicum sp. 0.07 0.02 76 Pennisetum hokanackeri 0.01 0.001 77 Pennisetum sp. 0.1 0.03 78 Phoenix pusilla 0.01 0.001 79 Setaria intermedia 0.07 1.89 0.1 80 Sporobolus sp. 0.07 0.31 0.15 81 Themeda cymbaria 62.8 6.5 39.5 82 Themeda triandra 17.1 0.54 0.68 10.9 83 Vetiveria lawsonii 0.05 0.01 Unidentified grass spp. 2.72 3.52 1.04 2.18 ■ ■ ■ J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 13 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010 14-23 AN ANNOTATED AND ILLUSTRATED CHECKLIST OF THE OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA WITH 21 NEW RECORDS FOR GUJARAT AND 13 NEW RECORDS FOR INDIA: PART 1 Deepak Apte1'2, Vishal Bhave1,3 and Dishant Parasharya1-4 'Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk. S B. Singh Road. Mumbai 400 001. Maharashtra, India. 2Email: spiderconch@gmail.com -Email: vishalbhave@gmail.com 4Email: dparasharya@gmail.com The Opisthobranch fauna of Gujarat is among the least studied molluscs. Field surveys were undertaken along the Gulf of Kutch over a period of four months under the All India Co-ordinated Project on Taxonomy ( AICOPTAX - Mollusca) funded by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, and supported by the Gujarat State Forest Department and Marine National Park authorities. 33 species belonging to 19 families were recorded, of which 21 are new records to Gujarat and 13 are new records to Indian coast. Key words: Opisthobranch, Gulf of Kutch, AICOPTAX, Dorididae INTRODUCTION Opisthobranchs are among the least studied molluscs in India. The work done on opisthobranch fauna is sparse and patchy. The earliest work dates back to the 1 880s by Alder and Hancock (1 864), Kelaart( 1858a, b; 1859a.b,c.d; 1883), and Bergh ( 1 877). Studies on the opisthobranch fauna of Gulf of Kutch are limited to a few publications by Burn (1970), Narayanan ( 1970), Eliot ( 1909a.b). Gideon etal. (1957). Menon etal. (1970), Narayanan ( 1969, 1970, 1 97 1 a.b). Rudman (1980) and Deomurari (2006). The most comprehensive work on the opisthobranchs of the Gulf of Kutch was that by Narayanan (1969. 1970. 1971 a,b). Other notable works on Indian Opisthobranchia are by Eliot (1906a.b.c, 1909a,b. 1910a.b. 1916), Farran (1905), HomeU ( 1909a,b, 1949, 1951 ), O' Donoghue ( 1932), Rao (1936, 1952, 1 96 1 ), Rao mid Alagarswami ( 1960), Rao and Rao (1980), Rao et al. ( 1974), Satyamurthi ( 1952), Bum ( 1970), Valdes etal. (1999), and Fontana et al. (2001). Indo- Pacific opisthobranchs were studied by Gosliner and Willan (1991). Gosliner ( 1992, 1994, 1995), Gosliner mid Behrens ( 1 998). Gosliner mid Johnson ( 1 999), Jensen (1992), Rudman (1980, 1984. 1986. 1990). Yonow (1984a,b, 1986. 1988. 1989. 1990, 1992, 1994, 1996. 2000. 2001. 2008a.b), Yonow and Hayward (1991), Fahey and Gosliner (2003) and Apte (2009). Brunckhorst (1993) reviewed the Phyllidiidae in Indo-Pacific region, and Yonow (1996) reviewed 11 species from the Indian Ocean. More recently Dayrat (2010) reviewed basal Discodorids of the world. The present study was carried out along the Gulf of Kutch. Gujarat, India. The Gulf of Kutch is a large inlet of the Arabian Sea, c. 60 km wide at its broadest and tapering north¬ eastwards for 1 70 km. It includes 735,000 ha under the Marine National Park and Marine Sanctuary which are situated along the southern side of the Gulf from Okha (22° 30' N; 69° 00' E) and eastward to the vicinity of Khijadia (22° 30' N; 70° 05' E). A vast area of intertidal mudflats, salt marshes and seasonally inundated coastal flats extend north-east along the Wagardhrai creek to about 23° 15' N and 70° 40' E. The National Park and Marine Sanctuary include 42 islands and a complex of fringing reefs backed by mudflats and sandflats, coastal salt marsh, and mangrove forest. Field collection was carried out from December 2008 to March 2009. METHODOLOGY Direct search during low tides was used to collect the specimens. Specimens were stored in 100% ethyl alcohol after studying the morphological characters. Digital images of live specimens of each species were taken to record true colours. Notes on egg cases were made wherever possible. Specimens were relaxed before preserving in MgCl,. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During the study a total of 33 species belonging to 19 families were recorded. Of these 33 species, 21 are new records to Gujarat and 13 are new records to the Indian coast. This clearly indicates that the opisthobranch fauna in India, particularly in Gujarat, is not well-studied. A comprehensive assessment is necessary to reveal the true diversity. Table 1 summarizes the findings of this study. The Gulf of Kutch also hosts a very high density population of Hypselodoris infucata, Peltodoris murrea, Atagema cf. rugosa, and Dendrodoris fumata. We are presently in the process of determining the population structure of these species. OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCFi: PART 1 Table 1 : Opisthobranch fauna of Gulf of Kutch Sr. No Species Present Study New New record record to to India Gujarat 1. Hydatina zonata V - - 2. Bulla ampulla V - - 3. Haminoea ovalis V V V 4. Aplysia dactylomela V - - 5. Berthellina citrina V - - 6. Berthellina cf. citrina (spotted form) V - - 7. Berthella stellata V V V 8. Elysia tomentosa V - V 9. Elysia thompsoni V V V 10. Elysia obtusa V V V 11. Plocamopherus ceylonicus V - - 12. Carminodoris cf. grandiflora V V V 13. Gymnodoris alba V - V 14. Gymnodoris sp. V V 15. Chromodoris bombayana V - V 16. Hypselodoris infucata V - - 17. Peltodoris murrea V V 18. Tayuva lilacina V - V 19. Atagemad. rugosa V V 20. Atagema spongiosa V - V 21. Sclerodoris cf. tuberculata V V V 22. Jorunna funebris V - - 23. Dendrodoris fumata V - V 24. Doriopsilla sp. V V V 25. Doriopsilla cf. miniata V - - 26. Bornella stellifer V - - 27. Dermatobranchus fortunata V V V 28. Flabellina bicolor V - V 29. Phestilla lugubris V - V 30. Cuthona yamasui V V V 31. Phidiana militaris V - - 32. Pteraeolidia ianthina V V V 33. Sakuraeolis gujaratica V - - 33 13 21 Family: Hydatinidae Hydatina zonata (Lightfoot, 1786) (Fig. la) India: Widely distributed both on the east and west coast of India. Wider Distribution: Indo-West Pacific region. Size: 10-30 mm. Description: This is a benthic species. Shell very light and semi-transparent. Body whorl in the centre bears one distinct pair of dark brown band. A single band present near the spire and at the base of body whorl. Status: Uncommon. Family: Bullinidae Bulla ampulla Linnaeus, 1758 (Fig. lb) India: Widely distributed both on the east and west coast of India. Wider Distribution: Indo-West Pacific region. Size: 8-20 mm. Description: Seasonal congregation of this species is common. Mostly occurs on sand flats. Shells are solid with a large body whorl, white with profuse dark to light brown mottling. Status: Common. Family: Haminaeidae Haminoea ovalis Pease, 1868 (Fig. lc) India: Gulf of Kutch. This is the first record of this species for India. Wider Distribution: Australia. Samoa, Japan. Guam. Size: 12 mm. Description: It resembles H. cymbalum. Shell is fragile and transparent. Animal is brilliantly coloured. Light green ground colour is profusely spotted with orange spots which are encircled by light green. Surface also bears deep blue spots on mantle and foot. Foot is short, and spotted orange and blue. Status: Uncommon. Family: Aplysiidae Aplysia dactylomela Rang, 1828 (Fig. Id) India: Widely distributed in India. Wider Distribution: Red Sea, Africa. Hawaii, South Pacific, Australia, Japan, Sri Lanka, Caribbean. Size: 100-180 mm. Description: A large animal usually seen in large congregations in shallow waters from December to February. The shell is considerably reduced in these animals and is present inside the body. They show remarkable colour variations. In Lakshadweep it is dotted dull brown with black and white spots; mantle is bordered pink. Specimens from Gulf of Kutch are usually dull green with black spots. Pink lining of mantle flap is also absent. The animals release a purple dye when disturbed. Status: Common. Family: Pleurobranchidae Berthellina citrina (Ruppell and Leuckart, 1828) (Fig. le) India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep. Wider Distribution: South Africa to Arabian Sea, Red Sea, Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, Seychelles, Japan, Norfolk Island (South Pacific), French Polynesia, Maldives. Size: 20-40 mm. Description: A small sea slug occurring on reef sand. Body colour deep orange with light orange foot; Rhinophores light orange. Status: Common. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 15 OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1 Fig. 1 : a. Hydatina zonata, b. Bulla ampulla, c. Haminoea ovalis, d. Aplysia dactylomela, e. Berthellina citrina, f. Berthellina cf. citrina, g. Berthella stellata, h. Elysia tomentosa, i. Elysia thompsoni, j. Elysia obtusa, k. Plocamopherus ceylonicus, I. Gymnodoris alba, m. Gymnodoris sp., n. Carminodoris cf. grandiflora, o. Chromodoris bombayana, p. Hypselodoris infucata Berthellina cf. citrina (Ruppell and Leuckart, 1828) (spotted form) (Fig. If) India: GulfofKutch. Wider distribution: Unknown. Description: A small sea slug occurring on reef sand or below the rocks. Body colour deep orange with light orange foot; Rhinophores light orange. This form is heavily spotted with white. Status: Common. Berthella stellata (Risso, 1826) (Fig. lg) India: Gulf of Kutch. Wider Distribution: Red Sea, Australia, Mexico, South Africa, Indo-west Pacific. Size: 5-15 mm. Description: A small slug, it prefers sandy substrate. Colour light yellow-orange; Rhinophores and oral tentacles transparent and light yellow. Some specimens have a star¬ shaped opaque white pattern on the dorsa. Status: Rare. Family: Elysiidae Elysia tomentosa Jensen, 1997 (Fig. lh) India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep. Wider Distribution: South Africa, Red Sea, Indo-West Pacific. Size: 18-40 mm. Description: A large Elysia seen on coral sand. It is deep green yellow in colour. The parapodia are lined by black and pink bands. Rhinophores are reddish brown. They usually occur among Caulerpa racemose. Status: Abundant. 16 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1 Elysia thompsoni Jensen, 1993 (Fig. li) India: Gulf of Kutch. It is the first record outside Western Australia Wider Distribution: Western Australia. Size: 20 mm (Single specimen). Description: These small sea slugs are herbivorous. They feed by sucking sap from green algae Caulerpa sp. and C odium sp. The animal is usually translucent greyish white with violet parapodial margin. Tips of rhinophores are purple violet. Body and parapodia covered with numerous black spots. Status: Rare. Elysia obtusa Baba, 1938 (Fig. lj) India: Gulf of Kutch. Wider Distribution: Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Hawaii. Size: 5-12 mm. Description: A small, herbivorous sea slug, it is translucent yellow with fine white spots. All specimens were identical, except that in the specimens found in Ratnagiri, broken white line on the parapodia is clearly seen, but in Gujarat specimens, the parapodial white line is not clearly visible. Status: Uncommon. Family: Polyceridae Plocamopherus ceylonicus (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. Ik) India: South Gujarat, Alibaug (Maharashtra), Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu). Wider Distribution: Australia, Singapore, Philippines, Indonesia, Marshall Island. Size: 20-45 mm. Description: These nocturnal slugs are found under rocks. The gills are surrounded by four papillae having pink rounded knobs that emit light when disturbed (pers. obs.). Foot and mantle bear bright orange yellow spots. Foot is extended to form tapering tail which is used to swim actively when disturbed (pers. obs.). Status: Rare. Family: Gymnodorididae Gymnodoris alba (Bergh, 1877) (Fig. 11) India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep. Wider Distribution: Japan, China, Indonesia, Australia, Hawaii, Singapore, Philippines, Southern Africa. Size: 20 mm. Description: A small sea slug mostly found on sandy substrate. The light orange or cream coloured body profusely spotted with bright orange spots. Rhinophores are white or pale orange. Gills are white. Status: Uncommon. Gymnodoris sp. (Fig. lm) India: Gulf of Kutch. Wider Distribution: Australia, South Pacific. Size: 28 mm. Description: Uncommon, it is found on sandy substrate. Light cream coloured body is profusely spotted with light orange spots. Mantle bears fine papillae with yellow tips. Rhinophores and gills are pale yellow. Foot has an orange tip. Status: Uncommon. Family: Dorididae Carminodoris cf. grandijlora (Pease, 1860) (Fig. In) India: Gulf of Kutch. Wider Distribution: Not known. Size: 60-75 mm. Description: It mostly remains attached to the lower side of rocks. Its perfectly camouflaged body makes it impossible to locate it. Surface bears rounded tubercles which are smaller and densely packed at the peripheral margins of the mantle. Brown tubercles are surrounded by a white ring at the base. Ground colour is light brown and heavily mottled. Gill leaves are feathery, light brown. Status: Uncommon. Family: Chromodorididae Chromodoris bombayana (Winkworth, 1946) (Fig. lo) India: Mumbai, Ratnagiri. Wider Distribution: Known only from India. Size: 4-16 mm. Description: It is a tiny sea slug from rocky reefs. Base colour of the body is white with highly decorated surface. Margin is deep orange lined by a row of deep purple spots. Dorsal surface is profusely spotted with silver spots. Rhinophores and gills have silver spots. Foot is short and white in colour. Status: Uncommon. Hypselodoris infucata (Riippell and Leuckart, 1828) (Fig. Ip) India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep. Wider Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: India, Red Sea, Indonesia, Vietnam, New Caledonia, Israel, South Africa, Philippines. Size: 2-45 mm. Description: Colour is light purple grey and profusely spotted with black and yellow spots. Rhinophores are red and finely ribbed. Gills are white with red margin. Mating pairs are commonly seen from November to April. Status: Abundant. 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 17 OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1 Family: Discodorididae Peltodoris murrea (Abraham, 1877) (Fig. 2a) India: Gulf of Kutch. Wider Distribution: Maldives, Mauritius, Reunion, to New Caledonia and Japan. Size: 10-45 mm. Description: A small discodorid usually seen in shallow pools and under rocks. It prefers reef substrate with large silt contents. Colour is white with dark orange or black spots. Rhinophores are yellow. Status: Abundant. Tayuva lilacina (Gould, 1852) (Fig. 2b) India: Malvan (Maharashtra), Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu), Waltair (Andhra Pradesh). Wider Distribution: Indian Ocean, Australia, Philippines, Red Sea, Japan, South Africa, Thailand, Hawaii. New Caledonia. Size: 30-150 mm. Description: A large sea slug, usually seen in shallow pools and under rocks. It prefers rocky substrate. Brown mottling on the foot, gills highly frilled. This species is usually confused with Sebadoris fragalis (earlier I). fragalis). The mantle of T. lilacina does not break off while that of D.fragilis breaks off if disturbed. DNA sequencing will help solve the mystery of these species. We have collected samples from Ratnagiri (Maharashtra) where mantle of the individuals does break off as described while as specimens from Gulf of Kutch does not autotomize the mantle. Status: Common. Atagema ci.rugosa Pruvot-Fol, 1951 (Fig. 2c) India: Gulf of Kutch. Wider Distribution: Australia. Size: 12-25 mm. Description: A small discodorid usually seen in shallow pools and under rocks. It prefers muddy reefs. Mantle is white and tuberculate. Status: Common. Atagema spongiosa (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. 2d) India: Gulf of Kutch, Waltair. Wider Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Australia, South Korea. Philippines, Christmas Island, Singapore, Red Sea. Size: 90-130 mm. Description: It has sponge-like external appearance. Mantle is deeply pitted and brown in colour with few green and pale red patches. Foot and underside is dark purplish. Status: Common. Family: Platydorididae Sclerodoris cf. tuberculata Eliot, 1904 (Fig. 2e) India: Gulf of Kutch. Size: 15-70 mm. Description: It is a small Sclerodoris. Rhinophores are deep red. Gill leaves are feathery and red. It is always found under rocks with red coloured encrusting sponge. Ventral surface orange. Status: Common. Family: Kentrodorididae Jorunna funebris (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. 2D India: Gulf of Kutch, Andaman and Nicobar, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep. Wider Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Red Sea, Oman, Maldives, Australia to Japan, Papua New Guinea, Hong Kong, Singapore. Size: 90 mm. Description: A common slug in Indian waters. The surface of this sea slug has a rough texture, a character typical of the genus. Black rings present on the white body are rough to touch. Rhinophores are black and lamellate with a white base. Gills are black. Some areas of the Gulf of Kutch have very high density populations of this species. The size is also very large compared to other areas. Status: Abundant. Family: Dendrodorididae Dendrodoris fumata (Riippell and Leuckart, 1831 ) (Fig. 2g) India: Gulf of Kutch, Ratnagiri. Wider Distribution: Red Sea. Western Australia, Korea, New Caledonia, Seychelles, Reunion, Singapore, Japan. Size: 10-60 mm. Description: It is found mostly in shallow pools and under rocks on muddy reef. This species resembles some forms of D. nigra except that it has 5-6 bushy and branching gills which expand to larger than the body width. Rhinophores have white tips. Species shows colour variation from light brown to red. Status: Common. Remarks: We have D. nigra but from Lakshadweep and Andaman Islands. Based on our work, we believe that D. fumata and D. nigra have distinct site separation , fumata prefer muddy reefs while nigra prefer high quality reef. Species identified by Narayanan ( 1968) from Gujarat as D. nigra in fact are most likely D. fumata as this is the most abundant species in this locality. We have not found a single specimen of nigra in the last 10 years from this locality. D. fumata is seen all along Maharashtra and Gujarat coast, western coast India, which have muddy reefs. Also for D. nigra, juveniles 18 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1 Fig. 2: a. Peltodoris murrea, b. Tayuva lilacina, c. Atagema cf. rugosa, d. Atagema spongiosa, e. Sclerodoris cf. tuberculata, f. Jorunna funebris, g. Dendrodoris fumata , h. Doriopsilla sp., i. Doriopsilla cf. miniata, j. Bornella stellifer, k. Dermatobranchus fortunata, i. Flabellina bicolor, m. Phestilla lugubris ; n. Cuthona yamasui, o. Phidiana militaris, p. Pteraeolidia ianthina, q. Sakuraeolis gujaratica have red band on foot margin while as D. fumata juveniles are light orange and lack red band. Doriopsilla sp. (Fig. 2h) India: Gujarat. Wider Distribution: Unknown. Size: 10-20 mm. Description: It is a small sea slug found on muddy substrate. The entire animal including rhinophores and gills are yellow. Surface bears numerous outgrowths. Egg case is also yellow. Status: Common. Doriopsilla cf. miniata (Alder and Hancock, 1864) (Fig. 2i) India: Gulf of Kutch. Wider Distribution: South Africa and Gulf of Aden. Size: 30-40 mm. Description: It is a large Doriopsilla. Rhinophores and gills are light yellow orange. In some specimen gills are deep orange red. Body is mottled with network of white lines. Colour of the egg case matches the specimen, i.e., the dark orange form lays dark orange egg case, while the light yellow form lays light yellow egg case. It differs from miniata in that the white lines, instead of meandering all over the dorsum, are concentrated on the tubercles. Status: Rare. Family: Bornellidae Bornella stellifer (Adams and Reeve, 1848) (Fig. 2j) India: Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat), Ratnagiri and Revdanda (Maharashtra), Gulf of Mannar. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 19 OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1 Wider Distribution: Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, American Samoa, South Africa. Size: 30 mm (Single specimen). Description: A small sea slug found on rocky reefs. Oral tentacles paired and finger-like. Gills placed at the base of each cerata. Rhinophores present on long stalks and surrounded by long papillae. It feeds on the hydroids. Colour, deep reddish brown with white patches. Tips of cerata and papillae with apical red band. Status: Uncommon. Family: Arminidae Dermatobranchus fortunata (Bergh, 1888) (Fig. 2k) India: Gulf of Kutch. Wider Distribution: Australia, Philippines. Size: 10-25 mm. Description: This small sea slug is found under rocks on muddy reefs. When disturbed, animal secretes large quantity of slime. Rhinophores are bulbous at the tip and have orange and black apical bands. Oral flap has orange border. Egg mass is yellow, spiral conical ribbon-like. Status: Seasonally common. Family: Flabellinidae Flabellina bicolor (Kelaart, 1858) (Fig. 21) India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep. This is the first record of this species from Gujarat. Wider Distribution: Widely distributed in Indo- Pacific, Papua New Guinea, Japan, Hong Kong, Maldives, South Africa to Hawaii, Red Sea. Size: 10-20 mm. Description: A small sea slug usually seen under rocks or among dead coral branches. It has a long and narrow body with numerous cerata which are in pairs, and have a distinct orange coloured band near the tip. However, specimens from Gulf of Kutch are always with yellow coloured bands. Besides cerata, the head also bears orange banded oral and propodial tentacles. Rhinophores are bulbous and brown in colour. Status: Uncommon in the Gulf of Kutch, common in Lakshadweep. Family: Tergipedidae Phestilla lugubris (Bergh, 1870) (Fig. 2m) India: Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep. This is the first record of this species from Gujarat. Wider Distribution: Tanzania, Red Sea, Indonesia, Australia, Hawaii, Japan, Vietnam, Hong Kong. Size: 40-45 mm. Description: These sea slugs are closely associated with Porites sp. They feed on the polyps of this species (pers. obs.). Body colour is light brown. Body surface bears numerous cerata. Each cera is bulbous in nature with distinct white bands and ringed nodes. Status: Uncommon in the Gulf of Kutch. Common in Lakshadweep. Cuthona yamasui Hamatani, 1993 (Fig. 2n) India: Gulf of Kutch. Wider Distribution: Tropical Indo-West Pacific. Size: 30-35 mm. Description: This species seems to show colour variation, particularly of head, rhinophores and oral tentacles appear to range in colour from translucent orange to dark blue-black. Body colour is somewhat translucent light orange- brown. There is a prominent white band between the rhinophores. The tips of the oral tentacles and rhinophores are whitish. Cerata are elongated. The tips of the cerata are black followed by a yellow and turquoise blue band. Rest of the cerata is greyish-white in appearance. It is found feeding on the stinging hydroid Aglaophenia sp. (pers. obs.). Status: Uncommon. Family: Facelinidae Phidiana militaris (Alder and Hancock, 1864) (Fig. 2o) India: South Gujarat, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra). Wider Distribution: Malaysia, Papua New Guinea. Size: 20 mm. Description: A beautiful nocturnal sea slug, it is closely associated with Goniopora corals. Cerata are transparent and digestive gland is bright violet and orange. Oral tentacles and rhinophores bear distinct orange lines. They are seasonally common and seen in small groups among Goniopora polyps. Status: Seasonally common. Pteraeolidia ianthina (Angas, 1864) (Fig. 2p) India: Gulf of Kutch. Wider Distribution: Australia, Singapore, China, Vanuatu, Fiji, Japan, Hawaii, Madagascar, Seychelles, Maldives. Size: 50 mm. Description: It is a large aeolid. Body covered with numerous cerata. Tentacles have distinct purple coloured bands. It occurs on coral sand. No data available about this species in India. Status: Very rare. Sakuraeolis gujaratica Rudman, 1978 (Fig. 2q) India: Endemic to the Gulf of Kutch. This is the second record of this species from its type locality after it was described in 1971. Size: 20 mm. 20 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1 Description: Body is elongated. The oral tentacles are long and slender. Five sets of cerata are distinct on the body. The body is pale orange. Tips of rhinophores and cerata deep orange. Digestive gland inside cerata is deep violet, oral tentacles are orange. Status: Rare. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper is a result of field work conducted during the “All India Co-ordinated Project on Taxonomy - Mollusca” funded by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. We are grateful to the Department of Environment and Forests, Government of Gujarat, Mr. Pradeep Khanna, IFS, PCCF (Wildlife), for providing necessary permits to visit the marine National Park and Sanctuary areas. We are thankful to Mr. D.S. Narve, IFS Conservator of Forests, Marine National Park, Mr. PH. Sata DCF, Mr. Radadia ACF, Mr. B.H. Dave RFO Sikka and Mr. Dipak Pandya RFO, Dwarka for their help in field work. Mr. Vinod Gajjar, Mr. Vishwas Shinde, Mr. Sudhir Sapre, and Ms. Swapna Prabhu also assisted during the field work. Dr. Bill Rudman, Dr. T. Gosliner and Dr. N. Yonow helped to validate some species. REFERENCES Alder, J. & A. Hancock (1864): Notice on the collection of Nudibranchiate mollusca made in India by Walter Eliot Esq. with descriptions of several new genera and species. Trans. Zool. Soc. bond, 5: 117-147. Apte, D.A. (2009): Opisthobranch fauna of Lakshadweep Islands, India with 52 new records to Lakshadweep and 40 new records to India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 106(2): 162-175. Bergh, L.S.R. (1877): Malacologische Untersuchungen. In: Semper, C.G (Ed.): Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen, Wissenschaftliche Resultate. Band 2, Heft 12: 495-546, pis. 58-61. Brunckhorst, D.J. (1993): The systematics and phylogeny of phyllidiid nudibranchs (Doridoidea). 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(1858a): Descriptions of new and little known species of Ceylon nudibranchiate molluscs and zoophytes. Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 3( 1 ): 84- 1 39, 2 pis. Kelaart, E.F. (1858b): Description of a new Ceylonese nudibranch. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., series 3, 1(4): 257- 258, pi. 10 B. Kelaart, E.F. (1859a): Descriptions of new and little-known species of Ceylonese nudibranchiate molluscs. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, series 3, 3: 291-304. Kelaart, E.F. (1859b): Descriptions of new and little-known species of Ceylonese nudibranchiate molluscs. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, series 3, 3: 488-496. Kelaart, E.F. (1859c): On some additional species of nudibranchiate molluscs from Ceylon. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, series 3, 4: 267-270. Kelaart, E.F. (1859d): Description of new and little-known species of Ceylonese nudibranchiate molluscs, and zoophytes, 64 pp. “Trincomalie 1st November 1857”. Kelaart, E.F. 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Pp. 304, pis. 34-37. In: Sharabati, D. (Ed.): Red Sea Shells. KPI Ltd., London. Yonow, N. (1986): Red Sea Phyllidiidae (Mollusca, Nudibranchia) with descriptions of new species. Journal of Natural History 20(6): 1401-1428. Yonow, N. (1988): Red Sea Opisthobranchia. 1. The family Phyllidiidae (Mollusca, Nudibranchia). Fauna of Saudi Arabia 9: 138-151. Yonow, N. (1989): Red Sea Opisthobranchia. 2. The family Chromodorididae (Mollusca, Nudibranchia). Fauna of Saudi Arabia 10: 290-309. Yonow, N. (1990): Red Sea Opisthobranchia. 3. The orders Sacoglossa, Cephalaspidea, and Nudibranchia: Doridacea (Mollusca, Opisthobranchia). Fauna of Saudi Arabia 11: 286-299. Yonow, N. (1992): Observations on the diet of Philinopsis cyanea (Martens) (Cephalaspidea, Aglajidae). J. Conch., London 34(4): 199-204. Yonow, N. (1994): Opisthobranchs from the Maidive Islands, including descriptions of seven new species (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Revue frangaise d’aquariologie herpetology 20(4): 97-130. Yonow, N. (1996): Systematic revision of the family Phyllidiidae in the Indian Ocean Province: Part 1 (Opisthobranchia: Nudibranchia: Doridoidea). J. Conch., London 35(6): 483-516. Yonow, N. (2000): Red Sea Opisthobranchia 4: The Orders Cephalaspidea, Anaspidea, Notaspidea, and Nudibranchia: Dendronotacea and Aeolidacea. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 18: 87-131. 22 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: PART 1 Yonow, N. (2001): Results of the Rumphius Biohistorical Expedition to Ambon (1990). Part 11. Doridacea of the families Chromodorididae and Hexabranchidae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia, Nudibranchia), including additional Molukkan material. Zool. Verh. Leiden 75(1-15): 1-50. Yonow, N. (2008a): Sea Slugs of the Red Sea. Pensoft Publishers, Sofia, Bulgaria. 304 pp. Yonow, N. (2008b): Opisthobranchs of the Gulf of Eilat and the Red Sea: an account of similarities and differences. Pp. 177-196. In: Por, F. (Ed.): Aqaba - Eilat, The Improbable Gulf. Environment, Biodiversity and Preservation. The Hebrew University Magnes Press, Jerusalem. Yonow, N. & P.J. Hayward (1991): Opisthobranches de Pile Maurice, avec la description de deux especes nouvelles (Mollusca: Opisthobranchia). Revue frangaise d'aquariologie herpetology 1 8(1): 1-30. 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 23 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010 24-29 FISH DIVERSITY. PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR. DATIA. MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA R.K. Garg', R.J. Rao2and D.N. Saksena3 'Centre of Excellence in Biotechnology, M.P. Council of Science and Technology (MPCST), Vigyan Bhawan, Nehru Nagar, Bhopal 462 003, Madhya Pradesh, India. Email: rkgargmpcst@gmail.com Conservation Biology Unit, School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior 474 Oil, Madhya Pradesh, India. Email: soszool@rediffmail.com ^Aquatic Biology Laboratory, School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior 474 Oil, Madhya Pradesh, India. Email: dnsaksena@gmail.com This contribution focuses on the fish diversity, production dynamics and commercial fisheries of Ramsagar reservoir. Ramsagar is a small (140 ha) man-made reservoir in Datia district, Madhya Pradesh, India, constructed over Nichroli nallah in the Sindh river basin. A total of 42 species of fishes belonging to 28 genera, 15 families and 6 orders were recorded. Order Cypriniformes with 21 species showed maximum species diversity; minimum species diversity was shown by orders Beloniformes, Osteoglossiformes and Synbranchiformes with one species each. Out of 42 species, 15 species were identified as commercially important. According to their economic importance these fishes are categorized into three groups. They are major carps ( Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala ), local major ( Wallago attu , Heteropneustes fossil is), and local minor (Puntius conchonius, P. sarana. P. sophore, P. ticto , Xenentodon cancila, Notopterus notopterus , Mastacembelus armatus, Channa marulius , C. striata and C. punctatus). The fish production data of the last five years of the reservoir revealed that maximum fish yield (45.62 kg/ha/yr) was recorded in 2000-01, which is lower than the average fish yield of Indian reservoirs. Fish yield rate upto 100, 75, 50 kg/ha/year in respect of small, medium and large Indian reservoirs. Keywords: Fish diversity, commercially important fishes, fish yield. Ramsagar reservoir INTRODUCTION India is one of the mega biodiversity hotspots contributing to the world’s biological resources. Central India, including the three states: Madhya Pradesh. Chattisgarh and Rajasthan, has diverse water resources such as streams, rivers, reservoirs, sub-terrain aquatic systems, traditional lakes and domestic ponds that harbour a wide variety of freshwater fishes (Sarkar and Lakra 2007). Fisheries resources occupy a prominent place in the economy of any country. The main benefits that can be derived from fishery development and its associated growth can be categorized as (a) nutritional and food supply (b) income (c) employment (d) infrastructure and (e) rescue and defence services. Out of the total fish production of c. 5.66 million tonnes during 1999-2000. about 3.84 million tonnes came from marine sources and the rest are from inland waters. The Inland fish diversity of India is vast and varied, and one of the richest in the world (Tamang et al. 2007). Inland aquaculture contributes to 70% of total global fish production (Simoes et al. 2008). It includes the great river systems and extensive network of irrigation canals, man-made reservoirs, lakes, ponds, tanks, etc. The capture, culture and culture-cum capture fisheries have different settings and require different inputs, infrastructure and developmental strategy (Verma 1969). Development of inland fisheries mainly depends on the intensity of stocking cultivable waters with quick growing fishes, namely major carps and exotic varieties. This in turn depends on the production of large quantities of cultivable fish seed, including fish fry and fingerlings in state fish farms and nurseries. In the context of a chronically protein deficient diet of majority of the people in India, especially in Madhya Pradesh, the production of protein food, like fish need special attention. Therefore, fisheries and its development should form an important aspect of planning, so as to provide cheap protein food. Besides providing direct employment, the industry is also an important income generator as it supports canneries, processing establishments, gear and equipment manufacturers, boat yards, refrigeration and ice-making plants, and transport services in addition to those working in State Fisheries Department. Fisheries Corporation, and other government fisheries based institutions. In view of the above, a study of fish diversity, production potential and yield of fish has been undertaken in the present communication. MATERIAL AND METHODS Study site: Ramsagar is a small man-made reservoir with a spread of c. 140 ha constructed on Nichroli nallah. a tributary of Sindh river. The reservoir is located c. 80 km south of Gwalior and 8 km north-west of Datia city, Madhya Pradesh (Fig. 1 ). Geographically, it lies between 25° 40.48' N and 78° 23.88' E at an altitude of 229 m above msl. The Reservoir is used for different purposes, like drinking water supply. FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR Fig. 1 : Text figure of Ramsagar reservoir showing sampling stations irrigation, fisheries, etc. It is totally rain fed through various drains that bring water from the surrounding hilly catchment areas, except the side having ‘pucka (concrete)’ and ‘Kachcha (earthen)’ embankments. Methods: The fish specimens were collected twice every season using dragnets, gill nets and cast net (Ghagaria Jaal) with the help of local fishermen. Smaller specimens were preserved in 8% formalin, while large specimens were dissected for visceral preservation and later preserved in Table 1: Fish species richness in Ramsagar Reservoir S. No. Families Genera Species % Contribution of families 1. Cyprinidae 11 21 50.00 2. Bagridae 02 04 9.52 3. Channidae 01 03 7.14 4. Siluridae 02 02 4.76 5. Schilbeidae 02 02 4.76 6. Sisoridae 01 01 2.38 7. Clariidae 01 01 2.38 8. Heteropneustidae 01 01 2.38 9. Belonidae 01 01 2.38 10. Mastacembelidae 01 01 2.38 11. Chandidae 01 01 2.38 12. Nandidae 01 01 2.38 13. Gobiidae 01 01 2.38 14. Balitoridae 01 01 2.38 15. Notopteridae 01 01 2.38 Total 28 42 formalin. The specimens were identified to species level using keys provided by Srivastava (1980), Talwar and Jhingran ( 1 99 1 ) and J ay aram (1999). Fishing activity in the reservoir is directly under the control of Assistant Director, M.P. Government Fisheries Department, Datia, whose office is located near Lala Ka Tal in Datia city. The data on fish production of the reservoir were collected from this office. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The ichthyofauna of a reservoir represents the faunal diversity of the parent river system. Studies conducted so far indicate that large reservoirs harbour around 60 species of fishes, of which at least 40 contribute to commercial fisheries. The fast growing Indo-Gangetic carps, popularly known as Indian major carps, occupy a prominent place among commercially important fishes. More recently, a number of exotic species have also contributed substantially to commercial fisheries. A database on fisheries resources of the reservoir ecosystem seems to be an essential prerequisite for a meaningful management of the aquatic resources. Fish Diversity: The fish species obtained during the survey under the present study were found to belonged to 42 species under 28 genera, 15 families and 6 orders (see Appendix 1). The maximum numbers of fish species (21) belong to Family Cyprinidae (50%). Families Notopteridae, Balitoridae, Sisoridae, Clariidae, Heteropneustidae, Belonidae. Mastacembelidae, Chandidae, Nandidae, and Gobiidae are represented by only one species (2.38%); families Siluridae and Schilbeidae are represented by two species (4.76%), Family Channidae is represented by three species (7.14%), and Family Bagridae is represented by four species (9.52%) (Table 1). Order-wise, maximum fish species (52.38%) is represented by Cypriniformes (Fig. 2). Dubey and Verma (1965), while studying the fish fauna of Madhya Pradesh, reported 104 species, of which 50% belong to Family Cyprinidae. Bhat (2003) studied the diversity and composition of freshwater fishes in river systems of Western Ghats and recorded 92 species, with Cyprinidae being the dominant group. Agarwal and Saksena (1977) studied the fish fauna of Madhya Pradesh and reported 48 species, of which 39.58% belong to Family Cyprinidae. Dubey et al. (1980) recorded 70 fish species, including exotic species from Chambal division, of which Family Cyprinidae contributed 45.71%. Rao et al. (1988) studied Gandhisagar reservoir and reported 41 species, of which Family Cyprinidae contributed 53.65%. Saxena and Shrivastava (1989) studied fishes of Kunwari river, north Madhya Pradesh, and recorded 46 species with 47.82% of J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 25 FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR Osteo g lo s s ifo rraes Perciformes 2.38% Fig. 2: Percentage contribution of different orders of fish species in the Ramsagar reservoir Family Cyprinidae. If a comparison of fish fauna of Ramsagar reservoir is made with other reservoirs and water bodies, it becomes quite apparent that, the Ramsagar reservoir has rich fish diversity with maximum contribution of Family Cyprinidae. Saksena and Verma (1993) have reported 3 species of genus Tor and 7 species of genus Puntius from Madhya Pradesh. In the present study, only Tor tor has been reported. Shukla et al. (2003) have described 39 species of fishes with family Cyprinidae contributing more than 51%. Sarkar et al. (2007) studied Samaspur Bird Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh, and recorded 46 fish species belonging to 7 orders, 19 families and 33 genera. Saksena (2007) has revised the list of fishes from north Madhya Pradesh and reported a total of 73 species, including 7 species of exotic fishes. Fish Production Potential: In the developed world, fisheries of inland lakes and reservoirs largely cater to recreational needs, whereas in a highly populous developing country like India, these resources can play a vital role in augmenting food production for human consumption and mitigating protein deficiency. The national fish production rate of Indian reservoirs is estimated as 20.13 kg/ha/yr (Sugunan 1997: Ahirrao and Mane 2000) with a modest increase in fish yield rate up to 100, 75, and 50 kg/ha/yr with respect to small, medium and large Indian reservoirs (Sugunan 1997). The present low level of fish production in Indian reservoirs can be attributed to inadequate management as many of them have high propensities of production from a limno-chemical point of view (Khedkar 2005). In many of the reservoirs, the high rate of primary and secondary productivity is not being channelized to fish production (Khanna and Bhutiani 2005). Insufficient understanding of the reservoir ecosystem often comes in the way for adopting effective management measures (Paik and Chakraborty 2003). The productivity from the reservoirs can be increased through a number of approaches like better management measures, higher value for fish catch through improvement in processing and marketing and through more equitable distribution of benefits (Sultan et al. 2005). Fish yield of 74.80 kg/ha/yr has been recorded in Markonahalli reservoir, Karnataka ( Ramakrishnaih et al. 1 998 ) whereas, Jhingran and Sugunan (1990) have recorded fish productivity as 100 kg/ha/yr in Gulariya reservoir. Khan et al. (1990) observed fish productivity of 139.60 kg/ha/yr in Bachhara reservoir. Murugesan and Manoharan (2000) recorded fish productivity of 224.80 kg/ha/yr in privately managed Palar-Poranthian reservoir. A fish productivity of 133.50 kg/ha/yr was found in Naktara reservoir, Madhya Pradesh ( Dwi vedi et al. 2000). The fish productivity in Ramsagar reservoir was recorded for five years and it is observed that maximum fish productivity (45.62 kg/ha/yr) occurred in 2000-2001, while minimum fish productivity (8.96 kg/ha/yr) was seen in 2002- 2003. If we compare fish productivity of Ramsagar reservoir with other reservoirs, we notice that, productivity of Ramsagar reservoir is very low. This could be primarily due to escape of fishes from sluice gates at the time of discharge of water for irrigation and drinking supply to Datia city, disturbing the balance of fish production in the reservoir. Diminished natural breeding ultimately reduces the fish production in Ramsagar reservoir. The Reservoir is primarily meant for irrigation, flood control and drinking purposes. Fisheries have been recognized as a secondary activity. Hence, fish production management practices are constrained and have limited scope for adoption of modem practices. The inflow Table 2: Royalty charges of Fisheries Department and fish price in Datia and Gwalior market S. No. Species Fisheries Department Market rates of Fish/kg charges (royalty) /kg 1 . Major Carps: Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala 14.00 Rs/kg 60-65 Rs/kg 2. Local Major: Wallago attu, Heteropneustes fossilis 10.00 Rs/kg 50-60 Rs/kg 3. Local Minor: Puntius conchonius , P. sarana, P. sophore , P. ticto, 8.00 Rs/kg 20-25 Rs/Kg Xenentodon cancila , Notopterus notopterus , Mastacembalus arm at us, Channa marulius, C. striata, C. punctatus 26 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR Table 3: Year-wise fish production of Ramsagar Reservoir S. No. Year Seed of fish species Total fish seed released in the reservoir Fish yield/ ha Total fishing yield from the reservoir Royalty collected from fishermen by Fisheries Department 1. 2000-01 (a) Catla catla (b) Labeo rohita (c) Cirrhinus mrigala 2, 80, 000.00' 45.62 kg/ha/yr 6.3925 metric tons (6, 392.50 kg) Rs. 69, 293.00 2. 2001-02 (a) Catla catla (b) Labeo rohita (c) Cirrhinus mrigala 2, 35, 000.00' 23.64 kg/ha/yr 3.313 metric tons (3, 313.00 kg) Rs. 35, 556.00 3. 2002-03 (a) Catla catla (b) Labeo rohita (c) Cirrhinus mrigala 2, 35, 000.00' 8.96 kg/ha/yr 1 .256 metric tons (1, 256.00 kg) Rs. 11, 210.00 4. 2003-04 (a) Catla catla (b) Labeo rohita (c) Cirrhinus mrigala 1 , 55, 000.00' 23.97 kg/ha/yr 3.359 metric tons (3, 359.00 kg.) Rs. 30, 634.00 5. 2004-05 (a) Catla catla (b) Labeo rohita (c) Cirrhinus mrigala 2, 80, 000.00' 27.10 kg/ha/yr 3.798 metric tones (3, 798.00 kg) Rs. 37, 504.00 *Fish seed (fingerlings) 100-105 mm in size and outflow of water and highly fluctuating water levels are main reasons for low fish productivity of Ramsagar reservoir affecting the same adversely. Commercial Fisheries of Ramsagar Reservoir: Out of 42 fish species, 1 5 species were identified as commercially important fetching good market price. According to their economic importance these fishes are categorized into three groups (Table 2): major carps ( Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala), local major (Wallago attu, Heteropneustes fossilis), local minor ( Puntius conchonius, P. sarana , P. sophore, P. ticto, Xenentodon cancila, Notopterus notopterus , Mastacembelus armatus, Channel marulius, C. striata , and C. punctatus). The fish caught from the reservoir are marketed locally in Datia fish market and are seldom transported to other places. The fish marketing surveys conducted in Datia and Gwalior city revealed that there was one wholesale fish market each in Datia and Gwalior, and five retail markets in Datia and Badoni town and six in Gwalior city. All fishes sold are fresh. There was no major fish drying process at the reservoir, however, a small quantity of dried fish are dispatched to Gorakhpur. The data collected for the last five years on fisheries resources of Ramsagar reservoir show that maximum fish were caught from February to April and these were procured by the Fishermen Co-operative Societies. The payments to the society are made on weekly basis. The Co-operative Societies dispatch the fishes by Jeep from Ramsagar reservoir to wholesale markets at Datia and Ladheri in Gwalior city. The fishes are sold at the rate of Rs. 50-70/kg during different months in different markets. It is alarming that there is much lower fish production rate in Ramsagar as compared to other Indian reservoirs (Sugunan 1997; Khedkar 2005). Kharat et al. (2003) have suggested various strategies for conservation of fish including halting of siltation, promoting controlled harvest, imposing checks on exotic species, introduction of carp fingerlings, controlling water pollution and construction of fish ladders on dams. It has been observed that illegal fishing practices also reduce the annual yield of fish. The vast area of the Ramsagar reservoir invites poachers for illegal fishing. The reservoir should be suitably protected against unauthorized and illegal fishing to safe guard the stock. Because of non-availability of patrolling crafts, the security staff is quite handicapped in performing their duties. It was proposed to strengthen the staff and also to provide them with mechanized boats for patrolling the reservoir, so that the fishing wealth of the Ramsagar reservoir is suitably protected, especially during the breeding season. The Fisheries Department of the Government of Madhya Pradesh has started implementing some measures for stock replenishment of major carps by introducing fingerlings, for the last few years (Table 3). This would yield good results in years to come. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 27 FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thankfully acknowledge the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, for financial assistance (SAP-II, No. F-03.07.2002). We are also thankful to Mr. P.K. Bali, Assistant Director (Fisheries), Datia, Madhya Pradesh, for providing valuable information on fishes of the reservoir, then Head School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior and the Coordinator, SAP-DRS Phase-I (UGC) for providing necessary laboratory facilities. REFERENCES Agarwal, S.S. & D.N. Saksena ( 1 977): Checklist of fishes from Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. J. Jiwaji Univ. 5(2): 164-169. Ahirrao, S.D. & A.S. Mane (2000): The diversity of ichthyofauna and fisheries from freshwaters of Parbhani district, Maharastra State. J.Aqua. Biol. 15(1&2 ): 40-43. Bhat. A. (2003 ): Diversity and composition of freshwater fishes in river systems of Central Western Ghats, India. Environ. Biol. Fish. 68: 25-38. Dubey, G.P. & M.N. Verma (1965): A preliminary study of the fish fauna of Madhya Pradesh. J. Vikram Univ. 8(4): 1-8. Dubey, P.K., L.P. Maheshwarj & A.K. Jain (1980): Ichthyo-Geographical Survey of Chambal Division Madhya Pradesh. J. Jiwaji Univ. 8(2): 113-122. 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Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR Appendix 1 : Systematic list of fish Order: Osteoglossiformes Family: Notopteridae Genus: Notopterus Lacepede 1. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) Order: Cypriniformes Family: Cyprinidae Subfamily: Danioninae Genus: Salmostoma Swainson 2. Salmostoma bacaila (Hamilton-Buchanan) 3. Salmostoma clupeoides (Bloch) Genus: Barilius Hamilton-Buchanan 4. Barilius barila (Hamilton-Buchanan) 5. Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton-Buchanan) 6. Barilius bola (Hamilton-Buchanan) Genus: Rasbora Bleeker 7. Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton-Buchanan) Genus: Danio Hamilton-Buchanan 8. Danio devario (Hamilton-Buchanan) Subfamily: Cyprininae Genus: Tor Gray 9. Tor tor (Hamilton-Buchanan) Genus: Puntius Hamilton-Buchanan 1 0. Puntius conchonius (Hamilton-Buchanan) 1 1 . Puntius sarana (Hamilton-Buchanan) 1 2. Puntius sophore (Hamilton-Buchanan) 1 3. Puntius ticto (Hamilton-Buchanan) Genus: Osteobrama Heckel 1 4. Osteobrama cotio cotio (Hamilton-Buchanan) Genus: Catla Vallenciennes 1 5. Catla catla (Hamilton-Buchanan) Genus: Cirrhinus Oken 1 6. Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton-Buchanan) 1 7. Cirrhinus reba (Hamilton-Buchanan) Genus: Labeo Cuvier 18. Labeo bata (Hamilton-Buchanan) 1 9. Labeo calbasu (Hamilton-Buchanan) 20. Labeo gonius (Hamilton-Buchanan) 21 . Labeo rohita (Hamilton-Buchanan) Subfamily: Garrinae Genus: Garra Hamilton-Buchanan 22. Garra gotyla gotyla (Gray) Family: Balitoridae Subfamily: Nemacheilinae Genus: Acanthocobitis Peters 23. Acanthocobitis botia (Hamilton-Buchanan) Order: Siluriformes Family: Bagridae Subfamily: Bagrinae Genus: Mystus Scopoli 24. Mystus bleekeri (Day) 25. Mystus tengara (Hamilton-Buchanan) species recorded in the Ramsagar Reservoir Genus: Sperata Holly 26. Sperata aor (Hamilton-Buchanan) 27. Sperata seenghala (Sykes) Family: Siluridae Genus: Ompok Lacepede 28. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) Genus: Wallago Bleeker 29. Wallago attu (Bloch & Schneider) Family: Schilbeidae Subfamily: Schilbeinae Genus: Eutropiichthys Bleeker 30. Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton-Buchanan) Genus: Silonia Swainson 31 . Silonia silondia (Hamilton-Buchanan) Family: Sisoridae Genus: Bagarius Bleeker 32. Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton-Buchanan) Family: Clariidae Genus: Clarias Scopoli 33. Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus) Family: Heteropneustidae Genus: Heteropneustes Muller 34. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) Order: Beloniformes Family: Belonidae Genus: Xenentodon Regan 35. Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton-Buchanan) Order: Synbranchiformes Family: Mastacembelidae Subfamily: Mastacembelinae Genus: Mastacembelus Scopoli 36. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede) Order: Perciformes Family: Chandidae (Ambassidae) Genus: Chanda Hamilton-Buchanan 37. Chanda nama (Hamilton-Buchanan) Family: Nandidae Subfamily: Nandinae Genus: Nandus Vallenciennes 38. Nandus nandus (Hamilton-Buchanan) Family: Gobiidae Subfamily: Gobiinae Genus: Glossogobius Gill 39. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton-Buchanan) Family: Channidae Genus: Channa Scopoli 40. Channa marulius (Hamilton-Buchanan) 41 . Channa striata (Bloch) 42. Channa punctatus (Bloch) • No exotic fish was caught from Ramsagar reservoir. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 29 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010 30-37 DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS IN THREE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN TAMIL NADU, INDIA V. Vanitha12, K. Thiyagesan1-3 and N. Baskaran4 'Department of Zoology, A.V.C. College, Mannampandal 609 305, Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu, India. -Current Address: D.GG. Arts College (Women), Mayiladuthurai 609 001, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: vanithabaskar@rediffmail.com ’Email: kthiyagesanl @rediffmail.com 4 Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Innovation Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560 012, Karnataka, India. Email: nagarajan.baskaian@gmail.com Captive Asian elephants Elephas maximus are managed in three systems in Tamil Nadu namely, private, Hindu temples and forest department. We studied the population size and structure, natality and mortality during 2003-05 in the three systems to assess their long-term viability. The population in the three systems totalled 133 individuals in 2005 with adult class constituting over 75% of the population. Sex ratio of the population was biased towards females in private establishments (male to female 1:10) and temples (1:21), but male biased in the forest department ( 1:0.5) with adult males constituting 50% of the total population. There was no breeding in private and temple populations. In the forest department population, fecundity has dropped (0.065/adult female/year) over the past 10 years (1996-2005) compared to an earlier ( 1969-1989) estimate (0.155/adult female/year). Mean mortality estimated together for the three systems is higher (3.9%) than reported earlier (1.9%). Given the aging population trends and with no breeding and fewer chances of additions from the forest department due to ban on elephant sale, captive populations in private establishments and temples may not survive in the long run. Sustainability appears rather remote for population of the forest department system with a male bias, increase in mortality and a decrease in fecundity. Key words: Asian elephant, Elephas maximus , captive elephants, population, natality, mortality INTRODUCTION The Asian Elephant Elephas maximus Linnaeus, listed as an ‘endangered’ species by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List 2008), presently exists as fragmented population in southern and south-eastern Asia. Currently, wild Asian elephants are estimated to be 36,000- 52,000 individuals distributed across 13 Asian countries (Sukumar and Santiapillai 2006). The Asian elephant is considered an integral part of the culture and mythology of India, and elsewhere in Asia; the people of Indus Valley civilization first captured it probably about 4,000 years ago (Carrington 1959). There were about 19,500 captive Asian elephants in 1997 w ith Myanmar holding the largest captive population (6,000-7,000) followed by Thailand (3,800-4,000) and India (2,800-4,000) (Lair 1997). The IUCN Asian Elephant Specialist Group estimates the captive Asian elephant numbers within the range countries at 16,365 and less than 2.000 in non-range countries, including about 1 ,000 in North America and Australia, and 296 in Europe (Hedges 2006). In India, captive elephants are distributed across almost all states (including numerous non-range states), as this animal is an integral part of the country’s cultural and religious landscape. According to Project Elephant (MoEF 2004), about 3.400-3.600 captive elephants are distributed across 23 states and union territories, including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. A majority of these are found in the north-eastern (55%) and southern (25%) states. In Tamil Nadu, southern India, elephants are managed in captivity by the State Forest Department, religious institutions and individual owners for various purposes. The Government of Tamil Nadu has categorized these elephants into three captive systems: forest department captive elephants (managed at timber camps and zoos), temple elephants (managed at Hindu temples), and private elephants (managed by trusts, charities, mosques and individual owners). Several studies have been made in the past on captive elephant management in Tamil Nadu, but these have been sporadic, isolated, short term, and/or have not been comprehensive (Sukumar et al. 1988; Gokula 1993; Krishnamurthy 1995; Krishnamurthy and Wemmer 1995; Sukumar etal. 1997). Additionally, little long-term quantitative data are available on their numbers; a comparative analysis of different captive management systems and their influence on elephants' natural behaviour has not been attempted. Further, most of the data available on captive elephants in India pertain to timber camp elephants managed by the state forest department and hardly any information exists on those managed by private owners and Hindu temples, which constitute over 50% of the captive population in southern India (Lair 1997). Lair (1997) in his global comprehensive review on captive Asian elephants states that India, the birthplace of DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA elephant captivity, has very little published data on captive elephant numbers. Further, he concludes that captive elephant numbers estimated in India are clearly an underestimation, and highlights the need for a detailed survey to fulfil the basic information . A recent report by Project Elephant ( MoEF 2004 ) puts the maximum number of captive elephants in India at 3,600, and recommends a detailed survey and assessment for their welfare. In addition, the available data on the population and demographic status of captive elephants in India are scarce. The data on the number of individuals alone are inadequate to predict future trends of any population. The age structure, age specific fecundity, and mortality, age at first conception, and last calving, and mean-calving interval are important parameters to understand population dynamics and predict future trends (Laws and Parker 1968; Corfield 1973; Caughley 1977; Laws 1981; Lindeque 1991; Steams 1992), are lacking for most of the captive populations. In this paper, we present the data on population demography of captive Asian elephants in Tamil Nadu, India, collected between 2003 and 2005, as part of a long-term comparative study on the status and management of captive Asian elephants in Tamil Nadu. METHODS Data on population size and structure, natality and mortality were collected from: (1) the Tamil Nadu forest department - captive elephants managed at the timber elephant camps at Mudumalai and Anamalai wildlife sanctuaries, and Arignar Anna Zoological Park (AAZP), Chennai, (2) Hindu temples, and (3) private owners in Tamil Nadu. Population Size and Structure A comprehensive list of captive elephants maintained under the three different management regimes, with special emphasis on temple and private collections (as data on these two systems was lacking), was first prepared. The list was compiled by examining governmental records and from enquiries with veterinarians and elephant researchers. This was later found to comprise of c. 90% of the temple and c. 80% of the private elephants in the State. The presence and information on the remaining elephants were obtained during intensive surveys carried out through enquiries with temple authorities, mahouts (elephant keepers) and private owners. Altogether, data was collected on 34 facilities in the private system, 4 1 in temple systems, and 3 (namely, the elephant camps at Anamalai and Mudumalai, and the Arignar Anna Zoological Park, i.e., two camps and one zoo) in the forest department system. During the survey, data was collected on the age and sex of all the elephants through enquiries with the mahouts and by verifying with studbooks/registers (where available). Age was estimated by the shoulder height method (Sukumar et al. 1988) if proper age records were not available. Data were additionally collected from temple and private elephants at the one month long annual rejuvenation camps conducted jointly by the Tamil Nadu Hindu Religious and Endowment Charity (HR & CE) and Tamil Nadu Forest Department at Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary during 2003-2005. Natality and Mortality Data on natality and mortality of elephants in the three systems of captive management was collected from register of records and through monitoring during the study period. Natality generally refers to the addition of newborn individuals into the population, but in this study, it also includes the addition of individuals through purchase/transfer/ confiscation/rescues, as these additions add to the captive population size. Fecundity was calculated by dividing the total number of calves that were born during the study period by the total number of sexually mature female elephant- years following Sukumar et al. (1997). Elephant-years refer to the summation of all individual elephants multiplied by their number of year(s) representation/ survival in a given system for a particular period. For example, out of 25 different elephants managed in a given system over a two-year period, 20 of them represented for 2 years and the remaining five only for a one-year period, which translates to 45 elephant-years (i.e. 20*2 + 5*1 = 45). Age-specific mortality was computed by dividing the total number of individuals that died within a given age class by the total number of elephant-years lived in that age class (Sukumar et al. 1997) during 2003-2005 in the three systems. Data available on the number of elephants managed and that died as per the Forest Department records for the period 1996- 2002 was also used to have a larger sample size in the mortality rate analysis. Data analysis The elephants were categorized broadly into four major age classes; calf (210 cm for female and >240 cm for male) based on shoulder height (Sukumar et al. 1988). The trend in population size of elephants in the forest department system from 1996 to 2005 was tested using linear regression. Year- wise differences in the age-sex composition of elephants during the study period (2003-05) within each system and among the three systems were analyzed using likelihood-ratio chi-squared statistics (G2) (Agresti 1996). 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 31 DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA RESULTS Population Size The total population size of captive elephants in the three management systems in Tamil Nadu was c. 132-135 elephants between 2003 and 2005 (Table 1 ). The total number of elephants at the end of the year was the same in 2003 and 2004 (135 elephants), but dropped to 133 in 2005. Within a given system, the number of elephants at the beginning and at the end of each year of the study varied due to addition of individuals (births, capture, transfer from other systems and purchase) and reduction due to mortality, sale and transfers. Although the overall number of individuals was almost the same, there was little turnover within the three-year period. The districts of Madurai (n = 9) and Tiruchirapalli (n = 8) had more private elephants, and Thanjavur (n = 7) and Madurai (n = 6) had the most number of temple elephants. All the elephants in the private and temple systems were purchased either from the forest department (mostly before 1982 when the ban on capture of elephants for sale came into force) or recently from other state private systems, except for one from birth in the private facility. The source of origin (captive bom and wild-caught) for many of these elephants was not available due to improper maintenance of register records. Among the 53 elephants managed between 2003 and 2005 in the forest department, 24 were captured from the wild. 16 were captive born, 9 were wild ‘orphans’, and 1 was confiscated from a private owner in 2003. The origin of the remaining three (including one transferred back in 2004 from a temple due to difficulty in handling) could not be ascertained due to absence of records. Long-term data from 1996 to 2005 on the population size of captive elephants managed by the forest department (Fig. 1 ) indicate a significantly declining trend ( linear regression of population against time R 2 = 0.6679, P < 0.01, n = 10) over the past ten years. Population Structure Age structure data revealed an aging population trend with the adult class forming more than two-thirds of the total 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Year Fig. 1 : Number of captive elephants with the Tamil Nadu Forest Department between 1996 and 2005 population size in all the captive systems (Table 2). Among the three captive systems, the proportion of adult class was the highest in the private system (87%) followed by the forest department system (75%). The subadult class was the highest in the temple (30%) followed by forest department system ( 16%). Juveniles and calves were mostly found in the forest department system (Table 2). The age-sex composition of elephants did not vary during the three-year study period (2003-05) within each system (private: G 2 = 5.68, df - 10, P = 0.84; temple: G 1 - 6.4 1 , df = 6, P = 0.42 and forest department: G 2 - 6.96, df= 14, P = 0.94), but it was statistically different among the systems within each year (2003: G2 = 63.17, df = 12, P = 0.0000; 2004: G 2 = 67.06, df= 10, P = 0.0000 and 2005: G: = 64.51, df - 12, P - 0.0000). The age-sex composition data reveal that the captive elephant populations were female- biased (male: female ratio = 1 : 2.4) across the three systems (Table 2). However, while females formed the major proportion (>90%) of the population with adult class having a significant share in private and temple systems, males (66%) outnumbered females (34%) across all the age classes in the forest department system. Natality Natality was the highest in the forest department system (n =12) compared to private (n = 4) and temple (n = 2) systems Table 1: Population size of elephants managed in the three captive systems in Tamil Nadu during 2003-2005 Management system Population size 2003 2004 2005 Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final Private 40 43 43 44 44 42 Temple 42 44 44 43 43 41 Forest Department 50 48 48 48 48 50 Total 132 135 135 135 135 133 Initial and final refer to population size in the beginning (January) and end (December) of the year. 32 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA (Fig. 2). There were 4 births front the 14 sexually mature females in the age class of 15-60 years in forest department. This works out to 39 sexually mature female-elephant years over the last three years. Only one birth was observed in the private system (with 93 sexually mature female-elephant years) and none in the temples (with 81 sexually mature female-elephant years) during the study period. All the new additions to the temples were by purchase from other states. There was one transfer from a temple to the forest department. The only female in the private system that gave birth to a calf was purchased from a timber camp on the Andaman Islands - the gestation period indicating that the cow had conceived in the timber camp (which has bulls). There were no other records of captive birth in private and temple systems during the study period, and purchase was the only mode of addition in these systems. Three elephants were added to the private system and two to the temple management through purchases from other states, mostly from the north-eastern states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The forest department system, which mostly manages its captive elephants in semi-natural condition at the timber camps of Anamalai and Mudumalai, had the highest addition by capture (n = 7), mostly ‘orphans’ from the wild. The birth of 4 calves during 2003-05 among the 39 sexually mature female-elephant years in the forest department works out to a fecundity rate of 0.10 calf/adult Table 2: Age structure, age-sex composition and sex ratio of the elephants managed in the three captive systems in Tamil Nadu during 2003-2005 Mean age-sex composition (2003-2005) Management Systems Major age class Age structure (%) Male (%) SD- Female (%) SD' Sex ratio M:F Private Adult 86.8 4.4 1.4 82.4 3.1 1: 20.9 Subadult 8.8 0.9 1.6 7.9 2.7 1:3 Juvenile 3.5 3.5 1.4 0.0 - 1.3: 0 Calf 0.9 0.9 - 0.0 - 0.3: 0 Total 100 9.6 1.3 90.4 1.3 1: 9.5 Temple Adult 68.0 4.7 0.2 63.3 2.3 1: 13.5 Subadult 29.7 0.0 - 29.7 2.7 0: 12.7 Juvenile 2.3 0.0 - 2.3 3.9 0: 1 Calf 0.0 0.0 - 0.0 - - Total 100 4.7 0.2 95.3 0.2 1: 20.7 Forest Department Adult 75.4 50.0 2.1 25.3 2.2 1: 0.54 Subadult 16.4 9.6 2.1 6.9 1.3 1: 0.7 Juvenile 5.5 4.1 2.1 1.4 1.2 1: 0.3 Calf 2.7 2.0 2.0 0.7 1.2 CO o Total 100 65.8 1.1 34.2 1.1 1: 0.5 ‘ SD = Standard Deviation: Calculated based on variation in % composition of each age-sex class during 2003-05. 12 10 ‘S 6 Private Temple Forest Department Management systems S Captive birth □ Puchase S Wild capture/rescue ■ Transfer Fig. 2: Recruitment of elephants in the three management systems in Tamil Nadu between 2003 and 2005 female/year. Long-term data (1996-2005) from the forest department showed that the fecundity rate had declined considerably (0.065 calf/adult female/year; Vanitha 2007) compared to an earlier estimate of 0. 1 55 calf/adult female/year; Sukumar et al. 1997) for the period between 1969 and 1989. Mortality Totally, there were 149 individual elephants (44 in private, 43 in temples and 62 in forest department) during 2003-05. This works out to 419 elephant-years over the three- year period. Sixteen elephants died during 2003-05: 2 elephants each in the private and temple systems (all in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 33 DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA 2005) and 12 elephants in forest department system (4 each in 2003, 2004 and 2005), which works out to a mean annual mortality of 3.8% for the three systems. Of the 16 deaths, adult mortality accounted for 9 individuals (3%), followed by 4 for calves (4.4%), 2 for subadults (2.6%) and I juvenile (7.7%). Overall, males experienced a higher proportion of mortality (5.7%; 9/158 elephants) than female (2.8%; 7/246 elephants) segments. The mortality rate was much higher in the forest department system (7.6%) than private ( 1 .5%) and temple (1.5%) management systems. Five (42%) out of 1 2 cases of deaths occurring in the forest department were of calves (4) and juveniles ( 1 ) indicating a higher mortality of younger elephants. There have been reports of increase in mortality (three cases during the past 3-4 years) among younger age classes due to Herpes virus in the forest department system, especially at the timber camps (Forest Department Register Records 1996-2005). A few elephants m the timber camps were suspected for tuberculosis (Forest Department records), a widespread disease among the global captive populations. A year-wise analysis of mortality across the three systems indicated that 50% of the 16 mortalities occurred during 2005 and the rest were spread equally during 2003 (25%) and 2004 (25%). Age-specific mortality, worked out incorporating additional data from the forest department for the period 1996-2002, showed a mean mortality rate of 3.9% based on 784 elephant-years (Table 3). DISCUSSION The population size of captive elephants in Tamil Nadu varied between 132 and 135 during the study period (2003- 2005), which tails within the figures of the Project Elephant Report (MoEF 2004) between 127 and 145. The population size remained more or less the same in all the three captive systems, at 42-44 for private, 41-44 for temple and 48-50 for forest department. However, available long-term data over a 10-year period (1996-2005) from the forest department system revealed a significantly declining trend. The reasons for the decline (in spite of gradual increase in the number of orphaned calves rescued from the wild) over the ten-year period ( 1995-2005) compared to an earlier ten-year period ( 1 985- 1 995 ) could be due to a reproductive decline (as shown by fecundity data) and increase in mortality. The absence of long-term data from temple and private systems did not permit the study to predict trends in these populations; but this is demographically not important, as there is no breeding in these systems. Adults were the predominant age class in all the three systems of management comprising 87, 68 and 75% of the population in private, temple and forest department systems respectively. Private and temple captive populations consisted mostly of older animals due to absence of breeding and lack of recruitment of young elephants (especially from the state forest department due to the ban on elephant sale in recent years) and also due to the long lifespan of elephants. With no breeding, the elephant populations in the private and temple systems were female-biased (90%), as most of the facilities in these systems prefer to manage females due to the difficulty in maintaining bulls in captivity especially during musth (Krishnamurthy 1998; Sukumar 2003). In the forest department system, where breeding occurs, the overall sex ratio is skewed towards males with half the population being adult males. The system with low proportion of females in adult (25%, mostly above 40 years old) and subadult (7%) classes, does not promise self-sustainability in future. The reason for the aged population, and with male biased sex ratio Table 3: Age-specific mortality of captive elephants managed in Tamil Nadu (pooled data from forest department records from 1996 to 2005, and of the private and temple elephants from 2003 to 2005) Age class Female Male Overall Mortality rate (%) n* Mortality rate (%) n* Mortality rate (%) n* 0-1 28.6 7 33.3 9 31.3 16 1-2 0 4 12.5 8 8.3 12 2-5 15.4 13 4.3 23 8.3 36 5-10 4.4 45 10.0 30 6.7 75 10-20 1.8 57 1.2 86 1.4 143 20-40 3.4 119 3.4 118 3.4 237 40-60 1.8 164 1.3 79 1.6 243 60-80 14.3 21 0 1 13.6 22 Total 3.95 430 3.95 354 3.95 784 Vi refers to the number of individuals at risk (of death), expressed as the number of elephant-years over the age-class interval. 34 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA in the forest department system, eould be due to selective disposal of young females in the past to Hindu temples, which mostly replenished their stock from the forest department system (Sukumar et al. 1997; Krishnamurthy 1998; Vanitha 2007). There is a female-biased population in the temple system and a female-biased elephant disposal (sale/gift) in the forest department system. Twenty of the 28 elephants sold between 1959 and 2004 to Hindu temples by the forest department were females and the majority were <10 years old (Vanitha 2007). The two peaks in disposal, first during 1971-72 (6 elephants) and second during 1995-96 (7 elephants), with the majority being females (8 elephants, <10 years old), resulted in the loss of prime reproductive age class (30-35 years) and younger adult class (15-20 years) that would have started breeding from 1 995 and 2005 respectively in the forest department system. A remarkable decline in calving rate from 2.8 calves/year between 1971 and 1995 (69 calvings in 25 years) to just 0.9 calves/year between 1996 and 2005 (9 calvings in 10 years) (Vanitha 2007) also supports the hypothesis that the loss of prime reproductive age class is due to selective disposal of young female elephants in the past (1959-1996). Therefore, the fecundity dropped considerably from 0. 1 55 (estimated for the period 1 969- 1 989; Sukumar et al. 1997) to 0.065 during 1996-2005 (Vanitha 2007). Being a polygynous species, elephant populations are naturally female biased. The elephants at the timber camps of the forest department are the only breeders in captivity in Tamil Nadu. With larger number of calves of the camp elephants sired by bulls from the wild, a female-biased population would not have been a problem for a sustainable growth rate in the captive population. Nevertheless, the prevalence of male-biased population in the forest department system and the non-breeding female-biased populations in the other two systems are not conducive for self-sustainability in the future. The higher mortality observed in the forest department system (7.6%) compared to private ( 1 .5%) and temple ( 1 .5%) systems could be attributed, to some extent, to the higher mortality of calves and juveniles than the other age classes as reported earlier for captive (Sukumar et al. 1997; Mar 2001) and wild (Sukumar 2003) populations. The absence or poor representation of such age classes in the private and temple systems may be the reason for lower mortality rate in these two systems. Nevertheless, excluding juveniles and calves, the mortality rate still work out to 5% (7 deaths out of 141 elephant years between 2003 and 2005) in the forest department system. Similarly, a higher age-specific mortality has been reported in all the age classes of the forest department elephants over the past 10 years from 1996 to 2005 (Vanitha 2007) compared to the earlier report for the same population using a larger database from 1925 to 1989 (Sukumar et al. 1997). The higher mortality is alarming and threatens the long¬ term survival of the forest department captive elephants. The rise in calf mortality (3 1 .3%) in the recent 1 0 years compared to the earlier report (19%) could possibly be due to more arrivals of ‘orphans’ from the wild in the recent years and their higher susceptibility to mortality. Exclusion of orphans reduced the recorded levels of calf mortality to 14.3%, which is less than 1 9% reported by Sukumar et al. ( 1 997 ). The mean mortality estimated for the three captive systems together based on 784 elephant-years was 3.9%, including orphans and 3.5% excluding orphans. This is higher than that (1.9% estimated from detailed age-class mortality figures) reported earlier for the captive population (based on 5,560 elephant- years, Sukumar et al. 1 997) and for the wild population (3%, Daniel et al. 1987) in southern India. Even though, the present estimate of mortality is from a smaller sample size (<50 elephant-years) in age class categories such as 0- 1 , I -2, 2-5 and 60-80 years, the remaining age classes where the sample size is reasonable (>50 elephant-years) also experienced mortality higher than reported earlier (Sukumar et al. 1997). Therefore, the present mortality rate should be a cause for concern. Diseases such as herpes and tuberculosis (Forest Department records and personal communication from Forest Department veterinarians) could also be contributing to the increased mortality besides higher susceptibility of the aging population. The Asian Elephant in spite of its long history of captivity has not been bred sustainably in captivity (Kurt and Mar 2003). There are hardly any records of captive elephant births or breeding in Indian temples (Krishnamurthy 1998) - temples consider reproduction in the temple premises to be inauspicious. Private owners do not encourage breeding as maintenance of pregnant/ lactating cows is expensive (Krishnamurthy 1998). However, there are a number of cases of privately owned elephants breeding in captivity in the north-eastern states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh (Bist et al. 2002; Sarma 2004), since they are managed in close quarters to forested areas, wherein cows have contact with wild bulls. However, there has been a declining interest among these owners to manage elephants due to loss of demand in forestry operations owing to the ban on logging (Bist et al. 2002). Thus, the future scope of captive breeding among private systems in the north-eastern states could virtually stop. The intensively managed captive populations of Asian elephants in the western zoos (Wiese 2000; Brown et al. 2006) and the extensively managed large population in Myanmar (Leimgruber et al. 2008) are also in a reproductive decline. Thus, it is only the extensively managed captive elephant J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 35 DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA populations of forest department in the timber camps of India and the Pinnewala Elephant Orphanage in Sri Lanka, where the captive elephant populations breed at a sustainable level (Sukumar et al. 1997; Kurt and Mar 2003), that remain the last hope against the extinction of the species in captivity. To ameliorate the negative trends in population structure and sex ratio and to retain the long history of forest department timber camp elephants, inputs from the wild, especially females of young adult and subadult classes, should be given priority. Capturing and transferring of problem elephants, especially herds ranging in isolated habitats with no sign of breeding and or long-term survival, to forest department timber camps could be considered as a solution for restructuring the captive population, which will also reduce human-elephant conflict in the natural habitats. The captive populations in the private and temple systems may not survive in the long run given that the (i) aged population structures REFE Agresti, A. ( 1996 ): An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis. Wiley- Interscience, New York. Bist, S.S., J. V. Cheeran, S. Choudhury, P. Barua & M.K. Misra (2002): The domesticated Asian elephants in India. Pp. 129-148. In: Giant in our hands. Proc. International workshop on the domesticated Asian elephants, Bangkok, Thailand, February 2001. Brown, J.L., E. Freeman & C. Duce (2006): Update on the reproductive status of female Asian and African elephants in the SSP population of North America. Pp. 48-57. In: Proc. of International Elephant Conservation and Research Symposium. Copenhagen, Denmark October 2006. Carrington, R. (1959): Elephants: A short account of their natural history, evolution and influence on mankind. Basic Books, Inc., New York. Caughley, G. (1977): Analysis of vertebrate populations. John Wiley & Sons, London. Corfield, T.F. (1973): Elephant mortality in the Tsavo National Park, Kenya. J. East Afri. Wild I. 11: 339-368. Daniel, J.C., A. A. Desai, N. Sivaganesan & S. Rameskumar (1987): The study of some endangered species of Wildlife and their habitats. Technical Report, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, India. Gokula, V. ( 1993): A comparative study on the status and management of temple elephants with Forest camp and Zoo elephants. M. Phil, thesis, A.V.C. College, Mayiladuthurai, India. Hedges, S. (2006): Asian elephants in captivity: Status needs and values; in Elephant Range States Meeting. January 24-26, 2006, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, IUCN/SSC Report. IUCN Red List (2008): The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/7140: Date of Access October 16, 2008. Krishnamurthy, V. (1995): Reproductive pattern in captive elephants in the Tamil Nadu Forest Department: India. Pp. 450-455. In: Daniel. J.C. & H.S. Datye (Eds): A Week with Elephants. Proc. International Seminar. BNHS and Oxford University Press, Bombay, India. Krishnamurthy, V. (1998): Captive elephant management in India under different systems: Present trends. Zoo’s Print 13(3): 1-4. Krishnamurthy, V. & C. Wemmer (1995): Timber elephant management in Madras Presidency of India (1844-1947). Pp. 456-472. and susceptibility to higher mortality, (ii) absence of breeding, and (iii) lesser chances of additions from the state forest department due to the ban on the sale of elephants. To improve this situation, the private and temple systems need to consider common elephant housing that would bring in opportunities for captive breeding apart from socialization with conspecifics. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment Board, Government of Tamil Nadu and private elephant owners of Tamil Nadu for permitting this study. We acknowledge the critical comments and inputs by Leimgruber P., Conservation Ecology Centre, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA, and Dharmarajan, G, Purdue University, Indiana, USA, that shaped this manuscript significantly. NCES In: Daniel J.C. & H.S. Datye (Eds): A Week with Elephants. Proc. International Seminar. BNHS and Oxford University Press, Bombay, India. Kurt, F. & K. Mar (2003): Guidelines for the management of captive Asian elephants and the possible role of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Gajah 22: 30-42. Lair, R.C. (1997): Gone Astray — The care and management of the Asian elephant in domesticity. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP), Thailand: RAP Publication. Laws, R.M. (1981): Experiences in the study of large mammals. Pp. 1-18. In: Fowler, C.W. & T.D. Smith (Eds): Dynamics of large mammal populations. Wiley & Sons, New York. Laws, R.M. & I.S.C. Parker (1968): Recent studies on Elephant populations in East Africa. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London 21: 319-359. Leimgruber, P., B. Senior, Uga, Myint Aung, M.A. Songer, T. Mulle, C. Wemmer & J.D. Ballou (2008): Modeling population viability of captive elephants in Myanmar (Burma): implications for wild population. Anim. Conserv. 11(3): 198-205. Lindeque, M. (1991): Age structure of the elephant population in the Etosha National Park, Namibia. J. Madoqua. 18: 27-32. Mar. K.U. (2001): The studbook of timber elephants of Myanmar with special reference to survivorship analysis. Pp. 195-211. In: Giant in our hands. Proc. International workshop on the domesticated Asian elephants. Bangkok, Thailand, February 2001. MoEF (2004): Project Elephant Report. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi. Sarma, K.K. (2004): The traditional keeping of elephants in captivity by three ethnic tribes of Assam: A uniquely subaltern culture. In: Jayewardene, Jayantha (Ed.): Endangered Elephants: Past, Present and Future. Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust. Stearns, S.C. (1992): The evolution of life histories. OUP, Oxford. Sukumar, R. (2003): The living elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation. Oxford University Press, New York. Sukumar, R., N.V. Joshi & V. Krishnamurthy (1988): Growth in the Asian elephants. Proc. Indian Acad. Science. Anim. Sci. 97(6): 561-571. Sukumar, R., V. Krishnamurthy, C. Wemmer & M. Rodden (1997): 36 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN SOUTHERN INDIA Demography of Captive Asian Elephants ( Elephas maximus) in Southern India. Zoo. Biol. 16: 263-272. Sukumar, R. & C. Santiapillai (2006): Planning for Asian elephant conservation. Gajah. 25: 9-20. Vanitha, V. (2007): Studies on the status and management of captive Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus) at Tamil Nadu in Southern India, Ph.D. thesis, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli, India. Wiese, R.J. (2000): Asian elephants are not self-sustaining in North America. Zoo. Biol. 19: 299-309. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 37 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010 38-41 GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE PROSOPIS JULIFLORA SEEDS PASSED THROUGH GUT OF THE INDIAN WILD ASS EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR IN SALT DESERT OF INDIA Bitapi C. Sinha1-3, S.P. Goyal'-4 and P.R. Krausman2 'Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. 2Wildlife Biology, Boone and Crockett Program in Wildlife Conservation, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812, USA. Email: paul.krausman@umontana.edu 3Email: bcs@wii.gov.in “Email: goyalsp@wii.gov.in Understanding the importance of seeds passed through the gut of ungulates and subsequent germination has been a major focus in habitat restoration programmes, Mesquite Prosopis juliflora is a dominant shrub species in the habitat of the Indian Wild Ass Equus hemionus khur in the Salt Desert. India. Information on germination rates of mesquite in this ecosystem is important for its control. However, germination may be related to salinity, soil pH. and ruminant digestibility. We collected seeds from mesquite pods and fecal matter of Indian Wild Ass to determine rates of germination when treated with 98% H,S04 for different durations, pH, and NaCl concentrations. Seeds scarified in concentrated sulphuric acid before germination for 5 to 30 minutes had a coefficient of germination (CRG) ranging from 27 to 44. There was an inverse relationship between CRG and NaCl concentrations. Higher germination of scarified seeds occurred when pH = 3 (CRG = 15-32) more than other pH values (CRG range = 0-14). Unscarified seeds had lower rates of germination (CRG < 15.6) at different pH media than scarified seeds. Seeds that passed through the gut without a pericarp had higher germination rates than seeds that passed through the gut with a pericarp or the ones that were collected from pods. Key words: Indian Wild Ass. Prosopis juliflora , seed germination INTRODUCTION Concern about deforestation, desertification, and fuel wood shortages in the 1970s and 1980s promoted research resulting in translocation of mesquite ( Prosopis juliflora ) and other hardy tree species to new environments across the world (Mwangi and Swallow 2005). Although some exotic plant introductions were accidental, many were intentional for wildlife and habitat improvement, ornamental purposes, wood or fibre production, or other crop uses (Harrod 2001). Mesquite was introduced to meet fuel wood requirements of local people in arid and semi-arid areas, e.g., large areas around the Little Rann of Kutch ( LRK) in Western India were open grasslands, where it was introduced by the ruler of Radhanpur during 1899-1900. Since 1953, regular plantations of mesquite is undertaken on the fringes of LRK to control soil salinization and for fuel wood; it has now spread throughout India (Patel 1977). Mesquite pods are rich in protein (12-13%) and sugar, and are good forage for livestock. However, horses and cattle can develop digestive complications and even die from heavy consumption of mesquite pods (Dahl 1982). Besides livestock, the endangered Indian Wild Ass (locally; khur, Equus hemionus khur) also consumes mesquite pods during critical periods (May-June) when food reserves are scarce. The dry pericarp of mesquite contains phytotoxins that inhibits seed germination (Warrag 1994); this difficulty is bypassed by using animals as agents for seed dissemination, as in seeds of Acacia spp. (Lamprey 1967). The spread of mesquite in and around LRK is a major threat for the long term maintenance of the habitat of the khur (Goyal etal. 1999; Sinha and Goyal 1999). Our objectives were to determine seed germination viability of mesquite in relation to salinity, pH, and ruminant digestibility. METHODS We collected mesquite seeds from dried pods (n = 900) and khur faecal matter (n = 1,800) from the LRK and stored them at room temperature before germination trials. We separated seeds in the faecal matter into groups with and without a pericarp so that we could evaluate the effect of the digestion process in the gut on seed germination associated with the pericarp. We scarified seeds collected from the faecal matter and the pods in 98% H,S04for 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 minutes, and then washed them thoroughly under tap water before germination. Seeds were germinated in NaCl solutions with concentrations of 0.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, and 10.0 gm litre'1 at pH 7.0 and pH media of 1, 3, 5, 9 and 1 1. We prepared pH media by adding NaOH for pH 9 and 11, and concentrated H,S04 for pH 1,3, 5. We placed 2 replicates of healthy seeds on moistened Whatman No. 1 filter paper with distilled water in 8.5 cm diameter plastic petri dishes and allowed them to GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE SEEDS germinate at room temperature (29 °C to 31 °C) for 15 days. We considered seeds to have germinated when the radicle protruded from the seed. We calculated the rate of seed germination as coefficients of germination (CRG) described by Maguire (1962): n CRG = X (gn - g(n-l) /n), 1=1 where, gn is the accumulated germination on a given day, g(n-l) is the germination percentage on the previous day, n is the number of days incubated, and I is individual data from 1 Larger the CRG, greater the aggregate rate of germination. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS Version 8.0 software (SPSS Inc. 1998). RESULTS The propagation of mesquite is exclusively by seeds. Manual extraction of seeds is difficult and time consuming. Table 1 : Coefficient rate of germination (CRG) of mesquite seeds, Salt Desert, India Treatments CRG of mesquite seeds Passed through gut Pods Without pericarp With pericarp Scarified in 98% H.SO, Time (min) 5 34.71 34.81 31.94 10 29.99 31.02 27.38 15 32.21 34.57 34.71 20 33.45 35.27 33.33 25 43.43 33.59 39.06 30 44.43 31.10 41.57 Scarificed seeds for 20 minutes germinated in different pH solutions 1 2.13 0.00 0.00 3 15.82 32.32 31.49 5 3.62 14.17 4.63 9 6.60 6.71 4.02 11 30.54 32.90 32.40 Untreated seed germinated at different pH solutions 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 3 13.48 7.83 6.63 5 0.47 0.00 0.41 9 0.41 2.60 0.95 11 15.57 0.95 4.88 due to the indehiscent spongy wall of the seed pod (Warrag 1994). Mesquite seeds are covered with a hard coat that inhibits germination. Seedling establishment in the arid and semi-arid regions largely depends on the climatic and edaphic conditions. The optimum time required for scarifying mesquite seeds in 98% H,S04 to give maximum germination in 15 days was 15 to 30 min. Scarified seeds germinated in distilled water showed a higher rate of germination in all categories: seeds passed from the gut of the animal without pericarp (CRG = 30.00-44.43), seeds passed through gut with pericarp (CRG = 31.10-35.27), and seeds extracted from mesquite pods (CRG = 27.38-41 .57) compared to seeds that were unscarified and germinated at different pH and salinity levels (Table 1 ). The CRG values did not differ significantly across categories (i.e., seeds passed through the guts without pericarp, seeds passed through the gut with pericarp, and from pods and treatments: seeds scarified in 98% H,S04 for different times ranging from 5 to 30 min) (Table 2). Rate of germination of scarified seeds in 98% H,S04 for 20 minutes showed an inverse relationship w'ith NaCl concentrations (Fig. 1). Two-way ANOVA indicates that the rate of seed germination did not differ significantly among seeds passed through the gut with and without a pericarp, however, values differed significantly (P < 0.00 1 ) across NaCl concentrations (Table 3). Seed germination tolerated NaCl concentration up to 6.0 gm litre1; the mean CRG value (34.3) did not differ significantly from the mean value (34.8) for the seeds germinated in distilled water at this concentration of NaCl. Scarified and untreated seeds germinated more at pH 3 and 1 1 with no germination at pH 1, except in seeds passed through the gut without a pericarp (Table 1 ). Low germination was recorded at pH 5 and 9. Seeds scarified in H,S04 for 5 to 30 minutes showed a coefficient CRG between 30 and 44 (Table 1), whereas the highest CRG (44) was in seeds that passed through the gut without a pericarp. Table 2: Two way ANOVA of coefficient rate of germination of mesquite seeds from the Salt Desert, India, between treatment with sulphuric acid for different time periods and categories Source of variation SS Df MS F P-value Between seed treatments' 192.22 5 38.44 2.76 0.08 Between seed categories2 26.76 2 13.38 0.96 0.41 Error 138.99 10 13.89 - - Total 357.98 17 - - - 'Seeds scarified in 98% concentration of sulphuric acid for 5, 1 0, 15, 20, 25 and 30 minutes. 2Seeds passed through the guts with pericarp and without pericarp and from pods. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 39 GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE SEEDS Fig. 1 : Coefficient rate of germination of mesquite seeds in relation to NaCI concentrations, in Salt Desert, India. (-) Linear regression; (....) 95% confidence interval DISCUSSION Seeds with hard coats that were scarified in 98% H,SO( germinated more than the unscarified seeds in other studies (Everitt 1983; Kissock and Hafferkamp 1983). Seed germination was significantly reduced by NaCI in Blackbrush Acacia angustifolia, Guajillo A. berlandieri, Guaycan Porlieria angustifolia (Everitt 1983), and in Kadad Dichrostachys cinerea (Hashim 1990). Seeds of Kadad germinated between pH 3 and 11, but no germination was recorded for seeds at pH 1 and 13 (Hashim 1990). There was also significant reduction in seed germination at pH 2 and pH 12 in blackbrush, guajillo, and guaycan (Everitt 1983). Mesquite seeds can tolerate salinity up to 6.0gm/litre. Pods of various mesquite species are consumed by domestic and wild herbivores. In the Rajasthan desert, India, the pods of mesquite P. cineraria are consumed by the Indian Gazelle Gazella gazella and Indian Antelope Antilope cervicapra (Goyal et al. 1988). Untreated seeds with and without a pericarp collected from the faeces of khur indicated higher CRG (7.8-15.6) at pH 3 and 11 than seeds collected from pods (4. 9-6. 6) as the seed coat is softened by the intestinal chemicals in the gut of the animal. Lamprey ( 1967) reported an increase in germination of Acacia Acacia tortillas seeds that passed through wild ungulates. Janzen (1981) reported that digestive fluids of large mammals in general are not adequate to scarify the seeds though there is an REFE Dahl, B.E. (1982): Mesquite as a rangeland plant. In: Proceedings of the symposium. Pub. College of Agricultural Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA. Everitt, J.H. (1983): Seed germination characteristics of three woody plant species from the south Texas. Journal of Range Table 3: Two way ANOVA for coefficient rate of germination between mesquite seed types and NaCI concentrations, Salt Desert, India Source of variation SS Df MS F P-value Between seed treatments' 396.58 5 79.31 9.68 0.001 Between seed categories2 44.38 2 22.19 2.71 0.11 Error 81.864 10 8.18 - - Total 522.824 17 - - - 'Different NaCI concentrations. 2Seeds passed through the guts with pericarp and without pericarp and from pods. increase in seed germination rate over unscarified seeds. Contrary to this, reduction in germination has been observed in seeds of kadad and honey mesquite Prosopis spp. passed through goat gut (Hashim 1990), and Coyote Canis latrans digestive systems (Meinzer et al. 1975). The dry pericarp of mesquite seeds contain water soluble phytotoxin that could inhibit seed germination (Warrag 1994). This might be an extension of the vivipary - avoidance process and a safeguard against potential intraspecific competition (Warrag 1994). As a result, seeds dispersed by animals in faecal matter are likely to germinate. The LRK has varying degrees of soil salinity and pH (Sinha and Goyal 1999) and CRG of scarified seeds decreases with the increase in NaCI concentrations. This increased germination rate of mesquite seeds would dominate the landscape and lead to a decrease in the overall availability of grasslands. A reduction in grasslands due to exotic mesquite would have long term conservation consequences for faunal communities in the ecosystem. Additional studies would help the management of protected areas for khur by developing nursery techniques for the successful establishment of mesquite grown in the saline desert outside the sanctuary for meeting the fuel wood requirements of local people. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the Director and Dean of the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) for his continuous encouragement and the Gujarat Forest Department for their kind support during this study. The study was funded by WII. NCES Management 36: 411-414. Goyal, S.R, H.C. Bohra, P.K. Ghosh & I. Prakash (1988): Role of Prosopis cineraria in the diet of two Indian desert antelopes. Journal of Arid Environments 14: 285-290. Goyal, S.P.. B. Sinha, N. Shah & H.S. Panwar ( 1999): Sardar Sarovar 40 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE SEEDS Project-A Conservation Threat to the Indian wild ass Equus hemionus khur. Biological Conservation 88: 277-284. Harrod, R.J. (2001): The effect of invasive and noxious plants on land management in eastern Oregon and Washington. Northwest Science 75: 85-90. Hashim, I.M. (1990): Germination of Kadad (Dichrostachys cinerea) seed following pod digestion by goats and various chemical treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 38: 105-1 10. Janzen, D.H. (1981): Differential seed survival and passage rate in cows, horses, surrogate pliestocene dispersal agents. Oikos 38: ISO- 156. Kissock, D.C. & M.R. Hafferkamp (1983): Presowing seed treatment and temperature effect on germination of Engelmannia pinnatifida and Indigofera miniata var leptosepala. Journal of Range Management 36: 94-96. Lamprey, H.F. (1967): Notes on the dispersal and germination of some tree seeds through the agency of mammals and birds. East African Wildlife Journal 12: 81-85. Maguire, J.D. (1962): Speed of germination - aid in selection and evaluation of seedling emergence and vigor. Crop Science 2: 126-129. Meinzer, W.P., D.N. Uckert & J.T. Flinders (1975): Food niche of coyotes in the rolling plains of Texas. Journal of Range Management 28: 35-38. Mwangi, E. & B. Swallow (2005): Invasion of Prosopis juliflora and local livelihoods: Case study from the lake Baringo area of Kenya. ICRAF Working paper - no. 3. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre. Patel, GD. (1977): Gujarat State Gazetteers: Surendranagar district. Govt. Publication Dept. Ahmedabad, India. Sinha, B. & S.P. Goyal (1999): An exotic mesquite ( Prosopis juliflora ) a threat for conserving habitat of endangered flagship species (Indian Wild Ass Equus hemionus khur) of salt desert ecosystem in western India. VI International Rangeland Congress, Townsveille, Australia. SPSS Inc. (1998): SPSS Base 8.0 for Windows User’s Guide. SPSS Inc., Chicago. IL., USA. Warrag, M.O.A. (1994): Autotoxicity of mesquite Prosopis juliflora pericarps on seed germination and seedling growth. Journal of Arid Environments 27: 79-84. 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 41 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010 42-44 LIFE HISTORY OF ATTACUS ATLAS L. (LEPIDOPTERA: SATURNIIDAE) ON LITSEA MONOPETALA JUSS. IN NORTH-EAST INDIA B.N. Sarkar'-3, B.C. Chutia2, J. Ghose1-4 and A. Barah15 'Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute, Central Silk Board, Lahdoigarh 785 700, Jorhat, Assam, India. -Department of Zoology, Nowgong College, Nagaon 782 001, Assam, India. Email: bhuban08@yahoo.co.in; bhuban78@gmail.com 3Email: bnsarkarcsb@yahoo.com 4Email: jghosecsb@ yahoo. co.in 5Email: anukul_barah@rediffmail.com Attacus atlas L., the source of ‘Fagara Silk’, is a wild silk moth of north-east India. The detailed life history, bionomics and rearing performance of A. atlas in relation to a newly reported food plant Litsaea monopetala Juss, which is the major food plant of Muga silkworm Antheraea assamensis Heifer, has been described in the present study. Life cycle of Attacus atlas silkworm has five larval instars. Each larval instar exhibits distinguishing colour variation and tubercular arrangement. The first instar larva measured 1.12 ±0.28 cm, 0.19 ±0.07 cm and 0.017 ±0.02 gm in length, breadth, and weight, respectively, while the fifth instar larva measured 12.06 ±0.82 cm, 2.08 ±0.11 cm and 37.08 ±1.22 gm in length, breadth and weight. Wing span of 19.1-25.5 cm in male, and 20.9-27.4 cm in female moths was recorded. The embryonic period and total larval duration were 10.8 ±0.82 days and 41 ±2.94 days, respectively, while pupal period of 20.4 ±1.14 days in male, and 21.6 ±1.14 days in female was recorded. The cocoon weight, shell weight and shell ratio were measured as 12.98 ±0.89 gm, 1.698 ±0.10gmand 13.06% in male and 15.65 ±0.66 gm, 1 .790 ±0.08 gm and 1 1 .45% in female. Silk filament of Attacus cocoon is not reelable, but can be spun. The percentage of degumming loss, yam yield and spinning waste were recorded to be 15.72, 30.41 and 53.87% respectively. Key words: Attacus atlas, Litsea monopetala, life history INTRODUCTION Attacus atlas L. is a wild silk moth of north-east India and popularly known as ‘Atlas moth’ or ‘Deo-muga’ or ‘Kotkari muga’ in Assamese. It is widely distributed in South Eastern Asia, and abundantly found in India and the Indian Ocean Archipelago (Larnpe 1984; Peigler 1989). The genus Attacus comprises of 15 known species (Peigler 1989) all over the world. Out of these, only one species, namely Attacus atlas is known to occur in India (Arora and Gupta 1979); the silk produced by A. atlas is called ‘Fagara silk’. It is the largest silkmoth in the world. Fairly good numbers of records are available about the host plant diversity and distribution of A. atlas (Jolly et al. 1979; Chowdhury 1981; Larnpe 1984; Peigler 1989; Thangavelu 1991; Bhattacharya et al. 2004; Singh and Suryanarayan 2005; Singh and Chakravorty 2006; Sahu and Bindroo 2007). The larvae of Attacus are highly polyphagous, feeding on a wide range of food plants. Arora and Gupta (1979) reported about 19 species of food plants from India alone. Chutia et al. (2009) recently reported three more species of host plants of Attacus from Nagaland, India. Saikia and Handique (2000) reported Meyna laxiflora (Kutkura) as the most preferred host plant of the Attacus silkworm and carried out detailed study on the biology and its commercial characteristics. Attacus atlas was hitherto not recorded feeding on Litsea monopetala Juss (locally known as Soalu ); therefore its life history and rearing performance on this food plant is not known. Hence, a detailed study was conducted on the life history of A. atlas on L. monopetala Juss at Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute, Central Silk Board, Lahdoigarh, Assam, to evaluate the commercial aspects of this lesser known silk moth. MATERIAL AND METHODS Initially, two late instar larvae of Attacus atlas were collected from Litsea monopetala in its natural habitat. The collected larvae were maintained on the food plant until pupation at Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute. After pupation the cocoons were brought to the grainage house for seed production. After 22 days, the pupae metamorphosed into female moths. In absence of a male, a female moth was tied in the open at night for natural coupling with wild males successfully. The gravid female laid eggs up to 4 days. The eggs were incubated at room temperature. After 10 days of incubation period, the newly hatched larvae were released on the selected bushes of L. monopetala. Rearing was conducted under strict vigilance inside nylon net cover till the larvae matured. On maturity, the larvae were put in dry leaf for cocoon-making. 26 cocoons were harvested after 7-8 days of spinning. Of which, 16 cocoons were assigned for seed production and 10 cocoons were used for preliminary spinning trial. The cocoons were boiled in one litre of 10% sodium carbonate solution for 30 minutes for degumming. LIFE HISTORY OF ATTACUS ATLAS ON LITSEA MONOPETALA IN NORTH-EAST INDIA The degummed cocoons were washed thoroughly in plain water to remove traces of alkali and then squeezed and dried to form a lump. Spinning was done in a CSTR1 motorized spinning machine. The entire process was conducted during May-July 2008, and the data pertaining to morphometric parameters, cocoon and yam characteristics, physiological and production parameters were recorded simultaneously. In the immediate next generation, from August-October 2008, the above data was recorded again to confirm. All data were recorded and five replications were conducted for each treatment. The mean values and standard deviations were calculated from computed values. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Morphometric parameters Egg: The eggs are oval, slightly flattened dorso- ventrally, pinkish grey with a brownish strip and polygonal punctuations. The eggs measure 0.26 ±0.009 cm and 0.24 ±0.007 cm in length and breadth, respectively, and weigh 0.0078 gm. The embryonic period is 10.8 ±0.84 days. 1st Instar: Head is smooth and black. Body is pinkish grey with brownish stripes. Black irregular markings can be seen on the inter-segmental region. Tubercles are whitish with black setae. The larvae measure 1.12 ±0.28 cm and 0.19 ±0.07 cm in length and breadth, respectively, and weigh 0.017 ±0.02 gm. The first instar larval duration is 4.8 ±0.84 days. 2nd Instar: The larva is dull white with black irregular markings and whitish tubercles. Deep orange elongated markings appear on anterior and posterior lateral region of the body. Prothoracic hood is soft, transparent and whitish in colour. The larvae measure 1 .96 ±0.40 cm and 0.72 ±0.29 cm in length and breadth, respectively, and weigh 0.323 ±0. 1 0 gm. This stage lasts for 4.6 ±0.55 days. 3rd Instar: The body is icy white to greenish with or without white fleshy tubercles. The length, breadth and weight of the larvae are 3.82 ±1.14 cm, 1.2 ±0.22 cm and 3.612 ±0.98 gm, respectively. The instar duration is 6.6 ±0.55 days. 4th Instar: The larva is greenish, and the whole body is covered with lime-like powder. The length, breadth and weight of the larvae are 6.38 ±0.69 cm, 1 .8 ±0.28 cm and 1 .8 ±0.28 gm, respectively. This instar lasts for 10.4 ±0.55 days. 5th Instar: The larval body is greenish, but covered with a lime-like sticky powder. The dorsal tubercles are whitish, whereas lateral tubercles are blue with black tips. The thoracic legs are conical and carry sharp distal claws. Each abdominal segment from 6th to 9th bears a pair of abdominal legs, which are fleshy and flat at the end. Terminal end looks like a disc with a series of inwardly curved hooks arranged in a semi¬ circle. While dorsal tubercles project backward, the lateral tubercles project forward. Hampson ( 1 892) first reported the characteristic tubercular arrangement in Attacus atlas L. The larva is about 12.06 ±0.82 cm, 2.08 ±0.11 cm, 37.08 ±1.22 gm in length, breadth and weight, and instar duration is 14.2 ±0.84 days. Pupa: The pupa is dark brown in colour. It is 3.44 ±0.48 cm in length, 1.96 ±0.28 cm in breadth and 11.29 ±0.79 gm in weight in case of male, while it is 5.12 ±0.3 1 cm, 2.56 ±0. 1 5 cm, 1 3.86 ±0.65 gm in length, breadth and weight in female. Moth: The ground colour of the moth is red orange to tomato red. The basal area of the forewing has brown edges with red and pale black lines and middle area is red brown. A large transparent hyaline spot is present at the end of the cell with black edge. Apical area has yellow to pink shade. A yellow brown marginal band with a highly wavy black line is present in both the fore and hind wings. The wing span of the male and female moths is 19.1-25.5 cm and 20.9- 27.4 cm, respectively. The forewing and hind wing length of a male is about 9.5- 1 1.9 cm and 7.6-8. 1 cm, respectively. The hyaline area of forewing and hind wing is about 119 to 144 sq. mm and 135 to 176 sq. mm, respectively. The orange brown antenna is about 2. 1 to 2.2 cm in length and 0.9 to 1 . 1 cm in breadth. The forewing and hind wing length of a female is about 10.5- 13.5 cm and 9.8-10.3 cm, respectively. Forewing and hind wing hyaline area is about 375-493 sq. mm and 368-475 sq. mm, respectively. The orange brown antenna is 1 .9- 2.0 cm in length and 0. 3-0.4 cm in breadth. Cocoon and yarn characteristics Cocoon: Cocoon characters like shell weight, shell ratio, and yam characteristics like yam colour, degumming loss and yam yield percentage are of commercial importance as they reflect on silk quality. Attacus atlas cocoons are coarse and deep grey in colour with a prominent peduncle. The length, breadth and weight of cocoons are 8.2 ±1.02 cm, 2.8 ±0.22 cm and 12.98 ±0.89 gm in males, and 9.24 ±1.18 cm, 3.46 ±0.32 cm and 15.65 ±0.66 gm in females, respectively. The shell weight and shell ratio of cocoons are 1.698 ±0.10 gm and 13.06 ±0.53% in male, and 1.790 ±0.08 gm and 1 1 .45 ±0.65% in female. Silk yarn: 'Fagara silk' produced by A. atlas is grayish in colour. Degumming loss of Attacus cocoons is recorded to be 15.72% in sodium carbonate degumming (5 gm/1). From 100 gm of cocoon shell, 30.41 gm of hand spun yam and 53.87 gm spinning waste were produced in the trial study. Preliminary studies register 30.41% spun silk recovery of J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 43 LIFE HISTORY OF ATTACUS ATLAS OH LITSEA MONOPETALA IN NORTH-EAST INDIA coarser count. Although yam yield or, silk recovery percentage in Attacus atlas cocoons is less, there is possibility to enhance yam yield by adopting improved softening device(s) to make it more economic and useful. Physiological parameters Metamorphosis: A. atlas is holometabolous in nature. It undergoes complete metamorphosis and passes through four stages, namely egg, larva, pupa (cocoon) and adult (moth) during its life cycle. Moultinism: The larva moults five times. When moulting, anterior part of the body remains suspended, prothoracic hood becomes stretched and protruding head is bent ventrally inward. Voltinism: A. atlas is bi-voltine in habit in the climatic condition of north-eastern region of India. It completes two life cycles, one during May-June and other during August- September. Diapause period: A. atlas is in pupal diapause from November to April during extreme cold weather. Production parameters Oviposition: Average oviposition per female in Attacus atlas silkworm was recorded to be 197.6 ±9.79. ERR: Effective Rate of Rearing (EER) of Attacus atlas, i.e., the survival rate, was calculated to be 42.2 ±6.30%, which was calculated as number of cocoons harvested/ number of worms reared x 100. Cocoon yield: 26.4 ±3.85 number of cocoons were harvested from one batch, i.e., eggs laid by a single female moth. REFERENCES Arora, G.S. & I.J. Gupta (1979): Taxonomic studies of some of the Indian non-mulberry silk moths (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). Memoirs Zoological Survey, India 16: 1-63. Bhattacharya, A., B.K. Singh & PK. Das (2004): Biodiversity of wild silk moths in Assam (North-East India). Annals of Forestry 12(2): 208-216. Chowdhury, S.N. (1981): Muga Silk Industry In: Muga Silk Industry. Directorate of Sericulture (Ed.), Govt, of Assam. Guwahati, Assam. Pp. 1-177. Chutia. B.C.. L.N. Kakati & K.C. Singh (2009): Biodiversity of wild silk moths in Nagaland. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 106(1): 112-117. Jolly, M.S., S.K. Sen, T.N. Sonwalkar & G.K. Prashad (1979): Non- Mulberry Sericulture. In: Manual of Sericulture. Published by Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nation and reprint by Central Silk Board ( 1987) Rome, FAO. 4(29): 1-119. Lampe, R.E.J. (1984): Die Saturniiden der Cameron-und Genting- Highlands in West Malaysia (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). Neue Entomologische Nachrichten 11: 16. 8 col. pis. Peigler, R.S. (1989): A revision of the Indo-Australian genus Attacus. Lepidoptera Research Foundation, Inc. Beverly Hills, California, U.S.A. Pp. 1-169. Sahu. A.K. & B.B. Bindroo (2007): Wild silk moth Biodiversity in the North-Eastern Region of India: Need for Conservation. Indian Silk( June): 16-19. Saikia, B. & R. Handique (2000): Biology of a wild silk moth, Attacus atlas L. International Journal of Wild Silk Moths and Silk 5: 345-347. Singh, K.C. & R. Chakravorty (2006): Seri-biodiversity of North- Eastern India - an update. Pp. 8-19. In: Handique, J.P. & M.C. Kalita (Eds): Biodiversity Conservation and Future Concern. Gauhati University, Guwahati. Singh, K.C. & N. Suryanarayana (2005): Wild silk moth wealth of India. Pp. 419-421. In: Dandin. S B.. R.K. Misra, V.P. Gupta & Y.S. Reddy (Eds): Advances in Tropical Sericulture. Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute, Mysore. Thangavelu, K. (1991): Wild sericigenous insect of India - a need for conservation. J. Wild Silk moths 91: 71-77. 44 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(1), Jan-Apr 2010 45-47 NEW DESCRIPTIONS RECORD OF THE GENUS SCHIZOPRYMNUS FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES Zubair Ahmad1'2 and Zaheer Ahmed' ‘Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. “Email: dzubair@gmail.com The genus Schizoprymnus Foerster of the subfamily Brachistinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is recorded for the first time from India. Two new species, namely Schizoprymnus indicus sp. nov. and Schizoprymnus transiens sp. nov., are described and illustrated. The diagnostic characters of these two species have been provided. Key words: Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Brachistinae, Schizoprymnus, new record, new species, India INTRODUCTION The genus Schizoprymnus Foerster belongs to the subfamily Brachistinae. It is mainly characterized by presence of anterior three metasomal tergites immovably fused to form a metasomal carapace and absence of two transverse sutures on the carapace. However, some species of Schizoprymnus have the carapace with the first suture almost entirely and the second one at least laterally developed (Papp 1984, 1991, 1993; Belokobylskij 1994, 1998). The members of this genus are endoparasitoids of larval Coleoptera (Shaw and Huddleston 1991 ). The Indo-Australian species of Schizoprymnus were revised by Papp (1984, 1991, 1993). Currently, it is represented by 35 species from the Indo-Australian region (Papp 1993). In the present work, the genus is recorded for the first time from India and two species are described as new. Sharkey and Wharton (1997) have been followed for terminologies The following abbreviations are used in the text: OOL - ocello-ocular line (distance from the outer edge of a lateral ocellus to the compound eye); POL - post-ocellar line (distance between the inner edges of the two lateral ocelli); AOL- anterior-ocellar line (distance between the inner edges of anterior and lateral ocellus); OD - diameter of an ocellus; ZD AMU- Zoology Department, Aligarh Muslim University. Schizoprymnus indicus sp. nov. (Figs 1-4) Female: Body length, 1 .9 mm; forewing length, 1 .5 mm. Head: Dorsally 1.7x as wide as long; OOL:POL:AOL:OD = 4:5:10:2; eyes in dorsal view 2x as long as temple; temple punctuate, rounded behind eyes; face punctuate 2.8x as wide as high medially; malar space about 2.5x basal width of mandible; antennae 23 segmented, shorter than the body length. Mesosoma: Length of mesosoma 1 ,4x its height; mesoscutum smooth; notauli deep and crenulate, posteriorly merging with a few large foveae; scutellum smooth and polished; mesopleuron smooth medially, punctuate to foveolate posteriorly; propodeum reticulate rugose; fore wing 1.1 5x as long as body length; pterostigma 2.6x as long as wide, issuing vein r slightly distally from its middle; radial cell rather short, proximal section of metacarp 0.3x as long as pterostigma; distal section of metacarp as long as proximal section; length of hind femur 3.5x as long as broad, hind tibia about as long as tarsi; tibial spur about 0.3x as long as basitarsus. Metasoma: Carapace reticulate rugose, 1 ,8x as long as wide in dorsal view; suture between first and second tergites distinct while absent between second and third tergites; apical rim of carapace semicircularly excised with a pair of denticles; ovipositor sheaths in lateral view distinctly shorter than carapace. Colour: Black; mandible, tegulae, legs light yellowish brown; antennae, ovipositor sheaths and wing venation blackish brown. Male: Similar to female, except body size and genital organs. Holotype: 9, India: Jammu and Kashmir, Rajouri, l.iv.2000. Coll. Zaheer Ahmed (ZDAMU); Paratypes: 1 9, 1 15 days). Thirdly, there are differences in predator species at colonies located in urban areas and those in the country, as would be expected. While at Delhi Zoo, which is located in a large city, omnivorous, birds like crows and kites account for most of the egg and nestling losses, at natural areas like Sultanpur and Keoladeo, those raptors which are partial to undisturbed areas in the country such as Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga. Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis. Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca and Pallas's Fishing Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus are the main predatory agents (Naoroji 1990; Urfi et al. 2007). This therefore leads to the question, since at urban sites predation pressure is lower, compared to colonies in the countryside, could this be an additional inducement for the formation of colonies in urban premises, besides conditions of safety and availability of suitable nesting substrates? Detailed observations on the mode of attack by Aquila spp. are known largely through the observations of Naoroji (1990) at Bharatpur. For instance, only nestlings were taken and adults were seldom attacked. The hunting method of raptors was opportunistic and cases of their trying to bully adults, mostly unsuccessfully, to leave nests were also recorded. Kleptoparasitism among the raptors and often involving crows (Corvus splendens and C. [macrohynchos] culminatus) was common. An examination of nestlings attacked revealed that a number of individuals had sustained head and neck injuries, suggesting that most attacks were directed towards the head. Earlier, Lowther ( 1949) recorded a breast portion of Painted Stork eaten and rest discarded. Interestingly, while at the Keoladeo, nests in isolated patches were observed to be preyed upon as frequently as nests in groups, spatial variations in predation rates were observed at Delhi Zoo (Meganathan and Urfi 2009). Infertile Eggs Eggs lying in nests, generally untouched by predators and hence assumed to be infertile, have been recorded at Delhi Zoo and Sultanpur (Desai et al. 1977; Urfi et al. 2007; Meganathan and Urfi 2009). Starx’ation Starvation is often attributed to be a major cause of nestling loss in birds, especially in the first two weeks post hatching. At the Delhi Zoo the figure of yearly starvation deaths was estimated at around 38% (Desai et al. 1977). Although the deceased nestlings were not examined to study body condition and to verify the cause of death, the study noted that competition between the siblings, in which older nestlings monopolized all the food regurgitated by the parents on the nest floor, resulted in the younger siblings losing condition and eventually dying. In some years, notably 1966, 1967 and 1971, the number of nestling deaths, assumed to have been caused due to starvation, was recorded to be 44%, 56 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 50% and 55% respectively. Compared to 1968-1970 when such mortalities were below 33%, this is a high number and could be due to shortage of food. However, the authors do not mention if these years were also years of bad monsoon, when food production in the natural wetlands, which is rain dependent, would be expected to be low. Abiotic factors Weather Although the Painted Stork exhibits a wing spread behaviour at nest, typical of genus Mycteria ( Hancock et al. 1992), to shield nestlings from the sun and also regurgitate water to bring down nest temperatures on hot days, no cases of nestling mortalities due to over heating are on record. However, fluctuations in environmental temperatures leading to nestling mortalities in White Stork Ciconia ciconia have been reported (Jovani and Telia 2004). It would be expected that for warm tropical environments like India, hypothermia related mortalities would be rare. However, in Delhi, where environmental temperatures in December and January can drop to c. 7°C in the night (WWIS 2010) some nestling mortalities can be expected. Indeed, bodies of juveniles and adults (n<5) were observed on days immediately succeeding very cold days during 1988-1992 at the Delhi Zoo (Urfi unpubl. obs). However, since the corpses observed to be strewn on branches of trees close to the nests, were not recovered for a post mortem examination, it could not be ascertained if these deaths were indeed due to hypothermia. Dead nestlings and adults were also observed during the study in 2005-06 (Meganathan and Urfi 2009). Human factors Though storks and other heronry birds build colonies in urban premises, they are quite sensitive to human disturbance (Urfi 1990; Datta and Pal 1993; Gadhvi 2002). While many cases of nest losses due to human factors are on record some interesting ones are enumerated below. In Udupuria, nestlings and juveniles were attacked by (honey) bees when a hive on one of the nesting trees was accidentally disturbed by villagers. Twelve nestlings and 23 subadults were found dead, up to 200 m from the colony (Nair 2006). At Bhavnagar, many subadults making their initial flights were recorded to get entangled in the kite strings and get killed. Unfortunately, the timing of kite flying festival in the city coincides with the time when the young are big enough to make the first local flights (Parasharya and Naik 1990). In addition to these, disturbance leading to nest abandonment, either due to the presence of large number of people near the colony or bursting firecrackers ( Vashishtha 200 1 ) and putting up scare crows are also on record. At Ranganthittu, if the tourist boats go very near the breeding birds they get frightened and fly away leaving their nests unprotected. The crows anticipating this situation follow the boats and pillage the eggs and even take away the nestlings from the unguarded nests (Neginhal 1982). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I thank the University of Delhi for providing funds under its scheme - ‘Strengthen R & D Doctoral Research Programme by providing funds to university faculty’ which enabled me to complete this paper. REFERENCES BirdLife International (2001 ): Threatened birds of Asia: The BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International: Cambridge, U.K. Brown, C.R. & M.B. Brown (2001): Avian coloniality, progress and problems. In: Nolan, Jr., V. & C.F. Thompson (Eds): Current Ornithology. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers: New York. Datta, T. & B.C. Pal (1993): The effect of human interference on the nesting of the Openbill Stork ( Anastomus oscitans) at the Raiganj Wildlife Sanctuary. India. Biological Conservation 64: 149-154. Desai, J.H.. G.H. Menon & R.V. Shah (1977): Studies on the Reproductive pattern of the Painted Stork, Ibis leucocephalus Pennant. Pavo 15: 1-32. Gandhvi, I. (2002): Painted Storks abandon nesting colony at Bhavnagar, Gujarat. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 42: 12. Hancock, J.A., J.A. Kushlan & M.P Kahl (1992): Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills of the World. Academic Press, New York. Pp. 385. Ishtiaq, F., S. Javed, M.C. Coulter & A.R. Rahmani (2010): Resource partitioning in three sympatric species of storks in Keoladeo National park, India. Waterbirds 33: 41-49. Jovani, R. & J.L. Tella (2004): Age-related environmental sensitivity and weather mediated nestling mortality in White Storks ( Ciconia ciconia). Ecography 27: 611-618. Lowther, E.H.N. (1949): A Bird Photographer in India. Oxford University Press, London. Pp. xii, 150. Kalam, A. & A.J. Urfi (2008): Foraging behaviour and prey size of the Painted Stork ( Mycteria leucocephala). J. Zoology. 274: 198-204. Meganathan, T. & A.J. Urfi (2009): Inter-colony variations in nesting ecology of Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala ) in the Delhi Zoo (North India) Waterbirds 32: 352-356. Nagulu, V. & J.V.R. Rao (1983): Survey of South Indian Pelicanries. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 141-143. Nair, A.K. (2006): Udpuria - A Stork Paradise. Hornbill 2: 32-33. Naoroji, R. (1990): Predation by Aquila Eagle on nestling storks and herons in Keoladeo Ghana National Park, Bharatpur. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 37-46. Neginhal, S.G. (1977): Discovery of a pelicanry in Karnataka. /. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 169-170. Neginhal, S.G. (1982): The birds of Ranganathittu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 79: 581-593. Pande. S. (2006): Bhadalwadi Tank. A refuge for Painted Storks. Hornbill 2: 11-15. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 57 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Parasharya, B.M. & R.M. Naik (1990): Ciconiiform birds breeding in Bhavnagar city, Gujarat. A study of their nesting and a plea for conservation. Pp. 429-445. In: Daniel, J.C. & J.S. Serrao (Eds): Conservation in Developing Countries. Problems and Prospects. Bombay Natural History Society. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Sundar, K.S.G. (2006): Flock size, density and habitat selection of four large waterbirds species in an agricultural landscape in Uttar Pradesh, India: implications for management. Waterbirds 29: 365-374. Subramanya, S. & K. Manu (1996): Saving the Spot-billed Pelican. A successful experiment. Hornbill 2: 2-6. Urfi, A.J. (1990): Mysterious disappearance of Painted Stork from Delhi Zoo heronries and abrupt termination of their breeding. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 30: 3-5. Urfi, A.J. (2003): Record of a nesting colony of Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala at Man-Marodi Island in the Gulf of Kutch. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 100: 109-110. Urfi, A.J. & A. Kalam (2006): Sexual size dimorphism and mating pattern in the Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala) Waterbirds 29: 489-496. Urfi, A.J.. T. Meganathan & A. Kalam (2007): Nesting ecology of the Painted Stork ( Mycteria leucocephala) at Sultanpur National Park. Haryana, India. Forktail 23: 150-153. Vashishtha, S.C. (2001 ): Painted Storks abandon colony after bursting of crackers at Pandad, Gujarat. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 41: 13 WWIS (World Weather Information Service) (2010): India, Weather information for New Delhi, http://www.worldweather.org/066/ c00224.htm. accessed on March 5, 2010. 5. PARTIAL ALBINISM IN BLACK IBIS PSEUDIBIS PAPILLOSA Rajesh C. Senma1,2 and Chirag A. Acharya1-3 'Department of Zoology, M.N. College, Visnagar 384 315, Gujarat, India. 2Email: rcsibis@gmail.com 'Email: drchirag_acharya@yahoo.com Albinism is the absence of the pigment melanin in organisms. Albinism in birds has been classified into four groups (Pettingill 1956). Total albinism is complete absence of melanin; incomplete albinism is lack of pigment either in the plumage, eyes or unfeathered parts, but never all three. In Imperfect albinism melanin is reduced either in the plumage, eyes, or unfeathered parts. Partial albinism is total absence of melanin from only a few feathers; the pigment-free areas may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. On August 18, 2009, at 1 1:00 hrs, during our 3-year study at Kharodo between Miyasana and Nandali village, situated in Mehsana district, north Gujarat (23° 55' N; 72° 38’ E), 5 km far from Kheralu. we observed asymmetrical partial albinism in a Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa feeding in a small flock. This is the first record of asymmetrical partial albinism in Black Ibis from this area (Fig. 1 ). Albinism in birds has been reported in the past: Great- tail Grackle (Phillips 1954). House Wren and Carolina Wren (Ross 1963), Carolina Wren (Seneca 1985), Hooded Crow (Slagsvold et al. 1987), Black Drongo (Prasad 2000), and Red-vented Bulbul (Patel 2009). Total albinism is caused due to complete lack of tyrosinase activity in the organism. Mechanisms leading to partial loss of tyrosinase activity in birds has not been elucidated, but presumably involve mutations or other known mechanisms of gene inactivation. W Fig. 1 : Asymmetrical partial albinism observed in a small flock of Black Ibis The observation that some families of birds are more prone to albinism than others is interesting, but the biological causes underlying these observations remain unclear. Hopefully, continued documentation of aberrant plumages in all families of birds will eventually lead to generation of testable hypotheses to explain these fascinating and striking plumage patterns. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Financial support from UGC, New Delhi, through a RGNJRF scheme for SC/ST candidates is gratefully acknowledged. We are thankful to Prin. Dr. M.I. Patel for his valuable suggestions. We also thank Prof. R.M. Gohel, Paras Desai and Chirag Patel for their help in field. REFERENCES Patel, P. (2009): Albinism in birds. Vihang: Pool among bird watchers Pettingill, S. Jr. (1956): Alaboratory and field manual of Ornithology. (Gujarati) 3: 56-57. 3rd Ed. Burgess Publ. Co., Minneapolis. 58 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Phillips, A.P. (1954): The cause of partial albinism in a Great-tailed Grackle. Wilson Bull. 66: 66. Prasad, G. (2000): The Black Drongo’s ( Dicrurus macrocercus (Bechstein)) white crown. Zoos’ Print Journal 15(10): 349. Ross, C.C. (1963): Albinism among North American birds. Cassinia 47: 2-21. Seneca, J.J. (1985): A record of extreme leucism in the Carolina Wren. Wilson Bull. 97: 222. Slagsvold, T„ G. Rofstad & J. Sandvik (2009): Partial albinism and natural selection in the hooded crow Corvus corone comix. Journal ofZoolgy24(l): 157-166. 6. FIRST RECORD: SELECTION OF AN ELECTRIC POLE AS A ROOSTING SITE BY BLACK IBIS IN NORTH GUJARAT REGION Rajesh C. Senma1-2 and Chirac A. Acharya1-3 'Department of Biology, M.N. College. Visanagar 384 315, Gujarat. India. 2Email: rcsibis@gmail.com 3Email: drchirag_acharya@yahoo.com We observed 72 Indian Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa on a giant electric pole on the roadside, and 42 on another electric pole off the road at Vasaniya Mahadev (23° 19' N; 72° 38' E, 89 m above msl). Gujarat, when we were returning from Gandhinagar on December 25, 2009, at 18:05 hrs. We stopped our car and waited for sunset, after sunset we could hear the Indian Black Ibis call. We waited for two hours to confirm if this was a roosting site of the Indian Black Ibis. We also asked the local people who confirmed that Indian Black Ibis gathered to roost on electric poles. On earlier occasions (three to four times) we have noted similar behaviour on the outskirts of Visnagar (23°42' N; 71°34' E, 127 m above msl), Gujarat; where five to seven Black Ibis were observed roosting on an electric pole (Eds: photographic evidence provided). This, however, is the first record of a flock of Black Ibis roosting on electric poles. During a three-year period we had observed Indian Black Ibis usually roosting on tall trees like Nilgiri Eucalyptus globulus , Neem Azadirachta indica, Mango REFEI Chavda, P.B. (1988): Behavioural and Ecological study of Indian Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa at Junagadh. M. Phil, dissertation. Saurashtra University, Rajkot. Chavda, P.B. (1997): Studies on some ecological aspects of the Indian Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck), at Junagadh and its surrounding area. Ph D. Thesis, Saurashtra University. Rajkot. Mangifera indica, Polyalthia Polyalthia longifolia and species of Ficus. Several authors (Chavda 1988; Vyas 1992; Chavda 1997; Soni 2008) have noted that Black Ibis use tall trees like Cocos nucifera, Borassus flabellifer, Roystonea regia , Millingtonia hortensis, Polyalthia cerasoides. Ficus amplissima, Tamarindus indica, Sterculia foetida, Ficus religiosa , Prosopis cineraria, Albizia lebbeck for roosting. They are part of a single or multi species communal roost. Usually the birds select the largest trees in the vicinity, probably because such trees are safer than the shorter trees. But selection of a giant electric pole for roosting might be an adaptive response of the birds to its abnormal height. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank UGC (Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship Scheme for SC/ST students) for providing financial assistance. We are also grateful to Dr. M.I. Patel, Principal, M.N. College, Visnagar for providing facilities. 4CES Soni, K.C. (2008): Study on population, foraging, roosting and breeding activities of the Black Ibis / Red napped Ibis (Pseudibis papillosa ) inhabiting the arid zone of Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis, Maharshi Dayanand Saraswati University, Ajmer. Vyas, S. (1992): Ecological and Behavioral Study of the Indian Black Ibis. Ph.D. Thesis, Saurashtra University, Rajkot. 7. OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS IN BIKANER REGION OF THE THAR DESERT Partap Singh14, D.R. Saharan1, Jitendar Solanki2and S.P Mehra3 '5-C-137, JNV Colony, Bikaner 334 003, Rajasthan, India. 2Vinayaka Guest House, Old Ginani. Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: vinayakguesthouse@gmail.com ’Kesar Bhawan, 16/747, P. No. 90. B/d Saraswati Hosp., Ganeshnagar, Pahada, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: spmehra@yahoo.com JEmail: partapsk@yahoo.com Great Indian Bustard (hereafter, GIB) Ardeotis nigriceps is an endangered bird species of India (Islam and Rahmani 2002) and is the state bird of Rajasthan. According to an estimate of Rahmani and Manakadan (1990) the total number J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 59 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES of GIBs in India is between 1,500-2,000, and that too if the species does not migrate from Rajasthan to Andhra Pradesh (two states with maximum number of GIBs). This number seems to be exaggerated as other species of genus Ardeotis are known for migrating long distances (Ziembicki and Woinarski in press) and species nigriceps might also be travelling long distances. Dharamkumarsinhji’s survey conducted on behalf of WWF (World Wildlife Fund Project 453, 1970-78), estimated total population of A. nigriceps throughout its range in India as no more than 1,260 in 1969 and 745 in 1978 (Roberts 1991 ). The species can no longer be seen in Haryana, Punjab (Grimmett et al. 1998) and Uttar Pradesh (Allen 1918). Soon many more states may join this list of its former range of distribution. Ali and Ripley ( 1983) opined that not only is the distribution constricting, but also the number is dwindling due to human pressure. We recently observed a single male Ardeotis nigriceps in the grasslands of Nokh Daiya, a small village about 30 km from Bikaner City. We were monitoring the wildlife census parties of Bikaner, and while moving from Nokh Daiya to Gajner Blackbuck Sanctuary we spotted GIB in the uninhabited outskirts of the villages “Rohi”. This is the first authentic record of occurrence of GIB near Bikaner in the last 20 years. Earlier records of its distribution indicate that the species was quite abundant in Bikaner region. Hume Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Compact Handbook of Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi. 1-737 + 104 Plates. Allen, G.O. (1918): The great Indian Bustard in Mirzapur district, U.P ./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 26(1-2): 673. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 1-888. Hume, A. O. (1890): The Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. 3 Vols., 2nd Edn. R.H. Porter. London. Islam, M.Z. & A.R. Rahmani (2002): Threatened Birds of India. Buceros Vol. 7 (1 -2). Compiled from Threatened Birds of Asia. (1890) reported a collection of more than 100 bustard eggs from Bikaner region. Survey of BNHS in early 1 980s reported the occurrence of this bustard species near Gajner, though they could not sight it (Rahmani and Manakadan 1990). Sighting of this endemic bird is welcome news for naturalists of the region. One pair of GIBs has also been reported to occur in the Tal Chhapar Blackbuck Sanctuary (Punia pers. comm.). The pair was first sighted in July and stayed in the Sanctuary for about two and half months. The biggest threat to avian diversity of Gajner, Nokh Daiya, and its vicinity are the Plaster of Paris (POP) factories. About 150 factories in the area use wood to heat up the furnaces to prepare POP. One factory consumes one truck load of wood in five to six days, a huge pressure on the native flora. The factory owners claim to import the wood from Gujarat but the declining tree numbers in the region seem to tell another story. Some factories also use cow dung cakes (cow dung mixed with hay) instead of wood. The other big threat to the native birds is the construction of big water reservoirs, which will store IG canal water and after filtration this will be supplied for human use. The large grasslands on the outskirts of Gajner Sanctuary can provide ideal refuge to this endangered species of India. If anthropogenic interferences are reduced, there is no reason this species should not roost and breed here. Birdlife International Red Data Book (2001). Cambridge, U. K.: Birdlife International. Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1990): The past and present distribution of the great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps (Vigors) in India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 175-191. Roberts. T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford University Press, Karachi. Pp. 1-598. Ziembicki, M. & J. Woinarski (in press): Monitoring continental movement patterns of the Australian Bustard through community-based surveys and remote sensing. Pacific Conservation Biology. 8. ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT - "WHITE-FACED" PLOVER CHARADRIUS DEALBATUS FROM ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA Nikhil Bhopale1 'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim All Chowk. S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India. Email: nikhilbhopale23@gmail.com The “White-faced" Plover Charadriits dealbatus breeds in the south coast of China, including Hainan. It winters locally along the coast from southern Vietnam, through the Gulf of Thailand and south along the west coast of the Malay Peninsula to Singapore, and the east coast of Sumatra, Indonesia (Kennerley et al. 2008). During a BNHS camp in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, I spotted a wader, which at first glance looked like the 60 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus, on the sand bar of Smith and Ross Islands (13° 18' 15" N; 93° 04’ 21" E) in North Andamans on March 18, 2010. I was not sure about its identification so I clicked a few photographs. On further observations through a 10x5 binocular, the face looked much whiter compared to that of a Kentish Plover, and the legs were orangish with longer tarsus, more white on wings (in flight). Literature survey (Grimmett et al. 1999; Kazmierczak 2000; Rasmussen and Anderton 2005) could not help in identification. After coming back I searched www.orientalbirdimages.org, unsuccessfully, for different races of Kentish Plover. I refined my web-search, and looked for the term “White-faced” Plover (after its characteristics) without knowing of the existence of such a bird. My search ended at a published paper on a bird called “White-faced” Plover by Peter Kennerley. The bird spotted at Andaman and Nicobar Islands matched the descriptions and photographs of the “White-faced” Plover Charadrius dealbatus in Kennerley et al. (2008). After confirming the identification I visited the BNHS collection where I found six specimens of ‘ dealbatus ’ , but all from south¬ east Asia. Therefore, this is the first record of Charadrius dealbatus for the Indian subcontinent. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Mr. Peter Kennerley for confirming the identification of the bird. I thank Mr. Vithoba Hegde, Senior Field Assistant, BNHS, for showing the specimens in the BNHS Collection. REFERENCES Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and the Maldives, Om Book Service. Pp. 114. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Pocket Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press. Pp. 126. Rasmussen, PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia - The Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions. Pp. 116. Kennerley, R, D. Bakewell & P. Round (2008): Rediscovery of a long- lost Charadrius plover from South-East Asia. Forktail 24: 63-79. 9. FIRST RECORD OF THE HUME’S LEAF- WARBLER PHYLLOSCOPUS HUMEl FROM KACHCHH, GUJARAT, INDIA Nikhil Bhopale1 'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India. Email: nikhilbhopale23@gmail.com Hume’s Leaf-warbler Phylloscopus humei breeds from Central Asia to West Mongolia. It winters in gardens, orchards, and dry-deciduous forests in the Indian subcontinent from c. 1,400 m downwards to the plains of northern Pakistan and peninsular India south to Belgaum, Hyderabad and Anantagiri, east to lower hills of Sikkim; Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh (Ali and Ripley 1987; Grimmett et al. 1999; Kazmierczak 2000; Rasmussen and Anderton 2005). In Gujarat, specimens of the Hume’s Leaf-warbler were collected from Bodeli and Dabka, Baroda district, and from Mheskatri, Surat Dangs (Ali 1955). The species is not listed in the birds of kutch (Ali 1945). Jugal Tiwari (pers. comm.), a former scientist of the BNHS, who has been birding in the Kachchh area since the 1990s has had no sighting of the species in the area. During a BNHS birding camp in Kachchh, I spotted a Leaf-warbler at around 4-5 m height in the canopy of a tree on December 24, 2009, at 17:00 hrs in the Chadwa Private Reserve (23° 09' N; 69° 28' E) near Pragsar lake, 1 5 km south¬ west of Bhuj. On further observations through 10x5 binoculars, I noted it to have two white wing-bars and, a dark bill and legs, suggestive of Hume’s Leaf-warbler. We observed the bird for 15 minutes, it gave a short tze-weet call, further confirming its identity, and record of occurrence in Kachchh. The similar Yellow-browed Leaf-warbler Phylloscopus inomatus has yellowish wing-bars and ear-coverts, pale lower mandible, paler legs and has a different call (Kazmierczak 2000). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Mr. Jugal Tiwari for providing valuable information on the species. I am grateful to Dr. Ranjit Manakadan for his expert comments on the note. REFERENCES Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch, Oxford University Press, 175 pp. 52(4): 759. Ali, S. (1955): The Birds of Gujarat, Part II. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 61 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES and Pakistan, Compact Edition, Oxford University Press. Pp. 549. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Pocket Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press. Pp. 294. Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and the Maldives. Om Book Service. Pp. 258. Rasmussen. PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia - The Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions. Pp. 308. 10. AN OBSERVATIONAL NOTE ON GANGETIC LATIA CROSSOCHEILUS LATIUS LATIUS IN KHOH RIVER, UTTARAKHAND, INDIA VlDYADHAR ATKORE1 'Wildlife Institute of India. P.O.Box. 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Current Address: Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment (ATREE), Jakkur Post, Srirampura. Bengaluru 560 064, Karnataka, India. Email: vidyadhar.atkore@gmail.com The taxonomic description of many freshwater fishes has been illustrated earlier by taxonomists in the country. The information on general behaviour, including their migration, reproduction, feeding habits of many freshwater fishes are poorly known. During my M.Sc. dissertation study from November 2004 to April 2005 on the conservation status of freshwater fishes in the tributaries of River Ramganga in Uttarakhand, I made an interesting observation on Crossocheilus latius in the Khoh river (Atkore 2005). It is a specialized hill stream fish widely distributed in the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi rivers and upper catchment of Krishna river basin in the Western Ghats (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). The species can grow up to 16.5 cm and prefers boulders, gravel bottom and swift flowing section of the channel unit. It was originally described as Cyprinus latius in 1822 by Hamilton Buchanan in his ‘gangetic fishes from the tista’ from the base of Darjeeling Himalayas. He classified this fish as Cyprinus garra due to certain similar morphological features and habits that the fish has in common with some species of Garra (Mukerji 1934). On March 12,2004, I was surveying fish in the Khoh river along with my field assistant Bahadur. The shrubby vegetation along the bank and big boulders made it difficult for the fish to move upstream. A deep pool had formed at the bottom of the boulders, but some species, especially Snow Trout Schizothorax richardsonii , were jumping over boulders to move upstream. One species caught my attention, it was Crossocheilus latius. Three individuals of this species were attached to a boulder and slowly moving upstream. Unlike the other species, these were crawling and not jumping over the boulders. While doing so, they lost contact with water for sometime. I observed their movement for ten minutes 16:20 hrs to 16:30 hrs from a close distance. The height of the boulder above the water column was 2.2 m and the width was 0.6 m. The boulder was moist due to intermittent water contact. The lower part of the boulder had algal growth. It seems that this species showed local migratory movement. I did not find any feeding marks by this species on the exposed boulders in this observation. Buchanan (1822) believed that Crossocheilus latius was an ancestor of Garra. Hora (1921) confirmed that Crossocheilus species resemble Garra in its structure of air-bladder and the skeleton of the mouthparts. Available literature on the ecology of species was limited. However, Hora and Mukerji (1936) noted that Garra gotyla and Crossocheilus latius may compete for food (algae) in the same habitat but they did not provide any data to support their observation. Previous study showed that, Garra gotyla was relatively dominant (13.55%) than Crossocheilus latius latius (0.44%) in Khoh river (Atkore 2005). Again, with this data it may be difficult to conclude that these two species compete with each other for the same food resource. However, this needs further close observation on feeding behaviour or data on gut content of both these species from the same habitat in order to prove this. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This observation was a part of Masters Dissertation from Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, supported by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. I sincerely thank Patrick David, Chandrima Home and anonymous referees for their valuable comments. I also thank my field assistants including Bahadur, without whom this work could not have been accomplished. REFERENCES Atkore, V.M. (2005): The conservation status of freshwater fishes in Mahseer (Tor putitora) Uttarakhand, India. A master’s thesis copy the tributaries of Ramganga with special reference to Golden submitted to Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat. 76 pp. 62 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Hora, S.L. ( 192 1 ): Indian Cyprinoids Fishes of the genus Garra with notes on related species from other countries. Rec. Ind. Mus. 22: 633-687. Hora, S.L. & D.D. Mukerji ( 1936): Fish of the Eastern Doons, United Province. Rec. Indian Mus. 38: 133-145. Mukerji, D.D. (1934): Report on Burmese fishes collected by Lt. Col. R.W. Burton from the tributary streams of the Mali Hka River of the Myitkyina district (Upper Burma). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 37(1): 38-80. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of Indian and adjacent countries. Pvt. Ltd. I & II, New Delhi. 1158 pp. 1 1. A NEW RECORD OF LARVAL HOST PLANT OF TAWNY COSTER ACRAEA VIOLAE (FABRICIUS) Rudra Prasad Das13, Arjan Basu Roy2,4, Radhanath Polley2 and Goutam Saha1-5 ’Entomology & Wildlife Biology Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35 Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700 019, West Bengal. India. 2Nature Mates-Nature Club, 4/1 0A Bijoygarh, Kolkata 700 032, West Bengal, India. 3Email: rudraprasaddas@hotmail.com 4Email: naturemates@gmail.com 5Email: gkszoo@rediffmail.com Tawny Coster Acraea violae (Fabricius) belonging to Family Nymphalidae can be easily identified by its slow fluttering flight (Wynter-Blyth 1957) and is fairly common at lower Bengal plains (Kehimkar 2008). On September 07, 2009, on a sunny morning, while walking through an abandoned rail track near a small village - Belun, Burdwan district (location: 23° 41. 568' N; 88° 04.459' E); altitude: 12 m above msl) West Bengal, India, dozens of Tawny Coster larvae of different instars were spotted creeping on the railway tracks. After close observation they were found feeding on a small herb called ‘Spade Flower’ or 'Pink Ladies Slipper’ Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell ( =Ionidium suffruticosum Ging) of Family Violaceae (Paria 2005). The herb grows up to a height of 60 cm and has pink-purple spade¬ shaped solitary flowers. The plant is well-distributed throughout India. Common Hindi and Bengali names of this plant are ‘ Ratanpurush' and ‘ Nunbora respectively. The known larval host plants of Tawny Coster are Passiflora foetida, P. edulis, P. subpeltata, Adenia hondala (Family Passifloraceae), and Aposora lindleyana (Family Euphorbiaceae) (Kunte 2000; Robinson et al. 200 1 ; Kehimkar 2008), which are mostly climbers. But record of Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell as larval host plant for this butterfly has not been documented earlier. It indicates the diversification of known larval host plant for Tawny Coster. Kehimkar, I. (2008): The Book of Indian Butterflies. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. 497 pp. Kunte, K. (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India (India: A Lifescape Fascicle 1 ). Universities Press (Hyderabad) and Indian Academy of Sciences (Bangalore). 254 pp. Paria, N.D. (2005): Medicinal Plant Resources of South West Bengal. Directorate of Forests, Government of West Bengal, Fig 1 : Caterpillar of Acraea violae (Fabricius) feeding on the leaves of Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell This new source of food for the larva will help to strengthen the chance of survival of this species in the wild. It may also lead to a record of range extension of this butterfly, where these plants are found in abundance. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We thank Mr. Tamoy Ghosh (President, iREBEL) for his support during our visit to Belun village. Kolkata. 198 pp. Robinson, G.S., P.R. Ackery, I.J. Kitching, G.W. Beccaloni & L.M. Hernandez (2001): Hostplants of the Moth and Butterfly Caterpillars of the Oriental Region. Natural History Museum, London. 722 pp. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. 523 pp. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 63 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 12. A CHECKLIST OF ANTS OF THIRUNELLI IN WAYANAD, KERALA K.A. Karmaly13, S. Sumesh1,4, T.P. Rabeesh' ^and Lambert Kishore2 'Department of Zoology, St. Xavier’s College for Women Aluva, Kerala 683 101, India. department of Zoology, Malabar Christian College, Calicut, Kerala 673 100, India. Email: lambert3698@rediffmail.com ’Email ID: dr.karmaly@gmail.com 4Email ID: sumeshsdas@gmail.com ’Email ID: rabeeshtp@gmail.com Introduction Wayanad is in the north-east of Kerala, India. Study sites are located at Thirunelli ( 1 1°27'-15°58' N; 75°47'-70°27' E) in Wayanad region, southern part of Western Ghats. Biogeographically, Wayanad region of Western Ghats is a transitional zone between the moist-deciduous and dry- deciduous forests, harbouring many restricted habitats, endemic species, as well as disjunctive populations of species that are found in moist deciduous, evergreen and dry- deciduous forests (WWF 2001). Thirunelli forests spread over an area of 20.55 sq. km and occur at an elevation of c. 900 m and above. The distance from the mean sea level and forest cover creates a salubrious climate in the region. Generally the year is divided into four seasons; cold ( 10 °C), and hot (35 °C) weather, South-West and North-East monsoon. The average rainfall is 2,200 mm per year. Climate of Wayanad are characteristic of the Western Ghats and the flora and fauna are showing very rich biodiversity. The present study attempts to record the ant fauna in deciduous and shola forests at Thirunelli in Wayanad. The ants collected from different parts of Thirunelli were identified using taxonomic keys. Methodology The collection of ants is made by random sampling methods with sweep net, brush method and all out search method. The collected specimens were processed, preserved in 70% ethanol and prepared in the laboratory for systematic studies. The specimens were mounted on a rectangular card of 20 mm x 10 mm and pinned with Asta insect pins of 38 mm x 0.53 mm of No. 3. Observations were made using High-performance, Modular Stereozoom microscope with a 40x magnification. Ants were identified using identification key by Bolton (Bolton 1994) and Fauna of British India (Bingham 1903). Observation and Result Considering the study of distribution of ants in Thirunelli-Wayanad area, 39 ants were found (Table 1 ) belonging to six subfamiles (Bolton 1994). In Dolichoderinae, five species were found: Tapinoma melanocephalum melanocephalum (Fabricius), Tapinoma indicum indicum (Forel), which are common in these areas and present in the litter floor of all forest vegetation of Thirunelli-Wayanad region, Technomyrmex albipes albipes (Smith) was commonly found in all vegetation, and Technomyrmex bicolor bicolor Emery and Technomyrmex elatior Forel were rare. Subfamilies Aenictinae and Dorylinae with three species was the least dominant: in Aenictinae, Aenictus ambiguus Shuck, Aenictus westwoodi Forel, were mostly found in western India and in Dorylinae, Dorylus orientalis Westwood, common in southern India. Thirteen species of ant belong to Subfamily Formicinae, the dominant family in Thirunelli. Anoplolepis gracilipes (Smith), found throughout the region, Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius), Camponotus angusticollis angusticollis (Jerdon), Camponotus compressus (Fabricius), Camponotus parius Emery, Camponotus sericeus sericeus (Fabricius) were common in this area, Camponotus misturus fornaronis Forel and Camponotus radiatus Forel were rare in this region, Polyrhachis illaudata illudata Walker and Polyrhachis punctillata punctillata Roger are the first report from Wayanad region, and Polyrhachis convexa Roger is the first report from the Indian subcontinent; Roger (1863 a) reported this species from Sri Lanka. Lepisiota opaca opaca a less dominant group was also found from this region. Subfamily Myrmicinae showed 14 ant species. Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders, Solenopsis geminata (Fabricius) were common in the study area. The other non¬ endemic species - Cardiocondyla parvinoda Forel, Cardiocondyla wroughtoni Forel, Crematogaster ebenina Forel, Monomorium wroughtoni Forel, Pheidole spathifera Forel, Pheidologeton affinis affinis (Jerdon), Tetramorium smithi (Mayr), and Tetramorium wroughtoni (Forel); Leptothorax rothneyi Forel, Myrmicaria Saunders sp., Strumigenys smythiesi Forel, and Carebara wroughtonii (Forel) - were the rare species found from this area. Five species of subfamily Ponerinae were collected, Cryptopone sp. is the first report for Wayanad region. Diacamma rugosum sculptum (Jerdon), Diacamma scalpratum (Smith), Leptogenys ocellifera (Roger), and Odontomachus haematodes (Linnaeus) were commonly encountered in the study area. 64 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 : Checklist of Ants of Thirunelli in Wayanad Subfamily: Dolichoderinae Genus species Synonym Habitat Tapinoma melanocephalum melanocephalum (Fab., 1793) Tapinoma australe Santschi, 1928 Moist grass Tapinoma australis Santschi, F. 1928 Tapinoma familaris Smith, F. 1860 Tapinoma nana Jerdon, 1851 Tapinoma pellucida Smith, F. 1857 Distribution in Kerala: Alappuzha (Muthukulam), Kannur (Aralam farm), Thrissur (Peechi KFRI, Kottapuram), Kottayam, Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli), Malappuram (Calicut University Campus, Mampad College Campus), Ernakulam (Bolghaty, Tripunithura, Edappally), Calicut (Madappally, Devagiri), Idukki (Marayoor, Mathikettan Shola), Kasaragod (KAU Campus Padannakad). Tapinoma indicum indicum (Forel, 1895) - Moist grass Distribution in Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Neyyar), Palakkad (Parambikulam), Alappuzha (Muthukulam), Idukki (Meenuli, Thekkady), Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli), Kannur (Aralam farm), Malappuram (Calicut University Campus). Technomyrmex albipes albipes (Smith, 1861) Technomyrmex albitarse (Mots., 1 863) Moist grass Technomyrmex nigrum (Mayr, 1 862) Technomyrmex rufescens Santschi 1 928 Technomyrmex vitiensis Mann, 1921 Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli), Kollam (Thenmala), Alappuzha (Muthukulam), Ernakulam (Aluva), Thrissur (Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary). Technomyrmex bicolor bicolor Emery, 1893 - Moist grass Distribution in Kerala: Alappuzha (Muthukulam), Ernakulam (Aluva), Calicut (Anakampoyil, Madappally), Malappuram (Calicut University Campus), Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli). Technomyrmex elatior Forel, 1902 - Moist grass Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli). Subfamily: Aenictinae Aenictus ambiguus Shuck, 1 840 - Subterranean Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), Kottayam (Pala). Aenictus westwoodi Forel, 1901 - Subterranean Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli). Subfamily: Dorylinae Dorylus orientalis Westwood, 1835 Dorylus curtisii (Shuckard, 1840) Subterranean Dorylus longicornis Shuckard, 1840 Dorylus obertheri (Emery, 1 881 ) Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli, Muthenga), Idukki (Kuttikanam), Palakkad (Nelliyampathy). Subfamily: Formicinae Anoplolepis gracilipes (Smith, 1857) Anoplolepis longipes (Jerdon, 1851) Everywhere Anoplolepis trifaciata (Smith, 1858) Distribution in Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Vithura, Peppara), Kollam (Thenmala), Pathanamthitta, Kottayam, Thrissur (Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary), Ernakulam, Calicut, Idukki (Thekkady), Kannur (Aralam), Malappuram (Calicut University Campus), Kasaragod (Cherkala), Palakad, Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli). Camponotus angusticollis angusticollis (Jerdon, 1851) Camponotus ardens (Smith, 1 858) Leaves/Soil Camponotus impetuosa (Smith, 1858) Camponotus prismaticus Mayr, 1 862 Distribution in Kerala: Ernakulam, Thrissur (Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary), Palakkad (Silent Valley, Aalathur), Malappuram (Calicut University Campus, Kohinoor, Manjeri, Nilambur), Calicut (Anakampoyil), Wayanad (Thirunelli). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 65 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 : Checklist of Ants of Thirunelli in Wayanad (contd.) Genus species Synonym Habitat Camponotus compressus (Fabricius, 1 787) Camponotus callida (Smith, 1 858) Camponotus indefessa (Sykes, 1835) Camponotus quadrilaterus Roger, J. 1863 Leaves Distribution in Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Peppara, Neyyar, Karyavattom, CTCRI Campus), Kollam, Thrissur (Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary), Palakkad (Parambikulam), Alappuzha (Muthukulam), Idukki (Meenuli, Thekkady), Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli), Kannur (Aralam farm), Malappuram (Calicut University Campus). Camponotus misturus fornaronis Forel 1 892 - Everywhere Distribution in Kerala: Idukki (Thekkady), Ernakulam (Kochi, Edappally, Aluva), Malapuram (Calicut University Campus, Madappally, Kohinoor), Calicut (Mampad), Wayanad (Thirunelli, Muthenga), Thrissur (Vellanikara). Camponotus parius Emery, 1 889 - Everywhere Distribution in Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Vithura, Peppara), Kollam (Thenmala), Idukki, Kottayam, Ernakulam (Kalamassery, Aluva), Thrissur (Manalikkad, Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary), Palakkad (Kottekkad), Malapuram, Calicut, Kannur, Kasaragod (Cherkala), Malabar, Wayanad (Thirunelli). Camponotus sericeus sericeus (Fabricius, 1798) Camponotus aurulent ( Latreille, 1802) Grassy field Camponotus obtusa (Smith, 1858) Camponotus pyrrhocephala (Mots., 1863) Distribution in Kerala: Thiruvananthapuram (Vithura, CTCRI Campus, Peppara), Kollam (Thenmala), Kottayam (Bharanaganam), Idukki, Allepey, Ernakulam (Aluva), Thrissur (Vellanikara, Kodungallor), Palakkad, Malapuram (Kohinoor, Calicut University Campus), Calicut (Anakampoil), Kannur, Kasaragod (Cherkala), Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli). Camponotus radiatus Forel, 1892 - Leaves Distribution in Kerala: Malappuram (Kohinoor), Wayanad (Thirunelli). Lepisiota opaca opaca (Forel, 1892) - Leaves Distribution in Kerala: Ernakulam (Aluva), Malappuram (Kohinoor, Calicut University Campus), Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli). Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius, 1775) Oecophylla macra ( Guerin, 1831) Trees Oecophylla virescens (Fabricius, 1775 Oecophylla viridis (Kirby, 1819) Oecophylla zonata (Guerin, 1838) Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), throughout Kerala. Polyrhachls convexa Roger, 1 863 - Leaves Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli). Polyrhachis illaudata Illudata Walker, 1859 Polyrhachis duodentata Donisthorpe, 1942 Leaves Polyrhachis mayri Roger, 1 863 Polyrhachis latispinosa Donisthorpe, 1942 Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli, Vythiri). Polyrhachis punctillata punctillata Roger, 1 863 - Leaves Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Muthenga, Thirunelli), Thiruvananthapuram (Vithura), Thrissur (Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary). Subfamily: Myrmicinae Cardiocondyla parvinoda Forel, 1902 - Soil Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli). Cardiocondyla wroughtonii (Forel, 1890) Cardiocondyla bimaculata Wheeler, 1 929 Soil Cardiocondyla emeryi chlorotica Menozzi, 1930 Cardiocondyla hawaiensis Forel, 1899 Cardiocondyla longispina Karavaiev, 1 935 Cardiocondyla quadraticeps Forel, 1912 Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), Palakkad (Silent Valley National Park). Crematogaster ebenina Forel, 1902 - Trees Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli). 66 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 : Checklist ot Ants of Thirunelli in Wayanad ( contd .) Genus species Synonym Habitat Leptothorax rothneyi Forel, 1902 - Trees Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), Palakad (Nelliyampathy). Monomorium wroughtom Forel, 1902 Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli). - Soil Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders, 1 842 Soil Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), throughout Kerala. Myrmicaria Saunders, 1842 sp. Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli). - Soil Pheidole spathifera Forel, 1902 - Soil Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), Calicut (Madappally). Pheidologeton affinis affinis (Jerdon, 1851) Pheidologeton australis Forel, 1915 Pheidologeton bellicosa (Smith, 1858) Pheidologeton calida (Smith, 1 863) Pheidologeton laboriosa (Smith, 1861) Pheidologeton mjobergi Forel, 1918 Soil Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), Malappuram (Mampad). Solenopsis geminata (Fabricius, 1804) Solenopsis bahiaensis Santschi, 1 925 Solenopsis cephalotes Smith, 1859 Solenopsis clypeata (Smith, 1858) Solenopsis coloradensis (Buckley, 1867) Solenopsis diabola Wheeler, 1 908 Solenopsis drewseni (Mayr, 1 861 ) Solenopsis eduardi Forel, 1912 Solenopsis galapageia Wheeler, 1919 Solenopsis geminata medusa Mann, 1916 Solenopsis glaber (Smith, 1862) Solenopsis innota Santschi, 1915 Solenopsis laboriosus (Smith, 1 860) Solenopsis laevissima (Smith, 1860b) Solenopsis lincecumii (Buckley, 1867) Solenopsis mandibularis Westwood, 1840 Solenopsis mellea (Smith, 1859) Solenopsis nigra Forel, 1908 Solenopsis paleata Lund, 1831 Solenopsis perversa Santschi, 1 925 Solenopsis polita ( Smith, 1862) Solenopsis rufa (Jerdon, 1851) Solenopsis saxicola (Buckley, 1867) Soil Distribution in Kerala: Thrissur (KAU Campus), Calicut (Madappaly, Devagiri), Wayanad (Thirunelli), Kollam (Thenmala). Carebara wroughtonii (Forel, 1902) Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli). - Soil Strumigenys smyth iesii Forel, 1902 Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli). - Soil Tetramorium wroughtoni Forel, 1902 - Under Stones Distribution in Kerala: Calicut (Mampad), Wayanad (Thirunelli). Tetramorium smithi Mayr, 1879 Tetramorium kanariense Forel, 1902 Tetramorium laevinode, Forel, 1902 Under Stones Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli), Calicut (Devagiri). Subfamily: Ponerinae Cryptopone Emery, 1893 sp. Distribution in Kerala: Wayanad (Thirunelli). - Soil J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 67 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 : Checklist of Ants of Thirunelli in Wayanad ( contd .) Genus species Synonym Habitat Diacamma rugosum sculptum (Jerdon, 1851) - Soil Distribution in Kerala: Kollam (Thenmala), Thrissur (Chimmnoy Wildlife Sanctuary, KAU Campus), Wayanad (Thirunelli). Diacamma scalpratum (Smith, 1858) Diacamma compressum Mayr, 1 879 Soil Distribution in Kerala: Kollam (Thenmala), Calicut (Mampad), Wayanad (Thirunelli). Leptogenys ocellifera (Roger, 1861) - Soil Distribution in Kerala: Kollam (Thenmala), Wayanad (Thirunelli), Malappuram (Madappally). Odontomachus haematodes (Linnaeus, 1758) Odontomachus hirsutiusculus Smith, 1858 Soil Odontomachus maxillosa (De Geer, 1 773) Odontomachus pallipes Crawley, 1916 Distribution in Kerala: Kollam (Thenmala), Malappuram (Madappally), Calicut (Mampad), Wayanad (Thirunelli). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, Goverment of India for financial assistance. We are grateful to Dr. T.C. Narendran, Emeritus Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala, for critically examining this manuscript and also express our thanks to the Principal Sr. T.F. Pauly, St. Xavier’s College for Women, Aluva, for extending her support. REFERENCES Bingham, C.T. (1903): Ants and Cuckoo Wasps. The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma: Hymenoptera 2. 506 pp. London. Bolton, B. (1994): Identification Guide to the Ant Genera of the World. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, London. Pp. 222. Roger, J. (1863a): Die neu aufgefiihrten Gattungen und Arten meines Formiciden-Verzeichnisses nebst Erganzung einiger friiher gegebenen Beschreibungen, Bert. Entomol. Z. 7: 131-214. Roger, J. (1863b): Verzeichniss der Formiciden-Gattungen und Arten, Bert. Entomol. Z. 7(B) Beilage: 1- 65. WWF (2001): Wild World. WWF full report. South Western Ghats montane rain forests (IM0151). http://www.worldwildlife.org/ wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/imOl 5 l_full.html. 13. FIRST REPORT ON THE OCCURRENCE OF AN ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT SPIRAL NEMATODE HELICOTYLENCHUS MULT1C1NCTUS COBB. FROM GOA I.K. Pai1 and H.S. Gaur2 'Department of Zoology, Goa University, Goa 403 206, India. Email: ikpai@unigoa.ac.in •Division of Nematology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012, India. Email: hsg_nema@iari.res.in Nematodes constitute the largest and diverse group of metazoans on earth. Four of every five metazoans are nematodes. Of the estimated 5,00,000 species of nematodes, only c. 25,000 are known till date (Walia and Bajaj 2003). They may feed on bacteria, algae, fungi and may also be parasitic on plants and animals. Among nematodes, spiral nematode Helicotylenchus multicinctus Cobb, is a well-known plant parasitic nematode causing severe damage to banana plantation. There are reports on the role of H. multicinctus on banana by Baghel and Edwards (1977) and Rajendran et al. (1979). Goa produces a large quantity of bananas; however, H. multicinctus has not been recorded so far. Soil samples were collected at a depth of 15-30 cm from a banana plantation in Canacona, Goa. Nematodes were extracted using Cobb’s decanting and sieving technique (Cobb 1904, 1913). Based on the studies of morphological characters, the nematode was identified as Helicotylenchus multicinctus. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We sincerely thank Indian National Science Academy ( INSA), New Delhi, for providing Visiting Fellowship to one of the authors (IKP). 68 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES REFERENCES Baghel, P.P.S. & J.C. Edwards (1977): Helicotylenchus multicinctus on Banana. The Allahabad Farmer 48: 285-289 Cobb, N. A. (1904): Free living and freshwater New Zealand nematodes. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 12: 363-374. Cobb, N.A. (1913): New nematode genera found inhabiting freshwater and non-brackish soils. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 3: 434-444. Rajendran, G., T.G. Naganathan & V. Shivagami (1979): Studies on banana nematodes. Indian J. Nematol. 9: 54. Walia, R.K. & H.K. Bajaj (2003): Textbook on Introductory Plant Nematology. ICAR, New Delhi. 14. SCOLOPENDRA HARDWICKEI (NEWPORT, 1844) FEEDING ON OLIGODON TAENIOLATUS (JERDON, 1853) IN THE SCRUB JUNGLES OF PONDICHERRY, SOUTHERN INDIA Utpal Smart1, Prakash Patel23 and Pradeep Pattanayak2 'Amphibian and Reptile Diversity Research Centre, Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, TX 76019-049. Email: utpalsmart@gmail.com 2Project Ecolake, Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry 605 002, Pondicherry, India. ’Email: prakashpatel48@gmail.com Apart from feeding on three different species of bats (Molinari et al. 2005), centipedes of the genus Scolopendra (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) have also been reported to prey upon reptiles by Lawrence in 1953, Butler in 1970 and in 1975 by Easterla (Carpenter and Gillingham 1984). These include frogs, toads, small lizards, and serpents (Molinari et al. 2005). Individuals of three North American snake species, namely Central Texas Whipsnake Masticophis taeniatus girandi (Stejneger and Barbour 1917), Texas Brown Snake Storeria dekayi texana (Trapido 1944), and Lined Snake Tropidoclonion lineatum have been recorded as the prey of the Giant Desert Centipede Scolopendra herns (Girard 1 853), when kept in the same vivarium as the centipede. All the snakes were killed by incisions to the ventral neck and fed upon by the centipede on successive nights (Cates pers. comm.). Easterla (1975) describes a scolopendrid feeding on the Long-nose Snake ( Rhinocheilus sp.) (Ford et al. 2007). All of the above records refer to North, Central and South American species of Scolopendra, some of which are known for their large sizes. India harbours 95 species of Scolopendrids, Scolopendra hardwickei (Newport 1844) being the largest (Khanna 2009). There have been observations of Indian Scolopendrids feeding on toads and frogs (Daniels pers. comm.), and a gecko in the wild (Whitaker pers. comm.). This paper reports the first record of predation on Oligodon taeniolatus (Serpentes: Colubridae) by S. hardwickei, and one of the few published accounts of a Scolopendrid feeding on an Indian snake (for another record see Mirza and Ahmed 2009) under natural conditions, in a private reforestation site of the Sri Aurobindo Ashram near Pondicherry. Oligodon taeniolatus is a Kukri snake which is active by day and night, and may be seen predating on amphibian and reptile eggs. It is an opisthoglyphous (rear-fanged) snake and possesses a functional venom gland and is known to feed on lizards in captivity (Whitaker and Captain 2004) The observation was made by one of the authors (Pattanayak) on the dark night of July 06, 2009, around 21:00 hrs. The observer’s attention was first drawn to the scene of predation by the sound of pebbles rubbing against one another. Upon investigation the source of the sound was identified as a struggling Oligodon taeniolatus, c. 36 cm long, trying to escape under a layer of pebbles while a large centipede, c. 25 cm long, fiercely held on to the area immediately behind the snake’s cloacae. The maxillipeds (the first 4 to 5 pairs) of the centipede had clearly pierced the Kukri’s flesh; blood was oozing from the gaping lesion along with some viscera of the yet living reptile. The mandibles of the centipede were thrust into this wound and the arthropod seemed to be actively ingesting the snake’s fluids. Despite fiercely trying, the snake was unable to free itself from the clutches of the centipede, which then began to move up the length of the snake. While doing so it curved its appendages around the snake. Forty-five minutes after the struggle began the centipede had moved its entire body upon the snake’s dorsal surface and inflicted yet another deep wound near the throat. The snake seemed to be giving in but still put up some resistance as the predator and prey coiled into contorted postures. Unfortunately, the centipede abandoned its prey when the observer got too close; the arthropod vanished swiftly into the immediate undergrowth while the snake crawled on limply. A closer inspection of the wounds revealed a protruding bone, demonstrating the depth and extent of the laceration the scolopendrid had inflicted on it. The snake was left alone and, judging by its conditions, probably died in the J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 69 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES hours that followed. The bite of a scolopendrid is painful to adult humans, and can be fatal to infants (Khanna 2009). With the exception of the Long-nose Snake (Easterla 1975) the centipede was always longer than its prey and may have outweighed it as well (Carpenter and Gillingham 1984). In this case, though the centipede seemed heavier, the snake was clearly longer, but this did not seem to increase the odds of its survival; strangely enough, all through its ordeal, the snake made no attempts to bite back at the centipede. Do scolopendrids regularly feed on snakes or was this a display of opportunistic behaviour, and hence a rare event? And to what limit does this fierce centipede go to get a meal, e.g., does it feed on other larger/venomous snake species as well ? These are a few questions which when answered could REFE Butler, W.H. (1970): A record of an invertebrate preying on vertebrate. West. Aust. Nat. 11: 146. Carpenter, C.C. & J.C. Gillingham (1984): Giant Centipede (Scolopendra altemans) attacks Marine Toad (Bufo marinus), Carib. J. Sci. 20(1-2 ): 71. Easterla, D.A. (1975): Giant desert centipede preys upon snake. Southwest. Nat. 20: 411. Forti, L.R., H.Z. Fischer & L.C. Encarnacao (2007): Treefrog Dendropsophus elegans (Wied Neuwied, 1824) (Anura: Hylidae) as a meal to Otostigmus tibialis Brolemann, (Chilopoda: Scolopendridae) in the Tropical Rainforest in southeastern Brazil. Braz. J- Biol. 67(3). Sao Carlos. Khanna, V. (2009): Identifying Myriapods, http://www.authorstream.com/ Presentation/ Vinodkhanna-9 1 275-soil-fauna-human-welfare - lead to a whole new understanding of little known trophic links, e.g., arthropods preying on vertebrates, the complexity and significance of which probably has not been evaluated enough. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Jerry Cates, EntomoBiotics Inc. (Texas, U.S.A.) and Romulus Whitaker (Chengalpattu, India) for their prompt and informative correspondence. We are furthermore grateful to Dr. Vinod Khanna of the Z.S.I. (Dehradun, India) for his help with identification of the centipede. Dr. R.J. Ranjit Daniels, Director, Care Earth Trust (Chennai, India) is also cordially thanked not only for sharing information but also for reviewing the manuscript. SICES identifyingmyriapoda-trainings-etc-entertainment-ppt- powerpoint/ Lawrence, R.F. (1953): The biology of the cryptic fauna of forests. Cape Town, South Africa. 406 pp. Mirza, Z.A. & J.J. Ahmed (2009): Note on predation of Calliophis melanurus Shaw, 1802 (Serpents: Elapidae) by Scolopendra sp. Hamadryad 34( 1 ): 1 66. Molinari, J., E.E. Gutierrez, Antonio, A. de Ascenscensao, J.M. Nassar, A. Arends & R.J. Marrquez (2005): Predation by Giant Centipedes, Scolopendra gigantea , on Three Species of Bats in a Venezuelan Cave. Caribbean Journal of Science 41(2): 340-346. Whitaker, R. & A. Captain (2004): Snakes of India, the Field Guide. Draco Books, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu. Pp. 140-144. 15. ARCHITECTURE OF ABUTTING SURFACES OF THE SHELLS OF ACORN BARNACLES A. A. Karande1 and M. Udhayakumar2 ‘303, A, Victory House, Chhotani Road - 2, Mahim, Mumbai 400 016, Maharashtra, India. Naval Materials Research Laboratory, Shil-Badlapur Road, Ambemath 421 506, Maharashtra, India. Introduction In recent years, several reports on the structure and architecture of the shells of acorn barnacles (Cirripedia, Crustacea) have been published (Karande and Palekar 1963; Klepal and Barnes 1975; Murdock and Currey 1978; Otway and Anderson 1985; Bourget 1997). By and large these reports deal with the adhesive and compressive strengths of various species settled on a variety of natural marine substrates and on man-made structures (Costlow 1956). In the macrostructure study of barnacles, some of the shell structures considered are radial margins of parietes, alar margins of parietes, parietal canals, radial canals in basal plate, parietal sheath and interlamellar primary and secondary septae (Bourget 1997). All these structures which contribute to the strength of the shells are in the forms of ridges, teeth or lamellar ribs, and are sculptured more or less elaborately in different cirripede species. In the present study, abutting sculpturings of ten Indian species and eleven species endemic to the American coast were examined. In this study, individual adult barnacles of various dimensions were used. The local barnacles examined were Euraphia withersi (Pilsbry), Chthamalus malayensis (Pilsbry), Chirona amaryllis (Broch), Balanus amphitrite (Darwin), B. variegatus (Darwin), B. kodakovi (Tarasov and Zevina), Megabalanus tintinnabulum (Linnaeus), Tetraclita purpurascens (Wood) and Tetraclitella karandei (Ross). It also became possible to examine macrostructures of acorn barnacles sent to us by Dr. Arnold Ross of the American Museum of Natural History, San Diego. These species collected along the US coast were Chthamalus dalli (Pilsbury), Chthamalus fissus (Darwin), Balanus ( Semibalanus ) cariosus (Pallas), B. crenatus (Bruguiere), B. glandula (Darwin), B. balanus (Linnaeus), B. rostratus (Hock), Tetraclita squamosa rubescens (Darwin), 70 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1: Acorn barnacle parietal plate (semidiagrammatic); types of sculpturings on radial margin (rm); stripe (i to iv); lamellar (v to viii); dish-shape (ix to x); pp, pt, ol (see Fig. 2) T. rubescens elegans (Darwin), T. stalactifera (Lamark) and Megabalcinus tintinnabulum californicus (Pilsbry). All tropical species, except Balanus kondakovi, are collected at Mumbai. Of the US species, B. crenatus, B. rostratus and T. stalactifera are collected at Friday Harbour, Alaska and Puetro Refugio respectively. The rest of the species are collected from the Californian coast. The nomenclature used for description of various shell components is the same as given by Bourget (1997). The semi- diagramatic illustrations of the shell components are given in Figs 1 and 2. Radial margin of parietes: The radial margin which abuts against margin of an adjoining plate is variously sculptured in different species. In its simplest form as is seen in E. withersi , it shows parallely placed stripes that provide anchoring surface for the parietal plates (Fig. li). In Chirona amaryllis each of such stripes is moderately built and has a series of smooth teeth (Fig lii). In the three tropical balanids. Fig. 2: Acorn barnacle shell (semidiagrammatic); a cross section of shell at the junction of the parietal plates and the basal plate; il: inner lamina; ol: outer lamina; pp: pinnate process; ps: parietal septum; pt: parietal tube; rc: radial canal; res: radial septum namely, Balanus amphitrite , B. variegatus and B. kondakovi , each of the simple stripes becomes pectinated (Fig. liii). A pectinated surface is also noted in a recently collected balanid from Karwar coast, which is identified as B. reticulates. In M. tintinnabulum each stripe shows bipinnate pattern. Here each tooth is a sharp and pointed structure unlike rounded ones observed in balanids (Fig. liv). In species like B. glandula, B. crenatus and B. balanus, all from the American coast, the sculpturing begins to lose its well-defined pectinated pattern observed in tropical balanids. The pectinated stripes assume lamellar forms which in turn branch and rebranch into ribbon-like or a water-spill like processes (Fig. 1 v, vi, vii). An elaborately developed lamellar anchoring surface is thus observed in B. rostratus where pectinated pattern is completely lost (Fig. lviii). It is, however, amply clear that this pattern has its origin in the basic stripe like geometric design. In C. malayensis , an orderly arrangement of anchoring design is completely lost though there is some evidence of serially arranged stripes on the radial margin. The surface has irregularly placed short, round pits which interface with the elevations present on the adjoining plates. Here, generally the surface can be described as rough and devoid of any definite pattern (Fig. lix). In the temperate species Chthamalus fissus and Ch. dalli, unlike Ch. malayensis, an organized pattern of stripes is retained. These stripes, however, are not well demarcated from one another. In tetraclitellan Tetraclitella karandei an anchoring pattern is distinctive. Here the abutting surface is not a solid plate. The surface is traversed by randomly placed holes, which in reality are the openings of the parietal canals. These J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 71 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES openings have flanged-like margins (Fig. lx), which anchor on corresponding depressions on adjoining parietal plates. In T. purpurascens, an anchoring surface is restricted to a very narrow area along the length of radial margin. Here the sculpturing is in the form of one row of deep pits. However, in both the Californian species, namely Tetraclita squamosa rubescens and Tetraclita stalactifera, the anchoring surfaces, unlike that of Tetraclita purpurascens, are elaborately lamellar as is also seen in some balanids. In Tetraclita squamosa rubescens particularly, the lamellar processes are heavily built. Table 1 gives types of sculptural patterns of radial margins of parietes of the tropical and the temperate barnacle species. Parietal canals: In E. withersi, Chirona amaryllis and in two chthamalids, the parietes are solid plates. In all the balanid species examined here, the plates are traversed by a single row of canals (Fig. 2). In T. squamosa rubescens, T. stalactifera, T. purpurascens and T. karandei parietes have several rows of canals. It is notable that B. (semi) cariosus of the family Archaebalanide shows several canals. These canals, however, are differently organized and are not homologous with those of balanids (Prof. William Newman pers. comm.). Basal plate radial canals: The radial canals (Fig. 2rc) are present in all solid base species of chironid, balanid and megabalanid. These canals are, however, absent in temperate species, namely B. balanus and B. crenatus. Interlamellar septae: The interlamellar septae emerging from the outer laminae of parietes (Fig. 2ol) terminate into wedge-shaped pinnate processes (Fig. 2pp). These help to strengthen the joints between the parietes and the base of a shell. Two types of wedge-shaped pinnate processes are reorganized. The more heavily built septal processes rest in the hollows of the radial canals located around the periphery of the basal plate. It is noted that in temperate balanids in B. balanus and B. rostratus, the secondary septal processes, unlike in tropical balanids, emerge from the inner walls of the parietes. The sculpturings of radial margins of the parietes of the shell in acorn barnacles can be broadly divided into three patterns. The first pattern shows a series of simple stripes placed parallely to one another along the length of the margin. Each of these stripes may further assume a pectinated form. In the second pattern, the stripe may branch and rebranch to create an elaborate lamellar network. In a further modification, a lamellar form assumes moderately built sheet-like surface. The third pattern of sculpturing is notably different from the first two patterns. Here the abutting surface shows several interfacing shallow pits and domes, a stripe-like geometric pattern being totally absent. A pattern of stripes, simple or pectinated, seems to be a basic form of abutting surface. A majority of the tropical Table 1 : Acorn barnacles; sculpturing patterns of radial margins of shell pariete of tropical and temperate species Cirripede species Radial margin sculpturing (see Fig. 1) Stripe Lamellar Flanged-dish (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (X) Tropical Euraphia withersi + Chthamalus malayensis + Chirona amaryllis + Balanus amphitrite + Balanus variegatus + Magabalanus tintinnabulum + Tetraclita purpurascens + Tetraclita sp. + Tetraclitella karandei + Temperate Chthamalus dalli + Chthamalus fissus + Balanus (semibalanus) cariosus + Balanus balanus + Balanus crenatus + Balanus glandula + Balanus rostratus + Megabalanus tintinnabulum californicus + Tetraclita squamosa rubescens + Tetraclita rubescens elegans + Tetraclita stalactifera + 72 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES barnacles, including E. withersi as well as balanids show this simple striped pattern. In balanids, particularly, a simple stripe may assume pectinated form and in megabalanid it may become multi-pectinated. In tropical balanids like B. amphitrite , B. kondakovi and B. variegates the abutting surfaces show a series of pectinated stripes, whereas in temperate balanids, it shows an elaborately sculptured lamellar pattern. In tropical chthamalid C. malayensis, the parietes show pits and domes on the abutting surfaces. The temperate chthamalids on the other hand show simple stripes. Differing sculptural patterns are also observed amongst tetraclitilid species. The two tropical species, namely Tetraclita purpurascens and Tetraclitella karandei show pits and dome type of sculpturing whereas one Tetraclita sp., possibly an Indo-Pacific species, collected at Port Blair, (Andaman) shows simple stripped pattern. Each of the three temperate tetraclitilids, namely, Tetraclita squamosa rubescens, T. rubescens elegence and T. stalactifera shows lamellar pattern of sculpturing. Thus, amongst the members of each of three genera, namely balanids, chthamalids and tetraclitilids, separated from each other geographically, distinct variations in abutting surfaces are observed. One observation that stands out boldly is that, as a rule, none of the tropical species examined show a lamellar pattern of abutting surface (Fig. 1 v to viii). On the other hand, among the American species, belonging to the three widely separated genera, the most prevalent sculpturing pattern is the lamellar one. Even B. (semi) cariosus, an archaebalanid, displays a lamellar pattern. The differences in sculpturings observed even amongst the members of a single genus, as well as between the tropical and the temperate species, do not seem to have resulted REFE Bourget, E. (1997): Shell structure in sessile barnacles. Nat. Can. 104(4): 281-323. Costlow, J.D. (1956): Shell development in Balanus improvisus Darwin. J. Morphol. 99: 359-400. Karande, A. A. & V.C. Palekar (1963): On a Shore barnacle Chthamalus malayensis Pilsbry from Bombay, (India). Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. 13(4): 231-234. Klepal, W. & H. Barnes (1975): The structure of wall plate in Chthamalus because of varying ecological conditions. What little orderliness in abutting surfaces complexity is observed, suggests that this surface is not an unstable or a transient character. It is, therefore, unlikely to be influenced by varying ecological conditions. A total absence of a lamellar pattern in tropical barnacles, after all, cannot be due to any ecological factor. Furthermore, varying ecological conditions can prevail even within a restricted geographical area, and this situation can lead to alteration of surfaces even among individual members of a single species, as is evident in the opercular valves of Chthamalus malayensis (Karande and Palekar 1 963). However, no such differences in the abutting surfaces of parietes of individuals of different sizes inhabiting varying environments are noticeable. The tropical acorn barnacles: Euraphia, Megabalanus and Balanus show, in that order, an increasing elaboration of stripe pattern of the sculpturing (Table 1, Fig. 1). The temperate species of Chthamalaus, Megabalanus and Balanus also show an increasing complexity of this surface. It would, therefore, be worthwhile to investigate, using a larger representative species, if there exists any relation between this shell character and the cirripede phylogeny as suggested by Prof. William Newman (pers. comm.). The present authors found themselves ill-equipped to examine the likelihood of such relation. Hence this note. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Dr. Arnold Ross for gift of variety of temperate barnacles in adequate numbers which motivated us to carry out this work. Thanks are also due to Prof. William Newman for his observations recorded in this paper. NCES depressus (Poli). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 20: 265-285. Murdock, GR. & J.D. Currey (1978): Strength and design of shells of the two ecologically distinct barnacles, Balanus balanus and Semibalanus ( Balanus ) balanoides (Cirripedia). Biol. Bull. Mar Biol. Lab., Woods Hole. 155: 169-192. Otway, N.M. & D.T. Anderson (1985): Variability of shell growth and morphology of the wall plate junctions of the intertidal barnacle Tesseropora rosea (Cirripedia: Tetraclitidae). Mar. Biol. 85: 171-183. 16. ANDRACHNE TELEPHIOIDES L. (PHYLLANTHACEAE) - AN ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF PENINSULAR INDIA M.M. Sardesai1 and S.Y. Chavan2 ‘Department of Botany, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad 431 004, Maharashtra, India. Email: sardesaimm@rediffmail.com Email: alysicarpus@gmail.com Introduction Pakistan, Afghanistan, and westwards along Mediterranean Andrachne telephioides L. is distributed in India, areas to Spain. In India, this sole representative of the J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (1), Jan-Apr 2010 73 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES genus Andrachne L. is so far known from Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh (Balakrishnan and Chakrabarty 2007). However, the occurrence of an undetermined species of the genus is recorded for Maharashtra (Naik 1998; Almeida 2003). The present investigation reveals the occurrence of A. telephioides in Maharashtra as well as Andhra Pradesh, being additions to the flora of these States. Hence, a short account of the species is presented here. Andrachne telephiodes L.. Sp. PI. 1014. 1753; Hook.f., FI. Brit. India 5: 284. 1887; N.P. Balakr. & Chakrab., Fam. Euphorb. India 338. 2007. A. naikii M.R. Almeida, FI. Maharashtra IVB: 287. 2003, nom. illeg. Lectotype: "Habitat in Italia, Graecia, Media” (Radcliffe-Smith in Meikle, FI. Cyprus 2: 1488. 1985): Herb. Linn. No. 1155.1 (Linn). Glaucous, erect or diffuse monoecious herb; branches 7-15 cm long. Leaves oblong-obovate, 3-5 x 1-3 mm, obtuse at apex, entire, cuneate at base, penninerved, membranous, glabrous; petioles 1.0-2. 5 mm long; stipules subpeltate, 1. 5-2.0 mm long, irregularly incised. Inflorescence axillary, solitary or males often 2-3 together. Male flowers: pedicels 0.8- 1 .0 mm long; sepals 5-6, imbricate, connate at base, obovate, c. 1.5 x 0.5 mm; petals 5 or 6, linear-oblong, deeply notched at apex., c. 0.5 x 0.2 mm; disc glands 5 or 6, 0.15-0.18 mm long, 5-lobed; stamens 5 or 6, 0.4-0. 6 mm long; filaments free or partially connate; anthers 4-lobed, c. 0.15 x 0.2 mm, elliptic-oblong; pistillode present. Female flowers: pedicels c. 2 mm long; sepals larger than in male flowers; petals minute; disc glands as in male; ovary 3-loculed; style short, bifid to base. Capsules depressed globose, 2-3 mm in diam., glabrous, consisting of three, 2-valved cocci; endocarp thinly woody. Seeds 2 per locule, triquetrous, with a convex, punctulate back, curved, rugose, sculptured, estrophiolate. Flowering and Fruiting: December-February. Habitat: Occasional, in open grounds, harvested fields and dry mud. Distribution: Pakistan, Afghanistan, westwards along Mediterranean areas to Spain, india: New record to Andhra Pradesh, Nijamabad district. Mirzapur, 7.iii. 1 98 1 , Madhukar 6348 (BMAU). Maharashtra, Parbhani district, Parbhani town, 23. i. 1981 . Madhukar 6169 (BAMU). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to the authorities of Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune, for confirming the identity. We thank Dr. V.N. Naik for valuable guidance in preparation of manuscript and Head, Department of Botany, Dr. B.A.M. University, Aurangabad, for providing herbarium facilities and constant encouragement. We thank the Linnaean Society of London for providing the image of the type specimen. REFERENCES Almeida, M.R. (2003): Flora of Maharashtra (Family Euphorbiaceae) - IVB. Blatter Herbarium. St. Xavier’s College. Mumbai. Pp. 279-355. Balakrishnan, N.P. & T. Chakrabarty (2007): The Family Euphorbiaceae in India. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. 500 pp. Naik, V.N. ( 1998): Flora of Marathwada (Family Euphorbiaceae) - II. Amrut Prakashan, Aurangabad. Pp. 771-806. Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published on December 03, 2010 by Dr. Ashok Kothari for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India. 74 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. 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Abstracts of papers presented at scientific meetings may be cited. References to literature should be alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and titles of books or papers in Roman type, thus: Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 91(1): 63-66. Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals. 3rd Edn. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 35-48. Species names should carry the Author’s name and subspecies (trinomials) should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. For the standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent refer to Buceros Vol. 6, No. 1 (2001). Miscellaneous Notes: The section accommodates incidental observations on flora and fauna of the Asian region, and need not follow strictly the above section headings. No abstract is required, but key words may be included and references must be cited as in the rest of the Journal. Reprints: 25 reprints will be supplied free of charge to the authors of Main Papers and New Descriptions. Authors of Miscellaneous Notes will be sent one free copy each of the Journal. The Editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution before that of a non¬ member. The Editors also reserve the right to publish invited papers on priority. Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982 CONTENTS EDITORIAL . . . 1 FEEDING ECOLOGY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA N. Baskaran, M. Balasubramanian, S. Swaminathan and Ajay A. Desai . 3 AN ANNOTATED AND ILLUSTRATED CHECKLIST OF THE OPISTHOBRANCH FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA, WITH 21 NEW RECORDS FOR GUJARAT AND 13 NEW RECORDS FROM INDIA: PARTI Deepak Apte, Vishal Bhave and Dishant Parasharya . 14 FISH DIVERSITY, PRODUCTION POTENTIALAND COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF RAMSAGAR RESERVOIR, DATIA, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA R.K. Garg, R.J. Rao and D.N. Saksena . 24 DEMOGRAPHY OF CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANTS ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINNAEUS IN THREE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN TAMIL NADU, INDIA V. Vanitha, K. Thiyagesan and N. Baskaran . . 30 GERMINATION RATE OF MESQUITE PPOSOPIS JUUFLORA SEEDS PASSED THROUGH GUT OF THE INDIAN WILD ASS EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR IN SALT DESERT OF INDIA Bitapi C. Sinha, S.P. Goyal and P.R. Krausman . 38 LIFE HISTORY OF ATTACUS ATLAS L. (LEPIDOPTERA: SATURNIIDAE) ON LITSEA MONOPETALA JUSS. IN NORTH-EAST INDIA B.N. Sarkar, B.C. Chutia, J. Ghose and A. Barah . 42 NEW DESCRIPTIONS RECORD OF THE GENUS SCHIZOPRYMNUS FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES Zubair Ahmad and Zaheer Ahmed . 45 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 48 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Dr. Ashok Kothari for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001. website: www.bnhs.org; Email: bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net.in JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AUGUST 2010 VOL 107 (2) JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 . Executive Editor Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai Copy and Production Eduor Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc. Editorial Board Ajith Kumar, Ph. D. National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com. Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad C.R. Babu. Ph. D. Professor, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D Sc. Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc. The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati Indraneil Das. D. Phil. Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia Y.V. Jhala Ph. D. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program, Bengaluru, Karnataka T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc. Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala G.S. Rawat, Ph. D. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun K. Rema Devi, Ph. D. Zoological Survey of India, Chennai J.S. Singh, Ph. D. Professor, Banaras Hindu University Varanasi S. Subramanya, Ph. D. University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Hebbal, Bengaluru R. Sukumar, Ph. D. Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc. Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust, Tamil Nadu S.R. Yadav, Ph. D. Shivaji University, Kolhapur Senior Consultant Editor J.C. Daniel, M. Sc. Consultant Editors Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D. Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru Nigel Collar, Ph. D. BirdLife International, UK Rhys Green. Ph. D. Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun T.J. Roberts, Ph. D. World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc. Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu © Bombay Natural History Society 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above. VOLUME 107(2): AUGUST 2010 .tocz CONTENTS EDITORIAL . 75 ENSURING THE FUTURE OF THE TIGER AND OTHER LARGE MAMMALS IN THE SOUTHERN PORTION OFTHE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA A.J.T. Johnsingh, R. Raghunath, Rajeev Pillay and M.D. Madhusudan . 77 TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS TRACHYPITHECUS PILEATUS IN PAKKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA G.S. Solanki and Awadhesh Kumar . 86 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON TROPICAL FOREST BIRD COMMUNITIES AND MIXED- SPECIES BIRD FLOCKS IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS Swati Sidhu, T.R. Shankar Raman and Eben Goodale . 91 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW HIRUNDO DOMICOLA IN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA P. Balakrishnan . 109 PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL Anantanarayanan Raman . 116 STUDY OF JUVENILE AND ADULT GROWTH, AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECtLOCERUS PICTUS (FABRICIUS) FEEDING ON CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS Madhavi V. Swant, Shiney Peter, K.R. Kharat and B.P Hardikar . 122 VARIABILITIES IN DIFFERENT BODY MEASUREMENTS OF THE HORSESHOE CRAB, CARCINOSCORPIUS ROTUNDICAUDA (LATREILLE) COLLECTED FROM SETIU AND GELANG PATAH HABITATS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA T.C. Srijaya, PJ. Pradeep, S. Mithun, Anuar Hassan, Faizah Shaharom and Anil Chatterji . 130 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY AND TAXONOMIC PROFILE OF THE VEGETATION OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA K.P. Singh, Achuta Nand Shukla and J.S. Singh . 135 IMPACT OF LANDUSE CHANGES ON PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY OF NOKREK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, MEGHALAYA, INDIA S.D. Prabhu, S.K. Barik, H.N. Pandey and R.S. Tripathi . 146 NEW DESCRIPTIONS ON THE GENUS KANAKARAJIELLA SUNDARARAJ & DAVID (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) WITH DESCRIPTION OF ANEW SPECIES R. Sundararaj and R. Pushpa . 159 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW HOMOPORUS THOMSON (HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE) FROM NORTH¬ EASTERN INDIA, WITH A KEY TO ORIENTAL SPECIES T.C. Narendran and F.R. Khan . 162 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS 1 . Further note on some behavioural aspects of the Northern Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina Anwaruddin Choudhury . 165 2. Effect of Aila storm on Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Brunnich) S. Mallick and S.K. Raut . 167 3. First record of Lesser False Vampire Bat ( Megaderma spasma Linnaeus, 1758) in Gir National Park & Sanctuary Md. Shamshad Alam . 167 4. Recent records of Gaur Bos gaurus Smith in Bangladesh Anwaruddin Choudhury . 168 5. A conservation plea for saving wildlife in the landscape bound by Gola, Ladhiya and Sharada rivers, north India A.J.T. Johnsingh, Bivash Pandav and Dhananjai Mohan . 170 AVES 6. Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus macrurus in Phulwari- ki-Naal Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur district, Rajasthan Harkirat Singh Sangha and Dhirendra Devarshi . 173 REPTILE 7. Additional distribution records of Assam Roofed Turtle Pangshura sylhetensis (Jerdon 1870) from different localities of western Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, India Rakesh Soud and Lohit Gogoi . 174 FISH 8. A note on the occurrence of non-stygobitic fishes in a cave in Andhra Pradesh, Peninsular India Y. Ranga Reddy and S.V. Sharma . 175 9. A new record of Reef Fish Istigobius diadema (Steindachner 1 876), from Andaman island Kamla Devi and V. Madhan Chakkaravarthy . 179 INSECT 10. A report on the migration of the butterfly Phalanta alcippe (Nymphalidae) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Muhamed Jafer Palot . Cover Photograph: Indian Giant Squirrel Ratufa indica By N.A. Naseer ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt of India, FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL. 180 II Editorial Are we reaching the Eremozoic Era? Professor E.O. Wilson is one of the most famous conservation biologists and naturalists of the world. His basic work is on the ecology of ants but he has become strong proponent of biodiversity conservation. He is famous for coining the word ‘sociobiology’. He is author and editor of several books, one of them is biodiversity that was first published in 1988 and has been reprinted many times. It makes fascinating, although sad, reading about the status of biodiversity in the world. Wilson has come up with the phrase Eremozoic Era -the Age of Loneliness in his book the creation (2006). His worry is that unless we stop the biodiversity loss that is happening at a frightening speed, we may be headed to an age where humans will survive the climate change and all other disturbances, and may even flourish in megacities, but it will be a lonely age in a biodiversity-depauperate world. In the 5.4 billion years of Earth's life, there have been five major cataclysmic extinctions. Each of these extinctions resulted in more than 70-80% species going extinct. All these extinctions were the results of geological and other natural factors. It is calculated that almost 95 to 99% of the species that ever lived on this Earth are extinct. It is not a very reassuring statistic unless we look at it through the evolutionary perspective. Each natural extinction, whether it was due to basalt eruption or asteroid/comet hitting the Earth, resulted in mass extinction of the existing taxa and evolution of new taxa or groups. For example, the geological event that ended the Permian Era, 25 1 million years ago, and started the Triassic Era resulted in the extinction of nearly 96% of all marine species and 70% of all land species. After the Permian Era ended, new life forms evolved during the Triassic Era. We have to remember that these mass extinction took thousands of years if not millions, giving enough time for the Earth to settle down and evolutionary processes to take place, resulting in new taxa. Even the last mass extinction 65 million years ago which ended the Dinosaur Era, resulted in the Age of Mammals of what we see today. The type of extinction that we are seeing today is totally unnatural and very fast. Owing to man-induced reasons, species are dying at a much faster rate, some say 100 to 1,000 times faster than the natural evolutionary process. For example, during the last 500 years, we have exterminated 450 bird species, and at present nearly 12% of the 10,000 bird species of the world are in danger of extinction. Mammals and amphibians are in a much worse condition. During the past 500 years, at least 80 mammal species have gone extinct out of the total of about 5,570 species known to science. The average extinction rate for mammals is less than two extinctions every million years, far lower than the current extinction rate for mammals. Human encroachment, deforestation and habitat loss, climate change, spread of new diseases, poaching for meat, over-fishing and illegal wildlife trade are making survival difficult for most wild species. Hunting for bushmeat in Africa has emptied many forests. Closer home, we have vast tract of forests with very little wildlife. We have our own empty and silent forests. Tiger crises is always in the news, but how many people know that less than 10 individuals are left of the peninsular Wild Buffalo (including only one known breeding female) and less than 200 Hangul or Kashmir Stags are left. The Kondana Rat MiUardia kondana is reported only from a small Sinhagadh plateau (less than 1 sq. km) near Pune, Maharashtra. Out of the 1,225 bird species recorded in India, about 155 are under threat of extinction: 14 are Critically Endangered, 16 are Endangered, 58 are Vulnerable, and the rest Near Threatened. There has been 97 to 99% decline in the Gyps vulture population since the spread of the killer-drug diclofenac from early 1990s. The Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps is slipping away as its last remaining habitat is taken over by man. Soon its booming display call will become silent. We now have empty skies and silent dunes. Thanks to the unrestricted use of chemical pesticides, insect populations have crashed, cascading the decline of so-called common birds. The chirpy call of the House Sparrow is no more heard in most houses as it cannot find soft-bodied insects for its chicks in cities and even in intensive agriculture areas. There has been 50- 80% decline in the bee population in the world, so much so that in some parts of China, workers are employed in orchards to manually pollinate flowers. Due to land hunger, thriving ‘living’ forests are being replaced by monoculture plantations, pastures or agriculture fields. For example, from 1990 to 2005, more than 70 million hectares of original forests was cleared, much of it in South America, for pastures. Deforestation, sometimes encouraged by governments, has reached alarming situation in much of South-east Asia, mainly for oil palm plantations. Invasive species are a major threat to numerous taxa on islands, particularly to birds. Introduced cats, rats, mongoose, dogs have exterminated more bird species during the last 500 years than all other factors combined. Many small remote oceanic islands where sea birds used to breed are empty, thanks to invasive species. In our housing societies where planting trees has become a fashion, mainly exotic fast-growing trees are planted which do not attract native birds and insects. We may have some greenery, but no bird sings in it. Nearly 50 years ago, Rachel Carson wrote the famous book silent spring that brought into focus the horrors of pesticides to the general public. It resulted in official ban of the DDT in most countries and restriction on many pesticides. As far as biodiversity is concerned, since Rachel’s book, we are sliding down to reach the Eremozoic Era - the Age of Silence. Unless we reverse the extinction crises, soon the forest of the Kashmir Vale will not hear the loud bugle call of the Hangul, the forest of central India will not hear the spine-chilling roar of the tiger, and the dunes of the Thar desert will not hear the far-carrying booming call of the Great Indian Bustard. Even our neighbouring Magpie Robin will not delight us with its melodious song. Will we be happy in this silent world? Asad R. Rahmani 76 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 77-85 ENSURING THE FUTURE OF THE TIGER AND OTHER LARGE MAMMALS IN THE SOUTHERN PORTION OF THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA A.J.T. JOHNSINGH1’2, R. Raghunath1,3, Rajeev Pillay1,4 and M.D. Madhusudan1-5 'Nature Conservation Foundation, 3076/5, 4th Cross, Gokulam Park, Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India. 2Email: ajt.johnsingh@gmail.com 3Email: raghu@ conservation. in 4Email: rajeev@conservation.in 5Email: mdm@conservation.in The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, at the tri-junction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, constitutes arguably one of the finest conservation landscapes in the global range of the tiger. We surveyed the southern part of this region, as well as the adjoining areas, to assess the status of large mammals both within and outside protected areas. Our field assessments suggest that large mammals are almost exclusively confined to protected areas with the few remaining populations outside under severe threat from habitat degradation and poaching. However, large stretches of contiguous forests still remain. We suggest the extension of the recently notified Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu such that connectivity is retained and strengthened with Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary of Karnataka to the north-east and with Silent Valley National Park of Kerala to the south. We also provide suggestions on strengthening conservation in this landscape. The involvement of local communities in the establishment of the Siruvani Conservation Reserve in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and Nilambur Conservation Reserve in Kerala, will bolster the conservation of large mammals in this landscape. With the suggested extension, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve has the potential of becoming arguably the finest habitat for tigers across Asia, given the variations in altitude, topography and climate which produce a diversity of vegetation types and consequently, provide the tiger with an assortment of prey ranging from Nilgiri Tahr in the high altitude montane grasslands to Blackbuck in the low-lying dry deciduous and thorn scrub forests. Key words: connectivity, corridor, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Nilambur Conservation Reserve, protected area, Siruvani Conservation Reserve, wildlife INTRODUCTION Tigers Panthera tigris are in decline throughout their range and the global population of around 3,500 individuals (Karanth 2001), of which 50% survive in India (Jhala et al. 2008), is severely threatened by anthropogenic pressures. Consequently, despite international conservation efforts the range of the tiger has declined by 40% in the last decade (Dinerstein etal. 2007; Sanderson et al. 2006). India has made a commendable effort towards tiger conservation by establishing as many as 39 tiger reserves and notifying several more for establishment in the near future. However, the mere demarcation of protected areas as tiger reserves has not succeeded in maintaining populations of this endangered felid in these reserves, as evident from the disappearance of tigers from Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan in 2004 and from Panna Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh in 2009. Again, the low density tiger populations in as many as 16 reserves and the ineffectiveness of management due to insurgency in reserves such as Palamau in Jharkhand, Simlipal in Orissa, Nagarjunasagar in Andhra Pradesh, Indravati in Chattisgarh, Valmiki in Bihar, Dampa in Mizoram and Namdapha in Arunachal Pradesh (Jhala et al. 2008) are major concerns for the future of the Tiger in India. It is therefore vital to strengthen tiger conservation in parts of India where law and order issues do not pose a problem, such that the continued survival of tiger can be ensured in at least some parts of its range. In this paper, we focus on the southern portion of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, where we assess the status of the tiger and other large mammals. We recommend the extension of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, which was notified in 2007, as well as the creation of Siruvani and Nilambur Conservation Reserves. We underline the conservation measures that need urgent implementation, such that the southern part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve reaches its full potential in maintaining populations of the tiger, as well as an assemblage of sympatric predators and prey species. STUDY AREA One of the finest conservation landscapes in possibly the entire range of the tiger lies in the Nilgiri Hills and adjoining areas of southern India (Fig. 1). The intact tiger habitat here is nearly 8,000 sq. km, part of which falls under the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Major protected areas in this region are Pushpagiri, Brahmagiri, Talacauvery, Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple, Cauvery, Sathyamangalam, Aralam and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuaries, Bandipur, Nagarahole and Mudumalai ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE Tiger Reserves, and Silent Valley and Mukurthi National Parks. These protected areas are surrounded by reserve forests in the Forest Divisions of Palakkad, Mannarkad. Coimbatore, Nilgiris South, Nilambur South and North, Kozhikode (Thamarassery Range), Wayanad South, Hosur, Dharmapuri and Kollegal. Apart from the Tiger, other charismatic large mammals occurring in this tract are the Leopard Panthera pardus , Dhole Cuon alpinus. Striped Hyena Hyaena hyaena , Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus , Asian Elephant Elephas maximus , Gaur Bos gaurus, Nilgiri Tahr Nilgiritragus hylocrius , Sambar Rasa unicolor , Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra. Four-horned Antelope or Chowsingha Tetracerus quadricomis. Lion-tailed Macaque Macaca site nus and Nilgiri Langur Trachypithecus johnii. In the past, the forests between Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary and Mudumalai Tiger Reserve possibly harboured the Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, Wolf Canis lupus. Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus and Chinkara Gazella bennettii (Nicholson 1887; Pythian-Adams 1951). METHODS We carried out field surveys between November 2007 and July 2009 aimed at understanding habitat quality and documenting habitat use by large mammals in the southern part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and adjoining areas. We recorded the geographic locations of sightings and signs of large mammals we encountered. We also compiled a description of the dominant vegetation cover and land use along survey routes. The survey data was mapped in a Geographical Information System (GIS) along with remotely- sensed data. A forest cover layer was prepared for the area to examine connectivity and a description was compiled on the location and contiguity of natural habitat across the landscape. On the basis of large mammal occurrence, vegetation-land cover maps, discussions with local communities and Forest Department personnel and our own observations, passages of least resistance for the movement of large mammals were identified. With regard to the extension of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, we surveyed Mukurthi National Park, Gudalur and Bitharkadu ranges in Gudalur Forest Division, Singara, Sigur and Nilgiris Eastern Slope ranges in Nilgiris North Forest Division, Bhavanisagar. Sathyamangalam, T.N. Palayam, 78 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE Fig. 2: The suggested extension of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve Hasanur and Talavadi ranges in Sathyamangalam Forest Division in Tamil Nadu, and Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka. The total survey effort was 1,400 km by vehicle and 145 km on foot. With regard to the establishment of Nilambur and Siruvani Conservation Reserves, we surveyed areas to the east and south of Mukurthi and Silent Valley National Parks comprising Palakkad, Mannarkad, Coimbatore, Nilgiris South, Nilambur South and Nilambur North Forest Divisions, Thamarassey range in Kozhikode Forest Division and Meppady range in Wayanad South Forest Division. The total survey effort here was 840 km by vehicle and 24 km on foot. RESULTS Mudumalai Tiger Reserve and adjacent areas The sighting of a Tiger and the presence of its feral buffalo kill near Thengumarahada village together with several sightings of Blackbuck, Chital Axis axis and Gaur in the recently established Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary indicate the richness of large mammal fauna in this area. Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary is connected with Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary to the east and Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary to the north. The flat topography (mean altitude 200 m above msl), and dry deciduous and thorn scrub habitat of Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary makes it a fairly suitable habitat for Blackbuck. However, proliferation of Opuntia dillenii and Prosopis juliflora, both exotics from the new world, is gradually beginning to make the habitat too dense for Blackbuck and Chital which are species of open grassland habitats. This area is also well-connected to the montane grassland and shola habitats of Mukurthi National Park (average altitude 2,400 m above msl) through Sigur range, Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, and Singara and Naduvattam ranges (Fig. 2). Therefore, these forests on the eastern side of the Western Ghats form a contiguous stretch from Mukurthi National Park to Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary. On the west, the connectivity of Mukurthi National Park with Silent Valley National Park is intact. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 79 ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE We obtained direct sightings as well as indirect evidences for the Tiger, Leopard, Dhole, Elephant, Gaur, Wild Pig Sus scrofa and Sambar throughout the stretch from Mukurthi National Park to Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary. In the lower reaches of the eastern slopes, we observed species such as Chital, Chowsingha, Blackbuck, feral buffalo. Southern Plains Grey Langur Semnopithecus dussumieri and Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata. This diversity of mammals highlights the unique nature of the habitat with its wide altitudinal range and diverse vegetation types where tigers possibly prey on an assortment of ungulates ranging from the Blackbuck, Chital, Wild Pig, Sambar, Gaur and feral buffalo in the lower elevations to the Nilgiri Tahr in the high altitudes. However, we identified a number of threats to conservation in this area which include heavy traffic along the Dimbum - Sathyamangalam road and the depletion of the fish resources of the Moyar river, which harbours a population of around 100 mugger or freshwater crocodiles Crocodylus palustris , due to the pressure exerted by the Special Task Force camp. There are proposals to build a rail link between Sathyamangalam in Tamil Nadu and Chamarajanagar in Karnataka and a highway between Sathyamangalam and Sirur connecting Ooty/Gudalur, while resorts are proliferating in the Masinagudi area adjoining Mudumalai Tiger Reserve. The proliferation of Lantana camara and the lack of regeneration of palatable species for wild ungulates is a serious concern. Nearly 1 ,600 people live in 30 tiny enclaves in Mudumalai and Nelakottai ranges, and have not been relocated despite their willingness to do so. The growing firewood needs of Gudalur township poses a threat to the Mukurthi-Mudumalai corridor. Burgeoning tourism in the area could be inimical to conservation and there has been a delay in the extension of the Mukurthi National Park (78.46 sq. km) by another 33 sq. km. Siruvani Hills and adjacent areas We obtained direct sightings and indirect evidences of the Golden Jackal Canis aureus. Elephant, Gaur, Wild Pig, Sambar, Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Langur, Southern Plains Grey Langur, Bonnet Macaque and Indian Giant Squirrel Ratufa indica. The moist deciduous forests here afford connectivity to Walayar and Agali ranges in Palakkad and Mannarkad Forest Divisions respectively (Fig. 3). We obtained several indirect signs of Elephant, Gaur and Sambar on a survey of the upper reaches of Agali range to assess connectivity between Siruvani Hills and Silent Valley National Park. We also sighted a tusker, a gaur bull, three Sambar and a Nilgiri Langur in Agali range. However, poaching is reportedly rampant here with many villagers and tribals possessing illegal firearms. We surveyed Attappady range in Mannarkad Forest Division where the valley is completely under human occupation while the southern hilly areas are forested. No signs of herbivores like Chital and Sambar were found during a drive of 60 km within Karamadai range in Coimbatore Forest Division and up to Pillur reservoir in Mettupalayam range which supplies water to about 50% of the population in Coimbatore city, the other half obtaining water from the Siruvani reservoir. Even though the habitat appears suitable, rampant hunting in the past when the reservoir was under construction and possible poaching at present may be the reason for the near absence of large mammals around the reservoir. Several tribal settlements were observed within Karamadai range each with a sizeable population of dogs. The possibility of tribals using dogs for poaching cannot be ruled out. We observed a tusker at mid-day on the infrequently used Parali-Coonoor road, which suggests that less disturbed roads may serve as conduits for large mammals. The drive (about 50 km) from Karamadai range to Manjoor in Kundha range, Nilgiris South Forest Division yielded only one indirect evidence each of Sloth Bear, Elephant, Gaur and Sambar indicating that large mammal use of this hilly area is sporadic possibly as a result of speeding vehicles and steep terrain on either side of the road. However, we sighted a group of 19 Gaur at the edge of a shola and a tea plantation located between Chamaraj Tea Estate and Kundha Reservoir. The Gaur were unmindful of the people using the road and working in the surrounding tea gardens, which suggests that this bovid, if not hunted and if allowed sufficient habitat, can survive in the proximity of people. Nilambur Hills and adjacent areas This zone (Fig. 3) comprises the forest ranges of Karulai in Nilambur South Forest Division, Vazhikadavu, Nilambur and Edavanna in Nilambur North Forest Division, Thamrassery in Kozhikode Forest Division and Meppady in Wayanad South Forest Division. Our survey yielded sightings and indirect evidence of Elephant, Chital. Southern Plains Grey Langur and Indian Giant Squirrel. The habitat in Karulai range (265 sq. km), which adjoins Mukurthi National Park in the east and is populated by just four sholanaickan tribal settlements with a population of c. 600 people, appears to be of good quality. The habitat is devoid of exotic weeds such as Lantana camara, Parthenium hysterophorus and Eupatorium odoratum while the abundance of species such as Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa arundinacea, Terminalia belerica, T. tomentosa, Caryea arborea, Grewia tiliaefolia and Zizyphus xylopyrus is suitable for large herbivores such as Gaur, Sambar and Chital. However, widespread poaching in the past as also in 80 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Socv 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE Mudumalai TR Iherambal Bitherkadu Gudalur Meppat Pandalur Thamrassery Ud hagai North Pykara Kattabettu Kothagii Nilambur Calicut FD Kallar - Jakkanari r ^namanZ vazhikadavu Parson's Valley / Nllambur/North FD > ‘ Coonoor< iCoonoor Nilambur ‘ Conservation Reserve Udhagai * South J Edavanna Karulai torav : a f Estate^ Korakundh; Ipalayam Karamadai Kalikavu Siruvani Attappady Conservation Reserve f~~\ J Periyanaickenpalayai Kallamj Ma^darr.^tty .KuaiWiBnKur Nilambur South FD Mannarkad Ottapalam Olavakkode Walayar Palakkad FD The suggested Nilambur and Siruvani Conservation Reserves Calicut Nilgiris Eastern Slope To Calicut Protected Area Forest Drvtson Forest Range Forest Cover Railway State Highway National Highway # City / Town # Place # Encroachment I Suggested Conservation Reserve Fig. 3: The suggested Nilambur and Siruvani Conservation Reserves the present may have resulted in the near elimination of the prey base in Karulai range. Our drive of 38 km and walk of 4 km yielded only a sighting of one elephant herd and a few groups of Southern Plains Grey Langur. We only heard a few Chital alarm calls during a night spent in Vattikallu anti¬ poaching camp. To the north lies Vazhikadavu range which has a large patch of rainforest habitat with a population of Lion-tailed macaques. Reliable anecdotal evidence suggests that elephants, sambar and wild pig cross the Gudalur-Nilambur road in the area of the rainforest. The landscape north of Nilambur North Forest Division is predominantly tea and reports of the occurrence of species such as the Elephant, Sambar, Wild Pig and Leopard in the tea estates adjacent to the Gudalur-Cherambadi road suggests the possibility that the patches of forests between Bitharkadu range and the road serve as stepping stones for wildlife movement (Bennett 2003). Efforts should be made to identify such stepping stones and protect them. North-west of Thamrassery and Meppady ranges, forest connectivity is broken by the busy Sultan Bathery - Kozhikode National Highway. Mukurthi and Silent Valley National Parks and Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary We also surveyed Mukurthi and Silent Valley National Parks and Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary to document the status of large mammals within these protected areas and compared the areas with similar habitats outside. Table 1 summarizes the survey effort and large mammal encounter rates within each range of Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Silent Valley - Mukurthi National Parks. Abundance of Lantcma camara, Eupatorium odoratum and profuse regeneration of Cassia fistula , whose leaves are unpalatable to ungulates, were observed on both sides of the survey route in Tholpetty range of Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary, which is connected to Nagarahole Tiger Reserve in the north and Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary to the west. Drives inside Muthanga (connected to Bandipur TR to the north-east and Benne range of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in the east), Sultan Bathery (connected to Bandipur Tiger Reserve in the east) and Kurchiad ranges (connected to Begur and Gundre ranges of Bandipur Tiger Reserve) in Wyanad J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 81 ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE Wildlife Sanctuary yielded many sightings of large herbivores and many indirect evidences of large carnivores such as the Tiger and Dhole. The highest large mammal encounter rates were in Sultan Bathery range (Table 1). However, the absence of speed-breakers on the six kilometre stretch of the Sultan Bathery - Mysore road which passes through Muthanga range is a recipe for road kills. Since the ban on night traffic through Bandipur Tiger Reserve in mid- 2009, vehicles from Kerala line up at the Muthanga gate causing further disturbance to the movement of wildlife. We recommend the shifting of this gate from its present location at the inter-state border to six kilometres within Kerala where the forests begin. DISCUSSION Establishment of large, contiguous protected areas and community participation in the protection and management of wildlife are crucial to ensure the long-term survival of wildlife. The aim of setting up conservation reserves is to provide a flexible and effective management system for wildlife conservation without compromising the needs of local communities. Involvement of the local communities would go a long way in promoting and sustaining programs such as regeneration of native species in exotic plantations and strengthening anti-poaching measures. We specify the extension of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve and identify two areas within the southern and south-western Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve where prey and predator recovery should be facilitated with the specific objective of enabling the tigers to reside and breed. Suggested extension to Mudumalai Tiger Reserve We suggest the inclusion of Mukurthi National Park, parts of Naduvattam range in Nilgiris South Forest Division, Sigur, Singara, Nilgiris Eastern Slope Ranges in Nilgiris North Forest Division and the newly established Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary within Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (Fig. 2). Bitharkadu (67 sq. km) and Gudalur ( 1 18 sq. km) ranges (Gudalur FD) may not be included within the Tiger Reserve but special management attention in the form of conservation education should be directed at the people of these two ranges, to enlist their support for conservation as poachers from these areas are often reported to operate in the nearby forests. Sigur and Naduvattam ranges are crucial for connecting Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary with Mukurthi National Park. There exist historical records of the occurrence of Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus and Chinkara Gazella bennettii in the Sathyamangalam region (Pythian- Adams 1951). Blackbuck is still common in Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary, Sigur range and the adjacent Moyar range of Bandipur Tiger Reserve. We believe that the Four-homed Antelope, which occurs in the adjacent Sigur range, may also be occurring in Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary. If Chinkara and Nilgai are reintroduced in this fairly well-protected stretch of habitat, where the factors responsible for their original extirpation may no longer operate, the uniqueness of this landscape will be further enhanced. If this were to be realized, nowhere else in the global range of the Tiger would one find such an assemblage of large mammal prey, ranging from four species of peninsular antelopes, three species of forest deer, a species each of wild cattle, wild pig and mountain ungulate and four primate species. Table 1 : Survey effort and large mammal encounter rates within each range of Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Silent Valley - Mukurthi National Parks Species Tholpetty drive (18 km) Muthanga drive (28 km) Sultan Bathery drive (44 km) Kurchiad drive (51 km) Silent Valley - Mukurthi walk (50 km) Tiger 0.05 0 0.02 0.01 0.02 Elephant 0.11 0.42 0.59 0.09 0.02 Gaur 0.16 0 2.27 0.74 0.02 Sambar 0.16 1.10 0.15 0 0 Chital 7.16 2.00 6.38 0.39 0 Indian Muntjac 0 0.03 0 0.03 0 Nilgiri Tahr 0 0 0 0 0.02 Wild Pig 0 0 0.04 0.13 0 Southern Plains Grey Langur 1.05 0.28 0.68 0.07 0 Nilgiri Langur 0 0 0 0 0.08 Lion-tailed Macaque 0 0 0 0 0.02 Bonnet Macaque 0.27 0 0.27 0 0 Indian Giant Squirrel 0 0.03 0 0.05 0.06 82 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE Our sighting of a tiger and its feral buffalo kill occurred near Thengumarahada village, which is situated on the right bank of Moyar river in Nilgiris Eastern Slope Range. The land in the village was originally given to a few families of the badaga community on a lease of 100 years. However, they sub-leased their property to outsiders and relocated to cities. After 30 years or so, the Government may have to decide on whether to renew the lease or allow forests and wildlife to take over the village area again. The existence of this village, which is likely to grow into a small town, poses several potential problems to this tiger landscape. We suggest the regulation of traffic along the Dimbam- Sathyamangalam road by constructing functional speed breakers along the six kilometers between the base of the mountain (Balari Amman temple) and the edge of the forest boundary, the relocation of the Special Task Force camp to control poaching around Kollegal and Coimbatore Forest Divisions and the use of the existing camp by anti-poaching personnel of the Forest Department and trainees of Mettupalayam Forestry College. We strongly urge the scrapping of the proposal to build a railway track between Sathyamangalam and Chamarajanagar and an all weather road between Sathyamangalam and Sirur connecting Ooty/Gudalur as they will forever destroy the last bit of wilderness in the lower Nilgiri Plateau. The problem of lack of regeneration of palatable species such as Bauhinia racemosa, Gmelina arborea, Grewia tiliaefolia, Lannea coromandelica, Terminalia belerica, Zizyphus mauritiana and Z. xylocarpus should be addressed by growing thousands of these species in nurseries for several years and planting them along with the onset of the monsoon using Lantana thickets as a biofence. Incentive-driven voluntary resettlement of the people living in Mudumalai and Nelakottai ranges should be carried out at the earliest so as to create disturbance-free prey rich areas for the tiger. Connectivity between Mukurthi National Park and Mudumalai forests (Sigur Plateau) can be strengthened by not allowing major tourism development between Gudalur and Naduvattam, by acquiring failed tea estates in this corridor area and by stopping firewood extraction by people from Gudalur. In this context, the possibility of growing firewood species in existing agricultural and waste lands in Gudalur FD needs to be explored so as to meet the growing firewood needs of Gudalur township. It is also important to acquire farms at the junction of Masinagudi, Kargudi and Gudalur ranges, which are not under cultivation, to prevent them from being used as hideouts for poachers. The final notification of the extension of Mukurthi National Park needs to be passed at the earliest. This will include part of Nilgiri Peak, Pothimund and Kundah Reserved Forests. Establishment of Conservation Reserves Siruvani Conservation Reserve The forests of the Siruvani hills (Fig. 3), to the south¬ east of Mukurthi National Park and to the east of Silent Valley National Park, are important not just to biodiversity conservation, but are also catchments of the Siruvani reservoir, which provides water to hundreds and thousands of people in Coimbatore city. Nilgiri Tahr is reported from a number of locations such as Muthukulam and Vellingirimala within this landscape. Securing these wildlife habitats for conservation would not only ensure connectivity in a west-east direction between Silent Valley National Park and the forests of Coimbatore Forest Division, but also connectivity to extensive forest areas to the north of the Nilgiri Plateau. Around 1,400 sq. km of forested area in Mannarkad, Agali and Attappady ranges in Mannarkad Forest Division, Olavakkode and Walayar ranges in Palakkad Forest Division, parts of Bolampatty, Periyanaickenpalayam, Karamadai and Mettupalayam ranges in Coimbatore Forest Division and Kundha, Korakundha and Udhagai South ranges in Nilgiris South Forest Division could be included under the suggested Siruvani Conservation Reserve. There are two potential routes for the movement of animals from the Siruvani Hills to the adjoining forest areas. Corridor 1: The connectivity to the east and north¬ east of Korakundha towards the Eastern Ghats is through the forested areas of Kundha, Attappady, Karamadai and Mettupalayam ranges. The Kallar-Jakkanari corridor in Mettupalayam range (Fig. 3) seems to be the only transit route for large mammals to move between the forests south of the Mettupalayam-Ooty highway (Coimbatore Forest Division, Mannarkad and Palakkad Forest Divisions) and rail track towards Sirumugai range in Coimbatore Forest Division, Nilgiris Eastern Slopes, Sigur range in Nilgiris North Forest Division and Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary. The existing connectivity is highly threatened by intense human land use impeding the movement of wildlife such as Gaur and Elephant. Tiger use of this corridor is extremely rare. The heavy traffic on the Mettupalayam-Ooty and Kothagiri highways is another major problem in this corridor. There are plans by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department to acquire some agricultural lands south of the corridor but an 800 m long flyover at the base of the hills for vehicles on both the highways is a must. Corridor 2: Siruvani Hills to Silent Valley National Park through Agali and Mannarkad ranges of Mannarkad Forest Division is much shorter (less than 10 km) and it passes mostly through the evergreen forests and across grasslands. The habitat connectivity appears intact but there are disturbances in the form of encroachments in the intervening 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 83 ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE areas such as Mandampatty and Kurukkankundu settlements which are presently preventing the free movement of large mammals between Siruvani Hills and Silent Valley National Park. This route may be ideal and crucial for the movement of large mammals between Siruvani Hills and Silent Valley National Park but for the encroachments and poachers living within. As a result, large mammal use of this corridor is exceedingly rare. The removal of these encroachments is therefore of vital importance for large mammals to commence using this corridor. On a two kilometre walk to Kurukkankundu hill top through forest and grasslands where bamboo and other species such as silver oak have been planted, we could only see indirect evidence of Elephant and Sambar. Several other encroached areas such as Puliyarai, Kuruvanpadi, Thumbappara and Kallamala in Agali range which presently act as barriers for large mammal movement across this landscape have also been identified during our surveys. Nilamhur Conservation Reserve Nilambur South and North Forest Divisions occupy the lowlands immediately west of Mukurthi National Park, and to the north-west of Silent Valley National Park. We suggest the demarcation of around 900 sq. km of forested area as the Nilambur Conservation Reserve which includes Karulai range in Nilambur South Forest Division and parts of Vazhikadavu, Nilambur and Edavanna ranges in Nilambur North Forest Division as well as narrow stretches of forests in Meppady and Thamaraserry forest ranges in Wyanad South and Kozhikode Forest Divisions respectively. The major reason for the near absence of large mammals in this tract is primarily due to poaching which needs to be addressed on a priority basis. CONCLUSION Wildlife areas in the southern parts of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve are linked to the forests to the north (Mudumalai Tiger Reserve) in terms of continuous forest cover; yet a few critical links are extremely narrow and continue to be highly threatened by anthropogenic factors. Establishment of the Siruvani and Nilambur Conservation Reserves on the suggested model will help consolidate the narrow links of forest and revive wildlife populations which are now mainly restricted to Mukurthi and Silent Valley National Parks. This will also facilitate the dispersal of wildlife between protected areas. If well-protected, these two reserves can easily support a minimum of 50 tigers which can add to the existing population of around 250 adult tigers north of the suggested Conservation Reserves (Jhala et al. 2008). Recent developments regarding conservation in this landscape have been very encouraging as in the decision of the Ministry of Environment and Forests to deny clearance to the establishment of the Indian Neutrino Observatory Project in Singara. The proposed site was in the buffer zone of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve which in conjunction with Bandipur and Nagarahole Tiger Reserves forms one of the key tiger landscapes. This conservation victory is the result of efforts by local non-governmental organizations backed by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department. The recent verdict by the Madras High Court to ban construction activities and demolish illegal commercial and private establishments along the Singara Elephant Corridor is also a significant boost for conservation in the area. NGOs such as WWF-lndia, Nilgiri Wildlife, and Environmental Association and Wildlife Trust of India were responsible for this verdict in favour of wildlife. We hope that the Tamil Nadu Government will be able to establish the corridor as directed by the High Court. The establishment of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve along the suggested lines will require coordinated efforts of officials from the Tamil Nadu Forest Department, the Government of Tamil Nadu, the National Tiger Conservation Authority, local non-governmental organizations as well as the support of the local people and their elected representatives. An immediate priority is to establish the Mudumalai Foundation, as required by the recently amended Wildlife (Protection) Act, which could provide the legal basis to collect and utilize tourism revenues and other funds allotted for management. Such an independent body can also take care of the welfare of the tribals, local villagers, staff, mahouts and tribal anti-poaching watchers. If correctly established, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve will be peerless in the country for the diversity of its habitat, flora, fauna and ethnic communities. It can easily support a minimum population of 70 adult tigers along with various other endangered species such as the Orange-finned Mahseer Tor moyarensis. Mugger Crocociylus palustris. King Cobra Ophiophagus hannah and Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis. The long-term goal for the inter-state tiger landscape where Mudumalai Tiger Reserve is located, should be to have a minimum population of 300 adult tigers along with a thriving population of mega-herbivores, such as the Asian Elephant and Gaur. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, for financial support and encouragement, and to the State Forest Departments of Kerala and Tamil Nadu for permission, support and cooperation during field surveys. We thank N. Mohanraj and A. Desai for 84 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 ENSURING THE FUTURE OF LARGE MAMMALS IN NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE assistance in planning survey routes and providing information about the landscape. We also thank V.K. Uniyal, W.S. Suiting, R. Srivastava, S. Ramasubramanian, K. Soundarapandian, M. Banerjee, N. Sathish, S. Sivadas, B.R Varghese, C. Rajendran, K. Ummer, M. Sreedharan Nair, K.K. Sunil Kumar, A.R. Sasikumar, I. Anwardeen, J. Mathew, B.N. Nagarajan, Vimal and N. Dilip for all help and support rendered in the field. REFERENCES Bennett, A.F. (2003): Linkages in the landscape: The role of corridors and connectivity in wildlife conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. Dinerstein, E., C. Loucks, E. Wikramanayake, J. Ginsberg, E. Sanderson, J. Seidensticker, J. Forrest, G Bryja, A. Heydlauff& S. Klenzendorf (2007): The fate of wild tigers. Bioscience 57: 508-514. Jhala, Y.V., R. Gopal & Q. Qureshi (2008): Status of tigers, co-predators and prey in India. National Tiger Conservation Authority, Government of India, New Delhi and Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Karanth, K.U. (2001): The Way of the Tiger. Natural history and conservation of the endangered big cat. Voyageur Press MN, U.S. A. and Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore. Nicholson, F.A. (1887): Madras District Manuals. Vol. 2. Ed: H.A. Stuart, Coimbatore, Madras Presidency. Pythian-Adams, E.G. (1951): Jungle memories. Part IX - antelope and deer. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 1-12. Sanderson, E., J. Forrest, C. Loucks, J. Eisenberg, E. Dinerstein, J. Seidensticker, P. Leimgruber, M. Songer, A. Heydlauff & T. O’Brien (2006): Setting priorities for the conservation and recovery of wild tigers: 2005-2015. WCS, WWF, Smithsonian and NFWF-STF, New York. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 85 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 86-90 TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS TRACHYPITHECUS PILEATUS IN PAKKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ARUNACHAL PRADESH. INDIA G.S. SOLANKI1 AND AWADHESH KUMAR2 'Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Tanhril Campus, Aizawl 796 009, Mizoram, India. Email: gssolanki02@yahoo.co.in ^Department of Forestry, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science & Technology, Nirjuli 791 109. Arunachal Pradesh. India. Email: tpileatus@gmail.com Time allocation for activities in langurs are endorsed by environmental and habitat conditions. We studied time allocation for various activities by Capped Langurs Trachypithecus pileatus on daily, monthly, seasonal, and annual basis over one- year period in the Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, India. 90% of annual time budget was spent feeding and resting; the time devoted to resting was significantly higher (P<0.01) than that devoted to feeding. Seasonal variations (P<0.05) were found in both feeding and resting times; the maximum time devoted to feeding was 39% in the winter; the maximum time devoted to resting was 59% in the monsoon. The amount of time devoted to major activities in different months was significantly (PcO.OOl ) different. Feeding time was maximum (43%) in December and minimum (33%) in May; the variations were found to be significant (P < 0.01). The only month with maximum time (43%) devoted to feeding was in December, maximum resting (63%) time was in August, and maximum travelling (8%) time was in February in comparison to other months and remaining time was distributed to other activities. The diurnal activity budget of capped langurs indicated a bimodal feeding pattern. The evening feeding regime was significantly higher (P<0.05) than the morning one. It was 42% in morning hours and 51% in the evening. Key words: Time budgets, daily activity patterns, capped langurs, Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary INTRODUCTION The Colobines are a diverse group of primates of different body size, w hich occur in a wide range of habitats and behave differently in order to maintain time-energy balances (Clutton-Brock 1974; Marsh 1978, 1981; Li 1992; Li and Rogers 2004; Malik 1986; Kurup and Kumar 1993; Watanuki and Nakayama 1993; Menon and Poirier 1996). The Capped Langur Trachypithecus pileatus is an endangered colobine species, indigenous to the north-eastern part of India (Choudhury 1989; Srivastava 1999). Its global distribution is restricted to Bangladesh, north-western Myanmar, Bhutan and southern China (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977; Zhang et al. 1981; Khan and Ahsan 1986; Stanford 1991;Ahsan 1994; Srivastava 1999). The manner in which an animal allocates its time to various essential activities provides a useful window to its overall ecological strategy. In particular, the optimum utilization of resources in the habitat is paramount for an animal’s survival and reproduction. Day length is a limiting factor in natural populations and influences all aspects of behaviour in social animals, especially anthropoids - day active primates, which have to meet and maintain their physiological and social needs (Altmann 1980; Dunbar 1988. 1992; Janson 1992). This constraint exerts pressure on the animal for budgeting its available time in the most efficient manner (Pyke etal. 1977; Altmann 1980). The Colobines living in a diverse array of habitats, the biology and behaviour of this monkey species has not been studied except by Stanford ( 1991 ) in Bangladesh, and a short study by Gupta (1994) and Alfred et al. (1998) in Tripura. India. Here we present data from a one year study of daily activities of Capped langurs in Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary. We analyzed the time allotment for various activities on a daily, monthly, and seasonal basis for one group of Capped langurs. We also correlate the height on a tree at which langurs spent active time during feeding and other activities. The baseline data presented here will be useful for the strategic planning in terms of habitat evaluation and conservation of the species. MATERIAL AND METHODS Study Area We conducted this study at the Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary, located between 26°55'-27° 15' N and 92°35'- 93° 09' E in India. This Sanctuary covers a geographical area of 861.95 sq. km in the East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. The Sanctuary is surrounded by rivers on three sides and its fourth side shares a common boundary with the Nameri National Park, in the state of Assam. This area receives an average annual rainfall of 2,545 mm. The mean annual maximum temperature is 28°C and the minimum is 19°C. Average relative humidity is 84%. The altitudinal variation ranges from 1 00 m to 2,040 m above sea level. The Sanctuary harbours different types of vegetation namely, tropical evergreen forests, tropical semi-evergreen forests and TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS subtropical forests (Champion and Seth 1968). 234 woody species of flowering plants have been recorded from lowland areas of the Sanctuary. Several rare and endangered species of flora and fauna inhabit the Sanctuary. Four species of primates ( Macaca mulatta, M. assamensis, Trachypithecus pileatus and Nycticebus bengalensis) are found in the Sanctuary. Study Group We identified two groups of Capped Langurs Trachypithecus pileatus in the study area. We chose the one male-multi-female group to collect data on the allotment of time to different activities in their natural habitat. The study ranged from October 01, 2001 to September 15, 2002. The composition of the study group was 1 adult male, 5 adult females, 1 sub-adult, and 1 infant. The group was habituated to human observers. We adopted an ad libitum focal animal sampling technique as per Altmann ( 1 974). One of the authors followed the group from 06:00 hrs to 1 7:00 hrs each day, for a period of 14 days per month. Thus, the hours for direct contact with langurs were 1 ,680. The observations were recorded into two sessions namely, forenoon (06:00-11:30 hrs) and afternoon (11:30-17:00 hrs) on different focal animal in each session (Bartlett 1999). Samples were taken at five-minute intervals. Thus, twelve entries of the focal animal were recorded in an hour. The focal animal was selected among all adult members of the group to ensure a balanced representation of each adult individual. On two occasions during study the focal animal was out of view for >15 minutes; hence we selected another focal animal of similar age to continue the observations. Animals were identified on the basis of morphology and marks on their body. We divided the observation period into three seasons: winter (November-February), summer (March-May) and monsoon (June-October). The activities of Capped Langurs were categorized into five major classes: feeding, resting, travelling, grooming, and miscellaneous activity such as aggression and social play. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to compare daily, monthly, and seasonal variations in the time spent on different activities, and Student's t-test for comparison of highest and lowest feeding during days and months (Simpson etal. 1960). RESULTS Annual time budget and activity pattern The average annual time spent by a group in feeding was 36.16% (±2.45), in rest 53.41% (±7.27), in travelling 5.34% (±2.29), grooming 3.84% (±2.06), and in other activities it was 1.24% (±0.49). Resting and Feeding were the major activities; langurs spent 90% of their active time on them. However, at 54%, resting took up more time than feeding (t =3.892, d.f. =5, P <0.01). The time utilized for travelling, grooming and miscellaneous activities was small. Monthly time budget and activity pattern Monthly variation in the amount of time the langurs spent on different activities (Fig. 1 ) was significant (F = 3.996, d.f. =11, P < 0.001). Time spent for resting was more compared to that of other activities across months. Maximum resting time (63%) was in August and minimum was (42%) in December; the variations were significant (t = 7.653, d.f. = 27, P<0.001). Time spent on feeding was maximum (42.7%) in December and minimum (32.6%) in May; the variations were found to be significant (t = 4.032, d.f. = 27, P < 0.01). Langurs spent a far lower percentage of activity time travelling than feeding and resting. The travel time across months varied (F = 17.563, d.f. =11, P < 0.001), it was highest (8.3%) in February and lowest (1.87%) in August. Animals devoted very little time to grooming, but it varied significantly (F = 14.563, d.f. =11, P < 0.001) between different months. Miscellaneous activities like aggression and social play took up very little time, and monthly variations in both activities were insignificant. 100, 90 j 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 ONDJ FMAMJ Months Months E 8 o Months Months 100 90 5.5 5.0 P TO 2“ 2.1 i:§ 0.5 0.0 ONDJ FMAMJ JAS Months Fig. 1: Monthly variations in time (%) for different activities 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 87 TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS Fig. 2: Diurnal variation in time (%) for different activities including feeding; it was 64% between 10:00-1 1:00 hrs that gradually decreased until the end of day (Fig. 2). Time spent travelling was nearly constant across the day. The maximum travelling (6.5%) occurred between 09:00-10:00 hrs (Fig. 2). Grooming time also varied throughout the day (Fig. 2). It was highest between 12:00- 1 3:00 hrs. Insignificant time was spent on miscellaneous activities during day too (Fig. 2). Diurnal variation in the hourly time spent on different activities was significant (F = 9.561, d.f.= 10, P< 0.001) for feeding, resting, (F = 5.220, d.f. = 10, P<0.001), grooming ( F = 2.243, d.f. = 1 0, P<0.0 1 ), and for miscellaneous activities (F= 1.878, d.f. = 10, P< 0.05). Daily variations in time devoted travelling were insignificant. Seasonal time budget and activity pattern Time allotment for the different activities in different seasons is presented in Fig. 3. Feeding and resting were major activities in all three seasons and the variations between them were significant (feeding: F = 3.950, d.f. = 2, P< 0.05, resting: F = 14.929, d.f. = 2, P< 0.001 , travelling: F = 1 3.464, d.f. = 2, P< 0.01, grooming: F = 13.889, d.f. = 2, P< 0.01). Langur spent maximum time feeding (39%), travelling (7.88%), and grooming (6.21%) in winter. The season with the highest resting time was monsoon (58.66%). Diurnal time budget and activity pattern The time allocation for activity classes during study period on an hourly basis is given in Fig. 2. Two major feeding peaks were recorded, the first occurred at early morning (06:00-07:00 his) and the second at evening (16:00- 1 7:00 hrs). Time spent feeding during the evening peak was higher (51 ±13.4%) than that in morning (42±5.76 %). These two feeding peaks were significantly distinct (t = 2.225, d.f. = 23, P <0.05). The morning feeding peak gradually declines and reaches its minimum between 10:00 to 11:00 hrs; thereafter, it gradually increases until the end of feeding activity of the day (Fig. 2). Langurs spent more time resting than in other activities. Fig. 3: Seasonal variation in time (%) for different activities DISCUSSION In general, langurs spent by far the highest percentage of each day feeding (Kumar 2005). However, similar to many other folivorous primates (Fleagle 1988), the study animals spent more time resting than feeding or travelling. Optimal foraging theory predicts that animals should organize their feeding activities such that they can balance with energy expenditure (Mac Arthur and Planka 1966; Pyke etal. 1977). Capped Langurs rested for 54% of days surveyed (Fig. 1 ) and leaves accounted for 68% of their annual diet (Kumar 2005; Solanki etal. 2008), reflect their folivore nature. Da Silva (1992, 1994) reported that folivores with diets of unusually low nutritional quality should spend more time resting than those with higher quality diets. She related the feeding time with condition of the habitat. The time spent on feeding (36%) in this study was similar to that reported for the same langur species by Gupta (1994) in Tripura, another part of north¬ east India, and by Stanford ( 1 99 1 ) in Bangladesh, but the time spent on resting was higher in this study. Biological, physical and climatic factors also influence the time budget pattern of capped langurs. The availability of dietary resources appears to influence the monkey’s daily and seasonal activity budgets. In a study conducted by Solanki et al. (2008) it was found that 68% of the langur diet consisted of leaves and 61% of the total leaves ingested were young 88 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS leaves. Young leaves on analysis were found to be rich in protein by Kumar and Solanki (2004); leaves and flowers were the major food items of Capped Langurs at our site (Kumar 2005; Solanki et al 2008). Results of the study conducted by Gupta and Kumar (1994) on Trachypithecus phayrei and that of Alfred et al. (1998) on Capped Langur also support our results. The young leaves, the protein-rich food item in the habitat, become an important factor for budgeting feeding pattern. Vegetation in the area is predominantly evergreen to semi-evergreen type, hence young leaves remain available throughout the year in different quantities but in February. March and April young leaves come in flushes (Solanki et al. 2008). In our study, the group of Capped Langurs showed two feeding peaks (Fig. 2), whereas a study on Presbytis thomasi elsewhere showed three feeding peaks (Kunkun 1986). The less feeding, more resting and two feeding peaks reflect the good habitat condition and food resource availability. Other than habitat condition, the animals’ biological activities also affect the allotment of time. Time in winter allotted for feeding, grooming and travel was more than in monsoon. In a study conducted by Solanki et al. (2007), it was found that langurs exhibit two mating seasons namely, winter and summer. Winter is the longer mating season, during this period langurs undergo socialization or pairing, and mating activities; the energy demand increases, hence grooming, travel and feeding is more than in the other two seasons (Fig. 3). During monsoon, uninterrupted rains for days together reduce the availability of time for travelling, grooming and feeding; animals confined themselves to rest. Capped langurs prefer trees of 20-25 m height for resting and sleeping at night (Choudhury 1990). Capped langurs at our study site preferred 10-15 m feeding height from forest stratum for the three major activities (feeding, resting and travelling); a preferred height of 9-11 m as reported for a Capped Langur study conducted in forests in Tripura, India (Das Gupta 2006). Vertical structure of plant community provides a physical framework for which many fonns of animal life are adapted. Increase in vertical structure means more resources and living space (Smith and Smith 2000). Terminal branches between 10-15 m height provide more food material than other regions of the tree. It was assessed by Solanki et al. (2008) in a study where they recorded that langur spent 44% of the feeding time in thicker terminal canopy. Studies on different species of primate in different part of the north-eastern region in India indicate that the primates prefer different activity/feeding height: Golden Langur feeds at an average tree height of 1 5 to 2 1 m (Mukherjee and Saha 1974), Pig-tailed Macaques at 8-10 m height, and Western Hoolock at 6-8 m height (Das Gupta 2006). The different feeding height in primates may be attributed to the tree size, and distribution of food items. This aspect was not studied here but needs to be addressed in detail. The available information on this aspect indicates that time budget activity is dependent on habitat condition, food availability, and feeding height on the food trees. These findings are important piece of information on the behavioural patterns of this Langur species and expand our information on its ecology. Such findings can aid in designing the management action plans for habitat and for better survival and conservation of the species. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, for providing financial support for the study. The Director, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science & Technology (NERIST) and the Head, Department of Forestry, are also acknowledged for providing all the facilities required for the study. We also thank the Principal Chief Conservator of Forest, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, for granting permission to work and the DFO, Forest Rangers, forest guards, and special thanks to Mr. Narayan Mogar, Field attendant, in the project along with the official staff of the Sanctuary for cooperation during the period of study. 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(1991 ): The capped langur in Bangladesh: Behavioural ecology and reproductive tactics. Contributions to Primatology 26: 1-179. Watanuki, Y. & Y. Nakayama (1993): Age difference in activity pattern of japanese monkeys: Effects of temperature, snow, and diet. Primates 34: 419-430. Zhang, Y-Z., S. Wang & G-Q. Quan (1981): On the geographical distribution of primates in China. J. Human Evol. 10: 215-226. 90 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 91-108 EFFECTS OF PFANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON TROPICAL FOREST BIRD COMMUNITIES AND MIXED-SPECIES BIRD FLOCKS IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS Swati Sid HU13, T.R. Shankar Raman1-4 and Eben Goodale2 ‘Nature Conservation Foundation, 3076/5, 4Ih Cross, Gokulam Park, Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India. 2Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka, Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Current address: Section of Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla CA 92093, USA. Email: eben.goodale@gmail.com 3Email: swati@ncf-india.org 4Email: trsr@ncf-india.org Conservation scientists and policy makers are increasingly aware of the role countryside habitats play in supporting tropical fauna in modem landscapes. We studied the value of different land-uses by examining composition of tropical bird communities and mixed-species bird flocks in human-altered landscapes of Thattekad and the Anamalai Hills, situated in two different altitudes, in the southern Western Ghats. Sixteen line transects distributed across tropical rainforests, shade plantations of coffee and cardamom, timber monocultures of teak, tea plantations, and home-gardens were surveyed for bird flocks, vegetation structure, foliage profile, and canopy attributes. Results indicate that tea plantations were extremely altered habitats, supporting few rainforest species and were devoid of mixed-species bird flocks. Teak monocultures had high species density but were less conducive for rainforest species that require a well- developed and structurally more complex habitat. While bird species richness varied little across land-uses, there was significant variation in community composition, with some sensitive bird species absent from all altered habitats. Coffee plantations with surviving rainforest fragments and cardamom plantations with more native shade trees that mimicked a forest habitat supported more rainforest bird species both in communities and flocks. Maintenance of these shade plantations and restoration of forest fragments is recommended, while their conversion into a poor, more open habitat (tea, teak) is strongly discouraged for bird conservation in fragmented landscapes. Key words: land-use changes, countryside habitat. Rainforest bird community, mixed-species bird flocks, southern Western Ghats INTRODUCTION Globally, deforestation continues to threaten tropical rainforests (Wright and Muller-Landau 2006) that are believed to contain two-thirds of the world’s plant and animal species (Raven 1988). Current threats to the rainforests include habitat loss and degradation due to developmental activities, logging, conversion to agriculture and various monoculture plantations (DeFries et al. 2005), which leads to fragmentation and isolation of the remnant forest tracts (Laurance and Bierregaard 1997). In addition, land-use pressures in the tropics are impinged upon by high population growth rates and poverty in these regions (Bhagwat et al. 2008). Such threats are believed to disrupt ecological processes by way of affecting native forest communities (Koh et al. 2004; Sodhi et al. 2008). For high population regions of the world, huge patches of primary forests cannot always be conserved as protected areas (Thiollay 1995). The role and protection of human- modified landscapes becomes extremely important in such cases. Countryside habitats, as they are called, include managed plantations, agricultural land, home-gardens, fallows, and forest remnants (Daily et al. 2001). A land-use providing sufficient shade tree cover, habitat connectivity, and supplementary native food resources surrounding a protected forest can increase the conservation potential of remnant forest habitats by supporting larger populations of animal species (Laurance et al. 2002; DeFries et al. 2005; Raman 2006; Sekercioglu et al. 2006; Bhagwat et al. 2008). Effects of habitat fragmentation or degradation on bird communities are well-researched. Studies have shown species richness and abundance to decrease with more intensive management of agroforests (Thiollay 1995; Scales and Marsden 2008) with higher extinction rates of forest dependent avifauna as a consequence of deforestation (Brooks et al. 1997; Castelletta et al. 2000). Deforestation affects occupancy dynamics of bird species by forest area reduction and isolation of remaining patches (Ferraz et al. 2007). Waltert et al. (2005) stressed the importance of over-storey tree density in tropical land-use systems for maintenance of resident forest bird populations and found natural forests to be important for bird conservation more than any other form of forest exploitation. Studies also show a great proportion of native forest species to survive in the countryside with potential for species movement between forest habitats, thus emphasizing the importance of such habitats (Greenberg et EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS al. 1997; Hughes et al. 2002; Bhagwat et al. 2008; Ranganathan et al. 2008). Along with studying bird communities of agrosystems, social interactions between species such as ‘mixed-species bird flocks’ ( Buskirk 1 976; Morse 1 977), referred to as flocks hereafter, must also be considered. The influence of forest degradation on social interactions among birds such as flocks, although well-studied in Neotropics (Stouffer and Bierregaard 1995; Maldonado-Coelho and Marini 2004), remains poorly understood in the tropical rainforests of Asia (but see Lee et al. 2005; Sridhar and Sankar 2008). Flocks are known to have high species participation, hold territories and exist year- round, which makes them vulnerable to disturbances caused by fragmentation (Munn and Terborgh 1979; Thiollay 1994). It is important to assess the ability of different land-uses to support native bird communities and flocks to determine the relative conservation potential of various land-uses. This is needed to plan habitat and landscape management that strives for a balance between economic and ecological needs. The Western Ghats hill range of India is among the global biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al. 2000) and is also recognised as an Endemic Bird Area (Stattersfield et al. 1 998). This region has been severely modified by humans historically, with the middle and higher elevations altered into a mosaic of disturbance regimes containing forest fragments of varying size, habitat-quality, and degree of isolation, interspersed among monoculture plantations of timber trees such as alien Eucalyptus sp. or native teak ( Tectona grandis), plantations of coffee ( Coffea arabica , C. canephora) and cardamom ( Elettaria cardamomum) with shade trees, and tea plantations with hardly any shade left (Congreve 1942; Nair 1991 ; Mudappa and Raman 2007). Studies from the Western Ghats have demonstrated how bird communities vary in different types of plantations in relation to characteristics such as habitat structure, distance from forest, and proportion of native or alien tree species (Pramod et al. 1997; Bhagwat et al. 2005; Raman 2006; Bhagwat etal. 2008; Ranganathan et al. 2008). In the southern Western Ghats, earlier studies looking at the effects of habitat fragmentation in this region focused on differences in bird community structure and flock composition among fragments of varying sizes and isolation (Raman 2001; Sridhar and Sankar 2008). However, survival of bird species in fragments also depends on quality of the land-use matrix around these fragments (Gascon et al. 1999; Stouffer et al. 2006; Raman 2006), and therefore, it is important to study this matrix’s effectiveness to support forest bird species. We studied changes in bird communities and flocks of the southern Western Ghats along a habitat gradient from relatively undisturbed forests to plantations with varying agricultural intensities situated at two altitude zones in the southern Western Ghats. In order to understand changes in bird community structure and flock composition, size, and density along a gradient of land-use types, we formulated the following key questions 1. How is the habitat structure different in different land-uses? 2. Does bird community structure and composition change in relation to land-use and habitat structure? 3. Does flock encounter rate, size, and composition change in relation to land-use and habitat structure? We use the results to assess the relative impact of various land-use types on bird conservation and management in the southern Western Ghats. STUDY AREA This study was carried out at two sites, namely Thattekad and Anamalai Hills, in the southern Western Ghats. The southern Western Ghats is the region south of the Palghat Gap at 1 1 0 N in the Western Ghats, a 1 ,600 km long hill chain running parallel to India’s west coast from 8° N to 21° N (Mani 1974; Pascal 1988). The Thattekad site ( 1 0° 1 O'- 1 0° 1 5' N, 76° 65’-76° 78' E) is comprised of Thattekad Bird Sanctuary and Malayatoor Reserved Forest. The 25.16 sq. km bird sanctuary spans an altitudinal range of 50-250 m and is bordered by Periyar and Kuttampuzha rivers on two sides. Two-thirds of its area is under teak and mahogany plantations, with the rest containing disturbed tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, and moist deciduous forests, Ochlandra travancorica reed brakes, grasslands with rock outcrops, and human-settlements (Sugathan and Vargheese 1996). The Reserved Forest in Malayatoor has disturbed tropical semi-evergreen forest and teak plantations. The mean annual rainfall is around 3,000 mm, three-fourths of which falls during south-west monsoon (Sugathan and Vargheese 1996). The Anamalai Hills are a major conservation area in the southern Western Ghats (Raman 2006). The study sites here were concentrated on the Valparai plateau and Vazhachal Forest division (10° 27'- 10° 35' N, 76° 82’-76° 90’ E), adjoining the Anamalai Tiger Reserve and Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary. The altitude varies between 800 m and 1 , 1 00 m above sea level. The natural vegetation of this region, classified as tropical wet evergreen forest of the Cullenia exarillata - Mesua ferrea - Palaquium ellipticum type receives a mean annual rainfall of around 3,500 mm, particularly during south-west monsoon between June and September (Pascal 1988). The Valparai plateau contains 220 sq. km of tea, coffee, and cardamom plantations surrounded 92 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS by protected areas and reserved forests (Mudappa and Raman 2007). Vazhachal is a Reserved Forest adjoining the Valparai plateau with intervening tribal settlement, coffee and tea plantations, and an inter-state road passing through. METHODOLOGY Transects and stratification Tropical bird communities are difficult to Sample and in order to maximize our effort on the time spent sampling we used line transects (Karr 1981; Whitman et al. 1997; Thiollay 1999). The line transect method was also chosen so as to obtain a reasonable sample of flocks along with data on bird communities. Eight transects were laid in each study site (see description of transects in Table 1) and were identified based on preliminary surveys in 2007. All transects were around 2 km long (except TFC, 1.5 km length) and were >250 m from one another. Transects were grouped under three broad strata: Table 1: Description of all transects in study sites Site Strata Code / Location Description Thattekad Forest TFA, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary TFB, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary TFC, Malayatoor Reserved Forest Buffer TBA, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary (Teak Plantation) TBB, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary (Teak Plantation) TBC, Malayatoor Reserved Forest (Teak Plantation) Village TVA, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary (Home-garden) TVB, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary (Home-garden) Anamalai Hills Forest VFA, Vazhachal Reserved Forest VFB, Vazhachal Reserved Forest VFC, Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary Buffer VBA, Vazhachal (Malakkiparai Coffee Plantation) VBB, Valparai (Uralikkal Coffee Plantation) VBC, Valparai (Surulimalai Cardamom Plantation) Village VVA, Valparai (Malakkiparai Tea Plantation) VVB, Valparai (Uralikkal Tea Plantation) A, B, C represent replicates in particular strata Transect on tar-road with low elevation evergreen forest on either side; disturbed due to firewood collection. Transect along a footpath and forest trail; forest encompasses rocky outcrops and bamboo clumps; disturbed due to firewood and bamboo collection. Transect on a forest trail; runs very close to a river on one side for at least one-third the length. Transect on a dirt road passing through teak plantation, evergreen forest with proximity to a river. Transect on dirt road passing through teak plantation with proximity to a water body. Some native vegetation present but heavily disturbed; understorey is dense shrubby to open. Transect on a tar-road with much vehicular movement; teak buffer with some riverine vegetation in certain places and other trees, mostly Bombax sp.; a small stream cutting through the transect; abuts the Reserved Forest having disturbed evergreen vegetation and bamboo clumps. Transect on tar-road with heavy traffic; human habitation with mostly home gardens having jackfruit, coconut, cocoa, coffee, and rubber (Hevea sp.) plantations. Transect on tar-road and on footpath; tribal village with home gardens having rubber, pineapple, jackfruit, coconut, AHanthus malabaricus , and Areca nut plantations. Transect on tar-road; around 400 x 50 sq. m of forest cut for power line along road; firewood collection but mature rainforest vegetation; a reservoir 200 m away and parallel to the transect line. Transect on tar-road; mature rainforest vegetation; wider openings for power line than VFA with clearings along road sides. Transect on tar-road; forest relatively undisturbed; 200 x 50 sq. m of forest with bamboo and canopy openings. Transect on tar-road; coffee plantation with mix of exotic and native shade trees; has interspersed rainforest fragments. 850 m of transect line passing through dirt road and rest on tar-road; coffee plantation with mostly exotic shade trees; has interspersed rainforest fragments and a Eucalyptus plantation. Transect on dirt road; cardamom plantation with native shade trees; also has 250 x 50 sq. m of coffee plantation under native shade trees. Transect line on a footpath; tea plantation with very sparse shade of alien tree, Silver Oak Grevillea robusta. Transect line on a footpath; tea plantation with very sparse shade alien tree, Silver Oak Grevillea robusta. 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 93 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS Fig. 1(a-f): Pictures representing the land-use surveyed during this study (clockwise from top left): a. relatively undisturbed rainforest, b. cardamom plantation, c. coffee plantation, d. teak monoculture, e. home-garden, f. tea plantation i. forest: relatively undisturbed or moderately disturbed mature native forest vegetation in Thattekad and the Anamalai Hills. ii. buffer: land-use of relatively moderate intensity represented by plantations with substantial tree cover such as teak monocultures in Thattekad and shade-coffee, and shade-cardamom plantations in the Anamalai Hills. iii. village: intensive agricultural areas with human- habitations having little or highly altered tree cover as represented by home gardens in Thattekad and tea plantations in the Anamalai Hills (Table 1, Fig. 1). Many transects were on tar-roads, seldom more than 3 m wide; few had occasional clearings along roadsides. The effects of roads on bird abundance vary with bird species, road type, season, and distance from the road (Develey and Stouffer 2001). The results reported, therefore, can be considered as a conservative measure of actual bird richness or abundance. Vegetation sampling Point-centred quarter method (PCQ, Krebs 1989) was used for collecting data on basal area and density of trees 94 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS greater than 30 cm girth at breast height (GBH) with 15-20 points sampled per transect. The points were distributed at 100 m intervals along each transect line and located 10-15 m away from the line with consecutive samples placed alternating on the left and right side. As it was not possible to obtain PCQ data on one transect TVA, because it entailed entering houses and private property; we counted trees in quadrats visually estimated from the line to be 5 m x 5 m at every 100 m. The GBH of these trees could not be recorded. Shrub density was measured by counting all shrubs taller than 30 cm in height inside a 2 m x 2 m quadrat at every PCQ point. Other vegetation parameters measured were canopy height, canopy cover, canopy overlap, and vertical stratification (Raman etal. 1998; Raman and Sukumar 2002). These were collected at 40 points, located 50 m apart (37 m apart for TFC) along the transect line, with 20 points ( 1 5 for TFC) being away from the transect corresponding to PCQ plots and the rest on edge of the transect line so as to include effect of clearings of canopy along roads and footpaths. Canopy height estimation was practiced using a broken branch of known length and flipping it visually in air factoring the visual effect of distance away from the observer. Canopy cover was measured using a spherical densiometer. Canopy overlap above the transect was ranked from 0 to 3; 0 for no canopy directly overhead; 1 when there were branches or foliage overhead but they did not meet; 2 when the branches or foliage met but the sky was still visible through them; and 3 when the sky was no longer visible through the overhead foliage. Vertical stratification (distribution of foliage at different vertical levels) was assessed by recording presence of foliage in height classes (in metres) of 0-1, 1-2, 2-4, 4-8, 8-16, 16-24, 24-32, and >32 m in an imaginary vertical cylinder of 0.5 m radius around the observer. Bird and flock sampling SS spent five weeks to familiarize with bird identification, calls, songs, and distance estimation prior to onset of data collection. Data on bird communities and flocks were gathered from January to May 2008, spanning winter and breeding season when both migrants and residents were present in the study area. All transects were walked four times except VFA which was walked five times. Effort was made to walk the line transects at a consistent steady pace and to finish it more or less in two hours time. All birds seen or heard were recorded with an estimated distance of the bird from the observer in different distance classes in metres: 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20, 20-30, 30-50, 50-100, 100-150, and >150 m; size of the class becoming bigger as distance increases from the observer. Birds flying overhead or detected on the transect line were grouped under distance category 0. Birds were observed using 8 x 42 Nikon binoculars with a 6.3° field of vision and identified using Grimmett et al. 1 998. All birds were noted under the distance category where they were first detected. A flock was defined as an association of individuals of a minimum two bird species moving together for more than 5 minutes. We do not include bird aggregations such as those formed on fruiting trees. Whenever a mixed-species flock was encountered, it was observed for as long as it was visible up to a maximum of 30 minutes, after which transect survey continued at usual pace. All birds seen or heard in a flock were recorded within the same distance category as estimated for the first bird seen or identified. Transect were surveyed between 06:30 hrs and 1 1:30 hrs, but were usually finished within two hours of the starting time. Time spent on transects varied, with the average time spent per transect being 103 minutes. Surveying village transects took less time due to paucity of birds, whereas sites took longer to survey when more flocks or a large flock were encountered. Data analysis We used the ecological software KREBSWIN (Krebs 1989) to estimate mean tree density and basal area from PCQ data and corresponding standard errors for each transect. For each point on a transect the number of vertical classes (0-8) with foliage were added up to calculate vertical stratification. This number was averaged for all 40 points to produce an index of vertical stratification for a transect. The coefficient of variation of this index was used to represent habitat heterogeneity (Raman et al. 1998). To calculate distribution of foliage in a specific vertical class along an entire transect, the presence-absence data on foliage in that vertical class was pooled for the transect across all 40 sampled points to yield a percentage value, and these percentages were arcsine transformed before statistical analysis. Means and standard errors of canopy cover, canopy overlap, and canopy height were estimated from replicate measurements in each transect. To look for statistically significant differences in vegetation among sites (Thattekad and Anamalai Hills) and strata (forest, buffer, and village) we conducted a 2-factor Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with site and strata as fixed factors. Due to correlations among eight vegetation variables considered, the vegetation data were summarized using Principal Components Analysis (PC A) into two uncorrelated factors. The analysis was performed using SPSS/PC+ software version 14.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago (Bryman and Cramer 1997). The factor matrix was rotated using Varimax method to aid in interpretation. The composition of trees on TVA was very similar to that on TVB and therefore for analysis we used the J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 95 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS same basal area estimates of TVB for TVA in the PCA (see section 2.3). All recorded bird species were classified into rainforest and open-forest species (Ali and Ripley 1983; Grimmett et at. 1998; Raman 2006). Rainforest birds were those that occurred naturally in undisturbed rainforests, whereas open- forest species were those that occurred in drier, more open habitats along the Western Ghats. Water birds were excluded from analysis. Bird community variables of interest were: bird species richness and bird species abundance estimated separately for all, rainforest species, and open-forest species. Individual-based rarefaction analysis was performed for overall bird species richness for standardized number of individuals using program ECOSIM (Gotelli and Colwell 2001). We also estimated bird species density (following terminology of Gotelli and Colwell 2001) as the average number of bird species per transect and bird species abundance as the number of individuals per transect (both separately for all, rainforest species, and open-forest species). Differences in bird species density and abundance (values averaged across repeat surveys) were assessed by 2-factor analysis of variance with site and strata as factors (Zar 1999). To measure variation in bird community composition among various transects, we used Program PRIMER (version 5.2.2, Primer-E. Plymouth, UK; Clarke and Gorley 2001) to compute a pair-wise matrix of Bray-Curtis dissimilarity. This was used for non-metric Multi-dimensional Scaling (MDS) ordination to represent bird community compositional variation among transects. Significance of variation in community composition was assessed using Analysis of Similarities (ANOSIM) with a 2-factor crossed layout of sites and strata (Clarke and Warwick 1994). Flocks were categorized as complete flocks (with total count of all participant species and individuals) and incomplete flocks (all individuals were not visible or could not be counted before the flock moved away or was lost). Flock variables of interest were: number of species and individuals participating in flocks of all, rainforest, and open- forest species. Only data from complete flocks were used for analyses. Differences in the number of species and individuals in complete flocks (values averaged across replicate flocks) were assessed by 2-factor analysis of variance with site and strata as factors (Zar 1999). Tea plantations were devoid of Hocks during the survey period, and only two incomplete flocks were encountered in home-gardens. Therefore, we do not include village transects for analysis. We also calculated flock encounter rate as the number of flocks encountered per transect for all transects surveyed. The effects of habitat structure on bird community and flock structure was assessed using multiple regression with PCA factor scores taken as independent variables representing habitat structure in the analyses. Dependent variables used were (for all, rainforest, and open forest species, separately) the number of bird species per transect, number of individuals per transect, species per complete flock, and individuals per complete flock. All analyses were performed using SPSS software with a backward stepwise procedure for selection of statistically significant effects (Zar 1999). RESULTS Variation in habitat structure of different land-uses Distribution of foliage in different vertical categories differed markedly with land-use type. In the Thattekad site, two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed statistically significant differences across the three habitat strata (E, 40 = 34.07, P< 0.001), as well as eight vertical layers (F?40 = 37.95, P < 0.001), with a statistically significant interaction between the two factors (E|44(| = 2.60. P < 0.01 ). The percentage foliage distribution in different vertical categories in teak plantations and village transects was mostly lower when compared with forest transects. There was hardly any foliage above 32 m in teak plantation and above 24 m in village home gardens. In the Anamalai Hills, similarly, there were statistically significant differences across the three strata (F2. 40 = 159.2. P<0 .001), as well as eight vertical layers (F1 40 = 28.9, P < 0.001), with a statistically significant interaction between the two factors (F 4n = 7.87, P < 0.001). The coffee and cardamom plantations in Valparai had poor foliage distribution between 1-2 m, 2-4 m, 4-8 m and 8-16 m when compared with forest transects here. These transects, especially cardamom, had comparable foliage to forests in higher canopy above 16 m. Tea plantations almost always had some foliage on ground and some foliage in 16-24 m category. There was hardly any foliage in-between these two categories or above 24 m. Other vegetation features also differed in relation to site and land-use (2-factor ANOVA, Table 2). All variables showed statistically significant differences across strata, whereas tree density, canopy cover, canopy overlap, and shrub density showed statistically significant differences across sites as well. Besides canopy height, shrub density, and habitat heterogeneity, other variables also showed a statistically significant interaction between site and strata (Table 2). In Thattekad, tree density in teak plantations was comparable with that in forest transects, however, basal area, canopy height, canopy cover, and canopy overlap were all lower than in forest transects. Home gardens, on the other hand, had much higher tree density but lower basal area when compared to buffer or forest transects. They also had high habitat 96 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS heterogeneity and less canopy height, canopy cover, canopy overlap, and shrub density. In the Anamalai Hills, tea and buffer transects had lower values than forest transects for all variables except habitat heterogeneity. Principal components analysis of eight vegetation variables extracted two components, PCI and PC2, which together explained 83.6% of cumulative variance in the dataset with PCI alone accounting for 69.67 % of variance. PCI had large positive weightings for basal area (0.858), canopy height (0.942), canopy cover (0.972), canopy overlap (0.971), vertical stratification (0.970), and shrub density (0.630) and a large negative weighting for habitat heterogeneity (-0.819). PC2had large positive weighting only for tree density (0.963). Eigen values for PCI and PC2 were Table 2: Comparison of habitat structure in different transects. Transect Tree density Basal area Canopy Canopy cover (%) Canopy overlap Shrub density Habitat heterogeneity (stems/ha) (m2/ha) height (m) index (stems/plot) (% CV) TBA 466 38.78 21.68 76.53 1.4 10.85 8.41 (5.9) (8.04) (1.2) (2.1) (0.1) (0.9) TBB 335.8 28.21 19.88 72.9 1.48 11.84 6.16 (5.0) (6.05) (1.0) (3.6) (0.08) (2.2) TBC 334 23.84 18.08 67.35 1.2 8.24 7.32 (4.9) (5.97) (0.9) (2.8) (0.08) (0.8) TFA 323 40.67 19.28 79.63 1.53 10.65 9.97 (4.1) (8.25) (1.9) (3.1) (0.16) (1.5) TFB 206 47.91 28.63 81.3 1.65 9.6 6.04 (2.6) (7.57) (1.5) (2.3) (0.09) (1.2) TFC 366 40.58 27 83.93 1.58 15.67 5.54 (6.2) (8.20) (1.5) (1.9) (0.09) (2.9) TVA 2340 25.19 10.55 37.8 1.23 6.61 11.67 (174.8) (9.51) (1.3) (3.4) (0.13) (1.4) TVB 2087 25.19 12.08 58.33 1.05 7.18 9.51 (59.3) (9.51) (1.2) (4.1) (0.10) (1.7) VBA 278 35.62 19.8 65.38 1.2 5.8 9.91 (3.5) (7.07) (1.9) (3.4) (0.11) (0.8) VBB 362 42.11 20.48 51.68 1.05 4.55 10.28 (4.6) (13.10) (2.5) (3.6) (0.12) (0.5) VBC 236 57.89 28.98 70.6 1.45 2.2 7.58 (2.9) (2.04) (19) (2.6) (0.10) (0.4) VFA 668 67.61 29.25 85.2 1.63 5.95 6.85 (8.5) (20.15) (1.9) (2.9) (0.09) (0.8) VFB 547 52.98 26.5 82.03 1.58 7.85 7.67 (6.9) (9.54) (2.2) (3.2) (0.11) (0.7) VFC 425 65.33 36.28 85.43 1.7 8.75 6.74 (5.4) (26.29) (1.6) (1.8) (0.08) (0.5) VVA 72.1 6.24 2.88 10.28 0.23 2.55 11.23 (0.9) (2.18) a(0.9) (1.5) (0.07) (0.2) VVB 65.4 6.87 3.28 9.35 0.23 3.3 10.73 (0.8) (2.11) (1.0) (0.9) (0.07) (0.2) ANOVA results Factor Site, F 177.48*** 1.84 (NS) 0.01 (NS) 19.1** 27.09*** 23.17** 1.00 (NS) ' 1,10 Strata, F 92.98*** 29.8*** 32.17*** 77.27*** 67.29*** 7.31** 7.5** 2,10 SitexStrata, '2.10 200.05*** 8.89** 3.9 (NS) 11.01** 19.26*** 0.43 (NS) 0.79 (NS) The values given in the table are means with standard error in parentheses * P< 0.05, ** P< 0.01, *** P < 0.001, NS - non significant J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 97 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS t WA VVB TpA%TBA TBC TBB □ VBfcvBA VBC □ 45 40 O 35 a? W 30 « 2= 25 i 20 CB 15 a. to io 5 o (a) * All ■ Rainforest □ Open forest TFA | TFB | TFC tea|tbb|tbc TVA | 7V6 vfa|vfb|vfc vba| vbb|vbc wa| vvc Forest Butter Village Forest Buffer Village Thatlekad Anamalai Hills PCI Basal area, canopy height, vertical stratification, canopy cover, canopy overlap shrub density - ► -« - Habitat heterogeneity Fig. 2: Ordination of transects on principal component factor axes based on vegetation variables. Forest, buffer, and village transects are represented by dark-squares, open-squares, and open-triangles, respectively 5.573 and 1.112, respectively. The ordination of transects representing different strata on these two factor scores confirms the above-mentioned trends; the village strata (home gardens in Thattekad and tea plantation transects in Anamalai Hills) lie separated from the rest of the transects representing poor development of foliage, canopy closure, and woody plant density in spite of having highest number of stems per hectare in the case of the Thattekad home gardens (Fig. 2). The forest transects in both sites (with the exception of TFA) have higher scores on PCI than the buffer transects that occupy intermediate positions between village and forest transects (Fig. 2). Bird species richness and density in different land-uses A total of 145 bird species and 6,247 individuals were recorded on transects (Appendix). In Thattekad. 122 bird species and 3,210 individuals were recorded with rainforest species constituting 56.6% (69) of all species and 63.4% (2034) of all individuals. In the Anamalai hills, 103 bird species and 3,037 individuals with rainforest species constituting 64.1% (66) of all species and 78.8% (2,394) of all individuals. Rarefaction analysis for Thattekad transects do not show a clear pattern of difference in relation to land- use type for species richness per 200 individuals at confidence interval (Cl) of 95%: forest = 49.23 (37-64); buffer = 47.97 (38-60), village = 42.98 (36-51). In the Anamalai Hills, tea transects were poorest in species richness for a comparable sample of 200 individuals at 95% Cl: forest = 42.28 (35-50), buffer = 44.74 (35-54), village = 29.38 (27-31). Bird species density (number of all, rainforest and open- forest species per transect), varied statistically significantly * All ■ Rainlorest a Open forest Fig. 3: Species density (a) and abundance (b) of all, rainforest, and open forest bird species, in Thattekad and Anamalai Hills. across the three habitat strata mainly because forest and buffer transects had higher values than village transects (Fig. 3, Table 3). The average species density of all birds and open forest birds was higher in Thattekad than the Anamalai Hills, especially in buffer habitats, contributing to statistically significant site effect (Table 3). Interestingly, rainforest bird Table 3: Results of 2-factor analysis of variance of the average bird community structure variables across transects in the study sites Variable Site, F1>10 Strata, F210 Site x Strata, F210 Bird species density (number of species/transect) All 5.687* 12.108** 0.929 (NS) Rainforest 1.177 (NS) 31.195*** 5.894* Open-forest 17.664** 7.259** 3.388 (NS) Birds abundance (individuals/transect) All 0.907 (NS) 7.602* 0.480 (NS) Rainforest 0.333 (NS) 15.366** 2.723 (NS) Open-forest 7.009* 12.666** 4.478* * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 , *** P < 0.001 , NS - non significant 98 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS species density did not differ statistically significantly between sites, but showed a statistically significant interaction between site and strata: it decreased across the habitat gradient from forest to buffer and then village in Thattekad but did not differ substantially between forest and buffer habitats in the Anamalai Hills, although still being lowest in the village transects (Fig. 3a). Bird species abundance of all, rainforest and open-forest species showed a similar trend as bird species densities (Fig. 3b). Open-forest species showed statistically significant interaction between strata and site. In the Anamalai Hills, open-forest bird abundance was similar in forests and buffers, and higher in village transects, whereas Thattekad had similarly high open-forest bird abundance in buffer and village transects compared to forests. The cardamom transect in the Anamalai Hills (VBC) had higher proportion of rainforest species, as well as individuals in its bird community. In general, forest transects had a greater proportion of rainforest species while open forest species were represented more in buffer and village, especially tea plantation transects. Bird species composition in relation to land-use The MDS ordination in Fig. 4 graphically depicts similarity in bird community composition among sites. Compositional variation appears related to altitude/site (separation between Thattekad transects from Anamalai Hills transects) as well as land-use (village transects occupied extreme, while buffer occupied intermediate positions relative to forest transects in each site). The Anamalai Hills tea plantation transects differed substantially in bird species composition from all the other transects and were similar only to each other. Results of ANOSIM showed statistically significant differences in bird community composition between sites (Global R = 0.919, P = 0.003) as well as among land-use types (Global R = 0.918, P = 0.001). Pair-wise comparisons between each pair of habitat strata indicated statistically significant variation between forests and buffer (R = 0.889, P = 0.01), buffer and village (R = 0.917, P = 0.01), and forest and village (R = 1, P = 0.01). Changes in flock size, composition, and encounter rate in different land-uses A total of 101 flocks were recorded (58 complete and 43 incomplete flocks). Of the total 145 species, 82 species (56.6%) participated in flocks at least once. On average, complete flocks contained 9 (±0.56 SE) species and 23.2 (±1.67 SE) individuals, overall. In Thattekad, a mean number of 8.6 (±0.80 SE) species and 22.9 (±2.37 ) individuals participated in the 29 complete flocks recorded, whereas in the Anamalai Hills, the mean participation was 9.4 (±0.79) Fig. 4: Variation in bird community composition across transects illustrated by non-metric multidimensional scaling (MDS) ordination. The closer two transects are, the more similar they are in their bird communities species and 23.5 (±2.39) individuals in the 29 complete flocks recorded. Out of 48 rainforest species participating in the flocks, 35 were residents, 7 were endemic residents, and 6 were migrants. In Thattekad, 43 of 63 (68.3%), and in the Anamalai Hills, 45 of 66 (68.2%) rainforest bird species recorded, participated in flocks. Flock encounter rate was higher in the Anamalai Hills (forest = 1 .95 flocks/transect; buffer = 2.67 flocks/transect) when compared to Thattekad (forest = 1 .59 flocks/transect; buffer = 1 .66 flocks/transect). Buffer transects in both sites had higher flock encounter rate than forest transects. Figure 5 depicts variation in flock size variables across forest and buffer transects in Thattekad and the Anamalai Hills. Rainforest species always contributed more to flock composition than open-forest species in higher altitude site of the Anamalai Hills; but the trend reversed in case of teak plantations in Thattekad showing higher participation of open- forest species and individuals, with TBA being an exception to this. The number of rainforest species in flocks showed statistically significant variation between sites and land-use types (Table 4) with rainforest species participation being higher in forest as compared to buffer transects. Site variation appears primarily due to low representation of rainforest species in flocks in Thattekad buffer transects when compared to Anamalai Hills (Fig. 4). The number of open forest species and individuals in flocks showed primarily a site variation, being higher in Thattekad than Anamalai Hills in comparable land-use types (Table 4, Fig. 5). Relationships with vegetation structure A backward stepwise multiple-regression analysis indicated (Table 5) a statistically significant positive relationship between bird species density (all birds and J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 99 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS (a) * Al ■ Rainforest a Open forest 0 0 0 TFA j TFB | TFC TBA | TBB | TBC TV A | TVB vfa|vfb|vfc vba|vbb|vbc wa|wc Forest Buffer Village Forest Buffer Village Thattekad Anamalai Hills 0.003) related to PCI, while abundanee of open-forest species was significantly negatively correlated to PCI (P = 0.044, Table 5). Number of rainforest bird species per complete flock showed a highly statistically significant positive relationship with PC 1 and a negative relationship with PC2 (P < 0.037). Number of individuals of rainforest birds per complete flock was also found to be statistically significantly related to PCI (P < 0.005). Number of open-forest species and individuals per complete flock showed no statistically significant relationship with either PCI or PC2 (Table 5). (b) i i . AJI ■ Rainforest ° Open forest 1 t TFA | TFB | TFC TBA | TBB | TBC tva|tvb ^T^T^ vfa| vfb|vfc - 1 - 1 — a — vba| vbb| vbc vva|vvc Forest Buffer Village Forest Buffer Village Thattekad Anamalai Hills Fig. 5: Number of all, rainforest, and open forest bird species (a) and individuals (b) per complete flock, in Thattekad and Anamalai Hills rainforest birds) per transect and PCI which represented canopy variables, vertical foliage structure, basal area, and habitat heterogeneity (negative). Open-forest bird species density showed no statistically significant relationship with either principal component. Abundance of all and rainforest bird species was statistically significantly positively (P = Table 4: Results of 2-factor analysis of variance of the average flock structure variables across transects in the study sites Variable Site, Fia Strata, F, 8 Site x Strata, F, 8 Flock size (number of species/complete flock) All 0.235 (NS) 1.792 (NS) 0.011 (NS) Rainforest 7.334* 9.160* 0.247 (NS) Open-forest 10.477* 3.795 (NS) 0.995 (NS) Flock abundance (number of individuals/complete flock) All 0.001 (NS) 0.199 (NS) 0.008 (NS) Rainforest 2.016 (NS) 2.687 (NS) 0.242 (NS) Open-forest 7.810* 4.661 (NS) 0.550 (NS) * P< 0.05, ** P< 0.01, *** F ’<0.001, NS- non significant DISCUSSION In view of continued threat to bird species from deforestation ( Brash 1987; Collar el al. 1994; Balmford 1996), many studies have focused on understanding survival of these forest species in human-modified landscapes and the influence of quality of habitat matrix that exists around remaining forest patches (Askins and Philbrick 1987; Stoufferand Bierregaard 1995; Luck and Daily 2003). Similar to earlier studies from tropical forests, the present study found notable changes in bird community structure and composition across different land uses. Flock composition is also known to be affected as a result of changes in habitat, microclimate, and in local bird community (Johns 1986; Thiollay 1995; Stouffer and Bierregaard 1995; Mason 1996; Marsden 1998; Lee et al. 2005; Sridhar and Sankar 2008). This is also broadly evidenced in the present study where complex and more developed habitat structure of forests and plantations such as cardamom and coffee with more native shade trees support more rainforest species in bird communities and flocks. Habitat structure differences in land-uses Habitat complexity in terms of vertical foliage profile and structural development was higher in forests when compared with other land-uses. This is supported by other studies where intensification of land-use accompanies structural simplification (Michon and Mary 1990; Garcia- Fernandez and Casado 2005) especially in canopy and understory layers (Greenberg etal. 2008), followed by habitat homogeneity (Thiollay 1 995; Scales and Marsden 2008 ). This study finds lower foliage in mid-storey and canopy layers of teak, coffee, and cardamom plantations which show a foliage profile intermediate to forests and villages (tea plantations and home-gardens). Also, cardamom and coffee plantations had lower shrub density as under-storey vegetation was cleared to plant the cash crops (Raman 2006). In general, forests had higher canopy connectivity, tree density, basal area, and shrub density. In non-forest habitats studied. 100 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS cardamom plantations under native rainforest shade trees provided a habitat structure more similar to rainforests, as reported earlier from studies in the Western Ghats (Raman and Sukumar 2002; Raman 2006). Similarly, coffee plantations under native shade tree species in tropics are known to resemble neighbouring forest structure (Bhagwat et al. 2008), and this structural property has potential for biodiversity conservation (Anand et al. 2008). Among more intensive forms of land-use, home gardens had more developed habitat structure and vertical distribution of foliage than tea plantations. Home-gardens were mosaics of arecanut palm, coconut palm, jackfruit trees or other crop tree species forming a canopy over densely-planted woody understory (cocoa, coffee), and usually adjoined monocultures of rubber or Ailanthus malabaricus with closely planted thin stems (thus accounting for the high tree density but low basal area). Ranganathan et al. (2008) studied agricultural systems in Western Ghats of Karnataka similar to home-gardens surveyed in the present study and found arecanut plantations with woody understory to have similar vertical complexity of habitat as managed forests. Although previous studies examining avian diversity in different land-uses in the Western Ghats have looked at teak, arecanut, cocoa, coffee, and cardamom plantations (Beehler et al. 1987; Bhagwat et al. 2005; Raman 2006; Anand et al. 2008; Ranganathan et al. 2008), there are no published reports on habitat structure and avian conservation values of tea plantations. Tea plantations are a major form of land-use in the Western Ghats accounting for over 1 1 9,000 ha. having increased by 6,200 ha (5.5%) in the period 2000-2006 (Mudappa and Raman 2007; Tea Board Statistics, http:// www.teaboard.gov.in). These plantations are dense monocultures of tea bushes with sparse canopy of a single alien tree species planted in rows (silver oak Grevillea robusta , native to Australia) at 12 m spacing. The higher habitat heterogeneity of tea plantations can be attributed to the variability induced by large tracts of tea shrubs maintained at a uniform height of about a metre and with no foliage at all in higher vertical classes alternating with points with more foliage directly below silver oak trees. Tea plantations are intensively managed year-round with cycles of agro-chemical application, pruning, and harvest of leaves. In relation to other plantations studied thus far in the Western Ghats, the results of this study indicate that tea plantations are the most extreme in terms of alteration of habitat relative to rainforests. Changes in bird community and composition We found more bird species and individuals in the lower altitude site of Thattekad than in the higher altitude site of the Anamalai Hills. Thattekad teak buffers supported more open-forest species and individuals, leading to statistically significant differences between sites. When we looked at similarity of bird community composition across strata in both altitudes, we found bird communities to be more similar within a given site/altitude than across. The effect of habitat modification was apparent as bird community differed between land-use types at both the sites. Looking at bird community composition represented Table 5: Relationships between bird community and flock variables with habitat components (PCI and PC2) taken as independent variables in backward stepwise multiple regression analysis Standardized regression coefficient, Beta (P) Dependent variable PCI PC2 FF F df P Total bird species per transect All 0.786 (0.000) - 0.619 22.7 1, 14 0.000 Rainforest species per transect 0.803 (0.000) - 0.645 25.43 1, 14 0.000 Open-forest species per transect - - - - - - Total individuals per transect All 0.692 (0.003) - 0.479 12.86 1, 14 0.003 Rainforest individuals per transect 0.773 (0.000) - 0.597 20.78 1, 14 0.000 Open-forest individuals per transect -0.508 (0.044) - 0.258 4.878 1, 14 0.044 Species per complete flock Rainforest species per flock 0.761 (0.000) -0.352 (0.037) 0.657 15.356 2, 13 0.000 Open-forest species per flock - - - - - Individuals per flock Rainforest individuals per flock 0.698 (0.005) - 0.407 11.27 1, 14 0.005 Open-forest individuals per flock 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 101 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS by rainforest bird species versus open-forest bird species, the number of rainforest species and individuals decreased along the habitat gradient from forest to buffer and then villages. Teak plantations of Thattekad, in general, had more open- forest species and thus seem to support fewer rainforest species when compared to coffee and cardamom plantations of the Anamalai Hills. Among the non-forest habitats, cardamom plantation appears to be the best kind of land-use in its ability to support rainforest species and discouraging open-forest species. The overall species richness and abundance did not vary much between forests and buffers but the composition of bird community was different as species characteristic of primary and mature forests get replaced by species of disturbed or open-forests (Daniels etal. 1 990; Estrada et al. 1997; Lawton et al. 1998; Raman 2001; Lindell et al. 2004; Waltert et al. 2005; Harvey and Villalobos 2007). Bhagwat et al. (2008), in a literature review, compared agrosystems (such as coffee, cocoa, forest rubber, and banana plantations) with forest and found high species richness (92%) compared to forests while lower similarity (52%, Jaccard index) with forest community. Raman (2006) in an earlier study in the southern Western Ghats found that only 59-67% of species present in shade coffee plantations were rainforest species, the balance being species of more open habitats. In another study from the Western Ghats, Ranganathan et al. (2008) found arecanut plantations to retain 90% of bird species that were also found associated with regional forests. Individual bird species may show varying responses to different land-use systems. In Thattekad, open-forest species such as Southern Coucal Centropus [sinensis] parroti. Oriental Magpie-robin Copsychus saularis , Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus. and Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda were found to be more abundant in teak buffers and home-gardens than in forests. The Jungle Babbler Turdoides striata, another open-forest species, was found only in teak plantations. Rainforest species such as Malabar Barbet Megalaima malabarica , Flame-throated Bulbul Pycnonotus gularis, and Yellow-browed Bulbul Iole indica decreased in abundance from forest to buffer and than villages. The Grey¬ headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus, a rainforest species endemic to Western Ghats, and the Malabar Trogon Harpactes fasciatus was found only in forests. Lesser Hill Myna Gracula indica, Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus, and White-cheeked Barbet Megalaima viridis were the rainforest species found to be common throughout, irrespective of the land-use type. In the Anamalai Hills, Red- whiskered Bulbul. Oriental Magpie-Robin, Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius, Indian Jungle Crow Corvus [macrorhynchos] culminatus, Rufous-backed Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach erythronotus, and Chestnut-headed Bee- eater Merops leschenaulti, along with an open-forest migrant Blyth's Reed-warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum, were found to be more common in tea plantations. They were less frequent or absent in buffer habitats and forests. Rainforest species such as Asian Fairy Bluebird Irena puella. Brown-cheeked Fulvetta Alcippe poioicephala, and Yellow-browed Bulbul along with two rainforest migrants. Large-billed Leaf-warbler Phylloscopus magnirostris, and Rusty-tailed Flycatcher Muscicapa ruficauda, decreased in abundance from forest to buffer and were never found in tea plantations. One rainforest species, Indian Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus [ schisticeps] horsfieldii, was found to be more common in tea plantations than in coffee, cardamom or forests. Small Sunbird Leptocoma minima, a Western Ghats endemic, preferred forests and buffers over tea plantations. Differences in flock size, composition, and encounter rate Participation of species in flocks was observed to be lower than that found in an earlier study in the southern Western Ghats where 87 out of 109 species participated in flocks (Sridhar and Sankar 2008). The previous study compared forest fragments of different sizes, whereas we sampled on more open roads or dirt tracks leading to more open-forest species and a greater number of species recorded outside of flocks. Flock size overall did not seem to be affected considerably by land-use although other studies suggest that overall species participation in flocks decreases with habitat degradation and changes in bird community (Bierregaard and Lovejoy 1989; Maldonado-Coelho and Marini 2004; Lee et al. 2005; Sridhar and Sankar 2008). The number of rainforest species that participated in flocks, however, did vary significantly by land-use in our study. Rainforest species, in general, contributed more to the flocks than open-forest species, which could explain the near absence of flocks from heavily-modified habitats such as tea and home-gardens, which support very low number of rainforest species and a higher proportion of open-forest species in their bird community. As flocks are species-rich (and, in some Neotropical areas, even hold interspecific territories), they may be vulnerable to changes in habitat structure, microclimate, and bird community (Munn and Terborgh 1979; Bierregaard and Lovejoy 1989; Thiollay 1992; Hutto 1994; Jullien and Thiollay 1998; Stratford and Stouffer 1999). Flocks can therefore be used as indicators of disturbance (Maldonado-Coelho and Marini 2004) with the number of rainforest versus open-forest species taken as a measure of the ability of particular land-use type to support the complex interactions that lead to formation of flocks. Flock encounter rate was found to be much higher in 102 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS the higher altitude site. Buffer transects in both altitudes showed higher flock encounter rate than the forests. This may possibly be due to better visibility in the buffer plantations that had more open habitat relative to forest (particularly in mid-storey layers). Another reason for this could be the higher visibility for predators (e.g., raptors) as well and therefore an increased tendency of bird species to occur in flocks (Thiollay 1999). A flock was usually sighted shortly before or soon after hearing or sighting a raptor species (S. Sidhu, unpublished data). Effect of habitat modification on bird community and flocks Bird community and flock composition were observed to differ with land-use and seem to be affected by habitat alterations. Among different land-uses, tea plantations turned out to be the poorest in habitat structural complexity, which was reflected in their highly altered bird community composition and complete absence of flocks. The home- gardens surveyed in the present study also had poorer habitat complexity. When compared to TVA, the other home garden (TVB) was found to support more rainforest species and two incomplete flocks were observed. This difference in bird composition between similar land-uses could be due to the latter site being located in a small tribal village surrounded on all sides by forest. Structural complexity and similarity with forest habitat were seen to positively influence rainforest birds in the community and flocks. Cardamom, coffee, and teak plantations seem to hold more species than severely modified land-use represented by tea plantations and home gardens. When comparing among different buffer habitats, cardamom and coffee fared better than teak in supporting a greater proportion of the respective rainforest species at that altitude. This is supported by studies showing that more forest species can be supported by a mix of cultivated and native shade trees (Taylor et al. 1993; Thiollay 1995; Greenberg etal. 1997; Powell and Bjork 2004; Sekercioglu et al. 2006). Beehler et al. (1987) in an earlier study in Eastern Ghats, India, found teak monoculture to be a poor habitat for birds. TBA was the only teak buffer showing higher rainforest bird species in flocks. It had patches of relatively undisturbed rainforests interrupting the plantation. These forest patches are necessary as they act as refuges for species that are sensitive to changes Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 737. Anand, M.O., J. Krishnaswamy & A. Das (2008): Proximity to forests drives bird conservation value of coffee plantations: Implications for certification. Ecol. Appl. 18: 1754-1763. in land-use (Sekercioglu et al. 2006). In a study by Faria et al. (2000) from Brazil that compared bird communities in a landscape dominated by natural forest (<6% under cocoa plantation) with a landscape dominated by cocoa plantations, bird communities were found to be richer in the former landscape indicating the landscape-level influence of forest cover and proximity. Many studies have reported the importance of natural shade trees in coffee and cardamom as they support greater number of forest bird species (Estrada et al. 1997; Mudappa and Raman 2007; Sodhi et al. 2008). Beehler et al. (1987) also observed that coffee plantations with companion tracts of remnant forest maintain healthy population of birds. Similarly, the coffee plantations we sampled had interspersed forest fragments and native shade trees along with exotic ones and this supports more rainforest species which then participate in flocks. Anand et al. (2008) observed bird species richness and abundance in coffee plantations to increase with increase in basal area of native tree species and decline with increasing distance from contiguous forest. Thus, at landscape level, plantations with native shade trees and forest fragments are extremely important to retain as they act as a support system for sensitive species and provide better connectivity between different land-uses. Planting more native tree species in these plantations and restoring the degraded forest fragments will add to value of the habitat. Habitat managements must discourage further conversion of these into monocultures or their extreme modification into tea plantations. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are indebted to American Institute of India Studies, Ford Foundation, and Nadathur Conservation Trust for support that enabled this study. We thank Tamil Nadu and Kerala Forest Departments and officers, especially Messrs Sukhdev, V.S. Varughese, K. Varadharajan, Nirmal John, G. Sivamani for research permits and support in Anamalai Tiger Reserve and Thattekad Bird Sanctuary. Our thanks to Dinesh and Moorthy for field assistance. We are also extremely grateful to M. Ananda Kumar, Divya Mudappa, and P Jeganathan for their help and suggestions in various stages of the project and K.V. Eldhose, and R. Sugathan for help at Thattekad. Askins, R.A. & M.J. Philbrjck (1987): Effect of changes in regional forest abundance on the decline and recovery of a forest bird community. Wilson Bull. 99: 7-21. Balmford, A. (1996): Extinction filters and current resilience: the significance of past selection pressures for conservation biology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11: 193-196. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 103 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS Beehler, B.M., K.S.R.K. Raju & S. Au (1987): Avian use of man- disturbed forest habitats in the Eastern Ghats, India. Ibis 129: 197- 211. Bhagwat, S.A., C.G Kushalappa, RH. Williams & N.D. 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Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 105 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS Appendix 1 : List of bird species, codes, and average relative abundance (abundance of a species / abundance of all species, represented as percentage for a transect) in the three main habitat strata across the two study sites (Thattekad and Anamalai Hills) Common names Scientific name Codes Forest Thattekad Buffer Village Anamalai Hills Forest Buffer Village Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica * OF/M 0.13 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.40 0.00 Blue-headed Rock-thrush Monticola cinclorhynchus’ OF/M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.23 Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis * OF/M 0.28 0.77 0.00 0.07 0.16 0.00 Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus OF/M 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.06 0.07 0.00 Blyth’s Reed-warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum OF/M 0.06 0.33 0.16 0.72 1.40 14.42 Blue-throated Flycatcher Cyornis rubeculoides OF/M 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Common Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus* OF/M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.72 0.00 European Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus * OF/M 0.27 0.32 2.50 0.06 0.00 0.00 Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus OF/R 0.19 0.58 0.91 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ashy Prinia Prinia socialis OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 Ashy Woodswallow Artamus fuscus OF/R 0.06 0.41 2.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 Indian Pygmy Woodpecker Dendrocopos nanus * OF/R 0.64 0.67 0.37 0.13 0.30 0.00 Blue-faced Malkoha Phaenicophaeus viridirostris * OF/R 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Brown Fish-owl Ketupa zeylonensis OF/R 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Black-hooded Oriole Oriolus xanthornus* OF/R 0.52 4.32 0.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 Black-rumped Flameback Dinopium benghalense* OF/R 0.61 1.59 1.90 0.07 0.08 0.47 Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus OF/R 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 Blue-winged Leafbird Chloropsis cochinchinensis* OF/R 0.16 0.32 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chestnut-headed Bee-eater Merops leschenaulti OF/R 0.13 0.74 0.00 0.33 0.51 6.49 Common Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx varius* OF/R 0.07 1.78 1.61 0.00 0.00 0.00 Coppersmith Barbet Megaiaima haemacephala * OF/R 0.63 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Common Hoopoe Upupa epops OF/R 0.06 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21 Common lora Aegithina tiphia * OF/R 0.60 0.23 0.00 0.07 0.17 0.00 Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.70 Common Myna Acridotheres tristis ’ OF/R 0.48 2.12 3.49 0.00 0.15 1.29 Common Tailorbird Orthotom us su tori us* OF/R 0.18 0.73 1.45 0.00 1.20 3.45 Common Woodshrike Tephrodornis pondicerianus * OF/R 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Crested Treeswift Hemiprocne coronata OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 Indian Scops-owl Otus bakkamoena OF/R 0.07 0.08 0.00 0.06 0.07 0.00 Grey-headed Starling Sturnia malabarica * OF/R 1.67 0.52 0.48 0.00 0.07 0.00 Grey-bellied Cuckoo Cacomantis passerinus OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis* OF/R 1.26 2.69 4.61 0.53 0.16 4.04 Great Tit Parus major * OF/R 0.00 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 House Sparrow Passer domesticus OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21 Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus OF/R 0.06 1.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Jungle Babbler Turdoides striata * OF/R 0.65 14.16 1.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus * OF/R 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.86 Jungle Owlet Glaucidium radiatum * OF/R 0.06 0.78 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 Indian Jungle Crow Corvus (macrorhynchos) culminatus* OF/R 1.27 3.17 12.14 1.20 0.99 7.04 Loten’s Sunbird Cinnyris lotenius* OF/R 0.15 0.08 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.40 Mottled Wood-owl Strix ocellata OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 Oriental Magpie-robin Copsychus sau laris* OF/R 0.06 1.77 3.08 0.06 0.52 6.46 Plum-headed Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala * OF/R 1.09 0.97 0.32 0.00 0.76 0.21 Pied Bushchat Saxicola cap rata OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.48 Plain Prinia Prinia inornata OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21 Purple-rumped Sunbird Leptocoma zeylonica * OF/R 0.00 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Purple Sunbird Cinnyris asiaticus * OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.97 0.14 0.16 0.23 Rock Pigeon Columba livia OF/R 0.00 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri OF/R 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda * OF/R 1.00 4.56 3.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 106 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS Appendix 1 : List of bird species, codes, and average relative abundance (abundance of a species / abundance of all species, represented as percentage for a transect) in the three main habitat strata across the two study sites (Thattekad and Anamalai Hills) ( contd .) Common names Scientific name Codes Forest Thattekad Buffer Village Anamalai Hills Forest Buffer Village Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cater* OF/R 0.00 0.35 0.81 0.00 0.00 0.00 Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus* OF/R 0.57 2.00 4.30 0.44 9.38 22.10 Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus OF/R 0.06 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Stork-billed Kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis OF/R 0.00 0.26 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 Shikra Accipiter badius OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 Small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus* OF/R 0.98 0.00 0.97 0.00 0.00 0.00 Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis OF/R 0.22 0.40 0.56 0.13 0.85 2.42 Streak-throated Woodpecker Picus xanthopygaeus* OF/R 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher Cyornis tickelliae OF/R 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus OF/R 0.00 0.32 0.56 0.00 0.00 0.47 White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis OF/R 0.54 1.75 1.05 0.00 0.15 0.23 Yellow-footed Green-pigeon Treron phoenicopterus OF/R 0.45 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Small Sunbird Leptocoma minima* RF/E 2.02 0.44 1.61 11.28 6.23 0.23 Grey-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus* RF/E 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Malabar Parakeet Psittacula columboides * RF/E 1.41 0.78 1.77 1.20 2.98 0.00 Malabar Grey Hornbill Ocyceros griseus* RF/E 4.52 2.45 1.69 2.98 1.94 0.45 Nilgiri Flycatcher Eumyias albicaudatus* RF/E 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 Indian Rufous Babbler Turdoides subrufa RF/E 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.29 0.70 Ceylon Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger RF/E 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 White-bellied Blue Flycatcher Cyornis pallipes* RF/E 0.88 0.14 0.00 0.39 0.00 0.00 White-bellied Treepie Dendrocitta leucogastra* RF/E 0.00 0.43 0.00 1.24 0.29 0.00 Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus* RF/M 0.39 0.31 0.65 0.20 0.22 0.00 Brown-breasted Flycatcher Muscicapa muttui RF/M 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Forest Wagtail Dendronanthus indicus RF/M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides* RF/M 2.30 2.77 3.43 2.49 4.54 2.23 Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea RF/M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.15 0.21 Indian Blue Robin Luscinia brunnea RF/M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 Large-billed Leaf-warbler Phylloscopus magnlrostris * RF/M 1.61 0.29 0.00 4.29 0.69 0.00 Rusty-tailed Flycatcher Muscicapa ruficauda* RF/M 0.16 0.00 0.00 1.19 0.23 0.00 Verditer Flycatcher Eumyias thalassinus* RF/M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 Western Crowned Warbler Phylloscopus occipitalis* RF/M 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.75 4.05 0.00 Asian Fairy-bluebird Irena puella* RF/R 3.15 0.99 1.34 6.50 1.98 0.00 Asian Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi* RF/R 0.42 0.08 0.00 0.26 0.17 0.00 Blue-bearded Bee-eater Nyctyornis athertoni RF/R 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Black-capped Bulbul Pycnonotus melanicterus* RF/R 4.09 1.59 0.16 1.75 0.31 0.00 Brown-cheeked Fulvetta Alcippe poioicephala * RF/R 2.58 0.07 0.00 5.16 1.18 0.00 Besra Sparrowhawk Accipiter virgatus RF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.08 0.00 Hume’s Hawk-owl Ninox obscura RF/R 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 Black Baza Aviceda leuphotes RF/R 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Himalayan Black Bulbul Hypslpetes leucocephalus* RF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.00 Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis RF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 Black-lored Yellow Tit Parus xanthogenys* RF/R 0.44 0.00 0.00 0.84 1.21 0.21 Black-naped Blue Monarch Hypothymls azurea * RF/R 0.90 0.21 0.00 0.26 0.25 0.00 Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus* RF/R 1.79 3.53 1.05 1.93 1.79 0.00 Pied Flycatcher-shrike Hemipus picatus* RF/R 0.09 0.07 0.16 0.32 0.94 0.00 Ceylon Small Barbet Megalaima rubricapillus* RF/R 4.52 0.42 1.21 0.58 1.39 0.21 Common Flameback Dinopium javanense * RF/R 0.00 0.33 0.00 1.71 1.31 0.23 Crested Goshawk Accipiter trivirgatus RF/R 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.19 0.17 0.00 Crested Serpent-eagle Spilornis cheela RF/R 0.31 0.28 0.16 0.79 1.39 1.07 Dark-fronted Babbler Rhopocichla atriceps* RF/R 4.00 0.00 0.00 3.00 2.00 0.00 Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis* RF/R 0.14 0.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Square-tailed Drongo-cuckoo Surniculus lugubris RF/R 0.07 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica * RF/R 0.14 0.37 0.00 0.46 0.16 0.00 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 107 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON BIRDS Appendix 1 : List of bird species, codes, and average relative abundance (abundance of a species / abundance of all species, represented as percentage for a transect) in the three main habitat strata across the two study sites (Thattekad and Anamalai Hills) ( contd .) Common names Scientific name Codes Forest Thattekad Buffer Village Anamalai Hills Forest Buffer Village Gold-fronted Leafbird Chloropsis aurifrons* RF/R 1.14 0.84 0.00 0.47 1.94 0.00 Grey-headed Canary-flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis* RF/R 0.09 0.07 0.16 1.59 1.48 0.00 Grey-headed Fish-eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus RF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.19 0.00 0.00 Green Imperial-pigeon Ducula aenea RF/R 2.67 0.80 0.81 0.25 0.00 0.00 Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus* RF/R 1.68 0.53 0.70 0.79 0.92 0.00 Great Pied Hornbill Buceros bicornis RF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 Grey Junglefowl Gallus sonneratii RF/R 1.25 1.89 0.56 0.58 0.46 0.21 Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus* RF/R 10.18 10.14 7.77 5.40 2.29 0.00 Common Hill-Myna Gracula religiosa * RF/R 5.86 2.45 3.23 4.23 2.37 0.21 Heart-spotted Woodpecker Hemicircus canente* RF/R 1.09 0.26 0.00 0.07 0.39 0.00 Indian Scimitar-babbler Pomatorhinus (schisticeps) horsfieldii* RF/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.10 1.52 5.76 Large Woodshrike Tephrodornis gu laris* RF/R 0.16 1.00 0.00 1.26 1.33 0.00 Lesser Yellownape Picus chlorolophus* RF/R 0.69 0.48 0.35 0.13 0.08 0.00 Little Spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostra * RF/R 2.23 0.14 0.65 1.36 0.23 0.00 Malabar Trogon Harpactes fasciatus* RF/R 0.42 0.00 0.00 0.79 0.00 0.00 Mountain Imperial-pigeon Ducula badia RF/R 0.95 0.07 0.00 2.25 1.97 0.23 Malabar Whistling-thrush Myophonus horsfieldii RF/R 0.84 0.24 0.00 3.13 1.20 1.99 Oriental Honey-buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus RF/R 0.07 0.17 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 Orange-headed Thrush Zoothera citrina * RF/R 0.06 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.00 Oriental White-eye Zosterops palpebrosus* RF/R 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.97 3.00 0.00 Ceylon Green-pigeon Treron pompadora RF/R 0.73 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.65 0.00 Nilgiri Flowerpecker Dicaeum concolor* RF/R 3.01 2.26 1.96 3.46 4.15 0.23 Puff-throated Babbler Pellorneum ruficeps RF/R 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 Red Spurfowl Galloperdix spadicea RF/R 0.06 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.21 Rufous Woodpecker Micropternus brachyurus* RF/R 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Orange Minivet Pericrocotus flammeus* RF/R 1.67 0.00 1.61 2.26 5.54 0.00 Speckled Piculet Picumnus innominatus* RF/R 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.42 0.00 Velvet-fronted Nuthatch Sitta frontalis * RF/R 0.26 0.00 0.00 1.09 1.56 0.00 Vernal Hanging-parrot Loriculus vernalis* RF/R 4.42 2.24 2.85 2.54 2.27 0.00 White-bellied Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis RF/R 0.06 0.08 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 White-cheeked Barbet Megalaima viridis* RF/R 6.49 5.89 6.91 4.93 6.79 4.22 Yellow-browed Bulbul lole indica* RF/R 3.43 0.44 1.37 6.38 4.88 0.00 Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida WB/M 0.26 0.09 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 Bronze-winged Jacana Metopidius indicus WB/R 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster WB/R 0.00 0.17 0.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 Great Egret Egretta alba WB/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.88 Intermediate Egret Egretta intermedia WB/R 0.06 0.00 1.45 0.00 0.00 0.00 Indian Pond-heron Ardeola grayii WB/R 0.00 0.15 1.63 0.00 0.08 1.84 Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger WB/R 0.06 0.34 0.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 Lesser Whistling-duck Dendrocygna javanica WB/R 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 River Tern Sterna aurantia WB/R 0.32 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total number of individuals 1372 1261 577 1286 1305 446 * Flocking species Codes: OF=Open-forest species, RF=Rainforest species, WB=Water-birds, R=Resident, E=Endemic, M=Migrant 108 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 109-115 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW HIRUNDO DOM1COLA IN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA P. Balakrishnan1 'Division of Conservation Ecology, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Anaikatty, Coimbatore 641 108, Tamil Nadu, India. Present Address: Wildlife Research and Conservation Trust, c/o Anupallavi, Chungathara, Nilambur 679 334, Malappuram, Kerala, India. Email: baluperoth@gmail.com The breeding biology of Hill Swallow Hirundo domicola - which has been previously considered as a subspecies of Pacific Swallow Hirundo tahitica - was studied from 2002 to 2005 in Silent Valley National Park and Muthikkulam Reserve Forests, Western Ghats, India. Nesting of the species was observed from November to April with peak egg- laying during February-March. Nests were placed in the walls of tunnels/culverts and on the roofs of buildings. The clutch size averaged 2.44 eggs, and was found to be low in nests placed in buildings (2.07 eggs) compared to those in tunnels/culverts (2.71 eggs). Average incubation period was 15.78 days and nestling period was 19.1 days. Nest attentiveness and duration of the on- and off-bouts increased with the progress of incubation. Nesting success rate was higher than the average of tropical species but lower than the temperate hirundines. The main known causes of nest failure were predation and nest falling. In general, many life history traits (including clutch size, developmental periods and parental care) of H. domicola varied from its conspecific House Swallow H. tahitica , and thus support the recent separation of it as a distinct species. Keywords: breeding biology, Hirundinidae, Hirundo domicola, Hirundo tahitica, life history, parental care, tropics INTRODUCTION The Family Hirundinidae includes c. 84 species of passerines widely distributed in both temperate and tropical habitats (Turner and Rose 1989; Turner 2004). These birds are highly aerial and exclusive insectivores (Turner 2004). Little is known of the biology and ecology of many hirundines, especially tropical species. But several temperate species like Bam Swallow Hirundo rustica , Cliff Swallow Petrochelidon pyrrhonota and Tree Swallow Tachycineta bicolor are well-known and used as models in a large number of ecological studies (see reviews in Turner 2004). Available information on the reproductive traits of hirundines that breed in the tropics shows significant variation from the typical traits of tropical birds (Hails 1984; Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004). Many of them have large a clutch size and longer developmental periods compared to that of temperate birds (Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004). Pacific Swallow Hirundo tahitica (Ali and Ripley 1987; Grimmett et al. 1999) is one of the 17 hirundines occurring in South Asia (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005) and constitute two disjunctly distributed subspecies ( Hirundo tahitica javanica and Hirundo tahitica domicola). Based on the morphological, vocal and ecological differences, these subspecies were recently recognised (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005) as two distinct species, namely House Swallow Hirundo tahitica and Hill Swallow Hirundo domicola. The House Swallow is a common bird known from Andamans, Myanmar, Malay Peninsula and Indonesia (Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004). Hill Swallows are sedentary residents distributed in the grassy slopes around plantations and human habitation in southern Western Ghats (from south Karnataka through Nilgiris and Kerala) and Sri Lanka from 700-2,400 m (Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004; Rasmussen and Anderton 2005). Jathar and Rahmani (2006) also listed Hill Swallow as one of the birds endemic to the South Asian mainland and Sri Lanka. The breeding biology of House Swallow has been well-studied in Malaysia (Hails 1984). However, relatively little is known about Hill Swallows except for the descriptions of breeding seasonality, nests and clutch size (Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004). This paper describes the breeding biology and life history of Hill Swallow and compares this information with the available data for House Swallow and other hirundines. Aspects considered include timing of breeding, nest-site characteristics, nest measurements, clutch size, developmental periods, growth rates, parental care strategies, nesting success and causes of nest failures. STUDY AREA Data were collected from two study areas: in Silent Valley National Park (11° 00'- 11° 15' N; 76° 15'-76° 35’ E; area: 89.52 sq. km, hereafter: Silent Valley) during January 2003 to May 2005, and Muthikkulam Reserve Forest (10° 56'- 10° 59' N; 76° 41'-76° 45' E; area: 63.83 sq. km, hereafter: Muthikkulam) during September 2002 to April 2004. Both the sites are located in the south-western comer BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in the Western Ghats of India. In both the areas, the terrain is undulating and hilly, with elevation ranging from 658 to 2,383 m above msl at Silent Valley, and 610 to 2,065 m above msl at Muthikkulam. Both sites are similar in vegetation types, dominated by the west coast tropical evergreen forest followed by the southern montane wet temperate forest, and grasslands restricted mainly to the higher slopes and hill tops (Nair and Balasubramanyan 1985; Basha 1999; Balakrishnan 2007). Both sites experience similar and typical tropical climate, with mean annual temperature below 27°C and mean annual rainfall above 4,500 mm. However, the north-east monsoon is slightly heavier in Muthikkulam compared to that of Silent Valley. In Silent Valley, the breeding sites were found in the remnants of the abandoned hydro-electric project (tunnels and buildings) at Sairandhri. The study site at Muthikkulam included the surroundings (about 5 sq. km) of the Siruvani dam with several abandoned and partially occupied (by officials of forest and irrigation departments) buildings, tunnels and culverts. METHODS Nests were located by following the activities of adult birds (regular to and fro movement to probable breeding sites, carrying food or nest materials, etc.) or by searching potentially suitable habitats (building, culverts, tunnels, etc.). Once found, contents of the nests were checked using a mirror and torch on a pole. Nests were inspected every 1-2 days or everyday during the transition of nesting stages with the help of field assistants to determine the breeding phenology and nest fate. Clutch initiation dates were determined either by direct observation of egg laying or by calculations made using known hatching dates and mean developmental periods. Clutch size was measured as the final number of eggs laid and duration of developmental period was calculated based on visual inspection of nests. Seven chicks from three nests were weighed on alternate days (from day 1 to 19) using Pesola spring balances to determine the growth rates. After nest success or failure, height of the nest above ground, nest measurements such as nest diameter, cup diameter, outer nest depth and cup depth were recorded, and nest thickness based on standard methods was calculated (Soler et al. 1998). To assess parental care patterns and nest attentiveness, the birds’ incubation behaviour during early (1-8 days) and late incubation (9-16 days) period by hourly watches at nests following standard methods (Nolan 1978; Halupka 1994; Norment 1995) was measured. Day-light hours (6:00 to 18:00 hrs) were divided into four sections (06:00-09:00, 09:00- 12:00, 12:00-15:00 and 15:00-18:00 hrs) and observations were made in each section to control for variation in incubation behaviour during the day (Nolan 1978; Smith and Montgomerie 1992; Conway and Martin 2000a). The parameters measured or calculated were nest attentiveness (per cent time spent on the nest incubating eggs), on-bout duration (mean incubation bout duration in minutes) and off- bout duration (mean time spent away between two incubation visits in minutes) based on standard methods (Kendeigh 1952; Conway and Martin 2000a). Similarly, provisioning rates (number of feeding visits/hr) during early (1-6 days), mid (7- 13days) and late (14-19 days) nestling periods were also recorded by hourly watches at nests. The total observation period was 133 hrs, which include 1 14 hrs during incubation and 19 hrs during nestling period. As the birds were not colour- marked or sexed, data presented are combined parental investment of both males and females. Nests that produced at least one fledgling were considered as successful nests. Hatching, nestling and breeding success were defined as: the probability that eggs laid would hatch, the probability that hatchlings would fledge, and the probability that eggs laid would survive from laying to fledging, respectively. Daily nest survival and nest success rates were calculated based on Mayfield method (Mayfield 1975). Daily nest survival and nest success rates were calculated separately for the reproductive phases, study sites and substrate types. Standard errors for survival rates were calculated based on the methods described in Johnson (1979). All tests were two tailed, and differences were considered significant at p < 0.05. Mean ±SD values are reported throughout. All statistical analyses were performed by using SPSS 10.0 (SPSS Inc.). RESULTS Timing of breeding A total of 36 Hill Swallow nests during 2002 to 2005 were located and monitored; 21 nests in Silent Valley and 15 nests in Muthikkulam. In Muthikkulam, the earliest first egg-laying date was November 23 (November 23 and February 06 for 2002-03 and 2003-04 breeding seasons, respectively), while it was February 09 (February 12, February 18, and February 09 for 2003, 2004 and 2005 breeding seasons, respectively) in Silent Valley. Except for three nests observed at Muthikkulam during November-December 2002, all the nesting attempts were during February-April and peak egg- laying occurred during February-March at both sites (Fig. 1). Nests and nest sites All the breeding sites were located within an elevation 110 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS 14 12 □ Silent Valley NP ■ Muthikkulam RF Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Fig. 1 : Timing of monthly clutch initiation (n = 36) from early November to late May 2002-2005, for Hill Swallows at Silent Valley National Park and Muthikkulam Reserve Forest -C CT> Q) 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 I l - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 I I 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 Age (days) Fig. 2: Growth rate (mass) of Hill Swallow nestlings as a function of age range of 800 to 1 ,200 m above msl. Of the 36 nests examined in this study, 17 were built on rock surfaces (under overhangs) in man-made tunnels, four on the wall of culverts and 15 on roofs of abandoned buildings. All the nests placed on buildings were single nests, but the nest sites in tunnels and culverts also comprised of small colonies of 3-5 nests. All the nests were cup-shaped (nest diameter: 11.43 ±0.72 cm, cup diameter: 8.59 ±0.71 cm, outer nest depth: 7.84 ±0.71 cm, cup depth: 5.2 ±0.72 cm, nest thickness: 1.42 ±0.32 cm) made with mud pellets as major structural constituent. Dried grasses, moss, pteridophyte roots and lichens were also used in the structural layer, mostly in nests placed in tunnel/culvert sites. The amount of these materials was considerably minimal in the nests placed in buildings. However, in the building sites, the mud cups were supported by a mud foundation built in the lower portion of the ceiling beams. These foundations were made with powdery mud (different from the material of the cup) which has terracotta¬ like hardness upon drying. Feathers were used as the inner lining layer in all nests. Addition of feather was also observed during the early incubation stage. Both sexes participated in the nest construction and birds often reused old nest sites with certain amount of repair. Time required for nest construction was not estimated because majority of the nests were found during the late construction period or other reproductive stages. We observed a pair take seven days to repair an old nest at a building site. Nest morphometry significantly varied between the nesting substrates (building vs. tunnel/culvert nests) and between nests with different clutch sizes (Table 1 ). The nests were placed 2.06 ±0.39 m above ground (range: 1.58-2.7 m). Nest heights significantly varied between the building sites (2.49 ±0.20 m, range: 1.9-2. 7 m, n = 15) and tunnel/culvert sites (1.76 ±0.09 m, range: 1.58-1.9 m, n = 21) (t = -14.64, p < 0.001). All the nest sites were in the vicinity of water (<15 m). Clutch size, developmental periods and growth rates The mean clutch size was 2.52 ±0.51 in Silent Valley (n = 21) and 2.33 ±0.49 in Muthikkulam (n = 15), while for all clutches together it was 2.44 ±0.5 (20 nests with 2 eggs and 16 nests with 3 eggs). Clutch size was significantly smaller in building nests (2.07 ±0.26 eggs, n = 15) than in tunnel/culvert nests (2.71 ±0.46 eggs, n = 21; t = 4.89, p< 0.001). Table 1: Measurements of Hill Swallow nests Nest size variables Tunnel/culvert nests N = 13 Building nests N = 9 F P Nest with two eggs N = 11 Nest with three eggs N = 11 F P Nest diameter (cm) 11.78 ±0.59 10.92 ±0.58 11.544 0.003 10.90 ±0.53 11.96 ±0.42 27.139 0.001 Cup diameter (cm) 8.79 ±0.75 8.30 ±0.57 2.763 0.112 8.23 ±0.67 8.95 ±0.57 7.547 0.012 Outer depth (cm) 8.25 ±0.39 7.24 ±0.66 20.546 0.001 7.34 ±0.63 8.35 ±0.33 21.994 0.001 Cup depth (cm) 5.73 ±0.34 4.43 ±0.23 99.047 0.001 4.61 ±0.44 5.79 ±0.33 49.911 0.001 Nest thickness (cm) 1.50 ±0.34 1.31 ±0.28 1.793 0.196 1.34 ±0.36 1.50 ±0.28 1.512 0.233 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 111 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS Table 2: Breeding parameters of Hill Swallows at Silent Valley National Park and Muthikkulam Reserve Forest Parameter Silent Valley Muthikkulam Pooled No. of eggs 53 (21) 35 (15) 88 (36) No. of hatchlings 36 (15) 17(8) 53 (23) No. of fledglings 26 (10) 13(6) 39 (16) Hatching success (%) 67.92 48.57 60.23 Fledging success (%) 72.22 37.14 73.58 Breeding success (%) 49.06 37.14 44.32 % of successful nests 47.62 40.00 44.44 Values in parentheses are number of nests The average length of incubation period from laying the last egg to hatching was 15.78 ±0.97 days (range: 14-17 days, n = 9 nests). The mean duration of on- and off-bouts in early incubation (1-8 days) was 1 1.89 ±5.88 min (range: 2- 28 min, n = 60 hrs) and 16.89 ±7.95 min (range: 2-41, n = 60 hrs), and during late incubation (9-16 days) was 18.46 ±7.74 min (range: 5-43 min, n = 54 hrs) and 21.07 ±9.32 min (range: 2-58 min, n = 54 hrs), respectively. Nest attentiveness averaged 39.64% (n = 60 hrs) on early incubation and 55.77% (n = 54 hrs) during late incubation. Hatching was synchronous in all nests monitored. The number of nestlings in a brood averaged 2.3 ±0.47 (n = 23 nests) and they reached a peak mass of 16.79 ±0.57 gm (n = 7 nestlings) on day 19 (Fig. 2). The average nestling period from the hatching to first leaving of the fledglings from the nest was 19.1 ±0.88 days (range: 18-21 days, n = 10 nests). Both male and female birds fed the young ones simultaneously. Provisioning rates during early (1-6 days), mid (7-13 days) and late (14-19 days) nestling days were 7.67 ±2.73 (n = 6 hrs), 14.33 ±2. 16 (n = 6 hrs), 20. 19 ±2.87 (n = 7 hrs) trips/hr, respectively. The total nesting period (incubation and nestling periods together) was 34.75 ±1.67 days (range: 33-38, n = 8 nests). The juveniles returned to the nests with parents for roosting for about 6.5 ±1.29 days (range: 5-8 days, n = 4 nestlings) after first leaving of the nest. Nesting success and causes of mortality Of the 36 nests monitored during this study, 16 (44.44%) successfully fledged young, on average, 2.44 ±0.5 1 young per successful nest. Hatching (% eggs hatched), fledging (% hatched chicks fledging) and breeding success (% eggs fledged) for all nests monitored were 60.23%, 73.58% and 44.32%, respectively. Hatching and fledging success rates considerably varied between study sites (Table 2). Daily survival rates significantly varied between the different reproductive stages and between the nesting sites (Table 3). Chick survival rates were slightly higher than the egg survival rates (Table 3). and breeding failures during chick-rearing occurred when the chick was, on average, 4.33 ±1 .86 days old (range: 3-8 days). The overall Mayfield nest success rate for all nests monitored was 26.07%. There was not much variation in the Mayfield nest success rates between study sites: 27.66% in the Silent Valley and 24.05% in the Muthikkulam. However, Mayfield success rates varied significantly between nesting sites: from 18.7% in the tunnel/culvert nests to 37.42% in the building nests (Table 3). Fourteen (70%) of the 20 nest failures were due to the predation of eggs (10 nests) and nestlings (4 nests). The identity of predators could be recognized in only one nest, in which the Indian Garden Lizard Calotes versicolor consumed the entire contents of the nest during incubation stage. Four nests failed due to the nest falling during the early incubation stage. Nestlings of two nests were also lost due to the attack of red ants. No infanticide, egg or nestling desertion, starvation, partial egg or brood loss and brood parasitism were observed during the study. Table 3: Daily nest survival rates and nest success of Hill Swallows for different reproductive phases, study locations and nesting sites in Western Ghats Exposure days No. of nests No. of nests failed Daily nest survival (±SE) % nest success Reproductive phases (all data pooled) Incubation 273 36 13 0.952 ±0.013 46.31 Nestling 254 23 7 0.972 ±0.010 58.64 Overall nesting 527 36 20 0.962 ±0.008 26.07 Study locations Silent Valley 303 21 11 0.964 ±0.011 27.66 Muthikkulam 224 15 9 0.960 ±0.013 24.05 Nesting sites Tunnel/culvert 276 21 13 0.953 ±0.013 18.70 Building 251 15 7 0.972 ±0.010 37.42 112 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS DISCUSSION Hirundines show significant geographic variation in the timing of breeding. In subtropics and tropics nesting is limited to the wet season when insects are most abundant or can occur almost throughout the year, sometimes with peaks during rains (Turner 2004). Majority of the species in India breed chiefly during March-July (Ali and Ripley 1987). In Silent Valley, breeding of Hill Swallows is restricted to the dry season (February-April ) which is consistent with the records (March- May) of Ali and Ripley (1987) from southern India. In Muthikkulam, a few nests were recorded in November- December and this indicates the start of early breeding in this site as reported (December-June) for Sri Lanka (Ali and Ripley 1987). It is not clear whether the heavy north-east monsoon in Muthikkulam compared to Silent Valley is associated with the early breeding of Hill Swallows at this site. Due to the preference of elusive sites for nest placement, it is likely that a few nests went undiscovered during this study. However, no recently used nests were found in the tunnels/culverts or buildings examined. Significant regional variation in the timing of breeding was also reported for conspecific H. tahitica (Andamans: May-June, Myanmar: March-May, Malaysia: January-August, Philippines: July- October) (Hails 1984; Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004). Thus, further studies are required to understand the factors (including abundance of insects, rainfall, etc.) resulting in the geographic variation in the timing of breeding of Hill Swallows. Most species of swallows are known to use artificial structures for roosting and nesting, and this feature has given new opportunities for population expansion and range expansion in many species (Hails 1984; Ali and Ripley 1987; Oatley 2002; Jackson and Spottiswoode 2004; Turner 2004). Hill Swallows are also known to attach their nests to a variety of structures including wall or rock-face, under road culverts or in tunnels, and most commonly under eaves or against ceiling beams and rafters in houses (Ali and Ripley 1987). All the nests recorded during this study were also placed in man-made structures (tunnels, culverts and buildings). Nest structure of Hill Swallows is typical to that of other species (see Hails 1984; Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner 2004). The nests built in tunnels/culverts are often larger than the nests in buildings and these nests had larger clutch size compared to the latter. However, this advantage was not reflected in the breeding productivity (Table 3). Hirundines in the temperate habitats normally lay 3-6 eggs and sometimes up to 8 eggs (Turner 2004), however, the normal clutch size in the tropics is 2-5 eggs (Ali and Ripley 1987; Turner and Rose 1989; Turner 2004). The average clutch size (2.44 ±0.5, mode = 2 eggs) of Hill Swallow is the smallest reported for the swallows breeding in mainland India (. Hirundo rustica : 4-6 eggs, H. smithii : 3-5 eggs, H.flavicola : 3-4 eggs, H. daurica: 3-5 eggs, H. striolata : 3-5 eggs; Ali and Ripley 1987). The mean clutch size of Hill Swallows is also significantly lower than that of the conspecific House Swallow Hirundo tahitica in Malaysia (mean = 2.98 ±80 eggs, mode = 3 eggs, range = 2-5 eggs; Hails 1984) and the median clutch size (3.5 eggs) reported for the passerines in India (Ali and Ripley 1987; Pramod and Yom-Tov 2000). In many hirundines seasonal decline of clutch size is reported (Hails 1984; Sakraoui et al. 2005; Turner 2004), however, this could be attributed to the late breeding of young inexperienced birds which normally lay small clutches (Turner 2004). Although such seasonal declines are not identified, variation in the clutch sizes between the nesting substrates (tunnel/culverts v/s buildings) is prominent in Hill Swallows. Estimates of incubation (15.78 ±0.97 days) and nestling periods (19.1 ±0.88 days) obtained in this study are slightly lower than that of H. tahitica (Hails 1984), but within the range of general patterns reported for hirundines (Turner 2004). Hirundines are known to grow slowly compared to other passerines (Turner 2004). The growth rate of H. domicola was similar to that of H. tahitica (Hails 1984) and typical of other hirundines (Turner 2004). There are some conspicuous differences in the parental care between H. domicola and conspecific H. tahitica. In the case of latter, only female incubated the eggs (Hails 1984), whereas both sexes of H. domicola actively participated in all the breeding activities including nest construction, incubation and feeding young (see also Ali and Ripley 1987). Nest attentiveness (per cent time spent on the nest incubating eggs) was also significantly higher in H. domicola (39.64% and 55.77% for early and late incubation periods, respectively) compared to that of H. tahitica (36.9%, Hails 1984). High nest attentiveness and male’s participation in the incubation could be due the low ambient temperature at the study sites (<27 °C) compared to that of H. tahitica nest sites (>30 °C). The length of on- and off-bouts increased by the progress of incubation, which indicates that, the nest trips decreased in the late incubation stage and the longer on-bouts were preceded by long off-bouts and vice-versa. For the entire incubation period, on- and off-bout durations ranged between 2-43 min and 2-58 min, respectively. Similar intra- and inter¬ specific variations in parental effort are reported for several species (Conway and Martin 2000a) which is attributed by a number of factors such as temperature needs of the developing embryos, nutritional requirements of parents and predation pressure (Conway and Martin 2000a, b; Deeming 2002; Fontaine and Martin 2006). However, it is difficult to decipher J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 113 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS the reasons for these variations in Hill Swallow due to low sample sizes, failure to control for the clutch sizes and lack of data on the temporal variations in micro-climate. As reported for the conspecific H. tahitica (Hails 1984), the hatching and fledgling success rates were significantly higher in H. domicola compared to other tropical birds (Stutchbury and Morton 2001). However, high hatching (90% or more) and fledgling success (38-80%) rates are commonly reported for most species of hirundines (Turner 2004) and the species build nests in caves and man-made structures (Lack 1954). The overall nesting success (Table 3) calculated based on the Mayfield method was also slightly higher than the average success rates (<23%) reported for tropical species but lower than the temperate (27-60%) species (Robinson et al. 2000; Stutchbury and Morton 2001). Nests placed in tunnel/culvert sites experienced more failures compared to the nests in building and this may be due to the apparently high inaccessibility of the nests placed in latter. Predation at the nests was reported minimal in majority of the hirundine species studied (Earle 1989; Jackson and Spottiswoode 2004; Turner 2004). However, fourteen of the 20 nest failures of Hill Swallows were characterised by the disappearance of eggs or nestlings. Eggs disappeared from 10 nests (in one instance the broken eggs were found on ground below the nest) and nestling from four nests. The only predation event observed was by the Garden Lizard Calotes versicolor , which consumed the eggs from nest placed in a building site. In two nests, the nestlings were found dead due to the attack of red ants. Other potential predators/destructors observed at the breeding sites include snakes (e.g., Indian Rat Snake Ptyas mucosa), owls (unidentified species) and several species of bats. Bats (Indian False Vampire Bat Megaderma lyra) and lizards ( Gekko gecko or Gekko stentor) are reported as important predators of H. tahitica (see Hails 1984). However, further intensive studies using advanced methods (e.g., video surveillance monitoring) are required to identify the nest predators of H. domicola. Another major REFE Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Compact ed. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Balakrishnan, P. (2007): Status, distribution and ecology of the Grey¬ headed Bulbul Pycnonotus priocepluilus in the Western Ghats, India. Ph.D. thesis, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. Basha, S.C. (1999): Forest types of Silent Valley. Pp. 109-116. In: Manoharan, T.M., S.D. Biju. T.S. Nayar & PS. Easa (Eds): Silent Valley Whispers of Reason. Kerala Forest Department, Thiruvananthapuram. Conway, C.J. & T.E. Martin (2000a): Effects of ambient temperature on avian incubation behaviour. Behavioral Ecology 11: 178-188. Conway, C.J. & T.E. Martin (2000b): Evolution of passerine incubation behaviour: influence of food, temperature, and nest predation. Evolution 54: 670-685. cause of nest failure was the nest falling during incubation, which is commonly reported for several species of hirundines (Hails 1984; Oatley 2002; Jackson and Spottiswoode 2004). Oatley (2002) also noted that the durability of the nests may depend on the quality and composition of the mud used for nest construction. This indicates that the availability of suitable wet mud may be an important factor determining the outcome of breeding in hirundines. In conclusion, the results of the present study provide further evidence that members of the Family Hirundinidae show substantial variation in the reproductive traits which are apparently atypical of tropical birds (e.g., longer developmental periods). However, the clutch size recorded in this study is the lowest record for the genus. The many differences in the life history traits (clutch size, developmental periods and parental care) enumerated herein also support the recent erection (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005) of H. domicola as a distinct species from H. tahitica. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper is dedicated to the memory of the late Dr. Ravi Sankaran, whose encyclopedic knowledge of cave¬ dwelling birds and his passion for avian conservation were so generously shared. For helpful discussions, support and comments, I would like to thank V.S. Vijayan, L. Vijayan, RA. Azeez, P. Pramod, K.S. A. Das, D. Mukherjee, S. Manchi, T.V. Sajeev, A.P. Zaibin andT.N. Bindu. I am greatly indebted to Krushnamegh Kunte and C. Spottiswoode for help with literature and Karuppusamy, Jose, Mohandas, Sainudheen, Krishnan and Mari for their assistance in the field. I thank Kerala Forest Department for permissions and logistic support during this study. Data for this paper was collected as a part of a project funded by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Critical comments by T.N. Bindu and the anonymous referees were helpful in improving the manuscript. NCES Deeming, D.C. (2002): Behavior patterns in incubation. Pp. 63-99. In: Deeming, D.C. (Ed): Avian incubation: behavior, environment and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Earle, R.A. (1989): Breeding biology of the Red-breasted Swallow Hirundo semirufa. Ostrich 60: 13-21. Fontaine, J.J. & T.E. Martin (2006): Parent birds assess nest predation risk and adjust their reproductive strategies. Ecology Letters 9: 428-434. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, A & C Black Ltd, London. Hails, C.J. (1984): The breeding biology of the Pacific Swallow Hirundo tahitica in Malaysia. Ibis 126: 198-21 1 . Halupka, K. (1994): Incubation feeding in the Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis affects female time budget. Journal of Avian Biology 114 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW IN WESTERN GHATS 25: 251-253. Jackson, H.D. & C. Spottiswoode (2004): Breeding biology and taxonomy of the Red-breasted Swallow, Hirundo semirufa, in Zimbabwe. Ostrich 75: 5-10. Jathar, G.A. & A.R. Rahmani (2006): Endemic birds of India. Buceros 2(2&3): 1-54. Johnson, D.H. (1979): Estimating nest success: the Mayfield method and an alternative. Auk 96: 651-661. Kendeigh, S.C. (1952): Parental care and its evolution in birds. Illinois Biology Monographs 22: 1-358. Lack, D. ( 1 954): The Natural Regulation of Animal Numbers. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Mayfield, H. (1975): Suggestions for calculating nest success. Wilson Bulletin 87: 456-466. Nair, P.V. & K. Balasubramanyan (1985): Long-term environmental and ecological impact of multipurpose river valley projects. KFRI Research Report 26. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi. Nolan, V. (1978): The ecology and behavior of the Prairie Warbler Dendroica discolor. Ornithological Monographs 26: 1-595. Norment, C.J. (1995): Incubation patterns in Harris’ Sparrows and White-crowned Sparrows in the Northwest Territories. Canada. Journal of Field Ornithology 66: 553-563. Oatley, T. (2002): Striped swallows. Africa: Birds and Birding 7(1): 20-22. Pramod, P. & Y. Yom-Tov (2000): The breeding season and clutch size of Indian passerines. Ibis 142: 75-81. Rasmussen, PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Editions, Barcelona. Robinson, W.D.. T.R. Robinson, S.K. Robinson & J.D. Brawn (2000): Nesting success of understorey forest birds in lowland Panama. Journal of Avian Biology 31: 151-164. Sakraoui, R., W. Dadci, Y. Chabi & J. Banbura (2005): Breeding biology of Bam Swallows Hirundo rustica in Algeria, North Africa. Ornis Fennica 82: 33-43. Smith, H.G. & R. Montgomerie (1992): Male incubation in barn swallows: the influence of nest temperature and sexual selection. Condor 94: 750-759. Soler, J.J., Moller, A.P. & M. Soler (1998): Nest-building, sexual selection and parental investment. Evolutionary Ecology 12: 427- 441. Stutchbury, B.J.M. & E.S. Morton (2001): Behavioral Ecology of Tropical Birds. Academic Press, London. Turner, A.K. (2004): Family Hirundinidae (swallows and martins). Pp. 602-685. In: del Hoyo, J., A. Eliott & D.A. Christie (Eds): Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 9. Lynx Editions, Barcelona. Turner, A. & C. Rose (1989): A Handbook to the Swallows and Martins of the World. Christopher Helm, London. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 115 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 116-121 PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OP THE COROMANDEL Anantanarayanan Raman1 'Charles Sturt University & E. H. Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation. PO Box 883, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia. Email: araman@csu.edu.au Russell’s Viper Daboia russelii occurs almost in all South Asian countries and is a major cause of human fatality. The biological name of this reptile celebrates Patrick Russell (1726-1805), a Scottish surgeon and naturalist, who worked in the Madras Presidency. He initiated the formal study of snakes of India. Patrick Russell accompanied his younger brother Claud Russell, from Edinburgh to Visakapatnam on the Coromandel Coast, when Claud was offered the post of Administrator of Visakapatnam in 1781. From Visakapatnam, Patrick travelled south to meet Johann Gerhard Konig at Tarangampadi in June 1781. On Konig’s death in June 1785, the Governor of Madras offered the post of Botanist- Naturalist to Patrick till then held by Konig. Russell accepted the position in November 1785 and worked in the Coromandel until 1789. On acceptance of the job, Russell’s first dictates were to catalogue the economically useful plants of Madras and to publish Konig’s scientific notes. Snakes were a problem in the Madras Presidency, especially in rural areas. To enable people to distinguish the poisonous from the non-poisonous. Russell developed and distributed an advisory notice that included illustrations of the mouth parts of common snakes and descriptions as to whether they were poisonous or not. During his stay in the Madras Presidency, Russell as a medical practitioner, supported Tanjore pills, a locally made, purported remedy for snake bites, although he rejected its validity later, after his return to London. He presented the bamboo pith material ( tabashir ), an established source of silica, at the Royal Society meeting in 1790. While in the Coromandel, Russell gathered information about the habits and reputations of several snakes and their local names. He tested their venomous nature. He used Linnean criterion referring to the presence (or absence) of abdominal and sub-caudal scuta to separate his first collection of 43 snake taxa. He determined three genera: Boa , Coluber , and Anguis. Russell established Katuka-rekula-poda (Telugu) as a venomous snake, next in toxicity only to the spectacled Indian Cobra Naja naja. Testing the clinical features of bites of venomous snakes in dogs and chicken, he described the neurotoxic and haemorrhagic manifestations of viper venoms. He donated his collection of snake skins to the British Museum (Natural History), London. He published the first volume of his book an account of Indian serpents collected on the coast of Coromandel in 1796; the first and second parts of the second volume appeared in 1801 and 1802. The third and fourth parts of second volume were published, after his death, in 1807 and 1809. Edward Nicholson (Surgeon, Madras Medical Establishment, Bangalore (now Bengaluru)), who wrote a major treatise on Indian snakes (1874), values Russell as a pioneer in Indian Zoology. Key words: Alexander Russell, Claud Russell, Coromandel, Daboia russelii, Johann Gerhard Konig, Katuka-rekula- poda, Madras Presidency, Patrick Russell, Russell’s Viper, tabashir, Tanjore pills, Vipera russelii, Visakapatnam, William Roxburgh INTRODUCTION The Russell’s Viper Daboia russelii (Shaw et Nodder) (previously Vipera russelii) (Adler et al. 2000) occurs almost in all southern and south-eastern Asian countries and is a major cause of human fatality. Russell’s Viper and Common Cobra bites account for 75% of deaths in Sri Lankan farms (Goldfrank et al. 2002). The venom of D. russelii has evoked considerable interest in medicine. Its precoagulant activity has been thoroughly studied to understand the mechanism of blood clotting in humans. Up to 70% of the protein venom is phospholipase. Clinical effects of phospholipase are haemolysis, rhabdomyolysis, pre-synaptic neurotoxicity, vasodilatation, and shock. Russell’s Viper venom induces renal failure. The venom composition varies depending on the geography of distribution of the reptile, indicating subspecific variation in the taxon (Jayanthi and Gowda 1988; Tsai et al. 1996). Based on multivariate morphometric and mitochondrial-DNA data, the Thailand taxon, D. russelii siamensis, is now recommended to be treated as a separate species: Daboia siamensis (Thorpe et al. 2007). The other recognized subspecies are D. russelii fonnosensis (Taiwan), D. russelii limitis (Indonesia), D. russelii pulchella (Sri Lanka), D. russelii nordicus (northern India) (Mallow et al. 2003). Such variations also reflect the way in which pain and suffering manifest in humans; in Myanmar when bitten by Russell’s Viper conjunctival oedema occurs, those in southern India suffer acute pituitary infarction, and those in Sri Lanka and southern India suffer rhabdomyolysis. neurotoxicity, and even ischemic strokes. Death occurs mainly due to shock, pituitary and intracranial haemorrhage, gastrointestinal haemorrhage and renal necrosis (Warrell 1989). The biological name of this reptile celebrates Patrick Russell, a Scottish surgeon and naturalist, who worked in the Madras Presidency in the 18th century (Anonymous 1811). He pioneered the formal study of Indian snakes. PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL BIOGRAPHY Patrick Russell (Fig. 1) was born in Edinburgh on February 06, 1726; he completed his schooling and university education in Edinburgh, and graduated with an MD like his elder-half brother Alexander Russell. Alexander was a medical officer in an English factory in Aleppo (36° 10' N, 37° 15' E; the Ottoman Empire; now in Syria). On Alexander’s return to UK, Patrick succeeded him in 1750. He endeared himself so well with the locals that the Badshah of Aleppo honoured that he could wear a turban — a rare privilege accorded to a non-Turk (Hawgood 1994). Alexander Russell was gathering information for a book on the natural history of Aleppo in 1756 and he sought Patrick to pursue the subject further. Driven by the affection for his brother, Patrick documented the natural history of Aleppo and transmitted information regularly to Alexander settled in Britain. For instance, Patrick meticulously recorded the details and consequences of a series of earthquakes that rocked Aleppo in 1759. His letters to Alexander describing seismology of Aleppo earthquakes are published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (‘Of the late earthquakes in Syria’, 1760, 9: 437). Between 1760 and 1762, Aleppo experienced severe bouts of plague. When other British medical officers avoided treating the sick, Patrick voluntarily treated them, although his employment was only with the English factory. He treated so many of the afflicted that he got to know the etiology of the disease well. He recorded his observations meticulously. In 1767, he sent a note on ‘inoculation for smallpox’ as practiced by the Arabs, which was read in the meeting of the Royal Society of London on May 05, 1768 (‘On the inoculation in Arabia’, 1768, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 12 : 529). He returned to Edinburgh in 1772, travelling leisurely through Italy and France. He planned to settle in Edinburgh and set up medical practice, when his and Alexander’s friend-and- colleague John Fothergill suggested that Patrick should practice medicine in London. Patrick practiced medicine in London for nearly a decade. During this period he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. A nomination was filed with the Royal Society (Steams 1954; p. 85), stating: ‘Patrick Russell of Buckingham Street York Buildings, Doctor of Physic, being desirous of the honour of becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society, we whose Names are underwritten do recommend him from our personal knowledge as very likely to become a useful and valuable member, being well-skilled in many branches of Natural knowledge.’ C. Morton, Jos Banks, James Stuart, John R. Forster, A. Dalrymple, S. Fleming, Dan Solander, James Welsh, Matt Roper, William Hunter, S. Horsley, Will Russell, Robert Fig. 1 : Patrick Russell Melvill, Robert Mylne, N. Maskelyne, Thos Dickson, George Forster, J. Lloyd, and Ph. Duval. — Dated April 04, 1777. Russell was elected to the Royal Society Fellowship on November 27, 1777. Patrick Russell accompanied his sick younger brother Claud Russell (Note: spelt ‘Claud’ and ‘Claude’ by different authors), who was offered the post of Administrator of Visakapatnam in Madras Presidency, ruled by the English East-India Company (EEIC) in 1781. While in Visakapatnam, Patrick travelled south, along the Coromandel, to meet Johann Gerhard Konig at Tarangampadi (Tranquebar) in June 1781. On Konig’s death in Jegrenatpuram near Tarangampadi in June 1785, the Governor of Madras offered the post of Botanist-Naturalist to Patrick held by Konig. On Claud’s insistence Patrick accepted the post in November 1785, worked in the Coromandel until 1791 . On return to London, he spent his time writing his scientific findings for professional journals (e.g., Russell 1800; Russell and Home 1804). Russell died after brief illness in London on July 02, 1805. He was never married. In his will, he solicited that his property be administered by Sir Hugh Inglis, Josiah Porcher, and his brother Claud. Fulfilling his desire, he was buried in Marylebone burial site in a modest manner on July 08, 1805. A eulogy in the European magazine and London Review ( Anonymous 1811) speaks highly of the character of Patrick Russell (‘Rusself. hereafter). CONTRIBUTIONS TO SCIENCE IN THE COROMANDEL: FACTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS On accepting the Botanist-Naturalist post in Madras Presidency, Russell’s first task was to catalogue the economically useful plants of Madras. He drew a proposal to achieve it. A principal dictate to Russell on his Coromandel J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 117 PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL Fig. 2: An illustration from 'An Account of Indian Serpents Collected on the Coast of Coromandel, Containing Descriptions and Drawings of each Species, Together with Experiments and Remarks on their Several Poisons’, 1796 employment was to publish Konig’s scientific notes. Joseph Banks (1743-1820), British Botanist and founder of the ‘Society of Dilettanti’ (the predecessor of the Royal Society of London), was nominated to supervise the publication project. That the budget needed to publish Konig’s scientific notes, Patrick insisted, was to be provided by Banks. By the time the budget proposal arrived in Madras from Banks and approved by EEIC, it was 1789 and Russell had resigned. William Roxburgh was appointed to that position. Russell seems to have been well disposed towards Roxburgh, which is evident in the generously worded preface (foreword-?) he wrote in Roxburgh's an account of the plants of the coast of Coromandel (Roxburgh 1795-1820). Most vitally, Russell played a significant role in convincing British botanists, Joseph Banks in particular, that a network of naturalists reporting to Kew should be established in India. Snakes were a problem in Madras Presidency, especially in rural areas. To enable people to distinguish the poisonous from the non-poisonous. Russell developed an advisory notice that included descriptions and illustrations of the mouth parts of common snakes. In this context, Russell developed a strategy to use the ICS (Indian Civil Service) machinery to obtain information and previously collected data on India’s natural history. In high likelihood this strategy inspired Edward Green Balfour to obtain climate data and details on the loss of forest cover in southern India nearly 50 years later (Balfour 1849; Grove 1996; Raman 2009). In 1787, Russell impressed on the Directors of Madras Council to distribute Fig. 3: An illustration from ‘Descriptions and Figures of Two Hundred Fishes; Collected at Visakapatnam on the Coast of the Coromandel’, 1803 questionnaires seeking information on snakes. The results were summarized, synthesized, and developed into the notice, which was printed and distributed throughout the Presidency by the Government. In the late 18,h century southern India, vaidya (local medical practitioners) used Tanjore Pills to treat snake poisoning. Government chemists tested and found that this pill included mercury, arsenic, black pepper, and a few other unidentifiable materials (see Nair 2005). Russell, for some reason, developed faith in these pills, although his friend and colleague William Duffin, a surgeon practicing in Vellore, disputed the usefulness and validity of these pillsA. Russell argued ‘efficacy was a matter of difficult discussions’ and remained favourably disposed towards it; he also argued that further tests should confirm its usefulness (see Appendix). Russell worked on the plague manuscript, which he had drafted while in Aleppo, and sent the finalized version to his associates William Robertson, Adam Ferguson, and Adam Smith in UK in 1787, possibly seeking their review and remarks. This manuscript was published as a treatise of the plague by G.G. & J. Robinson in London in 1791, after his return to London. In addition to vital medical details, this volumeA includes other useful information such as quarantine regulations and weather in the context of the disease. 118 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL By 1789 Patrick had accumulated a significant collection of fishes and plants, which he deposited with the East-India Company’s Museum. On March 11, 1790, he presented at the Royal Society ‘An account of the tabasheer, a medicine in high repute in many parts of the East’ . Tobashir , the soft pith material from bamboo culms, was considered of extraordinary value in India. This presentation, later published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1790(76: 653), was first submitted as a letter to Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society. Russell orally presented the details of tabashir and displayed specimens of pith material of Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd. (Poaceae) from which tabashir was obtained. Worthwhile it would be here to refer to the study of tabashir by Jacques Louis Macie (who changed his name to James Smithson in 1802) published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1721, which determined tabashir as the near-pure form of silex (pure form of silica). Tabashir occurs in the nodes of the female trees of B. arundinacea and includes silica at about 90%; it also includes iron (as peroxide), calcium, alumina (aluminium oxide), choline (a species of B-complex vitamins), and betaine (a neutral compound with positively charged cationic functional group). Traditional medical practice of India values tabashir as an expectorant, tonic, stimulant, aphrodisiac, and uses it in treatment of blood-borne tuberculosis, bronchitis, and asthma (Puri 1970). Blended minerals render tabashir as an effective remineralizing agent useful in treatments of osteoarthritis and osteoporosis (Kamick 1975). Patrick Russell’s favourite brother Alexander died in the UK in 1768 leaving his notes on the natural history of Aleppo unfinished and the proposed volume unpublished. Patrick Russell completed the task and published natural history of aleppo as two volumes with G.G. & J. Robinson in London in 1794: the first volume carried Alexander Russell’s name as the author (although Patrick Russell did much work on this volume, he has preferred to refer himself as the ‘editor’), whereas the second carried his name as the author. While in the Coromandel, Russell was concerned with the lack of any systematic knowledge of snakes and the effects of snakebites. He gathered information about the habits and reputations of several snakes and their local names. He tested their venomous nature. He used the Linnean criteria of the presence or absence of abdominal and of sub-caudal scuta to separate his first collection of 43 snake taxa. He determined three genera in this collection, namely Boa (Squamata: Boideae), Coluber (Squamata: Colubridae), and Anguis (Squamata: Anguidae). He also came across a poisonous snake, referred in Telugu as Katuka-rekula-poda* (Vijayaraghavan 1998). He included an illustration of this reptile in his book, which was later described as Coluber russelli by George Shaw and Fredrick Nodder (British Museum, Natural History, London) in naturalists miscellany (1797), subsequently revised as Vipera russelli in 1890 (see David and Dubois 2001 ). The current valid binomial is Daboia russelii. This came to be known as Russell’s viper. Russell established that Katuka-rekula-poda is a venomous snake, next in toxicity only to the spectacled cobra (Naja naja). Testing the clinical features of bites of venomous snakes in dogs and chicken, he described the neurotoxic and haemorrhagic manifestations of viper venoms. On return to UK, he donated his collection of snake skins to the British Museum (Natural History), London. He published the first volume of his book an account of Indian serpents collected on the coast of Coromandel in 1796; the first and second parts of the second volume appeared in 1801 and 1802 (Appendix). The third and fourth parts of second volume were published after his death in 1807 and 1809. On December 22, 1796, a copy of Patrick Russell’s an account of Indian SERPENTS COLLECTED ON THE COAST OF COROMANDEL (Fig. 2) Was presented to the Royal Society along with the first of two volumes an account of the plants of the coast of Coromandel written by William Roxburgh, which included an introduction by Russell. Russell’s last book descriptions AND FIGURES OF TWO HUNDRED FISHES; COLLECTED AT VIZAGAPATAM AThis version is available in Anonymous (1811). Chakrabarti (2006) provides a different version: In September 1788, William Duffin - a surgeon in Vellore and a few other local western-medical practitioners wrote a rejoinder to the Madras Hospital Board, relaying the following message ‘although the results of tests conducted by Government Chemists on Tanjore Pills were convincing, some of the materials contained in them were to be reconsidered for a general recommendation for public use’. Duffin et al. sought the government to publish details of ingredients of Tanjore pills. James Anderson submitted a report to the Government on Tanjore Pills listing its ingredients in November 1788; his report referred to arsenic as a major component. Because of arsenic, Anderson did not recommend use of these pills. Anderson’s recommendation was disputed by William Duffin, now the Head Surgeon in Madras Hospital (date unavailable). Duffin argued that despite arsenic, he found the pills beneficial in a majority of patients he had treated, and added that he had earlier transmitted his findings to Patrick Russell, Physician-Botanist to the English East-India Company, who, in turn, had transmitted details of the Tanjore pills to the Royal Society in London. Duffin further argued that he was conducting experiments with the pills to establish its use. However, Russell in his volume on Indian snakes published in London in 1796 revised his stand on these pills describing that his experiments with these pills were inconclusive, and the pills were ineffective. BThe name Katuka-rekula-poda (Telugu) of the reptile what came to be known later as Daboia russelii raises the question of the knowledge of snakes in general and that of Russell’s viper in particular in India of pre-English days. Long passages on snakes exist in the Suurutasamhita s Kalpasthana (Meulenbeld 1999): chapter 4 refers to a classification system, nature of poisons, and symptoms of poisoning (pp. 292-294); chapter 5 refers to treating venomous snake bites (pp. 294-295). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 119 PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL on the coast of the Coromandel (Fig. 3) was published by G & W Nicol in London in 1803. CONCLUSION Russell employed an Indian (name unavailable) from Visakapatnam to illustrate snakes and fishes for his books. He has the following to say about the skill of the artist: “A native painter whom I retained in my employment has made progressive improvement in this line. Endured by nature with a quick eye, patient and docile, he quickly learned in a short time to delineate so accurately the parts pointed out to him that his figures howsoever deficient in art and grace, may in general be relied on in respect to fidelity in representation.” (Chaitanya 1994; p. 105). Albert C.L.G. Gunther’s the reptiles of British india ( 1 864) is the first, systematically organized, fauna volume on Indian snakes. Edward Nicholson (1874) (Surgeon, Army Adler, K., H.M. Smith, S.H. Prince, P. David & D. Chizar (2000): Russell's viper: Daboia russelii not Daboia russelli , due to classical Latin rules. Hamadryad (The Centre for Herpetology, Madras Crocodile Bank Trust) 25: 83-85. Anonymous (1811): Memoirs of the life and writings of Patrick Russell, M.D., F.R.S. The European Magazine and London Review 59-60: 3-8. Balfour, E.G. (1849): Notes on the influence exercised by trees in inducing rain and preserving moisture. Madr. Jour. Lit. Sci. 25: 402-448. Chaitanya, K. (1994): A history of Indian painting: modem period. Abhinav Publications, New Delhi. Chakrabarti, P. (2006): “Neither of meate nor drinke, but what the Doctor alloweth”: medicine amidst war and commerce in eighteenth-century Madras. Bull. Hist. Med. 80: 1-36. David, P. & A. Dubois (2001) A herpetological analysis of Shaw and Nodder’s Vivarium Naturae or The Naturalist’s Miscellany (1789- 1813), a 24-volume series on natural history. Newsl. Bull. Intemat. Soc. Hist. Bibliog. Herpet. 2: 5-39. Goldfrank, L.R., N.E. Flomenbaum, N.A. Lewin, M.A. Howland, R.S. Hoffman & L.S. Nelson (2002): Goldfrank's toxicologic emergencies (7th Edition). McGraw-Hill, Sydney. Grove, R.H. (1996): Green imperialism: colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism, 1600-1860. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hawgood, B.J. (1994): The life and viper of Dr. Patrick Russell M.D., F.R.S. (1727-1805): physician and naturalist. To.xicon 32: 1295- 1304. Jayanthi, G.P. & T.V. Gowda (1988): Geographical variation in India in the composition and lethal potency of Russell’s viper (Vipera russelli) venom. Toxicon 26: 257-264. Karnick, C.R. (1975): On comparative values of Indian and Chinese medicinal plants. Pharmaceut. Biol. 15: 2028-2046. Mallow, D., D. Ludwig & G Nilson (2003): True vipers: natural history and toxicology of Old World vipers. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar. Florida. 359 pp. Meulenbeld, GJ. (1999): A history of Indian medical Literature. Volume Medical Department, Madras Presidency, Bangalore) says the following in the preface of his volume Indian snakes: an ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON INDIAN OPHIOLOGY WITH A DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF THE SNAKES FOUND IN INDIA AND THE ADJOINING countries dated April 1874: “I cannot omit to mention Russell’s account of Indian serpents, 1 796; however antique and unfitted for the guidance of the student, it will always be of interest as the work of a pioneer in Indian zoology.” ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS D. Wujastyk (Institut fur SUdasien-, Tibet- und Buddhismuskunde, Universitat Wien, A- 1090 Vienna, Austria) and B. Vijayaraghavan (£ennai Snake Park Trust, Madras, India) helpfully supplied different published papers. D. Wujastyk, B. Vijayaraghavan, and T.N. Ananthakrishnan ( Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA) read the final draft and offered useful remarks. I am grateful to them for their kindness. XV: la and lb. Groningen Oriental Studies-III, Egbert Forsten, Groningen. Nair, S.P. (2005): Native collecting and natural knowledge (1798-1832): Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore as a ‘Centre of Calculation’. Jour. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Gt Brit, and Irel. (Third Series). 15: 279-302. Puri, H.S. (1970): Indian medicinal plants used in elixirs and tonics. Pharmaceut. Biol. 10: 1555-1566. Raman, A. (2009): Climate-change studies and reforestation efforts in the eighteenth and nineteenth century peninsular India. Intemat. Jour. Ecol. Environ. Sci. 35: 281-287. Roxburgh, W. (1795-1820): Plants of the coast of Coromandel. Three volumes. Bulmer & Co., London [Reprinted by: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, 1981, Dehradun], Russell, P. (1800): An account of two cases, showing the existence of the small-pox and the measles in the same person at the same time; and an Account of a case of ague in a child in utero. Trans. Med. Chirurg. 2: 90. Russell, P. & E. Home (1804): Observations on the orifices found in certain poisonous snakes, situated between the nostril and the eye, with some remarks on the structure of those orifices; and the description of a bag connected with the eye, met with in the same snakes. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 94: 70-76. Stearns, R.P. (1954): Fellows of the Royal Society in North Africa and the Levant, 1662-1800. Notes and Rec. Roy. Soc. Land. 11: 75-90. Thorpe. R.S., C.E. Poor & A. Malhotra (2007): Phylogeography of the Russell’s viper ( Daboia russelii) complex in relation to variation in the colour pattern and symptoms of envenoming. Herpet. Jour. 17: 209-218. Tsai, I.H., PJ. Lu& J.C. Su(1996): Two types of Russell’s viper revealed by variation in phospholipases A2 from venom of the subspecies. Toxicon 34: 99-109. Vijayaraghavan, B. (1998): A brief history of Indian Ophiology. Snake Studies: India — CSPT Occasional Paper # 1 , (Tennai Snake Park Trust (CSPT), Rajbhavan Post, Madras. Warrell, D.A. (1989): Snake venoms in science and clinical medicine 1. Russell's viper: biology, venom and treatment of bites. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 83: 732-740. 120 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL Appendix Notes on Patrick Russell’s volumes on snakes and fishes An Account of Indian Serpents Collected on the Coast of Coromandel, containing descriptions and drawings of each species, together with experiments and remarks on their several poisons. Volume 1. George Nicol, London, 1796. 90 pages, 46 plates (44 colour) [Presented to the Hon. The Court of Directors of the East-lndia Company, and published by their Order, under the Superintendence of the Author. Imperial Folio. 31. 13s. 6d. Boards] A continuation of an Account of Indian Serpents Collected on the Coast of Coromandel. Volume 2. George Nicol, London, 1801. In Volume 1 , Russell describes 43 species of snakes belonging to the Boa, Coluber, and Anguis. He also describes the anatomy of the mouth and the poison fangs, the experiments he conducted to estimate the role of snake bites, and details of various remedies. He describes 43 species belonging to the three Linnean genera of Boa, Coluber, and Anguis plus information on their poison apparatus, wherever applicable. At that point of time, his volume of immense use for the people of Madras presidency (and India) in recognizing the poisonous ones from the non-poisonous. Out of the 43 described only seven were poisonous, He comments: “ . . . nor does the venom of any appears to be nearly as active as that of the rattle-snake. The general effects of the progress of the poison appear to be pain and subsequent contraction of the part wounded, paralysis, stupor, vomiting, convulsions, and death. These symptoms, however, are subject to occasional variations, according to the strength and other circumstances of the bitten animal, and appear to be considerably retarded by violent, exercise after being bitten.” He trialled on chicken, rabbits, and dogs, and he found that larger the animal, the greater length of time occurred before its death: in one or two instances, dogs recovered; a bitten horse and pig survived. One of his key findings is that the artificial insertion of poison is much less dangerous than when the wound is inflicted by the snake itself. Chicken wounded by poisoned lancets generally died: but the dogs that were subjected to artificial-insertion experiment recovered, some without any symptoms, and the rest with slight symptoms. The most celebrated remedy in India for the bite of a serpent is the Tanjore pill, the principal active ingredient in which is white arsenic; of which each pill, of six grains, contains about three- fourths of a grain. This was given to several dogs and chickens after having been bitten, but of these the greater number died; and in the few that recovered, the action of the medicine was so very equivocal as to destroy all confidence in it: the same may be said of the application of the actual cautery, and of alkaline and acid caustics. A few cases are given of the effects of the bite of serpents on the human species. The symptoms appear to have been very severe, and occasionally to have terminated fatally; in those that ended successfully, the Tanjore pill, Madeira wine, and eau de luce were administered separately or united, with seemingly good effects. Descriptions and figures of two hundred fishes; collected at Vlzagapatam on the coast of the Coromandel. 2 volumes, George & W Nicol, London, 1803. A pioneering work illustrated by a native artist. Russell was stimulated by Banks to study the fishes of the Coast of Coromandel north of Madras: “Sir Joseph Banks, who honoured me with his correspondence, suggested how defective the history of Indian Fishes was in Europe at that time, and encouraged me to proceed” (Preface). The drawings of this Collection ( sic ‘in this volume’), as before mentioned, were executed by a native of India; and by the advice of artists at home have undergone only a few slight corrections’ (Preface). The engravings are by Heath, others by Neele and 2 or 3 by Skelton, but for the greater part by Reeve. Due to environmental conditions Russell was unable to have the plates coloured, which was his original intention, like he had done with his previously published work on the snakes of India. ‘In a hot climate, the colours of fish are more rapidly fugitive after death than in serpents. They escape while the painter is adjusting his palette...’ (Preface). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 121 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 122-129 STUDY OF JUVENILE AND ADULT GROWTH, AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS (FABRICIUS) FEEDING ON CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS Madhavi V. Sawant1 2, Shiney Peter13, K.R. Kharat1 4 and B.P. Hardikar1-5 'Department of Zoology, KET’s V.G. Vaze College, Mulund (E), Mumbai 400 08 1 , Maharashtra, India. 2Email: smadhaviv@gmail.com 3Email: shiney.mathen@gmail.com JEmail: krkfiarat@hotmail.com 5Email: hbhagyashree07@gmail.com Insects are reared to study various aspects of their life cycle, behaviour and metabolism and for experimentation with insecticides. In the present investigation, the newly hatched nymphs of Poecilocerus pictus (Fabricius) feeding on Calotropis gigantea were reared to adulthood in a laboratory to evaluate the developmental and behavioural characteristics. On the basis of the experimental observations, it was concluded that under constant laboratory conditions they could be grown and maintained for a longer period of time with maximum growth in length and weight. Under optimum laboratory conditions, a strong correlation was observed between length and weight, in addition to extended longevity and shortened nymphal periods. Key words: Poecilocerus pictus, longevity, feeding, aggressiveness, nymphal periods, correlation coefficient INTRODUCTION Many industries need insects for research projects as they develop insecticides, or insect resistant plant varieties for organic farming and similar needs. A few species of grasshopper sometimes occur in large numbers and cause serious damage to vegetable crops and landscape ornamentals. One species most commonly causing damage is the Painted Grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus (Fabricius, 1775) (Orthoptera: Acridoidea: Pyrgomorphidae), distributed in South East Asia; it is a large grasshopper. The most noticeable feature of this grasshopper is its long jumping hind legs, which enable it to leap more than 20 times its body length. It mainly feeds on the shrubby plants of Family Asclepiadaceae - Calotropis procera and Calotropis gigantea. By the time the insects reach adulthood the Calotropis sp. is completely denuded, and the grasshopper migrates to adjacent supplementary host plants. P pictus is an economic pest in Pakistan and India where it is reported to damage a number of food plants, including aubergine, citrus, cucurbits, potatoes and tomatoes (Garod 2009). Sayed et al. (1994) studied the effects of different food plants on the rate of consumption, development and survival of Poecilocerus pictus under laboratory conditions. The results indicated that the rate of development of P pictus was faster on Calotropis sp. followed by cotton, nerium, champa, pomegranate, maize, jamun, tomato, rose sesame, shoeflower, sugarcane, and lemon. Incidental observations indicate that P pictus are not easy to kill with insecticides, once they become large. One has to ensure that the insecticide is sprayed directly on the insects as the insecticide residue remaining on sprayed plants is not adequate to kill the grasshoppers. Poecilocerus pictus sequesters and stores secondary metabolites - cardenolides - obtained from Calotropis sp., its food plant, in the secretion of the defensive glands and other parts of the body. Cardenolide content in different tissues of gravid females has been analysed, and statistically significant differences in its levels have been detected in the metathoracic scent gland, ovary and egg, which were found to sequester higher concentrations of cardenolides (Pugalenthi and Livingstone 1995). The cardenolides are not toxic to the grasshoppers, but they make them unpalatable to predators, and become an important part of a grasshopper’s defence system. To study plant-insect relation and tolerance of the insect to the toxins in the evolutionary path and its regulation to avoid serious damage to crop and ornamental plants, it is important to rear insects under laboratory conditions for a longer period, as their availability in the wild/natural habitat is restricted from late July to early November. In the present investigation, we reared the Poecilocerus pictus (Fabricius) in the laboratory to maintain a year round supply and to get a disease-free population. Information on the life cycle of P. pictus are important parameters to rear the insects in laboratory. While rearing this species in laboratory significant parameters within its life cycle, such as oviposition, developmental biology of immature stages, adult longevity, behaviour and growth in terms of length and weight were evaluated against their growth and behaviour in natural habitat. GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS MATERIAL AND METHODS Collection and rearing Adult P. pictus and their nymphs were collected during August-October (2006-2009) from an area located on the outskirts of Mumbai from an infested Calotropis gigantea. The adults and nymphs were separated and kept in separate cages. Adult insects collected directly from their natural habitat were labelled as ‘Group I’, and the nymphs reared to adulthood in the laboratory as ‘Group II'. Sexes were identified and their growth parameters (length and weight) were noted. Newly emerged nymphs were caged over moist soil in the laboratory. A standard system was developed for routine maintenance of P. pictus. Sufficiently ventilated plastic baskets (45x30x45 cm) with a fine mesh structure, offering protection and excellent light transmission, were used as growth chambers. Two wooden rods were placed horizontally inside these chambers to support the moulting stage of the insects. Chambers were provided with 8 to 10 cm of soil bed (mixture of moist soil or clay and sand), which provided moisture as well as surfaces on which to rest and oviposit. There was an opening (45 x 30 cm) covered with polyvinyl sheath for introducing food. Temperature fluctuations and relative humidity within rearing chambers were measured every day throughout the period of growth using a thermometer and thermo-hydrograph respectively. The nymphs were exposed to photoperiod of 12 to 14 hours per day by keeping these chambers in maximum daylight. Nymphs were fed on fresh leaves of C. gigantea. The amount and time of feeding was standardized by trial and error method, after observing their feeding behaviour; 7-9 gm (wet weight) of fresh and thoroughly washed leaves per chamber, thrice a day, after an interval of 8 hrs. Leaves were kept away from direct sunlight to avoid drying. To study the developmental stages, 8 sets of 5 to 6 newly hatched first instar nymphs were placed in the growth chamber. As sexual dimorphism was not obvious in nymphal stages, they were tagged with whitener (as 1, 2, 3...). The sexes were identified only after maturation. These nymphs were left undisturbed to feed, moult, and eventually metamorphose into adults. After every moult the instar was renumbered. All the stages were observed daily till maturation and further till death to determine longevity. Exuviae were removed as they appeared and the duration of each instar with total number of instars and nymphal periods in days were recorded. Within 24 hrs of the last moult, adults were separated. Batches of 5 to 6 males and 3 females were placed separately in well-ventilated 5 rearing chambers having similar conditions maintained as in growth chambers. Pre- oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods in adult females, and courtship and mating behaviour in males were studied. Preliminary observations of mating and egg-laying behaviour were carried out by observing the individual until the end of the desired behaviour (Ganehiarachchi and Fernando 2006) and duration of time for the behaviour was recorded (n = 15). Morphology and Morphometry Morphological features of the eggs, nymphs and adults were examined under magnifying lens. Length and breadth of each egg pod, egg, and nymph from group T and adults from both the groups were measured using dividers and millimeter scale (Ganehiarachchi and Fernando 2006). Weight of fully-grown adults from both the groups was also recorded; they were placed in closed pre- weighed Petri-plates, to restrict their movements while weighing. Weights were recorded using a digital analytical balance calibrated with IDEMI certified weights. Perception of odour by human volunteers P. pictus has a noxious odour as well as bright yellow bands on its body which probably act as repellent for predators. P. pictus odour is more noxious than that of Calotropis sp. The degree of noxiousness of the odour was evaluated as described elsewhere (Idowu and Idowu 1999). Ten insects at different developmental stages were placed in different conical flasks covered with foil. The flasks were numbered 1-3 corresponding to ( 1 ) instar 2, (2) instar 5, and (3) adult stages. The flasks were thoroughly shaken before presentation. The order of presentation of flasks was changed for each volunteer. A time gap of 30 minutes was allowed between presentations of samples. The perception of odour by 38 human volunteers was recorded as follows: 1) Very Strong: immediate response 2) Strong: within 5-15 seconds 3) Weak: within 20 - 25 seconds 4) No effect: The volunteer did not perceive the odour The intensity of the odour was allotted 3, 2, 1 and 0 scores respectively. Statistical analysis Results obtained were statistically analyzed using student’s t-test and expressed as Mean ±SD of the experimental observations. For all comparisons, significance was determined at P<0.05. Linear regression (Curxpt software) and Correlation coefficient between length and weight of grasshoppers in Group I and II were analysed. 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 123 GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS Fig. 1: Nymph Poecilocerus pictus RESULTS A. Behaviour patterns 1. Defensive Behaviour Both nymphs and adults showed defensive behaviour. Their aposematic coloration informs potential predators that they are poisonous or unpalatable. The immature grasshopper differs in appearance from the adults. Nymphs (Fig. 1) typically are completely bright yellow with black and red spots all over the body, whereas adults (Fig. 2) have bright yellow and blue stripes alternately on whole body, including antennae and legs. Hind wings of adult grasshoppers are bright scarlet-red to orange, in sharp contrast to the often drab brown with blackish blue mosaic pattern of the forewings. When disturbed, they take to the air, diverting attention to the brightly coloured and flashy hind wing, and disappear from sight by folding their wings, landing, and cryptically blending into the background. Nymphs (as they cannot fly), and sometimes adults, hide behind leaves and rod placed inside the chamber or hop and drop themselves from whatever they are holding and hop away from the site. Nymphs forcibly eject a secretion stored in the salivary system, closely associated with the crop and midgut, several times, over 30 cm, in the direction of the disturbance. The Nymphs Table 1 : Perception of the odour of the body of P. pictus by human volunteers Sample Percentage of respondents stating how they perceive the odour of P. pictus n=38 (100%) Very strong Strong Weak No smell 2nd instar 13.16* 31.58* 52.63* 2.63* 5th instar 21.05** 47.37** 31.58* 0.00 (NS) Adult 31.58** 65.79** 2.63* 0.00 (NS) *: Statistically Significant, **: Highly Significant, NS: Statistically not significant Fig. 2: Adult Poecilocerus pictus simultaneously contract the abdomen to force air out of the spiracles accompanied with a peculiar sound. In case of adults, the secretion flows down the sides of the body along lateral grooves into the spiracles of the second abdominal segment where it mixes with air to form a repellent froth. Perception of odour of P. pictus by human volunteers: The odour of the secretion was instantly recognized by human volunteers as strong and repulsive. The response of the volunteers indicated that a significantly different odour (t- test, P>0.005, Table 1 ) is produced by P. pictus which is low in 2nd instar, intermediate in 5th, and high in the adult. Incidental observation also showed that the secretion led to allergic reactions, such as redness and rash on skin, at times swelling and eye irritation (data not shown). 2. Feeding Nymphs of P. pictus were successfully reared on Calotropis gigantea in the laboratory. Wet and fresh leaves were preferred by nymphs over dry and stored leaves, as fresh leaves were juicy with latex. Positive reaction towards odour of food and light was also observed. Average food consumption of male and female in nymphal period was 2 gm and 4.45 gm per individual per day respectively. Feeding rate increased during day time (between 10:00 and 12:00 hrs). Feeding rate was highest during the second instar in both sexes, males: 2.88 gm and females: 5.15 gm per day per individual. 3. Moulting Temperature of 29°C ±3 and 40-50% of relative humidity was noted. All embryos of a single pod of P. pictus wriggled out one after another within several minutes. After shedding the membrane the young grasshoppers stood upright and were able to jump away. P. pictus was reared in captivity from Is' instar to adult: the moulting time was noted. During each moult it held firmly to the wooden stick placed in the chamber and then wriggled out of the skin. The process lasted for 4-7 hours. The nymphs were more susceptible to 124 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS infestation during moulting a variety of flies and ants. Red mites were often seen as external parasites on P. pictus. Wing pads of first to third instar hoppers were borne saddle-like over the thorax. Wing pads of fourth and fifth instar hoppers were pointed backward over the abdomen and differed only in size. In the fourth instar, wing pads were relatively small and extended only to the first abdominal segment, while in the fifth instar they were large and extended past the second abdominal segment. During the final moult, when nymphs moult to an adult, the freshly formed wings looked pinkish red, delicate, and shorter than the actual wings of the adult. Within 2-2Vi hours they appeared as long as in complete adult stage, showing the blue, green, yellow mosaic pattern with a brown end, and stronger (strong enough to fly) than the imago. The new adult had fully functional wings but was not immediately ready to reproduce. The female had a pre- oviposition period of 15-30 days during which she increased in weight till the first batch of eggs matured. Individual variation in the duration of instars within Group II was not statistically significant (P=0.05). The variation in period of each instar, total nymphal periods and number of instars between males and females of Group II was statistically significant (P=0.05). The entire nymphal period averaged 25 days for males and 34 days for females. Each instar took four to five days to complete development except for the last instar, which took seven to ten days. Adult longevity of males averaged 266 days, and that of females 273 days (Table 2). 4. Mating and Oviposition Caged females of P. pictus usually became receptive to courting males 2-5 days after their final moult, or even sooner when crowded with 6 males in a growth chamber. The males can copulate 5- 1 0 days after the final ecdysis. Males attracted females both visually and acoustically, by short flights, Table 2: Moulting periods of P. pictus in Group II, reared at a temperature of 78.8 -89.6 °F (26-32 °C) and 30-40% relative humidity, and fed on diet of fresh green leaves of C. gigantea Stage (n=42) Male (in days) Female (in days) Instar 1 4.0 4.0 Instar 2 4.3 3.8 Instar 3 4.1 3.9 Instar 4 5.0 4.5 Instar 5 7.7 7.3 Instar 6 - 10.1 Total nymphal period 25.1 33.6 Average adult longevity 266 273 flashing their brightly coloured wings, snapping them together, or both, producing a distinct sound (crepitation). Males also attracted females by stridulation (scraping the hind femur against the forewing). Female body coloration faded after copulation. Table 3 includes number of clasping males (1-5 individuals), number of copulations of females before oviposition (2-17), and average mating time (3-14 hrs). Abdominal ends of gravid females bend in an angle and at that stage they were more lethargic. Oviposition started 15-30 days after the final moult and 13-25 days post¬ copulation for all 15 females, and was stimulated by wetting the sand. Female had two pairs of valves (triangle shapes) at end of abdomen to dig in sand during egg laying. Each female laid one or. rarely, two egg pods, with an average of 1 26 eggs per egg pod. The egg pods were laid 2-3 inches deep in the soil bed that the female deposited from her abdomen. The egg-pod of P. pictus was elongated, soft, fragile and bent near the base. A stout pod forms from frothy glue and soil surrounding the eggs; froth was lacking between the eggs. The frothy material probably protected the eggs from parasites, desiccation and mechanical hazards. Eggs (Fig. 3) varied in size, colour, and shell sculpturing. Eggs were cylindrical, elongated and some were Table 3: Copulation behaviour in P. pictus of Group II (n=15), which includes number of clasping males/mating, number of times female copulates before oviposition and average copulation/mating in hours Sr. No. No. of clasping males/mating No. of times female copulates before oviposition Mean±SD copulation/ mating time (in hrs) 1 3 11 6±1 .37 2 4 12 9±1 .41 3 2 5 12±0.74 4 1 7 10±0.39 5 5 9 8±1 .26 6 4 2 3±1 .98 7 3 4 10±0.45 8 4 9 9±1 .47 9 2 10 12+0.10 10 2 15 11 ±0.50 11 1 17 14±0.80 12 2 6 9±1 .56 13 3 8 7±0.91 14 3 7 6+2.08 15 4 13 12±0.34 Range 1-5 individuals 2-17 times 3-14 hrs Mean± SD 2.87±1.187 9±4.123 9.2±2.883 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 125 GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS Fig. 3: P. pictus eggs separated from egg pod slightly bent. They were yellow to dark brown in colour. The egg-wall showed a mosaic hexagonal pattern. Maximum egg pod length was 7.89 cm; mean egg breadth and length was 7.59 mm and 0.9 mm respectively. After oviposition. the blue-green coloration of the body stripes of the female changed to light green. S = 0 15085104 r = 0 81944287 Length of grasshopper (cm) Fig. 4: Regression graph for Group I ‘Male’ S = 0 24496044 r = 0 83244693 Length of grasshopper (cm) Fig. 5: Regression graph for Group II ‘Male’ B. Growth parameters Lengths and weights Using linear measurements of the body, linear relationships have been demonstrated graphically in P. pictus between the body weight and length (Figs 4-7). Male and female grew to a maximum adult size of 7.55 ±0.83 cm and 1 1.23 ±1.41 cm in length, and 3.19 ±0.41 gm and 6.73 ±0.51 gm of wet weight, respectively, under laboratory conditions. Whereas, males and females collected from natural habitat (Group I) had a maximum size of 6.17 ±0.76 cm, 8.32 ±0.96 cm in length, and 2.23 ±0.24 gm, 4.73 ±0.47gm of wet weight, respectively. The variation in weight as well as length of female grasshoppers in Groups I and II was statistically significant (Table 4, P<0.05), whereas the variation in mean length of the male grasshoppers between both the groups was not significant. The variation in the mean weight of males in both the habitats is statistically significant (Table 4, P<0.05). Females in both the groups were larger than males. Lengths as well as weights of adult females were greater, statistically, than those of the adult males (Table 4) at P<0.05. Fig. 8 shows S = 0 26973644 r = 0 85953802 Length of grasshopper (cm) Fig. 6: Regression graph for Group I ‘Female’ S = 0 14388725 r = 0 96294931 Fig. 7: Regression graph for Group II ‘Female’ 126 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Male Female * Lengths of G -I (cm) = Weights ofG-l (gm) in Lengths of G-ll (cm) a Weights of G-ll (gm ) Fig. 8: Variation in mean length (cm) and weight (gm) with SD for Groups I and II variations in mean length and weight with standard deviation of all groups (Group I and II). In any organism body length and weight are partially correlated with each other. In the present study, there was perfect positive correlation in Group II ‘females’ (r= 0.962949), and partial positive correlation (r= 0.859538, 0.832446, 0.81944 respectively) in Group II ‘males’, and Group I ‘males and females’ (Table 5). DISCUSSION In the present investigation, behavioural study, growth pattern with the length and weight correlations are studied together. The biology and behaviour of P. pictus were described by some entomologists and zoologists in various parts of India and Pakistan (Delvi and Pandian 1972a; Sayed et al. 1994; Singhal 1976; Parihar 1971; Butani 1975). However, many of these studies are limited either to reproduction or food consumption and assimilation rates. We observed that laboratory fed adult males P. pictus were more active than their counterparts in natural conditions. This is probably because adults in natural habitat stick to the stems of host plant sucking the latex (as nymphs have Table 4: Lengths and weights of P. pictus in Groups I and II Group Mean length Mean weight No. of observations Group 1 Male 6.17±0.76 (NS) 2.23±0.24* n=25 Group II Male 7.55±0.83 (NS) 3.19+0.41* n=27 Group 1 Female 8.32±0.96** 4.73±0.47‘* n=20 Group II Female 11.23+1.41** 6.73±0.51** n=15 *: Statistically Significant, **: Highly Significant, NS: Statistically not significant voraciously defoliated the leaves), and the laboratory reared P pictus were fed only on fresh leaves and the stems were not available for them to hold onto. Further observation was that nymphs eject the secretion forcibly several times in the direction of a disturbance, whereas in adults the secretion flows down the sides of the body along lateral grooves into the spiracles of the second abdominal segment where it mixes with air to form a repellent froth which was in accordance with the observations reported by Qureshi and Ahmad (1970). Perception of the odour of P. pictus by human volunteers was studied for the first time. The study showed that the odour of P. pictus was offensive and unpleasant. A similar description was used for the odour of related grasshoppers by Whitman ( 1 990). The study has also shown that the production of odour was maximum in adults. Gupta (1978) has reported that sex pheromones are secreted in metathoracic and first 2 segments of the abdomen by female P. pictus. Gillott (2003) reported that secretions of accessory glands in male grasshopper include noxious chemicals and various bio-molecules. Adult P. pictus also produces appreciable volume of defensive secretion (Qureshi and Wahid 1969). Production of pheromones and defensive secretion might have contributed to the volume of odour. We have noted repellent and irritant responses of the defensive secretion of P. pictus on human beings with rashes and allergic reaction on skin. Qureshi and Wahid (1969) have described repellent, irritant and lethal effects of the defensive secretion of Poecilocerus pictus in laboratory experiments on fish, reptiles, birds and mammals, but not on human beings. It was clearly evident from our results that feeding rate of the second instar nymphs in both the sexes was highest (2.88 gm/day in males and 5.15 gm/day in female); female nymphs were observed to consume twice the amount of food than male nymphs. During the period of investigation average food consumption of adult male and female was 2 gm and 4.45 gm/day/individual respectively. Contradicting our results, Delvi and Pandian (1972b) reported that adult males consume more food than adult females, i.e., 904 mg/gmbody weight per day in males and. 662 mg/gm body weight per day in females. Sayed et al. (1994) reported that P. pictus (feeding on Calotropis sp.) adult female consumes 9.37 gm Table 5: Correlation Coefficient between mean lengths and weights in Groups I and II Group Correlation Coefficient Group 1 Male 0.81944 Group II Male 0.832446 Group 1 Female 0.859538 Group II Female 0.962949 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 127 GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS food plant per day. Singhal (1976) studied consumption and assimilation rates and reported higher consumption and assimilation rates in males than females. However, consumption rates are higher in females than in males in our observation, probably because they have to prepare themselves for oviposition. Photopositive responses and positive reaction towards the odour of food is evident in our results and is in agreement with that reported by Abdullah and Siddiqui (1971). We observed no cannibalism in laboratory reared P. pictus which was reported by Parihar ( 1974). According to Delvi and Pandian (1972a) and Butani (1975) hatching occurs during March- April, by August the insects undergo six moults to become adult; oviposition occurs during September-October, and death by early December. In our study, hatching extended till August, there were six nymphal stages for females and only five were noted in males at a temperature of 29 ±3°C. The adults survived in healthy conditions till March. Parihar (1971) mentioned six nymphal stages at 30-35 °C, and six or seven stages at 25°C. The nymphal period in laboratory condition was 25.1 days for males and 33.6 days for females, whereas as mentioned by Butani ( 1975) the adults appear 4-6 weeks later, i.e., within 28-42 days. The decrease in nymphal periods under laboratory conditions may be probably due to adequate food, temperature and humidity. Muthukrishnan and Delvi ( 1974) had reported that reduced supplies of Ccilotropis gigantea produce a number of negative effects on Poecilocerus pictus, such as heavy mortality (42% at 25% ration of Ccilotropis gigantea against 1 1% at 100% ration of Calotropis gigantea), extension of larval period (from 75 days to 1 13 days), and an increase in the number of instars (from 6 to 7). Copulation and oviposition in Poecilocerus pictus took place more or less in similar pattern with very few variations as reported by Sheri (1976), Raziuddin et al. (1977) and Parihar ( 1974, 1984). There was a slight degree of variation in number of days in which the males and females become ready for copulation after their emergence as adults, number of clasping males, number of copulations of females before oviposition, average mating time and number as well as structure of egg-pods and egg. In addition, the phenomenon of males attracting females in their reproductive stages by visual and acoustic stimuli was also observed. The growth efficiency, in our experiments was higher in females as their weights are higher than males in both laboratory conditions and natural habitat. Singhal (1976) worked on growth efficiency ratios, which were higher in females than in males. A female and male grew to a maximum size of 5. 1 ±2.3 and 2.7 ± 1 .8 gm wet weight on the 236lh and 218th day of life respectively. Males are correlated with the maximum weight attained (2.6 gm); females attain 5.0 gm in a similar life span (about 265 days at 26 °C) Delvi and Pandian (1972b). Weight gain was higher in laboratory conditions (average 3. 19 gm for males and 6.73 gm for females). The behaviour pattern and life cycle of laboratory reared P. pictus was found to be more or less similar to already cited reports. The noteworthy observations in the present study were of longevity of adults and shortening of nymphal periods to 25.1-33.6 days, with the body achieving maximum length and weight resulting in a perfect positive correlation of these parameters. REFERENCES Abdullah, M. & S. Siddiqui (1971): The discovery of geotaxis in Poecilocerus pictus (F.) (Orthoptera: Acrididae, Pyrogomorphinae). Dtsch. Entomol. Z. 18: 199-205. Butani, D.K. ( 1975): Insect pests of fruit crops and their control: melons. Pesticides 9(12): 39-43. Delvi, M.R. & T.J. Pandian (1972a): Ecological energetics of a population of the grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus. Abstr. 14th lnt. Congr. Ent. Canberra 1972. 196 pp. Delvi, M.R. &T.J. Pandian (1972b): Rates of feeding and assimilation in the grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus. J. Ins. Phys. 18: 1829-1843. Ganehiarachchi, GA.S.M. & I.V.S. Fernando (2006): Biology of Pyrilla perpusilla Walker (Homoptera: Lophopidae), A pest of sugarcane in the west zone of Sri Lanka. J. Entomol. 3(1): 26-33. Garod, S. (2009): Continent-hopper flies into UK uninvited, http:// www.inthenews.co.uk /news/uk/continent-hopper-flies-into-uk- uninvited $ 1336268.htm or www.inthenews.co.uk. Gillott, C. (2003): Male Accessory Gland Secretions: Modulators of Female Reproductive Physiology and Behavior. Annu. Rev. Ento. 48: 163-184. Gupta, B.D. (1978): Sex pheromone of Poecilocerus pictus (Fabricus) (Acridoidea: Pyrogomorphidae): I. Experimental identification and external morphology of the female sex pheromone gland. Biochem Exp Biol. 14(2): 143-148. Idowu, A.B. & O.A. Idowu (1999): Pharmacological properties of the repellent secretion of Zonocerus variegates (L.) (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae). Rev. Biol. Prop. 47(4): 1015-1020. Muthukrishnan, J. & M.R. Delvi (1974): Effect of ration levels on food utilisation in the grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus. Oecologia 16(3): 227-236. Parihar, D.R. (1971): Effect of constant temperature on development of eggs and hoppers of the Aak grasshopper, Poecilocerus pictus (Fabricius) (Acridoidea: Pyrgomorphidae). Proc. Zool. Soc. 24: 61-76. Parihar, D.R. (1974): Some observations on the life-history of aak grasshopper, Poecilocerus pictus (Acridodea [sic]: Pyrgomorphidae) at Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India. J. Zool. Soc. India 26: 99-129. Parihar, D.R. (1984): Structure of egg-pods and eggs in a grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus (Acridoidea: Pyrgomorphidae). J. Anim. Morphol. Physiol. 31: 79-88. Pugalenthi, P. & D. Livingstone (1995): Cardenolides (heart poisons) in the painted grasshopper Poecilocerus pictus F. (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae) feeding on the milkweed Calotropis gigantea L. (Asclepiadaceae). J. New York Entomol. Soc. 103(2): 191-196. 128 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 GROWTH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS Qureshi, S.A. & I. Ahmad (1970): Studies on the functional anatomy and histology of the repellent gland of Poecilocerus pictus (F.) (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae). Proc. Royal Soc. Lon. (A) 45: 149-155. Qureshi, S.A. & M.A. Wahid (1969): Pharmacology, chemistry and behaviour of the repellent fluid of poisonous grasshopper, Poekilocerus pictus (Fabricius) (Pyrgomorphidae; Acridoidea Orthoptera). Pakist. J. Biochem. 2: 50-54. Raziuddin, M., T.R. Khan & S.B. Singh (1977): Observations on the sexual behaviour and oviposition in the female grasshopper. Poecilocerus pictus Fabr. (Acridoidea; Pyrgomorphidae). Zook Anz. 198: 63-67. Sayed, T.S., M.S. Awan & G.H. Abro (1994): Effect of food plant on the biology of Poecilocerus pictus Fab. food consumption and rate of development. Pakist. J. Zool. 26(2): 105-108. Sheri, A.N. (1976): Reproduction of a common grasshopper Poikilocerus pictus Fabricius. Pakist. ./. agric. Sci. 13: 37-40. Singhal, R.N., L.K. Vats & J.S. Singh (1976): Food-energy budget for the aak grasshopper, Poecilocerus pictus (Fabr.) (Acrididae: Orthoptera). Indian J. Ecol. 3: 1 19-124. Whitman, D.W. (1990): Grasshopper Chemical Communication. Pp. 357-391. In: Chapman, R.F. & A. Joern (Eds): Biology of Grasshopper. John Wiley & Sons, New York. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 129 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 130-134 VARIABILITIES IN DIFFERENT BODY MEASUREMENTS OF THE HORSESHOE CRAB. CARCINOSCORPIUS ROTUNDICAUDA (LATREILLE) COLLECTED FROM SETIU AND GELANG PATAH HABITATS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA T.C. Srijaya13, PJ. Pradeep2, S. Mithun1-4, Anuar Hassan1-5, Faizah Shaharom1-6 and Anil Chatterji1-7 'Institute of Tropical Aquaculture, University Malaysia Terengganu, 21030, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia. department of Oral Pathology & Oral Medicine and Periodontology, Faculty of Dentistry Building, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Email: pradeep85pj@yahoo.com 3Entail : sreej ay amol @ yahoo.com 4Email: mithunsugun@gmail.com 5Email: anuar@umt.edu. my 6Email: faizah@umt.edu. my ’Email: anilch_18@yahoo.co.in Compansons of the body weight of two populations of Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda (Latreille) showed that the body weight of the crabs collected from Setiu was greater (males=145+ 18.06 gm; females=250+ 13.79 gm) than the crabs collected from Gelang Patah (males= 126+ 18.25 gm; females=170+21.79 gm). Regression coefficients (b-value) differed significantly among groups and ranged from 0.41 (females of Setiu) to 2.93 (males of Gelang Patah). Length- weight relationship did not follow isometric growth except the total length and body weight relationship of males of Gelang Patah population. Maximum growth in weight was recorded for males from Setiu population where the increment in weight was found to be double as compared to the increment in total length (b=2. 12). Maximum regression coefficient values were recorded in males of Gelang Patah population (b=2.93) which showed that the increment in body weight was greater than increment in carapace width confirming a significant relationship. Relationships between total lengths and carapace length and width with body weight for females from Setiu population showed isometric growth. Key words: Variabilities, body measurements, horseshoi INTRODUCTION Marine organisms in more stable environments show isometric growth which helps these organisms to adapt to a functional equilibrium of their body parts (Bas 1964). Geographically widespread marine organisms can experience variation in both environmental and anthropogenic impacts across their ranges that can differentially influence the expression of life history traits and population dynamics in different populations (Chatterji 1994). Several reports show that the size of an individual of the same species significantly changes with change in the environmental conditions where osmotic stress conditions play an important role on the normal physiology of the animals (Tarnowska etal. 2009). The study of morphological variations of marine organisms inhabiting different areas of their ranges is one of the directions of investigation for taxonomic diagnostic criteria. Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda (Latreille), a eurytopic species, is adapted to extreme environmental conditions, like the low salinity or the extremely high summer temperatures of the sea. They belong to the benthic community and prefer calm sea or an estuary with muddy sand bottom (Grant 1984; Kelsey and Hassall 1989). Most of the biogenic activities of the horseshoe crab occur in the open ocean. The Asian species of horseshoe crab migrate towards the shore throughout the year to breed (Chatterji 1 994). Although detailed information crab, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda. Peninsular Malaysia on the complete life cycle of the animal is not yet known, it is generally believed that the animal inhabits the littoral zone of the sea, for most part of its life. Among four extant species of horseshoe crab, C. rotundicauda has been reported to thrive well in low saline areas and as such considered to be a mangrove species (Mikkelsen 1988; Chatterji 1994). Although ample data regarding the morphometric characteristics of C. rotundicauda have been published (Chatterji et al. 1988), there is no information available in literature regarding the hypothesis of environment-mediated morphometric changes in populations of this species collected from different habitats. The objective of this study was to analyze possible morphometric variations, including length and weight relationships, among populations of the horseshoe crab, C. rotundicauda (Latreille) collected from two different environments, namely Setiu (Terengganu) and Gelang Patah (Johor) in Peninsular Malaysia, to demonstrate the effects of different ecological habitats on the growth of the animal. MATERIAL. AND METHODS Live horseshoe crabs, C. rotundicauda (Latreille) were collected along the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia at Setiu (Terengganu) (5° 42’ 60" N; 102° 42' 0" E) and western coast at Gelang Patah (Johor) (1° 21' 4" N; 103° 32' 33" E) during November 2008 and June 2009 (Fig. 1 ). The salinity VARIABILITIES IN BODY MEASUREMENTS OF HORSESHOE CRAB 100 102 104 Fig. 1 : Locations of the sampling sites: (1 ) Setiu and (2) Gelang Patah, Johor of Setiu was within a range of 20-25 ppt, whereas that of Gelang Patah is 31-33 ppt during November to June (Zaleha et al. 2006). Samples were collected with the help of local fishermen using gill nets 25 m long and 6 m wide, with 10 mm mesh size. All collected crabs were brought to the laboratory and kept in two separate fibreglass tanks of 5,000 litre capacity provided with continuous circulation of seawater. Total length (tip of the carapace to tip of the telson), carapace length, carapace width and telson length of each specimen were recorded to the nearest millimetre using Vernier Callipers. Weights of the specimens were determined to 0. 1 gm on a monopan balance (electronic). Horseshoe crabs were then grouped according to sex and sample location. Length and weight data were analysed according to the method of LeCren (1951) and Chatterji (1976), log transformed and the regression of log length to weight calculated by least square method. The equation /»W = Ina + b InL was calculated separately for each group and a straight line was fitted to scatter diagram using SPSS 1 1 .5 version software. Covariance Analysis (Chatterji 1976) was used to describe differences, if any, in the regression of In weight on In total length, In carapace length, In carapace width and In telson length of the two populations of the horseshoe crab. After logarithmic transformation of the data, slopes of the regression lines between body weight (BW) on total length, carapace length, carapace width and telson length Table 1 : Mean of different body measurements of the horseshoe crab collected from two different habitats Parameters Setiu Gelang Patah Males Females Males Females Total length 307 ±16.41 31 3 ±30.52 277 ±16.89 307 ±15.92 Carapace 139 ±8.39 169 ±5.47 136 ±5.82 153 ±10.23 length Carapace 150 ±8.03 173 ±6.70 148 ±6.58 159 ±7.01 width Telson 178 ±9.64 188 ±4.55 149 ±10.96 163 ±13.01 length Body weight 145 ±18.06 250 ±13.79 126 ±18.25 170 ±21.79 taken as an independent variable and expressed as /nW = In a + b InL. The comparison between slopes was carried out by means of ANOVA (P < 0.05). Two tests among the samples of each period were made: (1) slope comparisons between different morphometric relationships with weight to identify possible differences in time, and (2) test of allometry to observe the type of allometry and the changes that could have taken place in two populations. The significance of all regressions was tested by ANOVA, being significant for P < 0.05 (Sokal and Rohlf 1979). RESULTS Total sample size of the horseshoe crab was 308 from Setiu, ranging from 270 to 333 mm in total length and 112- 178 gm in weight for males (N= 1 33), and 241 to 389 mm in length and 225-356 gm in weight for females (N= 175). Total sample size was 3 1 8 crabs from Gelang Patah ranging from 229 to 323 mm in length and 83-200 gm in weight for males (N=140), and 280 to 352 mm in length and 137-222 gm in weight for females (N= 1 78). In the Setiu crab population mean body weights were greater in males (145 ±18.06 gm) and females (250 ±13.79 gm) than crabs collected from Gelang Patah (males=126 ±18.25 gm; females=170 ±21.79 gm) (Fig. 2). Other measurements like total length, carapace length, carapace width and telson length in both sexes of Setiu population also showed relatively higher values as compared to crabs of Gelang Patah (Table 1 ). A summary of the regression analysis between the body weights with different body measurements along with their test of significances of Setiu and Gelang Patah populations are presented in Table 2. Regression coefficients (b-values) differed significantly among groups and ranged from 0.41 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 131 VARIABILITIES IN BODY MEASUREMENTS OF HORSESHOE CRAB Comparision of the body weights DISCUSSION Length-weight relationships are one of the most important tools in fisheries research. They help in converting growth-in-length equations to growth-in-weight for use in stock assessment models, estimating of biomass from length observations, estimating the condition of the fish, and comparing the life histories of species from different regions (Froese and Pauly 1998; Moutopoulos and Stergiou 2000). The length-weight relationship also has numerous practical applications in fishery biology and equation derived from such relationship helped in converting one parameter into another which is often required during monitoring of field measurements. The length-weight relationships are also helpful in getting valuable information on general well-being of the fish, their physiological changes, variation in growth in relation to environmental factors, and also their breeding biology (Chatterji et al. 1994). The length-weight relationships observed between total lengths with body weight have been statistically significant (p<0.05) in the male and female Horseshoe crab Tachypleus gigns (Muller) collected from the north-east coast of India. In females, an increase in weight was isometric (Vijayakumar et al. 2000). The body weight - total length relationship in T. gigas was observed to be linear where the increase in the body weight was of higher magnitude than that of total length of the animals (Vijayakumar et al. 2000). In T. gigas, the body weight increased very sharply within the length range of 300-400 mm. The body weight - carapace length relationship shows a sharp increase in body weight, whereas the carapace length increases marginally in the specimens within the size from 100-200 mm with a linear relationship (Vijayakumar et al. 2000). Vijayakumar et al. (2000) further reported that the body weight - carapace width relationship in T. gigas was same as in the case of body weight and Table 2: Regression analysis of different relationships along with their test of significance Sex Habitat BW:TL BW:CL BW:CW BW:Tel Male Setiu /nY= -3.12+2.12 InX (r=0.81) /nY= -1.60+1.75 InX (r=0.68) /nY= -2.44+2.11 InX (r=0.80) /nY= -2.31+1.99 InX (r=0.73) Gelang Patah /nY= -3.36+ 2.23 InX (r=0.90) /nY= -4.04+2.88 InX (r=0.71) lnY= -4.26+2.93 InX (r=0.80) /nY= -1 .82+1 .81 InX (r=0.86) Female Setiu /nY= 1.38+0.41 InX (r=0.60) lnY= 0.38+0.91 InX (r=0.30) lnY= 0.77+0.73 InX (r=0.27) lnY= 0.97+0.63 InX (r-0.08) Gelang Patah lnY= -2.36+1.84 InX (r=0.57) lnY= -0.55+1.27 InX (r=0.46) InY- -2.31+2.06 InX (r=0.53) InY- -0.23+1.11 InX (r=0.47) TL=Total Length; CL=Carapace Length; CW=Carapace Width; Tel=Telson Length; BW=Body Weight 300 25D Ok — 200 -S= a <■> ISO 5 ~ 100 o ffi 50 0 LI Setiu 0 Gelang patah Male Female Eig. 2; A comparison of the body weights of the two populations collected from Setiu and Gelang Patah (Johor) (females of Setiu) to 1 .84 (females of Gelang Patah). b-values calculated for each group separately indicated deviance from isometric growth except for the total length and body weight relationships of males of Gelang Patah (r=0.90) (Table 2). Logarithmic transformation of these data presented in Table 2 yielded a straight line and represented the calculated regression line. Maximum growth in weight was recorded in females of Setiu population where the increment in body weight was double as compared to the increment in total length (b=2.12) (Table 2). Maximum value of ‘b’ (2.93) recorded for the body weight-carapace width relationship in males of Gelang Patah population which showed that the increment in body weight was more than the increment in carapace width with high significance level. Regression analysis for other relationships showed that the growth in body weight with remaining parameters were isometric. In all crabs collected from Gelang Patah, the b-values were higher except for the body weight and telson length relationship of males of Setiu (Table 2) that showed that in Gelang Patah population the growth of all body measurements were relatively of lower magnitude. 132 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 VARIABILITIES IN BODY MEASUREMENTS OF HORSESHOE CRAB carapace length. In T. gigcis, the increase in body weight has been directly related with carapace length and carapace width with equal degree of correlation (Vijayakumar et al. 2000). In general, the rate of increase of body weight in the present study was more or less of equal magnitude as that of the total length. Females in the Setiu population showed a relatively higher increase in weight (250 ±13.79 gm) within the size range of 241-3 89 mm, whereas in Gelang Patah it was lower (170 ±21.79 gm) within 280-352 mm of total length. Similarly, males from Setiu (size range: 270-333 mm) also showed higher weight gain ( 145 ±1 8.06 gm) as compared to males of Gelang Patah (126 ±18.25 gm) ranging in size from 229 to 323 mm. In all species of the horseshoe crab females are reported to be heavier than males (Chatterji et al. 1994). In the present study, males of both populations had shown exponential growth as relationships between total length - body weight, carapace length - body weight and carapace width-body weight yielded smooth curves. Similarly, females of both the populations exhibited linear growth which could probably be due to increase in soft tissue specially ovaries where most of the energy was diverted for building up these organs resulting in slow growth of other body parts (Chatterji 1976). Chatterji et al. (1988) reported that the weight of females C. rotundicauda collected from the Sunderbans area of West Bengal (India) showed relatively a lower weight gain as compared to males up to the size of 130 mm. It was higher in females after the size range of 1 30 mm as compared to males. The length-weight relationship data of females of T. gigas show that the weight of females increases gradually more than the cube of the carapace length whereas in males, the relationship did not follow the cube law (Chatterji et al. 1988). In juveniles of Tachypleus tridentatus and C. rotundicauda, prosomal width and wet weight were measured at weekly intervals to obtain growth data (Lee and Morton 2005). A positive allometric growth (b = 2.97) was estimated, which indicated that body weights gained by T. tridentatus and C. rotundicauda, were faster than the growth of prosomal width after each ecdysis. Bas, C. (1964): Aspectos del crecimiento relativo en peces del Mediterraneo occidental. Investigacion Pesquera, Barcelona 27: 13-19. Chatterji, A. (1976): Studies on the Biology of Some Carps. Ph.D. Thesis, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 122 pp. Chatterji, A. (1994): The Indian Horseshoe Crab - A Living Fossil. A Project Swarajya Publication, 157 pp. Chatterji, A., J.K. Mishra, R. Vuaykumar & A.H. Parulekar (1994): Length-weight relationship of the Indian horseshoe crab, The use of non-linear least-squares regression techniques for allometric modelling has been strongly supported by Zar ( 1 968), and Hayes and Shonkwiler ( 1 996). However, Xiao and Ramm (1994) concluded that the use of log-transformed data is appropriate for describing length- weight relationships in aquatic animals. In this study, the small sample sizes associated with several species are potentially problematic with respect to asymptotic variance properties of non-linear regression. Our choice of an allometric model was practiced as linear regression using log transformed data facilitated statistical comparisons of gender and habitat relationships, and allowed a single method to be applied to all specimens collected for the present study regardless of the sample size. Fishing activities in Setiu has been increased dramatically in the last few years as compared to Gelang Patah. As a consequence of increase in the number of trawlers as well as gear size, and improvements in accompanying technology, the spawning grounds are continuously disturbed. This could be one of the reasons for shifting to an alternate breeding ground that might not be conducive to the species as such affecting the slower growth rate among new recruiting population of Gelang Patah. There could be substantial physiological differences among the two populations of C. rotundicauda owing to individual acclimatization of the species or genetically fixed adaptations. As far as morphometric and physiological analyses are concerned, seasonal sampling appears to be insufficient for understanding the physiological performance of C. rotundicauda under different environmental conditions since there are probably also some short-term variations in these parameters. Therefore, monthly sampling to collect more information would be recommended in future studies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors (MS & PPJ) are thankful to University Malaysia Terengganu for providing research assistantships whereas (AC) is grateful to University for the award of a Principal Research Fellowship. Tachypleus gigas (Muller). Indian Journal of Fisheries 41(2): 58-60. Chatterji, A., R. Viyayakumar & A.H. Parulekar (1988): Growth and morphometric characteristics of the horseshoe crab, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda (Latreille) from Canning (West Bengal), India. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 31(5): 352-353. Grant, J. (1984): Sediment microtopography and shorebird foraging. Marine Ecological Progress Series 19: 293-296. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 133 VARIABILITIES IN BODY MEASUREMENTS OF HORSESHOE CRAB Hayes, J.R & J.S. Shonkwiler (1996): Analyzing mass-independent data. Physiological Zoology 69: 974-980. Froese, R. & D. Pauly (1998): Concepts, Design and Data Sources. Fishbase, ICLARM. Manila. Pp. 90-96. Kelsey, M.G. & M. Hassall (1989): Patch selection by dunluin on a heterogenous mudflat. Ornis Scandinavica 20: 250-254. LeCren, E.D. (1951): The length-weight relationship and seasonal cycle in gonad conditions and weight in perch, Perea fluviatalis. Journal of Animal Ecology 20: 210-219. Lee, C.N. & B. Morton (2005): Experimentally derived estimates of growth by juvenile Tachypleus tridentatus and Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda (Xiphosura) from nursery beaches in Hong Kong. Journal of Experimen tal Marine Biology and Ecology 318 (1): 39-49. Mikkelsen, T. (1988): The Secret in the Blue Blood. Science Press Beijing, China. 124 pp. Moutopoulos, D.K. & K.I. Stergiou (2000): Length-weight and length-length relationships of fish species from the Aegean Sea (Greece). Journal of Applied Ichthyology 18: 200-203. Sokal, R.R. & F.J. Rohlf (1979): Biometry. Principles and statistical methods of biological research. H. Blume. Madrid. 832 pp. Tarnowska, K„ M. Wolowicz, A. Chenuil & F. Jean-Pierre (2009): Comparative studies on the morphometry and physiology of European populations of the lagoon specialist, Cerastoderma glaucum (Bivalvia). Oceanologia 51(3): 437-458. Vijayakumar, R., S. Das, A. Chatterji & A.H. Parulekar (2000): Morphometric characteristics in the horseshoe crab, Tachypleus gigas (Arthropoda: Merostomata). Indian Journal of Marine Science 29: 333-335. Xiao. Y. & D.C. Ramm (1994): A simple generalized model of allometry, with examples of length and weight relationships for 14 species of ground fish. Fisheries Bulletin 92: 664-670. Washington D.C. Zaleha, K., B.M. Sathiya & N. Iwasaki (2006): Zooplankton in east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Sustainability Science and Management 1(2): 87-96. Zar, J.H. ( 1968): Calculation and miscalculation of the allometric equation as a model in biological data. BioScience 18: 1118-1120. 134 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 135-145 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY AND TAXONOMIC PROFILE OF THE VEGETATION OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA K.P. Singh13, Achuta Nand Shukla1’4 and J.S. Singh2’5 'Botanical Survey of India, Central Regional Centre, 10 Chatham Lines, Allahabad 21 1 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. "Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India. 'Email: krishna.p.singh@gmail.com 4Email: achutbsi@gmail.com 'Email: singh.jsl@gmail.com Vegetation of the Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve ( AABR) represents tropical mixed deciduous, tropical moist deciduous, and dry scrub and thorn forest, ravines, grasslands and aquatic types. The collections from the area and their subsequent critical study have resulted in the documentation of 1,011 species, distributed under 571 genera and 134 families of flowering plants. Out of these, 755 species under 432 genera and 104 families belong to dicots and the remaining 256 species under 139 genera and 30 families to monocots. Further analysis of data indicated that Family Poaceae is the most diverse and is represented by 112 species, followed by Fabaceae with 76 spp., Asteraceae with 72 spp., Cyperaceae with 40 spp., Acanthaceae with 36 spp. etc. At generic level, the genus Cyperus comprised maximum number of 15 species, followed by Ficus with 12 spp., Crotalaria with 12 spp., Ipomoea with 11 spp.. Cassia with 1 1 spp., etc. A large number of species growing in this area are of medicinal and economic value and used by local inhabitants. The floristic diversity of the AABR has been analysed for the first time. A brief account of area, climatic conditions, vegetation types, medicinal and economic plants, analysis of flora and causes of threat to the flora are discussed. Key words: Floristic diversity, vegetation types, Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Central India INTRODUCTION Central India with diverse and luxuriant floristic wealth has been considered as one of the prominent biogeographic provinces in the country. For conservation of the rich biological diversity of the region, Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve (AABR) was established on March 30. 2005 (Sahu and Singh 2008), with a total area of 3,835.5 1 sq. km. Out of this, Achanakmar-Amarkantak Wildlife Sanctuary with an area of 551.15 sq. km comprises of the core zone (Shukla and Singh 2007 ) and remaining 3,284.36 sq. km buffer zone of the reserve. It is located between 22°15'-22°58' N and 81°25'-82° 5' E in Anuppur and Dindory districts of Madhya Pradesh and Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh. The Biosphere Reserve area includes Maikal hill ranges, the junction of Vindhyan and Satpura hill ranges. The area experiences typical monsoon climate with three distinct seasons: summer from March to June, rainy from June to October and winter from November to February. The mean annual temperature ranges between 21°C and 31°C. Due to altitudinal and latitudinal locations, the climate of the reserve is comparatively cooler than the other districts of central India. December and January are the coldest months when minimum temperature reaches up to 1°C while the hottest months are May and June. The mean temperature in January is about 21°C and in May temperature rises between 31°C and 33°C. The area experiences pre-monsoon showers at the end of May and monsoon from July to August which diminishes by October. The average annual rainfall is about 1 ,900 mm which is received largely from South-West monsoon. Sporadic winter rains are common in December and January while dew fall continues up to March. The altitude varies from 450 to 1 ,102.27 m above msl with the highest point being Damgarh (1,102.27 m). Due to high annual rainfall coupled with high relative humidity and suitable temperatures, the reserve harbours diverse and luxuriant growth of flora. The soils of the area are generally lateritic, alluvial and black cotton types, derived from granite, gneisses and basalts. Black cotton soil occurs in the environs of Dindori-Pendra road and also along Narmada river. In parts of Amarkantak, laterite occurs mainly as capping above the Deccan trap. Loosely packed and gritty red soil is also found on hill tops. Alluvial soils are found along the major drainage channels and rivers. Alluvial soils and black cotton soils are the most fertile for agriculture in the area. MATERIAL AND METHODS Vegetation of the AABR shows great diversity due to varied topographic, climatic, and edaphic conditions. Sal forest is predominant in the area (Misra 1953) and shows compositional variability in response to anthropogenic disturbances (Sahu et al. 2008). Sal forests are found on laterite trap and crystalline rocks in most hilly part which covers the southern central as well as south-western part in Lamm and Achanakmar ranges of Wildlife Sanctuary in FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA Bilaspur forest division, Karanjia range in Dindori forest division and Pendra range of North-Bilaspur division. This area is therefore known as Sal valley. However, on plateaus and slopes, the vegetation composition invariably changes and mixed forests are formed. Intensive plant explorations and in-depth surveys of the reserve were made from 2004 to 2008. Specimens were collected from different localities of the reserve, namely Kapildhara, Kabirchabutra, Mai-ki-Bagia, Sonemuda, Durgadhara, Lamni, Acahanakmar, Kota, Karanjia, Jagatpur, Antaria, Chaparwa, etc. The specimens have been deposited in the herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Allahabad ( BSA). Major Habitats The survey of the area indicated the following major habitats; a brief description of these and their vegetation is given below: I . Tropical mixed deciduous forest: These forests occur on the gentle slopes of hills and valleys and are predominant in localities like Laxmandhara, Gumaghati, Kabir. Karanjia, Chaparwa and Lamni. The forest has three layers, namely trees, shrubs and herbs intermingled with climbers. The dominant tree species include Acacia catechu, A. leucoph!oea,A. nilotica subsp. indica, Ailanthus excelsa, Anogeissus latifolia , Azadirachta indica, Bauhinia purpurea, Bombax ceiba, Bridelia retusa, Buchanania lanzan , Butea monosperma, Careya arborea. Cassia fistula, Cassine glauca, Cordia dichotoma, Dalbergia paniculata, Diospyros malabarica, Emblica officinalis. Ficus arnottiana, F. benghalensis , F. racemosa, F. religiosa, Flacourtia indica, Garuga pinnata, Grewia spp., Haldinia cordifolia, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lannea coromandelica, Leucanea leucocephala , Madhuca longifolia subsp. latifolia, Mangifera indica, Mimusops elengi, Ougeinia oojeinensis, Pongamia pinnata, Pterocarpus marsupium, Schleichera oleosa, Shorea robusta, Sterculia urens, Terminalia alata, T. arjuna, T. bellerica, T. chebula, Zizyphus oenoplia, Z. xylopyrus, etc. The shrub layer is usually formed by species like Cassia auriculata, Carissa opaca, Lantana camara, Ixora pavetta, Flacourtia indica, Helicteres isora, Prosopis juliflora, Woodfordia fruticosa, Vitex negundo, Euphorbia nivulia, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, etc. The common climber species found on trees and shrubs or sometimes spreading on the ground include Abrus precatorius, Ampelocissus latifolia, A. tomentosa, Aristolochia bracteata, Atylosia scarabaeoides, Cocculus hirsutus, Cissampelos pareira var. hirsuta, Cuscuta reflexa, Cayratia trifolia, Gymnema sylvestre, Hemidesmus indicus, Mucuna pruriens, Pergularia daemia, Tinospora cordifolia, etc. Herbs and grasses are abundant in open forest pockets or on forest margins, and include Anisomelos indica. Cassia torn, Heteropogon contortus, Hyptis suaveolens, Iseilema laxum, Leonotis nepetaefolia, Tephrosia purpurea, Themeda quadrivalvis , etc. On dry ridges, tree species like Boswellia serrata. Euphorbia nivulia, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Sterculia urens, etc. are found. Dendrocalamus strictus, a common bamboo, often occurs in patches in the forest. Similarly, Tectona grandis also occurs in small patches. Alangium salvifolium, Diospyros melanoxylon. Ficus racemosa, F. religiosa, F. virens, Terminalia alata, T. arjuna are commonly found along the perennial streams and moist ravines. 2. Tropical moist deciduous forest: This type of vegetation is found usually in Amarkantak, Jaleshwar, Kapildhara, Rajendragram and Antaria areas. These forests are dominated by pure stands of Sal Shorea robusta. In open areas, mixed forests of semi-deciduous nature occur. Important constituents of these forests are Aegle marmelos, Anogeissus latifolia. Bambusa arundinacea, Bauhinia purpurea, B. vahlii, Bridelia retusa, Butea monosperma , Careya arborea, Dillenia pentagyna , Ficus spp., Gardenia gummifera, Gmelina arborea, Haldinia cordifolia, Imperata cylindrica, Kydia calycina, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Mallotus philippensis, Mangifera indica, Phoenix acaulis, Pongamia pinnata, Pterocarpus marsupium, Schleichera oleosa, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia alata, Wendlandia tinctoria, Woodfordia fruticosa, etc. 3. Scrub and thorn forests: This type of vegetation is found in Achanakmar, Jalda, Chaparwa, Kuba, Kota, Bokrakachar areas. These forests occur on exposed steep hill slopes and ridges, where drier conditions prevail. The biotic interferences and excessive grazing pressure has resulted in sparse tree layers and discontinuous vegetation, while shrubs become comparatively dense. These are characterized by stunted growth and many stemmed trees and shrubs with small thorny bushes. The common species recorded in this area are Acacia spp., Balanites aegyptiaca, Butea monosperma, Calotropis gigantea, Calotropis procera, Carissa opaca. Euphorbia neriifolia, Mimosa himalayana, Woodfordia fruticosa, etc. 4. Ravinous vegetation: The banks of Narmada and Son rivers are extremely undulated, and are characterized by innumerable ravines merging into the river bank and extending all along the course. The banks of these ravines and steeps contain some common species like Butea monosperma, Tribulus terrestris, etc. The flat river bank areas are used for cultivation and the common tree species found here are Acacia nilotica subsp. indica, Bauhinia racemosa. 136 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA Carissa opaca. Euphorbia neriifolia, Flacourtia indica, Mallotus philippensis. Mimosa himalayana, Prosopis juliflora, Vitex negundo, Zizyphus mauritiana, etc. Climbers and twines are represented by Bauhinia vahlii, Caesalpinia bonduc, Cayratia trifolia , Celastrus paniculata, Cissampelos pareira var. hirsuta, Combretum nanum , Gymnemma sylvestre, Hemidesmus indicus, Icnocarpus frutescens, and many species of families Cucurbitaceae and Convolvulaceae. The herbaceous species are also common in the area and are represented by Acanthospermum hispidum, Blainvillea acmella , Dicoma tomentosa, Echinops echinatus , Pulicaria angustifolia, Rungia repens , Tribulus terrestris, Withania somnifera, Zornia gibbosa, etc. The grass cover consists of Alloteropsis cimicina, Andropogon pumilus, Apluda mutica, Digitaria spp., Aristida spp., Heteropogon contortus, Themeda quadrivalvis, etc. 5. Grasslands: Grasslands are found in places where forest has been cleared or in the plain areas. Grass vegetation is found usually in Gadasarai, Pendra, Karanjia, Jagatpur, Gorakhpur and Kota areas. Some common species found in these places are Alloteropsis cimicina, Apluda mutica, Bothriochloa pertusa, Brachiaria ramosa, Cenchrus ciliaris, Chloris dolichostachya, Cynodon dactylon, Dichanthium annulatum, Rottboellia exaltata, Saccharum spontaneum, Setaria glauca. Sorghum halepense, Sporobolus diander, Themeda quadrivalvis, Vetiveria zizanioides, Digitaria spp., Echinochloa spp., Eragrostis spp., Panicum spp., etc. 6. Aquatic vegetation: AABR is not rich in aquatic- vegetation which occurs only in artificial places developed due to stagnant water of River Narmada at Amarkantak, Johilla at Jaleshwar, Son at Sonemuda, and small ditches. The aquatic vegetation comprises Azolla pinnata and Lemna perpusilla as free floating hydrophytes; Ceratophyllum aurea and C. demersum as submerged; Hydrilla verticillata, Potamogeton nodosus, P. octandrus and Vallisneria spiralis with floating shoots and Aponogeton natans, Marsilea minuta, Monochoria vaginalis, Nelumbo nucifera, Nymphaea nouchali, N. pubescens with floating leaves. Several other species like Aeschynomene indica, Alternanthera sessilis, Ammonia baccifera, A. multiflora, Bacopa monnieri, Coix gigantea, C. lacryma-jobi, Cyperus distans, C. nutans, C. pangorei, Echinochloa colona, Eleocharis dulcis, E. geniculata, Eriocaulon cinereum, Fimbristylis tetragona, Hoppea dichotoma, Hygrophila auriculata, Ischaemum rugosum, Ludwigia octovalvis, Panicum paludosum, Phragmites vallitoria. Phyla nodiflora, Polygonum barbatum, P. glabrum. Ranunculus scleratus, Rotcda indica, R. rotundifolia, Schoenoplectus articulatus, Schoenoplectus mucronatus and Typha angustifolia are found in marshy places. Floristic Diversity Saxena (1970) recorded 602 species of angiosperms from Amarkantak area to which Lai and Kumar ( 1 999) added 6 species. Based on our own collections as well as earlier records (Mishra 1990; Verma etal. 1993; Mudgal etal. 1997; Singh et al. 200 1 ; Khanna et al. 200 1 ) the flora of the reserve presently comprises 1,011 species of flowering plants, distributed in 571 genera and 134 families. In addition, 2 species of gymnosperms, 35 species of pteridophytes, 28 species of bryophytes, 43 species of fungi and 120 species of lichens have also been recorded from the reserve. The present status of different groups of plants found in the biosphere reserve is given in Table 1 . Table 1 : Status of different groups of plants in AABR Name of the groups Family Genera Species Angiosperms 134 571 1011 Dicots 104 432 755 Monocots 30 139 256 Gymnosperms 2 2 2 Pteridophytes 17 25 35 Bryophytes 12 21 28 Fungi 16 36 43 Lichens 22 42 120 Total 187 697 1239 An analysis of vascular flora indicates that out of a total of 134 families in the Biosphere Reserve, 104 families (77.61%) belong to dicotyledons while 30 families (22.38%) belong to monocotyledons. Out of the total 571 genera, 432 genera are of dicotyledons (75.65 %), while 139 are of monocotyledons (24.34 %). Likewise, out of a total of 1,011 species, 755 (74.67%) are dicotyledons, while 256 (25.32%) are monocotyledons. A conspectus of families of flowering plants in AABR with number of genera and species is presented in Table 2. Analysis of families in Table 2 reveals interesting information pertaining to the diversity of species and genera in the biosphere reserve as shown below. (i) Species diversity under families: Families with 1 species = 43 Families with 2 species = 26 Families with 3 species = 10 Families with 4-10 species = 31 Families with 1 1-20 species = 12 Families with 2 1 -30 species = 6 Families with 3 1 -50 species = 3 Families with 51-112 species = 3 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 137 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA Table 2 : Families are arranged according to the number of species Table 2: Families are arranged according to the number of species (contd.) Family No. of Genera No. of Species Family No. of Genera No. of Species Poaceae 65 112 Menispermaceae 3 3 Fabaceae 33 76 Flacourtiaceae 2 3 Asteraceae 45 72 Burseraceae 3 3 Cyperaceae 11 40 Meliaceae 3 3 Acanthaceae 19 36 Leeaceae 1 3 Lamiaceae 17 31 Rosaceae 3 3 Rubiaceae 18 25 Melastomataceae 2 3 Malvaceae 10 24 Chenopodiaceae 2 3 Convolvulaceae 8 24 Loranthaceae 3 3 Caesalpiniaceae 7 22 Ulmaceae 3 3 Euphorbiaceae 10 22 Dilleniaceae 1 2 Scrophulariaceae 13 21 Capparaceae 2 2 Verbenaceae 11 19 Portulacaceae 1 2 Orchidaceae 13 19 Flypericaceae 1 2 Tiliaceae 5 18 Bombacaceae 2 2 Solanaceae 9 18 Malpighiaceae 2 2 Amaranthaceae 9 17 Celastraceae 2 2 Moraceae 4 17 Droseraceae 1 2 Apocynaceae 11 16 Cactaceae 1 2 Commelinaceae 6 14 Molluginaceae 2 2 Apiaceae 9 13 Primulaceae 2 2 Lythraceae 5 12 Myrsinaceae 2 2 Cucurbitaceae 6 12 Sapotaceae 2 2 Mimosaceae 4 11 Ebenaceae 1 2 Asclepiadaceae 8 9 Menyanthaceae 1 2 Zingiberaceae 5 9 Gesneriaceae 2 2 Araceae 6 9 Pedaliaceae 2 2 Rhamnaceae 4 8 Lauraceae 1 2 Vitaceae 5 8 Flydrocharitaceae 2 2 Combretaceae 4 8 Musaceae 2 2 Boraginaceae 5 8 Cannaceae 2 2 Polygonaceae 2 8 Agavaceae 1 2 Dioscoreaceae 1 8 Smilacaceae 1 2 Ranunculaceae 4 7 Juncaceae 1 2 Oleaceae 2 7 Arecaceae 1 2 Urticaceae 6 7 Potamogetonaceae 1 2 Liliaceae 6 7 Nymphaeaceae 1 1 Sterculiaceae 5 6 Papaveraceae 1 1 Oxalidaceae 2 6 Violaceae 1 1 Rutaceae 5 6 Bixaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 4 6 Elatinaceae 1 1 Eriocaulaceae 1 6 Dipterocarpaceae 1 1 Brassicaceae 3 5 Zygophyllaceae 1 1 Polygalaceae 1 5 Geraniaceae 1 1 Caryophyllaceae 3 5 Tropaeolaceae 1 1 Anacardiaceae 5 5 Balsaminaceae 1 1 Onagraceae 1 5 Simaroubaceae 1 1 Gentianaceae 4 5 Moringaceae 1 1 Lentibulariaceae 5 5 Crassulaceae 1 1 Bignoniaceae 4 5 Flaloragidaceae 1 1 Nyctaginaceae 4 5 Lecythidaceae 1 1 Annonaceae 3 4 Punicaceae 1 1 Sapindaceae 4 4 Trapaceae 1 1 Campanulaceae 2 4 Turneraceae 1 1 Amaryllidaceae 2 4 Passifloraceae 1 1 138 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA Table 2: Families are arranged according Table 2: Families are arranged according to the number of species (contd.) to the number of species ( contd .) Family No. of Genera No. of Species Family No. of Genera No. of Species Caricaceae 1 1 Costaceae 1 1 Begoniaceae 1 1 Iridaceae 1 1 Alangiaceae 1 1 Hypoxidaceae 1 1 Stylidaceae 1 1 Taccaceae 1 1 Lobeliaceae 1 1 Pontederiaceae 1 1 Plumbaginaceae 1 1 Pandanaceae 1 1 Orobanchaceae 1 1 Typhaceae 1 1 Aristolochiaceae 1 1 Alismataceae 1 1 Piperaceae 1 1 Limnocharitaceae 1 1 Proteaceae 1 1 Aponogetonaceae 1 1 Casuarinaceae 1 1 Zannichelliaceae 1 1 Salicaceae 1 1 Burmaniaceae 1 1 Total = 134 571 1011 (ii) Generic diversity under families: Families with 1 genus = 61 Families with 2 genera = 2 1 Families with 3 genera = 9 Families with 4-5 genera = 19 Families with 6- 1 0 genera = 1 3 Families with 1 1 -20 genera = 8 Families with 21-40 genera = 1 Families with 41-65 genera = 2 Most families had 1, 2 or 4-10 species, each; only 6 families had more than 30 species each. Only 1 1 families had more than 1 0 genera each, while most families had 1 , 2, 4-5 or 6-10 genera, each. Analysis of species diversity within genera is also interesting as shown below. (iii) Species diversity under genera: Genera with 1 species = 372 Genera with 2 species = 103 Genera with 3 species = 37 Genera with 4 species = 16 Genera with 5- 1 0 species = 33 Genera with 11-15 species = 5 The majority of genera had 10 species, each. The above analysis of families and genera indicates a marked amount of higher-order diversity. In other words, disappearance of a few species may substantially impact at the level of genera/families. In order of dominance, the grass family Poaceae ranks first with 1 12 species belonging to 65 genera. It is followed by Fabaceae with 76 species, Asteraceae with 72 species, Cyperaceae with 40 species, Acanthaceae with 36 species, Lamiaceae with 3 1 species, etc. as shown in Table 2. Within Poaceae, Ercigrostis is the dominant genus and was represented by 9 species followed by Panicum with 6 species, Setaria, Sporobolus, and Digitaria with 5 species each, Pennisetum and Bothriochloa with 4 species each. Within Fabaceae, Crotalaria is the dominant genus with 12 species, followed by Indigofera with 7 species, Alysicarpus, Desmodium with 6 species each, Vigna with 5 species and Flemingia with 4 species. Blumea is the dominant genus, within Asteraceae, with 8 species, followed by Conyza with 5 species, Sonchus with 4 species, Gnaphalium with 3 species. Acanthospermum, Adenostemma, Blainvillea, Blumeopsis, Caesulia, Centipeda, Cosmos, Crassocephalum, Cythocline, Eclipta , Elephantopus, Erigeron are known by a single species each. Within Cyperaceae, Cyperus is the dominant genus with 15 species, followed by Eimbristylis with 5 species, Carex with 4 species, Eleocharis, Pycreus with 3 species each. The species diversity at generic level is also equally interesting. The sedge genus Cyperus is the largest and is represented by 15 species, followed by Ficus with 12 species, Crotalaria with 12 species, Ipomoea and Cassia with 1 1 species each, etc. as shown in Table 3. Diversity of the Biosphere Reserve is also enriched by the presence of 17 monotypic genera. They are Schleichera, Limonia, Haldina, Blumeopsis, Ougeinia , Pongamia, Woodfordia, Caesulia, Hemidesmus, Nicandra, Oroxylum, Colebrookea, Tamarindus, Ricinus, Gloriosa, Apluda and Thysanolaena. Besides, some genera represented in India by a single species are also found in the reserve. They are Cissampelos, Aegle, Dodonaea, Diplocyclos, Centella, Blainvillea, Centipeda, Eclipta, Lagascea, Siegesbeckia, Tridax, Holarrhena, Rotula, Petalidium, Duranta, Tectona, Costus and Floscopa. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 139 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA In addition, many families are represented by single genus and species in the reserve. These are Nymphaeaceae, Papaveraceae, Violaceae, Bixaceae, Elatinaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Geraniaceae, Tropaeolaceae, Balsaminaceae, Simaroubaceae, Moringaceae, Crassulaceae, Haloragidaceae, Lecythidaceae, Punicaceae, Trapaceae, Turneraceae, Passifloraceae, Caricaceae, Begoniaceae, Alangiaceae, Stylidaceae, Lobeliaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Orobanchaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Piperaceae, Proteaceae, Casuarinaceae, Salicaceae, Burmaniaceae, Costaceae, Iridaceae, Hypoxidaceae, Taccaceae, Pontederiaceae, Pandanaceae, Typhaceae, Alismataceae, Limnocharitaceae, Aponogetonaceae and Zannichelliaceae. It is interesting to note that Leeaceae, Moringaceae, Begoniaceae, Ebenaceae, Menyanthaceae, Cannaceae and Eriocaulaceae which are represented by a single genus in India also occur in the biosphere reserve. Gymnosperms: The wild Gymnosperms are not found in the area. Only species of Pinus and Thuja are cultivated by the state forest department in small patches in the reserve. Pteridophytes: Pteridophytes are fairly well- represented in the Biosphere Reserve and grow in moist places usually as epiphytes or on land. At present, 35 species belonging to 25 genera and 17 families are recorded. Many species of pteridophytes like Adiantum philippense , Lygodium flexuosum, Ophioglossum reticulation, etc. are used as medicinal plants by the local inhabitants and thus, becoming rare in the reserve due to over exploitation. The Family Thelypteridaceae comprises 5 species, followed by Selaginellaceae and Polypodiaceae with 4 species each, Pteridaceae with 3 species and Equisetaceae, Cheilanthaceae, Adiantaceae and Athyriaceae with 2 species each. Similarly dominant genera of the reserve are Selaginella with 4 species, followed by Pteris with 3 species, Equisetum, Cheilanthus, Adiantum. Christella and Dryopteris with 2 species each. Bryophytes: Like lichens, Bryophytic vegetation is not so rich. The bryophytes grow usually in moist places on Table 3: Ten dominant genera of the AABR Name of genera Number of species Cyperus 15 Ficus 12 Crotalaria 12 Ipomoea 11 Cassia 11 Blumea 8 Grewia 8 Indigofera 7 Eragrostis 7 Panicum 7 stones, tree trunks and ground in moist and shady places, particularly near streams and banks of rivers. Nath etal. (2007) studied the mosses from the area and recorded 28 species under 21 genera. The Family Hypnaceae comprises maximum number of 6 species, followed by Thuidiaceae with 4 species and Bryaceae with 3 species. Similarly, genera Thuidium and Entodontopsis contain 3 species each, followed by Entodon and Fissidens with 2 species each. Besides, Hepaticae and Hornworts are represented by 23 species under 18 genera from the area (Nath pers. comm.). Most of the Bryophytes belong to epiphytic forms and mosses are more predominant in Kapildhara locality. Fungi and lichens: Fungi are not well worked out in the reserve. So far, only 43 species of macrofungi under 36 genera and 16 families are recorded from the area. Lichen flora of the area is also not rich as it is confined usually on Sal trees and boulders found in mixed or Sal forests in shady or moist places. The lichens also occur on stones present near streams, nullhas, waterfalls and river course. It is interesting to note that 45 species of lichens recorded were growing on Sal trees. This shows that Shorea rohusta (Sal ) is an excellent host tree for lichen growth in the reserve and justifies the observations made by Satya etal. (2005). Upreti etal. (2005) and Nayaka et al. (2007) recorded 1 20 species under 42 genera and 22 families from the reserve. The dominant Family was Physciaceae with 28 species, followed by Collemataceae and Pertusariaceae with 15 species each, Parmeliaceae with 1 4 species, Lecnoraceae with 1 2 species and Bacidiaceae with 5 species. Genera-wise analysis indicated that Pertusaria was represented by 14 species, followed by Lecnora with 12 species, Leptogium with 10 species, Parmotrema, Heterodermia and Pyxine with 6 species each, Bacidia, Collema and Buellia with 5 species each. Species like Heterodermia diademata, Parmotrema praesorediosum. Parmotrema tinctorum. etc. are used as spices and sold in the market by local Gond, Murea and Oraon tribes to earn their livelihood. Invasive Alien Species Invasive alien species are non-native organisms that cause or have the potential to cause harm to the environment, economies, or human health. The establishment and spread of these species threaten ecosystems, habitats, or species with economic/environmental harm. They are the second largest threat to plant diversity after habitat destruction. Total 106 invasive alien species belonging to 77 genera, distributed in 36 families were documented (Shukla etal. 2009). Majority of invasive alien species have been contributed by Tropical America (including South America) and Tropical Africa. Habit-wise analysis shows that the herbs were represented 140 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA by 80 species, shrubs by 12 species, twines by 7 species, climbers by 5 species, and trees by 2 species. In the alien flora of the reserve, Asteraceae is the most dominant family with 25 species, followed by Caesalpiniaceae with 7 species, Amaranthaceae with 7 species, etc. Maximum invasive species are found in wastelands (45 species), followed by cultivated land (17 species), river and pond banks ( 16 species), forests (13 species), road sides (9 species), aquatic habitats (4 species), and as parasites (2 species). Lantana camara , Parthenium hysterophorus and Prosopis juliflora in open dry places in the forest are the dominant invasive species of the reserve found growing luxuriantly in localities like Chaparwa, Kabirchabutra, Jaleswar, etc. Some parts of Achanakmar Wildlife Sanctuary, namely Jalda, Kuba and Kota are also infested by this species. The plain areas of the reserve like Karanjia, Jagatpur, Gadasari, etc. are highly infested by Parthenium hysterophorus, Argemone mexicana, Xanthium indicum and Ageratum conyzoides. Economic Plants Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve (AABR) has a rich wealth of plants having economic potential as crop, timber, medicinal, ornamental and in ethnobotany (Bondya et al. 2006; Shukla et al. 2007). The sustainable utilization of these species may lead to the social and economic growth of the rural folks living in the area. Many wild plants occurring in the area are useful in different aspects of life of the common people. A variety of plant species found in the Biosphere Reserve are being used for various other purposes. They along with their uses are presented in Table 4. Table 4: Some economically important plants Species Agricultural Dye Fibre Fodder Fuel Gum Timber Medicinal Wild edible implement Abelmoschus manihot Abrus precatorius Abutilon indicum Acacia catechu ■ + Acacia nilotica subsp. indica Achyranthes aspera Adhatoda zeylanica Aegle marmelos Agave cantula Albizia lebbeck Albizia odoratissima Albizia procera + Alternanthera sessilis Amaranthus viridis Ampelocissus latifolia Anacardium occidentate Andrographis paniculata Anogeissus latifolia Annona squamosa Ardisia soianacea Artocarpus heterophyllus Artocarpus lakoocha Asparagus racemosus Azadirachta indica Baliospermum solanifolium Barleria prionitis Bauhinia malabarica Bauhinia racemosa Bauhinia vahlli Bauhinia variegata Bidens biternata Blumea lacera Boehmeria platyphylla Bombax ceiba Boswellia serrata + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + ■ + + ■ + + + + + + - - - + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 141 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA Table 4: Some economically important plants (contd.) Species Agricultural Dye Fibre Fodder Fuel Gum Timber Medicinal Wild edible implement Broussonesia papyrifera Buchanania tanzan Butea monosperma Calotropis gigantea Careya arborea Carissa congesta Cassia fistula Cassia siamea Celosia argentea Centella asiatica Chenopodium album Cissampelos pareira Cleome viscose Cierodendrum serratum Cocculus laurifolius Colocasia esculenta Corchorus aestuans Corchorus capsularis Cordia dichotoma Crotalaria albida C. tetragonal Curcuma angustifolia Cymbopogon martinii Cyperus rotundus Dalbergia latifolia Daibergia panicuiata Dalbergia sissoo Datura innoxia Delonix regia Dendrocaiamus strictus Dillenia pentagyna Dioscorea bulbifera Dioscorea pentaphylla Diospyros melanoxylon Dodonaea angustifolia Elephantopus scaber Emblica officinalis Eryngium foetidum Eucalyptus maculata Eucalyptus umbellata Euphorbia neriifolia Euphorbia pulcherrima Evolvulus alsinoides Ficus auriculata Ficus benghalensis Ficus carica Ficus glomerata Ficus hispida Ficus microcarpa Ficus palmata Ficus racemosa Ficus semicordata Ficus tinctoria Ficus virens Flacourtia indica + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 142 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA Table 4: Some economically important plants ( contd .) Species Agricultural Dye Fibre Fodder Fuel Gum Timber Medicinal Wild edible implement Gardenia latifolia Gloriosa superba Gmelina arborea Grevillea robusta Grewia flavescens Grewia hirsuta Grewia rothii Grewia serrulata Gymnema sylvestre Hardwickia binata Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Hibiscus sabdariffa Helicteres isora Hemidesmus indicus Hiptage benghalensis Holarrhena pubescens Ipomoea aquatica Ixora pavetta Kydia calycina Lannea coromandelica Leucas cephaiotes Limonia acidissima Litsea glutinosa Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia Mallotus philippensis Mangifera indica Melia azedarach Mitragyna parvifolia Momordica dioica Momordica charantia Moringa oleifera Morus alba Murraya koenigii Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Nymphoides indica Oroxylum indicum Ougeinia oojeinensis Oxalis corniculata Parkinsonia aculeata Phoenix acaulis Phoenix sylvestris Phragmites vallitoria Phyllanthus emblica Pinus roxburghii Plumbago zeylanica Pongamia pinnata Portulaca oleracea Punica granatum Radermachera xylocarpa Ricinus communis Saccharum spontaneum Salix tetrasperma Schleichera oleosa Semecarpus anacardlum Shorea robusta + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 143 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA Table 4: Some economically important plants (contd.) Species Agricultural implement Dye Fibre Fodder Fuel Gum Timber Medicinal Wild edible Sida acuta _ _ _ _ _ _ _ + _ Sida alba - - - - - - - + - Sida cordifolia - - - - - - - + - Solanum incanum - - - - - - - + - Solanum nigrum - - - - - - - + + S. torvum - - - - - - - - + Spermacoce hispida - - - - - - - + - Sphaeranthus indicus - - - - - - - + - Spilanthes paniculata - - - - - - - + - Sterculia urens - - - - - + - + - Sterculia villosa - - - - - - - + - Stereospermum chelonoides - - - - - - - + - Syzygium cumini - - - - - - + - - Syzygium jambos - - - - - - - - + Tamarindus indica - - - - - - - - + Tectona grandis - - - - - - + - - Tephrosia purpurea - - - - - - - + - Terminalia alata - - - - - - + - - Terminalia arjuna - - - - - - - + - Terminalia bellirica - - - - - - - - - Terminalia chebula - - - - - - - + - Thysanolaena maxima - - - + - - - - - Tinospora cordifolia - - - - - - - + - Trapa bispinosa - - - - - - - - + Trichodesma indicum - - - - - - - + - Tridax procumbens - - - - - - - + - Triumfetta rhomboidea - - + - - - - - - Ventilago denticulata - - - - - - - + - Vernonia cinerea - - - - - - - + - Vitex negundo - - - - - - - + - Vetiveria zizanioides - - - + - - - - - Wendlandia heynei + - - - - - - - - Woodfordia fruticosa - + - + + - - + - Wrightia tinctoria subsp. rothii - + - - - - - + - Xanthium indicum - - - - - - - + - Zizyphus mauritiana - - - + - - - + + Zizyphus rugosa - - - - - - - - + Zizyphus xylopyra + - - - - - - - - Rare and Threatened Species Conservation of plant resources and its sustainable use is essential for human survival and is the prime objective of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). As such our knowledge on the rare and threatened plants is indeed poor. It is already mentioned that the area is rich in medicinal plants. Many species are collected on a large scale by the local communities and supplied to medicine men and traders in order to earn their livelihood. As a result, many species have become rare or threatened in the area. We do not have much quantitative data on rare and threatened species. However, Dubey et al. (2007) have listed many plant species under these categories. Some of these are provided here as ready reference for future workers to work on this. These are Acorus calamus, Amorphophallus paeoniifolinus, Arisaema griffithii, Cordia macleodii, Didymocarpus pygmaea, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Drosera bunnanni, Hymenodictyon orixense, Oroxylum indicum, Pandanus odoratissimus, Radermachera xylocarpa, etc. DISCUSSION The present study revealed the occurrence of 1,01 1 species, distributed under 571 genera and 134 families of flowering plants. Two species of Gymnosperms, Pinus and Thuja, are found in the area. Pteridophytes are fairly well- 144 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF ACHANAKMAR-AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA represented in the biosphere reserve and grow in moist places usually as epiphytes or terrestrial; at present 35 species belonging to 25 genera and 17 families are recorded. Bryophytic vegetation is not so rich only 28 species under 21 genera were recorded from the reserve. Fungi are not well worked out in the reserve so far, only 43 species of macrofungi under 36 genera are recorded from the area. Lichen flora of the area is also not rich as it is confined usually on Sal trees and boulders found in mixed or Sal forests in shady or moist places; total 120 species under 42 genera and 22 families were recorded from the reserve. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, for encouragement and facilities. One of the authors (A.N. Shukla) is also thankful to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi, for financial assistance under Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve project. REFERENCES Bondya, S.L., K.K. Khanna & K.R Singh (2006): Ethnomedicinal uses of leafy vegetables from the folk-lore of Achanakmar- Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve (Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh). Ethnobotany 18: 145-148. Dubey, PC., K.K. Khanna, R.L.S. Sikarwar & A.P. Tiwari (2007): Threat assessment of plant diversity in Amarkantak area. Pp. 55-79. In: Joshi, K.C. & A.K. Mandal (Eds): Research needs for Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve. Khanna, K.K., A. Kumar, R.D. Dixit & N.P. Singh (2001): Supplement to the Flora of Madhya Pradesh, Botanical Survey of India. Calcutta. Lal, J. & A. Kumar (1999): Notes on some rare plants from Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh). J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 23(3): 739-741. Mishra, O.P. (1990): Addition to the flora of Amarkantak (M.P.). J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 14(1): 198-200. Misra, R. (1953): The vegetation of Amarkantak. Bull. Bot. Soc. (Jniv. Sagar. 8: 1-2. Mudgal, V., K.K. Khanna & P.K. Hajra (1997): Flora of Madhya Pradesh, Vol. 2, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 681 pp. Nath, V., A.K. Asthana & R. Kapoor (2007): Enumeration of the mosses in Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh), India - I. Taiwania. 52(2): 168-176. Nayaka, S., Satya & D.K. Upreti (2007): Lichen diversity in Achanakmar Wildlife Sanctuary core area of proposed Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Chhattisgarh. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 31(1): 133-142. Sahu, P.K. & J.S. Singh (2008): Structural attributes of lantana-invaded forest plots in Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Central India. Curr. Sci. 95(4): 494-500. Sahu, P.K., R. Sagar & J.S. Singh (2008): Tropical forest structure and diversity in relation to altitude and disturbance in a Biosphere Reserve in central India. Applied Vegetation Science 11: 461- 470. Satya, D.K. Upreti & S. Nayaka (2005): Shorea robusta - an excellent host tree for lichen growth in India. Curr. Sci. 89(4): 594-595. Saxena, H.O. (1970): The flora of Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh. Bull. Bot. Surr. India. 12(1-4): 37-66. Shukla, A.N. & K.P Singh (2007): Diversity of woody plants in Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Central India, Indian J. Forest. 31(2): 269-282. Shukla, A.N., K.P. Singh & A. Kumar (2007): Ethnoveterinary uses of plants from Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. J. Non-Timber For. Prod. 14(1): 53-55. Shukla, A.N., K.P. Singh & J.S. Singh (2009): Invasive Alien species of Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Central India. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. India, B, 79(4): 384-392. Singh, N.P., K.K. Khanna, V. Mudgal & R.D. Dixit (2001): Flora of Madhya Pradesh, Vol. -3, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 587 pp. Upreti, D.K., S. Nayaka & Satya (2005): Enumeration of lichens from Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, India. J. Appl. Biosci. 31(1): 55-63. Verma, D.M., N.P. Balakrjshnan & R.D. Dixit(1993): Flora of Madhya Pradesh. Vol. 1, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 668 pp. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 145 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 146-158 IMPACT OF LANDUSE CHANGES ON PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY OF NOKREK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, MEGHALAYA, INDIA S.D. Prabhu1, S.K. Barik23, H.N. Pandey2-4 and R.S. Tripathi2-5 'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001 , Maharashtra, India. Email: swapnaprabhu@gmail.com North Eastern Hill University, Umshing Mawkynroh Shillong 793 022, Meghalaya, India. 'Email: sarojkbarik@gmail.com 4Email: pandeyhn@yahoo.com 5Email: tripathirs@yahoo.co.uk The impact of land use changes driven by various anthropogenic disturbances on the taxonomic diversity of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (NBR) in north-east India has been studied. Twelve ecosystems representing natural, semi-natural, man-managed and man-damaged ecosystems were identified. In total, 710 vascular plant species belonging to 465 genera and 140 families were recorded from these communities. The flora of the NBR exhibits saturation of eastern Asiatic elements. Although the elements from 1 1 biogeographical regions of the world were found in the flora ot the undisturbed ecosystems of the NBR, Indo-Malayan, Himalayan and Indo-Burman elements dominated the flora constituting about 86% of the total species content. Ninety-nine threatened categories of species, including 43 endemics, were recorded from the NBR. The presence of a large number of rare taxa with small populations and habitat-specificity indicates the vulnerability of threatened category of species. The taxonomic diversity of the secondary forest communities on mining areas and other man-made ecosystems has been drastically reduced. The pace of recovery' in species diversity in the communities on the jhum fields was slow, as only 67% of the total species content could recover after 12 years of vegetation development. Key words: Floristic elements. Taxonomic diversity. Endemic and threatened species. Rarity INTRODUCTION The impact of human activities on species diversity has attracted the interest of ecologists from both theoretical as well as applied perspectives (Stapanian etal. 1997). Clements (1936) viewed disturbance as a negative force that destroys climax assemblages and brings instability in the system, while Paine (1966), Huston (1979) and Lubchenco (1978) considered it as a positive force that might increase species diversity in the community by preventing competitive exclusion. The species richness has been correlated with natural disturbance by several workers (Grubb 1977; Connell 1978; Grime 1979; Huston 1979; Armesto and Pickett 1985). Connell (1978) proposed that the tree diversity in the rain forests would be greatest where disturbances are moderate in intensity and frequency. Similarly, Collins et al. (1995) and Molino and Sabatier (200 1 ) argued that species richness should be highest at intermediate disturbance level when conditions favour the competitive species as well as disturbance-tolerant species. However, the impact of disturbances on diversity at landscape level is poorly understood. The north-eastern region of India being situated in the transitional zone of Indian. Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese biogeographical zones has been a focal point of botanical attention since nineteenth century due to their floristic richness and high endemism. Under the in situ biodiversity conservation initiative, a large network of protected areas including 11 National Parks, 41 Wildlife Sanctuaries and 4 Biosphere reserves have been constituted in the region. Although a number of floristic studies have been carried out in the region ( Hooker 1872-1897; Kanjilal et al. 1934-1940; Rao and Panigrahi 1961; Rao 1969a, b; Balakrishnan 1981- 1983; Haridasan and Rao 1985-87), only a few studies have focused on protected areas (Kumar 1984; Tiwari et al. 1998; Jamir and Pandey 2003; Upadhaya et al. 2003). A detailed analysis of the impact of anthropogenic stresses on taxonomic and community diversity at landscape level has been hardly attempted (see Rao et al. 1990). Nokrek, which was identified as a reservoir of a large variety of wild relatives of Citrus species cultivated throughout north-eastern India, was designated as National Park (NP) in 1986. The Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (NBR) was constituted by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, in 1988. The Nokrek National Park was designated as the core zone and the surrounding community forests were treated as the buffer zone of NBR. This multipurpose buffer zone of the biosphere reserve provided an excellent site to assess the impact of human activities on species and ecosystem diversity at the landscape level. The present paper aims to examine how shifting cultivation and other human activities are influencing the ecosystem and taxonomic diversity of a tropical biosphere reserve at landscape level. LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY - , - 90” 15’ E - 1 - 90°30' E NOKREK BIOSPHERE RESERVE [jPl Core /.one • Limestone mine site Fig. 1 : Map of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve: core and buffer zone Study site The Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (NBR) is spread over an area of 820 sq. km covering parts of East Garo Hills, West Garo Hills and South Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya in north-east India. It lies between 90° 13'-90° 35' E and 25° 20'- 25° 29' N (Fig. 1 ). It is situated on mountainous terrain of Tura ranges with altitude ranging from 149 m to 1,415 m above msl. The highest point of this ridge - the Nokrek Peak (1,415 m above msl) - lies within the core zone of the biosphere reserve, which is spread in east-west direction covering an area of 47.48 sq. km. The hill slopes in the northern aspect of the core zone are gentle compared to the southern flank where hills are very steep. The major rivers of the Garo Hills, namely Simsang, Dedari, Dareng and Ganol originate from the NBR. The buffer zone covering an area of 772.52 sq. km surrounds the core zone. A total of 39,432 individuals belonging to the Garo tribe spread over 129 villages in the buffer zone depend heavily on the NBR for their sustenance as well as higher income generation. Various human activities that influence the vegetation of the BR are shifting cultivation, coal and limestone mining, and permanent agricultural and horticultural practices, such as settled paddy cultivation and planting of orchards, and tea gardens. Climate The area enjoys tropical monsoon climate with three seasons, namely summer, rainy and winter clearly distinguishable in a year. The summer season corresponds from March to April, rainy season from May to October and winter from November to February. Monsoon rains are received during April to October with occasional rainfall during November to March. The area receives an average annual rainfall of 3,012 mm. The temperature varies from place to place depending on the aspect and altitude. The southern pail of the BR is warmer than the northern part. The northern aspect of the NBR is the coldest area of the Garo Hills. The average daily temperature during the study period (2000-2003) ranged from 33.4 °C to 14.8 °C. The highest temperature 39 °C was recorded in April and the lowest was 10 °C in January and February. The mean minimum and mean maximum relative humidity for the same period was 23% and 98%, respectively. Soil The soil is sandy to loamy sand in texture and red, brown to dark brown in colour. It is acidic in nature throughout the core zone. Within the buffer zone, the lowest pH (4.02) was recorded in the coal mine areas and the highest pH (8.08) J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 147 LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY in the limestone mining areas. The core zone soils are rich in organic matter and nutrients (N. P. K), compared to the buffer zone soils (Ralte et al. 2005). METHODOLOGY Identification of various ecosystems and selection of sampling sites The landscape of the biosphere reserve is characterized by mountain peaks and plateaux, gentle to steep slopes, valleys and river basins, which supports diverse plant communities ranging from sub-tropical to tropical forests. The landscape in the buffer zone has been modified due to various anthropogenic activities such as shifting cultivation, mining, farming of horticultural crops and settled agriculture. Based on the physiography, vegetation characteristics, and nature and intensity of human activities, twelve terrestrial ecosystems were identified within the landscape of the NBR. These could be grouped into the following two major types based on the extent of human impact as a broad criterion. Each major type was further divided on the basis of vegetation characteristics and degree of human interference. A. Undisturbed landscape 1 . Sub-tropical evergreen forests 2. Tropical evergreen forests 3. Tropical semi-evergreen forests 4. Tropical moist deciduous forests 5. Riverain forests B. Human-impacted landscape a. Secondary communities 6. Communities on shifting cultivation areas 7. Bamboo groves b. Man-managed communities 8. Orchards 9. Paddy fields 10. Teagardens c. Communities on degraded areas 1 1 . Coal mining areas 12. Limestone mining areas The vegetation map of the BR (Roy et al. 2003) was used to depict different forest ecosystem types (Fig. 2) and the land use map was used to depict human impacted ecosystems within the BR (Fig. 3). The area under each of the major ecosystem types was determined (Table 1). Eight ecosystem types, namely tropical evergreen, sub-tropical evergreen and riverain forests, jhum fallows, bamboo groves, orchards, coal mining and limestone mining areas were studied in detail. The sampling sites were selected in the northern and the southern sides of the BR (Fig. 4). The two sites selected for the sub-tropical evergreen forest were located in the north-western side of the BR, close to the Nokrek peak in the core zone. The two sites of the tropical evergreen forest selected in the buffer zone of the BR were located on the southern side. The two sites selected for riverain forests were located on the bank of the two major rivers, namely Simsang and Dedari in the northern side of the BR. The shifting cultivation fallows of different ages, which were common in the northern side of the buffer zone, were grouped into four age groups: 10-12 year old, 6-8 year old, 3-4 year old and 1 year old fallows. Each of these four groups was studied by selecting two sites each. Two sites each w'ere selected for orchards and bamboo groves in the northern side of the BR. The two coal mining sites and one limestone mining Table 1 : Ecosystem types in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve Ecosystems Location Area (sq. km) Area as percentage of the total BR area Subtropical evergreen forests Core zone 30.54 3.73 Tropical evergreen forests and Riverain forests Core and buffer zone 137.71 16.79 Tropical semi-evergreen forests Core and buffer zone 109.25 13.32 Tropical moist deciduous forests Core and buffer zone 191.69 23.38 Abandoned shifting cultivation areas Buffer zone 210.99 25.73 Bamboo groves Buffer zone 15.66 1.91 Orchards Buffer zone 9.55 1.16 Current shifting cultivation areas Buffer zone 103.38 12.61 Settled paddy agriculture Buffer zone 7.14 0.87 Coal mining areas Buffer zone - - Limestone mining areas Buffer zone - - Tea gardens Buffer zone - - Water bodies Buffer zone 4.09 0.50 Total 820.0 100.00 148 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY 90°1 2' E ' ' ' 90°36' E Fig. 2: Vegetation types of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve site were located in the southern side of the BR. The altitude of these 21 sites ranged between 149 m and 1,415 m above msl (Table 2). The two replicate sites under each ecosystem type had similar elevation. Collection and Identification of plant species The voucher specimens were collected from the selected sites during the field surveys conducted over a period of three years from 2001. The collected specimens were identified with the help of local florae (Kanjilal etal. 1 934-40; Haridasan and Rao 1985-87; Balakrishnan 198 1-83) and were confirmed by matching the specimens with the herbaria of Botanical Survey of India, North-Eastern Circle, Shillong, Department of Botany, North-Eastern Hill University. Shillong and Central National Herbarium, Howrah. Enumeration of endemic, rare and threatened taxa of the BR The endangered, rare and endemic plant species were identified by consulting the available literature (Deb 1958; Balakrishnan 1981-83; Rao and Haridasan 1983; Das and Deori 1983; Haridasan and Rao 1985-1987; Kumar 1991; Kataki 1983; Chauhan 1983; Khan et al. 1997; Nayar and Table 2: Ecosystems and sites selected for detailed study in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve Ecosystems Site code Altitude (m) Sub-tropical evergreen forest SF-a 1,415 SF-b 1,300 Tropical evergreen forest TF-a 708 TF-b 314 Riverain forest RF-a 915 RF-b 968 Jhum fallows (12-yr old) J,2-a 1,100 Ji2'b 1,228 Jhum fallows (6-yr old) J6'a 1,078 1,133 Jhum fallows (3-yr old) J3-a 1,226 1,005 Jhum fallows (1-yr old) J,-a 1,120 J,-b 1,291 Bamboo groves B-a 920 B-b 828 Orchards O-a 938 O-b 831 Coal mine spoils CM-a 250 CM-b 314 Limestone mine spoils LM 149 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 149 LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY Fig. 3: Areas affected by various human activities within Nokrek Biosphere Reserve Sastry 1990; Nayar 1996). The identified species were categorized into different forms of rarity following Rabinowitz ( 198 1 ) and Rabinowitz etal. (1986). The species were classified according to the geographic range (wide vs. narrow), habitat specificity (broad vs. restricted), and population size (large vs. small), using the primary as well as available secondary data. RESULTS Taxonomic diversity In total, 710 vascular plant species belonging to 465 genera and 140 families were recorded from the studied communities of the NBR. These included 678 angiosperms, 3 gymnosperms and 29 pteridophytes. The number of species, genera and families declined significantly from undisturbed climax communities to secondary communities with the lowest number of taxa on the mine spoils (Fig. 5). The total number of species in the undisturbed communities was 590 in contrast to 488 in the secondary communities on human impacted sites. The dominance of families also varied significantly among different communities. Though Rubiaceae was dominant in all the communities, Lauraceae, Orchidaceae and Rutaceae were better represented in the undisturbed communities, while Poaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Apiaceae dominated the human-impacted communities. Among ecosystems studied, the three undisturbed tropical evergreen, sub-tropical evergreen and riverain forest communities together had the highest vascular plant species richness with 558 angiosperms, 29 pteridophytes and 3 gymnosperms. A total of 390 genera were recorded from these three forests, which included 366 angiosperms, 3 gymnosperms and 21 pteridophytes. At least 129 of these genera, i.e., c. 33% of the total genera recorded, were with congeneric species and 261 genera were represented by only one species. Ficus had the highest number of 12 species, followed by Syzygium with 10 species, Litsea with 7 species and Castanopsis and Garcinia with 5 species each. The total number of families recorded was 1 34, of which Rubiaceae (with 43 species and 30 genera), Poaceae (37 species, 29 genera), Euphorbiaceae (32 species, 2 1 genera), Lauraceae (28 species, 9 genera), Asteraceae (22 species, 16 genera), Orchidaceae (20 species, 16 genera) and Fabaceae ( 19 species, 14 genera) were the dominant families. There were 47 families that were represented by only a single species. 150 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY NORTHERN SOUTHERN Fig. 4: Map showing the locations of the study sites in the northern and southern sides of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve. (SFa b- subtropical evergreen forests, RFa b- riverain forests, TFa b- tropical evergreen forests, J12a b - Jhum fallows (12-yr. old), J6a b - Jhum fallows (6-yr. old), J3a b - Jhum fallows (3-yr. old), J1a b - Jhum fallows (1 -yr. old), Ba b - Bamboo groves, Oa b - Orchards, CMa b - Coalmining areas, LM - Limestone mining areas) The three forest communities had 88 families in common, 12 families were recorded exclusively from the subtropical evergreen forests, 5 from the tropical evergreen forests, and 4 families from the riverain forests. The three communities were also rich in primitive taxa. Some of these are Actinodaphnae angustifolia , A. obovata , Beilschmiedia assamica, B. roxburghiana, Betula alnoides, Dillenia scabrella, Fissistigma verrucosum , Goniothalamus simonsii , Helicia excelsa , Helicia nilagirica , Holboellia latifolia, Houttuynia cordata, Knema angustifolia, Michelia oblonga, Myrica esculenta , Paramichelia baillonii, Polyalthia cerrasoides, Sarcandra glabra, and Talauma hodgsonii. Flora and floristic elements The original flora of the NBR was confined to the undisturbed tropical evergreen, sub-tropical evergreen and riverain forests. The tropical elements were mainly present in tropical evergreen and riverain forests, whereas the subtropical evergreen forest had several tropical as well as temperate elements. The important tropical species were Ardisia grifftthii, Boehmeria macrophylla, Cinnamomum spp., Dysoxylum gobara, Elaeocarpus floribundus, Macropanax dispermus, Mesua ferrea, Pothos scandens, Raphidophora spp., Sarcosperma griffithii, Schefflera venulosa, Syzygium tetragonum , Toddalia asiatica and Xerospermum glabratum. The temperate species abundant in the subtropical forests were Acer oblongum, Aralia thomsonii, Betula alnoides, Castanopsis indica, Euonymus lawsonii. Ilex spp., Prunus cerrasoides, Rubus spp., Viburnum coriaceum and Viola sikkimensis. Most species found in NBR are eastern Asiatic elements from Sino-Himalayan, and Burma-Malayan regions. Bruinsmia, Bulbophyllum, Camellia, Cymbidium and Kadsura are Chinese and Himalayan genera, while Balanophora, Cinnamomum, Engelhardtia, Litsea , Goniothalamus sesquipedalis, Miliusa , Pittosporum, Rubus 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 151 LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY and Talauma are the Burma-Malayan taxa. Presence of Bischoffia javanica, Carallia bractiata, Firmiana colorata, Hedychium coccinium, Lithocarpus elegans, Spondias axillaris , Talauma hodgsonii, Travesia palmata and Vernonia volkamerifolia in the flora of NBR indicates its affinity with Southeast Asian - Malaysian flora. A few Sino-Japanese elements, such as Eurya accuminata and Pericampylos glaucus were also present. In addition, it has several taxa from peninsular India such as Dillenia indica, D. pentagyna. Ficus nervosa, Helicia nilagirica , Mastixia arborea, Munronia pinnata, Murraya koenigii and Syzygium cumini. The species of the undisturbed forests represented elements of 1 1 phytogeographical regions; 272 species belonged to Indo-Malayan region, 145 species to Himalayan region and 90 species to Indo-Burman region. These three elements together constituted about 86% of the total species content of the undisturbed forest communities. The remaining 8 phytogeographical regions were poorly represented (African 13, American 5, Andaman and Nicobar island 8, Australian 7. Brazilian 2, Indo-China 30, Sri Lanka 2 and Western Ghats 16), constituting only 14% of the total species. Endemic species The species endemic to north-east India, including the eastern Himalayas, are listed in Table 3. Out of the 43 endemic species recorded, 13 species are endemic only to the state of Meghalaya, 1 1 species are rare and 2 species, namely Acer cappadocicum and Mastixia arborea are considered as very rare species (Haridasan and Rao 1985-1987). Besides these, Citrus latipes (rare), Fissistigma verrucosum (rare), Elaeocarpus acuminatus (rare) and Adinandra griffithii (vulnerable) are listed in the Red Data Book of the Indian Plants (Nayar and Sastry 1990). Out of the total 1 7 endemics, 40% were trees, 8 species were shrubs, 3 species each were scandent shrubs, herbs, climbers and lianas, and 6 species were epiphytes. Threatened species Fifty-five species in the NBR belong to one or the other category of the threatened species (Table 3). Beutia minor (endangered), Clerodendrum serration (vulnerable), Hedychium coronarium (endangered), Paramichelia baillonii (rare), Rouwolfia serpentina (endangered), Syzygium grandis (rare) are threatened in India, while other 44 species are rare and threatened in north-east India. Rarity Ninety-nine rare species were recorded from the NBR (Table 3). Majority (80) of these were in the undisturbed subtropical evergreen forest followed by riverain forests (54). 450 SF TF RF J12 J6 J3 J1 BO LM CM Landscape types Fig. 5: Taxonomic diversity in different ecosystems of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve. SF - subtropical evergreen forests, RF - riverain forests, TF - tropical evergreen forests, J12- Jhum fallows (12-yr old), J6- Jhum fallows (6-yr old), J3- Jhum fallows (3-yr old), J,- Jhum fallows (1-yr old), B - Bamboo groves, O - Orchards, CM - Coal mining areas, LM - Limestone mining areas Trees contributed 41% to the rare flora followed by herbs (30%), shrubs (19%), climbers (6%) and lianas (4%). The most important form of rarity was the restricted habitat specificity (65 species) followed by small population size (63 species) and narrow geographic range (43 species). Two types of rarity, namely (i) narrow geographical range (endemics) - restricted habitat specificity - small populations, and (ii) wide geographical range (non-endemics) - restricted habitat - small populations, together constituted 41% of the rare flora of NBR (Fig. 6). The rare taxa with small populations outnumbered those with the large, dominant Fig. 6: Different forms of rarity in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve 152 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 Table 3: The status of endemic, rare and threatened plant species in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve (SF - subtropical evergreen forests, TF - tropical evergreen forests, RF - riverain forests, J12- Jhum fallows (12-yr old), J6- Jhum fallows (6-yr old), J3- Jhum fallows (3-yr old), J,- Jhum fallows (1-yr old), B - Bamboo groves, O - Orchards, CM - Coalmining areas, LM - Limestone mining areas) LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY X 0 0 _l 0 0 _l 0 —I _J 0 0 —I 0 0 0 0 _l _l 0 0 —I 0 _l _l 0 0 0 _J _] 0 _l _l -J 0 0 0 _l _l _l X X X X X X X X X CD X X CO X CO X CD 0 CD X X CD X X CD CD X X X CD 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 0 X X X z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z 0 X * 3 z 3 0 > > LL X LL X X X X X X o LL X X LL o X X LL X X o o LL LL X X LL X X LL o X o X o > LL CO LU XI LU LU LU LU UJ X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X O o co + . + CO .Q CO X co Q CD 0) CL CO + + , .+ + +,+ + + I + + + + + . + + + + . + + + + + + +, + .+ +.+ + + + . + + + + + + +,+ + + I + I + + + + + + + + + + + + + . + + + + + + + + + + I + + + + + + + + , + , + + + Q. 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C CO c 03 E I 8- I « $ •2 c co £ o § If =5 Q. 0 0 § O co Q 21 2 As 5 5 c/3 03 3 -c -O 2 C 03 x 5 CO 03 co co 0) c ■Q _i 3 £ 03 8 C o fc CO ■2 -o 03 C/3 X 3 N X .co co i~~ C/3 c 8 o ‘S 3 03 O 9- 03 g I 5 S S 03 10 So c E 2 C 03 X L 2 CO o CM CM CM LO CVi c 0 3 cr 0 c o E E o O 6 0 X 0 > X > 0 TO X cr _0 jQ 0 0 _C S > ££ c ~d 0 0 ■o Jr, 0 0 CO ^ . >, ■§ "co i- P -C ‘4= cn° x 03 ° -O X) i 03 o 03' “ m iZ T3 CL C Q. XI XJ _L CL XI XI 03 -Q I 1 o' CO E a 03 O O xi §- 03 o 03 3 & CO ■ U) O O m X X J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 155 I - Habitat specificity: R-restricted, B-broad; 1 - Population size: S-small, L-large; Status in India (Nayar and Sastry 1990) LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY populations. The least form of rarity was the species with narrow geographical range - broad habitat specificity - small populations. DISCUSSION Forest and shifting cultivation are the two most important land uses in NBR, accounting for more than 95% of the total geographical area. Leaving aside the core zone, the entire buffer zone is affected by the shifting cultivation, accounting for 38% of the total area. After one- or two-year of cropping in a shifting cultivation cycle, the vegetation on abandoned fallows recovers and remains dominated by shorter life-forms till the 6th year of fallow. Beyond this period, trees dominate the community giving rise to secondary forests. As per the existing practice, once the forest attains the age of 12 years, the plot is felled for shifting cultivation and the cycle continues. The impact of mining on the vegetation though much more severe than any other human activity, is confined to a relatively small area. The impact of other factors responsible for forest degradation such as establishing orchards and tea gardening was inconspicuous due to their limited spread. All these activities have led to destruction of natural forests giving rise to a large number of plant communities with varying physiognomy, species and growth form composition, and structural organization. These differences in the community characteristics were related to their age, soil conditions and intensity, and frequency of disturbance under which they have developed. Of the total 710 species recorded from the NBR, 368 species were common both to the disturbed and undisturbed communities, 222 species were confined only to the undisturbed communities and only 120 species were found exclusively in the disturbed communities in the buffer zone. Therefore, disturbance contributed 16.9% increase in the total species content of the NBR. On the other hand, 222 species (31.3% of the total species content) that were present in the undisturbed communities disappeared from the human impacted sites. The total number of species recorded from the BR is very high, when compared to the earlier studies carried out in other parts of the state. For instance, Haridasan and Rao (1985-87) described 1,151 dicotyledonous species from the entire state of Meghalaya, Tiwari et al. (1998) reported 514 species from 56 sacred forests of the state, Jamir (2003) reported 395 species of vascular plants from three sacred groves of Jaintia Hills and Upadhaya et al. (2003) reported 437 vascular species from two other sacred groves of Jaintia hills. In a floristic survey of Balphakram Wildlife Sanctuary of Garo Hills, Kumar (1984) listed 770 plant species. One of the important causes of high species richness in the NBR is the high ecosystem diversity, created due to the combination of a host of anthropogenic as well as natural factors. Among the natural factors, geomorphic diversity of the landscape characterized by different slope angles and aspects, drainage patterns, and diverse physiographic features (Sarma 2002), geographical location and variations in the climatic condition due to a wide elevation gradient are important factors contributing to the species richness of the NBR. The presence of distinct strata in the undisturbed tropical and subtropical forests and complexity of the micro-environmental conditions in the communities (Barik et al. 1992), might have also contributed towards increase in species richness in the NBR. Besides site characteristics and landscape histories, the availability of species in an ecosystem is the product of the biogeographical influences and evolutionary process (Meher- Homji 1989). The presence of different floral elements from as many as 1 1 biogeographical regions of the world in the flora of NBR due to its location at the confluence of the three major biogeographical regions has substantially contributed towards its species richness. The patterns of dominance exhibited by the members of Rubiaceae, Lauraceae, Orchidaceae. Rutaceae, Poaceae. Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Apiaceae in different communities were similar to that of the findings of Puri ( 1 960), who worked on the dominant families of India. The high concentration of primitive taxa in the NBR is in conformity with the findings of Takhtajan (1969), who concluded that eastern Himalaya, Assam and upper Burma (now Myanmar) show high concentration of primitive angiosperms. The endemic and threatened categories of species usually have specific and narrow ecological niches. Their restricted edaphic- and habitat-specificity makes them more vulnerable to extinction. The findings of the present study suggest that disturbance led to significant decrease in the number of rare species in the NBR, since only 3 rare species out of the total 99 were recorded from the disturbed communities. The presence of a large number of rare taxa with small populations and habitat-specificity indicates the vulnerability of the threatened categories of species in the NBR, and unless adequate protection measures are taken, these taxa could face extinction. Absence of species having narrow range, broad habitat and small populations in the flora confirms the conclusion of Rabinowitz et al. (1986), who stated that such condition of rarity was biologically unlikely. Anthropogenic disturbances in the NBR have played an important role in converting the entire landscape of the buffer zone into a mosaic of heterogeneous patches of degraded communities at different stages of their development. Though the species diversity at mining sites 156 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY and other man impacted areas has been drastically reduced, the overall species richness in the NBR has increased. However, existence of the habitat-specialist species as well as species with small populations is highly threatened by these activities. On the jhum fields, although there was an increase in species richness in the communities during secondary succession, only 67% of the total species could recover after 12 years, depicting slow rate of natural recovery process. Therefore, the NBR may not be able to withstand the current level of anthropogenic pressure and in course of time, it may be converted into a landscape dominated by fragments of degraded forest patches. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, for the financial support under the Biosphere Reserve Programme (Sanction No.F. 10/ 41/97-CS/BR dated 15.02. 1999). Thanks are due to the Forest Department, Government of Meghalaya, for granting permission to undertake field study in the Biosphere Reserve. We thank the Forest Officers attached to the BR and villagers inhabiting the buffer zone of the BR for their help and cooperation. Thanks are also due to Dr. V. Ralte for her help in the field studies, and soil sampling and analysis. REFERENCES Armesto, J.J. & S.T.A. Pickett (1985): Experiments on disturbance in old-field plant communities: impact on species richness and abundance. Ecology 66: 230-240. Barik, S.K., H.N. Pandey, R.S. Tripathi & P. Rao (1992): Micro¬ environmental variability and species diversity in tree fall gaps in a sub-tropical broadleaved forest. Vegetatio 103: 31-40. Balakrishnan, N.P. (1981-83): Flora of Jowai and Vicinity, Meghalaya, Vol. I-II. BSI, Howrah, India. Chauhan, A.S. (1983): Dwindling taxa of Meghalaya. Pp. 142-145. In: Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (Eds): An Assessment of Threatened Plants of India. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, India. Clements, F.E. (1936): Nature and structure of climax. J. Ecol. 24: 252-284. Collins, S.L., S.M. Glenn & D.J. Gibson (1995): Experimental analysis of intermediate disturbance and initial floristic composition: decoupling cause and effect. Ecology 76: 486-492. Connell, J.H. (1978): Diversity in tropical rain forest and coral reefs. Science 199: 1302-1310. Das, S. & N.C. Deori (1983): A census of endemic orchids of north¬ east India. Pp. 104-109. In: Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (Eds): An Assessment of Threatened Plants of India. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, India. Deb, D.B. (1958): Endemism and the outside influence on the flora of Manipur. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 313-317. Grime, J.P. (1979): Plant strategies and vegetation processes. John Wiley, Chichester. Grubb, P.J. (1977): The maintenance of species richness in plant communities: the importance of regeneration niche. Bot. Rev. 52: 107-145. Haridasan, K. & R.R. Rao ( 1985-87): Forest Flora of Meghalaya, Vol. I-II. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. Dehradun, India. Hooker, J.D. (1872- 1897): Flora of British India, Vol. I- VII. London. Huston, M.A. (1979): A general hypothesis of species diversity. Amer. Natural. 773: 81-101. Jamir, S.A. & H.N. Pandey (2003): Vascular plant diversity in sacred groves of Jaintia Hills in north-east India. Biodiv. and Con. 12: 1497-1510. Kanjilal, U.N., PC. Kanjilal, A. Das, R.N. De & N.L. Bor ( 1934-40): Flora of Assam. Vol. I-V. Government Press, Shillong, India. Kataki, S.K. (1983): Some rare plants in Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya. Pp. 104-109. In: Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (Eds): An Assessment of Threatened Plants of India. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, India. Khan, M.L., S. Menon & K.S. Bawa (1997): Effectiveness of protected areas network in biodiversity conservation - a case study of Meghalaya state. Biodiv. and Con. 6: 853-868. Kumar, Y. (1984): Studies on the Flora of Balphakram Wildlife Sanctuary, Garo Hills. Ph. D. Thesis, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India. Kumar, Y. (1991): Floristic studies in Balphakram Wildlife Sanctuary in Meghalaya - Rare, endemic or threatened flora. J. Megh. Sci. Soc. 11-12: 33-48. Lubchenco, J. (1978): Plant species diversity in a marine intertidal community: importance of herbivore food preference and algal competitive abilities. Amer. Natural. 112: 23-39. Meher-Homjt, V.M. (1989): History of vegetation of peninsular India. Man and Envir. 13: 1-10. Molino, J.F. & D. Sabatier (2001): Tree diversity in tropical rain forests: a validation of intermediate disturbance hypothesis. Science: 1702-1704. Nayar, M.P. (1996): Hotspots of Endemic Plants of India, Nepal and Bhutan. TBGRI, Trivandrum. India. Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1990): Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Paine, R.T. (1966): Food web complexity and species diversity. Amer. Natural. 100: 65-75. Puri, GS. (1960): Indian Forest Ecology. Oxford Book & Stationary Co., New Delhi, India. Rabinowitz, D. (1981): Seven forms of rarity. Pp. 205-217. In: Synge, H. (Ed.): The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Rabinowitz, D., S. Cairns & T. Dillon (1986): Seven forms of rarity and their frequency in the flora of the British Isles. Pp. 182-204. In: Soule, M. (Ed.): Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. Ralte, V., H.N. Pandey, S.K. Barik. R.S. Tripathi & S.D. Prabhu (2005): Changes in microbial biomass and activity in relation to shifting cultivation and horticultural practices in subtropical evergreen forest ecosystem of north-east India. Acta Oecol. 28: 163-172. Rao, A.S. (1969a): Orchids of Khasi and Jaintia Hills. Bulletin of Botanical Survey of India 77: 1 15-123. Rao, A.S. (1969b): The vegetation of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. In: Proceedings of Pre-Congress Symposium and field study on Physical Geography of Eastern Himalaya and Meghalaya ( 1 968). Guwahati, India. Pp. 92-102. Rao, P, S.K. Barik, H.N. Pandey & R.S. Tripathi (1990): Community composition and tree population structure in a sub-tropical broad¬ leaved forest along a disturbance gradient. Vegetatio 88: 151-162. Rao, R.R. & K. Haridasan (1983): Threatened plants of Meghalaya - A plea for conservation. In: Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (Eds): An Assessment of Threatened Plants of India. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, India. Pp. 94-103. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 157 LAND USE CHANGES IMPACTING BIODIVERSITY Rao, R.S. & G. Panigrahi (1961): Distribution of vegetational types and their dominant species in Eastern India. J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 40: 274-285. Roy, PS., G. Talukdar, N. Lele & M.G. Porwal (2003): Biodiversity Characterization at Landscape Level in Nokrek Biosphere Reserve. DBT-DOS Project, Phase IB, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun. Sarma, K. (2002): Coal Mining and Its Impact on Environment of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, Meghalaya. Ph. D. Thesis, North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong. Stapanian, M.A., D.L. Casell & S.P. Cline (1997): Regional patterns of local diversity of trees: associated with anthropogenic disturbance. For. Ecol. Manage. 93:33-44. Takhtajan, A. (1969): Flowering Plants: Origin and Dispersal. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh and Otto Koeltz Science Publishers, India. Tiwari, B.K., S.K. Barik & R.S. Tripathi (1998): Biodiversity value, status, and strategies for conservation of sacred groves of Meghalaya, India. Ecosys. Health 4: 20-32. Upadhaya, K., H.N. Pandey, P.S. Law & R.S. Tripathi (2003): Tree diversity in sacred groves of the Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, northeast India. Biodiv. and Cons. 12: 583-597. 158 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 159-161 NEW DESCRIPTION ON THE GENUS KANAKARAJIELLA SUNDARARAJ & DAVID (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES R. SUNDARARAJ1'2 AND R. PUSHPA13 'Institute of Wood Science & Technology, Malleshwaram, Bengaluru 560 003, Karnataka, India. 2Email: rsundararaj@icffe.org 3Email: pushpa_suderson@yahoo.com The Whitefly genus Kanakarajiella Sundararaj & David is reviewed and is considered as a valid genus. A new species Kanakarajiella rotunda breeding on Syzygium sp. in Kumarapuram, Tamil Nadu, India, is described and illustrated. A key to the species of the genus Kanakarajiella is also given Key words: Whiteflies, Hemiptera, Kanakarajiella INTRODUCTION David and Sundararaj (1993) established the genus Kanakarajiella with Dialeurodes vulgaris Singh as the type species and included three known species of Dialeurodes, namely D. bassiae David & Subramaniam, D. cardamomi David & Subramaniam and D. pallida Singh under this genus. Jensen (1999) analyzed the phylogenetic relationships within a large sample of the world’s diversity of Dialeurodes Cockerell, including K. vulgaris and concluded that only the type species should remain under Kanakarajiella and placed the remaining three species under the genus Singhiella Sampson. Meganathan and David (1994) described one new species under the genus Kanakarajiella. Martin and Mound (2007) in their catalogue placed all the species of Dialeuronomada, Gigaleurodes, Lankaleurodes, Kanakarajiella, Rabdostigma, Shanthiniae under Dialeurodes with the note that future studies may reveal some or all of these to be valid genera. A study of the two species, so far, described under Kanakarajiella and description of a new species here justified the need to reinstate the generic status of Kanakarajiella as they differ distinctly from the species of Dialeurodes Cockerell by the absence of stipples or granules on the thoracic and the caudal tracheal folds, absence of teeth or fimbriae in the thoracic and caudal tracheal pores, and by the absence of comb of teeth in vasiform orifice. Genus Kanakarajiella David & Sundararaj, 1993 Stat. Rev. Type species: Dialeurodes vulgaris Singh. 1931. Mem. Rep. Dept. Agric. India, Ent. Ser., 12(1): 33-34; by original designation. Diagnosis: Puparium white to light brown; elliptical to oval; margin smooth or crenulate; submargin not separated from dorsal disc; subdorsum/submargin with row of setae; pores well-defined without teeth or fimbriae; folds indicated without stipples; furrows distinct; longitudinal moulting suture reaching margin and transverse moulting suture reaching submargin. Vasiform orifice subcordate to circular, without comb of teeth; operculum large filling orifice, obscuring lingula. Remarks: This genus differs from that of Dialeurodes Cockerell by the absence of stipples or granules on the thoracic and the caudal tracheal folds, absence of teeth or fimbriae in the thoracic and caudal tracheal pores and by the absence of comb of teeth in vasiform orifice. 1. Kanakarajiella rotunda sp. nov. (Figs 1-3) Description Puparium: White, without secretion of wax; Figs 1-3: Kanakarajiella rotunda sp. nov. 1 . Puparium, 2. Margin at thoracic tracheal pore region, 3. Vasiform orifice NEW DESCRIPTION subcircular, broadest at transverse moulting suture, 1 .90- 1 .96 mm long, 1.64-1.66 mm wide. Margin regularly crenulate, 15-17 crenulations in 0. 1 mm; thoracic tracheal pores distinct without inner teeth and caudal tracheal pore indicated by a slight depression. Anterior marginal setae 16 pm and posterior marginal setae 20 pm long. Dorsum: Submargin striated. Subdorsum with dense microtubercles of varying size and shape, geminate pores disposed throughout dorsum. Median area with small broken transverse ridges. Pockets well-developed on all segmental sutures, lateral depressions on all segments. Longitudinal moulting suture reaching margin, transverse moulting suture reaching submedian. Three pairs of submedian tubercles - two pairs on cephalothorax (one pair each on pro- and mesothorax) and one pair on I abdominal segment. Thoracic and caudal tracheal furrows distinct, without ornamentation or sculpturing or stipples. Pores and porettes not discernible. Chaetotaxy: Three pairs of setae - cephalic setae 5 pm long, eighth abdominal setae cephalolaterad of vasiform orifice, 10 pm long and caudal setae 8 pm long. First abdominal setae absent. A row of ten pairs of capitate setae - five pairs each on cephalothorax and abdomen, each 5 pm long. Vasiform orifice: Subcircular, wider than long, 46 pm long, 50 pm wide; operculum subcordate, 24-26 pm long, 40-42 pm wide, filling orifice and obscuring lingula. Venter: A pair of ventral abdominal setae 20 pm long, 60 pm apart. Thoracic and caudal tracheal folds distinct without stipples. Antennae reaching base of prothoracic legs. A pair of setae at the base of meso- and metathoracic legs, 10 pm long. Host: Syzygium sp. Material Examined: Holotype: One puparium, on slide from Syzygium sp.. Coll. R. Pushpa, 24.V.2007, deposited in the collections of National Forest Insect Collection, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. India (NFIC-FRI #21871). Paratvpes: 2 puparia, data as for holotype, one each deposited in National Pusa Collection, Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India (IARI), and in Institute of Wood Science & Technology, Bangalore, India (IWST). Type locality: India: Tamil Nadu: Kumarapuram. Remarks: The puparia were found in groups on the undersurface of leaves. This species resembles Kancikarajiella vulgaris (Singh) in having striated margin, distinct pores without inner teeth and thoracic and caudal tracheal folds without stipples, but differs from it in the puparium shape, having three pairs of submedian tubercles, ten pairs of subdorsal capitate setae and by the absence of the first abdominal setae and median tubercles on abdominal segments. Etymology: The species name alludes to the circular body shape of the species. 2. Kanakarajiella turpiniae Meganathan & David Stat. Rev. Kanakarajiella turpiniae Meganathan and David, 1994. FI P PAT Entomology Series, 5: 40. Dialeurodes turpiniae : Martin and Mound, 2007. Zootaxa, 1492: 31. Material Examined: Holotype: puparium, india: Kerala: Valiyamullumala (Silent Valley), on Turpinia malabarica, 2.ii. 199 1 , Meganathan. Host: Turpinia malabarica (Meganathan and David, 1994). Distribution: india: Kerala: Valiyamullumala (Meganathan and David 1994). Remarks: This species is rather distinct from the other species of Kanakarajiella by the absence of submarginal/ subdorsal setae and tubercles on dorsum and caudal furrow with sculptures. 3. Kanakarajiella vulgaris (Singh) Stat. Rev. Dialeurodes vulgaris Singh, 1931. Mem. Rep. Dept. Agric. India, Ent. Ser., 12: 33-34. Martin and Mound, 2007. Zootaxa, 1492: 31. Kanakarajiella vulgaris (Singh) David and Sundararaj, 1993.7. ent. Res., 17: 233. Material Examined: india: Kerala: Kottayam, 9 puparia, on Solanum seaforthianum, 12.vii.2006, R. Pushpa; Karadipara (Nelliyampathy), 1 puparium, on Euonymus indicus, 23.x. 2006, R. Sundararaj; Tamil Nadu: Kumarapuram, 1 puparium, on Phyllanthus reticulatus, 24.V.2007, R. Pushpa; Mondaikadu, 2 puparia on Randia malabarica, 5. viii. 1 987, R. Sundararaj. Hosts: Jasminum sambac, Syzygium cumini (Singh 1931); Bidens pilosa, Erythrina lithosperms, Syzygium jambos (Venkataramaiah 1971); Canthium dicoccum, Coffea arabica, C. excel sa, C. robusta, Coffea sp., Randia malabarica (David and Sundararaj 1993); Litsea floribunda, Mappia foetida (Meganathan and David 1994); Tabemaemontana heyneyana, Jasminum sp., Litsea sp., (Dubey and Ko 2008); Euonymus indicus, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Solanum seaforthianum (new host records). Distribution: india: Bihar (Pusa) (Singh 1931); Karnataka: Chikmagalur; Kerala: Silent valley (Meganathan and David 1994); Tamil Nadu: Munchirai, Mondaikadu (David and Sundararaj 1993); Karnataka: Honnawar, Kumargiri; Kerala: Waynad Wildlife Sanctuary (Dubey 2003). 160 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 NEW DESCRIPTION Remarks: The puparium of this species is characterised by the presence of about 10 pairs of pointed submarginal setae and abdominal segments with median tubercles and by the absence of submedian tubercles. Key to the Indian species of Kanakarajiella 1 . Submarginal/subdorsal setae present; dorsum with tubercles; caudal furrow without sculptures . 2 — Submarginal/subdorsal setae absent; dorsum without tubercles; caudal furrow with sculptures . . turpiniae Meganathan & David 2. Cephalothorax with two pairs and I abdominal segment with a pair of submedian tubercles; abdominal segments without median tubercles; subdorsum with ten pairs of capitate setae; first abdominal setae absent . rotunda sp. nov. — Cephalothorax and I abdominal segment without submedian tubercles; abdominal segments with median tubercles; submargin with a row of about 10 pairs of pointed setae; first abdominal setae present . . vulgaris (Singh) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the Director and Group Coordinator (Research), IWST, Bengaluru, for the facilities provided. Thanks are due to Prof. B.V. David, President, Sun Agro Biotech Research Centre, Porur, Chennai, for loaning the type specimen of K. turpiniae and for his valuable comments on the manuscript. REFERENCES David, B.V. & R. Sundararaj (1993): Studies on Dialeurodini (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera) of India: Kanakarajiella gen. nov. J. ent. Res. 17(4): 289-295. Dubey, A.K. (2003): Biosystematics of the aleyrodids (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera: Insecta) of south Western Ghats, India. Thesis submitted to the FRI University, Dehradun. India. 282 pp. Dubey, A.K. & C.C. Ko (2008): Whitefly (Aleyrodidae) host plants list from India. Oriental Ins. 42: 49-102. Jensen, A. (1999): Cladistics of sampling of the worlds diversity of whiteflies of the genus Dialeurodes (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Annl. Ent. Soc. America 92(3): 359-369. Martin, J.H & L A. Mound (2007): An annotated check list of the world’s whiteflies (Insecta: Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Zootaxa 1492: 1-84. Meganathan, P. & B.V. David (1994): Aleyrodidae fauna (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera) of Silent Valley, A tropical evergreen rain-forest, in Kerala, India. FIPPAT Entomology Series, 5: 1-66. Singh, K. (1931): A contribution towards our knowledge of the Aleyrodidae (whiteflies) of India. Mem. Dept. Agric. India. Entomol. Ser. 12: 1-98. Venkataramaiah, GH. (1 97 1 ): A note on Dialeurodes vulgarison coffee. J. Coffee Res. 1: 13-14. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 161 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 162-164 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW HOMOPORUS THOMSON (HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE) FROM NORTH-EASTERN INDIA, WITH A KEY TO ORIENTAL SPECIES T.C. Narendran1 and ER. Khan2 'Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala 673 635, India. Email: drtcnarendran@yahoo.com ^Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Unversity, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. Email: insectqhl 1 @gmail.com Homoporus neodestructor sp. nov. is described from material collected from Meghalaya. A key to Oriental species of Homoporus is provided. Key words: New species, Homoporus, Pteromalidae, Key, India INTRODUCTION Thomson (1878) erected the genus Homoporus based on the type species Pteromalus fulviventris Walker (Graham 1969). The species of Homoporus are distributed in the Oriental, Australian, Afrotropical, Palaearctic, Nearctic and Neotropical regions (Graham 1969; Boucek 1988; Xiao et al. 2004; Sureshan and Narendran 2000, 2001 ; Noyes 2003). Noyes (2003) listed 63 known species in the world and Narendran and Kumar (2009) added another species from India. In this paper, one more species new to science is described from India. In the Oriental region eight species are known among which four are from India (including the new species described here under). The holotype and paratype of the new species described in this paper are retained in the Department of Zoology, University of Calicut (DZCU), but eventually will be deposited respectively in the National Pusa Collection of Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India, (NPC) and the Insect Collections. Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (ZD AMU). Abbreviations used: FI to F6= Funicular segments 1 to 6; MV= Marginal vein; OOL= Ocellocular line; PMV= Postmarginal vein; POL= Postocellar line; SMV= Submarginal vein; STV= Stigmal vein; Tl = Gasteral tergitel . Key to species or Homoporus of Oriental Region 1 . First anellus longer than broad . 2 — First anellus broader than long or not longer than broad.. 3 2. Lower clypeal margin distinctly notched in the middle; F3 to F6 quadrate; POL 1.6x OOL: MV 1.6x STV; forewing with brown infuscation near STV . . *H. japonicus Ashmead Anterior lower clypeal margin broadly truncate, without sharp tooth; each funicular segment longer than broad; POL 1-1.1 lx OOL: MV 2.3x STV; forewing without infuscation; gaster brown, slightly yellow centrally . . *H. sinensis Xiao et al. 3. Both mandibles quadridentate . 4 — At least one mandible tridentate . 8 4. Gaster black with green or blue refringence or gaster black with reddish or rusty colour at base . 5 — Gaster yellow (sometimes with brown areas on sides) .... 7 5. Gaster at least 2x as long as broad; F6 as long as wide; MV 2x or a little more than 2x-STV; pronotum in front of collar not descending vertically with respect to plane of mesoscutum; pronotal neck at least partly visible in dorsal view . 6 — Gaster shorter than 1.8x its width; F6 1.5x longer than wide; MV shorter than 2x STV; pronotum in front of collar descending vertically with respect to plane of mesoscutum; pronotal neck not visible in dorsal view (pronotal collar not margined) . * destructor (Say) (Extralimital) 6. Pronotal collar not margined; scape 3x as long as pedicel; FI shorter than pedicel, as long as its width; clava (excluding spicule) 2.5x as long as F6 . neodestructor sp. nov. — Pronotal collar margined medially; scape longer than 4-5x as long as pedicel; FI as long as pedicel, distinctly longer than wide (5:3); clava 2x as long as F6 . . *subniger Walker (in part) 7. Fifth tarsal segment especially of mid and hind legs swollen; scape reaching beyond level of vertex; funicular segments distinctly longer than wide; MV 3x STV . . maharashtriensis Narendran & Kumar — Fifth tarsal segment not swollen; scape not reaching anterior ocellus, hence not at all reaching level of vertex; funicular segments gradually widening towards tip; MV 2. lx as long as STV . acuminatus Sureshan & Narendran 8 . Gaster pale brownish-yellow with 2 dark lines dorso-laterally on either side, tips also dark brown; legs with last tarsal segments swollen (prominent on mid and hind legs); clypeus anteriorly with deep notch in middle; scape reaching beyond NEW DESCRIPTION Figs 1-5: Homoporus neodestructor sp. nov. Female: 1. Body profile; 2. Head anterior view; 3. Antenna; 4. Head dorsal view; 5. Propodeum anterior ocellus . gladiatus Sureshan & Narendran — Gaster black with metallic green or blue refringence; other characters partly or completely different . 9 9. Pronotum highly inclined vertically in front of collar; pronotal collar not margined; forewing with more or less a dark spot below base of MV . *luniger (Nees) — Pronotum not declining vertically; collar margined; forewing without dark spot or infuscation . (in part) . *subniger (Walker) * Names with an asterisk indicate no material of the species was examined and the differential features provided are taken from previous descriptions. Homoporus neodestructor sp. nov. (Figs 1-5) Holotype: Female: Length 3 mm. Dark metallic green except the following: antenna pale yellow with pedicel and scape black with slight metallic green refringence; mandibles brown; eye brown, with anterior marginal area pale; ocelli pale reflecting yellow; tegulae pale yellow; all coxae concolorous with mesosoma; femora black with bases and apices pale yellow; trochanters, tibiae and tarsi pale yellow; pretarsi black; wings hyaline, veins pale brownish yellow. Head: engraved-reticulate with sparse short white pubescence; clypeus finely striate- reticulate; striae not reaching gena; anterior margin of clypeus straight; head width in dorsal view 1.2 lx width of mesoscutum, 2.73x its length; width in front view 1.5x its height; vertex raised reticulate; temple length shorter than half length of eye; POL 1 ,6x OOL; malar sulcus faintly indicated, distance between eye and base of mandible 0.4x eye height in profile; eye separated by 1 .6x eye height in front view; in dorsal view eye separated by a distance 3x POL; both mandibles with 4 teeth each. Antennae inserted below middle of face, a little above level of ventral margin of eyes; scape not quite reaching anterior ocellus; length 0.74x eye height in profile; pedicel plus flagellum 0.7x head width; funicular segments gradually widening towards tip; tip acuminate with a sharp terminal stylus or specula; relative L: W of antennal segments: scape= 45: 6; pedicel= 15: 10; F 1 = 10: 10; F2= 11: 11; F3= 12: 11; F4= 11: 11; F5= 11: 11; F6= 12: 12;clava=32: 15. Mesosoma: slightly arched in profde, with very sparse white pubescence; pronotum with raised reticulation, not margined not descending vertically in front of collar with respect to the plane of mesoscutum; pronotal neck visible; lateral panel of pronotum sunken; mesoscutum raised reticulate, 2.17x as wide as long; scutellum medially l.lx as long as mesoscutum, similar sculptured as mesoscutum. Propodeum medially 0.4x as long as scutellum, raised reticulate, with two deep fovea with a pit on either side; nucha relatively small, a little raised and transverse between fork of median carina; spiracle elongately oval; callus with thin long pubescence, not dense; mesepisternum and lower mesepimeron densely reticulate; upper mesepimeron smooth and shiny; prepectus and lateral panel of pronotum densely reticulate. Forewing 2.5x as long as broad, with basal part almost bare; parastigmal vein indicated; CC with a row of ventral setae; upper side of CC without pubescence; speculum open behind (with 1 or 2 setae almost behind); relative length of SMV= 35; MV= 25; PMV= 20; STV= 12. Metasoma: Ovate, mostly smooth, dorsally collapsing; gaster sessile, 1.5x length of mesosoma, a little longer than head plus mesosoma combined; hind margin of T1 straight not medially produced). Male: Unknown. Host: Unknown. Variation: Length varies from 2.53-3.0 mm; black colour of femora reduced in paratype and body colour more bluish than greenish in paratype. Material Examined: Holotype: Female, india: Meghalaya, Shillong, Ladmawphlong 23.x. 2008, F.R. Khan J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 163 NEW DESCRIPTION (DZCU). Paratype: Female, Meghalaya, Jowai, Thaldskin, 22.x. 2008, F.R. Khan (DZCU). Etymology: The species is named after Homoprus destructor (Say) with which it resembles. Remarks: This new species comes near Homoporus destructor (Say) (Say 1817) in general appearance but differs from it in having: 1) Gaster 2.2x as long as broad (in H. destructor 1 .4- 1 ,6x as long as broad); 2) F6 as long as wide (in H. destructor F6 almost 1.5x longer than wide according to Dzhanokmen, 1987); 3) MV 2x or a little more than 2x STV (in H. destructor MV distinctly shorter than 2x STV) and 4) Pronotum in front of collar not descending vertically (in H. destructor pronotum in front of collar descending vertically). This new species also resembles Homoporus subniger (Walker) (Walker 1835) very closely but differs from it in having: 1) scape 3x as long as pedicel (scape longer than 4- 5x length of pedicel); 2) FI shorter than pedicel (in H. subniger FI as long as pedicel), 3) clava 2.5x as long as F6 (in H. subniger clava 2x as long as F6) and 4) Pronotal collar not margined (in H. subniger pronotal collar margined medially). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS One of us (TCN) is grateful to Prof. N. Ramani, Head of the Department, Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, for permitting me to work in the Department. He is grateful to Dr. M. Nasser of the same Department for all support and encouragement. TCN thanks Prof. M. Hayat. Department of Zoology. Aligarh Muslim University. Aligarh, for the loan of specimens. REFERENCES BouCek, Z. (1988): Australacian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) C.A.B International, Wallingford, U K. Pp. 1-831. Graham, M.W.R. de V. (1969): The Pteromalidae of Northwestern Europe (Hymenopera: Chalcidoidea). Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) ( Entomology ) Supplement 16: 908 pp. 686 figs. Narendran, T.C. & P.G Kumar (2009): On three new species of Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from Maharashtra, India. Journal of Experimental Zoology 12(1): 29-34. Noyes, J.S. (2003): (accessed 2010). Universal Chalcidoidea data base. http:Avww.nhm.uk/jdsml/research-curation/research projects/ chalcidoids/ Say, T. (1817): Some account of the insect known by the name of the hessian fly and a parasitic insect that feeds on it. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1: 45-48. Sureshan, P.M. & T.C. Narendran (2000): Pteromalidae (Chalcidoidea: Hymenoptera) from India with the description of a new species Entomon 25(2): 117-128. Sureshan, P.M. & T.C. Narendran (2001): Another Indian species of Homoporus Thompson (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae) Zoos' Print Journal 16(1): 391- 394. Walker, F. (1835): Monographia Chalciditum. Entomological Magazine 2(5): 476- 502:3(7): 94- 97. Xiao. H.. Y.Z. Zhang, D.W. Huang & A. Polaszek (2004): A revision of Homoporus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) of China. Raffles Bulletin 52(1): 59- 65. 164 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(2), May-Aug 2010 165-181 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. FURTHER NOTE ON SOME BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS OF THE NORTHERN PIG-TAILED MACAQUE MACACA NEMESTRINA LEONINA Anwaruddin Choudhury1 'The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India. Email: badrul@sify.com A detailed work on the ecology and behaviour of the northern Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina Linnaeus 1766, was published recently (Choudhury 2008). Additional recent information on the behavioural aspects of this relatively poorly documented primate is found in Choudhury (2009, 2010). Useful information on leonina, although relatively scanty, is found in Pocock (1931, 1939, 1941), McCann (1933), Fooden (1975), Choudhury (1988. 1989, 1993, 1997, 2003), and Feeroz et al. (1994). Groves (2001) had proposed full specific treatment for leonina. In this note, observations on some other aspects of behaviour observed during field works between February 1986 and May 2006, and which were not analysed before, have been presented. The observations were carried out in Bherjan-Borajan- Podumoni Wildlife Sanctuary (27°25'-32' N; 95°19'-23' E) in Tinsukia district of eastern Assam, and Garampani and Nambor Wildlife Sanctuaries (26°23' N; 93°52' E) in Karbi Anglong district of central Assam. Bherjan-Borajan- Podumoni Wildlife Sanctuary is located on fiat terrain (HO¬ BO m above msl) and has three disjunct blocks covered by partially degraded tropical wet evergreen or rainforest and deciduous plantations. Garampani and Nambor Wildlife Sanctuaries are located on low undulating terrain ( 1 70-280 m above msl) and are covered by partially degraded tropical wet semi-evergreen rainforest. General: The northern Pig-tailed Macaque is among the most arboreal of the macaques found in north-east India. They come down to the ground for crossing clearings and also for foraging, especially in degraded areas. Of the total 133 hours of observation in Bherjan, the macaques were observed for only 120 min on the ground, that too the lone males (only once a female with infant, and two immatures). The group may not come to the ground at all on many days while in forests with relatively good canopy cover (e.g., Bherjan). However, in the nearby Borajan, where the canopy was broken, the macaques were frequently observed on the ground, crossing roads and clear-felled patches. During the season of crop raid, especially after the harvest of paddy is over (in January), the macaques of Borajan were observed to spend 38% of their diurnal time on the ground. In Nambor and Garampani, where canopy cover was almost closed, the macaques normally came down to cross over the National Highway that passes through the forest and feed on sugarcane left-over by wild elephants (Choudhury 1993, 2010). In Garampani, as much as 20% of their diurnal time was spent on the ground in February and March 1992. Crop raiding reports are rare, however, in smaller pockets such as Borajan macaques raid paddy fields (usually after the harvest is over) and also in jhum (y7;//m=slash and burn shifting cultivation) pockets inside forests in Garo and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, to supplement their diet. The macaques occupy the top storey (12 to 35 m in Bombax, Dipteroearpus, etc.) for roosting, basking and feeding. The understorey, especially the middle layer (2-10 m in Bauhinia, Lagerstroemia, Albizzia, bamboo, etc.) is used for feeding, resting and travelling. The lower branches of trees and lower shrubs were used for feeding. Activities on the forest floor included crossing of clearings, a little feeding but may be prolonged also in case of crop raiding, occasional drinking and play. As a rule, the Pig-tailed Macaque is not very shy, however, in areas where it is hunted for food, it was extremely so (e.g., Nagaland) (Choudhury 2008). Roosting: For roosting, in Bherjan and Podumoni forests, they preferred the higher branches of tall trees (>20 m; down to 16 m in partially degraded forest). The macaques arrive to roost fairly early (not just before dusk), 30-45 min before dusk, singly or in twos and threes, and take up their final roosting positions around sunset. While roosting, the macaques held the branches tightly, and remained in their positions throughout the night. They did not sleep in a tight cluster, but loosely dispersed in adjacent trees. The maximum distance observed between two extreme individuals of a roosting pig-tailed macaque group was about 1 00 m in Bheijan and Podumoni forests. Vocalisation, communication and facial expressions: A variety of barks and calls are uttered by Pig-tailed macaques. The most frequent was medium to low-pitched pno-pno or po-po. This was uttered by almost all the individuals, one MISCELLANEOUS NOTES after another or simultaneously when travelling from one location to another along trees, and sometimes during foraging and when any human being was seen nearby. During locomotion on the ground; however, they were more or less silent. The alpha male’s alarm call was a harsh bark hrr-hrr, argh when the foraging members dispersed too far or when the female in estrous went out of sight. It also growls. The subadult and female alarm calls were wheek, wheek. Quarrels and mock fights with grunts, especially among the sub-adults and juveniles, were not uncommon. Usually the adult male interfere uttering louder grunts to bring back silence. Overall, pig-tailed macaques are not silent animals and their presence can be easily detected due to a large group size and various vocalizations, and the sound of branch movements and twig-breaking when they travel. The males also uttered khek-khek or ghek-ghek or agh- agh or kheh-kheh after dismounting from a copulation bout. The females either remain silent or make a low scream. Older females usually remain silent. Pig-tailed macaques are very shy where they are hunted and utter a very distinctive hoa, hooa, ho-a, or hua, hua or arr-huah, huah and vanish immediately. Females and immatures made various “squeals’, ‘screech’, and ‘screams’. Apart from vocalisations, pig-tailed macaques communicate by means of gestures (facial expressions), including look- threat, look away, grin, posture during locomotion, mounting gesture, presenting, freezing, touching with limbs, and possible tail expression. Despite so many vocalizations, sometimes the groups could maintain effective silence such that their presence cannot be detected, especially when they were resting (not always as the young ones move about), or after fleeing owing to disturbance caused by humans. Immature males, adult females and juveniles grimaced with teeth visible when this researcher went within 3-5 m. Sun basking: Such behaviour is mainly observed during cool winter months. They exposed their ventrum and sides of body to the sun in a sitting posture on tree branches at 20+ m height. The duration of sun basking observed ranged from 14 to 35 min. In summer, there may not be any sun basking on some days. On summer mornings when sun basking was observed, the duration ranged from less than a minute to seven minutes. During basking the most common behaviour was sitting still, self-manipulation, grooming and play between the young ones. Fall: Accidental falls were also often observed. On August 04, 1992, an alpha male fell from more than 20 m height when the branch he was sitting on gave away. A few seconds after the fall, he uttered ‘ aargh ’ and then vanished along the ground. On other occasions, a macaque jumped down 18-20 m while fleeing in Upper Dihing (west block) Reserved Forest, and two immatures fell from 20 m in Bherjan forests. During rain: During drizzle, the adults mostly remained indifferent; however, on heavy rain, adults were seen sitting on branches with thick foliage, but the immature were observed playing and jumping from branch to branch. This is probably the first time that these behavioural aspects of northern pig-tailed macaques have been published. The elusiveness of the macaque and poor visibility had its sway by wasting invaluable time in the field. Earlier observers who had studied form nemestrina also have similar comments (Bernstein 1967; Caldecott 1986). Although a dweller of dense forest, wherever degradation took place the macaque could adapt itself to the changed environment (e.g., Podumoni forests). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Nur Husain and Dilip for accompanying me in the field. REFERENCES Bernstein, I.S. (1967): A field study of the pigtail monkey. Primates 8: 217-228. Caldecott, J.O. (1986): An ecological and behavioural study of the pig-tailed macaque. In: Szalay, F.S. (Ed.): Contributions to primatology, Vol. 21. Basel (Switzerland): Karger. 259 pp. Choudhury, A.U. (1988): Priority ratings for conservation of Indian primates. Oryx 22: 89-94. Choudhury. A.U. (1989): Primates of Assam: their distribution, habitat and status. Ph.D. thesis, Gauhati University, Guwahati. 300 pp. + maps. Choudhury. A.U. (1993): A naturalist in Karbi Anglong. Gibbon Books, Guwahati. Choudhury, A.U. (1997): Checklist of the mammals of Assam. 2nd edn. Gibbon Books & ASTEC, Guwahati. Choudhury, A.U. (2003): The pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina in India - status and conservation. Primate Conservation 19: 91-94. Choudhury, A.U. (2008): Ecology and behaviour of the pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina in some forests of Assam in north-east India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 105(3): 279-291. Choudhury, A.U. (2009): Interaction of the Pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina with other primates in some forests of Assam in north-east India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 106(2): 202-203. Choudhury. A.U. (2010): Notes on behaviour of Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina towards Sparrow-Hawk, Crows, Drongo and Elephants. Zoo’s Print 25(7): 23-25. Feeroz, M„ M. Islam & M. Kabir (1994): Food and feeding behaviour of hoolock gibbon ( Hylobates hoolock ), capped langur (Presbytis pileata ), and pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) of 166 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Lawachara. Bangladesh J. Zool. 22(2): 123-132. Fooden. J. (1975): Taxonomy and evolution of liontail and pigtail macaques (Primates: Cercopithecidae). Fieldiana Zoology 67: 1-169. Groves, C.P. (2001): Primate taxonomy. Smithsonian Inst. Press. Washington DC. 350 pp. McCann, C. (1933): Notes on some Indian macaques. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 796-810. Pocock, R.I. (1931): The pig-tailed macaques ( Macaco nemestrina). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 297-31 1 . Pocock, R.I. (1939): The fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma: Mammalia Primates and Carnivora. 2nd edition. Taylor & Francis, London. 503 pp. Pocock, R.I. (1941): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma: Mammalia II. Primates and Carnivora. Taylor & Francis, London. 503 pp. 2. EFFECT OF AILA STORM ON FLYING FOX PTEROPUS GIGANTEUS G1GANTEUS (BRUNNICH) S. Mallick1'2 and S.K. Raut13 'Ecology and Ethology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, B.C. Road, Kolkata 700 019, West Bengal, India. 2Email: sus.zooh@gmail.com 3Email: srimantakraut@gmail.com During the course of studies on the bio-ecology of Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Brunnich) at Joteghanashyam area of Paschim Medinipur district of West Bengal, India, we took the opportunity to note the impact of Aila storm on a bat population occurring in the area. Our study programme was stimulated by a news broadcast on the radio and television announcing the approaching Aila storm. The senior author (SM) reached the site - a Silk Flower tree ( Albizia lebbeck) - which was inhabited about 800 P.g. giganteus individuals, at 08:00 hrs on May 25, 2009. The Silk Flower tree was 42 m tall with a canopy of 12 m diameter with well-developed branching system. The tree was situated on a hill inside a village. The weather was cloudy and it began drizzling at around 09:35 hrs. SM continued observing the bats from the ground. The ground below the tree canopy was clean. Aila appeared suddenly at 10:46 hrs. The wind speed was very high (110 km/hr, as per local Meteorological Station); unable to stand under the Silk Flower tree SM took shelter in a nearby house. The wind speed remained at about 110 km/hr for the first 10 minutes. Thereafter, it decreased gradually and by 11:56 hrs the weather condition permitted SM to step out and visit the bat colony. SM noticed a big and three small branches of the Silk Flower tree and 47 dead bats lying on the ground. Almost all the bats had blood oozing from the mouth. Forty-four bats were collected by the locals for feasting, while three were carried away by a mongoose ( Herpestes sp.) into its burrow. The bats hanging from the tree had a blank look; in fact none of them left the tree to forage that night. However, the next evening (on May 26) they left the tree to forage. In this case, 47 bats could not survive the severity of Aila storm. But it is not clear whether the speed of the wind or an attempt to seek a safe shelter dislodged them from the tree. Whatever the reason it is likely that once dislodged from the branch they failed to sustain themselves in the air because of the high speed of the wind, and therefore, fell to the ground. Thus, it is apparent that such natural calamities not only kill individuals but also create panic in the surviving individuals of P.g. giganteus for atleast 24 hours. 3. FIRST RECORD OF LESSER FALSE VAMPIRE BAT (MEGADERMA SPASMA LINNAEUS, 1758) IN GIR NATIONAL PARK & SANCTUARY Md. Shamshad Alam1 'Department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India. Email: msalam01@gmail.com On May 1 0, 2008, during my research on Striped Hyena Hyaena hyaena in Gir National Park and Sanctuary, I and my field assistant were in the Chodawadi range of the Park. We were approaching Dungarphadi a permanent water body at Ardak river for searching active dens and other evidence of Striped Hyena. There was no road or trail to Dungarphadi; it was a savannah type forest. After some time we started walking along a dry stream. After a few hundred metres walk, I located a sandy den (21° 08' 02.5" N; 70° 51' 08.7" E) and entered it cautiously. The den was an abandoned Indian J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 167 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Crested Porcupine Hystrix indica den. While I was observing the den, a bat suddenly flew out, and settled on a tree nearby. I photographed the bat so that I could identify it later. I compared photographs of the bat with the ones recorded from Gir and also with descriptions from Bates and Harrison ( 1997), Menon (2003) and Prater (2005). According to the Gir Management Plan, only two species of bats have been reported from Gir (Singh and Kamboj 1996), namely Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus and Short-nosed Fruit Bat Cynopterus sphinx. To confirm the identity of the bat I sent the photographs to Dr. Paul Bates, a bat specialist. Dr. Asad R. Rahmani (Director, BNHS), and Dr. Sandeep Kumar (Deputy Conservator of Forests, Wildlife Division. Sasan- Gir). The bat was identified as a Lesser False Vampire Bat Megadenna spasma. This is the first documentation of the Lesser False Vampire Bat Megadenna spasma from the Gir National Park and Sanctuary, Gujarat. False vampire bats are tailless bats belonging to an ancient and carnivorous family Megadermatidae, which include five species in four genera (Bates and Harrison 1997; Macdonald 1999). There are two species of false vampire bats found in India: Greater False Vampire Bat Megadenna lyra and Lesser False Vampire Bat Megadenna spasma. These Bates, P.J.J. & D.L. Harrison (1997): Bats of Indian Subcontinent. Harrison Zoological Museum Publications. 258 pp. Macdonald, D. (1999): The Encyclopaedia of Mammals. Greenwich Editions, London. Menon, V. (2003): A Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Limited with association with bats have long oval ears that have a distinct smaller "inner ear" or tragus. The easier way to differentiate them is by the shape of their noseleaf. Lesser False Vampire Bat has short, broad and heart-shaped noseleaf base, while Greater False Vampire Bat has a much elongated noseleaf (Bates and Harrison 1997). Lesser False Vampire Bat Megadenna spasma is known from India, Sri Lanka. Myanmar, South-East Asia to Java, Philippines and Molucca Islands (Bates and Harrison 1997). In India, it is distributed in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, Mizoram and Andaman Islands (Bates and Harrison 1997; Menon 2003). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Dr. Jamal A. Khan for giving me an opportunity to work in Gir National Park and Sanctuary. I thank the Ministry of Environment and Forests (Govt, of India) for funding the Gir Hyena Ecology Project. I thank Gujarat Forest Department and Department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh, Muslim University, Aligarh, for providing logistic support. Penguin Book (India) Pvt. Limited. 200 pp. Prater, S.H. (2005): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Oxford University Press. 324 pp. Singh, H.S. & R.D. Kamboj ( 1996): Biodiversity Conservation Plan for Gir. A Management Plan for Gir Sanctuary & National Park. Forest Department, Gujarat State. 242 pp. 4. RECENT RECORDS OF GAUR BOS GAURUS SMITH IN BANGLADESH Anwaruddin Choudhury1 'The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, C/o The Assam Co. Ltd.. Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India. Email: badrul@sify.com, acbadru56@gmail.com The range of Gaur Bos gaums Smith 1 827 extends from southern India to Vietnam (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951; Choudhury 2002). It used to be common in the northern, north-eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh (Khan 1985; Asmat 2001 ; Choudhury 2002; Khan 2008). In the north and north-east, the Gaur used to occur along the foot of Garo, Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills in undivided Mymensingh and Sylhet districts. In the south-east, they used to occur in undivided Chittagong Hill Tracts and Chittagong districts. Khan (1985) surmised that there is possibly no resident population in Bangladesh. He recorded a case in 1980 where a Gaur strayed from Garo Hills, Meghalaya, to Durgapur of undivided Mymensingh (now in Netrakona district) was killed and its meat taken by villagers. Khan ( 1985) and Asmat (2001 ) also stated that the last gaurs in herds were probably eliminated during the war of liberation in 1971. I here report of some recent occurrence in Comilla and Feni (part of erstwhile undivided Noakhali district) districts, which were otherwise unrecorded cases and no publication of that country such as Khan (2008) also mentioned of these. These records were obtained during field visits in the fringe villages of Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary in Tripura, north-east India, in January 2008. In 2004, a Gaur from Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary strayed 168 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES to Feni area of Bangladesh through Siddhinagar. What happened to it subsequently is not known. Feni is in erstwhile undivided Noakhali district (now Feni district). In March-April 2007, three Gaurs, a bull and two cows, (one was pregnant) strayed from Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary through Garjania to ‘Suorbazar’ area of Bangladesh. Their fate also went unrecorded. In the first week of November 2007, a bull from Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary strayed into Kuderpathar through Rajnagar area and was killed for meat. In areas near India-Bangladesh border, Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary in Tripura and Dampa Tiger Reserve in Mizoram are the closest having Gaur populations. Balpakram National Park in Meghalaya, an important Gaur habitat, is a little distance away but straying of Gaur is possible owing to their habit of doing so (Choudhury 2002). In Khasi and Jaintia Hills sectors of Meghalaya, the Gaur is either extinct or stray individuals survive with lesser chances of straying into that country. In southern Assam (Karimganj district) and northern and western Tripura also the Gaur has vanished from forest areas nearer to the border. However, there could still be some stray movement between forests near Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary of Tripura and Mizoram areas with the forests in Chittagong Hill Tracts. Khan (2008) included Gaur in the list of lost species but mentioned of possible vagrant animals in north-east (undivided Sylhet area) and south-east (Chittagong Hill Tracts) but did not mention of any recent specific cases and also not the areas mentioned in this note, which are actually in eastern Bangladesh. Such frequent straying from Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary had ensured Bangladesh’s name in the range countries of the Gaur. However, such straying is going to be stopped completely owing to border fencing. While such fencing has proved to be harmful for Asian Elephants Elephas maximus at different sectors (Choudhury 2007 ), for the gaurs of Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary it is going to be a boon as it will stop straying into Bangladesh as well as getting killed as there is no habitat in that sector across the border and the animals land up in densely inhabited villages only to get killed and Fig. 1 : Map of Bangladesh showing some of the areas/places mentioned in the text eaten. With complete halt of movement from Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary, the only movement will remain in Dampa sector, Mizoram-Chittagong Hill Tracts, but fencing is also going to be erected here very soon. After closing of the Dampa border with Chittagong Hill Tracts the gaur can be listed as extinct in Bangladesh! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Kamal Banik and other members of Dishari NGO. and Forest officials and staff. Special thanks to Gauranga Chandra Debbarman and Gaursadan Jamatia, both Head Forest Guards, for corroborating these reports, which are also known to many of the fringe villagers. REFERENCES Asmat, G.S.M. (2001): Bagladesher bilupto bannyaprani [in Bengali], Bangla Academy, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 184 pp. Choudhury, A.U. (2002): Distribution and conservation of the Gaur Bos gaurus in the Indian Subcontinent. Mammal Review 32(3): 199-226. Choudhury, A.U. (2007): Impact of border fence along India - Bangladesh border on elephant movement. Gajah 26: 27-30. Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison- Scott (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals, 1758 to 1946 (2nd edn, 1966). British Museum (Natural History), London. Khan, M.A.R. (1985): Mammals of Bangladesh. N. Reza, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 92 pp. Khan, M.M.H. (2008): Protected areas of Bangladesh - a guide to wildlife. Nishorgo Programme, Forest Department, Dhaka, Bangladesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 169 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 5. A CONSERVATION PLEA FOR SAVING WILDLIFE IN THE LANDSCAPE BOUND BY GOLA, LADHIYA AND SHARADA RIVERS, NORTH INDIA A.J.T.Johnsingh', Bivash Pandav2 and Dhananjai Mohan1 ‘Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore and WWF-India. Email: ajt.johnsingh@gmail.com “Tiger and other Asian Big Cats, WWF International C/o - WWF Nepal, P.O. Box # 7660, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Email: bivash.pandav@wwfnepal.org ’Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, PO Box 18, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: dmohan@wii.gov.in One of the scenic, neglected but promising landscapes for large mammals in India is in the eastern part of Uttarakhand. This landscape spreading over an area of nearly 1,200 sq. km includes the entire Haldwani Forest Division (FD) comprising of Nandhour, Danda, North Jaulasal, Chhakata and Sharada forest ranges; the Dogari and Boom forest ranges of Champawat FD and Kishanpur, Ransali, Jaulasal south and Kilpura ranges of Terai East FD (Fig. 1 ). Abutting ranges of Champawat FD (Bhingrada and Champawat) and Bharon range of Nainital FD, just north of Ladhiya and Gola rivers, are not included in this conservation planning though they are contiguous to the landscape. Those who have trekked here would concur with us that the mountainous parts of this landscape (Haldwani and Champawat FDs) are the most beautiful locales in the entire outer Himalayan range. Corbett (1944, 1954) has written about this hilly region in his accounts on Chowgarh tigers, Talla-Des, Chuka and Thak man-eaters. We had the pleasure of walking 130 km across this landscape: 60 km from Manch to Thuligad via Chuka and Thak in December 2005 and 70 km from Dalkania (Chowgarh tigers were shot here) to Chorgalia and Kalonia in January 2006. This landscape was once part of a much wider continuous landscape that existed all along the foot-hills of Himalaya (Toovey 1 987). Isolation of this landscape was as a result of uncontrolled boulder mining in Gola river, townships, encroachments and other developments in the terai part of the landscape. Based on these walks, plus the earlier Terai tiger surveys carried out by the Wildlife Institute of India in this landscape (Johnsingh et al. 2004), and the information we gathered from the forest staff during our treks, we conclude that the status of three endangered species - Golden Mahseer Tor putitora, Elephant Elephas maximus and Tiger Panthera tigris - is extremely critical here. During our 130 km trek, although we saw eight leopard P. pardus and six sloth bear Melursus ursinus tracks, we did not see a single tiger sign. During the Terai tiger survey, covering the entire area of all the three divisions (c. 1,800 sq. km) we had walked 147 km along river beds, covering almost all potential tiger forest ranges, looking for tiger, leopard and prey signs. The number of different tiger pug marks seen was 34 and leopard 49, which gives an encounter rate of 0.23 tiger pug marks/ km and 0.33 leopard pug marks/km. respectively. In comparison, 18.8 km walk in the four river beds in the southern part of Corbett Tiger Reserve (TR) yielded 21 tiger pug marks (1.1 pug marks/km) and two leopard pug marks (0.01/km; Johnsingh et al. 2004). Poaching of ungulate prey by the Nepalese and the people of this landscape, as well as outsiders, particularly by the Rai Sikhs (who come from the terai, the fertile landscape south of the foot-hills, and hereafter called the Terai Poachers), is the major reason for the rarity of tiger in this landscape of enormous potential. While poaching by the local people and the Terai Poachers still continues, the illegal activities by the Nepalese have been contained to a great extent since 2003, after the deployment of Special Security Bureau forces along Sharada river with the specific purpose of curtailing incursions by the Maoists from Nepal. Related to tiger conservation, poaching by the Terai Poachers is extremely detrimental as they selectively kill Sambar Cervus unicolor, the most vital prey for tiger in the Asian forests, by using dogs and spears. Terai Poachers also indulge in other unlawful activities such as brewing and selling liquor in the forests, and occasionally waylaying villagers who transit through the forests carrying provisions. It is also reported that the Terai Poachers are responsible for the killing of most of the elephant tuskers in the area. Exploits of the Terai Poachers are largely for adventure and not driven by poverty. Presently, the status of the 40 or so elephants mostly confined to the south-eastern part of this landscape is extremely critical and it is one of the most precariously endangered sub-populations in the country. Other problems seen in this landscape are the widespread presence of cattle camps, use of destructive fishing methods (dynamites, gill nets and bleaching powder) in the Sharada, Nandhour and Ladhiya rivers, smuggling of timber and fire wood cutting along the southern portion of the landscape. Yet the potential for the conservation of tiger and mahseer is extremely high, as the landscape has nearly 170 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1 : The landscape bound by Gola, Ladhiya and Sharada rivers 1,000 sq. km intact Sambar-Tiger habitat. The Nandhour river flows for 30 km through a valley with no permanent human settlements, the final 20 km of Ladhiya between Chalti and its confluence with Sharada is sparsely populated and Sharada, beyond Chuka, flows for 20 km with only one cattle camp on the Indian side (opposite of the cattle camp on the Nepal side there is Parigaon village of 300-500 families). The area (Chakata range of Haldwani FD) has a weak connectivity with Ramnagar FD (Fatehpur range) and Nainital FD (Ranibagh range) which are connected with Corbett TR on the west. Sadly, the connectivity with Corbett TR across Terai Central. Ramnagar and Terai West FDs, which was seriously threatened by boulder mining in the past, seems to be totally broken now as a result of new developments such as the construction of Indian Oil Corporation Depo, Railway Sleeper Factory and allotment of 50 ha land to Indo-Tibetan Border Police for their campus development. There is still connectivity with the forests in Nepal across Sharada, and it appears that the continuity along the foot-hills beyond Sharada exists for about 20 km as Brahmadev corridor till the eastern part of Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (Fig. 1). Surveys and immediate conservation initiatives to protect the forests here are urgently needed. The conservation measures suggested for the landscape would also immensely benefit the elephants pocketed in this landscape, particularly the tuskers would be able to live longer and contribute to breeding. Thus, this landscape has immense value in securing the future of tiger and associated species in the terai- bhabar landscape which in India and Nepal sprawls over an area of c. 40,000 sq. km. We present this report to urge the stakeholders to start working towards the following objectives: ■ Establish c. 1.000 sq. km Nandhour-Ladhiya Conservation Reserve, which would encompass the Danda, Nandhour and Jaulasal (north) ranges of Haldwani FD. Dogari and Boom ranges of Champawat FD, Jaulasal (south) and Kilpura ranges of Terai East FD and other potential adjacent forest blocks (Fig. 2). ■ Notify c. 400 sq. km as Nandhour Valley National Park including areas of Danda, Nandhour and Jaulasal (north), ranges of Haldwani FD as the core of the Conservation Reserve (which may be elevated to the level of a National Park or a Wildlife Sanctuary). Danda has human habitations only along its western and northern boundary. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 171 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 16 Kilometers Water □ Proposed National Park Boundary I I Buffer Zone (Range Boundary) Fig. 2: Suggested Nandhour- Ladhiya Conservation Reserve with a core and Nandhour only in the south. It is reported that Jaulasal does not have permanent settlements (Fig. 2). ■ Facilitate the only family living in Thak to settle down in Chuka and vacate the cattle camp on the bank of Sharada so that minimum 50 sq. km of Boom range becomes free of human habitation. This area marked by the Purnagiri temple in the south, Chuka in the north, Sharada river in the east and Kotkendri in the west, can become a satellite mini-core of the suggested Park/WLS. Endangered Serow Capricornis sumatraensis is reported to occur here. ■ Station a 50-person strong anti-poaching force of forest and police personnel along the southern boundary of the suggested Conservation Reserve, to patrol the forests, kill the dogs used in poaching, arrest the poachers and liquidate the liquor trade within the jungle. This protection force may have to continue for several years. ■ Initiate a dialogue with the elders of the villages all along the southern boundary, from where the Terai Poachers are reported to come, so that the men from the villages would stop their illegal activities inside the forests. We should also recruit, motivate and train 12-15 Terai Poachers from these villages as part of the anti-poaching force. They can also be trained as ecotourism guides to take adventure tourists to trek in this landscape. The villagers have a stake in protecting this landscape as water for their prosperous agriculture comes only from these mountains. Spread the message of conservation in all the villages within and along the boundary of the Conservation Reserve (this should include villages in the immediate vicinity of Ladhiya on its north bank) about the need to give up poaching, and give sufficient financial incentives to grow fuel wood and fodder species on their lands so that pressures on the forests will be minimal. May be 500- 1 ,000 m width of reserve forest all around the village, depending upon the size of the village, can be set aside for growing firewood and fodder. ■ Conduct a socio-economic survey of all the villages in this landscape at the earliest, so that appropriate conservation programmes for every village could be initiated following a participatory approach. ■ Conduct another absence/presence/abundance survey of tiger, leopard and wild ungulate signs in January- February, as done by Wildlife Institute of India between October 2002 and June 2003 (Johnsingh et al. 2004), and initiate a study to assess the population, range and habitat use of elephants in the landscape. ■ While allowing people to catch fish for their use with line and hook, nooses (a widely used method in 172 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Uttarakand) and cast nets, ban destructive methods of fishing in Nandhour, Ladhiya and Sharada rivers to enable Mahseer to stage a come back. ■ Secure the support of Government of India, which has the responsibility to save the tiger through its National Tiger Conservation Authority, to establish Conservation Reserve and the National Park, which eventually, with some reintroduction, can support 30-50 tigers. As seen from the studies in the western part of Uttarakhand, in a similar habitat, the potential of this habitat to support high densities of wild ungulate prey is enormous (Harihar et al. 2008). ■ Long term plan for this promising landscape should include re-establishment of viable connectivity with Corbett TR and Suklaphanta Reserve. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mr. PR. Sinha, Director, Wildlife Institute of India, Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Mr. Ravi Singh, Secretary General & CEO, WWF-India, Mr. Param Jit Singh, Conservator of Forests, Uttarakhand, Mr. Ashok Mehar, Divisional Forest Officer, Nainital FD, Mr. Kapil Lai, Divisional Forest Officer, Haldwani FD and Mr. Rajmani Pandey, Divisional Forest Officer, Champawat FD and Ravikiran Govekar, Maharashtra Forest Department facilitated the survey. Drs. S.P. Goyal and Nima Manjrekar read through the manuscript. Dr. K. Ramesh, Mr. Panna Lai, and Mr. PK. Tomar, Wildlife Institute of India, prepared the figures. We thank them all. REFERENCES Corbett, J. (1944): Man-Eaters of Kumaon. Oxford University Press, London. Corbett, J. (1954): The Temple Tiger and More Man-Eaters of Kumaon. Oxford Universities Press, London Harihar, A., B. Pandav & S.P. Goyal (2008): Responses of tiger ( Panthera tigris ) and their prey to removal of anthropogenic influences in Rajaji National Park. India. European Journal of Wildlife Research 55: 97-105. Johnsingh, A.J.T., K. Ramesh, Q. Qureshi, A. David, S.P. Goyal, GS. Rawat, K. Rajapandian & S. Prasad (2004): Conservation status of tiger and associated species in the Terai Arc Landscape, India. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Pp. viii +110. Toovey, J. (ed.) (1987): Tigers of the Raj. Pages from the Shikar Diaries - 1894 to 1949 of Colonel Burton, Sportsman and Conservationist, Alan Sutton. 6. LARGE-TAILED NIGHTJAR CAPRIMULGUS MACRURUS IN PHULWARI-KI-NAAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, UDAIPUR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN Harkirat Singh Sangha1 and Dhirendra Devarshi2 ‘B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India. Email: harkirat.sangha@gmail.com 2C-8, Prithviraj Road. Jaipur 302 001, Rajasthan, India. While we were birding in Asawara area of Mamer in Phulwari-ki-Naal Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur district, Rajasthan on March 29, 2004, a Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus macrurus started calling chaun... chaunk...chaunk... at 18:44 hrs soon after sunset. Being familiar with the distinct knocking and resonant call of the species we had no difficulty in identifying the species. Soon after we heard another bird calling some distance away from the first one; the birds stopped calling when we tried to find them. Possibly they were disturbed by the noise created by trampling of dry leaves lying on the ground. Later in the evening one bird was briefly heard at 20:30 hrs and another flying close to the forest rest house at Mamer. With an average annual precipitation of c. 650 mm, Phulwari-ki-Naal harbours dry deciduous forest and some patches of moist deciduous biotopes. There is preponderance of stunted Teak Tectona grandis and Mahua Madhuca indica trees in some parts of the Sanctuary. When we visited the area the trees had shed their leaves and ground was covered with a thick carpet of dry leaves. The habitat at Asawara seemed suitable for the species to breed as the species is known to breed from March to June “among dry leaves, often in rather open conditions” (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005). Although apparently resident or a local migrant in much of its range, it is “only a summer visitor in some areas such as the Punjab Salt range (Rattray 1899: 342)” (Ali and Ripley 1983; Holyoak 2001). The movements and distribution of the species “on western side south of sub-Himalayan Punjab (N. Maharashtra etc.)” are uncertainly known (Ali and Ripley 1983). It is sedentary and partially migratory, perhaps subject to some local movements (Cleere 1998). The species is known to be a summer breeding visitor in dry subtropical deciduous forest, but is confined to the Murree Hills eastwards to Kahuta (Grimmett et al. 2008). Although it is difficult to comment about the status of the species in Phulwari-ki-Naal, it is certainly a new record for the area. We are not aware of any other sighting in Rajasthan except at Bharatpur (Kazmierczak and van Perlo 2000). Two new records of the species are from the J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 173 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES neighbouring Gujarat state, not very far from Phulwari-ki- Naal. The species was recorded on March 03 and 17, 2000, from Ratanmahal Wildlife Sanctuary. However, no visual observations were made (Trivedi and Soni 2006). Another record is from Phot Mahadev, Kachchh, Gujarat where eight individuals were photographed (Mishra and Singh 2010). REFERENCES Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Second edition. Vol. 4. Delhi. Oxford University Press. Cleere, N. (1998): Nightjars - A guide to Nightjars and Related Birds. Mountfield East Sussex. Pica Press. Pp. 247-250. Grimmett, R., T. Roberts & T. Inskipp (2008): Birds of Pakistan. London. Christopher Helm. Pp. 80. Holyoak, D.T. (2001 ): Nightjars and their Allies The Caprimulgiformes. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Pp. 528-541. Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of Indian Subcontinent. Pp. 152. Mishra, V.V. & R. Singh (2010): Large-tailed Nightjar Caprimulgus macrurus sightings in Kachchh, Gujarat, India. Indian Birds 5(5): 148. Rasmussen. PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Washington D.C. and Barcelona. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. Trivedi, P. & V.C. Soni (2006): Significant bird records and local extinctions in Puma and Ratanmahal Wildlife Sanctuaries, Gujarat, India. Forktail 22: 39-49. 7. ADDITIONAL DISTRIBUTION RECORDS OF ASSAM ROOFED TURTLE PANGSHURA SYLHETENSIS (JERDON 1870) FROM DIFFERENT LOCALITIES OF WESTERN ASSAM AND ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA Rakesh Soud1 and Lohit gogoi2 'Department of HSS. Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati. Amingaon, North Guwahati 39, Assam, India. Email: assam_rhino@rediffmail.com 2Westem Arunachal Landscape Programme. Arunachal Pradesh Field Office, World Wide Fund for Nature-India. Dirang, West Kameng Distt 790 101, Arunachal Pradesh. India. The Chelonian fauna of north-eastern states of India comprises of at least 2 1 species, belonging to 3 families. Much of the existing knowledge on the distribution of the group in the region is based on collections that are decades old, scattered in several museums. Literature concerning the region's turtles and tortoises is scanty (Das 1990). The present note describes some additional distributional record of the Pangshura sylhetensis from different localities of Western Assam and Arunachal Pradesh of the Indian territory. Pangshura sylhetensis was previously recorded from Manas Tiger Reserve, and Kolathua village of Sivasagar district (Das 1990), Cachar districts of Assam and Cherrapunji (Khasi hills) and Garo hills of Meghalaya. It is also recorded from Sylhet district of Bangladesh (Moll 1987). Recently, it was recorded from Kaziranga National Park, Manas National Park, Nameri National Park, NarayanpurTea Estate, Sivasagar district, Sonapur, Cachar district, Lakhimpur district. North Cachar districts of Assam (Sarma 2007). We had a direct sighting record of the species from the Samukha river near Ultapani forest village and also a secondary record confirmed by village fishermen from the Zamduwar area of Chirang- Ripu reserve forest (26° 40’ N; 89° 53' E), Bodoland Territorial Council, Assam. This extends the distribution of the species up to 90 km west from Manas Tiger Reserve. There is scanty distributional record of the species in the bordering areas of Assam. We also recorded the species from Tenga valley (27° 12' 25.81" N; 92° 30' 49.17" E) of West Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh at an elevation of 1 ,205 m. This specimen was rescued from a local fisherman who caught it from a local hill stream. This record also extends the northern distribution of the species up to Tenga valley, at least 1 50 km from Manas National Park and 70 km from Nameri National Park. Probably, this is the highest elevation record of the species. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are thankful to Conservation worker Mr. N.K. Dey and members of Ultapani Biodiversity Conservation Society and Green Forest Conservation for their kind hospitality during different field trips at Chirang-Ripu R.F. and WWF officials of WAL programme for their encouragement in Arunachal Pradesh part. We also thank Dr. Saibal Sengupta for his different advice and consultation regarding the species in different visits to his herpetological lab at Arya College, Guwahati. 174 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES REFERENCES Das, I. (1990): Additional records for Chelonians from Northern India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87(1): 91-97. Moll, E.O. (1987): Survey of the freshwater turtles of India. Part II. The genus Kachuga. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84( 1): 7-25. Sarma, P.K. (2007): Habitat ecology, population status and distribution of Kachuga sylhetensis (Jerdon) in certain districts of Assam. (Ph.D. Thesis) Gauhati University. 137 pp. 8. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF NON-STYGOBITIC FISHES IN A CAVE IN ANDHRA PRADESH, PENINSULAR INDIA Y. Ranga Reddy1-2 and S.V. Sharma1-3 'Department of Zoology, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjunanagar 522 510, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. 2Email: yrangareddy@yahoo.com 3Email: profsharma@rediffmail.com What with its vast territory, ancient and varied geomorphology, hydrology, and climate, the Indian subterranean domain has given rise to numerous natural caves and cavities of varied shapes and sizes. A small tract such as the Tungabhadra River Valley in Andhra Pradesh alone has more than one hundred caves (Prasad 1996). Generally characterized by perpetual darkness, low energy input and remarkable constancy of temperature and humidity, caves are inhabited by highly diversified organisms, ranging from protozoans to mammals besides bacteria and fungi. The typical cave/groundwater dwellers have originated from their extinct/extant epigean ancestors of marine, freshwater or terrestrial habitats at different times and in different ways. Hence, the subterranean realm (stygon) has come to be regarded as a promising place to look for insights into biological adaptation and speciation (Rouch 1986). That the Indian caves harbour rich biodiversity can be gauged by the fact that a recent preliminary study of just a single collection from the sandy bottom of a cave (Kotumsar Cave) has led to the discovery of three new taxonomically and biogeographically significant stygobitic crustacean taxa, together with a new amphipod family (Ranga Reddy 2006; Messouli et al. 2007; Ranga Reddy and Defaye 2009). Nevertheless, groundwater biology as a whole has received scant attention in India (Ranga Reddy 2002, 2004). Based on their degree of adaptation to groundwater life, the hypogean aquatic fauna are generally classified into three broad ecological groups: stygobites or stygobionts, stygophiles, and stygoxenes. Stygobites are obligatorily confined to caves or other subterranean passages and exhibit a suite of stygomorphic characters such as the loss of eyes and melanin pigment (regressive features), and elaboration of other sensory structures like the lateral organs in fishes and antennae in insects and crustaceans (progressive features) (Proudlove 2006). While stygophiles can live, feed and reproduce in both epigean and hypogean habitats and show some degree of stygomorphic/behavioural adaptations, stygoxenes cannot complete their life in hypogean habitats and are not much different from their epigean counterparts. As for the Indian subterranean fish fauna, only five stygobitic fish species are known till date, comprising two clariid catfishes ( Horaglanis krishnai Menon 1950 and H. alikunhii Babu & Nayar 2004) and three synbranchid eels (. Monopterus eapeni Talwar 1991, M . roseni Bailey & Gans 1998, and M. digressus Gopi 2002), all from the State of Kerala. Hora (1924) recorded eight non-stygobitic fishes for the first time from an Indian cave (Siju Cave, Assam), which included five cyprinids, namely Neolissochilus hexastichus (McClelland 1 839) (= Barbus hexastichus ), Bari lias bama (Hamilton 1 822), Bari lius bendelisis (Hamilton 1807), Devario aequipinnatus (McClelland 1 839) (= Danio aequipinnatus) and Psilorhynchus sucatio (Hamilton 1 822), an unidentified species of the balitorid genus Nemacheilus, an ambassid, Chanda nama (Hamilton 1 822), and the walking snakehead, Channa orientalis Bloch & Schneider 1 807 ( Ophiocephalus gachua in source). Since then, only four non-stygobitic species are known from the Indian caves: three loaches, namely Schistura sijuensis (Menon 1987) from Siju cave, Indoreonectes evezardi (Day 1872) from Kotumsar cave, Chhatisgarh and Schisturia papulifera Kottelat, Harries & Proudlove 2007 from a cave of Synrang Pamiang system, Meghalaya, and a lone specimen of an unidentified schizothoracine fish from a cave near Udaipur, Rajasthan (Tehsin et al. 1988). On the other hand, the world tally of the described subterranean fish species, as of 2003, is 125 (Proudlove 2006). This note is meant to report on a fortuitous collection of seven non-stygobitic fish species from Nelabilum cave (15° 00’ 05" N; 78° 03' 20" E), which is located south-east of Ankireddipalle village in Kumool district of Andhra Pradesh in peninsular India. According to Gebauer (2003), the cave is J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 175 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES a ‘partly explored and partly mapped’ natural cave and perennial spring in Precambrian (Algonkian) Naiji limestone (Low. Kurnool). The natural subvertical fissure of the cave has been modified by man into a sort of a stepwell, giving access to groundwater. A 60 m long passage, including two flights of steps, leads to ‘what looks like a penetrable sump' with clear water (depth 10 m). The existence of the cave is threatened by increasing industrial activity in the area by way of limestone quarrying for slabs and cement. As in the case of most Indian caves, practically nothing is known about the biology of the cave. All the specimens reported herein were collected at the cave entrance on three dates by one of the authors (YRR) and/or his field assistants, using plankton net and/or baited hooks, and preserved in formalin. Counts and measurements follow Kottelat (2001) while nomenclature and ecology are based on Froese and Pauly (2009). Morphometric data are presented as percentages of standard length, with averages in parentheses. On October 3, 2005, water temperature of the cave was 27°C, air temperature 27°C and pH 6.5. Specimens are deposited in the Department of Zoology, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjunanagar 522 510, pending transfer to the National Collections of Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Puntius sarana (Hamilton 1822) Material examined: 23 specimens, 49-160 mm SL; 3.x. 2005. D iii 8, P i 14, V i 7-8. A iii 5, L.l. 28-32. Head length 26.25-30.0 (28.38). body depth 26.66-33. 1 2 (3 1 .27), predorsal distance 42.85-53.33 (47.08), preventral distance 46.66-55.0 (5 1 .92), preanal distance 60.00-7 1 .86 (68.99), base of dorsal fin 1 5.62- 1 8.33 ( 1 8.68), base of anal fin 22.00-26.66 (2 1 .96), length of pectoral fin 18.33-20.62 (20.49). least height of caudal peduncle 13.33-15.60 (14.13), eye diameter 8.3-10.2 (9.2), snout length 9.37-11.2 (10.10), interorbital distance 10.2-11.8 (11.2). Body oblong, compressed and deep; head with 2 pairs of barbels, rostral and maxillary, maxillary barbels longer, extending beyond hind margin of orbit; third unbranched ray of dorsal fin osseous, strong with minute serrations along posterior margin, basal region of dorsal and anal fins each covered with row of scales, auxiliary scale occurring at axle of ventral; dorsum uniformly olive, flanks silvery; in juveniles, 5-6 pigment bands present above lateral line and a dark vertical band covered by opercular membrane; an oval diffused dark spot on 26* to 28* lateral line scales. Body coloration, barbels, and eye diameter are as in the epigean forms. This is a widely distributed Asiatic species. It is reportedly benthopelagic and potamodromous, occurring in freshwaters, but tolerant to brackish conditions. Puntius ticto (Hamilton, 1822) Material examined: 1 specimen, 29 mm SL. 3.x. 2005. D iii 8. P i 1 3, V i 6, A ii 5, L.l. 23. Head length 28.57, body depth 39.28, predorsal distance 53.57, preventral distance 57.14. preanal distance 67.85, base of dorsal 17.85, base of anal 14.28, length of pectoral 21.42, least height of caudal peduncle 17.85. eye diameter 8.5, snout length 10.6 and interorbital distance 10.7. Body compressed, deep, barbels absent, lower jaw protruding beyond upper jaw, mouth upturned, third unbranched ray of dorsal with fine serrations along posterior border, a blotch on 3rd to 5* scales and a large distinct circular spot on the 17th to 19* lateral scales above anal. The present specimen agrees with its epigean counterparts in body coloration. This species is known to inhabit still, shallow, marginal waters of rivers and tanks, subtropical in distribution and benthopelagic in habits, feeding on the organisms present on muddy bottom. Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton, 1822) Material examined: 5 specimens; 62-68 mm. SL. 3.x. 2005. D ii 7, Pi 13-14, V i 9, Aii 5, L. 1. 30-31. Head length 26.47 - 27.42 (26.94 ), body depth 16. 12-7.64 (16.88), predorsal distance 5 1 .47- 54.83 (53.15), preventral distance 45. 16-48.52 (46.34), preanal distance 64.51-78.72 (68.28 ), base of dorsal 1 1.29-17.02 (13.73), base of anal 11.29-12.76 (11.52), length of pectoral 20.96-23.40 (21.23), least height of caudal peduncle 9.67-11.76 (10.71), eye diameter 6.4-7. 3 (7.1), snout length 5. 8-6.4 (6.1), interorbital distance 7.1-8.82 (7.66 ). Body compressed, lower jaw projecting beyond upper jaw, symphysial knob on lower jaw, mouth small, upturned, caudal fin forked. Lateral line parallel to the ventral body contour, a grayish band occurring mid-laterally and extending from behind orbit to caudal fin. The narrow stripe generally seen above the base of anal fin in the epigean forms is not discernible in the present specimens. This species is predominantly freshwater, inhabiting slow-flowing sandy streams and rivers. It is benthopelagic and potamodromous. Garra gotyla stenorhynchus Jerdon, 1849 Material examined: 1 specimen; 47 mm SL. 3.x. 2005. 176 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES D iii 5. P i 14, V i 14, A iii 5. L. 1. 32. Head length 25.53, body depth 23.40, predorsal distance 48.93, preventral distance 57.44, preanal distance 78.72, base of dorsal 17.02, base of anal 12.76. length of pectoral 23.40, least height of caudal peduncle 12.76; eye diameter 8.5, snout length 10.6. interorbital distance 14.8. Body subcylindrical, snout with a well-formed median proboscis and a transverse lobe at its tip. mouth arched, a mental adhesive disc associated with the lower jaw, 2 pairs of barbels, anterior ones longer, origin of dorsal fin nearer the snout, a black spot is present at the upper angle of the gill opening. In the preset specimen, an elliptical spot close to caudal fin is noticed, which has not hitherto been reported for this species. A hillstream inhabitant, this species is endemic to peninsular India. It is benthopelagic. Mystus cavasius (Hamilton 1822) Material examined: 3 specimens, 88-102 mm SL. 30.x. 2005. D I 7, P I 8, V i 5, A iv 7-9. Head length 22.5, body depth 20.0, predorsal distance 35.0. preventral distance 48.75, preanal distance 66.25, base of adipose dorsal 40.0, base of anal 10.0, length of pectoral 15.0, least height of caudal peduncle 8.75. eye diameter 6.25-7.6 (7.5). snout length 8.6- 8.9 (8.7), interorbital distance 7. 2-7. 9 (7.6). Body elongate, occipital process narrow reaching the basal bone of rayed dorsal, median fontanelle long, extending to the base of occipital process, 4 pairs of barbels, maxillary barbels long, reaching base of caudal fin; rayed dorsal fin high and pointed, its spine weak, first dorsal ray long, base of adipose dorsal fin long, its origin closely behind rayed dorsal; pectoral spine strong with denticulations on inner margin, origin of ventral vertically below last ray of dorsal fin; a dark spot at the basal bone of rayed dorsal, a humeral spot and a band on upper flanks, belly white. The present specimens are not different from the epigean forms in body coloration and eye diameter. This species is tropical, demersal, amphidromous, living in fresh- and brackish waters. Mystus bleekeri (Day, 1877) Material examined: one specimen. 95 mm SL. 30.x. 2005. D I 7, P I 9, V i 5. A iii 7. Head length 23.52, body depth 24.50, predorsal distance 32.35, preventral distance 45.09, preanal distance 64.70, base of adipose dorsal 36.27, base of anal 1 1.76, length of pectoral 16.66. least height of caudal peduncle 6.86, eye diameter 7.8, snout length 8.8, interorbital distance 8.2. Body elongate, occipital process reaching basal bone of rayed dorsal, 4 pairs of barbels, maxillary pair extending up to anal fin, adipose dorsal long, originating closely behind rayed dorsal, ventral originating vertically below adipose dorsal, upper part of body grayish, grayish band occurring on either side of lateral line, lower band reaching ventral fin, a dark blotch behind opercle. rayed dorsal and caudal fins dark in colour. The present specimens accord well with the epigean forms in body coloration. This is a demersal, potamodromous, widely distributed Asian species, inhabiting lakes, tanks, canals and rivers. Channa orientalis Bloch & Schneider 1801 Material examined: 2 specimens, 110-125 mm SL. 9. iii. 2008. D 35, P 15, V 6, A 22, L.l. 45. Head length 28.12- 32.32 (30.22), body depth 20.33-22.22 (21.27). predorsal distance 32.22-36.36 (34.28), prepectoral distance 28.81- 32.32 (30.56), preanal distance 46.52-52.6 1 (49.5 1 ), base of dorsal fin 40.10-49.10 (45.60), base of anal 36.36-37.28 (36.82), length of pectoral fin 22.03-22.22 (22.12). length of ventral 10.31-12.52 (1 1.41), eye diameter 4.9-5.21 (5.11), snout length 7.89-8.23 (8.11), interorbital distance 8. 1 1-8.20 (8.15). Body elongate, eyes moderate, lower jaw longer than upper, with 12 caniniform teeth, 5 scales between orbit and preopercular angle, 1 2 predorsal scales, 45 lateral line scales, lateral line bending at 12th scale, pectoral fin reaching anal fin, ventral smaller than pectoral, caudal fin round in shape; body dark green dorsally, a row of dark oblique bands on the flanks above and below lateral line, a dark band extending anteriorly from opercle to snout and passing onto orbit, ventral body pale in colour, pectoral fin with vertical black bands, caudal fin with vertical stripes, dorsal and anal with narrow white outer margin, ocellus occurring on lower part of last 5 dorsal fin rays. Body coloration is same as in epigean forms. This species is benthopelagic, potamodromous, inhabiting fresh- and brackish waters and widely distributed in Asia. CONCLUSION None of the species reported herein is as yet known from any cave habitat. All are benthopelagic and potamodromous except for Mystus spp., which are demersal. Particularly, the occurrence in the Nelabilum cave of 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 177 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Garra gotyla stenorhynchus is puzzling, given its general preference for swift-flowing mountain streams. On the whole, all these species appear to be accidental stygoxenes in the cave. It is noteworthy that all the five blind and/or depigmented fishes from India are known to occur only in Kerala State, where the lateritic soil formation with its network of crevicuiar hypogean habitats seems to favour the evolution of stygobitic fishes. Lateritic soils cover an area of 100,000 sq. km along the west coast of India in the States of Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa (Venkata Reddy 1997), besides the hilly areas of Orissa and Assam. Further faunistic surveys in these States are likely to bring to light several more significant finds of stygobitic fishes. While precious little is know about the biodiversity of the Indian caves, caves themselves are now endangered, inter aila, by increasing industrial and agricultural activities (Biswas 2009). Hence, the governmental and non¬ governmental organisations need to play proactive role in preserving the fragile cave ecosystems and encourage research in this vital area of basic science. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS One of us (YRR) is grateful to the Department of Science & Technology, Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of India, for funding support under a Major Research Project (SR/SO/AS/25/2007) and also to the authorities of Acharya Nagarjuna University for necessary facilities. Thanks are also due Mr. D. Ambedkar (Acharya Nagarjuna University) for assisting in the field. Dr. H.D. Gebauer (Germany) for providing information on the caves of Andhra Pradesh, Dr. A. Subrahmanyam (Hindu College, Guntur) for arranging local hospitality, and Dr. P.V. Nageswara Rao, Mr. Patibandla Venkata Subba Rao and Dr. Kodela Venkata Rao (Acharya Nagarjuna University) and Dr. K. Subhash Babu (Cochin University of Science & Technology, Cochin) for supplying the necessary literature. REFERENCES Babu, K.K.S. & C.K.G Nayar (2004): A new species of the blind fish Horaglanis Menon (Siluroidea: Clariidae) from Parappukara (Trichur District) and a new report of Horaglanis krishnai Menon from Ettumanur (Kottayam District), Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101: 296-298. Bailey, R.M. & C. Gans (1998): Two new synbranchid fishes, Monopterus roseni from peninsular India and M. desilvai from Sri Lanka. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology of the University of Michigan No. 726: 1-18. Biswas, J. (2009): The biodiversity Krent Mawkhyrdop of Meghalaya, India, on the verge of extinction. Curt: Sci. 96: 904-910. Day, F. (1872): Monograph of Indian Cyprinidae, Part 2. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 41: 1-29, 171-198, and 318-327. Froese, R. & D. Pauly (Eds.) (2009): FishBase World Wide Web electronic publication www.fishbase.org, version (02/2009). Gebauer, L. (2003): South Asia cave registry. Gebauer, Schwabisch Gmiind, Germany. Gopi, K.C. (2002): A new synbranchid fish, Monopterus digressus from Kerala, peninsular India. Rec. zool. Surv. India 100: 137-143. Hamilton-Buchanan, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh and London, vii + 405 pp. + 39 pis. Hora. S.L. (1924): Fishes of the Siju Cave, Garo Hills, Assam. Rec. Indian Mus. 26:27-31. Kottelat, M. (2001): Fishes of Laos. Wildlife Heritage Trust, Cambodia. 198 pp. Kottelat, M., D.R. Harries & GS. Proudlove (2007): Schistura papulifera, a new species of cave loach from Meghalaya, India (Teleostei: Balitoridae). Zootaxa 1393: 35-44. Messouli, M., J.R. Holsinger & Y. Ranga Reddy (2007): Kotumsaridae, a new family of subterranean amphipod crustaceans from India, with description of Kotumsaria bastarensis, new genus, new species. Zootaxa 1589: 33-46. Menon, A.G.K. ( 1950): On a remarkable blind siluroid fish of the family Clariidae from Kerala, India. Rec. lnd. Mus. 48: 59-66. Menon, A.G.K. (1987): Noemacheilus sijuesis sp. nov. The fauna of India and adjacent countries. Pisces, Zoological Survey of India. IV, Teleostei-Cobitidae, Part 1, Homolopteidea: 175. Prasad, K.N. (1996): Pleistocene cave fauna from peninsular India. J. Caves & Karst Stud. 58: 30-34. Proudlove, G.S. (2006): Subterranean fishes of the world. An account of the subterranean (hypogean) fishes described up to 2003 with a bibliography 1541-2004. International Society for Subterranean Biology, Moulis, xviii + 304 pp. Ranga Reddy, Y. (2002): Why neglect groundwater biology? Curt: Sci. 83: 931-932. Ranga Reddy, Y. (2004): Little known biodiversity of subterranean freshwater habitats in India, with special reference to crustacean fauna. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101: 186-189. Ranga Reddy, Y. (2006): First Asian report of the genus Chilibathynella Noodt. 1963 (Bathynellacea, Syncarida), with the description and biogeographic significance of a new species from Kotumsar Cave, India. Zootaxa 1370: 23-37 . Ranga Reddy, Y. & D. Defaye (2009): Two new Parastenocarididae (Copepoda, Harpacticoida) from India: Parastenocaris muvattupuzha n. sp. from a river and P. kotumsarensis n. sp. from a cave. Zootaxa 2077: 31-55. Rough, R. (1986): Sur Pecologie des eaux souterraines dans le karst. Stygologia 2: 352-399. Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1 185 pp. Tehsin, R., V.S. Durve & M. Kulshreshtha (1988): Occurrence of a schizothoracine fish (snow trout) in a subterranean cave near Udaipur. Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85: 211- 212. Venkata Reddy, D. (1997): Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers. Oxford IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.. New Delhi. 390 pp. 178 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 9. A NEW RECORD OF REEF FISH ISTIGOBIUS DIADEMA (STEINDACHNER 1876), FROM ANDAMAN ISLAND Kamla Devi1 and V. Madhan Chakkaravarthy2 ‘Zoological Survey of India, National Coral Reef Research Institute (NCRI), Andaman & Nicobar Regional Centre, Haddo, Port Blair 744 102, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India. Email: kddkamla@gmail.com 2Email: madhan.chak@gmail.com Introduction The Gobiidae is the largest family of marine fishes in the world because of their small size and bamboozling behaviour. Gobioid species reported from Andaman and Nicobar Islands have been a source of continuous interest since the time of Blyth (1846, 1863), Day (1875, 1889) and Hora (1934). As per the recent checklist of fishes by Rao (2009), 29 species of gobioid fishes are known to occur in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. A field survey was conducted in January 2008 in the coral reef area of the west coast of Inglis Island (12° 08'- 12° 09’ N; 93° 07-93° 08' E), South Andaman. Three specimens of Gobioid fishes were collected by using cast net. The morphometric measurements and meristematic counts of the species were calculated (Bohlke and Robins 1968). All counts and measurements were taken with dial calipers, and meristic counts were determined with the aid of a dissection microscope. The collected specimens are preserved in 4% formaldehyde and deposited in the National Zoological Collection (Reg. No. 4305) of Zoological Survey of India at Port Blair. A detailed scrutiny of fish specimens collected from coral reef ecosystem of Inglis Island, Ritchie’s Archipelago, South Andaman, led to the diagnosis of a new record, Istigobius diadema (Steindachner 1876) (Family: Gobidae) (Fig. 1). Systematic Account Order : Perciformes Family Gobiidae Genus : Istigobius diadema (Steindachner, 1876) Type Locality : Indo-West Pacific Description: Body moderately elongate, compressed posteriorly. Its depth from 1.8 to 2.0 cm and length 10.5 to 12.0 cm; head slightly depressed; snout and upper jaw was projecting beyond lower jaw; diameter of eye 0.4-0. 5 cm; gill opening not extending anteriorly to a vertical through pre-opercular margin. Pelvic fins united medially its length ranging from 1.8 to 2.0 cm; Pectoral fin slightly longer than pelvic fin 2. 1 to 2.2 cm; interdorsal space 2.0 to 2.2 cm; scales ctenoid excepting operculum, occipital region, breast and 10.5 - 12 cm Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of Istigobius diadema (Steindachner, 1876) 1. Bold-black line extending from eye to pectoral-fin base; 2. 1st dorsal fin rays (VI); 3. 2S| dorsal fin rays (1/10); 4. Transverse line scales (10 - 11); 5. Lateral line scales (31 - 34); 6. Caudal fin rays (19); 7. Operculum; 8. Pelvic fin rays (1/5) 9. Pectoral fin rays (18 - 19); 10. Anal fin rays (10) 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 179 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES pectoral fin base with cycloid scales, other part of head naked. Sensory canals and pores present on head; longitudinal pattern of sensory-papillae rows on cheek; a pair of short sensory papillae just behind chin. Head and body pale grayish brown, very bold dark line proceeding from posterior portion of eyes along sensory pore path to first dorsal origin and a dark stripe connecting both the eyes anteriorly. Ecology: Found on coral rubble areas at the depth of 2 m. Distribution: Eastern Indian Ocean and Indonesia ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, for facilities and funds provided to carry the faunistic survey and Dr. C. Raghunathan, Officer-in- Charge, Zoological Survey of India, National Coral Reef Research Institute, Andaman and Nicobar Regional Centre, Port Blair for the facilities and encouragement to conduct this work. Thanks are also due to Chief Wildlife Warden, Port Blair and District Forest Officer, ACF and Range Officer, Havelock, for their permission and help in surveying this protected area. The valuable help and excellent co-operation extended by G. Ponnuswamy, Photographer, and A. Polycap, Collection Tender, are also gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful to Dr. O. Murdey, Programme Manager, Division of International Programme, National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., who assisted by sharing his knowledge. REFERENCES Blyth, E. (1846): Notes on the fauna of Nicobar Islands. J. Asiat. Soc. Ben: 367-379. Blyth, E. (1863): The Zoology of Andaman Islands. Appendix to Moutat’s Adventure and Researches among the Andaman Island. Pp. 345-367. Bohlke, J.E. & C.R Robins (1968): Western Atlantic seven-spined gobies, with descriptions of ten new species and a new genus, and comments on Pacific relatives. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 120: 45-174. Day, F. (1875): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon & Burma, Taylor and Francis. London. Text and atlas in 4 parts. London xx+778 pp., 195 pis. Day, F. ( 1 889): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Fishes. I. 548, pp., D, 509 pp. Taylor and Francis, London. Hora, S.L. (1934): The systematic position of Hamilton’s species of gobioid fishes from the Ganges. Rec. Indian Mus. 13(3): 205-329. Rao, D.V. (2009): Checklist of fishes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Environment & Ecology 27(1 A): 334-353. 10. A REPORT ON THE MIGRATION OF THE BUTTERFLY PHALANTA ALCIPPE ( NYMPH ALIDAE) IN THE ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS Muhamed Jafer Palot1 'Western Ghat Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Kozhikode 673 006, Kerala, India. Email: palot.zsi@gmail.com The butterfly fauna of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands has not received much attention. Although more than 150 species of butterflies have been recorded in the Andaman groups of islands (Ferrar 1951; Khatri 1989; Soubadra Devy et al. 1 994), nothing is known about their status, distribution and ecology. While conducting a study on the animal resource base available to the Jarawas of the Andaman Islands, on May 1 0, 2002, at around 1 0:20 hrs, I came across a swarm of tawny brown butterflies crossing the busy road of Port Blair in the south-north direction. 1 counted about 37 individuals per minute from a vantage point. The same swarm was observed near the Netaji Stadium, Port Blair, and near the Secretariat, all proceeding towards north. Later, I identified the species as the Small Leopard Phalanta alcippe Cramer. Williams (1938) had listed 66 migrant species from India. He did not list the Small Leopard in his list, although he reported the Common Leopard Phalanta phalantha (Drury) as a common migratory species of India and Sri Lanka. Wynter-Blyth ( 1957) had also not included the Small Leopard among migratory species. Apparently, the onset of the south-west monsoon in the southern Andamans could be the main reason for the initiation of this migratory behaviour, on May 11-12, 2002. Even during a drizzle, this species moved with ease in small aggregations comprising two or three individuals flying at a height of 1-2 m above the ground level. The Small Leopard is a locally common butterfly mostly found in the forested tracts of the southern Andamans. During my stay in September-October 2001 and April- May 2002 the population of the Small Leopard butterfly in the Jarawa Reserve was fairly good and evenly distributed. 180 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, for giving me an opportunity to study the fauna of the Andamans. I am also thankful to Dr. C. Radhakrishnan, Officer-in-Charge, ZSI. Kozhikode and Dr. T.K. Pal, Scientist-E and leader of the Expedition, for facilities and encouragement. REFERENCES Ferrar, M.L. (1951): On the butterflies of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc. 47(3): 470-491. Khatri, T.C. (1989): A revised list of butterflies (Rhopalocera: Lepidoptera) from Bay islands. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 5(1): 57-61. Soubadra Devy, M., T. Ganesh & P. Davidar (1994): Butterfly distribution on the Andaman Islands. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 10(1 & 2): 50-56. Williams, C.B. (1938): The migration of Butterflies in India. / Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 439-457. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society. Mumbai. Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published on May 06, 2011 by Dr. Ashok Kothari for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (2), May-Aug 2010 181 INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS The Journal welcomes concise reports of original research in natural history, taxonomy and other aspects of zoology and botany of general interest. SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPT Hard copies of manuscripts (including illustrations) in duplicate, typewritten in double space on one side of the paper and a copy of the MS on a floppy diskette or CD using MS Word, should be submitted to the Editor, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. Submission of a manuscript to the Journal implies that it has not been submitted for publication elsewhere. 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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982 CONTENTS EDITORIAL . 75 ENSURING THE FUTURE OF THE TIGER AND OTHER LARGE MAMMALS IN THE SOUTHERN PORTION OF THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA A.J.T. Johnsingh, R. Raghunath, Rajeev Pillay and M.D. Madhusudan . 77 TIME BUDGET AND ACTIVITIES PATTERN OF CAPPED LANGURS TRACHYPITHECUS PILEATUS IN PAKKE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA GS. Solanki and Awadhesh Kumar . 86 EFFECTS OF PLANTATIONS AND HOME-GARDENS ON TROPICAL FOREST BIRD COMMUNITIES AND MIXED-SPECIES BIRD FLOCKS IN THE SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS Swati Sidhu, T.R. Shankar Raman and Eben Goodale . 91 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HILL SWALLOW HIRUNDO DOMICOLA IN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA P. Balakrishnan . 109 PATRICK RUSSELL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COROMANDEL Anantanarayanan Raman . 116 STUDY OF JUVENILE AND ADULT GROWTH, AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POECILOCERUS PICTUS (FABRICIUS) FEEDING ON CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS Madhavi V. Swant, Shiney Peter, K.R. Kharat and B.P. Hardikar . 122 VARIABILITIES IN DIFFERENT BODY MEASUREMENTS OF THE HORSESHOE CRAB, CARCINOSCORPIUS ROTUNDICAUDA (LATREILLE) COLLECTED FROM SETIU AND GELANG PATAH HABITATS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA T.C. Srijaya, P.J. Pradeep, S. Mithun, Anuar Hassan, Faizah Shaharom and Anil Chatterji . 130 FLORISTIC DIVERSITY AND TAXONOMIC PROFILE OF THE VEGETATION OF ACHANAKMAR- AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, CENTRAL INDIA K.P. Singh, Achuta Nand Shukla and J.S. Singh . 135 IMPACT OF LANDUSE CHANGES ON PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY OF NOKREK BIOSPHERE RESERVE, MEGHALAYA, INDIA S. D. Prabhu, S.K. Barik, H.N. Pandey and R.S. Tripathi . 146 NEW DESCRIPTIONS ON THE GENUS KANAKARAJIELLA SUNDARARAJ & DAVID (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES R. Sundararaj and R. Pushpa . . . 159 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW HOMOPORUS THOMSON (HYMENOPTERA: PTEROMALIDAE) FROM NORTH-EASTERN INDIA, WITH A KEY TO ORIENTAL SPECIES T. C. Narendran and F.R. Khan . 162 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 165 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Dr. Ashok Kothari for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001. website: www.bnhs.org; Email: bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net.in JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY DECEMBER 2010 VOL 107 (3) JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 . Executive EorroR Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai Copy and Production Editor Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc. Editorial Board Ajith Kumar, Ph. D National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com. Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad C.R. Babu, Ph. D. Professor, Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc. Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc. The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati Indraneil Das. D. Phil. Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia Y.V. Jhala, Ph. D. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D. Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program, Bengaluru, Karnataka T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc. Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, Kerala G.S. Rawat, Ph. D. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun K. Rema Devi, Ph. D. Zoological Survey of India, Chennai J.S. Singh, Ph. D. Professor, Banaras Hindu University Varanasi S. Subramanya, Ph. D. University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Hebbal, Bengaluru R. Sukumar, Ph. D. Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc. Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust, Tamil Nadu S.R.Yadav, Ph.D. Shivaji University, Kolhapur Senior Consultant Editor J.C. Daniel, M. Sc. Consultant Editors Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D. Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru Nigel Collar. Ph. D. BirdLife International, UK Rhys Green, Ph. D. Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK Qamar Qureshi, M Phil. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun T.J. Roberts, Ph. D. World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc. Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu © Bombay Natural History Society 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above. VOLUME 107(3): DECEMBER 2010 MCZ IQDAO CONTENTS UNIVERSITY SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL PETAURISTA PHILIPPENSIS (ELLIOT) IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, RAJASTHAN, INDIA Chhaya Bhatnagar, Vijay Kumar Koli and Satish Kumar Sharma . 183 CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE, EASTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA Shivaji Chaudhry, Gopi Govindhan Veeraswami, Kripaljyoti Mazumdar and Prasanna Kumar Samal . 189 AN ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIVE VALUE, RARITY AND CONSERVATION OF MONSONIA HELIOTROPIOIDES (CAV.) BOISS. — A THREATENED PLANT OF NORTH-WEST RAJASTHAN, INDIA R.K. Gehlotand Vinod Kumari . 198 PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA (CRUSTACEA: DECAPODA: PORCELLANIDAE) Alexandra Hiller, Sadanand Harkantra and Bernd Werding . 201 FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GANJAM DISTRICT, ORISSA, INDIA D. Sahu and M.K. Misra . 213 NEW DESCRIPTIONS TWO NEW CYPRINID FISHES UNDER THE GENUS GARRA (HAMILTON) FROM KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan . FISHES OF THE GENUS HOMALOPTERA VAN HASSELT, 1823 IN KERALA, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES HOMALOPTERA SILASI B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan . TOR REMADEVII, A NEW SPECIES OF TOR (GRAY) FROM CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, PAMBAR RIVER, KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan . CHANNA MELANOSTIGMA, A NEW SPECIES OF FRESHWATER SNAKEHEAD FROM NORTH-EAST INDIA (TELEOSTEI: CHANNIDAE) Khangjrakpam Geetakumari and Waikhom Vishwanath . REVIEWS 1 . CONSERVATION BIOLOGY: A PRIMER FOR SOUTH ASIA Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani . 236 2. THE VANISHING HERDS: THE WILD WATER BUFFALO Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani . 236 220 224 227 231 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS 1. First record of the Slender Loris Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera 1908, in Chennai city, Tamil Nadu, India Tara Gandhi, Sai Archana Para and Amrita Sivakumar .. 238 2. A note on the diet of Tiger Panthera tigris Linnaeus and Dhole Cuon alpinus Pallas in a Montane Shola Forest, Western Ghats, India Tharmalingam Ramesh and Riddhika Kalle . 240 3. The second locality record of Taphozous longimanus Hardwicke, 1825 (Chiroptera: Emballonuridae) from Nepal S.B. Thapa, M.J. Pearch and G. Csorba . 241 4. High day temperature and sleep out behaviour of Elliot’s Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis (Elliot) in Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India Chhaya Bhatnagar, Satish Kumar Sharma and Vijay Kumar Koli . 5. First record of albino Sambar Rusa unicolor (Kerr) from Corbett National Park, India Anant Pande, Debmalya Roychowdhury, Devlin Leishangthem, Sudeep Banerjee, Pushkal Bagchie, Neha Awasthi, Rubi Kumari Sharma, Priyanka Runwal and Shikha Bisht . 246 6. Conservation status of Rajaji-Corbett corridor for Tiger and Elephant movement A.J.T. Johnsingh, Bivash Pandav, K. Ramesh and Qamar Qureshi . 246 AVES 7. Sighting of a rare dark morph of Grey Francolin Francolinus pondicerianus Gmelin 1789 near Surendranagar, Gujarat, India Aditya Roy 245 249 8. Recent occurrence of the Brown-headed Barbet Megalaima zeylanica Gmelin 1788 and other dry country species in Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, southern India — are these related to ecological change? V.J. Zacharias and Richard T. Holmes . 250 9. An albino crow at Satna, Madhya Pradesh, India Archana Shukla . 252 REPTILES 10. First authentic record of Rhadinophis prasinum (Blyth, 1854) from Mizoram, north-east India Daya Nand Harit . 252 11. New distribution record for Hemidactylus prashadi Smith, 1935 (Family: Gekkonidae) from the Kudremukh Forest Complex, Karnataka, India Rohit Naniwadekar and V. Deepak . 253 FISH 12. Occurrence of Flying Fish, Cheilopogon abei Parin, 1996 from nearshore waters of the north-west coast of India Sujit Sundaram . 254 INSECTS 1 3. Bee pasturage plants of Apis florea in Khammam revenue division, Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh, India A. Vijaya Bhasker Reddy and P. Ramachandra Reddy . 256 14. A note on an additional locality for Acanthaspis quinquespinosa Fabricius 1781 (Insecta: Hemiptera: Reduviidae) Rahul Khot and Vithoba Hegde . 15. Bauhinia phoenicea: a new larval host plant for the butterfly, Blue Nawab Polyura schreiber wardii (Godart 1819) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) C. Susanth, K.A. Kishore and K. Baiju . 260 OTHER INVERTEBRATES 1 6. Record of Hexabranchus sanguineus (Ruppell & Leuckart, 1828) from Lakshadweep Archipelago, India Deepak Apte and V.K. Salahuddin . 261 BOTANY 1 7. An amplified description of hitherto little known threatened species, Primula glomerata Pax (Primulaceae) S. Panda . 262 18. New additions to the sedge flora of Andaman & Nicobar Islands K. Karthigeyan, J. Jayanthi, R. Sumathi and PG. Diwakar . 264 1 9. Additions to the flora of Maharashtra Madhukar Bachulkar . 266 20. Clitoria annua Graham var. emarginata (var. nov.): a new variety of species Clitoria annua Graham (Family: Fabaceae) from Maharashtra, India Santosh L. Yadav and Pramod B. Dhanke . 267 Cover Photograph: Hard-ground Barasingha Cervus duvaucelii branded By Anant Zanjale ACKNOWLEDGEMENT WE ARE GRATEFUL TO THE MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, Govt of India, FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL. 11 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010 183-188 SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL PETAURISTA PHILIPPENSIS (ELLIOT) IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, RAJASTHAN, INDIA Chhaya Bhatnagar1'3, Vijay Kumar Koli14 and Satish Kumar Sharma2 ‘Aquatic Toxicology and Wildlife Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India. 2Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: sksharma56@gmail.com 3Email: bhatnagarchhaya@yahoo.co.in 4Email: vijaykoli87@yahoo.in Summer feeding habit of the Indian Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis was studied from March 2009 to June 2009 in Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary. These squirrels are arboreal and entirely depend on plant material. Of 2,157 feeding records, 13 plant species from 10 families were identified in their feeding behaviour. Used food items were piths (58.59%), twigs (16.87%), leaves (5.09%), bark (2.64%), flowers (5.23%), buds (4.82%), fruits (6.44%) and seeds (0.27%). Mahuwa Madhuca longifolia was a predominant species in their feeding. They are early rising and use their early active time in feeding after which their activity lowers during night. Key words: Petaurista philippensis, arboreal, feeding behaviour, Madhuca longifolia INTRODUCTION Food is one of the most important resources for growth, reproduction and survival of animals. Consequently, animals that are generally herbivores, respond to spatial and temporal variability of food availability by selecting specific feeding habitats (McNaughton 1990; Wilmshurst et al. 1999; Ball et al. 2000) and diet (Hanley 1997; Dumont et al. 2002). Dietary variation occurs in response to plant phenology and changes in availability of resources (Poulsen et al. 2001). Impact of plant phenology on primary consumers has gained much attention in recent years (Van Schaik etal. 1993; White 1998; Curran and Leighton 2000). Flying squirrels (Rodentia: Sciuridae: Petauristainae) are nocturnal gliding mammals, comprising of 12 genera and 43 species (Eisenberg 1981). Only one species of flying squirrel is found in Europe and north Asia, and two species in North America. Species richness peaks in the South-east Asian countries (Lee and Liao 1998; Nandini 2001). Eleven species are found in India, most of which are concentrated in the Himalayan, the North-east regions and the Western Ghats (Nandini 2001). Petaurista philippensis has a wide distribution and occurs in most forests of peninsular India (Prater 1971; Agarwal and Chakraborty 1979; Wilson and Reeder 1993). Southern Rajasthan is a distinct patch for the occurrence of P. philippensis. Tehsin (1980) and Chundawat et al. (2002) reported the presence of Large Brown Flying Squirrel in Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary in Udaipur district of Rajasthan. Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary is also a prominent area of distribution of P. philippensis in southern Rajasthan. In Rajasthan, climate ranges from arid to semiarid and the rainfall is very low and erratic. During summer, the sun shines directly upon Tropic of Cancer, which increases the temperature (32°C to 40°C) in southern Rajasthan; the subtropical forest replaces the tropical deciduous forest, and water and food availability becomes low. Summer, therefore, is a very critical time for Petaurista philippensis for survival. This study was carried out to understand how P. philippensis copes with unfavourable situations and was confined to its food availability, food preference and diet during summer. STUDY AREA The study was carried out in the Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary (Fig. 1), which is situated between 24° 04'-24° 23' N and 74° 25'-74° 40' E. The Sanctuary covers an area of 422.95 sq. km. It is situated in the south-eastern region of Rajasthan where three very ancient mountain ranges of India meet forming a teak forest. The configuration of land is hilly and rugged with altitude varying from 280 to 600 m. The general slope of the land is from North-West to South-East. Forest with subtropical feature is characterized by distinct winter, summer and rainy seasons. Average rainfall is 756 mm and the temperature ranges between 6°C in winter and 45°C in summer. The Sanctuary harbours nearly 50 species of mammals, 275 species of birds, 40 species of reptiles, 9 species of amphibians, 30 species of fishes and more than 800 species of plants (Kartikeya 2005). MATERIAL AND METHODS The present study was carried out during summer between March and June 2009. Four flying squirrel sites, SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY which they inhabited permanently, were identified and marked (Table 1). Identification of sites where squirrels were present was done using two procedures. Initially the area was thoroughly explored to locate the squirrel inhabited trees and sites. These were later continued by the forest personnel and by exploring the area at regular time intervals. The sites were visited fortnightly with a minimum of five days stay in the field during each visit in fifteen days and eight nights in one month. Being nocturnal and arboreal, the flying squirrel is hard to locate during night. They were detected by eyeshine and calls, and occasionally by their movement on or between trees. Every night around dusk, vigilant move was carried along a trail, which meandered through the study area. Binocular and spotlight (NS-8300DX) with a Swiss handle and stand were used to observe the flying squirrel. Behaviour of individual flying squirrel was recorded using Focal Animal Sampling Method (Altmann 1974). In this method occurrence of specified actions (feeding) of an individual were recorded during each sample period. A record was made of the length of each period and for each focal individual. The amount of time during the sample was actually in view. Once chosen, a focal individual was followed to whatever extent possible during each of the sample periods. The data was recorded at five second intervals from the time the squirrel started feeding, Phenological data were also collected monthly during the study period. The data was taken to assess the association between abundance of plant parts and composition of the diet of the flying squirrel. Phenology of plant species was categorized into two phases: vegetative phase and reproductive phase. Vegetative phase was further sub¬ categorized into piths, twigs, leaves and bark, while reproductive phase was sub-categorized into buds, flowers, fruits and seeds. RESULTS A total of 2,153 feeding records were collected during 304 hrs of field observation with a mean (± SE) of 538 ±97.94 records/month (Range = 0-467). The flying squirrel consumed 8 plant parts from 13 species belonging to 10 families (Table 2). Most feeding records were from Sapotaceae (33.14%), Combretaceae (33.14%), Anacardiaceae (8.71%), Moraceae (7.27%), Ebenaceae (7.09%), whereas other families contributed a smaller amount. Three families, namely Moraceae, Combretaceae and Anacardiaceae include two species each, while other families had one species each. Six species of trees including Mangifera indica , Mitragyna par\>iflora , Alvizia odoratissima , Cordia myxa, Tectona grandis and Sarcopetalum tomentosa contributed < 5% (range 0.27-3.29%) and 2 species of trees including Madhuca longifolia and Terminalia bellirica contributed >20% (range 510-715 of the 2,157 feeding records). Remaining species contributed between 5 to 10% of feeding records. Madhuca longifolia was a predominant species for Table 1 : Location of Flying squirrel sites in Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary S. No. Site Location Nesting tree 1 Arampura naka 1 24°13' 19" N, 74°25' 54" E Madhuca longifolia 2 Arampura naka 2 24°13' 21" N, 74°25' 53" E Madhuca longifolia 3 Lambi samel 24°13' 07" N, 74°25' 36" E Madhuca longifolia 4 Kunda nala 24°13' 39" N, 74°25' 55" E Terminalia bellirica 184 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Plant part Fig. 2: Percentage observation of plant parts in the diet of the Flying squirrel during summer season feeding and it contributed 33.14% of feeding records and Tectona grandis contributed only 0.27% and ranked 13 in the list. Both Madhuca longifolia and Terminalia bellirica species contributed more than half of the feeding records. Fig. 3: Monthly diet composition of the flying squirrel Eight food items were consumed by the flying squirrel iring the study period. Pith was most frequently (58.59%) consumed, followed by twigs (16.87%), fruits (6.44%), flowers (5.23%), leaves (5.09%),buds (4.82%). bark (2.64%) and seeds (0.27%) (Fig. 2). Pith was obtained from 10 plant species, twigs from 7 plant species, leaves and fruits from 2 plant species, bark, flowers and buds were obtained from only Madhuca longifolia. Seeds were least preferred and obtained from Tectona grandis (Table 2). Table 2: Plant species and part consumed by Petaurista philippensis at Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary (Rajasthan) during summer in 2009 S.No. Family Species Part Phenophase* % Feeding time Rank 1 Ebenaceae Diospyros melanoxylon Twig imm 7.09 5 Pith - 2 Sapotaceae Madhuca longifolia Bark imm 33.14 1 Buds - Pith - Fruit r, sr, ur Flower m, imm Twig imm 3 Combretaceae Terminalia tomentosa Leaf imm 9.50 3 Pith - Terminalia bellirica Twig imm 23.64 2 Leaf imm Pith - 4 Anacardiaceae Lannea coromandelica Pith - 5.42 6 Mangifera indica Pith - 3.29 8 5 Moraceae Ficus religiosa Twig imm 7.27 4 Pith - Ficus bengalensis Pith - 5.33 7 6 Rubiaceae Mitragyna parviflora Twig imm 2.41 9 Pith - 7 Fabaceae Alvizia odoratissima Twig imm 0.92 11 8 Boraginaceae Cordia myxa Fruit m 0.69 12 9 Lamiaceae Tectona grandis Seed m 0.27 13 10 Menispermaceae Sarcopetalum tomentosa Twig imm 1.20 10 Pith - 'Codes for phenological phase of plant parts consumed. imm = immature; m = mature; ur = unripe; sr = partly ripe; r = ripe 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 185 SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY § 52 5 o o *7 ^ O O O m Timing of feeding Fig. 4: Feeding time of the Flying squirrel during their active period (7.30 pm-5.00 am) It was also observed that in March only 5 food parts were used in 508 feeding records. The most preferred feeding plant part was twigs, which comprised 27.95% of the monthly feeding records. This was followed by leaves (2 1 .65%), buds (20.47%) and pith ( 1 8.70%) (Fig. 3, Table 3). In April, 4 food items were used in 8 1 7 feeding records and the percentage of pith increased and reached 50.30% which was followed by twigs (19.95%), fruits (15.91%) and flowers ( 13.83%). Use of pith further increased in May reaching 80.60% with 361 feeding records. Except pith other food parts were twigs ( 15.78%), fruits ( 1 .93%) and seeds ( 1 .66%). In lune, the only feeding part was pith which comprised 100% of the monthly feeding records. The feeding time of the flying squirrel is shown in Fig. 4. The most active time of feeding was when flying squirrels emerged from their holes. After emerging, they started feeding. Feeding became less around 00:30 hrs. Between 00:30 hrs and 02:00 hrs, the feeding activity ceased. Feeding resumed after 02:00 hrs, but the frequency was low. Thus, the peak time of feeding was 19:30 to 21:30 hrs while 24:00 to 02:00 hrs was resting time. DISCUSSION The flying squirrel fed primarily on pith in summer besides twigs, leaves, bark, flowers, buds, fruits and seeds. Other studies on the diet of the flying squirrel also show that they are largelyfolivorous (Lee etal. 1986; Kawamichi 1997; Kuo and Lee 2003; Nandini and Parthasarathy 2008). The flying squirrel is a selective forager and only 1 3 plant species and 8 plant parts were consumed in their summer diet. Besides they consumed the part only from a few plant species in each month. Some species of plants were used more whereas others were used sporadically emphasizing its preference. Kuo and Lee (2003) showed that the flying squirrel consumed at least 79 species-specific parts of plants belonging to 30 families, and Nandini and Parthasarathy (2008) reported that 25 different plant parts of 10 tree species were recorded in the feeding of the flying squirrel. lapanese Giant Flying Squirrels P leucogenys were also found to be highly selective feeders (Ando et al. 1985; Kawamichi 1997). ianzen (1978) and Kuo and Lee (2003) stated that, relative to terrestrial animals, arboreal species are unable to store large amounts of fat, which would restrict their movements and increase the risk of falling. Furthermore, because arboreal folivores rely on relatively poor quality food, they may be constrained by their ability to convert energy (Eisenberg 1978; Kuo and Lee 2003). In this study, the flying squirrel preferred to feed on pith, as it comprised 58.59% of its diet. Pith is the central part of stem or twig which is rich in water content and nutrition. This content fulfils the requirement of water for flying squirrel in summer. Immature leaves were used during March. Coley ( 1983) showed that young and mature leaves of pioneer species contain fewer digestion reducers such as cellulose, tannins, and lignin and are relatively palatable to herbivores. Table 3: Data on different plant parts consumed each month and their monthly percentages Plant part March April May June No. of observations % No. of observations % No. of observations % No. of observations % Pith 95 18.70 411 50.30 291 80.60 467 100 Twigs 142 27.95 163 19.95 57 15.78 - - Leaves 110 21.65 - - - - - - Bark 57 11.22 - - - - - - Flowers - - 113 13.83 - - - - Buds 104 20.47 - - - - - Fruits - - 130 15.91 7 1.93 - - Seeds - - - - 6 1.66 - - Total 508 - 817 - 361 - 467 - 186 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Nandini and Parthasarathy (2008) revealed that fruit was most usable plant part for the flying squirrel, in the Western Ghats, which constituted 48.42% of all plant parts. The difference in feeding parts of plants may be because, the habitat of the flying squirrel in the Western Ghats has more humid area and the squirrel does not require to conserve water. In the present study, water conservation by the animal is much required as the forest is of dry deciduous type. Thus, the flying squirrel consumed a wide variety of plant parts. The diet of the flying squirrel changed in relation to plant phenology. This habit is related to availability of food and composition of forest. For example, reproductive phase of Madhuca longifolia is fixed in annual time period, so, flying squirrel used their phase parts (bud, flower and fruit) in March and April; bark was used in March. Thin bark is often removed to the depth of the cambium, but thicker bark may not be (MacKinnon 1978). Some seeds or fruits are produced relatively early in summer, which may contribute to the food available for young squirrels (Thompson and Thompson 1980). Giant flying squirrels also shifted to other food items, even when a previously known food item was still available. This was usually because a newly available food item was more preferable; in particular, a rapid shift from mature leaves to swelling buds (in March), and a successive change from one species of oak to another in search of new leaves or acorns due to their slightly different periods of leaf out and seed production (Kawamichi 1997). No significant relationship was found between availability of parts of plants and feeding frequency, implying that Indian Giant Flying squirrels did not select food on the basis of total availability. Similar observations were reported by Kuo and Lee (2003). During the present study, no occasion was witnessed when the flying squirrel fed on food of animal origin. Similar observations were also noted by Kawamichi (1997), Nandini and Parthasarathy (2008) and Kuo and Lee (2003). According to Nandini (2001), flying squirrels begin feeding around 1 8:30 hrs, while in this case both feeding and calling began around 19:00 hrs. Feeding dropped around 22:00 hrs. At 22:00 hrs most individuals were noticed either calling or sitting. The present study also showed that most active feeding time was from 19:30 to 21 :30 hrs that reduced till 24:00 hrs, while after 02:00 hrs some feeding was observed. Thus, from the present study it can be inferred that Mahuwa Madhuca longifolia is the most preferred plant with respect to feeding and pith is the preferred plant part. REFERENCES Agarwal, V.C. & S. Chakraborty (1979): Catalogue of Mammals in ZSI, Rodentia Part I. Sciuridae. In the records of ZSI 74(4): 333-481. Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour sampling method. Behaviour 49: 227-265. Ando, M., S. Shiraishi & T.A. Uchida (1985): Food habits of the Japanese Giant Flying Squirrel, Petaurista leucogenys. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture 29: 189-202. Ball, J.P., K. Danell & P. Sunesson (2000): Response of a herbivore community to increased food quality and quantity: an experiment with nitrogen fertilizer in a boreal forest. Journal of Applied Ecology 37: 247-255. Chundawat, P.S., S.K. Sharma & H.S. Solanki (2002): Occurrence of the Large Brown Flying Squirrel ( Petaurista petaurista philippensis ) in Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan. Zoos’ Print Journal 17(11): 941. Coley, P.D. (1983): Herbivory and defensive characteristics of tree species in a lowland tropical forest. Ecological Monographs 53: 209-233. Curran, L.M. & M. Leighton (2000): Vertebrate responses to spatiotemporal variation in seed reproduction of mast-fruiting Dipterocarpaceae. Ecological Monographs 70: 101-128. Dumont, B.. P. Carrere & P. D’hour (2002): Foraging in patchy grasslands: diet selection by sheep and cattle is affected by the abundance and spatial distribution of preferred species. Animal Research 51: 367-381. Eisenberg, J.F. (1978): The evolution of arboreal herbivores in the class Mammalia. Pp. 135-152. In: Montgomery, G.G. (Ed.): The Ecology of Arboreal Folivores. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington D.C. Eisenberg, J.F. ( 1981): The Mammalian Radiations: an analysis of trends in evolution, adaptation, and behaviour. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Pp. 610. Hanley, T.A. (1997): A nutritional view of understanding and complexity in the problem of diet selection by deer (Cervidae). Oikos 79: 209-218. Janzen, D.H. (1978): Complications in interpreting the chemical defenses of trees against tropical arboreal plant-eating vertebrates. Pp. 73-84. In: Montgomery, GG. (Ed.): The Ecology of Arboreal Folivores. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Kartikeya, K. (2005): Biodiversity Extinction and Conservation. Aavishkar Publishers. Distributers, Jaipur (Raj.). Kawamichi, T. (1997): Seasonal changes in the diet of Japanese flying squirrels in relation to reproduction. Journal of Mammalogy 78: 204-212. Kuo, C.C. & L.L. Lee (2003): Food availability and food habits of Indian giant flying squirrels (Petaurista philippensis) in Taiwan. Journal of Mammalogy 84: 1330-1340. Lee, P.F. & C. Liao (1998): Species richness and research trends of flying squirrel. J. Taiwan Museum 51(2): 1-20. Lee, P.F., D.R. Progulske & Y.S. Lin (1986): Ecological studies on two sympatric Petaurista species in Taiwan. Bulletin of the Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica 25: 113-124. Mackinnon, K.S. (1978): Stratification and feeding differences among Malayan squirrel. Malay. Nat. J. 30: 593-608. Mcnaughton, S.J. (1990): Mineral nutrition and seasonal movements of African migratory ungulates. Nature 345: 613-615. Nandini, R. (2001): Status and distribution of the Small Travancore Flying Squirrel ( Petinomys fuscocapillus fuscocapillus) and the J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 187 SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY Large Brown Flying Squirrel ( Petaurista philippensis) in the Western Ghats. Technical report submitted to the Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore. Nandini, R. & N. Parthasarathy (2008): Food habits of the Indian Giant Flying Squirrel ( Petaurista philippensis) in a rain forest fragment. Western Ghats. Journal of Mammology 89(6): 1550-1556. Poulsen, J.R., C.J. Clark & T.B. Smith (2001): Seasonal variation in the feeding ecology of the Gray-cheeked Mangabey ( Lophocebus albigena) in Cameroon. American Journal of Primatology 54: 91-105. Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals. Third ed. Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. 324 pp. Tehsin, R.H. (1980): Occurrence of the Large Brown Flying Squirrel and Mouse Deer near Udaipur, Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 77(3): 498. Thompson, D.C. & P.S. Thompson (1980): Food habits and caching behavior of urban grey squirrels. Canadian Journal of Zoology 58: 701-710. Van Schaik, C.P., J.W. Terborgh & S.J. Wright (1993): The phenology of tropical forests: adaptive significance and consequences for primary consumers. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 24: 353-377. White, F.J. (1998): The importance of seasonality in primatology. International Journal of Primatology 19: 925-927. Wilmshurst, J.F., J.M. Fryxell, B.P. Farm, A.R.E. Sinclair & C.P. Henschel (1999): Spatial distribution of Serengeti wildebeest in relation to resources. Canadian Journal of Zoology 77: 1223-1232. Wilson, D.E. & A.E. Reeder (1993): Mammal Species of the World: a Taxonomic Reference. Pp. 1206. Second Ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 188 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010 189-197 CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE, EASTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA Shivaji Chaudhry13, Gopi Govindhan Veeraswami2, Kripaljyoti Mazumdar1-4 and Prasanna Kumar Samal1 5 ‘G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, North East Unit, Vivek Vihar. Itanagar 791 113, Arunachal Pradesh. India. 2Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani. Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: gopigv@wii.gov.in 3Email: shivaji.chaudhry@gmail.com JEmail: kripaljyoti@gmail.com 5Email: prasannasamal@rediffmail.com Along with the Greater Himalaya, in the eastern Himalayan region there has been increased efforts to bring more areas under the Protected Area Network. Protected areas including conservation areas in Arunachal Pradesh are mostly located in the low and mid-elevation forest areas. To address the need of having a protected area in the higher altitudes of the State, of late a biosphere reserve has been proposed in the western Arunachal Pradesh. This paper aims to document the existing human-wildlife conflict and prioritize the conflicts, in an effort to promote conservation in the Tsangyang Gyatso Biosphere Reserve. The paper also attempts to understand the complexity of land transfer and regulations of community, particularly pasture lands in the Biosphere reserve. This study was carried out between September 2007 and July 2008 in the proposed biosphere reserve. A total of 13 species were recorded to be in direct conflict with humans, and based on the conflict intensity mapping nine were screened as high to moderate conflicting species. Conflict intensity as per the local perceptions was recorded high for 38% species and 31% species showed moderate intensity of conflict with humans. As per the local perception, causes for human-wildlife conflict in order of importance were: increased population, non-timber forest products (NTFP) collection, road construction and increased predators. Local people perceived four major factors, namely compensatory schemes, reducing prey hunt, reducing pressure on forest and increasing vigil to safeguard crops and livestock to mitigate the existing conflicts. INTRODUCTION During the 5lh World Park Congress organized by the IUCN, human-wildlife conflict (HWC) was identified to be a key challenge facing Protected Area management and conservation (IUCN 2003). A major source of conflict between park authorities and local communities in the Subcontinent revolves around livestock and crop damage within Protected Areas (PAs) of their buffer zone (Kharel 1997; Mishra 1997; Hussain 2003). Today, the PAs are a pervasive land use covering 14.36% of earth's surface (www.tradingeconomics.com/world/terrestrial-protected- areas-percent-of-total-surface-area-wb-data.html ). There are indications that the PAs will continue to grow as individual countries have made ambitious commitments to establish new PAs; however the relative rate of growth of PAs is not significantly different between countries with different number of unprotected species (Pyke 2007). Most of the areas under PAs network, historically productive in terms of their economic value (Scott et al. 2001), have decentralised land management regimes and multifaceted land protection measures that hinder the optimal use of the land resource (Theobald and Hobbs 2002). Many international NGOs have strongly advocated the use of setting map-based geographical priorities while not affecting the established social and economic drivers in the region (Olson and Dinerstein 1998; Myers et al. 1999). Inspite of all these efforts there seems to be lack of political will to formulate a conservation policy, which is clearly evident from existing gaps between the conservation policies and conservation practice in general (Chhatre and Saberwal 2005). Prioritization of areas for biodiversity representation is essential for conservation planning, particularly in megadiverse countries where high deforestation threatens biodiversity (Sanchez-Cordero et al. 2005). In general, two methods of prioritization have been used, (i) sets of place based on expert advice (Dinerstein et al. 2000) and (ii) using algorithmic data containing the vital conservation information (Margules et al. 1998). We hereby discuss the former in the western part of Arunachal Pradesh, which forms a major part of the biological hotspot - Eastern Himalaya (Myers et al. 1999). Approximately 10% of the world’s population lives in mountain areas and livestock is the major source of their economy (Pun and Mares 2000; Mishra et al. 2006). India has a high human population and boasts of having the largest cattle population in the world (449 million; WRI 1996). Habitat loss in the Himalayan region is a serious concern as the region supports very fragile ecosystems. There have been attempts to link the fauna with its habitat or native flora globally (Siemann et al. 1998; Knops et al. 1999). It is estimated that the Himalayan region has lost 70% of its native habitat (Anonymous 2006). Therefore, in most of the Indian Himalayan region biodiversity conservation measures are usually taken care of by declaring PAs (Bagchi et al. 2004). CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE Loss of human life due to wildlife is often immediately discussed, but the loss of crops or livestock which are means to subsistence seldom get attention of administrators ( Rao et al. 2002). More than often loss of subsistence causes much displeasure to locals in the conservation priority areas ( Parry and Campbell 1992; Newmark etal. 1993; Maikhuri and Rao 1998). In Manas National Park human-elephant conflict is on the rise, the intensity of conflict was higher in fields and nearby parks; elephant bulls were reported to be more violent than the females (Nath et al. 2009). A seasonal study of the crop raiding patterns of elephant in Zimbabwe suggest that the point at which the quality of wild grasses declines to the quality of crop species correspond to the movement of bull elephant out of PAs and into fields (Osborn 2004). In Garo hills, India, the analysis of elephant movement using participatory monitoring suggested that elephant visits to fields peaked at the time of harvest of crop (Datta-Roy etal. 2009). Crop raiding by primates are reported throughout the globe, especially in the tropical and subtropical regions. In Indonesia, Macaca fascicularis and Presbytis thomasi are most destructive primates in the region (Marchal and Hill 2009). Crop raiding by Semnopithecus entellus in and around Aravalli region of India is very high as these primate species can feed upon 184 types of food items and incur crop losses worth $1,800-2,400 annually (Chhangani and Mohnot 2004). Squirrels like Funambulus palmarum in addition to their natural diet also take significant portion of cardamom in the Western Ghats of India (Chakravarthy et al. 2008). Livestock depredation by wild animals is also the cause of resentment among traditional herders and pastoral people. Livestock depredation is increasingly becoming a contentious issue in the Himalayan region (Jackson and Wangchuk 2004). In Nepalese Himalaya, conflict with rural communities due to livestock predation by large carnivores like the Snow Leopard, Leopard, Wolf and Wild Dog has risen sharply in recent years (Jackson 1996). Therefore, the present paper attempts to understand the man-animal conflict and possible mitigatory measures to foster a pro-people biosphere reserve management. The state of Arunachal Pradesh has been of great interest to biologists with recent discoveries of primate species — Arunachal Macaque Macaca munzala (Sinha et al. 2005), a new species to science, and range extension of the Tibetan Macaque Macaca thibetana (Kumar et al. 2005) in India; a new bird species to science — Bugun Liocichla Liocichla bugunorum has recently being described (Athreya 2006). Three other large mammals previously unknown from India: two species of deer - Leaf Deer Muntiacus putaoensis ( Datta et al. 2003), and the Black Barking Deer Muntiacus crinifrons Bhutan INDEX International boundary Biosphere Reserve boundary — ■ — • Core Zone F 1 Buffer Zone r n Transition Zone irmn Urban Zone District HQ Study site • Scale : 1:2,50.000 AREA (Approx.) Core zone -1190sqkm. Buffer znoe -2192sqkm. Transition zone- 2465 sqkm. Total area - 5848 sqkm * Bomdila Fig. 1 : The proposed Tsangyang Gyatso biosphere reserve showing study sites - and the Chinese Goral Nemorhaedus caudatus , a primitive mountain goat (Mishra etal. 2006), have also been discovered in Arunachal Pradesh recently. There have been confirmed sightings of Black Musk Deer Moschus fuscus (Kumar and Nair 2007) and of fishes like Amblyceps arunachalensis , Psilorhynchoides arunachalensis, Erethistoides senkhiensis (Nath and Dey 1989; Nebeshwar et al. 2007; Tamang et al. 2008) and probably many more that await description. To conserve this biodiversity, the state and the central government have initiated steps by bringing this area under the existing national/state PA network by proposing it for a biosphere reserve status. The region harbours significant altitudinal variation (100-7.090 m above msl), which creates myriads of habitat for different types of flora and fauna (Chaudhry et al. 2006). Arunachal Pradesh is located at the junction of Palearctic and Indo-Malayan realms, which enriches its biodiversity (Mani 1974). The state is known to have 50% angiosperms and avifauna of India ( Rao and Hajra 1 986: Singh 1994; Chowdhury 1998: Procter et al. 1998). STUDY AREA The survey was carried out in the Tsangyang Gyatso Biosphere Reserve (Fig. 1) in Western Arunachal Pradesh from September 2007 to July 2008. Tawang district spans over 2,172 sq. km with a human population density (16 per sq. km) marginally exceeding the average for Arunachal (13 per sq. km). The region is drained by the Tawang Chu, Nyamjang Chu (both of which meet and drain into Bhutan) 190 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE and their tributaries, and comprises five administrative circles (Tawang, Mukto, Thingbu, Lumla, and Zemithang). The Buddhist Monpa tribe is the predominant community inhabiting Tawang. There is a considerable presence of the Indian Army in the district, given that it shares international boundaries with Bhutan and China. The larger (7,422 sq. km) West Kameng district has a lower human density (10 per sq. km), w ith the people belonging to 5 tribes: Monpa, Sherdukpen, Khowa, Aka, and Miji. The region is drained by the Kameng or Bhareli and its tributaries (eventually joining the Brahmaputra), and is divided into six administrative circles (Bomdila, Dirang, Kalaktang, Bhalukpong, Nafra, and Thrizino). METHODOLOGY The study was carried out in the Western Arunachal Pradesh in the districts of the West Kameng and Tawang, eastern range of the Himalaya. The study villages were selected based on reports of human-animal conflicts. An informal questionnaire was used to assess the response of the villagers (Table 1). A total of 149 individuals were interviewed comprising 109 males and 40 females. The secondary information regarding the study area was also collected from six villages. The targeted people belonged to different groups, such as the village headman, school teachers, servicemen, farmers and hunters. Survey was conducted in the Chander, Lubrang and Senge villages under Dirang circle of West Kameng district and Jang, Mago of Thingbu circle and Zemithang of Zemithang circle, Tawang district. This study was carried out between September 2007 and July 2008 in the proposed biosphere reserve (BR). An informal discussion, with the help of visual identification aid, was used to enlist number of species in the proposed biosphere reserve, which were confirmed by either sighting them or by trophies in possession of villagers. The identification of mammals was Table 1 : Questionnaire used in the study of conflict mitigation 1 . How many different species you see in your locality? 2. Could you identify them with these colour plates? 3. Do some of them raid your crops? 4. Do some of them predate on your livestock? 5. What time do they attack your crops/livestock (day/night)? 6. What is the extent of the damage (high/moderate/low)? 7. Do you kill them in grudge when they damage the crop (yes/ no)? 8. What are the causes due to which their attacks have become frequent? 9. What do you think could be done to reduce the damage or stop killing wild animals? carried out with locals using the book a field guide to Indian mammals by Vivek Menon (2003) and photographic plates developed by us. IUCN Red Data book was referred to ascertain the threat status of the species enlisted in the survey. RESULTS Vegetation types The vegetation type in the two study districts - West Kameng and Tawang - can be classified into the following five types (Dutta Choudhury 1996; Anonymous 2003) — Tropical evergreen. Subtropical evergreen. Temperate forest. Sub-alpine fir vegetation and Alpine vegetation (Table 2). The total forest cover of the two districts reports about 5,809.91 sq. km area, which accounts for 60.5% coverage as compared to the total area of both the districts, with 56.6% for Tawang district and 61.7 % in case of West Kameng district (Table 2) respectively. The tropical evergreen forests are found along the foothills of southern West Kameng district up to an altitudinal range of 900 m. Out of the two districts, tropical evergreen forests are found only in the West Kameng district covering an area of 494.5 sq. km. The subtropical evergreen forest or mixed forest covers an area of 1,714.85 sq. km of both the districts and are found at an altitudinal range of 900-1,800 m, largely in the Kalaktang and Rupa valley area of West Kameng district. The temperate forests are confined to elevation ranging from 1,800 to 3,500 m and are found mainly in Bomdila, Dirang (West Kameng district), Senge, Jang and Tawang valley (Tawang district) covering an area of 3,031.3 sq. km. The sub-alpine fir vegetation covers an area of 465.8 sq. km in both the districts and are found in Lower Sela area, hill slopes above Tawang valley, Mago area and Jung valley (of Tawang district) at an altitudinal range of 3,500 to 4,500 m. Alpine vegetation dominated by herbaceous species like Rheum, Arenaria, Saussurea, etc. along with Rhododendron spp. are vegetation Fig. 2: Vegetation and forest types of the studied districts J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 191 CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE found within an altitudinal range of 4,500 to 5,500 m. Covering an area of 1 1 1 .4 sq. km in both the districts, alpine vegetations are found only in the hill slopes around Bumla, Pangchen, Chuna andTawang (Tawang district). Fig. 2 shows the relative areas covered by these five types of vegetation. Demographic profile The total population of the Tawang district is 38,924 and that of West Kameng is 74,599. There are five major tribes in the West Kameng district while Tawang district has only one. Aka , Miji and Bugun are the three tribes, who are predominantly shifting cultivators, while Sherdukpen and Monpas are purely settled cultivators. The Aka, Miji and Bugun live at low elevations (200-2,200 nt) in the tropical to subtropical zones, while the Monpas and Sherdukpen live in temperate to alpine zones. Agriculture, horticulture, NTFP collection and livestock rearing are the major source of income for the local people. Monpas living in the higher reaches, beyond 3,000 m, practice transhumance type of pastoralism with barter links, with the people at the lower elevation (Chaudhry et al. 2006; Dollo et al. 2006). In recent times, there has been increased thrust for developmental activities like installment of brewery, pine extraction unit and hydel projects at the lower reaches, while at the higher elevations road construction, army settlements, pasture expansion are cause of habitat destruction (pers. obs.). Altogether 6 villages were selected for the study in the 2 districts of the state. Senge was the largest having 1 52 houses followed by Jang 1 19, while the lowest was Chander having only 20 houses. Similar trends were recorded in terms of population with Senge having 35%, Jang 27.4%, Zemithang 14.5%, Mago 13. 1 %, Lubrang 5.3% and Chander 4.6%. Mago and Chander were pure pastoral villages. Jang had maximum of the agricultural workforce 58%, Senge 37.9%, Zemithang 3.7% and Lubrang had the lowest with 0.4%. Most of the people worked in the primary sector (mainly labour work). Senge had the largest chunk with 73% of workers followed by Jang 1 3.6%, Zemithang 3.8%, Mago 6.8%, Lubrang 0.6% and Chander 2.1%. Non-workers chiefly comprising of kids and elderly also accounted for a significant number, while workers are those who had worked for the major part of the reference period (i.e., 6 months or more). Average land holding was found at the higher elevation villages, which may be attributed to lack of infrastructure like road, the trends reversed in areas having road connectivity like Zemithang, Senge and Jang (Table 3). Six villages were identified in the reconnaissance survey as the flashpoints of man-animal conflict. These villages broadly fall in three ecological zones, i.e., subtropical, temperate, sub-alpine and alpine zones covering two districts of the state. Vegetation is subtropical broad-leaved forest in Zemithang, broad-leaved temperate forest in Chander, sub- alpine coniferous forest in Senge and alpine pasture in Mago. In Jang, the vegetation is temperate broad-leaved mixed forest while Lubrang is a pastoral village with grasses like Poa alpina , Juncus thomsonii etc and surrounded by temperate broad-leaved forest. A total of 1 2 animal species, including domestic dog, were identified to be in direct conflict with human interests in these sites, which can be conveniently divided into two categories: livestock depredators and crop raiders. Jang, Zemithang and Chander had 3 conflicting species followed by 2 each in the remaining villages (Table 4). Faunal diversity According to our initial study and literature review there are 40 species of mammals belonging to 34 genera in the proposed biosphere reserve; altogether 1 8 families belonging to 8 orders. 22 (55%) species of the animals were recorded in the low risk category (LR), 5 ( 12.5%) species were recorded in the endangered list (EN), 7 ( 17.5%) were found to be in Table 2: Vegetation types with dominant species in the study area (in sq. km) Vegetation Type Tawang (area in sq. km.) West Kameng (area in sq. km.) Dominant species Alpine vegetation 85.39 26.03 Rheum australe, Berginia purpurascens, Rhododendron lepidotum etc. Sub-alpine fir 303.06 153.76 Abies densa, Rhododendron barbatum, Berberis aristata. Anemone rivularis etc. Temperate vegetation 726.87 2,304.43 Rhododendron arboreum, Magnolia campbelli, Ouercus grifithii, Pinus wallichiana etc. Subtropical evergeen forest 114.16 1,600.69 Ficus palmata, Castanopsis tribuloides , Callicarpa arborea, etc. Tropical vegetation 0 494.52 Altingia excelsa, Ailanthus grandis, Sterculia villosa , Duabanga g rand i flora etc. Total Forest Cover 1 ,229.48 (56.6%) 4,579.43 (61.7%) 192 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE the vulnerable list ( VU), 3 (7.5%) in the least concerned (LC), 1(2.5%) species was near threatened, 2 (5%) species were, however, not found in the IUCN listings. As far as mammalian families are concerned, there were 18 families, Bovidae and Felidae were the largest comprising 15% representation each, followed by Scuiridae having 12.5%, Cercopithecidae and Mustelidae 10% each, Muridae and Cervidae had 5% each, while rest of the families had 5% each of the species representation. Carnivora 35% was largest order, followed by Atriodactyla 25%, Rodentia 20%, Primate 12.5%, Lagomorpha, Perissodactyla and Pholidata contributed 2.5% each. Hence, from the enumeration it can be concluded that carnivore diversity was maximum followed by herbivore, and therefore livestock depredation would be a concern in the immediate future. As per the villagers, the numbers of Tiger Panthera tigris and Kiang Equus kiang are very low and often their sightings are seasonal. Conflicting species There were altogether 13 animal species which were in direct conflict with humans. Out of which two Greater Bandicoot Rat Bandicota indica and Domestic Dog Canis famdiaris live in close association with humans, while the other 1 1 species were found in the wild. Crop raiders and livestock depredators had equal share of representation, i.e., 54%. Himalayan Black Bear Ursus thibetanus had the unique distinction of having the ability to raid crops and kill livestock. Conflict intensity as per the local perception was recorded high for 38% species, while 31% species show moderate intensity of conflict with humans and therefore need proper attention before they become a threat. Rest 31% showed low intensity of conflict, which may be partly attributed to their behavioural patterns and partly due to availability of alternate feeding materials. Snow Leopard Uncia uncia. Wild Dog Cuon alpinus were blamed for maximum livestock depredation and were subject to retaliatory persecution. However, according to the villagers, their sightings have gradually diminished in recent times. Wild Boar Sus scrofa and Arunachal Macaque Macaca munzala have been cause of grave concern for their crop raiding behaviour (Table 5). Based on the conflict intensity mapping, nine potential species were screened as high to moderate conflicting species out of total thirteen. Omnivores lead the tally with 44% representation, primates (33%) constituted the herbivore group, while carnivores had 22% representation. 56% showed diurnal activity while remaining 44% were nocturnal. All the herbivores had affinity towards feeding young leaves while Malayan Porcupine Hystrix brachyura subcristata was reported to be feeding more on bulbs and tubers, it may be noted that the species is also known to cause debarking of trees and their subsequent death. Domestic Dog Canis famdiaris is a known human ally since time immemorial and only recently it has been on the list due to its predating activity, especially on young calves. The other omnivores were found to be feeding much on the fruits, grains, berries and on small mammals. Pure carnivores like Snow Leopard Uncia uncia and Wild Dog Cuon alpinus , however, were dependent on gorals, deer and small animals (Table 5). Factors inducing conflicts and prioritization of conflicts Five causes for conflict, namely deforestation, road construction, NTFP collection, increased number of livestock predators and increased population for man-animal conflict were identified, in all the six study sites. According to the villagers, deforestation was reported to be the major cause of human-animal conflict, causing 18% of the incidents. The village-wise break-up of the deforestation as a cause of conflict was highest in Senge 29%, Chander 22%, Lubrang 18%, Mago, Jang 1 1% and least in Zemithang 7%. Table 3: Occupational structure and demographic profile of study sites Village No. of Houses (No.) Total Population (No.) Agriculture and plantation (No.) Main Workers (No.) Livestock and forestry sector (No.) Other services (No.) Average house holding (No.) Mago 57 301 0 126 53 34 5 Jang 119 486 158 252 0 3 4 Zemithang 63 231 10 71 0 84 4 Senge 152 1,795 103 1,353 95 1,231 12 Lubrang 23 162 1 12 0 35 7 Chander 20 87 0 39 26 35 4 Total 434 3,062 272 1,853 174 1,422 6 (Source: Census 2001, Govt, of India) J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 193 CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE predators as a cause of conflict shows that 33% of people from Chander, 2 1 % Jang, 1 7% Lubrang, 1 2% Zemithang and 8% each, Mago and Senge supported this view. The major cause according to the respondents was increased population (27%). Mago had highest number of people having this view (25%) followed by 20% in Senge (which has an army built up in the area), Jang, Zemithang and Lubrang 15% each and lastly Chander (10%) (Fig. 3). Therefore, according to people's perception causes for human-wildlife conflict in order of importance were increased population > NTFP collection > road construction > increased predators. All these factors are related to each other as well as with economics. Subsequent ban on timber logging by Supreme Court in 1996 has resulted in greater reliance on NTFPs, and livestock and animal husbandry. Road construction and development impetus in the area increased after the 1962 Sino-Indian Conflict, resulting in habitat loss of wild animals. These factors have resulted in increased man- animal conflict. The analysis was further extended to identify adequate measures to reduce the man-animal conflict in the biosphere reserve. Four factors were enlisted by the local people as compensatory schemes, reducing prey hunt, reducing pressure on forest and increasing vigil to safeguard crops and livestock. Compensatory schemes were demanded by the local people and this constituted an overall of 32% demand in the region, Chander had highest 20%, Mago and Zemithang 19% each, Jang 17%, Senge 15% and Lubrang 10%. Most of the compensation demanding villages are pastoral village and have limited access to roads. The Table 4: Study areas under maximum incidences of human-wildlife conflict Study villages Geographical Gradient & Elevation (m above msl) Dominant vegetation Conflicting species Mago 27°41 1 11.4" N, 92°12' 10.6" E 3,600 m Poa alpine, Aletris pauciflora, Juncus thomsonii Snow Leopard Uncia uncia, Wild Dog Cuon alpinus Jang 27° 34' 54.1" N, 91° 58' 54.2" E 2,400 m Ouercus grifithii, Lyonia ovalifolia, Pinus wallichiana Domestic Dog Canis familiaris, Arunachal Macaque Macaca munzala, Zemithang 27° 42' 40.4" N, 91° 43' 49.7" E 2,300 m Ouercus grifithii , Rhododendron arboreum Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta Arunachal Macaque Macaca munzala, Malayan Porcupine Hystrix brachyura subcristata Wild Boar Sus scrofa Senge 2,900 m Rhododendron grande, Tsuga dumosa, Arundinaria mating Domestic Dog Canis familiaris, Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta Lubrang 27° 21' 57" N, 92° 10' 44.3" E 2,800 m Rhododendron arboreum, Acer pectinatum, Lyonia ovalifolia Wild Dog Cuon alpinus, Yellow-throated Marten Martes flavigula Chander 27° 23' 5.5" N, 92° 20' 30.4" E 2,950 m Betula alnoides, Acer obiongum, Rhododendron grande Wild Dog Cuon alpinus, Yellow-throated Marten Martes lavigula, Himalayan Black Bear Ursus thibetanus Fig. 3: Percentage of people (Y-axis) in study area (X-axis) citing cause of conflict 17% of the people in the study area thought that road construction has led to increased conflict. The break-up showed that Jang 40% had highest incidence of man-animal conflict following road construction followed by Zemithang 24%, Senge 16%, Chander 12% and Lubrang 8%. 22% of the people had identified indiscriminate NTFP collection as a cause of this conflict; the village wise break-up showed that Mago and Zemithang 21%, Jang and Chander 18%, Lubrang 12% and last Senge 9% shared similar views on NTFP collection as a cause of conflict. On an average, 16% of the people believed that conflicts are more prevalent nowadays due to increase in the number of crop raiders and livestock depredators, which according to them is true in case of Primates and Dholes. Village-wise break-up of increased 194 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE other three villages that have road connectivity had less demand for compensation (10-17%). Reducing the hunting of prey such as deer, small mammals and birds to balance the prey-predator relation was agreed upon by 20% people. Jang and Zemithang had 20% each followed by Chander and Zemithang 17% each and lastly by remaining two villages 13% each. 27.5% people agreed to increase the vigil to reduce the crop and livestock loss to the wild animals, Jang had the highest with 24%, Lubrang 19%,Senge 17%, 15% each from Mago and Chander, followed by 10% of people in Zemithang. Similar views were shared about reducing pressure on the forest with 20% people from Chander, Lubrang, Senge and Jang. 17% people in Zemithang, 13% in Lubrang and least with Mago 10% (Table 6). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION It seems from the foregoing result that human-animal conflict in the proposed biosphere reserve is a serious issue. In the state, most of the studies related to mammals were restricted to taxonomical descriptions, but as a matter of fact their role in human-animal conflict has not been taken up adequately (Mishra et al. 2006). This arises primarily due to two counts, one there is lack of acclimatization with the people and second, the people distrust government agents either for taxes or for land acquisition. Apart from these two, the recent religious ban on the hunting of animals inside forest by the Tawang monastery can also be accounted for the reluctance of the people to respond (pers. comm.). There are three direct stakeholders in the state department, i.e., agriculture, horticulture and forest departments, but none are keeping data on human-animal conflicts (pers. obs.). Most of the land is under forest cover and hence it is the dominant land use and in recent times it has been put to pressure owing to developmental activities (Dollo et al. 2006). The region has most of the forest under the category of unclassed state forest which are strictly under community control, and therefore they are governed by the customary laws of the community (Singh and Sundriyal 2006). Community lands governed by traditional institutions are broadly divided into two groups - land tenureship and ownership. However, in recent times the traditional systems are under transition and are gradually taken up by the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) having village headman (Gaonburha) who may have greater political mileage along with a handful of his subordinates which at times creates inequitable pattern of resource utilization affecting sustainability in long run (Chaudhry et al. 2006). As evident from Table 6 four factors are driving the man-animal conflict in the region (i) population (ii) loss of vegetation (iii) NTFP Table 5: List of the animal species reported to have conflicts with humans Species Conflict Livestock depredation Activity time Crop raiding Conflict intensity Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta Capped Langur - Diurnal V ++ Trachypithecus p Heat us - Diurnal, Crepuscular V + Marbled Cat Felis marmota V Nocturnal - + Snow Leopard Uncia uncia V Diurnal, Crepuscular - +++ Wild Dog Cuon alpinus Malayan Porcupine V Diurnal, Nocturnal (Hunting) + + + Hystrix brachyura subcristata Greater Bandicoot Rat — Nocturnal V +++ Bandicota indica Arunachal Macaque — Nocturnal V + Macaca munzala - Diurnal V +++ Wild Boar Sus scrota Yellow-throated Marten — Nocturnal V +++ Martes flavigula V Diurnal, Nocturnal - ++ Leopard Panthera pardus V Nocturnal - + Domestic Dog Canis familiaris V Diurnal - + + Himalayan Black Bear Ursus thibetanus V Diurnal, Nocturnal V + + Key: - = absence of conflict; V = presence of conflict; +++ = High conflict intensity + = low conflict intensity; ++ = Moderate conflict intensity; J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 195 CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE Table 6: Remedial conservation measures as suggested by the villagers for reducing the conflicts Villages Compensation No hunting of prey Increasing vigil Reducing pressure on forest Mago (n=22) 9 4 6 3 Jang (n=30) 8 6 10 6 Zemithang (n=24) 9 6 4 5 Senge (n=25) 7 5 7 6 Lubrang (n=21) 5 4 8 4 Chander (n=27) 10 5 6 6 Figures in parenthesis indicate number of persons interviewed collection and (iv) less vigil, all these factors are related to one another when the main need becomes quick money (Saha et al. 2006). The government lacks data and outreach to the far flung areas and therefore there is lack of support for the rural and pastoral highlanders. Our data show that the respondents support compensatory schemes for crops or livestock lost to wildlife (Table 4). Most of forest related operations (timber, fuel, NTFPs, hunting) with the rising population were responsible for rise in the recent conflicts (Fig. 2). This is especially true when developmental thrust received a shot in arm after 1962 Sino-Indian conflict (Saha et al. 2006). There were number of roads constructed and rapid expansion of army settlements and urbanization process. Other developmental activities like horticulture areas expansion, pasture expansion have already aggravated forest status and hence the present day man-animal conflict has raised to alarming proportions. Therefore, the need of the hour is to document the best practices in the traditional institutions for resource utilization, management and conservation, the region is known for its Buddhism related values and traditional modes of conflict resolution and compensation hold good for the future. An ideal situation will be to complement the traditional knowledge with that of formal conservation science. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge the grants received from the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. We also acknowledge the research facility provided by the Director, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development. We thank Mr. Mihin Dollo for the study area map. We would like to thank the Director, Wildlife Institute of India for his support. Thanks are also due to the help rendered by Mr. Tsering Dargey of Mon Pastoral and Development Society and also the friendly Monpa people. REFERENCES Anonymous (2003): Natural Resource Atlas of Arunachal Pradesh, State Remote Sensing Application Centre, Arunachal Pradesh. Anonymous (2006): Preliminary Identification of IPAs for medicinal plants in Himalayas. Count. Reprt. India, Pragya. Pp. 1-55. Athreya, V. (2006): Is relocation is viable management option for unwanted animals? The case of Leopard in India. Cons, and Soci. : 419-423. Bagchi, S., C. Mishra & Y.V. 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Icthyological Exploration of Freshwaters 19(2): 185-191. Theobald, D.M. & N.T. Hobbs (2002): A framework for evaluating land use planning alternatives: protecting biodiversity on private land. Conservation Ecology 6(1): 5. www.tradingeconomics.com/ world/terrestrial-protected-areas-percent-of-total-surface-area-wb- data.html. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 197 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010 198-200 AN ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIVE VALUE, RARITY AND CONSERVATION OF MONSONIA HELIOTROPIOIDES (CAV.) BOISS. — A THREATENED PLANT OF NORTH-WEST RAJASTHAN, INDIA R.K. Gehlot1’3 and Vinod Kumarj1-2 'Department of Botany, Laboratory of Conservation Biology, Government Dungar College. Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan, India. 2 Address for Correspondence: L-15 Green Park Colony, Near Sophia School, Bikaner 334 001. Rajasthan, India. Email: kumari.vinodl3@gmail.com 3Email: ramkarangehlot@gmail.com Monsonia heliotropioides (Mayur Shikha) is a rare herbaceous fodder plant of north-west Rajasthan whose population has been continuously decreasing. It was observed only from a few localities having calcarious cankar land with a very scanty population. Protection of habitat may be an effective control measure for the conservation of this species. From the leaves 23.77% crude proteins, 58.79% carbohydrates, 5.36% crude fat and only 5.89% crude fibres were estimated. All plant parts had an appreciable amount of minerals. Tannins were present in all the parts with a maximum concentration in leaves, whereas alkaloids and saponins were not detected. Seed germination was observed only under mechanical scarification. Besides poor germination percentage other reason observed for rarity, were specific habitat and its disappearance, easy grazing of whole umbellate inflorescence consequently low seed production and dispersal mechanism of fruit. Key words: Monsonia heliotropioides, threatened plant, nutritive value, rarity, germination, habitat, conservation INTRODUCTION Existence of a plant species may be necessary for maintenance and balance of the ecosystem. So, throughout the globe, conservation of biodiversity is one of the most urgent needs. The primary tool for biodiversity conservation is derived from the analysis of basic taxonomic and phytogeographic data, which defines the centres of endemism and species diversity (Kiran Raj 2010). North-west Rajasthan forms an important part of the Great Indian Desert. In the recent past, many areas of this region were subjected to considerable ecological changes, which has modified the pattern and abundance of many species, consequently a number of plant species have become threatened. Only a few attempts have been made to study the plants of this region (Sahni 1970; Pandey et al. 1983; Harsh andTiwari 1998). The threatened status of a plant species can be assessed from its population distribution, regeneration capacity and present trends of exploitation pressure on such species (Lucas and Synge 1978; Jain and Sastry 1980; Nayar and Sastry 1987, 1 988, 1 990; Ali 2010). Monsonia heliotropioides (Cav.) Boiss. is an annual herb with woody root stock and radical leaves; it belongs to the Family Geraniaceae (Bhandari 1990). A rare plant of north-west Rajasthan, it is reported from a very few localities, having calcarious canker land. It is a good fodder plant and also used as a valuable remedy in acute and chronic dysentery, especially of use in ulceration of the lower part of the intestine (Leyel 1981). Desert plants are generally rich in nutritive contents, especially proteins (Mathurand Karwasra 1967; Purohit 1987; Singh and Singh 2011). Efforts for conserving plants can be improved if the species selected are thoroughly investigated for their use, since multiple uses of any plant can motivate people for its conservation. Therefore, during the present investigation besides studying the causes of rarity and conservation measures, the fodder value of plant was also assessed. MATERIAL AND METHODS Field trips were regularly made to different localities in the study area to study the distribution, habitat, phenology since 1998 and information was also sought from locals regarding utility, low population, rarity and present trends of exploitation pressure on the species. Various aspects of threat were studied on the basis of criterion given by Perring and Farwell (1977). For the estimation of nutritive content, methods of AOAC (1990) were used. Mineral content was estimated by the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (A AS) method. The qualitative estimation of alkaloids, saponins and tannins were made by the method of Amar Singham et al. (1964) and Arthur and Chan ( 1962). Seed germination study was performed in earthen pots fdled with soil collected from the habitat the plant grew, under controlled conditions and various treatments. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Monsonia heliotropioides is regarded as a good fodder plant for cattle in the area due to palatability and nutritive ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIVE VALUE, RARITY AND CONSERVATION OF MONSONIA HELIOTROPIOIDES Fig. 1: Monsonia heliotropioides (Cav.) Boiss A: Habit; B: Fruit, C. Dehiscing fruit; D: Mericarp with bristle; E: sepal; F. Petal value. The distributional range of this species was found to be very restricted with scanty population. The main causes of depletion of this species observed during the study were shrinkage of grazing lands, uncontrolled grazing and destruction of habitat by locals for collecting calcarious cankers used mainly for construction purpose. Prosopis juliflora, which regenerates faster and grows aggressively, is seriously threatening the survival of indigenous species in north-west Rajasthan (Singh and Singh 2011). Britto et al. (2002) observed that habitat degradation was the main cause of threat for Ceropegia sp. and suggested that they have genetically depleted and are scarcely available. M. heliotropioides in its vegetative stage has prostrate radical leaves. During the reproductive period it bears inflorescence on long erect peduncle; the length of peduncle is about twice during fruit formation. The fruits are easily grazed as they are long beaked and umbellate, like the crown of a peacock (hence the local name Mayur Shikha). The fruit dehisces into small mericarps with long hairy bristles, which enables it to disperse widely by wind through long distances and habitats where the conditions may not be suitable for its seed germination and consequently growth, as a result of which a large number of seeds are destroyed. This is the main reason for its rare occurrence and small population. Analysis of the plant parts showed that Monsonia heliotropioides contains high crude proteins, which are maximum in leaves (23.77%) and minimum in roots (9.58%) (Table 1). Adequate amount of nitrogen supply help to maintain normal metabolism under water and heat stress, one of the major factor for all plants in arid regions (Hellmuth 1968). Crude fibres were higher in root and fruit than leaves. The high percentage of crude fibres in fruits may be due to the presence of long beak in fruits and bristles in mericarps. Total ash content was comparatively very low in fruits. Total carbohydrate was estimated to be lower in leaves (58.79%) than roots (76.5%) and fruits (79.4%). All the plant parts showed a good amount of mineral nutrients, especially phosphorus, manganese and zinc. High fodder value of this plant is clearly evident from the present biochemical analysis particularly of high proteins and mineral contents. High concentration of mineral elements in medicinal plants act not only as curative, but also as preventive agents for many diseases (Pandey et al. 2006). Qualitative test for alkaloids, tannins and saponins revealed that tannins were present in all the parts with comparatively dense precipitation in leaf extract. Tannins have astringent properties, which hastens the healing of wounds and inflamed mucous membrane (Okwu and Okwu 2004). High amount of tannins in leaves reported Table 1 : Nutritive content in different parts of Monsonia heliotropioides (on % dry matter basis) Nutritive contents Roots Leaves Fruits Crude Protein 9.58 ±0.92 23.77 ±1.60 11.16 ±1 .02 Crude Fat 0.83 ±0.52 5.36 ±0.21 3.21 ±0.28 Crude Fibre 23.85 ±1.48 5.89 ±0.59 22.50 ±1.13 Ash 13.09 ±1.36 12.08 ±0.25 6.23 ±0.46 Nitrogen Free Extract 52.65 ±2.06 52.90 ±2.23 56.90 ±1.99 Organic Matter 86.91 ±2.18 87.92 ±1.74 94.21 ±1.29 Total Carbohydrate 76.50 ±1.93 58.79 ±1.18 79.40 ±1.45 Calcium 0.77 ±0.12 1.01 ±0.14 1.15 ±0.16 Phosphorus 1.27 ±0.18 0.95 ±0.15 1.69 ±0.58 Magnesium* 101 ±0.82 128 ±1.77 111 ±1.38 Copper* 2.7 ±0.18 3.1 ±0.20 2.1 ±0.44 Iron* 42.7 ±2.22 48.7 ±0.77 34.2 ±0.69 Zinc* 3.8 ±0.21 2.4 ±0.20 3.2 ±0.16 Manganese* 3.4 ±0.28 4.4 ±0.42 6.7 ±0.40 values are mean ±S.D. of five samples * mg/100 gdw J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 199 ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIVE VALUE, RARITY AND CONSERVATION OF MONSONIA HELIOTROPIOIDES in present study justify its medicinal value in dysentery and ulceration of intestine. Alkaloids and saponins were not observed. These substances play an important role in ecology and physiology of adaptations, but may sometimes cause negative effect on grazing animals in case of higher concentration. High concentration of saponins in fodder plants may cause foaming in intestinal tract of grazing animals, which lead to bloating in cattle. Germination of seeds was observed only under the treatment of mechanical scarification, which was very poor (30%). There was no effect of acid scarification. Indole Acetic acid and Gibbrellic acid on germination of seeds. Seed germination was epigeal although the seed coat remains inside the soil due to the attachment at the lower part of hypocotyl. It has been concluded that hard seed coat is impermeable for water and gases, and requires partial decomposition before germination. Protection of habitat, control on grazing, introduction in area of similar habitat and ecological condition and maintenance of its seeds in seed banks, replacing them with fresh collection every year, as seeds gradually lose viability under storage, may be important conservation measures for this species. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The second author thanks UGC for financial support for this work. REFERENCES AO AC (1990): Method of Chemical Analysis. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. Virginia, USA. Ali, M.A. (2010): Ethno-medicinal use of a threatened cucurbit from Bihar. Curr. Sci. 99(9): 1164. AmarSingham, R.D.. N.G Bisset, A.M. Millard & M.C. Woods (1964): A phytochemical survey of Malaya, part III alkaloids and saponins. Econ. Bot. 18(3): 270-280. Arthur, H R. & R.RK. Chan (1962): A survey of Hong Kong plants testing for alkaloids, essential oil and saponins. China Trop. Sci. 4: 147-158. Bhandari, M.M. (1990): Flora of the Indian Desert. MPS. Repros. Jodhpur. 435 pp. Britto, S J., E. Nataruan & D.I. Arockiasamy (2002): In vitro flowering and shoot multiplication from nodal explants of Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb. var. bulbosa. Taiwania 48(2): 106-111. Harsh, L.N. & J.C. Twari (1998): Biodiversity of vegetational complex in arid regions of India. In: Bawa. R. & P.K. Khosla (Eds): Biodiversity of forest species. Bishen Singh Mahender Pal Singh, Dehradun. Hellmuth, E.O. (1968): Eco-physiological studies on plants in arid and semi-arid region in western Australia I. Autecology of Rhagodia baccata (Labill). Moq. J. Ecol. 56: 319-344. Jain, S.K. & A.R.K. Sastry (1980): Threatened Plants of India - A State of Art Report. B.S.I., Hawrah. pp. 48. Kiran Raj, M.S. (2010): Global biodiversity crisis and priorities in Indian plant systematics. Curr. Sci. 99(11): 1491. Leyel, C.F. (1981): A Modern Herbal. Dower Publication, Inc. New York. 902 pp. Lucas, G.L. & H. Synge (1978): The IUCN Plant Red Data Book. Morges, Switzerland. 540 pp. Mathur, C.S. & R.S. Karwasra (1967): Some nutritional aspects of Chamghas (Corchorus anticharis Reeusch.). The Ind. Vet. J. 44: 525-527. Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry ( 1987): Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vol. I. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1988): Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vol. II. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry ( 1 990): Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Vol. III. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Okwu, D.E. & M.E. Okwu (2004): Chemical Composition of Spondias mombin Linn, plant parts. J. Sustain. Agric. Environ. Pp. 140-147. Pandey. R.P. B V. Shetty & S.K. Melhotra (1983): A preliminary census of rare and threatened plants of Rajasthan. Pp. 55-62. In: Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (Eds): An Assessment of Threatened Plants of India. Botanical Survey of India, Hawrah. Pandey. H.K., S. Vir & S.C. Das (2006): Macro and Micro elements in some important Himalayan herbs, used for the cure of various diseases. J. Med. Arom. Pt. Sci. 28: 27-30. Perring, F.H. & L. Farwell (1977): British Red Data Book I. Vascular Plants. Society for the Promotion of Nature Conservation, London. Purohit, G.R. (1987): Nutritive value of some plants of arid zone of Rajasthan. Abst. All Ind. Sem. on Ad. in Bot. Res. in India during the last ten years, Bikaner. Pp. 83-84. Sahni, K.C. (1970): Protection of Rare and Endangered Plants in the Indian Flora. IUCN Pub. New Ser. 18: 95-102. Singh, D. & R.K. Singh (2011): Kair (Capparis decidua ): A potential ethno-botanical weather predictor and livelihood security shrub of the arid zone of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Ind. J. Trad. Knowdg. 10(1): 146-155. 200 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010 201-212 PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA (CRUSTACEA: DECAPODA: PORCELLANIDAE) Alexandra Hiller13, Sadanand Harkantra2 and Bernd Werding3 'Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 843-03092, Panama, Republic of Panama. Email: HillerA@si.edu ’Biological Oceanography Division, National Institute of Oceanography (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi), Dona-Paula 403 004, Goa, India. Email: cabira@rediffmail.com ’Department of Animal Ecology, Justus-Liebig-University, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, D-35392 Giessen. Germany. Email: Bemd.Werding@uni-giessen.de We report here 10 species of Porcellanidae sampled along the coast of Goa, India, each of which is described and figured. Polyonyx splendidus is registered for the first time outside the type region, and Petrolisthes coccineus is registered for the first time for the Arabian Sea. Accordingly, the porcellanid fauna of the western coast of the Indian subcontinent now consists of 16 species, including two endemics. Polyonyx hendersoni and P. splendidus. For the Indian Ocean, 9 species are here reported as endemic. We provide a key for the identification of all species so far reported for the western coast of the Indian subcontinent. Key words: Crustacea, Anomura, Porcellanidae, Goa, Arabian Sea, taxonomy, biogeography INTRODUCTION The Porcellanid fauna of the coast of Goa remains unknown despite earlier studies conducted at different locations of the East Arabian Sea, e.g. Ratnagiri (Sankolli 1963a,b, 1966), along the west coast of India and coast of Pakistan (Tirmizi et al. 1982, 1989). Towards the goal of studying the occurrence, habitat and distribution of the species on the coast of Goa, we conducted fieldwork in the rocky region of Bogmolo in the vicinity of Marmugoa harbour, including St. George Island, and of Anjuna for ten days in December 2006. MATERIAL AND METHODS Crabs were collected during low tide by snorkelling and scuba diving up to 12 m depth, and preserved in 75% ethanol. Collected specimens were brought to the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Biological Oceanography Division, Dona-Paula, Goa, for identification. For each species we included: (1) the taxonomic history including a list of synonyms, (2) number and sex of specimens collected, (3) habitat characteristics and distribution, and (4) a scientific drawing of habitus (using a camera lucida). This information is followed by a taxonomic key to the species of the western coast of the Indian subcontinent. RESULTS Systematic account Ancylocheles gravelei (Sankolli, 1963) (Fig. 1) Pachycheles sp.: Gravely, 1927: 140, pi. 20, fig. 9. Porcellana gravelei : Sankolli, 1963a: 280, fig. 1 ; Sankolli, 1966: 304, fig.5; Haig, 1965: 108: Haig, 1972: 447 Ancylocheles gravelei: Haig, 1978: 777; Haig, 1981: 275; Tirmizi, etal., 1982: 4 (key), fig. 1 1; Tirmizi etal., 1989: 35, fig. 22; Morgan, 1990: 28 Material examined: 4cT, 5 9, Bogmolo Beach, St. George Island, under rocks, mid-tide, 0.5 m. Description: Carapace about as long as broad, subquadrate. Dorsal surface smooth, laterally slightly rugose, anterior regions well-marked. No epibranchial spine. Front broad, sinuously transversal or evenly rounded. Orbits moderately deep, inner orbital angle produced into rounded edge, outer orbital angle produced into small tooth. Fig. 1: Ancylocheles gravelei (Sankolli, 1963), male, Goa, Bogmolo, St. George Island PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA Eyes moderately large. Movable segments of antennae granulous without larger projections. Chelipeds subequal; merus with a large, denticulate lobe at antero-proximal edge, carpus about \Vi times as long as broad, anterior margin with two large teeth on proximal half; dorsal surface granular with two longitudinal crests, outer border strongly convex; palm granular with a broad longitudinal ridge, extending onto pollex, outer border convex or distally nearly straight. Walking legs slender, moderately granular with scattered, simple setae, dactylus with four movable spinules on inner border. Habitat: The species is abundant in the lower intertidal area, and inhabits interstices of stones and rubble overgrown by sponges and other fouling organisms. Distribution: A. gravelei shows a disjunctive distribution in the Indian Ocean, and is known from Pakistan, the western Indian coast and West Australia. Enosteoides ornatus (Stimpson, 1858) (Fig. 2) Porcellana ornata: Stimpson, 1858: 242; Stimpson, 1907: 188; Gordon, 1931: 526, 529, fig.l; Miyake, 1943: 118, figs.42, 43; Sankolli. 1966: 302, fig. 4; Kim & Choe, 1968: 1, pl.l, fig.l. fig.l; Morton & Morton. 1983: 272, 274, 299, figs. 12.9: 4, 12.20: 3 Porcellana corallicola: Haswell. 1882: 759; Johnson, 1970: 32, figs.3q, r Petrolisthes corallicola: Miers, 1884: 271, pi. 29, fig.c Enosteoides ornatus: Haig, 1978: 709; Haig. 1981: 271; Markham, 1982: 329; Tirmizi et al., 1982: 4; Tirmizi et al ., 1989: 37, fig.23; Haig. 1992: 305. fig.2; Yang & Sun, 1992: 209, fig. 15: Yang & Naiyanetr, 1997: 9. fig. 5: Hsieh et al., 1998: 335, figs.32b. 33; Komai, 2000: 361 Fig. 2: Enosteoides ornatus (Stimpson, 1858), female, Bogmolo, St. George Island, Goa Material examined: ld\2?,AnjunaBeach, 1.0- 1.5 m, under rocks; 8d\ 10?, Bogmolo Beach, St. George Island, 5 m, under rocks. Description: Carapace as long as broad, ovate, epibranchial edges slightly pronounced, rounded. Dorsal surface uneven, granular; regions well-defined. Front projecting beyond eyes, triangular in dorsal view, denticulate. Orbits moderately deep, outer orbital angle weakly pronounced. Side walls covered with long, plumose setation. Eyes small. First and second movable segments of antenna short, granulate, third one simple. Chelipeds robust, subequal in size; merus with prominent, denticulate lobe at antero-proximal edge; carpus about 2 times as long as broad, anterior border denticulate, proximally forming irregular sharp tooth; dorsal surface with three longitudinal crests, outer margin with a row of sharp teeth, the distal one forming a spine-tipped prominent edge; surface of palms with longitudinal crest, outer margin spinulated. with a fringe of long feathered setae. Walking legs slender, covered with scattered, long, feathered setae; carpus of leg 1 with antero-distal spine; dactylus with five movable spines. Habitat: Haig (1981) reported the species from the intertidal area under stones, and on coral heads to 54 m depth. We found the species sporadically on the coast of Goa from the lower intertidal to 8 m depth. Distribution: The species is known from Pakistan and the western Indian coast, eastward through the Bay of Bengal, and from West Australia. In the western Pacific, the species has been reported from the Gulf of Thailand through the South China Sea, Taiwan Strait and southern Japan, and from eastern Australia. Pachycheles natalensis (Krauss, 1843) (Fig. 3) Porcellana natalensis: Krauss, 1843: 58. pi. 4, figs.l, la-c; Stimpson 1858: 228 Pisosoma natalensis: Paul'son, 1875: 88, pi. 11, fig. 5; (English translation, 1961: 94, pl.l 1, fig. 5) Pachycheles sculptus: Ortmann, 1894: 29; Nobili, 1906a: 136; Nobili. 1906b: 67 Pachycheles natalensis: Stimpson, 1907: 186; Riddell, 1911: 263: Balss, 1915: 8; Ramadan. 1936: 25: Barnard, 1950: 472, figs. 87a-f: Barnard. 1955: 4; Haig, 1964: 371: Haig, 1966a: 286 (key), 289; Haig, 1966b: 43; Haig, 1966c: 53; Sankolli, 1966: 300. fig. 3; Lewinsohn. 1969: 150, fig. 33; Fewinsohn, 1979: 50; Tirmizi etal., 1982: 2 (key), fig.l. pi. 1; Tirmizi et al., 1989: 4, figs.l, 2; Werding & Hiller, 2007: 4, fig-3 Pisosoma sculpta: Gravely, 1927: 124, pi. 20, fig. 8 Material examined: 3 6 , 4 9 . Anjuna Beach, 1 .0- 1 .5 m. 202 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA Fig. 3: Pachycheles natalensis (Krauss, 1843), male, Red Sea, Egypt (from Werding & Hiller, 2007) mid-low tide, under rocks; 6d , 6 9 , Bogmolo Beach, low tide, under rocks. Description: Carapace generally somewhat broader than long, subovate, convex. Dorsal surface smooth, regions poorly defined. Front inclined, rounded from above or moderately trilobate. Orbits well-defined, outer orbital angle forming a blunt tooth. Lateral walls formed by anterior trapezoid plate covering two thirds of wall, another large, subquadrate plate covering posterior area. Eyes medium-sized. First movable segment of antenna with conical tubercle; second and third somewhat granulated; flagellum IV2 as long as carapace, sparsely setose. Chelipeds large, robust, different in size, surface of carpus and manus nearly smooth or covered with large granules arranged in three longitudinal crests in carpus, and forming two similar crests along outer margin of chela; carpus about as long as broad or barely longer, anterior border with three or four teeth decreasing in size distally ; outer margin of palm convex, fingers gaping in major cheliped, usually with tuft of setae in gape of larger chela, meeting for entire length in minor cheliped. Walking legs stubby, moderately granulated and with scattered, simple setae; dactylus with three movable spines. Telson five-plated; males with a pair of pleopods. Habitat: The species was found regularly in the deeper intertidal zone inhabiting interstices of stones and rubble held together by sponges. Distribution: P. natalensis is restricted to the western Indian Ocean, including the Red Sea, along the coast of the Arabian Sea. On the African coast it is distributed southward to Mozambique including Madagascar. Petrolisthes boscii (Audouin, 1826) (Fig. 4) Porcellana boscii : Audouin, 1826: 89; Heller, 1861a: 24; Heller, 1861b: 256 Petrolisthes boscii: Stimpson, 1858: 227; Paul’son, 1875: 87, 88; Henderson, 1893: 427; Ortmann, 1897: 284; McCulloch, 1913: 353, fig.53; Balss, 1913: 29, pl.l, fig.4; Balss, 19 15: 7; Gravely, 1927: 140; Hale, 1929: 68; Ramadan, 1936: 24; Miyake, 1937: 211, fig. 1, pi. 12, fig.2; Miyake, 1943: 90, figs. 23, 24; Vatova, 1943: 15; Haig, 1964: 360; Haig, 1965: 99; Sankolli, 1966: 296, fig.l; Haig, 1966c: 51; Sarojini & Nagabhushanam, 1968: 153, pl.l, fig. 3; Lewinsohn. 1969: 132, figs.27a-e; Johnson, 1970: 13; Nakasone & Miyake, 1971: 8; Mustaquim, 1972: 154, fig.2; Ahmed & Mustaquim, 1974: 174; Hogarth, 1988: 1101; Tirmizi et al., 1982: 2, fig. 3; Tirmizi et al., 1989: 10, figs. 5a-h; Haig, 1992: 312, figs. 8a-c; Yang & Sun. 1992: 197, figs.2a-c, 3a-e; Yang & Naiyanetr, 1997: 5; Komai, 2000: 364; Werding & Hiller, 2007: 7, 8, fig.5 Petrolisthes amakusensis: Miyake & Nakasone, 1943: 173, figs. 1-3 Petrolisthes rugosus: Miers, 1884: 270 Porcellana (Petrolisthes) boscii: de Man, 1888: 217 Material examined: 12 d, 15 9, Bogmolo Beach, under rocks, low-tide; lc?, 19, Bogmolo Beach, St. George Island, 5 m, under rocks; 2d, 2 9 , Anjuna Beach (North), under rocks, 1.0- 1.5 m, low tide. Description: Carapace slightly longer than broad, inversely cordate, evenly rounded along branchial margins; surface with inconspicuous, interrupted transverse, plications; one epibranchial spine present. Front sinuously triangular with longitudinal depression; orbitae shallow, without supraocular spine, postorbital angle rectangular, without tooth. Eyes Fig. 4: Petrolisthes boscii (Audouin, 1826), male, Bogmolo, St. George Island, Goa J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 203 PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA moderately large. Basal segments of antennulae with some transverse rugae, anterior margin with teeth. First movable segment of antennae with serrated, spine-tipped lamellar lobe: second and third segments slightly rugose. Chelipeds subequal, surface with piliferous striations, merus rugose with serrated lobe on anterior margin; carpus two times as long as broad, armed on anterior margin w'ith two or three broad, serrated teeth proximally, the first one spine-tipped; posterior margin slightly convex, armed distally with a strong spine, followed by two smaller ones. Chelae broad, with transverse striations, outer margin evenly rounded, spineless. Walking legs rugose; all segments with irregularly wide-set, feathered and simple setae; Merus spineless with an exception of a small posterodistal spine on legs 1 and 2, carpus spineless; propodus with terminal triplet of movable spines on ventral border and an additional one at mid level; dactylus large with three movable spinules on inner border. Habitat: Lewinsohn (1969) reported P. boscii from shallow water to 18.3 m depth, from rocks, boulders and corals. We found it among boulders in the deeper intertidal and the subtidal, where it appears to be the most abundant porcellanid species. Distribution: West Indian Ocean, including the Red Sea, and along the coast of the Arabian Sea through the Bay of Bengal. In the Pacific from the Gulf of Thailand, Indonesia and Japan. Also in tropical Australia. Petrolisthes coccineus (Richardson et al., 1839) (Fig. 5) Porcellana coccinea: Richardson etal., 1839; 87, pi. 26, figs. 1. 2; Dana, 1852-53: 423 Petrolisthes coccineus: Laurie, 1926: 14; Miyake, 1943: 59. figs. 3, 4; Haig, 1966b: 46, (key); Kensley, 1970: 114, Fig. 5: Petrolisthes coccineus ( Richardson et al., 1839), male, Bogmolo, St. George Island, Goa fig. 8; Haig, 1983: 280; Haig, 1992: 313, fig.9; Hsieh etal., 1998: 303, fig. 16; Yang & Sun, 1990: 3, pl.3 Petrolisthes barbatus : de Man, 1893: 296, pi. 7, figs.4, 4a; Ortmann, 1894: 28; Ward, 1942: 63 Petrolisthes pubescens: Balss, 1913: 30, pl.l fig. 2 Petrolisthes nipponensis: Miyake, 1937: 213, fig. 22, pi. 12 fig. 1 Material examined: 3d1, 2 juv. Bogmolo Beach, under rocks, low tide. Description: Carapace slightly longer than broad, evenly rounded along branchial margins, inversely cordate. Surface with faint, transverse plications on cardiac region and along posterior lateral margins; one epibranchial spine present. Front narrow, sinuously triangular with longitudinal depression; orbitae shallow, supraocular spine strong, postorbital angle blunt. Eyes large. Basal segment of antennulae with some transverse rugae, anterior margin with teeth. First movable segment of antennae with serrated, spine- tipped, lamellar lobe; second produced forwardly, forming a serrated, edged tooth; third segment slightly rugose. Chelipeds subequal, merus rugose with spine-tipped projection on anterior margin; distal border with a pair of spines, a third one upon surface; carpus about two-and-a- half times as long as broad; surface with two rows of scale¬ like, flattened granules, one forming a shallow longitudinal crest along midline, the second along posterior margin; anterior margin with three serrated spine-tipped teeth; posterior margin slightly concave, distal edge armed with a pair of strong spines, followed by two weaker ones. Chelae flat, surface with a row of granules forming a longitudinal ridge; area towards outer margin with scattered granules and scattered, feathered setae. Outer border with a row of strong, spine-tipped teeth. Walking legs rugose, with scattered, simple, feathered setae; anterior margin of merus with a row of strong spines; a pair of large posterodistal spines on merus of legs 1 and 2, a smaller one on leg 3; carpus of leg 1 with anterodistal spine; propodus with terminal triplet of movable spines on ventral border, with one or two, additional ones; dactylus large with three movable spinules on inner border. Habitat: Haig (1983) reported the species from shallow water to 1.2 m in the Seychelles. According to Miyake ( 1943), the species occurs between tide marks under rocks. We found few specimens in two locations under large boulders. Distribution: P. coccineus shows an extremely large distributional range from the coast of Mozambique through scattered locations in the Indian Ocean, and the western Pacific to the Easter Island. Its occurrence on small and distant oceanic islands is remarkable. In the Indian Ocean, it is reported from the Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago and Nicobar 204 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA Islands; in the Pacific from Ogasawara, the Mariana Islands, Hawaii, the Tuamotu Archipelago and Easter Island. Additionally, it has been reported from Indonesia and Taiwan. The finding from India is the first record from continental Asia. Petrolisthes lamarckii (Leach, 1820) (Fig. 6) Pisidia lamarckii: Leach, 1820: 54 Petrolisthes lamarckii: Stimpson, 1858: 227; Miers, 1884: 557; Stimpson, 1907, pi. 22 fig. 2; Ortmann, 1894: 26; Borradaile, 1898: 464; Miyake, 1942: 342, figs. 7, 8: Miyake, 1943: 98, fig.29; Barnard, 1950: 477 figs.89 a-d; Haig, 1964: 362; Haig, 1966b: 47; Mustaquim, 1972: 154, fig. 3; Haig, 1979: 124; Haig, 1983: 283; Kropp, 1983: 100; Yang, 1983: 3, pl.4; Tirmizi et al., 1982: 10, fig.4; Hogarth, 1988: 1101; Tirmizi et al, 1989: 12, figs.7, 8; Haig, 1992: 315, fig.ll; Hsieh et al., 1998: 326, fig. 28 Petrolisthes lamarcki: Doflein & Balss, 1913: 162 Petrolisthes lamarcki: Laurie, 1926: 140; Taylor, 1968: 170 Porcellana dentate: H. Milne Edwards, 1837: 252 Porcellana pulchripes: White, 1847: 129 Porcellana speciosa: Dana, 1852-53: 417; Dana, 1855: pi. 26, fig. 8; Balss, 1913: 30 Petrolisthes dentatus: Rathbun, 1910: 314 Porcellana bellis: Heller, 1865: 76. Material examined: 4. India. 259 pp. Shaji, C.P. & P.S. Easa (1995): Homaloptera menoni - A new Homalopterid (Pisces: Homalopteridae) from Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 395-397 Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and Adjacent Countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi. 226 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010 227-230 TOR REMADEVII, A NEW SPECIES OF TOR (GRAY) FROM CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, PAMBAR RIVER, KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA B. Madhusoodana Kurup'-3and K.V. Radhakrishnan1-2 ‘Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies, Kochi 682 506, Kerala, India. :Key Laboratory of Ecology and Environment Science in Guangdong Higher Education, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for Healthy and Safe Aquaculture, College of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510 631, China. Email: krishnaradh76@gmail.com 3Email: madhukurup@hotmail.com A new cyprinid fish is described under the genus Tor based on 19 specimens collected from Chambakkad and Koottar regions of river Pambar in Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary. Morphometric and meristic characters of the new species varied from the species hitherto described. Key words: Tor remadevii , Chinnar river, Chinnar WLS, Pambar river INTRODUCTION Genus Tor (Gray 1834), well-known as Mahseer, is widely distributed in the freshwaters of Asia, Africa and Indo- Australian Archipelago (Tilak and Sharma 1982). The Tor species so far reported from Indian region include Tor khudree (Sykes), T. mosal (Hamilton-Buchanan), T. mussullah (Sykes), T. neilli (Day), T. putitora (Hamilton- Buchanan) and T. progenius (McClelland). Mahseer shows different pattern of distribution from the Himalaya to Peninsular region in the Indian subcontinent (Jayaram 1999). T. kulkarnii described by Menon ( 1992) from Deolali hills of Maharashtra is not included as a valid species of the Indian region (Jayaram 1999). Among the various species, Tor khudree , T. mussullah and T. tor are hitherto known from southern India (Kulkami and Ogale 1979; Kulkarni 1980; Sen and Jayaram 1994; Menon 1999; Ajithkumar et al. 2000; Kurup et al. 2001; Shaji and Easa 2001). Tor khudree malabaricus (Kulkami 1980) reported from Malabar, Kerala, was subsequently treated as a synonym of T. khudree by Menon (1999). During the survey of NAT-ICAR project on Germplasm Inventory Evaluation and Genebanking of Freshwater Fishes of Kerala, we came across 19 specimens of a Tor species from the river Pambar, whose morphometric and meristic characters totally varied from the species hitherto described under this genus, and therefore erected as a new species. MATERIAL AND METHODS Nineteen specimens were collected using cast net, having 5 mm and 8 mm mesh sizes and gill nets having 32 and 78 mm mesh sizes from the Chambakkad and Koottar localities of river Pambar in Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. Morphometric measurements were recorded using a dial reading calliper with an accuracy of 0.1 mm. Morphometry of the new species are presented as percentages, with the range followed by the mean in parentheses. Meristic counts were done following Talwar and Jhingran (1991). Taxonomy of Mahseer fishes under the Genus Tor by Menon (1992) was also consulted. Tor remadevii sp. nov. (Fig. 1 ) Holotvpe: Deposited in ZSI (WGRS) CLT. No. V/F 1 3 1 1 9a. 33 1 .82 mm TL, Chambakkad, Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, 18.V.2004, Coll. Dr. K.V. Radhakrishnan. Paratype: 2 exs. Deposited in ZSI (WGRS) CLT. No. V/F 131 19b, 160.84 mm and 1 13.64 mm TL, Chambakkad, Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, 18.V.2004, Coll. Dr. K.V. Radhakrishnan (16 remaining paratypes ranging from 1 14.23 mm to 228.16 mm TL are kept at the museum of School of Industrial Fisheries, Cochin University of Science and Technology., Reg. No. SIF/Mus/F/212A to SIF/Mus/F/212B). Fig. 1: Lateral view of Tor remadevii sp. nov. NEW DESCRIPTION Diagnosis: An elongate species with the dorsal fin equal to depth of the body and with a strong osseous spine, head straight, snout pointed and with a terminal or slightly upturned mouth, lips fleshy and the mentum small (fleshy in younger specimens), head length more than body depth, a deep hump at the occipit, lateral line scales 27-29. Body colour greenish to metallic silvery along back and fins reddish with blackish patches. Description: Based on 19 specimens ranging in size from 1 1 3.64 mm to 33 1 .82 mm TL. D.IV. 10; P.1, 15; V.I. 8; A.I, 5; C.19; L.l. 27-29. Body: Body elongate. Head length 31.48-33.68% (32.45%) in SL. Depth of the body 84.43-90.10% (83.55%) in head length and 25.60-28.37% (27.09%) in SL. Width of head 39.19-44.89% (41.02%) in head length. Snout elongated and its length 30.45-48.17% (34.33%) in head length and 9.29-16.09% (11.15%) in SL. Eyes lie at the posterior half and superiorly, its diameter is 13.21-23.55% (18.49%) in head length. Dorsal profile has a moderate to prominent hump after the head region, before the insertion of dorsal fin. Two pairs of barbels are present, maxillary more elongated than rostral barbels. Fins: Origin of dorsal lies opposite to that of pelvics and midway between tip of snout and base of caudal fin. Dorsal spine osseous, strong and smooth, equal to depth of body, forming 96.28-101.24% (99.02%) in the latter, 27.91-30.87% (29.60%) in SL and 88.12-96.04% (91.22%) in head length. Pectoral fins form 60.13-74.73% (67.10%) in height of dorsal fin. Ventral fins are 91.18-99.34% (92.51%) in height of pectoral fins. Caudal fin is deeply forked. Caudal length form 25.87-29.49% (27.54%) in SL. The length of caudal peduncle is 14.42-17.23% ( 15.60%) in head length. The least depth of caudal peduncle is 68.29-88.67% (74.46%) in its length. Squamation: 27-29 scales along the lateral line, 4.5 from the origin of dorsal to lateral line, 2.5-3 between the lateral line and pelvic fin origin, predorsal scales 9-11, preventral scales 8 and preanal scales 17-18. Scales between pectoral and ventral fins 8, pelvic and anal fins 9-10. Circumpeduncular scales 14-16. Coloration: Dorsal side of the body is greenish to metallic black with the sides silvery, ventral side is white. Head is silvery white, while the eyes are dark bluish. Fins are eventually reddish with blackish patches. Body uniformly silvery in colour in younger specimens, belly white and fins red orange. Distribution: india: Kerala, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Chambakkad and Koottar localities of river Pambar. Etymology: Named after the renowned freshwater fish taxonomist. Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, Zoological Survey of India, Chennai. Key to the species of Tor reported from the Indian region 1 . Length of head considerably greater than body depth . 2 — Length of head shorter or more or less equal to body depth . 4 2. Dorsal fin inserted midway between tip of snout and caudal fin base, dorsal spine length equal to body depth below it . 3 — Dorsal fin inserted nearer tip of snout than caudal base, dorsal spine length shorter than body depth below it ... Tor khudree 3. A characteristic hump over occiput, head and snout straight, mouth slightly upturned, body bluish dark with fins red orange Tor remadevii sp. nov. — No hump over occiput. Head and snout normal, mouth slightly subterminal, colour silvery with the fins yellowish . . Tor putitora 4. Body deep, 4.5 rows of scales between base of dorsal fin and lateral line, a distinct hump over occiput . . Tor mussullah — 3 to 3.5 rows of scales between dorsal fin base and lateral line. No such hump over occiput . 5 5. Dorsal spine weak, articulated . Tor neilli — Dorsal spine strong . 6 6. Lips hypertrophied. A fan-shaped rounded structure behind upper lip present . Tor progenius — No such fan-shaped structure behind upper lip . 7 7. Pre-dorsal scales 6. Dorsal fin inserted midway between tip of snout and caudal fin base. Ventral profile more arched than dorsal (N. India) . Tor tor — Pre-dorsal scales 8. Dorsal fin inserted nearer tip of snout than caudal fin base. Dorsal profile more arched than ventral . Tor mo sal Other material examined: Tor putitora : NBFGR. 1 ex. 186 mm TL. Remarks: The new species shows remarkable variation from Tor khudree and Tor mussullah, which are reported from Western Ghats due to the presence of a strong and osseous spine in the dorsal fin and the length of the head, which is more than body depth, a most valid identification character widely used for differentiating various species coming under the genus Tor. Also, the dorsal fin is high with its length more or less equal to body depth, a character which differentiates it from that of Tor tor. The species, however, shows close similarity with the Himalayan Yellow Fin Mahseer, Tor putitora in possessing an elongated head and strong dorsal fin, in contrast, it strongly 228 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 Table 1 : Comparison of morpho-meristic characters of the new species with the closely related species under the genus, Tor in India NEW DESCRIPTION 03 CO o o o o "T 'T iq cq cq CO O CO o cq r- ^ T— CO q o o CO t- CO >■» p Q- CO CSI CO CO ^ CO q O) if) co d coi 5 o CD 03 CD cq lo t— cd q cq q cd t- d o c: c o o CL 03 <+= ~P ■C co cq cq cd 'tq cq •d- CT3 CSI cd cd cd 03 TO s CNi cq cq cd cd cd cq cq lo csi cd cd co TO o to 03 O _i Q — 1 CO CQ CO o CQ LO csi TD CD £Z O TO 03 CO LO csi O LO csi B 9- TO t TO 0) -C q TO LO CSI 03 cd CD cd LO CSI § 2 CD CD CL 03 co O Q TO q E TO 25 o CO TO q E TO s CO TO E TO 25 o CO TO TO 25 o CO TO q E TO 25 O CO TO E TO 25 3 CO 03 775 o 7t5 q E £ ■o TO TO O -O TO i- 1 TO CO rQ > O •g t TO _Q 0) T= _Q O ,75 O _TO TO _Q CSJ 'd CO CSJ cq cd cd csi -q- i"- csj CSI CSJ cd CSJ h- ■q- l"- CN cb cd CSJ cq id OO CSJ co LO csi CSJ cq cd CSJ oo cd LO CSI r--- •'d r"- CSJ rd. LO csi CSI 03 CSJ rd LO CSI _ 1 X C/3 TO _c TO O TO CO TO TO E q TO "O TO TO _TO >■» TO LU _ 1 O CQ O) TO o -tz P o Q CQ 03 TO C= tZ P O O CQ -t TO . Q £ m o o TO t o Q . CQ £ o o 22 o 03 E - sr 03 TO O tZ o o o CQ co PJ co CQ O O TO TO *- TO O — J TD . CD TO CO O $ O _ CO “2 TO o E >% CL TO CO C73 cT3 TO TO 03 03 TO O Q TO TO TO ^ 03 CL 03 S — s TO TO TO- O ^ -TO > Q ^ — 1 _d TO o o o "P ' ' § s 03 TO ” _Q TO O CL TO TO “O C/3 <13 '>n E TO 03 TD TO 03 "TO TO ^ TO TO > Cl > > 03 “ CO .E -TO -Q C TO TO 03 o o CD TO TO TO ^ ^ TO ? ?3 SZ XI C/3 CO _o -Q TO ^ >s (13 3^ _> E CO TO -n P ^ XI -O 03 co ~ TO ^ - O ■> TO ^ c > TO O 03 03 o | " TO TO CO TO ii ^ O _o o o Q CQ J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 229 NEW DESCRIPTION differs from the latter due to the presence of a characteristic hump at the occiput, presence of straight head and snout, and possession of a terminal or slightly upturned mouth in the new species. Conversely in Tor putitora, the mouth is subterminal in position and the head profile is also bending downwards. The new species also differ from Tor mosal and Tor kulkarni (Menon 1992) in a number of characters such as head length in relation to body length, body depth and height of dorsal fin in relation to body depth, and eye diameter and snout length in relation to head length. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The financial support given by the NAT-ICAR Project for the present study is thankfully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to scientists of ZSI (WGRS) Kozhikkode for help in identifying the new species. We also thank Prof. (Dr.) Ramakrishnan Korakandy, Director, School of Industrial Fisheries, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India for providing necessary facilities for carrying out this study. The assistance of M.D. Mahesan and C.P Sunil Kumar during the field survey is also acknowledged. REFERENCES Ajithkumar, C.R., C.R. Buu & K. Raju Thomas (2000): Ecology of hill streams of Western Ghats with special reference to fish community. BNHS Final Report, Bombay Natural History Society. 312 pp. Gray, J.E. ( 1 834): The Illustrations of Indian Zoology, chiefly selected from the collection of General Hardwick. 96 pp. Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region. Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi. 551+xvii. Kulkarni, C.V. & S.N. Ogale (1979): The present status of Mahseer (Fish) and artificial propagation of Tor khudree (Sykes). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 651-660. Kulkarni, C.V. (1980): Eggs and early development of Tor mahseer Fish. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 77(1): 70-75. Kurup, B.M., T.G. Manojkumar & K.V. Radhakrishnan (2001): Germplasm Inventory, Evaluation and Gene banking of freshwater fishes. NAT-ICAR Research Report. Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin, Kerala. 364 pp. Menon, A.G.K. (1992): Taxonomy of Mahseer fishes of the Genus Tor Gray with description of a new species from Deccan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 211-228. Menon. A.G.K. (1999): Checklist of freshwater fishes of India. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper No. 175: 366. Sen, T.K. & K.C. Jayaram (1994): The Mahseer Fishes of India - A Review. Rec. Zool. surv. India, Occ. Paper No. 39: 38. Shaji, C.P. & PS. Easa(2001): Freshwater Fishes of the Western Ghats. KFRI-NBFGR Publication. 108 pp. Talwar, PK. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and Adjacent Countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. 1 158+xix. Tilak, R. & V. Sharma (1982): Game Fishes of India and Angling. International Book Distributors, Dehradun. 304 pp. 230 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010 231-235 CHANNA MELANOSTIGMA , A NEW SPECIES OF FRESHWATER SNAKEHEAD FROM NORTH-EAST INDIA (TELEOSTEI: CHANNIDAE) Khangjrakpam Geetakumari1’2 and Waikhom Vishwanath13 'Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal 795 003, Manipur, India. 2Email: geetameme@gmail.com ’Email: wvnath@gmail.com Channa melanostigma, a new channid fish species is described from north-east India. The species is distinguished from all its congeners by a combination of the following characters: 14-15 black zig-zag transverse bars at irregular intervals on caudal fin (when stretched), the interspaces being 2/3rd of the bars; dorsal fin inserted after 3-4 scales vertically above the pectoral fin origin, V2I-V2 8 scales below the lateral line, 5 cheek scales, 27-28 circumpeduncular scales, 50-51 vertebrae, 7 branchial tooth plates, 36-37 branched dorsal fin rays and last dorsal fin inserted in between 41 and 43 vertebrae. Key words: Channid fish, new species, Arunachal Pradesh INTRODUCTION Freshwater snake-headed fishes of the Family Channidae is represented by 31 species, of which 28 are of Asian genus Channa Scopoli and three of African genus Parachanna Li etal. (2005). All species in this genus have cavities in the head which act as a primitive lung enabling them to live for long time out of water (Shaw and Shebbeare 1937). North-east India having many derelict swamps is rich in channid fauna. Hamilton (1822) described Ophiocephalus barca from Brahmaputra river, Assam; O. gachua from ponds and ditches of Bengal and O. marulius from Gangetic provinces, India. McClelland (1845) described O. amphibeus from the vicinity of Chel river. North Bengal. Playfair (1867), Vierke (1991) and Musikasinthorn (2000) respectively described O. stewartii , Channa bleheri and C. aurantimaculata from Assam. Shaw and Shebbeare ( 1937) and Menon (1954), listed O. striatus and O. punctatus respectively from North Bengal and Manipur. All the above species are now in Channa. The works of Sen ( 1999), Nath and Dey (2000) and Sen (2006) on the fishes of Arunachal Pradesh did not include any additional species of Channa. Vishwanath and Geetakumari (2009) provided diagnostic characters of nine species of Channa from North-east India and studied their inter-relationships. Recently, Bagra et al. (2009) included an unidentified species, Channa sp. 1, in their checklist of fishes of Arunachal Pradesh, which was also collected from the type locality of the new species under description. Collections from Lohit river (Brahmaputra basin), Arunachal Pradesh, in 2007, included an unnamed species of Channa which is herein described as Channa melanostigma , a new species. MATERIAL AND METHODS Measurements were made point to point with dial calipers to the nearest 0.1 mm. Counts and measurements were made on the left side of specimens under a PC-based binocular stereozoom microscope with transmitted light. Counts and measurements followed Musikasinthorn (1998). Clearing and staining of specimens for osteology followed Hollister (1934). Identification and nomenclature of bones and vertebral counts followed Greenwood (1976). As the gill rakers in the genus are modified to form toothplate, we use the term 'branchial toothplate count" instead of gill raker count following Greenwood (1976). The count was taken on the first gill arch starting from hypobranchial to epibranchial on the left side of the specimens. Measurements of head length and body parts are expressed as proportions of standard length (SL) while subunits of the head, as proportions of head length (HL). Material examined in this study is deposited in Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF). Channa melanostigma sp. nov. (Fig. 1 ) Material examined: Holotype: MUMF-Per 39, 1 34.8 mm SL; India: Arunachal Pradesh: Lohit district, Lohit river, Brahmaputra drainage: Tezu, 27° 54r 41" N, 96° 10' 23" E; K. Nebeshwar Sharma, 29.iii.2007. Paratypes: 7 specimens. MUMF-Per 40-46, 6, 82.1-143.0 mm SL; same data as for holotype, MUMF-Per 45 and 46 dissected, cleared and stained for osteology. Diagnosis: Channa melanostigma is distinguished from its nearest congener C. stewartii in having distinct 14-15 black zigzag transverse bars at irregular intervals (when stretched), the interspaces being 2/3rd of the bars on the caudal fin (Fig. 2a) vs. no black zigzag bars in the caudal fin (Fig. 2b); NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 1 : Side view of Channa melanostigma sp. nov., paratype, MUMF-Per 40, 112.5 mm SL dorsal fin origin after 3-4 scales vertically above the pectoral fin origin vs. vertically above the pectoral origin, vertebra 50-5 1 vs. 44, branchial toothplate count 7 vs. 3 and more number of scales below the lateral line V2I-V2 8 vs. V25. It is also distinguished from C. gachua in having more number of vertebra (50-51 vs. 43), toothplate count (7 vs. 9), last dorsal fin ray inserted in between 41s1 and 43rd vertebrae (vs. 35th and 36th). In case of C. gachua the juveniles have a very distinct ocellus at the posterior end of the dorsal fin base but the ocellus is completely absent in case of the C. melanostigma. It differs from C. aurantimaculata in having less number of dorsal fin rays (36-37 vs. 45-47), last dorsal finray inserted between 41st and 43rd vertebrae (vs. 46th and 47th), cheek scales 5 vs. 10 and less number of circumpeduncular scales (28 vs. 34). Description: Morphometric data are in Table 1 . Dorsal fin 36-37 simple rays. Anal fin 24-25 simple rays, pectoral fin one simple and 14-15 branched rays, pelvic fin 5 simple rays, caudal fin 14 branched rays, predorsal scales 13-14, lateral line scales dropping one row following 1 5- 1 7th anterior- most scales. Two large cycloid scales on each side of lower jaw, transverse scales 1/23-'/24/l/1/27-1/28, caudal fin with 14-15 black zigzag bars, black spots throughout the flank, 1 2-14 alternate black and whitish transverse bars on the body, cheek scales 5-6, circumpeduncular scales 27-28, scales below the lateral line V2I-V2 8, total vertebrae 50-5 1 ; last ray of dorsal fin in between 41-43 vertebrae, precaudal + caudal vertebrae = 44-45+6, toothplate count 7. Cephalic sensory pores single, without satellite openings. Body elongated, cross-section almost circular in anterior portion and somewhat compressed posteriorly. Body depth greatest at ventral fins origin. Body widest at pectoral fin origin. Dorsal and anal fin bases long (56.9-62.6% SL and 37.7-44.3% SL, respectively). Head depth 11.7-14.6% HL. head width 15.9-20.9% HL. body depth 14.4-15.3% SL, caudal peduncle depth 9.7-10.75% SL, pelvic fin length 7.4- 9.2% SL. Outer margins of pectoral and caudal fins rounded. Dorsal fin origin after 3-4 scales vertically above the pectoral fin origin. Head elongated 26.9-3 1 .3% SL, concave in lateral view. Snout narrow, dorsal profile of snout somewhat convex. Fig. 2: Comparison of caudal fins: a. Channa melanostigma sp. nov. (paratype, MUMF-Per 40, 112.5 mm SL) stretched, b. C. stewartii (MUMF-Per 21 , 109.7 mm SL) 232 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Table 1: Biometric data of Channa melanostigma sp. nov. and C. stewartii except SL and HL in mm C. melanostigma sp. nov. C. stewartii Holotype Paratypes MUMF-Per/40-45 MUMF-Per/21 , 22 Goswami MUMF- Per/39 (n=6) (Lohit) (n=2) et al. (2006) (n=6) SL (mm) % SL 134.8 82.1 mean -143.0 range S.D. 109.7-155.2 148.0-157.0 Head length 30.8 29.8 26.9-31.3 1.91 30.8-30.9 29.3-30.7 Head depth 14.4 13.6 11.7-14.6 1.38 15.0-16.4 14.0-14.7 Head width 19.9 18.8 15.9-20.9 1.96 20.1-21.4 19.0-19.8 Body depth 17.4 15.4 14.4-15.3 1.03 17.9-18.3 14.0-15.9 Body width 13.6 12.5 10.7-14.3 1.34 12.1-13.3 11.8-12.7 Caudal peduncle length 10.2 10.3 9.9-11.0 0.41 1 0.0-11 .2 10.0-11.0 Caudal peduncle depth 10.8 10.2 9.7-10.7 0.51 10.8-11.2 10.3-11.2 Predorsal length 35.3 34.2 31.6-35.7 3.90 32.9-33.9 31.9-35.5 Preanal length 53.1 51.5 47.8-53.1 1.93 48.6-52.5 50.0-53.3 Prepectoral length 32.0 30.8 27.8-32.6 2.16 32.1-34.1 28.7-32.5 Prepelvic length 37.2 34.4 29.6-37.6 3.90 35.6-37.4 35.0-37.7 Dorsal fin base length 56.9 59.2 58.3-62.6 2.11 61.7-64.6 59.2-61.7 Anal fin base length 37.7 40.9 39.7-44.3 2.68 39.2-39.7 37.0-39.2 Pectoral fin length 18.3 18.3 17.1-20.0 1.04 19.4-19.8 17.8-19.8 Pelvic fin length 7.7 8.1 7. 4-9. 2 0.69 6. 1-7.1 7. 0-7.6 Head length (mm) 41.5 39.3 32.4-41.5 3.59 34-47.9 4. 3-4.7 % HL Head depth 46.9 45.3 42.3-46.6 1.89 48.5-53.0 46.5-48.9 Head width 64.0 62.7 57.2-66.9 3.50 65.0-69.3 64.0-66.0 Snout length 19.5 21.8 21.8-23.1 1.37 21.5-21.8 No data Eye diameter 14.5 14.9 14.3-15.6 0.61 13.9-15.6 14.6-16.0 Preorbital head depth 24.8 25.0 23.4-26.5 1.19 24.2-30.9 21.1-31.9 Postorbital head length 68.2 66.7 63.8-68.8 2.23 66.8-69.5 65.4-69.2 Postorbital head depth 34.7 32.5 29.6-34.9 2.29 24.2-30.9 No data Interorbital width 34.9 33.3 31-35.3 1.97 32.9-38.4 30.4-35.6 Upper jaw length 40.5 42.5 40.1-48.7 3.52 41.1-45.9 30.9-37.4 Interorbital region almost flat. Orbit not reaching dorsal contour of head in lateral view. Mouth large, maxilla and premaxillary process extending to vertical level of the posterior end of the orbit. Dentition: Many small conical teeth embedded in premaxilla, prevomer, and palatine, the prevomer being with 10 more additional large canine-like teeth. Dentary is also with many small teeth on outer region, plus 9 large canine¬ like teeth medially on each side (Fig. 3). Colour: In alcohol, dorsal side of body brown or darkish brown, ventral side whitish, 12-14 alternate dark and whitish transverse bars on the sides. Black spots scattered throughout the body 4-5 rows of spots on dorsal fin, caudal fin with distinct 14-15 zigzag cross bars at irregular intervals where the interspace between two bars is 2/3rd of the zigzag bar. Pectoral fin with 5-6 black bars. Edges of dorsal and anal fins white. Distribution: Presently known from Lohit river at Tezu, Lohit district, Arunachal Pradesh (Brahmaputra drainage), India (Fig. 4). Etymology: Named after the melanophores present on each scale on flanks. Discussion: Channa melanostigma is similar to C. stewartii in overall body appearance, head shape, i.e., generally rounded in lateral view and coloration, numerous small black spots scattered on body, narrow and pointed snout, lateral line scales 46-47, scale rows between preopercular angle and posterior border of orbit 4-6, predorsal scales 13, maxilla and premaxillary process extending to vertical level of the posterior end of the orbit, pectoral fin rays 14-15, caudal fin rays 13-14, and scales above the lateral line 31/2. However, C. melanostigma is distinct particularly in having the caudal bars, more number of branchial toothplates, vertebra and scales below lateral line. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 233 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 3: Dentition of Channa melanostigma sp. nov. (MUMF-Per 46) The new species is also similar to C. gachua in having white coloration at the edge of dorsal and anal fins, lateral line 46-47, and presence of 5-6 black bars on the pectoral fin. However, C. melanostigma is distinguished from both the species as in diagnosis above. But it is distinguished from the latter in its more number of vertebrae and more posteriorly inserted dorsal fin. Channa melanostigma is distinguished from C. aurantimaculata in having less number of dorsal fin rays (36-37 vs. 45-47), last dorsal fin ray inserted between 41st and 43rd vertebrae (vs. 46lh and 47th), cheek scales 5 vs. 10 and less number of circumpeduncular scales (28 vs. 34), from C. punctatus in having 50-51 vertebrae (vs. 35); from C. amphibeus, in its less numbers of lateral line pierced scales (46-47 vs. 80-8 1 ); from C. barca, in having continuous black bars in the pectoral fin (vs. dotted bars); from C. bleheri in having pelvic fin (vs. absence); from C. harcourtbutleri in Fig. 4: Collection sites of Channa melanostigma sp. nov. from NE India having 10 scales below the lateral line (vs. V2I- V28) and from C. marulius and C. striata by the presence of two large cycloid scales on each side of the undersurface of lower jaw (vs. absence). The new species is easily distinguished from Channa nox of China and C. orientalis of Sri Lanka in presence of pelvic fin (vs. absence); C. panaw of Myanmar in having 27-28 circumpeduncular scales (vs. 21-24); C. omatipinnis of Myanmar in absence of three dorsal fin blotches (vs. presence); and C. pulchra of Myanmar in absence of one anterior dorsal fin blotch (vs. presence). The species is also distinguished from C. argus of China, C. baramensis of Malaysia; C. bankanensis, C. lucius, C. cyanospilos, C. melanopterus, C. melasoma, C. micropeltes, and C. pleurophthalmus of Indonesia by the presence of two large cycloid scales on each side of the undersurface of lower jaw (vs. absence). Hora and Mukerji (1934) synonymised Channa harcourtbutleri with C. gachua. However, Ng et al. (1999) resurrected the species from synonymy and reported it to be endemic in Inle lake of Myanmar. Menon (1954) listed C. harcourtbutleri from Manipur without any collection data. This was probably a misidentification of C. gachua. Vishwanath and Geetakumari (2009) recognized two groups of Channa in north-east India, namely 'gachua-group', with large cycloid scales on each side of the undersurface of lower jaw which included C. amphibeus , C. aurantimaculata, 234 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 NEW DESCRIPTIONS C. barca , C. bleheri. C. gachua , C. punctata , C. stewartii and ‘marulius-group'without the scales as in the above which included C. striata and C. marulius. The new species under description belong to the ‘gachua-group’ as its has large cycloid scales. General inventory and phylogenetic study of the diverse species of Channa in north-east India and adjoining areas is awaited. Comparative Material: Channa amphibeus : ZSI 11435, 1, neotype, 184.6mm SL: India: Northern Bengal. Channa aurantimaculata : MUMF-Per 01.2, 175-182.0 mm SL; India: Arunachal Pradesh. Lohit district, Teju river. GUBM (Guwahati University Biodiversity Museum uncat., 1 ex, 345 mm SL; India; Assam, Guijan. Channa barca : ZSI 1387, 1 ex, 260.7 mm SL; india: Calcutta. GUBM uncat., 1 ex, 447.7 mm SL, india: Assam, Guwahati, Marigoan Market; MUMF-Per 44 (2), 295-298 mm SL, india: Assam, fringe area of Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, Morigaon. Channa bleheri: MUMF-Per 03, 2, 148.4-149.1 mm SL, india: Arunachal Pradesh, Dikrong river, Doymukh; BMGU uncat., 1 ex, 121.0 mm SL, india: Assam, Tinsukia district. Channa gachua : ZSI F 2705, 1 ex, 246.0 mm SL, Bangladesh: Bulagunj, Sylhet; MLIMF-Per/0004 (6), 1 12.8-1 12.9 mm SL. india: Manipur, Nambul River, Singda. Channa harcourtbutleri: ZSI F 9439, 1 ex, 189.0 mm SL. myanmar: Inle Lake. S. Shan states. Channa marulius-. MUMF uncat., 1 ex, 488.0 mm SL, india: Manipur, Barak river, Vanchengphai, Tamenglong district; MUMF-Per 25, 7, 97.8- 151.6 mm SL, Chindwin Basin, Moreh, India. Channa punctata : ZSIF 7688, 1 ex, 144.6 mm SL, india: Bihar, Bhagmati River, Pumea, Champaran district; MUMF-Per 13, 6, 95.6-105.9 mm SL, india: Manipur, Nambul River, Singda. Channa stewartii: ZSI 10024, 1. 170.0 mm SL, india: Meghalaya, Shillong; MUMF-Per 21, 2, 109.7-155.2 mm SL, india: Arunachal Pradesh, Deopani river, Rowing, Lower Devang Valley district: BMGU uncat., 1 ex, 260.0 mm SL, india: Assam, Guijan. Channa striata: ZSI F 12922, 1 ex, 247.6 mm SL, india: Andhra Pradesh, Cheyyeru river, near Razampeta; MUMF-Per 31,8, 164.8-187.0 mm SL, india: Manipur, streams near Imphal valley. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Prof. M.M. Goswami, Guwahati University, for donating Channa barca from his collection and also for permitting to examine his collections in GUBM. We thank Dr. K. Nebeshwar Sharma for collecting Channa specimens from Arunachal Pradesh. The first author is grateful to Manipur University for the award of UGC research scholarship. The second author is grateful to the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India for financial assistance (Project No. 14/1 1/2006-ERS/RE). REFERENCES Bagra, K., K. Kadu, K.N. Sharma, B.A. Laskar, U.K. Sarkar & D.N. Das (2009): Ichthyological survey and review of the checklist of fish fauna of Arunachal Pradesh. India. Checklist 5(2): 330-350. Greenwood, P.H. (1976): Areview of the family Centropomidae (Pisces: Perciformes). Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) 29(1): 1-81. Hamilton, F. ( 1 822): An account of the fishes found in the River Ganges and its branches. Archibald Constable and Company, London. 405 pp.. 39 pis. Hollister, G ( 1934): Clearing and dyeing fish for bone study. Zoologica 12: 89-101. Hora, S.L. & D.D. Mukerji (1934): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum. XXIL On a collection of fish from the S. Shan states and the Pegu Yomas. Burma. Record of Indian Museum 36: 125-138. Li, X.. P. Musikasinthorn & Y. Kumazawa (2005): Molecular phylogenetic analysis of snakeheads (Perciformes: Channidae) using mitochondria] DNA sequences. Ichthyological Research 53: 148-159. McClelland. J. (1845): Description of four species of fishes from the rivers at the foot of Boutan Mountains. Journal of Natural History , Calcutta 5(18): 274-282. Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish fauna of the Manipur State. Records of Indian Museum 52(1): 21-26. Musikasinthorn, P. (1998): Channa panaw, a new channid fish from the Irrawaddy and Sittang River basins. Myanmar. Ichthyological Research 45: 355-362. Musikasinthorn, P. (2000): Channa aurantimaculata, a new Channid fish from Assam (Brahmaputra River basin), India, with designation of a neotype for C. amphibeus (McClelland, 1845). Ichthyological Research. 47: 27-37 . Nath. P. & S.C. Dey (2000): Fish and Fisheries of north-eastern India (Arunachal Pradesh) Narendra Publishing house, Delhi. Pp. 1-217. Ng. H.H., P.K.L. Ng & R. Britz (1999): Channa harcourtbutleri (Annandale, 1918): a valid species of snakehead (Perciformes: Channidae) from Myanmar. Journal of South Asian Natural History 4(1): 57-63. Playfair, R.L. (1867): On the fishes of Cachar. Proceedings of Zoological Society. London (Pt. 1): 14-17, pi. 3. Sen, N. (1999): Notes on a collection of fishes from Lohit, Tirap and Changlang districts of Arunachal Pradesh: India. Records of zoological survey of India, 97 ( Part 2): 189-204. Sen, T.K. (2006): Fauna of Arunachal Pradesh. State Fauna Series, Zoological Survey of India, 13 (Part 1): 317-396. Shaw, G.E. & E.O. Shebbeare (1937): The fishes of Northern Bengal. Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Science: 137, 6 pis. Vierke, J. (1991): Ein farbenfroher neuer Schlangenkopffisch aus Assam Channa bleheri spec. nov. Das Aquarium. 259: 20-24. Vishwanath, W. & Kh. Geetakumari (2009): Diagnosis and inter¬ relationships of fishes of the genus Channa Scopoli (Teleostei: Channidae) of northeastern India. Journal of threatened taxa 1(2): 97-105. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 235 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010 236-237 REVIEWS 1. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY: A PRIMER FOR SOUTH ASIA by Kamaljit S. Bawa. Richard B. Primack and Meera Anna Ooramen (201 1). Universities Press, Hyderabad. 589 pp. Size: 24.2 cm x 14.6 cm. Paperback. Price: Rs. 595/-. This book was first published by Sinauer Associates, Inc. in 2004 as a primer of conservation biology. ATREE and Universities Press need to be congratulated for publishing the revised and updated version in the present form, mainly for students, field researchers and field managers. The book covers almost every possible topical conservation topic so there is something for every category' of reader: from genetics of marine turtles of India to reserve size and characteristics; from reconciliation ecology to repairing the rain forest. The language is lucid with relevant references, wherever required. Topics that do not fit in the flow of the text are given as box items, which can be read along with the chapter or separately. This voluminous book with 589 pages consists of only seven chapters but each chapter is divided into sub-chapters, sections, boxes etc. Each chapter ends with a Summary and Suggested Readings; the references listed under Suggested Readings too are explained in brief. I hope such minor details will greatly help students of conservation biology. The papers selected in the suggested readings (among thousands of papers published during the last 30-35 years) are chosen with great care and should be read or referred to by conservation biologists, protected area managers and decision makers. Besides the suggested readings, the reference section runs to 77 pages, which itself shows the in-depth research done by the authors. As the book is a primer, it has some basic information about biodiversity, food chain and food web, natural extinction rates, but at the same time the book contains information on new topics such as ecological economics, common property resources, environmental ethics, extinction vortices etc. Good black-and-white pictures are added for emphasis and they make the book very interesting. Captions to pictures and diagrams provide a wealth of information. All in all, it is a good book particularly for students and young field biologists, but I think protected area managers, who may have undergone various trainings, will also benefit from this book. While reviewing it, I learnt many things from this book; it is indeed true that there is no limit to knowledge! ■ ASAD R. RAHMANI 2. THE VANISHING HERDS: THE WILD WATER BUFFALO, by Anwaruddin Choudhury (2010). Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, ATREE, Gibbon Books and The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India. Guwahati, Assam. 184 pp. Size: 18.0 cm x 24.3 cm. Hardbound. Price: Rs. 1,250/-. Dr. Anwaruddin Choudhury is one of India’s most prolific natural history writers with an enviable credit of nearly 500 research papers and popular articles, and nearly 20 books and booklets. He is also a widely travelled naturalist, particularly in north-east India. Basically a geographer by education, his knowledge is reflected in his meticulous writings of areas, locations and habitats. Anwar also takes pictures, sometimes seemingly uninteresting at the time of photography, but he uses them very intelligently in his papers and books to emphasize a point. This book is a classical example of how good photographs can be woven into a story. In this book, one can get good information on the Wild Water Buffalo from the photographs and their captions. The text is also a classical Anwar standard and style: meticulous research quoting even Babur-nama ( 1483-1531 ) to the latest papers (2009), including websites (latest download July 10, 2009), detailed personal observations (for example see Table 1 1, page 93), interesting box items (see Box 5. p 47-48), and easy-to-read text. The book is divided into seven chapters, excluding Appendices, Glossary and Bibliography. It is sad to see from the maps how the historical distribution of the Wild Buffalo has contracted from millions of sq. km, comprising areas from southern Iran, Pakistan, India, to the whole of East Asia, to present-day distribution in a few protected areas such as Manas, Kaziranga, Dibru-Saikhowa and a few others. From millions of animals a couple of hundred years ago, the total estimated population today is not more than 5,000 globally and in India, one time its main stronghold, the total suitable habitat left for the Wild Buffalo is only 2,500 sq. km. There are only two small areas in south-east Asia, one in Thailand and another in Cambodia, where currently Wild Buffalo are reported in very small numbers, not more than 30-40 animals each. Anwaruddin has also described the famous ‘Wild’ REVIEWS Buffaloes of Sri Lanka, but as he rightly says, they had originated from domestic animals, like the 'Wild' Buffaloes of Australia. Interestingly, the so-called Wild Buffalos of Australia are a fair ‘game" and people pay hundreds of dollars to hunt them. The fourth chapter Ecology and Behaviour is very interesting to read. Although Anwaruddin has not worked full-time on this species (he is a full-time government officer in Assam), he has collected and collated all the information on Wild Buffalo behaviour in this chapter, and added his own observations of the last 20 years. In the next chapter, he describes the controversy of wild, domestic and hybrid buffaloes. The sixth chapter. Conservation, makes sad reading of what we have done to this majestic animal. The Wild Buffalo is not only a majestic animal, but it is extremely important for our agricultural economy, as all the domestic buffalos have originated from their wild relative. If the Government of India implements the recommendations given in the final chapter of this book, it may possibly increase the number of Wild Buffalo and perhaps reintroduce it in the areas where it was lost, such as Dudhwa National Park in Uttar Pradesh. In a nutshell, this is a very useful book on an economically useful animal. I hope the Government of India and other range countries will take effective measures to restore, protect and save the Wild Buffalo. For this to happen, we need inter-state and international collaborations. Looking at the false pride, strained inter-state relationships and geopolitics, collaboration for Wild Buffalo conservation appears more difficult than writing a well-researched book. ■ ASAD R. RAHMANI 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 237 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 107(3), Sep-Dec 2010 238-269 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. FIRST RECORD OF THE SLENDER LORIS LORIS LYDEKKER1ANUS CABRERA 1908, IN CHENNAI CITY, TAMIL NADU, INDIA Tara Gandhi1, Sai Archana Para2 3 and Amrita Sivakumar24 1 A 1 Uttaravedi, 7 Second Seaward Road, Valmiki Nagar, Chennai 600 041, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: tara_gandhi@yahoo.com 2Kalakshtra Foundation, Tiruvanmiyur, Chennai 600 041, Tamil Nadu, India. 3Email: saiarchie@gmail.com 4Email: riya2009kshetra@gmail.com Slender Loris was sighted on February 19, 2010, in the campus of an educational institution located in a busy residential area in south-east coastal Chennai. It was first observed and photographed by two of us (Sai Archana and Amrita) who are full-time students. We noticed it for its strange and endearing appearance, but were unable to identify it or realize its significance. After studying the photographs of February 19, 2010, and making actual observations for a few days, Tara Gandhi identified it as the Slender Loris. The identification was further authenticated and confirmed by wildlife experts. We wish to report our sighting as the first record of the species within an urban environment in Chennai. The Sighting Our first sighting was in a clump of low thorny trees overgrown with creepers in a secluded area of the campus where we were trying to photograph an owl at about 17:00 hrs in the evening. Archana notes, “We saw a pale greyish bundle in the tree. On first glance, I thought it to be the owl; Amrita thought it was a bat. After a series of guesses we had settled on a small monkey. As we looked at it, the bundle began to separate and we realized that the creature was not one, but two! They stared at us with their large, round, marble-like eyes with dark markings surrounding them, and we at them. They slowly began ascending the branches of the canopy, always keeping a steady gaze on us. We lost track of one of them, but although clearly increasing the distance between us, the other one still maintained eye contact. The higher it went, the more difficult it became to distinguish it from the dead leaves of the branches.” Subsequently, over the next few weeks (February 20-March 15, 2010), we made several more observations at the same site as well as at other spots in the campus, and we counted four individual animals, including one infant clinging to its mother’s underbelly. Sometimes they would be curled up in a bundle, either separately, or two or more together, and at other times we saw them moving slowly along the thin branches of trees. As there were two distinct spots more than 200 m apart where the lorises were seen repeatedly, we were unsure as to whether there were two separate groups or whether they were the same individuals who had moved from one place to the other. We took several more photographs on these occasions. All the photographs were taken with a small amateur camera with a limited zoom lens. The flash was used only when the lorises were seen in shady recesses. Status of the Species The Slender Loris Loris lydekkerianus belongs to a group of lesser-known arboreal primates characterised by small body with long slender limbs and no tail, rounded head with short sharp muzzle, large round eyes, insectivorous diet and generally solitary, nocturnal lifestyle. Sexes are alike though males are slightly larger. There are only two strepsirrhine primate genera found in India, Loris and Nycticebus. The Slow Loris ( Nycticebus ) occurs in north-east India and parts of South-east Asia, and the Slender loris {Loris) is found in southern India, south of the Tapti and Godavari rivers up to 800 m, and in Sri Lanka (Menon 2003). The general habitat of the Slender Loris is open scrub jungle, dry deciduous and evergreen forests, but there are records of the species occurring in human-dominated landscapes like plantations or other cultivations and even in the greener parts of some urban and rural areas. To quote Radhakrishna (2004), “The slender loris is called kadupapa in Kannada, which quite literally translates as 'forest baby’. In Tamil, it is called thevangu. According to popular folklore, various body parts of the slender loris, most particularly its eyes, impart strength when consumed and potions made out of boiling its flesh and organs are recommended to cure ailments. Hunted for use in folk medicine, killed due to superstitious beliefs about the ill-luck it brings, trapped for laboratory dissections, and driven out of its natural habitat by forest fragmentation, the slender loris is being driven towards gradual extinction. Only pocket populations of the species survive today in scrubland, forest patches and orchards in some parts of peninsular India. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Slender lorises are nocturnal in their activity pattern. They actively forage and explore during the night and sleep during the day. They are almost completely arboreal and prefer to move on thin branches that can be grasped by the digits of their limbs. Insects like ants, termites, walking sticks, and grasshoppers are eaten most often, though fruits of particular plant species like Securinega and Ziziphus, and gum from tree species like Acacia are also consumed”. Lorises are endangered species in India (Schedule I Wildlife Protection Act 1972). On account of their tendency to move out of protected areas, they are in need of stringent conservation measures by way of habitat improvement and protection. Poaching is a serious threat. Their slow movement, especially when they descend to the ground, makes them victims of road-kills when they encounter vehicular traffic (Mewa Singh pers.comm). Methods Since the sighting was by chance, no scientific methodology was followed. The search for the lorises was mostly in the evenings, before dark at the known sites as well as at other likely secluded areas with similar tree clumps. An attempt was also made to search for areas in the trees where the light did not reach through and then determine if it was leaves or fur, or perhaps owls. For majority of the time, bunches of dry leaves misled the attempts. The lorises blended in so well that they were hard to detect until they moved. No records were made between April and September 2010, partly because of summer vacations from May to July. From July onwards, no lorises were seen, though the known sites were frequently searched; this could also be because the vegetation had grown denser during the rainy season (Chennai experienced heavy rainfall between June and September 2010), making visibility difficult. All the previous sightings made during this study were in the dry season when the leaves on the trees were sparse and there was dried leaf litter on the ground that had been swept into mounds. During the second half of the year, a single individual was recorded on October 05, 2010, and again on November 10, 2010, at 17:00 hrs three lorises, an adult and two darker coloured juveniles were sighted. These were initially sleeping in a group on a tree branch, but later began to move. We made enquiries with other students, teachers and staff on the campus and were told that some of them had seen small animals that fitted the description of lorises as far back as three years ago. Some students had seen them two years ago as well. They had mostly been spotted on the ground while crossing from tree to tree, or walking slowly along the road. However, apart from noticing the reddish shining eyes and slow movement, they had attached no importance to the animal and therefore did not report it. The Habitat Coastal Chennai south of the Adyar river is characterized by a number of fairly quiet housing colonies with tree-lined avenues linked by crowded commercial roads with shops and restaurants. Several schools and cultural institutions have extensive gardens and good tree cover that provide the greenery that the area is known for. Most of these campuses were built on what was originally sandy land that was planted about fifty years ago with mixed local tree species such as Neem, Ficus varieties, Jamun, Laburnum and Morns sp. and exotics like Gulmohur, Eucalyptus, Casuarina, Cashew and various ornamental flowering plants. These are interspersed with native Acacia and Prosopis species. The present campus is an educational institution with continuous activity and movement of people from early morning till evening. Often there are activities and programmes after dark during which there is vehicular traffic. Paths and roads within the campus are well lit at night. The fauna include over 35 species of birds, several species of snakes, geckos, lizards and amphibians, and an abundance of insects, spiders and other invertebrates like snails and slugs. The other small mammals found on the campus are palm squirrels, mongooses, domestic cats and dogs, shrews, rats and mice. Previous Records The last and perhaps the only previous record of the Slender Loris in the general vicinity of Chennai city was sometime around 1970, when it was seen in the campus of the Madras Christian College (MCC), located in the western suburb of Tambaram. At that time Tambaram was outside the city limits and the MCC abutted the Vandalur reserve forest, an extensive scrub jungle that was still relatively undisturbed. Several rare wildlife species were recorded by the zoology department of the college, among which the loris was one (Sanjeeva Raj 1973). Since then, there have been no recorded sightings of this animal in the entire area of greater Chennai. The species has now disappeared from the MCC site as well. At present, the nearest geographical location where a population of over 200 Slender Loris are known to occur is Sriharikota island (Manakadan 2008), which is about 115 km north of Chennai. While Slender Loris is known to occur in large well- wooded urban campuses in the city of Bengaluru, there are no previous records of the species within an urban environment in Chennai. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 239 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Discussion The occurrence of a shy and highly endangered primate like the Slender Loris in an urban setting comes as a surprise and an exciting discovery, particularly as they are evidently breeding successfully and there is some indication of their presence at this site during the past few years. It is known that lorises do adapt to certain human-dominated landscapes (Honnavalli et al. 2009), and they have also been recorded in the city of Bengaluru, where there are over 100 individuals inhabiting its few and fast disappearing green pockets (Gandhi 2008). However, the history of these animals at this particular site in Chennai is still puzzling. At present we can only speculate about the origins of this group that we have found. They could perhaps have escaped from captivity, or they may be released pets that had managed to survive in the wooded campus surroundings. On the other hand they could be wild lorises that had somehow adventurously migrated from their natural habitat, though it is hard to imagine since there are no natural corridors left in-between the congested urban development. It is also possible that the animals had been there all along, but had not been noticed on account of their reclusive nocturnal habits. The Guindy National Park which is an extensive forest Gandhi. D. (2008): Touch and go for the Slender Loris. The Hindu, May 14, 2008. Bangalore. Honnavalli, N.K.. Mohammed Irfan-Ullah, S. Kumar (2009): Mapping potential distribution of slender loris subspecies in peninsular India. Endangered Species Research 7: 29-38. Manakadan, R. (2008): Sriharikota - Wilderness Regained? Hombill Oct-Dec 2008. Pp. 107-111. in Chennai dating back to colonial times is located less than 6 km from this site. Despite its rich biodiversity, it has no records of the loris and the only primate known to occur there is the Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata. Though Chennai has an active community of birdwatchers and nature photographers, the loris has never been recorded in their urban w ildlife checklists. An extended study is required before any conclusions can be draw n on the status of this species in the city and it is important to conduct detailed surveys of similar green pockets in the immediate vicinity as well. These will provide insights into the occurrence of the Slender Loris in Chennai and will help put conservation action into place. We hope to continue our investigations to gather more information and intend to maintain careful records of all further sightings of this curious and enigmatic animal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to express our gratitude to Mr. Preston Ahimaz, Prof. Dr. Sanjeeva Raj, Mr. K.V. Sudhakar. Dr. Ravi Chellam, Dr. Ajith Kumar, Prof. Mewa Singh and Mr. Kumaran Sathasivam for generously providing papers, articles and information. Menon, V. (2003): Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Dorling Kindersley (India). Radhakrishna, S. (2004): Sociality in a Solitary Primate: How Gregarious is the Slender Loris? Resonance January, 2004. Sanjeeva Raj, P.J. (1973): Mammals of our Campus. The Madras Christian College Magazine Vol. XLII. 2. A NOTE ON THE DIET OF TIGER PANTHERA TIGRIS LINNAEUS AND DHOLE CUON ALPINUS PALLAS IN A MONTANE SHOLA FOREST. WESTERN GHATS. INDIA Tharmalingam, Ramesh1-2 and Riddhika Kalle13 'Wildlife Institute of India. Chandrabani. P.O. Box 18. Dehradun 248 001 . Uttarakhand. India. Email: ramesh81ngl@gmail.com 'Email: riddhikalle@gmail.com Diet studies of large carnivores from the montane shola grasslands are poorly understood. Food habits of large carnivores have been reported from the scrub jungle (Cohen el al. 1978: Arivazhagan et al. 2007) and deciduous forest (Johnsingh 1983; Karanth and Sunquist 1995; Venkataraman et al. 1995; Andheria et al. 2007: Ramesh et al. 2009) of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Western Ghats. We present notes on the diet of tiger and dhole from a three-day surv ey in Mukurthi National Park in February 2010. The study was conducted in the Mukurthi National Park (>1,800-2,500 m above msl) of the Nilgiris, which comprises of rolling hills and mountains of the evergreen shola grasslands. The sholas are confined to depressions and folds in the mountain characterized by small (7-15 m) and medium (15-20 m) sized trees (Von Lengerke and Blasco 1 989). Annual rainfall ranges from 1 ,500- 2,000 mm. Frost is frequent from December to February. 240 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES During this survey, scats of tiger (n = 30) and dhole (n = 37) were collected opportunistically whenever encountered along roads and trails. Prey species hair remains from each scat were observed under a high magnification microscope and compared with reference slides at the research laboratory of Wildlife Institute of India. Dehradun. Scat analysis revealed the presence of three prey species in tiger scats and five prey species in dhole scats. Percent occurrence of prey items in tiger and dhole scats was calculated. Tiger scats comprised of Sarnbar Rusa unicolor (78.8%), Rodent (18.4%) and Wild Pig Sus scrofa (2.6%), while dhole scats comprised of Sarnbar (51.6%) rodent (35.5%), Wild Pig (6.5%), Black-naped Hare Lepus nigricollis (3.2%) and bird (3.2%) remains. It is evident that tiger and dhole depend mainly on sarnbar as the major prey along w ith secondary prey species like small mammals. In comparison to the deciduous forest, which is considered as a prey rich habitat with a much wider choice of large body-sized prey (Ramesh et al. 2009), the shola grasslands of Mukurthi harbour low density of prey species and absence of chital (a major prey in other tiger habitats) in the area. Large carnivores have the potential to survive even in low densities in Mukurthi National Park. Further comprehensive studies are needed to document food habits of large predators from montane sholas of India. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department for providing logistic support and permits. We also thank our assistants, C. James and S. Mathan for field support. REFERENCES Andheria. A.P.. K.U. Karanth & N.S. Kumar (2007): Diet and prey profiles of three sympatric large carnivores in Bandipur Tiger Reserve, India. J. Zool. (Lond.) 273: 169-175. Arivazhagan, C., R. Arumugam & K. Thiyagesan (2007): Food habits of leopard (Panthera pardus fusca). dhole (Cuon alpinus ) and striped hyena ( Hyaena hyaena ) in a tropical dry thorn forest of southern India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 104(2): 247-254. Cohen, J.A., M.W. Fox, A.J.T. Johnsingh & B.D. Barnett (1978): Food habits of the dhole in south India. J. Wild 1. Manage. 42: 933-936. Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983): Large mammalian prey-predators in Bandipur. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 1-57. Karanth, K.U. & M E. Sunquist (1995): Prey selection by tiger. leopard and dhole in tropical forests. J. Anim. Ecol. 64: 439- 450. Ramesh, T„ V. Snehalatha, K. Sankar & Q. Qureshi (2009): Food habits and prey selection of tiger and leopard in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India. J. Sci. Trans. Environ. Technov. 2: 170-181. Venkataraman, B.A., R. Arumugam & R. Sukumar (1995): The foraging ecology of dhole ( Cuon alpinus) in Mudumalai Sanctuary, Southern India. J. Zool. (Lond.) 237: 543-561. Von Lengerke, H.J. & F. Blasco (1989): The Nilgiri Environment. In: Hockings, P. (Ed.): Blue Mountains: the Ethnography and Biogeography of a South Indian Region. Oxford University' Press, Oxford. Pp. 20-78. 3. THE SECOND LOCALITY RECORD OF TAPHOZOUS LONGIMANUS HARDWICKE. 1825 (CHIROPTERA: EMBALLONURIDAE) FROM NEPAL S.B. Thapa1, M.J. Pearch2 and G. Csorba3 'Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation, P.O. Box 13153, Sundhara, Kathmandu, Nepal. Email: sanjan_thapa@yahoo.com :Harrison Institute, Centre for Systematics and Biodiversity Research, Bowerwood House, 15 St. Botolph’s Road, Sevenoaks, Kent TNI 3 3AQ, England. Email: hzm@btintemet.com department of Zoology, Hungarian Natural History Museum, H-1088 Budapest, Baross 13. Hungary. Email: csorba@nhmus.hu Introduction Six species of Emballonuridae (Saccolaimus saccolaimus, Taphozous longimanus, T. melanopogon, T. nudiventris , T. perforatus and T. theobaldi ) are recorded from the Indian subcontinent (Bates and Harrison 1997). The sole representative of the Family from Nepal is T. longimanus, six specimens of which were collected by R.M. Mitchell from Jhapa (26° 29' N; 87° 51’ E) in the eastern Terai of Nepal in January. 1966 (Worth and Shah 1969: Mitchell 1978). In February 2009, a single dead male specimen of T. longimanus was found by the first author in Samrat Chowk, a suburb of Biratnagar, 56 km due west of Jhapa (Fig. 1 ). This is the second locality record of the taxon in Nepal. Nepal lies within the Himalaya Hotspot as defined by Conservation International (www.biodiversityhotspots.org) and both Biratnagar and Jhapa are located in the critical/ endangered Global 200 terrestrial ecoregion number 91, Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands (Olson and Dinerstein 2002). Material and Methods The voucher specimen was transferred from the collection site to the Central Department of Zoology (CDZ), Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, where it is retained as a J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 241 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1: Map showing the recorded distribution of T. longimanus in Nepal, the northernmost record of the species from Narkatiaganj in India, and the delineation of the Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands (shaded area) Table 1: Selected external, cranial, and dental measurements of T. longimanus from Samrat Chowk, Nepal (to the nearest 1 .0 mm) and of T. longimanus from India and Sri Lanka (to the nearest 0.1 mm) Samrat Chowk, Nepal India and Sri Lanka (CDZ_BAT 7) (Bates & Harrison, 1997) n mean range n HB 73.0 1 78.3 73.0 - 86.0 33 T 25.0 1 24.4 20.0-30.0 32 TIB 25.0 1 - - - HF 12.0 1 11.5 8.0-14.0 30 FA 61.0 1 59.2 55.6 - 62.0 31 3mt 61.0 1 59.8 55.8 - 64.0 22 1ph3mt 22.0 1 21.6 20.4 - 22.7 22 E 18.0 1 17.2 16.0- 19.0 33 GTL 22.0 1 21.4 20.2 - 22.0 29 CCL 19.0 1 20.0 19.2-21.6 30 ZB 12.0 1 12.5 12.0 - 12.9 27 BB 10.0 1 9.9 9.5-10.2 28 C-M3 9.0 1 8.9 87-9.2 32 c-m3 10.0 1 9.8 9.4-10.2 30 M 16.0 1 15.8 15.4 - 16.4 30 HB - head and body length; T - tail length; TIB - tibia length; HF - hindfoot length; FA - forearm length; 3mt - third metacarpal length; 1ph3mt - length of the first phalanx of the third metacarpal; E - ear length; GTL - greatest length of skull; CCL - condylo-canine length; ZB - zygomatic breadth; BB - breadth of braincase; C-M3 - maxillary toothrow length; c-m3- mandibular toothrow length; M - mandible length. wet specimen in 70% ethanol with the skull extracted. Fifteen external, cranial, and dental measurements were taken and these are presented in Table 1 together with comparative measurements of specimens of T. longimanus from India and Sri Lanka listed in Bates and Harrison (1997). Systematic Review Taphozous longimanus Hardwicke, 1825. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, 14: 525. Type Locality: Calcutta (now Kolkata), India Common Name: Long-winged Tomb Bat Variation Bates and Harrison ( 1997) and Simmons (2005) refer all T. longimanus in the region to the nominate form, as the taxa brevicaudus, cantori , and fulvidus are no longer regarded as being distinct. Csorba et al. (1999) refer specimens from Nepal to the nominate subspecies on the same grounds. IUCN (2010) status - Least concern (Bates etal. 2008). Material 1 d (adult): Reg No: CDZ_BAT 7; Samrat Chowk (26° 28' 46.30" N; 87° 17' 8.18" E), Pokharia, Biratnagar-1, Nepal, 72 m above msl; 25. ii. 2009, Coll. Thapa, S.B. The collection site is located in the eastern part of the Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands (Terrestrial ecoregion IM0701; Global 200 ecoregion no. 91) (Fig. 1), which is a composite mixture of tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands supporting mainly an Indo-Malayan fauna (WWF 2001). 242 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 2: The skull of CDZ_BAT 7 showing the relative lengths of the upper canine (Cl ) and the second upper premolar (PM4) and the elevation of the braincase (B) above the rostrum (RO) Diagnosis and Description The specimen has a long third metacarpal (61 mm); a naked chin; a prominent gular sac; and a moderately developed radio-metacarpal pouch at the junction of the forearm and the fifth metacarpal. The wing is attached to the ankle. Fur on the dorsal and ventral areas extends approximately to one half the length of each humerus and femur; the wings are otherwise naked. In the skull, the braincase is elevated above the rostrum. In the dentition, the second upper premolar (PM4) is robust and extends roughly to three-quarters the height of the upper canine (Cl) (Fig. 2). One of the external diagnostic characteristics most helpful in distinguishing between the Emballonurid species known from the Indian subcontinent is the attachment point of the wing. In Taphozous melanopogon , T. nudiventris , T. perforatus, and T. theobaldi, the wing is attached to the tibia; in T. longimanus and Saccolaimus saccolaimus, it is attached to the ankle (Fig. 3). Characteristics that may be used to distinguish between the last two species include the chin, which is naked in longimanus but which is covered in short hairs in saccolaimus, and a radio-metacarpal pouch, which is present in longimanus (Fig. 4), but absent in saccolaimus. Ecology and Habitat The bat was found dead on a road in Samrat Chowk, which is a small residential area of Pokharia located within Biratnagar Submetropolitan City Ward no. I . Approximately 50 m from the road lies a small group of teak trees Tectona sp. The road terminates 1 km to the east of the collection site at the Singia river, where there is a wooded area dominated by the Indian Rosewood Datbergia sissoo. Beyond the Singia river, there are large, open fields, in which rice Oryza sp. is Fig. 3: Detail of the hindfoot and leg of CDZ_BAT 7 showing the attachment of the wing to the ankle (arrowed) and the protrusion of the tip of the tail from the mid-point of the interfemoral membrane grown in summer and wheat Triticum sp. in winter. There are a few small areas of cultivated sugarcane Saccharum sp. Areas to the immediate north, south, and west of the collection site are dominated by buildings. The average annual daytime temperature range is 18-31 °C (DHM 2006) and the average annual minimum night-time temperature is 7.7 °C (Central Bureau of Statistics 2009). Annual rainfall is approximately 157 mm (DHM 2006). Elsewhere in its range, T. longimanus has been collected from hollows in the trunks of banyan and peepal trees, the crowns of palm trees, the domed roof of a church (Sinha 1986) and from the partially sunlit eaves of houses (Wroughton 1913). The species has been observed to be a solitary forager, flying commonly at heights of 25 to 62 m with occasional fast, swooping runs close to the ground at sites of high insect activity (Pearch and Writer 2009). Sinha (1986) considered the species’ favoured diet to be cockroaches and beetles. Fig. 4: Right wing of CDZ_BAT 7 showing the presence of a radio-metacarpal pouch (arrowed) and the extension of the fur to one half the length of the humerus 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 243 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Discussion The collection of T. longimanus from Samrat Chowk represents the second record of the species, of the genus, and of Family Emballonuridae from Nepal. It is also the fourth most northerly collection locality of the taxon, the most northerly being Narkatiaganj (c. 27° 06' 30' N; 84° 27' 40" E ) in India (Sinha 1986) (Fig. 1). T. longimanus is a well-documented taxon throughout its range w ith 16 locality records alone in the adjacent Indian state of Bihar (Bates and Harrison 1997). The Chiroptera of Nepal and the small mammal fauna of the country in general, how ever, remain under-researched and this is evinced by the fact that T. longimanus is one of the 1 1 bat species (or 22% of Nepal's documented bat fauna) known from no more than tw o localities in the country. A further 14 bat taxa (28% ) are know n only by a single specimen or from just a single locality (Pearch in press). Of the 50 bat species with substantive collection records from Nepal, only T. longimanus and Marina cyclotis are restricted exclusively to the critical/endangered Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands (Pearch in press). Although T. longimanus may not be directly affected by these changes, major and persistent threats to the ecoregion include the clearance of rare tall grasslands for agriculture, over-grazing, logging, erosion, poaching, and the diversion of w atercourses for irrigation ( \\A\T 2001 ). The main driver of such ecological disturbance is over-population, which is occasioned largely by the resettlement of workers from growing communities in highland areas, where human expansion is limited by topographical constraints. Accordingly , research into methods of reducing such resettlement would be of tangible benefit to the endangered habitats in the southern part of the countrv. With the recent improvements in access to many parts of the country , a tremendous opportunity presents itself to revitalise the study of the nation's fauna and it w ould seem sensible to suggest that surveys be undertaken to determine the small mammal composition of some of the country 's more threatened areas, including the Terai. before the grow th of habitat degradation gathers pace. This point was addressed by Pearch (in press), who propounded a series of recommendations for biodiversity assessments in protected and other areas of Nepal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In Nepal, the first author is pleased to acknow ledge the encouragement provided to him by Dr. Sarala Khaling and Ang Phuri Sherpa of the Critical Ecosy stem Partnership Fund and would like to thank Sagar Dahal of the Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation for assisting w ith skull preparation. In India, w e thank Sally Walker, Sanjay Molur. B.A. Daniel. R. Marimuthu, and the Zoo Outreach Organization. Coimbatore. The authors are indebted to David Harrison and Paul Bates of the Harrison Institute. Sevenoaks. England, for their diagnostic contributions. The first author w ishes to express particular gratitude to Prof. Paul Racev for his continuous support and encouragement. REFERENCES Bates. P.J.J. & D.L. FLarrlson (1997): Bats of the Indian Subcontinent. Harrison Zoological Museum. 258 pp. Bates. P.J.J.. C.F. Francis. T. Kingston. M. Gumal & J. Walston (2008): Taphozous longimanus. In: IUCN, 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010. 4. . Downloaded on 4 December. 2010. Central Bureau of Statistics. Government of Nepal (2009): . Compendium on Environment Statistics, http://w w w.adb.org/ Documents/EDRC/Statistics/Environment/nepal.xls Dow nloaded on 29E December. 2009. C sorb a. G.. S.V. Kruskop & A.V. Borissenko (1999): Recent records of bats (Chiroptera) from Nepal, with remarks on their natural history . Mammalia 6311 y. 61-78. DHN1 (2006 1: Climatological and Agro-meteorological Records of Nepal. 2006. Department of Hy drology and Meteorology. Ministry of EnvironmenL Science, and Technology . Kathmandu. Nepal. Hardwicke, T. i 1825): Description of a new species of sheath-tailed bat ( Taphozous ) found in Calcutta. Transactions of the Linnean Socien of London 14: 525-526. Mitchell. R.M. ( 1978 ): Achecklist of Nepalese bats. Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 26l 1 1: 75-78. Olson. D.M. & E. Dinersteln (2002): The Global 200: priority ecoregions for global conserv ation. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 89: 199-224. Pearch. M.J. (in press): A review of the biological diversity and distribution of small mammal taxa in the terrestrial ecoregions and protected areas of Nepal. Zootaxa. Pearch. M.J. & T.O.D. Writer (Eds) (2009 ): South-East Asian Bat Database. Harrison Institute. Sevenoaks. L'.K. Simmons, N.B. (2005 ): Order Chiroptera. Pp. 3 1 2-529. In: Wilson. D.E. & D.M. Reeder (Eds): Mammal Species of the World. A taxonomic and geographic reference. Third edition, volume 1 . The Johns Hopkins Univ ersity Press. Baltimore. 743 pp. Sinha. Y.P. (1986): The bats of Bihar: taxonomy and ecology . Records of the Zoological Surve v of India. Miscellaneous Publication, Occasional Paper No. 7. 60 pp. + 7 pis. Worth. R.M. & N.K. Shah ( 1969): Nepal Health Survey. 1965-1966. Honolulu (University of Hawaii Press), ix + 158 pages. Wroughton. R.C. i 1913): Report No. 6: Kanara. Bombay Natural Flistory Society 's Mammal Surv ey of India. J. Bombas Nat. Hist. Soc. 22(1): 29-44. WWF 1 2001 1: ww-w.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles. terrestrial/im im0701_full.html. Downloaded on 4' December. 2010. 244 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dee 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4. HIGH DAY TEMPERATURE AND SLEEP OUT BEHAVIOUR OF ELLIOT'S GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL PETAURISTA PHILIPPENSIS (ELLIOT) IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY. RAJASTHAN. INDIA Chhaya Bhatnagar1 \ Satish Kumar Sharma2 and Vijay Kumar Koli1 4 'Department of Zoology, College of Science. M.L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur 313 001. Rajasthan, India, forest Research Farm (Banki) Sisarma, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: sksharma56@gmail.com 'Email: bhatnagarchhaya@yahoo.co.in 'Email: vijaykoli87@yahoo.in The Elliot’s Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis is confined to Mahuwa Madhuca indica belt of southern Rajasthan (Tehsin 1980; Chundawat et al. 2002; Menon 2003; Sharma 2007). This species is commonly seen in two wildlife sanctuaries of southern Rajasthan, namely, Sitamata and Phulwari-ki-nal. It is a nocturnal animal, which usually roosts in hollows of trees or sheltered places among the branches. It comes out from its hiding sites at dusk and retires before dawn (Prater 2005). Arampura, a forest outpost of Sitamata Sanctuary is famous for its Mahuwa groves and Elliot's Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis. On May 22, 2010. the maximum temperature of Dhariwad, a station 20 km away from Arampura, was 47.7 °C. The temperature of a few surrounding stations on May 22. and 23, 2010, is given in Table 1 . Nearly a 50 m away from the outpost building, we observed a P. philippensis repeatedly peek from a hole in a Mahuwa tree. Despite the presence of many humans, it emerged from its hiding site at about 15:40 hrs. Within no time it skulked in the foliage slightly away from its hole. It remained hidden in the foliage for five minutes after which it slept on its back on a thick bough keeping its belly upward. Dense shade was available at this sleeping site, though a few thin light beams were penetrating down through the foliage. The squirrel remained in this posture for c. 15 minutes and then retired to its hole. According to Prater (2005), during hot weather, flying squirrel may sleep on its back with legs and parachute outspread. The animal cools itself in this manner in the tropical forest. In the present case, though a nocturnal animal, flying squirrel emerges even during day time for sleeping outside the hole. The animal was probably uncomfortable inside the hole due to the high temperature and hence ventured out to get relief from the heat. Chlndawat, P.S., S.K. Sharma & H.S. Solanki (2002): Occurrence of the Large Brown Flying Squirrel (P. petaurista philippensis) Table 1 : Maximum temperature of a few stations near Arampura on May 22 and 23, 2010 Date Locality Max. temp, recorded (aC) 22.V.2010 Mt. Abu 40 22.V.2010 Udaipur V 45 22.V.2010 Dhariwad 47.7 22.V.2010 Bhilwara 47 22.V.2010 Dabok 45 23.V.2010 Chittorgarh 47.5 23.V.2010 Udaipur 45.2 23.V.2010 Dhariwad 48.6 23.V.2010 Bhilwara 48 During April to June 2010, the temperatures ranged from 40-48 °C in southern Rajasthan. The internal temperatures of the hollows probably became unbearable for the flying squirrel due to high temperature conditions. To rid itself of the unpleasant temperature of the hollows, the squirrels dared to come out for sleep. This “sleep out” behaviour was seen four times in the Sitamata Sanctuary. The “sleep out behaviour” in all cases was observed during afternoon session between 14:00 hrs and 16:30 hrs. This behaviour was also noticed in Phulwari-ki-Nal Sanctuary from April to June (Hankla Gameti pers. comm. 2010). Since Mahuwa growth is thick in Sitamata and Phulwari sanctuaries, and squirrels remain undetected due to dense foliage, it is likely that the animals feel safe under the dense cover of foliage. No natural predator was seen, so far. in the study area. It is the safety factor and high heat inside the holes which induced the “sleep out" behaviour in the squirrels. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the officials of the Sitamata Sanctuary for providing facilities during the study. in Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary. Zoos' Print Journal 17(1 Ip. 1941. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 245 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Menon, V. (2003): A Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. Prater, S.H. (2005): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society. Oxford University Press, UK. Sharma, S.K. (2007): Study of Biodiversity and Ethnobiology of Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur (Rajasthan). Ph.D. Thesis. MLS University, Udaipur (Raj.). Tehsin, R.H. (1980): Occurrence of the Large Brown Flying Squirrel and Mouse Deer near Udaipur, Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 77(3): 498. 5. FIRST RECORD OF ALBINO SAMBAR RUSA UNICOLOR (KERR) FROM CORBETT NATIONAL PARK, INDIA Anant Pande12, Debmalya Roychowdhury1, Devlin Leishangthem1, Sudeep Banerjee1, Pushkal Bagchie1, Neha Awasthi1, Rubi Kumari Sharma1, Priyanka Runwal1 and Shikha Bisht1 'Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box No. 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. 2Email: anant_pande@rediffmail.com A rare sighting of an albino Sambar R it set unicolor (Ken- 1792) was made on June 19, 2010, in the core area of the Corbett Tiger Reserve. The forest department informed us about the occurrence of a white-coloured Sambar in the Jamunagawd beat of Jhirna range. As a part of the tiger monitoring team, we visited the area to get photographic evidence. At 29° 30' 0.8" N and 78° 55' 30.3" E, we observed a white Sambar fawn (Fig. 1) accompanied by its normal coloured mother. The fawn was pure white with reddish snout and red eyes. The inside of the ears was pinkish. The fawn was feeding on grass and did not exhibit any abnormal activity. Earlier Champion (1938) sighted an albino Sambar hind in the mixed Sal and Chir pine forest near Chaukhamb in the hills of Kohtri valley. Pillay (1953) also reported seeing an albino Sambar hind and an albino Sambar stag from Talamalai range of north Coimabatore. Another record of a museum specimen of albino Sambar from the Archaeological Museum of Udaipur was given by Tehsin (2006). Sangai Express Fig. 1 : Albino Sambar Rusa unicolor sighted at Corbett Tiger Reserve (March 30, 2010) published the birth of a white coloured fawn on March 23, 2010, at Manipur Zoological Garden, Iroishemba. REFERENCES Champion, H.G. ( 1938): An Albino Sambar. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 40(2): 322-323. Pillay, B.S. (1953): An Albino Sambar. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 51(4): 935. Tehsin, R.H. (2006): An Albino Sambar Cervus unicolor Kerr. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 103(1): 97. 6. CONSERVATION STATUS OF RAJAJI-CORBETT CORRIDOR FOR TIGER AND ELEPHANT MOVEMENT A.J.T. Johnsingh1, Bivash Pandav2-3, K. Ramesh2-4 and Qamar QuRESHI2’5 'Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore and WWF-India. Email: ajt.johnsingh@gmail.com 2Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001. Uttarakand, India. Email : bivash .pandav @ wii .gov.in Email: ramesh @ wii. gov.in Email: qnq@ wii. gov.in Rajaji-Corbett corridor, composed of two stretches of forests, connects two tiger-elephant national parks in northern India. The southern stretch (c. 300 sq. km), including the forests of Haridwar forest division and Bijnor plantation division, is highly fragmented and heavily disturbed. Although used by elephants ( Elephas maximus), due to high levels of 246 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Haiyana Rajaji-Coibett comiloi Shiv (Uttai Pradesh) Corbett Tigei Reserve Nepal Himachal Pradesh Rajaji National Park m Water Bodies/River □ Agriculture/Habitation Forest Cover Fig. 1: Tiger-Elephant landscape in Uttarakand, northern India disturbance, this strip of forest is avoided by the tiger (. Panthera tigris). On the contrary, although disturbed, the northern stretch (c. 200 sq. km), formed by Kotdwar and Laldhang ranges of Lansdowne forest division, as it is hilly, is used both by the tiger and elephants. The future of the 60,000-70,000 people, who live on the southern boundary of the northern corridor, is closely related to the ability of these forests to sustain the water flow in the streams that arise from these forests. The best way of protecting these forests would be to highlight their importance as watershed through conservation awareness programmes to the people. Protection and management of these forests would ultimately benefit not only the tiger and elephant, but also people. One important area for the long-term conservation of the northern Indian populations of Tiger and Elephant is the forest tract (c. 7,500 sq. km) between Yamuna and Sharda rivers (Fig. 1 ). Although the habitat connectivity in this range is broken along Ganga and Gola rivers ( Johnsingh et al. 1 990, 2004), this tract has been identified as Rajaji-Corbett Tiger Conservation Unit (TCU), one of the 1 1 Level I TCUs in the Subcontinent (Wikramanayake et al. 1998), and as Shivalik Elephant Range, one of the 1 1 Elephant Ranges identified in India (Bist 2002). The largest contiguous block of c. 4,000 sq. km habitat in this tract falls between the left bank of Ganga and Gola rivers, and evidently supports breeding populations of these species. This area encompasses the eastern part of Rajaji National Park (RNP), Corbett Tiger Reserve (CTR) and the adjacent forest divisions, including the areas between RNP and CTR, known as the Rajaji - Corbett corridor, the most crucial habitat connectivity here (Fig. 2). The eastern part of RNP has shown remarkable recovery of prey populations and tiger number after the resettlement of pastoral gujjars (Harihar et al. 2009a) and CTR supports one of the high density tiger populations (c. 16/100 sq. km, Jhala et al. 2008). The forests of this corridor are in two stretches. One lies south of the main Himalaya, along the Shyampur- Chiriyapur forest ranges of Haridwar Forest Division (FD) in the state of Uttarakhand and Bijnor Plantation Division in Uttar Pradesh; this corridor is about 300 sq. km. The other strip of forest is in the north, along the Faldhang-Kotdwar forest ranges of Lansdowne FD in the foothills of the Outer Himalaya. The total area of this stretch is around 200 sq. km and the entire tract is in Uttarakhand. Although both the corridor forests are disturbed by biotic pressures such as grazing, fodder, firewood, gravel and sand collection, our surveys in early 2000 showed that the southern corridor is much more disturbed by the presence of numerous villages and gujjar (a pastoral community) camps. Yet this corridor, which is on flatter terrain, is used by elephants (groups as J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 247 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 2: Rajaji Corbett corridor well as bulls), Leopard P. pardus. Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus , Chital Axis axis and Wild Pig Sits scrofa. No evidence of tiger was seen. The northern corridor (Laldhang- Kotdwar ranges) being hilly is used by tiger and other wide ranging mammals such as leopard, Sambar Rusa unicolor and elephant. The Himalayan foothills criss-crossed with numerous nullahs provide excellent cover to predators such as tiger and leopard, and areas that are free from poaching support a high density of sambar (Harihar et al. 2009b). This large deer is ecologically (preference for dense cover) and behaviourally (being crepuscular and nocturnal, solitary or in small groups and non-aggressive) the most suitable prey for tiger in the hilly and mountainous parts of its range in south and south-east Asia. Sunderraj etal. ( 1993) recorded that elephant bulls use the entire northern corridor. The groups from west were unable to cross as a result of steep terrain at Gwalgod sot. Human disturbance was high in the entire tract. For instance, in Laldhang range (94 sq. km), Johnsingh and Negi (2003a, b) found 34 gujjar deras (settlements) with 203 gujjars and 330 buffaloes, and four bhotia (another pastoral community) deras with 17 people, 800 sheep and 250 goats. In Kotdwar range (92 sq. km), there were six gujjar deras with 57 gujjars and 82 buffaloes, and six bhotia deras with 38 people. 990 sheep. 290 goats and 1 7 ponies. Gujjars depend on buffaloes for their sustenance, and bhotias on goats and sheep. Bhotias use the forests only in winter, as they migrate to better pastures high up in the Himalayas during summer. When Sunderraj et al. (1993) studied elephants here the eastern part was heavily disturbed as a result of bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus collection. In addition, Johnsingh and Negi (2003a. b) enumerated 50 villages along the southern boundary of the northern corridor (Laldhang-Kotdwar forest ranges) in a width of 5 km from the forest boundary. These villages have about 4.000 families with human population of 20,000 to 30,000. Use of the forest by these people was apparent from over 40 trails/paths into the 27 km long boundary of the corridor forests between Laldhang and Kotdwar. People use these trails for fodder and firewood collection, as w'ell as for livestock grazing. The gujjars and bhotias living in the forest also use these trails. Similarly, along the northern boundary of this corridor, in a 3 km width, 36 villages were enumerated with about 3.000 families and a human population of 15.000 to 20,000. The Kho river forms the eastern boundary of the northern corridor (Fig. 2). The forests along the river, from Kotdwar town to about 3 km into the forest, are under enormous firewood and fodder collection pressure from the people of Kotdwar. Beyond the iron bridge across the river, this zone is extensively used by elephants. Due to high biotic pressures, tiger use of this corridor is very much limited. In late 2002, in Laldhang-Kotdwar ranges, 35.2 km were surveyed along eight riverbeds, and only five sets of tiger pugmarks were seen. There were no pugmarks along the Malan river in Kotdwar range, or Chawariya and Nalgadi sot (river) in Laldhang range. Occurrence of elephant dung along the Malan riverbed, which was heavily used by villagers as a footpath, was negligible, and absent in Chawariya sot (Johnsingh et al. 2004). Although Sunderraj et al. (1993) did not record evidence of elephant groups east of Gwalgod sot in the summer of 2005. frequent movement of groups from the forests east of Kho river ( Kotri range) to the river were observed, in spite of heavy traffic along Kotdwar-Lansdowne road. The groups used both banks of the river, and fed heavily on Mallotus philippensis and Dendrocalamus strictus. However, we are not certain whether they are able to cross Gwralgod sot and range into the western part of the corridor. Reducing the dependency of people on the northern corridor forests, which are vital not only for the long-term conservation of tiger and elephant, but also for the water regime of the area, should be the objective of both Forest Department and conservation NGOs. In this regard, we come up with the following recommendations: 1. Awareness programmes: The best w ay of getting the support of the local people in protecting these corridor forests, which are vulnerable to summer fires set by people, is by convincing them that this forest is crucial to sustain the flow of water that emanates from the forest. Numerous studies (Meher-Homji 1989; Dudley and Stolton 2003) have highlighted the importance of forests in maintaining water regime and microclimate. Presently three streams (Rawasan, Malan and Kho) are perennial and two (Maili and Sigaddi) have water up to the boundary of the forest till March, remaining dry only from April to June. Kotdwar township, with about 50,000 people (the population has doubled since 248 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1991), gets its drinking water from the Kho river. Protection of the corridor forests, which form the catchment area of these streams, therefore becomes extremely crucial. Massive and sustained conservation awareness programmes in the villages and Kotdwar township about the importance of these forests as watershed, and the need to protect them from fire, would certainly help in ultimately reducing pressures on the forests. Massive planting of local evergreen species such as Mangifera indica , Putranjiva roxburghii and Syzygium cuminii around springs in this corridor, involving local people, particularly school children, is likely to stimulate ecological awareness. 2. Protection: Special efforts should be made to protect the forests (from the iron bridge across Kho river near Kotdwar to Amsod village, a distance of about 5 km) from development and garbage as a result of picnicking at the river. The perennial and scenic, small river can attract encroachers, and the abandoned buildings, past the iron bridge near a small Lord Shiva temple, and in the Department of Water Supply compound, about a kilometre from the iron bridge, might be misused. A restaurant, which is showing signs of expansion, has already come up to the right of the road, just a kilometre short of Amsod. Since the Kho river is used by elephants and other wildlife, it may be necessary to convert the two staff quarters in the abandoned nursery into an anti-poaching camp. 3. Resettlement: On a priority basis, the gujjar and bhotia deras from Laldhang and Kotdwar ranges should be resettled in the southern periphery of Chiriyapur Range of Haridwar FD. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Chief Wildlife Warden, Uttarakhand permitted us to do the study. Save the Tiger Fund - USA provided the funds and Director, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, encouraged us to take up the study. Shirish Kumar Kyatham prepared the figures, M.P. Aggarwal word processed the text and Nima Manjrekar read through the manuscript. We thank them all very sincerely. REFERENCES Bist. S.S. (2002): An overview of elephant conservation in India. Indian Forester 128: 121-136. Dudley. N. & S. Stolton (2003): Running Pure: The importance of forest protected areas to drinking water. A research report for the World Bank/WWF Alliance for Forest Conservation and Sustainable Use. 112 pp. Jhala. Y.V.. R. Gopal & Q. Qureshi (2008): Status of Tigers, Co-Predators and Prey in India. National Tiger Conservation Authority and Wildlife Institute of India. Dehradun. TR 08/001 pp. 164. Johnsingh. A.J.T.. S.N. Prasad & S.P. Goyal(1990): Conservation status of Chilla-Motichur corridor for elephant movement in Rajaji- Corbett National Parks area. India. Biological Conservation 51: 125-138. Johnsingh, A.J.T. & A.S. Negi (2003a): Operation Eye of the Tiger - India. Final report submitted to Save the Tiger Fund, USA. for the period April 1996 - June 2003. Pp.17. Johnsingh, A.J.T. & A.S. Negi (2003b): Status of tiger and leopard in Rajaji-Corbett Conservation Unit, northern India. Biological Conservation 111 : 385-393. Johnsingh, A.J.T., K. Ramesh, Q. Qureshi, A. David, S.P. Goyal, G.S. Rawat, K. Rajapandian & S. Prasad (2004): Conserv ation status of tiger and associated species in the Terai Arc Landscape. India. RR-04/001, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Pp. viii+110. FIarihar, A., B. Pandav & S.P. Goyal (2009a): Responses of tiger (Panthera tigris) and their prey to removal of anthropogenic influences in Rajaji National Park, India. European Journal of Wildlife Research 55: 97-105. FIarihar, A., D.L. Prasad, C. Ri. B. Pandav & S.P. Goyal (2009b): Losing ground: tigers Panthera tigris in the north-western Shivalik landscape of India. Oryx 43: 35-43. Meher-Homji, M. (1989): Trends of rainfall relation to forest cover. Pp. 48-59. In: Jayal, N.D. (Ed.): Deforestation, Drought and Desertification, Perceptions on a growing ecological crisis. Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage, New Delhi, pp. 147. S underraj, S.F.W.. B.K. Mishra & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1993): Elephant use of Rajaji Corbett forest corridor, northwest India. Pp. 261-269. In: Daniel. J.C. & H.S. Datye (Eds): A Week With Elephants. Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press, Bombay. Wikramanayake, E., E. Dinerstein, J.G. Robinson, U. Karanth, A. Rabinowitz, D. Olson, T. Mathew, P. Hedao, M. Connor, G. Hemley & D. Bolze (1998): An ecology based method for defining priorities for large mammal conservation: the tiger as case study. Conservation Biology 12: 865-878. 7. SIGHTING OF A RARE DARK MORPH OF GREY FRANCOLIN FRANC O LINUS PONDICER/ANUS GMELIN 1789 NEAR SURENDRANAGAR. GUJARAT. INDIA Aditya Roy1 '2/B. Haritej Society. Opp. ATIRA/AMA. Behind Apang Manav Mandal. Dr. V.S. Road. Vastrapur. Ahmedabad 380 015. Gujarat, India. Email: adi007roy@gmail.com On August 16, 2010, around 17:30 hrs, while in the photographic trip I sighted a pair of dark birds moving in a wilderness around Surendranagar city of Gujarat, on a bush in the wild areas. At first I mistook it for a black J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 249 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES francolin but on literature survey, I identified them to be Grey Helm Guide Series, London. 384 pp.). These Grey Francolins Francolins Francolinus pondicerianus (Grimmett etal. 1999: Francolinus pondicerianus had an unusually dark plumage pocket guide to the birds of the Indian subcontinent. The due to presence of excessive melanin. 8. RECENT OCCURRENCE OF THE BROWN-HEADED BARBET MEGALAIMA ZEYLANICA GMELIN 1788 AND OTHER DRY COUNTRY SPECIES IN PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE, KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA - ARE THESE RELATED TO ECOLOGICAL CHANGE? V.J. Zacharias1 and Richard T. Holmes2 'Division of Biology, Northern Virginia Community College, Manassas, Virginia 20109, USA. Email: vjzacharias@yahoo.co.uk department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA. Email: Richard.T.Holmes@Dartmouth.Edu Periyar Tiger Reserve, a major part of the Cardamom Hill Reserve, is located on the wet zone of the Western Ghats in Kerala, southern India. The area harbours a rich bird fauna which has been studied periodically since the 1800s (Elwes 1870; Ali 1935-37; Berlioz 1940; Nichols 1944-45; Nair et cv/. 1 985 ; Robertson and Jackson 1992; Srivastava etal. 1993; Santharam 1996; Veeranrani et al. 2005; Elamon 2006; Sugathan 2008). The Brown-headed Barbet Megalaima zeylanica , which is endemic to the Indian subcontinent (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005), has not been previously reported from the Reserve. This note reports the occurrence of the Brown-headed Barbet and other dry country species sighted at about 700 m elevation in the Periyar Tiger Reserve in recent years. Ali ( 1935-37), Robertson and Jackson ( 1992), Nair et al. ( 1985) and Srivastava et al. (1993) who have documented the avifauna of Periyar, and Yahya (1988) who studied the biology of barbets in the Reserve from 1977-1980 recorded only two species of barbets, namely White-cheeked Barbet Megalaima viridis and Crimson-fronted Barbet Megalaima rubricapilla. Prasad (1990) who studied the avian abundance in Idukky Wildlife Sanctuary, around the Hydroelectric area, also on the Western Ghats about 50 km north of Periyar, recorded same two species, and a third species, the Crimson¬ breasted Barbet M. haemocephala. Nichols (1944-1945) also did not record the Brown-headed Barbet in Periyar. While looking for birds on the Anchuruly road in Periyar on February 21. 2007, we came across two Brown¬ headed Barbets on a fig tree near the forest edge, behind the Anavachal guest house at about 700 m elevation. The vegetation is moist deciduous forest with teak as the dominant tree species and frequently disturbed by tourists, firewood collectors and cattle grazing. The unmistakable call of the bird attracted our attention. VJZ who worked as a research officer at Periyar from 1991-97, lived at the Anavachal guest house from May to December 1991 and frequently visited the area while working in Periyar, had never previously seen the species in this area or anywhere in the tiger reserve. The Brown-headed Barbet occurs mostly in the rain shadow region of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, in the deciduous biotope, which include the areas of these states bordering Kerala (VJZ pers.obs.). Little information is available on the status and distribution of this species in Kerala. During the Travancore-Cochin ornithological survey, Ali ( 1935- 37, 1 984) noted the bird at Thattekad and collected a specimen from Aramboli near the Tamil Nadu border. However, Ali ( 1984) did not mention Thattekad as a locality for this bird and wrote that the species was local and apparently confined to the deciduous low country in southern Kerala only. According to Whistler and Kinnear ( 1935) two races of the Brown-headed Barbet occurred in Kerala, M.z. zeylanica in the south and M.z. inornata in the north, as evidenced by specimens in the British Museum. But Abdulali (1971) did not admit M.z. zeylanica in the Indian mainland. A recently published book, birds of kerala (Ali 1999) recorded two races of the Brown¬ headed Barbet in Kerala. There are recent sight records of the Brown-headed Barbet at Parambikulam and Chinnar Wildlife sanctuaries, Malampuzha, Elivalmala and Palakkad gap, all near the Tamil Nadu border ( Jafer Palot pers. comm. ). The species is fairly common in Tamil Nadu, adjoining Periyar in the east, at lower elevations. There is a specimen of the species in the Smithsonian Museum collected at Vannathiparai (450 m) in Tamil Nadu, about 1 2 km away from the site of our observation. The occurrence of the Brown-headed Barbet within Periyar near Anavachal, which is about 2 km away from the Tamil Nadu border, at about 700 m, raises interesting questions. The species seems to have moved from a dry habitat at lower elevation to a higher elevation where the habitat has become drier and thus more suitable for the species. This illustrates encroachment of a dry habitat, lower elevation species to a higher elevation. The extension in range may be related to the changes in vegetation structure and perhaps consequent changes in weather in the peripheral areas of the Reserve in the Thekkady range. It is worth mentioning that three other dry country species, the Eurasian Collard Dove Streptopelia decaocto , 250 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Pied Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus, and the Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus found at lower elevations have also been recorded by Srivastava et al. (1993) at Periyar. These were listed as uncommon/rare without any details. Since these are common birds and not recorded by Ali ( 1935-37), it seems that more dry country species from lower elevations have been moving to Periyar in recent years, which is probably related to changing environmental conditions, as evidenced by the drying of the marshes around Anavachal and the recent increase in temperature in the area. This information is reviewed below for these species along with anecdotal information from more recent years. Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldski): Ah (1984, 1999) observed this species only near Kanyakumari (now in Tamil Nadu) in scrub and boulder country with scattered cultivation. VJZ (pers. obs.) sighted two individuals near the Anavachal dormitory in 1992, possibly moving up from the lower camp area in Tamil Nadu, where they are fairly common. Pied Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert): This is a deciduous low country species that occupies lightly wooded and babul shrub habitat (Ali 1 984). A fledging cuckoo was found by VJZ being fed by a group of Jungle Babbler Turdoides striata in November 2001 near the boat landing across the Aranya Nivas hotel in Periyar. This cuckoo is common in the neighbouring Tamil Nadu in dry thorn scrub habitat at lower elevation, where it often parasitized the Yellow-billed Babbler Turdoides ajfinis in September/October (VJZ pers. obs.). Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus (Linnaeus): This Abdulali, H. (1974): A catalogue of the birds in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 71(2): 244-265. Au, S. (1935-37): The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin, with notes by Hugh Whistler. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 37(4): 814-843, 38(1): 61-92, (2): 282-320, (4): 484-514, 39(1): 4-35, (2): 320-342, (4): 569-593. Ali, S. (1984): Birds of Kerala. Kerala Forest Department, Trivandrum. Pp. 444 . Ali, S. (1999): Birds of Kerala. Revised by R. Sugathan. Kerala Forest Department. Thiruvananthapuram. Pp. 520. Berlioz, J. (1940): Observations Omithologiques Dans Le Sud De L'lnde. L'Oiseau, Paris. 10, 298-333. Elamon, S. (2006): Birds of Periyar - Natural History Series 1. Periyar Foundation. Kerala Forest Department. Thekkady. Pp.159. Elwes, J.H. (1870): Birds of Cardamom hills. Letter to the Editor. The Ibis. New Series 4: 526-528. Nair, P.V., K.K. Ramachandran, V.S. Vijayan, PS. Easa & P.V. Balakrishnan (1985): An Ecological study in Periyar Tiger Reserve, with special reference to Wildlife Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Trichur. Nichols, E.G. (1944-45): Occurrence of birds in Madurai District. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 44(3): 387-407, (4): 574-584, 45(2): 122-132. Prasad, N.L.N.S. (1990): Abundance and diversity of birds in the Idukky is a fairly common species according to Ali ( 1 984), occurring chiefly at lower elevations in Tamil Nadu. On February 22, 2007, we observed a male and a female feeding on the fruits of Persea macrantha on the trail connecting Anchuruly with the Thekkady checkpost. The presence and absence of Koel is evidently governed mostly by the number of its hosts, which are primarily crows (Ali 1984). Since the species is a frugivore, it could likely be a competitor for the endemic frugivores like the hornbills. Vijayakumar (1994) has observed the territorial behaviour of the Koel, which was aggressive to other frugivorous birds like barbets. In summary, the recent occurrences of several dry country bird species in Periyar, appear to be related to an ongoing drying of the landscape possibly due to climate change confounded by habitat degradation, caused by the increase in tourism/human activity. A regular monitoring of the species composition and population density of birds at key elevations within Periyar, and especially in its border areas would be helpful in evaluating changes occurring in future. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Bennichan Thomas, Field Director, Project Tiger, for arranging our accommodation at Periyar, Tony Gaston for reading the manuscript and Jafer Palot for providing information on the recent sightings of the Brown-headed Barbet in Kerala and publication of books on the birds of Periyar. VJZ thank James Dean of the Smithsonian Museum for permitting to examine the Indian bird collection and to Martha Rosen at the Smithsonian Library, Washington, D.C. for her help. NCES hydroelectric Project area, Kerala. Rec.zool.Surv.of India 87(4): 299-316. Rasmussen. PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia - The Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Attributes and Status. 683 pp. Lynx Edicions. London. Robertson, A. & M.C.A. Jackson (1992): Birds of Periyar - An aid to bird watching in Periyar Sanctuary. Tourism and Wildlife Society of India. Santharam,V. (1996): Birds of Periyar Tiger Reserve, random notes. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 36: 53-54. Srivastava, K.K., V.J. Zacharias, A.K. Bhardwaj & P. Mohamed Jafer (1993): Birds of Periyar Tiger Reserve, South India. Indian Forester 119( 10): 816-826. Sugathan, R. (2008): Birds of Periyar Tiger Reserve. Periyar Foundation. Kerala State Forest Department. Thekkady. Veeramani, A., GK. Pramod & D.N. Kurup (2005): New records of birds in Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thekkady, Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 102(2): 235-236. Vijayakumar. T.N. (1994): Resource utilization by birds attending figs in South India. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Calicut. Whistler. H. & N.B. Kjnnear (1935): The Vemay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 37(3): 515-528. Yahya, H.S.A. (1988): Breeding biology of barbets, Megalaima spp. (Capitonidae: Piciformes) at Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85(4): 493-51 1 . J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 251 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 9. AN ALBINO CROW AT SATNA, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA Archana Shukla1 'Department of Zoology, Govt. P.G. College, Satna 485 001, Madhya Pradesh, India. Email: archs3@yahoo.com In end-July 2010, a local newspaper reported the sighting of a white crow ( Corvus macrorhynchos or Corvus splendens) by the people of Madhavgarh area. Madhavgargh is a small town about 5 km from Satna district (24.34° N; 80.55° E) of Madhya Pradesh. Most of the villagers indulge in agricultural activity here and the area is covered with crop field and trees. This white crow was hunted and wounded by a flock of House crows; the injured crow was scared when it was rescued by an alert wildlife lover Mohd. Islam Shah. It was kept inside a large cage. The bird at first did not look like a crow! Its body was completely white, the beak and legs were pink, and the eyes slightly reddish. It was very aggressive, which could be because of the frequent visits by strangers. The bird was photographed and its call was also recorded for future reference. The crow was about 3 months old when rescued. Mohd. Shah had observed only a single crow trying to feed the white crow and presumed that it could be the mother. The area where it was found had a growth of vegetables, as well as some variety of trees. Prior to this sighting three albino crows have been reported from India, i.e., from Kolkata, Kerala and Goa (www.newKerala.com: 2010 and www.nKrealtors.com: 2003), and one Leucistic crow was spotted at Mysore, India (Maramkal 2008). Albino crows have also been reported from outside India. Besides this, there are reports on sighting of albino crows by Baker (1995), Ghose and Khan (2005), Joshua (1996). However, this is the first report from Madhya Pradesh. Fig. 1: Albino Crow sighted in Madhavgarh area, Satna, M.P. It is known that albinos are sensitive to their environment, mainly sunlight and are prone to pathogenic attacks, hence a detailed report of this incident has been submitted to the Conservator of Forest, Satna. The Forest Department has ensured that the albino crow will soon be shifted to a safe place. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I sincerely thank Dr. Shivesh Pratap Singh, Prof. Head of the Zoology Department. Govt. (Autonomous) College, Satna for his guidance and support. I am grateful to Dr. Kailash Chandra, Central Regional Zone of Zoological Survey of India for giving valuable suggestions. I also thank Mr. Pradeep Shukla for his support during field work. REFERENCES Baker, E.C.S. (1995): An albino bulbul. Rec. India Mus. 11: 351-352. Ghose, D. & S. Khan (2005): An albino bulbul at Keibul Lamjao National Park, Manipur, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 102(1): 120-121. Joshua, J. (1996): An albino Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 586. Maramkal, M.B. (2008): White Crow gives jitters to Mysore royals. The Times of India, Mumbai, August 28, 2008. Pg. 14. Times of India (2003): Baby albino crow evokes curiosity. www.nKrealtors.com. Kolkata. www.wildliofeextra.com: Abbit. B, Leucistic crow spotted in Kendall. www.webbizzu.com: Malaysia post (2007): Lucky albino crow. www.newKerala.com: (2010): Rare albino crow rescued in Goa. 10. FIRST AUTHENTIC RECORD OF RHA DINOPHIS PRASINUM (BLYTH, 1 854) FROM MIZORAM, NORTH-EAST INDIA Daya Nand Harit1 'Department of Zoology, Government Champhai College, Champhai 796 321, Mizoram, India. Email: dnharit@ yahoo. co. in Though Rhadinophis prasinum (Blyth, 1854) (Reptilia: Bengal (Darjeeling district) to eastern Arunachal Pradesh Colubridae) is known to occur in north-east India from West (Deban, Changlang district), China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, 252 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam (Whitaker and Captain 2008), and Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh (Das 2008), as well as Mizoram (Mathew 2007b), there are no specific locality records. Though, this species was included in their photographic guide, Ahmed etal. (2009) do not mention any localities. On September 04, 2009, around 14:00 hrs while conducting a survey on tiger beetles, a road kill was observed near Mualkawi village of Champhai district of Mizoram, NE India, which was adequate to examine and identify. Morphometry and scalation: Slender bodied; smooth scales; round snout; eye large with round pupil; supralabials 9 (4 to 6 touching eye); preocular 1 ; postoculars 2; loreal present; ventrals 199; subcaudals 1 10 paired; anal 1; temporals 2+1; body scalation 19:19:17. Coloration: Body green in colour, supralabials and ventral side of the body lighter green than body. Skin between Ahmed, F., A. Das & S. Dutta (2009): Amphibians and Reptiles of Northeast India - A Photographic Guide. Aaranyak, Guwahati, India. Pp. i-xiv & 1-168. Das, I. (2008): A Photographic Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of India. Om Books International, Darya Ganj, New Delhi. Pp. 33. Harit, D.N. & S.N. Ramanujam (2002): Reptilian fauna of Mizoram, India. Cobra 47 : 5-7. Harit, D.N. (2009): Survey and status on the faunal diversity of the state of Mizoram, with special reference to the Reptilian fauna scales black in colour, giving the appearance of black-edged scales. The road-killed snake was identified as Rhadinophis prasinum (Blyth, 1854) (previously Elaphe prasina ), as per Whitaker and Captain (2008), and Das (2008). Mathew (2007b) has included this species in the fauna of mizoram, but without examining or mentioning any specimens or records. Harit and Ramanujam (2002), Mathew (2007a) and Harit (2009) have reported several snakes from the area, excluding this snake. Hence, this is the first authentic record of Rhadinophis prasinum (Blyth, 1854) from Mizoram and is worthy of documentation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to the University Grants Commission for financing a project on tiger beetles, during which survey this snake was found. NCES of Champhai District of Mizoram and their status. Final Report of the Research Project. Government Champhai College, Mizoram. Mathew, R. (2007a): Additions to the snake fauna of Mizoram. Cobra 1(1): 5-9. Mathew, R. (2007b): Reptilia. In: Fauna of Mizoram, state faunal series. Zoological Survey of India 14: 545-577. Whitaker, R. & A. Captain (2008): Snakes of India, The Field Guide. Draco Books Chennai. Pp. 90. 1 1 . NEW DISTRIBUTION RECORD FOR HEMIDACTYLUS PRASHADI SMITH, 1935 (FAMILY: GEKKONIDAE) FROM THE KUDREMUKH FOREST COMPLEX, KARNATAKA, INDIA Rohit Naniwadekar1 and V. Deepak2 'Nature Conservation Foundation, 3076/5, IV Cross, Gokulam Park, Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India. Email: rohit@ncf-india.org, rohit.nani@gmail.com ■Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box #18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: deepaksalea@gmail.com Kudremukh forest complex (KNP) is one of the less explored mountain ranges of the central Western Ghats (Vasudevan etal. 2006). We conducted herpetological surveys for the Karnataka Forest Department from October 2005 to February 2006 in the Kudremukh National Park, the Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary and the Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary, which together form the Kudremukh forest complex. On November 02, 2005, at 21:00 hrs, we came across an individual of Hemidactylus. It was seen on the wall of the Forest Department bungalow in the Bhagwati Nature Camp (820 m above msl ) in the Kudremukh range of the Kudremukh National Park. The specimen was fixed in 70% ethanol and is now deposited in the Collections of the Bombay Natural History Society (Tag No. 324, BNHS No. 1749). The specimen was identified as H. prashadi Smith, 1935 using standard taxonomic key (Smith 1935). The specimen matched the description completely. The coloration of this specimen was similar to Smith’s description. The absence of preano-femoral pores suggests that the specimen could be a female. As per earlier reports, H. prashadi was known to occur from Dorle in Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra (Giri and Bauer 2006) to Jog in North Kanara district of Karnataka (Smith 1935; Jadhav etal. 1991; Tikader and Sharma 1992; Sharma 2002). After the first sighting of the gecko on November 02, 2005, we have seen the gecko on multiple occasions in the three protected areas of the Kudremukh forest complex. We have seen it from as far south as the Belthangady range of the 1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 253 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Kudremukh National Park (13° 06' N; 75° 18' E). According to the previous reports, this gecko is known to occur on walls of houses, barks of trees, lichen-covered black granite rocks (Jadhav etal. 1991 :Tikader and Sharma 1992; Gin and Bauer 2006). In addition to spotting the adult geckos on walls and crevices of buildings, barks and within buttresses of trees, we have also seen many individuals on huge rocks along the river courses in the nights. We found the gecko from 40-820 m above msl. It is thus noteworthy to mention this new locality report, which extends the distribution of this species by c. 150 km (aerial distance) towards south. This suggests that this species ranges widely throughout the central Western Ghats and its presence in the forests of Kodagu, which are contiguous with the Kudremukh hills, needs to be confirmed. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the Karnataka Forest Department and their staff for funding, permission and support. We thank Dr. Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Shri. Vijay Ranjan Singh and Shri. M.S. Chaitra for their guidance, support and encouragement. Thanks to Mr. Varad Giri for the information he provided. We thank Mr. Shashank Dalvi and Ms. Swapna N. for their support during the survey. REFERENCES Glri, V. & A.M. Bauer (2006): Notes on the distribution, natural history and variation of Hemidactylus prashadi Smith, 1 935. Hamadryad 30: 55-60. Jadhav, S.P., L.T. Mote & P.K. Vadar(1991): Ecological notes on niche of new and rare geckonid lizard, Hemidactylus prashadi. Geobios New Reports 10: 69-70. Sharma, R.C. (2002): The fauna of India and the adjacent countries. Reptilia, Volume II (Sauria). Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. xxv + 430 pp. Smith, M.A. ( 1935): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma: Reptilia and Amphibia. Volume II: Sauria. Taylor & Francis, London, xiii + 440 pp. + 1 plate. Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma ( 1992): The Handbook of Indian Lizards. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. xv + 250 pp. + 42 plates. Vasudevan, K., M. Singh, V.R. Singh, M.S. Chaitra, R.S. Naniwadekar, V. Deepak & N. Swapna (2006): Survey of biological diversity in Kudremukh forest complex, Karnataka. Final Survey Report of Kudremukh WL Division. 12. OCCURRENCE OF FLYING FISH, CHE1LOPOGON ABEI PARIN. 1996 FROM NEARSHORE WATERS OF THE NORTH-WEST COAST OF INDIA SUJIT SUNDARAM1 ‘Mumbai Research Centre of Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, 2nd Floor, C.I.F.E old campus. Fisheries University Road, Seven Bungalows, Andheri (W). Versova, Mumbai 400 061. Maharashtra. India. Email: sujitsundaram@hotmail.com Introduction Flying fish (Family: Exocoetidae) are common in tropical and subtropical waters. They form an important fishery resource world over, especially in countries such as Indonesia, Japan (Parin 1960), USA (Herald 1969). West Africa (Gibbs 1981) etc. Parin (1961) gave an account of the Exocoetid fauna of the Indian Ocean, and Day (1877, 1889) has described six species of flying fish from India. Since flying fishes are capable of leaping out of water and gliding for short distances above the surface they are commonly called as ‘Hying mullet' and they are a significant component of the epipelagic food chain (Parin 1968). In Maharashtra, they are locally known as ‘ Kawla maasa' meaning ‘Crow fish'. Flying fishes have been occasionally reported from different centres along the coastal strip of India. Rao and Basheeruddin ( 1973) gave an account of the fishery of the species Parexocoetus brachypterus brachypterus (Richardson), including the size-composition, sex-ratio, maturity studies and diet from Madras (=Chennai) waters. Development of egg and larvae studies was carried out by Vijayaragavan (1973). Homell (1923), Arora and Banerji (1957), and Pajot and Prabhakaradu (1993) described the flying fish fishery' along the Coromandel coast, south-east India. Sundaram and Sarang (2003) and Kizhakudan et al. (2002) have reported the species Cheilopogon furcatus ( Mitchill 1815) from Mumbai and Veraval waters respectively. Three other species of flying fish Cheilopogon nigricans (Bennett 1840), Cheilopogon suttoni (Whitley & Colefax, 1938) and Hirundichthys oxycephalus (Bleeker 1852) were also reported from Mumbai waters (Kamble et al. 2007). Material and Methods During May 2007. about 75 kg of flying fishes were landed by trawlers at New Ferry Wharf ( Bhaucha Dhakka), Mumbai, Maharashtra. The depth of fishing operation was at 20-30 m, 50-60 km off north-west coast in Mumbai waters. About 2 kg of sample was brought to the laboratory for identification and further biological analysis. Total length was measured using a digital calliper and total weight (±0.01 gm) was determined using an electronic balance after the specimens were dried on blotting paper. The measurements 254 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES were taken as described by CMFRI (1995). Four specimens ranging in total length from 222-247 mm with the corresponding body weight ranging from 73.86-92.17 gm were studied for morphometric and meristic characters. Results and Discussion The species was identified as Cheilopogon abei Parin. 1996 (Family: Exocoetidae. Order: Beloniformes and Class: Actinopterygii) based on the detailed identification characters as described in Parin (1996). A total of 23 morphometric characters and 5 meristic counts were recorded and are given in Table 1 . The body of C. abei is elongate, broadly cylindrical and flattened dorsally. The standard length and fork length of the species is 77.3% and 83% of the total length (TL). The pectoral fin length was 58.2% and 75.3% of the total length and standard length respectively. The other morphometric characteristics in relation to TL was greatest body depth (13.5%), head length (18.6%), pelvic fin length (23.3%), dorsal fin length (9.9%), anal fin base length (9.4%), caudal fin upper lobe (17.5%) and caudal fin lower lobe (25.4%). The pre orbital, orbital length and inter orbital distance was 27%, 34.5% and 45.4% of the head length. Head is slightly shorter than the distance between dorsal fin origin and base. The lower jaw is pointed and is somewhat longer than the upper one when the mouth is closed. The jaw teeth are numerous, of average size, located in 2-3 rows, and palatine teeth are also present. The dorsal fin is rather high, it is the longest second and the origin of anal fin is six rays behind the origin of dorsal fin. The pectoral fins are strikingly long and reach the origin of the upper tail lobe. The pelvic fins reach the beginning of the 2-3rd ray of the anal fin base. The caudal fin is deeply forked and its lower lobe is longer than the upper. The lateral line is without branch at thorax and the scales are large and cycloid. The pectoral fins have 13-14 rays, dorsal fin has 13-14 rays, pelvic fins have 8-9 rays, anal fin has 9-10 rays and caudal fin rays ranged from 23-24. The dorsal fin is grayish, with two bright black spots between the 4th-6'h ray and between 1 0lh- 1 1 lh ray. The anal fin is without pigmentation. The pectoral fins are black, with a prominent bright yellow band ‘mirrow’ running through it, narrowing towards the upper margin and reaches the l-3rd ray. The pelvic fins have a bright black spot in their back half and do not reach the posterior edge of the fin. The caudal fin is evenly dark gray. The body is dark above and pale below and usually iridescent blue in life. C. abei occurs in the western equatorial part of the Pacific Ocean (up to Solomon Islands in the east), the inland seas of south-east Asia, the Indian Ocean northwards of 15-20° S, the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. In the Pacific Table 1: Morphometric and meristic characteristics of Cheilopogon abei Specimen Specimen Specimen Specimen 1 2 3 4 Morphometric (mm) Total length 222 232 237 247 Standard length 165 179 188 193 Fork length 182 195 198 204 Greatest body depth 26 32 33 36 Head length 37 44 46 47 Pectoral fin length 122 135 140 149 Pelvic fin length 50 55 56 58 Caudal peduncle length 14 17 18 20 Caudal peduncle depth 13 14 15 17 Dorsal fin base length 33 35 37 39 Dorsal fin length 20 22 24 27 Anal fin base length 17 22 23 26 First anal ray length 10 12 13 15 Pelvic fin base length 6 8 10 12 Pre orbital 9 12 13 13 Eye diameter 14 15 15 16 Inter orbital width 18 19 20 22 Post orbital distance 18 19 19 20 Upper jaw length 10 11 12 13 Lower jaw length 13 17 18 19 Caudal fin upper lobe 39 40 41 44 Caudal fin lower lobe 53 60 61 64 Weight in gm Meristic counts 73.86 82.67 85.21 92.17 Pectoral rays 13 14 14 14 Dorsal rays 13 13 14 14 Pelvic rays 8 8 8 9 Anal rays 9 9 10 10 Caudal rays 23 23 24 24 Ocean it is distributed as a neritic species, and in the Indian Ocean as a neritic oceanic species (Parin 1996). The present report of this species from Mumbai waters, north-west coast of India seems to be the first record from this region. C. furcatus is a common species similar to C. abei in appearance but its band pattern on the pectoral fin varies slightly. In addition, it does not have a dark spot on the dorsal and pelvic fins. C. abei also appears to be similar to C. nigricans but differs well from this species due to the yellow coloration of the ‘mirrow’ on the pectoral fins and in the presence of a black spot on the pelvic fin. According to Parin (1996), the maximum length of C. abei from the Pacific Ocean does not exceed 210 mm, whereas it is common to find larger fishes in the Indian Ocean, even up to 250 mm. The maximum length recorded in the present observation was 247 mm. Flying fish is a tropical pelagic fish and characteristic of surface layers of seas (Bruun 1935) and the occurrence of flying fishes in inshore waters may be because they migrate J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 255 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES towards shallow water areas from offshore waters for feeding. According to Rao and Basheeruddin (1973). migration may also be for spawning. The observed specimens of this species were in mature condition. Though flying fishes may show stray occurrences throughout the year, the period of abundance is during post monsoon. In May 2007, the sea was very turbulent off Mumbai. Turbulence generally results in transport of nutrients from deeper waters, inducing increased planktonic productivity, and hence increased abundance of zooplankton on which flying fish feed (Oxenford et al. 1995). This phenomenon could have led to the occurrence of this species during this period in Mumbai waters in such large numbers. According to Parin (1996), flying fishes are objects of fisheries that are fished in many tropical countries, and practical requirements of fishery demand the knowledge of the species composition of this group in certain regions. Regional distribution and relative abundance of flying fishes have not REFE Arora, H.L. & S.K. Banerji (1957): Flying fish fishery along the Coromandel coast. Indian J. Fish 4(1): 80-91. Bruun, A.F. (1935): Flying-fishes (Exocoetidae) of the Atlantic- Systematic and Biological studies. Dana Report 2(6): 1-106. CMFRI (1995): A manual for standardised linear measurements of exploited finfish and shellfish. CMFRI Sp. Pub. 78 pp. Day, F. ( 1 877): The Fishes of India. Bernard Quaritch. London Part 3: 369-552. Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Taylor and Francis, London. Vol. I. 548 pp. Gibbs, R.H. Jr. (1981): Exocoetidae, flying fishes. In: Fischer, W., G. Bianchi & W.B. Scott (Eds): FAO species identification sheets for fishery purpose. Eastern Central Atlantic, fishing area 34, 47 (in part), Vol 2. Var. Canada finds-in-trust, Ottawa. Department of fisheries and Oceans, Canada, by arrangement with FAO of the UN. Herald, E.S. (1969): Living Fishes of the World. Chanticleer Press, New York. 304 pp. Hornell, J. (1923): The flying fish fishery of the Coromandel coast and the spawning habits of Cypsilurus. Madras Fish Bull. 15: 99-108. Kamble, S.K., S. Sundaram, M.P. Sreeram & J.D. Sarang (2007): Record of three species of flying fish from Mumbai Waters. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T and E set: No. 194: 19-20. Kizhakudan, J.K., J.K. Shoba, V.D. Savaria, J.D. Vanvi, A. A. Ladani, J.P. Polara & A.P. Bharanda (2002): Unusual landings of flying fish, Cheliopogon furcatus (Mitchill, 1815) in Veraval, Mangrol and Chorward. Mar. Fish. Infor. Sere. T and E ser. No. 1 71: 10. been studied extensively along the Indian coast, and therefore efforts need to be taken in this direction and also regarding the commercial exploitation of these fishes. A specimen of C. abei has been deposited in the Reference Collection Museum of Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Dr. N.V. Parin, Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences IO RAS, Moscow for confirming the identity of the species. I thank Dr. V.D. Deshmukh, Principal Scientist and Scientist-in- Charge, CMFRI, Mumbai, Dr. Miriam Paul Shreeram, Senior Scientist, Marine Biodiversity Division, CMFRI. Mangalore, and Mrs. T.S. Naomi, Principal Scientist, Marine Biodiversity Division, CMFRI, Kochi. The help rendered by J.R. Dias, S.D. Kamble and J.D. Sarang is also acknowledged. NCES Oxenford, H. A., R. Mohon & W. Hunte (1995): Distribution and relative abundance of flying fish (Exocoetidae) in the eastern Caribbean. I. Adults. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 117: 11-23. Pajot, G. & C.R. Prabhakaradu (1993): Flying fish fishing on the Coromandel coast, 1988-1991. BOBPAVP/84, Bay of Bengal Programme, Project Report. Madras. 21 pp. Parin, N.V. ( 1960): Flying fish (Exocoetidae) of the north-western part of the Pacific Ocean. Tr. Inst. Okean. Akad. Nauk SSSR 31: 205-285. Parin, N.V. (1961): On the Exocoetid fauna of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Trudy Inst, Okeanol. 43: 40-92. Parin, N.V. ( 1 968): Ichthyo fauna of the epipelagic zone. Israel Program. Sci. Trans! . Parin, N.V. (1996): On the species composition of flying fishes (Exocoetidae) in the West-Central part of tropical Pacific. J. Ichthyol. 36(5): 357-364. Rao, K.S. & S. Basheeruddin (1973): Unusual catches of the flying fish. Parexocoetus brachypterus brachypterus (Richardson) in inshore waters at Madras. Indian J. Fish. 20(2): 629-634. Sundaram, S. & J.D. Sarang (2003): Stray landing of flying fish Cheliopogon furcatus (Mitchill. 1 8 15) at New Ferry Wharf. Mumbai. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T and E ser. No. 175: 12. Vijayaragavan, P. (1973): Studies on fish eggs and larvae from Indian waters. I. Development of egg and larvae of Hirundichthys (Hirundichthys) coromandelensis (Hornell). Indian J. Fish. 20(1): 108-137. 13. BEE PASTURAGE PLANTS OF APIS FLOREA IN KHAMMAM REVENUE DIVISION, KHAMMAM DISTRICT. ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA A.Vijaya Bhasker Reddy1’2 and P. Ramachandra Reddy1 ‘Department of Botany, P.G. College of Science, Saifabad, Hyderabad 500 004, Andhra Pradesh, India. 2Email: vijayabhaskerredy@yahoo.co.in Introduction Melissopalynology, one of the branches of palynology finds a very significant application in the field of apiculture. A qualitative and quantitative pollen analysis of honey provides the only means of identifying the bee pasturage plants in any locality (KalpanaTP, RamanujamCGK-1996A). 256 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES The present study is carried out to reveal the bee pasturage plants of Apis floreci in Khammam district. Material and Methods Seven winter honey samples were collected from Lakshmipuram (Mudigonda mandal), Khammam (Khammam rural mandal), Nelapatla ( Kusumanchi mandal ), Chirunomula (Bonkal mandal), Nelakondapalli (Nelakondapalli mandal), Konegudem (Nelakondapalli mandal), and Rejerla (Viamsur mandal). The methodology recommended by the International Commission of Bee Botany (Louveaux et al. 1978) was employed for the recovery of pollen contents and their analysis. 1 ml of honey was dissolved in 10 ml of distilled water, centrifuged, and subjected to acetolysis (Erdtman 1960). Three pollen slides were prepared from each honey sample and the pollen types were identified with the help of reference slide collections of local flora and relevant literature. Observations Of the seven honey samples (Table 1), two samples (N-N-K-5 and V-R-K-7) were unifloral and predominant with Prosopis juliflora (90.5%) and Xanthium strumarium (56%). Remaining five samples were multifloral, having the pollen taxa of Psidium guajava, Capsicum frutescens, Phoenix srylvestris , Prosopis spicigera, Borassus flabellifer, Holoptelea integrifolia, Croton bonplandianum, Dendrophthoe falcata, Ageratum conyzoides, Ricinus communis, Peltophorum ferrugineum , Sapindus emarginatus, Coccinea grandis. Table 1 : Honey samples collected from Khammam revenue division S.No Date Mandal Village Code Colour 1 03. i. 2005 Mudigonda Lakshmipuram M-L-K Amber 2 121.2005 Khammam Khammam Rural K-K-K Yellow 3 14.x. 2005 Kusumanchi Nelapatla K-N-K Amber 4 27.xii.2005 Bonakal Chirunomula B-C-K Amber 5* 16.xii.2006 Nelakondapalli Nelakondapalli N-N-K Yellow 6 22. xi, 2005 Nelakondapalli Konegudem N-K-K Amber 7 * 18.x. 2006 Vaimsur Rajerla V-R-K Yellow *: Unifloral honeys Eucalyptus globulus, Cocos nucifera, Cajanus cajan, Tridax procumbens. Citrus aurantifolia, Leucaena leucocephala, Ziziphus mauritiana, Justicia procumbens, Alternanthera sessilis and Tridax procumbens among others (Table 2). Discussion Bee pasturage plants of Apis florea in Khammam revenue division are referred to 3 categories 1) Trees - Prosopis juliflora, Psidium guajava, Phoenix sylvestris, Prosopis spicigera, Borassus flabellifer, Holoptelea integrifolia, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Sapindus emarginatus, Muntingia calabura, Ziziphus mauritiana, Leucaena leucocephala , Eucalyptus globulus. Cocos nucifera. Citrus aurantifolia, Bombax ceiba, 2) Shrubs - Ricinus communis, Cajanus cajan, Xanthium strumarium Table 2: Frequency classes and frequencies (%) of pollen types recorded from honey samples Honey Pollen Bee pasturage plants of Apis florea and frequencies (%) of pollen types sample types M-L-K-1 P- NIL S- Psidium guajava-30.8%, Capsicum frutescens-25.6% I- Phoenix sylvestris- 1 1 .33%, Prosopis juliflora- 10.86%, Prosopis spicigera-5.4%, Borassus flabellifer-4.58%, Holoptelea integrifolia-4. 1 6% M- Croton bonplandianum-2.9%, Amaranthus viridis-2.5%, Ageratum conyzoides- 0.83%, Celosia argentea-0. 1 6%, Cocos nucifera-0.5% , Imperata cylindrica- 0.08% K-K-K-2 P- NIL S- Prosopis juliflora-25%, Celastrus emarginatus-2\ .6% I- Ageratum conyzoides- 1 5%, Ricinus communis-8.3%, Peltophorum, pterocarpum-8.8%, Sapindus emarginatus-4.6%, Coccinia grandis-4.33%, Muntingia calabura-3.33%, Phoenix sylvestris-3% M- Sida acuta- 2.6%, Alternanthera sessilisA %, Bombax ceiba- 0.6% K-N-K-3 P- NIL S- Borassus flabellifer- 37%, Prosopis juliflora-33.75% I- Eucalyptus globulus- 14.33%, Phoenix sylvestris- 10.83%, Cocos nucifera- 3.5% M- Asteraceae-0.16% J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 257 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 2: Frequency classes and frequencies (%) of pollen types recorded from honey samples (contd.) Honey Pollen Bee pasturage plants of Apis fiorea and frequencies (%) of pollen types sample types B-C-K-4 P- NIL S- Cajanus cajan- 30.25%, Prosopis ]uliflora-28A 6%, Capsicum frutescens- 22.33% I- Poaceae-4. 1 6%, Achyranthes aspera- 3.6%, Tridax procumbens-3.3% M- Ageratum conyzoides-2.3%, Justicia procumbens-2.9%, Sapindus emarginatus-t%, Vernonia cinerea- 0.1 6%, Leucaena leucocephala- 0.6%, Cocos nucifera-0.5%, Celosia argentea- 0.5% N-N-K-5 P- Prosopis juliflora- 90.5% S- NIL I- Cajanus cajan-3%, Citrus aurantifolia-3% M- Evolvulus alsinoides- 1 .75%, Ageratum conyzoides- 1 .75% N-K-K-6 P- NIL S- Prosopis juliflora-25%, Ageratum conyzoides- 24.83% I- Leucaena leucocephela-tA%, Ziziphus maur/f/ana-12.83%, Justicia procumbens- 12.5%, Citrus aurantifolia- 3.6% M- Evolvus alsinoides-0A6%, Cocos nucifera-0.5%, Acacia nilotica-0.3% V-R-K-7 P- Xanthium strumarium-56% S- Ageratum conyzoides-30% I- Alternanthera sessilis-8%, Tridax procumbens-5% M- NIL -45%) P = Predominant pollen type (>45%), S = Secondary pollen type (16 I = Important pollen type (3-16%), M = Minor pollen type (0-3%) 3) Herbs - Capsicum frutescens , Croton banplandianum, Amaranthus viridis , Ageratum conyzoides , Celosia argentea , Imperata cylindrica, Coccinia grandis , Sida acuta, Alternanthera sessilis, Brassica nigra, Portulaca indica, Justicia procumbens, Vernonia cinerea, Celosia argentea, Evolvulus alsinoides, Tridax procumbens. Of these three categories, trees and herbs served as major bee pasturage plants of Apis fiorea in this revenue division. Unifloral honeys collected from Nelakondapalli and Viamsur Mandals are predominant with Prosopis juliflora and Xanthium strumarium. These two plants serve as chief bee pasturage plants of the Khammam revenue division. Psidium guajava. Capsicum frutescens, Cajanus cajan, Phoenix sylvestris, Borassus flabellifer. Cocos nucifera. Citrus aurantifolia, Ricinus communis. Eucalyptus globulus, and Leucaena leucocephala are mainly from the agricultural tracts recorded from various honey samples. These plants serve as secondary or sometimes chief (in maximum blooming period) bee pasturage plants of this division. Some other herbs like Ageratum conyzoides, Tridax procumbens, Evolvulus alsinoides, Justicia procumbens and Croton bonplandianum grow along road sides or among weeds in agricultural lands and serve as other important bee pasturage plants of this division. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are extremely thankful to Prof. C.GK.Ramanujam for his valuable suggestions and Prof. Y.N.R. Varma and Prof. H. Ramakrishna for their help and encouragement during this investigation. REFERENCES Erdtman, G. (1960): The acetolysis method. A revised description. Sven. Botan. Tidskr. 54: 561 564. Louveaux, J., A. Maurizo & G. Vorwohi (1978): Methods of Melissopalynology. Bee World 59: 139-157. 258 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 14. A NOTE ON AN ADDITIONAL LOCALITY LOR ACANTHASPIS QUINQUESP1NOSA LABRICIUS 1 78 1 (INSECTA: HEMIPTERA: REDUVIIDAE) Rahul Khot1-2 and Vithoba Hegde1 'Bombay Natural History Society. Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road. Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India. Email: rahul.bnhs@gmail.com During a faunistic survey at Ansure (16° 33' 56.1" N; 73° 23' 23.0" E) near Jaitapur. Taluka Rajapur, District Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, on July 13, 2009. we collected one specimen of Acanthaspis quinquespinosa Fabricius underneath a rock (BNHS - Insect day-book entry No. 14/ 2009). The measurements (in mm), colour and other details are as follows. Abbreviations used L = Length, W = Width. Head-L = 1.5, W= 1. 90; Thorax (pronotum including lateral spines) - L = 3.6, W = 4.85; Abdomen - L = 7.5, W = 4.65; Total length - 12; Rostrum - L = 2.5; Scutellar spine -L = 1.5;Tibia-Foreleg-L = 4.35; Tibia -Mid leg- L = 4.5; Tibia - Hind leg - L = 6.4; Colour - black. Four posterior spines on pronotum. two lateral and two discal with transverse discal spots at the basal area. Scutellar spine is long, obliquely ascending. Each forewing with a pale yellow spot. A. quinquespinosa Fabricius 1781 is an aposematic, crepuscular, entomosuccivorous, polyphagous and multivoltine assassin bug found in the tropical evergreen forests, scrub jungles, semiarid zones and agroecosystems of peninsular India (Sahayaraj 2007). The bioecology (Ambrose 1983), ethology (Ambrose etal. 1986), new methods for mass rearing (Lakkundi 1989) and biology in relation to different habitats (Sahayraj 2007) of this bug have been studied. According to the previous records, the distribution of this bug from Maharashtra was known to be Bombay (now Mumbai) and Bor Ghat (now Bhor Ghat, district Pune) (Distant 1904; Bergroth 1915; Ambrose 2006). The habitat of the specimen collected was a rocky plateau beside a road with a few trees and shrubs. Throughout the survey, the area was always overclouded and was frequently receiving heavy rainfall. At the time of collection, the insect was found underneath a rock, and was seen active and moving away from the turned rock. Occurrence of A. quinquespinosa at Ansure indicates its presence in Ratnagiri district, which is a new locality for this species. A. quinquespinosa may be well-distributed in the Konkan region of Maharashtra. In view of the lack of information about the distribution of this species in Maharashtra, the information about its additional locality is noteworthy. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS At the Bombay Natural History Society, we thank Dr. Asad R. Rahmani, Director, Mr. J.C. Daniel, Vice President, Mr. Varad Giri, Curator, Mr. Deepak Apte, Deputy Director-Conservation. Dr. Swapna Prabhu. Taxonomist. Mr. Vinod Patil, Field Assistant and the library staff. REFERENCES Ambrose, D.P. (1983): Bioecology of an alate assassin bug, Acanthaspis quinquespinosa Fabr. (Heteroptera, Reduviidae). Pp. 107-111. In: Goel, S.C. (Ed.): Symposium on Ecology and Research Management. Ambrose, D.P. (2006): A checklist of Indian assassin bugs (Insecta: Hemiptera: Reduviidae) with taxonomic status, distribution and diagnostic morphological characters. Zoos’ Print Journal 21(9): 2388-2406. Ambrose, D.P., I.J.J. Kennedy & S.J. Vennison (1986): Impact of blocking sensory input on the predatory behavior of assassin bug. Acanthaspis quinquespinosa. Envi. Ecol 4(3): 469-474. Bergroth, E. (1915): Hemiptera from the Bombay Presidency. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24(1): 170-179. Distant, W.L. (1904): Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Rhynchota Vol. II. Pp. 257-258. Taylor and Francis, London. Lakkundi, N.H. (1989): Assessment of reduviids for their predation and possibilities of their utilization in biological control. Ph. D. Thesis, Indian Agricultural Research Institute. New Delhi. Sahayaraj, K. (2007): Ecotypic variation in the biology of Acanthaspis quinquespinosa Fabricius 1781 (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Reduviinae) from peninsular India. Egyptian Journal of Biology 9: 53-59. Egyptian British Biological Society. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 259 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 15. BAUHINIA PHOENICEA: A NEW LARVAL HOST PLANT LOR THE BUTTERLLY. BLUE NAWAB POLYURA SCHREIBER WARD/I (GODART 1819) (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPH ALIDAE) C. Susanth1, K.A. Kishore2 and K. Baiju3 'Prakriti. SNRA-20, Indira Nagar, Peroorkada P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 005, Kerala, India. Email: c.susanth@gmail.com -Kodapully House, Manikandeswaram P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 013, Kerala, India. Email: kishore.ashokan@gmail.com 3Sreerangam, Paravoorkonam, Karakulam P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 562, Kerala, India. According to Wynter-Blyth ( 1957) and Evans ( 1932), the Blue Nawab Polyura schreiber wardii (Godart 1819) is very rare in its range from Assam to Myanmar and S.E. Asia. It has been mentioned that this butterfly is rare in Coorg and other parts of the Western Ghats (Wynter-Blyth 1957). During the last 10 years, there have been only a handful of sightings of this butterfly from the Western Ghats, and no record of its life cycle in recent times. It flies high in the canopy, among flowering trees, and very rarely comes down to mud puddle. Fig. 1 : Prominent yellow crescent-shaped marking on the larvae of Polyura schreiber wardii A monsoon butterfly survey by Warblers and Waders Nature Lovers Forum, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, was conducted during July 2010, at Ponmudi-Kallar reserve forest (8°60'-8°79' N; 77o07'-77°20’ E), specifically in Ashambu Hills, 52 km from Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, in the southern range of the Western Ghats. During this survey two larvae of a Nymphalid butterfly were found on a climbing shrub, Bauhinia phoenicea (Wight & Am) belonging to Family Fabaceae, locally known as “Scarlet Bauhinia”. We collected the larvae and reared them in captivity to confirm the species. The larvae were velvety green and had a yellow crescent-shaped marking (Fig. 1) on the third abdominal segment. The head had two pairs of reddish brown horns. The larvae we collected were final instar larvae. The larvae pupated on the 7lh day. The pupa was pendant-like. thick, stout and green with lighter markings and a light line laterally connecting the abdominal spiracles, which were brown, as was the top of the head and tail. A longitudinal row of red spots was present on each side (Fig. 2). The duration of pupal stage was 14 days. No change occurred in the pupae during this period. On the morning of the 14 day, the colour of the pupae changed to dead leaf brown. The pupae became transparent and the white band on the wings was visible through the transparent pupal case. The adult butterfly emerged at midday. Fig. 2: Longitudinal row of red spots during the pupal stage The butterfly was later identified as the Blue Nawab Polyura schreiber wardii. Earlier records state that the known larval food plants are Rourea santaloides (Family: Connaraceae) and Wagatea spicata (Family: Leguminosae) (Davidson et al. 1896) The successful rearing and emergence of the Blue Nawab Polyura schreiber wardii on Bauhinia Phoenicia confirms it as a hitherto unreported larval host plant. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to Vijayasankar Raman, Post-Doctor Research Associate (Botany), the University of Mississippi (Oxford), for identifying and confirming the plant species. We are grateful to Mr. Kishendas, Lepidopterist, and Dr. Maya Mathew, Head of Department, Zoology, University College, 260 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Thiruvananthapuram, for comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. We are grateful to Mr. Peter Smetacek, expert Lepidopterist working on Himalayan Lepido-Fauna for reviewing the final manuscript. Special thanks to Dr. Keith Wolf (California) who provided us with most of the older references on the species. We are thankful to P.B. Biju, J. Krishnajith and Satheesh, members of Warblers and Waders survey team for field support and encouragement. We are also thankful to B.S. Aryameher, first author’s daughter, for her constant field support for successful rearing of the larvae. REFERENCES Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies, 2nd ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Pp. 464. pi. 32. Davidson, J., T.R. Bell & E.H. Aitken (1896): The butterflies of the North Canara District of the Bombay Presidency Part I. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 10(1): 237-258. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society. Pp. 523. pi. 147. 16. RECORD OF HEXABRANCHUS SANGUINEUS (RUPPELL & LEUCKART, 1828) FROM LAKSHADWEEP ARCHIPELAGO, INDIA Deepak Apte12 and V.K. Salahuddin1 3 'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra. India. Email: spiderconch@gmail.com Email: salahagt@gmail.com Introduction Indian opisthobranchs have received attention only in the recent times with extensive work by Apte and Bhave along the west coast of India (Apte 2009; Apte etal. 2010). Besides Apte (2009), the only work on the Lakshadweep Opisthobranch fauna was by Gardnier (1903) and Rao et cil. (1974). Valdes (2002) in his paper on Hexabranchus discussed taxonomic confusion regarding this genus. Valdes (2002) has provided a comprehensive synonymy for the species. H. sanguineus is a widespread species in tropical Indo-west Pacific and it shows remarkable colour variation. Hexabranchus sanguineus commonly called as the ‘Spanish Dancer’, is one of the largest nudibranch growing up to 55 cm (Double 1992; Debelius 2004) and an active swimmer. There are unpublished records of the species growing up to 90 cm. Results and Discussion On July 14, 2010, during a night search at low tide on the eastern reef of Agatti Island, Lakshadweep Archipelago, west coast of India, we came across two specimens of H. sanguineus (Family Hexabranchidae). The specimen from Lakshadweep shows distinct colour variation from the specimens found in Andaman. Colour of the specimens from Lakshadweep is dark cherry red as compared to pink coloured individuals from Andaman. Both the specimens are illustrated here for comparison (Figs 1 and 2). Gardnier (1903) reported two species of Hexabranchus ( H.faustus and H. digitatus ) from Maldives. H.faustus Bergh, 1878 (Valdes 2002) and H. digitatus Eliot, 1903 (Thompson 1972) are now synonyms of H. sanguineus. Maldives is located to the south of Lakshadweep Archipelago. Gardnier ’s expedition to the Maldives and Laccadive Archipelagos in Fig. 1: Hexabranchus cf sanguineus from Andaman Island measuring 13 cm Fig. 2: Hexabranchus cf sanguineus from Lakshadweep Island measuring 21 cm J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 261 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1903 was one of the major expeditions to these reefs. However, the expedition in Lakshadweep was confined only to the Minicoy Island, which is the southernmost island of the Lakshadweep Archipelago and nearest to Maldives. The present sighting is from Agatti Island, which is over 300 nautical miles north of Minicoy Island. The present find extends the range of H. sanguineus to the west coast of India. Size: 20 cm and 21 cm. Of the two specimens only one was collected and stored in 90% ethyl alcohol, after studying the morphological characters. The specimen is deposited in the BNHS Collections. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We take this opportunity to acknowledge the financial support provided by MoEF, Gol, under AICOPTAX and administrative support provided by the Department of Environment and Forests, Lakshadweep. We are also thankful to LEAD International, Darwin Initiative, for the Whitley Fund for Nature and Shears Foundation, who has supported Project Giant Clam at Lakshadweep. I am also thankful to Mr. Thirunaavukarasu S., CCF, Lakshadweep, and Dr. Sayed Ali for continued support for Project Giant Clam. REFERENCES Apte, D.A. (2009): Opisthobranch fauna of Lakshadweep Islands, India with 52 new records to Lakshadweep and 40 new records to India. ./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 106(2): 162-175. Apte. D.A., V.J. Bhave & D. Parasharya (2010): An annotated and illustrated checklist of the Opisthobranch fauna of Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat, India, with 20 new records for Gujarat and 14 new records for India. Part 1 . J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 107( 1 )\ 14-23. Debelius. H. (1996): Nudibranchs and Sea Snails Indo-Pacific Field Guide. IKAN - Unterwasserarchiv, Waldschulstrasse 166, 65933, Frankfurt, Germany. 321 pp. Double, T. ( 1992): Here be Giants. BBC Wildlife 10(5): 34-40. Gardiner, J.S. (1903): The fauna and geography of the Maldives and Laccadive Archipelagos. Vol. 2, Pp. 1.080. Cambridge University Press. Rao, K. V., P. Sivadas & L.K. Kumary (1974): On three rare doridiform nudibranch molluscs from Kavaratti Lagoon, Laccadive Islands. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India 16(1): 113-125. Thompson, T.E. (1972): Observations on Hexabranchus on the Australian Great Barrier Reef (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia). Veliger 15: 1-5. Valdes, A. (2002): How many species of Hexabranchus (Opisthobranchia: Dorididae) are there? Molluscan Research 22: 289-301. 17. AN AMPLIFIED DESCRIPTION OF HITHERTO LITTLE KNOWN THREATENED SPECIES, PRIMULA GLOMERATA PAX (PRIMULACEAE) S. Panda1 'Laboratory of Taxonomy and Biosystematics, Post Graduate Department of Botany, Barasat Govt. College, Kolkata 700 124, West Bengal, India. Email: bgc.panda@gmail.com; subhaeri@yahoo.com Introduction During a field study in North Sikkim (September- October 2007), a species of Primula L. was collected about 10 km from Lachung towards Yumthang, at an altitude of about 3,300 m. After critical study, it was identified as P. glomerata Pax (identified in CAL by matching type material). Pax ( 1905) described this species based on J. Scully specimens (no. 287, CAL) from Nepal Himalaya. The species was repotted from India as P. crispa by Balfer and Smith (1916) based on the collection by Smith (no. 4209. CAL!) from Ningbil in Sikkim. However, herbarium studies (CAL) revealed that the species was first discovered by T. Anderson from Dzongri in West Sikkim in 1862 before the description by Pax (1905). Subsequently, the species was described by Smith and Fletcher ( 1944), Gould (1982). Polunin and Stainton (1984), Richards (1993), Hu chi-ming and Kelso (1996), and Basak (2001). Foremost among others, Richards and Basak revised in detail, especially Basak (2001) described P. glomerata based on the very old herbarium specimens (CAL) collected by T. Anderson (no. 830) and King's collector s.n. (acc. nos. 272260, 272261, 272263, 272938) from Dzongri in West Sikkim and described without a line drawing. The present paper embodies an amplified description and detailed line drawing based on live collections from North Sikkim ( S . Panda 30792, CAL & Barasat Govt. College herbarium) in 2007. The genus Primula L. consisting of about 430 species (Mabberley 2008) is confined to tropical Asia (mostly at high hills), Europe, Africa (Ethiopia) and South America. Among 430 species, about 106 species (Basak 2001 ) are reported to occur in India (Himalayas and North-eastern India: Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland), mostly in the Eastern Himalayas. Primula glomerata Pax in Engl. Pflanzenr. 4. 237 (Ht. 22). Primulaceae: 92. 1905; W.W. Sm. and Fletcher, Trans. Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh 34(1): 156. 1944; Weibel, Candollea 15: 162. 1956; Gould in Hara et al. (ed.), Enum. 262 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1 : Primula glomerata Pax: A. habit; B. mature capsule; C. abaxial leaf (part magnified); D. adaxial leaf (part magnified); E. seeds; F, G. bracts; H. flower; I. corolla split open; J, K. calyx lobes; L. ovary (without persistent calyx); M. ovary (with persistent calyx); N. corolla lobes (top view); O-Q. stamens; R. immature capsule. Scale bars: A = 2 cm; B = 1 mm; F-G, L, M, O-R = 1 mm; H-K = 2 mm; N = 3 mm (A-R: drawn from S. Panda 30792, CAL & Barasat Govt. College Herbarium). Drawn by S. Panda. FI. PI. Nepal 3: 72. 1982; J. Richards, Primula : 260. 1993; Hu chi-ming and Kelso in Wu Zheng-yi and Raven (eds.), FI. China 15: 180. 1996; Basak, Gen. Primula vol. 1 : 408. 2001. Type: Nepal, no proper locality, J. Scully 287 (CAL!). P. crispa Balf. f. & W.W. Sm., Notes Royal. Bot. Card. Edinburgh 9: 160. 1916. Type: India, Sikkim, Ningbil, 3,952 m, 1 1 .viii. 1910, W W Smith 4209 (CAL!). Fig. 1. Perennial herb, 15-45 cm long; rootstock thick c. 12 mm long, bearing tuft of wiry roots, longer root c. 12 cm long. Stem rhizomatous, very short beset with rosette of leaf bases, glabrous. Leaves exstipulate, radical, 8-14 in spreading rosette, glabrous, 50-120 x 16-26 mm (incl. petioles), lamina papery, narrowly ovate-elliptic to rarely obovate-elliptic, 30-80 mm long, rounded-erose-denticulate at apex, irregularly erose-denticulate or double denticulate at margin, long teeth gland-headed, cuneate at base, venation craspedodromous type; petioles sheath-like flattened, 20-50 mm long, glabrous, flanked with thin laminar extension. Scape solitary, slender, variable, usually 100-370 mm long, central, erect, covered with white dust-like grains throughout, mealy toward the apex, bearing a terminal globose head. Head perulate, in umbel, usually more than 20-flowered, 30-50 x 35-55 mm, covered with white dust-like grains throughout. Flowers erect, heteromorphic, annulate, bisexual, actinomorphic, pentamerous, 15-18 mm long, deep blue- mauve or intense violet in colour with dark eye at centre, little fragrant, amid of congested imbricately arranged bracts; pedicel short, 1-3 mm long, deep blue, puberulous. Bract 1, basal, ligulate, c. 3 x 1 mm, acute at apex, entire at margin, sparsely puberulous. Ebracteolate. Calyx cupular- campanulate, 4-6 x 3-4 mm. purple; lobes 5, oblong-lanceolate, each lobe c. 5.0 x 1.5 mm, connate basally, up to 2 mm, free part 3 mm, shortly acuminate at apex, obscurely ciliolate at margin, densely puberulous inside, sparsely outside. Corolla infundibuliform, deep blue-mauve, 12-16 mm long, c. 8 mm wide towards apex, tube distinctly cylindric, 6-10 mm long; lobes 5, ovate-obcordate, c. 6x5 mm, emarginated or notched at apex, ciliate at margin, distinctly veined. Stamens 5, epipetalous, c. 1 .5 mm long; filaments minute up to 0.5 mm long, grayish-white; anther lobes 2, oblong, light brown, c. 1 mm long, shortly apiculate at apex, dorsifixed. Pistil c. 3.5 mm long; ovary obovoid-globose, 1.5-2. 5 x 1.5 mm, glabrous, 5-locular, syncarpous; numerous minute ovules on axile placenta in each locule; style filiform, c. 1.5 mm long, glabrous; stigma capitate to truncate. Fruit loculicidal 5-valved capsule, c. 9 x 3 mm including pedicel, glabrous, with persistent calyx; capsule obovoid-globose, c. 5 x 3 mm. Seeds obconical, minute up to 0.5 mm long, scariosus. Distribution: india: Eastern Himalayas (Sikkim: West and North districts); Nepal; Bhutan and China (Se Xizang). Habitat: This species grows discontinuously in patches along moist and humus-covered rocky slopes in association with Gaultheria hookeri. Rhododendron thomsonii, R. niveum, R. barbatum and Vaccinium nummularia at altitudes ranging from 3,000-3,300 m. Flowering and Fruiting: Late September to late October. Specimens examined: india: Sikkim: north district, about 10 km from Lachung towards Yumthang, c. 3,200 m, 04.x. 2007, S. Panda 30792 (fl. & fr, CAL, Barasat Govt. College Herbarium); North district, between Lachung and Yumthang, c. 3,400 m, 04.X.2007, S. Panda 30799 (fl. & fr„ Barasat Govt. College Herbarium); West district: Dzongri (‘Jongri’), c. 4,000 m, June, 1887, King’s Collectors./;. (Acc. no. 272263, CAL); Dzongri (‘Jongri’), c. 4,500 m, 08.x. 1 862, J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 263 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Anderson 830 (CAL). Field notes: Craspedodromous leaf venation, up to 37 cm long scape; perulate head in umbel (3-5 x 3. 5-5. 5 cm) beset with white dust-like grains throughout; 15-18 mm long flowers; short puberulous deep blue pedicel up to 3 mm long; puberulous bract and calyx lobes; 12-16 mm long corolla; short stamens (c. 1.5 mm long) and styles (c. 1.5 mm long) and loculicidal 5-valved obovoid-globose capsule (c. 9 x 3 mm) not reported earlier. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 am grateful to the supervisor. Dr. M. Sanjappa, Director, Botanical Survey of India, for guidance and manuscript correction, to Dr. M.S. Mondal, Joint Director, Central National Herbarium (CAL), for his kind permission to consult herbarium specimens in CAL and to Dr. P. Saha, Officer-in-Charge, P.G. Department of Botany, Barasat Govt. College, for his permission to undertake research work in the laboratory of Taxonomy and Biosystematics. Thanks are also due to my P.G. students Mr. Arindam Adhikari and Ms. Rumpa Sarkar for their sincere help and Camera Lucida drawings during stomatal investigation. I desire to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Asok Das, Reader, Mycology and Plant Pathology, and to Dr. Naimuddin, Convenor, P.G. Dept, of Botany, Barasat Govt. College, for providing all facilities and help during the course of study. REFERENCES Balfer. I.B. & W.W. Smith (1916): New Species of Primula. Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 9: 160. Basak, S.K. (2001): Study on the genus Primula L. (Primulaceae Vent.). Vol. 1: 408-410. University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal (India). Gould (1982): An Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal 3: 72. In: Hara, H., A.O. Charter & L.H.J. Williams (Eds): Trustees of British Museum (Natural History), London. Hu, CHi-MiNG & S. Kelso (1996): Flora of China. Pp. 180. In: WuZheng- yi & P.H. Raven (Eds): Primulaceae, Vol. 15. Publ. Science Press, Beijing and Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis. Mabberley, D.J. (2008): Primula. Mabberley’s Plant Book: A portable dictionary of plants, their classification and uses. Ed. 3: 698. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. Pax, F. (1905): In: Engler, A. (Ed.): Pflanzenreich 4. 237 (Heft 22): 92. Polunin, O. & A. Stainton (1984): Flowers of the Himalaya (Primulaceae). Oxford University Press, Oxford. Pp. 243 Richards, J. (1993): Primula: 260. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. Smith, W.W. & H.R. Fletcher (1944): The genus Primula: Sections Corusoides. Malvaceae, Pycnoioba, Dryadifolia, Capitatae. Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh 34(1): 156. 1 8. NEW ADDITIONS TO THE SEDGE FLORA OF ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS K. Karthigeyan' \ J. Jayanthi'-4, R. Sumathi1-5 and P.G. Diwakar2 'Department of Botany, Madras Christian College (Autonomous). Tambaram, Chennai 600 059, Tamil Nadu, India. 2Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune 411 001, Maharashtra, India. Email: pgdiwakar@hotmail.com 3Email: karthigeyan.murthy@gmail.com 4Email: jayanthi.mcc@gmail.com 5Email: sumathi.ramamurthy@gmail.com During the inventory of floristic diversity of the Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park (MGMNP) in South Andaman, two Cyperaceae members were collected from the swampy area and along sandy seashores. On critical examination, the specimens were identified to be Eleocharis acutangula (Roxb.) Schult. and Pycreus stramineus (Nees) C.B. Clarke. Scrutiny of literature revealed that these species were hitherto unrecorded from this archipelago and hence reported here as new additions to the sedge Bora of Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Vasudeva Rao 1986; Mathew 1998). Of the two species, E. acutangula is widely distributed and P. stramineus is found to be distributed in the South-East Asian region. Brief descriptions, illustrations, phenology and notes on their distribution are provided. Eleocharis R. Br. Eleocharis acutangula (Roxb. ) Schult. in R. & S. Mant. 2:91. 1824; Ridley, FI. Malay Peninsula 5: 151. 1925; Baker & Bakhuizen, FI. Java 3: 461 . 1968; Kern in Steenis (ed. ), FI. Malesiana Ser. I. 7: 525. 1974; Koyama in Dassanayke (ed.). Rev. Handb. FI. Ceylon 5: 256. 1985; Simpson & Koyama in Santisuk& Larsen (eds.), FI. Thailand 6(4): 285. 1998. Scirpus acutangulus Roxb. FI. Ind. 1:216. 1820. Eleocharis fistulosa Schult. in R. & S. Mant. 2: 89. 1824; C.B. Clarke in Hook. f„ FI. Brit. India 6: 626. 1893; Ridley, FI. Malay Peninsula 5: 151. 1925. (Fig. 1) Perennial herbs, stoloniferous. Culms tufted, 40-60 cm long, triquetrous; sheaths 3-8 cm long, pale brown. Spikelet terminal, cylindrical, 2-5 cm long, pale green-yellow. 264 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Glumes ovate, 4-5 mm long, 1 -nerved, obtuse at apex, hyaline along margin. Nutlets obovoid, c. 1.8 x 1.2 mm, compressed, yellow-brown, annular at apex, indistinctly transversely pitted. Hypogynous bristles 6, retrorsely barbellate, c. 2 mm long. FI. & Fr.: August-December. Ecology: Occasional; in swampy areas forming large communities near Wandoor. Specimen examined: South Andaman. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Wandoor. Karthigeyan 19593 (PBL). 11.x. 2003. Distribution: Pantropical. Note: This widespread species was so far not recorded from the Andaman Islands. It could be easily recognized from E. dulcis (Burm.f.) Trin. ex. Henschel, by its triquetrous stem. Pycreus P. Beauv. Pycreus stramineus (Nees) C.B. Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 589. 1893; Koyama in Dassanayke (ed.). Rev. Handb. FI. Ceylon 5: 216. 1985; Simpson & Koyama in Santisuk Fig. 2: Pycreus stramineus (Nees) C.B. Clarke - (a) Habit; (b) Spikelet; (c) Glume (ventral side); (d) Nutlet & Larsen (eds.), FI. Thailand 6(4): 391. 1998. Cyperus stramineus Nees in Wight, Contr. Bot. India 74. 1834. C. substramineus Kukenth. in Pflanzenr. 4(20). 101 Heft: 398. 1936; Kern in Steenis (ed.), FI. Malesiana Ser. I. 7: 653. 1974. (Fig. 2) Annual herbs. Culms tufted, 8-20 x 0. 1 -0.2 cm, smooth. Leaves few, linear- filiform, 2-16 x 0.1 cm, acuminate at apex; sheaths 2. 0-3. 5 cm long, purplish. Bracts 3, 1-8 cm long. Inflorescence slightly congested with 5-8 spikelets, 2-3 cm long. Spikelets oblong-lanceolate, 1.0- 1.5 x 0.1 -0.2 cm, flattened, acute at apex, straw-coloured. Rachilla straight, wingless. Glumes distichous, broadly ovate, c. 2.0 x 1 .2 mm. mucronate at apex, dull greenish-yellow, hyaline along margin; keel green, 3-nerved. Stamens 2, c. 0.8 mm long. Style 1.0- 1.2 mm long; stigmas 2. Nutlets obovoid, c. 1.0 x 0.8 mm, biconvex, laterally flattened, transversely wrinkled, dark brown, minutely apiculate. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 265 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES FI. & Fr.: September-November. Ecology: Occasional; in coastal areas along sandy shores. Specimen examined: South Andaman, Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Rutland Island, Karthigeyan 6164 (PBL). 14. ix. 2002. Distribution: Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Indo-China and Malay Peninsula. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Dr. M. Sanjappa, Director and Dr. H.J. Chowdhery, Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India, for facilities. The first three authors are also thankful to Dr. C. Livingstone. Head (Retd.) and Dr. D. Narasimhan, Senior Lecturer, Department of Botany, Madras Christian College, Chennai, for encouragement. REFERENCES Mathew, S.P. (1998): A supplementary report on the flora and vegetation of Vasudeva Rao, M.K. (1986): A preliminary report on the angiosperms of Bay Islands, India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 22(2): 249-272. Andaman & Nicobar Islands. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 8(1): 107-184. 19. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MAHARASHTRA Madhukar Bachulkar1 'Department of Botany, Shri Vijaysinha Yadav Arts and Science College, Peth Vadgaon 416 112, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India. Email : principal vyadavcollege @ yahoo. co. in While investigating the flora of Satara, Sangli and Kolhapur districts of Maharashtra, I came across four plant species previously not recorded from Maharashtra. The paper provides their nomenclature, description, distribution and phenology. The species have been arranged alphabetically. All voucher specimens are deposited in the Herbarium of Shivaji University (SUK). Kolhapur. 1. Habenaria elwesii Hook. f. in Bot. Mag. t. 7478. 1896: Fischer in FI. Pres. Madras 1468. 1928 (Repr. ed. 3: 1026. 1957) (Orchidaceae). Herb, erect slender 25-40 cm high; tuber c. 2.0 x 1 .0 cm, hair}'. Leaves 3-6 alternate, about middle of the stem, 4.0-7.0 x 1 .0-2.0 cm. lanceolate to oblong, acute. Inflorescence 8- 16 cm long, lax-flowered. Flowers white, sessile, bracteate. Bracts 3.0 x 1.0 cm, foliaceous, cymbiform, longer than the ovary, broadly ovate-lanceolate, acuminate at tip. Finely puberulous along margin. Lateral sepals obliquely lanceolate, spreading, abruptly acuminate, 5-nerved. Dorsal sepal ovate-oblong, concave, acuminate, finely scabrid. 3-nerved. Lateral petals bipartite, almost to the base, densely hirsute or bearded along the margins; lower segment slightly shorter than the upper segment, curved. Lip spurred, longer than ovary, trilobed below the middle with a narrow claw; lobes narrow, divaricate, midlobe subequal with side lobes. Spur shorter than ovary. Capsule 2.5 cm, long, ribbed, fusiform. FI. & Fr: September-October. Exsiccata: MPB - 20349. Distribution: Very rare. It grows near the edges of the forest at an altitude c. 800 m. Kolik (Chandgad) in Kolhapur district. Note: Earlier it was known from Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu. 2. Rhynchosia viscosa (Roth) DC. Prodr. 2: 387. 1825; Hook. f.. FI. Brit. India 2 : 225. 1876. Sharma et al. FI. Karnataka 81. 1984. Glycine viscosa Roth. Nov. PI. Spec. 349. 1821. (Fabaceae). Twiner or spreading herb; branchlets densely viscid- tomentose. Leaves 3-foliate, 6-8 cm long; leaflets ovate- deltoid, 3. 0-5.0 x 2. 0-4. 5 cm, tomentose; base cuneate, obtuse; apex acuminate, apiculate; stipules lanceolate. Flowers brownish-purple, in 8-15 cm long dense racemes; bracts minute. Calyx tomentose; lobes lanceolate. Corolla exerted; deep brown-purple; wings and keels yellowish. Ovary pubescent. Pods oblong, homed, viscid-pubescent, 2- 4 seeded. FI. & Fr.: November- January. Exsiccata: MPB-6054. Distribution: Rare along ghats. Khadgaon, Pasami ghat in Satara district. Note: Earlier it was known from Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. 3. Richardia scabra L. Sp. PI. 330. 1753: Balkr. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 6: 85. 1964. Mathew, Ill. FI. Tamil Nadu Carnatic t. 346. 1982; Sharma et al. FI. Karnataka 132. 1984. (Rubiaceae). Procumbent herb: branchlets spreading, terete to angular, hispid. Leaves simple, decussate or whorled, elliptic- ovate, 2-4 x 1-2 cm, scabrous; base obtuse; apex acute; petiole 5 mm long; upper leaves sessile; stipules setiferous. Flowers 3- merous in terminal sessile, capitate clusters, subtended by 4 subsessile leaves. Calyx truncate, globose; lobes 6, abovate, scabrous. Corolla white; lobes 6, triangular. Stamens 6, partly 266 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES exerted. Ovary subglobose , papillose, 3-celled. Capsules 3-valved; epicarp scabrous. FI. & Fr.: August-December. Exsiccata: MPB-21 1 10. Distribution: Common weed in groundnut and sweet potato fields. Kargaon in Satara district: Karve, Chandgad in Kolhapur district. Note: It is a native of Tropical America. Earlier in India, it was known from Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. 4.RotalaoccultifloraKoehne, Bot. Jahrb. 1: 152. 1880; Blatt. & Hallb. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 705. 1918; Sharma et al. FI. Karnataka 108. 1984; Joseph & Sivaranjan PI. Sci. 99 (3): 191. t. 5. 1989. (Lythraceae). Small herb; stem creeping and rooting below; branches erect, 4-6 cm tall. Leaves in whorls of 3, obspathulate, plicate; base dialated, enclosing the flowers, 0. 6-0.9 cm long. Flowers shortly pedicillate, solitary in the axils of bractiform leaves. Calyx tube translucent. 1 mm long; lobes 4. triangular. Petals absent. Stamens 2, inserted near the base of calyx tube. Ovary ellipsoidal; style short, persistent; stigma capitate. Capsule ellipsoidal, 3-valved. Seeds semi- ellipsoidal. FI. & Fr.: August-October. Exsiccata: MPB-21 242. Distribution: Rare in wet places. Kaas in Satara district. Note: An inconspicuous, ephemeral species. Earlier it was known from Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Dr. S.R. Yadav. Professor, Department of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, for confirming the identity of the specimens and also Shri Vijaysinha Yadav, President, Shri Shahu Shikshan Prasarak Mandal, Peth Vadgaon. for encouragement. 20. CLITORIA ANNUA GRAHAM VAR. EMARGINATA (VAR. NOV.); A NEW VARIETY OF SPECIES CLITORIA ANNUA GRAHAM (FAMILY: FABACEAE) FROM MAHARASHTRA. INDIA Santosh L. Yadav1 and Pramod B. Dhanke2 'Magdelin Almeida Environmental Centre, Kharvatkar Temb, P.O. Savantwadi 416 510, Sindhudurg, Maharashtra, India. Email: santromeet@yahoo.com TOffice of the Chief Conservator of Forest, Chandrapur Forest Circle, Chandrapur 442 401, Maharashtra, India. Email: pbdhanke@yahoo.com During a floristic survey of flowering plants in Sawama taluka, Nashik district. Maharashtra, in November 2009, we came across an interesting plant of the genus Clitoria in open grassland near the Sawama river. A few plants from the area were collected, processed and preserved. Comparison with the material deposited at Blatter Herbarium (BLAT) and literature at the BLAT library (Almeida 1990. 1998, 2005; Cooke 1902; Hooker 1876) confirmed it as a new variety of Clitoria annua Graham, Family Fabaceae, and was named Clitoria annua Graham var. emarginata (var. nov.) Clitoria [L„ Gen. ed. 1, 344, 1737]; L., Sp.Pl. 753, 1753; Benth. & Hook. f„ Gen. PI. 1: 527, 1865 (Fabaceae, 1753). Clitoris = an anatomical term in Zoology. Lectotype: C. tematea L. (vide Britton et Brown, Ill. FI. United States and Canada 2: 416, 1913. Type: C. tematea L. spp.: 40 (Sant. & Henry), 70 (Mabb.).Trop. America -3 in India. C. tematea L„ "Aparajita. Shankhapushpi. Butterfly pea" (Trop. America) - Now pantropic in cultivation. C. annua Graham, endemic to Mumbai. Found in two varieties, typical one (C. annua var. annua) and C. annua var. sekharii Almeida & Chaturvedi, both endemic to Mumbai. Present variety is the second variety, beside the typical one. Clitoria annua Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 47, 1839: Almeida & Almeida in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 719-722, 1986; Almeida, FI. Maharashtra Vol. 2: 29, 1998. Herbaceous, erect. 40-50 cm high; stem angular, with hairs. Leaves imparipinnate; petioles 9-12 mm long, hairy; stipules 3 mm long, subulate. Leaflets 5, membranous (terminal the largest and lowest pair of lateral leaflets smaller than the rest) 5-8 x 1 -4 cm. variable in shape, broadly elliptic- oblong, subobtuse to lanceolate, acute, sparingly strigose above, more densely beneath; petiolules 2 mm long; stipules filiform. Flowers in axillary 2-flowered racemes; peduncles and pedicels very short; bracts linear-lanceolate, subulate; bracteoles 6-8 mm long, ovate or lanceolate, aristate. Calyx tubular, 1-2 cm long, hairy, nerved; teeth shorter than tube, lanceolate, aristate. Corolla 2.5 cm long. blue. Pods 25-50, 6 mm flat reticulately veined, pubescent. Seeds 5-6. turn black after dr)'. FI.: August-October. Distribution: H. Santapau- 1 6540 collected from Sasan J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 267 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES high hill on 2.x. 1953 and deposited in the Blatter Herbarium- 16226 (BLAT). Clitoria annua Graham var. sekharii Almeida & Chaturvedi, FI. Maharashtra Vol. 2: 29, 1998. This variety differs from the typical variety in having leaves with somewhat acuminate apices. In all other characters it resembles the typical variety. FI.: September-October. Distribution: D.P. Panthaki- 2370, collected from Dang, on 24.x. 1955 and deposited in the Blatter Herbarium - 16203. (BLAT). Clitoria annua Graham var. emarginata (var. nov.) This variety differs from the typical variety in having leaves with emarginate apices in the leaflets. Holotype: Santosh Yadav & M.R. Almeida 1034, collected from Sawarna, Nashik district, on 5.xi.2009, deposited in the Blatter Herbarium (BLAT). Isotype: Santosh Yadav & M.R. Almeida 1035, collected from Sawarna, Nashik district, on 5.xi.2009, deposited in the Herbarium of Magdelin Almeida Environmental Centre (MAEC), Savantwadi. Herbaceous, erect, 30-60 cm high; stem cylindrical with ridges, hairy. Leaves imparipinnate; petioles 5-9 mm long, hairy: stipules 2-3 mm long, subulate. Leaflets 3 or 5, membranous (the terminal the largest and lowest pair of lateral leaflets smaller than the rest) 2-4 x 1 .5-3.0 cm, variable in shape, broadly linear-oblong, apex emarginate, sparingly strigose above, more densely so beneath; petiolules 0.5 mm long; stipules filiform. Flowers in axillary 2-flowered racemes; peduncles and pedicels very short; bracts linear-lanceolate, subulate; bracteoles 6-8 mm long, ovate or lanceolate, aristate. Calyx tubular, 1-2 cm long, hairy, nerved; teeth shorter than the tube, lanceolate, aristate. Corolla 1.0- 1.5 cm long, white. Pods 20-35 mm x 4-5 mm, Hat, reticulately veined, pubescent. Seeds 3-5, 6x4 mm, black in colour, smooth surface. FI.: September-November. Distribution: Sawarna in Nashik district. Distinguishing character (in Latin) Is varietas distinctus ex typical varietas in having coma per emarginated apices in leaflets. The following species of genus Clitoria in literature are published without proper description and are presently treated as nomina nuda. 1 . Clitoria vaupelli Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 47, 1 839. Description given under this species is too short to match with any species of Clitoria L. 2. Clitoria brasiliana L.. Sp. PI. 753, 1753; Graham. Fig. 1 : Clitoria annua Graham var. emarginata (var. nov.) Cat. Bombay PI. 47, 1839. The correct name for this species is Centrosema brasilianum (L.) Benth.. Comm. Leg. Gen. 54, 1837. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful Dr. M.R. Almeida, FMASc., DSc., former Herbarium Assistant of BLAT, for guidance and help rendered in the preparation of this communication. We are also thankful to Dr. (Mrs.) Ujwala Bapat, Head of Botany Department, St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai, for providing access to the Blatter Herbarium and Library. 268 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 107 (3), Sep-Dec 2010 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES REFERENCES Almeida, S.M. ( 1990): Flora of Savantwadi. Vol. 1. Pp. 121. Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur. Almeida, M.R. ( 1998): Flora of Maharashtra, Vol. 2. Pp. 29. Orient Press, Mumbai. Almeida, M.R. (2005): Dictionary of Generic names of Flowering Plants and Ferns found in Maharashtra and Adjoining area. Orient Press, Mumbai. Pp. 75. Cooke, T. (1902): Flora of Presidency of Bombay. Vol. I . Pp. 405-406. London (Reprinted vols. I-III, 1958). Hooker, J.D. (1876): The Flora of British India. Vol. 2. Pp. 208. Published by L. Reeve, London. Printed by Bro. 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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982 CONTENTS SUMMER DIET OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL PETAURISTA PHIUPPENSIS (ELLIOT) IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, RAJASTHAN, INDIA Chhaya Bhatnagar, Vijay Kumar Koli and Satish Kumar Sharma . 183 CONFLICT IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION IN PROPOSED TSANGYANG GYATSO BIOSPHERE RESERVE, EASTERN HIMALAYA, INDIA Shivaji Chaudhry, Gopi Govindhan Veeraswami, Kripaljyoti Mazumdar and Prasanna Kumar Samal .... 189 AN ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIVE VALUE, RARITY AND CONSERVATION OF MONSONIA HELIOTROPIOIDES (CAV.) BOISS. — ATHREATENED PLANT OF NORTH-WEST RAJASTHAN, INDIA R.K. Gehlotand Vinod Kumari . 198 PORCELLANID CRABS FROM GOA, EASTERN ARABIAN SEA (CRUSTACEA: DECAPODA: PORCELLANIDAE) Alexandra Hiller, Sadanand Harkantra and Bemd Werding . 201 FLORA OF SANDY COAST OF GANJAM DISTRICT, ORISSA, INDIA D. Sahu and M.K. Misra . 213 NEW DESCRIPTIONS TWO NEW CYPRINID FISHES UNDER THE GENUS GARRA (HAMILTON) FROM KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan . 220 FISHES OF THE GENUS HOMALOPTERA VAN HASSELT, 1823 IN KERALA, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES HOMALOPTERA SILASI B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan . 224 TOR REMADEVII, A NEW SPECIES OF TOR (GRAY) FROM CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, PAMBAR RIVER, KERALA, SOUTHERN INDIA B. Madhusoodana Kurup and K.V. Radhakrishnan . 227 CHANNA MELANOSTIGMA, A NEW SPECIES OF FRESHWATER SNAKEHEAD FROM NORTH-EAST INDIA (TELEOSTEI: CHANNIDAE) Khangjrakpam Geetakumari and Waikhom Vishwanath . 231 REVIEWS . 236 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 238 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Dr. Ashok Kothari for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001. website: www.bnhs.org; Email: bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net.in Ernst l^syr Library Museum of Comparative Zooioov Harvard University